Er. ‘ummell’ z Ehmafiuual Sarita; 60th Edition, price 2.9. red leather; 1.9. 901. cloth. ALLEN AND CORRWELL’S SCHOOL GRAMMAR. Wit Formation an . 1nd Greek Li ".ds “ Allen and Dr. ‘ l improve- men “' rces of our lang ammatical strw :1 schools.” —01 lar. g. _ . -Spectalor. rt Journal. >y the late rmstrong, e, Croxall, ay,Bishop HI , le, Lamb, M THE MARIA HOSMER PENNIMAN axr, Pope. S] Thomson, W LIBRARY OF EDUGATION. ;ed by the ed rents and PRESENTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA BY JAMES HOSMER PENNIMAN TI interestin “.0 As A MEMORIAL TO HIS MOTHER. into meg mln‘ .W 1e date of Ins md there exp} _ ad in his dictionary. » . London: SIMPKIN & 00.; HAMILTON & 00.; W. KENT & 00.; WHITTAKER 5; 00. Edinburgh: OLIVER & BOYD. 74th Edition, price 33. 6d. ; with Maps, 55. 6d. SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. BY JAMES CORNWELL, PH.D. In this new and enlarged edition the important changes that have been made in Eastern Europe have been described. South Africa has been re- written, bringing down the information to the present time, as far as the unsettled state of that part of the world will permit. There has been a general revision, additions being made as in Belgium and. Germany; the numbers dependent on the ever-changing science of statistics have been corrected, while the more accurate information of later‘travellers has here and there been made use of. , Typographically, the book has been made clearer by resetting the parts most needing it. “Without exception, the best book of its class we have seen.”—~Atlas. Price 25. 6d. plain, 4s. coloured. i SCHOOL nus. BY JAMES CORNWELL, PHID. This Atlas consists of thirty beautifully-executed small maps on steel, in which is found every place mentioned in the Author’s f‘ School Geography." It also contains a list of several hundred places, with their latitude and longitude. These names are accentuated; and, in cases of difficulty, the pronunciation is also given. ‘ 4 The current edition is corrected to the’present, time, and includes recent discoveries, as for example, those of Central and South Africa. All the maps have been re-engraved, and there is a. great increase in the number of names inserted, so as to make the book a. work of general reference for the school-room as well as a Companion Atlas to the Author’s “ School ' Geography.” _ Of minor importance is an alteratlon in the binding, by which it can be used with greater ease and advantage. 53rd Edition, price 15.; with Questions, ls. 4d. GEOGRAPHY FOR BEGINNERS. BY JAMES ‘CORNWELL, PH.D. “This is one of a very useful series of Educational works, of which Dr. Cornwell is Author or Editor. It is an admirable Introduction. There is vast difliculty in writing a good elementary book, and Dr. Cornwell has shown himself possessed of that rare combination of faculties which is required for the task.”-Jo}m Bull. London: SIMPKIN a 00.; HAMILTON & 00.: W. KENT a 00.; WHITTAKER & Co Edinburgh: OLIVER & B011). Price Is. 6d. plain; 29. 6d. coloured. 1. MAP BOOK FOR BEGINNERS. A COMPANION ATLAS to the “ GEOGRAPHY for BEGINNERS CONSISTING 0F TWELVE PAGES 0]? MAPS. With numerops Small Maps of the Remarkable Parts of a. Country Price Is. H. BOOK OF BLANK MAPS. The above Maps, complete in everything except the names, which are to be filled in by the learner Price ls. Ill. BOOK OF MAP PROJECTIONS. London: SIMPKIN & 00.; HAMILTON & 00.; W. KE NT & 00.; WHITTAKER & Co. Edinburgh : OLIVER & Boy D. J: 1 i DR. CORNWELL'S EDUCATIONAL SERIESN r GEOGRAPHY FOR NBEGINNERS. 0 BY QJAMES CORNWELL, PH.D., F.R.G.S., \\\ AU'] 110R OF THE SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, AND SCHOOL ATLAS, THE YUI'NG COMPOSER, AND KEY; MAP BOOK FOR BEGINNERS, ETC. ; JOINT AUTHOR OF ALLEN AND CORNWELL’S SCHOOL GRAMMAR; THE GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS ; ' CORN“'F.LL AND FITCH’S SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC; SCHOOL ARITHMETIC AND KEY, ETC. FIFTY-THIRD EDITION LONDON : E SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & 00., STATIONERS’ HALL COURT ; HAMILTON, ADAMS, AND CO., PATERNOSTER ROW; ‘, W. KENT AND 00., PATERNOS'I‘ER ROW. EDINBURGH! OLIVER AND BOYD; JOHN MENZIES AND C0. 3 1885. PREFACE. _._+_. THIS little work is meant for Children when beginning to learn Geography. It is hoped that here they have what it is most essential for them to know, and in the place in which they should learn it. This work is not immethodical, but it has a method of‘its own. It is amplification, not abridg- ment, that Beginners need. The enlargement and reiteration of what is most important, rather than minute scientific completeness, is, therefore, what has been aimed at. For a work on Geography, this little book will be found singularly free from names and numbers. Where the latter are made use of, round numbers are employed, and their abstract nature is largely got rid of by a reference to a well-known and well- understood standard. Thus, instead of, or in ad- dition to, the exact absolute dimensions, the child learns numerical values by way of comparison, .thus,——-that Snowdon is ten times as high as St. -' , Paul’s; that the longest river of EurOpe, the Volga, is ten times as long as the Thames; and that its , greatest lake is the size of Yorkshire ; that Italy is as large as the United Kingdom; that France is 3 m” iv PREFACE. four times larger than England without Wales; and that the population of the entire British Em- pire is one-fifth of that of the whole world. How much this kind of comparison facilitates compre- hension and assists the memory it is needless to ‘ dwell upon. The Geography for Beginners is intended to be to the larger work—the School Geography—what the Grammar for Beginners has been to the School Grammar; and the Author can only hope that it _may serve the purpose as well. With some children in elementary schools it may be the only book made use of ; but it is meant to be an INTRQ- DUCTION to the Author’s School Geography, to which constant references are made (S. G., 183, 861, &c.), for a treatment of the subject wider, in its range than the plan of this little work admits of. The Author has also published a little work called— _ QUESTIONS ON THE GEOGRAPHY FOR BEGINNERS.* In it every fact occurring in the Geography is made the subject of a separate question. By its use, therefore, the scholar is able to examine himself, and so to know when the appointed lesson has , been mastered. * Prile 61., or the Geography for Beginners and Questions, bomd together, ls. 4d. [WI-firm”? " g‘ V . , GEOGRAPHY FOR BEGINNERS. 1. GEOGRAPHY is the Science which describes the SURFACE of the Earth. The Science which teaches us about the interior of our Earth is called GEOLOGY. 2. The Surface of the Earth consists of Land and Water. 3. The parts Of the Land are Continents, Islands, Peninsulas, Isthmuses, Capes, Coasts, and Moun- tains. 4. A Continent is the largest division Of land. There are three Continents—(1) the Eastern Con- tinent, consisting of Europe, Asia, and Africa; (2) the Western Continent, consisting of North America and South America; and (3) Australia. 5. An Island is land surrounded by water, and smaller than a Continent; as Great Britain, Ireland. By looking at the map of Europe it will be seen that the sea is all round the land called Great Britain. Great Britain is, therefore, an island. So, too, is Ireland, for the same reason. 6. A Peninsula is land almost surrounded by water; as Spain and Portugal, Denmark. By looking at the map of Europe it will be seen that Spain and Portugal are surrounded by the sea in every part but one, the North-East, Where it is united to France, having the Bay of Biscay on the North, the Atlantic Ocean on the West, the Medi- terranean Sea on the East, and the Atlantic and the Mediterra- nean on the South. Spain and Portugal together, therefore, form a Peninsula. So, too, Italy, having the sea on every side of it except the Northern part, 1s a Peninsula. (For illustrations of Geographical. Definitions, see cover of MAP-BOOK FOR. BEGINNERS.) , 6 DEFINITIONS. 7. An. Isthmus is a neck of land which joins other portions of land together ; as the Isthmus of Panama (pronounced Panamah’), the Isthmus of Suez. ' By referring to the map of the World, it will be seen that South America is joined to North America by a narrow strip or neck of land. This neck of land is an Isthmus, and is called the Isthmus of Panama. So Africa is united to Asia by a neck of land called the Isthmus of Suez. 8. A Cape is a small portion of land which juts into the Sea ; as Land’s End, the Cape of Good Hope. The land in the South-West of England extends itself into the Atlantic Ocean, and at last ends in a point. This point is a Cape, and is known by the name of Land’s End. Similarly a tongue of land stretches out from the South of Africa. This, too, is a Cape, and is called the Cape of Good Hope. 9. A Coast is the land next the Sea. The Coast, called also the Shore, is the edge of land we first observe in coming from the Sea. Thus the Southern Coast of England means the Southern side of England, close to the Sea. 10. A Mountain is a mass of land whose top is much higher than the general level of a country ; as Mount Etna. 11. A Plain is land without mountains, and therefore flat. The top of Etna, in the Island of Sicily (Map of Europe), is nearly 11,000 feet higher than the country lying around its base. It is therefore a Mountain. ’ Except in the most southern part, there is nowhere in Russia in Europe a single mountain, and hardly any hills. The greater part of Russia, therefore, is 3. Plain. 12. The parts of Water are Oceans, Seas, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Lakes, Rivers. 13. An Ocean is the largest division of water. There are five Oceans: the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the Arctic, and the Antarctic. The Pacific Ocean is more than half the surface of the Globe. 14. A Sea is part of an Ocean, to which aparticu- lar name is given; as the North Sea, the Irish Sea. DEFINITIONS. 7 . 15. A Gulf runs far into the land; as the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Gulf. . Both the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Gulf, called also the Red Sea (Map of Asia), have narrow openings from the sea, and run far into the land. They are, therefore, Gulfs. 16. A Bay has a wide opening, and does not run far into the land; as Cardigan Bay, the Bay of Biscay. These will be seen (Maps of England and Europe) not to bo narrow openings, running far into the land, but little more than rather deep curves in the coast bending inwards- 17. A Strait is a narrow passage which connects two seas; as the Straits of Dover. The English Channel and the North Sea (Map of England) are united by a narrow part of the sea, which is therefore a Strait, and is called the Straits of Dover. ' 18. A Lake is water surrounded by land; as the Lake of Geneva (Map of Europe). 19. A River is a stream of fresh water which flows into the sea, or some other portion of water ; as the Thames, the Shannon (Map of Ireland). A River runs to the sea. Its Source is where it begins, and its Mouth where it ends. The Banks are the land on each side, which are Right or Left as seen descending the stream. The Tributaries, or Afflu- ents, are the smaller streams which run into it. The Upper Part is that nearest the source,where the land is the highest; the Lower Part that nearer the sea. EXPLANATION.—On turning to the map (England) it will be seen that the River Thames has its rise or source in Gloucester- shire, and that its mouth opens into the North Sea. Its Upper Part, or Upper Course, is in Gloucestershire and between Ox- fordshire and Berkshire, and its Lower Part, or Lower Course, between Kent and Essex. Its Right Bank is the edge of Berk- shire, Surrey, and Kent; its Left Bank is the edge of Oxford- ; shire, Buckinghamshire, Middlesex, and Essex. Among its T4 £- butam'es are the Kennet and the Medway, which join the main stream on the right bank, and the Lea on the left bank. (See cover of MAP-BOOK FOR BEGINNERS.) 8 DEFINITIONS. 20. The Earth is a round, solid body, being nearly 8,000 miles through, and 25,000 miles round. . EXPI-ANATION.—The following are simple proofs of the round- ness of the Earth. (1.) The appear- ance of a ship as it approaches the land. An observer on land, A, would not see the ship at 3. the roundness of the earth’s sur- face preventing it, being like an im- mense hill between the object and his ’eye. Butwhen the ship is at 2, the upper part can be sren, but not the body or hull; while, when it reaches 1, the . whole ship will be visible. The appearance of tall objects on land 'is similar. Sup- pose B to be a large building, say a lighthouse; when the ship is at 6 an observer on board will not see any part of the building, but when he arrives at 5, the lantern, but that alone, will be visible, and that only from the topmast ; while, when he co s to 4, the whole building, body and lantern, will be equally v1 lble. Now, if the earth were flat the whole of the object would be seen at one time, if, indeed, the large mass of the body of the ship 01 building were not seen first of all. (2.) The earth is being constantly sailed round. A vessel leaves a port, and continually sailing in the same general direction arrives at the same port again. Thus, in the diagram, suppose a vessel leaves A, it sails through the parts 1, 2, 3, 6, 5, 4, and at last comes back to A again. The earth has been quite sailed round, or circumnavigated. But if the earth were a plain, the farther the ship sailed the farther it would get away from the place it started from. It could never come back while sailing always ‘n the same direction. DEFINITIONS. 9 (3.) The shadow of the earth, as seen, on the moon, is always round. The earth being a solid body, as the sun shines upon it, it casts a shadow behind it, that is, away from the sun, Into this shadow the moon sometimes goes, and this shadow, thrown on the moon, is always round. Now, if the earth were square, or three-sided, or anything else but round, it - could never cast a round shadow. As, then, it always casts a round shadow, it must be round. The pupil may perceive this for himself by holding up any object before a light, when he will find that a book, or a box, or any object not circular, will not cast a round shadow on the wall. But by holding up a small globe he will get a round shadow, however he holds it. Such is the form of the shadow always seen on the body of the moon when it is eclipsed. The body, therefore, which casts the shadow, the earth, must be round. 21. There are four Cardinal Points : East, West, North, South. EXPLANATION.——It is constantly necessary to know where one place is with regard to another, not in distance but in direction ,- that is, which way one lies from the other. For this purpose, four chief points are selected. The one where the sun is at noon, that is, at about twelve o’clock, is called the South; the point in just the opposite part of the heavens is called the North; while, when looking towards the North, that point half-way between the North and the South, on the right hand, is the East, and that on the left hand the West. If you travel towards a tree, or building, or village, or other place, which is in the direction that the sun is from you at noon, you are travelling southward, and the object or place is south from you; if you turn quite round, and travel in an entirely opposite direction, the place you come to is north of that you left, and you'have been travelling northwards; if you turn now half-way round to the right hand, the places you come to will be east of that you left, and you will have been travelling eastward. 22. In a map the top 'is the North, the bottom the South, the right hand the East, and the left hand the West. EXPLANATION.—Scotland (Map of Europe) lies nearer the top of the map than England does. Scotland is therefore north of England. Ireland lies more towards the left-hand part of the map'than England. Ireland is therefore west of England. Surrey is lower down the map than Middlesex, and so is south of Middlesex. 2 B 10 DEFINITIONS. 23. A Map is a representation of the Earth’s sur- face, or of some part of it ; as the Map of England. The Map of England shows the outline of that country; its natural features, as rivers, mountains, and lakes; the situation of its towns, and the lines of latitude and longitude. , To give the simplest notion of what a map is, the Map of London has been selected, because London itself is better known, and of greater interest than any other place would be. EXERCISE. (0,.) Fill up in words or in writing the following sentences :— Our school (our house) is in the parish of , in the county of ———-, in the country ———. The highest hills in the neighbourhood are, ————, ———, ——, &c. ; and the chief rivers are —, —, ——#, &c. The neighbourhood is interesting on account of ——, ——, &c. East of us is ; west of us, &c. (1).) Say in what direction the following places are from your schoolroom ; that is, whether they lie east, west, north, or south :— The Parish Church. Your House. The Village of ——-. The Bridge over the ————. . How do Asia, Africa, America, and Australia, lie with regard to Europe? (See Map of the World.) How does England lie with regard to Scotland and to Ireland? (See Map of Europe.) _ If living in London point out on the accompanying map the situation of your school. Point out on the map of your country the situation of your town or village. (6.) Look at the accompanying map of London, and answer the following questions :— . Which of the Divisions of London is most to the east? which to the west? which to the north? which to the south? Where are the docks ;-—in the east or west of London? where also are the parks? In which direction does the Thames, for the most part, flow ;—from west to east, or from north to south? Which of the bridges is most to the east? which is most to the west? Which of the bridges lies over the river almost exactly north and south? Name all the Divisions of London north of the Thames. The Houses of Parliament are in Westminster ; the Tower is in the Tower Hamlets ; in what direction are they with regard to each other ? ' (01.) Draw a map of your garden (or playground, or street, or neighbourhood), and through the situation of your house (or school) draw a line going from the north to the south (21). DEFINITIONS. ‘ 13 24. The Equator is a line going round the large part of the Earth. There are two Poles, the North Pole and the South Pole. They are a quarter of the earth, or 90 degrees from the Equator. 25. Latitude is distance from the Equator, north or south. England is in North Latitude ; Australia is in South Latitude. Longitudeis distance, east or west, of agivenplace. We measure Longitude from the Meridian of Green- wich, which is called the First Meridian. Asia is in East Longitude ; America is in West Longitude. 26. There are five Zones, marking different climates; one Torrid Zone, two Temperate Zones, and two Frigid Zones. The Torrid or Hot Zone is between the Tropic of Cancer on the North, and the Tropic of Capricorn on the South. The Tropics are 28% degrees from the Equator. In the Torrid Zone, the Sun is at some part of the year exactly over head. There are two Frigid or Cold Zones. The North Frigid Zone is Within the Arctic Circle, which is 23—; degrees from the North Pole; the South Frigid Zone is within the Antarctic Circle, at the same distance from the South Pole. In the Frigid Zones, midsummer day and mid- Winter night are more than twenty—four hours long. Indeed, the Poles have only one day and one night .in the year, each being siX months long. There are two Temperate Zones. - The North Temperate Z one,which the British Isles are in, lies between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer. The South Temperate Zone lies between the Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn. In the Temperate Zones, the day in summer, and the night in winter, are more than twelve hours long, and less than twenty—four hours. 