E. L. PERCY, ESQ. INVT. ET DEL. 
 
 CAROLINE CLAYTON. SO. 
 
 Engraved for Morewood a History of Inebriating Liquon. 
 
A 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL AND STATISTICAL HISTORY 
 
 or THE 
 INVENTIONS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 OF 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS 
 
 IN THE MANUFACTURE AND USE OF 
 
 INEBRIATING LIQUORS; 
 
 WITH THE 
 
 tywttite of Distillation in all its 
 
 TOGETHER WITH AN EXTENSIVE ILLUSTRATION OF THE 
 
 CONSUMPTION AND EFFECTS OF OPIUM, 
 
 AND OTHER STIMULANTS USED IN THE EAST, AS SUBSTITUTES 
 FOR WINE AND SPIRITS. 
 
 BY 
 
 SAMUEL MOREWOOD, ESQ. 
 
 COLLECTOR OF EXCI?F:. 
 
 DUBLIN : 
 
 WILLIAM CURRY, JUN. AND COMPANY, AND WILLIAM CARSON. 
 
 LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, LONDON. 
 ERASER AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH. 
 
 1838. 
 
rr 
 
 A? 6 
 
 DUBLIN : 
 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM WARREN, 
 ]40, CAFEL-STREET. 
 
TO THE 
 
 RIGHT HONORABLE THE EARL OF RIPON, 
 
 THIS WORK 
 
 MOST RESPECTFULLY, DEDICATED, 
 
 BY 
 
 HIS LORDSHIP S OBLIGED AND VERY OBEDIENT, 
 
 HUMBLE SERVANT, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 FOURTEEN years having elapsed since the first publica 
 tion of this work, and the design having met the appro 
 bation of many respectable writers, the Author is 
 induced to offer to the public an improved edition, 
 amplified, extended, and rendered more worthy of atten 
 tion by the addition of new, original, and valuable 
 matter. Hopes were indeed entertained that, as this 
 was the first publication on a subject hitherto untouched 
 by any writer in the British empire, it would have excited 
 the curiosity and employed the talents and research of 
 other individuals more at leisure ; nothing, however, 
 during such a lapse of time, has been offered to the 
 public exactly on the plan of this undertaking. 
 
 In the London Dispensatory, quotations have been 
 made from this work, and the Author was a little 
 flattered to find his labours valued, and a portion of them 
 ingeniously condensed into the compass of a Table, 
 exhibiting, at one view, the numerous descriptions of 
 inebriating drinks, with the countries where, and the 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 materials whereof they were made ; and which Table 
 has been since transcribed into other books. The design 
 and plan, as well as the execution of this work, have 
 been approved of by the late respected Dr. Duncan, of 
 Edinburgh, who, in his Dispensatory, was pleased to 
 rank it amongst the best publications on the subject, 
 whether foreign or domestic. Immediately after its 
 appearance, a History of Wines was published by Dr. 
 Henderson, founded on that of Sir Edward Barry fa 
 work of great research, labour, and industry, alike 
 creditable to his taste and talents) ; but that volume, 
 being solely confined to the subject of wines, did, by no 
 means, include the extensive views embodied within the 
 compass of this work. Since the appearance of Dr. 
 Henderson s book and that of the Author, several 
 publications have issued from the press, either modelled 
 on their plan, or derived from their matter and sources ; 
 yet none embracing the wide range taken in this publi 
 cation. Whatever may have been the opinions of the 
 limits or defects of the first edition, the Author presumes 
 that, while its original matter has been carefully preserved, 
 it has also been greatly increased from more extensive 
 and laborious researches, supplying every thing that 
 may render it useful to the merchant, interesting to the 
 speculatist, entertaining to the general reader, and 
 calculated to be a safe guide to the practical brewer and 
 distiller. To avoid interrupting the narrative, almost 
 the whole of the Tables have been thrown into an 
 Addenda, and in the body of the work those only have 
 been retained, which are either absolutely necessary to 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 illustrate the subject, or which afford to the man of 
 business a clear view of the various branches of com 
 merce connected with the wine and spirit trades. For 
 the same reason, as the work has not been divided into 
 chapters, a copious, introductory Table of Contents is 
 given, by which means the reader is at once guided to 
 the part wanted, while the Index affords a more minute 
 reference to details. 
 
 The processes of Brewing and Distilling, according 
 to the most approved modern methods, are, it is pre 
 sumed, so amply and intelligibly detailed, that by a 
 careful observance of the instructions given, any man 
 may become his own brewer or distiller, and may also 
 with confidence calculate on the probabilities of the 
 successful, or unsuccessful, result of his speculations. 
 To these important matters are added epitomes of the 
 laws, by which those trades have been and are still 
 governed, with the estimated advantages and disadvan 
 tages of their application. 
 
 Descriptions of the several instruments used by 
 Brewers, Distillers, Merchants, and Officers of the 
 Revenue, are given, with a statement of the principles 
 on which they are constructed, rendering their applica 
 tion easy and familiar to every capacity. The nature 
 and properties of alcohol are detailed, and the various 
 substances from which it may be obtained are minutely 
 described, with the relative value of the several vegetables 
 or other materials that yield it. 
 
 In the article on Opium and other vegetable inebriants, 
 great care has been taken to bring under review their 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 effects and properties, whether resorted to as stimulants 
 to sensuality, or for medicinal uses, alike illustrative of 
 the general subject, and affording information to the 
 practical chemist, the botanical student, and the curious 
 observer of nature. While the evil consequences of 
 undue or irregular indulgences have been carefully 
 depicted and illustrated by appropriate anecdotes, strict 
 regard has been paid to their connexion with revealed 
 religion, and the laws that ought to regulate society, 
 whether in the Pagan, Mahometan, Jewish, or Christian 
 world. The efforts of Temperance Societies to prevent 
 the progress of immorality, arising from the frequent and 
 excessive use of intoxicating liquors, have been inci 
 dentally noticed, and although the detail may appear 
 to some irrelevant, it cannot fail to prove acceptable to 
 every person who has the well-being of his fellow-crea 
 tures at heart. Reference has also been made to the 
 policy adopted in various countries of deriving a revenue 
 from intoxicating liquors, the means employed in raising 
 that revenue are explained, while their effects, as regards 
 the community at large, are freely discussed. 
 
 On perusal of the Book, the learned reader will per 
 ceive the difficulties, which the Author has had to 
 encounter in collecting materials for so novel a publica 
 tion. Every quarter of the globe, it may be said, has 
 been laid under contribution to aid the undertaking ; and 
 the patient labours of scientific research have been pur 
 sued with indefatigable activity (during the scanty leisure 
 afforded by arduous official business), to render as com 
 plete and comprehensive as possible a subject, which, in 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 the collection and arrangement of the materials, might 
 have wearied or discouraged more enterprising writers. 
 Having, however, brought the matter to a close, he 
 trusts the public will do him the justice to believe 
 that utility rather than pecuniary interest was the chief 
 object of his researches, since the volume has far 
 exceeded the bounds originally intended ; and, should he 
 prove so fortunate as to meet the approbation of the 
 learned and curious, he will feel, in a great measure, 
 repaid for the many difficulties he has had to encounter 
 in the composition of a work, by which he has beguiled 
 many a tedious hour, and sweetened many a solitary 
 evening. 
 
 It may be well to observe, that the desire to compress 
 the matter within the limits of a single volume, pre 
 vented the insertion of some practical calculations and 
 observations connected with brewing and distilling, which 
 will, however, be brought forward at a future period, 
 should the success of the present work warrant it. 
 
 8, Peter- Place, Dublin, 
 May, 1838. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Early cultivation of the grape . . ...-..-. , . 1 
 
 Use of wine among the Hebrews . . , > . 5 
 
 the Egyptians . . ;. . 7-50 
 
 the Greeks and Romans ;, , ^ ._. 6 
 
 Disquisition on the reputed knowledge of the Arabs and Saracens in 
 
 the practice of distillation . . . . ..23 
 
 Prohibition of wine, and anecdotes respecting its use, among the Mahometans 33 
 Liquors used by the Syrians . . i ., f , . 45 
 
 - - the Nubians . . . . . 55^ 
 
 the Abyssinians . " -, , ,58 
 
 - other African nations . , . . . 63 \ 
 
 the Persians . . . v .. 82 
 
 Observations on Opium and other exhilarating substances . ._ 96 
 
 Liquors used by the Tartars . . . . 136 
 
 the people of India . , , ..151 
 
 Thibet . . . . .. 170 
 
 Bootan . . . . ;, .173 
 
 the Birman empire . . , . 174 
 
 Siam . . , . . 176 
 
 Nicobar Islands . . , .180 
 
 Ceylon . . .. > . ibid 
 
 Madagascar . . . -. .. 167 
 
 Sumatra . . . . "... 191 
 
 Java . . ., .192 
 
 Phillippine Islands . . , . 200 
 
 Cochin- China and Tonquin f . . 202 
 
 China ..... 208 
 
 Japan . , . 238 
 
 Loo-Choo Islands . " , ; . 246 
 
 Polynesian Islands . , , .. 250 
 
 Australasia, embracing New Zealand and New 
 
 South Wales, &c. &c. . . 258__ 
 
 Eastern Africa .^ .^ . . 268 
 
 Cape of Good Hope .... 270 
 
 St. Helena . . . . . 281_j 
 
 West Indian Islands . . . . 289 
 
 Mexico and Peru . - f 292 
 
 Chili . .y- -. . 307 
 
 Paraguay . . ...,. . 311 
 
 Brazil . 312 k 
 
 the Floridas 320 
 
xii 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Liquors used of the United States 
 
 - Canada . . 
 
 the Indian tribes 
 
 - Canary Isles . 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Spain . , 
 
 Portugal 
 
 -"" France . * 
 
 Italy . . 
 
 Isles of the Mediterranean . 
 
 Ionian Islands . . 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 Hungary . , " . 
 
 Provinces bordering on the Rhine 
 
 * Germany . 
 
 Switzerland 
 Holland 
 
 - - Hanover . . , 
 
 - - Prussia 
 
 Poland 
 
 - - Denmark . , * 
 
 - - Iceland 
 
 - - Norway . . . 
 
 Sweden . . . 
 
 ""* Lapland arid Finland . 
 
 Russia . . ;" 
 
 - - Crimea . ,- . 
 
 - - Georgia , : . . 
 
 - - Circassia . . ; . : 
 
 Siberia 
 
 - - Kamtschatka 
 -.-"** England 
 
 Scotland . 
 
 _ _ Ireland . . , . 
 
 Addenda ...... 
 
 Index ...... 
 
 Page 
 325 
 341 
 349 
 357 
 358 
 361 
 
 1576 
 
 -S5T 
 
 403 
 
 408 
 
 409 
 
 411 
 
 424 
 
 430 
 
 435 
 
 449 
 
 451 
 
 458 
 
 460 
 
 460 
 
 469 
 
 471 
 
 472 
 
 475 
 
 483 
 
 487 
 
 498 
 
 503 
 
 506 
 
 509 
 
 511 
 
 522 
 
 569 
 
 583 
 
 716 
 
 733 
 
 ERRATA. 
 Page 52, line 27, for mines, read wines. 
 
 307, , 
 534, 
 541, 
 560, 
 632. 
 648, 
 
 10, for vine, read wine. 
 .. 2, for import, read impost. 
 .. 3, for Whitehead, read Whitbread. 
 .. 6, for progress, read produce. 
 .. 31, for 5,675, read 56.76. 
 .. 34, for chargers, read charges- 
 .. 36, for chprger, read charge- 
 .. 40, for rage, read range. 
 ,. 14, for look read lock. 
 
THE 
 
 INVENTIONS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ANCIENTS AND MODERNS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 USE AND MANUFACTURE 
 
 INEBRIATING LIQUORS, 
 
 man was driven from that peaceful asylum originally assigned 
 to him by his Creator, and condemned to earn his bread by the labour 
 of his hands,* his attention was, no doubt, powerfully exerted in pro 
 curing the necessaries of life ; such as food, clothing, and habitation. 
 As a cultivator of the earth, he must have been constantly employed, 
 and, as his occupation varied with the varying seasons, his mind was 
 continually exercised in contrivances to diminish and sweeten his toil. 
 His activity, when thus excited, soon extended its influence to every 
 department of life, and having procured its necessaries, he was no 
 doubt early led to the exercise of his ingenuity in the attainment of 
 its luxuries. Among these, the preservation of fruit and their juices, 
 however rudely practised, might have led to the use of inebriating 
 drink ; a beverage which, as will hereafter be shewn, has been disco 
 vered by some of the most savage nations, and deemed a luxury by 
 the almost universal testimony of mankind. 
 
 Whether the use or knowledge of fermenting the grape was known 
 before the flood, is now uncertain. We are informed, that a city was 
 
 * Genesis iii. 23. 
 
built by Cain, which was named Enoch, after his son,* and that Juhal, 
 one of his early descendants, invented the harp and organ, while ano 
 ther, Tubal Cain, was an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron. 
 From this it is evident, that the working of metals and the construc 
 tion of various sorts of implements had, at this early period of the 
 world, arrived at a considerable degree of perfection : and it has been 
 conjectured, with great probability, that as Adam and Cain were 
 " tillers of the ground," they could not have cultivated it without 
 instruments of husbandry made from metals, hence the plausibility of 
 the conclusion, that God in his goodness gave to our first parent the 
 principles of every branch, of knowledge suited to his condition and 
 that of his posterity. There is nothing however to guide us, even at 
 this advanced state of the arts, in the supposition that mankind had 
 then any knowledge of inebriating liquors. At what period therefore, 
 and in what manner, wine was first made and used, is now unknown. 
 Noah, it appears from Genesis ix. 21, became drunk with the produce 
 of his own vineyard ; and, as it is reasonable to suppose, he was well 
 acquainted with all the discoveries of his progenitors, and their diffe 
 rent methods of cultivating the ground, we may infer from this 
 circumstance, that the cultivation of the vine was practised in the 
 antediluvian world, and the intoxicating quality of the grape fully 
 experienced. In the 20th verse of the chapter of Genesis, above 
 quoted, it is said, " Noah began to be a husbandman, and he planted 
 a vineyard," from which it is not to be inferred that this was the first 
 time he had done so, or that he was the first husbandman. As the 
 words to be are not in the original, the learned Doctor Kennicott says 
 that the translation ought to be, " Noah continued to be a husband 
 man," implying that this was a recommencement of an occupation 
 which had only been interrupted by the flood. Whether, however, 
 the drink, which had the effect of intoxicating him, was the simple 
 expressed juice of the grape, or had undergone any fermenting pro 
 cess, we are not told. It is admitted that the mere juice of the grape 
 has no inebriating quality ; and that to produce intoxication it must 
 undergo a certain degree of fermentation ; but as the ripe juice pos 
 sesses in itself all the principles essential to such a change, it would 
 very soon ferment, particularly in warm climates, so that the period 
 would be but short between its mild and intoxicating state. The juice 
 of the grape, which is usually called must, is known to ferment of itself 
 at a heat of about 70, and hence wine must have been early known, 
 particularly in hot climates where drink is so much required to allay 
 
 * Genesis iv. 1 7. 
 
3 
 
 thirst, a further proof that the vinous fermentation was familiar long- 
 anterior to the deluge. Carrying 1 this idea still farther towards the 
 creation, Milton seems to have entertained the opinion, that the fruit 
 of which our first parents had eaten, 
 
 " Whose mortal taste 
 
 Brought death into the world, and all our woe," 
 
 was of an intoxicating nature, when he says, 
 
 " Soon as the force of that fallacious fruit 
 That \vith exhilarating vapour bland 
 About their spirits had played, and inmost powers 
 Made err, was now exhaled." 
 
 The Rabbins, or Jewish doctors, were of the same belief ; the vine 
 being considered by them as the tree so strictly prohibited by the 
 Almighty. Doctor Lightfoot and many eminent theologians were 
 impressed with the like opinion ;* but all conjectures on this subject, 
 however respectably supported, are unsatisfactory, obscured as it is 
 by the lapse of ages and the silence of the grave. It is worthy of 
 remark, that these opinions of the learned are in coincidence with the 
 oral tradition of different nations. In the island of Madagascar, the 
 prevailing notion of the natives is a striking illustration. They believe 
 that the four rivers of paradise consisted of milk, wine, honey, and 
 oil ; and that Adam, who required no sustenance, having drunk of 
 the wine and tasted of the fruits, contrary to the command of God, 
 was driven from the garden, and subjected to the punishments which 
 were thus entailed upon him and his posterity. 
 
 Noah, it must be admitted, is certainly the first on record who 
 planted a vineyard, and experienced the inebriating quality of the 
 grape. The honour of this discovery the pagans afterwards attributed 
 to Bacchus, whom they worshipped as the sensual encourager offcast 
 and jollity ; hence Noah or Bacchus was denominated zeuth, which 
 by the Greeks was rendered zeus, signifying ferment. That Noah 
 seems to be aimed at by most nations, as the primitive inventor of 
 wine and the real original Bacchus, has been advocated by many 
 learned men. Bochart maintains that Cadmus first brought the wor 
 ship of Bacchus among the Grecians, and that the vine was introduced 
 to them by the Tyrians. He also thinks that Noah was the same as 
 the Saturn of the pagans, and Plutarch attributes the discovery of the 
 vine to that heathen deity ; hence all the reasonings of the ancients, 
 
 * Vide " Hebrew and Talmudical Exercitations upon St. Luke," 
 
4 
 
 on tliis subject, seemed to indicate the Promised Land as the native 
 country of the vine ; and even the Greeks themselves, in their mytho 
 logy, place the inventors of wine as inhabitants of Syria and the 
 adjacent countries. At the present day, a spot near mount Ararat 
 is still shewn as the place where Noah is said to have planted the first 
 vine ; and the wine, yet manufactured there, is of superior excellence.* 
 It is therefore more than probable that Assyria was the native region 
 of the vine, and there is no stretch of fancy in conceiving how it made 
 its way into other countries. If, as some conjecture, in relation to 
 what is stated in Matthew xxiv. 38, that an indulgence in inebriety 
 formed a large portion of those vices, for which God destroyed the 
 world by a deluge, it is a singular coincidence that the same crime 
 was the first instance of human weakness, after the infliction of that 
 punishment ; and that God, tlu-ough the spirit of prophecy given to 
 Noah, should pronounce a curse on those who treated the indiscretion 
 with levity. " Cursed be Canaan," said Noah ; " a servant of ser 
 vants shall he be unto his brethren ;" an anathema which to this day 
 rests on his posterity. The devoted nations which God destroyed, 
 before Israel, were the descendants of Canaan, as were also the 
 Phoenicians and Carthaginians, finally subjected and annihilated by 
 the Greeks and Romans. Ham, the meaning of which is burnt, or 
 black, was the father of Canaan, and the Africans, who are said to be 
 his offspring, bear evident marks of God s displeasure, since they are 
 scarcely treated as human beings, but bought and sold like beasts of 
 burden. The Mahometan negroes have a tradition, that as Japhet 
 was the most active in covering the nakedness of his father, which Ham 
 discovered, their subjection to Europeans, the descendants of Japhet, 
 is the consequence of the indiscretion of Ham. 
 
 In following the course of Scripture narrative, it appears that, as 
 the descendants of Noah increased, the vine, as supplying the means 
 of a more comfortable subsistence, was cultivated to considerable 
 extent, and that persons were purposely set apart for the manufacture 
 of wine, as presses were erected and the juice squeezed from the grape, 
 as soon as the fruit was ripe. Palestine, it is said, early abounded in 
 excellent vineyards. So great was their number, that of the single 
 inheritance belonging to the tribe of Judah alone, in order to denote 
 the superabundant produce, it was metaphorically said, that he washed 
 his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of the grape ; and 
 in 2 Kings xviii. 32, the land of Canaan is said to be a land of wine 
 and vineyards, and of the oil of the olive. So many and so various 
 
 Kotzebue s Narrative of a Journey through Persia, p. 94-7. 
 
are the notices of the prophets respecting wine, that it would be 
 tedious and unnecessary to quote them. Two kinds of wine are 
 particularly mentioned as of an excellent and superior description ; 
 namely, the wine of Eldon and that of Lebanon. The wine of Eldon 
 became an article of traffic, and was transported to Tyre and to more 
 distant places, where, with a variety of other valuable merchandize 
 described by Ezekiel, and evincing the advanced state of the arts at 
 the time, it was eagerly purchased. This wine was said to be well 
 known to the ancients, and, under the name of Chalibonian wine, was 
 noted for its peculiar excellence. It was made at Damascus, where 
 the Persians planted vineyards in order to obtain it in greater perfec 
 tion and in larger quantities. Its quality is said to have been that of 
 a luxurious and generous wine. The wine of Lebanon is described as 
 sweet scented, and said to have been much admired ; its excellence was 
 ascribed to the great richness of the vines which grew on the sides of 
 Mount Lebanon, where they had a good aspect or favourable expo 
 sure to the sun. The wines of Ascalon, Gaza, and Sarepta were held 
 in high estimation in distant countries. 
 
 From the testimony of ancient writers, we find that it early became 
 the practice to mix certain perfumes or sweet-scented herbs in the 
 wine to improve its flavour. With these odoriferous wines the 
 Hebrews are said to have been well acquainted. Of the composi 
 tion of these, and the preparation of the different ingredients, we are 
 not informed ; there can, however, be but little doubt that by means 
 of these mixtures there would be a much greater variety of wines 
 formerly than at present. Having but one kind of liquor, they would 
 no doubt modify and improve it as much as possible ; accordingly, we 
 find particular mention made of vinegar wine, medicated wine, spiced 
 wine, and wine mixed with perfumes ; but what particular kinds or 
 variety of spicery or perfumes were infused, can only be conjectured. 
 
 The Scriptures also inform us, that strong drink was administered 
 to criminals before execution, with a view to render them less sen 
 sible of pain ; and the Talmud says, that it consisted of a cup of 
 wine mingled with frankincense, the latter rendering the draught 
 more sacred on account of being used at the sacrifices. This bitter 
 and intoxicating cup was usually prepared by women in Jerusalem, 
 through compassionate motives, in order to inspire unfortunate cul 
 prits in their last moments with false courage, and to enable them to 
 meet their fate with fortitude. Pennant, in his History of London, 
 relates, that a similar practice formerly prevailed in England, it 
 being customary to present a great bowl of ale to malefactors, on 
 their way to the place of execution, as the last refreshment they were 
 
to receive in this life. The same ceremony is still kept up at Ham 
 burgh by a religious society of females, called the Blue Sisters. In 
 the case of a capital condemnation, the culprit, who is obliged to pass 
 their convent, while going to the fatal spot, is presented by those 
 pious ladies with a glass of white wine, which, when he has drank, 
 is dashed on the ground by the executioner, that no one may use 
 it ever after ; and also to signify regret on the occasion which brought 
 the unhappy mortal to drink of the accursed beverage.* The foun 
 dation of this custom may have been laid in the injunction of 
 Solomon, as delivered in Proverbs xxxi. 6, " Give strong drink to 
 him that is ready to perish, and wine to those that be of heavy 
 heart." In Jeremiah xxv. 16, allusion seems to be made to this 
 practice where the prophet foretels the destruction of Babylon in 
 these words : " And they shall drink, and be moved, and be mad, 
 because of the sword that I will send among them," perhaps of a 
 similar nature, was the bowl of wine, called nepenthe, which, Homer 
 tells us, Helen presented to the guests of Menelaus, when oppressed 
 with grief, to raise their spirits and banish care. The composition 
 of this, it is said, she had learned from the Egyptians, and is thus 
 beautifully described by the poet : 
 
 " Meanwhile, with genial joy to warm the soul, 
 Bright Helen mixed a mirth-inspiring bowl ; 
 Tempered with drugs of sovereign use t assuage 
 The boiling bosom of tumultuous rage ; 
 Charm d with that virtuous draught the exalted mind 
 All sense of woe delivers to the wind." 
 
 The practice, so prevalent among the Hebrews of mixing their 
 
 wine with a portion of drugs or bitter herbs, was always with a view 
 
 to make it stronger and more inebriating, by the addition of more 
 
 powerful ingredients. The prophets have, in numerous instances, 
 
 reprobated this practice ; but, the Jews, like the tipplers of modern 
 
 days, appreciated the pleasures of the bottle by the strength of its 
 
 contents. In Habakkuk ii. 15, it is written, "woe to him who 
 
 maketh his neighbour drunk, who putteth his flaggon to him and 
 
 maketh him drunken." In tin s the prophet is supposed to allude to 
 
 the conduct of Pharaoh towards king Zedekiah, who made him 
 
 drunk that he might insult over his weakness. The Rabbins relate 
 
 that one day Nebuchadnezzar, at an entertainment, sent for Zedekiah, 
 
 and gave him an intoxicating liquor to drink, purposely to expose 
 
 him to ridicule. 
 
 * Wilson s Trav. in Russia, &c. vol. i, p. 23. Neal s Trav. in Germany, &c. p. 25. 
 
7 
 
 Some have asserted tliat the strong drink, so often mentioned in 
 Scripture, means palm or date wine. Theodoret and Chrysostom were 
 of this opinion, and being both Syrians, their authority is unquestion 
 able. Judea, it is well known, was noted for the abundance and ex 
 cellence of its palm-trees, of which Fleury, in his Manners and Cus 
 toms of the Ancient Israelites, says those about Jericho yielded a 
 considerable profit ;* and Pliny calls this region "palmitibus inclyta" 
 renowned for palms. Jericho was styled the city of palms, by way 
 of eminence ; and Palmyra, said to have been built by Solomon, re 
 ceived its name from the same cause. That the Jews were 
 acquainted with the making of palm wine, there is little reason 
 to doubt ; but whether it was of a stronger body than that made 
 from the grape we are not informed, as we have seen that the latter 
 underwent many changes by infusions arid mixtures. 
 
 The wine mentioned in Exodus xxix. 40, and Numbers xxvhl. 7, 
 as " a drink offering," is considered to have been made from the date* 
 or fruit of the palm tree, the juice of which, from containing a great 
 quantity of saccharine matter, being as Doctor Shaw expresses it, 
 of a more luscious sweetness than honey, could not fail of producing 
 drink of a very inebriating quality. In Hebrew it is called Siker : 
 the word shecer from shakar, to inebriate, signifies in that language 
 any kind of fermented liquors, or strong drink. " Any intoxicating 
 liquor," says St. Jerome, " is called sikera, from the Greek word 
 o-i^aty whether made of corn, apples, honey, dates or any other 
 fruits.f One of the four prohibited liquors among the Mahometans 
 in India, is called sakar, which signifies inebriating drink in general, 
 but especially date wine. From the original word, Doctor Adam 
 Clarke observes, we have probably borrowed our term cider, which 
 
 among us exclusively implies the fermented juice of apples Thus, 
 
 from a review of the sacred writers, it does not appear that the people 
 in their day had any knowledge of the art of extracting spirit by evapo 
 ration. Had that discovery been known, it is likely they would have 
 noticed it, as well as the other arts of which they have given us an 
 account. Indeed, the free use of wine, which was then generally 
 practised, may be said to have prevented a search after any other kind 
 of liquor ; for it is only in those places where the vine is not cultivated 
 that the first notice of any other beverage is found. 
 
 Among the Egyptians, whose country was famous for its corn, 
 Herodotus tells us, that beer, or a wine drawn from barley, was the 
 
 * Clarke s Edition, London, 1821, p. 39. 
 
 f Epist. ad Nepotianum de Vita Clericorum; et in Isai. xxvii. 1. 
 
8 
 
 liquor principally used j* he describes the clergy as feasting on the 
 sacrifices and quaffing the sacred wine; and relates that in the 
 time of Cambyses, 529 years before the Christian era, the Syrians 
 were well skilled in the manufacture of palm wine ; and that among 
 the presents sent by that monarch to the Ethiopians was a vessel full 
 of that liquor. The same writer informs us, that the Lotophagi, a 
 people of Africa, who cliiefly subsisted on the produce of the lotos 
 plant, made a species of wine from its berries. According to Scylax, 
 the geographer, who flourished before Christ 522 years, the lotos 
 served these people both for meat and drink, and from that circum 
 stance they derived their name. Strabo says, they were not sensi 
 ble of the want of water in the burning and sandy region they inha 
 bited, as the root, stalks, &c. of the lotos, supplied them with rich 
 liquor, as well as delicious food. Ulysses and his companions are 
 said to have been enchanted with it, as it made those who eat of it 
 forget their country and relations. 
 
 we touched, by various errors toss d, 
 
 The land of Lotos, and the flowery coast. 
 
 We climb d the beach, and springs of water found, 
 
 Then spread our hasty banquet on the ground. 
 
 Three men were sent, deputed from the crew, 
 
 (An herald one) the dubious coast to view, 
 
 And learn what habitants possessed the place. 
 
 They went and found a hospitable race, 
 
 Not prone to ill, nor strange to foreign guest, 
 
 They eat, they drink, and nature gives the feast ; 
 
 The trees around them all their food produce, 
 
 Lotos the name, divine, nectareous juice I 
 
 (Thence called lotophagi) which whoso tastes 
 
 Insatiate riots in the sweet repasts, 
 
 Nor other home, nor other care intends, 
 
 But quits his house, his country and his friends.f 
 
 Of the lotos there are various species ; that, referred to by Hero 
 dotus, is said to be the Egyptian lotos, a sort of lily, growing on 
 the banks of the Nile. The inhabitants make bread of the seed, 
 and eat the root, which has much the size and appearance of an 
 apple or potato. Savary saw the people, who live on the bor 
 ders of the Menzel lake, feed on it. Another description of the 
 lotos is highly esteemed in China, where it is called Lien-hoa ; it 
 anciently formed a portion of the materials used in making the liquor 
 of immortality, a drink mentioned in a subsequent part of this 
 
 Herodotus, book ii. s. 77.. f Vide Odyssey, 1. ix. v. 95. 
 
9 
 
 Work. As it is uncertain from what species of the lotos, wine 
 was made, it is probable that it was from the lotos or Nebek tree, 
 mentioned by Burckhardt, which he found in great plenty in Arabia.* 
 This fruit ripens in March, when it becomes a prime article of food, 
 nutritive in the highest degree, and capable of being made into wine, 
 or distilled into a strong liquor. 
 
 Xenophon relates, in his history of the retreat of the ten thousand 
 Greeks, after the battle of Cunaxa, that in that part of Armenia next 
 to Curdistan, the inhabitants had a method of preparing a potent 
 liquor from what appears to have been barley. " The soil," says he, 
 " is good for arable and pasture, and the produce abundant ; yet the 
 people inhabit caves with their cattle, poultry, &c. they fill open 
 vessels with barley and water up to the brim." The time for the 
 fermentation and other parts of the process is not told, but the liquor 
 is described as very strong, if not mixed with water, and pleasant to 
 those who are accustomed to it. Beside the vessels in which it was 
 kept, lay hollow canes or reeds of various sizes, through which the 
 people drank by suction; but, in token of hospitality, they allowed 
 their Grecian guests to drink out of the vessels, " after the manner of 
 oxen."f Notwithstanding this drink made from grain, there was 
 abundance of palm wine, as well as vinegar, found by the Greeks in 
 the villages, during this memorable retreat ; and so numerous were the 
 palm trees, that they were cut down to construct bridges over the canals 
 and ditches which they had to pass ;J probably the liquor made from 
 barley was the same as that called zythem, made in some of the pro 
 vinces of Asia Minor, mentioned by Diodorus Siculus upwards of 
 800 years afterwards. Dioscorides, as also Galen, describes the ale 
 of their time as affecting the nervous system powerfully, and the head 
 in particular, with very painful effect, so that it has been conjectured 
 that the ale alluded to, was not only the produce of bad fermentation, 
 but unpreserved by any antiseptic aroma like the hop. 
 
 The invention of these beverages is attributed to Isis, or to Osiris, 
 who are said to have reigned jointly in Egypt, and are deified in 
 ancient mythology. Some writers maintain that Osiris is the same 
 as Misraim, the son of Cham, to whom the invention of ale is solely 
 ascribable ; but to whom these luxuries owe their origin, it would now 
 be impossible to determine. The Egyptians and Hebrews, as we 
 find from Moses, who was versed in all their learning, understood 
 
 * Burckhardt s Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. p. 252. 
 
 f Xen. Anab. p. 332. J Ibid. b. II. Acts vii. 22. 
 
10 
 
 the art of dyeing, smelting, and working in metals, architecture, 
 sculpture, and engraving on precious stones, besides the preservation 
 of the dead by antiseptic substances. These, with many other inven 
 tions, were communicated to the Egyptians by the Hebrews long 
 before they were known in Greece. Though the making of glass of 
 various colours may be added, as a discovery known to the Egyp 
 tians, from a very remote antiquity, as well as the art of rendering gold 
 potable, as appeal s from Exodus xxxii. 20 ; yet we no where read 
 that they ever attained a higher knowledge in the secrets of chemistry. 
 
 In the practice of the medical art, the most ancient physicians appear 
 ignorant of the mode of extracting any of the essential oils by steam 
 or vapours. Hippocrates, justly called the father of physic, who 
 flourished between the 80th and 88th Olympiad, or about 400 years 
 before Christ, is the oldest author, whose writings, expressly on the 
 medical art, are preserved ; and in the whole of his works, there is not 
 a single expression which could warrant the idea of a retort or alembic, 
 having ever been used by him. 
 
 Some have maintained, from a passage in the Gospel of St. Matthew 
 yi. 30, that the use of the still was partially known in our Lord s time, 
 as they intimate that he alluded to the distillation of herbs for medi 
 cinal purposes, when he used the word xhifiavov., (klibanon) where he 
 said, speaking of the grass of the field, which to-day is, and to-morrow 
 is cast into the oven, " eis ton klibanon" " into the oven" " into the 
 still," according to others. But, as there does not appear a vestige of 
 evidence in any ancient author, or writer on the Scriptures, that the 
 art of distillation was then known, such a translation may be said to 
 have more of fancy than learning in it. Pliny the elder, who was 
 nearly contemporary with our Saviour, and who, in his natural history, 
 has shewn himself so curious and so judicious a master in the compi 
 lation of facts and observations, appears to be altogether ignorant of 
 any stronger liquor, than that produced by fermentation. He noticed 
 the various drinks* of the Egyptians, in use in his day, which were 
 manufactured from grain steeped in water ; and assures us, that they 
 were very strong, and drunk without any mixture whatever. These 
 beverages were distinguished by various names, such as zythum, 
 C03lia, ceria, Ceris vinum, or wine of Ceres, curmi, cervisia, &c. each 
 literally meaning ale, or beer. The making of them, he says, was 
 known to the several nations, who inhabited the west of Europe. The 
 mode of manufacture, however, was somewhat different in different 
 countries ; but the nature and properties of the liquor were every 
 where the same. The people of Spain, in particular, he informs us, 
 
II 
 
 had arrived to such perfection in the art, that the drink made by them 
 could be kept to a very great age.* Some think that Pliny meant 
 distillation, when, after the enumeration of those beverages, he tells 
 us, " that water was made to intoxicate," and because he alludes to it 
 as an extraordinary invention. This intoxicating water would cer 
 tainly appeal- to be very different from that obtained by the ordinary 
 mode of fermentation, if the passage be read as unconnected with the 
 preceding observations ; but as this cannot be done with propriety, 
 it means nothing more than the intoxicating power or strength 
 acquired by the water in the fermenting process of the grain. " Heu 
 mira vitiorum solertia! inventum est quemadmodum aqua quoque 
 inebriaret." " Oh, wondrous craft of the vices ! by some mode or 
 other, it was discovered that water also might be made to inebriate." 
 This passage led Mr. Murphy, in a note in his translation of Tacitus, 
 to make Pliny speak as if the Egyptians had their intoxicating liquors 
 distilled from grain ; an error into which he, in common with many 
 other respectable writers, has fallen, j In the 33d book, chap. 8, he 
 describes the mode of obtaining an artificial quicksilver by distillation. 
 The apparatus employed was two earthen pots and an iron pan ; but 
 he does not, in any other part of his work, describe the application of 
 a like apparatus to the extracting of the juices of vegetable matter, if 
 we except his account of the manner in which oil was obtained from 
 pitch, in book xv, chap. 7, where he says, " the vapour arising from 
 the boiling pitch was collected on fleeces of wool spread over the pots, 
 and afterwards extracted from them by expression." This was evi 
 dently distillation in its infancy, clearly proving that it was not known 
 in his time, in a more improved state. 
 
 Pliny, in treating of the wine of his own country, details, with won 
 derful minuteness, the progress of its manufacture, and the perfection 
 to which it had then arrived. It was not, however, until about 600 
 years after the foundation of the Roman empire, that vines were cul 
 tivated, and that wine came into general use. Before that period 
 wines were so scarce, that, in the sacrifices, the libations to the gods 
 were ordered to be made only with milk.J Numa, the successor of 
 Romulus, who enacted this observance, directed, from the great 
 scarcity of wine that prevailed, that no man should besprinkle the 
 funeral pile with it, and when the sacrifices to the gods were permitted 
 in wine, it was decreed, with a view to encourage the plantation of 
 vineyards, that all wine so offered should be the produce of such vine 
 plants as had been cut and pruned. 
 
 Pliny, book xiv. chap. 22. f De Morib. German, vol. iv. p. 268. 
 
 % Pliny, b. xiv. chap. 12. 
 
12 
 
 It was in these times of simplicity that women were forbidden to 
 drink wine ; and for that reason their near relations were permitted 
 to salute them when they came to their houses, in order to smell 
 whether they had tasted any Temetum,for so they termed wine, which 
 if discovered, gave their husbands a right to punish them. According 
 to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romulus was the author of the law which 
 permitted a husband to kill his wife for drinking wine, as well as for 
 the crime of adultery. It is related that Ignatius Mecennius, having 
 killed his wife with a cudgel, because he found her drinking wine out 
 of a cask, was acquitted of the murder by Romulus.* Fabius Pictor, 
 in his annals, says that a Roman lady was starved to death by her own 
 relations for having picked the lock of a chest in which were the keys 
 of the wine cellar .f We are assured by Pliny, that Cneius Domitius, 
 a judge in Rome, in the like case pronounced sentence judicially 
 against a woman who was defendant, in this form, " that it seemed she 
 had drunk more wine without her husband s knowledge than was 
 needful for the preservation of her health, and therefore that she 
 should lose the benefit of her dowry. 
 
 We read that Lucius Papyrius, general of the Roman armies, when 
 at the point of engaging the Samnites, made no other vow than that 
 he would offer to Jupiter a little cup or goblet of wine, in case he 
 gained the victory. Men in those days were also forbidden to drink 
 it, till the age of thirty. 
 
 Towards the decline of the Roman commonwealth, and under the 
 first emperors, the women were not only accustomed to drink wine, 
 but carried the excess of it as far as the men, which, if we credit 
 Pliny, exceeded any thing of the kind in modern times. To prevent 
 females from committing excessive crimes, the lawgivers in ancient 
 times prohibited the free use of wine. Seneca complains bitterly that, 
 in his day, the custom of prohibition was almost universally violated. 
 The weak and delicate complexion of the women, says he, is not 
 changed, but their manners are changed and no longer the same. 
 They value themselves upon carrying excess of wine to as great a 
 height as the most robust men ; like them they pass whole nights at 
 table, and with a full glass of unmixed wine in their hands, they glory 
 in vieing with them ; and if they can, in overcoming them. Theoph- 
 rastus says that great drunkards, when they drank for a wager, used 
 to take the powder of pumice stone before setting to. if This pro 
 bably gave rise to the invention of " devils" those choice and whetting 
 tit bits, so much resorted to after dinner by the topers of the present 
 day. Some of the Romans even went so far as to take hemlock in 
 * Pliny, bookxiv. chap. 1$.* f Ibid. J Pliny, b. xxxvi. chap. 21. 
 
13 
 
 order to make them drink. Tiberius Claudius, who was fond of a 
 goblet himself, knighted Novellius Torquatus, by the title of Tricon- 
 gius, or the three -gallon knight, for drinking, at one draught, tliree 
 congii of wine, equal to nine quarts, three three-eighth pints, English 
 wine measure, without taking breath. 
 
 It was generally believed at Rome, that Caius Piso owed his 
 advancement at the court of Tiberius to his extraordinary powers in 
 that way, as it is said he would sit for two days and two nights drinking 
 without intermission, or even stirring from the table. Tergilla, who 
 challenged Marcus Cicero, son of the famous orator, to a drinking-bout, 
 boasted that he usually drank two gallons at a draught. In later 
 times we read, that the emperor Maximin, who was no less remark 
 able for his gigantic stature, than for his great strength, would drink 
 six gallons of wine without getting drunk. Maximin is said to have 
 been eight and a half feet high, made in proportion ; and if, agreeably 
 to the old adage, " good eating requires good drinking," we need not 
 be surprised at his powers in that way, when it is asserted, that he 
 ate forty pounds of flesh every day. Sinclair, in his code of health, 
 tells us that a Mr. Vanhorn, of modern notoriety, drank in the course 
 of tliree and twenty years, 35,688 bottles, or 59 pipes of red port 
 a quantity, perhaps, not exceeded by any of the drunkards of antiquity. 
 What a prodigious stomach and constitution this man must have had ! 
 
 Pliny exhibits a strong proof of the great fondness which the 
 Romans, as well as other nations, had for this liquor, in stating that 
 not less than 195 sorts were in general use; but of the wines most 
 esteemed, he reduces the number to eighty, two-thirds of which he 
 reckons the produce of Italy. Those wines which took their name 
 from Opimius, in whose consulate they were made, some of which 
 were preserved to Pliny s time, that is, nearly 200 years, were not, 
 from their great excellence, to be purchased for money. If a small 
 quantity of any of them were mixed with others, it is said they com 
 municated a surprising strength and flavour. The empress Julia 
 Augusta often said, that she was indebted to the goodness of the 
 Pucine wine for living to the age of eighty-two. This wine was the 
 produce of the grape planted along the Adriatic sea, or gulf of Ve 
 nice, upon a steep and rugged hill, not far from the source of the 
 river Timavus, and was thought to have received some of its valua 
 ble qualities from the vapours of the sea, but more from the nature 
 of the soil and the favorable situation of the vineyards. The wine 
 Ccecuban manufactured from the grape of the poplar marshes of 
 Amyclae, was much sought after before the time of Augustus Ca3sar ; 
 but from the preference given to Setine, a wine produced in the 
 
14 
 
 vineyards above the forum Appii, Coecuban fell into disrepute, and 
 Setine was preferred for its various medicinal virtues. Amongst all 
 the wines of Italy, the Falernian, so much celebrated by Horace, was 
 in the greatest repute, and by Martial pronounced immortal, and 
 justly so, when we consider that its praises have been sung by im 
 mortal bards. It was so very strong and rough, that Horace called 
 it a fiery wine, and it was not drank till it had been kept ten years. 
 Oalen says it was in its best condition between the tenth and twen 
 tieth. To correct its roughness, it was either mixed with honey or 
 wine of a weaker nature, by which it was rendered delicious some 
 times it was diluted with water to moderate its strength. Faler 
 nian may be said to have been amongst the ancients what Tokay is 
 amongst the moderns. The Faustian wine, a species of the Faler 
 nian, was of so spirituous a nature, that it would burn with a 
 pure and light flame. The Alban, or wines of Alba, made near 
 the City of Rome, are ranked by Pliny as only a third rate wine, 
 but praised by both Horace and Juvenal when new it was luscious 
 and of a thick consistency ; and in about fifteen years considered in 
 its best state. The Surrentine wines, the produce of Aminean 
 grapes, said by Tiberius Caesar to be so much recommended by phy 
 sicians, were, from their acidity, called by him generous vinegar but 
 those wines were liked by Caligula. The Massic is a wine described 
 by Martial. The Fundanian, or wine of Signia, was so rough and 
 astringent as to be mostly used for medicine. The Mamertine was a 
 light wine from about Messina in Sicily, and that which was ordered 
 by Julius Caesar to be used in the feasts of the city ; and the Potulane 
 wines were so called, from the first planters of the vine from which 
 they were produced. The wines of Tuscany, the Praetutian, the 
 Ancona, the Palmesian, from the vines growing up the palm or date 
 tree ; Cesenation and Mecsenatian wines ; the Rhaetian, within the 
 territory of Verona, spoken of by Virgil, and ranked by him next to 
 Falernian ; the Lateniensian, the Graviscan, and Statonian wines ; 
 the wines made between the Pyrenean Mils and the Alps, were with 
 various others, celebrated, and many of them in great demand in 
 Pliny s day. From the foregoing particulars, it may be inferred, that 
 the abundance of wines amongst the Romans, rendered every other 
 description of intoxicating drink unnecessary ; and that the distilla 
 tion of spirituous liquors was wholly unknown to them. Neither the 
 ruins of Herculaneum nor Pompeii, afford any vestige of the knowledge 
 of such an art, while the Amphorae, which held the wine, are yet 
 found in the cellars of several of the houses, after a lapse of nearly two 
 tliousand years. 
 
15 
 
 Among the Greeks, wine was also the favourite beverage. Homer 
 mentions a very famous wine of Maronea in Thrace, supposed to be 
 the same as that carried by Ulysses when he visited the Cyclops ; 
 this wine, much celebrated by Pliny, was so strong as to bear mixing 
 with twenty times its quantity of water ; but it was common for the 
 natives to drink it unmixed. The wines of Cyprus, Lesbos, (now 
 Mytelene) and Chios, were much celebrated. Those of Lesbos, Chios, 
 and Thasos have respectively claimed superiority. Corcyra, Crete, 
 Cnidus, and Rhodes, yielded wines of the richest body, and most deli 
 cate flavour, with which a great portion of Europe was supplied. 
 Those of Cyprus, as well as the wines of many other Greek islands, 
 are, as will be noticed hereafter, in great esteem to this day. Horace 
 often mentions the wines of Lesbos, and represents them as very 
 wholesome and agreeable ; they were said to have been less odorous 
 than some other wines, but having so delicious a flavour as to 
 deserve the name of ambrosia rather than wine; and when old, 
 were denominated nectar, from their comparative excellence. Not 
 withstanding this character of the Lesbian wines, Pliny ranks them 
 inferior to Chios or Thasos ; and Strabo reckons the Chian the best 
 of Greek wines, while Virgil calls the Phanaean, the king of all wines : 
 so much did the wines of Chios surpass those of every other country, 
 that the inhabitants of that island are thought to be the first who 
 planted the vine, and taught the use of it to other nations.* The 
 desert wines among the Greeks were the Thasian and Lesbian, and 
 when the Romans became acquainted with the excellence of the Greek 
 wines, the Chian and Lesbian were their favourite desert wines. 
 Virgil praises the Argitis, a white wine, as capable of being preserved 
 for an extraordinary length of years ; besides which, we read of 
 lighter kinds of wines, such as those of Naxos; the Mendean, a 
 Thracian wine, and the Omphacites, procured from Lesbos and Thasos. 
 The frequent mention of wine, the praises bestowed on it, the flowing 
 goblets, and luxurious banquets, as described by Homer 1000 years 
 before the Christian era, shew its value and the attachment of that 
 great poet to the comforts of the table and to jovial society. Horace 
 was of this opinion when he says, 
 
 Homer, in praise of the profuse, 
 
 No doubt loved well the balmy juice. f 
 
 All the wines already enumerated were in such esteem at Rome, 
 according to Marcus Varro, quoted by Pliny, that in the year G75 
 
 * RolHn. f Horace, Epist. 19. b. i. 
 
16 
 
 after the foundation of that city, Publius Lucinius Crassus and Lucius 
 Julius Caesar, the then censors, published an edict, and proclaimed, 
 " that no man should sell any Greek wine or Arminean, but after eight 
 asses the amphora," or about a penny a gallon.* Thus it would appear 
 that a duty was levied on wine amongst the Romans ; and this is con 
 firmed by Cicero, in his defence of M. Fonteius, as well as by other 
 historical records still extant. The Rhodian wine was frequently used 
 by the Romans in their libations, as is evident from Virgil 
 The Rhodian, sacred to the solemn day, 
 In second services is poured to Jove, 
 And best accepted by the gods above, f 
 
 From the great price and estimation of Chios wine, no person was 
 indulged with more than one draught of it at a meal; a proof of this 
 is given by Varro in the instance of Lucius Lucullus, who, when a boy, 
 never saw more than a cup served up at his father s table after dinner. 
 After the return of this same Lucullus from Asia, in an entertainment, 
 which he gave to the citizens of Rome, he distributed among the 
 people more than 100,000 gallons of wine.J Of Caius Sentius, the 
 praetor, it is said that he never used Chian wine on account of its 
 dearness, but because it was prescribed to him by the physicians as 
 useful for the cardiaca passio, or palpitation of the heart, to which he 
 was subject ; on the contrary, such was the love of Hortensius, the 
 famous orator, for it, that when he died, he left to his heir about 
 10,000 barrels, which had been stored in his cellar. The prevailing 
 quality of this, as well as of the other wines already mentioned, was 
 sweetness with delicacy of flavour. 
 
 Among the Greeks, it appears, sweet and odoriferous wines were 
 always in great estimation. In many instances, when the wine was 
 deficient in saccharine matter, they sweetened it by putting flour 
 kneaded with honey into the vessels. This practice, is said, to have 
 been first introduced by Aristseus, and was then denominated oinomeli, 
 honied wine. Origanum, aromatics, fruits, and flowers, were also 
 infused. The wine of Byblos, in Phoenicia, was much esteemed for 
 the strength of the perfumes with which it was impregnated. But of 
 all the mixtures and infusions, which were common among them, that 
 of pouring salt-water into wine was the most singular. It was done, 
 it would seem, with a view to promote digestion and prevent the wine 
 from flying to the head. One measure of sea-water was considered 
 
 * The amphora contained something less than 26 quarts. 
 
 f Dryden s Virgil, Georg. ii. J Pliny, b. xiv. chap. 14, 
 
17 
 
 sufficient for fifty of wine.* This mixture, which was called Biseon, 
 was accidentally discovered by a servant in Greece, who, to deceive 
 his master, poured sea-water into a vessel out of which he had stolen 
 and drank some wine ; and it was thought to have improved the 
 flavour of the liquor. In Rhodes and Cos, a considerable quantity of 
 this wine was made, which the Romans and others imitated ; and in 
 modern Greece, salt-water is used in the preparation of wine, on the 
 grounds that where the Saccharine principle is superabundant in the 
 must, the sea water assists fermentation, and improves the strength 
 and flavour of the produce. 
 
 If we credit some authors, wine was not the only beverage known 
 to the Greeks ; for, although Homer is silent on the matter, they 
 knew, from a remote period, how to compose, with water and barley, 
 a liquor, which, for strength and goodness, approached near to wine.f 
 Ovid, speaking of the meeting that Ceres, exhausted with weariness, 
 had with an old woman, named Baubo, says, that the goddess, having 
 demanded some water, the old woman presented her with a liquor 
 manufactured from dried grain. Thus expressed in the translation : 
 
 " The goddess knocking at the little door, 
 Twas open d by a woman old and poor, 
 Who, when she begg d for water, gave her ale, 
 Brewed long, but well preserved from being stale. "J 
 
 This was their oinos kristhinos cerevisia, or wine made from barley. 
 They also understood the making of palm wine, called oinos epsetos, 
 sometimes termed oxos epseton, for oxos was a general name for all 
 made wines. The ease, however, with which the juice of the vine 
 was obtained, rendered the use of these wines less common, and 
 almost unnecessary. 
 
 The method of making wine among the Greeks was nearly as fol 
 lows : About the end of September, or early in October, when 
 the fruit was deemed sufficiently ripe, the grapes were collected, and 
 usually exposed for ten days to the sun and the coolness of the night, 
 in order that they might become more luscious and juicy. With many 
 it was a practice to make three gatherings of the fruit during the 
 vintage, for the purpose of producing wines of different qualities, while 
 other means were resorted to for improving the strength, taste, and 
 flavour : a predominant one was that of twisting the tendrils in order 
 to destroy vegetation, leaving the fruit, for about a month, exposed to 
 
 * Vide Travels of Anacharsis the younger, by the Abbe Barthelemi. 
 t Diod. 1. iv. p. 248. J Vide Metam. 1. v. v. 449, &c. also Bayle, article 
 
 Thesmophoria. Arch apologia Grrcca, vol. ii. p. 3(]0. 
 
 C 
 
IS 
 
 the full influence of the atmosphere. After this exposure, the grapes 
 were put into the shade for five days, and, on the sixth, stamped or 
 bruised in a vat ; but as this process was found tedious and trouble 
 some, the ripe grapes immediately from the vine itself were put into 
 a cistern, in which was a hole, or vent near the bottom, with a vessel 
 beneath to receive the liquor. In this cistern, a man with his bare 
 feet and legs pressed out the juice, ; but to relieve them from this 
 labour, a piece of machinery was afterwards substituted. This 
 was simply a beam, erected perpendicularly, having a cross acting as 
 a lever, with a pressure of stones above, to give it greater weight or 
 power, and which was worked by means of cordage. The practice, 
 however, of treading out the juice with the feet, seems still to prevail 
 in most eastern countries.* The Greeks did not keep their wine in 
 casks as we do, for the use of vessels of that sort was unknown to 
 them, as appears from Herodotus, who informs us, that wine was 
 exported from different parts of Greece to Egypt, in earthen 
 jars, which, when emptied, were afterwards sent into the Syrian 
 deserts to preserve the water of the Nile.f The Athenians were 
 famous for making these and other great vessels of earthenware, 
 of which they claimed the invention ; but, according to Aulus Gellius, 
 the Samians were the first potters. This seems more probable, as, in 
 the island of Samos, a fine species of red earth is found, from which, 
 with the assistance of linseed oil, iron may be extracted ; and from 
 this clay the ancient vases, so much celebrated, are supposed to have 
 been manufactured. These vases were tastefully formed, exceed 
 ingly light, and varnished with scented bitumen, receiving a polish 
 like our finest crockery ware, and imparting an aromatic flavour to 
 whatever they contained. Sometimes they were coated on the inside 
 with pitch, mastic, and oil, incorporated with various odoriferous in 
 gredients. Many of these vessels were of enormous size, particularly 
 those used l)y the Romans, and they were commonly hooped to 
 prevent them from bursting. One is said to have contained one 
 hundred and twenty amphorae, or 810 gallons of wine, and another is 
 known to have held 210 gallons: but the Greeks preferred jars or 
 vases of much smaller magnitude. The skins of beasts were also used 
 for the same purpose, a custom which continues to this day, where 
 wood is not plenty. The leathern bags, or borackios, thus used, were 
 generally made out of the skins of goats, stripped off without being 
 cut, the places from which the legs, &c. had been extracted, sewed up, 
 and the top either tied or sealed. The Arabians of the present day 
 
 * Chandlers Travels, p. 2, f Herodotus, b. JIT. chap. i. 6, 
 
follow this custom, and have a very ingenious method of taking off 
 the skins. The head of the goat, or sheep, is first removed ; and 
 while the body is yet warm, the hand is introduced beneath the skiu 
 of the neck, and worked round until the two forefeet are drawn out. 
 The skin is then stripped off so as to be without a cut or mark on it, 
 and this forms the leathern bag just described. The bottles mentioned 
 in Scripture were of this sort, the use of glass being then unknown. 
 So we read, that when Abraham sent Hagar away, he put a bottle of 
 water upon her shoulder, and hence our Saviour s instruction not to 
 put new wine into old bottles, meaning that the fermentation of the 
 wine would, more readily, burst an old than a new bottle of tlus des 
 cription.* It is generally believed, that the skins of animals were 
 the most ancient receptacles of all liquids, but more especially of wine 
 and they were rendered water-tight by a coating of resinous, oily 
 matter : it was the skin of a goat in which Ulysses carried a supply 
 of wine presented to him by the priest of Apollo, when he visited the 
 cavern of the Cyclops. The largest of these wine-bags, of which there 
 is any account, was that exhibited at a feast given by Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus, and drawn on a car 75 feet long by 42 feet broad : this bag 
 was composed of panthers skins, and contained 20,250 gallons. The 
 modern Greeks convey their wines to different parts in leathern or 
 skin bags, such as those used by the Spaniards and Portuguese for 
 the same purpose ; and they are preferred to every other sort of 
 vessel in consequence of being more portable. It is the practice, in 
 many parts of the East, in making such wine-bottles, to turn the hairy 
 side of the skin inwards. To the Gauls, who settled on the banks of 
 the Po, we are indebted for the useful invention of preserving wine in 
 casks or vessels of wood. j 
 
 As chemistry may be said to have formed no part of the general 
 knowledge of the ancient Greeks, it would be vain to look for any 
 thing like distillation among them ; for, although an ingenious and 
 polished people, they do not appear to have been acquainted with that 
 art. Medicine was much esteemed by them, but their pharmacopeia, 
 until a late period, scarcely ever extended beyond the list of simples 
 used by Hippocrates.J Their early intercourse with the Egyptians 
 made them familiar with the working of metals, but none of their 
 writers anterior to Pliny, whose works have descended to us, shew 
 that they were acquainted with the raising of steam or vapour to the 
 same extent or in the manner described by that celebrated Roman. 
 
 * Matthew ix. and xvii. f Rollin. 
 
 J For a list of these simples, see Le Clerc s Hist, de laMed.part I. b. iii. cap. 23, 
 
 Vide page 1 1 of this work. 
 
20 
 
 Dioscorides, who was physician to Cleopatra, and contemporary with 
 Pliny, was obliged to collect essential oil on the fleece of a sheep, a 
 proof that he knew no other mode of distillation. One hundred and 
 thirty one years subsequent to this, Galen, a celebrated physician of 
 Pergamus, who wrote many books not only upon medical, but philo 
 sophical subjects, speaks of distillation per descensum, but it is conceived 
 he meant nothing more by this than what regarded the melting of 
 metals. 
 
 Faber,* a writer in alchymy of some eminence, states that the art 
 of distillation was known to Democritus, who was contemporary with 
 Hippocrates, " primus enim inter Grsecos distillaudi peritus fuit De 
 mocritus distillationis autem peritiam didicit in Egypto," and that 
 alchymy flourished in the time of Hermes Trismegistus, in Egypt, 
 about A. M. 2434. He admits that neither Hippocrates nor Galen 
 knew any thing of distillation ; yet it appears extraordinary, that the 
 most enlightened people on the earth should have remained ignorant 
 of this art, 561 years after Democritus, unless it was kept a secret by 
 him as well as by the Egyptians. In the 12th chapter and 20th 
 verse of St. Paul s epistle to the Romans, there is a metephorical 
 allusion to the same practice, which is thus beautifully expressed by 
 Parnell : 
 
 So artists melt the sullen ore of lead, 
 
 By heaping coals of fire upon its head ; 
 
 In the kind warmth the metals learn to glow, 
 
 And free from dross the silver runs below. 
 
 In like manner, Caligula, according to Pliny, endeavoured to collect, 
 by sublimation, gold from orpiment, a mineral substance found in diffe 
 rent parts of the woiid.f Theophrastus and Dioscorides also describe 
 the extraction of tar as effected by a similar process ; and it is strange, 
 that the same mode of obtaining it is still followed by the people of 
 the northern provinces of Sweden. 
 
 During the reign of Dioclesian, who succeded Marcus Aurelius 
 Numerianus, in the year 284, we find the Egyptians had carried their 
 speculations in chemistry so far as to induce that emperor to publish 
 an edict for the suppression of all the ancient books that treated of 
 the art of making gold and silver, and which he wantonly committed 
 to the flames, being fearful, that if they became wealthy, they would be 
 induced to resist the Roman yoke, and set him at defiance.^ But 
 
 * Faber wrote in 1627, and his works were printed at Strasburg in 1632. 
 
 f Pliny, b. xxxiii. cap. 4. 
 
 J Vide Suidas in voce X tfJ/#, Gibbon, vol. ii. p. 137, 
 
although this branch of speculative knowledge gave rise to many useful 
 experiments, and was carried to a great height, we learn from the 
 commentary on the second book of Aristotle s Meteors, written by 
 Olympiodorus, a peripatetic philosopher, who flourished under the 
 second Theodosius, that distillation was not then known, at least in a 
 more improved state, than it was 400 years before ; for he says, that 
 " Sailors, when they labour under a scarcity of fresh water at sea, boil 
 the sea-water, and suspend large sponges from the mouth of a brazen 
 vessel, to imbibe what is evaporated, and in drawing this off from the 
 sponges, they find it to be sweet water." 
 
 It is said that Zosimus, the Panopolite, who lived at the close of the 
 4th or beginning of the 5th century, has given some figures of a distilling 
 apparatus, which Olaus Borrichius, the learned Danish professor, lias 
 exhibited in his Her metis et ^Egyptiorum Chemicorum Sapientia, p. 1 56. 
 This Zosimus was the first who used the word c hernia, which, in the 
 Arabic language, signifies concealment, and from which Boerhaave and 
 others derive the term chemistry, implying the hidden or occult science. 
 Zosimus was a man of considerable attainments, he wrote twenty-four 
 books of Imouth, or chemistry, addressed to his sister Theosebia. Most 
 if not all, of these treatises are preserved in the king s library at Paris, 
 but have not yet been translated. From the specimen and account, 
 however, which Borrichius gives of them they seem to be mystical and 
 enthusiastic.* Zosimus is of opinion, that both the name and science 
 of chemistry existed before the flood : and there is certainly reason to 
 believe, that as the arts had been cultivated by the antediluvians, that 
 the ancient Chaldeans and Egyptians preserved traces of them, which 
 were not obliterated when the philosophers and historians of Greece 
 visited Africa and Asia ; they are even discernible amidst the confusion 
 of names, dates, and lapse of time, in spite of the clouds of fables with 
 which they are enveloped. Hence it is not unlikely, that Vulcan and 
 Tubal-Cain are the same person, since both were skilled in such works 
 as required the operations of fire ; and that Vul-can is but a corruption 
 or contraction of Tubal-Cain, appears higlily probable. 
 
 In tracing the etymology of the word chemistry, it seems to be 
 derived from the name of the country in which it first had existence. 
 Egypt is frequently denominated by the Hebrew writers the land of 
 Cham ; and Chami, or Chemi, was the name by which it was most gene 
 rally known to the aborigines. Plutarch says, that Egypt was called 
 Chemia, from the blackness of the soil. Cham in Hebrew signifies hot, 
 Cham also signifies black ; and Chemia,j but with an ain for the final 
 
 Boerhaave s Elementa Chemia?. 
 f Valpy s Classical Journal, vol. xviii. p. 229, &c. 
 
t " 22 
 
 radical, signifies, in Clmldaic, fermentation. From this reasoning, it 
 is no stretch of inference to assume, as before hinted at, that the 
 doctrine of fermentation was known even before the deluge, and there 
 is therefore nothing extraordinary in Noah s having made wine, and 
 subjecting himself to its influence. 
 
 Sometime previous to the period in which Zosimus lived, and for 
 a series of years afterwards, chemistry was cultivated with great 
 earnestness by several Grecian ecclesiastics, but their efforts and 
 attentions were principally directed to the art of making gold and 
 silver. In the meantime, medicine received considerable improve 
 ments from the labours of Oribasius, Actius, Alexander, Paulus, and 
 others. 
 
 Distillation, it is related, was discovered in the Augustine age by a 
 Grecian physician, who, while sitting at dinner, was suddenly called 
 away to visit a patient, and found, on his return, that the cover which 
 had been placed over a dish of vegetables was dripping with moisture 
 evaporated from them. Perceiving that the moisture was an extract 
 from the materials in the dish occasioned by heat, he is said to have 
 directed his studies to the consequences that might result from expe 
 riments made on this principle, and ultimately arrived at the art of 
 distillation ; but this story rests on such slender testimony, that it is 
 not entitled to more than this incidental notice Some will have it, 
 that the invention of distillation is much older, and ground their opi 
 nions on the circumstance of a chest having been found in the Alestine 
 field, near Padua, in which, it is said, an urn was enclosed by Maxi- 
 mus Olybius, devoted as an offering or present to Pluto, containing 
 two phials, most curiously wrought, the one of gold and the other of 
 silver, both full of an exquisite liquor, which fed a burning lamp for 
 many ages. Upon the chest was inscribed : 
 
 This sacred gift to Pluto I forbid 
 A thief to touch, (for tis a secret hid), 
 With art and pains hath great Olybius pent 
 In this small chest the unruly element. 
 
 On the urn were the following couplets : - 
 
 Begone, ye thieves, why dare you here to pry, 
 Depart from hence to your god Mercury ; 
 Devoted to great Pluto, in this pitcher 
 Lies a grand gift, the world scarce knows a richer.* 
 
 This legend, like the other respecting the origin of distillation, rests 
 on authority equally trifling, and is one of those fanciful conceptions 
 
 Taylor s Antirjuitates Curiosce. 
 

 
 23 
 
 of the alchymists, as preposterous as the touch of the philosopher s 
 stone is extravagant- This reminds me of the allegory of the cup of 
 Jemsheed, the supposed inventor of wine, Avhich, the Persians say, 
 was cut out of a ruby or carbuncle, and contains the elixir of life 
 buried under the ruins of Istakhar. 
 
 While the Grecian physicians and ecclesiastics were busied in the 
 pursuit of chemical knowledge, the Saracens, then an ignorant and 
 barbarous race, headed by the Caliph Omar s general, Amru, possessed 
 themselves of Alexandria, and, in the madness of their zeal, destroyed 
 the famous library in that city ; the Caliph assigning to Ids general 
 as a reason, that if the books it contained agreed with the Koran, they 
 were useless, and if they differed from it, they were pernicious, and 
 ought to be destroyed. The loss of so vast an accumulation of human 
 knowledge, not less than 700,000 volumes, which the Ptolomies 
 laboured so long in collecting, must ever be lamented, as it deprived 
 the world, in a great measure, of the discoveries and learning of 
 the ancients, which would have served posterity in the paths of 
 literature and the pursuits of science. The traveller, Ali Bey, 
 felt this so sensibly, that, on visiting Alexandria, particularly the 
 baths of Cleopatra, in that city, in the heating of which the 
 library is said to have been consumed, exclaimed, " Nothing, 
 absolutely nothing, concerning those distant periods, is handed down 
 for our instruction. Oh ! library of Alexandria ! why art thou wanted 1 
 What an irreparable loss ! But I respect the decision of the caliph."* 
 As the progress of their arms introduced the Saracens to a more 
 general knowledge of other nations, a taste for civilization and the 
 cultivation of literature, gradually, gained ground. Colleges and semi 
 naries of education were erected and endowed, while learned and 
 ingenious men were encouraged and sought after. Some of the Caliphs 
 themselves excelled in the learning of the day. Almamun, in parti 
 cular, who ascended the Moslem throne, in the 198th year of the Hegira, 
 (813th of the Christian era,) had attained to great perfection in various 
 branches of science. He not only employed learned men to translate 
 the books he had purchased, at an enormous expense, from the Chris 
 tians of various nations, but likewise promoted, by all possible means, 
 the study of every branch of literature on which they were written, 
 and even read them himself with an almost unparalleled ardour. 
 
 As might be expected, from the nature and pursuits of the nations 
 from which the Saracens imbibed their taste for literature, alchymy 
 and medicine became their favourite studies. The works on those 
 
 * Travels of Ali Bey, 4to. vol. i. p. 322. 
 
24 
 
 subjects are so various and abundant, that the enumeration of them, 
 if practicable, would be both unnecessary and foreign to the design of 
 this treatise. 
 