14 THE WORLD. 27. The great divisions of the World are— . First, The Eastern Continent, or the Old World, consisting of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Second, The Western Continent, or the NewWorld, consisting of North America and South America. Third, Oceania, consisting of Australia, and an immense number of islands, large and small. The population of the world is about 1,500 millions EUROPE. 28. Europe is bounded on the North by the Arctic Ccean, on the West by the Atlantic, on the South chiefly by the Mediterranean Sea, on the East by Asia. 29. Europecontains seventeenprincipalcountries; four in the north,seven in the middle,six in the south. FOUR NORTHERN COUNTRIES. Countries. Capitals. British Islands London Norway and Sweden Stockholm Denmark Copenhagen Russia St. Petersburgh SEVEN CENTRAL COUNTRIES. France Paris Belgium Brussels Holland Amsterdam Prussia ' Berlin Austria Vienna Germany Berlin Switzerland Berne SIX SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. Spain Madrid Portugal Lisbon Italy Rome Turkey Constantinople Greece Athens Boumania Bukharest ENGLAND. 15 THE UNITED KINGDOM. 30. The British Isles include Great Britain and Ireland, and form the UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. ' Great Britain consists of England, Scotland, and Wales. EN GLAND.* 31. The EXTENT of England and Wales is about 58,000 square miles; England being 50,000, and Wales near 8,000. ' 32. England has the sea on every side, except seventy miles on the north, Where it is joined to Scotland. The Eastern Coast is washed by the North Sea, with the parts the Humber, the Wash, and the Mouth of the Thames ; The Southern Coastby the English Channel, with the parts Southampton Water, Plymouth Sound, and Mount’s Bay ; The Western Coast by the Atlantic Ocean, with y the part the Bristol Channel ; also by St. George’s Channel, with the parts Milford Haven, Bride’s Bay, and Cardigan Bay ; also by the Irish Sea, with the parts Morecambe Bay and Solway Firth. The chief STRAITS are—— The Straits of Dover, which unite the North Sea and the English Channel, and divide England from France ; The Menai Strait, which divides the Island of Anglesey from the mainland of Wales. Yarmouth Roads and the Downs are parts of the North Sea lying-between the coast and dangerous sandbanks, and afiording a safe anchorage for ships. Spithead, in the English Channel, between the Isle of Wight and Portsmouth, is another part Where vessels can ride in safety. ' * A map of the neighbourhood should find a place in every school. An Ordnance map of the parish and surrounding'district can be procured at little cost. The author has seen excellent maps, drawn by an assistant teacher or even by an elder scholar, Where a printed one was not to be had. 16 ENGLAND. 88. The chief CAPES are—- On the" Eastern Coast, Flamborough Head, Spurn Point, the North Foreland and the South Foreland. 0n the Southern Coast, Lizard Point—the most southern point, and Land’s End— the most western point. 0n the Western Coast, St. David’s Head, Great Orme’s Head, and St. Bees’ Head. 84. The chief ISLANDS are the Isle of Wight, called the Garden of England ; Anglesey ; and the Isle of Man, equally distant from England, Scot- land, and Ireland. 85. England is not mountainous. Its surface is, however, in most parts diversified by hill and dale. It is most mountainous in the north and the west. The chief ranges are—- (1.) The Pennine Range, running from the Cheviot Hills in Scotland to Derbyshire,where it is named the Peak. This range is called the backbone of England. (2.) The Cumbrian Group, or Hills of Cumberland. (8.) The Cambrian Range, or Hills of Wales. (4.) The Devonian Range, or Hills of Devonshire and Cornwall. The highest MOUNTAINS are Snowdon, in North Wales, 3,571 feethigh, and Scaw Fell, Helvellyn, and Skiddaw, in Cumberland, all above 8,000 feet high. EXPLANATION.—St. Paul’s Cathedral, in London, is 360 feet high ; Snowdon is therefore ten times as high as St. Paul’s, and the above Cumberland hills about nine times. t 86. The chief RIVERS of England are the Thames, the Severn, the Trent, and the Ouse. The Thames and the Severn are each about 200 miles in length. Tributaries of the Thames are the Kennet, the Lea, the Medway ; of the Severn,— the Avon, the Wye; of the Ouse,—the Wharfe, the Aire. The Trent and the Ouse meet, and their common Estuary, or mouth, is the Humber. Other rivers are the Tyne, the Ouse—running into A the Wash, the Dee, and the Mersey, which two last enter the Irish Sea, by wide mouths or Estuaries. ENGLAND. l7 The‘rivers of England well serve the purposes of trade ; for the currents being slow, vessels are able to go up as well as down them ; they can also con- , vey goods from one river to another by means of the Canals,which unite the principal streams (S. G., 190). 37. The LAKES are small, but beautiful. They lie among the mountains of the Cumbrian Group. Lake Windermere, the largest, is ten miles long, and near one mile broad in the widest part. The Lakes, Mountains, and Waterfalls, of the Lake District, as it is called, constitute the most beauti- ful scenery of England, as distinguished from the neighbourhood of Snowdon, in North Wales, which is considered the grandest. ' 38. England is very rich in MINERALS. The chief are coal, iron, copper, lead, tin, and salt. Coal is most abundant in N orthumberland, Dur- ham, and South Wales; iron in South Wales, in North-east Yorkshire (Cleveland), and in Stafford- shire; tin is obtained only from Cornwall and Devon, whose mines have been worked for more than two thousand years; salt from the salt mines and springs .‘ of Cheshire. It is from the North and West of England that nearly all the minerals are obtained, these being the mountainous or hilly parts, metals being found generally only in mountainous districts. N 0 country supplies so much coal and tin as England does. The value of the minerals raised is greater than that of all the other countries of Europe put together. 39. The CLIMATE is mild and healthy though humid, and the soil generally fertile. AGRICULTURE is in an advanced state. Much of the land is in pas- ture, particularly in the West, where the air is most charged with moisture. This forms the beautiful green carpet for which the scenery of England, and indeed the whole of the British Islands, is so noted. 18 ENGLAND. 40. England is by far the most important manu- facturing country in the world. The chief MANU— FACTURES are those of cotton, wool, iron, silk, leather, and earthenware. (See MAP-BOOK FOR BEGINNERS.) The Cotton manufacture is carried on at Man- chester and the towns lying a few miles around it. The Woollen manufacture is carried on at Leeds and other towns in what is called the West Riding of Yorkshire ; and also in the West of England, in Wiltshire, Somersetshire, and Gloucestershire. Iron Smelting, that is, extracting the iron from the ore (then called pig-iron), is carried on chiefly in South Wales, N.—E. Yorkshire, and Staffordshire, as is also the making of iron goods called hardware. Earthenware is made in the North of Stafford- shire, in what are called the Potteries. The most important Manufacturing Towns are—— Town. County. Manufacture. Manchester Lancashire Cotton Preston ,, ,, Oldham ,, ,, Blackburn ,, ,, Stockport Cheshire ,, Leeds Yorkshire Woollen Bradford ,, ,, [cutlery Birmingham Warwickshire Hardware, machinery, and Shefiield Yorkshire Cutlery Wolverhampton Staffordshire Hardware [stuffs Norwich Norfolk Bombasin and other mixed Nottingham N ottinghamshire Lace and hosiery Leicester Leicestershire Hosiery, boots and shoes Coventry Warwickshire Ribbons and timepieces Sunderland Durham Ship-building Most of the manufactures are carried on by machinery worked by steam. So the great manu- facturing towns and districts are found where coal is abundant, "6.52., in the North and North-West. The plentiful supply of coal and iron gives England its great advantage as a Manufacturing Country. Fngwf . . ENGLAND. 19 41. The COMMERCE of England is by far the greatest in the world 3 the chief Imports are— (1.) Materials for Manufactures; as raw cotton, raw silk, wool, hides, tallow. (2. ) Articles for Consumption,- as corn, sugar, tea coffee, spices, w1ne; timber. Cotton is obtained from the United States and India Silk and Tea ,, China. and India W001 _ . ,, . _ Australia, India, and Germany Hides ,, _ South America Tallow ‘ ’ ' ’,, ‘ ‘ Russia Corn ,, United States, Russia, Prussia, France Sugar and Coffee ,, West Indies, India, Brazil Wine Portugal, Spain, France, Australia The chief Exports are— (1.) Manufactured Goods,- as cotton goods, woollen goods, iron goods (pig- iron, hardware, machinery), and earthenware. (2.) Mineral Products; as tin, brass, copper, coal. The chief commerce of England (about one-third) is carried on with its own colonies and possessions, particularly with India, Australia, British North America, and the West Indies. The trade with the United States is greater than with any other foreign country. That with France comes next, then that with Germany (S. G., § 183). The chief Ports are—(1.) Commercial Ports. Port. County. Where situafe. London ‘ Middlesex On the Thames Liverpool Lancashire ,, Mersey Bristol Gloucestershire ,, Avon Hull Yorkshire ,, Humber Newcastle Northumberland ,, Tyne Plymouth Devonshire Plymouth Sound. (2.) Naval Ports. Portsmouth Hampshire On the English Channel Plymouth Devonshire Chatham ' Kent ,, Medway Pembroke Dock Pembrokeshire Milford Haven.y 20 ENGLAND. 42. The GOVERNMENT is a Limited Monarchy, composed of the King (or Queen), the House of Lords, and the House of Commons. The Kingly Office is hereditary ; 212., it descends, on the death of the Sovereign, to the next heir. The House of Lords consists of all the Peers of England, and their right is hereditary ; of 24 Peers of Ireland, and 16 of Scotland, who are elected by the Peers of those countries; and of 26 English Bishops. The Bishops are called Spiritual Peers, the other Lords Temporal Peers. The House of Commons has about 650 members, who are elected by the people of England, Ireland, and Scotland. 43. The ESTABLISHED RELIGION is Protestantism, and the Government of the English Church is Epis- copal, $16., by Bishops. All other forms of religion are tolerated, and Dissenters are very numerous. For ecclesiastical purposes England is divided into 31 Dioceses, each of which is under the charge of a Bishop. These are again grouped into the Provinces of Canterbury and York; the Province of Canterbury consisting of 23 Dioceses, and that of York of 8 ; each having an Archbishop as its head. 44. There are five UNIVERSITIES; Oxford and Cambridge, both of great antiquity ; Durham, London, and Manchester (Victoria). 45. There are 52 Counties in England and Wales ; 40 in England, and 12 in Wales. For the purposes of JUSTICE the country is divided into 8 Circuits, not including London and Middlesex. The Judges travel these Circuits at least twice a year, to try civil and criminal causes at what are called the Assizes. The chief town, ‘ at which the Assizes are held, elections carried on, and the general businessof the county transacted, is called the COUNTY TOWN. ENGLAND. 21 HOME CIRCUIT. County. County Town. County. County Town. Surrey Guildford Essex Chelmsford Kent Maidstone Hertfordshire Hertford . Sussex Lewes (Pronounced Harford/ OXFORD CIRCUIT. Oxfordshire Oxford Herefordshire Hereford Berkshire Reading Monmouthshire Monmouth Gloucester-shire Gloucester Shropshire Shrewsbury Worcestershire Worcester Stafiordshire Stafford MIDLAND CIRCUIT. Lincolnshire Lincoln Derbyshire Derby Rutlandshire Oakham Cheshire Chester NorthamptonshireNorthampton NottinghamshireNottingham Leicestershire Leicester Warwickshire Warwick NORFOLK CIRCUIT. Norfolk Norwich Huntingdonshire Huntingdon Suffolk Ipswich Buckinghamshire Aylesbury Cambridgeshire Cambridge Bedfordshire Bedford NORTHERN CIRCUIT. Yorkshire, in 3* York Lancashire Lancaster Ridings : Northumberland Newcastle West Riding Leeds,Halifax Durham Durham East Riding Hull Cumberland Carlisle North Riding Richmond Westmoreland Appleby WESTERN CIRCUIT. Hampshire Southampton Somersetshire Taunton,Wells Wiltshire Salisbury Devonshire Exeter Dorsetshire Dorchester Cornwall Bodmin NORTH WALES CIRCUIT. Flintshire Flint Anglesey Beaumaris Denbighshire Denbigh Merionethshire Bala, Dolgelly Carnarvonshire Carnarvon Montgomerysh. Montgomery SOUTH WALES CIRCUIT. Radnorshire Radnor Carmarthensh. Carmar then Cardiganshire Cardigan Glamorgansh. Cardiff Pembrokeshire Pembroke Brecknocksh. Brecon 46. The POPULATION is 26 millions, Of which Wales contains 1% millions. With the exception Of Belgium, no country of Europe is so thickly peopled as England. 22 ENGLAND. 47. Because so many of its people are employed in Manufactures and Commerce, England has a greater number of large towns than any other country. There are 95 towns having more than 20,000 in- habitants each, of which 19 have above 100,000. Town. Couniy. Situation. Population. London Middlesex On the Thames 4,000,000 Liverpool Lancashire ,, Mersey 550,000 Manchester ,, ,, ,, 520,000 Birmingham Warwickshire 400,000 . Leeds. Yorkshire ,, Aire 300,000 Sheffield ,, ,, Don 260,000 Bristol Somersetshire ,, Avon 200,000 Newcastle Northumberland ,, Tyne 200,000 Bra dford York shire 180,000 Hull , , ,, Humber 160,000 Plymouth Devonshire Plymouth Sound 140,000 Portsmouth Hampshire 130,000 Brighton, Leicester, Sunderland, Nottingham, Oldham, Blackburn, Bolton. 100,000 LONDON, the Capital of England and of the Empire, is situate mostly in Middlesex on the north bank of the Thames, at a distance of about 60 miles from the Sea. It consists of the City, the central and oldest part; the City of Westminster, and the Borough of South— wark ; together with the parliamentary boroughs of the Tower Hamlets, Finsbury, Marylebone, Lambeth, Chel- sea, Hackney, and Greenwich; Southwark and Lam~ beth are in Surrey, and south of the river; Greenwich in Kent. These together send twenty-two Members to Parliament. London is the wealthiest, most populous, and most commercial city in the world. The docks for the shipping are fine and convenient. The largest, the West India Docks, with its water, wharves, and warehouses, has an extent of nearly two square miles. London is not a manufacturing town, and yet employs many thousands in shipbuilding in the east, in making timepieces in the north, and in tanning in the south. As the capital of the Empire, London has three . ‘v‘ ENGLAND. 28 Palaces of the Sovereign—Bucking-ham Palace; St. J ames’s - Palace, used by the Queen for Public Receptions, as drawing-rooms, levées, &c.; and Kensington Palace. It has also the magnificent building, the new Houses of Parliament. Of Churches the finest are the ancient pile, VVest- minster Abbey, in the Gothic Style of Architecture, and the modern one, St. Paul’s Cathedral, in the Grecian style. Both, but especially the Abbey, abound in monu- ments to our most eminent countrymen. Other interesting Buildings are the Tower, contain- ing the Crown and Sceptre, and other regal insignia, a ' vast collection of modern arms, and a fine collection of ancient armour; the British Museum, with its un- ‘ . rivalled collection of objects of art, science, and antiqui- ties ; and its library of near a million books, on 10 miles of shelves ; South Kensington, a varied but most interest- ing collection; the Bank of England, and the Royal Exchange, devoted to commerce. The underground works of London are wonderful; consisting of hundreds of miles of sewerage, of water pipes, and of gas pipes. 48. The COLONIEs and FOREIGN Possnssrons are far more extensive and important than those of any other country. The chief are— In Europe. In North America, continued. Gibraltar (146), Malta (141) Prince Edward Island In Asia. Manitoba, or Red River India or Hindostan (206) British Columbia and Singapore (215) Vancouver Island Hong Kong (222) Newfoundland Aden (199) Cyprus In South America. In A fried. Guiana (304:) Cape of Good Hope (256) Falkland Islands Natal (259) In the West Indies. Sierra Leone (251) Jamaica The Bahamas Mauritius (229) Trinidad Bermudas St. Helena (229) Barbados (299 to 305.) In N o rth America. In Oceam’a. The Dominion of Canada (282 New South Wales to 288) consisting of“ Victoria Tasmania Quebec, or Lower Canada Queensland New Zealand Ontario, or Upper Canada S. Australia New Brunswick W. Australia (340 to 350). Nova Scotia. and C. Breton I. 24: SCOTLAND. 49. The EXTENT of Scotland is 30,000 sq. miles. 50. It has a very irregular COAST, particularly on the “test, where it lies exposed to the fury of the waves of the open Atlantic Ocean, when agitated by the powerful south-west winds. Its Eastern Coast, like England, is washed by the North Sea, with the parts the Firth of Forth, the Firth of Tay, Murray Firth, and Cromarty Firth; The Northern and Western Coasts are washed by the Atlantic Ocean, with the parts Loch Linnhe, Loch Fyne, and the Firth of Clyde ; The South Coast is washed by the Irish Sea, with the parts Solway Firth and Luce Bay. . 51. The chief STRAITS are~— The North Channel, which divides Scotland from Ireland, and unites the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean; Pentland Firth, which divides the Orkney Islands from the main land of Scotland, and unites the North Sea andthe Atlantic Ocean ; The Minch, which divides the Hebrides from the mainland; The Little Minch, which divides the Outer Hebrides from the Inner Hebrides. 52. The chief CAPES are— On the Eastern Coast, Fife Ness and Tarbet Ness ; On the N orthern Coast, Dunnet Head, the most northern point of Great Britain, and Cape Wrath ; On the Western Coast, Airdnamurchan Point, the most western point of Scotland, the Mull of Cantire, and the Mull of Galloway. 53. There are three groups of ISLANDS z—the Hebrides, or Western Isles ,- the Orkney Islands, to the North; and the Shetland Isles, still further North. There are, altogether, between four and five hundred Islands, but only about one-third is inhabited. A small island of the Hebrides, Stafia, contains the natural curiosity, Fingal’s Cave. This cave is open to the sea; its sides. are formed of columns, regular in shape, and its roof is arched. (See MAP-BOOK FOR BEGINNERS. Scotland. Vignette.) “I: SCOTLAND. 25 54. Scotland is a mountainous country, having no extensive plains. It contains the highest mountain in the British Islands, Ben Nevis. There are three chief ranges or masses of MOUN- ._ TAINs,—the Grampian Hills, the Northern High- lands, and the Southern Highlands. (1.) The Grampian Hills stretch across the widest part of the country, from south-west to north-east. The highest mountain is Ben Macdui, 4,800 feet high. Ben More and Ben Lomond are in this range. The word Ben means mountain. (2.) The Northern Highlands; of which Ben Nevis is the highest, being 4,878 feet high. (3.) The Southern Highlands occupy the southern part of the country. The chief ranges are the Cheviot Hills, which in part divide England from Scotland; and the Lowther Hills, the loftiest of which, Broadlaw, is 2,700 feet high. 55. The chief- RIVERS are the Tweed, the Forth, the'Tay, the longest river of Scotland, 110 miles long; the Dee, the Spey, and the Clyde. Except the last, all empty themselves into the North Sea. The Scotch rivers abound in salmon. As they rise in high mountains, and have but a short course, they have a rapid current, and consequently, with the exception of the Clyde, are in a great part of their course of little use for commerce. 