 Under the Caliph, Almoktader Billah, who got possession of the caliph 
 ate in the 908th year of the Christian era, flourished the celebrated physi 
 cian Rha/es, whom Abu lpharagius styles the phoenix of his age. He 
 excelled in every branch of knowledge then extant, but principally in 
 physic, in which he became so bold and successful a practitioner, that 
 he was called the Experimenter, and the Arabian Galen.* He is said 
 to have first introduced chemical preparations into medicine ; for, not 
 to mention mercury extinct and sublimate, he notices the oil of eggs, 
 a chemical medicine ; besides, he gives us the first account of the 
 oleum benedictum philosphorum (philosophers blessed oil), and is very 
 particular in explaining the manner of making it in a glass retort, 
 well luted, (luto sapienter, says the interpreter,) such as will bear the 
 fire ; the heat being increased by gentle degrees, till a red oil comes 
 off by distillation. 
 
 Whether the retort, alembic, or any regular distilling apparatus 
 was earlier employed amongst the Arabians, there is no exact account ; 
 for what we find from the old Greek chemists, as they are called, 
 relates only to the fusion or transmutation of metals. 
 
 It is said, that Al-Mokanna, the Veiled Prophet, whose life and 
 actions are so beautifully detailed by Moore, in his Lalla Rookh, when 
 likely to be taken by the troops under the command of Almohdis* 
 general, in the year of the Hegira 163, or 780 of our era, to avoid 
 falling into the hands of his enemies, after poisoning his whole family 
 and followers, threw himself into a vessel of aqua-fortis ; a prepara 
 tion which, it is well known, could not be otherwise obtained than by 
 distillation. 
 
 In the works of Geber, commonly called the Arab, there are some 
 useful directions concerning the manner of conducting the process of 
 distillation, and in one of his tracts, in particular, he has given much 
 curious matter relative, not only to the nature and formation of aqua 
 fortis, but of salts and acids in general. Geber had distinguished 
 himself in alchymy, and, from the ambiguity of his writings on this 
 subject, our eminent lexicographer, Doctor Johnson, derives the word 
 gibberish, or geberish. At what period Geber lived, authors are not 
 agreed. According to Leo Africanus, he was a Greek, and flourished 
 in the 7th century .f Others say, that he was born at Seville, in 
 
 * Historia Oit. Philosphicc, dc Herbelot. Leo Africanus, &c. 
 j Leo Africanus, I. iii. p, I3b 
 
25 
 
 Spain, but of Saracen origin, and place him in the 8th century ; while 
 some state, that he was a Sabsean, of Harran, in Mesopotamia. Blan- 
 canus maintains, that lie wrote in the 9th century, and that his real 
 name was Abou-Moussah-Ds-Chafar-Al-Soli It is to be regretted, 
 that the history of this patriarch of chemistry is so obscure. In a 
 copy of his works, printed at Dantzic, in 1682, he is styled Rex 
 Arabum, and Indite Rex ; but for what reason seems difficult to 
 account : that he was either a prince or a king-, there is no written 
 testimony. If Geber lived in the 7th century, which is generally 
 supposed to be the true period of his existence, we may the more 
 readily give credit to the curious means employed by the Veiled 
 Prophet to elude the vigilance of his enemies. 
 
 The following is a translation of the twelfth chapter of the second 
 book of Gebev s Liber Investigationis Magisterii. The perusal of it 
 will afford the reader an idea of the correct views entertained by that 
 author concerning the nature of distillation. His observations run 
 thus : 
 
 " Distillation is the raising of aqueous vapour in any vessel in 
 which it is placed. There are various modes of distillation. Some 
 times it is performed by means of fire, sometimes without it. By 
 means of fire, the vapour either ascends into a vessel, or descends ; 
 such as when oil is extracted from vegetables. The object of dis 
 tillation is to free liquors from dregs and to preserve them fresh ; 
 since every thing distilled, possesses greater purity and is less liable 
 to putrescency. The object of distillation by a still is to get water 
 free from earthy substances, by which both medicines and spirits are 
 injured. The motive for conducting distillation by descent is to 
 obtain pure oil, as it cannot be raised by heat into a still. The 
 motive for distilling by a nitre is to obtain pure water. There are 
 two modes of distilling by fire ; the one is performed in an earthen 
 vessel full of coals or embers ; the other with water in a vessel, with 
 herbs on wood, arranged in order, lest the cucurbit, or still, be burst 
 before it is completed. The first is conducted by a strong, the latter 
 by a gentle and equal fire. Thus it happens, that the heavy and 
 grosser parts are raised by the first means, whilst by the latter, we 
 obtain a more subtile spirit, approaching nearly to the nature of com 
 mon water. It is well known, tliat when we distil oil by embers, 
 we obtain oil without any alteration; but when we distil oil by 
 means of water, w r e obtain fair and clean oil from what appeared 
 excessively red at first. By means of water, then, we must proceed 
 with every vegetable, and things of the same nature, to ascertain their 
 elementary parts. By the descensive mode must we proceed with 
 
26 
 
 every kind of oil. The arrangement of that which is performed by 
 embers, is this : take a strong earthen pot, and fit it to a furnace of 
 the same shape, as that which is used for [sublimation ; around its 
 bottom let sifted embers be placed, and covered with them up to the 
 neck ; then put in the substance to be distilled : finally, let the cucur 
 bit, or receiving vessel, be attached and luted to the neck of the still, 
 that nothing may escape. Let the still and receiver be of glass, and 
 increase the fire as circumstances may require, until the whole is dis 
 tilled. The second mode is like the first, both in vessel and still, but 
 differs in requiring an iron, or brazen pot, fitted to the furnace as the 
 former, and then upon the bottom of the pot must be placed two or 
 three inches of herbs on wool, to prevent the receiver from being 
 broken, and let the receiver be covered with the same herbs in some 
 thing similar, up to the neck of the still, and upon these herbs let 
 flexible twigs be strewed, and on them let heavy stones be placed that 
 may compass the still, receiver, and herbs, to prevent the contents 
 from rising, which would break the vessel and destroy the distilla 
 tion. Fill the pot with water, and apply the fire until the operation 
 is completed. The arrangement of that which is performed by 
 descent, is this : take a glass vessel, having a proper descent, with a lid 
 which must be luted to the descending vessel, put in what is to be 
 distilled, and place the fire upon the lid. The arrangement of that 
 which is to be peformed by a nitre is this : place what is to be dis 
 tilled in a hollow stone, and let the broad part of the filtre be well 
 washed, and water be placed in the hollow part ; let the slender part 
 project over the edge of the stone, under which let a vessel be placed 
 to receive the filtred substance. If not pure at first, put it back, until 
 it becomes sufficiently pure." 
 
 " N. B At first it will send over only the water with which it was 
 moistened, then the liquor to be distilled." 
 
 The better to illustrate the foregoing observations, a representation 
 of the vessels used by him is subjoined, being curious when compared 
 with those of the present day. 
 
Ampulla recipiens. 
 
 Ignis lloceptaculum. 
 
 Alembicus Lapideus, 
 
 Concha vas recipiens. 
 
 .5- 
 
 Ignis, 
 
28 
 
 From the remarks of Geber, and his various experiments in chemical 
 
 science, it is clear that distillation was well understood in his time, 
 
 and that the mode of conducting pharmaceutical preparations, both 
 
 X vegetable and mineral, had attained considerable perfection. Avicenna, 
 
 I who flourished after Geber, describes the method of distillation, and 
 
 i particularly mentions distilled w r ater of roses. Avicenna is also reputed 
 
 as the person who discovered the art of making sugar, till then unknown 
 
 amongst his countrymen. About this period, a knowledge of the 
 
 arts and sciences was greatly cultivated, and continued to extend in 
 
 proportion to the conquests of the caliphs ; the example and influence 
 
 of whom diffused a love of literature over an empire, that spread in 
 
 Asia from the Gulf of Persia, and the confines of Tartary to the 
 
 Mediterranean and Indian Seas, and comprised all the habitable parts 
 
 of Africa, from the Isthmus of Suez to the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 During the reign of the Abassides, at Bagdad, the mass of human 
 knowledge collected within the walls of that city was astonishing. 
 The shelves of its schools and colleges were bent under the weight 
 of Grecian, Persian, Roman and Arabian literature, and the taste for 
 collections of that nature was carried to such a height, even by pri 
 vate individuals, that we are told of a doctor who refused the invi 
 tation of the Sultan of Bochara to reside at his court, because the 
 carriage of his books would have required four hundred camels. At 
 Cairo, in Egypt, the Caliph s library consisted of 100,000 volumes, 
 which were elegantly transcribed and bound; these were cheerfully 
 lent, without any pecuniary consideration, to the students of the city. 
 In Spain, the Caliphs had formed a library of 600,000 volumes, forty- 
 four of which were employed in the mere catalogue. Cordova, the 
 capital of the Spanish Caliphs, with the adjacent towns of Malaga, 
 Almeria, and Murcia, gave birth to more than three hundred writers, 
 and above seventy public libraries were opened in the Andalusian 
 kingdom. Amidst such a profusion of information, we need not be 
 surprised at the acquirements of the Saracens. In chemistry, they 
 certainly excelled all the nations which had gone before them ; that 
 comprehensive branch of human research was greatly illustrated 
 and enlarged by their discoveries ; and, although it may be lamented, 
 that a great portion of their knowledge lay concealed under the occult 
 mysteries of alchymy, yet, according to Gibbon, the real science of 
 chemistry owes its origin and improvement to that people. That 
 elegant writer says, that " they first invented and named the alembic 
 for the purpose of distillation ; analized the substances of the three 
 kingdoms of nature ; tried the distinctions and affinities of alkalis and 
 acids, and converted the poisonous minerals into soft and salutary 
 
medicines."* Their speculative and visionary hope of finding an 
 elixir of immortal health, is said to have led them to the discovery of 
 alcohol, and entailed upon posterity the manufacture of a beverage, 
 which, under the more modern name of aqua vitce, has since proved 
 to many a blessing, but to millions a curse. 
 
 Although these are the opinions generally recorded and handed to 
 us, respecting the arts, industry, and knowledge of the Saracens, yet, 
 I am far from believing, that they are entitled to be accounted the 
 inventors of almost any of those discoveries, which are attributed to 
 them. The East, being the cradle of the human race, and of all the 
 arts, it is clear that the Arabians must have received their knowledge 
 from that quarter. With the Egyptians and Indians, they had early 
 intercourse, and these nations, it is well known, were far advanced in 
 civilization long before, and in the practice of most of the arts, in 
 which the Saracens, afterwards, became famous. The very style of 
 architecture followed in the Eastern countries, was the model of the 
 West, as is confirmed by the excavations of Pompeii, which had 
 been buried nearly twenty centuries in the bowels of the earth. So 
 skilled were the inhabitants, of that unfortunate city, in every thing 
 that related to the comforts, and even the luxuries of life, that a house 
 was found with windows of glass, as fine and transparent, as that 
 made in modern times ; besides ornaments of gold and specimens of 
 art, of exquisite workmanship. The Arabs, it cannot be denied, 
 were ignorant and barbarous, when various other portions of Asia, 
 as well as some parts of the North of Africa, more particularly 
 Egypt, were highly polished ; and from those sources they must have 
 acquired, in a great measure, the whole extent of their knowledge, in 
 every department of literature. Strabo informs us, that the Arabians 
 built their houses and temples after the model of the Egyptians ; and 
 that the Egyptians knew distillation, at a more remote period, than 
 the Arabs, can scarcely be questioned, since Pliny has nearly des 
 cribed the process. If, as has been said, that this art was invented 
 by a Grecian physician, and that the vessel first used in the practice 
 was called cmbic, to which the Arabians afterwards prefixed their 
 definite article /, why attribute the invention to them ? Since the 
 very derivation of the term is purely Greek, and as the Arabians were, 
 for the most part, indebted to the Grecians for their proficiency in 
 medicine and chemistry. From these considerations, and the known 
 acquirements of the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, Chinese, and other 
 Oriental nations with whom the Arabians had intercourse, and among 
 
 * Gibbon s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 
 
30 
 
 whom a knowledge of distillation appears to have previously existed, 
 it is evident that this art was handed to them by others, and that they 
 were only pupils, not teachers in geography, astronomy? algebra, 
 chemistry, and architecture, as is generally maintained. 
 
 In speaking of the Arabians in this manner, I do not wish to be 
 understood as depriving them of merits to which they are confessedly 
 entitled, and of which so extensive a view has been just taken ; but 
 the discovery of the art under consideration, having been usually 
 attributed to them, I was induced to examine minutely the grounds 
 . on which this assumption was founded ; and although it cannot be 
 decisively ascertained who were really the inventors of distillation, 
 yet I am led to conclude, that the Arabians were the mere improvers, 
 and not those to whom the art owed its origin ; and from an attentive 
 perusal of the various articles in this volume bearing on this point, but 
 more particularly the observations on India and China, it is very 
 probable the reader will come to the same conclusion. In addition to 
 these remarks, it may be observed, that while we love alterations 
 and changes, the orientals preserve uniformity ; among us, a dress 
 which was in fashion thirty years ago, is now ridiculous ; among them, 
 the same dress, manners, and customs prevail, that were in use a 
 thousand years since ; the arts which are progressive with us, are, 
 with them, stationary. The physical and moral character of the 
 orientals reposes on principles like those that existed thousands of 
 years past, making a powerful contrast with those now in the west. 
 Our mode of life is refined and changeable, theirs simple and perma 
 nent ; with us there is a constant incitement to civilization, with them 
 rather an inclination to barbarism. Man exists in the east, as it were, 
 among the shades of antediluvian devices ; in the west, amidst the 
 glare of modern improvements hence the Chinese, Persians, and 
 Hindoos are entitled to be considered the inventors of the arts and 
 sciences, and the teachers of them to those who visited them in the 
 remoter ages of antiquity, not the scholars of a few itinerants, nor from 
 having acquired their knowledge from other nations then in a compa 
 rative state of barbarism. 
 
 All the works of the Saracens appear to be translations or compi 
 lations from the Greek, Roman, Persian, and other oriental writings, 
 little originality existing in any of them. A late publication, at 
 Madrid, of an Arabian Treatise on Agriculture, from an old manu 
 script in the Escurial, by Ibn El Awam, in which one hundred and 
 twenty authors are cited as the sources of his information, is a proof 
 of this assertion. Among those authorities, he draws largely from M. 
 Cato, Varro. Columella, Palladium, and adduces the various practices 
 
31 
 
 of Egyptians, Persians, and other Easterns, in agriculture, from writ 
 ings long since lost.* Mr. Mills says, " that as discoverers and in 
 ventors, the Saracens have few claims to praise ; a grateful respect 
 for antiquity was corrupted by them into a superstitious reverence, 
 which checked all originality of ideas and freedom of thought. But 
 they formed the link which unites ancient and modern letters ; and as 
 their relative situation with Europe somewhat resembles the relative 
 situation between Europe and Greece, they are entitled to a portion 
 of our respect and gratitude.f The silence of the Greek writers is 
 no proof that distillation was not known in the east before their time. 
 It is not likely that a people, whose beverage was wine, in every 
 variety, would think of submitting it to the alembic, in order to procure 
 another kind of liquor, when they considered and accounted wine a 
 drink worthy of the gods. 
 
 From the preceding recapitulation, and a consideration of the 
 sources from whence the Saracens drew their stores of knowledge 
 in Pharmacy, Chemistry, Mathematics, and the other arts and sciences, 
 the deduction is natural, that the distillation of spirits is not their in 
 vention ; and that the term alcohol is but another name for arrack, 
 or rather for the improvement of that spirit by a higher rectification 
 for alcohol with us, is always understood to signify spirit of wine, of 
 the highest degree of volatilization, the particle al (the) being pre 
 fixed to express something grand or superlative: thus, alcohol means 
 the pure spirit ; alchymist, a chemist of the first order ; alchymy, 
 the highest degree of chemistry. Again, alcohol is compounded of 
 the Arabic article al and the Hebrew word, Kaal, or Chaldaic, cohal, 
 signifying to subtilize, make light or thin. Alembic is a compound 
 of al with the Greek, etpfii% 9 an earthen vessel, or jar, called from its 
 shape the cucurbit, or body. Alchymy is a compound of al and x,W* 
 denoting the more sublime or occult part of chemistry. Hence the 
 inference is plain, that as the Saracens borrowed those technical terms 
 from foreign languages, they also derived from other nations aknowledge 
 of the arts to which those appellations belonged. The word al ha hoi, 
 or alcohol, was originally applied to the powder, with which the Jew 
 ish, Syrian, and other Eastern ladies tinged their hair, and the edges 
 of their eyelids, in order to heighten their beauty ; and the name was, 
 in consequence, subsequently transferred to spirits of wine rectified 
 
 Libro de Agricultura, su Autor el Doctor Excelentc Abu Zacaria, Ebu El 
 A warn Sevillano, traducido al Castellano y anotrado por Don Josef Antonio Bangueri. 
 De Orden Superior y a Expensas de la Real Bibliotheca. 
 
 f History of Mahometanism, 8vo. p. 402. 
 
to the highest perfection, intimating its improved state and fasci 
 nating qualities. 
 
 It is a well known historical fact, as given by Ebn Chalican, one 
 of their writers, that at the time of the publication of the Koran, 
 there was not to be found in the whole district of Yemen, a single 
 person who could read or write Arabic, and the prophet himself, 
 called the illiterate, was indebted to Warakan, his wife s kinsman, 
 and a Christian, for the compilation of the Alcoran, at least so far as 
 regards penmanship. In a country so uneducated, no art nor science 
 of any importance could have flourished ; and we find, even after the 
 Saracens had arrived at considerable eminence as a nation, that one 
 of their most enlightened caliphs, Al-Mamon, when reproved by his 
 father for selecting Messue, a Christian physician, to conduct the pur 
 suits of the learned men he had collected, with great frankness ob 
 served, " I have made choice of Messue, as an able preceptor in use 
 ful sciences and arts ; and my father well knows that the most learned 
 men, and the most skilful artists in his dominions, are Jews and Chris 
 tians." Thus acknowledging the weight of obligation due to those 
 foreign preceptors. The zeal of Al-Mamon, in collecting informa 
 tion, led Takiddin, a bigoted Mahometan, to say, that God would 
 punish the caliph for daring by such studies to disturb the devotions 
 of the Prophet s followers. Avicenna, one of their most eminent 
 physicians, is said to have been indebted to Greek writers for the 
 medical works for which he has been celebrated. Averroes is like 
 wise under obligations to Aristotle, for his celebrity as a philosopher, 
 though it is well known that he was unacquainted with the original, 
 and perused the writings of that great man, by means of wretched 
 Arabic translations. Galen and Hippocrates were the great guides 
 in medicine ; Dioscorides the director in botany. Under the wither 
 ing influence of the Koran, it is surprising how any progress what 
 ever could be made in the acquisition of knowledge. Divided by 
 political dissensions, as well as heretical opinions, and engaged in 
 almost continual warfare, the Saracens had not that independent 
 spirit of research to think and speculate boldly for themselves, nor to 
 rise superior to the trammels imposed on them by others : hence it 
 may be asserted with truth, that the moderns owe little to their disco 
 veries ; and that the arts and sciences of the present day have 
 received almost nothing from their industry, so that, in the language 
 of an intelligent writer, it may be said, " Science would suffer no 
 material loss, if the writings of the Saracens be permitted quietly to 
 repose in that oblivion to which time has consigned them." Posterity, 
 however, cannot but cast a grateful recollection to the period when, 
 
33 
 
 but for their fostering protection, learning would have been over 
 whelmed in intellectual darkness, and a vast portion of mental riches, 
 and valuable materials lost for ever to the world. 
 
 I shall now proceed to consider the cause of the prohibition of \ 
 wine and intoxicating liquors among the followers of Mahomet, illus 
 trating the remarks with such anecdotes as shew that the prophet 
 could not entirely eradicate that part of human imbecility, which 
 renders their use or pleasing qualities in some shape or other desir 
 able. According to a writer in the Universal History, Spanheim and 
 Reland have asserted that the ancient Arabs abstained from wine 
 long before the birth of Mahomet ; but it appears from Strabo, that 
 in Arabia Felix, besides the husbandmen, there were many who 
 made palm wine, which, he says, was much used by the inhabitants of 
 that country, proving that intoxicating liquors were not generally 
 forbidden before the time of that prophet. 
 
 The causes which induced Mahomet to prohibit the use of inebriating 
 drink, have been stated as various. The Sieur de Ryer, in his life of 
 the prophet, attached to his translation of the Koran, page 39, says, 
 that in the fourth year of the Hegira, while his army were engaged 
 in expeditions against the neighbouring tribes, some of his principal 
 men betaking themselves to play and drink, in the heat of their cups 
 quarrelled, and raised such disturbances among his followers, that they 
 nearly came to blows, and to the overthrow of all his designs. To 
 prevent such mischief in future, he forbade the use of wine and all 
 games of hazard for ever ; and to render the prohibition of more influ 
 ence, he supported it by a fable of two angels, called Arut and Marut, 
 who, in ancient times, were sent from heaven to administer and teach 
 men righteousness in the districts of Babylon, when a certain woman 
 coming to them for justice, invited them to dine with her, on which 
 occasion she placed wine before them, which God had forbidden them 
 to drink ; but the agreeable nature of the liquor tempting them to 
 transgress the divine command, they drank to intoxication, and 
 tempted the woman to lewdness ; but this was on condition that one 
 of them should carry her to heaven and the other bring her back. As 
 the fable runs, when the woman got to heaven, she would not return, 
 but declared to the Almighty the whole matter, who, to reward her 
 chastity, made her the morning star, and the angels getting their choice 
 whether they would be punished for their wickedness at that time, or 
 at a future period, chose the former, in consequence of which they 
 were suspended by the feet, with an iron chain, in a pit near Babylon, 
 where they are doomed to continue to the day of judgment. For 
 
34 
 
 this reason God forbade the use of wine to his servants ever after.* 
 The prophet seems to assign the reason of the prohibition in the Koran 
 altogether to the quarrels which wine and games of chance had caused 
 amongst his followers ; for in the 5th chapter of that book he says, 
 " The devil desires to sow dissensions and hatred among you through 
 wine and games of chance ; be obedient to God, and the prophet, 
 his apostle, and take heed to yourselves." The learned Mr. Sale 
 seems to agree with the Sieur de Ryer, that it was the divisions and 
 disturbances in company, and the neglect, or at least indecencies 
 in the performance of religious duties, occasioned by inebriety, which 
 induced the prophet to pass so strict a prohibition.! In this restriction, 
 it is probable that Mahomet was guided by the Mosaic law, under 
 which the priests were forbidden to drink wine or any intoxicating 
 liquors, when they were about to enter on, or execute, any sacred or 
 religious duty. " Do not drink wine," says the inspired writer, " nor 
 strong drink, thou, nor thy sons with thee, when ye go into the taber 
 nacle of the congregation, lest ye die ; it shall be a statute for ever 
 throughout your generations." J The Nazarites and Rechabites, as well 
 as many pious persons among the Jews and primitive Christians, ab 
 stained altogether from wine, and we find injunctions of a prohibitory 
 nature observed among the Egyptians, Carthagenians and Greeks: so 
 that the mandate of the prophet in this respect is not without a prece- 
 dent.|| The Carthagenian soldiers were forbidden wine while in the 
 field, under the severest penalty ; and their magistrates were also 
 obliged to abstain from wine during the exercise of their power, though 
 
 * Prideaux s Life of Mahomet, 8vo. p. 111. 
 
 f Sale s Koran, chap. ii. p. 39 ; chap. iv. and v. J Levit. x. 9. 
 
 Doctor Lightfoot, in his work already quoted, thus comments on the 
 vow of the Nazarites, as spoken of in the sixth chapter of Numbers : " Whilst 
 I a little more narrowly consider, that severe interdiction by which the Naza- 
 rites were forbidden the total use of the vine, not only that he should not drink 
 t>f the wine, but not so milch as taste of the grape, nor the pulp, nor stone 
 
 of the grape, no, nor the bark of the vine, I cannot but call to mind, 1st. Whether 
 
 the vine might not be the tree in paradise that had been forbidden to Adam, by the 
 tasting of which he sinned ; the Jewish doctors positively affirm this without any 
 scruple. 2dly Whether that law about the Nazarites had not some reference to 
 Adam, while he was under that prohibition, in the state of innocency. For if the 
 bodily and legal uncleanness about which there are such strict precepts (Numb, v.) 
 especially the leprosy, the greatest of all uncleannesses, did excellently decipher the 
 state and nature of sin ; might not the laws about the Nazarites, which concerned . 
 the greatest purities in a most pure religion (Lam iv. 7.) be something in comme 
 moration of the state of man before his fall?" Jerm. xxxv. 5. 6. 
 
 jj ^Elian, b. IT. Hist. vii. Sap. Plato de Legibus. 
 
35 
 
 it is doubtful whether this was always strictly observed ; a laudable 
 instance of the wisdom of their government. 
 
 Abufcfoda (in his account of the prophet s night journey to heaven,) 
 observes, that the angel Gabriel brought him three cups, one full of 
 wine, another of milk, and a third of honey ; upon which he took the 
 milk and drank it as the most proper of the three, after which a voice 
 was heard saying, " Thou hast made a lucky choice, Mahomet, since, 
 hadst thou drunk of the wine, thy nation would have deviated from 
 the right path, and consequently in their enterprises have proved unsuc 
 cessful."* The fact is, that previous to the time of the prophet s pre 
 tended mission, the Arabians were given to drink wine to great excess 
 whenever they could get it, in consequence of which, Mahomet, as 
 already quoted from the Koran, very prudently provided against the 
 mischiefs that might ensue from it. But although there is little doubt 
 that the prophet intended by his prohibition a strict abstinence from 
 all intoxicating liquors, yet some have imagined, as Mr. Sale remarks, 
 that excess in the use of wine or in inebriating beverages is alone for 
 bidden in the Koran, and that their moderate use is allowed by two 
 passages in the same work. The words are, " They will ask you con 
 cerning wine and lots ; answer, in both there is great sin, and also 
 some things of use unto men ; but their sinfulness is greater than their 
 use."f Again, " And of the fruit of palm trees, and of grapes, ye obtain 
 an inebriating liquor and also good nourishment." J Such is the weak 
 ness of man, that it is easy to give a favourable turn to that which suits 
 our inclinations. The more received and general opinion is, that to 
 drink any kind of strong liquors, either in a less or greater quantity, 
 is absolutely unlawful ; and though libertines may indulge themselves 
 in a contrary practice, the more conscientious are so strict, especially 
 if they have performed a pilgrimage to Mecca, that they hold it 
 unlawful, not only to taste wine, but to press grapes for the making 
 of it, to buy or sell it, or even to maintain themselves with the money 
 arising from that liquor. Herbelot, the well known French writer, 
 in his Bibliotheque Orientale, says, that there were some Mussulmen so 
 strict, that they would not call wine by its true name for fear of offen 
 ding against the laws of their prophet ; while some of the Arabian 
 princes went so far as to forbid the bare mention of it. Such is the 
 particularity of others that they will not even touch any matter where 
 wine is used. Walpole informs us that, when in Turkey, he was 
 
 * Abulfeda de Vit. Mahomet. 
 
 f Sale s Koran, chap. ii. p. 39. * Ibid. vol. II. chap. xvi. p. S3. 
 
 Vide Preliminary Discourse. 
 
36 
 
 enjoined by an Aga to be cautious in abstaining from wine in the room 
 where he lodged ; lest the carpets or mats, on which the Mussulmans 
 said their prayers, might be polluted.* 
 
 We have an early and striking instance of the strenuous observance 
 of the prophet s interdictory decree, in the treatment of the soldiers 
 under Abu Obeidah, in the reign of the Caliph Omar, who, on hearing 
 from that general, that the Mussulmans had learned to drink wine 
 during their invasion of Syria, ordered, that whoever was guilty of this 
 practice should have fourscore stripes upon the soles of his feet ; the 
 punishment was accordingly inflicted, and many were so infatuated, 
 although they had no accusers but their consciences, as voluntarily to 
 confess their crimes and undergo the same punishment. f 
 
 That the drinking of wine was not so obnoxious to some of the suc 
 cessors of Mahomet, there are several examples among the Caliphs. 
 Yezid, who commenced his reign in the GOth year of the Hegira, is 
 the first of them who made no scruple of the practice. The following 
 story is related of Almohdi, father of Haroun Alraschid, the hero of the 
 Arabian Nights Entertainments. That monarch, being one day on a 
 hunting excursion, strayed from his attendants ; when being pressed 
 with hunger and thirst, he was obliged to repair to an Arab s tent to 
 procure some refreshment. The poor man immediately brought to the 
 Caliph some brown bread and a pot of milk. Almohdi asked him if 
 he had nothing else to give him ; upon which the Arab presented him 
 with a jug of wine. After the Caliph had drank a good draught, he 
 enquired of the Arab whether he did not know him ? The other having 
 answered that he did not, " I would have you know then," replied 
 Almohdi, " that I am one of the principal lords of the Caliph s court/ 
 After he had taken another draught, he put the same question to the 
 Arab, as before, who answering, "Have not I already told you that I 
 know you not ?" Almohdi returned, " I am a much greater person 
 than I have made you believe." Then he drank again, and asked his 
 host the third time, whether he did not know him ? to which the other 
 replied, " that he might depend upon the truth of the answer he had 
 already given him." " I am then," said Almohdi, " no less a personage 
 than the Caliph, before whom all the world prostrate themselves." 
 The Arab no sooner heard the words, than he tremblingly carried 
 away the pitcher, and would not suffer his guest to drink any more. 
 Almohdi being surprised at his behaviour, asked him, why he removed 
 the wine. The Arab replied, " Because I am afraid that if you take 
 
 * Walpole s Memoirs relating to European and Asiatic Turkey, 4to, 
 f Ockley s History of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 171, 324* 
 
37 
 
 a fourth draught you will tell me you are the prophet Mahomet ; and 
 if by chance a fifth, that you are God Almighty himself." This gentle 
 rehuke so pleased the Caliph, that he could not forbear laughing ; and 
 being soon rejoined by his people, he ordered a purse of silver, and a 
 fine vest to be given to the poor man, who had entertained him so 
 hospitably. The Arab, in a transport of joy for the good fortune he 
 had experienced, exclaimed, " I shall henceforth take you for what 
 you pretend to be, even though you should make yourself three times 
 more considerable than in this instance." Time, which unhappily too 
 often destroys the best resolutions and propensities of our nature, has 
 rendered the crime of inebriety less uncommon among the Mahometans 
 of the present day than formerly ; but since their intemperance cannot 
 be induced by social hilarity, it is always with them a solitary vice, 
 and consequently, to use the language of a late writer, though not 
 more hateful, is much more odious than when it arises from the desire 
 of promoting the exercise of the social feelings. There is an anecdote 
 told by Russell, in his History of Aleppo, which, as corroborative of 
 what is here advanced, an apology for its insertion is scarcely neces 
 sary. It relates to a Sirdar of high rank at Aleppo, who was fond of 
 indulging in the pleasures of the bottle. This man, says the author, 
 was in the habit of retiring to one of the gardens near the town, to 
 enjoy his wine more luxuriously in a kiosk. Returning one summer s 
 evening from a debauch of this kind, he observed, as he passed near 
 the Christian burial-ground, a Maronite sitting on a grave stone and 
 smoking his pipe, who, on seeing him approach at some distance, rose 
 up, laid down his pipe, and at the same time attempted hastily to 
 conceal something in his pocket. This the Sirdar suspected, and justly, 
 to be arrack ; therefore, stopping his horse, he despatched one of his 
 attendants to bring the culprit before him. The Christian was not 
 only reproached for drinking thus publicly, but threatened with instant 
 punishment, for having aggravated the crime by drinking on a tomb 
 stone. Upon his swearing, by the Gospel, that he had tasted no strong 
 liquor for a week, orders were given to search his pockets ; but he 
 had taken care that no testimony should appear against him from that 
 quarter, by dropping the empty bottle before he was seized. The 
 Sirdar then commanded another of his attendants to try whether the 
 charge might not be proved from the criminal s breath. " Breathe ye, 
 Giaour," exclaims the Janizary, " breathe full in my face." The 
 trembling culprit at first hesitated, but knowing the consequence of 
 refusal, was at last obliged to comply. " I knew very well," said the 
 Sirdar, " I should detect this Jew of a damned Christian. Does 
 he not smell abominably, Mustafa ? bring him nearer me, don t you 
 
38 
 
 perceive his breath ?" " Wliy, really," replies the half drunken Janizary, 
 " that there is a strong smell of arrack among us cannot be doubted, 
 but whether it proceeds from yourself, Sir, from me, or from tin s 
 damned infidel, may I perish if I can justly determine." 
 
 If Madden, a late writer, may be credited, intoxication is much 
 more prevalent with the Mahometans than is generally believed. He 
 states that hospitality among the Turks is not surpassed even by the 
 Irish. The excellence of their cooking, the number of their dishes, 
 and the profusion of their sweetmeats, gave him an exalted opinion of 
 their luxurious living. At dinner, he observed upwards of forty dishes 
 furnished in succession, and, contrary to our practice, the desert was 
 the first, consisting of sweetmeats and preserves. After the desert, 
 the appetite was whetted with an abundance of raw spirits, the very 
 highest class drinking rum and raki, with the same familiarity 
 that we drink beer, ale, or porter. He says the most exalted char 
 acters in the empire are addicted to drink, and that the Sultan daily 
 receives, from his apothecary, a bottle of Rhenish wine, with the word 
 "physic" on the label. Another traveller assures us that drinking is 
 common among the most respectable, and mentions a Sirdar of high 
 rank, who openly braved, by this practice, the commands of the prophet, 
 and confessed that he could not live without the aid of spirituous 
 liquors. Even in Mecca, it is said, that there are two shops in which 
 intoxicating liquors are publicly sold, during the night, but not in the 
 day time. One description of liquor thus sold is made from fermented 
 raisins imported from Tayf, and, although diluted with water, a few 
 glasses of it produces intoxication ; the other is a sort of bouza mixed 
 with spices and called Soubye> a beverage well known at Cairo. Neither 
 the sanctity of the Holy City, nor the solemn injunctions of the Koran, 
 are able to deter the inhabitants from the excessive use of spirituous 
 liquors. Large quantities of Raky are imported from India, which, 
 when mixed with an extract of cinnamon sweetened with sugar, is 
 sold under the plausible name of cinnamon-water. This liquor is 
 drunk by the highest characters, under the impression that it is neither 
 wine nor brandy, and therefore not prohibited by the law. Burck- 
 hardt saw at Tayf, a Turk, in the suite of Mahomet Ali Pasha, who 
 distilled brandy from grapes, and sold it publicly at 40 piasters the 
 bottle. Intoxicating liquors are vended at the very gates of the mosque, 
 which, although prohibited in every part of the Mahometan states, is still 
 more so in a city, the approach to which is forbidden to any but the 
 faithful. This impropriety has given rise to the Turkish saying, that 
 " the cities forbidden to infidels abound with forbidden things." Dr. 
 Madden is of opinion that a moderate use of spirits would be a pre- 
 
39 
 
 ventive to the plague, and grounds his notion of its value on observ 
 ing, that those who were in the habit of attending persons infected, 
 and who habituated themselves to inebriety, never caught the contagion. 
 These considerations led him to administer wine and brandy to his 
 own patients, which treatment was almost invariably attended with 
 success. A similar practice for the cure of diseases was long previ 
 ously observed by an empiric with success. This quack, who was 
 totally ignorant of medicine, made use of warm punch in the cure of 
 every disorder. When asked by an old acquaintance how he could 
 presume to become a physician and expose his life, should one of the 
 faithful fall a victim to his ignorance, he replied, that lie sufficiently 
 learned the art from the practice of the physician who had attended 
 his late master, whose chief prescription w r as punch, of which the doctor 
 himself partook. This gave him a high opinion of its virtues. He 
 tried it on himself, and found it so agreeable and salutary that he was 
 led to limit his prescriptions to it ; and as it met with general appro 
 bation from his patients, he was amply rewarded, not only on that 
 account, but for the numerous cures which its use had effected. The 
 Sultan, Soliman the first, was such an enemy to intoxication, that he 
 had recourse to the most rigorous penalties to check the progress of 
 this irregularity. He even caused melted lead to be poured down 
 the throats of the obstinate transgressors of the precepts of the Koran. 
 Soliman the second, his son and successor, was the reverse of his father s 
 character ; he went by the nickname ofmest, or the drunkard, but, amidst 
 all his intemperance, he never neglected his daily prayers, though he 
 seduced the nation by his example into the most unblushing debauch 
 ery. " Let others put their trust in man," said this jovial Sultan, " f 
 throw, myself into the arms of the Almighty, and resign myself to his 
 immutable decrees. I think only of the pleasures of the day and 
 have no care for futurity." Muradthe fourth, seduced by the example- 
 of Beari Mustafa, not only drank wine in public, but permitted his 
 subjects to use it without restraint, and even compelled the Mufti and 
 Cazy-askers to drink it. Busbequis saw an old man at Constantinople, 
 who, when he took the glass in his hand, summoned his own soul to 
 take refuge in some corner of his body, or to quit it altogether, to 
 avoid participating in the crime, or being polluted by such indulgence. 
 Thornton tells us that he saw a habitual drunkard carefully remove 
 his mustaches to preserve them from defilement before he took his 
 draught, and immediately after swallowing it, he distorted the mus 
 cles of his face, as if he had been taking nothing but a bitter or disa^ 
 greeable medicine.* Slade relates, f that when the Ali Eflendi, 
 
 Present State of Turkey, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 f Records of Travels in Turkey, Greece, &c. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
40 
 
 governor of a province, received a copy of a Hatti Scheriff, or order 
 of the Porte, to enforce the prohibition of wine and spirits ; he and 
 the Cadi being- half tipsy at the time, put off its reading to the next 
 day ; but having cast their eyes over it, they exclaimed, " Here is an 
 order against drinking, and we are drunk when it arrives ; they who 
 sent it must surely have been drunk also, for not knowing that we 
 would disregard it." 
 
 In further illustration of the propensity of the followers of Mahomet 
 towards the use of inebriating liquors, it is related of Achmet Cachef, 
 the present governor of one of the provinces in Upper Egypt, that he 
 was fond of the bottle. When visited by some English gentlemen, 
 who were requested to partake of some refreshment, that Pacha 
 directed his attendant to bring him a bottle of the water of which the 
 Franks were so fond. Accordingly, a bottle of a strong spirit, made 
 from dates, was produced. The guests were pressed to partake of it, 
 but declined. The Pacha then said, that although the prophet had 
 forbidden raki, he would himself take some, to convince his friends 
 that he had no intention of poisoning them. He then took off his 
 glass, and repeated the example seventeen times, by way of encou 
 ragement for his guests to drink during the four hours they remained 
 with him. In the course of the interview, he observed that, "notwith 
 standing they seemed shy in drinking with him, he would stake any 
 money that their baggage was well stored with all sorts of wine and 
 liquors." This being construed into a civil hint to obtain a present of 
 that description, the interpreter was directed to say they had a supply, 
 and to know what sort he would choose, whether brandy, gin, or rum, 
 " Oh !" replied he, " I like them all three" which expression caused 
 a hearty laugh, and induced his friends to present him with a bottle 
 of each. It was not long after when the corks w r ere drawn, and 
 pledging them in a bumper, Achmet observed, that if Mahomet 
 should ask him why he drank, he would throw the whole blame on 
 his friends, as the liquor was so excellent.* A late traveller states, 
 that when he had retired to rest at the house of AH Bey in Damanhur, 
 he heard a gentle knock at his door, and, on opening it, found that the 
 intruder was the Governor s treasurer, a strict Mahometan, who had 
 availed himself of the solitude of the night to communicate a secret 
 which was no less than a request that he might be favoured with a 
 bottle of rum. Having had a trial of its good qualities before, he was 
 in such raptures with it, that he was impelled to make this request. 
 It was at first refused, but the Mussulman pressed so hard, and that 
 
 * Webster s Travels, vol. ii. p. 8. 
 
11 
 
 with an assurance that he would drink it with great moderation, his 
 request was granted. On being presented with the bottle, he seized 
 it with great eagerness, and placing it under his cloak, with much pre 
 caution, he disappeared amidst the windings of the building, in an 
 instant, highly delighted, and muttering thanks as he retired.* 
 
 Some of the principal officers of state are so fond of spirits, that 
 they procure it at any expense, and convey it home, without the 
 knowledge of their servants, carrying it in small leathern bottles, or 
 in tubes of the same material twisted round the body. In this manner 
 it is brought into the most secret recesses of the Seraglio, even at the 
 risk of life ; and we arc assured by Madden, who had access to the 
 harems of many of the Turkish nobles, that the ladies consume consi 
 derable quantities of wine under the name of an Italian cordial, called 
 Rosolio ; whereas, if the wine were offered under its true denomina 
 tion, it would be rejected with scorn. Carne saw this exemplified in 
 a rich Islamitic merchant, who, when asked to drink wine, expressed 
 high indignation, but when the same liquor was presented to him under 
 the name of Rosolio, he took off a large bumper with great cheerful 
 ness.! Excuses of a very trivial nature are taken advantage of. 
 Some affirm, that because the term rum is not in the Koran, the use 
 of it was not forbidden by the Prophet. Captain Trant, in his Journey 
 through Greece, relates, that while on a visit with the Bey, he got a 
 peep into one of his store-rooms, in which he saw a number of bottles, 
 labelled with the word Rhum, to which the proprietor had frequent 
 recourse.:): The Greeks subject to the Turkish yoke, are often as 
 much afraid of being seen by their masters when taking wine, as one 
 Mussulman is afraid of being observed using it by another. Carne 
 was witness to a circumstance of this kind, in the vicinity of Constan 
 tinople. When at a meal with some Grecians, who were regaling 
 themselves with white wine, the approach of a body of Turkish cavalry 
 so affrighted the poor fellows, that they immediately concealed the 
 wine, and substituted water. In a private visit which Doctor Clarke 
 was permitted to make at the Sultan s Seraglio, he observed, in the 
 secret chambers, labels, bearing Turkish inscriptions, with the word 
 Rosolio, golden water, and water of life, a proof that neither the 
 Sultan nor his ladies were insensible to the pleasures of intoxication. 
 The same traveller tells us, that throughout Turkey, the dervises, 
 during the Ramadan, would, when alone, eat pork and drink wine, 
 and laugh at the absurdity of considering such things as forbidden. 
 
 * Letters of a Prussian Traveller, 2 vols. 8vo. vol. i. p. 206. 
 
 f Game s Letters from the East, 8vo. p. 203. % Journey, 1830, 8vo. p. 277. 
 
 Clarke s Travels, vol. viii. p. 80, 
 
42 
 
 Some of our Christian teachers are not more particular in times of as 
 great strictness. Since a duty was laid on wine at Constantinople, it 
 has proved a more productive source of revenue than that arising- from 
 any other article in demand. The annual consumption of the city is 
 calculated at 20,000,000 of okes.* But when we consider that there 
 are several thousand taverns licensed, in various parts of this immense 
 capital (which comprises a population of from 4 to 500,000), it need 
 scarcely be a matter of surprise. The Grand Vizier derives a consi 
 derable emolument from these houses, which, under various pretences, 
 he often causes to be shut in order that he may get a present by 
 allowing 1 them to be re-opened. This is a practice of long 1 standing 1 , 
 taverns being very ancient in this capital. Those establishments for 
 public accommodation are not, however, of Turkish origin, but are 
 attributed to the Lydians, they being accounted the first who sold 
 wine by retail, and kept eating-houses for public convenience. The 
 Jews, under the sanction of the Grand Vizier, make a good wine 
 from the grape, called Altyntach, (golden stone,) which is sold so low 
 as a penny and three half-pence per quart. All the necessary appa 
 ratus for distilling has not only been found here, but also in the pos 
 session of rich individuals, in various parts of the Turkish empire. 
 Arrack, distilled at Constantinople from the skins of the grapes, is 
 rendered aromatic by the infusion of angelica and gum mastic. It is 
 a clear and transparent spirit when unmixed ; but when water is added, 
 it becomes, first azure ; afterwards opaque and milky. It is a fragrant 
 pleasant liquor, and is sold very cheap An inferior kind of Rakki is 
 made from prunes. 
 
 In many of the provinces, a preparation of mint and pimento, dis 
 solved and digested in water, is a favourite drink. This liquor is 
 remarkably strong : the person who drinks it, for the first time, sup 
 poses that he has swallowed the most ardent alcohol Sherbet is, for 
 the most part, a common drink with the Turks, and is usually pre 
 pared from a confection of raspberries, strawberries, or apricots diluted 
 in water. Large quantities of conserves made from different fruits, 
 are sold in solid lozenges, and in the hot seasons are considered deli 
 cious when dissolved in mountain snow. Cherries, gooseberries, 
 currants, &c. steeped in rose water, with a slight infusion of musk or 
 aromatics, form a beverage in great consumption. At the grand 
 bazaar of Ali Pasha in Adrianople, sherbets are carried about Jn long 
 bottles, and sold as refreshments : a similar practice prevails in many 
 parts of the East. In some places, cakes made of tamarinds are used 
 
 * An oke is 2|lbs. weight. 
 
43 
 
 for sherbets, and are considered valuable on account of their portabi 
 lity. In Mesopotamia, the usual drinks are iced milk and lebben ; 
 iced sherbet made of honey, cinnamon-water, and spices, besides the 
 juice of pomegranates diluted with water of roses.* The foregoing 
 enumeration comprises the chief sherbets in requisition, though fre 
 quently they have drinks under this name, which consist merely of 
 lemon -juice, mixed with cinnamon- water and sugar, with an infusion 
 of violets, raisins, and oranges. 
 
 Were beer, such as we have in Great Britain, brewed in the prin 
 cipal cities of Turkey, there is little doubt that the brewers would 
 raise rapid fortunes from its sale ; for, as the Mahometans at present 
 regard the letter more than the spirit of their law, they would not be 
 very scrupulous in drinking a liquor which is not prohibited by name. 
 Aaron Hill, in his account of the Ottoman Empire, first published in 
 1 709, recommends a speculation of this nature ; his observations being 
 much in point, I shall not abridge them : 
 
 " The love of brandy, wine, and other strong liquors, so much 
 evinced throughout the Ottoman empire, proceeds," says he, "from 
 nothing else but their ignorance in brewing other beverages ; for I 
 frequently observed, tliat when an English ship had brought some 
 bottles of our country beer, or ale, to Turkey, and presented them to 
 such as would afterwards compliment the noted Turks of their ac 
 quaintance with a share in drinking them, they constantly express a 
 wonderful esteem and eager inclination to obtain a quantity, assuring 
 us repeatedly, that could they make such drink themselves, they never 
 should be tempted to commit a sin, by breaking tlirough the prophet s 
 order to forbear the use of wine and brandy. 
 
 " Nothing can be possibly more easily accomplished than the univer 
 sal wish of Turks and Grecians upon this occasion, would some 
 English brewer, skilled in his profession, make a voyage to Turkey, 
 purposely to use his best endeavours for the introducing of beer or ale 
 into common use instead of water. 
 
 " For first, I have sufficiently explained my reasons, to believe that 
 the natives of that country would, with pleasure, drink it, and the 
 price by no means could retard the practice, for so cheap is malt 
 throughout their empire, that they feed their poorest horses with the 
 best of barley ; and with so much ease might he expect to thrive 
 therein, that though he sold the liquor he should brew at no greater 
 price than a penny per quart, he must soon grow rich by more than 
 cent, per cent, of clear profit. But so far beyond this lowest compu- 
 
 * Buckingham s Travels in Mesopotamia. 
 
44 
 
 tation may he reckon his advantage, that I can experimentally assure 
 him he might sell it (and be never thought too dear,) at full the price 
 it bears in London ; nor would the Turks think more too much, or if 
 they should, the very factory itself, excluding all the other Christians 
 there residing, would enrich him speedily, provided he took care to 
 manage well the brewing of all his liquors. 
 
 " If any timorous man," continues our author," objects to the incon 
 venience of so long a voyage, his being altogether unacquainted with 
 the country and its language, and his want of friends to help on his 
 design, those difficulties will soon vanish, when I tell him that he may 
 bargain for his passage in an English ship, arid be supplied with all 
 provisions, even to Constantinople, for considerably less than 20 ; 
 that he will land within a few stones throw of the ambassador s house, 
 to whom the captain must, of course, present him, if designed to settle 
 there ; that he is bound to grant him his protection and encourage 
 ment ; that he may have a dragoman, or an interpreter, to wait upon 
 him for a little charge, and still conversing with his countrymen, 
 maintain a trade almost as free and uncontrolled as if in England."* 
 
 Doctor Clarke was witness to the partiality which the Turks shewed 
 towards our porter, as he saw them give thirty shillings for a dozen 
 of it ; and it was purchased with the greatest avidity, as they seemed 
 quite satisfied that it did not come within the forbidding mandates of 
 the Koran. A late traveller observes, that it has often been matter 
 of surprise to him, that among the trading speculations of his country 
 men, no man has ever thought of trying a project of this nature. I 
 have at times, says he, questioned merchants on the subject, who have 
 urged, as an objection, the difficulty of preserving it in such a climate ; 
 yet beer is made in England for exportation to the East Indies.f 
 The only plausible objection which appears to such a speculation, is 
 certainly the heat of the climate. It is, however, probable, that by 
 brewing at particular seasons of the year, or conducting the process 
 in cool cellars, or by means of good coolers exposed to the breezes of 
 the night, or by approved refrigerators, beer or porter might be made 
 of tolerably good quality, at any season or in any climate. 
 
 Certainly a liquor of this kind would not only be vastly superior in 
 point of flavour, but more wholesome than bouza, a description of 
 drink very common in the Turkish empire, and in great estimation. 
 Bouza is generally made from barley, much after the manner of brew 
 ing beer, but it is of too inspissated a nature, and so badly fermented 
 
 * See Aaron Hill s Account of the Ottoman Empire, 4to. p. 90, 91. 
 f Turner s Journal of a Tour in the Levant, 3 vols., vol. iii. p. 488. 
 
45 
 
 as to render it unpalatable to Europeans. Wine circulates more 
 freely through the dominions of the Grand Seignior, than is publicly 
 known. That of the Dardanelles is sent to Constantinople, to Smyrna, 
 Aleppo, and even to England. This wine will keep to a great age, 
 and, if the vintage be favourable, is preferable to that of Tenedos. 
 Both sorts are of a red colour ; that of the Dardanelles, after being 
 kept for 20 or 30 years, loses its colour, but not its strength. Jews are 
 the chief manufacturers of this wine, which is called in Italian, (the 
 language principally spoken throughout the Levant,) vino della Legge, 
 because it is pretended that the Jews, by their law, are prohibited the 
 adulteration of wine. Its price, when of a prime quality, brings eight 
 paras* the oke, or about four-pence the bottle. Doctor Clarke tells 
 us, that the Pacha of the Dardanelles was much addicted to this wine ; 
 and when he wished to indulge freely, he retired to his villa in the 
 umbrageous recesses of Mount Ida, where he gave full scope to his 
 love of inebriating pleasures, amidst his concubines, musicians, and 
 dancers. 
 
 In many parts of Asia Minor, the farmers, although Mahometans, 
 plant vineyards, and cultivate the grape, but do not make w r ine. The 
 grapes are consumed as ripe fruit, or made up by drying into raisins. 
 From these, a sirup, called petmez, is preserved, and used in their sher 
 bets as sugar. In other places, particularly in Mesopotamia and the 
 adjoining provinces, this sirup is employed as an indispensable ingre 
 dient in all their beverages. 
 
 In the capital of Syria, the distillation of an ardent spirit from raisins, 
 with a mixture of aniseed is carried on extensively. The privilege of 
 this manufacture, on payment of a certain duty, is alone granted to the 
 Christian and Jewish subjects of the Grand Seignior. According to 
 Baimigarten and others, f large quantities of beer, or zythum, are 
 brewed by the Syrians from the grain of the country ; and we have the 
 testimony of Brown, a late traveller, that wine is produced in great 
 abundance throughout Syria; a revenue is raised from it, the vineyards 
 being charged according to the number of vines they contain. Eacli 
 vine, if of good quality, is considered worth one piastre: the miri, or 
 land tax, of every hundred vines, is ten paras. On the mountains, the 
 vine is now cultivated to some extent, and it is pleasing to see with 
 what neatness and industry its growth is effected, where it might be 
 thought impossible to preserve it from the torrents. The wine, to 
 improve its quality, is prepared by boiling it immediately after the juice 
 
 * A para is about the value of an English halt-penny, 
 f In Churchill s Collection. 
 
46 
 
 is expressed from the grape ; and to preserve it for use, it is put into 
 jars or large glass bottles. This mode of boiling wine is not peculiar to 
 the inhabitants of that country ; it was in general use among the 
 ancients. The Lacedaemonians were famous for it,* and it is still 
 practised in some parts of Provence, in France, where it is called the 
 vin cuit, or cooked wine ; but there the method is to lodge the wine in 
 a large room, receiving all the smoke arising from several fires on the 
 ground floors ; an operation more slow, but answering the same 
 purpose. The Spanish Vino Tinto, or tent wine, is prepared in the 
 same way."|" The most valued wine, in this quarter, is the Vino de Oro> 
 or golden wine of Mount Libanus ; this, however, is not boiled, but 
 left to purify itself by keeping.}: The wines of Lebanon (of which 
 there are upvrards of a dozen species) are equally luscious with those 
 of Cyprus, they are very cheap, and might be worth exportation to 
 other parts of the world. Jerusalem draws its supplies from the 
 neighbouring villages. In the valleys that lie adjacent to that city, 
 there are good crops of different kinds of grain and fruit. The vine is 
 in a thriving state, and its produce has a rich flavour, not unlike that of 
 Muscadell its strength is considerable, as was evident from the effect 
 it produced on some of the superstitious devotees who shew the holy 
 places in and about the city.|| Chateaubriand says, the wine of Jeru 
 salem is excellent, it has the colour and taste of the wines of Rous- 
 sillon, and is still furnished by the hills of Engaddi. 
 
 In Damascus, wine is scarcely to be found. The monks in the 
 convent there have good white wine, and to them a traveller must be 
 indebted for a supply. The sherbet shops are numerous, clean, and 
 neat, each having two or three large vessels constantly full of this 
 beverage, with ice to cool it : the retailers fill a vase with the sherbet, 
 colour it with some fruit, cast a piece of ice or snow into it, and 
 directly present it to your lips : this is a grateful draught in sultry 
 weather.f Nearclms relates that Damascus received the richest ma 
 nufactures of Tyre in exchange for wine of Helbon, which was the 
 same as the Chalybon of the Greeks, formerly so highly prized that 
 the ancient Persian monarchs drank no other. At Smyrna, a common 
 coarse wine, called Crassi, is in current use, which at first is rather 
 
 Archreologia Grjcca, vol. ii. p. 366. 
 
 f The Romans, as appears from Columella, were in the habit of giving to some 
 of their wines a rich and precocious maturity by a particular effect of smoke. Vide 
 Columella. L. i. c. 6. 
 
 $ Brown s Travels in Africa, Syria, &c. passim. 
 Light s Travels, 8vo. p. 214. 
 || Bramsen s Letters of a Prussian Traveller. 
 ^ Game s Letters from the East. p. 379. 
 
47 
 
 disagreeable from its having a strong pitchy or resinous flavour. The 
 higher classes in Syria often indulge in the luxury of wines, parti 
 cularly the Jews and the Christians ; and, according to Russel, it is a 
 practice to drink a small cup of brandy before sitting down to dinner. 
 The wandering hordes of Turcomans, Curdes, and Bedouins, who 
 occupy the mountainous tracts of Syria, are too poor to merit attention ; 
 and since nature is easily satisfied where temptations to enjoyment are 
 few, what could be expected from those who shelter themselves under 
 the frail tent, in the cavities of rocks, or beneath the shade of trees, 
 delighting only in the simple repast which their flocks afford. The 
 Druzes, or Derouz, another of the tribes that inhabit this part of 
 Asiatic Turkey and profess Islamism, cultivate vineyards, and freely 
 use wine without regard to the dictates of the Koran. Their man 
 ners in this respect are very loose, they curse Mahomet, eat food that 
 he has forbidden, and break the fast of the Ramadan. Warm-hearted 
 and philanthropic amidst their unfrequented mountains and valleys, 
 they share their humble fare with the suppliant or distressed passenger, 
 entertaining him with lodging and every other comfort they can afford, 
 in the most unaffected manner ; bestowing the reviving juice of the 
 vine with the same generosity that they part with the least morsel of 
 their bread, in conformity with their own sublime adage, " God is 
 liberal and great, and all men are brethren." At a remote period, and 
 long before Islamism was known in that region, Syria was remark 
 able for its wine and the size of its grapes. Paul Lucas speaks of 
 bunches that weighed 451bs. ; and the grapes of Hebron, (mentioned 
 in Numbers xiii. 23) were so large that one bunch had to be borne on 
 a staff by two men. It was with a grape grown in this region, that 
 a favourite lady of the Caliph Jezid was choked ; he having presented 
 her with a specimen of the fruit, she let it slip down her throat, 
 and, from its great size, it stopped her breath and stifled her in an 
 instant. 
 
 In different parts of Syria, as well as among the Druzes, it is a 
 practice to extract from grapes a saccharine substance, called debs, 
 which is used as a substitute for sugar. It is manufactured in the 
 manner of wine, with the exception of being boiled and cooled twice 
 in succession. When the grapes are trodden on, a white earth-like 
 gypsum is thrown on them, from time to time, to make them adhere 
 together ; the juice is then caused to flow into a stone receiver, from 
 whence it is carried to a boiler and from that to a second vessel, where 
 it is cooled and skimmed. After this it again undergoes the same 
 process, and is then put into large earthen jars, in which it becomes a 
 sirup. Perhaps this is the debasli of Scripture, which our translators* 
 
48 
 
 render honey, 2 Chronicles xxxi. 15. It is brought into Aleppo in 
 goats skins, where it is publicly sold in the bazaars. Michaelis con 
 jectures, that the honey mentioned as a portion of the present sent by 
 Jacob to his son Joseph, at the court of Pharaoh, in Egypt, Gen. xliii. 2, 
 was not the common honey of the bee, but a mass of bruised grapes, of 
 the consistency of jelly ; and it may probably have been the same as the 
 sirup just mentioned. Shaw speaks of the great traffic, carried on by 
 the Syrians, in this article ; and says, that from Hebron, alone, 300 
 camels, laden with it, are annually despatched to Egypt, besides what 
 are sent to other countries.* Debs, when diluted and fermented, forms 
 the basis of some of the best brandy, distilled in this country ; and 
 vast quantities of the most valuable grapes are converted into this 
 luscious material. The Syrian Mahometans take advantage of its 
 saccharine qualities to make an intoxicating beverage ; but this they 
 do in secret. Franklin gives an amusing account of a party that he 
 found making it, amongst a number of tombs, between Berout and 
 Mount Lebanon, where they converted one of the stone sarcophagi 
 into a cooler for the liquor : a miserable shift, as he justly observes, 
 to evade the prohibition of the prophet, and substitute Bacchus for 
 death/f 
 in various parts of Syria, honey is largely collected, and the hives 
 are formed of the same materials as those of Egypt, namely, of clay, 
 being about four feet long and six inches in diameter. They are placed 
 one above another to the amount of ten or twelve, presenting each an 
 aperture, for the admission of the insects, and bearing a pyramidal 
 appearance, protected by an awning, or roof. From the flowers and 
 aromatics, so plentiful in Palestine and Syria, the bees collect the most 
 delicious and abundant quantities of honey ; hence the appropriate 
 language of the Scriptures, " a land flowing with milk and honey." The 
 Syrians consume great quantities of it in sherbets and other refresh 
 ing liquors ; and of the advantages of honey to the inhabitants of this 
 region, Haselquist bears strong testimony. 
 
 In all the countries labouring under the delusion of Mahometanism, 
 there is little variety, so far as regards the manners and customs of 
 the people. The Arabians, therefore, may be said to differ slightly 
 from their neighbours the Syrians. Niebuhr tells us, that in many 
 parts of Arabia, the Jews make wine and distill brandy to conside 
 rable extent, and that at Sana, in the district of Yemen, if large quan 
 tities of these articles are manufactured ; while in other places a sort 
 
 Vide Harmer s Observations on various passages of Scripture, vol. ii. p. 6. 
 f Fralclin s Travels, vol. i. p. 371. $ Nicbuhr s Travels, 8vo. vol. i. p. 250. 
 
49 
 
 *>f beer, something like the Egyptian curmi, was brewed, which 
 received an agreeable taste from an infusion of a grey herb, called 
 Schoebe,* that served as leaven in the fermentation. From the berry 
 of the cebatha shrub,f a very strong kind of spirit was extracted, the 
 acid taste of which, he thought, was much improved by sugar. Arrack 
 is sometimes imported into Mocha, from India, as well as into many 
 of the other parts of the Arabian Gulf. From the Kismis or Kisch- 
 misch grape, which, like the arts and sciences of the Arabs, is an 
 exotic from India, dibs or dibis is made, in the same manner as by 
 the Syrians, and great advantages are derived from it, both in 
 domestic and commercial intercourse. Wine, for which the Arabian 
 poets have not less than one hundred and fifty appellations, is seldom 
 made except by the Jews and Christians An excellent sort is manu 
 factured, at the convent of Mount Sinai, from the superior grapes 
 grown in the gardens of that establishment, and from the dates cul 
 tivated in the vicinity ; and good brandy is made by a distiller kept in 
 the convent for that purpose. Grapes are there preserved, by hanging 
 them up in cellars, and prove very refreshing throughout the \vhole 
 year. The vineyards at Taroot are good and extensive, but are 
 sometimes overflowed by the tides. Malte Brun is of opinion, that 
 it is here should be placed the Regio Martina of Strabo, where the 
 vines, reared in baskets of rushes, were sometimes raised out of their 
 situation by the waters of the sea, and afterwards replaced by means 
 of oars.| Although the Arabians condemn the European practice of 
 drinking to excess, yet they do not disapprove of it, when used with 
 moderation, or as a remedy in diseases : it is even considered an 
 absurdity to refrain altogether, from what a gracious providence has 
 so liberally bestowed. Such, however, is the specious enforcement of 
 the law, that if a Jew be convicted of conveying \vine into the house 
 of an Arab, he is severely punished, at the same time that the Arab 
 will regale himself with impunity, within his own apartments. At 
 Suez, the inhabitants make no scruple of taking a moderate quantity 
 of brandy, experience having taught them that it is necessary to do 
 so, in order to correct the bad effects of the stagnant and brackish 
 waters, arising from the saline qualities of the earth. According to 
 Doctor Dwight, a similar practice prevails in New England and New 
 York, in the vicinity of the salt lakes : in both cases, it may, however, 
 be questioned, whether it is not the love of the liquor, rather than 
 
 * Niebuhr s Travels, 8vo. vol. ii. p. 347. The lichen of the plum-tree, a natif 
 of the Isles of the Archipelago. 
 
 f Ibid. p. 355. J Malte Brim s Geo, vol. ii p. 210 
 
 E 
 
the expediency, which is the real cause for what is accounted indis 
 pensable. 
 
 The distillation of spirits, in this region, never formed a favourite 
 pursuit : the knowledge of the Arabians in this respect was always 
 limited, and even when the arts, under the Saracens, were at their 
 acme, they had little to boast of, beyond the analysis of simples, 
 with their application to medicinal purposes. In the practice of 
 alchymy almost all other considerations were forgotten, and, as 
 formerly observed, although the honour of the invention of distilla 
 tion has been attributed to these people, yet they have not, at present, 
 the remnant of an art to shew, that they ever had a pretension to 
 that discovery. Niebuhr met with one of their alchymists, who had 
 spent a long life in search of the philosopher s stone, and he had only 
 then arrived at that point of his experiments, in which he found it 
 necessary to procure an herb, that grew on the mountains of Yemen, 
 fancying, that because the teeth of the sheep, which fed on it, were 
 yellow, it must have the virtue of turning whatever it would touch 
 into gold. Thus, it was, that the Arabian alchymists conducted their 
 operations under the expectancy of changing the coarser metals into 
 gold, and this being the cynosure of all their labours, mystery and 
 enigmatical jargon became incorporated with all their writings, and 
 they carried their speculations so far, as to suppose, that the very 
 elements were under the superintendence of spiritual beings ; and 
 that those beings had an influence over human power and human 
 action. But that the idea of Fairies, Genii, Gouls, &c. mentioned in 
 the splendid machinery of the Arabian Nights Entertainments, could 
 have originated in this science, as has been supposed by Sir Humphry 
 Davy and Doctor Paris,* there is not a shadow of foundation, unless 
 that of mere conjecture. From the manners and habits of the Orien 
 talists ; the grandeur of their imagery ; the luxuriance of their fancy ; 
 the sublimity of their conceptions, and the metaphysical manner of 
 clothing their ideas, together with the notions they have of multi 
 farious agents of deity, we need not w r onder at the extravagance of 
 their descriptions, and the familiarity with which they introduced 
 supernatural agents on fcven the most trivial occasions, to all which, 
 the Arabian, as well as other Oriental tales, that have been handed 
 down to us, owe their celebrity and fascination. 
 
 The Arabians have been so long degraded, that they now afford 
 little interest, either in arts, science, or literature. The Egyptians, 
 whose country is contiguous, are nearly in the same state, though, 
 
 * Pharmacqlogia, vol. i. p. 88. 
 
51 
 
 when treading on their soil, a secret glow of veneration arises for a 
 nation, so long distinguished in the annals of antiquity, for all that 
 was mighty and majestic, whether we consider its almost superhuman 
 structures ; its profound erudition ; its wonderful inventions, or the 
 splendour, pomp and glory, which surrounded its early inhabitants 
 Once they revelled in wines of the most costly nature now they are 
 contented with a spurious description of their ancient curmi, a kind 
 of ale fermented from maize, millet, barley, or rice. This liquor is of 
 a light colour, and, in the hot season, will not keep above twenty- 
 four hours ; it is pleasant to the taste, and, though weak, drunk in 
 considerable quantities in this country, as well as at Kaliira, and Said 
 (the ancient Sidon), in Syria. The native Christians mostly distil 
 for themselves, from dates, a liquor called by the general name, 
 Araki, (perhaps the same as that termed Horaky by Belzoni) ; it is 
 also made from currants, or the small grapes imported from the Seven 
 Islands. When the French were in Egypt, under Buonaparte, the 
 want of wine was supplied by a spirit extracted from dates. This 
 fruit is manna to the people of Egypt, with whom it is an universal 
 article of food ; when ripe, the dates have a sweet but insipid taste, 
 and when dried and preserved in lumps, after the stones are extracted, 
 they are extremely good. Of the palm tree, from which the date is 
 collected, Kenneir reckons forty-four varieties ; that species, cultivated 
 in Upper Egypt, is of the best description ; and the wealth of some 
 places consists in groves of these trees. At Tor, the plantations are 
 registered ; most of them are entailed property, and parents portion 
 their daughters with dates, in the same way that the people of Hol 
 land portioned off their children with tulips.* Ripe dates, although 
 delicious, are never refreshing to the palate, but they suit the Turks, 
 who are fond of all kinds of sweetmeats. The tree, which yields 
 this fruit, is here an inhabitant of the desert, and near its roots fresh 
 water is always to be found. Providence has rendered it an invalu 
 able gift to the inhabitants of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia. They not 
 only make of its leaves, couches, baskets, bags, mats,f drinking bowls, 
 and large plates, by way of salvers ; but from the branches, cages for 
 their poultry, fences for their gardens : from the fibres of the boughs, 
 thread, ropes, and rigging for ships ; from the sap, a spirituous liquor 
 is prepared ; the trunk furnishes fuel ; camels are fed upon the stones, 
 after being ground by hand-mills ; and, in some places, meal is ex 
 tracted from among the fibres of the trunk, and converted into bread 
 
 * Sir Fred. Henniker s Notes during a visit to Egypt, Nubia, the Oases, Mount 
 Sinai, &e. 8vo. p. 217. 
 
 t Savary s Letters on Greece, vol. i. p. 2C7. 
 