56. The LAKES are very numerous and beautiful. The chief are, Loch Lomond, the largest, 45 square miles ; Loch Awe, Loch N ess, Loch Tay, and Loch ‘ Katrine. 57. The CLIMATE is colder and wetter than that of England, but much milder than that of countries in the same latitude on the Continent of Europe. . 58. Scotland is rich in the useful MINERALS, coal, I iron, and stone for building,as granite and freestone. C 26 SCOTLAND. 59. AGRICULTURE is in a thriving condition, but only about one-fourth Of Scotland is under cultiva- tion, the rest being mountain, moor, and waste. Oats are more grown than all other sorts of corn together, they being the favourite food of the people, either as por1idge or oatcake 60. The important MANUFACTURES are those Of cot- ton, iron, and linen. Whisky is also largely distilled. Cotton is manufactured chiefly at Glasgow and Paisley. Glasgow is not only the greatest manu- facturing town of Scotland, but the second in the United Kingdom, coming only after Manchester. Iron is smelted and worked chiefly in Lanarkshire; but also in the counties West and North of it. The locality of this manufacture, as also that Of Cotton, is determined by the abundance of coal in the district (40). Dundee is the centre and chief seat Of the Linen manufacture. The chief manufacturing towns of Scotland are— Toum. County. Manufacture. Glasgow Lanark Cotton, silk. [fabrics Paisley Renfrew Cotton, shawls, and other mixed Dundee Forfar Liner, jute. Aberdeen Aberdeen Sailcloth, sheeting, and coarse woollen goods ; ship-building. 61. The chief IMPORTS are raw materials for manu- facture, as cotton, hemp and flax, and articles Of consumption like those Of England. The EXPORTS are cotton and linen goods sail- cloth black cattle, coal, salmon, dried and pickled fish. The PORTS are-— Port. County. Situation. Glasgow Lanai-k On the Clyde Leith Edinburgh ,, Firth of Forth Greenock Renfrevva ,, Firth of Clyde Dundee Forfar ,, Firth of Tay Aberdeen Aberdeen ,, Dee. WWW-W SCOTLAND, 27 62. The RELIGION is Protestantism, and the form of Church Government Presbyterianism. There are four UNIVERSITIES: Edinburgh, Glas- gow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrew’s. 63. Scotland is divided into 83 COUNTIES, very different in size, shape, and compactness. Lowland Counties. Berwick Lanark Clackmannan Roxburgh Linlithgow, or West Stirling Selkirk Lothian Dumbarton . t Peebles Edinburgh, or Mid Perth elm}: Dumfries Lothian Angus. , or 1 1g 6. ' Kirkcudbright Haddington, or East Forfar an ' VVigton Lothian Kincardine Ayr Fife Renfrew Kinross Highland Countries. Bute, consisting of Moray, or Elgin Sutherland Arran and Bute Banfi Caithness Argyle Aberdeen Orkney, consisting of Inverness Cromarty the Orkney and Nairn Ross Shetland Isles. ‘64. The POPULATION is 3% millions, which is one-seventh Of that Of England and Wales. The people who live in the parts South and East Of the Grampians are called Lowlanders, and are of the same race as the English. Those living in and North of the Grampians are called Highlanders, resemble the Irish, and speak a language called Erse. 65. There are 11 towns Of more than 20,000 inhabitants each, of which 4 have above 100,000. Town County. Situation. Population. Glasgow Lanark On theClyde 500,000 Edinburgh, the CAPITAL Edmburgh Near the Firth of Forth 230,000 . Dundee Angus Firth of Tay 140,000 .Aberdeen Aberdeen 0n the Dee 100,000 5:4. "‘ ‘3‘“ was IRELAND. 66. Ireland contains 32,000 square miles, and so is rather larger than Scotland, and a little more than half the size of England and Wales. 67. It is washed on the Eastern Coast by the Irish Sea and St. George’s Channel. On every other side it is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, the violence of Whose waves causes the west and south-west coast to be very irregular. Some of the weather- beaten cliffs are 2,000 feet high. It has numerous fine Harbours, especially on the Western and Southern Coasts. The chief are— On the Eastern Coast, Strangford Lough and Dublin Bay. Southern Coast, Waterford Harbour, and Cork Harbour. Western Coast, Bantry Bay, Dingle Bay, Galway Bay, and Donegal Bay. Northern Coast, Lough Foyle. 68. The CAPES are-— Cape Clear, the most southern point, on an island of the same name. Malin Head. the most northern point. Carusore Point, the south eastern point. Fair Head, the north-eastern point. Bloody Foreland, the north-western point. 69. Ireland is generally flat, especially in the central parts. It contains, however, three ranges, with heights exceeding 8,000 feet,—Macgillicuddy’s Reeks, the Galtee Mountains, and the VVicklow Hills; and two other ranges, the Knockmeledown Mountains and the Mourne Mountains, nearly as high. Gurrane Tual, in Macgillicuddy’s Reeks, is the highest mountain in Ireland, being 3,400 feet high, and is not 200 feet lower than Snowdon. r. hit IRELAND. 29 70. The chief RIVERS are the Shannon, Lee, Blackwater, Suir, N ore, Barrow, Boyne, and Bann. The Shannon is the longest river in the British Islands, having a length of 214 miles. It widens out in parts, and forms several noble lakes, particu- larly Lough Bea and Lough Derg. Its navigation is, however, much obstructed by shallows. The Bann, and some other Irish rivers, abound in salmon. The Suir, Nore, and Barrow, are sometimes called the Three Sisters, as they rise in the same range of hills, and again unite before reaching the sea. 71. The LAKES are numerous, and rather large. The chief are Neagh, Ree, Derg, «Corrib, and Killarney. Lough N eagh has a surface of 150 square miles, and is far the largest lake of the British Islands; being more than half the size of the county of Mid- dleseX. It is, however, uninteresting. The small Lakes of Killarney, in the south-western part of Ireland, and their neighbourhood, are exceedingly beautiful. ' 72. The SOIL is fertile, and the CLIMATE humid. From these causes the herbage is always green, and Ireland has been called the Emerald Isle. There are, however, very extensive Bogs, composed of peat. The largest of these are found running across the centre of the country, almost from the Irish Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. 73. Ireland is an agricultural rather than a manu- facturing nation. The potato is very largely grown and consumed. A large part of the population is employed in the rearing and keeping of cattle, either for the sake of the carcase, or the produce of the dairy, butter and cheese. 30 IRELAND. 74. The only very important Manufacture is that of linen It is carried on in various parts, but chiefly at Belfast and the neighbouring towns and districts. The principal manufacturing towns are—- Town. County. Manufacture. Belfast An trim Linen and Cotton. Newry Down Drogheda Louth i Linen. Louth Louth 75. The chief EXPORTS are linen and agricultural produce: as cattle and pigs; bacon, salt beef, salt pork, butter, and eggs. The chief PORTS are— Port. County. Situation. Belfast Antrim On Belfast Lough Dublin Dublin The Liffey Cork Cork At the mouth of the Lee Waterford Waterford On the Suir, near its junction _ with the Barrow Londonderry Londonderry On the Foyle, near Lough Foyle Limerick Limerick On the Shannon. 76. The head of the Government in Ireland, who is the Representative of the Sovereign, is called the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. 77. There is now no Established Church in Ire- land ; but the greater part of the people are Roman Catholics. Protestantism prevails in Ulster. There are four Roman Catholic Archbishoprics, Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, Tuam, and twenty-three Bishoprics; two Protestant Archbishoprics, Ar- magh, Dublin, and ten Bishoprics. There are two Universities, Dublin and Queen’s; the latter in connection with the Queen’s Colleges at Belfast, Cork, and Galway. Maynooth College is for the Education of Roman Catholic priests. IRELAND. 81 78. Ireland is divided into four Provinces and thirty-two Counties. Ulster has nine counties, Leinv ster twelve, Connaught five, and Munster six. ULSTER. LEINSTER. Wexford MUNSTER. Antrim Louth Carlow Tipperary Londonderry Meath Kilkenny. Waterford Donegal West Meath Cork, divided Tyrone Longford CONNAUGHT. into three Fermanagh King’s County Galway Ridings Gavan Queen’s County Mayo Kerry Monaghan Kildare Sligo Limerick Armagh Dublin Leitrim Clare. Down. Wicklow Roscommon. 79. The POPULATION is 5% millions. Ulster was largely peopled from the Lowlands of Scotland (64). In other parts the people are mostly Celts. Ireland has six towns of more than 20,000 in- habitants each ; of which two have above 100,000. Town. \ County. Situate. Population. Dublin Dublin On the Liffey 250,000 Belfast Antrim On Belfast Lough 200,000 THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN GENERAL. 80. The Area of the United Kingdom is 120,000 square miles. The population is 35 millions. The extent of the whole empire, in all parts of the world, is 7 2 million square miles, being one- seventh of the land of the globe. The population of the whole empire is above 250 millions, or one-fifth of all the people of the world. In population the British Empire is the second in the world; China being the first. In extent it and Russia are about alike; but if only the land capable of cultivation is reckoned, it is the largest 1n the world. It has been said, and with truth, that on the British Empire “the sun never sets.” 32 EUROPE. PHYSICAL FEATURES. 81. Europe contains near 4 million square miles or about one-thirteenth of all the land of the globe. 82. On all sides but the east Europe is washed by the Sea. On its Western shore lies the Atlantic Ocean, connected withwhich are theBayof Biscay,theEng- lish Channel, the Irish Sea, the North Sea, and the Baltic,containing the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. On its Southern shore lies the Mediterranean, connected with which are the Adriatic Sea or Gulf of Venice, the Archipelago, the Sea of M armora, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azoi. On its Northern shore lies the Arctic Ocean, con- nected with which is the White Sea. The Mediterranean Sea is salt and very deep ; the Baltic is only brackish, and rather shallow. 83. The chief STRAITS are—— The Straits of Gibraltar, separating the nearest points of Europe and Africa, and uniting the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The Straits of Dover, separating England from France, and uniting the North Sea and the English Channel. The Sound, separating the island of Zealand, a part of Den- mark, from Sweden, and uniting the Baltic Sea and the Cattegat. The Straits of Messina, separating the island of Sicily from the mainland of Italy. The Dardanelles, separating Europe and Asia, and uniting the Archipelago and the Sea of Marmora. The Straits of Constantinople, separating Europe and Asia, and uniting the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora. The Straits of Kafi'a, uniting the Black Sea and Sea of Azof. 84. The chief ISLANDS are Great Britain, the largest island of Europe; and Ireland, in the Atlantic Ocean. Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Candia, in the Mediterranean Sea. ~ Nova Zemla and Spitzbergen, in the Arctic Ocean. G-f" EUROPE. 33 85. The chief CAPES are-- Cape Nordkyn, the most northern point of Norway and of Europe. Cape Tarifa, the most southern point of Spain and of Eu- rope. Cape Rocca, the most western point of Portugal and of Europe. North Cape, in Norway, on an island. The Naze, the most southern point of Norway. Land‘s End, the most western point of England. Cape Clear, the most southern point of Ireland. Cape Ushant, the most western point of France. Cape Finisterre, the most western point of Spain. Cape Matapan, the most southern point of Greece. 86. The MOUNTAINS of Europe are chiefly in the south. The mountainous countries are Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Greece, the south- eastern part of France, and the south-western part . of Austria. The most northern country of Europe, Norway, is also very mountainous ; as is also Sweden in part. The chief ranges of Mountains are—— The Alps, in Switzerland and northern Italy, the highest of which, Mont Blanc, is 15,732 feet high, or more than four times the height of Snowdon. The Apennines, in Italy. The Pyrenees, between France and Spain. The Balkan, in Turkey. The Carpathians, in Austria. Out of the Alps, no mountain is so much as 12,000 feet high ; and in the north of Europe the highest is * little more than 8,000 feet. Between Europe and Asia lie, on the eastern boundary, the Oural Mountains; and on the southern boundary, Mount Caucasus, 17,000 feet high. The chief VOLCANOES are Mount Etna, in Sicily, near 11,000 feet high, and 90 miles round at the base, and Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, in Italy. 0 3 34 EUROPE. 87. Nearly two-thirds of Europe consists of the great central PLAIN which extends from the English Channel to the Ouralian Mountains, and includes northern France, Belgium, Holland, northern Ger- many, Denmark, Prussia, and Russia. 88. The chief RIVERS of Europe are— In Russia :-—— The Volga runs into the Caspian Sea. Don Sea of Azof. Dnieper Black Sea. Dniester Black Sea. Dwina White Sea. Vistula Baltic Sea In Prussia :— Lower Vistula Baltic Sea Oder Baltic Sea. Elbe North Sea. In Germany :— Lower Elbe North Sea. Rhine North Sea. In France 3— Seine English Channel. Loire Bay of Biscay. Garonne Bay of Biscay. Rhone Mediterranean Sea. In Spain :— Ebro Mediterranean Sea. Douro Atlantic Ocean. Tagus Atlantic Ocean. In Portugal ;- Lower Douro Atlantic Ocean. Lower Tagus Atlantic Ocean. In Italy =-—- P0 Adriatic Sea. Tiber Mediterranean Sea. In Austria :— The Danube Black Sea. In Turkey :—- Lower Danube Black Sea. In England :-——- Thames North Sea. In Ireland :——- Shannon Atlantic Ocean. Four rivers are more than 1,000 miles long, viz. : The Volga, 2,100 miles, or ten times Dnieper, 1,200 miles. the length of the Thames 0 The Danube, 1,700 miles Don, 1,000 miles. The rivers that rise in the Great Plain, or have their course almost entirely across it, have a slow cur- rent. ‘ Such are the Volga, the Oder, and the Seine. But those rising in the Alps, or the high land in their EUROPE. 3.5 neighbourhood, have a rapid current, as the Po, the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Upper Danube. 89. The largest LAKES of Europe are in Russia ;—- Lake Ladoga, above 6,000 square miles, and larger than Yorkshire; and Lake Onega, about half the size. In Sweden is Lake VVener, 2,000 square miles, the size of Norfolk. The Alpine Lakes are very beautiful. The chief are—— In Switzerland, Lake Geneva, above 300 square miles, or seven times as large as Loch Lomond; and Lake Constance. In Italy, Lake Garda and Lake Maggiore. These Alpine lakes are very deep, some being from a quarter to near half a mile in depth. The waters of Lake Constance and of most of the Swiss Lakes are carried off by the River Rhine; those of Lake Geneva by the Rhone; and those of the Italian Alpine Lakes by the tributaries of the River P0. 90. Europe enjoys a temperate CLIMATE. The western countries are warmer and milder than the eastern. The temperature of London the year through is about the same as that of the Crimea and the south of Russia, although these parts are 10 degrees nearer the Equator. Their summer, however, is very much hotter than that of London, and their winter very much colder. The winter of London and Edinburgh is about as cold as that of Paris, but not so cold as that of Vienna. The summer heat of Petersburgh is the same as that of London, although Petersburgh is so much farther north. Ireland, the most western country of Europe, has the mildest climate. Its summer is not so hot, nor its winter so cold, as those even of Great Britain. 91. The SOIL of Europe is for the most part fer- 36 EUROPE. tile. The centre and part of the south of Russia has a rich deep vegetable soil, which grows corn, and particularly Wheat, excellent in quality, and abun- dant in quantity. The largest sterile parts are the Steppes of Russia, lying north of the Black and Caspian Seas, and be- tween them. These are extensive plains, dry and treeless ; but covered in spring, and after showers, with grass, more or less coarse, on which cattle feed. There are extensive HEATHS throughout the north of Germany. 92. The largest FORESTS are in central Russia, Norway, and Sweden, and the mountain ranges of Germany. In these forests the chief WILD ANIMALS are the brown bear, the wolf, and the wild boar, which are still not rare. The forest trees, as the oak, the beech, the elm, the lime, and the fir, will grow three to four hun- dred miles further north in the west, as Norway and Sweden, than they will in the eastern part of Russia, 93. All the common MINERALS are found in Europe. The countries richest in minerals are England, Belgium, Austria, and Spain. Those most destitute are Holland, Denmark, and Switzerland. 94. Europe contains 300 million inhabitants, or about one-fifth of the human race. The people of Europe, and their descendants who have settled in other parts, are far more civilized than the other inhabitants of the world. 95. Christianity is the RELIGION of Europe, Protestantism prevailing in the north, Roman Catholicism in the south, and the Greek church in the east. The Turks are Mahometans. In the extreme north are a few Idolaters. 96. The most powerful States are England, France, Russia, Austria, Germany, and Italy, and these are called the Six Great Powers. 37 FRANCE. 97. France is more than half as large again as the United Kingdom (80). It is divided into 86 Departments. Before the Revolution in 1790 it consisted of 32 Provinces, among the chief of which were, Normandy in the north, Brittany in the west, Gascony and Guienne in the south-west, Languedoc in the south, Pro- vence in the south-east, and Burgundy in the east. 98. The Population is 36 millions, or somewhat greater than that of the United Kingdom. 99. The great proportion of the French are em- ployed in Agriculture. The vine is largely grown for making wine, the beet-root for making sugar, and the mulberry tree for its leaves, as food for the silkworm. 100. The chief MANUFACTURES are wine and brandy, silk, cotton, linen, and jewellery. The chief manufacturing towns are— Lyons on the Rhone Silk Rouen, called the Man- chester of France on the Seine Cotton Lille , Cotton Paris on the Seine Various. Time-pieces, jewellery, bronze. 101. The chief IMPORTS are raw materlals for her manufactures, fuel, sugar, and coffee. The EXPORTS are wine; silk, cotton, woollen and linen goods ; lace and jewellery. The chief Commercial PORTS are-— Marseilles, on the Mediterra- Havre, at the mouth of the nean Seine. Bordeaux, on the Garonne Nantes, on the Loire. The Naval PORTS are— Brest, chief station of the navy on the Atlantic; Toulon. chief station on the Mediterranean ; Cherbourg, chief station on the English Channel. As a manufacturing and commercial nation France comes next to England. The trade between England and France has much increased of late years. 38 BELGIUM. 102. The GOVERNMENT is at present a Republic. The Religion is Roman Catholic, but other creeds are tolerated. 103. France has about 50 towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants each, eight having above 100,000 :— Paris, the Capital, 1,800,000 Lille, 150,000 Lyons, 300,000 Nantes, 100,000 Marseilles, 300,000 Toulouse, 100,000 Bordeaux, 200,000 Rouen, 100,000 104. The Foreign Possessions are Algeria and the Isle of Bourbon, in Africa; Lower Cochin China in Further India; Guiana, in South America; Guada- loupe and Martinique, in the West Indies. BELGIUM. 105. Belgium is not quite one-fifth as large as England. Its Population is 5 millions, or near one-fifth that of England. It is the most thickly peopled country'of Europe. 106. Belgium is a prosperous country. Its Agri- culture and Manufactures are very flourishing. It is rich in Minerals, particularly coal, so service- able to its manufactures, which are woollen, linen, and cotton goods ; carpets, lace, and hardware. The manufacturing towns are— ' Brussels Lace, carpets, gloves Ghent Cotton [len, &c. Mechlin Lace Liege Hardware, arms, wool- The trade of the towns was very great in the middle ages. It is still considerable. Its chief port is— Antwerp, on the Scheldt. 107. The GOVERNMENT is a Limited Monarchy, and the RELIGION Roman Catholic. Belgium contains many strongly fortified towns. 108. It has 15 towns of more than 20,000 inhabit- ants each, of which four have above 100,000 2—— Brussels, the Capital, 380,000. Ghent, 150,000. Antwerp, 120,000. , Liege, 100,000. HOLLAND. 39 109. Holland, called also the kingdom of the Netherlands, is not quite one-fourth as large as England. Its population is 4 millions, or about onesixth of that of England. It is very wealthy. 110. The country is exceedingly flat; much of it below the level of the sea, which is kept out only by vast dykes, which require constant watching and frequent repairs. The soil is fertile and well culti- vated. Much of the land is meadow, and conse- quently cattle-rearing and dairy work are important agricultural employments. It is intersected by canals in all directions, many of which are used to convey passengers as well as goods. The Dutch build excellent ships, with which they supply some other countries. The Commerce is very considerable. The IM- PORTS are sugar, cofiee, spices, wine, timber, and manufactured goods. The EXPORTS are butter and cheese, sent chiefly to England ; linen and spirits ; and coffee, spices, &c., from her important colonies 338 . ( Tlie Chief Ports are Amsterdam and Rotterdam. 1.11. The Government is ,a Limited Monarchy, and the Religion chiefly Protestant. 112. Holland has 16 towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants, 3 having more than 100,000. Amsterdam, the CAPITAL, 300,000. Rotterdam, 180,000. The Hague, a town of 100.000 inhabitants, is the seat of the Government, and so regarded by some as the Capital. The Foreign Possess1ons are Java and the Moluc- cas in Oceania, and Guiana in South America. GERMANY. 113. Germany is more than half as large again as the United Kingdom, and larger than France. Its Population is 45 millions, or one-fourth greater than that of France. So in population Ger- . ‘ manyis the second in Europe, and in size the third. 4O GERMANY. 114. Germany was a Union of 34 States, each of which was independent in the management of its own affairs. The six chief States were— State. Capital. State. Capital. Austria Vienna Hanover Hanover Prussia Berlin LVVirtemberg Stuttgard Bavaria Munich 'Saxony Dresden But Austria is now no part of Germany, and Han- over is annexed to Prussia. The other four States are Kingdoms. Germany itself is an Empire. Germany is now a Confederation of 26 States. As the King of Prussia is also Emperor of Germany, Prussia is really the mistress of the other States, except that each State has more or less the management of its own internal affairs. 115. Saxony and the South of Hanover are rich in metals. Coal is found in Prussian Germany along the Rhine, and in Saxony, which parts are therefore noted for manufactures. Peat abounds in the sandy plain of the north, and is used for fuel. The Vine flourishes on the borders of the Rhine and its tributaries, producing some of the most esteemed Wines—as various kinds of Hock and Moselle Saxon wool is noted for its excellence. 116 The trade with England is considerable. The IMPORTS are manufactured goods; raw cotton, cotton twist ; wine (from France), sugar, coffee, and. spices. The EXPORTS are wool, corn, Wine, linen, timber. The PORTS are— on the Elbe. the chief Bremen, on the R. “'cser. Hamburg { port of the conti- Altmm, ,, Elbe. nent of Europe. Stettin, on the Baltic. 117. The Government of Germany consists of an Emperor, a Federal Council, and a Parliament. There are many strong fortresses and fortified. towns on or near the frontiers towards France. Hmafiwfixu . .a .' PRUSSIA. 41 118. The RELIGION is mostly Roman Catholic in the south, and Protestant in the north. 119. Germany has about 70 towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants each, of which 10 have more than 100,000. . Berlin, in Prussia 1,000,000 Breslau, in Prussia 200,000 Hamburg, a Free City 300,000 Dresdkn, in Saxony 170 000 Munich, in Bavaria. 170,000 Cologne, in Prussia 150,000 PRU SSIA. 120. Prussia is rather larger than the United Kingdom. In the Eastern portion, the people are for the most part of Polish origin. The Population is 25 millions, which is about i ' three-quarters of that of the United Kingdom. Prussia is now a compact State. Before 1866 some portions were separated from the rest. The country is generally flat. Having thus few natural defences, she has numerous fortresses and fortified towns, and a large army and militia. 121. Linen is the chief manufacture, Breslau its chief seat. But iron goods, hardware and machinery are now very important. Dusseldorf is the centre of a populous district engaged in various manufactures. ‘ The EXPORTS are linen, corn, wool, timber. The Ports are~— Dantzic at the mouth of the Vistula Stettm n a 1 Oder Konigsberg 122. The Government is a Limited Monarchy. More than one-half the people are Protestants. Prussia contains 40 towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants, of which five have above 100,000. Berlin, the capital, on the Spree. a. tributary of the Elbe, 1,000,000. Breslau, on the Oder, 200,000, Cologne, on the Rhine, 150,000. 42 AUSTRIA, OR AU STRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE. 123. Austria is near twice the size of the United Kingdom, and its population of 88,000,000 is some- what greater. It is thus the second in size, and the third in population in Europe. 124. It consists of the Empire of Austria (1), (3) ; and the Kingdom of Hungary (2). (1.) The German States in the west and north- west, near one—third of the Empire. The capital is Vienna. (2.) The Hungarian States, including Hungary and Transylvania, and some parts further south, comprising near one—half. The capital is Pesth. (3.) The Polish States, to the north of the Car- pathian Mountains, about one-sixth part of the Empire. The capital is Lemberg. 125. Austria is characterized by great diversity. People of different nations and languages make up its population. It contains mountains of the Alps, always covered with snow, above 12,000 feet high, and the plain of Europe the second in size, that of the middle Danube, called the Plain of Hungary. It has immense forests, among others the largest oak forests of Europe; but in parts of Hungary there is so little wood that cow-dung is used as fuel. 126. It abounds in metals—gold, silver, and quicksilver, as well as the commoner kinds, espe- cially excellent iron. The rock-salt mines in the neighbourhood of Cracow are the largest in the world. 127. As Austria has little coast, her foreign trade is incunsiderable. The chief port is Trieste, on the Adriatic Sea. 128. The Government is a Limited Monarchy, under an Emperor. The Religion is Roman Catholic. SWITZERLAND. 43 129. Austria has above 30 towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants each, of which 41 have above 100,000. Vienna, the Capital, 1,000,000. Prague 190,000. Trieste 100,000. Pesth (with Buda), Capital of Hungary, 270,000. SWITZERLAND. 130. Switzerland is twice the size of Wales, and has twice the Population, it being above 2% millions. It consists of ‘22 States, called Cantons. 181. Switzerland is an inland country, and the most mountainous of Europe, the southern part being nearly covered with the Alps. It is a country of vast snow—capped mountains, rapid rivers, large and beautiful lakes, thundering waterfalls, and vast glaciers or ice-fields, forming ‘ altogether the sublimest scenery of Europe. 132. Most of the Swiss are of German race, and speak German; but those of the west are chiefly of French origin, whilst those of the south-east speak Italian. 133. Corn enough is not grown for home use. There are fine pastures, employing the people in dairy work and cattle rearing. Swiss cheese is esteemed. The chief manufactures are watches and jewellery, made in the west, and cotton and silk goods. Rush- ing water which so abounds, and not steam, is the powerthat works her machinery. The manufactures, with cheese, are her chief EXPORTS. 134. The GOVERNMENT is a Federal Republic. Each Canton manages its own affairs, and sends members to the Federal Assembly, which meets at Berne to transact the national business. Rather more than half the people are Protestants, the rest Roman Catholics. 44 iITALY. ITALY. 135. Italyis the same size as the United Kingdom. The Population is 27 millions, or about three- fourths of that of the United Kingdom. 186. Italy formerly consisted of eight States. But now the whole country is united, and forms the Kingdom of Italy. The Pope still lives at Rome, but does not govern it. The largest States were «— States. Capitals. Naples, called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, con- sisted of the Island of Sicily’and the south of Italy Naples Papal States, of which the Sovereign was the Pope Rome Tuscany, a. Grand Duchy Florence Sardinia (a Kingdom) consisting of the Island of Sar- dinia,Piedmont,Lombardy,&c. , in the north of Italy Turin Austrian Italy, or Venetia Venice The Island of Corsica belongs to France. 137. Italy has on its borders the highest mountain in Europe, Mont Blanc, 15,732 feet high, one of the Alps. It has also the only active volcanoes of Europe, the largest, Etna, and Vesuvius (86). The State of Naples is subject to earthquakes. The Apennines traverse ltaly from north to south. The best marble for statuary comes from Italy. 138. Rice, and the mulberry tree for silkworms, are cultivated in the Plain of Lombardy, where, also, silkworm rearing, and the spinning and weaving of silk, employ a large proportion of the people. 139. Besides rice and the mulberry tree, the olive and excellent wheat (for macaroni) are cultivated. The EXPORTS are silk, olive oil, marble, and bi-imstone (from the volcanic districts). The Ports are—— Genoa, on N. of Gulf of GenOa. Leghorn, on W. coast. Venice, at head of the Adriatic Sea. Naples, on Wyoast. Palermo, on N. coast of Sicily. 140. Italy is a Limited Monarchy. SPAIN. 45 The Religion is Roman Catholic. Italy has about 60 towns of above 20,000 inhabit ants each, of w hich 15 have more than 100,000. Rome, once more the capital of Italy, 300, 000. ' Florence, the late capital, 170,000. Naples , 500, 000 Venice 130, 000 Milan 300.. 000 Palermo 250,000 Turin 250, 000 Genoa 170, 000 Messina, Bologna, Leghorn, Catania, each 100, 000. 141. MALTA, about 60 miles from Sicily, belongs to England. It is a very small island, but the capital, VALETTA, and its harbour, are so strongly fortified by nature and art, as to be deemed impregnable. Several hundred vessels can ride in the ha1bour in safety. ' SPAIN. 142. Spain is half as large again as the United Kingdomp Its Population is 17,000,000, or half that of the United Kingdom. 143. Spain 1s rich in tinetals, particularly in iron, lead, and quicksilver, of which latter it contains the i'ichest mine in the world. About one-half of Spain is a table-land, at an elevation of from 2, 000 to 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is remarkably destitute of trees. Immense numbers of sheep are reared, which furnish the very fine Merino wool. 144. Here and in Portugal the vine is largely cultivated, for the grapes, for raisins, and for wine- making. In the extreme south, as in Italy, the date-palm, the sugar-cane, and the cotton- tree can be grown On the rock of Gibraltar are numerous wild monkeys. called the Barbary Ape. The EXPORTS are wine, wool, and metals; fruits (grapes, oranges, lemons), dried iruits (raisins nuts) 46 PORTUGAL. The Ports are— Barcelona Cadiz, on the Atlantic Coast Egailencia. }°n £111: £23331]: :39 Seville, on the R. Guadalquiver l a aga 145. The GOVERNMENT is a Limited Monarchy. The Religion is Roman Catholic. Spain contains 14 towns of more than 50,000 in habitants each, of which five have more than 100,000. Madrid, the Capital 400,000 Barcelona 250,000 The Foreign Possessions are Cuba and Porto Rico in the West Indies, and the Philippine Islands in Oceania (339). 146. GIBRALTAR, on the rock of the same name, belongs to the English since 1704. As the Straits» of Gibraltar are but 16 miles across (only 8 in the narrowest part), the entrance to the Mediterranean is commanded by this almost impregnable fortress. PORTUGAL. 147. Portugal is somewhat larger than Ireland. Its Population is 4 millions, or somewhat greater than that of Scotland. 148. The Government is a Limited Monarchy. The Religion is Roman Catholic. 149. It is in the north that the vine is cultivated from which Port Wine is made. The EXPORTS are wine, oranges, grapes, almonds, cork (the bark of the cork oak). The PORTS are— Lisbon, on the Tagus. Oporto, on the Douro. 150. There are 3 towns of more than 20,000 in- habitants, of which one has more than 100,000. Lisbon, the Capital, beautifully situated 280,000 The Foreign Possessions are the Azores, the Madeiras, the Cape Verd Islands, all in the Atlantic Ocean. 47 THE EASTERN OR BALKAN PENINSULA, FORMERLY TURKEY IN EUROPE. 151. The Balkan Peninsula, named from the Balkan Mountains, is mountainous except in the plain of the Lower Danube where there are large . forests, especially of oak, in which herds of swine are bred and fed, and much corn is grown. States. Capitals. 152. TURKEY, lying between the Black Sea, the Adriatic, and the States named below... Constantinopleo ROUMANIA, a kingdom in the north-east ........ Bukharest. SERVIA, a kingdom in the north ................... Belgrade. MONTENEGRO, a small mountainous Princi- pality. AUSTRIAN-TURKEY in the north-west. GREECE, in the south .................................. Athens. Turkey comprises old Macedonia, Thrace, and Albania, and the all but independent Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia. It is now much smaller than Great Britain, having a population of only 8 millions, of Whom not one-third are Turks. Various peoples in Asia speaking different languages make the popula- tion about that of England. 153. The chief EXPORTS are corn, goats’ hair, valonia (an acorn used in tanning), raisins and figs ; the chief Ports being— Constantinople, on the Golden Horn, a harbour of the straits of Constantinople.—Saloniki, on the Gulf of Saloniki. Varna, on Black Sea; in Bulgaria. Railway connects it with the Danube at Rustchuk.—Galatz, on the Danube ; in Roumania. 154. In Turkey the Government is despotic under a Sultan, the Religion Mahometanism, but the prevailing faith is that of the Greek Church. The other States are Limited Monarchies. 155. There are three towns of above 100,000 inhabitants. CONSTANTINOPLE,with suburbs, above a million; the third city in Europe, with a most mixed population. Capital of the Turkish Empire ; splendid situation, near Where the Straits and the Sea of Marmora unite.——ADRIANOPLE till 1453 A.D. the Turkish capital. Bukharest, capital of Roumania, a quarter of a million. Having near 100,000 are J assy and Galatz in Roumania. 48 RUSSIA. GREECE. 156. Greece, including Thessaly, is three times the size of Wales, with 2 million inhabitants. As it consists of a Peninsula and numerous islands, the Greeks are of seafaring habits. The Exports are currants, figs, honey, olive oil, and raw silk. 157. The Government is a Limited Monarchy. The Religion is that of the Greek Church. Greece has four towns of 20,000 inhabitants each, but none very large. Athens, the Capital, on the Peninsula called Attica, 50,000. 158 The IonianIslands oncebelongingtoEnU g.land The driedfr uit calledCui rants are exported largely from them RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 159. Russia, seventeen times as large as the United Kingdom, comprises more than half Europe. The POPULATION is now 85 millions; including Asia 100 millions, or twice that of Germany. Within a century Russia has largely increased. In the south, provinces have been taken from Turkey , in the west, from Poland; and in the north— west, Finland has been wrested from Sweden. 160. Russia. forms the greater part of the Great Plain of Europe. Except in the Crimea, and in the Our al Mountains and Mount Caucasus, which sepa- rate it from Asia, it has no hill of the height of 1, 500 feet There 1s, however, great difference between the flat, dry, sandy plains of the south—east, with their small salt lakes, and the flat, swampy region of the north-west, with its vast, dreary fresh-water lakes. 161. Russia is rich in natural productions. Its forests, which cover one-third of the empire, supply , timber,while its mines give iron and copper, and, from the Asiatic provinces in addition, gold, silver, and pla~ ' tinum. The rearing of cattle and sheep on the Steppes RUSSIA. 49 (91) of the south is largely carried on, and the rearing of bees in various parts. Hemp and flax are cultivated, but by far the most important agricultural produce is corn, grown ’ on the rich soil of the south and centre (91). 162, By means of its rivers and their numerous tributaries communication is easy with most parts of the empire. The commerce is largely carried on at fairs. At N ishni Novgorod, on the Volga, Where its great tributary the Oka joins it, the largest of these fairs is held. At this fair more than half a million persons, from all parts of Europe and Asia, assemble ; with all kinds of goods, from the manufactured goods of England to the teas of China. The EXPORTS are corn, tallow, timber, flax and linseed, hemp and its manufactured produce, canvas and cordage. The Ports are—- On the Baltic Petersburg‘, Riga. Black Sea Odessa. White Sea Archangel. Caspian Astrakhan. Two centuries ago Russia had no sea-port but Archangel, and that was frozen in for half the year. The Naval Ports are— Cronstadt, in the Baltic; and Sevastopol, in the Black Sea, taken by the English and French in 1855, after a year’ s siege, .ud now ydismantgled 163. The Government 1s an Absolute Monarchy, under a Czar or Emperor. Till recently the mass of the people had no per- sonal liberty, being serfs or slaves, the property of their owners. They were freed by the late Emperor. The Religion is that of the Greek Church. The Poles are Roman Catholics ; the Finlanders, Lutherans. 164. Russia has about 40 towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants, 9 having above 100,000. Petersburg, the Capital, 850,000 Moscow, the old capital, 750,000. Odessa, 200,000 Warsaw, the capital of Poland, 380,000. Riga, 170,000. D 50 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 165. Norway is the same size as the United Kingdom; Sweden half as large again, and so the whole Scandinavian Peninsula is 2% times as large. The Population of Norway is near 1% millions, or a little more than that of Wales; of Sweden, 4% millions, or a little more than that of Scotland. N 0 other country of Europe is so thinly peopled as these. On a square mile there are little more than 20 people, while in England there are above 400; or in England, on the same space, near 20 times more people live than in Norway and Sweden. 