52 
 
 So celebrated is this productive tree, that writers, both in prose and 
 verse, have made it the theme of their praises, and enumerated not 
 less than three hundred and sixty uses to which the trunk, the 
 branches, the leaves, the juice, and the fruit, are skilfully applied. 
 Dufard El Haddad, an Arabian bard, thus alludes to it, when describ 
 ing the great canal of Alexandria, " The woods," says he, " which 
 shade this canal, give to the sailors, who row along its surface, a 
 spreading mantle of green. The cool north wind refreshes the surface 
 of the waves ; the superb date tree, with its high-moving and majes 
 tic-tufted top, crowned with its cluster of yellow red fruit, leans gently 
 over its banks like the head of a beautiful virgin asleep." Such is the 
 attachment of the people of the East to this tree, that an Arabian, 
 having returned home after a visit to Great Britain, said, that England 
 wanted but one thing to make it beautiful ; " it has not a date tree in 
 it ; I never ceased to look for one all the time I was there, but I 
 looked in vain." The date tree can be as easily ascended as a ladder, 
 being indented, as if constructed for the admission of the human hands 
 and feet, and not by excrescences, as is generally understood ; it has 
 no branches, the leaves, which are from six to eight feet long, serving 
 for that purpose. In the Oases, that region so insulated from the rest 
 of the world, and surrounded by the trackless deserts, the date grows 
 to great perfection. Vansleb says the best fruit is brought from El 
 Wah, which lies, three days journey, inland above Siout. There, 
 dried dates are so fleshy and sweet, that others would be considered 
 sour or bitter after them. From El Wall, observes the same writer, 
 come raisins and good dates, common wine, dried cherries, and the 
 like. Strabo speaks of the mines of the Oases, and both Abulfeda 
 and Edrissi notice the luxuriance of its palm trees. The common 
 wine, alluded to by Vansleb, is thought to be raki, or date brandy, 
 which is in much request by the people of the Oases, who, though 
 Mahometans, contrive to persuade themselves that this drink is not 
 forbidden by the prophet Of the fertility of this portion of Egypt, 
 we have the testimony of Olympiodorus, who wrote in the reign of 
 the second Theodosius, and also of the extraordinary fruitfulness of 
 tile trees. Corn there, according to him, was whiter than snow, 
 barley was produced twice a-year, and millet three times.* Such is 
 the fertility oj? Egypt, that Doctor Clarke met with heaps of corn 
 extending nearly a mile in length along the banks of the Nile. No 
 distillation of spirits from grain has, however, been attempted in Egypt, 
 
 Journey lo Two of the Oases of Upper Egypt by 4 Sir Arch. Edmonstone, Bart. 
 8vo. p, 36. 
 
53 
 
 notwithstanding- its great abundance. Bouza, an inferior sort of beer, 
 is the only liquor made from it, of which the Arabs throughout Upper 
 Egypt are very fond. They often expose it for sale in a common 
 wicker basket, made so close as to be impervious to this and other 
 fluids. Sometimes a sherbet is made from oatmeal, boiled with sugar 
 mixed with rose water, which is esteemed a cool refreshing beverage ; 
 but Bouza is the common article of consumption among the lower 
 orders. The grain used in the manufacture of this drink is never 
 malted ; it is mixed with ingredients to render it more intoxicating 
 and palatable ; yet from its thick and glutinous nature, it grows sour 
 in a few days. Palm, or date wine, is also in use, and from the inspis 
 sated juice of the palm tree, dipse, or a kind of honey, little inferior 
 to that of bees, is extracted, which, after being diluted and fermented, 
 makes an agreeable wine. When dipse is intended to be distilled, 
 the fermentation is checked before it becomes entirely acetous, and 
 from this, as well as dates, arrack is manufactured much in the same 
 way as brandy in Europe. It is remarkable, that the spirit made from 
 dates, in most parts of Egypt, has a smoky taste or flavour like Scotch 
 and Innishowen whiskey, yet mellow as if tinctured with honey. The 
 native Egyptians are now so debased, that they have no taste for 
 improvement or elegant refinement, either in the arts or comforts of 
 life, which so eminently distinguished their ancestors. Still, however, 
 they contrive to gratify their appetites with whatever intoxicating 
 beverage they can procure, and even though under the strictness of 
 the Mahometan discipline, defend the practice of drinking, in various 
 ways, some of which are very ingeniously and artfully contrived, 
 Bruce, when travelling up the Nile, had with him a Mussulman, 
 named Hassan, addicted to drink, who, on one occasion, was desired 
 to procure some aqua vitce, if his conscience would permit him. To 
 which Hassan replied, " the Prophet never forbade aqua vitce, but the 
 drinking of wine only ; and even the prohibition of wine could not 
 have been intended for Egypt, for there was no wine in it, except 
 bouza, and bouza, said he, I shall drink as long as I can walk from 
 the stem to the stern of a vessel." Belzoni found that the scruples of 
 the Egyptians were easily overcome, even for drinking wine, which 
 he exemplifies by an anecdote of a CachefF, who, on observing that 
 traveller drink a cup of red liquor, which he had poured out of a 
 bottle, enquired what kind of beverage it was. On being informed it 
 was Nebet, (wine,) he said, that having heard the English wine was 
 so superior to the date-wine of his own country, he was anxious to 
 have some to drink in secret. When presented with a cup full, (and 
 his interpreter having first drunk some of it to convince him of its 
 
5* 
 
 purity,) he swallowed the contents with avidity, and became so 
 attached to this beverage, that, in three days, he nearly exhausted 
 the scanty stock of poor Belzoni.* Under the intelligence of modern 
 rulers, this country, it is to be hoped, will emerge from its darkness. 
 At present, the sugar cane is cultivated in Upper Egypt, the produce 
 and quality of which are good, and, according to Fitzclarence, in the 
 years 1817 and 1818, the Pacha Mahomet Ali was making rapid 
 advances towards bringing the manufacture of this article and of rum 
 to great perfection. A Mr. Brine, who had been a trader to the West 
 Indies, conducted the operations, which were on a very extensive 
 scale. Hopes were entertained that the quality of the rum distilled 
 here would soon compete with the West Indian article in the Medi 
 terranean markets, where it has been sent in considerable quantities. 
 Thus it appears that the Pacha, though a Mahometan, felt no scruple 
 to compound liquors for the infidel Christians, provided he profited by 
 the transaction His intelligence and enterprise have enabled him to 
 see beyond the boundaries of superstition and folly, and to shew in 
 this, as he has done in many other instances, that the real interests of 
 a nation are best studied in the pursuit of legitimate gain, and are not 
 incompatible with the duties of true and genuine religion. 
 
 Captain Henry Light, f tells us that he found many sugar planta 
 tions along the Nile, and that the mode of planting was that of put 
 ting the joints of the cane into furrows five or six inches deep, which, 
 after covering with earth, were watered copiously by channels filled 
 with water from the river raised by means of wheels or buckets. An 
 acre and a half thus cultivated, yield about one cwt. of sugar. The 
 juice is pressed from the cane by a mill composed of two rollers 
 wrought by a horizontal wheel turned by buffaloes. 
 
 Mead is seldom to be met with in Egypt, although honey is plen 
 tiful, and this is somewhat remarkable, as there are few countries 
 where bees are more attended to. The honey, instead of being 
 employed in the manufacture of mead, is used for various other 
 domestic purposes ; and transported to different places in the Levant. 
 Maillet says, that in Egypt the bees are fed chiefly on Sainfoin, and 
 gives a curious account of the manner in which this is practised. The 
 hives are made of clay in the same way as in Syria. As soon as the 
 Sainfoin ripens in the fields, on the banks of the Nile, in Upper Egypt, 
 the inhabitants, from all quarters of the country, collect their hives, 
 and place them on board of boats prepared, or hired for the purpose. 
 
 * Travels, p. 93. 
 
 f Light s Travels In E^ypt. Nubia, and Abyssinia, and the Holy Land, S<c. p. 41. 
 
55 
 
 In these they are conveyed along the Nile, resting occasionally to 
 allow the insects to collect the honey in the adjoining districts, and 
 move along the river, stopping at intervals until the whole of the wax 
 and honey is collected, Having finally arrived at the sea, the res 
 pective owners take away the hives which they know by the number 
 of the register in which they were set down previous to going out. 
 It is an astonishing fact, that notwithstanding the moving habits 
 ef those insects, they have never been known to mistake their respec 
 tive hives, each instinctively flying to its little cell with undeviating 
 certainty. 
 
 The Nubians make bouza in abundance, in drinking which they 
 indulge to excess. It is extracted from dhourra, or barley ; is of a 
 pale, muddy colour, and very intoxicating.* Although the Nubians 
 profess the Mahometan faith, they are characterised as great drunkards. 
 Burckhardt, who visited Nubia in 1816, remarked, that during the 
 fortnight he remained at Berber, he heard of half-a-dozen quarrels 
 occasioned by drinking, all of which ended in knife or sword- wounds. 
 In the larger villages of Nubia, palm wine is common ; it is not unplea 
 sant to the taste, though too sweet to be taken in any considerable 
 quantity : it is usually carried in large goat-skins and drunk out of 
 small cups made from calabashes. Palm wine is generally obtained, 
 by the following process : As soon as the dates have come to maturity, 
 they are thrown into large earthen boilers with water, and the whole- 
 is boiled for two days without intermission ; the liquor is then strained, 
 and the clear juice is poured into earthen jars, which, after being well 
 closed, are buried under ground. Here they are allowed to remain 
 for ten or twelve days, during which the liquor ferments; the jars are 
 then taken up, and their contents are fit to be drunk ; but this wine 
 will not keep longer than a year, or beyond the next date harvest, if 
 kept longer it turns sour. . The Nubians are industrious, and in some 
 parts of Upper Egypt keep the shops for the sale of bouza. Great 
 quantities of the wine and the spirits distilled from dates are consumed 
 at Derr, and sold in houses kept for the purpose, to which many of th& 
 upper classes resort in the evening to get themselves intoxicated. 
 Here Maddox found that the Arabs were the chief distillers of Arrack, 
 and which the Mussulmans drunk with satisfaction, and generally 
 undiluted : it is inferior to the Arrack of Cairo, which is flavoured 
 with aniseed.f 
 
 * Burckhardt s Travels in Nubia, 4to. p. 143, 144. 
 | Excursions in Nubia, voJ. i. p. 66. 
 
56 
 
 Burckhardt observed that from Siout soutlnvard, through the whole 
 of Upper Egypt, date spirits were made and publicly sold, and that 
 the Pasha levied a tax upon the venders. A revenue is also raised 
 by taking from every date tree two clusters of fruit, whatever may 
 be the quantity produced, and laying a duty on all vessels that load 
 dates at Derr. The quantities of dates sent from Nubia to Upper 
 Egypt vary according to the harvest from 1500 to 2000 erdebs annu 
 ally, each erdeb weighing about two cwt. The date trade, which is 
 extremely profitable, is now for the most part in the hands of the 
 government. In Nubia, as well as in Egypt, a kind of jelly or honey 
 is extracted from the date, which serves the rich as a sweetmeat. 
 Except date trees and a few vines, there are no fruit trees in Nubia.* 
 Bouza is made by the Nubians in the following manner : Strongly 
 leavened bread made from dhourra is broken into crumbs and mixed 
 with water, and the mixture is kept for several hours over a slow fire. 
 Being then removed, water is poured over it, and it is kept for two 
 nights to ferment. This liquor, according to its greater or smaller 
 degree of fermentation, takes the name of merin, bouza, or ombelbel, 
 the mother of nightingales, so called because it makes the drunkards 
 sing. Unlike the other two, which being fermented together with 
 the crumbs of bread, are never free from them, the ombelbel is drained 
 through a cloth and is consequently pure and limpid. The ombelbel 
 has a pleasant prickly taste, something like champagne turned sour ; 
 it is served up in large gourds open at the top, upon which are engraved 
 with a knife a great variety of ornaments. A gourd (bourma) contains 
 about four pints, and whenever a party meet over the gourd, it is 
 reckoned that each person will drink at least one bourma. The gourd 
 being placed in the ground, a small gourd, cut in two and of the size 
 of a tea cup is placed near it, and in this the liquor is served round to 
 each in turn, an interval of six or eight minutes being left between 
 each revolution of the little gourd. At the commencement of the 
 sitting, some roasted meat, strongly peppered, is generally circulated ; 
 but the bouza itself is esteemed sufficiently nourishing, and indeed 
 the common bouza looks more like soup or porridge than a liquor to 
 be taken at a draught. The Fakirs, or religious men, are the only 
 persons who do not indulge, publicly at least, in this luxury. The 
 women are as fond of it, and as much in the habit of drinking it, as the 
 men. A bourma of bouza is given for one measure of dhourra, three- 
 fourths of the measure of dhourra being required to make the bourma, 
 and the remainder paying for the labour. Crumbs of the dhourra 
 
 * Vide Burckhardt, p. 132, 103. 
 
57 
 
 bread are often soaked in water, and after giving it ajsourish taste, it 
 is drunk off and called by the traders the caravan beverage, sherbet el 
 jellabe. Parties are formed to drink bouza in the same manner as 
 tea and coffee parties are in England. At Berber, females prepare the 
 bouza, and, when the drinkers of it wish not to be interrupted, they 
 generally retire to the apartments of the ladies, where there is no 
 intrusion. Nobody goes to a bouza hut without his sword, and the 
 girls are often the first sufferers in an affray arising from drunkenness. 
 At Shendy, bouza is drunk to great excess, and as tobacco is smoked 
 to a degree of extravagance, it is a maxim that he who does not 
 smoke largely will never be a hardy bouza drinker. Here also a sort 
 of sherbet, made from tamarind cakes dissolved in water, is taken as a 
 refreshing, cooling, and wholesome potation. To this place honey is 
 brought in great quantities from Sennaar, which is collected by the 
 Arabs from wild bees, and it is often converted into hydromel. This 
 drink is usually made by diluting honey with water, boiling it, and then 
 fermenting it under the influence of the sun, as is the common practice 
 in Abyssinia, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia. The most simple beve 
 rage used by the Nubians is hour, a mixture of water and the juice of 
 liquorice. 
 
 At Sennaar, a liquor, similar to date wine, is manufactured from 
 dhourra ; it is however much less palatable to Europeans from its 
 thick and glutinous quality, and from the burned flavour contracted 
 in the dhourra, which is roasted previous to the short fermentation it 
 undergoes. Bouza is artfully used in this country to ensnare mon 
 keys, as those creatures, like man, seem inclined to partake of the 
 pleasures of intoxication. For this purpose, a pan full of the liquor is 
 placed at the foot of a tree ; and after remaining there for some time, 
 the wary monkey-catcher having retired to a distance and feigning 
 himself asleep, the unsuspicious animals come down from the tops of the 
 trees and regale themselves so largely with the liquor, that they soon 
 become an easy prey to their captors. 
 
 We need not be surprised at those irrational animals being captured 
 in this manner, when we find man, even civilized man ! taken captive 
 by a like expedient. Captain Boteler relates that, while on the coast 
 of Zanzibar, two sailors deserted, and the Arabs, who were employed 
 to arrest them, fearful of resistance, placed spirits in the way : the 
 men drank it, were therefore easily apprehended, and brought to 
 prison in a state of intoxication.* 
 
 The love of strong drink, it is well known, becomes habitual with 
 
 * Owen s Voyage of Discovery in Africa, &e. vol. ii. p, 37. 
 
58 
 
 monkeys in a domesticated state ; and the Onran-Outang in particu 
 lar (which approaches nearer to man than any other animal,) evinces 
 towards it the strongest propensity. Doctor M Leod, who had a 
 good opportunity of observing the habits of one of these creatures 
 during his voyage home from Borneo, assures us that he would drink 
 grog and sometimes unmixed spirits, and was actually turned out of 
 the boatswain s mess for taking more than his allowance. On his arrival 
 in England, he became very fond of porter.* 
 
 On the Gold Coast is found a small quadruped, in appearance like 
 a cat, which the Negroes call Berbe, and the Europeans Wine-b.bber, 
 on account of its great fondness for palm wine, of which it will drink 
 to intoxication. 
 
 According to Bruce, the beer of the Abysinians is of an inferior 
 description, and is made chiefly from tocusso ; but sometimes it is 
 mixed with wheat or dora, at other times all three are mixed together : 
 in general, however, tocusso alone is preferred. The first operation is 
 to grind the tocusso or mixed grain, a fourth part of which is kneaded 
 with leaven and water. Tin s is afterwards put into a jar where it is 
 suffered to remain for two days, and then baked into thin cakes, which 
 are dried on the fire till they become quite hard. The cakes are then 
 broken into small particles, and put into a large vessel full of water 
 capable of holding six times the volume of the grain. Powdered 
 leaves of the Ghesh tree, which have a harsh bitter taste, together 
 with other ingredients, are put in at the same time. The remaining 
 three-fourths of the meal are placed in an oven over a fire with a little 
 water, and kept constantly stirring until it becomes a paste ; and as 
 the water is absorbed or evaporates, a fresh supply is added, and the 
 stirring continued until the entire quantity becomes black like a coal. 
 The whole thus prepared, the crumbs, the mass, and the leaves, are 
 put together into a large jar, and left to settle for a day, after which 
 it is poured off and preserved in jars well stopped : at the end of a 
 week, the liquor becomes strong and tartish, and is what the Abyssi- 
 nians call bouza.f When only two or thee days old, it is said to drink 
 well. This account of the bouza is gathered from Bruce, whose des 
 cription of it is far from being clear or satisfactory, a circumstance the 
 more singular as coming from so intelligent and indefatigable a traveller,, 
 and particularly when the subject affected the moral character of the 
 people in no ordinary degree. Teff and Tocusso are the grain from 
 which bouza is chiefly made, and teff is the principal article from which 
 the bulk of the people make their bread. 
 
 M Leod s Voyage to China, &c. 8vo. p. 3] 7. 
 f Brucc s Travels to discover the Source of the Nile, vol. \i. p. 94. 
 
59 
 
 In making this bread, the dough is permitted to become sour, by 
 which means the want of yeast is supplied, owing to the internal 
 action which arises from the generation of carbonic-acid gas. Hence 
 the ease with which the common people make bouza as the bread re 
 quires but a few days in water, to produce it. 
 
 The Teff plant, the poa Abyssinica of botanists, grows to about 
 twenty-eight inches in height, not thicker than the stalk of a carna 
 tion, smooth and jointed, having at about eight inches from the top, 
 a head composed of a number of slender branches bearing a small 
 crimson flower with a diminutive seed not as large as the head of the 
 smallest pin, but so very prolific as to yield an abundance of meal. 
 It is probable this grain is the tiphe, mentioned by Pliny. The 
 tocusso is a black grain growing to about twelve inches high, having 
 four divisions at the top ; it is said to be a species of the gramcn cruci/f, 
 or grass of the cross. Of this a very black bread is made, eaten by 
 the lower orders, but it produces the best bouza. Swoir, or Sowa, 
 another kind of beer, is a common drink. It is made from crumbs of 
 bread, with a mixture of parched barley. They have also a kind of 
 ale, called sava, made from barley flour mixed with some intoxicating 
 drugs. 
 
 Bouza, the general drink of the country, will appear to be made 
 to a great extent, when it is known, that it is not uncommon to order 
 at one time, bread and beer or bouza for an army of 30,000 men. 
 This, however, is exacted from the peasantry in the provinces through 
 which the army passes, and the people are very exact in supplying 
 their quota, as, in the event of failure, they should have to pay double 
 the value. The distribution to the soldiery is in the proportion of 
 twenty pots of beer, ten of mead, and one cow to one hundred loaves 
 calculated for the subsistence of a certain number of men. 
 
 The supply of bouza, maiz, or sowa, is carried by women, called 
 Gumbones, from the term gumbo, which signifies a jar ; and it is sur 
 prising how these poor creatures endure their labour, having often to 
 pass over mountains and the worst roads, where at times they are 
 obliged to crawl up steep precipices, with the jars on their backs, yet 
 they are seldom known to break the jars, though ever so much crowded 
 on their inarch. They always keep together in gangs, in the rear of 
 the army, and in front of the rear-guard. 
 
 In the household of the Ras, or king, there are two ministers, super 
 intendents of the bread, wine, hydromel and bouza. The common 
 utensil used in drinking, is the horn of an ox, though some of the 
 higher order drink out of a golden or silver cup. Many of those 
 horns are so capacious as to hold nearly six gallons, but those of great 
 
60 
 
 magnitude are employed for conveying liquors from place to place. 
 Of this liquor, as well as hydromel, the natives drink largely when 
 they visit one another ; and if Lobo is to be credited, there cannot be 
 a greater offence against good manners, than to let the guests go away 
 sober. The liquor, on such occasions, is always presented by a servant 
 who drinks first himself, and then gives the cup to the company in 
 order, and agreeably to their rank and station. Hydromel, next to 
 bouza, is the most plentiful drink. This is owing to the immense 
 quantity of honey which the country affords, and which is so great 
 that the king derives from it a considerable revenue. Honey is also 
 a principal article of food among all ranks of people, and the bees are 
 kept in large cages or baskets hung upon trees ; some attach them 
 selves to the branches, others build in the soft wood of the bohabab, 
 the large and fragrant flowers of which communicate to the honey a 
 strong perfume. The honey in this country always partakes of the 
 colour of the flower and shrubs from which it is gathered, and Bruce 
 met with some of it like blood, while the honey of those bees that 
 build in the earth is nearly black. Travellers have asserted that wine 
 is not to be had in Abyssinia, but Bruce says, this is a mistake, since 
 strong wine is made at Dreeda, a place about 30 miles from Gondar, 
 the capital ; and Salt informs us, that wine is made from a red grape 
 which is common in some parts of the country. Poncet, who was at 
 Emfras, within a league of Gondar, at the time of the vintage, which 
 is always in February and not in autumn as in Europe, saw bunches 
 of grapes, some of which weighed upwards of eight pounds ; these 
 grapes were of all colours, but the white in particular were extremely 
 well tasted. Pearce says, that grapes are found in almost all parts 
 of Abyssinia, but no country produces so much as Emfras, owing to 
 an ancient custom of the inhabitants following the wine-business. 
 Here tribute is paid to the king and the Abuna. Every dass of wine 
 pays a jar yearly to the king, as they enter Gondar to the market. 
 It is the same in all other capitals of Abyssinia, such as Adowa and 
 Antalo. The want of proper vessels to hold the wine is very inju 
 rious to its preservation, as they have nothing better than earthen jars 
 
 for the purpose, and these are not glazed within The attachment of 
 
 the people to hydromel and bouza renders, wine from the grape less 
 thought of, and, in consequence, the vine is not cultivated so generally 
 as it might be. In the province of Tigre, there is a small black grape 
 of excellent flavour growing wild, from which good wine could be 
 manufactured. Brandy is in use among the Abyssinians, and their 
 love of strong liquors often hurries them into excesses, which some 
 times lead to fatal consequences, as was experienced by Bruce on many 
 
61 
 
 occasions. The brandy made by them is very strong, and is distilled 
 through a hollow cane, called Shambacco, from the husks and stones 
 of the grapes, after the liquor is pressed from them. Great quantities 
 are brought daily to Gondar, during the vintage, from Corder Emfras, 
 the grape country. One would expect, from the contiguity of this 
 nation with Egypt and Arabia, to find in it some degree of 
 refinement or advancement in the arts and sciences : on the contrary, 
 Abyssinia is buried in the grossest ignorance and barbarism, 
 unacquainted with every sort of manufacture, and reckless of every 
 species of information, which would either expand the intellect or 
 ameliorate its condition. More intent on gratifying the passions 
 than in cultivating the social virtues, the Abyssinians indulge in acts 
 contrary to the dictates of human nature among the rudest savages, 
 eating raw flesh cut from the living animal, drinking afterwards even 
 to bestiality, and committing offences against delicacy too obscene to 
 be narrated. Eating raw flesh is not altogether confined to the Abys 
 sinians, for the Thibetians have a similar practice ; yet the habits of 
 the two nations are very dissimilar, the latter being a mild, affable and 
 gentle people. 
 
 Strange as this custom may appear, it is not less singular that, accor 
 ding to Lobo, the Abyssinians esteem the gall one of the most deli 
 cious parts of the animal, and drink glasses of it with the same pleasure 
 that epicures drink the most delicate wines. Pearce says that he has 
 seen them drink blood warm from the animal with an extraordinary 
 degree of relish.* 
 
 Notwithstanding these barbarous practices, the Abyssinians are a 
 hospitable people. When a stranger enters a village, he is entertained 
 at the expense of the inhabitants, for the master of the house, where 
 he stops, has only to proclaim that he has a guest, when food and liquor 
 are furnished in abundance. Should the guest complain of insuffi 
 ciency, the villagers would be obliged to pay double the value of what 
 ought to have been supplied. A traveller may go into any house 
 with the same assurance of welcome as into that of an intimate friend 
 or near relation. 
 
 Poncet, who travelled through various parts of Ethiopia, found 
 mead, called hydromel by Bruce, and maiz by Lord Valentia, to be 
 the principal beverage of the people ; and describes the making of it 
 nearly as follows : Several ingredients are employed, of which the 
 basis is barley ; this is malted, dried, and pounded fine like coffee, an 
 indigenous root called taddo, or sadoo, is bruised and mixed with it : 
 
 * Pearce s Adventures in Abyssinia, 8vo. vol. i. p. 95. 
 
62 
 
 these are put with water into a well-varnished vessel and mixed with 
 a fourth part of honey : to ten pounds of this water are put two 
 ounces of barley and two ounces of taddo ; the whole is mashed 
 together and left in a warm place to ferment ; it is occasionally stirred, 
 and in three or four days it becomes excellent mead, pure, clear, and 
 of the colour of Spanish white wine. It is considered a delightful 
 beverage, is sometimes made of great strength, and brandy of a good 
 quality is distilled from it.* 
 
 Mussulmen, as well as Christians, are fond of bouza, and some of 
 the former drink so deeply of it that they find it often necessary to 
 sleep away its effects. On one occasion, when Salt dined with the 
 Ras, he observed three large jars of maiz or hydromel at table, each 
 containing about half a hogshead, all of which were emptied during 
 the repast. At another entertainment, he saw about sixteen bruhles 
 (a Venetian decanter holding about half a pint) drunk by each person 
 present, ladies as well as gentlemen, a quantity the quaffing of which 
 would put many of our European dames to the blush.f Yet Poncet 
 assures us, that if the king happens to commit any excess, and that it 
 is hinted to him he has done so, he instantly rises from table and retires : 
 a condescension, and sensibility of weakness, to which perhaps no other 
 monarch would submit. 
 
 The higher classes of Abyssinians mostly have prudence enough 
 not to get over-intoxicated ; still there are numbers who drink to 
 such excess, that they fall off their mules on their way home, and, if 
 no one is at hand to look after them, they are left to the mercy of the 
 hyenas, which range all night through the towns and villages. 
 
 Clubs, called marvers, are common, and consist of about twelve 
 persons, who meet for friendly communication ; and afford opportu 
 nities for drinking immoderately. They assemble once a-month, and 
 when a married member happens to be absent, his wife often attends 
 in his stead ; and the same practice is observed in the marvers of the 
 women, should the wife be absent. Each of these clubs have a priest, 
 who drinks and eats at free cost : he opens the meeting, when all are 
 assembled, by saying the Lord s Prayer, which they all repeat toge 
 ther ; and is too frequently, on these occasions, the most inebriated 
 of the party. It is to be lamented that, through all parts of this 
 country, the priests are great drinkers ; and Pearce states, that he has 
 known instances of some of them being intoxicated when they had to 
 administer the sacrament. 
 
 * Lockman s Travels of the Jesuits, vol. i. p. 218. 
 
 f Valentin s Travels, vol. iii. p. 71. Salt s Abyssinia, 4to. p. 412. 
 
63 
 
 The vessels, generally employed amongst the Abyssinians, for 
 drinking, are chiefly formed of bullocks horns, and are of various sorts 
 and sizes, handsomely finished and ornamented. Those, who serve 
 out liquor, taste it first, by pouring a little into the left hand, from 
 which they drink it, and then, wiping the bottle, or horn, with a cloth, 
 present it to the master. 
 
 The Abyssinians do not make beer from teff only, but also from a 
 plant, called selleh. Bruce mentions different sorts of teff, of which 
 perhaps selleh may be one of the species. They have likewise a good 
 agreeable liquor made from potatoes and honey, which is very intox 
 icating. The honey of Abyssinia is very plentiful, and is white, hard, 
 and well flavoured. 
 
 The use of this material in making an intoxicating beverage, is not 
 only extensive in this country, but also in the adjoining states, and it 
 seems to be a staple commodity. When Alphonsus Mendez passed 
 through Dancali, near the coast of Babel-Mandel, it was with this 
 liquor he was entertained by the monarch, who, on entering the hall 
 of audience, was preceded by a domestic with an earthen pitcher full 
 of hydromel, while another attendant carried a porcelain cup, out of 
 which, without ceremony, his Majesty pledged his guast in a flowing 
 bumper. 
 
 In Bournou, two kinds of fermented liquors are in use ; the one 
 called Amderku is made from dates steeped in water, then meal is 
 added and the whole squeezed through a cloth. This liquor is used 
 after it has stood three or four days. The other drink, called Sza, is 
 made from durrah, or maiz, and is extremely intoxicating. 
 
 The inebriating drinks used by the other rude tribes of the African 
 continent, whether Mahometan or Pagan, are so much alike, that to 
 describe all would be tedious, and were it possible, useless : a few of 
 the most interesting may suffice. The beverages of the Negroes are, 
 according to Park, beer and mead, sometimes called hydromel, the 
 latter is a species of drink very common in Africa, owing to the great 
 abundance of honey, w r hile the former is made wherever any farina 
 ceous grain is cultivated.* Rice and honey may be said to constitute 
 the principal basis of the Negroes sustenance. Honey is commonly 
 procured throughout the whole of Africa in a wild state. The Madin- 
 goes, differing from most other tribes, induce the bees to hive at their 
 farms, in order to obtain a supply without the trouble and fatigue of 
 searching the woods. For the accommodation of the bees, the Madin- 
 goes use hollowed pieces of bamboo closed at both ends and placed 
 
 Park s Travels, Svo. p. 248. 
 
64 
 
 horizontally on twa forked poles. In one of the ends of the bamboo 
 is a small aperture for the passage of the insects, and when the season 
 for taking the honey arrives, the bees are expelled in the same manner 
 as in Europe. The mead manufactured among many of the tribes is 
 little inferior to that made in our own country. The beer, on the 
 contrary, is not for the most part good, because the process is badly 
 conducted, and the absence of hops renders it heavy and more liable 
 to sour. When Dalzel was at the court of Dahomy, he observed a 
 sort of liquor called Pitto, manufactured by the ladies of the palace, 
 of an agreeable flavour and heady quality, which was prepared from 
 maiz or millet regularly fermented. Visitors are always honored 
 with a glass of this beverage, or some other cordial, filled by the king s 
 own hand, which, if refused, gives offence. Favours of this kind are 
 received with avidity by his subjects as a great honour ; on such 
 occasions, the individual lies on his back while the king holds the 
 bottle to his mouth, in which posture he must drink till the royal 
 hand be withdrawn, which sometimes does not happen until the whole 
 contents are emptied, especially when lie has a mind to sport with the 
 drinker. No subject can drink out of a glass in presence of the king 
 of Dahomy ; and although that monarch does not eat in public, he 
 makes no scruple to drink in public. French brandy and other Euro 
 pean liquors are plentiful, as well as palm wine ; and convivial saluta 
 tions, in the form of toasts, are common. On one occasion, when the 
 king was going to battle, a warrior, who accompanied him, drank suc 
 cess to his arms, adding, that should he be unfortunate, he hoped he 
 would not survive the disgrace, but perish like the glass out of which 
 he drank, dashing it to pieces as he spoke. Entertainments are fre 
 quently held in the market place of the capital ; and it has been known, 
 that 130 of the king s wives have been employed carrying provisions 
 for the accommodation of the parties The drinking cups in general 
 use are made of gourds, or calabashes, from which are likewise formed 
 various utensils, such as bottles, jars, and pitchers : some of these 
 gourds are so large as to measure a yard in diameter ; they are often 
 converted into washing tubs, or vessels for fermenting the materials 
 of pitto. The king of Dahomy, although at the head of a rude and 
 barbarous people, displayed, according to Dalzel, sentiments worthy 
 of a civilized sovereign. In a speech which he made on hearing what 
 had passed In England, on the subject of the slave trade, he used the 
 following remarkable observation : " What hurts me most," said he, 
 " is, that some of your people have maliciously misrepresented us in 
 books which never die, alleging that we sell our wives and children 
 for the sake of procuring a few kegs of brandy. No, we are shame- 
 
65 
 
 fully belied, and I hope you will contradict, from my mouth, the scan 
 dalous falsehoods that have been propagated, and tell posterity that 
 we have been abused. We do, indeed, sell to the white men a part 
 of our prisoners, and we have a right so to do. Are not all prisoners 
 at the disposal of their captors, and are we to blame if we send delin 
 quents to a far country : I have been told you do the same."* 
 
 Of another Dahoman sovereign, it is related, that he displayed great 
 ingenuity and cleverness in subduing a powerful neighbouring 
 monarch. Being opposed by a great army, he saw that if he attacked it 
 in an open manner, defeat must ensue ; he therefore had recourse to 
 the following stratagem. Affecting to retreat, he placed a large 
 magazine of spirituous liquors under a strong escort, with directions 
 to rest at a neighbouring village. Leaving this in his rere, under the 
 expectation that his enemies would indulge themselves to excess, when 
 finding that liis stratagem was successful, he returned on the enemy* 
 and routed them with immense slaughter. 
 
 Captain Clapperton found at Wow- Wow, the metropolis of Borghoo, 
 a kind of ale, bearing the name ofPitto, obtained from the same grain 
 as that used for a like purpose in Dahomy, and by a process nearly 
 similar to the brewing of beer in England from malt, only that no 
 hops were added, a defect which prevented it keeping for any length 
 of time.f 
 
 The people of the countries from the Gambia to the Senegal use 
 palm wine diluted with water, and a kind of beer called JBalla. 
 
 In the centre of Africa, the same propensity for ardent spirits 
 actuates the followers of the Prophet as strongly as in Turkey. The 
 drinking of palm wine and bouza prevails to a great extent, particu 
 larly after the feast of the Ramadan. On the day following, every 
 description of persons, Pagan and Mahometan, forget all distinctions 
 of rank, sex, and age, and are to be seen revelling together in all the 
 wild extravagance of intoxication. In the records of Clapperton s 
 last expedition to Africa, we are assured that inebriety, which was 
 probably unknown to the Aborigines, or, if known, partially indulged 
 in, is now familiar and carried to great excess ; and to this may be 
 attributed a great many irregularities committed in that quarter of the 
 globe. All persons, from the king to the beggar, evince an attach 
 ment to spirituous liquors. When the king of Badagry, with his attend 
 ants, honoured Clapperton with a visit, he drank rum till he forgot 
 what was due to Majesty, and became as convivial as the meanest of 
 
 * Dalzel s History of Dahomy, 4to. passim. 
 
 f Records of Captain Clapperton s last Expedition to Africa, 2 vols. 8vo. vol. i 
 p. 133 and 187. 
 
66 
 
 his subjects. Seated with a large umbrella over his head and a 
 British flag, held by white men, floating in the air, his spirits exhila 
 rated by the soul-inspiring draught, and enchanted by the melodious 
 sounds of delicious music, he looked and spoke as if he were the 
 happiest man in existence, while the acclamations of the people, accom 
 panied by snapping of fingers, elapping[of hands, singing, hallooing, and 
 dancing, rendered the scene one of more than ordinary bacchanalian 
 cast. The same traveller and his companions were obliged to pay a 
 tribute of rum to the chief of a village near Humba, which, when 
 received, was taken by this personage in mouthfuls, and squirted so 
 adroitly into the gaping jaws of his thirsty attendants, that each aspi 
 rant for this mark of distinction, received a portion of the bewitching 
 fluid with peculiar satisfaction. Palm wine forms, in Badagry, an 
 article of commerce, and is as regularly exposed for sale in the markets 
 as any other commodity. At a village called Weza, Clapperton met 
 with a beverage termed Otee, which he describes as a kind of ale made 
 from millet, and of a very enlivening nature. Another sort of ale, 
 styled gear, drawn from Indian corn, was found at Ragada, besides a 
 liquor named bum of an intoxicating quality. 
 
 The practice of drinking bouza, as well as that of another 
 beverage called Merissah, prevails to a considerable extent in 
 Sudan or Dar Fur. The Sultan Abdelrahman, in 1795, published an 
 ordinance prohibiting the use of it altogether, under pain of death. 
 Even the unfortunate women who made it had their heads shaved 
 and were exposed to every possible degradation ; but as the habit of 
 using it was of_older standing than the profession of Islamism^com- 
 panies are yet known to sit from sun-rise to sun-set, drinking and 
 conversing, till a single man will sometimes carry off with him two 
 gallons of this liquor.* Bouza having a diuretic and diaphoretic 
 tendency, precludes the danger usually attendant on such excesses. 
 In Dar Fur, they have a species of bread called Ginscia, prepared from 
 the small kassob termed dokn, (millet.) The grain is coarsely ground, 
 saturated with water, and allowed to undergo a slight fermentation. 
 Tins mixture is worked into paste called Kissery, and, when about to 
 be used, water is added, which renders it a palatable food, slightly 
 acid, and of an inebriating quality, with a narcotic tendency. This 
 preparation is very convenient for travellers, and hence the caravans 
 take care to have a constant supply. Perhaps this is the description 
 of bread mentioned by Lobo, which so intoxicated him, that one of his 
 friends considered it to be the effects of wine. The Lbians of the 
 
 Brown s Travels, 4to. pp. 222, 248, 333. 
 
67 
 
 desert drink beer, brewed at Alexandria, though they frequently use 
 native wine. 
 
 The inhabitants of Fezzan are much addicted to drunkenness : their 
 favourite beverage is the fresh juice of the date tree, called lugibi, or 
 a drink termed busa, which is prepared from dates, and is very intoxi 
 cating. When friends assemble in the evening, the ordinary amuse 
 ment is mere drinking and conviviality. A revenue of some conse 
 quence arises from the dates, wlu ch, according to Ben Ali, his Fezzanic 
 majesty collects by a tax on the trees and not on the quantity of fruit 
 they produce.* 
 
 Amidst the beverages which are common among the natives of the 
 interior of Africa, we do not find that any of them appears to be pro 
 duced by distillation. That art seems to be altogether unknown to 
 them, a circumstance the more surprising as they are acquainted with 
 other inventions more complicated. The working in iron, tanning, 
 and dyeing are familial* to them, in which to such a degree of perfection 
 have they arrived in some places as to rival European ingenuity. 
 The early acquaintance of the Arabs with the tribes of the interior of 
 Africa, might lead one to think that the intercourse would have less 
 or more promulgated their acquirements in chemistry and of conse 
 quence in distillation ; but we do not find, either from the writings of 
 the learned, or the observations of travellers, that even the slightest 
 traces of such knowledge are perceptible, a proof that distillation was 
 not known or practised by the Arabians at the time of their first con 
 nexion with the people of the interior of Africa. 
 
 The tribes inhabiting the western coast are equally prone to the 
 pleasures of inebriation as those already described. In Congo, the 
 people cultivate the palm for the love of its juice and shew consider 
 able expertness in the manufacture of the wine, which is obtained as 
 follows : at certain times of the year they ascend the trees by the 
 help of a hoop, and when they perceive a flower blown they cut it off 
 with a knife, and fasten the point of the cut stalk into a calabash 
 called a capasso. It remains suspended in that way for a short time, 
 and on being taken down is found full of a liquor as white as whey. 
 This they ferment, and having racked off, give it the name ofMilqffb. 
 The whole, however large the quantity, must be consumed in three 
 days, otherwise it would become sour and turn rancid. In this 
 country are to be found eight or nine species of the palm from which 
 wine is drawn of various denominations : 1st, Jamata ; 2d, Matoba ; 
 
 * Horneman s Travels from Cairo to Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan, 4to. 
 
68 
 
 3d, Coccata ; 4th, Congo ; 5th, Maccebecco, or Maonger ; but of all 
 these sorts the Congo is the best. 
 
 In such parts of Congo as do not produce palm wine, a substitute for it 
 is procured from Indian corn or wheat soaked in water, pounded and 
 fermented in the usual way : this is called Guallo. In the entertainments 
 of the Congoese, the master of the ceremonies, after having served the 
 company with meat in the most exact manner, holds the moringo, or 
 flask, to the person s mouth that drinks ; and when he thinks he has 
 got sufficient, he puts it away, and observes the same practice with all 
 the other guests to the end of the feast ; for they, with the exception 
 of the monarch, never use cups or glasses.* Calabashes are the prin 
 cipal drinking vessels used by most of the tribes along the western coast 
 of Africa, and they are extremely useful for all manner of domestic or 
 household purposes. Small ones are employed for holding snuff, or 
 liquids, and they are generally ornamented with figures sometimes cut 
 in high and sometimes in low relief. The annexed drawing is a 
 representation of the moringo, or flask, formed of the calabash ; and is 
 similar to that attached to the branches of the palm tree to receive the 
 juice or toddy. 
 
 Voyage to Congo, part i. p. 564, apud ChurchilK 
 
69 
 
 The Portuguese introduced the vine into Congo, but gave it no 
 encom-agement lest it should hurt their home trade, or induce the 
 natives to excessive indulgence, who were already too much prone to 
 intoxication from their native beverages so much so, that parents have 
 been known to sell a child for a bottle of wine or brandy. Here is a 
 prodigious quantity of honey ; not a hollow tree, a cliff of a rock, nor any 
 crevice in which bees have not combs, the wax of which forms an exten 
 sive article of commerce, but whether the honey be converted into any 
 kind of beverage is uncertain. A portion of the royal revenue is de 
 rived from free-will offerings of palm wine, which not only supply 
 the consumption of the palace, but enable the monarch to regale his 
 soldiers occasionally. He is not, however, wholly dependent on this 
 description of liquor to gratify his appetite, his table being supplied 
 by a variety of foreign wines and other liquors. It is a practice with 
 the Congo monarch to have his wines tasted, lest they should contain 
 some deleterious or poisonous principle. His cups and vessels are made 
 of silver, gold, or other materials, consecrated solely to his own use, 
 as he always eats and drinks by himself, his nobles and courtiers all 
 the while standing. At marriage ceremonies amongst the Congoese, 
 the banquets are costly, the guests seldom come to the feasts but 
 with whetted appetites, and they never retire till all the victuals and 
 liquors are consumed, which, on some occasions, occupies two or three 
 days. 
 
 In Angola, palm trees grow in great variety and perfection. The 
 oil palm (Elceis Guineensis) is common to this country with all Wes 
 tern Africa, and its wine is exceedingly pleasant and refreshing ; but 
 the natives on the coast prefer the European liquors introduced by 
 the Portuguese and Dutch traders and settlers. At marriages and 
 funerals, there is a great consumption of native as well as foreign beve 
 rages. At an interment, the blood of the victims offered to the manes 
 of the deceased, together with palm wine, is plentifully poured over 
 the vault or grave in which the body is deposited, while quantities of 
 wine are consumed by the mourners. 
 
 The drinks common to Congo and Angola are familiar in Loango. 
 The people worship a male idol, called Marambas ; it is carried before 
 the chief ruler wherever he goes, to which, whenever he eats or drinks, 
 the first bit or first cup of wine is offered. They have also a female 
 idol, named Gomberi, whose festivals are celebrated by music and 
 excessive drinking ; the priestess on this occasion so modulates her 
 voice, as to make the worshippers believe that it is the statue that 
 speaks. The practices of the king are equally singular ; he has two 
 halls in his palace, one for eating, another for drinking in, and it is 
 
70 
 
 criminal to look at him while he is at either, in consequence of which he 
 is shut up during that time, his nobles waiting in an ante-chamber. 
 As soon as dinner is finished, he retires to his drinking hall, one of 
 the grandest apartments in the place, accompanied by his nobles. It 
 is hung round with costly tapestry, and at one end stands the throne 
 made of fine palmetto pillars, white and black, curiously wrought, and 
 interwoven in the manner of basket work. Behind a screen in the 
 front of the hall, is kept the palm wine from the view of the atten 
 dants. On each side of the monarch stand two cup-bearers, one of 
 whom hands him the cup when he signs for it, and the other strikes 
 two iron rods, not unlike drumsticks, to give notice that he is about to 
 drink, upon which all the nobles fall on their faces, and the cup-bearer, 
 after presenting him with the wine, turns his back, in which position 
 they all remain till notice is given that the monarch has done drinking, 
 when they rise quickly and clap their hands in approbation. When 
 any one is permitted to drink in the presence of the monarch, he turns 
 his back to him, through respect, and no one is ever allowed to drink 
 out of the same cup with him. In the neighbouring state of Ardrah, 
 these observances are kept up with great precision, and every viola 
 tion of them is punished with the utmost rigour. Of this there is a 
 melancholy instance of a child that, having fallen asleep by the king s 
 side, and awaking at the striking of the two rods, unconsciously cast its 
 eyes on his majesty while he was drinking, for which the child was 
 immolated on the spot, and the blood of the innocent was sprinkled 
 over his majesty, lest any harm should befal him. Various ceremo 
 nies connected with the superstitions of their religion give occasion to 
 revelry and irregularity. When their idols are consulted, it is usual 
 for the priest to obtain a butt of beer, as his reward for the delivery 
 of the oracles, and then to give a bumper in honour of the idol, while 
 he and his attendants seldom separate till all the liquor is consumed. 
 At the funerals of their kings, great quantities of palm wine are 
 consumed, not only in offerings, but in regaling the mourners admitted 
 within the palisade of elephants teeth by which the monarchs graves 
 are surrounded. Palm wine is a useful article in the manufacture of 
 their cloth, which is made from the young shoots or leaves of the palm, 
 by soaking and softening them in the wine, and afterwards rubbing 
 them with the hand until they become so pliant, that they can manu 
 facture them into a comfortable article of clothing, of various dyes and 
 qualities. From the Metamba tree a pleasant wine is obtained, little 
 inferior to that of the palm, while its leaves are so large as to afford a 
 complete shelter from excessive heat and heavy rains. The Alicondi, 
 a tree of large dimensions, is sometimes hollow, containing a large 
 
71 
 
 quantity of water, which often yields to the inhabitants a grateful 
 supply when other sources fail. The shell of the fruit serves for 
 holding- wine, oil, and other liquors, and is usually ornamented with 
 carved devices and grotesque figures. From the branches of these 
 trees are suspended hollow pieces of timber, that the bees, which are 
 numerous in the country, may resort to them, and there deposit their 
 treasures. 
 
 With the Giagas, or mountaineers of Congo, the palm wine is a 
 favourite drink, and none of their festivities are without it. When 
 the king goes abroad, it is customary for his wives to carry his drinking 
 utensils, and when he takes a draught, they kneel, clap hands, and 
 sing : at funeral rites, they sprinkle palm wine over the grave, and, 
 among the rich, libations of this liquor are offered for several days 
 successively. 
 
 The inhabitants of Cacongo, a small kingdom adjoining Loango, 
 prepare a wine called Embeth, an extract from the palm tree, as well 
 as another agreeable beverage from the juice of plums.* 
 
 In the island of Annabon, in the gulf of Guinea, the rivulets are 
 covered with palms, from which the inhabitants draw, by incision, 
 quantities of palm wine. In the island of St. Thomas, the sugar-cane 
 once flourished to such perfection, that seven ships \vere annually 
 freighted with sugar for Portugal, two for Madeira and the Canaries 
 and one for England. In 1645. there were in this island up wards of 
 54 sugar mills in constant employment, each furnishing annually six 
 or seven hundred loads of coarse sugar, or rather of the unprepared 
 juice ; the whole computed to amount to forty ship loads. Since the 
 sugar plantations in the West Indies have become so extensive, the 
 trade of St. Thomas has fallen off. Wines have been made in this 
 island from the produce of the native vine, but not to any great 
 extent. 
 
 The kingdom of Benin has, in common with the other parts of 
 Africa, an abundance of palm wine, which is daily exposed for sale in 
 the streets and places of public resort. There are also two other 
 sorts of wine, one called Pali, and the other Pardon or JBordon, drawn 
 from a tree of the same name ; the former is drunk in the morning, 
 and the latter in the evening. At marriage festivals and funerals, there 
 is a great consumption of these wines, as also at the circumcision of 
 children. On the last occasion, quantities of these wines, with provi 
 sions, are placed in the avenues or entrances to the house of entertain 
 ment, in order to appease the evil spirit, and to prevent its doing the 
 child any injury. On the demise of a monarch, a splendid banquet is 
 
 * Dambcrger s Travels. 
 
given, and on his tomb the most delicate wines and dainties, that can 
 be procured, are placed, in order to regale the mourners and visitants. 
 When they become intoxicated, they rush into the street, kill all they 
 meet without distinction, and throw the heads of those they have 
 slaughtered into the sepulchre, as a peace offering that the flight of 
 the monarch to eternity may not be solitary. The anniversary of the 
 great coral feast is productive of much irregularity. On this day the 
 monarch makes his grandest appearance, and distributes immense 
 quantities of wine and provisions, while the day ends in riot and 
 drunkenness. 
 
 Along the slave coast, Pitto, a refreshing beer, with palm wine and 
 most European liquors, is in consumption ; while pitchers and vessels 
 made of gourds finely ornamented, are in common use for holding 
 these liquors. 
 
 In Whidah an excellent beer is made from two sorts of maize, one 
 of a large and another of a smaller description. In the art of brewing 
 the women are so well skilled, that they are said to make beer not infe 
 rior to any in Europe. Their skill, in this respect, is attributed to 
 the danger of drinking the water of the country, and hence even the 
 slaves drink nothing but beer. 
 
 On the Gold Coast, the Dutch and Portuguese early established 
 settlements, and introduced European liquors. Of their native drinks 
 there is nothing differing from those of the states already mentioned. Palm 
 wine is an article of great trade, and is sold extensively through the 
 country. In the public markets the palm wine merchants commence 
 sale at noon, and there is scarcely any other commodity which has so 
 quick a sale. In the evening, droves of men and women may be found 
 singing and dancing with great happiness. When the palm wine is 
 brought into the market place, it is usual amongst the negroes for 
 kings, masters, and slaves, to sit down promiscuously and drink to 
 gether, without distinction of rank or station, in the most familiar man 
 ner and with increasing good humour ; they delight in full bumpers, 
 and he who takes a pint at a draught is accounted a clever fellow. 
 
 Of the palm wine used along the Gold Coast, there are four species. 
 
 1 . That made from the palm tree properly so called, which is drawn 
 off by incision, after lopping away the branches, when the tree is full 
 grown. For this purpose a hole is bored in the thickest part of the 
 trunk, into which a small pipe or reed is introduced ; the sap con 
 tinues running for nearly a month, and when the tree is apparently 
 exhausted, a fire is kindled at the bottom to force out the whole juice. 
 
 2. That called Quaker., which is drawn from a sort of dwarf palm, 
 exceeds the other, not only in delicacy of flavour, but in strength. 
 
73 
 
 3. Pardon, the produce of a peculiar species of palm, which is very pala 
 table, but weak in quality. 4. The Kriska, or Crissia, a wine of no 
 great strength, but which is said to beget a voracious appetite, a con 
 stant desire for eating, and an extraordinary love for sensual grati 
 fications.* 
 
 At Sierra Leone, although sugar is cultivated, no rum is manu 
 factured, so far as I can learn ; but amongst the Negroes a drink is 
 made from the manioc (jatropha manihot,) a plant of great importance 
 not only in this quarter, but in most parts of the West Indies and in 
 South America, as noticed in the articles relating to those countries. 
 Bread, of a very palatable and nutritive kind, is made from the farina 
 or meal procured from the roots of the manioc, which constitutes the 
 principal food of the lower classes of the natives. 
 
 The oil of the palm trees is used as a substitute for butter, and is 
 also employed with the alkaline lixivium of the plantain or banana 
 tree, for making soap, and, by incision in the trunk, a liquor is drawn 
 from the tree like wine, but, from its proneness to the acetous fermen 
 tation, it becomes useless in three or four days. Were it distilled, it 
 might afford an excellent spirit, and come much cheaper than what is 
 imported by European settlers. As the method of procuring the liquor 
 of the palm is different here from that practised elsewhere, a short 
 description may be necessary. The trunk of the tree being too rough 
 to permit a person to ascend by the hands and feet alone, an elliptical 
 hoop of bamboo, open at one side, is made to pass round both the body 
 of the climber and the tree, and then knotted. With the hands on 
 each side of the hoop, and the feet pressing against the stem of the tree 
 he raises himself by a spring, shifting the hoop behind his back each 
 time, and then advancing a step with his feet ; and in this manner 
 gains the desired height, when with no other support but his back to 
 the hoop, and his feet firmly applied to the trunk, he makes a hole 
 with an augur about half an inch deep below the crown of the tree, 
 into which he inserts a leaf in the form of a tube through which the 
 liquor runs into a calabash provided for the purpose, and capable of 
 holding several quarts. The liquor flows more freely during the night 
 than in the heat of the day. About half a gallon may be procured for 
 the space of a month from a single tree each day, without any injury to 
 it, for several years. But if the drain of the juice continue longer than 
 a month, the tree either dies or requires a very long respite till it 
 recovers. After the wine has been drawn off, the auger-hole is 
 secured with some clay to prevent insects from leaving their eggs in it, 
 the larvae of which would eventually ruin the tree. j 
 
 Bosnian s Description of Guinea, p. 286. 
 f Winterbottom s Account of Sierra Leone, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
74 
 
 There are three species of the palm in this region yielding wine. 
 The first, the sweet kind, is afforded by that named Maha, and the 
 second by the Mosombie, the third from the Masongoi of a superior 
 quality. The sweet wine, when properly fermented, produces a very 
 agreeable beverage. An inebriating drink is also produced from 
 maize, called baamboo. From a species of cream fruit found in the 
 settlement of Sierra Leone, the natives draw a pleasant saccharine fluid 
 to quench thirst ; this, when fermented, quickly intoxicates. Here also 
 is a plant called the water-vine, (Tetracera potatoria) the stems of 
 which are a sort of vegetable fountain, discharging, when cut across, 
 a cool, limpid, and refreshing fluid. In the centre of each town, in 
 this settlement, stands a building erected on wooden pillars, and called 
 by the natives a kalde, or conversation hall. The doors of it always 
 stand open for the free ingress and egress of visitors, and here no one 
 can be at a loss for palm wine and cheerful company. The kalde is 
 something similar to a coffee-room in Great Britain. 
 
 The vine was introduced by the Portuguese into this colony, the 
 plants were brought from Candia, and they are said to yield grapes 
 in some parts twice in the year, yet, no wine has been made, owing 
 perhaps to the fear of injuring the home manufacture. 
 
 Among the various vegetable productions of Africa, there is none 
 more remarkable than the Boabab, or Goui, called also Adansonia 
 digitata, from its discoverer, a tree of such stupendous magnitude, that 
 it measures, according to Adanson, from 65 to 78 feet in circumfe 
 rence, every branch being equal to a moderate tree. When in full 
 foliage, it is a forest in miniature ; stripped of its leaves it is like an 
 immense wooden tower. The fruit, resembling a gourd, is made into 
 drinking bowls and vessels for various purposes ; the bark furnishes 
 a coarse thread, which is converted into ropes and cloth : the small 
 leaves afford food in times of scarcity, and are commonly employed 
 as leaven for bread, and to ferment beer brewed from millet, while 
 the larger leaves serve as coverings to the huts ; when burned, their 
 ashes form an ingredient in the composition of soap : bees hive in the 
 hollows of the trunk the pelican constructs its nest between its mas 
 sive branches monkies betake themselves to it for shelter and sub 
 sistence, hence the name of boabab or monkies bread while the wan 
 dering negro finds refuge from the storm in its time-worn cavities. The 
 leaves of this tree, dried and reduced to powder, constitute Lalo which 
 the Africans mix with their food, to diminish the excessive perspi 
 ration to which they are subject, and Europeans find it serviceable in 
 diarrhoea and other maladies incidental to the climate. The pulp of 
 the fruit is slightly acid, and so agreeable, that it is frequently eaten ; 
 
75 
 
 while the juice expressed from it, when mixed with sugar, constitutes 
 a refreshing drink possessing many virtues, and is much valued as a 
 specific in pestilential fevers fermented, it inebriates, and when ana 
 lyzed, the pulp is found to be composed of a gum resembling gum 
 Senegal, a sugary matter, starch, and a substance which appears to 
 be the malic acid.* This tree, which is chiefly found in Senegal, is, 
 in the opinion of Humboldt, " the oldest organic monument of our 
 planet." Some of them are supposed to have stood 5000 years. The 
 natives hollow its huge trunk into chambers, in which they deposit 
 the bodies of malefactors, or persons to whom the rites of sepulture 
 are denied : here the bodies become dried up, the tree acting as an 
 antiseptic, and preserving them like mummies. 
 
 With the boabab may be associated the Cobai,f a tree little inferior 
 in magnitude, the fruit of which, about the size of a hazel-nut, is reck 
 oned so delicious, that the inhabitants require no other food when it 
 can be procured ; and their ingenuity has succeeded in making it 
 subservient to the purposes of drink. 
 
 The people of Gabon, Calbongas, Biafra, and Ashantee, are 
 all skilled in the making of intoxicating beverages. Bowdich, 
 who visited the latter country in 1817, found its inhabitants well 
 supplied with palm wine, of which they are very fond. One of 
 the lords of the council, named Oudmata, on one occasion, seemed 
 quite astonished at an English gentleman drinking only half a bumper, 
 and remarked that he would drink three pots, about fifteen gallons, 
 before he went to bed.J 
 
 Among the privations that superstition imposes on them, one day 
 of the week is considered fetish or sacred, on which they are exempted 
 from labour, and deprived of their favourite beverage. 
 
 It forms a portion of the traffic for slaves in Ashantee to present 
 the king and his ministers with different kinds of liquors, the better to 
 secure his favour, and at an entertainment given by that monarch to 
 Bowdich s mission, they had port, Madeira, spirits, and Dutch cor 
 dials, with wine glasses. Healths were frequently drunk, such as 
 " The king of Ashantee" " The king of England" " The Governor" 
 " The king s captains" " A perpetual union" " The handsome 
 women of England and Ashantee." 
 
 Rum is a favourite liquor, both with the king and people ; it is 
 poured out along with palm wine, as a peace offering, to the manes of 
 the dead ; and in the national processions and celebration of religious 
 
 Hooker s Botan. Magaz. 
 
 t Mollien s Travels to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia in 1818, 8vo. 
 J Bowdich s Ashantee, p. 386. 
 
76 
 
 rites, the king s cook is obliged to bear, amongst other utensils, silver 
 punch bowls, waiters, and tankards, to accommodate the monarch and 
 his attendants ; while in sacrifices for deceased relatives, quantities 
 of those liquors are consumed in drinking and sprinkling their graves. 
 
 Before the committal of desperate acts, the Ashantees drink largely 
 of rum, to inspire courage. One of their monarchs, being unsuccessful 
 in war, knew that he must eventually lose his head ; and to prevent 
 such disgrace, he summoned his ministers in order that he might sacri 
 fice his life for the quiet of his people. They insisted on sharing his 
 fate, and a barrel of gunpowder being brought for each to sit on, they 
 drank to excess, and blew themselves up, at the same moment, with fire 
 from their pipes. 
 
 In paying interest on money, it is accompanied with what is called 
 a dash of liquor ; and a portion of the penalties for an intrigue is a 
 pot of palm wine, or pitto, which is here accounted as good and plea 
 sant as some of our brisk ales ; it is made from dried corn. It is cus 
 tomary, when they drink, to spill a little of the liquor on the ground, 
 as an oifering to the fetish, somewhat similar to the practice of the 
 ancient Greeks, as referred to in Homer s Odyssey. In drinking 
 palm wine it is deemed a luxury to suffer the liquor to run over the 
 beard, and many pride themselves on the adroitness with which they 
 can draw this ornament of the chin tlirough the fingers while wet. 
 The drops are usually caught by a boy with a bowl, which he holds 
 kneeling, and these precious tricklings are swallowed with pleasurable 
 avidity. Feasts are generally held in the market place, and it is 
 almost a daily ceremony with the king to drink there in state, seated in 
 an elevated chair. On immolating victims for success in war, he holds 
 a silver goblet of palm wine in his hand, and when the head of a sub 
 ject is cut oif, rising on tip-toe, he imitates a dancing motion, as he 
 drinks with joy, inspired by expectations of conquest. A man of con 
 sequence, in private circles, never drinks before his inferiors without 
 hiding his face from them, believing that at this moment only his ene 
 mies have the power of imposing a spell on his faculties in spite of his 
 fetish guardian. It is considered, whether at a public or private meet 
 ing, a proof of superior strength in those who can drink most without 
 being overcome. After marriage, it is usual for the bridegroom to 
 present the bride s family with a flask of rum, the day following the 
 nuptials ; and as it is presented full or partly so, it indicates either 
 her purity or frailty before the marriage. In visiting, the chief gives 
 his principal slave a few sips of the liquor offered to himself, not as a 
 matter of precaution against poison, as in Abyssinia, but as a testi 
 mony of regard. 
 
77 
 
 Bosman, when he visited the coast of Guinea, found the inhabitants 
 willing to barter every thing for brandy. If any of them happened 
 to get a mouthful more than another, they began to fight without 
 respect to king, prince, or priest. Some joined in the scuffle through 
 envy, and lest they might be accused of being idle spectators. It is 
 said of one of the chiefs of Bamba, that he refused the crown in order 
 to be near the Portuguese, that through their means he might the 
 more readily indulge in wine and brandy.* The Negro women of 
 the Slave Coast brew an excellent description of beer from milhio, a 
 species of millet or maize. Water, being drawn from wells of from 
 twenty to thirty fathoms in depth, is so cold as to render the drinking 
 of it dangerous : hence beer is in great consumption, being one of the 
 safest beverages to allay thirst in that very warm climate. 
 
 Rene Caille, one of the latest travellers in Africa,f has not added 
 much to our information respecting that almost unknown quarter of 
 the globe. He states, that he found palm wine in use, and, near the 
 settlement of St. Louis, he observed that from a fruit called caura> a 
 sort of plum, an agreeable beverage was made, which much resembled 
 cider : this fruit, when bruised and fermented with water, produced a 
 liquor highly intoxicating. He mentions another liquor termed jin- 
 jin-di, made from the root of a plant of that name. This root is first 
 burned and then pounded with the bark of a certain tree, after which 
 it is immersed in water and kept constantly stirring for about the 
 space of two hours. It is then left for a few days to ferment, after 
 which it is drawn off and becomes a drink of a sweet and pleasant 
 flavour. The Koorankos, a people living to the East of Sierra Leone, 
 make an exhilarating, effervescing drink, called singin, which they 
 extract from a root of the same name. Among the Bagos, an enterpris 
 ing tribe, palm wine is plentiful, and as early matrimonial contracts 
 are made there, it is a curious regulation, that as soon as an engage 
 ment of this kind is entered into, the parties are compelled to live in 
 the same house, and are brought up together with the knowledge that 
 they are designed for each other. From that time, when they are 
 generally about seven or eight years of age, the male is enjoined to 
 bring each day to the relations of his intended partner, two calabashes 
 of palm wine, one in the morning, and another in the evening. His 
 parents supply him with this, until he is himself capable of making the 
 wine. Major Laing, speaking of another tribe, { says, that the court 
 ship does not employ much time ; for if a man form an attachment 
 
 * Bosnian s description of Guinea,8vo. p. 403. Adanson s Voyage to Senegal, 
 t Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo, &c. 1824, 1828, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 J Laing s Travels in Western Africa, 8vo. p. 83. 
 
78 
 
 for a female, he never considers whether the feeling is reciprocal, but 
 immediately carries to her parents a jar of palm wine, and declares to 
 them the object of his visit. Should his suit be approved of, he is in 
 vited to return, when a second jar of wine, with some other trifling- 
 present, terminates the courtship. A tribe called the Timannus, in 
 the vicinity of Sierra Leone, not only employ palm wine in this man 
 ner, but use it as offerings to the dead ; for which purpose they 
 deposit not only quantities of this liquor, but of provisions in the charnel- 
 houses, particularly of their kings and chiefs, under the impression that 
 they are necessary for the deceased, and consumed by them as a sup 
 port for their spiritual existence ; thus shewing a belief in the immor 
 tality of the soul. It is a prevailing practice, among many of the 
 pagan nations of Africa, to consign a portion of both food and drink 
 to the dead, associating the pleasures of the temporal with the Spiri 
 tual world. Their attachment to palm wine is so strong, that many 
 are so relaxed by its effects, that they become afflicted with diseases 
 not unlike those produced by ava> in the Sandwich islands. 
 
 The Caffres and Tambookies prepare an intoxicating drink from 
 millet, or Guinea corn, which they call pombie. It is manufactured 
 much in the same way as the liquors already described, and in large 
 quantities ; for the longer it remains so as to become tart or sour, the 
 better they reckon it and the more eagerly do they covet it, as posses 
 sing great virtues.* 
 
 In Morocco, the Jews are extremely active in preparing intoxica 
 ting liquors, and making wines both white and red ; and in the pro 
 vince of Suse and Tetuan, they not only make wine, which, in Wind- 
 hus s opinion, is equal to the sherry of Spain, f but distill brandy from 
 the refuse of the grape as well as from raisins. An ardent spirit is 
 also extracted from figs called mahayah, which they drink almost 
 immediately from the alembic. When it is kept for a year or two, it 
 resembles Irish whiskey, and is preferred to European brandy or rum, 
 because, as they pretend, it does not heat the blood. A glass of it is 
 generally taken before meals : cider is made in many parts of Barbary, 
 and affords an excellent drink. Usuph is common, but consists of 
 little more than the water in which raisins have been steeped. Sir 
 Capel De Brooke, when in Morocco, found that the Moors were not 
 scrupulous in drinking wine, which they take after boiling, that pro 
 cess, in their opinion, removing the objection made in the Koran, as it 
 is the simple fermented juice of the grape which is forbidden : in this 
 
 Joano Dos Santos Hist. Patterson s Travels in Caflfraria, 4to.p. 92. 
 f Journey to Mequincz. 
 $ Jackson s Account of Morocco, 4to, p. 18. 
 
79 
 
 state its taste and appearance resemble sour mead. Lempriere 
 asserts, that there are very few of the inhabitants who do not joyfully 
 embrace every private opportunity of drinking 1 wine and spirits to 
 excess. Several of their monarchs were guilty of great extravagancies 
 in their drunkenness. Abdelmelech was odious to his subjects on this 
 account, and was guilty of the greatest cruelties while under its influ 
 ence. Another emperor, in an intemperate moment, caused the teeth 
 of a favorite mistress to be drawn out ; and to atone for his barbarity, 
 he ordered the dentist to be served in the same manner, whose teeth 
 he sent her by way of consolation. Muley Dehaby destroyed his con 
 stitution and shortened his reign through an obstinate dropsy, occa 
 sioned by an inordinate devotion to wine. 
 
 The materials for which, and the proportion of brandy drawn 
 from those materials, as practised by the Jews in their manufacture 
 of that spirit, are 
 
 From 1501bs. of pears, which, when in season, cost about ten pence 
 they make about two gallons. 
 
 From 1501bs. of raisins, which cost about ten pence, from eight and 
 a half to nine gallons are extracted. 
 
 From 1501bs. of figs, which cost about sixpence, they make about eight 
 gallons. 
 
 From 1501bs. of dates, costing from twenty-five to twenty-eight 
 pence, about seven gallons are obtained. 
 
 The brandy from dates is considered the best, and is sold for 3s. 6d. 
 per gallon. 
 
 The brandy from raisins and figs sells for about 2s. 6d. per gallon. 
 
 The brandy from pears brings about 3s. 6d. per gallon. 
 
 From 1501bs. of grapes, about eight gallons of very tolerable wine 
 are obtained, and four gallons of brandy. 
 
 Were the Jews more careful in the selection of their grapes, and 
 the making of wine, it is considered it would be of good quality. In 
 August, the wine is made, and the process of boiling is usually con 
 ducted in the open streets. The white grapes are simply pressed 
 under foot and then boiled ; the black grapes, or their refuse, undergo 
 the process of distillation. The brandy is of a white or clear colour, 
 and is generally flavoured with aniseed of which the Jews are very 
 fond : a glass is usually taken the first thing before breakfast, and is 
 considered very wholesome. To the taking of spirits is attributed the 
 freedom of the Jews from the elephantiasis, or swelling of the legs, a 
 disease quite common amongst the Mahometans. Both Moors and 
 Jews make very good sweet-meats from the orange flower, which the 
 rich boil in clarified sugar, and the poorer classes in honey : orange 
 
80 
 
 peel is also made into a preserve with sugar and honey ; the sugared 
 almond cakes are very good. In Morocco, the oath of a principal 
 alkaid, or Talib, is equal to the oaths of six common persons,* but 
 there are different offences, of which if he be proved guilty, detract 
 from the validity of his oaths ; amongst these offences are those of 
 drinking wine, smoking, &c. 
 
 The people of Tripoli make an excellent wine from the Lotus tree, 
 (zizyphus lotus) the fruit of which is considered superior to that of the 
 date : from this tree, it is alleged, that the ancient Egyptians took 
 the name of lotophagi. The lotus of the ancients appears to be the 
 same plant as the seedra of the Arabs. It is very common in the 
 Jereede and other parts of Barbary ; it has the leaves, prickles, flowers, 
 and fruit of the zizyplim, orjujeb. The fruit is luscious and in great 
 repute ; it tastes something like gingerbread, and is sold in the mar 
 kets through all the southern districts of these kingdoms.f The Lybian, 
 or Rhamnus lotus of Linnaeus, is a shrub of about four or five feet 
 high, bearing berries which are very nutritive, and used in various 
 ways as food. Whether this be the same as the lotus mentioned by 
 Xenophon, in his address to the Ten Thousand, cannot be determined.}: 
 Pliny alludes to it, as furnishing subsistence to the Roman army ? 
 when passing through a portion of Africa. Mungo Park notices the 
 Rhamnus lotus, the berries of which are, by some of the negro nations, 
 termed Tomberongs, and converted into bread by pounding them in a 
 mortar till the farina is separated from the stones. This farina, or 
 meal, is then mixed with water, formed into cakes, and dried in the 
 sun. The stones are put into a vessel of water, and well shaken to 
 separate the remaining particles of meal, which communicate an 
 agreeable taste to the water, and being mixed with a little pounded 
 millet form a pleasant gruel, called fondi, the common breakfast in 
 many parts of Ludamar.|| In other places they ferment it, and thus 
 make an excellent beverage from it. 
 
 The Jews at Taffilet use beer of their own brewing, but, in the 
 vintage season, make a little wine. Palm trees are very abundant in 
 Tripoli, and the inhabitants draw from them, by incision, a frothy 
 liquor termed laghibi, which, when drunk immediately after being taken 
 from the tree, is very palatable. It is also fermented, and produces a 
 strong inebriating wine in great request among the people, notwith 
 standing the prohibitions of the Koran. The laghibi is obtained from 
 the annual buds at the top of the tree, and the juice flowing from the 
 
 Sir Capel De Brooke s Sketches of Spain and Morocco, vol. i. p. 145. 
 f Shaw s Travels. J Anab. lib. iii. 
 
 Pliny, lib. v. c. 4 ; lib. xiii. c. 17, 18. || Park s Travels. 
 
81 
 
 bounds is collected in vessels. Trees, having undergone this opera 
 tion, bear no fruit during the next three years ; but, according to Paolo 
 Delia Cella, that which is then produced is of a more delicious kind. 
 In some parts are excellent grapes, but no wine is made from them 
 owing to the indolence and ignorance of the people.* Wine and 
 liquor shops, as well as some taverns are kept by the Mahometans of 
 Tripoli, who, regardless of the prohibition by the law, drink wine 
 without any restraint or limitation : so great is the consumption, that 
 it is said to produce a revenue of one hundred thousand francs annu- 
 ally.f In the mausoleums have been found various sorts of drinking 
 vessels : a proof that the early inhabitants were familiar with wine and 
 and other seductive liquors. 
 
 The Deys of Algiers, though possessing one of the most fertile 
 States in Barbary, do not encourage the manufacture of inebriating 
 liquors ; yet Jamaica rum, as well as good wine, is among the merchan 
 dise always in demand. Grapes of a superior quality grow in Al 
 giers ; and, according to Shaw, some wine is made not inferior to the 
 best Hermitage, both in taste and flavour ; but the locusts are so des 
 tructive, that they frequently annihilate whole vineyards. Since the 
 conquest of Algiers by the French, in 1831, it is to be presumed that 
 their ingenuity has not been slow in bringing to bear the resources of 
 that country to supply the wants of the army with such liquors as the 
 native fruits afford. In Tunis, the taverns are kept by slaves, who 
 have considerable authority, which they sometimes exercise with good 
 effect ; for if any one get drunk or behave irregularly, they have the 
 power of chastising him at the instant ; by which means taverns and 
 public-houses are protected from broils and disturbances. White wine 
 made in the country is the common beverage, which is cheap and of 
 good quality, but, in order to render it more inebriating, it is mixed 
 with quick -lime. 
 
 In Barca, great quantities of a liquor made from the date tree are 
 consumed, and which is called date tree water : it inebriates when 
 taken to any excess. This country is remarkable for the superior 
 flavour of its dates, which are in such abundance, that they are fre 
 quently used in feeding cattle. 
 
 Along the Barbary coast, as well as in the Levant, sherbet is 
 the common drink. The term sherbet is applied generally to every 
 beverage consisting of water holding, in solution, a sweet and an acid ; 
 and is preferable to lemonade in its extended acceptation. In Algiers 
 
 * Narrative of an Expedition from Tripoli to the Western Frontiers of Egypt, in 
 1817, 8vo. London, 1822, p. 16. 
 f Travels of AH Bey, vol. i. p. 238. 
 
82 
 
 it is made of sugar, juice of lemons, apricots, plums, violets, or other 
 fruits. Mead also abounds, honey being gathered in large quantities, 
 not only in the Barbary States, but, as already observed, through 
 almost every part of Africa. The wealth of many of the tribes, it is 
 well known, consists in nothing but honey and wax. The modes of 
 rearing bees are various ; the hives are generally shaped like ours, but 
 more of a cylindrical form, and placed lengthwise, and are commonly 
 suspended from the branches of trees : the entrance is at the bottom 
 which is furnished with straw. This, however, is only the case 
 where the bees are domesticated ; but wild honey is procured from the 
 forests in large quantities. Flowers being very scanty in many States, 
 the bees collect the honey from trees, shrubs, and even underwood : 
 hence African honey, in general, is coarse and insipid to European 
 palates, and is full of particles of leaves that give it a blackish appear 
 ance ; some ingenious natives clarify it, and render it beautiful, rich ? 
 and agreeable. The art of making brandy from fermented honey is 
 said to be practised by some of the native tribes, a use to which it has 
 never yet been applied in Europe. Molien, in his Travels, informs 
 us that the Poulas make brandy from honey after being fermented in 
 the usual manner. The sugar obtained from honey is of two sorts, 
 one resembling that of the grape and the other like the granulated pro 
 duce of the sugar-cane. In some of the interior districts, a kind of 
 beer, called Ballo, is made from rice or millet. 
 
 I shall conclude this circuit of Africa, by observing, that the know 
 ledge of its most enlightened inhabitants in chemistry is not more 
 solid than their pretended acquirements in alchymy ; since the boasted 
 discoveries of the Saracens are to them wholly lost : even in the 
 most simple medicinal prescriptions, the Moors, from whom great infor 
 mation might be expected, display the grossest ignorance. So limited 
 is their education, that the only book in use among them is the Koran 
 with its commentaries, to which may be added a few blundering tracts 
 on geography, with some historical memoirs for such branches of 
 history, as are older than the Mahometan era, are a medley of romance 
 and confusion. Thus circumstanced, even did their laws permit, they 
 could not manage any experiment in chemistry, much less the process 
 of distillation : to the Jews and Christians residing among them, they 
 are indebted altogether for the products of the alembic. 
 
 In the Persian empire, as well as in the Turkish, the Mahometan 
 faith precludes indulgence in inebriating liquors ; but in few countries, 
 perhaps, is there less attention paid to the prohibitory mandate of the 
 prophet. Sherbet is the fashionable drink at meals, but wine is the 
 favourite in private. The love of the Persians for this liquor is well 
 
83 
 
 known from the earliest antiquity ; and it often led them into the 
 most extravagant excesses. Herodotus tells us, that they were accus 
 tomed to debate on matters of the highest moment when heated with 
 wine ;* and Strabo, says their counsels and decrees were firmer, if 
 made at that time, than when sober .f It was a familiar phrase among 
 them, that " there was equal sin in a glass as in a flaggon." So 
 impressed are they with the idea that the sole pleasure of wine is in 
 its intoxicating effects, that they think Christians are all drunkards ; and 
 say, that since it is a privilege of our religion to drink wine, it is neither 
 attended with shame, nor disgrace. Hence many of the blunders or 
 singularities of Europeans are often attributed by the Persians to 
 drunkenness. The following anecdote is a familiar illustration. An 
 English officer, riding on one of their most spirited horses, had great 
 difficulty to keep his seat, and presented so awkward a display of horse- 
 mansliip, that he was laughed at by the spectators. A Persian friend 
 who was witness to the scene, in order to save the credit of the English 
 man, exclaimed, "Oh! he rides admirably, and as becomes one of a 
 nation of soldiers ; but he is drunk, and that accounts for his not keep 
 ing his seat as he otherwise would." This had the desired effect, and 
 saved the officer from further observation. Hafiz, the elegant and 
 favourite poet of the Persians, though he may have indulged his ima 
 gination to the extreme of fiction, has strongly marked, in the follow 
 ing verses, his attachment to the popular beverage of his country : 
 
 " I am," says he, " neither a judge, nor a priest, nor a censor, nor a lawyer ; 
 why should I forbid the use of wine ? 
 
 " Do not be vexed at the trifles of the world ; drink, for it is a folly for a wise 
 man to be afflicted. 
 
 " That poignant liquor, which the zealot calls the mother of sins, is pleasanter 
 and sweeter to me, than the kisses of a maiden." 
 
 " The only friends who are free from care 4 are a goblet of wine and a book of 
 odes. 
 
 " The tulip is acquainted with the faithlessness of the world ; for, from the time 
 that it blows till it dies, it holds the cup in its hand. 
 
 " Give me wine ! wine that shall subdue the strongest ; that I may for a time 
 forget the cares and troubles of the world, f 
 
 " The roses have come, nor can any thing afford so much pleasure, as a goblet of 
 wine. 
 
 " The enjoyments of life are vain ; bring wine, for the trappings of the world 
 are perishable." 
 
 * Herod, vol. i. s. 133, p. 137. f Strabo, Geo. chap. 15. 
 
 J Johnson called brandy, " drink for heroes." Hafiz distinguishes his liquor by 
 an uncommon epithet, " the tercllcr of men " 
 
84. 
 
 This flowery imagery of Hafiz, so descriptive of man s attachment 
 to wine, brings to my recollection an epitaph on the tomb of a wine- 
 bibber. " Wine gives life ! it was death to me. I never beheld the 
 morning sun with sober eyes ; even my bones are thirsty. Stranger f 
 sprinkle my grave with wine ; empty the cup and depart." 
 
 Travellers assure us, that intoxication is common in Persia, and that 
 the laws of moderation are frequently as little regarded as those of re 
 ligion. It is related of a certain Khan of that country* that he was so 
 fond of spirituous liquors, that the king had often reproved and even 
 chastised him for it ; but finding those measures of no effect, his Ma 
 jesty ordered him to continue drinking, which order he so faithfully 
 fulfilled, that he was intoxicated during forty days, and, in consequence 
 became so disgusted with the practice, that he gave it up altogether, 
 and solicited the king to revoke his command.* 
 
 At an entertainment, at which Mr. Morier was present, he de 
 scribes very minutely the various articles served up to the guests. 
 Amongst these were trays, with fine china bowls filled with sherbets, 
 some of which contained sweet liquors, and others a most exquisite 
 kind of lemonade ; besides, small cups with delicious liqueurs. While 
 in vases of sherbet were spoons made of pear-tree, with deep bowls? 
 and made so fine that the long handle gently vibrated, when carried to 
 the lips, as if to tantalize the desire of the guest. Wine formed no 
 part of the banquet, for the prohibition of the Prophet was religiously 
 observed by the entertainer, who was a rigid Mussulman, and an 
 exception to the generality of his countrymen. 
 
 The Jews and Armenian Christians are, in Persia, the principal 
 manufacturers of wine, and though there is scarcely a province in the 
 empire which does not afford it, yet the wine of some is much more 
 esteemed than that of others. Shiraz is universally allowed to pro 
 duce the best. Tavernier states, that 4,125 tuns of this wine were 
 annually made in his time.f It has so strong a body, that it will keep 
 from eighty to one hundred years without diminution of colour or 
 flavour. To eat the bread of Yezd, and drink the wine of Shiraz, is, 
 proverbially in Persia, to be happy. The name of Shiraz, or Sheraz, 
 is said to be derived from Sherab, which, in the Persian language, 
 signifies a grape, because that fruit abounds in this place and its 
 vicinity, where the finest orchards and vineyards in that empire are 
 found. Among the grapes most esteemed for wine, the Recsh Baba, 
 which is without seed, is luscious and agreeable to the taste : the 
 
 * Kotzebue s Travels, p. 207. 
 
 f Tavernier, p. 421. Waring s Tour to Shiraz. 
 
85 
 
 Askeri, also wanting seed, is as sweet as sugar; the black fruit of this 
 species produces the celebrated Shiraz wine ; and the Sahibi, the 
 bunches of which weigh from seven to eight pounds, is a red grape 
 of a sharp rough taste that yields a good wine, but is chiefly employed for 
 making vinegar. The Kishmish is a small grape, and, like the Askeri, 
 without any stone ; in the opinion of Olivier, it is preferable to all 
 others, not only for eating, but for wine. The anguur asji, from 
 which is manufactured the rich red wine so nearly resembling Her 
 mitage, is in high estimation. 
 
 At Shiraz, Ispahan, Casbin, Teheran, and other places, the vineyards 
 are numerous, and planted in the most advantageous situations, both 
 with respect to soil and exposure to the sun s genial influence. 
 
 In making wine in Persia, the fruit is trodden in a vat, or cistern 
 formed of mason work, plastered with a material or stucco like Ro 
 man cement. From this the juice is collected into an under vessel, or 
 receiver, from which it is conveyed into immense jars, containing 
 nearly 100 gallons, to undergo the process of fermentation. In these 
 it is left about three weeks, during which it is stirred daily by a person 
 appointed for the purpose. The wine is afterwards strained and put 
 into other vessels, in which it remains nearly five weeks, and under 
 goes another slight fermentation ; after this it is considered fit for use. 
 The brandy made from the lees and weaker sort of wine, is ardent, 
 harsh, and unpalatable, when compared with that made in France ; 
 but what is drawn from the better description of wine is of excellent 
 quality. Were the same measures pursued in Persia in the manufac 
 ture of wine as those observed in Europe, there is no doubt that the 
 produce of that country, already so celebrated, would far excel that 
 of any part of the world. 
 
 Both brandy and wine are put up in thin flasks or bottles, and 
 packed in chests, to the amount of about twelve English gallons each, 
 for transmission through the empire and to different parts of the east. 
 The character of the Ispahan wine is not less estimable than that of 
 Shiraz ; it is stronger, and is as clear and transparent as glass, owing 
 to the white grape from which it is made. The red wine of Teheran 
 is preferable to that of Casbin, where it is manufactured in conside. 
 rable quantities. There the vine is not supported by props, the stem 
 or trunk, rising to the height of five or six feet, is sufficiently strong to 
 support the fruit. The Casbin wine is represented as having a disa 
 greeable and bitter flavour, supposed to be occasioned by permitting 
 the stone of the grape to remain in it to the injury of the fermenta 
 tion and the saccharine properties of the liquor. According to Sir 
 John Chardin, the finest grape in Persia is that at Casbin called 
 
86 
 
 i, or the royal grape: itis of a transparent gold colour, and is said 
 to produce the strongest and most luscious wine in the world. Some 
 of the grapes in this quarter, as well as in other portions of the em 
 pire, are so large, that a single bunch is nearly the size of a man s body, 
 and one grape is a sufficient mouthful. In many places the grapes are 
 kept fresh on the vines, during the winter, by securing them from birds 
 and the weather in little bags : thus preserved, when brought to 
 table, they display all the luxuriance and freshness of the ripe vintage. 
 The Persian historians say, that to this country, wine owes its origin. 
 One of their earliest writers asserts that the monarch Jemsheed, famous 
 as the founder of Persepolis, was the first who discovered the making 
 and use of this liquor. He was long anterior to Cyrus, must have 
 lived shortly after the Flood, and is celebrated as the inventor of many 
 useful arts, and the introducer of the solar year amongst his country 
 men. On the day of the vernal equinox, or when the sun enters 
 Aries, he is said to have instituted one of the greatest festivals celebra 
 ted in Persia, that called Nouroze, or new year s day ; and there is ye* 
 observable, on the sculptured ruins of Persepolis, representations char 
 acteristic of this festival. It is observed with great rejoicing and 
 public exultation. The affluent relieve the distressed, poverty is dis 
 carded, wine flows in abundance, while every species of amusement is 
 resorted to, in order to enliven the conviviality of the occasion, and 
 render the whole a scene of pleasure and delight. Even the dead 
 and the ideal things of futurity are not forgotten, since rich viands 
 are exposed on the house tops and towers, to gratify the palates of the 
 Peries and the spirits of departed friends.* Jemsheed, it is affirmed, was 
 passionately fond of eating grapes, of which Persia was the nursery, and 
 desirous of preserving his favourite luxury, he deposited a large quantity 
 in a vessel carefully secured in a vault. On repairing to his- treasure 
 some time afterwards, he was surprised to find that the fruit had burst 
 and become acid. Ignorant of the nature of fermentation, and unac 
 quainted with the virtues of the grape, in this new form, he considered 
 it to be deleterious and dangerous ; and with this impression he got 
 some vessels filled with the juice, on which he inscribed the word 
 poison. To prevent bad consequences, he had those vessels placed in 
 one of his own apartments. A favourite concubine, then labouring un 
 der pain and nervous debility, sought death as a relief from her afflic 
 tions ; and observing the word poison on one of the vessels in the 
 monarch s room, she opened it, and swallowed the contents with avid 
 ity. The draught overcame her, and she soon fell into a sound sleep, 
 from which she awoke, to her great surprise, much renovated. 
 
 * D Herbelot. Bib. Orientalc, art Neurouz. Chardin. tome i. p. 173. 
 
87 
 
 T!harmed with the effects of the restorative, she repeated the draughts 
 so frequently, that the poison soon became exhausted, which Jemsheed 
 discovering, learned from the lady how her recovery had been accom 
 plished. Immediately after this, he caused grapes to be gathered, and 
 left in the same manner in large vessels. Wine w<is thus collected 
 without further labour, and the court of Jemshee J. soon resounded 
 with the pleasure which the Zeher-e-koosh, or the delightful poison, as 
 it is called, to this day, inspired.* 
 
 Many of the Persian monarchs, although they prohibited the use of 
 wine, indulged privately in it themselves. Ul-Kausim was so enthu- \ 
 siastic in supporting the law of the prophet, that he caused all the 
 vines, in the vicinity of one of the principal cities, to be cut down, lest 
 the disciples of the Koran should be tempted to taste the juice of the 
 grape, and hence he was nick-named the destroyer of vineyards. 
 When Sir Robert Ker Porter visited Persia, in 1819 and 182Q, a pro 
 hibition against the use of brandy was enforced by the reigning mo 
 narch, who not only abstained from it himself, but ordered the officers 
 of police, on the discovery of any jars containing it, to have them 
 broken. This strictness did not, however, extend to foreigners, who 
 it appears, are allowed the most liberal indulgence in the use of it, and 
 a shop is even licensed in the metropolis for the special accommodation 
 of the Russians, or other foreigners, who may be in the service of the 
 Sultan. Age and infirmity serve as an excuse to many of the natives 
 who secretly apply to this cordial ; but no such indulgence is allowed 
 in public under pain of severe punisliment.f When several casks of 
 brandy w ere presented to one of the kings of Persia by the Russian am* 
 bassador, he, although in the habit of taking wine moderately, fancied 
 that he was accused of a fondness for drink, and sent the casks back 
 observing that he had no occasion for so much strong liquor, and 
 knowing that the ambassador and suite, like all Russians, were accus 
 tomed to drink copiously, he was unwilling to deprive them of what 
 he was certain, must be so gratifying to themselves. The Sultan* 
 Abas Mirza, when visited by the Russian Envoy and suite, regaled 
 them with the delicacies of the country, but, when they expected wine 
 he gave them nothing but Sherbet, which singularity w r as imputed to 
 his taste and love for that beverage, and to impress on their minds the 
 strict respect he entertained for his religion and its injunctions ; such 
 were his feelings, that, when receiving the presents sent to him by the 
 Russian emperor, he observed, on taking up a beautifully ornamented 
 goblet, " truly this glass is so fine, that it might seduce 
 
 * Vide Sir John Malcolm s History of Persia, 2 vols. 4tq. 
 f Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, &c. 2 vols. 4to. 
 
88 
 
 me to drink, a crime of which I shall ever be afraid," and returned the 
 goblet. How great the contrast between that monarch and Shah 
 Abbas, who died in 1628. This emperor was much addicted to wine, 
 and instead of treating his guests in the manner of Abas Mirza, he re 
 galed them with wine out of golden goblets filled from flaggons of the 
 same metal. It is stated that he was accustomed to drink goblets of 
 pure wine on every great occasion, and particularly after a battle, 
 when he would sit to receive the heads of his enemies until a late 
 hour at night. On one of these occasions, a captive Kurd, of gigantic 
 appearance, passed his tent, " deliver that prisoner to Roostum Beg," 
 said the king, who knew there was an animosity between the friends 
 of that chief and the Kurd tribe. " Pardon me," said the noble-minded 
 Roostum, " my honour, it is true, calls for his blood, but I have made 
 a vow never to take advantage of a distressed and hand-bound enemy." 
 Irritated by this reply, the monarch ordered the head of the prisoner 
 to be struck off, when on the instant, the athletic Kurd burst the cords, 
 by which he was bound, and, unsheathing his dagger, rushed upon the 
 sovereign. All was bustle, and confusion, and, in the hurry, the lights 
 were extinguished. No one dared to stiike lest the king might fall 
 a victim, but, during the awful suspense, Shah Abbas exclaimed, " I 
 have seized his hand !" In a moment, the unfortunate Kurd perished 
 from the wounds of innumerable swords, and the king, resuming his 
 seat with the utmost composure, passed the goblet to the health of his 
 attendants ; and continued to receive the heads of his enemies, which, 
 the historian states, amounted on this occasion to 20545. Among the 
 many anecdotes related of the attachment of Shah Abbas to wine, 
 one states that he was, on a certain occasion, so intoxicated and out, 
 rageous that he stabbed his favourite queen ; and when he recovered 
 from his delirium, and understood the dreadful act he had committed, 
 under the influence of the deepest contrition, he issued orders to have 
 every wine flask in the kingdom destroyed. The laxity of manners, 
 so prevalent in this prince s reign, was suppressed by his son and suc 
 cessor, Abbas the II; but he, however, soon neglected the wise coun 
 sels of his ministers, and fell a victim to the same excesses as his father : 
 so great was his love of wine, that he spared no expense in keeping a 
 constant supply of every description, which, not only his own country, 
 but foreign nations, could afford ;and this stock he had stored in flasks 
 of the purest Venetian crystal. It is related of Soliman, the next sove 
 reign, that he was actually addicted to intoxication ; and finding his 
 prime minister a censor of his irregularities, he was determined to over 
 come, if possible, his extreme prudence and sobriety, " you must 
 relax sometimes," said the monarch, to AH Khan, amidst one of his 
 
89 
 
 drinking parties, " or we never can agree." The minister observed 
 that he lived as became his age and character. " Very true !" said 
 Soliman, " but your conduct is my reproach, and I can no longer 
 endure it," you must get drunk with us immediately, either with wine, 
 or a preparation of opium, choose which you like best, but the dose 
 must be swallowed ; it is the command of your king, who must be 
 obeyed." The minister was obliged to yield, and, preferring the 
 opium, soon fell senseless on the ground. In tin s state the virtuous 
 Ali Khan, after having his beard shaven, was sent home ; but, on his 
 recovery, finding the indignity he had sustained, he refused to return 
 to court notwithstanding the repeated entreaties of the king, who 
 soon became sensible of the loss of so excellent an adviser. Soliman 
 continued to indulge in the same loose habits, and about four months 
 after, in a drunken frolic, he condemned to death four of his favou 
 rites for a mere trifle ; but the moment that the sentence was about to 
 be put in execution, Ali Khan rushed into the presence of the monarch, 
 and begged for their pardon " You are very bold," said Soliman, 
 " you continue to slight my earnest entreaties that you should again 
 serve me, and yet you intercede for others." " I am your slave," said 
 the minister, " and ready to obey your commands." " Very well !" 
 said Soliman, " I forgive them all on your account, resume your office, 
 and I will promise in future to respect both you and myself more than 
 I have done." 
 
 Shah Husseyn, son and successor of Soliman, published an edict 
 prohibiting the use of wine, as forbidden by the Koran, and ordered 
 all wine-vessels, in his own cellars, to be publicly staved, and for 
 bade the Armenians to bring any more, under a heavy penalty. This 
 gave great alarm to the grandees and eunuchs of the palace, in con 
 sequence of which they applied to the king s grandmother, who was 
 herself a lover of wine. Resolved to conquer the monarch s scruples, 
 she feigned sickness. The physicians prescribed her wine, but this 
 she refused to take unless the Shah himself, who had presented it to 
 her, should first drink of it. This he was unwilling to do, through 
 religious motives, but these she overcame, by quoting the Persian 
 maxim, that kings are subject to no law, and that whatever they do, 
 they commit no sin. By this artifice the prince was ensnared, he 
 drank a large cup of the liquor, which he liked so well that he was 
 scarcely ever sober afterwards. 
 
 In several reigns, since the conquest of Persia by the Saracens, in the 
 first century of the Hegira, the prohibition of wine and brandy has 
 been more or less observed ; but, as already noticed, the morality of 
 the Persians has never been strictly regulated by the precepts of the 
 
90 
 
 Koran, and old habits in a great degree still prevail.* After an even 
 ing s repast, supper being a favourite meal, the night is often enli 
 vened by music and dancing. On these occasions, they frequently 
 deviate from their sober habits by indulging in the use of wine and 
 spirituous liquors, and particularly in the latter, as they more speedily 
 create a vivacity and cheerfulness, not otherwise so easily excited. 
 This indulgence has often been known to hurry them into inordinate 
 excesses. Although the liquor, of which they are so passionately fond, 
 is, in many instances, a bad quality of spirits manufactured in Russia, 
 and fit only for the palate of a Cossack ; yet they express surprise 
 when Europeans shew a dislike for it, and even laugh when they see 
 them putting water into their wine. The excuses which they form 
 for indulging in drink are as ingenious as those resorted to by other 
 Mahometans. Kotzebue tells us that, when on his way to Ispahan, he 
 observed that the people of Erivan took plenty of frozen punch in the 
 form of ice-cream without any scruple of conscience, because it was 
 given as an eatable, and as a medicine for strengthening the stomach. 
 In many respects, the Persians differ from other Mahometans ; and 
 although the religious, or those who have performed the pilgrimage 
 to Mecca, do not take wine, yet their good sense often induces them 
 to overcome a prejudice imposed on them by the cunning designs of 
 the prophet. A pleasing instance of this kind is related of a Mussul 
 man who had been employed, for forty or fifty years, about the Eng 
 lish factory at Gombroon. Being on the point of death, he was 
 ordered a glass of wine by a European physician, which he atfirst 
 refused, observing, " I cannot take it it is forbidden in the Koran." 
 After a few minutes pause, he turned to the Doctor, saying, as 
 he raised himself on his bed, " Although it is forbidden, give 
 me the wine ; for it is written in the same volume, that all you unbe 
 lievers will be excluded from paradise ; and the experience of fifty 
 years has taught me to prefer your society in the other world, to any 
 place to which I could be advanced with my own countrymen." 
 How contrary is the conduct of Al Malec Al Saleh, a rigid Mahome 
 tan, who, when on the point of death, though ordered by one of his 
 physicans to drink a little wine, as necessary for the cure of his dis 
 temper, chose, from a principle of religion, to die rather than to take it. 
 Since chemistry has not been cultivated by the Persians as among 
 Europeans, their liquors owe little to its aid ; and hence, from their 
 ignorance of the discoveries to which it has led, their arts also remain 
 in some measure stationary. They are yet infatuated by the pursuit 
 
 * Kruiiinkis Memoirs, with Ducerceau s Hist, of the Sophies, 8vo. p. 54-56. 
 
9) 
 
 of alchymy In the hope of discovering the philosopher s stone ; but as 
 that study is conducted with the greatest secrecy, and under circum 
 stances veiled in impenetrable mystery, nothing can be expected that 
 would add any thing substantial to their stock of scientific knowledge. 
 At what time the use of the still was introduced into Persia is] not 
 known, but the export of its distilled waters formed an early item 
 in its trade with India. Whatever may have been the knowledge 
 of this people, previous to their submission to the Arabs, it is gene 
 rally allowed that medical science was soon afterwards cultivated 
 among them with considerable success ; and to the preparations which 
 that art required, may, perhaps, be attributed the early celebrity of 
 their Rose-water, in the distilling of which they excelled all other 
 nations, and of which they are considered to be the inventors. The 
 Arabians alone rivalled the Persians in this respect, since it appears 
 that, in 1188, when Saladin became master of Jerusalem, it required 
 upwards of 500 camels to transport from Yemen the quantity of 
 Rose-water necessary to purify the temple from the stain it was 
 considered to have received from being in possession of the Chris 
 tians. Could it have been from the Persians, that the Emperor Helioga- 
 balus procured the distilled rose-water, with which, amongst his other 
 extravagancies, he filled his fish-ponds ? If so, it would place distilla 
 tion as being earlier known amongst them than that of which we have 
 any record. Avicenna,who died in 1036, speaks of the distilled water 
 of roses, and appears to have been familiar with its properties, and 
 the virtues of the flowers from which it was drawn. No country on 
 earth, it is thought, can boast of a greater variety of fruits and flowers 
 than Persia. There are no less than twelve or fourteen species of 
 grapes ; the most esteemed are the violet, the red, and the black. The 
 dates are of the richest and best description, and the sirup they yield 
 is considered of a very superior quality. All the European fruits 
 are found growing in Persia in great luxuriance, with apricots, nec 
 tarines, and peaches that weigh sometimes sixteen or eighteen ounces 
 each. Oranges, pomegranates, melons, pistachios, almonds, and figs 
 abound. Sir John Chardin saw fifty different kinds of fruit produced 
 at an entertainment near Ispahan, from a number of which, various 
 descriptions of drink were manufactured, some of a mild, and others of 
 a very intoxicating nature. Of these we find that, at an early period, 
 dates and raisins were converted into a drink called Nubcez, and in 
 the first* century of the Hegira, the use of this liquor was permitted 
 by certain sectarians who considered it not within the strict meaning 
 of the prophet s prohibition. The Gaurs, or ancient Persians, whose 
 religion did not prevent them from drinking wine or other strong 
 
92 
 
 liquors, cultivated dates, not only for their use as food, but in order 
 to afford them an exhilarating beverage. The dates of Persia are 
 esteemed the richest in the world, their sirup being sweeter and more 
 pleasant than virgin honey. The palm, which produces them, is the 
 highest of all fruit-bearing trees, and has no branches but at 
 the very top : it produces fruit at fifteen years growth, and continues 
 bearing till it is two hundred years old. In several places, the date 
 stones are ground, from which an oil is extracted, and the residuum, 
 or paste, is given to cattle and sheep, and is considered very nutri 
 tive. A drink, called jS/ieerah,is also made from theinspissatedjuice 
 of the grape, and which is the same as that produced from debs in 
 Arabia. Chardin speaks of pomegranate wine being had in great 
 quantities, and, in Canticles viii. 1., notice is taken of wine of pome 
 granates, which shews that it was in very early use. This fruit is 
 frequently alluded to in Scripture ; the modern Turks about Aleppo 
 make a description of drink from it, as it is not forbidden by the 
 Koran. The fruit is as large as an apple, and is useful in warm 
 countries for allaying heat and quenching thirst, as it contains a finely 
 acidulated juice, which, as well as every other part of the fruit, is highly 
 agreeable. Mr. Harmer, in his observations on various passages of 
 Scripture, has made some curious remarks on this description of wine, 
 but beseems to be in doubt whether it was pomegranate wine, that is 
 to be understood in the portion of Scripture, above quoted. On this 
 point there is no difficulty, as it has been made in such quantities as 
 to be sometimes exported. The Persians have several sorts of pome 
 granate, such as the sour, the sweet, and a mixture partaking of both 
 qualities. 
 
 The mild and temperate heat of the climate of Persia has covered, 
 as with a carpet, a great portion of the country with flowers of the 
 most gorgeous and brilliant hue. Neither those of Europe, nor those 
 of India, can vie with them. Their roses are celebrated for uncom 
 mon beauty, the bushes bearing often three different sorts on one 
 branch, such as yellow, black, and red.* From the neighbour 
 hood of Shiraz are yearly exported 2000 chests of rose-water, 
 each chest containing twelve English gallons put up in glass flasks, 
 while ten times that quantity is consumed in Persia, Arabia, and 
 Hindostan.f In India, particularly in the district of Ghazeepoor, are 
 extensive rose fields, from which immense quantities of rose-water 
 are distilled, and the after, or otto, of roses is made. This valuable 
 perfume is obtained, after the rose-water is distilled, by exposing the 
 
 * Univ. Hist. vol. iv. p. 539. Morier s Journey, &o. 
 
 t Hamilton s Account of the East Indies. Bernier, &c. Franklin s Tour; 
 
93 
 
 Crater to the atmospheric air, in large open vessels during the night, 
 and at sunrise skimming off the oil, which floats on its surface. It is 
 said that it requires 200,000 well-grown roses to produce one rupee s 
 worth of attar. The love of the Persians for the rose is so great, 
 that Saadi, one of their most eminent poets, has given the name of 
 Gulistan, or Garden of Roses, to one of his poems, and their passion 
 for this flower he thus beautifully expresses: " What," says a friend, 
 " hast thou gathered for us in this garden of delights ?" " I fancied," 
 replied the poet in an ecstacy, " that I was opposite a rose tree, and 
 that I filled the skirt of my robe with flowers to present them to my 
 friends ; but when I had nearly reached them, the perfume of the roses 
 so overpowered me, that my garment slipped from my hands, and 
 thus gave to the envious winds the treasures I was about to bestow." 
 Various kinds of grain are cultivated in Persia, but few undergo 
 the fermenting process. Wheat, barley, rice, oats, rye, and millet, 
 are reared with much care and success. Wine and brandy are sold 
 by weight and not by measure, and at Shiraz, as well as in most other 
 cities of the empire, these commodities are stored in large well-glazed 
 earthen jars, or in glass bottles, called Karabas, which are a finger- 
 breadth in thickness, and hold near thirty quarts. These are arranged 
 in spacious well-built cellars, constructed for coolness with fountains, 
 and provided with seats: in these retreats of silence and of solitude, the 
 wearied visitants are often made to forget their cares, with copious 
 draughts of those exhilarating liquors. 
 
 About Derbent, and its vicinity, the wine jars are buried under 
 ground, for the sake of preserving the flavour and strength of the 
 liquor, for a longer time than if exposed in the cellars. The juice of 
 the grape is converted by the Turcomans, bordering on the Persian 
 empire, into a thick jelly by boiling ; and in that state it is carried by 
 them, in their warlike excursions, and forms a nourishing kind of food. 
 In Persia, according to Sir John Malcolm, a tax is levied on vine 
 yards and fruit trees, at the following rates : 
 
 Deenars.* 
 
 Vineyards, faryab, or " certain water," 6 per vine. 
 
 If bukhs, or " uncertain water," 5 do. 
 
 Apple, pear, peach, &c. 20 per tree 
 
 Walnuts, 100 do. 
 
 Grapes are so cheap, that the finest are obtained in the markets of 
 Shiraz, at less than a half-penny the pound ; and in some parts, these, 
 as well as other fruit, have hardly any value, so that, with the cheap 
 ness of provisions, the lowest order of the people live comfortably. 
 
 * Accounts in Persia are kept in deenars, a nominal coin, of which there are 
 1000 to the piastre, or about 500 to the British shilling. 
 
94 
 
 When Bell was in that country, grapes were so abundant, that they 
 were left hanging in clusters on the vines, twisted round the trees in the 
 woods, as a prey to the fowls of the air. Though the vine nourishes 
 luxuriantly, in the southern provinces, yet, in the north-western, they 
 are obliged to bury the shoots, to protect them from the winter frosts. 
 
 In the distillation of brandy and other liquors, the apparatus 
 employed by the Persians is simple, and, for the most part, consists of 
 earthen vessels, the still being merely ajar, sufficiently strong to bear 
 the action of the fire. The condensation of the vapour is effected by 
 the old and clumsy method of pouring cold water on the cucurbit, or 
 head, which presents a broad surface to the water, that surrounds it 
 in the tub, and when the still is to be charged, the lid is removed, 
 and the liquid, to be distilled, is poured in by an attendant. The 
 time of charging is determined by the weakness of the spirit from the 
 condenser, and the whole operation is completed with little fatigue, 
 expense, or trouble. 
 
 In the preceding survey of the principal nations, where the influ 
 ence of Mahometans has rendered the use of intoxicating liquors 
 objectionable and penal, we have seen that tliis prohibition has tended 
 to render men artful and hypocritical, and although abstinence from 
 inebriation is at all times commendable, yet, when carried to a com 
 plete deprivation, it has a contrary effect. The Romans prudently 
 forbade their wives to drink wine, lest they should fall into criminal 
 intercourse through intemperance.* The Egyptians, from temperate 
 motives, would not allow their priests to indulge in wine, but this 
 abstinence was not always observed. Their dislike to this liquor is said by 
 some to have arisen from the circumstance of Noah s inebriety, 
 the recollection of which still excites great abhorrence among them, 
 and this is supposed to have been the real origin of the antipathy to 
 wine, shewn by many eastern nations. The Jewish Levites were 
 forbidden to drink wine, only before their entrance into the sanctuary ; 
 but there was no perpetual prohibition, as the great object was to 
 prevent the abuse, not the use of a wholesome and exhilarating 
 beverage. The Holy Scriptures have no absolute command against 
 the use of wine, nor any other liquor, unless it should amount to intem 
 perance, and against tliis the sacred volume is explicit and deter 
 mined. That an antipathy to wine, founded either on policy, delu 
 sion, or superstition, has influenced certain portions of mankind, from 
 the earliest ages, is evident, and traces of it are found in the writings of 
 Moses, even so early as the time of Joseph. But the prohibition of 
 
 Valerius Maximus, b. ii, ch. 1. 
 
95 
 
 this drink does not appear to have originated through anxiety for the? 
 preservation of health, or purity of morals, but rather from an econo 
 mical prudence, or to promote the interests, and secure the policy of 
 nations, or individuals. Abstinence from wine was manifestly bene 
 ficial to the Egyptians, because their country was not a land of grapes ; 
 hence its prohibition was enforced, under the pretext of morality and 
 philosophy: it was even forbidden to be used in divine worship, though 
 there was no objection to eating the grapes. Moses, to obstruct the 
 return of the Israelites to Egypt, enjoined the use of wine, and made it an 
 accompaniment of the Jewish offerings, that, as a judicious writer 
 expresses it, no person might consider it as impure, or abhor it from 
 a motive of religion ; nay, he every where speaks advantageously of 
 wine, the principal production of the Land of Promise : thus, although, 
 in the earliest ages of its existence, wine met with wise opponents, 
 it found, nevertheless, still wiser advocates. The philosophers and 
 moralists of ancient times condemned every description of excess : 
 Galen, although he called wine the nurse of old age> was against its 
 
 abuse. Mnestheus would indulge men in harmless potations 
 
 Seneca thought the senses ought not to be overcome, but the cares 
 of life might be lightened, by an exhilaration of the spirits. Plato 
 considered wine as the renovator of old age, and the enlivener of 
 society, when kept within the limits of discretion. Pythagoras, with 
 all his stoicism, is said not to have been insensible to a well regulated 
 indulgence in the use of wine. Asclepiades, a physician, who practised 
 at Rome, ninety-six years before the Christian era, successfully 
 administered wine, with every remedy, to all his patients, and wrote 
 a treatise on its virtues, in which he observed that the gods had not 
 bestowed a more valuable gift on man. Diogenes, though so rigid a 
 philosopher in self-denial, drank wine with more than common grati 
 fication : and though he threw away his water bowl as superfluous, 
 when he beheld a man drinking water out of his hands at a brook, yet, 
 it is affirmed, that he never refused the wine goblet, when presented 
 tojiim at another s expense. Hippocrates, the father of physic, recom 
 mends a cheerful glass, and even Rhases, a Mahommetan, says no 
 liquor is equal to good wine. Amongst its many modern advocates 
 in the medical profession, Doctor Whitaker, physician to Charles the 
 Second, undertook to prove, by the use of wine, the possibility of pro 
 longing life, from infancy, to old age, without sickness or infirmity. 
 
 The opinion of the prophet is also contradicted by the conduct of 
 our Saviour, on the occasion of the marriage at Cana, when he turned 
 the water into wine, not only with a view of shewing his miraculous 
 powers, but of making the parties more cheerful. From the earliest 
 
96 
 
 periods, wine seems to have formed a portion of the entertainment, 
 not only at marriage ceremonies, but at the most solemn sacrifices 
 where libations were poured out ; and it requires no force of argument 
 to shew that the moderate use of wine must have been sanctioned by 
 the Almighty himself, when our blessed Lord had recourse to a 
 miracle, to supply the wants of the guests where he was present. St. 
 Paul advisedTimothy to use alittle wine for his stomach s sake,and the use 
 of it, in the institution of the Sacrament of the Lord s Supper, isa further 
 unquestionable proof of its value and excellence; and that it is the abuse 
 of it only that is objectionable. To use the language of Blair, it is 
 that thoughtless and intemperate enjoyment of it, which wholly absorbs 
 the time and attention of men ; which obliterates every serious thought 
 of the proper business of life ; and effaces the sense of religion and of 
 God, that is to be dreaded and avoided. 
 
 On what rational grounds, Mahomet forbade the entire use of wine, 
 has never yet been determined, but that the prohibition has not been 
 accounted just, is proved both from its direct and indirect violation, 
 as well as from its having engendered more vicious habits, than it has 
 prevented evil consequences facts that have been but too well attested, 
 and of which the following is a melancholy illustration. Aureng- 
 Zebe in the frenzy of his zeal to support this Mahometan dogma, 
 entered the tent of his brother when he knew he was in a state of intox 
 ication, and, surrounded by soldiers, directed his head to be taken off, 
 which cruel act he justified by saying, that he deserved death for dis 
 obeying the laws of his religion, and rendering himself unfit for the 
 duties of life. This is but one of a thousand heinous acts that might 
 be produced to strengthen the justice of these observations; but 
 enough has been said to prove that this extraordinary command of 
 the Prophet was issued rather from a view to distinguish his religion, 
 and render his doctrine more imposing, than from a principle of moral 
 rectitude, or a wish to promote the happiness of mankind. 
 
 The general use of opium and other exhilarating substances, with 
 all their concomitant evils, may, therefore, date its origin from this 
 mandate of the Prophet, while the restriction shews to what subter 
 fuges men have recourse, when injudiciously forbidden to exercise 
 their discretion and common sense, in either the gratification of the 
 passions, the protection of the moral virtues, or the freedom of opinion, 
 whether in religion, politics, or philosophy. The properties and 
 consequences of these natural inebriants I shall now proceed to 
 describe. 
 
 The poppy^opaver somniferum in botany, is a plant remarkable for its 
 peculiar properties. It was so called, because it was commonly mixed 
 
97 
 
 with the pap, (/>#/>,) given to eliildren hi ordqr to ease pain, and induce 
 sleep. The term papa is also applied by the Peruvians to their chief 
 article of subsistence, the potato, which they mix with other ingre 
 dients in a very savoury and substantial manner. There are various 
 descriptions of the poppy, one of them, papaver album, or white 
 garden poppy, is indigenous to most countries, and is so called, not 
 from the colour of its flowers, which is diversified, but from the white 
 ness of its seed. Its juice is called by the Persians qfioun, and by the 
 Arabians aphium, from which, says a learned writer, is derived our 
 word opium. Others think it comes from the Greek opos, succus in 
 Latin, implying any kind of vegetable juice ; but it has been subse 
 quently confined to the juice of the poppy alone. At what time 
 opium first came into use is uncertain ; but Homer is reputed to have 
 known of its virtues, and the Nepenthe mentioned in the Odyssey, is by 
 some supposed to have been a preparation of this drug, which was origi 
 nally brought from Thebes, and on that account called the Thebaic tinc 
 ture, and known by that name at the present day. The composition 
 of the Nepenthe is said to have been imparted to Helen by Polydamna, 
 wife of Thonis, king of Egypt.* No allusion is made to this drug in 
 Scripture, and it may consequently be inferred that it was unknown 
 to the Jews. Herodotus asserts the M assagetse and all the Scythians 
 had among them certain herbs, that they threw into the fire, the ascen 
 ding fumes of which they anxiously inhaled. With these they became 
 as much intoxicated as if they had taken large portions of wine, and 
 exhibited in their songs and dances all the ridiculous frolics and ges 
 ticulations which are the result of inebriety .f Opium is not mentioned 
 by Hippocrates, though it is affirmed that it was known to Diagoras, 
 who was nearly his contemporary. Some writers consider the use of 
 opium as very ancient, and it is asserted that the Pagan priests had 
 recourse to a narcotic, previously to the delivery of their oracles, and 
 under the influence of which they acted on such occasions. 
 
 For the sake of this drug, the poppy is cultivated to a great extent in 
 several parts of the East. In some of the Turkish provinces of Asia, 
 particularly Natolia, it is reared to perfection, and opium of the best 
 description is obtained. The poppy of Persia, however, is esteemed 
 the finest in the world, not only in respect to its beauty, but because 
 its juice is much stronger than the juice of the same plant elsewhere, 
 yielding a greater quantity of opium, and therefore in the highest esti 
 mation. It grows in some places to the height of four feet and upwards, 
 with a beautiful corolla of white leaves at the vertex. In June, when 
 
 * Odyssey, L. iv. v. 228. f Herodotus, b. i. sec. 36. 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 it is ripe, the juice is extracted by incisions in the head, and gathered 
 every morning before sunrise. The effect of collecting the opium, in 
 this manner, is said to have such an influence on those employed for 
 that purpose, as to make them appear as if buried and again taken up, 
 and their limbs tremble as if they were affected with palsy. Amongst the 
 Persian bakers, it is a practice to strew poppy seed on the bread, with 
 a view to enhance its sale, and the common people eat the seed at any 
 time with pleasure, a practice common in our own country. 
 
 This plant is indigenous to most countries, and the method em 
 ployed to procure the drug is almost everywhere the same. In India, 
 opium is the staple commodity of many of the provinces; the method of 
 cultivating the plant, which requires a dry soil prepared for the purpose, 
 and obtaining the opium, is nearly the same throughout Hindostan, 
 and is commonly as follows : The seed is generally sown in October 
 and November, when the periodical rains cease. The plants are kept 
 about eight inches distant, and well watered by means of furrows, till 
 they rise nearly six inches above the surface. A fortnight or three 
 weeks after sowing, some of the seeds are dug up, in order to see 
 whether they have germinated, and if so, the process is commenced. 
 If the plants happen to be too near each other, some of them are pulled 
 and used as potherbs ; but they cannot serve for that purpose when 
 they become more advanced ; being then of a strongly intoxicating 
 nature. At these early stages, a mixture of dung, nitrous earth, and 
 ashes, is strewed round the plants, and a little before the flowers appear, 
 they are again repeatedly watered, till the capsules are half grown or 
 the petals of the flowers fall off; the collection of the opium then commen 
 ces, because when fully ripe little juice is obtained. The white kind yields 
 a larger quantity than the red, but the quality of both is the same, yet 
 the white is accounted preferable. When the capsules assume a 
 whitish appearance, incisions are made in them with an instrument 
 having three teeth at a very small distance from each other, merely 
 to perforate the skin without penetrating the cavity. 
 
 These wounds are made from the top to the bottom of the capsule 
 so as not to wound the inner membrane, for, should that be the case, 
 the root would instantly die. This operation is always performed at 
 sun-set, and repeated for three or four successive days, and the juice, 
 which is of a milky appearance flowing therefrom, is collected the fol 
 lowing morning, and permitted to purify itself by fermentation. In 
 this manner the whole crop of a field is wounded, and the opium col 
 lected from it in about fifteen days, an incredible number of men, 
 women, and children, being employed on the occasion. Thejuice[ 
 having exuded and thickened by exposure to the air, is scraped off 
 
99 
 
 with a shell or little iron instrument, previously immersed in oil. It 
 is afterwards worked in an iron pot in the sun s heat, till it is of a con 
 sistence to be formed into thick cakes of about forty pounds weight. 
 These are covered over with leaves of poppy, tobacco, or some other 
 vegetable, to prevent their sticking together, and in tlu s condition 
 they are dried. They are usually packed in square boxes lined with 
 leather, and wrapped in a kind of canvass named goenje ; the boxes, 
 when packed, are weighed, and marked accordingly. 
 
 In India, opium brings about fifteen shillings a pound : in Bahar 
 alone, the quantity annually collected is about 16000 maunds, or 
 upwards of l,000,0001bs. In Malwa, above 350,0001bs. are yearly 
 produced, and of these 140,000 Ibs. are retained for home consump 
 tion.* Extensive warehouses for storing this article have been 
 erected in different provinces; at Banhypore, a portion of the suburbs 
 of Patna, there is a large emporium of this kind. 
 
 In the district of Bahar, irrigation is used in the cultivation of the 
 plant, and the juice is gathered in small brass pots or cocoa nuts, each 
 having a little linseed oil to prevent the opium from adhering to the 
 vessel. It is afterwards pressed in large pots, and left in the oil till after 
 the rainy season, when it is removed, and formed into flat cakes of 
 about one inch thick and three or four inches in diameter ;over these are 
 strewed dried leaves of the poppy, and, in this state, they are left under a 
 shade in the air until sufficiently dry. Retail merchants sometimes 
 adulterate it with pounded leaves, cow dung, coarse sugar, and other 
 ingredients, but it is seldom deteriorated by the growers. The 
 culture of this article and the sugar cane is the most profitable of all 
 the branches of husbandry in India. The poppy, like both vegetable 
 and animal life in all countries, is greatly influenced by the climate. 
 India produces opium of the finest quality, while Egypt and Natolia 
 furnish it much stronger than any produced in Europe. The manu 
 facturers in Bengal generally adopt the Turkish method of making 
 opium, and much benefit has been derived from their system. In the 
 Nepaul territory, particularly among the hills at the foot of the Him- 
 aleh mountains, the opium is gathered from the plant about the end of 
 July. All along the valleys which lie at the base of this stupendous 
 range, it grows luxuriantly, though an expensive crop, as it requires 
 much manure and great attention. It forms a considerable article of 
 trade with the people of the plains, who vend it to the merchants of 
 Bootan, and those of the adjacent countries. 
 
 Under the Mogul government, opium having been a monopoly 
 
 * Malcolm s Central India, vol. i. p. 8. 
 
100 
 
 was sold to a contractor. The British Company followed the same 
 practice till 1785, when the sale of this article was exposed to public 
 competition. At that time, regulations were made not to compel the 
 cultivators to grow it at the contractors price ; but as the government 
 still held the monopoly, a price wasfixed at which the ryots, or culti 
 vators, were obliged to furnish the article, so that the Company were 
 both contractors and purchasers ; yet they allowed the grower a fair 
 recompense for his labour and industry.* 
 
 In the whole of British India, the estimated revenue arising from 
 opium, at the commencement of the new East India Charter, in 1834, 
 was 1,427,9 17. 
 
 The revenue arising from the sale of opium to the government of 
 Bengal, in 1809 and 1810, amounted to 580,000. The export of this 
 article from Bombay, Fort St. George, and Bengal, respectively, to 
 the eastward islands, from 1814, to 1818 has been valued at 
 8,057,357 rupees.f To China were sent by country ships from Patna 
 and Benares in 1817 and 1818, no less than 485 chests, valued at 
 611,000 dollars, besides 1950 chests of Bengal opium, rated at 
 2,340,000 dollars, imported into Macao. In 1818 and 1819, there 
 were 4978 chests, valued at 4,393,000 dollars, sent to Macao from 
 Bengal, Malwa, Patna, and Benares.f From 1804 and 1805 to 1817 
 and 1818, there were carried 1780 peculs by American ships to 
 Canton ; and the whole quantity sent thither by the same traders, 
 from 1815 to 1819, appears to be 1834 peculs, which, at 550 dollars 
 the pecul, amounts to 1,008,700 dollars.|| The opium, exported in 
 1814 and 1815 to 1818 from the united kingdom to Bengal, Fort 
 St. George, and Bombay, exclusive of the trade of the East India 
 Company, has been valued at 122,815 rupees, or 12,281 lOs.f 
 
 A late writer informs us, that the trade in this article, with the ex 
 ception of what is imported into Macao for medicinal purposes, is 
 conducted by smugglers ; and so artfully is the practice carried on, 
 that about 4000 chests, weighing 533,3331bs. are sent in this contra 
 band way, notwithstanding the frequent edicts of the emperor 
 against it, and the use of it being rendered a capital offence. From 
 ten to twenty Portuguese, American, and British ships, of three and 
 four hundred tons burden, freighted with opium, are constantly an 
 chored at the small island of Lintin, in order to supply the demand 
 for this article. 
 
 * Mills s History of British India, vol. v. p. 4] 9. 
 
 f Parliamentary Report of 7th May, 1821, p. 319. 
 
 % Ibid. pp. 326, 327. Ibid. p. 44. || Ibid, p, 181. f Ibid. p. 238. 
 
101 
 
 Opium brings such a price in China, varying according to its qua 
 lity from 1200 to 2000 Spanish dollars per chest, that merchants run 
 every risk to supply the market. The sale is chiefly conducted by 
 means of the inferior Mandarins, as well as some of the higher ones, 
 who receive considerable bribes for their connivance. Sixty dollars 
 at Macao, and the same at Canton, are the common fees. Armed 
 boats, known by the name of opium boats, constantly sail between 
 Macao and Canton with this drug, sanctioned by the officers of the 
 customs, who likewise receive a bribe for their indulgence ; shewing 
 that in China, as in other countries, every man has his price.* The 
 ridiculous flourish made by the Imperial fleet, to disperse or destroy 
 those smugglers, is a farce carried on once or twice a year, the com 
 mander, contented with having his coffers well filled, returns to Canton, 
 boasting of services which he never intended to perform. The pro 
 hibition of opium shews bad policy, as the emperor by this means 
 loses, it is said, a revenue of from four to five millions of dollars 
 annually, since its use through the empire is as common as tobacco in 
 other countries. Opium is prepared for smoking among the Chinese 
 in the same way as it is to be found in our apothecaries shops for 
 sale. The preparation, necessary to be used at one smoking, is 
 weighed and put into a pipe much resembling that common with us 
 for tobacco. A tincture, made from this drug, is introduced into a 
 tube resembling a flute in size and shape, and, when set on fire, 
 the exhalations are inhaled, and the effects are of the most exhilarating 
 and rapturous nature. 
 
 The Mandarins, besides smoking, use it also in the form of tincture, 
 and usually carry a small bottle of it about them. The present 
 emperor of China has been described as incapacitated for any busi 
 ness, through the excess to which he has carried the debilitating 
 practice of smoking opium. In the Chinese Register for September, 
 1833, it is related, that at one time, during a rebellion, the emperor s 
 troops were discouraged, and would not proceed against the enemy, 
 owing to the want of opium, their accustomed stimulant. 
 
 Besides the quantity of opium that is purchased at the East India 
 Company s sales, and sent to China in British country ships, there is 
 also smuggled an immensity of Malwa and Smyrna opium. The con 
 sumption of this article in 1819, was valued at 4,159,250 dollars, and 
 in 1828, at 10,356,833, making, in nine years, an increase of 
 6,197,583 dollars. Such is the extent of the opium trade, that from 15 
 to 20,000 chests are considered as the nearest approximation to the 
 actual quantity sent yearly into China ; and notwithstanding, this 
 
 * Parliamentary Report of 7th May, 1821, p. 18K 
 
102 
 
 drug has been denounced as a poison, and also prohibited through 
 religious scruples, yet it is certain, that it not only makes its way into 
 the most remote parts of the Celestial Empire, but even within the 
 walls of the Imperial palace at Pekin. Though it is generally con 
 sidered that trade is carried on through the ports of Canton and 
 Macao only, yet it is known, that cargoes of opium have been landed 
 at Clungchoo and Chusen, as well as at places more northerly, and 
 also in the islands of Formosa and Hainan. 
 
 The importation of opium is prohibited in Cochin- China, but the 
 sale of it is readily effected, through the dexterity of the Chinese 
 In 1822, the importation was reckoned at 150 chests, 40 of which 
 were for Cambodia, 10 for the capital, and 100 for Tonquin. 
 Men and women of the better classes, in Cochin- China, always carry 
 about with them a pair of silken bags or purses, either in the hand or 
 thrown over the shoulder. In these are kept the betel box, tobacco, 
 and opium. Females, of the lower order, are denied this privilege, 
 while men of the same grade, when met by a person of condition, are 
 obliged to conceal those bags, as a token of respect. 
 
 The export of opium from Turkey is extensive, but confined to a 
 limited number of Jewish brokers. These are accused of adulterating 
 the article, and it is done so artfully, that the secret is known only to 
 themselves. The Americans are the most extensive purchasers, and 
 they carry it to China and other parts of the East. The Turks 
 accuse them of being slaves to the use of it, and that they purchase it 
 for their own gratification ; but the fallacy of this accusation is con 
 tradicted by the fact, that the Americans are too fond of ardent 
 spirits to become chewers of opium. 
 
 This drug is taken in different ways, and its effects are found to 
 vary, according to the constitution and temperament of the indivi 
 duals by whom it is used. Some it inspires with grand and sublime 
 ideas. The ambitious man beholds at his feet monarchs and slaves 
 in chains ; the bilious man is seized with visions of horror and 
 dismay ; the mild and benevolent man sees all the world applaud 
 him ; while the timid is endowed with courage, the lover with tender 
 ness, and the vindictive with ferocity. In some places it is taken in 
 pills, and in others smoked with tobacco. In the Ottoman dominions, 
 travellers carry it in the form of lozenges, or cakes, upon which is 
 stamped in Turkish character, as a legend, " Mash Allah," the gift 
 of God.* The Persians take pills of opium, which some of them 
 gradually increase to such a dose as would destroy half a dozen 
 
 * Griffith s Travels in Europe, Asia, &c. 4to. pp. 86, 87. Dalloway s Constan 
 tinople. 
 
Europeans. la the course of an hour, when the drug begins to 
 
 operate, a thousand pleasing scenes are presented to the imagination, 
 
 raising the spirits to a degree of enthusiasm and rapture, known only 
 
 to those who have been affected by the delirium. When its influence 
 
 has ceased, the spirits become exhausted, and the votary pensive and 
 
 melancholy, till the dose is repeated. A decoction of poppy seeds, 
 
 termed kokemaar, is sold in the coffee-houses of Persia, and is usually 
 
 drank scalding hot. Tavernter mentions houses called kokemaar 
 
 krone, in which people drink this liquor, and afford considerable 
 
 amusement from the ridiculous postures, and gesticulations, which they 
 
 assume. At first they appear to quarrel with one another, using 
 
 abusive language, without coming to blows. As the drug operates, 
 
 they cease to be boisterous, and gradually becoming peaceable ; one 
 
 utters high-flown compliments, another relates stories, while all are 
 
 ridiculous, both in words and actions.* The drink just described, as 
 
 having intoxicating qualities, could not have been a mere decoction of 
 
 the poppy seeds, but having something superadded, as the somniferous 
 
 effect of this plant resides in the milky juice of the capsules, and the 
 
 narcotic power attributed to the seeds is without foundation, since it 
 
 is well known, that they are eaten without any such effect. 
 
 Doctor Madden relates, that while in Constantinople, he had the 
 curiosity to try the effects of opium on himself. For this purpose, he 
 repaired to the general rendezvous of the Tkeriakis, or opium eaters, 
 which is situated in a large square near the mosque of Solymania, and 
 where, on benches outside the door, the votaries await the voluptuous 
 and glowing images, which are presented by their excited imagina 
 tions. The Doctor s sensations are best described in his own words. 
 " I took my seat," says he, " in the coffee-house, with half a dozen 
 Theriakis. Their gestures were frightful. Those, who were com 
 pletely under the influence of the opium, talked incoherently ; their 
 features were flushed, their eyes had an unnatural brilliancy, and the 
 general expression of their countenances was horribly wild. The 
 effect is usually produced in two hours, and lasts four or five. The 
 dose varies from three grains to a drachm. I saw an old man take 
 four pills, of six grains each, in the course of two hours. I was told 
 he had been using opium for twenty-five years, but this is a very rare 
 example of an opium-eater passing thirty years of age, if he com 
 mence the practice early* I commenced with one grain ; in the course 
 of an hour and a half it produced no perceptible effect ; the coffee 
 house keeper was very anxious to give me an additional pill of two 
 grains, but I was contented with half a one ; and in another half hour, 
 
 * Tavernier, vol. I. b. v. chap. 1 7. 
 
104 
 
 feeling nothing of the expected reverie, I took half a grain 
 making in all two grains, in the course of two hours. After two 
 hours and a half from the first dose, I took two grains more, and, 
 shortly after this dose, my spirits became sensibly excited, the pleasure 
 of the sensation seemed to depend on a universal expansion of mind 
 and matter. My faculties appeared enlarged ; every thing I looked 
 on seemed increased in volume, I had no longer the same pleasure 
 when I closed my eyes, which I had when they were open. It 
 appeared to me as if they were only external objects, which were 
 acted on by the imagination, and magnified into images of pleasure ; 
 in short, it was " the faint exquisite music of a dream" in a waking 
 moment. I made my way home as fast as possible, dreading at every 
 step, that I should commit some extravagance. In walking I was 
 hardly sensible of my feet touching the ground ; it seemed as if I slid 
 along the street, impelled by some invisible agent, and that my blood 
 was composed of some ethereal fluid, which rendered my body lighter 
 than air. I got to bed the moment I reached home. The most 
 extraordinary visions of delight filled my brain all night. In the 
 morning I arose, pale and dispirited, my head ached ; my body was 
 so debilitated, that I was obliged to remain on the sofa all the day, 
 dearly paying for my first essay at opium eating."* Opium is sold 
 at the public bazaars, in the drug market at Constantinople, and is 
 exposed in large black balls, or cakes, which appear like Spanish 
 licorice. These balls are cut smoothly with knives, to shew their 
 interior, and half a dozen, or more samples, at different prices, are 
 placed together. The cheapest and worst sort, is of a brown colour, 
 filled with stalks and leaves ; that of the highest, is almost jet black, 
 and is perfectly free from impurities. 
 
 Rigid Mussulmans condemn the use of opium, and their preachers 
 declaim against it from the pulpit. One day, a very holy and zealous 
 preacher, in holding forth with more than ordinary warmth against 
 the pernicious qualities of this drug, by great bad luck, let fall his 
 own opium-pouch, among his auditory. Without being in the 
 least abashed, he, with the greatest presence of mind, affected to have 
 premeditated what had happened so much against his will, and 
 exclaimed " Behold the enemy, the demon, the fiend, I have been 
 speaking of ! Be upon your guard lest it spring upon some of you, 
 and gain possession of your souls !" By this delicate turn he escaped 
 from public ridicule or indignation. 
 
 From Salonichi and other parts, the French draw opium to the 
 value of 2,400, and the Italians, to that of 3,600. The Turks, 
 
 * Maddcn s Travels, in Turkey, &c. 2 vols. 8vo. vol. i. p. 24. 
 
105 
 
 according to Beaujour, reserve for their own use, that which flows 
 naturally from the head of the poppy, and they dispose of the con 
 densed liquor, which they extract from the plant by incision, or 
 expression. This fascinating drug, which places its votary, as it were, 
 between life and death, or in that state of lethargy, which lulls all 
 thoughts asleep without excluding the sensations, is sought after with 
 avidity, by the voluptuary and the Epicurean Theriaki. Many 
 persons are found to spend their whole lives in drinking coffee, 
 smoking tobacco, and swallowing opium. Beaujour gives an account 
 of a Turkish Eifendi, who took every day thirty cups of coffee, 
 smoked sixty pipes of tobacco, and swallowed three drachms of opium, 
 while his solid food consisted of only four ounces of rice. The appear 
 ance of this singular character was that of a species of mummy, with 
 the muscles apparently glued to the skin : he adds that every opium 
 eater becomes in the course of time extremely bent in the back bone ; 
 and he tells us that the Janissaries were in the habit, when going to 
 battle, of taking opium as an exciter of courage, as the German 
 soldiers take brandy for a similar purpose. The Turkish opium is 
 said to soothe or excite the senses, according to the preparation it 
 undergoes. That, which is mixed with nutmeg or saffron, becomes 
 aphrodisiac, and inspires amorous desires. It is made up in small 
 pills, of which the wealthy Turks know how to take advantage, to 
 administer most to their own sensualities.* Many of the opulent, at 
 Surat, indulge in this drug from the same motives ; for which purpose, 
 Grose tells us, it is usually taken in milk, boiled from a large to a 
 small quantity, and when a check is desired to be put on the effect, a 
 spoonful or two of lime juice, or of any equivalent, is applied, which 
 instantly destroys the influence the opium had previously excited.! 
 Sir Astley Cooper, in his lectures on the principles and practice of 
 Surgery, gives it as his opinion, that the use of opium diminishes the 
 virile powers and the disposition to sexual intercourse ; for notwith 
 standing, it is asserted, that the Turks often take it for the purpose 
 of increasing amatory indulgence, he found it to produce an opposite 
 effect. This he corroborates, with several examples.}: The justice 
 of the remark may perhaps be questioned, since almost every writer, 
 who touches on the use of opium, in eastern countries, concurs in the 
 opinion, that its stimulating propensity is one of the strongest 
 pleasures it affords ; but to reconcile these opinions, it appears to 
 operate like the use of ardent spirits in this country, which, while it 
 
 * Beaujour s View of the Commerce of Greece, 8vo. p. 1 76. 
 
 f Grose s Voyage to the East Indies, vol. i. p. 119. 
 
 f Sir Astley Cooper s Lectures on Surgery, 8vo. pp. 450-1-2. 
 