166. The coast of Norway is pierced by deep, narrow inlets, called Fiords. The Maelstrom, among the isles of the far north, is one of the most dangerous Whirlpools known (S. G., 643). Norway is very mountainous; Sweden less so. The Forests; the Fisheries, particularly of the herring; and the Mines, especially of most excel- lent iron, constitute the wealth of the people. In the Northern part, called Lapland, the rein- deer is the most useful domestic animal, being a beast of draught, and supplying milk, flesh, and clothing to the inhabitants. Dogs are also used as beasts of draught. ‘ 167. Norway does not grow corn enough for itself ; while Sweden exports oats to England. There are only rude home manufactures. Manu- factured goods are therefore imported. The EXPORTS are timber, pitch, tar, iron, oats, salt-fish. Sweden, like Holland, builds many ships for foreigners. Norway, for her size, has more fishing and trading vessels than any other country. The Ports are— In Sweden—Stockholm, built in part on islands, and so called the Venice of the north: Gottenburg. NavaZ'Port, Carlscrona. In Norway—Christiania. Bergen. DENMARK. 51 168. The Government is a Limited Monarchy. The Legislative Chambers are called the Diet in Sweden, and the Storthing in Norway. The Religion is Lutheranism. 169. There are seven towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants, but only two having above 100,000:— Stockholm, the Capital of Sweden, 170,000. Christiania, the Capital of Norway, 120,000. DENMARK. \ 170. Denmark is about half the size of Ireland. Its POPULATION is 2 millions, or about one—half that of Scotland. 171. Denmark consists of the north of Jutland and some Islands, the chief, Zealand, separated from Sweden by the Sound; Funen, separated from Zealand by the Great Belt, and from the Peninsula by the Little Belt ; and Bornholm, in the Baltic Sea. Denmark contrasts strongly with Norway. It is lfiat, destitute of forest, and its shore much resembles that of Holland and north Germany, being low and skirted by sand-hills, through which the sea occa- sionally bursts (S. G., 621). 172. The Danes are agricultural and commercial ; their pastures enable them to rear cattle, and make much butter and cheese, which, with salt and dried meats, hides and corn, form the chief Exports. . Iceland and part of Greenland are Foreign Possessions. The chief Port is Copenhagen. 173. The Government is a Limited Monarchy, and the Religion Lutheranism. Denmark, like Sweden, has a considerable navy. _ It has only one town of more than 20,000 in— “ habltants, and that has near 300,000. ‘ Copenhagen, the Capital, in Zealand, 270,000. D2 52 ASIA. 174. The chief countries of Asia. are—- Asiatic Russia Beloochistan; cap. Kelat Asiatic Turkey Hindostan; capital, Arabia Calcutta Persia; capital, Teheran Further India ., Turkestan China; capital, Pekin Afghanistan; cap. Cabul .Tapan ; capitaI Tokiyo. 175. Asia contains 17% million square miles, or one-third part of all the land of the globe. 176. On all sides but a part of the west, Asia is washed by the sea. On its Northern shore lies the Arctic Ocean, little known, and unfitted for com- merce. On its Eas tern shore lies the Pacific Ocean, con- nected with which are the Sea of Kamtschatka, the Sea of Okhotsk, the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea, the China Sea, and the Gulf of Siam. On its Southern shore lies the Indian Ocean, con- nected with which are the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea. On its Western side, where not joined to Europe, lie the part of the Mediterranean Sea called the Levant (S.G., 699), the Archipelago, and the Black Sea. 177. The chief STRAITS are— Behring’s Straits, separating the nearest points of Asia and America, and uniting the Arctic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. The Straits of Formosa, separating Formosa from the main- land of China, and uniting the China Sea and the Yellow Sea. The Straits of Malacca, separating Sumatra from the Penin- sula of Malacca, and uniting the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Palk’s Straits, separating Ceylon from the mainland of Hin- dOostan, and uniting the Bay of Bengal and the open Indian ‘ eean. ‘ The Straits of Ormus, the entrance to the Persian Gulf, Which a it unites With the Arabian Sea. ‘ j The Straits of Babel-Mandel), the entrance to the Red Sea, which it unites with the Arabian Sea. The Dardanelles and the Straits of Constantinople (83). . «was ASIA. 53 178. At the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, Asia is only 20 miles from the nearest point of Africa ; and at Behring’s Straits only 86 from that of America. 179. The chief CAPES are—— i ‘ North-East Cape, the most northern point of Siberia and of Asia. ». page ' Cape Romania, the most southern point of Malacca and of Asia. East Cape, the most eastern point of Siberia and of Asia. Cape Lopatka, the most southern point of Kamtschatka. Cape Comorin, the most southern pomt of Hindostan. R43 al Had, the most eastern point of Arabia. 180. The chief ISLANDS are—— Saghalian, Japan Islands, Formosa, and Hainan, in the Pacific Ocean. Ceylon, in the Indian Ocean. Cyprus, in the Levant. 181. The chief Ranges of MOUNTAINS are—- The Himalaya in the north of Hindostan, the loftiest mountains in the world, of which Mount Everest is 29,000 feet, or 5% miles high. The Altai, in the South of Siberia. Between the Himalaya and the Altai is the high central Table Land of Asia, which has The Belur Tagh on the western side, and is crossed by the lofty ranges— The Thian Shan—and—Quan Lung. In the western part of Asia are— The Mountains of Armenia, the highest of which, Ararat, is 17,000 feet high. Mount Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian Seas. Mount Taurus, in Asia Minor; Lebanon, in Syria—both in Turkey in Asia. Mount Elbourz, in the north of Persia and to the south of the Caspian Sea. The Hindoo Koosh which connects the moun- tains of Persia with the Himalaya (S. 0., 703). 54 ASIA. 182. VOLCANOES are numerous in Kamtschatka, Japan, and the intervening islands. EARTHQUAKES occur in Japan, China, Hindostan, and Turkey, destroying sometimes thousands of people. 188. The largest PLAIN is that in the north, called the Plain of Siberia and Tartary, the greater part barren, having dry, treeless Steppes in the south-west (91), and swamps or frozen deserts in the north. 184. The chief RIVERS of Asia are— In Siberia— The Obi runs into the Arctic Ocean Chief tributary, the lrtish Yenisei Arctic Ocean Lena Arctic Ocean In the Chinese Empire— The Amoor, or Saghalien . Sea of Okhotsk Hoang H0 Yellow Sea Yang—tse-Kiang Yellow Sea Si Kiang, or Canton Rl\ er China Sea In Further India—— The Cambodia China Sea Irrawady Bay of Bengal Burrampo .ter Bay of Bengal In Hindostan— The Ganges, chief tributary, the Jumna Bay of Bengal Indus Arabian Sea In Tan/rec —— p The Euphrates Gulf of Persia Tigris Gulf of Persia Not flowing into any Ocean— In Tartan/— The Amoo, or J ihoon : ancient name, Oxus Sea of Aral Syr, or Sihoon: ancient name, J axartes Sea of Aral Oural Caspian Sea In Turkey— The Jordan Dead Sea The first six of the above rivers have each a length exceeding 3,000 miles. The Yenisei is the longest river of Asia and of the Old Continent. w; a ASIA. 55 185. The largest LAKE of Asia and of the world is the Caspian Sea, which is as large as all the British Islands, or 120,000 square miles. Its waters are ‘ salt, and nearly 120 feet lower than the Black Sea. The next in size is the Sea of Aral, also salt. The largest fresh-water Lake of Asia is Lake Baikal, in Siberia. 186. Asia has, in different parts, all varieties of CLIMATE. Its most southern part is within 100 miles of the Equator, and there it is intensely hot. Its most northern part is about 800 miles from the north Pole, and there the cold is so great that the ground is always frozen a few feet below the surface. 187. The SOIL, like the climate of Asia, is very varied. The most fertile countries are China, par— ticularly the Plain of the north—east ; Further India, and Hind0stan, particularly that part watered by the Ganges and its tributaries. In consequence of their fertility, these countries are very populous, having more than one—half of all the population of the globe. The greatest sandy deserts are in Arabia, the plain in the south-east of Turkey, Persia, Beloochistan, the Central Table Land, and Turkestan. The largest desert, called Gobi, or Shamo, has an area of 700,000 square miles, or is larger than France, Austria, Prussia, and the United Kingdom together. The . people of these desert regions are few in number, and of nomadic, that is wandering, habits. They drive their flocks from place to place, in search of herbage. 188. Important Vegetable Prod'uctiOns are the— Tea Tree,a kind of Camellia, found in China, Japan, India. Coffee shrub Arabia, Ceylon. [China Rice (a kind of corn) Hindostan, Further India, Date Palm (8. G., 711) Arabia, Turkey, Persia. Cinnamon Tree, a kind of Laurel Ceylon. _ Bamboo, a kind of grass, growing }Hindostan, Further India, 100 feet high, used in building, 850. China. 56 ASIA. The largest Forests are found on and near the Mountain Ranges in the south of Siberia, in Man- chooria, and in India. The hot and dry countries of the south-west, the cold and dry central countries, and cold, that is north, Siberia, are remarkably destitute of forest trees. 189. The tiger, the elephant, and the rhinoceros live in the forests and jungles of Hindostan and Further India. Of Domestic Animals the OX is used for drawing and carrying burdens, While the horse is used only for riding. The Camel, called on this account theShip of the Desert, conveys goods and passengers across the deserts of the countries of the centre and the south- west (187). When many camels are travelling to- gether they are called a Caravan. The elephant is tamed, and employed in various ways in Hindostan and Further India. The reindeer and the dog are used in the extreme north to draw sledges. 190. All sorts of minerals are found in one part or other of Asia. Diamonds, other precious stones, and gold, in Siberia and Hindostan. Silver, in Siberia, China, and Japan. Tin, in Further India and China. Platina, in Siberia. 191. Asia contains above 800 million inhabitants, or about one-half of the human race (27). 192. Most of the people of Asia are Idolaters; Brahminism being the religion of Hindostan, and Buddhism of Further India, the Chinese Empire, and Japan. The inhabitants of Siberia are Christians, as are also many of those in Turkey. The remain- ing countries, most of the people of Turkey, and many of Hindostan, profess Mahometanism.’ 57 ASIATIC RUSSIA. 198. Asiatic Russia comprises Siberia in the north, and the Caucasian Provinces, lying between the Black and Caspian Seas, and parts of Turkestan lying east of those seas. A Siberia is larger than Europe, and yet contains but a few more people than the city of London. It has numerous animals whose furs are valuable, as the sable and the ermine; its waters abound in fish; and the mines of the Oural and Altai Mountains are among the richest in Asia. Hence the chief employ- ments are hunting, fishing, and mining. There is an overland trade with China for tea, which is obtained in hard masses of the shape of a brick, and is therefore called brick-tea. ASIATIG TURKEY. 191. Turkey in Asia is more than twice as large as France, but contains only half as many inhabit ants. The Population is a very mixed one. In the more desert districts are Nomadic tribes,the Turkmans in Asia Minor, the Bedoueen Arabs in the plains of the Euphrates and Tigris, and the Kurds in the east. 195. The chief Exports are silk, valonia and dried fruits (figs, raisins, almonds), mostly from Smyrna. 196. In the province of Syria is Palestine,formerly the country of the Jews, where Christ was born, lived and died, and where most of the events oc- curred which are narrated in the Bible. 197. Among its interesting cities are Jerusalem, the capital of Palestine, and Damascus, the oldest city in the world, and noted, as it long has been, for its manufacture of fine sword-blades. Here are also the ruins of Nineveh, the capital of the old Assyrian Empire,andBabylon,that of the Babylonian Empire. There are two towns of above 150, 000 inhabitants—— Damascus in Syria. Smyrna, chief Port in Asia Minor. 33 58 ARABIA. 198. Arabia is a country, not a nation. It consists of many independent States. The Sultan of Muscat has possessions on the eastern coast of Africa, and his people are given to commerce. The best coffee is exported from Mocha. The trade between different parts is carried on by caravans (189), which halt at the few wells, with their clumps of date—palms, found in the deserts. Mahometanism had its rise in Arabia, Mahomet having been born at Mecca and buried at Medina. These places, and particularly Mecca, are visited by thousands of Mahometan Pilgrims from Europe and the distant parts of Asia and Africa. 199. ADEN belongs to England. It is important as a coal depét and packet station. The steamers between Bombay and Suez call here. PERSIA. 200. The greater part of Persia is an elevated re- gion, or table-land, having a strip of low land along the Caspian Sea on the north, and another along the Persian Gulf on the south. Here, and in Afghanistan and Beloochistan, a great part of the country is desert, traversed by nomadic tribes. 201. There are 5 million inhabitants, or not one- quarter as many as in England. 202. Silkworms are reared in abundance ; poppies are largely grown for making opium, and rose trees, particularly near Shiraz, for making otto of roses. The chief manufacture is weaving, either silk, car- pets, or stuff, made of goats’ hair or camels’ hair. 203. The sovereign, the Shah, is quite despotic. There are 2 towns of above 100,000 inhabitants~ Teheran, the Capital, 130,000 inhabitants, half deserted in summer. Ispahan, the old Capital, 100,000 inhabitants. '11m 59 AFGHANISTAN AND BELOOCHISTAN. 204. The inhabitants of AFGHANISTAN, called Afghans, and of BELOOCHISTAN, called Beloochees, consist of various tribes, more or less independent. The Ameer or Shah of Cabul asserts some kind of supremacy over the Afghan tribes, and the Khan of Kelat over the Beloochee tribes, but it is little ' more than nominal. TURKE STAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 205. Most of the land is desert. The Tartars generally are of nomadic habits, having large herds of cattle, and particularly of horses. The trade by caravans is considerable, being be- tween Russia on the one side, and China and India on the other, this last being carried on through Cabul. There are numerous tribes, each having its own head, called Khan, or Ameer. Bokhara (100,000 inhabitants) is the largest town. HINDOSTAN. 206. Hindostan is 12 times as large as the United ‘ Kingdom. 207. The Population is 250 millions, or 7 times that of the United Kingdom. In extent, as well as in population, Hindostan is larger than all Europe, if Russia, Norway and Sweden, and Turkey be taken away. It comprises— (1.) British Possessions, near two-thirds of the country. (2.) Tributary States under British influence, about one- third ; the chief being the Nizam’s dominions and Mysore. (3.) Independent States in the north, small and comparatively unimportant; the chief, Cashmere and Nepaul. (4.) Possessions of France and Portugal, very small indeed. The British Possessions—once consisting of 3 Presidencies, Bengal in the north-east, Bombay 1n the west, and Madras in the east, is now d1v1ded into 9 Provinces (S. G. 762). The head of all Indlar . is the VICEROY or GOVERNOR-GENERAL. 60 HINDOSTAN. 208. Rice, the cotton tree, the sugarcane, the jute plant, the poppy (for opium),pepper,andtobacco are largely grown, as is the tea tree in the north and the coffee shrub in Ceylon. In the hot and well-watered countries of Hindostan, Further India, and China, rice is the common food. 209. Weaving, especially of cotton (the common wear), and of shawls, 850. (made of the fine hair of the Cashmere or Tibet goat), is the chief manufacture. Moorshedabad and Dacca are the chief manufac- turing towns for weaving; and Patna for the pre— paration of opium and indigo. The largest pearl-fishery in the world is off the north-west of Ceylon. 210. The Commerce is most important. The ex- ports—as raw cotton, jute (a sort of hemp), wool, and silk ; rice, tea, sugar, indigo, cinnamon,and pearls— come chiefly to England in return for our manufac- tured goods, cotton, woollen, hardware, and ma- chinery. The opium goes to China. 211. A remarkable distribution of the Hindoos is into that of Castes. There are four Castes—( 1) Brahmins, from Whom the Priests are taken ; (2) Soldiers ; (3) Traders and Agriculturists ; (4) Artisans and Labourers. Persons who have lost their Caste are called Pariahs, and are in a state of degradation. But the distinction of Caste is less important than formerly. 212. The Tributary and Independent States are governed by Rajahs, Ameers, &c. In the British Possessions each of the 9 Provinces has, as its head, a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, or Commissioner. There are 8 towns of more than 200,000 inhabitants. Calcutta, capital, on the mouth of the Ganges 1,000,000 Madras, on the Coromandel coast 400,000 Bombay, on an island 800.000 Lucknow, capital of Oude 300,000 Patna, on the Ganges 300.000 Delhi, old capital of India, on the J umna 200,000 Hydrabad, capital of Nizam’s dominions 200,000 Benares, on the Ganges 200,000 61 FURTHER INDIA. 213. Further India consists of several independent States. Ranges of mountains run from north to south, between which flow large rivers, which flood periodically much of the country. It has vast-forests. Among the exports are raw cotton,tea,guttapercha, and fancy woods, as sandal-wood, eagle-wood, &c. 214. The Malays, who inhabit the peninsula of Malacca, are good sailors, but addicted to piracy. 215. The British Possessions are Assam, in the north-west, in which tea is now grown; two long, narrow tracts on the western coast; and Malacca and Singapore, this last having a very great trade. The French possess Lower Cochin China, in the south-east. CHINA. 216. China is the size of Hindostan, or one—third of Europe. With its Dependencies Corea, Manchooria, Mongolia,and Tibet,itis half as large again asEurope. Its Population is 400 millions, or near one-fourth of the whole human race. 217. The Chinese are an agricultural, not, like their dependent States, a pastoral people. Rice, the tea tree, and the mulberry tree, are largely grown. Owing to the dense population, every available spot is cultivated, and there are few domestic animals, man doing what in other parts is done by beasts. 218. The overland trade is considerable (193). The commerce by sea, by the Chinese themselves, in their junks, is confined to the neighbouring islands and countries, and is greatest with Japan. The foreign trade is mostly in the hands of the English and Americans. The chief exports are tea and raw silk; and the imports, opium, raw cotton, and cotton and woollen goods. Twice as much tea is brought to England as to all other countries; Shanghae and Canton are principal ports. 62 JAPAN. 219. The Emperor is despotic. The officers of state are called Mandarins. 220. Rice is the common food; tea the common drink. Little flesh is to be had. Pork is much liked; and the poor do not refuse dogs, rats, and mice. The nest of a kind of swallow is used in making soup. The immense rivers supply large quantities of fish, which support many Chinese, who have no home except on their waters. The hands of men of rank are disfigured by allowing the nails to grow till they look like claws or the talons of a bird; the feet of ladies, by cramping them, so that they only grow three or four inches long. The Great Canal is 700 miles long, and is used for internal trade, irrigation, and draining. The Great Wall, built to keep out invaders from the north, is 1,500 miles long, and passes over hill and dale. 221. China has manyverylarge towns. Pekin, the Capital, the third largest city in the world, contains 1% million inhabitants. N ankin, the old Capital, is much decayed; but Canton has near a million, and five other towns have near half a million each. 222. HONG KONG, a small island at the entrance of the Canton River, belongs to the English. JAPAN. 