106 
 
 contributes to indulgence in this respect, eventually diminishes the 
 powers of its accomplishment. In Siam, the sale of opium is contra 
 band, and many have suffered death for importing it, as its use in that 
 empire has been productive of the worst consequences. Mr. Abeel 
 relates that the king, on one occasion, finding that Ms son was in the 
 habit of smoking opium, immediately commanded his property to be 
 sold, and himself to be arrested and imprisoned, for execution ; and it 
 was not without the greatest exertions, by the mother and princes in 
 authority, that his doom was averted.* The Chinese, however, can 
 sell it through the country, without inconvenient restriction. It has 
 been known, that a few of their junks have disposed of 100,000 
 Spanish dollars w r orth, in a few days. The Siamese use it, first 
 beginning with a grain, and encreasing the number to half a dozen, 
 or more. It is swallow r ed and smoked indiscriminately, the usual 
 effects of which are soon visible, by producing a sleepy drunkenness, 
 yet such is their fondness for it, that it sells for its weight in silver ; 
 but this is not surprising among a people who believe that dreams 
 are books in which the fates are written.f 
 
 The inhabitants of Borneo smoke opium with tobacco in the same 
 manner as the people of Sumatra. The mode of preparing- it for use 
 is as follows : The raw opium is first boiled in a copper vessel, and 
 strained through a cloth, and then boiled a second time ; the leaf of 
 the tobacco is cut fine and mixed with it, in a quantity sufficient to 
 absorb the whole, when it is made up into small pills, about the size 
 of a pea, for smoking. At convivial parties, a dish of this is brought 
 in with a lamp, when the host, taking a large pipe, puts into it one 
 of those pellets, blowing the smoke through his nostrils, and, if he be 
 an adept, through the passages of the ears and eyes. He seldom takes 
 more than three or four w^liiffs, ere he passes it round to the rest of 
 the company, (one pipe serving them all,) who act in the same manner, 
 and so continue smoking until completely intoxicated. They are 
 sensible that it shortens life, but that does not cause them to abstain 
 from it ; and their women encourage the use of it, because they con 
 ceive that it heightens the love of their husbands. This preparation 
 of the opium is called maa, and it is often adulterated in the process, 
 by mixing jaggory, or palm sugar, with it, as is the raw opium, by 
 incorporating the fruit of the plantain. 
 
 On the western coast of Sumatra, about 150 chests, or 20,0001bs. 
 weight of opium are consumed annually, where it is purchased on 
 an average at 300 dollars the chest, and sold again at 500 or 600 : but 
 
 * Abeel s Residence in China, 8vo. p. 224. 
 | Chamont, Voy. dc Sium. 
 
107 
 
 on occasions of extraordinary scarcity, it lias been known that a 
 single chest brought upwards of 3000 dollars. 
 
 The inhabitants smoke it through a pipe, or apparatus, like the 
 Turkish hookah. Anderson met a Rajah, who smoked in the even 
 ings, until he became so stupified and giddy, that he was incompetent 
 to pass his own threshold without support. He told him that he used 
 a ball, or catty, annually ; and, like all slaves to this drug, he had a 
 very sickly and emaciated appearance. 
 
 It is a curious fact, as remarked by that writer, that in most of the 
 places he visited, where opium was in the greatest consumption, there 
 were fewer children, than where the people entirely abstained from 
 it ; thus furnishing a strong proof, that the inhabitants addicted to it 
 were practical Malthusians.* 
 
 Besides opium, the Sumatrans have recourse to other stimulants, of 
 native produce, and they are so deeply skilled in their use and power, 
 that they ensnare fish by steeping the root of a parasitical plant, called 
 tuba., and casting it into the water. This has so great an effect, that the 
 fish, as if intoxicated, float apparently dead on the surface ; and while in 
 that state are taken up by the fishermen. In the same manner, the 
 people of Jamaica employ the Tephrosia Toxicaria, after pounding 
 its leaves and branches. These they throw into ponds and rivers, 
 and the fish, which greedily eat it, become stupified, and are easily 
 caught. It is also used like opium for its intoxicating qualities. 
 
 Maddat is a term for opium on the eastern coast of Sumatra, 
 where it is imported at a duty of 20 dollars per chest, and, in some 
 parts, at 76 dollars per cake. 
 
 Opium is sold in Sumatra and Borneo by persons authorized to deal in 
 it, and a fine of 50 dollars is imposed on any person found selling it illi 
 citly. So far back as 1708, the king of Sumatra limited the importation 
 of opium to three chests, each containing IGOlbs. weight, and if any 
 person were found smuggling this drug, his goods and life were 
 forfeited. 
 
 Among the Celebes, opium is used in great quantities. Even the 
 Rajah and his family are constantly in a state of stupidity from its 
 use, and uniformly refuse to admit strangers during the time of its 
 influence. At Penang, 28 chests of opium are annually imported for 
 the Malay and Chinese inhabitants ; and to retail this drug, the 
 farmers pay to the East India Company from 3000 to 4000 Spanish 
 dollars per month ; which license, with the prime cost of the article, 
 causes the consumer to pay dearly for it. 
 
 * Anderson s Mission to the East coast of Sumatra, Svo. p. 209. 
 
108 
 
 The people of Java indulge to excess in the use of this drug. Upon 
 such of them, as well natives as slaves, who have become desperate 
 by the pressure of misfortune or disappointment, it operates in a 
 frightful manner, giving them an artificial courage, and rendering 
 them frantic, in which state they sally forth, in all the horrors of 
 despair, to attack the object of their hatred, crying amok ! amok ! 
 which signifies kill ! kill ! Thus infuriated, they indiscriminately stab 
 every person they meet, till self-preservation at length renders it 
 necessary to destroy them. This is what is termed running a muck. 
 Captain Beekman was told of a Javanese, who run a muck at Batavia, 
 and had killed several, but being met by a soldier who ran him 
 through with his pike, such was the desperation of the wretch, that 
 he pressed forward on the instrument of death, until he got near 
 enough to stab his adversary with a dagger, when both expired on 
 the spot. It is common amongst the Indian soldiery, when about to 
 perform some daring act, to intoxicate themselves with opium, in such 
 a manner as to render them reckless of danger. 
 
 It is a curious law in Java, that any one crying amok may be 
 destroyed ; but, in the event of its being a false alarm, and an indivi 
 dual being killed by the crowd, the person that exclaimed amok is only 
 liable to be fined. At Batavia, if an officer take a person calling 
 amok, his reward is very considerable ; but, if he kill him, nothing is 
 awarded : such is the frenzy of those unfortunate beings, that generally, 
 three out of four are destroyed in the attempt to secure them. Some 
 are of opinion, that the sanguinary achievements effected when 
 running a muck, for which the Malays have been famous, or rather 
 infamous, are more owing to the inherent ferocity of their nature, 
 than to the influence of opium, or any other drug. But it is to be 
 feared, that tyranny and oppression have too often driven them to 
 seek a fallacious consolation in the use of this article, rendering them 
 desperate and reckless of consequences. The Javanese government 
 farm the privilege of vending opium in a medicated or prepared state. 
 When the supplies were regular, the cost to the consumer was about 
 3,500 Spanish dollars per chest, or 787 10s., being an advance on 
 the market price of 133^ per cent, upon the monopoly price of 
 Bengal, of 168J per cent., and upon the first cost, that of 3025 per 
 cent. Were the duties fairly collected in Java, it is computed, that 
 the net revenue would be 225,000 sterling. The opium sent from 
 Bengal, to the different Indian islands, was, at one time, nearly 900 
 chests annually, 550 of which were consumed in Java ; but the extent 
 of the consumption, like other articles, greatly depends on the price. 
 When the retail price was about 5000 Spanish dollars a chest, the 
 
109 
 
 consumption was only 30 chests per year ; when 4000 dollars, it was 
 50 chests a year ; and when 3,500, it increased to nearly 100 chests 
 annually. When the price was moderate, many used it who had 
 never done so before ; when it was extravagantly high, several, who 
 had used it moderately, desisted from it altogether, while those, 
 whose habits were confirmed, had recourse to other stimulants, as 
 substitutes. The introduction of Turkish and other opium, into the 
 Indies, has caused a great revolution in the sales of this drug ; and 
 the American and other free traders, it is thought, will eventually 
 put an end to the monopoly of the East India Company. This 
 opinion is confirmed by the fact, that a chest, which formerly sold at 
 from 1,200 to 1,500 dollars, fell lately to 800, and since that, the 
 sales, at Calcutta, have fallen upwards of 30 per cent. Before the 
 East India Company commenced dealing in opium with the inhabi 
 tants of Sumatra, Malay, and other places, Mr. Lucas, a factor in the 
 service at Java, had monopolized the whole trade, and secured to 
 himself a property of ,100,000. This beneficial traffic was not 
 known to the Dutch before 1 685, when Lucas disclosed the secret. 
 Soon after, a society was formed at Batavia, for the purpose of con 
 ducting the opium trade. The stock of the society was divided into 
 shares of 2000 rixdollars each. Such was the prosperous state of 
 the business, that the shares were soon sold at a high premium. The 
 affairs of this company were under the control of a director, two 
 acting proprietors, a cashier, and book-keeper. Every chest of opium 
 delivered to them, by the East India Company, stood the society 500 
 rixdollars, or upwards ; and such were the regulations, that they were 
 obliged not to sell to any others who might come in competition with 
 them. The profits of the society, on every chest, were calculated at 
 8 or 900 rixdollars. To prevent smuggling, the society took every 
 precaution ; and in order to make their monoply more secure, they 
 interdicted the trade to their servants, and particularly to the seamen, 
 who were prohibited from dealing in it, on pain of death ; besides, 
 ships and cargoes were confiscated, when opium was found on board. 
 Notwithstanding all these regulations, the temptation was so great, 
 that vast quantities were conveyed into various parts of the East, to 
 the injury of the monopolists. The sale of this drug produces to the 
 Dutch a revenue of 1,120,000 rixdollars ; but the abuses, which the 
 monopoly engendered, brought the trade under the review of the com 
 missioners, who, in 1803, sat at the Hague, to examine into the affairs 
 of Java, and they found it necessary to limit the sale of it to 1,200 
 chests. Upwards of 100,0001bs. weight of opium were annually 
 imported into this island from India, whence it was transmitted to the 
 Moluccas, and the other eastern parts of Asia. 
 
110 
 
 Vast quantities are consumed by the crews of the piratical vessels, 
 in the Indian Ocean, which are principally composed of Malays 
 When they are about to engage in any desperate enterprise, they 
 infuriate themselves with opium, in order to strengthen their courage 
 and inspire them with a determination to give no quarter. Unfortu 
 nately, too many temptations, for acts of this description, present 
 themselves in those seas, which have been the means of stamping a 
 character on these people, that will require a long lapse of time to 
 eradicate. 
 
 The Rajpoots, Gracias, and other Hindoo tribes, present opium at 
 their visits and entertainments, with the same familiarity as the snuff 
 box in Europe.* As they are strongly addicted to this drug, they 
 indulge in it to great excess, but they seem to be less affected by it 
 than Europeans ; which some attribute to the simplicity of their food, 
 and the use of no other stimulant. Their women are also in the 
 habit of using it, and even administering it to their new-born children ; 
 and it is deemed by both sexes, as constituting one of the chief 
 pleasures of existence. Many of these poor creatures, who undergo 
 voluntary tortures from religious motives, use opium in order to allay 
 the poignancy of their feelings. Heber saw a man having a small 
 spear through his tongue, who was so stupified with opium, that he 
 appeared insensible to pain. The parts through which the spear was 
 thrust, are said to have been rubbed till numbness ensued, and rendered 
 them callous.f The Rajpoot princes seldom hold a Durbar, without 
 presenting a mixture of liquid opium termed kusoombah, to all present. 
 The minister washes his hands, after which some of this liquid 
 is poured into the palm of his right hand, from which it is drank, by 
 the highest in rank present. He washes his hand again, and pours 
 more liquid into the palm for the second in rank, and so on till all the 
 company are served. In settling quarrels, the parties drink this 
 liquid from the palms of each others hands, as a pledge of the most 
 sacred friendship.:): The Rajpoots are remarkable for taking opium 
 on a day of battle ; at this time they double the dose, which, says 
 Bernier, makes them insensible to danger, and to fight with the 
 ferocity of tigers. They never yield, but front the enemy like a 
 wall of brass ; and before entering on the contest, embrace one 
 another like brothers, resolving to conquer or die. To all classes in 
 those regions, opium, whether smoked, eaten, or drunk, affords recrea- 
 
 * Forbes s Oriental Memoirs. f Heber s Journal, &c. 
 
 J Malcolm s Central India, vol. ii. p. 146. 
 Bermor s Voyage to the East Indies, 
 
Ill 
 
 tion and enjoyment. The Halcarras, a description of persons who 
 carry letters and run messages through the provinces of India, with 
 a small piece of this luxury, a bag of rice, and a pot to draw water 
 from the wells of the charitable, perform incredible journeys ; while 
 the messengers of Turkey, in like manner, with a few dates, or a 
 lump of coarse bread, traverse the trackless desert, amidst privations 
 and hardships only supportable under the influence of this fascinating 
 drug. The Pattamars, or foot messengers, who travel between Surat 
 and Bombay, use opium, in order, they say, to fortify their minds, and 
 increase their strength ; by this means, they will keep running, and at 
 the same time apparently dozing, without feeling the fatigues of the 
 way. The labouring classes, especially the hamals, or porters, use 
 immense quantities of it, and will carry loads, much heavier than 
 those usually borne by the stoutest Europeans. Some of them have 
 been known to swallow above an ounce of opium at a dose, under the 
 pretence, that it supports and strengthens them during the heat and 
 toils of the day.* " I once saw/ says the author of the Memoir of 
 an officer in the East India Company s Service, " a wretch extended 
 on the ground, with glazed eye and sunken features, apparently in the 
 last stage of existence, with only just strength enough to mutter 
 prayers for a supply of opium. Some was given him by a pas 
 senger. I waited to see its effects. They were truly magical. 
 From the time he swallowed it, his lamp of life seemed to rekindle ; in 
 a few minutes his features became flushed and animated ; he rose up 
 on his haunches, twisted his mustachios, sprung upon his feet, seized 
 his wallet, and trudged off as quick as a lamp-lighter." It is related 
 of a Turkish messenger, who coming from Constantinople, to a mer 
 chant at Smyrna, on entering a gentleman s house, fell down in a state 
 of insensibility, at which, while the whole family were surprised and 
 concerned, one of the servants rightly judging that this swoon was 
 occasioned by the stock of opium laid in for his journey being 
 exhausted, forced a little of the drug into his mouth ; and by this 
 means he revived, and acknowledged that the servant had preserved 
 his life. 
 
 Aureng-Zebe and other tyrants used a preparation of opium, called 
 poust, to despatch such as were hostile to their interests, and whom 
 they could not openly destroy : thus it was, that this despot carried 
 off his nephew Sepe Chekauh, liis brothers Dara and Morad, his son 
 Mahommed, and others of his relations in the fortress of Gualior in 
 the Mahrattas. The manner of effecting this was, by administering 
 a cup of this fatal drink, in the morning before eating any thing, which 
 
 * Grose s Voyage to the East Indies, vol. i. p. 119. 
 
112 
 
 produced loss of appetite, weakness, and insensibility, till, becoming 
 debilitated both in body and mind, they gradually grew torpid, and 
 passed into the other world, unconscious of sickness, care, or the fears 
 which approaching dissolution usually inspire : through this means, 
 many of the native princes of India perished ingloriously.* In the 
 same way, it is said, that Shah Abbas gave a pill of opium, every 
 morning, to Sain Mirza, his grand-son, in order to stupify him, and 
 render him less agreeable to his subjects ; he being jealous, and 
 fearing that he might have too much influence with his courtiers 
 To counteract this, the mother of the young prince made him take 
 treacle, and other antidotes. 
 
 Doctor Poqueville, in his Travels through the Morea, gives a minute 
 account of the opium eaters termed Theriakis, an appellation by 
 which they are designated, in consequence of their being extravagant 
 and irregular characters. " They begin," says he, " with only half a 
 grain, and increase the dose, as they may find it to produce the desired 
 effect. They take care not to drink water after it, as that would 
 bring on violent colics, but the man who, at twenty, takes to opium, 
 seldom lives beyond the age of thirty or thirty-six. In the course of 
 a few years, the dose is increased to upwards of a drachm, or sixty 
 grains. At this time, a pallid countenance and extreme leanness 
 announce a state of cachexia, which is only a prelude to a general 
 marasmus, or consumption of flesh. The infatuation is so great, that 
 the certainty of death and of all the infirmities which lead to it, is 
 incapable of correcting a theriaki, or a person addicted to the use of 
 opium ; he coldly answers, any one who apprizes him of his danger, 
 that his happiness is incomparable, when he has absorbed his pill of 
 opium. If he be asked to define this supernatural felicity, he only 
 says that it is impossible to describe it, as it is a pleasure not to be 
 explained. These miserable beings, however, towards the close of 
 their life, or rather of that state of stupefaction, into which they are 
 plunged, experience the most severe pains, and a continued hunger ; 
 they are tormented by a desperate satyriasis, without the capability 
 of satisfying their desires ; in short, they experience pains which even 
 the delicious paregoric cannot assuage ; and having become hideous, 
 deformed by numerous periostoses, deprived of their teeth, their eyes 
 sunk into their head, and afflicted with an incessant trembling, they 
 cease to exist a long time before their life is at an end.f The Baron 
 De Tott, writing on the same subject, gives a miserable picture of 
 those who frequent the opium market, at Constantinople, describing 
 
 Bender s East Indies, 
 f Dr. Poqueville s Travels through the Morea, Albania, &c. 8vo. p. 132. 
 
113 
 
 them as having pale and melancholy countenances, with meagre neck*, 
 heads twisted to one side, backbones distorted, shoulders drawn up to 
 the ears, and other extraordinary appearances. Seated in the twilight 
 of the evening, or reclining on sofas in the little shops, ranged along 
 the walls of the mosque of Solyman, may be seen the infatuated 
 theriakis swallowing their opium pills, in proportion to the degree of 
 want, which habit has rendered necessary. Each poor votary anxi 
 ously awaits the agreeable reverie that is to follow, as the effect of 
 this indulgence. He soon retires to his home, full of an imaginary 
 happiness which neither reason nor the realities of life can procure ; 
 and in this manner, each succeeding day witnesses a repetition of the 
 same irregularity, till, worn out with debility and intemperance, he, at 
 last, sinks like a shadow into the grave. In addition to these observa 
 tions, the following anecdote will be read with interest : An English 
 ambassador, lately sent to a Mahometan prince, was conducted, 
 upon his arrival at the palace, through several richly- decorated and 
 spacious apartments, crowded with officers arrayed in superb dresses, 
 to a room, small in dimensions, but ornamented with the most splendid 
 and costly furniture. The attendants withdrew. After a short 
 interval, two persons, of superior mien, entered the saloon, followed by 
 state-bearers, carrying under a lofty canopy a litter covered with deli 
 cate silks, and the richest Cashmere shawls, upon which lay a human 
 form to all appearance dead, except that its head was dangling loosely 
 from side to side, as the bearers moved into the room. Two officers, 
 holding rich fillagree salvers, carried each a chalice, and a vial contain 
 ing a black fluid. The ambassador, considering the spectacle to be 
 connected with some court ceremony of mourning, endeavoured to 
 retire; but he was soon undeceived by seeing the officers holding up the 
 head of the apparent corpse, and, after gently chafing the throat and re 
 turning the tongue, which hung from a mouth relaxed and gaping, 
 pouring some of the black liquor into the throat, and closing the jaws 
 until it sank down the passage. After six or seven times repeating 
 the ceremony, the figure opened its eyes, and shut its mouth volun 
 tarily ; it then swallowed a large portion of the black fluid, and, 
 within the hour, an animated being sat on the couch, with blood 
 returning into his lips, and a feeble power of articulation. In 
 the Persian language he addressed his visiter, and inquired the par 
 ticulars of his mission. Within two hours this extraordinary person 
 became alert, and his mind capable of arduous business. The ambas 
 sador, after apologizing for the liberty, ventured to inquire into the 
 cause of the scene which he had just witnessed. 
 
 " Sir," said he, " I am an inveterate opium-taker ; I have by slow 
 
 i 
 
114 
 
 degrees fallen into this melancholy excess. Out of the diurnal twenty- 
 four periods of time, I continually pass eighteen in this reverie. 
 Unable to move, or to speak, I am yet conscious, and the time passes 
 away amid pleasing phantasies; nor should I ever awake from 
 the wanderings of this state, had I not the most faithful and attached 
 servants, whose regard and religious duty impel them to watch my 
 pulse. As soon as my heart begins to falter, and my breathing is 
 imperceptible, except on a mirror, they immediately pour the solu 
 tion of opium into my throat, and restore me as you have seen. 
 Within four hours I shall have swallowed many ounces, and much 
 time will not pass away, ere I relapse into my ordinary torpor." 
 
 When Macfarlane* was travelling in Turkey, he entered into a 
 bazaar at Gallipoli, the proprietor of which he found labouring 
 under the influence of the madjoom, or opium. He is described 
 as an old man with a white beard, sitting on a table with his 
 arms crossed over his knees, his head sunk beneath his shoul 
 ders, and his eyes fixed in a vacant, immoveable stare. To a 
 demand for an okka of tobacco he made no reply ; the words seemed 
 to have struck the ear of a statue ; his eyes remained fixed and 
 motionless ; nor could any object be procured to attract his attention 
 except the white wall opposite, on which hung a pisgillah, the name 
 of God in Arabic characters. Conceiving that he was praying, he was 
 pulled by the sleeve in order to rouse his attention, which having no 
 effect, it was bawled into his ear that an okka of latakia was wanted. 
 By this means, his attention seemed awakened for a moment, a wild 
 unmeaning smile stole across his countenance, an unintelligible word 
 or two escaped his lips and in an instant he became fixed and ab 
 stracted as before. Every future effort to arouse him proved unsuc 
 cessful, and he remained wrapped up in the enjoyment of the visions 
 that his intoxicated fancy had created. It is thus that in many parts 
 of the East, the old men and dervises who have, by irregularities in 
 early life, blunted and enervated the finer feelings, endeavour to revive 
 them by the use of opium, a drug which, sooner or later, annihilates 
 all the faculties of the rational man, leaving nothing behind but a 
 mouldering temple, and a loathsome ruin. 
 
 The sedative influence of opium is less observable among the Turks, 
 than it would be were the people more active, and had less leisure to 
 indulge in habits of idleness. Even during the time they devote to 
 smoking tobacco, they seldom open their lips except to exhale the fumes 
 of their pipes. A striking proof of their perseverance in this lethargic 
 and stupifying custom is related by a gentleman, who was eye-wit- 
 
 * Constantinople in 1828. 
 
115 
 
 ness to the fact of two Turks sitting cross-legged upon a straw mat 
 before a door in their loose gowns, exposed to an intense heat. In 
 this way, they remained for three hours and a half without once 
 uttering a syllable, looking at each other with the same immoveable, 
 yet unmeaning gravity ; hence travellers may very readily mistake 
 the use of tobacco among them for that of opium, as both arc 
 indiscriminately used in smoking, and may, to superficial observers, 
 appear to produce similar effects. 
 
 Although opium seems to induce stupor or insensibility, as evinced 
 by a heavy look, yet the appearance is deceptive, if we believe various 
 anecdotes related on the subject, of which the following is an illus 
 tration. A Gentoo rajah and a governor of Surat, attended by their 
 respective officers and guards, met by appointment in a garden near 
 the city to arrange some affairs of state ; while conversing, the 
 governor observed that the soldiers of the rajah squatted down and 
 appeared as if nodding or sleeping on their naked swords. Turning 
 to his friend he remarked, " you must have a very just opinion of my 
 good faith, since you would venture yourself to an interview with me 
 with guards so overcome by the influence of opium." " In that you 
 are mistaken," said the rajah, " and you may easily put the matter to 
 the test by directing one of your attendants, for whom you have little 
 regard, to pluck a flower out of the turban of one of my drowsy 
 soldiers." A person, deputed for that purpose, proceeded with all 
 possible caution to one who appeared the most overcome ; but scarcely 
 had he put his hand on the flower, when his arm was severed from 
 his body, and all the rest of the guards were on foot in an instant.* 
 
 The effects of opium might be exemplified in many ways, but I do 
 not recollect a more singular one than the following mentioned by 
 Mrs. Gutherie, who, writing to her husband from Eupatoria, remarks, 
 that she observed at a Tartar mosque a sort of holy wheel composed 
 of whirling fanatics, who, having indulged in the use of opium, kept 
 flying round a circle, more like the votaries of Bacchus, than the dis 
 ciples of Mahomet. In the middle of the circle, an aged dervise 
 hurried round like a top, muttering all the while, in concert with his 
 brethren in the circle, the following maxim from the Koran, " This 
 life is precarious ; but it is here, (pointing to the earth,) that we must 
 take up our abode." The centre of this curious group is always the 
 place of honour and of danger, as the reverend father, who occupies 
 it, in right of his years and wisdom, keeps spinning round, till he turns 
 his brain, and if he expire on the spot, which sometimes happens, he 
 becomes a martyr saint of the Mahometan church, and the envy of hist 
 
 * Grose s Yovaere to the East Indies, 
 
116 
 
 surviving stronger -headed companions.* It is related of Lord 
 Tyrawly, that during his residence in India, in order to punish ine 
 briety among the troops under his command, he invented a machine 
 similar to that of the Tartars, having a rotary motion, and which served 
 to sober such drunkards as were subjected to its rapid evolutions. 
 This effect was caused, it is supposed, by the violent shock sustained, 
 by suddenly stopping the machine at intervals, that being the inva 
 riable practice, until the individual appeared to be in the full exercise 
 of his reason. 
 
 That the juice of the poppy in its natural state has any inebriating 
 quality, has been questioned ; but Grose relates a circumstance, which, 
 if true, would lead to the conclusion that it possesses powers highly 
 narcotic, deleterious, and dangerous. A young gentleman belonging 
 to an English factory, while amusing himself in the garden of a 
 Nabob with whom he was spending the day, thoughtlessly pulled a 
 poppy and sucked the head of it, not apprehensive that it possessed 
 greater power than those plants usually have in England. The con 
 sequence was, he fell immediately into a profound sleep, with which , 
 when the nabob became acquainted, he eagerly inquired from what 
 bed the poppy had been taken that produced this effect. On this 
 being pointed out, he said, he thought the nature of the poppy in India 
 was too well known to have required from him any caution against 
 it, particularly as the taste was by no means tempting, and lamented 
 that the young gentleman was so unfortunate as to pitch on this des 
 cription of poppy, it being of so deadly a nature as to admit of no 
 human remedy or antidote, as nothing could awake him from that 
 sleep, which unhappily proved his last. 
 
 The Lion, it is said, is sometimes taken in India, after having satis 
 fied his hungry appetite on the flesh of an ass surcharged with a 
 quantity of poppies, and previously put in his way, that by feeding on it, 
 the narcotic power of the plant might overcome him, and render him 
 an easy prey to the hunter. The truth of this has been questioned, 
 but there can be scarcely a doubt that the poppy, if taken internally, 
 would have a deleterious or overpowering effect, and it is certain that 
 the leaves, which are used in Persia as pot-herbs, will not be employed 
 for that purpose, after a certain stage of growth. The effects of the 
 poppy on the lion will not appear so incredible, when it is known 
 that hyenas are destroyed, in the settlement of the Cape of Good 
 Hope, by feeding on lambs poisoned by the fruit of a small tree called 
 hyaenanche, which grows in Cafrraria, and different parts about the 
 Cape. In order to kill those animals which are so destructive to the 
 
 * Tour in the Crimea, 4to. Letter xviii. p. 65. 
 
117 
 
 flocks of the settlers, the fruit of the hyaenanchc is pounded and 
 mixed with the food given to lambs, after which it is placed in 
 the paths of the hyenas ; and these ferocious beasts, fastening on it 
 with insatiable appetite, soon fall victims to the insidious venom of 
 the plant so craftily administered for that purpose. 
 
 Medical men assert that opium has a greater effect on carnivo 
 rous than on graminivorous animals, since a rabbit can take a conside 
 rable portion of opium without any fatal consequence, when half the 
 quantity would destroy a dog. The jockies of India have recourse 
 in the sale of horses, to tricks with opium, unknown in Europe, 
 Captain Skinner, in his Excursions in India, relates, that a pony was 
 brought into the camp near Cawnpore, for sale, and it appeared so 
 gentle that it was eagerly purchased, being pronounced the most 
 tractable of its race. Two days after its purchase, there was not a 
 man to be found that could ride it. The reason was, it had been 
 drugged with opium, and though a most wicked and obstinate creature, 
 its vices were perfectly subdued during the time it was under the 
 influence of this opiate. 
 
 How this inebriant affects the animal system is a matter yet unde 
 termined ; whether it is by action on the nerves, or by absorption 
 into the blood : but the recent and generally-received opinion is, that 
 it enters the blood-vessels, and produces on their inner coat an impres 
 sion which is conveyed along the nerves to the brain ;* and experiments 
 have proved that, when directly introduced into the blood, its effects 
 are most energetic as a poison. Vinegar, lemonade, and other acids, 
 have been administered to counteract the effects of opium, but anti 
 dotes of this kind are little to be depended on, unless in certain cases, 
 and should always be used in conduction with an emetic. The appli 
 cation of the stomach-pump is, perhaps, the most effectual means of 
 removing this baneful material. 
 
 The leaves of the hemp plant, (cannabis sativa,} known in India 
 by the name of beng or bangue, are often substituted for opium with 
 the same familiarity and effect. Ray says that beng is the produce 
 of a different plant which grows in Hindostan and the neighbouring 
 countries : perhaps he alludes to the datura stramonium. But as the 
 natives in those parts are well acquainted with its inebriating powers, 
 and as in some places hemp is alike known by the name of datura 
 and cannabis sativa, the botanist may have fallen into a mistake. The 
 people of the East use it differently ; some take it as an electuary, 
 while others either smoke or chew it. Beng, by many of the sects 
 in India, is used, as opium is by the Turks, to produce inebriation, as 
 
 * Christison on Poisons, p. (>13. 
 
118 
 
 they cannot legally, or without the risk of losing caste, drink spirituous 
 liquors ; and hence they are even permitted to take ganja, beng, or 
 hemp leaves, with impunity. The Sikhs of India do not smoke tobacco, 
 but they are allowed to chew beng and drink spirituous liquors. The 
 kief, which includes the flower and seeds of the plant, is the strongest ; 
 and a pipe of it, half the size of a common English tobacco-pipe, is 
 sufficent to intoxicate. Among the Moors, it is usually pounded and 
 mixed with el mogin, an invigorating confection which is sold at an 
 enormous price ; a piece of this, as big as a walnut, will, for a time, 
 entirely deprive a man of all reason and intellect.* This, which the 
 traveller Ali Bey calls kiff, is commonly made use of by boiling, 
 having been previously dried and nearly reduced to powder. It is 
 often mixed with sweetmeats, or swallowed in the form of pills. The 
 plant is sometimes boiled with butter in an earthen pot for about 
 twelve hours ; it is then strained, and afterwards serves to season 
 their victuals.! Brook has fallen into an error in believing that the 
 keef is the common hemlock ; the flower, he says, is called el keefe, 
 and the leaves hascischa. In Morocco, he adds, the plant is reduced 
 to powder, and the quantity of two or three spoonfuls generally taken 
 with the addition of sugar and water. It is also prepared with butter, 
 honey, and sugar, made into a sweetmeat, most of which the Moorish 
 ladies sometimes eat. Those wlio indulge in the use of keefe are 
 distinguished by their sallow-jaundiced complexion, and its effects 
 are usually those of a slow poison. Many of the Indian nobles and 
 military officers take it in the powdered state, and add to it an areca 
 or green hazel-nut with a little opium and sugar ;J and, to make the 
 visions it occasions the more lively, they mix with it some camphire, 
 cloves, nutmegs, and mace, and not unfrequently ambergris and musk. 
 Rhumpius says, that it is sometimes taken in a liquid form mixed 
 with areca and pinanga. This plant is very aptly called by the 
 Malays, jingi, or the " herb of fools." Another description of bangue 
 is made from the leaves of the hibiscus sabdariffa and also used in 
 India. The cannabis sativa is used in Egypt as an aphrodisiac and 
 narcotic ; the Arabs use a preparation of its green leaves for the 
 purpose of exhilaration. General Menou, when in Egypt, was obliged 
 to prohibit the use of its seed among the French soldiery, and we find 
 that, in the time of Galen, cakes were made, infused with this seed, 
 and served up after supper to encourage drinking ; but, when eaten 
 too freely, they affected the head. In the Barbary states, it is pre 
 ferred to opium from the voluptuous sensations which it never fails 
 
 * Jackson s Account of Morocco, p. 78, 79 
 
 f Travels of Ali Boy, vol. i. p. 81. J Vide Acosta. p. 2!>0, c. M. 
 
119 
 
 to produce. The hashisha, or leaves of the plant, are mostly dried 
 and cut like tobacco, with which they are smoked, but the luxurious 
 generally smoke them pure. The nuts of tliepalma christi have the 
 same effect, and the intoxication produced by them exists for some 
 hours, while during their influence the person affected talks without 
 reserve or reflection. 
 
 In the Nepaul territory, according to Hamilton, the extract of the 
 cannabis sativa is denominated charas. The dried leaves have the 
 name of ganja and are said to be of a heating quality, but are not so 
 much used as the juice or extract. The best charas is procured by 
 making incisions in the stem of the plant, and collecting the exuda 
 tions. From the bruised or pounded stalks of the hemp, a coarser sort 
 of charas is prepared ; the strongest and best article of this description 
 is made in Thibet. Doses of charas are taken in pills of from ten to 
 twelve grains and smoked like tobacco. The ganja or dried leaves 
 are used in the same way, and both produce the same inebriating 
 effects. The inhabitants of those countries are passionately fond of the 
 charas, and" indulge in it to excess. It produces all the effects of 
 opium, and is sometimes attended with the same fatal consequences, 
 Its habitual votary becomes first stupid, weak and debilitated, but 
 never irrational, though apparently so ; next he labours under thirst, 
 and, in order to allay it, he is induced to repeat the cause of his 
 malady, and thus proceeds till death in a short time puts a period to 
 his infatuation. While charas has this fatal effect on some, it produces 
 different effects on others : it has been known to cause a total depri 
 vation of sense, and to subject its votary to incarceration in a mad 
 house for life. Mr. Crawford tells an anecdote of the effects 
 of the datura or charas on a Javanese boatman, who, while proceeding 
 in his canoe up a river, was accosted by a Chinese from the bank, 
 requesting a passage, offering payment and a share of refresliments. 
 The boatman received him cordially, and ate heartily of the viands. 
 These, which had been previously mixed with the datura, immedi- 
 diately caused stupor and profound sleep. When the victim of this 
 piece of knavish artifice awoke, he found himself lying naked in a 
 forest, fifteen miles distant from the place where he had taken in the 
 Chinese, robbed of his canoe and all his property. The rogue was 
 shortly afterwards apprehended, obliged to confess the fact, and make 
 restitution. 
 
 The datura, or ganja, is well known over the East as an intoxicating 
 plant, and is, in many places, called gunja. Captain Dillon relates 
 that, in his passage to Van Dieman Land, in 1827, he was one day 
 alarmed by the fall of a Lascar, from the upper deck of the ship into 
 
120 
 
 the hold, and found that the accident was occasioned by smoking this 
 plant. On examining the chest of the individual, a large parcel of 
 this deleterious plant was discovered and thrown overhoard, to the 
 great vexation of the voluptuous Lascar, who had secreted the article 
 as a solace for his care and anxiety on the voyage.* To a very intox 
 icating drug called bung, the Persians are said to have heen early 
 attached, even so far back as the first century of the Hegira, and its 
 strength is represented as being so great, that it was never taken in a 
 quantity larger than a pistachio nut. It was employed to banish 
 lowness of spirits, excite cheerfulness, and renovate the mind ; but 
 what this drug really was, there is no certain information : it is gene 
 rally believed to have been datura or charas. In many places, the 
 preparation of bung or beng goes under the name of majoon ; and in 
 the Persian empire a confection of this nature is so denominated, as 
 it produces the same effects as opium. Among the hills at the foot 
 of the Himaleh mountains, the herb bhang or beng grows spontane 
 ously, and in its prepared state it meets with a ready sale. Fraser, 
 in his tour, says that when tobacco cannot be procured for smoking, 
 its place is supplied with bhang and other substitutes of an intoxi 
 cating nature, and a number of expedients are made use of when a 
 hubble-bubble, or a machine for inhaling its fumes, cannot be had. He 
 observed that a refreshment of this nature is indispensable for the 
 coolers on the march ; and when allowed to smoke a chillum, and 
 take a draught of cold water, they were enabled to proceed with 
 vigour ; but whenever they were deprived of the means of inhaling 
 the smoke of this stimulant, and quenching their thirst, they were at 
 times unable to pursue their journey from exhaustion ; the force of 
 habit having rendered such renovation absolutely necessary.f 
 
 During the severe campaigns of the late war, the French surgeons 
 were in the practice of administering opium and Cayenne pepper to 
 the fatigued soldiers, with a view of recruiting their strength, and exhi 
 larating their spirits, and they found them to have the most salutary 
 effects. 
 
 Burckhardt saw in Syria the hemp plant cultivated for smoking, on 
 account of its intoxicating qualities. The small leaves, which surround 
 the seed, are laid upon the tobacco in the pipe to produce a more ine 
 briating effect. The same custom prevails in Egypt, where the hemp 
 leaves, as well as the plant itself, are called hashysh ; and the Egyp 
 tians are even said to prepare from it an intoxicating liquor ; and 
 also by pounding the seeds a description of paste is made to effect 
 the same object. In India, a drink called brug is made from hemp, 
 
 * Dillon s Voyage to the South Seas, | Fraser s Journal, p. 217. 
 
121 
 
 which is also partially used by the Circassians* To form this beve 
 rage, the hemp plant is taken while in seed, and, when dried and 
 reduced to powder, it is suspended in a small bag in a vessel full of 
 water, by which the strength is extracted. This water, when sweet 
 ened with honey, produces intoxication. 
 
 The natives of Madagascar chew the leaves of hemp, as well as 
 tobacco, which produce a narcotic effect, and they smoke another 
 plant resembling hemp, known by the name of Ahets-manga, which 
 causes drunkenness approaching to madness, the eyes assuming a 
 fierce, fiery look, and the countenance becoming wild and ferocious. 
 Like the slaves to opium, those accustomed to its baneful effects are 
 stupid and inactive when its influence has ceased to operate ; and 
 hence they are obliged to have constant recourse to a repetition of 
 the ingredient. The Ahets-manga rises to about five feet in height, 
 bearing a pod containing nearly a dozen of seeds, and carrying a long 
 slender leaf. The Jermaughla, mentioned by Drury, appears to be 
 the same as the ahets-manga, since the description and their effects 
 are exactly alike. The seeds of the jermaughla are exposed to the 
 sun, for three or four days, till quite dry, and in that state are used. 
 The pipes, employed in smoking, are made of reeds or small canes ; 
 but sometimes a long shell is used as a substitute. An European, 
 who had the curiosity to smoke a pipe of these seeds, was so intoxi 
 cated, that his head remained giddy for three days, and it caused such 
 a sickness, that he never could be induced to do so a second time. 
 The natives are so fond of it, that they smoke it with the same plea 
 sure and avidity that our countrymen smoke tobacco.* 
 
 The drug called Chirs^ so much used among the people of Caubul 
 to excite intoxication, is made from the cannabis sativa ; and the 
 practice of chewing it is carried to some extent in Beloochistan and 
 Sinde-t The quantity taken at a time varies in proportion to the 
 habits or constitution of the individual. A drachm is a moderate dose ; 
 but when we consider that this quantity is sufficient for twenty 
 persons unaccustomed to its use, we may conclude that its effects must 
 be powerful. Garcias mentions a woman, who took ten drachms 
 of opium, daily ; and although she appeared heavy and sleepy, she 
 could dispute learnedly on any subject. It is a remarkable property 
 both of opium and bangue, that while they give a heaviness to the 
 looks, they are productive of great watchfulness. Doctor Edward 
 Smith, while at Smyrna, took pains to observe the doses of opium 
 
 * Drury s Account of Madagascar, 8vo. p. 216. 
 
 t Elphinstone s Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, 4to. p. 263. 
 
 % Pottinger s Travels, 4 to. p. 63. 
 
122 
 
 taken by the Turks in general, and he found that three drachms were 
 a common quantity among the larger takers of it, but that they could 
 take six drachms a day without danger. A Turk ate this quantity in 
 his presence, three drachms in the morning and three in the evening, 
 which had no other effect than that of producing great cheerfulness. 
 
 At Djidda, in the Hedjaz, Burckhardt found amongst the shops 
 one frequented by the smokers of hashysh, a preparation of hemp 
 flowers mixed with tobacco, which produced intoxication. The 
 better classes, he says, eat it in a kind of jelly or paste prepared in. 
 the following manner : a quantity of the leaves of the hemp, after 
 being sufficiently boiled with butter, is put under a press ; the juice 
 is then expressed, mixed with honey, and sold publicly in the shops 
 held for that purpose. The hashysh paste is termed bast, and the 
 sellers basty, (i. e. cheerfulness.) Persons of the first rank use bast, 
 in some form or another, to exhilarate the spirits, as it produces all 
 the effects of opium. Even in the Holy City, Mecca, there is a coffee 
 house, in which are sold preparations of hashysh and bendj, and 
 which is frequented by an inferior description of people. On these 
 articles, a heavy tax has been imposed in order to discourage their 
 sale, but with very little effect.* 
 
 The Turks, besides opium and bangue, usepeganum liar mala, or the 
 seeds of Syrian rue, with which, as Belonius relates, the emperor 
 Solyman kept himself intoxicated. The seed of the datura stramo 
 nium, or thorn apple, is also much employed by them, as well as by 
 the mountain villagers, in the province of Sirinagur and other parts 
 of India, who use it to increase the intoxicating powers of their 
 common spirituous liquors. The datura ferox, so common in China 
 and Thibet, is employed in Bootan as a powerful stimulant, and its 
 narcotic virtues are well known to the inhabitants of all those 
 countries. 
 
 Pe?iang, or betel, is in great demand all over the East. The 
 Indians chew it at all times of the day and night ; like tobacco, it has 
 rather an enlivening quality ; though naturally of a bitter taste, yet 
 when wrapped round an areca-nut, or mixed with chinam, a species of 
 burned lime made of shells, the flavour is not so disagreeable. The 
 rich and sensual frequently add perfumes, conceiving it a powerful 
 incentive to love. The betel, it is said, is used for preserving the 
 gums from becoming foul, giving a sweet breath, fastening the teeth, 
 but more frequently for reviving the spirits. It causes an excess of 
 saliva, and, to preserve cleanliness, a spitting-box is always kept in the 
 apartments of those who chew it. These boxes are frequently richly 
 
 * Burckhardt s Travels in Arabia, vol. i. p. 288. 
 
123 
 
 ornamented, but the cases in which the betel is enclosed are usually 
 made of gold, silver, horn, or some valuable wood, inlaid with preci 
 ous stones. In Siam, the king commonly makes his attendant* 
 presents of these betel-boxes, which are returned to him at the death 
 of the individuals. The contents of one of those boxes consist of cut 
 areka, betel leaves, lime, and tobacco, together with a small gold 
 handled knife for cutting these materials. Notwithstanding the par 
 tiality of the Siamese, and some other orientals, for betel, yet many of 
 them loose their teeth by its use, and their tongues become often 
 ulcerated from its influence. Many of the Easterns would rather want 
 food than betel, and its use is so general in many places that the very 
 slaves are allowed a certain quantity daily to prevent them from 
 pilfering it. 
 
 At the Cape of Good Hope, there is an herb called dacha, a species 
 of hemp, the leaves of which are eagerly sought by the slaves and 
 Hottentots, and smoked sometimes alone and at other times with 
 tobacco. This plant has strong inebriating qualities, which sometimes 
 render its votaries mad ; and it is estimated in proportion to its intoxi 
 cating effects. The settlers cultivate the dacha for the use of their 
 servants, and from the attachment of the Bushmen, or wild Hotten 
 tots to it, they succeed in retaining them in their service. 
 
 In America, some of the native tribes extract a narcotic liquor 
 from the root of a species of poppy, bearing a rose-coloured flower, 
 which as well as the stem, when touched by the hand, leaves an 
 agreeable odour. The plant, says Chateaubriand, which I saw, was 
 destined to adorn the tomb of a savage in his native wilds : the roots 
 procure sleep, and the perfume of the flower, which survives the 
 flower itself, is a pleasing image of the recollections which an innocent 
 life leaves behind in the desert. A species of the Cannabis Sativa, 
 or hemp plant, is cultivated in New Spain, merely for the purpose of 
 smoking or chewing the leaves to excite a narcotic sensation. The 
 Othomacos, a people of South America, were in the habit, before they 
 entered into battle, of maddening themselves with a snuff, made from 
 the grains of yupa, to which the most powerful tobacco is inferior, and 
 the most confirmed snuff taker could not bear a pinch of the yupa y 
 without sneezing so violently as to threaten death.* Its effects on 
 those people were to make them fearless of all danger, and irresist 
 ible in their attacks on their enemies. Peru yields a shrub or small 
 tree, called coca, about six feet high, the leaves of which serve much 
 the same purpose as the opium of the East. The leaves of this plant, 
 which are of a pale bright green, are plucked three or four times a 
 
 * Southey s History of Brazil, 
 
124 
 
 year, and, after being carefully dried, are packed in small baskets. 
 Many chew those leaves as others do tobacco, and such is the sus 
 tenance derived from them, that they frequently take no food for 
 four or five days, though constantly working ; and, while they have a 
 good supply, they feel neither hunger, thirst, nor fatigue, and, without 
 injury to health, they can remain upwards of a week without the 
 refreshment of sleep. Coca proves to the Peruvian the highest 
 source of gratification, for under its influence his imagination presents 
 the most pleasing and fascinating scenes of voluptuousness. Many, to 
 indulge in its use, forsake the rational associations of civilized life, 
 and retire in the evening to the woods to revel in the uninterrupted 
 enjoyment of its magic qualities. Prostrated under a tree, its votary, 
 heedless of the storm, the darkness of night, or the attacks of wild 
 beasts, reposes happy and contented, until the morning awakes him 
 to a sense of his own degradation, and induces him to return home, 
 a frightful picture of unnatural indulgence. When a Peruvian starts on 
 a journey, he carries with him a small leather pouch, for holding coca, and 
 a calabash for lime, or ashes of the molle to mix with the coca : thus 
 equipped a man will undertake to convey intelligence, or letters, 
 upwards of one hundred leagues, without any other provision. These 
 persons are termed chasquis, or chasqueros, a name given to the con 
 ductors of the mails. Men of this description were employed for the 
 transmission of intelligence by the Incas, long prior to the invasion 
 of the Spaniards, and some of these couriers have been known to 
 convey news a distance of six hundred leagues in the course of six 
 days.* What a similarity exists between the practice here and that 
 observed by the messengers in India and Turkey ! 
 
 The roots of black henbane, or hyoscyamus, are employed as a 
 strong inebriant. Three grains of the extract are considered equal to 
 one of opium, without its evil consequence ; it is thought however not 
 so certain in its operation as that drug, but there are many well- 
 attested instances on record of its amazing effects.f Dioscorides 
 notices its intoxicating powers ; and the anodyne necklaces, still in 
 superstitious use to allay the irritation of teething, are made of the 
 roots of this plant. Wilner, on vegetable poisons, relates the history 
 of six persons, of the same family, who were destroyed by eating at 
 dinner the roots of the hyoscyamus by mistake, instead of parsnips ; 
 several were delirious and danced about the room like maniacs ; one 
 appeared as if he had got drunk, and a woman became profoundly 
 and irrecoverably comatose. With this narcotic, it is stated that 
 
 * Stevenson s Narrative, vol. ii. p. 64. 
 f Christison on Poisons, p. 486. 
 
Hassan Subah, or, as he was called, " The old man of the mountains," 
 institutor of the celebrated heretical sect of the Assassins, continued 
 to secure the devotion of his disciples. He administered to them doses 
 of this drug, which produced sleep, and, while in that state, had them 
 conveyed into a splendid palace surrounded by beautiful gardens, where 
 they were regaled with whatever could delight the eye, or gratify the 
 appetite. The delusion was continued by a repetition of the dose, 
 until the victims were restored to their homes, under the impression 
 that Hassan had the power of making them partake of the joys of 
 paradise. Of what this intoxicating potion was composed seems 
 doubtful. Marco Polo says the matter was accomplished by a sleeping 
 potion. Von Hammer, in his history of the Asiatics, attributes it to 
 hyoscyamus, others to opium, while Sir John Malcolm thinks the 
 whole an invention of the Mahometans to bring the sect of Hassan 
 Subah into abhorrence. The last opinion seems the more probable, 
 from the circumstance that Hassan enjoined the strictest abstinence 
 from wine, and two of his sons fell victims to the punishment inflicted 
 on them for a breach of the injunction. Nor is it likely, that on the 
 summit of the elevated Allahamout, appropriately termed the " Eagle s 
 Nest," there could be enchanting gardens, murmuring streams, 
 roseate bowers, or conduits flowing with milk and honey, where the 
 vine, the pomegranate, the orange, and the nectarine, intermingled 
 their attractions, as if the whole formed that sensual paradise pro 
 mised by Mahomet to his followers. Neumann says he knew a 
 preparation of opium, by which a whole room-full of men may be 
 presently stupified, deprived of their senses, and even of their lives, 
 without swallowing a single grain ; and he thinks opium operates much 
 in the same manner as burning charcoal, or as the exhalations of fer 
 menting liquors. By means of soporific exhalations, thieves in China 
 commit great depredations. The houses, seldom exceeding one story, 
 are fumigated with narcotics and charcoal ; when the inmates are 
 overcome by their influence, the robbers easily descend through the 
 tiled roofs, and convey away whatever property comes in their reach 
 without detection. It is related of a person of considerable wealth, 
 whose premises had been entered in this manner, that he lay as if in 
 a trance, clearly observing the robbers effecting their purpose, yet 
 unable, from the lassitude to which he was reduced, to offer any 
 resistance. Hyoscyamus is to be found in almost every country, 
 growing spontaneously on road-sides and among rubbish. In many 
 botanical gardens, it is cultivated on account of its medicinal proper 
 ties, and every where gathered by the misguided slaves to opium, 
 when a supply of that drug is scarce, or difficult of procurement. 
 
126 
 
 The berries and leaves of the atropha belladonna, or deadly night 
 shade, hold, if possible, a more intense control over the mind of their 
 victim, producing symptoms of the most sottish drunkenness, and, if 
 taken too largely, occasion death. To this Shakspeare alludes in his 
 Macbeth, when he says, 
 
 Or have we eaten of the insane root, 
 That takes the reason prisoner. 
 
 A dose of the dried leaves of this plant, reduced to powder, is usually 
 limited to a few grains ; but if taken under the form of an infusion in a 
 considerable quantity of water, a scruple has been swallowed in the 
 course of the day. Ray relates, that a mendicant friar, having drunk 
 a glass of wine in which some of this herb was infused, was seized 
 with a delirium and grinning laughter, accompanied by wild and 
 irregular movements, which would have ended in death, had not an 
 immediate and counteracting remedy been applied. The bad effects 
 of the belladonna are said to be most powerfully prevented by a 
 glass of warm vinegar. It is stated on the authority of Buchanan, 
 the historian, that the destruction of the Danish army, commanded by 
 Sweno, king of Norway, when he invaded Scotland, was owing to the 
 intoxicating quality of the berries of this plant, which the Scots 
 mixed with the drink that they were obliged to furnish their invaders ; 
 for while the Danish soldiers lay under its soporific influence, the 
 Scotch fell upon them and slaughtered so many, that there were 
 scarcely men sufficient left to carry the king on board the only ship 
 that returned to Norway Another species of the night-shade, atropha 
 mandragora, abundant in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the islands 
 of the Levant, has wonderful soporific virtues, and is supposed to be 
 the mandrakes, mentioned by Moses, which were brought by Reuben 
 to Leah, and obtained from her by Rachael, under the impression 
 that they would render her prolific. It is also recorded, that the 
 emperor Julian used an infusion of this plant to excite amorous 
 passions. The Turks, in many instances, have yet recourse to it for 
 a similar purpose, as well as for the visionary pleasure it occasions. 
 
 The leaves and flowers of milfoil, or yarrow (achillea) inebriate, 
 and are used by the Dalecarlians to render their beer intoxicating, 
 Several medical practitioners in Ireland have used them with great 
 success, in the cure of many diseases. Some of the patients in 
 hospitals, who had been addicted to the use of ardent spirits, and 
 afflicted with the delirium tremens, or disease of drunkards, when in 
 course of recovery, were so fond of the yarrow tea ; that they preferred 
 
127 
 
 it to almost every other decoction. Clary and Saffron, (crocus offici* 
 nalis,) have the same effect. The last exhilarates the spirits to such a 
 degree, that when taken in large doses, it occasions immoderate mirth 
 and involuntary laughter. Darnel, or lolium temulentum,* vulgarly 
 known by the name of sturdy, when malted with barley, a process 
 which the seeds of it undergo, causes the ale brewed from it to be 
 quickly intoxicating. It produces the same effect when mixed with 
 bread and eaten hot. It is not perhaps generally known, that the 
 seeds of the field poppy, when ground among meal, have caused sleep, 
 and the other affections common to narcotics. Among these inebri* 
 ants, the inspissated milky juice of the common garden lettuce is 
 considered as powerful in its operation as opium itself. The seda 
 tive qualities of the lettuce, (lactuca sativa,) seem to have been well 
 known to the ancients, since Venus, after the death of Adonis, is 
 represented as reposing on a bed of lettuces, with a view to repress 
 her grief, and overcome her affections. This will remind the classic 
 reader of its effects on Juno, from the fable of the birth of Vulcan. 
 Besides Cybele, the mother of the gods has been drawn, crowned 
 with a wreath of poppies as a symbol of fruitfulness, shewing that 
 both the poppy and lettuce were regarded by the ancients as 
 possessing peculiar powers of solace and fecundity. From experi 
 ments, it has been ascertained, that the opium, drawn from the 
 lettuce, is identically the same as that of the poppy : many are of 
 opinion, that besides diminishing the price of this expensive article, its 
 extraction from the lettuce would prove a profitable species of culture. 
 Hemlock, cicuta, or conium maculatum, is also a powerful narcotic, 
 
 possessing intoxicating qualities, and dangerous in its application 
 
 By the juice of this plant, state convicts at Athens were put to death, 
 of whom were the celebrated philosopher Socrates, and the famous 
 general Phocion. Christison, a late writer, is of opinion, that the 
 poison, by which criminals were thus put to death, must, from its 
 activity, have contained more powerful ingredients. But he was not 
 perhaps aware, that, in the southern climates of Europe, the poisonous 
 qualities of hemlock are much more intense than in northern lati 
 tudes. M. Steven, a Russian botanist, assures us that the peasants 
 in the Crimea eat it with impunity, after having boiled it in several 
 waters. Conium, another species of hemlock, is inebriating if taken 
 in small doses, and is free from the constipating effects of opium. An 
 extract from the seeds produces giddiness sooner than that taken 
 from the leaves. Digitalis purpurea, or Foxglove, has an intoxicating 
 
 * This plant is the zizanion of St. Matthew, the ziwan of the Arabian botanists, 
 the zHvan oT the Turks, and the rosch of the Old Testament. 
 
effect, and operates on the system, by lowering the pulse, restrain 
 ing the circulation, and sensibly affecting the vision ; while its 
 application in epileptic attacks has often been attended with fatal 
 consequences. M. Richard, in his Dictionary of Drugs, gives an 
 account of the attempts of the chemists, who have endeavoured to 
 isolate the narcotic, or inebriating principle of foxglove, of which it 
 possesses a considerable portion. This is a vegetable to which 
 recourse is seldom had except as a medicine. Leopard s-bane, 
 (arnica montana), a plant chiefly found on the Alps, and other moun 
 tains of Europe, possesses properties nearly the same as hemlock. 
 Some of the common people of Germany smoke it, and make snuff of 
 it like tobacco, as it possesses an acid taste, and when bruised, emits 
 a pungent effluvium, which, while it causes sneezing, gives a sensation 
 of giddiness bordering on drunkenness. Betony (betonica offici- 
 nalis,) produces the same effects as Leopard s-bane, when powdered 
 and snuffed, or smoked ; and, according to Bartholinus and Simon 
 Pauli, physician to Christian V., king of Denmark, it affects those 
 who gather it, as they would have been if exposed to the exhala 
 tions attendant on the mixing, or tunning of spirits. Wolf s-bane, 
 (aconitum napellus^) is likewise of an intoxicating and deadly nature, 
 and has the peculiar quality, when applied to the head, of occasioning 
 a lightness or giddiness, much resembling that produced from spiritu 
 ous liquors. The plant epilobium angustifolium, when infused in 
 water, is a powerful narcotic, and from the pith an agreeable ale is 
 manufactured. This is a ccomplished by drying it first, and then boiling 
 it, in order to collect the saccharine matter, which, when duly 
 fermented, yields a very inebriating beverage. The fruit, or berries, 
 of the menispermum cocculus, or, as it is called, cocculus Indicus, 
 have considerable intoxicating properties ; and are too frequently 
 employed by brewers as a substitute for hops, and to bring up weak 
 ales or porter to the desired strength. These berries are sometimes 
 used to catch fish, by throwing them into ponds, or reservoirs, and as 
 they eagerly feed on them, they soon become intoxicated, and fall an 
 easy prey to their captors. The Hop (humulus lupulus) is soporific, 
 and pillows have been filled with it, to procure sleep. During the 
 illness of George III., in 1787, he received great relief from a pre 
 scription of this nature, and Doctor Thompson tells us of a lady who 
 was attacked w r ith fever, and remained perfectly sleepless and deliri 
 ous for four weeks, but on recourse being had to a hop pillow, she 
 enjoyed an uninterrupted sleep of 14 hours, from which she recovered 
 refreshed, invigorated, and free from delirium. In spring, the young 
 shoots of this plant are eaten as asparagus, and these hop-tops are 
 
1 29 
 
 considered a delicacy, while a decoction of the roots is accounted a 
 good sudorific. In Siheria, the leaves of the Rhododendron chry- 
 santhum are infused in water, and denominated intoxicating tea, from 
 their inebriating effects : a weak infusion of it is in daily use among 
 the natives, as a substitute for the tea of China ; but its strength is 
 sometimes tried beyond the limits of prudence, or discretion. 
 
 The effects of the Amanita Muscaria, a species of reddish fungi, 
 or mushroom, plentiful in different parts of the Russian empire, and 
 in Kamstchatka, where it is called moucho-more, are familiar. The 
 account of it given by Dr. Langsdorff, a Russian physician, is 
 worthy of recital. The Amanita Muscaria, so called from its power 
 of killing flies, when steeped in milk, though of the most poisonous of 
 our fungi, is used by the inhabitants of the north eastern parts of 
 Asia, in the same manner as wine, brandy, arrack, opium, &c. are 
 used by other nations. It is collected in the hottest months, and 
 dried by being suspended in the open air ; some found on the ground, 
 naturally dry, is esteemed as the most powerfully narcotic. The 
 common mode of using it is, to roll it into the form of a bolus or pill, 
 and swallow it without chewing. It is frequently eaten dry, but 
 oftener taken when infused in a liquor made with epilobium. It is 
 sometimes eaten fresh in soups and sauces, and in this state loses 
 much of its intoxicating property. When steeped in the juice of the 
 berries of the vaccinium uliginosum, its effects are similar to those of 
 strong wine. One large fungus, or two small fungi, is a common 
 dose, to produce a pleasant intoxication for a whole day, particularly 
 if water be drunk after it, which augments the narcotic principle. 
 From one to two hours, after taking the dose, giddiness and drunken 
 ness ensue, cheerful emotions of the mind are the first symptoms, the 
 countenance becomes flushed, incoherent words and actions follow, 
 and sometimes a total want of consciousness. It renders some very 
 active, and proves highly stimulant to muscular exertion. Too large 
 a dose brings on violent spasmodic affections, and such are its excite 
 ments on the nervous system, that it renders many very silly and 
 ludicrous. If a person, under its influence, wish to step over a 
 straw, or small stick, he takes a stride or jump sufficient to clear the 
 trunk of a tree ; a talkative person can neither keep secrecy nor 
 silence, and one fond of music is perpetually singing. The most 
 extraordinary effect of the amanita, is the change it makes in the 
 urine, by impregnating it with an intoxicating quality, which con 
 tinues to operate for a considerable time. A man moderately intoxi 
 cated to-day, will, by the next morning, have slept himself sober ; but, 
 as is the custom, by drinking a cup of his own urine, he will become 
 
 x 
 
130 
 
 more powerfully intoxicated, than he \vas the day preceding. It is 
 therefore not uncommon for confirmed drunkards to preserve their 
 urine as a precious liquor, lest a scarcity in the fungi should occur. 
 This inebriating property of the urine is capable of being imparted 
 to others, for every one, who partakes of it, has his urine similarly 
 affected. Thus with a very few amanitae, a party of drunkards may 
 keep up their debauch for a week. Dr. Langsdorff states, that by 
 means of the second person taking the urine of the first, the third 
 that of the second, the intoxication may be propagated through five 
 individuals. The relation of Strahlenberg, that the rich lay up great 
 stores of the amanitae, and that the poor, who cannot buy it, watch 
 their banquets with wooden bowls, in order to procure the liquor after 
 a second process, is fully confirmed by the statement of Langsdorff, 
 and gives a lamentable picture of the debasement of our species in that 
 quarter of the world. 
 
 By experiments made on potatoes, during the manufacture of 
 starch, the water which was drained from the pulp, while in thekeive, 
 on being carefully evaporated to an extract, gave out a strong odour 
 of hemlock. Its narcotic powers were put to the test by two persons, 
 one of whom, having swallowed three grains of the recently prepared 
 extract, soon fell asleep, out of which stupor he had to be forcibly awak 
 ened, after a repose of twenty-one hours. The other, who took three 
 grains and a half, fell asleep while undressing, and in that state he 
 continued for eighteen hours, till aroused by an accidental visitor. 
 No peculiar consequence followed in either case. 
 
 The discovery of Sir Humphry Davy of that species of Gas, 
 ermod Nitrous Oxide, which has the power of exhilarating the spirits 
 to an extraordinary degree, is not likely ever to be resorted to as an 
 inebriant, particularly in those countries where chemistry is little 
 practised, and it is therefore unnecessary to enter into a description 
 of it. 
 
 In Great Britain, opium has been more used as a medicine than as 
 an exciter of the spirits, although its infatuating influence is not alto 
 gether unknown in those countries, since the reveries of Asiatic 
 luxury and effeminacy have in too many instances infected the man 
 ners and habits of the British people. To what extent an Englishman 
 may be brought to take this opiate, is exemplified in the admirable 
 and well- written " Confessions of au Opium Eater," first published in 
 the London Magazine for October, 1821, and since in a separate 
 volume. In that work, the writer, speaking from the result of a long 
 and profound personal experience, assures us that he had by regular 
 gradation brougnt himself to take no less a quantity than 8000 drops 
 
131 
 
 of laudanum, or 320 grains of opium, per day. The description of 
 his pains and pleasures for the space of seventeen years, and the 
 struggles he under went to break th? charm which kept him spell-bound 
 for such a length of time, are highly interesting and curious. As a 
 specimen of the imagery with which he was sometimes haunted, the 
 reader is here presented with an extract in his own words : " Under 
 the connecting feeling of tropical heat and vertical sun-lights, I brought 
 together all creatures, birds, beasts, reptiles, all trees and plants, 
 usages and appearances that are to be found in the tropical regions, 
 and assembled together in China or Hindoostan. From kindred 
 feelings I soon brought Egypt and all her gods under the same law. 
 [ was stared at, hooted at, grinned at, chattered at, by monkeys, by 
 paraquets, by cockatoos. I ran into pagodas, and was fixed for 
 centuries, either at the summit, or in secret rooms ; I was the idol ; 
 I was the priest ; I was worshipped ; I was sacrificed. I fled 
 from the wrath of Drama through all the forests of Asia; Vishnu 
 hated me : Seeva laid wait for me : I came suddenly upon Isis 
 and Osiris : I had done a deed, they said, which the ibis and crocodile 
 trembled at. I was buried for a thousand years, in stone coffins, with 
 mummies and sphinxes, in narrow chambers at the heart of eternal 
 pyramids. I was kissed with cancerous kisses by crocodiles ; and 
 laid, confounded with unutterable slimy things, amongst reeds and 
 Nilotic mud.*" All this, and much more, the reader must enter into 
 before he can comprehend the horror which those dreams of 
 oriental manners and customs impressed upon him* The power or 
 this drug affects the imagination with visions of substantial delights, 
 which no other narcotic has ever yet been found to produce ; and 
 man under its influence associates, with his own station in life, those 
 pleasurable images which he is led to believe would render him 
 liappy. But it may be said, that the usual effects of opium are to 
 raise the spirits and elevate the mind, and when the body is not 
 labouring under disease, it raises the moral affections to a state of 
 cloudless serenity, over which the diviner spirit of our nature is para 
 mount. This effect of the drug continues so long as the constitution 
 is able to bear the ravages of its influence, for its fascinations are 
 such, that, like the wand of a magician, it creates a visionary temple 
 round its victim, and leads him through the mazes of delights, till 
 at length he falls a sacrifice at the altar of his own imagination. 
 Willis, in Pharmacop. Ration. Part i., informs us that he has known 
 a small doseof opium to take so contrary effect upon some constitutions, 
 
 Confessions of an English O>>ium Eater, Svo. n 171. 
 
132 
 
 that they could hardly sleep at all, Imt that they quickly became worse 
 with respect to their pulse, respiration, and heat ; they became more 
 breathless, and could not be restored by cordials, but gradually languished 
 till they died. He also tells us, that by means of opium, he knew 
 several persons who contracted slowness of genius and stupidity, and 
 ethers confirmed folly. And one man in particular, who, by taking 
 a large dose of laudanum when he was feverish, lost his memory 
 totally. 
 