228. Japan consists of several islands, one of which, Niphon, is larger than Great Britain. The Population is about that of the United Kingdom. \ The Japanese resemble the Chinese : they had a great dislike to foreigners, and a most restricted com- merce with only the Dutch and the Chinese. But since the trade was thrown open, they have adopted European improvements, and seem to be making , national progress. Their agriculture is flourishing; and they are ingenious in their manufactures. ‘ J eddo, now Tokiyo, the Capital, has a million inhabitants. mm‘r't " “7 ' 63 AFRICA. 224. The chief countries of Africa are-— Egypt; capital, Cairo Senegambia Nubia. Guinea Abyssinia Soudan Cape Colony. The States of Barbary— . . Morocco Algeria Tunis Tripoli. 225. Africa contains 12 million square miles, or is three times the size of Europe. 226. Africa is joined to Asia by the Isthmus of Suez, which is 75 miles across. Except at this part it is washed by the sea on every side. ' On its Northern shore lies the Mediterranean. On its Western shore lies the Atlantic Ocean, connected with which is the Gulf of Guinea. On its Eastern shore lies the Indian Ocean, connected with which are the Red Sea and Mozambique Channel. Though almost an island, Africa has but little coast, the sea in no part running far into the land. 227. The chief STRAITS are 7—- . The Straits of Gibraltar and the Straits of Bab- el-Mandeb (146, 178). 228 . The chief CAPES are— Cape Verd, the most western point of Africa. The Cape of Good Hope. Cape Agulhas, the most southern point of Africa. Cape Guardafui, the most eastern point of Africa. Cape Amber, the most northern point of Madagascar. Cape St. Mary, the most southern point of Madagascar. 229. The chief ISLANDS are— Madagascar,——next to Borneo, the largest island in the world. Socotra. \ Mauritius, belonging to England; sugar and coffee are extensively grown. Its capital is Port Louis. 64 AFRICA. Bourbon, belonging to France. The above islands are in the Indian Ocean. St .Helena, belonging to England; celebrated as the abode of Napoleon from 1815 to his death, in 1821. The Madeiras, and the Cape Verd Islands,belOng- ing to Portugal. Salt is obtained in abundance from Cape Verd Islands, as wine was from the Madeiras. The Canaries, belonging to Spain. The largest is Teneriffe, containing the volcanic mountain called the Peak of Teneriffe, above 12,000 feet high. The above islands are in the Atlantic Ocean. 230. The chief Ranges of MOUNTAINS are—— The Mountains of Abyssinia, 15,000 feet; as high as Mont Blanc, the highest mountain in Europe. Mount Atlas, in the Barbary States. Mountains of Kong, to the North of Guinea. Mountains of Cape Colony, 10,000 feet high. Mountains of Lupata, not far from the eastern coast, having Mount Kilimanjaro, 20,000 feet high. The interior of a great part of North Africa is a sandy or stony plain, the Great Desert; the interior of Southern Africa appears to be a vast, gentle nollow, lying between ranges of mountains about 5,000 feet high, not far from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. 231. The chief RIVERS are— The Nile running into the Mediterranean Sea. Senegal ,, North Atlantic Ocean. Gambia ,, North Atlantic Ocean. Niger, upper part called Gulf of Guinea. J oliba; lower, Quorra ,, Zaire, or Congo, now called the Livingstone ,, South Atlantic Ocean.‘ Gareep, or Orange River ,. South Atlantic Ocean. Zambesi Indian Ocean. The Nile is 8,000 miles in length; the Niger above ’ 2,000. Like other tropical rivers, but in a remarkable degree, the Nile overflows its banks. The water of the river begins to rise about Midsummer, is atits rim r 71-; AFRICA. 65 greatest height about Michaelmas, and has retired from the land about Christmas. If the height of the rise is less than about 40 feet, the country is not flooded, the canals used for irrigation are not filled, and there is consequently a deficient harvest. In the Zambesi are the wonderful Victoria Falls, where the river, near three quarters of a mile wide, rushes down 100 feet with thundering noise, and from which rises the mist, called the “ smoke that sounds.” 232. The chief LAKES are— Lake Tchad, quite in the interior Lake Tanganyika ~ L. Albert-Nyanza 1waters carried Lake Marav1, or Nyassa ‘ , L. Victoria-Nyanza) off by the Nile 233. The greater part of Africa is within the tropics; 1' 4 it is therefore very hot, and away from its rivers or the sea it is also very dry. In the Great Desert, ' - in Egypt, and Nubia, either no rain falls, or only from two to five daysin the year. In other parts, as Guinea and Senegambia, the rain descends in torrents during the Rainy Season, which lasts several weeks. 234. A great part of North Africa is barren. It con- tains the greatest Desert in the world, called Sahara, about two-thirds as large as Europe. The surface is sand, gravel, and rock, with some fertile spots, called Oases, at great distances apart, where there are wells and a few date trees. This desert can be crossed only by means of the camel, which is called the Ship of the Desert. There are sometimes several thousand camels and 500 persons in one company, or Caravan. Travellers are in danger of being sufiocated by the poisonous wind called the Simoom ; or of being smothered under a heap of sand which the Violent winds raise; or of being robbed by the wild tribes living on the borders of the Desert. South Africa, far from being a desert, has one of the largest rivers in the world, the Congo, and its lakes ' come only after Lake Superior and her sister lakes , (272). 66 AFRICA. In the northern half of Africa, as in the south- western countries of Asia, it may be said that “the camel is man’s daily companion, and the culture of the date tree his chief occupation.” In the neighbourhood of the rivers Africa is re- markably fertile, the heat and moisture giving a most luxuriant vegetation. Thus Soudan, and south of it to the Kalahari Desert, near the Tropic of Capricorn, with the countries around the Gulf of Guinea, are generally fertile ; and here are the largest forests. 285. Africa has many kinds of wild, thick-skinned animals, as the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippo- potamus, and the zebra; and also of four-handed animals, as the chimpanzee and gorilla, the most like man, and also the ugliest baboons. It is, too, the home of the lion, the King of Beasts, the jackal, the . hyena, and other beasts of prey, which find food easily among the herds of antelopes, wild oxen, and other ruminating animals. The tall and elegant. giraffe is found only in Africa. The ostrich, called the “ feathered camel,” is the most remarkable bird, and the crocodile the most remarkable reptile. 236. Africa is not rich in minerals. Gold—dust is got from the river-sands of Guinea, diamonds from the S., and salt abounds in the Great Desert. 237. The population is uncertain; but there are above 100 millions, mostly of the Negro race. 238. Throughout a great part of the continent the lowest kind of Idolatry, Fetishz'sm, prevails ; any object being selected, called a god, and worshipped as such. Mahomemm‘sm is the religion of the Bar- bary States, Egypt, Nubia, and the Arabs of the Desert, and is spreading among the N egroes. Christianity is professed in the European Settle- ments, and, in a very corrupted state, also in Abys- sinia. Slavery and the Slave Trade prevail through- out Africa, wars being made merely to take men. EGYPT AND NUBIA. 67 EGYPT AND NUBIA. 239. Owing to the overflowing of the Nile, parts of Egypt are most fertile, producing wheat, rice, cotton, and sugar in abundance. These fertile parts are (1) the Delta in Lower Egypt, the triangle formed by the coast and the two outermost mouths of the river ; (2) the strip of land along the Nile,averaging 6 to 8 miles on each side ; (8) some Cases (234). Upper Nubia is also productive. But the greater part of both countries, and particularly of Nubia, is mere desert. 240. The trade is considerable; that with other countries, by land, is carried on by caravans (284). Besides her agricultural produce, Egypt exports, by sea, ivory and ostrich-feathers, obtained from the interior in exchange for European goods. The chief Ports are— Alexandria, on the Mediterra- nean ; Suez, on the Red Sea. 241. The OVERLAND Route to India is through - Egypt. Passengers land at Alexandria, go by rail- way to Cairo, from Cairo to Suez, where they again take the steamer for India. By the SUEZ CANAL large vessels can pass from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, or the reverse. So there is no change between England and India for passengers or goods. Port Said is at the N. entrance. 242. Egypt is a part of the Turkish Empire ; but the Khedive, whosepower is hereditary, is all but independent, and entirely despotic. But the in- fluence of England is now paramount. Nubia, and some Negro States, called Egyptian Send an, were annexed to Egypt by conquest. 243. The population is near 7 millions. Pyramids, sphinxes, and the ruins of vast temples, are the great artlficial wonders of Egypt and Nubia, ——the cataracts of the Nile the natural ones. Cairo, the Capital on the Nile, the largest Cit of Africa 1 ' 800,000 inhabitants.’ Alexandria,rapid1y increasing, has aboveaSOSPOOO‘if ' Massacre of Europeans 1882; afterwards taken by the English. 68 ABYSSINIA. 244. Abyssinia is a perfect contrast to Egypt and Nubia, being very mountainous, and torrents of rain descending during the summer months. It has about the same population as these countries, but with much more fertile land. The coffee shrub grows wild. It is nominally under one king, but there are several independent Chiefs. Neighbouring Negro tribes make frequent and destructive incursions. THE BARBARY STATES. 245. The portion of Africa north of the Great Desert is called Barbary. It consists of four States, independent of each other. The date, the fruit of the date-palm, grows everywhere, but is particularly fine in the district south of the Atlas Mountains, where Tafilet is situated. The Barbary horses are of great spirit and beauty. The people, once addicted to piracy, sold the Chris- ' tians whom they captured as slaves. The trade is considerable. At Mourzouk, the Capital of Fezzan, meet the Caravans to and from various parts of North Africa. 246. MOROCCO is governed by an Emperor, who is despotic. The population is 8 millions. Morocco is the Capital, but Fez, the largest town, has 100,000 in— habitants, with amanufacture of red morocco leather 247. ALGERIA belongs to France. Algiers, its Capital, was bombarded by the English, in 1817, for pliacy, and all the Christian slaves set at liberty. The French took possession of it in 1830. 248. TUNIS is now a French Protectorate. The Capital, Tunis, is a manufacturing and commercial town, the largest in Barbary, having above 100,000 inhabitants. It is designated “Tunis the Wealthy.” 249. TRIPOLI, with FEZZAN to the south of it, and BARCA to the east, is governed by a Pacha. It nominally belongs to Turkey (151). 69 SENEGAMBIA AND GUINEA. 250. The countries lying around the Gulf of Guinea are called Senegambia and Guinea. The region, however, contains many independent States. 251. The English have the Colony of Sierra Leone, where negroes, captured from slave vessels, are set at liberty. The Americans founded Liberia (now independent), for slaves who have become free. The French have some possessions in Senegambia, and the Portuguese in Lower Guinea. The chiefs of some of these States are the cruellest tyrants on the face of the earth. (S. G., 842). 252. The trade mostly carried on by the English is considerable, and increasing. The EXPORTS are gold, ivory, gum arabic, palm oil, extracted from the nuts of a palm tree, and ostrich feathers, which are ex- changed for cotton goods, firearms, and gunpowder. SOUDAN. 253. Soudan, called also Nigritia, or Negroland, consists of several States of Central Africa, between Senegambia and Nubia. They are generally fertile. The eastern part now belongs to Egypt. The Niger and its tributaries, and Lake Tchad, are in Soudan. The people are less rude, and the governors less despotic, than those of Guinea. Slavery, the slave trade, and slave capturing, however, prevail. There is considerable trade between the various States, and with the North of Africa, by means of caravans, of which trade Kanoo is the centre. Some caravans, from the desert to Soudan, bring only salt. The chief TOWNS are— YAKOBA, the largesttown of Africa, after those of Egypt, with near 150,000 inhabitants; SACKATOO, TIMBUC‘TOO, K0UKA,and KANOO. 70 SOUTH AFRICA. 254. Till recently, the interior of Africa, from Sou- dan to Cape Colony, was wholly unknown. But Dr, Livingstone spent some years in traversing the coun— try between Lower Guinea, the mouths of the Zam- besi, and Cape Colony, and has found it to be not a desert like North Africa, but, on the whole, a fertile, well-watered, and well-wooded country, abounding in Wild animals, as the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, antelope, hippopotamus, &c,, and inhabited by rude but not ill disposed tribes of negroes, who seem anxious ‘ to barter their ivory for English calico and gunpowder. ’ 255. EAST COAST.—-In the country north of the river Zambesi, along the Eastern Coast, the Portu- guese have some influence, and a few settlements of little importance. Further north, the native tribes are in partial subjection to the Sultan of Zanzibar (198). CAPE COLONY. 256. Cape Colony, so called from the Cape of Good Hope, has about % of a million inhabitants, who are English, Dutch—the original founders of the Colony —Caffres in the east, and Hottentots in the north. 257. Agriculture, especially the rearing of cattle, sheep, and ostriches, is the chief employment ,- the exports are wheat, wool, wine, provisions. feathers. 258. CAPE TOWN, on Table Bay, is the Capital, a place of importance, as European vessels, to or from the East Indies and Australia, put in to refit, and obtain fresh supplies of water, meat, and other stores. 259. On the Indian Ocean, 1,000 miles from Cape Town, is the thriving colony, Cape Natal, founded by the Dutch, called Boors, from Cape Colony. North of Natal are the Transvaal and Zululand. The Orange Free State lies between Cape Colony and the Transvaal, and is independent. AMERICA. ‘ 71 260. America consists of two parts, North America. and South America, which are joined together by the Isthmus of Panama or Darien. 261. The chief countries in America are— In North America. In South America, continued. Danish America Bolivia, cap. Chuquisaca "5 British Possessions Chili, capital Santiago E“ United States, capital Patagonia :’ . Washington Argentine Republic (United Mexico, capital Mexico Provinces of La Plata), Central America capital Buenos Ayres Uruguay, capital Monte In South America. Video Colombia,cap. Bogota Paraguay,cap. Assumption ” *’ Venezuela,cp.Caraccas Brazil, capital Bio Janeiro Equador, capital Quito Guiana Peru, capital Lima West Indies 262. America contains 15 million square miles, or more than one quarter of all the land on the globe. 263. Like the Old Continent, it is on all sides washed by the sea. On its Eastern shore lies the Atlantic Ocean, connected with which are Baffin’s Bay, Hudson’s Bay, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the ‘ Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. _ On its Western shore lies the Pacific Ocean, con- nected with which are the Gulf of California and the Sea of Kamtschatka. On its Northern shore lies the Arctic Ocean. 264. The chief STRAITS are—— Davis Strait, uniting Baflin’s Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Hudson’s Strait,uniting Hudson’s Bay and the Atlantic. ~ The Straits of Magellan, separating the island of Tierra del T'j Fuego. from the mainland of South America, and uniting the .3: fAtlantic and Pacific Oceans. Behring’s Straits, separating the nearest points of Asia. and ‘gAmerica, and uniting the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. 72 AMERICA. 265. The chief CAPEs are— Cape Farewell, the southernmost point of Greenland. Cape Race, the south-eastern point of Newfoundland. Cape Sable, the southern point of Nova Scotia. Cape God, on the eastern coast of the United States. Cape Horn, on an island in the extreme south. Cape St. Lucas, the southern point of California. I’oint Barrow, the most northern point of the continent. Cape Froward, the most southern point of the continent. Cape Branco, the most eastern point of America. Cape Prince of Wales, the most western point of America. 266. The chief ISLANDS are Newfoundland and Cape BretonIsle, at the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The West Indian Islands—the largest, Cuba, Hayti or St. Domingo, Jamaica, Porto Rico, and Trinidad. Falkland Isles, in the open Atlantic Ocean. Tierra del Fuego, in the Antarctic Ocean. Vancouver Island and the Aleutian Isles, in the Pacific Ocean. . Greenland, Iceland, Cockburn Land, North Devon and Melville Island, in the Arctic Ocean. 267. The great MOUNTAIN REGION lies in the west. The great range runs from the extreme south of Seuth America to the extreme north of North America, generally not far from the Pacific. It is called the Andes in South America, of which Mount Sorata is above 25,000 ft.,or near 5 miles high, and Ohimborazo, above 21,000 feet. In North America it is called throughout its greatest length the Rocky or Stony Mountains. But the highest mountain is in a range nearer the sea, called the Maritime Range. It is named Mount St. Elias, and is 18,000 ft., or near 3% miles high. It is a Volcano. 268. In the eastern part are mountains of much less elevation; as those of Guiana and Brazil in South America, 8,000 ft.high,and the Alleghanies, or Apalachian mountains,in N. America, 6,000 ft. high. AMERICA. '73 269. There are numerous and terrible VOLCANOES, mostly in the great western mountain range. The highest in the world are Antisana and Cotoani, which belch out fire, ashes, and molten matter, at a height nearly 4 miles above the level of the sea. Earthquakes are frequent and most destructive in the countries of South America in and west of the Andes, and in those lying to the south and to the west of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. To guard against the effects of the shocks, the buildings are generally low, and the walls made very thick. Many towns, notwithstanding, have been again and again destroyed. (S. G., 861.) 270. Between the very high mountains of the , west and the lesser heights of the east, lie the great PLAINS, named from the Rivers which drain them. They are the Mackenzie Plain and the Mississippi Plain, in North America, and the Amazon Plain and the La Plata Plain, in South America. Smaller Plains, or parts of these Plains, have different names in different parts ; as Selvas, or woods, in ‘the Plain of the Amazon ; Pampas, meaning dry, tree- less plains, in the south of South America; Llanos, ‘meaning lev el tracts, in the north of South America; Savannahs, meaning sheets, and Prairiesmneaning meadows, 1n North Amer ica. l- 1 271. The chief RIVERS are—- In North America— In South America— RIVER 7 OUTLET. RIVER. OUTLET. Mackenzie Arctic Ocean Orinoco Atlantic Ocean :.St Lawrence Atlantic Ocean Amazon Mississi 1 Negro . Mssofiifi Madeira } Atlantic Ocean Arkansas - Tocantin Red River Gulf of Memco La'PP 1a ta } , Ohio arana , Rio del Norte Uruguay Atlantic Ocean 1 Columbia. Pacific Ocean Paraguay A E (- 74 AMERICA. America has the largest rivers in the world. The Amazon is near 5,000 miles in length, and the MlS' sissippi near 4,500. Those rivers which have no Del- tas (the Amazon, the St. Lawrence, andthe La Plata) carry an immense body of fresh water into the Ocean by means of their wide mouths, and up these, on the other hand, the tide rushes far into the continent. 