 Many of the middle and lower classes in England are opium eaters ; 
 and this taste has in a great measure been diffused through the example 
 of persons retired from the army. Of this class I was acquainted with 
 two persons whose devotedness to opium led them to spend large 
 sums in its purchase. The inroad of its effects was visible in both, 
 sallow and sunken about the eyes, sometimes pensive, sometimes con 
 vivial ; always in proportion to the time of its operation. Neither 
 could assign a reason for his attachment, but each felt unhappy during 
 its absence ; both admitted, but could not describe, the pleasurable 
 sensations it created. One imputed his attachment to it from habits 
 of association, the other to disappointment in a love affair, which, 
 baring pressed upon Ids spirits, led him to try this mighty assuager of 
 care and sorrow. Numbers use it from a notion that it supports 
 nature under the privation of food longer than it could otherwise be 
 sustained, and therefore many are known to be seldom without a 
 piece of it in their mouths. The Turks have an ingenious method of 
 using it to prevent hunger. When obliged by their religion to 
 abstain long from eating, they take three pills of opium at the same 
 time ; the first covered with two folds of paper, the second with one, 
 and the third without any : by this precaution the pills dissolve suc 
 cessively and retard the cravings of appetite in proportion. Doctor 
 Jones, in his book entitled " The Mysteries of Opium Revealed," 
 assures us that he knew several persons in England, who were in the 
 habit of taking two, three, four, five, and six drachms daily, and that 
 he heard of one that could take two ounces in a day, a quantity not 
 exceeded, perhaps, in the history of man.* In the Philosophical 
 Transactions, we have an instance of a Mr. Lovelock, who, in a fever, 
 in the space of three days, took one hundred and two grains. Mus- 
 tapha Shatoor, a celebrated opium eater at Smyrna, took only three 
 drachms of crude opium daily, yet he was so debilitated, that he 
 could not rise in the morning without first swallowing half a drachm. 
 I knew something of the habits of a young lady, who being prevented 
 
 * Vide, "Mysteries of Opium Revealed," 8vo. p. 308. 
 
133 
 
 by her friends from an excessive indulgence in ardent spirits, had for 
 a considerable time substituted opium, and, from its constant use, 
 could swallow an ounce of it in the crude state, with as much ease 
 and indifference as a boy would eat licorice-ball. A gentleman of 
 good fortune, in a provincial town in the north of Ireland, had like 
 wise allowed this propensity to gain upon him to such an extent, that he 
 regularly retired in the evening, to the solitude of his apartment, to 
 enjoy the luxury and grandeur of the visions which this favourite 
 paregoric occasions. 
 
 From what has been said respecting the infatuating use of this 
 drug, it will appear evident, that it is no easy matter to shake off an 
 attachment to it, when of any standing ; indeed it is much more diffi 
 cult to do so, than for those in this country who have become slaves 
 to spirituous liquors, to divest themselves of their enjoyments. That 
 it has been condemned by its warmest votaries, there is sufficient 
 evidence, and that its consequences lead to pain, anxiety, and death, 
 there is no doubt, yet to get rid of its magic influence requires the 
 utmost exertion. Mr. Dobell, in his Travels, assures us, that he cured , 
 two or tliree of his acquaintance of this mania, by the following 
 method. When the person, says he, who was in the habit of smoking 
 it, wished for a pipe, I gave him a close of laudanum, nearly equal to 
 the quantity of crude opium that he was accustomed to smoke, which 
 caused him to sleep ; and, immediately on his waking, he was made to 
 swallow a glass or two of Madeira with some substantial food. As 
 the laudanum had a less stimulating effect than the opium, by a 
 regular observance of this process, and by reducing the quantity daily, 
 the individual was in a short time weaned from the use of the opium 
 . pipe, and readily substituted that of tobacco, so that by this regimen, 
 he soon recovered his wonted strength and constitution. That a 
 person, leaving off the use of opium, requires some substitute, or 
 stimulant, is further illustrated by the striking anecdote related by 
 Acosta and transcribed by Doctor Aliston in the Edinburgh Medical 
 Essays.* " There were," says he, " some Turkish prisoners and 
 Arabian captives in the ship in which I returned from the Indies to 
 Portugal, who had a small quantity of opium concealed and used it only 
 as a medicine. When they had consumed it all, one of them, a Turk 
 of Aden, said to me, since you have the care of the sick, I must tell 
 you, that, unless you give me and my companions opium, we cannot 
 live two days. I denied I had any ; the only remedy then, said the 
 Turk, whereby we, who have been accustomed to eat opium, can be 
 
 * Vide vol. v. p. 1. art. 12, sec. 3. 
 
131 
 
 recovered, is by a draught of pure wine every morning ; though this! 
 is very hard and uneasy to us, being contrary to our law, yet, since 
 our health depends upon it, we must submit. By his advice I gave 
 them all wine j they recovered, and in a month s time would take no 
 more wine, and neither needed nor desired opium." Ahmed Khan, 
 governor of Tauris, in the Persian Empire, was so great a slave to 
 opium, that he would be laid up for whole days, in a state of delirium 
 or stupefaction, which was the cause of his dismissal from office. 
 Being a sensible man, and seeing the disgrace this weakness brought 
 upon him, he so far conquered the propensity, that he was restored 
 to his former rank and dignity, and when the French embassy, under 
 General Gardane, was passing through his government, in 1807, he 
 entertained them with a hospitality and splendour becoming an 
 oriental prince.* 
 
 Although opium is so destructive to the human constitution, many 
 instances might be brought forward of persons, addicted to the use of 
 it, who lived to an advanced age. One of a curious nature is related 
 of Mahomet Riza Khan Byat, of Shiraz, who had been accustomed to 
 cat every day a quantity of this drug, sufficient, according to the cal 
 culations of an English Doctor, to poison thirty persons unaccustomed 
 to it. He was at the age of sixty-eight, when first advised by this 
 Doctor to leave off the practice, or he would destroy himself. Ten 
 years after, when he was met by the narrator of this anecdote, he 
 looked younger and brisker, than when he first saw him. He 
 enquired for the Doctor, and on being informed that he was in India, 
 " I am sorry," said he, " that he is not here, I would shew him that 
 Christian Doctors are not all true prophets. He told me I should die 
 if I did not diminish my allowance of opium, I have increased it four 
 fold, since he predicted my demise, and here I am, near four score, 
 as young and as active as any of you." On saying this, he put his 
 horse to full gallop and fired his match-lock, with the ease and 
 precision of a person in the full vigour of life.f 
 
 Christisoii) in his treatise on poisons, records several cases of the 
 length of time that some have taken opium, without very material 
 injury. 1. A young lady, habituated te it from childhood, was in 
 good health at the age of twenty-five. 2. A lady died of consump 
 tion at the age of forty-two, though she had taken daily a drachm of 
 solid opium, for ten years of her life. 3. A literary character of about 
 forty-five years old took laudanum for twenty years, with occasional 
 
 * Tangerine s Narrative of the French Embassy to Persia. 
 
 f Sketches cf Persia, 2 vois, 6\o. vol. i. p. 96, 97. London, 1627. 
 
135 
 
 intermissions, but sometimes an enormous quantity, yet he enjoyed 
 tolerably good health. 4. A lady, who died at fifty, was in the 
 practice of drinking laudanum twenty years. 5. Another lady of 
 fifty, in good health, in the practice of taking opium for many years, 
 used three ounces of laudanum daily. 6. A lady of sixty, gave it up 
 after using it for twenty years, during which she enjoyed good health, 
 and again resumed her former practice. 7. Lord Mar, after using 
 laudanum for thirty years, to the amount at times of two or three 
 ounces daily, died at fifty-seven of jaundice and dropsy. 8. A 
 woman who took, for many years, two ounces of laudanum daily, lived 
 upwards of sixty years. 9. An eminent literary character, novr 
 above sixty, and in good health, has drunk laudanum to excess, since 
 he was fifteen, and his daily allowance has sometimes been a quart of 
 a mixture, consisting of three parts of laudanum and one of alcohol. 
 
 10. A lady now alive, at the age of seventy, has taken laudanum ia 
 the quantity of half an ounce daily, between thirty and forty years. 
 
 1 1 . An old woman at Leith, lived to eighty, though she had taken 
 about half an ounce of laudanum nearly for forty years, and enjoyed 
 tolerably good health. Sir Astley Cooper relates, that he kneAY 
 persons to take a drachm of opium daily, in divided portions, without 
 any bad effects.* Notwithstanding these examples in its favour, it is~"\ 
 well known, that opium, when applied externally, will produce 
 poisonous effects, and that if injected into the veins of an animal, it 
 will bring on so high a degree of circulation, that it will cause convul 
 sions ; how much more fatal then must be its effects when taken inter 
 nally ! The action of opium is said to be very analogous to that of 
 wine, or vinous spirits ; the good and bad effects of both differ little, 
 and it is as common a remark in the Turkish dominions, that, " he 
 has eaten opium," as with us, " he has drunk too much wine." Its 
 attendants are violent head-ache, furrowed brown tongue, high fever, 
 constipation of the bowels, distorted motions in the eyes, pulsation 
 frequently too quick to be reckoned, and finally a respite from its, 
 
 pains in the chambers of death Such are the anomalous and 
 
 distressing miseries which the use, or rather the abuse of opium, has 
 entailed on man, the origin of which may be dated from the com 
 mencement of the Mahometan superstition, which, while it forbade 
 our fellow-men even the simple indulgence of an exhilarating and 
 wholesome beverage, has permitted a substitute that has proved too 
 generally deleterious and destructive. 
 
 The Chinese government seem latterly to have taken up the 
 
 * Lectures on Surgery, &e. 
 
136 
 
 matter with increased interest, seeing the dangerous consequences 
 resulting from the general use of opium in the empire. Several pro 
 clamations have been issued, examples made, and every means tried 
 to prevent its importation, but to no purpose. Where the infatua 
 tion is so general, reform is almost hopeless. The following edict, 
 issued by the viceroy of Canton, in 1828, is a sample of the various 
 proclamations that have been published on the subject : 
 
 " The use of drink and food is to introduce harmony into the sys 
 tem : the gulping of luscious things must be with a desire to obtain 
 strength ; but if there exist a drug, destructive of life, incessant 
 efforts should be made to keep it at a distance. Having used the drug 
 for some time, the men accustomed to it can by no means relinquish 
 it, their faces become as sharp as sparrows, and their heads sunk 
 between the shoulders, in the form of a dove, the poison flows into 
 their inmost vitals, physic cannot cure their disease, repentance comes 
 too late for reform." 
 
 The number of chests imported into China, in the following years, 
 will shew the extent of this branch of commerce, as conducted by 
 private ships from India : 
 
 1832 15,823 Chests. 
 
 1833 21,249 ... 
 
 1834 15,962 ... 
 
 The imports of opium into England, from Bengal and other places,, 
 from 1786, to 1801, a period of 15 years, amounted to 286,2711bs. r 
 and the consumption to 247,61 9lbs. At the East India Company s 
 sales, in 1809, there were 199 libs, of this drug sold for the immense 
 sum of 2,249. In 1831 and 1832, the quantity entered for home 
 consumption in Great Britain averaged 28,0971bs. per year. 
 
 Having thus detailed the most important facts relative to the 
 extent, use, and effects of some of the principal natural inebriants, 
 I shall return to the artificial or chemical part of the subject, more 
 immediately the object of consideration. 
 
 Among the inhabitants of that extensive region known by the name 
 of Tartary, a variety of inebriating liquors is found to prevail. To 
 point out the quality of each, with their shades of difference, would 
 be extremely difficult, particularly as the tribes are so thinly and 
 remotely scattered through a territory of 460,000 square miles in 
 extent,* of which the greater part remains as yet but imperfectly 
 known. Koumiss, or the vinous liquor, prepared by fermentation from 
 mares milk, seems to be the great and leading beverage of the Tartar 
 
 jMaltc-Brun, vol. ii. p, 36, 
 
137 
 
 hordes. Of its origin we know little, but that it was familiar to 
 many of the nations of Asia, long 1 before they had any intercourse 
 with Europeans, is unquestionable. Caprini, a friar, sent as an am 
 bassador by Pope Innocent IV., to the Tartar, and other nations of 
 the East, in 1245, is the first who mentions this liquor, and speaks of 
 ale also as a common beverage. At the court of the Khan Batou, he 
 met with great hospitality, and he informs us, that a table was per 
 manently placed before the door of the tent of the Khan, on which 
 stood many superb cups of gold and silver, richly set with precious 
 stones, full of cosmos or koumiss, for the accommodation of visiters 
 and strangers ; and that neither the Batou, nor any of the Tartar 
 princes, drank in public, without having singers and harpers playing 
 before them. De Rubruquis, a monk, who went as ambassador from 
 Louis IX. of France, in 1258, into different parts of the East, 
 describes its preparation with tolerable accuracy ; and says, it was so 
 plentiful in his time, that he knew one person alone, who was served 
 daily from his farms with a superior kind of it, made from the milk 
 of 100 mares, and that a number of his acquaintance together received 
 the produce of 3000 mares. This is not to be wondered at, when we 
 consider that the riches of a Tartar consists in the multitude of his 
 cattle, and that some individuals, according to Pallas, have been 
 known to possess 10,000 horses, 300 camels, 4000 horned cattle, 
 20,000 sheep, and upwards of 2000 goats, and, in many instances, have 
 such a quantity of sheep as to be wholly ignorant of their number. 
 Marco Polo, who passed through a great part of Asia, in the 
 middle of the thirteenth century, speaks of koumiss as a common 
 drink, and tells us that the great Khan of Tartar y had, in his time, 
 a, herd of white horses and mares, to the amount of 10,000, of the 
 milk of which none but the royal family were permitted to partake ; 
 and so artful were some of the attendants at court, that they could 
 draw koumiss from a secret reservoir, without the appearance of any 
 agency. Late writers describe it as a wholesome, nutritious beverage, 
 and allow that it possesses important medicinal qualities.* Koumiss, 
 is said to be so healthful and renovating, that the Bashkir Tartars, 
 who, from the impoverished state of their living during winter, are 
 weak and emaciated, soon after returning to the use of koumiss in 
 summer, become fat and invigorated. Those who use it say that 
 they have little desire for other sustenance, and that it renders their 
 veins replete, infuses animation, prevents langour, without producing 
 
 * Edinb. Phil. Trans, vol. i. p. 17, &c. Outline s Tour, 4to. pp. 277-8-9. 
 Whittington s Journey, in 1816, through Little Tartary, &c-. in Walpole s Travels, 
 pp. 4fi3 and 4(58. 
 
138 
 
 indigestion, nausea, acidity, or any of those consequences which 
 usually follow excess in other beverages. It renders those who us 
 it extremely active. A Mongul, who was accustomed to subsist upon 
 it, was able, at the advanced age; of sixty, to ride 200 wersts in a day, 
 without being fatigued a proof of its salutary influence. This 
 liquor is prepared in various ways, but all coming to the same issue. 
 The most simple; mode appears to be the following : To any quantity 
 of mares milk, a sixth part of warm water is added, and as it is usual 
 to make the liquor in skins, the mixture is poured into a bag of this 
 kind, in which had been left as much of the old milk as would render 
 the new sour. In summer, fermentation speedily takes place, the first 
 l of which are the appearance of a thick scum, or substance, on 
 the surface. After this has gathered, the whole mass is blended 
 together, much in the manner of churning, but which process lasts but 
 a few minutes : it is then allowed to remain quiescent for some hours, 
 and again agitated in a similar manner. Thus treated alternately, it 
 soon assumes that stage of vinous fermentation necessary to effect its 
 completion. In summer, this is accomplished in 24 hours ; but, 
 according to Pallas, it can be effected in 12 hours by a forced process. 
 In winter, it requires a longer time, say three or four days, with the 
 assistance of artificial heat and a greater frequency of agitation. 
 Very different from the effect produced by churning milk in this 
 country, this process of agitation affords neither cream nor cards ; 
 but yields a beverage of a very agreeable vinous flavour, which ine 
 briates in proportion to the quantity taken. To throw the milk into 
 fermentation, a little sour (tow s milk, koumiss, a piece of sour leaven 
 of rye bread, or a small portion of the stomach of a colt, a lamb, or a 
 calf, is indispensable, and indiscriminately used as rennet. In making 
 koumiss, Strahleriberg says, that the Calrnucks take off the thick 
 material at the top of the milk, after it has become sour, and use it in 
 their food, leaving the remaining liquid for distillation. This is quite 
 erroneous, as a closer acquaintance with the Tartar practice has 
 proved; for it is well known, that no perfect fermentation, even 
 though the usual ferment be added, can be effected from any one 
 of the component parts of the milk alone, nor will it; afford a spirit 
 unless the milk has all its parts in their natural proportion. Doctor 
 Clarke, in the observations which he makes on koumiss, seems to 
 have fallen into a similar error, when he says, that the milk collected 
 over night is churned in the morning into butter and the buttermilk 
 distilled. This it must appear, from the proceeding remarks, cannot 
 be the case, since no butter is obtained from the milk, as koumiss 
 be made at all, should any of the constituent* of the milk be 
 
separated, and therefore- the Tartars must have boon in jest, or h<* 
 misunderstood them, when they told the Doctor their brand V \v;w 
 distilled merely from buttermilk.* Nieuhoff states, that while in 
 China, he drank Samtehoo as strong 1 as brandy, which had been dis 
 tilled from ncu milk ; and says, that it was obtained from the Km- 
 j>eror s cellar as a fa\ our ; but how this species of lieuor was inanu- 
 factured he has given no account. From experiments made on milk 
 during- fermentation, it appears that the closer the vessel is in which 
 it is kept, and the less fixed air allowed to escape during the process, 
 the greater the quantity of spirit obtained, so that the proportion of 
 the brandy produced from the material in the close vessel, to that 
 fermented in an open one, is as one gallon to three. This experi 
 ment shews the policy of conducting the process of fermentation in 
 close vessels in our distilleries, in preference to that of open ones, 
 since it evidently prevents the escape of a considerable portion of 
 alcoholic material. The milk collected for koumiss is fermented 
 mostly in leathern bags formed like a stone jar, wide at bottom 
 and narrow at top, and containing about an anker each. These uro 
 usually made of the hides of cows, goats or horses, fresh skinned ; 
 they arc steeped in water till the hair rubs off, and where no astrin 
 gent herbjige is to be found, are soaked thoroughly in blood and 
 dried in the; most warm and smoky parts of the huts. IJy this means, 
 the bags are rendered waterproof, and even made to retain oil. The 
 practice of keeping milk in skins is of great antiquity, as we read in 
 Judges iv. 19, of .lael, wife of lleber, when Sisera, the Canaanihsh 
 general, visited her tent, opening a bottle of milk ami giving him 
 to drink because he was thirsty. The Tartars display much ingenuity 
 in the construction of these bottles: from the skins of kids they pre 
 pare small ones, which answer as well as flasks, and among the 
 Calmueks these are rendered transparent and durable by means of 
 smoke. This preparation is perhaps similar to that alluded to in the 
 119th Psalm, 83rd verse. 
 
 The largest bags of whirh we have any account, were those 
 employed by Kutuki, the widow of Alcrgus, one of the Mongnl Khans, 
 in order to have revenge of Nawr, a neighbouring Khan, for betray 
 ing him into the hands of a prince of China, by whom he was sewed 
 up in a sack, and left to expire on a wooden ass. Affecting fl passion 
 for Nawr, formerly one of her admirers, Kutuki invited him to an 
 interview, which being accepted, she set out to meet him carrying with 
 her, on waggons prepared for the purpose, immense vessels made of 
 
 * Clarke s Travel*., 4lo, vol. \, p. 23! . 
 
140 
 
 ox hides filled with koumiss, together with one hundred sheep and 
 ten mares, already prepared for a feast. The meeting was apparently 
 joyful, while the prince and his attendants were closely plied with 
 liquor until they became intoxicated, when, by a signal from the prin 
 cess, the vessels were opened, out of which a number of armed men 
 issued and cut Nawr, whom she had already stabbed, and his fol 
 lowers into pieces. The ancient Romans, it appears, used skin bags 
 of a large size for holding wine ; for in a picture found in the ruins of 
 a wine-shop in Pompeii, there is the representation of an enormous 
 bag placed on a wine cart, and occupying the whole of the machine, 
 which is in the shape of a boat. Two men are seen as in the act of 
 drawing off the wine into amphora, or vessels employed for that 
 purpose. 
 
 The well known hospitality of the Tartars renders the accumula 
 tion of these bags, particularly among the chiefs, sometimes incredible, 
 since 500 ankers of koumiss is considered no uncommon stock. At 
 marriage ceremonies, (a time of peculiar rejoicing,) it is not unusual 
 to see from two to four gallons of that liquor swallowed at three 
 draughts.* 
 
 The Usbecks, Mandshurs, Monguls, Calmucks, &c., are very 
 expert in making koumiss : that properly so called is from the milk 
 of mares. When a sufficient supply of this milk cannot be obtained, 
 recourse is had to that of the cow, and, amongst the Monguls, to that 
 of the sheep and camel, from which a wine is produced, usually called 
 koumiss, but by the Tartars termed air en, or airik. The milk of the 
 mare is preferred, being more fluid, though imbued with a slight 
 alkaline taste much esteemed by all the nomade tribes. 
 
 In distillation, mare s milk yields nearly one-tenth of alcohol, more 
 than that of the cow. The spirit from both is indifferently called 
 arrack^ araka, or arika, and sometimes koumiss ; it is often pre 
 sented under the title of vina. The common people are generally 
 content with the spirit obtained from the first distillation ; but the 
 wealthy, to encrease its strength, have it distilled a second time, when 
 it becomes highly intoxicating. The word arrack is decided by 
 philologers to be of Indian origin ; and should the conjecture be 
 correct, that it is derived from the areca-nut, or the arrack-tree, as 
 Kcempfer calls it,J it is clear, that as a spirit was extracted from that 
 fruit, the name was given to all liquors having similar intoxicating 
 
 Sauer s Account of Billing s Expedition, 4to. p. 128. 
 t Timkowski s Travels, vol. i. p. 53. 
 * Vide Amenitatum Exoticarum Fasciculi. 4to. 
 
141 
 
 effects. The term arrack being common in eastern countries where 
 the arts of civilized life have been so early cultivated, it is more 
 reasonable to suppose that the Tartars received this word through 
 their eastern connexions with the Chinese, or other oriental nations, 
 than to attribute it to a derivation foreign to their language, or as a 
 generic term of their own. The great source of all Indian literature, 
 and the parent of almost every oriental dialect, is the Sanscrit, a 
 language of the most venerable and unfathomable antiquity, though 
 now confined to the libraries of the Brahmins, and solely appropriated 
 to religious laws and records. Mr. Halhed, in the preface to his 
 Grammar of the Bengal language, says, that he was astonished to find 
 a strong similitude between the Persian, Arabian, and even the Latin 
 and Greek languages, not merely in technical and metaphorical terms, 
 which the mutation of refined arts or improved manners might have 
 incidentally introduced, but in the very groundwork of language 
 in monosyllables in the names of numbers, and the appellations 
 which would be first employed on the immediate dawn of civilisation. 
 Telinga is a dialect of the Sanscrit, in which the word areca is found, 
 it is used by the Brahmins in writing Sancrit, and since to the latter 
 all the other tongues of India are more or less indebted, the term 
 areca, or arrack, may be fairly traced through the different lan 
 guages of the East, so that the general use and application of this 
 word in Asiatic countries cannot appear strange.* To these consi 
 derations may be added, that in Malabar the tree which yields the 
 material from which this oriental beverage is produced is termed 
 areca, and, among the Tongusians, Calmucks, Kirghises, and other 
 hordes, koumiss, in its ardent state, is known by the general term, 
 " Arrack or Rak." Klaproth says, that the Ossetians, (anciently 
 Alans,) a Caucasian people, applied the word " Arak" to denote all 
 distilled liquorsf a decided confirmation of the foregoing observa 
 tions and opinions. 
 
 The distillation of koumiss is generally effected by means of two 
 earthen pots closely stopped, the upper one of which is usually 
 covered with wet clay, the condensed vapour running slowly through 
 a small wooden pipe into a receiver. Some distil it in copper vessels 
 after the manner of the Chinese. The spirit is at first very weak, 
 but generally brought up by a second operation, when greater 
 
 * Vide the Grammar and Dictionary of the Mahratta Language by Dr. Carey ; 
 also the translation of the Laws of Menu, by Sir William Jones, 
 f Asia Polyglotta, p. 89. Hist. Tatars, 8vo. vol. ii. p. 517. 
 
112 
 
 strength is required. Doctor Clarke,* saw this process performed by 
 a still constructed of mud, or very coarse clay, having for the neck 
 of the retort a piece of cane. The simplicity of the operation, the 
 rudeness of the machinery, and the material from which the spirit is 
 drawn, are highly characteristic of its great antiquity. The annexed 
 is a view of a Calmuck still at work, as above described, with a 
 female carrying water to wet the mud on the head of the still and 
 receiver. 
 
 In Iceland, several preparations of milk have been long in 
 common use, such as struig or whey boiled to the consistence of 
 sour milk, and syra, or sour whey fermented in casks, kept and only 
 deemed fit for drinking at the end of a year.f But the Icelanders 
 were unacquainted with the distillation of fermented milk, so that 
 the Tartars appear to be the sole iriventers of this art. Indeed from 
 their pastoral habits and from subsisting chiefly on milk, its intoxi 
 cating qualities would soon be developed ; for, as want and privation 
 lead to many discoveries, and as rural life seeks with avidity what 
 ever enlivens a solitary hour or exhilarates the spirits, the Tartars 
 would naturally seize on those properties afforded by the milk of their 
 flocks and herds to turn them to that account, which would best afford 
 pleasure or banish care. That the method of extracting an intoxi 
 cating drink from milk was long practised by these people, before the 
 
 Travels in Russia, Turkey, and Asia. 
 f Mackenzie s Iceland, 4to. p. loG and 277. 
 
143 
 
 *rt of distillation was known either to the Saracens or Genoese, 
 there cannot be a shadow of doubt. Caprini, De Rubruquis, and 
 Marco Polo everywhere found koumiss and other liquors in abun 
 dance, at a time when the knowledge of distillation in Europe was 
 known only to the learned, and practised as an extraordinary dis 
 covery, while the sale of the spirit was confined to the apothecaries ; 
 it being considered rather as a medicine than a luxury. In their 
 social intercourse, the Tartars have occasional meetings for the pur 
 pose of enjoying the produce of their distillations. Clarke, speaking 
 of theCalmucks, says, that at such times, every one brings his share of 
 brandy and koumiss ; and the whole is placed on the ground in the 
 open air, round which the guests, male and female, seated on the 
 ground, form a circle. One of the party performs the office of cup 
 bearer. The young women all the time chaunt songs of love, or war, 
 fabulous adventures, or heroic achievements ; no one rises, the cup 
 being passed from hand to hand till the whole is consumed, without 
 the least interruption of the harmony, either from inebriety or other 
 wise a fine example of propriety to more civilized nations. Like 
 the Indians of Paraguay, not only the domestic affairs are committed 
 to the women, but like them also, the distilling or manufacturing of 
 intoxicating drink is always under their immediate management, 
 though they indulge not in its abuses. It is customary, both in tap 
 ping the produce of the still and bags of koumiss, to thrust in a tuft 
 of camel s liair tied to the. end of a stick, and when saturated wit i 
 the liquor, to squeeze some of it into the palm of their hands, tako 
 a little, and then scatter it around as an offering to their god : a 
 practice common amongst many hcatlten nations in giving tlie first 
 fruits to the deity. De Rubruquis observed amongst the Tartars a 
 practice in which koumiss was alike rendered sacred, by placing tho 
 image of a deceased friend over Ms tomb with the face towards the 
 East, holding a consecrated drinking-cup before his stomach. 
 At one of these monuments, he saw sixteen horse hides hung 
 on high posts, four towards each cardinal point, with koumiss, or 
 cosmos for the deceased to drink in order to refresh him in his pas 
 sage to the other world. It is usual amongst the Monguls, as a token 
 of respect to a deceased friend, to pour on the ground a libation of 
 koumiss as a peace-offering to the deity. 
 
 In order to obtain milk from the mare, which is usually done three 
 or four times a-day, the foal is generally allowed to be present, from 
 the idea that the dam yields a greater quantity in conseqence, and 
 more readily than if it were absent. For this purpose, the foal i* 
 even allowed fb suck a little from the dam, particularly in rases 
 
144 
 
 where she is refractory. The animal is all the time fastened to a 
 long line between two poles, and to which the foal is likewise secured. 
 This singularity of the mare, yielding her milk freely when the foal 
 is present, is not to be wondered at when it is asserted that the ass 
 gives her milk no longer than the impression of the foal is on her 
 mind : Doctor Hunter proved this by an experiment which shewed 
 that even the skin of the foal thrown over the back of another was 
 sufficient to induce the animal to give her milk without reluctance.* 
 In Scotland, it was formerly a practice to place a Tulchan, or calf s 
 skin stuffed, before a cow that had lost her calf, in order to induce 
 her to part with her milk without opposition.f A reason assigned 
 by the Eluths for preferring mare s milk to that of cow s, is not on 
 account, in their estimation of its being better and richer, but that the 
 latter cannot be so easily procured, because, after the calf is taken 
 away, the cow will not suffer herself to be milked with the same ease 
 and familiarity : hence necessity induced them to employ mare s milk. 
 
 The horse, which is always entire, is allowed to rove in common 
 with the herd, so that a constant succession of breed is kept up 
 and milk is in greater abundance. The faculty in this coun 
 try recommend the milk of the ass as beneficial in pulmonary affec 
 tions, yet it is extraordinary that this milk has never been subjected 
 to the same process as that of the mare amongst the Tartars, and 
 why the milk of the mare has not been tried with us as a specific 
 remedy, in the same manner as that of the ass, has not been explained. 
 The scarcity of brood mares need not be urged as an objection, since 
 the experiment might be made from a singe animal. It is worthy of 
 remark, that Scheele, a Swedish chemist, although he made himself 
 early acquainted with the fermenting powers of this liquid, never 
 seemed to suspect the possibility of extracting a spirit from it. New 
 man, a German, Voltolin, a Hollander, and Macquer, a Frenchman, 
 laboured under nearly similar mistaken notions, conceiving that no 
 spirit could be obtained from milk without the addition of some vege 
 table matter. Doctor Grieve was among the first who determined, by 
 experiment, that milk alone was capable of affording spirits without 
 the admixture of any extraneous or adventitious substance : a secret 
 which, although unknown to us, was familiar for ages to the unculti 
 vated wanderers in the Scythian deserts. 
 
 In almost every country, though milk is resorted to as a nutritious 
 and agreeable beverage, yet some portions of mankind have been 
 found to dislike it. The Cochin-Chinese have an antipathy against 
 
 * Vide Journal of the Royal Institution, No. 2. 
 f Tvanlioe, eliap. xxiii. p. 32 ]. 
 
115 
 
 it, amounting to loathing : they insist that the practice of using it is 
 little better than that of using the blood of the animal. Among some 
 of the tribes on the Zaire, Captain Tuckey observed,* that, although 
 cows were numerous, no use was made of their milk, from some 
 superstitious aversion, arising, perhaps, from notions similar to those 
 of the Cochin Chinese, or some other unaccountable prejudices. Not 
 so in Abyssinia, where the wealth of an individual is estimated by 
 the number of his cattle ; for he is accounted rich who bathes several 
 times a- year in milk, as every man possessing a thousand cows appro 
 priates one day s milk annually to form a bath for his friends. In 
 South America, where cattle are numerous, we do not find that they 
 are domesticated for the same purposes as those to which they are 
 applied by Tartars and Europeans. Nature, however, has been boun 
 tiful in giving to man in every part of the world, necessaries to sup 
 port his wants and gratify his appetites. " We have seen," says 
 Blumenbach, in his Elements of Physiology, " the analogy between 
 vegetables and animals in structure and functions, as well as in 
 elementary and proximate principles. The secretions of both may 
 be innocuous or deleterious. The most remarkable analogy in secre 
 tion respects milk."f In South America, Humboldt saw a tree that, 
 when wounded, yields abundance of rich milk, which the negroes drink 
 and grow fat upon, and which affords a caseous coagulum. The tree 
 grows on the barren rock, has coriaceous dry leaves ; for several 
 months is not moistened by a shower, yet if an incision be made in 
 its trunk, the milk pours forth. This sweet vegetable fountain is 
 most copious at sun-rise, and the natives are then seen hastening from 
 all quarters with bowls to the cow-tree, or palo de vaca, to collect 
 this nourishing fluid. 
 
 . The art of preparing koumiss seems to be familiar or common to 
 all the tribes inhabiting the extensive regions of central Asia. The 
 yowrt of the Turks and thepwta of the Laplanders are but modifica 
 tions of this liquor. That acidulated material in India, called dhy, is 
 found among all the Tartars. In the provinces bordering on Bootan, 
 it is dried in masses till it resembles chalk, and is used mixed in water 
 as a pleasant beverage. The operation of drying the dliy is some 
 times performed by tieing it tight in cloth bags and suspending it 
 under the bellies of horses. Amongst the Calmucks, Khirghises, and 
 other Tartar tribes, the process of distillation is carried on by means 
 of fuel collected from the dry dung of their j^mels, horses, and other 
 
 * Tuckey s Narrative of a Voyage to Explore the River Zaire, 4to p. 111. 
 f Elliotson s Edit. 8vo., p. 508. 
 
 JL 
 
146 
 
 animals, by slaves, whose province it is to gather it, and carry it home to 
 their tents where it is baked into cakes resembling peat or turf: it makes 
 a clear and excellent fire, yielding great heat. A similar mode of 
 obtaining fuel is practised in India. The women follow the herds of 
 horses, sheep and black cattle, and gather the dung, which they carry 
 home in baskets. The dung is formed into cakes of about half an 
 inch thick and nine inches in diameter. The walls of their best 
 houses are frequently stuck round with these cakes. At Seringapa- 
 tarn, numerous females are to be found carrying baskets of this dung 
 for sale. The horses are so numerous in many parts of Tartary, that 
 they are found in herds in a wild state, and some of the tribes procure 
 supplies by means of hawks. These birds are taught to seize upon 
 the head or neck of the animal, and so tease and weary him, that 
 while endeavouring to get rid of his enemy, the hunter approaches 
 and captures him. In the same manner wild sheep are taken, many 
 of whose tails are said to weigh from 20 to 30 pounds. The expert- 
 ness of the Tartars in training falcons or hawks for the chase is such, 
 that it is a standing law among the Mongols subject to China, to fur 
 nish the emperor with a number of these birds every year. 
 
 The milk of the sheep affords a beverage to the Calmucks, Kerghis, 
 and other hordes, to which is given the name of arjan ; it is more a 
 preparation of sour milk than of real koumiss. Besides the drinks 
 already noticed amongst the Tartars, De Rubruquis met with a 
 variety of others, such as wine ; caracina or teracina, a very intoxi 
 cating drink made from rice, very like white wine ; caracosmus^ clear 
 cows milk or clarified whey ; and ball or mead drawn from honey. 
 In the palace of Mangu Khan, he observed a curious artificial tree 
 with various devices, intermingled with branches and leaves, inter 
 twined with golden serpents. This tree contained concealed pipes 
 through which the four kinds of liquor just mentioned flowed in 
 abundance, and at the root or base were four silver lions holding the 
 different liquors, which were supplied from reservoirs outside the 
 palace. On the top of this tree was a figure of an angel with a 
 trumpet sounded by artificial bellows whenever a supply of drink 
 was wanted. As soon as the sound of this trumpet was heard, a 
 man appointed for the purpose poured liquor into the respective 
 pipes, from which it was handed to the guests in waiting. This 
 elegant piece of mechanism shews to what degree of taste and polite 
 ness the Tartar princes had arrived and the luxury which surrounded 
 their tables : they still keep up considerable state, and by those tribes 
 subject to China, the refinements and customs of that country are 
 undeviatingly maintained. Their hospitality, however, is more 
 
147 
 
 extended, for in every Tartar tent there is always a kettle on the 
 fire full of tea, mixed with milk, butter, and salt. Here the weary 
 traveller may at all times freely enter and quench his thirst ; but he 
 must have his own wooden cup, whicli every Mongol carries about 
 him, as an article indispensably necessary. The most esteemed of 
 these cups are brought from Thibet ; the rich generally have them 
 lined with silver. Two kinds of bowls, of a very costly description, 
 are used at their drinking parties. They are richly varnished, and 
 adorned with clouded streaks which give them an elegant appear 
 ance. One of them is composed of yellow wood, and called djamd- 
 jaya ; the other is also of a yellow tinge, and named Kounlar ; both 
 are considered to possess the properties of counteracting the effects of 
 poison. 
 
 Besides the public meetings held at certain periods, all the Tartar 
 tribes have their private and domestic associations, during which they 
 indulge in smoking, drinking, sallies of wit, anecdote, and poetry, 
 descriptive of their exploits in hunting, the swiftness of their steeds, 
 boldness of adventure, commemorating the deeds of their ancestors, 
 or their happy meeting with friends. 
 
 The following Mongol effusion on an occasion of this description, 
 which I have versified, may prove acceptable as a specimen of their 
 ability and genius for poetry : 
 
 How sweet the draught our generous prince bestows, 
 Arrack, than honey sweeter to the taste ; 
 
 Come, let us drink, the sparkling liquor flows ! 
 To cheer the silence of the boundless waste. 
 
 Firm on the plain, our tents in order stand, 
 The flocks or feed, or indolently rove ; 
 
 Our wives, our children, and our friends demand 
 To share the banquet and the smile of love. 
 In social converse, let our hours be pass d ; 
 But no excess be-cloud the cheerful day 
 
 Like shrubs that bend beneath the sweeping blast 
 Are those who drink the strength of life away. 
 
 Past are the steppes,* the arid hills retire 
 Far in the distance, clothed in misty hue ; 
 
 Here pastures green our fondest hopes inspire, 
 And murky scenes no longer cloud the view. 
 
 Since chance has brought us face to face once more, 
 Let us unite to quaff the flowing bowl ; 
 
 What greater joy has life itself in store 
 Than brethren met to mingle soul with soul ? 
 
 * Steppes are, for the most part, extensive elevated regions, found in many of the 
 northern Asiatic districts in sterility, some of them resemble the Desert of Sahara, 
 in Africa, affording scarcely any thing for the subsistence of either man or beast. 
 
H8 
 
 In summer, the men and women of Turkestan assemble under 
 trees to drink, dance, ride on horseback, and play on various musical 
 instruments: at these, and their other festive meetings, wine, arrack, 
 and koumiss, are consumed in abundance. These meetings generally 
 take place after their lent, and when the sacrifices, called oshour, have 
 been offered for the souls of their relations : the fetes, on these occa 
 sions, are termed Nourouz, and are times of great rejoicing. The 
 Jakuti Tartars have many ceremonies and festivals, at which they 
 use a great deal of liquor. At one of these, where animals are sacrificed 
 to idols, they sit in a circle and consume immense quantities of 
 koumiss, and become so intoxicated that they are unable to stir 
 from their positions for a length of time. Quantities of drink 
 are thrown into the air with an unsparing hand, which, they conceive, 
 allay the angry feeling of the offended deity and those spirits which 
 govern the elements. 
 
 Such of the tribes as profess the Mahometan faith, particularly 
 those of Great and Little Bucharia, are forbidden the use of inebriat 
 ing drinks ; but with them, as with their more enlightened neighbours, 
 a want of attachment to the Prophet s precept occasions excesses, ren 
 dered contemptible by the hypocritical arts employed to conceal them. 
 When Eversmann and Jakovlew visited Bucharia in the train of the 
 Russian Embassy in 1821, wine and brandy were consumed in great 
 quantities, chiefly manufactured by the Jews. These people, as well 
 as the Armenians, are permitted to make as much as they please, and 
 to use it in their houses where they may get intoxicated, but they 
 dare not go abroad in that state, lest the Khan would punish them, 
 which lie sometimes does with great severity. An instance of his 
 cruelty in this respect occurred some years ago, in the treatment of a 
 Jewish physician who had got drunk on the occasion of his son s 
 marriage. This gave the Khan such offence that he ordered him to 
 be immediately executed. The Khan is very capricious in his obser 
 vance of this law : sometimes he orders the houses to be searched, 
 and where any liquor is found he causes the owners to be beaten, yet 
 he himself often drinks to excess. The police never venture to 
 examine the houses of the Usbeck officers, though many of them are 
 drunkards, but the poorer sort are strictly watched, and if any of 
 them are detected in the streets of the capital with a bottle, or intoxi 
 cated, they are severely punished, and even sometimes put to death 
 if they had ever before been guilty of a similar offence. The wine 
 of Bucharia is of strong quality, and of greater body than most 
 European wines, being the produce of the richest grapes. Their 
 brandy is made of the lees of the wine or from raisins, is always 
 
149 
 
 rectified, and of a strength equal to West India rum ; it is colourless, 
 and has an empyreumatic taste and flavour. The stills employed are 
 much the same as those used by the Jews in Turkey. 
 
 It was in this part of Asia, that Tamerlane, or Tirnour the Tartar, 
 gave, on the marriage of his six grandsons, the celebrated feast of 
 which so many thousands were partakers, and which conveys to us a 
 knowledge of the liquors then in use. The scene was truly magni 
 ficent : a plain, studded with tents and pavilions, displayed all the 
 grandeur of oriental pomp and magnificence ; forests were cut down 
 for the supply of fuel, pyramids of meat and vases filled with every 
 description of liquor, such as koumiss, oxymel, hippocras, brandy, 
 sirma, sherbet, and wines of various countries, attracted the attention 
 of the voluptuary, and were presented to the guests, on salvers of 
 gold and silver, in cups of agate, crystal and gold, adorned with pearls 
 and jewels. At this banquet, all the subordinate rulers and chiefs of 
 Tartary, together with ambassadors from European courts and 
 envoys from the conquered countries, were assembled ; and the public 
 joy was testified by illuminations and masquerades, a general indul 
 gence was proclaimed, every law was relaxed, every pleasure was 
 allowed, the people were free, and the sovereign presided, a delighted 
 spectator. Pearls and rubies were showered on the heads of the 
 brides and bridegrooms, and left to be collected by their attendants.* 
 At another feast given by a Khan of Tartary, which lasted for seven 
 days, there were consumed daily eight waggon loads of wine, two of 
 brandy, and twenty of koumis, while, during each day, there was a 
 slaughter of three hundred horses, as many cows, and a thousand 
 sheep. But, how are the mighty fallen ! those states which were once 
 governed by the gigantic powers of a Tamerlane, are now dwindled 
 into insignificance, and the intellect of their rulers, narrowed by the 
 barbarism which surrounds them, is unable or unwilling to encourage 
 the growth of science, or the progress of arts. 
 
 Wherever rice or any other kind of grain is cultivated in Tartary, 
 the fermenting process is not unknown : in the same manner, the 
 virtues of the grape are not allowed to remain unnoticed by the most 
 ignorant of the hordes, since wine is familiar throughout a large portion 
 of this extensive region. The beer to be met with is, for the most 
 part, of indifferent quality ; that brewed from barley and millet by the 
 Turkestans, termed baksoum, more resembles water boiled with rice 
 than beer. They admire it, and affirm that it is an invaluable remedy 
 for dysentery : it is of an acid taste without smell, has little of an 
 
 * Vide Gibbon s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 
 
150 
 
 intoxicating 1 quality, and keeps but a short time. Such of the grain as 
 they distil, is put into a vessel carefully covered, and, after being 
 allowed to run into a slight state of acetous fermentation, it is put into 
 the still and drawn off at a good strength, under the usual name of 
 arrack. 
 
 The Turkestans have various beverages, among which is an excel 
 lent cooling drink obtained from melons. This fruit is of the finest 
 description, and so large as to be from three to four feet in circum 
 ference ; every part of it, except the rind and seed, is equally good 
 for eating and of a most agreeable flavour. The melons are fre 
 quently sent to a great distance, even so far as St. Petersburg : those 
 of Khorassan are sent to Ispahan, the capital of Persia, for the use of 
 the monarch, a journey of thirty days ; and melons are conveyed 
 from Agra to Surat, a distance of nearly 700 miles, by pedestrians, in 
 baskets hung at the extremities of a pole carried on the shoulders, at 
 the rate of seven or eight leagues a day. The emperor Babas says, 
 that he shed tears over a melon of Turkestan, which he cut up in 
 India, after his conquest, its flavour having brought his native country 
 and other tender associations to his recollection. The value of this 
 fruit was in such high estimation, that it is related of Aly Sultan, that 
 he caused a soldier, who had taken two melons from the field of a 
 planter, to be hanged on the spot where he committed the theft. 
 
 Before quitting the subject of Tartary, it may be proper to observe 
 that the Mantchoos who conquered China, and whose descendants still 
 hold the sovereignty of that empire, prepare a wine of a very peculiar 
 nature from the flesh of lambs, either by fermenting it, reduced to a 
 kind of paste, with the milk of their domestic animals, or bruising it 
 to a pulpy substance with rice. When properly matured, it is put 
 into jars, and then drawn off as occasion requires. It has the 
 character of being strong and nourishing, and it is said that their 
 most voluptuous orgies consist in getting drunk with it. Whatever 
 remains, after the supply of domestic wants, is exported into China or 
 Corea, under the name of lamb wine.* Gerbillon says, that the rich 
 Mongols leave mutton to ferment with their sour milk before they 
 distil it. This explains the mystery of the spirit said to be made 
 from the flesh of sheep by the Tartars in China, of which it has been 
 said the emperors have been so fond. 
 
 During the sojourn of Michailow among the Kiwenses, he saw 
 them prepare a drink called bursa from a description of berries 
 termed psak, which much resembled dates. This liquor was made 
 
 * The Natural and Civil Hist, of Tonquin, by the Abbe Rickard. 
 
151 
 
 by boiling the berries, pressing out the kernels, and filtering the 
 juice the fermentation followed, and was so rapid that it became 
 highly intoxicating, and fit for use the morning after it was made. 
 He says that two cups of it inebriated him as much as if he had 
 drunk an equal quantity of brandy ; and that its qualities were so 
 fascinating that the more he drank, the more he was inclined to drink- 
 The Khirghises and Karakalpaks are fond of it, and, when a supply of 
 berries can be obtained, they frequently indulge to excess. From the 
 strong likeness of these berries to dates, it is not improbable but that 
 the bursa is the ancient date wine mentioned in Scripture and so 
 celebrated along the banks of the Euphrates as well as in other parts 
 of Asia, and is perhaps the same as that which was brought in skins 
 down the Tigris and Euphrates to Babylon. Notwithstanding the 
 prohibition of Mahometanism and the strictness of Budhism, the love 
 for intoxicating liquors is so prevalent in Tartary, that some of the 
 northern tribes not only barter their cattle with foreign merchants, 
 but even part with their children for the trifling consideration of 
 tobacco and spirits. Such is the degradation to which the absence 
 of true religion and the refinements of education has reduced so many 
 of our fellow creatures! 
 
 In extending our views to India, we are led to contemplate an 
 immense portion of our species as existing at a remote period, in a 
 very advanced state of civilisation, successfully cultivating the arts 
 and sciences, and spreading their renown to distant nations. Although 
 some of the wisest philosophers of Greece, viz. Pythagoras, Anax- 
 archus, Pyrrho,]and others, visited that country and returned enriched 
 by the wisdom of its sages,* yet the early arts of these nations still 
 remain unknown. Since, however, we are assured, that they were 
 proficients in metallurgy, the manufacture of sugar, indigo, dyeing, 
 embroidery, working in ivory, engraving on precious gems and 
 stones, in the production of the loom and needle, in mechanics, 
 architecture, astronomy, and mathematics, ! it is natural to infer that 
 they must have been early acquainted with the composition of some 
 kind of intoxicating beverage ; drink being indispensable in tropical 
 climates. 
 
 In the Padma Puran, a sacred book of India, there is sufficient 
 evidence that fermented liquors were invented in the days of Noah ; 
 .and the story of Satyavarnmn having become intoxicated with mead, 
 and in that state discovered by his three sons, Shema, Charma, and 
 
 * Hist Phil, vol i. p. 51. 
 
 f Asiatic Researches, vol. iv. p. 33, 34. 
 
152 
 
 lya peti, is but another version of the relation contained in the 9th 
 chap, of Genesis respecting Noah and his three sons.* 
 
 According to the mythology of the Hindoos, their deities are said 
 to have drunk at their feasts a liquor termed amruti, in the same 
 manner as the Grecian deities drank their ambrosia ; so that by attri 
 buting to their gods a passion for exhilarating drink, they alluded to 
 an origin anterior to any human record. 
 
 What the early drinks of the people of India were, there is no 
 correct account) but, as sugar was in extensive use, it is likely that it 
 formed a principal ingredient of their liquors. The raw juice of the 
 cane from its palatable nature, was first made use of; afterwards it 
 was boiled, and, in process of time, its inebriating properties were 
 developed by fermentation. 
 
 Sugar is supposed to have been one of the articles forming the pre 
 sents made by the queen of Sheba to king Solomon ; as fine sugar is 
 to this day sent as a present to the Grand Seignior by the Egyp 
 tians, in the same manner as Jacob sent honey to a viceroy of 
 Pharaoh. Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander, is said to have been 
 the first who brought any information respecting sugar into Europe ; 
 and although the Arabians cultivated the sugar-cane and supplied 
 the city of Rome with its produce, yet it is well known that they 
 were indebted to the orientals for it, as well as for the knowledge of 
 its manufacture. Soukar, or, Sukhir, the Arabic term for sugar, 
 etymologists say, comes from the Hebrew word siker, which signifies 
 an intoxicating liquor ; and it is remarkable that this Hebrew term is 
 translated in nineteen instances in our Scriptures as implying strong 
 drink. Some philologists say, that gur, both in the ancient and 
 modern languages of India, signifies raw sugar , and that Sarcara is 
 the term applied to it in its manufactured state. 
 
 From the middle syllable of the Sanscrit word ich-sucasa, it is 
 alleged that the Arabic name for sugar is derived, and there seems 
 to be good grounds for this inference, as the Sanscrit suca, the Hebrew 
 siker, the Greek sikera, the Persian shukker, the Indian sukur> the 
 German sucker, the Dutch suiker, the Danish sukker, the Swedish 
 soccer, the French sucre, and the English sugar, appear to have one 
 common origin, if we judge from orthography, pronounciation, and 
 acceptation. 
 
 But although the Arabians were the first who wrote of sugar 
 extracted from the sugar-cane, which they called honey of cane ; yet 
 it is not to be inferred, that to them other nations were indebted for a 
 
 * Vide Sir William Jones s Works. 
 
153 
 
 knowledge of its uses, or the conversion of it into an intoxicating 
 liquor. Lucan mentions an Eastern nation, in alliance with Pompey, 
 that used this liquor as a common drink. Quintus Curtius, in his life 
 of Alexander the Great, states, that at the time of the invasion of 
 India by that monarch, the natives made use of a sort of wine which 
 is supposed to have been no other than toddy, or the unfermented 
 juice of cocoa-nut. Nearchus in his Periplus* mentions an island 
 called Oigana or Wroct, now Kismis, which was abundant in vines 
 and palm-trees. The latter name it obtained from a grape, called 
 kismis, peculiar to it to this day. Doctor Vincent, the translator of 
 the Periplus, says, that at that time, a great trade was carried on in 
 Arabian and Syrian wines ; but the former, he thinks, was palm or 
 toddy wine : of this there can be little doubt, from the great abun 
 dance of that wine in use amongst the Arabians, it being an article of 
 commerce with them from a remote period, previous to the era of the 
 Hegira. The people of Hindostan dealt largely in the importations, 
 and their acquaintance with a variety of native drinks shews the 
 extent to which they had arrived in their manufacture. From the 
 Institutes of Menu,f we learn that the inebriating liquors of the 
 Hindoos may be considered as of three principal sorts ; one extracted 
 from dregs of sugar, another from bruised rice, and a third from the 
 flowers of the Madhuca tree. The latter, which is better known by 
 the name of Mahwah, has afforded materials for distillation from time 
 immemorial ; and in India, when first visited by Europeans, the 
 inhabitants were found in possession of the art of extracting a spirit 
 from its flowers. Now, it, may be asked, how could they have 
 acquired this art from the Arabians, a people prohibited, even before 
 the name of the Saracens became so eminent, from using the mildest 
 intoxicating liquors ? Some, however, think that distillation was not 
 known to the inhabitants of India before their intercourse with the 
 Saracens, and that their drinks were mere extracts procured by com 
 pression and fermentation ; but why the era of the introduction of 
 distillation into India should be settled at the commencement of the 
 Saracen ascendancy, is not only unaccountable, but at variance with 
 the historic records respecting the knowledge and acquirements of 
 the Eastern nations ; and is purely attributable to that prejudice which 
 gives the invention to the Saracens. The trade of the East, which 
 had continued long in the hands of the Egyptians, was, in 640, trans 
 ferred to the Saracens by the Caliph Omar. It is therefore more 
 natural to infer that the Saracens had received, through the Egyptians, 
 
 * Periplus, part i. p. 58. f Chap xi. Inst. 95. 
 
154 
 
 a knowledge of the use of the still from the inhabitants of India, 
 than that they, themselves, had been in possession of the art to which 
 the genius of their religion was so directly opposed, because it is 
 certain from the researches of Sir William Jones, that the Hindoos 
 were acquainted with all the chemical arts which were said to have 
 been invented by the Egyptians, apparently before the latter had even 
 acquired the rank or title of a civilized people. The expedition of 
 Osiris to India, where it is said he reigned 52 years, and established 
 many Egyptian colonies, joined to the conquests of Sesostris, furnishes 
 proofs that the Egyptians had an early intercourse with India. 
 When Cambyses invaded Egypt, it is well known that many of the 
 inhabitants fled to India, as a country with which they were familiar. 
 It is also asserted, that in the time of Solomon and during the Trojan 
 war, the Egyptian and Phoenician fleets, as well as those of the 
 Hebrews, visited India and traded thither ; so that there must have 
 been a reciprocal interchange of such arts, sciences, and manufactures 
 as were at that time known to the world. To use the expressive 
 language of Doctor Robertson, " what now is in India always was 
 there and is likely still to continue neither the ferocious violence 
 and illiberal fanatacism of its Mahometan conquerors, nor the power 
 of its European masters, have effected any considerable altera 
 tion. The same distinctions of condition take place ; the same arrange 
 ments in civil and domestic society remain ; the same maxims of reli 
 gion are held in veneration, and the same sciences and arts are 
 cultivated.*" 
 
 Wine being, among the Mussulmans, a prohibited article, no com 
 merce could be carried on by them in that commodity. The Indians, 
 however, continued to manufacture wines from various substances 
 and under different names. The chief of these was the Tari, or the 
 fermented juice of the palmyra tree, procured from the Borassus 
 flabelliformis of Linnseus, the Tal or Tar of Bengal, and the Panna- 
 maram of the Tamuls. In some parts of India, this tree grows 
 spontaneously ; in others, it is cultivated with great care. When 
 planted in a fertile soil, and of thirty years growth, it yields, according 
 to Buchannan, callu or palm wine, from the llth of January to the 
 llth of June. One active man is considered competent to manage 
 forty trees. Previous to the bursting of the membrane which covers 
 the flowering branch, called by botanists the spatha or spadix, the 
 workman mounts the tree by means of a strap passed round his back^ 
 and a rope round his feet, and bruises the part between two flat 
 
 * Robertson s Ancient India, Appendix, p. 152. 
 
155 
 
 pieces of stick ; this is done for three successive mornings, and on 
 each of the four following ones he cuts a thin slice from the top to 
 prevent the spatlia from bursting. On the eighth morning, a clear 
 sweet liquor begins to flow from the wound, which is collected in a 
 pot suspended for that purpose. A good tree will discharge daily 
 about three quarts of juice, which, if intended for drinking, will keep 
 three days ; in the fourth, it becomes sour, and what is not sold or 
 drunk is distilled into arrack. This exudation, if continued for three 
 years, will kill the tree ; which, however, is generally considered as 
 yielding more profit in this way, than if preserved for the sake of its 
 nuts or for any other purpose. As there are different species of 
 palm trees, there is a diversity of quality in their respective produce, 
 which have accordingly distinct appellations among the natives; but to 
 all of which the English apply the general name of Toddy, a corruption 
 of the Mussulman common term Tart. The wild date (Elate Sylves- 
 tris) the Mahometans call Sinday ; in the Carnatic language, Hinda ; 
 and in the Telinga and Tamul dialects, callu. This latter term 
 signifies thief, on account of its stealing away the senses. The Sinday 
 is never drunk till after fermentation, which is soon effected by the 
 influence of the sun, and then the liquor is exceedingly intoxicating. 
 When distilled and rectified, it affords a good spirit. Toddy is con 
 sidered as a cooling and extremely wholesome beverage, operating on 
 some constitutions as a gentle cathartic. European soldiers use it in 
 large quantities when they cannot get arrack, and render it more 
 potent, according to Captain Mundy, by the addition of chillies.* In 
 some parts of India, whole woods of the cocoa-tree are set apart for 
 the purpose of procuring toddy, and the saccharine quality of the 
 fluid is so great as to produce a yeast or barm, similar to that obtained 
 from our malt worts. In the pots intended to receive juice to be boiled 
 mtojaggory, (a kind of sugar to which it is occasionally converted,) a 
 little quick lime is put to prevent fermentation, or absorb any acidity 
 which might arise, and the juice must be boiled the same day on which 
 it is taken from the tree. Twelve trees, on an average, daily fill a 
 pot, which, when boiled down, gives six gallons of jaggory. In some 
 places, the tori is used oidy for drinking ; but where it is very plenti 
 ful, it is made into jaggory ; and the poor people use it as a substitute 
 for that extracted from the sugar-cane. Forbes says, that three 
 quarts of the tari produce a pound of sugar .f 
 
 It is stated, that the wild date tree, from which toddy is extracted, 
 
 * Pen and Pencil Sketches of India. f Oriental Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 452. 
 
156 
 
 was formerly very abundant in the dominions of the late Tippoo 
 Sultan, who, observing that his subjects frequently debased them 
 selves with tari, commanded all the trees to be cut down, and in 
 places near the capital the order was strictly executed.* He even 
 attempted the absolute prohibition of spirituous liquors. 
 
 The order of Tippoo to destroy the palm tree is very extraordinary, 
 as this tree has been held in great estimation, from the most remote 
 period, both in Asia and Africa; while the followers of Mahomet 
 believe it to be peculiar to those favoured countries in which his 
 religion is professed, notwithstanding the prohibition in the Alcoran 
 of the use of intoxicating drinks. " Honour the palm tree" says a 
 Mahometan writer, " for she is your father s aunt," because, says he, 
 "this tree was formed from the remainder of the clay from which 
 Adam was created." Thus it would seem to have been considered 
 a distinguished inhabitant of paradise, and a rival of the vine in its 
 use and excellence. 
 
 Heber tells us that the vine seemed to thrive well in some of those 
 parts of India which he visited, and that the plants looked beautiful, 
 but were not sufficiently trimmed, at least so close as to render them 
 productive.! 
 
 When Fitch, a London merchant, was in India, in 1583, he found 
 the people well versed in the making of palm wine and its distilla 
 tion. In 1644, Bennin met with arrack as a drink very familiar j 
 and mentions a liquor called bouleponge, made of arrack, black sugar, 
 juice of lemon, water, and a little muscadine. Sir Thomas Roe, who 
 visited the Great Mogul, from the court of James the I., found pal- 
 miso wine and cocoa milk in current use ; and at that time, the 
 people appeared to be well acquainted with wine and various other 
 sorts of drink. The cups, then in use, were of massive gold set with 
 the most brilliant gems. These were usually handed to the visiter 
 on a plate of the same metal : the one presented to Sir Thomas was 
 adorned with about 2000 precious stones, and the gold of it weighed 
 about twenty ounces. It was customary in those times to mix pearls 
 and precious gems witli wine and other strong drink. A present of 
 this kind was offered to Mr. Burnes, during his late tour through 
 India, by Runjeet Sing, a native prince. 
 
 In India, the sugar-cane is cultivated to a great extent. In the 
 whole range from Decca to Delhi, says Heber, and thence through 
 
 * Buchanan s Journey through the Mysore, vol. i. p. 56. 
 
 f Heber s Narrative of a Journey thro the Upper Provinces of India, 2 vols. 4 to. 
 
157 
 
 the greater part of Rajpootana and Malwah, the raising of sugar is 
 as usual a part of husbandry as that of turnips or potatoes in England ; 
 and sugar is prepared in every form except the loaf. 
 
 It was a practice among the Mogul monarchs, when in the splen 
 dour of power, to have their elephants, usually amounting to 5000, 
 fed on sugar and arrack. The Punjabee chiefs still feed their horses 
 on sugar, and these animals are very spirited, and do not agree with 
 any other food.* 
 
 The jaggory, which is extracted from the sugar-cane, and from 
 which the greater part of the native rum is manufactured, is thus 
 procured. The canes are cut into pieces six inches long, and bruised 
 in a mill ; the juice which flows from them is strained through a 
 cotton cloth into a boiler, to which is added a certain quantity of 
 lime water. When the evaporation has reduced it to a proper con 
 sistence, it is put into a large pot to cool, then poured into a mould 
 having a hundred holes, each in shape of a quadrilateral inverted 
 pyramid. The frame being turned over, the balls fall out, and after 
 being placed on leaves for a day, are exposed for sale, at a price 
 varying from six to twelve shillings the hundred weight. Thus 
 jaggory appears to contain both sugar and molasses, and resembles 
 the product, which in Jamaica comes out of the cooler before it is 
 taken to the curing house, being a little more inspissated, and requir 
 ing about 37 gallons to the hundred weight. Heber, during his 
 perigrination through the upper provinces, observed a very simple 
 description of a machine for extracting sugar from the cane. It con 
 sisted of a large vat under ground, covered with a stout platform, in 
 the centre of which was a wooden cylinder, apparently the hollowed 
 stump of a tree. In this was a strong piece of timber fixed as in a 
 socket, turned round by a beam, to which two oxen were fastened. 
 Behind the oxen, a man sat thrusting in pieces of cane, about a foot 
 long, between the upright timber and its socket. These being 
 crushed by the action of the timbers, the juice ran down into a vat 
 below.j Stones would be preferable to this mode of grinding, on 
 the principle of a common mill ; but they cannot be procured thereof 
 a durable and proper quality: hence the article produced in the 
 remote provinces is of a coarse description. The profit of jaggory 
 either from the cane or the palm is equally divided between the farmer 
 and the goverment. From palms alone, a considerable revenue is 
 raised, the regulations for which differ in different districts. In one 
 
 Jacquemont s Letters from India, vol. ii. p. 215. 
 f Heber s Narrative vol. ii. p 252. 
 
158 
 
 place, when a person plants a garden, the trees are considered as his 
 property, he paying one half of the produce to the state ; in another, 
 they are let in lots at the rate of 40 per annum. Those are again 
 farmed to some of the inferior villagers, who extract and distil the 
 juices. Could the jaggory from the sugar cane, observes Buchanan, 
 be generally converted either into a palatable spirituous liquor or 
 into sugar, the barren plains of the Carnatic might be rendered pro 
 ductive. The former suggestion appears to be not impracticable, and 
 deserves attention in the way of experiment. If it should answer, 
 the whole of the grain distilled in Europe might be saved for food.* 
 On the same principle, Heber is of opinion that almost the whole of 
 the Deccan might be cultivated with vines ; and that it would be wise 
 in the British government to encourage a speculation of that kind, 
 were it only for the purpose of obtaining a better beverage for the 
 troops than the brandy now in use.f The grapes of Nusseerabad 
 are said to equal those of Shiraz, and the vineyards there are become 
 famous all over India : a sufficient encouragement to make the plan 
 tation of the vine more general in that quarter. Such speculations 
 would be well repaid by the employment of so vast a population as 
 occupy those regions: 
 
 Throughout the Carnatic, the distillation of rum or brandy is car 
 ried on by a particular caste ; and the process observed in some of 
 the provinces is described as follows. From the Topala, (Mimosa 
 leucophlea,) a tree common in the country, the bark is taken and cut 
 into chips, of which about four pounds are added to the twenty -four 
 pounds and quarter of sugar-cane jaggory, with a quantity of water 
 equal to twice the bulk of this sweet substance. The mixture is made 
 in an earthen jar kept in the shade ; the fermentation, commencing in 
 about twenty -four hours, is completed on the twelfth day, when the 
 liquor is distilled by means of the following apparatus : The body of 
 the still (a a a) is a strong earthen jar, capable of containing three 
 times the bulk of the materials. On this is luted with cow-dung a 
 copper head (b b b) having on the inside a gutter (c c) for collecting 
 the vapour that has been condensed into spirit by a constant small 
 stream of water, which falls on the head at (f). This water is conveyed 
 away by the pipe (g), while the spirit is conducted into ajar by the pipe 
 (d). The mode of condensing the spirit is very rude; and the liquor, whicli 
 is never rectified by a second distillation, is execrable. The natives allege 
 that the bark of the Topala, which is very insipid to the taste, is 
 
 * Buchanan, vol. i. p. 6. f Heber, vol. iii. p. 123. 
 t Buchanan, vol. i. p. 39, 
 
159 
 
 useful, by diminishing the too great sweetness of the jaggery. "To 
 me, however," observes Buchanan, " it appears to be rather of use, by 
 regulating the fermentation, which in such a warm climate would be 
 apt to run suddenly into the acetous."* 
 
 In the first volume of the Asiatic Researches, there is a description 
 of a method of distillation practised at Chatra, in Ramgur, and other 
 provinces in India, differing but little from that now described. 
 Through the kindness of a gentleman for some years resident in that 
 quarter, I have been favoured with the drawing of a still, which with 
 the section of that used in the Mysore district, as above described, is 
 subjoined. 
 
 When the material for distilling, whether rice, molasses, or the 
 simple fermented juice of the cocoa-nut tree, is ready, a hole is dug 
 in the earth suited to the size of the still or jar to be employed ; and 
 level with the bottom of this hole there is an underground commu 
 nication made for the purpose of feeding the fire with atmospheric 
 air ; near the edge of the hole a chimney is erected, which serves as 
 well for the supply of fuel, as for the discharge of smoke. A fire of 
 dry wood is first kindled in the pit, and, when the ground is thoroughly 
 heated,* the still is fixed in it, and so bound round with earth, that 
 
 * This idea was probably taken from the ancient mode of baking bread in the 
 East. Instead of what we call ovens, they dug a hole in the ground, in which 
 they placed a kind of earthen pot, and to its interior surface, when sufficiently 
 heated, thin cakes were stuck and speedily done. 
 
160 
 
 no heat can escape. When the jar begins to boil, and the steam to 
 ascend, an Indian with a pot or kettle pours a gentle stream of water 
 upon the head of the still already described, or on the broad and thin 
 surface of a plate of tin or copper (Avith a gutter for the water to run 
 off, represented above), which is fixed on a pan, with a hole in the 
 bottom, luted to the neck of the still, and serving as a condenser. 
 The extreme cold excited by the evaporation of the water on so 
 broad a surface, occasions the vapour from the still to be immediately 
 condensed, and to run in a trickling stream into the receiver. 
 
 Maria Graham, in her Journal of a residence in India, thus des 
 cribes the working of a native still, which she had an opportunity of 
 observing. The still, says she, was simply constructed. Round a 
 hole in the earth, a ledge of clay, four inches high, was raised with an 
 opening about half a foot wide, for the purpose of feeding the fire. 
 Upon the clay a large earthen pot was luted ; to its mouth was luted 
 the mouth of a second pot ; and where they joined, an earthen spout, 
 a few inches long, was inserted, which served to let off the spirit 
 condensed in the upper jar, which was kept cool by a person pouring 
 water constantly over it. When she went into the cottage, or still- 
 house, she found a woman sitting with a child on one arm, and with 
 the other she was cooling the still, by pouring water on it from a 
 cocoa-nut shell ladle. The woman informed her that she sat at her 
 occupation from sunrise to sunset without scarcely a change of posi 
 tion ; and while they were talking, her husband entered the cottage 
 laden with toddy for distilling. He was a bandari, or toddy -gatherer. 
 On his head was the common gardener s bonnet, resembling in shape 
 the cap seen on the statues and gems of Paris, and from his girdle 
 were suspended the implements of his trade.* 
 
 fin 1782, two gentlemen, named Crofts and Lennox, constructed a 
 distillery at Sooksagur, near Calcutta, at which spirituous liquors were 
 distilled in the European manner, and with all the improvements of 
 the day. As these spirits were applied to all the purposes of Batavia 
 arrack, the establishment was found to be of much benefit to the 
 province of Bengal.f If such undertakings were encouraged by the 
 East India Company, they would not only be a means of enrich 
 ing individuals, but a source of considerable revenue, particularly 
 in a country where there are such abundance of fruits and grain 
 of every description, and where the population, exclusive of Euro 
 peans, is estimated at 110,000,000; only ten millions of which 
 
 * Foster s Journey from Bengal to England. 
 
 f Journal of a Residence in India, 4to p. 25 and 2C. 
 
16J 
 
 are Mahometans, who are not more strict in the observance of 
 their religious duties than their brethren of the Ottoman empire. 
 The Hindoos, it is well known, although forbidden to use ardent 
 spirits, are not more abstemious in that respect than the natives 
 of other countries. They account brandy an infallible medicine, 
 and, under that impression, frequently rub their joints with this 
 panacea. Even the Brahmins, whose ordinary drink should be water, 
 sometimes run the risk of a loss of caste for an indulgence in 
 the use of intoxicating liquors. Like the Turks, they drink in 
 secret, and like them take every precaution to avoid detection ; but 
 their hypocrisy is sometimes discovered, to the no small amusement of 
 their neighbours. From Heber, we learn that, in opposition to their 
 respective religious creeds, both the Hindoos and the Indian Maho 
 metans are great drunkards ;* though, according to Hamilton, the 
 civil as well as the ecclesiastical law forbids the use of wine and all 
 distilled liquors. Duboisf relates an anecdote of a Brahmin 
 in the village of Tanjore, whose house took fire, and he being the 
 only person of that caste in the place, the inhabitants flocked from all 
 quarters to assist in the removal of his effects ; but what was their 
 astonishment, when, among other things, they discovered a large jar 
 half full of arrack, with which this luxurious disciple of Vishnu had 
 been in the habit of regaling. Tennant says that he, himself heard 
 a Hindoo confess that he was drunk, who did not seem to be deserted 
 by his companions on account of that misdemeanour. Notwith 
 standing the weakness of some, the Brahmins of high caste are very 
 scrupulous in taking wine. Heber found much difficulty in con 
 quering the doubts of two of them who refused taking physic when 
 dangerously ill, for fear of its being mixed with wine, declaring they 
 would rather die than taste it. Intoxication amongst the natives is not 
 common, but at the time of the Hoolee, or Hindoo carnival, the people 
 of central India indulge in all kinds of riot and festivity, and men 
 may be there seen inebriated, as in other parts of the world, on similar 
 occasions. 
 
 For what object laws were enacted in the East prohibitory of the 
 use of all kinds of spirituous or intoxicating liquors, has not been 
 explained on any civil or religious principle, whether for the sake of 
 health, temperance, or morality. It is, however, a curious fact, that 
 amidst the numerous class of gods in the Indian mythology, there 
 is none to correspond with Bacchus, except Suraderi, the goddess of 
 wine, who arose, say the Hindoos, from the ocean when it was 
 
 " Narrative, vol. iii. p. 26 7. 
 
 f Manners and Customs of the People of India. 4 to. 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 churned with the mountain Mandar ; a notion which seems to indicate 
 that the Indians came from a country in which wine was anciently 
 made, and considered as a blessing ; though the dangerous effects of 
 intemperance induced their early legislators to prohibit the use of all 
 spirituous liquors.* Picart says, the most probable reason that can 
 be given for the prohibition of wine is the high sense entertained for 
 virtue by some ancient Brahmins, who had the greatest aversion to 
 any thing that might contribute to plunge them into irregularities, or 
 disorder the senses. They considered that drink as highly pernicious 
 which would extinguish a man s reason, and therefore found them 
 selves obliged to inspire the people whom they governed with similar 
 sentiments. f 
 
 The manufacture of arrack in India is carried on extensively ; a 
 fine description is distilled at Goa, from the Toddy of the cocoa-nut 
 trees which grow abundantly in the neighbourhood. It is sold in 
 casks of 21 gallons each, and the price differs according to its quality ; 
 but it is for the most part cheap. An idea of the importance of the 
 arrack trade may be formed from the following account of the imports 
 and exports of this article from part of the territory of Tippoo 
 Sultan and other districts : 
 
 In 1797. In 1798. In 1799. 
 
 Leagers. Gallons. Leagers. Gallons. Leagers. Gallons. 
 Imported from 
 
 Colombo 16 75 210 10 75 
 
 Batavia 73 32 1 1 
 
 Cochin 42 97 12 25 43 
 
 Anjengo 25 11 23 128 
 
 Canara 2 3 
 
 Exported in 1797, 20 18 25 28 12 
 
 Imported by sea, from 1st January to 31st December, 1799, into 
 the Pye Nada District, viz. : 
 
 Arrack, 485 canad. Cochin arrack, 4 leagers. Country arrack, 4 leagers. 
 96^ leagers, 4 pipes, 1 1 pipes. 
 
 31 casks, 2 casks, 392 canad. 
 
 15 kegs, 92 bottles, 
 
 17^ cases, Cohimbo arrack 16^ leagers, Rum, . . . 2 chests. 
 
 5 jars, 5 casks, 20 cases. 
 
 21 pipes, 4 kegs, Gin, . . 37 do. 
 
 Brandy, . 14 dozen, 7 pipes, 
 
 2 casks, 1 5,000 bottles, 
 
 29 cases, 
 
 Exported in 1799 and 1800, from the above district : 
 
 Arrack, 36|- leagers, Rum, 4 pipes, 4 casks Arrack. 
 
 16 kegs, 1 chest, 2 chests brandy. 
 150 bottles, Rum, shrub, 2 boxes, Col. Arrack, 15 leagers. 
 
 Brandy, 7 chests, 30 gallons.; 
 
 Gin, 53 cases, Gin, 10 chests. 
 
 * Vide An Essay on the gods of Greece, Italy, and India, in the Asiatic 
 Researches, vol. i. p. 250. 
 
 f Picart s Religious Ceremonies, vol. iii, p. 274. 
 
163 
 
 The value of the wine and spirits imported from the eastern islands 
 into the ports of Bengal, Fort St. George, and Bombay, from 1814 
 to 1818, amounted to 1,359,884 rupees.* And of the same articles 
 it has been computed that a quantity valued at not less than 9,196,221 
 rupees, had been imported into those places from the united kingdom.f 
 In the six years ending 5th January, 1820, the free trading ships appear 
 to have imported into all parts of India, of beer and ale, 6,282,214 
 gallons, valued at 535,358 8s. 5d. ; of British spirits, 24,808^ 
 gallons, valued at 16,997 5s. ; of foreign spirits, 907,255 gallons, 
 valued at 195,937 Is. Id. ; and of wines 1,351,365 gallons, valued 
 at 375,379 9s. Id.J The Company s ships imported of beer and 
 ale from 1814 to 1818, 291 hogsheads, valued at 2057. From 
 China, 98,099 rupees worth of wine and spirits, exclusive of the 
 Company s trade, were also imported into Bengal, Fort St. George, 
 and Bombay, during that time ;|| while the export of wine and spirits 
 from those places to the eastward and other islands in the same period 
 stands as follows : 
 
 In 1814-15, to the value of 425,436 rupees. 
 
 1815-16, do. 293,720 do. 
 
 1816-17, do. 217,354 do. 
 
 1817-18, do. 267,654 do. 
 
 In 1810 were exported from Calcutta to Rangoon, 3,000 gallons of 
 rum alone ;f and from 1815 to 1818, there were 794 pipes of Madeira 
 wine, valued at 19,290 sicca rupees, and other liquors to the 
 amount of 4,840 rupees, carried from this quarter by American 
 traders.** For further information the reader is referred to the table 
 of imports given in this work at the conclusion of the observations on 
 the spirit trade of China. A very considerable commerce is carried on, 
 through different parts of India, in the article of jaggory, or native sugar, 
 and the imports and exports of it in the Mysore prove highly advanta- 
 geous.ff The distillation of the flowers of the Mahwah or Madhuca 
 tree (bassa latifolia,) affords a branch of important trade. The 
 people of Bahar make a strong spirit from them, which they sell so 
 
 * Parliamentary Report, No. 476, p. 316. The intrinsic value of the Bengal 
 sicca rupee is 24d. 566; Madras rupee, 23d. 247 ; and of the Bombay rupee, 23d 
 004, the common or average value of which is 23d. 606 ; but to avoid fractions, say 
 2s. the rupee. 
 
 f Vide Report, p. 238 and 239. J Ibid. p. 32225. 
 
 Ibid., p. 336. || Ibid. p. 240. 
 
 ^[ Franklin s Tracts on the Dominions of Ava, 8vo. 1811. 
 
 ** Parliamentary Report, p. 345. 
 
 ft For a more particular account of these matters, see Buchanan s Journey 
 through the countries of the Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, 3 vols. 4to, 
 
164 
 
 very cheap, that upwards of an English pint may be purchased for one 
 half-penny, and the most seasoned drunkard can intoxicate himself for 
 that sum.* The tree is nearly the size of an oak, which it strongly 
 resembles ; its flowers fall towards the end of February, the juice of 
 which is fermented and used in various ways. The part chosen from 
 which to collect the juice, is the calix or bulb that supports the petals, 
 which are of a pale pink colour. When dried, it resembles a small 
 raisin both in appearance ami flavour, and tastes like that of Malaga. 
 The flowers of the Mahwah differ considerably from those of every 
 other tree, bearing a striking likeness to berries, and falling spontane 
 ously as they ripen. They are then gathered and dried in the sun. 
 Vast quantities of those flowers are consumed during the Hoolee, or 
 great Indian carnival, and are conveyed in common with grain and 
 other commodities, and sold in various parts of India. Besides their 
 inebriating qualities, they form a considerable portion of the sustenance 
 of the wilder tribes of the Bheels, who, as well as the low castes of 
 Rajpoots, distil them into arrack. The Bengalese also manufacture 
 from them a good spirit. The flowers, whether eaten dressed or raw, 
 are good nutritive food ; and from them is expressed a kind of oil 
 resembling ghee, or clarified butter, with which it is often mixed. 
 This oil is frequently burned in lamps, and applied as a salve in cuta 
 neous diseases. A more extensive cultivation of the Mahwah could 
 not fail of being attended with many advantages in different parts of 
 central India, and might be equally as profitable to the natives, as the 
 Agave to the Mexicans, even were it merely for the purpose of distil 
 lation, independent of its other valuable properties.! As it is, the 
 government raises a considerable revenue from it, retaining a right to 
 the fruit and timber. In the opinion of Sir William Jones, were the 
 sale of the liquor which it affords duly restrained by law, it might be 
 applied to sundry serviceable purposes. The same observation is 
 applicable to the drink made from toddy, the vending of which, from 
 want of being properly regulated, renders it so common and cheap 
 that it has been contemptuously called pariah arrack, on account of 
 its being a favourite with the lowest order, or pariahs, who rank 
 among the meanest castes of India. It is not, however, determined, 
 whether the term pariah arrack be used generally to imply an infe 
 rior and adulterated spirit, or is only applicable to that liquor with 
 which Ganga, (cannabis satwa) and a species of Datura have been 
 compounded. At Lahore, drink is taken by weight, and Burnes 
 
 * Asiatic Researches, vol. i. p. 303. Oriental Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 452. 
 t Malcolm s Memoirs of Central India, vol. ii. p. 47. 
 
165 
 
 relates that the prince Rnnjeet Sing usually took about eight pice ; 
 at one entertainment, he saw him quaff the measure of eighteen 
 pice.* Of this chief it is said that he felt greatly annoyed that he 
 could not drink like a fish without being drunk, nor eat like an ele 
 phant and escape a surfeit.f His favourite beverage was a spirit 
 distilled from Cabul grapes, which is very fiery, and stronger than 
 brandy. It is told of one of the Mogul monarchs that he was accus 
 tomed to drink upwards of twenty cups a day a quantity equal to 
 five wine-bottles of our measure. 
 
 Some of the tribes call spirits Jire water, probably from the circum 
 stance of their being easily ignited. Jacquemont,f when in the Thibe- 
 tian mountains, was surrounded with a number of the natives, who, 
 on seeing him burn a little brandy on a lump of sugar and afterwards 
 drink it, exclaimed that he was drinking fire, and must therefore be 
 the devil.J 
 
 The different kinds of grain cultivated in the Nepaul territory, 
 afford ample materials for making intoxicating drink ; and hence we 
 find the various tribes, occupying that region, are much addicted 
 to inebriety. So strong are their propensities in this respect, that 
 they make offerings in some of their temples to the priests, who repre 
 sent their deities, of a portion of their favourite drinks, which they 
 quaff out of human sculls, and so largely, as to caus& them to dance 
 furiously ; an extravagance often attributed to inspiration. A beve 
 rage termed phaur, made from rice or wheat, is brewed much in the 
 same manner as our ale wlu ch it strongly resembles, and is in consi 
 derable repute ; and, according to Hamilton, the wheat and barley 
 are reared for the express purpose of making spirituous liquors. At 
 some of the marts where rice or mumma, salt, extract of sugar-cane, 
 hogs, dried fish, tobacco, cloths, bang, opium, and other articles are 
 sold, inebriating beverages form no inconsiderable portion of the 
 traffic. 
 
 As bees are numerous in the north of India, vast quantities of 
 honey are collected, and the mode of doing so is without that cruelty 
 towards the insect which is the practice in other countries. The 
 cottages have either hollow trunks of trees or cylindrical earthen pots 
 built into the walls in such a manner, that while the insects have 
 access through perforations on the outside to construct their cells, and 
 
 * A small copper coin. Burne Travels, vol. i. p. 30. 
 f Jacquemont s Letters from India, vol. ii. p. 22. 
 % Ibid. vol. i. p. 271. 
 Hamilton s Account of Nepaul, 4to, 
 
166 
 
 deposit their stores, the cottagers within can open and shut the hive 
 at pleasure, by different simple contrivances, such as a lifting shutter 
 or sliding door. When the hive has arrived at maturity, the bees 
 are expelled by a great noise made at the inner extremity which 
 drives them out, and by means of a secret valve they are prevented 
 returning until the whole of the honey has been removed. Materials 
 are thus easily procured for domestic purposes, as well as for various 
 drinks, both cooling and nutritive. 
 
 Fraser, in his tour, informs us, that the people residing among the 
 hills at the foot of the Himaleh mountains, make intoxicating liquors 
 from grain and other materials, and that they procure from the 
 grapes common to the country two sorts of strong drink, one of 
 a superior kind used by the higher classes and called sihec, fermented 
 in the usual manner ; the other is prepared by pouring hot water on 
 the residue of the fruit, fermented and distilled by means of an 
 apparatus of a very rude construction.* At Cursalee, on the Jumna, 
 lie observed that they intoxicated themselves with a sort of beer 
 brewed from grain and particular roots which they sharpened with 
 pepper. During his stay there, he witnessed the ceremony attendant 
 on the bathing of the images of their gods in the waters of the Jumna. 
 The concourse of people was immense ; they danced in the most 
 grotesque and savage manner, to the sound of strange music under 
 the influence of their liquors, a multitude of men taking hands, some 
 times in a circle, sometimes in a line, beating time with their feet, 
 bending and distorting their bodies in various ways. The men kept 
 dancing all the day, and in the evening were joined indiscriminately 
 by the women, who supported the dancing and revelry till the night 
 was far advanced. This frantic kind of worship was continued for 
 several successive days, and mostly ended with the exhaustion of 
 their liquor s.f 
 
 The people inhabiting the Garrow hills, north east of Bengal, 
 though extremely rude and uncultivated, have, according to Mr, 
 Elliott, various sorts of drinks ; but that most in use is drawn from 
 rice soaked in water three or four days. From the kebul, a tree 
 resembling the palmira, a fine spirit might be made, as it possesses 
 much saccharine matter ; but the inhabitants are too ignorant to 
 appreciate its value and turn it to good account.! 
 
 * Tour to the Sources of the Rivers Jumna and Ganges. 
 f Tour to the Jumna and Ganges, p. 492. 
 $ Asiatic Researches, vol. iii. p. 22. 
 
167 
 
 In Cashmere, a good wine is made resembling Madeira, and 
 brandy is distilled, which, according to Jacquemont, resembles a 
 mixture of bad Anisette, with indifferent Kirchenwasser. The vines, 
 particularly in the gardens, are gigantic, and some of them, though 
 young, have been found to measure two feet in circumference.* 
 
 The Afghanistans prepare a strong drink from the milk of sheep, 
 which is said to possess a very invigorating property ."f These people 
 are not wholly dependent on this species of liquor, since the Greeks 
 and Armenians, who settled in that country, distil spirits and make 
 wine to a considerable extent. About Cabul, grapes are so plentiful 
 as to admit of exportation ; and cattle are fed on them for three 
 months in the year. Of the Afghanistan grapes there are ten diffe 
 rent kinds. The best grow on frame works ; the inferior are suffered 
 to creep on the ground. Pruning takes place in the beginning of 
 May. The people of Cabul convert the grape into more uses than 
 the inhabitants of almost any other country ; they employ its juice 
 in roasting meat, and during meals have grape-powder for a pickle. 
 This powder is made by drying unripe grapes and pounding them 
 afterwards : it looks like Cayenne pepper, and has a pleasant taste. 
 Grapes are often purchased for a half-penny a pound, large quantities 
 are preserved as raisins, and grape sirup is in great consumptio . 
 In the city of Cabul, during the month of May, the Falodish is in 
 high estimation. This is a white jelly strained from wheat and drunk 
 with sherbet and snow. There are no date trees at Cabul, but they 
 are to be found about Candahar and Pashawur, yet the people are 
 ignorant of extracting from them any intoxicating material. In 
 Afghanistan, the grains of a species of rice are so long, that fourteen 
 of them are said to make a span. 
 
 The vines in some parts of Afghanistan are not cut or pruned, but 
 allowed to ascend the highest trees ; and they are sometimes found 
 growing on lilyoaks about eighty feet from the ground. Tiie grapes 
 thus produced are inferior to those reared on frame work. The 
 amor patricB is so prevalent here, that every one conceives his own 
 nation to be superior to all others. Hence the emperor Babu, 
 whose memory is still held in the greatest respect in Cabul, thought 
 no portion of the world equal to his own, and used exultingly to say, 
 " This climate is extremely delightful, and there is no such place in 
 the known world. Drink wine in the citadel of Cabul, and send 
 round the cup without stopping, for it is at once a mountain, a sea, a 
 town, and a desert." 
 
 Forster s Journey, &c. vol. ii p. 21. Jacqucmont s Letters. 
 f Elphinstone s Account of Cabul, &c. 4to. p. 236. 
 
168 
 
 In Cabiil, the Armenians are the principal dealers and manufac 
 turers of intoxicating drinks, but the present governor, with the best 
 intentions, lias put an end to the Armenian influence by a strict pro 
 hibition of wine and spirits. Hence the Armenians, together with 
 the Jews, have fled to other countries, as they had no means of sup 
 port but that of distilling spirits and manufacturing wine. Previous 
 to this edict, 40 bottles of wine or 10 of brandy might have been 
 purchased for a rupee. 
 
 Among the fruits of Bokhara, melons are in the highest estimation ; 
 water-melons in particular have a superior flavour, and grow to such 
 an enormous size, that twenty people may feast on one, and two of 
 them are said to form a load for a donkey : they afford a delicious 
 cooling beverage. In that country, there is a curious and common 
 substitute for sugar, called Turunjubeen. It is a saccharine gum 
 which exudes from the well-known shrub called camel s -thorn, or the 
 Khari-Shootur. Towards the end of August, when this shrub is in 
 flower, it may be seen in the morning covered with drops like dew, 
 which, when shaken into a cloth placed beneath the bush, is the Tur- 
 ^mjubeen. Some hundred maunds of it are collected annually, and 
 the whole sweet -meats of the country are prepared with it. From its 
 nature and properties, it strongly reminds us of the manna given to 
 the Israelites. 
 
 From grape jelly, or sirup mixed with chopped ice, the Bokha- 
 rians draw what they term rahut ijan, or the delight of life. Here 
 ice is an indispensable article : in winter, it is stored in pits, and sold 
 in warm weather at a very low price. No one drinks water in 
 Bokhara without icing it, and a beggar may be seen purchasing it, 
 while he proclaims his poverty and implores the charitable bounty of 
 the passengers. The water, which the king drinks, is brought in 
 skins under the charge and seals of two officers. It is opened by the 
 vizier, first tasted by the people, and then by himself, when it is 
 once more sealed and despatched to the king. The daily meals of 
 his majesty undergo a like scrutiny ; the minister eats, he gives to 
 those around him ; they wait the lapse of an hour to judge of the 
 effect, when they are locked up and despatched. His majesty has 
 one key and his ministers another. Fruit, sweet-meats, drinks, and 
 every eatable, undergo the same examination. 
 
 In Bokhara, there is a disease called the Mokkom or Kolee, a kind 
 of leprosy that renders the skin dry and shrivelled, the hair of the 
 body falls off, the nails and teeth drop out, and the whole frame 
 assumes a horrible appearance. This disease is prevalent in the rice 
 districts, and is said to be caused by the use of bouza> a strong drink 
 distilled from black barley. 
 
169 
 
 Honey is abundant in Bokhara and the adjacent countries ; but it 
 is not much employed as an ingredient in the beverages. Captain 
 Burnes states that he observed bees feed on mutton, that in winter 
 they are often supported with flesh instead of sugar ; that which he 
 saw given to them was fresh ; and he adds, that they sometimes 
 attacked dried fish. 
 
 Throughout the whole continent of India, the people are well 
 acquainted with the different virtues of all the species of palm. Of 
 these, the cocoa-nut tree (cocos nucifera) is the mos tvaluable, as it not 
 only affords food but a large supply of toddy, though not in so great 
 a quantity as the palmira. The date tree (phoenix ductylifera)^ the 
 Tamar of the Hebrews, yields toddy also, but neither so much nor of 
 so good a quality as that which is produced by the other species of 
 palm. This tree, as well as those of the same genus, has been the 
 subject of great research and investigation with many eminent 
 writers, of whom Larcher, in his learned notes on Herodotus, has 
 been elaborate ; after him Pontedora, Tournefort, and Ksempfer may 
 be consulted ; the latter, in his Amcenitates Exoticse, has been happily 
 minute in illustrating this portion of natural history. 
 
 The skill and ingenuity which the inhabitants of India gene 
 rally display in making intoxicating beverages from the produce 
 of their trees, as well as from other portions of the vegetable 
 kingdom, have been clearly exemplified ; and the ease with which 
 they are procured, and the habits, therefore, which their use 
 has engendered, have tended much to the injury of Europeans 
 and natives, both in a moral and physical point of view. Dr. Bucha 
 nan, however, has questioned this, particularly as repects health; and 
 observes, that intoxication is less frequently a cause of disease, than is 
 usually alleged ; it chiefly, he says, proves injurious to the health of 
 our seamen and soldiers in warm climates, by making them impru 
 dently expose themselves to other causes of sickness. " The two 
 persons in my service," continues the Doctor, " that are most subject 
 to fevers are my interpreter and painter, although from their situ 
 ation in life, they are exempted from all hardships ; but from their 
 caste, they ought not to taste spirituous liquors, and are really sober 
 men. At the same time, a man who takes care of my tents, although 
 he is exposed to all weathers, and at times to much fatigue, enjoys 
 perfect health, probably keeps off the fever by copiously drinking 
 spirituous liquors, to the use of which he is exceedingly addicted." 
 But with all due respect for the Doctor s opinion, this example should 
 not be received as a precedent, because it is well known, that those 
 who are addicted to a slavish use of ardent spirits, are more subject to 
 
170 
 
 disease, tlian those who use them with moderation. In India, as in 
 Europe, where the cholera morbus has been so fatal in its effects, it 
 has been proved that drunken and dissipated characters were the first 
 and most numerous victims of that terrible disease. 
 
 "Drinking spirituous liquors," says Heber, "is highly injurious to 
 our soldiery in India. Nothing can be more foolish, or in its effects 
 more pernicious, than the manner in which spirits are distributed 
 among the troops. Early every morning a pint of fiery, coarse, undi 
 luted rum is given to every man ; and half that quantity to every 
 woman ; this the greater part of the new comers abhor in the first 
 instance ; or would, at all events, if left to themselves, mix with 
 water. The ridicule of their seasoned companions, however, deters 
 them from doing so, and a habit of the worst kind of intemperance is 
 acquired in a few weeks, more fatal to the army than the swords of 
 the Jats, or the climate of the Burmese. If half the quantity of 
 spirits, well watered, were given at a more seasonable hour, and, to 
 compensate for the loss of the rest, a cup of strong coffee were allowed 
 to each man every morning, the men would be quite as well pleased, 
 and both their bodies and souls preserved from many dreadful evils."* 
 
 Captain Mundy, who had a good opportunity of forming a correct 
 opinion of the matter, says, that many a liver complaint, laid to the 
 charge of an Indian climate, owes its origin to this lava-like potation ; 
 alluding to the general use of arrack, and its cheapness unfortunately 
 adds to its fascinating qualities, which are further heightened by an 
 infusion of chillies, to render it the more intoxicating.f Speaking 
 on this subject, Hamilton observes, that one cause of the prevention 
 of the spread of Christianity in India, may have been occasioned by 
 the dissolute lives of some of the early Christians ; and the clergy not 
 only indulging in the use, but actually trafficking in the sale of arrack ; 
 a practice equally obnoxious to the Brahmins and Mahometans.^: 
 
 The kingdom of Thibet, although not so early known to Europeans 
 as some other eastern countries, yet we were partially acquainted with 
 it from the visit of Marco Polo. He observed that the Thibetians 
 had no wine, but an excellent drink made from corn or rice, flavoured 
 with various spices. Oderic, in 1318, found bread and rice-wine in 
 that country in abundance. Turner, in the account of his embassy 
 to the Teshoo Lama, makes us more familiar with the arts, manners, 
 and customs of the Thibetians. They cultivate wheat, barley, and 
 
 Heber s Narrative, vol. iii .p. 201. 
 f Pen and Pencil Sketches in India, vol. ii. p. 215. 
 $ Vide Hamilton s Account of the East Indies. 
 
171 
 
 rice, although the state of agriculture is not by any means in a 
 flourishing condition. They extract from rice or wheat, a drink 
 which is called chong : this beverage is prepared by an infusion of 
 grain in a state of fermentation ; wheat, rice and barley are used 
 indiscriminately. To a given quantity of grain, is added rather more 
 water than will completely cover it ; and the mixture is placed over 
 a slow fire till it begins to boil. It is then taken up, the water drained 
 off, and the residue spread on mats, or coarse cloths, to cool. When 
 cold, a ball called bakka, composed of the blossoms of the cacalia 
 saracenica of Linnaeus, is crumbled over the grain and mixed with 
 it. The common proportion is one of these balls, about the size of a 
 nutmeg, to two pounds of the grain. After this process, the grain is 
 put into baskets lined with leaves, and slightly pressed down with 
 the hand, so as to squeeze out the superfluous moisture It is then 
 covered with leaves and cloths to defend it from the air, and put into 
 a place moderately warm, where it is allowed to remain for three 
 days. At the end of this period, it is put into earthen jars, when cold 
 water is poured on the top in the proportion of a tea-cup full, to 
 every gallon of grain, and the top of the jar is made close with a strong 
 compost of stiff clay. In this state it remains for at least three days, 
 before any of it is taken out for use ; but, if suffered to continue 
 longer, it improves by age. When chong is wanted, a quantity of 
 this fermented mass is put into a capacious vessel on which boiling 
 water is poured, until it is completely covered by it. The whole is 
 well stirred together, and, after remaining a short time to settle, a 
 small basket of wicker work is thrust into the centre, and the infu 
 sion called chong immediately drains through and fills the empty 
 space with the liquor. The drink is then distributed to those around 
 by the segment of a gourd fastened upon a staff in the form of a ladle ; 
 each person holding a shallow wooden cup on the points of his fingers 
 for its reception. This liquor is accounted pleasing and grateful, 
 having a slightly acid taste, but possessing little intoxicating quali 
 ties. From the nature of this liquor and the peculiar manner of 
 making it, it is evident that the invention is purely oriental, as there 
 is nothing in Europe of a similar description from which any idea of 
 such a manufacture could have been borrowed. Chong is also used 
 for distillation, and from it a very powerfully inebriating spirit is. 
 drawn, termed arra, The apparatus employed for this purpose must 
 appear, from an examination of the annexed plate and a perusal of its 
 description, to be of a simple and rude construction. Chong, or arra, is 
 always served to visiters, both on their arrival and at their departure, 
 
172 
 
 without regard to the hour, and, contrary to the practice of Japan and 
 China, it is never drunk warm.* 
 
 STILL USED IN THIBET AND BOOTAN. 
 
 A. An earthen vessel, in which the chong is placed, immediately over the fire. 
 
 B. Another without a bottom. 
 
 . C. A smaller earthen vessel, which is the recipient. 
 
 D. An iron basin filled with cold water, renewed occasionally as it grows warm, 
 and may be termed the condenser. 
 
 e e e. Three cross staves of wood on which the recipient is placed. 
 
 The junction of three vessels, A, B, and D, being secured with cotton bandages 
 and clay lute, a fire is lighted under A, which contains the chong. The spirit 
 rises through B, is condensed upon the convex bottom of the basin D, and the 
 spirit arra is received into the smaller vessel C. 
 
 f. The fire-place g g g. openings over the fire for the reception of a similar 
 apparatus. 
 
 Turner s Embassy, 4to. p. 343. 
 
ITS 
 
 The religion of the country confines the consumption of cfiong and 
 arra to the laity, as those who assume the rohe of Gylong, or priest, 
 are bound to abstain from every sort of inebriating drink, as well as 
 from animal food, lest they should be the indirect cause of putting an 
 end to the existence of any creature. This privation seems to have 
 been felt by Gyeung, the mother of the infant Lama, who, when 
 entertaining Mr. Turner, at the monastery of Terpaling, complained 
 that while nursing the young pontiff, she was not allowed to use any 
 kind of fleshmeat, or exhilrating liquor. 
 
 In Bootan, Turner observed thriving crops of wheat and barley, 
 and a small grain which he does not designate by any name, from 
 which a fermented liquor is made. In this country, the traveller is 
 always found with a buffalo s horn slung across his shoulders filled with 
 arra to regale himself, whilst struggling among the acclivities of this 
 mountainous region. The Rajah of Bootan, the high priest, or pope 
 of the country, when he invited Mr. Turner to an entertainment at 
 the palace of Tassisudon, declined tasting wine, being contrary to 
 the rules of his sacred order ; but here, as elsewhere, human weak 
 ness is observable; for claret and raspberry jam, having been left by 
 Mr. Turner as a trial of the Lama s virtue, it soon disappeared, and 
 application was made a few days after for a fresh supply of the wine ; 
 certainly, as the writer observes, with no intention that it should be 
 reserved among the relics. Before a battle, the soldiers of Bootan 
 take copious draughts of chong or arra, having previously charged 
 their stomachs with an ample meal of substantial food. This drink is 
 here usually taken warm, a practice recommended for imitation, 
 whenever heat and fatigue lead to intemperate thirst. In Bootan, 
 the people seem unacquainted with mead, although bees and honey 
 abound. So domesticated are these insects, that the honeycombs hang 
 from the balconies of the houses clear of the walls, seldom exceed 
 ing six inches in thickness and sometimes three or four feet long. 
 The bees are not suffered to be disturbed, the Rajah conceiving that 
 their labour is employed for the benefit of the community, in laying 
 up a stock which serves to rear their young, and as a resource 
 when they cease to find food abroad. " Were I," said he, " avail 
 ing myself of superior power, to deprive them of this store, accumu 
 lated for their future support, how could I expect to enjoy unmo 
 lested, that of which I am myself possessed ?" Hence the religious 
 protection they experience. 
 
 Although the vine, it may be generally observed, forms no part of 
 the common agriculture of the East Indies, yet delicious grapes are 
 found to grow luxuriantly in many of the provinces ; those of Malwa 
 
17* 
 
 have been long celebrated, and the wine made at Nishapore is con 
 sidered excellent. The grapes of Cabul yield a liquor no way infe 
 rior to many of the wines of Europe. Even on the northern slope of 
 the Himaleh mountains, reaching towards Thibet, grapes are indi 
 genous, and grow in the open fields without any care, save that of 
 preserving them from the depredations of the bears. In flavour and 
 delicacy, they vie with any hot-house grapes of England ; and are of 
 two sorts, white and red. 
 
 In the Birman empire are several kinds of palms ; wheat is com 
 mon, and of good quality, in different districts of the country ; the 
 cocoa-nut and sago-palm grow wild ; rice and sugar-canes are to be 
 met with every where ; vines are found in the forests, and though 
 they are at present inferior to those of Italy, Spain, or Portugal, yet 
 it is asserted, that the inferiority is owing to want of proper cultiva 
 tion. No wheat is reared in Pegu ; but bread made from rice is a 
 common article of food: wine from the latter grain, such as is found 
 in many other parts of the East, is here familiar, and from which the 
 monarch draws a portion of his revenue. Sugar, although it might be 
 plentiful in Pegu, and a spirit made from it, yet the elephants are 
 permitted to consume the canes with so little restraint, as to render 
 its produce unavailable. Here, and in other parts of India, the ele 
 phant makes nightly excursions into the plantations ; and when once 
 allowed to do so with impunity, he constantly repeats his destructive 
 visits. In some places, when the marks of the animal s feet are disco 
 vered, in order to prevent a repetition of these predatory incursions, 
 sugar-canes filled with bruised fruit, of which this animal is fond, are 
 placed in Ms way ; a quantity of poison is infused in the pulpy matter ; 
 the outside of the canes is marked with salt, to which the elephant is 
 very partial, and having gratified himself by feeding on these mate 
 rials, he either dies from their effects, or is so intoxicated that he 
 becomes an easy prey to the people. As the Peguesc profess the 
 worship of crocodiles, their common drink is the waters of the ditches 
 in which those rapacious animals live, though they are often devoured 
 by them. A liquor distilled from the cocoa-nut is used in some parts 
 of Pegu which differs little from common arrack : this drink is fer 
 mented and preserved in well-glazed earthen jars, some of which, 
 according to Hamilton, are so capacious as to contain two hogsheads. 
 Another description of liquor, very agreeable to the palate, is made 
 from juice drawn by incision from a tree called Annipa or Niper, and 
 hence termed Niper wine. From Syrian, the Peguese export rice-wine 
 of their own manufacture. The city of Pegu receives much of its orna 
 ment from the numerous cocoa trees with which the sreets are tastefully 
 
175 
 
 planted, and while they afford the citizens a supply of fruit, serve as 
 a cooling shade from the scorching heat of a vertical sun. Through 
 out the whole of the Birman empire, the chief spirit in use is shou 
 chouy or that description of ardent liquor wlu ch is distilled in China. 
 Symes says, that he met with no other, and that it appeared to him a 
 very fiery, deleterious spirit.* More recent visiters met with several 
 kinds of wines among the Burmese, and, at the entertainments of the 
 higher orders, drinks are served up in small jars, out of which they 
 are poured into gold cups, richly embossed with figures and orna 
 ments of different descriptions ; amongst some of which were 
 observed the twelve signs of the zodiac. These cups, when filled, 
 are usually presented by the attendant in a crouching posture, for an 
 inferior to stand before a superior is deemed insulting : and when 
 water is presented with the liquor, it is taken from a jar of cold 
 water, wrapped in a plantain leaf to keep it more cool. During 
 the late war with Great Britain, it was found that the Burmese had a 
 great predilection for spirits, and would rather be recompensed for 
 any exertion by a little English gin or brandy, than with money. 
 " Bevandi, pay, tekein" (Give some brandy, prince !) was the con 
 stant request; and so much has this request taken root, that it will 
 require many regal edicts to make them again abstemious. 
 
 By the laws of Alomprah, the founder of the present empire, 
 intoxication was punishable with death ; but, during the prevalence of 
 cholera, spirits being deemed useful in checking its progress, the 
 interdict was taken off, but again put in force when the disease 
 disappeared.! 
 
 Late travellers have described the remains of religious edifices in 
 Pegu and Ava of the pyramidal form ; and of sphinxes, griffins, mer 
 maids, crocodiles, and other templar ornaments, so resembling those 
 of Egypt, as to lead to the inference that there was a former connex 
 ion between the religion of the ancient inhabitants on the banks of 
 the Nile and the Buddhists of the East. This is a corroboration 
 of what has been already advanced, that the eastern parts of Asia had 
 the precedency of the west in a knowledge of the arts; and it is fur 
 ther confirmed by the paintings that have been found in some of their 
 ancient pagodas, far excelling any thing of the kind at present among 
 the Burmese ; while no modern architectural edifice in those coun 
 tries can bear a comparison with the structures of modern times, 
 notwithstanding the progress of civilisation and the mechanical 
 
 * Symes s Embassy to Ava, 8vo. vol. ii. p. 307. t Two years in Ava, 
 8vo. p. 307. 
 
176 
 
 improvements in other parts of the world a proof that, while we 
 have been advancing through their discoveries, they have been retro 
 grading. 
 
 Arrack is drunk in Siam ; but its consumption, as well as its manu 
 facture, is confined to the Chinese resident in that country. The pri 
 vilege for its distillation brings to the government a sum of 460,000 
 ticals, or 57,500 per annum, for the whole kingdom. The greater 
 portion of arrack is distilled at Bankok, the capital ; and the rest at 
 thirteen other principal towns of the kingdom. The tax on arrack is 
 farmed ; hence its amount has been ascertained with a considerable 
 degree of accuracy. The following detail will shew the relative impor 
 tance of some of the towns at which it is distilled : 
 
 Ticals. 
 
 Bankok, or Bangkok ..* "-- l ,T - 144,000 
 
 Yuthia, (the old capital) V 1 . . 48,000 
 
 Sohair, . . . . . . 8,000 
 
 Tachin, 8,000 
 
 Raheng, 8,000 
 
 Kampeng, . . , , . . 8,000 
 
 Chainat, , 1,600 
 
 Lanceang, (capital of Laos) ... 24,000 
 
 Korat in Lao, ... . . . 16,000 
 
 Kanburi, 1,600 
 
 Champon, 2,400 
 
 Patyn, . . . . . . 1,600 
 
 Chaia, 640 
 
 Talung, o . . . . 2,400 
 
 Besides this, there is likewise a tax on fruit trees. At Penang, 
 among the duties levied are those on opium, spirits, and hemp used 
 as an intoxicating drug. Here the distillation of arrack from rice is 
 conducted, but not to any great extent. Tannasserim is celebrated 
 for its Niper wine, or rather for the spirits distilled from it, and 
 which is considered the best in the East. The Siamese, being strict 
 followers of Buddha, like the Mahometans do not indulge in the 
 pleasures of intoxication, strictly fulfilling the fifth commandment of 
 their religion, which is, " you shall not drink intoxicating liquor, nor 
 any substance calculated to intoxicate." Still, however, there are 
 amongst them many who, like their fellow-mortals in other parts 
 of the world, forget, not only the principles of their religion, but that 
 respect which they owe to themselves and to society. Mr. Finlay- 
 son, when there in 1822, remarked, that ardent spirits were fre 
 quently taken at meals undiluted, but not to such extent as to cause 
 inebriety. Most of their liquors are taken warm ; and they assign as 
 a reason for using it in that state, that cooling remedies are deadly, 
 
177 
 
 from a belief that heat is a principle of life. Mr. Crawford is of 
 opinion, that a strong passion for arrack, notwith standing the prohi 
 bition against it and vinous liquors, appears nowhere more general, 
 than amongst the lay Siamese; and although their Talapoins or 
 priests, are enjoined to abstain from the use of wine, or intoxicating 
 drugs, yet he suspects they are subject to a similar infirmity. They 
 freely partake of tobacco and the preparation of betel and areca, 
 from which he concludes that they secretly indulge in all these for 
 bidden luxuries. The government feigns to take considerable care 
 to enforce the observance of the prohibitory law ; but it is certain 
 that they wink at its infringement, in a manner very discreditable, 
 since they receive the duty not only on its manufacture but on its 
 sales. No present is more acceptable to the lower classes than a 
 supply of ardent spirits; yet upon the whole, the Siamese are a mode 
 rate and temperate people.* The use of the areca and betel-nut is more 
 extensive here than in any other part of the east, exceeding even 
 in this respect the consumption in Malay. Rich in all the valuable 
 productions of nature, Siam lias vast advantages; rice is cultivated 
 to great extent, and the sugar-cane affords employment to an immense 
 portion of the population. The strength of the soil maybe conceived 
 from the enormous size of its yams, one of which was found to weigh 
 4741bs. and to measure nine and a half feet in circumference. The 
 sugar-cane in Siam has been known from the earliest period ; but its 
 culture, in reference to useful and extensive purposes, was little 
 attended to before 1810. This favorable change was wholly owing 
 to the industry and enterprise of the Chinese settlers, resulting from 
 various concessions yielded to them. In 1822, they exported to the 
 extent of 60,000 piculs, or about 8,000,0001bs. of sugar, esteemed, 
 from its whiteness and flavour, the best in India : this article now 
 meets a ready sale in China, the western parts of Hindostan, Persia, 
 Arabia, and even in Europe. The canes planted in June are cut in 
 December, and the sugar brought to market at Bankok, in January. 
 The cultivators of the cane are always Siamese ; but the manufac 
 turers of the sugar are invariably Chinese. From some districts, palm 
 sugar is largely exported, and such is the abundance of grain, that a 
 farmer expects forty-fold for the seed which he sows, and he would 
 consider thirty-fold but an indifferent crop. Some of the rigid 
 Siamese priests consider that the punishment in the other world, for 
 the crime of drinking, shall be to have a stream of melted copper 
 poured perpetually down the throat. From the flourishing state of 
 : .- "I < ." . .tf^i; L ^1 : : >v -- 
 
 * Crawford s Embassy. 
 
178 
 
 the sugar plantations, the ingenious Chinese will, no dou1|| manufac 
 ture rum from the molasses and render it a staple commodity. The 
 chief food in use with the Siamese is rice, and of this, there are several 
 kinds, such as white, red, coarse, and fine. Countrymen alone eat 
 red rice ; the black is only used mixed with sugar, and the pulp of 
 the cocoa nut scraped over it. Fine rice is seldom thicker than a 
 needle and is as transparent as crystal; but it is used only in feasts 
 and at festivals ; a certain quantity of it is sometimes dressed with a 
 fowl, a quarter of a goat, or a piece of fresh pork. This ragout is 
 called poulo, and in colour is as white as snow ; but this description is 
 seldom or never employed in distillation. The king derives an 
 immense revenue from rice ; those dealing in it pay a sort of license 
 to the amount of 35 annually ; and of these there is an incredible 
 number. This, as well as most other branches of industry, is princi 
 pally carried on by the Chinese, whose labours are as conspicuous 
 abroad as at home; they, with a peculiar economy, seldom let any 
 thing go to loss, and as the distilleries are in their hands, they employ 
 the feculence of the stills in feeding pigs, as the sale of all other 
 butchers meat is prohibited on the principle of the metempsychosis ; 
 animals being considered the sanctuary of their deities. What a ridi 
 culous anomaly ; as if pigs were not to be ranked amongst the animal 
 creation ! By them, swine s flesh is deemed a great luxury, being, as 
 they think, more delicate and easy of digestion than any other food ; 
 hence it is prescribed by their Doctors to convalescents, in preference 
 to poultry or boiled meats, as the best renovater of the constitution. The 
 Chinese are very particular in the feeding of swine, as they study to 
 impart a sweetness and tenderness to the flesh seldom observed by 
 others. The apparatus employed in the distilleries is on the same 
 principle as that generally used by the Chinese elsewhere. The 
 Siamese fall short of them even in this respect, as they understand 
 nothing of chemistry, although they affect it and boast of profound 
 secrets in the art. The mania of discovering the philosopher s stone 
 prevailed here, as well as in China; and one of the Siamese monarchs 
 is said to have spent two millions of money in search of this visionary 
 talisman. The Siamese have also been long occupied in the foolish 
 inquiry after an universal elixir to render them immortal. In using 
 brandy, they have it served up for the most part in a large 
 bowl, on a wooden plate sufficiently capacious to admit a number of 
 small pots, in which are commonly either dried or roasted fish, 
 fruits both pickled and salted, with baked or hatched eggs; the latter 
 of which are considered a great treat. On such occasions, each helps 
 himself to whatever is most grateful to his palate, and takes from the 
 
179 
 
 bowl a draught of the brandy by means of a little cup, which is float 
 ing on the top ; conversation being all the time kept up with much 
 vivacity. 
 
 Honey is very plentiful in Siam and several pleasing beverages 
 are made from it. The bees hive on the trees in the open air, 
 and those, on which it is intended that they should construct their 
 combs, are cut at certain distances, from twenty feet above the base 
 to the apex. Holes are made in them, in which are inserted pieces of 
 wood projecting about three feet from the trunk. Round this arti 
 ficial branch, tiie bees never fail to form their hives ; and it is no uncom 
 mon thing to see three hundred of them on a single tree ; the best 
 of the produce may be purchased at three half-pence a pound. 
 
 The States of Assam, Laos, Cambodia, and Aracan, furnish few 
 materials of interest differing from those of the kingdoms just des 
 cribed. They yield the same fruits and the inhabitants apply them 
 to the same purpose. In Aracan, they tap the palm, and either 
 drink its juice in the state of toddy or distil it into arrack. The 
 fertile country of Cambodia produces excellent rice, from which, as in 
 Siam, they manufacture a good spirit : sugar is also reared, but in a 
 limited manner. In Assam, they make no wine, though they have 
 excellent grapes, which they dry to make brandy ; but although the 
 more ardent beverage is preferred, yet the people are not character 
 ized as drunkards. On the whole, it may be said, that agriculture is 
 much neglected in the eastern peninsula of India ; nature being so 
 bountiful in the spontaneous productions of fruits and vegetables, as 
 to render manual labour almost unnecessary ; hence the natives seldom 
 take advantage of the richness of the soil to increase the gifts of 
 providence, or administer to their own luxuries. 
 
 In Malacca, rice is the principal grain cultivated : the quantity is 
 not sufficient for the support of the people, but the deficiency is sup 
 plied by a peculiar preparation of the produce of the sago, or bread 
 palm tree. This tree, which requires no cultivation, rises to the height 
 of from twenty to thirty feet, and is from five to six feet in circum 
 ference. The bark is very thick, and has, within its fibres, a kind of 
 gummy powder resembling meal, which is extracted by a scoop. This 
 substance, when thus procured, is diluted in water and strained 
 through a cloth, and allowed to evaporate for some time : it is then 
 put into earthen vessels of various forms, where it remains and 
 hardens. This paste or flour may be kept for several years ; it is 
 accounted nourishing and wholesome, and considered an excellent 
 remedy for many complaints of the stomach. When blended either 
 
180 
 
 with cold or boiling water, it forms ;v whiteish jelley very palatable; 
 und, if fermented, produces an agreeable beverage. The Malay 
 chiefs rear considerable plantations of the sago tree, as it forms one 
 of their principal sources of subsistence. There are several descrip 
 tions of palm in the country, yielding toddy, some of which are 
 largely drawn on by the natives. 
 
 In the Nicobar islands, the use of inebriating beverages is very 
 prevalent. The inhabitants, being unaccustomed to wine, do not 
 like it ; yet they are said to drink bumpers of arrack at their feasts, 
 till they can no longer see. Their principal and common beverage is 
 the milk of the cocoa-nut, and a liquor called soura^ (in some of the 
 islands, tauri/^) which is nothing more than the fermented juice 
 of the palm : this, they render highly intoxicating by the method they 
 employ of sucking it through a tube made either of a reed or quill. 
 These people are so very ingenious, that, according to Forbes,* they 
 convert the cocoa tree to almost every possible useful purpose. Their 
 A^essels are built of it, the cordage, rigging, and sails are made of it, 
 and it furnishes even the cargoes of arrack, vinegar, oil, sugar, 
 cocoa-nuts, black paint, and other inferior articles, exported to 
 the neighbouring islands. They are so remarkably honest and 
 unsuspicious of fraud, that the crime of robbery is so little known 
 as not to be dreaded. Their houses are left constantly open, so that 
 any one that pleases may enter; and, when going to a distance, the 
 traveller is at liberty, when he finds himself either tired, hungry, or 
 thirsty, to go into any house, and help himself to both meat and drink, 
 which he frequently does, without being questioned, or even inter 
 changing- a word with any of the family. Plow happy would it be for 
 mankind, were such hospitable practices more common in the world! 
 The island of Ceylon, being one of the most remarkable in the 
 Indian ocean, deserves particular notice, not only from its soil and 
 produce, but from its being the early resort of Europeans trading to 
 the Eastern continent. Some assert, that it was peopled by a colony 
 of Singhs, or Rajlipoot?, 500 years before Christ; and the people of 
 Malabar are said to have invaded it about 300 years after that period. 
 The Macedonians, who accompanied Alexander on his Indian expe 
 dition, were the first who brought to Europe an account of this island, 
 under the title of Taprobane. Dionysius, the geographer, who flou 
 rished under Augustus, speaks of its elephants Ovid and Pliny men 
 tion it ; and it has been alluded to by several early writers as being 
 well peopled, and in a high state of civilisation. With the manners 
 and custom- of its ancient inhabitants, we have not been made 
 * Oriental Memoirs. 
 
181 
 
 acquainted; nor with the nature of their beverages; but it is 
 unquestionable that they were the same, with, perhaps, some local 
 variations, as those of their continental neighbours. At mar 
 riages, immense quantities of meat and drink are consumed ; the same 
 practice is prevalent at funerals ; but the indulgences on all occa 
 sions of death are confined to houses adjoining that of the deceased ; 
 and where the male sex are accustomed to assemble and partake 
 largely of Soura. On the anniversary of a deceased friend, men and 
 women indiscriminately assemble. Soura is consumed in abundance ; 
 and when the mind is in a high state! of intoxication, the women, at a 
 certain hour of the night, when the commencemeut of the ceremony 
 is announced by the striking of gongs, set up the most dismal howls 
 and lamentations. The party then walk in procession to the grave 
 of the deceased. There, a woman, nearest akin to the inmate of the 
 tomb, steps out of the crowd, and, tearing up the skull, she 
 screams most piteously ; then washing it with the cocoa juice, or some 
 other liquor, rubs it with an infusion of saffron; rolls it carefully up 
 in new cloth and replaces it in its mansion of rest. Thus the night is 
 spent going from grave to grave, repeating the same ceremonies, and 
 the morning sun is welcomed in with copious potations of Soura. The 
 modern inhabitants are rather a temperate people ; but, unhappily* 
 they have had a bad example set them by Europeans, and many of 
 them at present are not exempt from the charge of excessive indul 
 gence in the sensual gratification of drinking. At the time the island 
 was first visited by the Dutch, intoxication was considered a hei 
 nous offence ; and great astonishment was expressed at, the attach 
 ment which the Christians evinced for strong liquors. The king of 
 Candy, on one occasion, having called a Dutch merchant into his pre 
 sence, in whom he placed great confidence ; but who was in the habit of 
 indulging in this propensity to excess, exclaimed, " Why do you thus 
 disorder yourself so that when I send for you on business, you are 
 not in a capacity to serve me ?" The other, who was not altogether 
 overpowered by his glass, ingeniously excused himself by replying, 
 " that as soon as his mother had deprived him of her milk, she sup 
 plied the want of it with wine ; and that ever after he had accustomed 
 himself to it." Hence the Cingalese adage" Wine is as natural to 
 white men as milk to children.* 
 
 Among the various kinds of trees found in this delightful island is 
 the kettulc, which seems to be the same as the hebul already 
 
 * Knox s Ceylon. 
 
182 
 
 mentioned. It yields a very sweet sap of wholesome quality : one of the 
 ordinary size will afford several quarts of juice in a day. From this 
 juice, a sweet spirit is made, similar to that drawn from the palm tree. 
 When the buds on the top of the kettule become ripe, and wither 
 away, they are annually succeeded by others still wearing year 
 after year down the branches, until they reach the trunk, and in this 
 stage the tree may be said to be worn out. The wood is so hard, 
 that it is frequently used for pestles in pounding rice. This island 
 bears the sugar-cane, as well as all the fruits of the Indies ; and the 
 canes produce every month of tlie year, except the three rainy ones. 
 Rice is abundant, of which there are five different species; and 
 from this grain, for many years back, large quantities of arrack have 
 been manufactured. The average annual export may be estimated at 
 5600 leagers of 150 gallons each. The great marts for this article 
 have hitherto been Madras and Bombay, with the Malabar and Coro- 
 mandel coasts; here, it is sold for about one shilling and three pence 
 per gallon; the prime cost varying from eight to ten pence per 
 gallon a duty of ten per cent, is levied on the exports. During the 
 years 1815, 16, and 17, some hundreds of leagers were brought to 
 England, and sold at from five shillings and six-pence, to six and six 
 pence per gallon. The revenue arising from arrack, in Ceylon, is very 
 considerable ; in the land rents are included the duties on cocoa-nut 
 trees, which exceed that on rice by 14,573 annually ; the charge 
 on the former being 35,573, and that on the latter, 21,000 The 
 following are the particulars of the duties levied on the cocoa-nut 
 plantations of 1831 : 
 
 Distillation of arrack, - .. i"v; ** - 3,645 
 
 Retail of do. ..;,.;,; 24,975 
 
 Export of do. . ; . 3,136 
 
 Export of rope made from the tree, . . 153 
 
 Export of jag-gory, . 162 
 
 There are a few Europeans who distil arrack and rum from sugar, 
 and which to them is a source of great profit. 
 
 This island is remarkable for its woods of palm trees ; and so 
 early as the time of Marco Polo, palm wine was the current beve 
 rage ; yet so cautious were the natives of its effects, that those, who 
 were addicted to it, were held as disreputable witnesses in a court of 
 justice. From the Borassus flabelliformis, sugar is extracted, as in 
 India, and the persons employed to manufacture it are denominated 
 hakooroo y their business, according to Davy,* is to prepare it from the 
 
 * Davy s Account of Ceylon, 4 to. 
 
J83 
 
 juice of different palms, but chiefly from that species termed ketoolga, 
 (caryota urens) which contains the largest proportion of saccharine 
 matter. For the lands they farm they have to furnish u certain 
 quantity of jaggory annually to the king s stores, and to supply the 
 chiefs with that article and with toddy, the drawers of which are 
 named usanno, and belong to the caste of the Chandos Mandinno. 
 
 A very strong kind of arrack, possessing an unpleasant heavy 
 smell, is distilled from palm-wine and the bark of a certain tree ; this 
 spirit is termed vellipatty ; another sort is also made from nearly the 
 same materials, and is known by the name of talwagen. Thepalpa- 
 lam, or milk-fruit, which abounds in the woods, both in shape and 
 size, resembles an olive ; it conceals under a thin yellow rind a white 
 gluey moisture, very sweet and tasting like cream. Bears and wild 
 boars are fond of it, and the natives dry it in the sun after which it 
 tastes like raisins, and might yield a brandy not inferior to that fruit, 
 but it has not yet been converted to any fermenting process. Arrack 
 is distilled in every village all round the coast, and the great source 
 from whence it is drawn is from the juice of the cocoa-nut and pal 
 myra tree. Whole woods are set apart for no other purpose than 
 that of procuring toddy. The saccharine quality of this liquor is so 
 great that it produces a yeast similar to that of our malt worts, and 
 is used by bakers instead of barm. Not only in Ceylon, but in vari 
 ous other quarters of the east, the cocoa tree is the most valuable 
 gift which nature has afforded to the indolent natives, as it yield? 
 almost every thing calculated to sustain and sweeten life. Viewing 
 it in this light, and in reference to its application to this island, a sen 
 sible writer has observed : " Give a man a cocoa tree, and he will do 
 nothing for his livelihood he sleeps under its shade, or perhaps builds 
 a hut of its branches eats its nuts as they fall drinks its juice, and 
 smokes his life away."* The word cocoa is said to be derived from 
 the Portuguese coco or coquin, the name for a monkey, the three 
 holes at the end of tlie nutshell bearing some resemblance to the head 
 of that animal. At the time the two Mahometans visited Ceylon, so 
 far back as the year 851, they found the people expert in making 
 shirts, vests, and tunics, all of one piece, of the fibres of the cocoa-nut, 
 and skilful in various works of mechanism formed from its material?. 
 This tree is so productive, and yields its juice so freely that it 
 may be said to be choked in its own exuberance, so that to assist 
 it in the munificence of its overflowings during the season of its 
 
 * Heber s Journal of a Tour in Ceylon, vol. iii. p. 140, 153, 
 
184 
 
 vintage, it must be relieved by frequent incisions for the discharge of 
 its precious liquor. The Cingalese strip off a species of net-work from 
 this tree, and use it as a strainer for their toddy, to free it from 
 impurities and the innumerable insects which its sweetness attracts- 
 The Otaheitans use this bark net-work as a sieve for straining arrow 
 root, cocoa-nut oil, &c. ; they often join pieces of it together, and use 
 it as a covering to save their more valuable bark clothing : it is also 
 remarkable, that to the water of the green cocoa-nut is ascribed the 
 property of clearing the face of all wrinkles and imperfections, and 
 imparting to it the rosy tints of youthful days. Besides the copious 
 stream of toddy which it affords, by a similar process another fluid of 
 a more pure and limpid quality, called mirra, is obtained, from which 
 jaggory is manufactured. Cordiner and others assert, that the toddy 
 drawn from the palmira tree is considered to make better arrack 
 than that procured from the cocoa, and both the toddy and pulp of 
 the fruit yield a sugar which is highly esteemed in the neighbouring 
 parts of India. This sugar is of a dark colour, an imperfection which 
 might be easily remedied by a proper process of refining : when 
 exported, it is packed in the leaves of the tree to which it owes its 
 origin, and in that state is delivered to the purchasers. Percival calls 
 the palm from which this sugar is obtained, the sugar tree, and he 
 is of opinion that, if properly attended to, the natives might obtain 
 from it such large quantities of sugar as to render it a substitute for 
 the cane, and afford sufficient material for the distillation of rum. 
 There is not a province in Hindostan in which this tree grows to so 
 great a height as in Ceylon. Its umbrageous top gives splendour to 
 the humblest hamlet round which it is planted, but, as it is here usually 
 to be met with in groves, it is curious to behold with what dexterity 
 the natives climb its straight and slender trunk in order to suspend 
 the chatty or earthen pot on the branches, for the purpose of procuring 
 the juice. Having gained the summit of one tree, their ingenuity is 
 such that they have no occasion to renew the toil of climbing, for, by 
 means of the branches and some ropes fastened at different places, 
 they pass from tree to tree with the greatest ease and facility. In 
 this manner they collect the toddy from a whole plantation without 
 even once descending ; and their feats of agility, on these occasions, 
 are seldom outdone by the most expert sailors in the rigging of a ship, 
 or the gambols of the monkey in its native forests. It is not unwor 
 thy of observation, that the usual duration of the cocoa tree is from 
 sixty to seventy years, and that, about the fifth year, it is capable of 
 producing fruit, as if its existence had been measured by providence 
 
185 
 
 to answer the limited life of man. Its height is from sixty to ninety 
 feet, and from one to two feet in thickness. At the top, are about 
 twelve or fifteen leaves, each twelve or fourteen feet long, resembling 
 an immense ostrich feather. The terminal leaf bud is occasionally 
 eaten, when boiled ; it is a substitute for cabbage, and is frequently 
 preserved as a pickle : on the removal of these terminal buds, the tree 
 dies. The leaves are employed for thatching houses, constructing 
 fences, ceiling rooms, and making baskets, some of which are so closely 
 worked as to serve for water-buckets, while others are employed for 
 catching fish ; the ligneous fibres are used as pins, toothpicks, brooms, 
 and several culinary purposes. The young leaves being translucent, 
 lanterns are made of them, bonnets for females, hats for soldiers and 
 sailors to protect them from the rays of the sun. The leaves are like 
 wise used to write on, in the same manner as the papyrus of Egypt. 
 Elephants are fed on them, and temporary huts constructed through 
 their means, as they resist all kinds of weather. Travelling at night 
 being customary, in order to avoid the intolerable heat of the day, 
 torches are made of these leaves, and, when burned, the ashes serve all 
 the purposes of soap. The cordage that is formed from the fibres is 
 equal to that from the best hemp. The root is sometimes chewed 
 instead of the areca nut ; the hard bark of the stem is converted into 
 drums, and the mid rib of the leaf serves for lancets and for oars. 
 The daily produce of sweet juice drawn from a tree is about three or 
 four gallons, and it continues to flow for four or five weeks together. 
 To prepare the bud for the run of the juice, they check its expansion 
 by laying on it a mixture of pepper, lemons, garlic, and salt ; this they 
 cover with leaves to preserve it from the sun s influence, and, after 
 treating it in this manner, a thin piece is daily cut from its vertex, by 
 which means the juice trickles copiously in proportion to the healthy 
 state of the tree and the congeniality of the atmosphere. 
 
 The indigenous growth of the palm seems to be circumscribed by 
 parallels of latitude, twenty five degrees equidistant from the equator ; 
 hence this zone excludes all Europe, and many portions of Asia, 
 Africa, and America. But while providence lias bestowed this 
 invaluable production on the inhabitants within those boundaries, it 
 has compensated other countries lying beyond them with the luxury 
 of the vine, so nicely balanced are the gifts of our impartial and 
 munificent Creator. 
 
 Though arrack, among the Cingalese, has, from time immemorial, 
 been a common drink of the country, yet their method of manufac 
 turing it is rude, and indicates an ignorance of chemical knowledge. 
 
186 
 
 The still employed for this purpose is of earthenware and of the sim 
 plest construction: the subjoined is a true representation of the one in 
 general use. 
 
 A. b. is the alembic and capital luted together. D. e. a refrigera 
 tory and receiver of one piece, and the latter connected with the head 
 by a bamboo, c. 
 
 The British settled at Columbo, as well as in other parts of the 
 island, have introduced the modern European improvements in this 
 branch of business, but the natives, tenacious of their old arts, seem 
 insensible of such advantages and continue to use their own rude 
 apparatus. In this, however, they are not more singular than in the 
 exercise of other arts, which continue to be practised by them as they 
 have existed from the most remote antiquity. They cannot even be 
 prevailed on to give up some of the most absurd customs. They 
 drink water out of a vessel having a tube like a tea-pot, and receive 
 the contents in their mouths without suffering the pipe to touch their 
 lips. In sharing with a. stranger, rather than suffer him to touch the 
 sacred tube, they pour the liquor into his hands. Other habits, 
 equally superstitious, prevail, and a slavish reliance on old customs 
 renders the progress of knowledge slow and difficult. Their weak 
 ness is such, that they become dupes of jugglers, pretending sooth 
 sayers, and conjurers. In crossing rivers, they endeavour to avert 
 the dangers apprehended from crocodiles, by charms which they call 
 pilisuniam, but neither these, nor their numerous magical spells, pre 
 vent them from being frequently devoured by those ravenous mon 
 sters. Percival informs us, that the conjurers employed at the bay of 
 Condatchy to charm or keep away the sharks from divers in the 
 pearl fishery, are enjoined neither to eat nor drink during the day, lest 
 
187 
 
 f heir incantations or prayers might prove ineffectual ; but it fre 
 quently occurs that they regale themselves with plenty of toddy or 
 arrack till they are no longer able to stand at their devotions, and the 
 divers often fall victims to the intemperance of those enthusiasts and 
 their own silly credulity. 
 
 At marriage feasts in Ceylon, there is much revelry, such as 
 dancing, singing, music, playing at various games, besides drinking 
 surie (fresh fermented palm juice,) punch, arrack, and vellipatty.* 
 These feasts are held at the bride s house, where the happy couple 
 eat out of the same dish, have their thumbs tied together, sleep there 
 that night, and repair the next morning to the bridegroom s habitation. 
 In the island of Madagascar, where nature has been profusely 
 munificent of her gifts, the natives are for the most part temperate 
 and abstemious. Their ordinary drink is hot water or the broth of 
 boiled meat, except on occasions of ceremony and festivity, when 
 wines of their own making are used. Among these wines, great 
 quantities of toak, a liquor made from honey, are consumed at a feast 
 on the circumcision of their children, when those who drink most are 
 considered to have done the greatest honor to the repast. To guard 
 against accidents, the men are deprived of their arms before they are 
 permitted to drink, after which they are suffered to indulge in riot and 
 noise until the whole of the liquor made for the occasion is exhausted . 
 Four sorts of wine are made in Madagascar ; the most common is the 
 toak, manufactured much in the same way as our mead. In the com 
 position, three parts of water are added to one of honey in the combs, 
 and the mixture reduced by boiling to one-third of the quantity : it 
 is then skimmed and put to ferment in large tubs or pots of black 
 earth, after which it has a pleasant, luscious taste. Honey is one of the 
 most profitable as well as the most useful articles produced in Mada 
 gascar. In the management of bees, there is little trouble. They 
 are very numerous, and readily come to their tohokes, or hives ; hence 
 is derived the name of toak. These hives are trunks of a tree called 
 fontuoletch, cut about a yard long, split, scooped, and again bound 
 together in their natural position, leaving a hole at the bottom 
 to enter. These hives are placed in the woods to enable the bees the 
 more readily to collect the honey from the shrubs and flowers. 
 
 From a tree, called Safer, which resembles the cocoa-nut, but not so 
 large, a pleasant liquor, termed Arqffer, is produced. The leaves or 
 branches are first burned off, leaving the trunk bare. The top being 
 cut away, a hole is formed in the middle by lancets, which, in a short 
 time, fills with the juice issuing as if from a spring. The liquor being 
 * Haafner s Travels through Ceylon. 
 
188 
 
 drawn oft , the hole fills again the same day, and thus continues to 
 yield a supply for six or seven days before the tree is exhausted. 
 This liquid is not like a sirup, but is very sweet, cooling, and refresh 
 ing.* If fermented, it intoxicates like other liquors drawn from the 
 palm tree. 
 