272. The largest LAKES are Lake Superior, Lake Huron, and Lake Michigan, forming together the greatest fresh-water Lake in the world ; Lake Erie and Lake Ont ario, between which are the well-known falls of Niagara (S. G., 865, note) ; Lake Winnipeg, whose waters are carried off by the River Nelson; andthe Great Slave Lake, whose waters, and those of l many other lakes, are carried off by the Mackenzie. . The water of all the above lakes, except the two : last, are carried off by the River St. Lawrence. . River and Lakes together have been supposed to : contain “ more than half of all the fresh water on i this planet.” (8. G., 863, note.) South America is singularly destitute of Lakes, :1 while North America contains a greater number andi of larger size than any other part of the world. 273. As America stretches from the Equator to the E Polar Region, it has every variety of CLIMATE. Thee northern part of the west coast of North America has 5 a climate which resembles that of Western Europe». But generally the temperature of America is lowerI than that of countries similarly situated in the Oldd World. In the countries west of the great mountain range,a, and near the Tropics (as California, the western part. of Mexico, and Peru), rain hardly ever falls. In the countries within the tropics there are the Dry Season,1 when no rain falls, and the Wet Season, just at the. height of the summer of the place, when the rain de-a Scends in torrents such as we never have in Europee AMERICA. 75 274.. The SOIL is very various. That of the north- ern part of North America is a frozen waste, not admitting of cultivation; nor does the extreme south of South America, owing to the climate and the sandy soil. But there is no portion of the world, of so great extent, so fertile as the Plain of the Amazon. The Plain of the Mississippi is also very productive. 275. In South America, in the Plain of the Amazon, is the largest forest in the world, being larger than all European Russia. It is called the Selva, which means Forest. In Canada and the neighbouring British Possessions there are, too, extensive forests. But there is a want of trees in the frozen north, in the dry, treeless plains of South America (called the Pampas), and inthe fertile, treeless plains of North America (called the Prairies). 276. Remarkable VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS, natives of America, are -~ ' Plant. Locality. Mahogany tree} Central America and West Logwood tree Indies India Rubber tree Brazil Sugar Maple United States and Canada Cocoa-nut and other Palms Tropical Countries Potato Mexico Tobacco Warm parts Maize ,, l Chocolate tree Tropical parts Cotton tree United States and Brazil Allsp ice West Indies Rhododendron, Magnolia, Fuchsia, Passion Flower, &c. The following plants have been introduced into America,but are now most extensively cultivated:— , ‘2 5% ;; 7:. . ,i' s. . Plant. Where cultivated. W'heat, other European grains Various parts Rice United States, other warm parts Sugar-cane Tropical parts Coffee shrub Breadfruit West Indies E2 . ,w . fig 76 : AMERICA. 277. Among the wild ANIMALS are the jaguar (a kind of leopard) and the puma (a small kind of lion) in South America, the llama in the Andes, the grisly bear and the beaver in North America, the alligator . in the tropical rivers, the boa constrictor (the largest serpent), and the condor (the largest vulture). Innumerable monkeys leap about in the forests of South and Central America. In the extreme north is found the Polar bear, as are also those useful dogs which the Esquimaux employ to draw their sledges. The domestic animals of America have been intro- duced from Europe. The descendants of the oxen ‘ and horses brought over by the Spaniards near four centuries ago are now found wild in countless num- bers in the plains of South America. The wild ox that was in America before Europeans discovered it is called the bison, which still roams over the plains of North America in immense herds. The bison has never been domesticated. (8’. Cu, 868.) 278. America is rich in MINERALS, especially the precious metals. The countries along and on both v sides of the great mountain range, from Mexico to Canada, both inclusive, are the richest in mineral wealth. Mineral. Where found. Diamond, other precious stones Brazil Gold California, British Columbia, Peru, New Granada, Brazil Silver Mexico, the United States Copper Chili, Peru, Cuba 279. America contains above 100 million inhabit— ' ants, of whom more than half are of European 1 descent and of the Christian religion. The remain- ing people are Negroes, many of whom profess ; Christianity; and the copper-coloured Indians, who are generally idolaters. The Indians were the original inhabitants of Ame- rica. The Negroes were brought from Africa as slaves. __- ‘ ’ VFW"??? “w. 77 DANISH AMERICA. 280. The north-eastern part of America, consist ing of Greenland and Iceland, belongs to Denmark. Greenland is a most dismal region of ice and -’ fogs; It contains, nevertheless, Uppernavik, a village the nearest to the Pole, being about 1,200 miles from it. As in British America, a few Esqui- , maux roam along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean. .5 E :_ ;’ 281. Iceland is an interesting island, on account of its natural wonders, and the character of its contented and intelligent people. It contains many volcanoes, of which Hecla is the best known. In it are also the Geysers, or Boiling Springs, the largest of which throws up, at intervals, a column of boiling water 18 feet in diameter, to a height of 200 feet. Iceland was peopled from Norway in the ninth century. It was the seat of learning, when the contests were going on in England between the Saxons and the Danes and Normans. Though larger than Ireland, it has now not 50,QOO people. BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 282. Exclusive of the West Indies, British North America, which is washed by three oceans,-——the Atlantic on the east, the Pacific on the west, and the Arctic on the north,——consists of— Prom'nce. Capital. Canada Ottawa Upper Canada, lying to the north of the Great Lakes, now called Ontario Toronto Lower Canada, lying on each side of the St. Lawrence, now called Quebec Quebec New Brunswick, on the shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence Fredericton 78 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Province. Capital. Nova Scotia (a Peninsula), and Cape Breton Island Halifax Prince Edward Island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence Charlotte Town Manitoba, once called Red River, in the Far West British Columbia New Westminster Vancouver Island Victoria HudsonBayCompany’sTerritory Newfoundland St. John’s 283. All the above colonies, with the exception Of Newfoundland, have been formed into one State called the DOMINION of Canada. The Government consists of the Governor-General, appointed by the Queen, a Senate,and a House of Commons. Ottawa is the Capital. TheGovernor of Canada is styledGovernor- General. The number of inhabitants is about 5 millions, or nearly that of Ireland. 284. Newfoundland is often misty, and has a some- what ungenial climate. The other colonies are salu- brious. The summers are very hot, and the winters very cold, the snow resting on the ground from four to six months. But as the airis clear and dry, and there is not much wind in the winter, little inconvenience is experienced from the lowness of the temperature. 285. But a small portion is cultivated, a great part being covered with forest. The Hudson Bay Territory, extending to the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, is little more than a vast hunting-ground. There are rich gold-fields in British Columbia. 286. The COMMERCE is very great, between the various colonies themselves, with England and the United States. The exports are the products of the forests, as timber, much the most important, and Err?” “7 w. BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 79 pearlash; of the chase, as the furs of the beaver and marten; of the sea, as salt fish and oil ; of the farm, as horses, cattle, meat, corn, and flour. The imports are iron (pig and manufactured), and woollen ‘ and cotton goods. The cod—fishery of the great Bank of Newfoundland, and of the neighbouring seas, is the most important in the world, employing several thousand vessels. . In each of the natural harbours of Quebec inCanada, Halifax in Nova Scotia, Charlotte Town in Prince Edward Island, hundreds of vessels may ride in safety. The chief trading Ports are—- In Canada—Quebec, Montreal. In New Brunswick—~St. John. In Nova Scotia—Halifax. In Newfoundland—St. John’s. 287. The Government of each colony consists of 3. Governor, appointed by the Queen; a Council, ap- pointed by the Governor, somewhat resembling our House of Peers; and a Legislative Assembly, chosen by the people, and so like our House of Commons. Each Colony or Province manages its own internal affairs. 288. A large portion of the people of Lower Canada are of French origin, and with them the French lan- guage and customs are generally in use. They are also Catholics in Religion, while the other Provinces are Protestants. Canada has belonged to England above a century, Quebec having been taken in 1759, after the victory of General Wolfe. Owing to their fine climate, abundant resources, both of sea and land, and their large and commodious harbours, these magnificent colonies are fast increas- _ ing in wealth and population. There are eight towns having more than 20,000 in- habitants, of which QUEBEC has above 60,000 ; MONTREAL, the largest, above 100,000; Ottawa, the Capital, on the river Ottawa, little above 20,000. 80' THE UNITED STATES. 289. The United States stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and are greater in extent than Russia inEurope,Turkey,and Norway and Sweden,together. The population at Census of 1870 was 39 millions, or somewhat greater than that of the United King- dom. It is now about 50 millions. The Eastern States are the most populous. 290. Mining and Manufactures, though daily in- creasing in importance, employ comparatively few people. Nevertheless, except Australia, California and the other Western States furnish more gold and silver than any other country ; and Pittsburg, on one of the great coalfields, is an important seat of the hardware manufacture, has above 100,000 inhabitants, and is termed the Birmingham of the West. There are considerable cotton and other manufactures in the north-eastern States. 291. But to their Agriculture and Commerce the United States owe their wealth and importance. On its fertile soil are grown maize and wheat, cotton, tobacco, and rice, in great abundance. Cot- ton is grown largely only in the south-eastern States, which produce more than any other country; and of this more than a half is sent to England. Cattle-rearing, dairy-work, and the breeding and curing of pigs are profitable employments. 292. The value of the exports and imports is greater than that of any other country, after England and France; and the number of her own trading Vessels exceeds that of France. The IMPORTS are manufactured goods of various kinds from England, cotton, woollen, linen, iron; silks and wine from France ; and tea. from China. The EXPORTS are chiefly raw cotton and the agri‘ cultural productions named above, especially bread stuffs, 2'. 6., corn and flour, bacon and other provisions. i E .1 “sztgw‘f'f' .fif'vv“j"“7 ' “‘7' " ' i < i . ‘, THE UNITED STATES. 81 The trade between England and the United States is greater than that between any other two countries in the world. The Fisheries along her own coasts, the coasts of Newfoundland and the neighbouring British Provinces, and in distant seas, are prosecuted with great spirit and success. The chief PORTS are“ New York Near the Mouth of Boston On the Atlantic New Or- the Mississippi, Philadelphia Coast. leans. and the Gulf of Charlestown Mexico. San Francisco On the Pacific. 293. The Government is a Republic; consisting of a President, a House of Senators, and a House of Representatives, all chosen by the people. Thirty- nine States, including the District Columbia, which has the Capital, form the Union called the United States. Each State manages its own internal affairs. (S.G., 888.) The N orth—western part, called Alaska, is valuable only for its fur animals, especially the Sea—otter. In 1783 there were only thirteen States, all in the east. These had been English Colonies ; but in that year their independence was acknowledged by Eng— land, after a seven years’ war, in the latter part of which they had been assisted by France and Spain. When sitting, the Representatives, Senators, and President form a Congress ; as in England the Com~ mons, Lords, and Sovereign form a Parliament. In the United States are above eighty towns having more than 20,000 inhabitants, of which thirteen have more than 100,000. New York . . . 1,800,000 Boston . . . . 300.000 Philadelphia . . 800,000 Baltimore . . 260,000 Chicago . . . . 500.000 Cincinnati . . . 200,000 St. Louis . . . . 300,000 New Orleans . . 190,000 Washington, the CAPITAL, contains but 150,000 inhabitants. E 3 82 MEXICO. 294. Mexico, lessened by war with the United States, is one-third as large as Russia in Europe. Its Population is 9 millions, or about twice as great as that of Portugal. 295. Mexico, like Central America, rising from the level ‘of the sea to the region of snow-capped Mountains, has every variety of climate—hot, tem- perate, and cold, according to the altitude. Nearly all sorts of vegetable productions consequently grow in some part of the country. But Agriculture, like all other branches of industry, is much neglected. The Mines are of the greatest importance, especially those of silver, Mexico once producing more than half that is used in the world. ‘ , 296. The Exports are silver, gold, copper, and cochineal, which makes a scarlet dye. Among the Imports are quicksilver, used in separating silver and gold from the ore; and machinery employed . in mining operations ; cotton, linen, and iron goods The Ports are Vera Cruz, on the Gulf of Mexico, and Acapulco, on the Pacific; both of which are very unhealthy in the hot season. The commerce of Mexico was formerly much greater than at present, especially at Acapulco, which port traded largely,in the great Spanish ships called Gal- leons, with the Philippine Islands and with China. 297. The Government is a republic. Mexico has been in a most unsettled state, owing to civil wars and numerous bands of robbers. But it is more quiet now, and is making progress. A railroad con- nects Vera Cruz with the Capital. Mexico, the CAPITAL, at an elevation of 5,700 feet, has a spring-like temperature, and disputes with Philadelphia the title to “the finest city of the New World.” It has 200,000 inhabitants/ 83 CENTRAL AMERICA. 298. Central America is much larger than all the British Islands, and yet its Population, 2 millions, is but half that of Scotland. Like Mexico, it has many volcanoes, and frequent Earthquakes. It contains the Lake Nicaragua. In its forests are found the Mahogany tree, and the Logwood tree, used in dyeing. The cacao or choco‘ late tree and the indigo plant are cultivated. Among the Exports are mahogany and logwood, indigo and cochineal, and coffee. As in Mexico, owing to its Mountains and un- settled state, communication is difficult. _ Central America consists of 5 independent States. The Government of each is a Republic; The chief towns are Guatemala and San Salvador. Across the narrower part of the isthmus south of Central America, in Colombia, is the Panama Rail- ‘way, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. THE WE ST INDIES. 299. The West Indies consist of 5 large islands and about 50 smaller ones, besides innumerable islets and rocks. Altogether they are in extent equal to Great Britain; Cuba, the largest, being three- . fourths the size of England; Hayti, the next, aslarge as Ireland ; and Jamaica, the size of Yorkshire. 300. Except Hayti the West Indies belong to European nations. To Spain—Cuba ; Porto Rico. To England—Ja- maica,Trinidad, Barbados,the Bahamas, and several others. To ance.——Guadaloupe ; Martinique. Holland and Denmark hold some isles. Hayti is independent, and consists of two Re- publics—Hayti in the West, Dominica in the East. 84 GUIANA. 301. rI‘he Population is about 4 millions, or some- what more than that of Scotland. Negroes form by far the greater part of the people. They are Slaves in the Spanish Islands. 302. The West Indies are most fertile; they supply to Europeans a large proportion of the articles once considered luxuries, but now deemed necessaries, as coffee, sugar, &c. The heat, except in the elevated regions, is very great, though moderated by the sea- breeze. But the scourges of the West Indies are the yellow fever in the low parts, so deadly to Europeans; and the hurricanes, which, at times, tear up trees and hurl down buildings in their resistless course. 303. The Exports are sugar, molasses,rum; coffee, cocoa ; allspice, ginger, tobacco, turtles, pine-apples. The chief Ports are—Havanna, in Cuba; Kingston, in Jamaica ; and Bridge Town, in Barbados. Havanna, the Capital of Cuba, is the largest and most important town, whose population, 200,000, is as great as that of Bristol. West of the West Indies on the continent is Balize, the capital of British Honduras. To the north—east, near 700 miles from any other land, lie the Bermudas, a group of small islands, be- longing to England, and used as a convict station. GUIANA. 304‘. Guiana is larger than the United Kingdom, but its Population is only a quarter of a million, or less than that of Birmingham. It consists of British Guiana, half the country, Capital, Georgetown; of French Guiana, or Cayenne, to which France sends her convicts , and Dutch Guiana. The greater part is dense forest land. It is most fertile, but the low coast is very unhealthy. The Exports are coffee, sugar, rum, and Cayenne pepper. 85 COLOMBIAN REPUBLICS. 805. The north-west of South America, formerly called Colombia,is one-fourth the size of Europe,with only 6 million inhab., or rather more than Belgium. It consists of three independent States : Colombia, in the north-west, 3 million inhabs. Venezuela, in the east, 2 million inhabitants. Equador, in the south, 1 million inhabitants. Gold is obtained from the mountains; as is also Peruvian bark, so useful a fever medicine, from the forests which cover them. But those sea-like plains of grass, the Llanos (277), constitute the great. wealth, as they furnish the chief employment of the central part of the country, for over them roam count- less herds of horses and oxen, wild and domesticated. Among the Exports are hides, Peruvian bark (called also Cinchona bark and J esuit’s bark), cocoa and coffee; and to the West Indies, live cattle. The Ports are—- In Colombia—Panama. and Porto Belle, on opposite sides of the Isthmus: Carthagena. In Venezuela—La Guayra, 20 miles from the Capital. In Eguador—Guayaquil. The important Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama is in Colombia (298). The GOVERNMENT in each State is a Republic, with a President and two Houses of Congress. Quito, the capital of Equador, just under the Equator, is at an elevation of 9,000 feet, and enjoys a pleasant climate. It has 70,000 inhabitants. St. Fe de Bogota, the capital of Colombia (for- merly New Granada), is also at an elevation of 9,000 feet. It has 40,000 inhabitants. Caraccas, the capital of Venezuela, has 50,000 Inhabitants, which is less than it had before the dreadful earthquake of 1812, when 12,000 people were swallowed up or otherwise destroyed. 86 PERU AND BOLIVIA. 306. Peru and Bolivia, formerly one State, now form two independent Republics. Together, four times the size of France, Peru has only 3 million inhabitants, and Bolivia (Upper Peru) only 2. The physical features of both countries are much alike, consisting of (1) a grand Mountain region, con- taining,after the Himalayas, the highest mountains in the world ; (2) the Forest plains to the east, stretch- ing to Brazil; and the dry and, in some parts, desert plain between the Andes and the Pacific, in which rain seldom or never falls. In this dry plain are found vast deposits of nitre or saltpetre, an import— ant manure. On the small islands and the cliffs along the shores of the Pacific are deposits of the dung of sea-birds, the accumulation of ages, so invalu- able as a manure, and known by the name of guano. The minerals, particularly the precious metals, con- stitute the wealth of these countries. Less is however obtained than formerly. Peru once supplied the world with gold; now,comparati vely little is exported; and the silver mines of Potosi, in Bolivia, were so ex- tensive that atown of 150,000 inhabitants was formed in the dreary region, near 14,000 feet above the sea. The present population of Potosi is less than 10,000. 307. The exports are silver, copper, saltpetre, Peru- vian bark, guano, alpaca wool. Callao is the chief Port. The highest inhabited spots on the earth are in Peru, there being some houses in the Andes at the same elevation as the summit of Mt. Blane in Europe. Lima, the capital of Peru, has 160,000 inhabit- ants. It and its port Callao have been more than once destroyed by earthquakes. Cuzco, the old capital under the Peruvian kings called Incas, has still 40,000 inhabitants. La Paz, the largest town of Bolivia, with 40,000 inhabitants. 87 CHILI. 308. Chili, a long, narrow country between the Andes and the Pacific, is a very flourishing Republic, with 2 million inhabitants. The mines, agriculture—which is so much carried on that wheat is exported—and rearing of cattle, give employment to the Chilians. The copper is brought to Swansea, in South Wales, to be smelted. The Exports are copper, silver, gold, wheat, hides, beef, and tallow. The chief Port is Valparaiso. In the Andes of Chili are several volcanoes, and many of its towns have been repeatedly destroyed by earthquakes. Santiago, the Capital, contains 180,000 inhabit- ants; Valparaiso, 100,000. PATAGONIA. 309. Patagonia, the most southern country of . South America, consists of a mountain region, the Andes, in the west, and dry, treeless, often desert plains in the other parts of the country. Though three times as large as the British Isles, its only in- habitants are afew Indians, who roam over its plains, hunting cattle, horses, the American ostrich, and other wild animals. These Patagonians are remark- ably tall, having an average height of at least 6 feet. ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. 310. La Plata is nearly one-third as large as Europe, and yet has a population of only about 2% millions, or half that of Ireland. This is the country of the treeless plains called Pampas, which support millions of cattle, horses, and sheep, both wild and domesticated. Cattle- rearing is thus by far the most important employ— ment of the people of this extensive region. 88 PARAGUAY—URUGUAY. The country consists of 14 States and some Ter- ritories, as Patagonia, east of the Andes, which form the ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION, or United States of La Plata, the most important being—— BUENOS AYRES. The State of Buenos Ayres is the size of France, but its population (600,000) that of Liverpool. The exports, which are considerable, are of the same kind from Buenos Ayres as from La Plata in general. They are animal products, 9.9., hides, horsehair, wool, horns, hoofs, tallow, and beef. The Port is Buenos Ayres, on the south bank of the Rio de la Plata. The only large town is Buenos Ayres, the Capital, which has near 800,000 inhabitants, and is the second in size in South America. PARAGUAY. 811. This is a Republic, the size of England, with a population of less than a million. The most remarkable export is Paraguay tea, the leaf of an evergreen, a kind of holly, which is used in the countries around as we use the teas from China. ASSUMPTION is the Capital. URUGUAY, OR BANDA ORIENTAL. 812. Uruguay is nearly as large as Great Britain, but its population is less than half a million. As cattle rearing is the chief employment, the ex- ports are animal products, like those of La Plata. Monte Video is the Capital, with about 100,000 in- habitants. It is the safest harbour on the La Plata, and has been termed the “ rival of Buenos Ayres.” 818. All South America, except Brazil and Pata- gonia, formerly belonged to Spain, as did also Mexico and Central America. Brazil belonged to Portugal. 89 BRAZIL. 814. Brazil is about the size of the United States, and is three—fourths of the size of Europe. The boundaries touch all the countries of South America, except Chili and Patagonia. It has a population of about 10 millions. But a very small proportion of Brazil is culti- vated. Much the greater part of it is one dense forest (275). Among the forest trees are the cocoa- nut tree, the caoutchouc trees (Whose hardened sap is india—rubber), the trees furnishing fancy woods, as mahogany, rosewood, &c. The treeless plains of the south support large herds of cattle. Coffee, cotton, sugar, and tobacco are extensively grown. 315. Brazil abounds in minerals. Among the most important are gold and iron, diamonds, topazes, and other precious stones. 316. The commerce is very extensive. Its chief Exports are coffee, sugar, cotton, gold, diamonds, and other precious stones, nuts, and ' animal products as in La Plata. The Imports are mostly manufactured goods, as cot— ton, linen, and woollen, iron, wrought and unwrought. The PORTS are Rio J aneiro, Bahia, and Pernam- buco. 317. The Government is a limited Monarchy, con- sisting of an Emperor, a Senate appointed by the Emperor, and a Chamber of Deputies chosen by the people. 318. Brazil is in a flourishing condition. Slavery, however, still exists; but the slave trade is illegal. It contains the largest towns of South America. Eight have a population of above 20,000. Rio J aneiro, the Capital, has 400,000 inhabitants. Its harbour is one of the largest and finest in the world. Bahia, or San Salvador, the old Capital, 180,000 inhabitants. \ l l \.. . . J 1 ~ 90 OCEANIA. ' 319. Oceania consists of the smallest Continent of ii the world, Australia, and many large islands and groups of islands, all in the Pacific Ocean, sometimes called the Great South Sea, and lying between the south-east coast of Asia andthe west coast of America. 320. It contains 4 million square miles, about the same as Europe. The Continent of Australia is three-fourths of the who1e, or three million square- miles; Borneo, the largest island in the world, is the size of Austria; New Guinea, of France 3 and Sumatra, as large as Great Britain and Ireland. 821. The great number of coral reefs, large and small, that exist in various parts, make the navigation difficult, and sometimes dangerous. The Great Barrier Reef off the eastern coast of Australia is the longest chain of coral reefs in the world, being 1,200 miles long. . ' 322. There are 3 divisions of Oceania, viz., Malay- sia, called also the Indian Archipelago, and the East Indian Islands, in the north-west ; Australia, in the » south ; and Polynesia, in the east. ' MALAYSIA is made up of several of the largest islands in the world. The chief are—— Sumatra The Moluccas, or Spice Java called the Islands. Borneo Sunda Isles The Philippine Islands, of which Celebcz the largest is Luzon. AUSTRALIA is made up of the continent of Australia _‘ and the large islands of Van Diemen’s Land, New , Guinea, and New Z ealand, with many smaller islands lying nearly between the two latter. POLYNESIA, which means many islands, consists of thousands of small islands, the largest of which, Hawaii, one of the Sandwich Isles, is only two-thirds as large as Yorkshire. The chief groups are— The Ladrone Islands Society Is., the largest Tahiti L Caroline Islands Low Archipelago Feejee Islands Marquesas Islands Friendly Islands Sandwich Is., the largest Hawaii. ,1, OCEANIA. ' 91 323. The chief GULF is in the north of Australia, and is called the Gulf of Carpentaria. 324 The chief STRAITS are— The Straits of Malacca, separating the island of Sumatra from the Peninsula of Malacca. The Strait of Sunda, separating Sumatra and Java. Torres Strait, separating New Guinea and the continent of Australia, amost dangerous passage, owing to the number of small islands and coral reefs. - Bass Strait, separating Van Diemen’s Land and the continent of Australia. . Cook’s Strait, separating the two large islands of New Zealand, North Island, and South Island. 325. The chief CAPEs are— Acheen Head, the northern point of Sumatra. ‘ . Cape York, the northern point, and Cape Wilson, the southern point, of the continent of Australia. Cap e South, the southern point of Van Diemen’ 8 Land. North Cap e, the n01thern point, and South Cape, the southern point, of New Zealand. 326. In Malaysia some of the MOUNTAINS of Sumatra are nearly as high as any in Europe; but being just under the equator, their peaks are not snow-capped. In Australia are the mountains of New Zealand, of Which, Mount Egmont, a grand extinct ‘vol- cano, is above 8,000 feet high, and Mount Cook 13, 000 feet; and the Australian Alps, Whose height is about 7, 000 feet. But Polynesia has the loftiest mountain of Oceania, Mounaroa, in the Sandwich Islands, about as high as Mont Blanc, or 3 miles. 327. The Volcanoes and Earthquakes of Malaysia are considered the most terrible in the world, es- pecially in Java. In North Island, New Zealand, are boiling springs, geysers, hot mud basins, and jets of steam escaping through holes and crevices in the earth (281). The continent of Australia, like that of Africa, seems singularly destitute of volcanoes. 328. The only very large RIVERis the Murray, about 3,000 miles long, whose chief tributary is the Darling. 92 OCEANIA. But, for its length, it carries a small body of water to the sea, and in the dry season, in parts of its course it is very shallow, even dry; the water dis- appearing between one deep waterhole and another. N 0 important stream exists in the interior. 329. The largest LAKE is Lake Torrens, called also Horse—shoe Lake, whose waters, and those of Lake Gairdner and other lakes, are salt and shal- low, and mostly lost in the dry season. 330. The Climate of the continent of Australia, which is about equally divided by the Tropic of Capricorn, is, for the most part, hot, dry, and healthy. In Polynesia, and, in a less degree, in Malaysia, the tropical heats are moderated by the sea ;- but the low, swampy districts are very inju- rious to Europeans. (S. G., 986.) New Zealand, the “Britain of the Southern Hemisphere,” has a climate somewhat like that of England. In the open Pacific Ocean, as in the Atlantic, the Trade Wind blows constantly from East to West. The interior of the Continent of Australia is mostly dry and barren, as are in agreater degree the southern and western coasts. The other parts of Oceania are distinguished by the extreme fertility of the soil. 331. In Malaysia are extensive forests, and the vegetation is exceedingly rich. As in the countries of South-eastern Asia, rice is the common food, except in the eastern parts, where the sago palm is largely grown. Spices, as cloves, the nutmeg, and mace, grow abundantly in the Spice Islands, from which the Dutch supply most other parts of the world. In various islands the sugar-cane, coffee tree, cotton tree, and tobacco plant are cultivated. In Polynesia, the cocoa—nut palm, the bread-fruit tree, and the large root called the yarn furnish food to the people; as they do also, in a less degree, in the islands of Eastern Australia and Eastern Malaysia. . i OCEANIA. 93 332. The Wild ANIMALS of Malaysia are numerous, large, and fierce ; as the elephant, the rhinoceros, the tapir (like an immense hog), the tiger, the python , (an immense snake), and the crocodile. Here too are found the beautiful Bird of Paradise, bats measuring six feet from one end of the Wing to the other, and the ourang-outang, a sort of ape, Which, next to the chimpanzee (235), most resembles man. Those of Australia are very peculiar, as the kan- garoo, the ornithorynchus, with the bill of a duck, the fur of amole, and stomach, &c., of a reptile; the emu, or Australian ostrich, and the black swan. Polynesia is singularly destitute of large wild animals, as it is also of metals. 333. The MINERALS of Australia and Malaysia are very important. The Diamond is obtained from Borneo; gold in greater abundance from Australia than from any other country, and also from the larger islands of Malaysia; copper from the colony ' of South Australia ,- and tin from a small island to the north of Sumatra, called Banca. 334. Oceania contains 35 million inhabitants, or about as many as the United Kingdom. 335. Mahometanism is the chief RELIGION of Ma- laysia ; in the other parts of Oceania idolatry prevails. As well as of Europeans and their descendants, Chris- tianity is the religion of many of the natives in the European Settlements, and also in the Sandwich Islands, the Society Islands, New Zealand, and some otherislands, Where Missionaries have been stationed. Cannibalism, and the sacrifice of human victims to their idols, although discontinued in some parts, are yet practised in others. 336. The greater partof Polynesia, and some of the Islands of Malaysia and Australia, are independent. l .3 l 94 OCEANIA. 337. The English and the Dutch have the most valuable possessions in Oceania; after these, the , Spaniards ; those of the Portuguese and French are of little importance. 338. The DUTCH POSSESSIONs are wholly in Ma- laysia, and comprise Java, the Spice Islands, 850. The capital is Batavia, an important town of 100,000 inhabitants. The trade, especially in spices, pepper, coffee, sugar, and rice, is most valuable. 339. The most important SPANISH POSSESSIONS are the Philippine Islands. The capital is Manilla. ' a good port 5 after Melbourne the largest town of Oceania, having 150,000 inhabitants. Here is avast manufactory of cigars, largely exported to Europe. ENGLISH POSSESSIONS. The chief English Possessions are—— 340. NEW SOUTH WALES, in the south-east Of’the Continent of Australia, has a population of g of a million. It is our oldest colony in Oceania. The Capital is Sydney, on the magnificent harbour of Port Jackson. It is aplace of great trade, especiallyin W001. QUEENSLAND is a recently—formed Colony to the north of New South Wales, having 200,000 inhabit- ants. Its capital is Brisbane. 841. VICTORIA, the S E part of the Continent, has a population of near a million, largely engaged in mining Operations. Here are the great gold-fields, which supply more gold than any other part of the world. Its capital is Melbourne, on the harbour called Port Philip. 342. SOUTH AUSTRALIA has near 300,000 inhab. It has very rich copper mines, grows excellent wheat, and produces much wool. Its capital is Adelaide. A telegraph line goes from Adelaide to ’0 ‘ Palmerston, on the northern coast. WEST AUSTRALIA, of which the small town of], Perth is the capital. ' WW5“ A I»; .1 OCEANIA. 95 343. TASMANIA or Van Diemen’s Land has a popu- lation of above 100,000. It is well wooded, having many and large gum trees. Its capital is Hobarton. 344. NEW ZEALAND has above half a million inhabitants. Gold is abundant, and fine fir trees grow in its thick woods. Wellington is now the Capital. AUSTRALIAN COLONIEs GENERALLY. 345. Of the Capitals the population is—— Sydney, 100,000. Adelaide, 40,000. With Suburbs, 220,000. With Suburbs, 60,000. Brisbane, 30,000. Hobarton, 20, 000. Melbourne, with Wellington, 20 000. its Suburbs 300,000. Perth, 5,000. 346. Amng agricultural employments the rear- ing of sheep is very important ; Victoria exports about 100 million lbs. of wool, and, New South Wales nearly as much ; excellent wheat is grown, and the vine is increasingly cultivated. 347. The Commerce is very great, carried on mostly at the Capitals, which are also the chief Ports. The Exports are gold, copper, tin, wool, tallow, hides, oil, corn, flour, preserved meat ; for which are received manufactured goods from England,— tea, coffee, sugar, and wine. 348. The Government of each Colony consists of a Governor appointed by the Queen, and two Houses of Legislature, more or less like our British Parliament. 349. Criminals from the United Kingdom used to be sent to labour in these Colonies, but, at the request of the Colonies, the transportation of convicts has ceased ; a few only remain in Van Diemen’s Land. 350. Education has been well cared for in these Colonies; theyhave a fine climate, and almost bound- less resources. From these, and other favouring causes, it seems hard to set a limit to the future great~ ness and prosperity of the statesformed bythe energy of our fellow-subjects in the southern hemisphere. 96 ' FACTS TO BE REMEMBERED.- 351. The highest Mountain in the world is Mount ‘ Everest (181) 5.1, miles high. The longest River 1s the Amazon (271), near 5,000 miles in length. The largest salt-water Lake 1s the Caspian Sea (185), as large as all the British Isles. The largest fresh—water lake is Lake Superior, as large as Ireland, and with Lake Huron and Lake Michigan almost as large as Great Britain (272). The largest Island in the world is Borneo (320), three times as large as Great B1itain. The most populous Empire 1s China, the Chinese being about one- third of the whole human race. The onext is the British Empire, whose subjects constitute near one-fourth of the human race. The largest Empires are the British Empire and Russia, each having about one-seventh part of all the dry land of the globe. The largest City in the World is London, having near 4 million inhabitants. Only a little more than a quarter of the surface of the earth is Land; nearly three-quarters are, consequently, Sea. (S. G., 13.) 852. The Latitude of— The Equator is nothing. New York, 41° N. London, 511° N. Bio Janeiro, 23° S. Constantino2ple, 41° N. Cape of Good Hope, 341° S.. Calcutta, 22%n N. Sydney, 34° S. ' The Longitude of— London (Greenwich) is Washington, 77 W. nothing. Sydney, 151° E. Paris, 21° E. Auckland, 175° E. Calcutta, 88° E. Ferro, 18° W. *3 «/ __“_‘._ WAMLIAM RIDER & SON, Printers, Bartholomew Close London, E. C. 3rd Edition, 96 2910.. pr cs 13. SPELLING FOR BEGINNERS : A METHOD OF TEACHING READING AND SPELLIS G AT THE SAME TIME. In this Work the words which have the same vowel sound are formed into groups, and each group is sub-divided into smalle'r portions in which that sound is represented by dzfle‘rent characters. The meaning of the words is taught, by using them in simple sentences, these sentences thus forming an easy course for teaching Reading. Also, price 33. cwth. DR. ALLEN’S EUTROPIUS, WITH A COMPLETE DICTIONARY FOR SCHOOLS. London: SIMPKIN 5; 00.; HAMILTON 8: Co.; W. KENT & Co.; WHITTAKER 8: Co. Edinburgh: OLIVER & BOYD. Recently Published, price 4s. 6d. K E Y TO ‘ THE SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. Revised and Enlarged Edition, price 4s.» 6d. 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