 From the cane another wine is procured, termed toupare, signifying 
 wine from sugar. This is obtained by boiling the canes in water till 
 they are reduced to two-thirds of the original quantity, after which the 
 liquid is put into calabashes, and, in three days, it becomes so strong 
 and corrosive as to dissolve or penetrate an egg-shell in the course 
 of eight or ten hours. The toupare has a pungent, bitterish taste, 
 much resembling beer highly hopped. In this island are fourteen 
 species of the cane much larger and producing more sugar than those 
 of the West Indies ; they are used merely for making toupare, the 
 natives not knowing the value of them for any other profitable purpose : 
 they are as thick as a man s wrist, and a foot of them in length will 
 weigh two pounds. The third description of wine is derived from 
 the banana fruit (musa-paradisiaca,) by boiling it four or five hours, 
 and, after a short fermentation, it becomes in taste and flavour very 
 like cider. From the vontaca (cydonium Bengalense,) a fruit, the 
 size of a quince, a fourth sort of wine, not unlike beer, is manufactured. 
 When the vontaca, or Bengal quince, as it is called, is ripe, the juice 
 and pulp have the most delightful flavour, and, when opened, diffuse 
 a most agreeable odour. This fruit is highly nutritive, and is there 
 fore much used in fattening swine. 
 
 With their drinks the Madagasses mix the red fruit of the aughive 
 in the same way, and for the same purpose, that we use lemon and 
 limes, to impart a palatable tartness. Vines, bearing grapes of a good 
 quality, grow spontaneously in some parts of the island ; but previous 
 to the settlement of the French, under Flacourt, in 1 655, they were 
 not considered by the natives as eatable. Here also is a curious sort 
 of vine which bears a fruit very much admired by Europeans, and 
 having a root said to be a species of yam ; it is called the Madagascar 
 grape, but, whether the root is used for food or to what purpose it is 
 converted, we are not told. In most of the villages of Madagascar, 
 it is a prevailing custom to keep an open house for the entertainment 
 and accommodation of travellers, and, as indicative of its use, it is 
 open on all sides, as if to invite persons from every quarter, and to 
 afford shelter indiscriminately to every individual Although hos 
 pitable in the extreme, the Abbe Rochon assures us, that in all their 
 
 * Drury s Fifteen Years Captivity in the Island of Madagascar, Svo. 
 
189 
 
 entertainments they never fall into those excesses, which are but too 
 common amongst more polished nations : yet, like other mortals, they 
 are subject to occasional aberations from rectitude of conduct and 
 sobriety. In the account given of the loss of the Winterten, East 
 Indiaman, on the coast of Madagascar, the benevolence and kind 
 ness of the king towards the sufferers are spoken of in high terms ; 
 but it is said, that although he had one fault in common with many of his 
 subjects, that of being addicted to spirituous liquors,he never seemed to 
 forget his dignity. Like the Macedonian monarch, he gave frequent 
 occasion to appeal from Philip drunk to Philip sober ; and though 
 the idea was not clothed in the garb of classic taste, it was perfectly 
 intelligible, when he used to say " To day, brandy speak, to morrow, 
 king speak !" 
 
 Botanists have enumerated eleven kinds of rice in this island, all 
 cultivated to considerable extent, besides the several species of yams 
 (ignanames), some of which are as large as a man s body. Fruit is 
 abundant and of various descriptions. Water melons are of two 
 kinds, one black, and the other with red seeds : both cooling and 
 much used in the hot seasons. The gourds are of two sorts, one long, 
 the other globular; the former dressed with milk, affords a good 
 nutritive dish, and,, after being scooped, the rinds are converted into 
 bottles for wine and other liquors. Though they have other vessels, 
 the king drinks out of an earthen cup which none is permitted to use 
 but himself, not even his wives or children. Toake is most com 
 monly drunk out of bowls, and on occasions of rejoicing, the women 
 as well as the men indulge in the sympathetic pleasures of quaffing 
 this favourite beverage. 
 
 The inhabitants of Madagascar, when first visited by Europeans, had 
 no notion of letters, of a horse, nor of any kind of wheel machine or 
 carriage ; and to the Mahometans, who first traded with them, they 
 are said to be indebted for most of their arts ; yet that of distillation 
 seems to have been wholly unknown To this day, they may be said 
 to be in a state of barbarism, and, overwhelmed by superstitious 
 notions, they yield to the most absurd practices. Infants are sacri 
 ficed because they are brought forth on unlucky days, fathers and 
 mothers even assisting in the destruction of their innocent offspring. 
 The island of Bourbon , when discovered in the sixteenth century, 
 presented nothing in the vegetable kingdom of any importance for 
 food, the palm tree excepted ; but, since that time, it has been planted 
 with various European productions, as well as those of the neighbour 
 ing islands. The narrow valleys, the sides of the hills, and the plains, 
 the island being chiefly mountainous, are the only parts cultivated. 
 
190 
 
 and although these amply compensate the labour of the tiller, the pro 
 duce is principally taken up in cotton and coffee. Partial attention is 
 paid to the sugar-cane, rice, maize, and potatoes, but more particularly 
 to the culture of yams, cassava (jatropha,) as they form the chief sup 
 port of the slaves. From the cassava, is manufactured a drink com 
 mon amongst the lower order, the same as that in the West Indies, 
 and, as the cocoa-nut is abundant, arrack is also made : the houses, 
 in which this liquor is sold, yield a considerable item of revenue. 
 The crops of rice, wheat, and maize, produce sufficient surplus for 
 exportation to the Mauritius, while oranges, plantains, pomegranates, 
 bananas, melons, raspberries, citrons, tamarinds, and a variety of other 
 fruits, may be had almost for nothing. 
 
 The Mauritius, or Isle of France, famed as the scene of the inte 
 resting tale of Paul and Virginia, is little distinguished from Bourbon 
 in its productions. The great commodity in consumption amongst 
 the slaves is thejatropha or cassada, of winch there are two species, 
 the jatropha janipha, and thejatropka manihot, both indigenous to 
 South America and first brought to this island by M. de la Bour- 
 donnois, one of its early governors. The cassada is a strong vege 
 table poison before it undergoes the process of boiling ; the manihot is 
 a kind of narcotic ; both sorts are easily converted into wholesome 
 food by a process described in treating of the West Indies and the 
 Brazils. The Mauritians form it into cakes resembling oaten or 
 barley bread, and in this state it is called manioc. By a different 
 management, the manihot is turned into a pulpy consistence, known 
 by the name of tapioca, and some believe that the farinaceous powder, 
 Indian arrow-root, is but a more delicate preparation of this substance. 
 Tapioca, while it thus serves for food, is also a pleasing anodyne. In 
 the Mauritius, sugar is reared nearly equal in quality to that of any 
 other country : a considerable quantity of it is consumed in the 
 island, some of which is refined, but a great deal is used in its crys 
 tallized state, and prepared by many, particularly for tea. The 
 planters distil a considerable portion, as the consumption of spirituous 
 liquors is carried to some extent, and the blacks, who are passionately 
 fond of tippling, inj ure themselves by too free an indulgence in this 
 and other beverages of their own making ; hence the cause of the 
 early decrepitude so common amongst them. 
 
 Of the minor islands lying in this direction, there is nothing remark 
 able, except the coco de mer. an indigenous production of Praslin, one 
 of the Sechelles adjacent to Mahee. This fruit, found in no other 
 part of the habitable globe, was first discovered on the shores of 
 India, whither it had been carried by the gales and currents from 
 
191 
 
 Praslin ; hence, its name, the coco of the sea. Prior describes it to be 
 a large species of the cocoa nut, commonly double, frequently triple, 
 quadruple, and sometimes quintuple, enclosed within one common 
 rind and fibrous coat ; each of the nuts is about the size of a large 
 melon, distinct in itself, though united on the outside to the others ; 
 the whole is of an oval shape, resembling three or four large eggs, 
 united in a circle and slightly flattened at the point of contact. The 
 Indians valued it highly, from supposing it to stimulate the worship 
 of the Paphian goddess ; and while some considered one side of the 
 nut an active poison, the other bore equal reputation as an antidote. 
 The coco de rtier is not only an object of curiosity, but an article of 
 the utmost utility to all classes of the people. Yet Boteler says, 
 although the fruit is so valuable, it is unbearable on account of its 
 strong, offensive smell, resembling that of urine, and increasing the 
 longer it is kept. The timber, which is sufficiently firm, except in the 
 heart of the tree, may be used for many domestic purposes. At 
 the summit of the tree, which is from 60 to 89 feet high, is the cab 
 bage, which, though more bitter than that of the common palm, forms 
 an excellent pickle. One hundred of its leaves make a good house, 
 including roof, sides, partitions, doors, and window shutters ; and of 
 such materials the majority of the houses in Praslin are constructed. 
 The down of the leaves is used in mattresses and pillows ; the stalks 
 are formed into baskets and brooms, and the heart of the younger 
 stems cut into narrow lengths, from which hats for both sexes are 
 made, and scarcely any others are worn in the island. The fibrous 
 covering of the nut is coverted into ropes, and the shell is univer 
 sally employed as a pitcher, and commonly holds six or eight pints : it 
 is divided longitudinally, and makes plates and dishes for the Negroes ; 
 and when small, forms drinking cups. Within the island, this homely 
 furniture takes the name of the " Praslin crockery ware." No part 
 of this tree is lost, and, without it, the inhabitants, simple as they are, 
 would, perhaps, be ill supplied with many domestic comforts. Besides, 
 the drink which this tree affords, other beverages are made from fruits, 
 particularly from citrons ; while rum and arrack are procured from 
 the different vessels trading to those parts. 
 
 When Marco Polo visited Sumatra, he observed, that there was 
 excellent wine, both red and white, made from the palm tree, 
 and considered good for consumption, dropsy, and disorders of the 
 spleen. The cocoa nuts that he saw were as large as a man s head, 
 and full of a pleasant liquor, in his opinion, better than wine. In 
 1599, Davis found aqua-ritce, arrack, and brandy, quite common; and 
 he describes one of the kings as having a number of attendants to 
 
192 
 
 supply him with those beverages, in which he indulged to excess, in 
 company with his women, banqueting from morning till night. 
 Mechanics and tradesmen, of various descriptions, were then nume 
 rous, among whom he particularly mentions distillers of aquavitce 
 (arrack) from rice ; as being Mahometans, drink from the grape was 
 prohibited.* A rude species of distillation was known to the Suma- 
 trans from a more remote period, and is supposed to be of their own 
 invention. It was practised only in the preparation of the oil of 
 Benjamin, with which they perfumed their hair. The still consisted 
 of a prceoo, or earthen rice-pot, covered closely ; in the side, was 
 inserted a small bamboo, well luted with clay and ashes, tlirough 
 which the oil dropped into a receiver. What was brought over in 
 this way was empyreumatic ; and valued by them at so high a price, 
 that it could only be procured by the affluent. This mode of distil 
 lation still continues in some parts of Sumatra,! 
 
 The inhabitants import immense quantities of sugar and arrack from 
 Java ; but as this island produces sugar-canes in abundance, and is 
 stocked with great plenty of the anou, an excellent species of palm, 
 together with rice and other grain, it was expected, in Marsden s 
 time, to rival Java in the manufacture of those articles of trade. The 
 expense of employing slaves in the labours of the field was found at 
 one time to exceed the advantages ; but it was seen while the manage 
 ment of the plantations and works were under the care of an Eng 
 lish gentleman of the name of Botham, that the end was to be 
 obtained, by employing the resident Chinese, and allowing them a 
 proportion of the produce. From the juice of the anou, called neero, 
 or toddy, a description of drink is made, termed brum, which, from 
 the process, similarity of taste, and name, with the brow, of Java, seems 
 to indicate a common origin. The late discovery of coal mines in this 
 island, may lead to improvements in all the arts of civilized life, and 
 tend much to give an impetus to the physical as well as the intellec 
 tual energies of the people ; while it may lead adventurers and 
 capitalists to take advantage of the immense resources of the coun 
 try ; and when coupled with steam navigation, it opens a prospect of 
 incalculable benefit to our connexions and settlements in the East. 
 
 Ardent spirits are manufactured in larger quantities in Java than 
 in any other island in the Indian ocean ; this may be accounted for 
 by the great industry of the Dutch, and the celebrity which the arrack 
 of Batavia so early acquired under their auspices. According to Sir 
 
 * Voyage of Captain Davis, in 1598. 
 
 f Marsden s History of Sumatra, 4to. p. 14G. 
 
193 
 
 Thomas Raffles, the manner of making it is as follows : About 701bs. 
 of ketan, or glutinous rice, are filled up in a small vat ; round this 
 heap, a hundred cans of water are poured, and on the top, twenty cans 
 of molasses ; after remaining two days in this vat, the ingredients are 
 removed to a larger vat adjoining, when they receive the addition of 
 four hundred cans of water and a hundred cans of molasses. Thus 
 fur the process is carried on in the open air. In a separate vat within 
 doors, forty cans of palm wine, or toddy, are immediately mixed with 
 nine hundred cans of water and one hundred and fifty cans of molasses, 
 both preparations being allowed to remain in this state for two days. 
 The first of these preparations is carried to a still larger vat within 
 doors; and the latter, being contained in a vat placed above, is poured 
 upon it through a hole bored for the purpose near the bottom. In this 
 state, the entire preparation is allowed to ferment for two days, when 
 it is poured into small earthen jars, containing about twenty cans 
 each, in which it remains for the further period of two days, and is 
 then distilled. The proof of a sufficient fermentation is obtained by 
 placing a lighted candle or taper about six inches above the surface of 
 the liquor in the fermenting vat ; if the process be properly advanced, 
 the fixed air rises and extinguishes the light. Another mode of 
 apportioning the materials for the making of arrack is, 
 
 62 parts molasses, 
 3 do. toddy (or palm wine), 
 
 35 do. rice. 
 
 One hundred parts of these yield, oa distillation, twenty-three and 
 a-half parts of proof arrack. The stills are made of copper, and are 
 much like those used in the West Indies ; the worms consist of about 
 nine turns of Banca tin. The spirit runs into a vessel under ground, 
 from whence it is poured into receiving vessels, and is- called the third, 
 or common sort of arrack, which by a second distillation in a smaller 
 still, with tlie addition of some water, becomes the second sort ; and 
 by a third operation is what is called the first sort. To ascertain the 
 strength of the spirit, a small quantity of it is burned in a saucer, and 
 the residuum measured ; the difference between the original quantity 
 and the residuum gives the measure of the alcohol lost. The com 
 pletion of the first sort does not require more than ten days, six hours 
 being sufficient for the original preparation to pass through the first 
 still. The Chinese residents who conduct the whole of this process, 
 call the third, or common sort, sichew, the second, tanpo, and the first, 
 kiji. The two latter are distinguished as arrack apt. When cooled, 
 it is poured into large vats in the store-houses, where it remains until 
 put into casks. The making of arrack is distinct from that of sugar, 
 
194 
 
 which is manufactured to a considerable extent in Java. The arrack 
 distillers purchase the molasses from the sugar manufacturers at the 
 rate of about a dollar and a-half a picul, delivered at the distillery. 
 The best arrack is made for seven Spanish dollars the picul ; or 
 2 T Vo- dollars the cubic foot.* In 1795, the receipts on arrack at home 
 and in India, exclusively of the trade to China, being 140 leagers, 
 amounted to 46,000 florins. The export duty on arrack from Bata- 
 via rates as follows : on the leager (of 388 jugs) of first quality, at 
 lOf ; on the second, at 8f ; and on the third, or lowest quality, at 6 
 florins; rice and maize are the chief articles of home consumption, and 
 therefore cultivated to very great extent : some wheat is likewise 
 raised, but the staple article is rice. Two kinds of fermented liquor 
 is prepared from the latter grain by the natives. In making the first, 
 called badek, the rice is first boiled and stewed with a ferment called 
 razi, consisting of onions, black pepper, and capsicum, mixed up into 
 small cakes, and daily sold in the markets. After frequent stirring, 
 the compound is rolled into balls, wliich are piled upon each other in 
 a high earthen vessel ; and when fermentation has commenced, the 
 badek exudes and is collected at the bottom. The remainder, after 
 fermentation is completed, has a sweet taste, and is sold as a dainty 
 in the markets under the name of tape. Brom is the second kind of 
 liquor, and it is made from ketan. This glutinous substance is boiled 
 in large quantities, and, being stirred with razi, remains exposed in 
 open tubs, till fermentation takes place, when the liquor is poured off 
 into close earthen vessels. It is generally buried for several months 
 in the earth, by which means the fermentation is checked, and the 
 strength of the liquor increased it is sometimes made strong by 
 boiling. The colour varies from brown to red and yellow, according 
 to the ketan employed. Brom, kept for several years, is considered 
 excellent by the natives, and is very intoxicating. It is, however, 
 ardent and apt to give a head-ache.f The white arrack, called kneip y 
 is generally boiled strong, and sent to India; the brown arrack 
 receives that tinge from the cask, and it is that description of this 
 liquor which is sold in Europe. The casks are made from 
 the teak tree, which imparts to the liquor a particular flavour, 
 much relished, and which is supposed to arise from an essen 
 tial oil peculiar to this wood. The Chinese drink the weaker 
 sort warm, as is the practice in their own country.^ The Batavia 
 
 * Crawfurd s Hist, of the Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 478. 
 f Raffles Hist, of Java, vol. i. pp. 176, 177. 
 % Thunberg s Travels, vol. ii, p. 283. 
 
195 
 
 arrack is celebrated all over the East for its superiority ; and when 
 mellowed by time, is certainly an excellent spirit. The Chinese, to do 
 them justice, have arrived at a degree of perfection in its manufacture 
 not equalled by any other people. Here the palm is of the 
 greatest importance, as it yields sugar and toddy so indispensable to 
 those distillers. Of this tree, there are many varieties in the island ; 
 that termed Sagivire, or Gomuti palm (Borassus Gomutus) affords 
 to the inhabitants abundance of fruit, about the size of a medlar and 
 of a triangular form : the fruit of a single shoot yields a sufficient 
 load for a man. From the inside of the fruit, a good sweet-meat is 
 prepared, while the outside rind is of a poisonous quality, and when 
 macerated, the infusion is, from its peculiar pungency, termed by the 
 Dutch " hell water? The native Javanese turn the material of this 
 tree to various useful and domestic purposes ; so that not a particle 
 of it maybe said to be thrown away. 
 
 The enterprise and energy displayed in the working of the coal 
 mines in the district of Bantam, cannot fail of adding much to the 
 facilities of trade and manufactures in Java, and ultimately serve to 
 enhance its commercial interests. Wood is the chief fuel ; but its 
 price and bulk are, from many considerations, a considerable draw- 
 back to its general usefulness. 
 
 At Batavia, the Dutch make a kind of beer of a very effervescent 
 nature, called klein bier, which they usually drink in the evenings. 
 This beverage not being hopped, merely serves for present use, and has 
 good medicinal effects ; when the calabash, or vessel in which it is con 
 tained, is opened, a very loud report is heard, and in the glass it sparkles 
 Jike champagne. Were more care taken in the brewing of this liquor, 
 it might supersede, in a great degree, the importation of a foreign 
 article, and prove more wholesome than many of the native drinks. 
 
 Although sugar is extensively manufactured in Java by the Chi 
 nese, no rum is made : in refining sugar, the process followed is much 
 like that observed in the West Indies. The quality is considered 
 equal to that made at Manilla, or the Antilles, though the machinery 
 is rude. Considerable quantities are sent to the Malabar coast ; but 
 the principal exportation is to Japan and Europe. The sugar 
 produced in Java amounted, in the year 1818, to 200,000 piculs, or 
 27,200,0001bs. 
 
 Here, as w r ell as in other of the East India islands, where Euro 
 pean influence has made an inroad, the revenue is collected by farm 
 ing it either to the natives, or to Chinese speculators, who are usually 
 the chief contractors and manufacturers. The better to secure it, 
 the farms are put up to public auction; which is often the cause of 
 
196 
 
 fraudulent and exorbitant exactions. A leager of arrack, of the highest 
 proof, including duties, sells at the merchants stores at from 60 to 75 
 dollars ; or 45 cents of a Spanish dollar per gallon ; and a leager of 
 the second quality at from 45 to 55 dollars, or 33 cents per gallon. 
 Sometimes the best sort may be had for 20 pence; and the ordinary 
 kind for about 15 pence a-gallon. 
 
 At a remote period, the proprietors of inns and taverns were obliged 
 to pay two rials per month for their Ucense ; besides, 70 rials excise on 
 every pipe of Spanish wine which they sold ; while the distillers of arrack 
 paid 50 rials for every chaldron, or gosper , which they manufactured. 
 
 As the great portion of the population of Java, computed at 
 5,000,000, are Mahometans, an indulgence in intoxicating liquors is 
 not prevalent, though the people often barter their credit and char 
 acter in private for the produce of the still. Crawford says, that 
 notwithstanding the professors of the Mahometan faith, in this island 
 are no drunkards, all classes partake of wine, or spirituous liquors, with 
 out reserve. Among the native cliiefs of highest rank, he found but 
 three examples of persons refraining from the open use of these 
 beverages.* 
 
 Many of them, during their convivial moments, when excited by 
 bacchanalian frenzy, often commit the most extravagant acts. On 
 one of these occasions, the son of a chief, professed with a belief of 
 his own invulnerability, put the matter to the test, by drawing his kriss 
 and killing himself on the spot. 
 
 To the widows, who immolate themselves on the funeral piles of 
 their husbands, it is customary to give, the night before the ceremony, 
 whatever tends to the gratification of the senses ; and among these, 
 wines and spirits form no inconsiderable share. They are given in such 
 quantities that few objects appear terrific : hence the horrors of the 
 burning sacrifice are met in a state of excitement or stupefaction, 
 which deprives death of all its terrors. 
 
 At feasts and entertainments, there is much conviviality, with great 
 indulgence in the pleasures of the table. The cups used by the 
 princes, chiefs, and most of the higher orders, are costly and splendid, 
 buing studded with precious stones and otherwise highly ornamented. 
 
 Batavia, the capital, from being situated in a low, swampy ground, 
 intersected with foetid canals, and surrounded by stagnant marshes, 
 is so unhealthy, that few Europeans, who can avoid it, even sleep in 
 the city. Soldiers and seamen have often neglected this precaution ; 
 hence a night or two spent there has proved fatal. Much of tlus is 
 
 * Hist, of the Indian Archipelago, vol. ii. p. 270, 
 
197 
 
 to be attributed to excess in eating, but a great deal more to excess 
 in drinking- arrack; a liquor so cheap that a man may get drunk for a 
 half-penny. Hence, it has been observed, that a person found 
 drunk at Batavia is a fit subject for a doctor s care ; and this remark, 
 which is there prevalent or, rather a common adage, has often had 
 the good effect of preventing repetitions of inebriety; as a regimen 
 suited to the nature of the indiscretion, added to a fear of death, 
 carries with it a cure for the most determined drunkard. Such is the 
 mortality which sometimes prevails among new-comers and settlers, 
 that when a lady, who kept lodgings, was applied to for accommoda 
 tions, she regretted her inability to comply, but exclaimed, with flip 
 pant earnestness, " Do not be impatient ; my lodgers are foreigners 
 or strangers, and you know we are certain of death-vacancies in a 
 short time !" As a provision for contingencies, in consequence of the 
 mortality that prevails, it is common to have graves ready made for 
 the first that may offer, as it too unhappily occurs, that the influx 
 of strangers is a constant source of support for the speculation of 
 the undertakers. It has been remarked, that Europeans are here the 
 principal sufferers ; next the Creoles, and half castes ; then the Chinese, 
 Javanese, Malays, Baliers, Buggese, Amboynese, Negroes, &c. 
 
 The next island that claims attention is Borneo, a place, which from 
 its being, with the exception of New Holland, the largest island in the 
 world, ought to afford ample materials for an extended article ; but, 
 like many other portions of the globe, it is yet little known. The 
 coasts are possessed by the Malays and other settlers, while the abo 
 rigines occupy the inland parts, and are styled Beajus, a term, which, 
 in the Malay language, signifies a wild man. Some accounts say, 
 they are little better than men in a wild state, and if Commo 
 dore Roggewein relate facts, we ought to consider them among the 
 basest, most cruel, and perfidious people in the world.* Perhaps the 
 most authentic account of this island is that given by Antonio Venti- 
 miglia, an Italian missionary, sent from Macao, in order to convert, 
 the natives to Christianity he died there in 1691. His account is 
 more favourable to their moral habits, as he represents them, par 
 ticularly the Beajus, as honest and industrious, having a strong affec 
 tion for each other ; sowing and reaping for mutual benefit ; each 
 taking what serves his family, and leaving the remainder to the tribes 
 in common. By this means, both scarcity and disputes arc prevented, 
 and general harmony prevails. 
 
 The Chinese early traded to this island, and many of them 
 hecaming settlers, instructed the natives in tho^e arts with which 
 
 * Voyage round the World by Roggewein, in 1721-1723. 
 
198 
 
 they were themselves familiar. Magellan found arrack in abundant 
 use among them, and Captain Beckman* was regaled with the 
 beverages peculiar to other equinoctial regions. As Borneo furnishes 
 most of the trees and fruits common to the East, hence the same 
 description of liquors are prevalent toddy and arrack from the palm ; 
 sugar and rice ; with cooling draughts from melons, oranges, citrons, 
 bananas, pomegranates ; a variety of other fruits and honey. Their 
 Pagan practices have many offerings and ceremonies connected with 
 the worship of their idols, which, with their feasts and superstitious 
 observances, give occasion to the consumption of a vast quantity of 
 their intoxicating beverages. Besides the native supply, a large pro 
 portion is imported from Java, for which gold and diamonds, so 
 abundant in the island, are bartered. The ava, or intoxicating 
 pepper plant (piper methysticum)^ is much cultivated by the Beajus, 
 and affords them equal pleasure with the betel and areca, of which 
 they chew immense quantities. The ava is a shrub with thick roots, 
 forked branches, long leaves, and bearing a clump or spike of berries. 
 The root being chewed, a little water or milk from the cocoa-nut is 
 poured upon the masticated pulp, and from the fermentation which 
 ensues, a strong inebriating drink is produced, in which the natives 
 delight, and indulge often to excess. Their physicians, as among 
 other rude nations, have recourse in the cure of diseases, to charms 
 and necromancy ; and most of their incantations and mummeries are 
 the effects of intoxication. The piedro di porco, or pork stone, 
 which is so highly esteemed among them, that it some times brings 
 300 crowns, is exhibited with the liquor in which it is steeped before 
 the draught is administered, in order that the doctor may infallibly 
 ascertain whether his patient is to live or die. 
 
 Throughout the whole of the Sunda islands, a vast number of 
 the Chinese are scattered ; and their affairs are managed for the most 
 part agreeably to their own national observances. Those in the island 
 of Timor have a code of laws by which they are governed ; and 
 amongst other regulations, they have secured to themselves an exclu 
 sive right to manufacture a spirituous liquor called anis, a description 
 of arrack highly esteemed. The natives extract from the fan-palm, 
 a beverage termed bacanassi ; this is fermented in baskets made of 
 the leaves of the pandanus, and suspended from the branches of the 
 tree for a few days till it becomes fit for use. 
 
 In examining the group of islands classed under the name 
 of Celebes, or Macassar, I find that naturalists are very little 
 
 * Capt. Beckman s Voyage to Borneo, 1718, 8vo. 
 
199 
 
 acquainted with the interior of any of them ; they seem, however, to 
 differ scarcely any thing in their productions from those already 
 described. Most of the oriental grains and fruits abound, and rice 
 is reared in such quantities, as even to afford much for exportation . 
 cocoas, sugar, betel, areca, and different kinds of palms are plentiful. 
 The plantain is of the very best description, and the natives in a 
 great measure exist on the fruit and regale themselves with its inebri 
 ating juice. From the Sagwire, (Gomuti palm) a very strong species 
 of wine is made, which, in Macassar, goes by the name of the tree 
 from whence it is drawn. The religion in those islands, being chiefly 
 Mahometan, has hitherto prevented the inhabitants from carrying on 
 distillation to any extent, although they are supplied with every 
 article necessary for the purpose. The arrack and foreign liquors 
 consumed here are principally brought from Batavia ; but, since 
 many of the natives have become Christians, it is not likely that they 
 will continue so scrupulous as the followers of the prophet. The 
 introduction of the Mahometan faith is somewhat singular one of their 
 kings having heard of various modes of w r orship, particularly the 
 Christian and Mahometan, became dissatisfied with his own religion. 
 He convened a general assembly, and, ascending an eminence, with 
 fervour addressed the deity, entreating him, as he had the winds and 
 waves in his own hand, to send first to those islands those mission 
 aries who taught the true religion, declaring, that he would reckon 
 such an arrival a declaration of heaven in their favour ; and disclaim 
 ing all blame, if he were thus misled. The Mahometans first arrived, 
 and their religion was instantly embraced) as that for which heaven- 
 had openly declared. 
 
 The next islands that arrest attention are the Molucca or Sprce 
 islands, with which, although there is constant communication, our 
 acquaintance is but slender. With their valuable products, which 
 have added so much to the refinements of luxury, all are familiar ; but 
 the manners, habits, and domestic economy of the inhabitants, are yet but 
 imperfectly known to us. Fruit is rather scarce, and grain is but partial! y 
 cultivated, the whole attention of the people being directed to the 
 rearing of spices. In Ternat, which is the largest of the groupe, a 
 meal is extracted from the pith of a species of palm, thought to be 
 a description of sago. From a luscious root of this name, which is 
 sold in bunches, a kind of bread rs made, held in high estimation. 
 Canes, yielding a liquor between the joints, afford a cooling drink, 
 while the defect of native beverages is supplied by foreign importa 
 tions. In the Moluccas, some sugar-canes are grown, but they are 
 of little importance ; the bread-fruit abounds, and a kind of honey is 
 
200 
 
 obtained from a fly (a species of bee), scarcely the size of an ant. 
 The rapacity of the Dutch and their fear of invasion have induced 
 them to discourage the cultivation of the various esculent commodities 
 which the nature of the climate and the richness of the soil would 
 warrant. 
 
 Amboyna is noted for an excellent description of Sagwire; the 
 tree from which it is extracted, is of the same genus as the cocoa-nut, 
 sago, siri, and date-tree ; from sago and siri, it appears to derive its 
 name, as if the liquor were indiscriminately made from each. To keep 
 this beverage for any length of time, the roots of a tree called the 
 Sasoot, or Oubat, are infused, which occasion fermentation, and the 
 process is usually completed in eight hours. It is generally bottled 
 for convenience and safety, and is considered wholesome, refreshing, 
 and strongly inebriating. The juice or toddy is collected in the 
 same manner as elsewhere described, and is here called tyffering.* 
 From the Sagwire, an arrack is distilled, and sold so cheap as a 
 farthing a glass. When Arago touched at the island of Rawack, one 
 of the Moluccas, he observed, that both before and after a repast, a 
 libation was made, in honour, as lie supposed, of some deity the milk 
 of the cocoa-nut appeared to be the principal beverage.]" 
 
 In the Manillas or Phillippine islands, the sugar-cane is success 
 fully cultivated ; the valleys are fertile in Sago and many kinds of 
 fruits, and the bread-fruit has lately become an article of importance. 
 The aborigines are called Negrellos, and, it may be presumed, they 
 are much attached to inebriety, as they make drinking vessels of 
 the skulls of such unfortunate Spaniards as fall into their hands, owing 
 to the gross treatment they received from the first invaders. 
 
 At Manilla, the largest of these islands, palm trees grow in great 
 perfection, and there is not less than forty species : such is the magni 
 tude of some of them, that a Jesuit missionary having touched there^ 
 had, through the kindness of a friend, a place prepared for him so- 
 capacious, that under two leaves of one of those trees, he was enabled 
 to say mass and to sleep securely from the most violent rain. The 
 palm to w T hich these leaves belong, is somewhat similar to the talipot 
 of Ceylon (licuala spinosa) the leaves lie in folds like a fan, and 
 are so large, when expanded, that they measure five feet every way. 
 Here they are used as umbrellas, and are sufficient to protect five or 
 six persons from the heaviest rain. This tree rises to a great height, 
 and never blossoms but once, and that is said to be in the year in 
 
 * Stavorinus s Voyage to the East Indies, vol, ii. p. 349. 
 t Arago s Voyage, 4 to. p. 234. 
 
201 
 
 which it dies, when some beautiful yellow flowers appear at the top 
 ornamenting- the wide-spreading- branches, and these are surrounded 
 by a fruit as large as a cherry, of which no use is made, except that 
 of preserving it for seed. Thunberg, speaking 1 of the talipot, says, 
 that when the sheath, which envelopes the flower on its lofty sum 
 mit, comes to maturity, it bursts with an explosion like the report of 
 a cannon, and after that it shoots forth branches on every side to the 
 surprising height of thirty or forty feet. When cut down for the 
 sake of its seed, the pith, like the sago-tree, yields a sort of meal which 
 is made into cakes, and tastes like fine bread, forming a good substi 
 tute for rice. Davy, in his account of Ceylon, questions the reality 
 of what is related respecting the talipot, and says that a good deal of 
 it is fabulous, but that the leaves are from twenty to thirty feet in 
 circumference. Here, as well as in Mindora, another of these islands, 
 a liquor called tuba is drawn from a palm much like the cocoa: large 
 quantities of it are consumed in the country, and produce a consider 
 able revenue. This beverage obtains the name of tuba, in conse 
 quence of the liquor being infused with calinga, the bark of a tree 
 like cinnamon, which is put into it, in order to give it a colour and 
 a more pungent taste. Large quantities of cocoa-nut wine are 
 consumed in that country, producing a considerable revenue. The 
 ricli distil this juice either once or twice, as they wish it stronger or 
 weaker ; it is a clear spirit of an astringent quality. 
 
 The liquor called Chilang is a simple beverage, made by first 
 boiling the juice of the sugar-cane, and then allowing it to ferment, 
 after which it assumes the colour of wine. Another drink, termed 
 Pangati, is made by first putting some herbs with leaven into a pot, 
 then covering them with rice till the vessel is half full and afterwards 
 pouring water on the entire mass. When fermentation has subsided, 
 water is again added, and the liquor thus diluted is usually consumed 
 by sucking it through a cane tube. A substance, not unlike marma 
 lade, is made from toddy, enclosed in sections of the cocoa-nut shell, 
 and exposed in that state in the public bazaars for sale. Sugar, 
 however, is so abundant, that the manufacture of this article is ren^ 
 dered less necessary. Rice is reared with little labour, and even 
 grows on the tops of the mountains without being watered ; it affords 
 the Chinese, who live on and frequent the islands, an opportunity for 
 the exercise of their ingenuity in all the varieties of the brewing pro 
 cess. Abundant materials for the making of an excellent brandy are 
 obtained from the cocoa, nipe, and cabenegro trees : the nipe or nipah 
 is chiefly cultivated for its juice ; it is a low description of palm, 
 seldom exceeding the height of a man j the fruit affords an excellent 
 
202 
 
 sweet-meat, and the leaves, called atap by tlie Malays, are employed 
 in covering cottages and constructing mats. 
 
 As Manilla is the great mart and centre of all the Spanish traders 
 in the East, and the several nations with whom they deal, much of 
 the luxuries and comforts of other countries are brought thither. The 
 viceroy lives in great splendour, and at his table, as well as at the 
 tables of the higher order of merchants, may be found most of the 
 wines, spirits, and liquors of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. 
 The imports are chiefly brandy, gin, and wine: sugar is exported to 
 the amount of 75,000 piculs annually, which, at 1421bs. the picul, is 
 equal to 10,650,0001bs. The sugar is equally packed in earthen 
 vessels, called pelons, three of which contain two piculs; the export 
 duties are 12 cents, the picul. In 1817, the revenue on cocoa-nut- 
 wine, was 153,641 dollars, and on rum 483 dollars. 
 
 In Mindanao, another of the Phillippine islands, among the various 
 fruits, plants, and grain which it produces, there is a tree, called libby 
 by the natives, yielding a kind of sago, and of which there are groves : 
 and plantations several miles in length. It resembles the cabbage- 
 tree, or rather the bread-palm of Malacca, having a strong bark and 
 hard wood, the heart of which is full of a w T hite pith like that of the 
 elder. When the tree is cut down, the pith is extracted and beaten 
 in a mortar until it becomes a complete pulp ; in this state it is laid on 
 a cloth, or sieve, water is poured on it and kept stirring until all the 
 farinaceous, or mealy substance, is strained into a receiver. When 
 settled, the water is drained off, and the residuum or sago baked into 
 cakes and used as bread. Considerable quantities of this valuable 
 article are exported to different parts of the East and eaten with milk 
 of almonds, being deemed, from its astringent nature, an excellent 
 remedy in diarrhoea. 
 
 The interior and mountainous parts of Mindanao produce honey in 
 such abundance, that bees wax is an article of export, and the inhabi 
 tants are not ignorant of the uses to which the honey may be converted 
 in administering to the comforts of life. The Phillipine islands are 
 also noted for a water drawn from a tree justly termed " the fountain 
 tree" and for a kind of cane called by the Spaniards vaxuco, each joint 
 of which yields sufficient for an ordinary draught ; and it is singular 
 that the vaxuco abounds in the mountainous and barren parts, where 
 a cooling beverage is most required. 
 
 Leaving the extensive range of islands connected with the two great 
 Indian Peninsulas, the first kingdom on the Asiatic continent that 
 daims notice, is Cochin-China, in which the manufacture of rice-wine 
 and distillation from that grain are carried on to great extent. 
 
203 
 
 Plantations of sugar-cane are very numerous, and sugar of prime 
 quality is made, in the refining of which the inhabitants have arrived 
 to a degree of perfection unknown, perhaps, in any other part of the 
 world.* This is accomplished by intermixing layers of the sugar-cane 
 of one inch in thickness with similar layers of the herbaceous parts of 
 the plantain tree. The aqueous juices which exude from this filter, 
 carry along w r ith them all impurities, and leave the sugar clear and 
 crystallized. In this state, it is light and porous as a honeycomb. 
 The trade in this article is immense, the Chinese alone are said to take 
 800,000 quintals yearly. It is, however, strange, that the inhabitants 
 do not manufacture rum. Vines are said to grow spontaneously, and 
 grapes are produced in abundance, but they do not appear to be con 
 verted into wine. This has been attributed to their ignorance of 
 knowing how to check the fermentation of the juice of the grape or 
 of other vegetables before they pass from the vinous to the acetous 
 state, else it is most likely that wine would have been common with 
 them instead of distilled liquors. 
 
 From the periodical rains and consequent inundations, Cochin" 
 China is remarkably fruitful in rice, which is divided into two classes, 
 one growing on a dry soil, the other on a soil that is wet. In all the 
 provinces, there are great granaries filled with it, where it is some 
 times kept in good preservation for upwards of thirty years. Of 
 this grain, there are six different sorts ; one description is long, fari 
 naceous, and opaque, from which arrack is chiefly made.f This pre 
 servation of grain is not uncommon ; for we find that in some of the 
 Barbary states, corn is kept in the matamores, subterraneous vaults, 
 or holes made in the form of a cone, for thirty years or more. 
 These vaults are closed at the opening, and atmospheric air carefully 
 excluded. J In distilling from rice, the Cochin-Chinese are not 
 inferior to any other eastern nation. Their arrack is their chief and 
 favourite drink ; and " they have it in such plenty," says Borri, " that 
 all people in general drink as much as they will, and become as drunk 
 as people among us with wine. Graver persons," he adds, "mix that 
 liquor with some other water distilled from calamba, which gives it a 
 delicious smell, and forms a delicate composition." Calamba is a 
 wood of the Kemois mountains ; a species of lignum aloes. When 
 cut young, it is denominated Aquila or Eagles-wood-, when old, it is 
 
 The curious reader may find this described at large in Staunton s Embassy, 
 vol. i. p. 258. 
 
 f White s Voyage to Cochin-China, 8vo. p. 252. 
 
 % Jackson s Account of Morocco, p. 102. 
 
 Borri s Account of Cochin-China, Churchill s Coll. vol. ii. p. 801, 
 
204 
 
 called Calamba. This wood is so celebrated for its perfume and 
 virtue, that it belongs only to the king* ; and it is said of it that, even 
 though buried four feet under ground, it is discovered by its 
 fragrance. Lord Macartney and the gentlemen of his suite were 
 regaled with a portion of this spirit at an entertainment given by the 
 governor of the town of Turon, while the ships were anchored in the 
 bay. It was served in small cups, and resembled, in Staunton s opinion, 
 Irish whiskey. The host on that occasion, by way of setting a good 
 example to his guests, filled his cup to the brim, in a true European 
 style of joviality, and after drinking, turned it up, to shew that he had 
 emptied it to the bottom.* The Cochin-Chinese are a kind-hearted 
 people, and do not bear the character of intemperance. Hospitality 
 is common amongst them, and as practised in the Nicobar islands, a 
 traveller in want of money is always sure to obtain subsistence at any 
 house he may choose to enter, partaking, in common with the family, 
 every thing at table, and retiring without any body inquiring his 
 business, whence he came, or whither he goeth, it being enough for 
 them to know that he is a fellow-mortal in distress."}" Various descrip 
 tions of drink are made from the fruits and vegetables with which the 
 country abounds. The areca-nut and betel are in much request, and, 
 before they are used, are formed into a paste with lime and water. 
 For the purpose of carrying this material about them, the inhabitants 
 go to great expense in making pouches and boxes, which both sexes 
 wear indiscriminately. The men carry their s suspended by a riband 
 from the shoulders in the form of a belt, while the women attach 
 their s to a girdle round the waist. To the practice of chewing betel 
 and smoking tobacco may be attributed the chief cause of the great 
 consumption of rice-wines, in order to supply the constant drain on 
 the animal juices. 
 
 Betel is a favourite over all the East, and its general use is such 
 that no feast or occasion of ceremony is observed without it ; and to 
 partake of it in company with persons of high rank is accounted an 
 honour. It is related of the king of Quedah, that in order to express 
 a high mark of his respect for any of his courtiers or visiters, he made 
 him sit near his throne, and having chewed a little betel, sent it fresh 
 from the royal mouth on a gold saucer to the distinguished indivi 
 dual, who was obliged, as a matter of courtesy, to chew it after him 
 with every apparent mark of satisfaction. 
 
 The highest affront one can offer to an Oriental is to refuse his 
 betel. Bernier tells a story of a young nobleman, who, to prove his 
 
 * Staunton s Embassy, vol. i. p. 255. 
 
 f Le Poirre * Observations on Various Nations, 12mo, 
 
205 
 
 loyalty, took and swallowed the betel from Shah Jehan, though he 
 knew it to be poisoned. 
 
 As the kingdoms of Tonquin and Chochin- China were at one 
 period governed by the same laws, there still exists an affinity in the 
 manners, customs, arts, and sciences of the inhabitants. A reciprocity of 
 habit prevails, and we do not find that the Tonquinese are acquainted 
 with the making of any beverage with which their neighbours are not 
 familiar. The fertility of the country and temperate nature of the 
 climate are said to enable them to cultivate a great variety of grain. 
 Besides the rice common to the rest of India, they rear five other 
 kinds peculiar to the soil. The first is the small rice, the grain of 
 which is long, thin, and transparent ; it is accounted the most delicate, 
 and is generally the only kind which the physicians allow their patients. 
 The second is the long thick rice, the form of which is round. The 
 third is the red rice, it is so called because its grain is covered with a 
 reddish coloured pellicle. These three kinds of rice require much 
 water, and never grow but on lands that are frequently overflowed. 
 The dry rice, which is of two kinds, grows in a dry soil, and has no 
 occasion for any water, but what falls from the heavens. These 
 two last kinds produce a grain as white as snow, and are the principal 
 articles of their trade with China. They are never cultivated but on 
 the hills and mountains, w r here they are sown in the same manner as 
 our wheat, about the end of December, or beginning of January, at 
 which time the rainy season ends. The dry rice is generally three 
 months in the ground and is very productive.* The wine from these 
 appears to be excellent ; and the arrack, of which large quantities are 
 distilled, is much esteemed throughout the East. In Tonquin, there 
 is also an odoriferous kind of rice, which is said to intoxicate by 
 merely eating it without its undergoing any process of fermentation ; 
 but as this is contrary to the quality of any other grain, the truth of 
 the statement is questionable this rice, however, yields by distillation 
 a strong kind of arrack. From the palm, which is abundant, toddy 
 is extracted, but it is reckoned by Barron to be bad for the nerves ;f 
 not from any peculiar quality in the juice, as obtained from the tree, 
 but from the mode in which the fermentation is conducted. The 
 sugar-cane abounds, being indigene us to the country. Two kinds are 
 common, the one is large and exceedingly high, with long joints, 
 appearing always green, and is very full of juice; the other is smaller, 
 of a yellow colour, and although it affords less liquor, it furnishes more 
 
 * Grosier s China, vol. i. p. 292. 
 
 f Barren s Description of the Kingdom of Tonquin. 
 
206 
 
 sugar. Until lately, the Tonquinese were ignorant of the mode of 
 refining it, contenting themselves with bruising the canes, boiling the 
 juice twice, and allowing it to settle into a thick sirup called honey of 
 sugar : perhaps it is well for the peace and happiness of the inhabi 
 tants that the art of making spirits from molasses or sugar is to them 
 still a secret. Even the vine, the natural production of the climate, 
 is neglected, and the art of making wine from the grapes unknown. 
 Rice-wine, the common liquor, is drunk warm, and much of it is used 
 at religious sacrifices. On those occasions, a strange custom prevails, 
 of trying the animals intended as offerings, by pouring warm wine 
 into their ears : if they shake their heads, they are judged proper to 
 be sacrificed; but if they make no motion, they are rejected. In the 
 course of the ceremony, the flesh of the victim sacrificed is uncovered, 
 and the priest, raising a vessel filled with spirituous liquor, (arrack), 
 sprinkles it over a human figure made of straw, invoking the spirit of 
 Confucius to be their tutelary guardian and benefactor. After a 
 lengthened orison, the priest regales himself with the remains of the 
 liquor, which he cautiously secures for that purpose. A custom 
 equally ridiculous, as the one of choosing the animals for sacrifice, 
 prevails amongst the people of Laos that of rubbing the head of ari 
 elephant with wine, enriched with a drop or two of human gall, under 
 the impression that the beast will thereby become more robust, and 
 the owner more courageous. 
 
 The mountaineers of Tonquin, denominated Miao-tse, have devised 
 a peculiar system of religion and rites, of which their priests are at 
 the head. It is generally in the house of one of those spiritual father* 
 that their gods are consulted and deliver oracles. On sucli occasions, 
 a great noise announces, as is supposed, the arrival of their deities. 
 Previous to this, the time is passed in drinking and dancing, but, on 
 this announcement, all diversions cease, and the multitude send forth 
 loud shouts of joy, crying, as they address themselves to their princi 
 pal god, " Father! art thou already come?" A voice answers, " Be 
 of good cheer, my children; eat, drink, and rejoice; it is I who procure 
 you all those advantages which you enjoy !" Having listened to these 
 words with profound silence, they again return to their pleasures and 
 revelry. The gods, becoming thirsty in turn, ask for something to 
 drink, when vases ornamented with flowers and full of liquor are 
 immediately presented, which the crafty priest insidiously carries to 
 the gods, he being the only person permitted to approach or converse 
 with them. 
 
 IlieMiao-tse collect large quantities of honey from the bees, which 
 feed on the wild flowers tlmt everywhere adorn the sides and valleys 
 
207 
 
 of the mountains where they reside ; this honey they convert to various 
 purposes, and prepare a beverage from it which is considered very 
 palatable and wholesome. Honey is held in such high estimation 
 among these people, that they believe it forms an essential ingredient 
 in the food with which the souls of their departed relatives are nou 
 rished in the paradise of their gods. 
 
 The Tonquinese are of a social disposition ; but too much form 
 and ceremony are observed in their visits and entertainments to 
 render them agreeable to strangers. Father Horta saw a card of 
 invitation for dinner couched in the following terms : " Chao-ting has 
 prepared a repast of some herbs, cleaned his glasses, and arranged hig 
 house, in order that Se-tong may come and recreate him with the 
 charms of his conversation and the eloquence of his learning; he there 
 fore begs that he will not deny him that divine pleasure." When all 
 the persons invited on such occasions are assembled, and before the 
 entertainment begins, the master of the house takes a cup of gold or 
 silver filled with wine, either of the country or the Mandarin of China, 
 and proceeding to the outer court, with his face turned towards the 
 south, pours it out as a peace-offering or libation to the tutelary spirit 
 of his dwelling. This ceremony being over, the guests approach the 
 tables, and before they commence eating, waste an hour in compli 
 menting each other. The person of the greatest distinction in com 
 pany drinks first, all the rest in succession, and each salutes the master 
 of the house. The cups employed to hold the liquor are very small, 
 being scarcely deeper than the shell of a walnut ; these, however, are 
 often replenished, which make amends for their diminutive size. If 
 the guests chance to play at small games, the losing person is con 
 demned to drink freely as a forfeit for his ill luck. Being great 
 lovers of tea, they frequently mix arrack with it and drink to intoxi 
 cation. 
 
 The end of these entertainments is generally suited to the begin 
 ning, pompous and formal. The guests praise in detail the excellence 
 of the dishes and the politeness and generosity of their host, who, on 
 his part, makes a number of excuses, and begs pardon, with many low 
 bows, for not having treated them according to their merit. 
 
 In this country, the adoption of children is customary, and it is a 
 practice on the occasion, for the person so adopted, when presenting 
 himself before his patron, to give him a hog with two jars of arrack. 
 A similar ceremony is observed in courtships; the lover or his parents 
 offering the father or mother of the lady a jar of arrack, a hog, a box 
 of betel, or some other gift, which is either accepted or rejected accor 
 ding as the young man appears eligible or otherwise. At weddings, 
 
and on all occasions of ceremony, the people indulge freely, though 
 they seldom go to excess, in drinking strong liquors, except persons 
 about the court and the military, of whom it is said " that the greatest 
 drinker is the bravest man." 
 
 Here also is a singular mode of settling quarrels : when the parties 
 are obliged to appear before a magistrate, the usual adjudication 
 being that of ordering the offender to treat the injured person with 
 arrack, fowl, and pork, so that, by thus feasting together, they may 
 forget the injury and put a stop to future animosity. Not less re 
 markable is the annual renewal of allegiance to the Choua, which is 
 performed by cutting the throat of a fowl, and receiving the blood in 
 a basin filled with arrack ; after which, each in his turn drinks a glass 
 of the mixture, repeating aloud his professions of loyalty this is 
 accounted one of the most solemn and binding obligations, and is fre 
 quently had recourse to on various occasions. The arrack and rice 
 wines are sold everywhere throughout Tonquin ; and in the public 
 markets, held every fifth day, they are exposed for sale like any other 
 article of traffic. A very nice description of cider is made from the 
 miengou, a fruit resembling the pomegranate, the tree producing it is 
 somewhat like the fig ; its branches are pliant and delicate, the wood 
 soft and porous, its leaves nearly circular and of a pale green colour. 
 In wet weather, a tart milky sugar runs from it, which the peasants 
 collect in small porcelain vessels, it soon hardens, and is said to be 
 very efficacious in curing head-aches, fevers, and dysenteries. Various 
 other beverages are prepared from the different fruits of the country, 
 consisting of pine-apples, oranges, bananas, pomegranates, and a red 
 species of fig, which, in taste and smell, resembles those of Turkey or 
 Provence.* 
 
 When going to any distance, they bring with them a supply of these 
 liquors to allay their thirst and recruit their strength. Throughout 
 the whole of Tonquin, during the different festivals, some of which 
 last ten or twelve days, there is a great consumption of arrack and 
 other exhilarating beverages, and, on these occasions, recourse is had 
 to every of kind amusement resulting from intemperance. 
 
 China, a country which has preserved its civil polity for so many 
 
 msand years, the art of distillation was known far beyond the date 
 of any of its authentic records. The period of its introduction into 
 that country, in common with the rise and progress of other chemical 
 arts, is, however, concealed amidst the darkness of ages. But taking 
 
 * Les Voyages et Missions de P. .Alex, de Rhodes, 4to. Relation Nouvelle et 
 Curieuse du Royauvne do Tonquin, et de Laos, Traduitc de 1 Italien du P. de 
 Marini, 4to, 
 
209 
 
 dates as we find them, sanctioned by respectable authority, and leav 
 ing the assumed antiquity of the nation as a point for the discussion 
 of clu-onologists ; I am led to attribute to the people of this empire 
 the merit of an invention which seems to have eluded the grasp of the 
 human intellect in the rest of Asia, Africa, and Europe, until a more 
 advanced period in the history of the world. 
 
 There is no doubt whatever, that from the earliest ages the Chinese 
 were acquainted with many of those useful and ingenious preparations 
 which are still considered indispensable in the practice of the arts and 
 manufactures of every civilized country. Their knowledge of gun 
 powder, before it was discovered in Europe, seems to be a fact undis 
 puted, and appears coeval with that of their most distant historic 
 events. An intelligent Chinese writer states, that it was used by them 
 in fire-works upwards of 2000 years ago ; but its application to the 
 purposes of war was of a late introduction. Shut up within the 
 bosom of a country yielding in abundance all the necessaries and even 
 luxuries of life, and satisfied with the articles which it aiforded, they 
 felt no desire to seek or encourage an intercourse with foreign nations.* 
 The first missionaries, who visited China, also assure us that the pro 
 perties of the loadstone were early known to the inhabitants, and the 
 compass used as a guide in their journies through the empire. 
 Marco Polo is said to have brought the invention with him in 1260 ; 
 and it is even affirmed, that the emperor Chiningus, a famous astro 
 loger, had a knowledge of it, 1120 years before Christ. Their inven 
 tions, therefore, appear to be entirely their own ; the annals of the 
 empire, in the language of Staunton, bear testimony to the fact, and 
 it is confirmed by the consideration of the natural progress of those 
 inventions and of the state of the Chinese arts at this time.y Estab 
 lished authority in China is decisive of public opinion, and abridges 
 the liberty of private judgment, error is consecrated by antiquity, 
 and the free excursions of genius are unknown. Further advances, 
 therefore, are not likely to be made until the prejudices of habit and 
 the clouds of ignorance shall have been dispelled by the diffusion of 
 scientific knowledge on sound philosophical principles. 
 
 That the Chinese were versed in all the secrets of alchymy; or 
 rather in that branch of it which had for its object a universal panacea, 
 long before this fancy engaged the speculations of European practi 
 tioners, there is abundant proof, J since some of their empirics have, 
 
 * Barrow s Travels in China, 4to. p. 276 and 434, &c. 
 
 f Embassy to China, vol. ii. p. HjO and 162. 
 
 Du Halde, Le Compte, Martini, Chbeek, Grower, &c., &c. 
 
210 
 
 from an early period, boasted of a specific among their drugs, which 
 ensures an immortality like that conferred on Godwin s St. Leon. 
 The search after this elixir vitce originated, it appears, among the 
 disciples of the philosopher Lao-kiun, who flourished six hundred 
 years before Christ. Not content with the tranquillity of mind which 
 that teacher of wisdom endeavoured to inculcate, and considering 
 death as too great a barrier to its attainment, they betook themselves 
 to chemistry, and after the labour of ages in a vain endeavour to pre 
 vent the dissolution of our species, and after the destruction of three 
 of their emperors who fell victims to the immortalizing draught, they, 
 like the alchymists of Europe, ended their researches under the pre 
 tence of discoveries which were never made, and of remedies that 
 could only be administered under all the extravagancies of magic. 
 The emperor Hyen-Tsong, in the year 820 of the Christian era, pro 
 cured some of this liquor, with which it is thought his eunuchs mixed 
 poison, as he died immediately after drinking it, at the age of forty- 
 three.* Swen-Tsong^ it appears, had no sooner taken it in the year 
 859, than he became a prey to worms and died in a few days.f Shi- 
 Tsong, or Kya-Tsing, also died of the effects of this liquor in 1556. 
 This monarch built a place called Van Xeutien, or the palace of ten 
 thousand lives, for the express purpose of distilling these waters of 
 immortality. It was surrounded by a high wall and battlements per 
 fectly round, as were also the halls and chambers, presenting in the 
 interior, hexagons or octagons. The architecture was beautifully 
 magnificent, and very romanticly situated on the great artificial lake 
 within the enclosures of the monarch s residence in Pekin.f 
 
 The emperor Vu-Ti, who reigned in the year 177 before Christ, 
 when about to put one of his ministers to death for drinking a cup of 
 this liquor which had been prepared for himself, was convinced of his 
 weakness and folly by the following wise and sensible remonstrance 
 of his minister : " If this drink, Sire, hath made me immortal, how can 
 you put me to death ? but if you can, how does such a frivolous theft 
 deserve it ?" 
 
 In any country, where medicine has not been established as a 
 regular study, it can scarcely be expected that the profession of a 
 chemist could be supported with dignity or respectability. But, 
 whether to this search, or to other circumstances, the early knowledge 
 of the Chinese in distillation is to be ascribed, it would be no easy 
 matter to determine. Their acquirements in medicine are so limited, 
 
 * Du Halde, Annals of the Monarchs, vol i. p. 200. f Ibid. 202. 
 J Magaillan s China, p. 317, and 327. 
 Du Halde, p. 177. 
 
211 
 
 that Navarette says, the greatest part of their physicians are mere 
 farriers ; that they know nothing of potions, and their chief care and 
 skill consist in little more than the recommendation and observance of 
 a regular diet.* 
 
 From this unimproved state of an art so important to human exis 
 tence, it is clear that they owe nothing to foreign or factitious aid ; 
 and although it might be urged that the Arabians, at an early period, 
 advanced as far as Canton, where they might have communicated 
 some of the discoveries of their physicians and philosophers, it ought 
 to be recollected that it was the spirit of commerce which carried the 
 Mussulmans to the confines of this remote region,! and that the power 
 of the still, if known to them at that time, was altogether applied to 
 the improvement and advancement of medical knowledge ; a use to 
 which, as far as I can learn, it has never yet been devoted in China. 
 That the Arabs knew any thing of distillation previous to their inter 
 course with this empire, appears strongly questionable. It was under , 
 the Caliph Walid, in the year 715, that they sent ambassadors and 
 merchants to that country. In 850, they had carried their commer- \ 
 cial intercourse so far as to have an agent for conducting their affairs 
 stationed in the province of Canton, and they were then permitted to 
 extend their trade to some towns of the interior. Now, it is natural 
 to infer, that a people so ingenious as the Chinese, and whose inven 
 tions do not seem to have been borrowed from any other nation, were 
 more likely to impart information respecting the properties of the still 
 than to procure it, as they had at a date long anterior to this period, 
 possessed all those drinks with which they are familiar at the present 
 day. Further investigation confirms this inference, and it is strength 
 ened by the opinion, of Humboldt, who says, that the process used by 
 us in making sugar was brought from oriental Asia, and that even the 
 cylinders placed horizontally and put into motion by a mill, with 
 cauldrons and purifying apparatus, such as are to be seen in the West 
 Indies, are purely of Chinese origin, and were in use at a period long 
 anterior to the visit of any European to that country. 
 
 We find from the two Mahometan travellers who visited China in 
 the ninth century, that the Chinese had no wine, but drank a liquor ; 
 made from rice, a proof that they were acquainted with the great 
 staple of the country then as at present, that of a distilled liquor from 
 that grain ; and Marco Polo tells us, that in his time arrack paid a 
 
 * Vide Navarette s Account of China. Barrow s Travels in China, 4to. p, 344, 
 Abel s Journey, Staunton, c. 
 
 f Robertson s India, 12mo. pp. 92, 93. 
 
212 
 
 duty of three and a-lialf per cent, to the government, and he observed 
 shops for the express purpose of selling rice-wine. 
 
 The Chinese annals trace a communication with other countries 
 2000 years before Christ ; and their intercourse with Hindostan and 
 Persia is familiar in their records 1000 years previous to the Chris 
 tian era. Doctor Morrison, who has thrown considerable light on the 
 history and antiquities of this interesting portion of the globe, states 
 in the Chinese Repository for January, 1833, that the people of India, 
 Egypt, Arabia, and other countries, came by the southern sea to Canton 
 with tribute (gifts) and for trade. Besides, it is certain, that in the 
 seventh century, the Chinese monarch sent ambassadors to the sur 
 rounding nations for social and commercial purposes. Silk and many 
 other commodities were, it is well known, originally brought from 
 India and China ; and we have the testimony of Ptolemy, that Maeses, a 
 Macedonian merchant, sent an agent to China, a distance of 2,800 
 miles, for the purpose of procuring this and other commodities, the 
 luxuries of the times.* In the reign of Augustus Csesar, among 
 other eastern nations that sent embassies to Rome to court the em 
 peror s friendship, are mentioned the Seres, now the Chinese, who, 
 after a journey which occupied four years, presented him with pearls, 
 precious stones, and elephants. 
 
 As learning leads to the highest posts of honour, the love of litera 
 ture has long prevailed among this people ; and their progress in moral 
 philosophy and the belles-lettres has been by no means inconsider 
 able. To this advancement the knowledge of printing has greatly 
 contributed ; but although that art, according to Trigaucius and others, 
 has been known to them above 1776 years, or as some affirm, beyond 
 the date of the records respecting gunpowder, it has remained 
 comparatively stationary, doubtless from the nature of the language, 
 which renders the printing of books troublesome and tedious. It is 
 said to consist of 60,000 characters and upwards : those employed 
 for the ordinary purposes of life do not, however, amount to any con 
 siderable number. He who is acquainted with from 15 to 20,000 
 characters, is esteemed very learned, and he may well be accounted 
 so, since it takes nearly half his life to acquire them. People in trade 
 are conversant with such of the characters only as answer the despatch 
 of business, depending on the more intelligent when any difficulty 
 arises. The printer, or rather the engraver of a book, has to trace 
 the characters of each leaf on a piece of plank, or a block of hard wood ; 
 
 \ 
 
 * Ptolem. Gcogr. Lib. VI. c. xi. xviii. Vide M. de Guignes Memoirs of the 
 Commerce of the Romans with the Tartars and Chinese. 
 
213 
 
 and Abel says, that nothing could be more simple than the method of 
 printing which he saw. On a piece of wood, mostly pear-tree, about 
 two feet square, carved into the necessary characters, and covered 
 with ink, a thin paper was laid, which, being pressed down by the 
 hand, received the desired impression. The use of moveable types 
 in wood is confined to the printing of the Pekin Gazette and a few 
 other periodical works. All others are printed in stereotype. The 
 use of moveable metallic types may, perhaps, at no distant period? 
 become general in the empire, as a manufactory of them in block tin 
 is already established at Macao for the use of the British factory. 
 The founders and cutters are Chinese, who execute their work with 
 great precision and despatch.* For printing a work of any extent, 
 a store of some magnitude is required. What must have been the 
 room requisite for the materials of one of their dictionaries, consisting 
 of 120 large volumes; or for the ancient and modern laws of the 
 country which the emperor Tay-tsuf ordered to be printed in 1380 
 in three hundred volumes ! It was a whole age after its commence 
 ment before this work was completed. 
 
 But, notwithstanding this apparent difficulty, books are said to be 
 numerous ; they are printed on one side only, and stitched in thin 
 white paper, their size answering generally to that of our royal 
 octavo.J The emperor Tay-Tsong is represented to have had a 
 library of 80,000 volumes, the composition of native authors, which 
 were neatly distributed in three large rooms, richly adorned ; and 
 that monarch was so fond of reading, that he daily turned over one or 
 two volumes ; and the famous library of Ywen-ti, which was burned 
 in 552, consisted of 140,000 volumes. 
 
 The whole nation, says a Jesuit missionary, who had a good oppor 
 tunity of observation, is much addicted to study and learning. In one 
 province, we are told, there are sometimes upwards of 10,000 licen 
 tiates and bachelors, and the number of candidates for degrees, at a 
 moderate computation, amounts to 2,000,000. In the Southern pro 
 vinces of the empire, there is scarcely a Chinese that cannot read and 
 write. " I have met," says Navarette, " men on the road in sedans and 
 palanquins on men s shoulders, with a book in their hands. In cities, 
 I have often seen Mandarins occupied in the same manner ; and to 
 induce their children to learn, the tradesmen and shopkeepers might 
 be seen sitting behind their counters with books before them." For 
 <****Vih >-.-: : ^ 
 
 * Abel s Narrative of a Journey in China, 4to. p, 229. 
 
 t Du Haldc, vol. i. p. 2 1 8. 
 
 % Oshcck s Voy. to China, 8vo. vol. i. p, 277. 
 
214 
 
 the encouragement of students, says the same writer, the example i$ 
 related of a poor young man who herded cows and rode upon one of 
 them, as is usual in the country, keeping a book on her horns in such 
 a manner that it served as a desk, and enabled him to read all the 
 day ; by which means he attained to a high station in the state. 
 Another instance is mentioned of a youth, who being so poor that he 
 could not buy oil for his lamp, studying at night by the light of the 
 moon and the stars ; his erudition procured him equally honorable 
 advancement. But, although the application of the Chinese has been 
 sufficiently laborious, we have no account of any of their publications 
 on the useful or speculative arts. To this circumstance, combined 
 with a constant jealousy and fear of imparting to others a knowledge 
 of their inventions, which they consider purely their own, is, perhaps 
 to be attributed the very brief and unsatisfactory accounts, which 
 writers have been able to collect, of the nature and extent of their 
 inebriating beverages. We read that, under the government of the 
 emperor Yu or Ta-yu, before Christ 2207,* the making of ale, or 
 wine from rice, was invented by an ingenious agriculturist named 
 I-tye ; and that as the use of this liquor was likely to be attended 
 with evil consequences, the emperor expressly forbade the manufac 
 ture or drinking of it under the severest penalties. He even re 
 nounced it himself, and dismissed his cup-bearer, lest, as he said, the 
 princes, his successors, might suffer their hearts to be effeminated 
 with so delicious a beverage.j This, however, had not the desired 
 effect, for having once tasted it, the people could never afterwards 
 entirely abstain from the bewitching draught. Some have conjec 
 tured, with seeming plausibility, that I-tye was a near descendant 
 from Noah. This is supported by the opinion of Doctor Hales, given 
 in his Analysis of Chronology, who thinks that it was the family of 
 Shem that peopled China. But the writers of the Universal History 
 allege, that Noah himself being discontented with the party that had 
 been formed to build the tower of Babel, separated from the main 
 body, and with some followers, travelling eastwards, at last entered 
 China, and laid the foundation of that vast empire. /Be that as it may, 
 a love for rice-wines was, at a very early date, carried to such excess 
 and consumed in such abundance, that the emperor Kya, the Nero of 
 China, in 1836 before Christ, ordered 3000 of his subjects to jump 
 into a large lake which he had prepared and filled with it; while Chin- 
 vang, in 1120, thought it prudent to assemble the princes to suppress 
 
 * Du Halde, vol. i. p. 145. 
 f Ibid, p. 433. 
 
215 
 
 its manufacture, as it was the source of infinite misfortune in his 
 
 dominions. *H 
 
 - , * 
 
 It is related of Kee, that he carried his propensities for drinking 
 and extravagance so far, that, to indulge a favourite mistress, he built 
 a room coated with jasper, had the furniture adorned with precious 
 stones, and constructed ponds for wine in his palace. f 
 
 The produce of the grape, it would seem from this, was not so 
 early attended to, although the cultivation of the vine had been known 
 and practised in China from time immemorial. All the songs, which 
 remain of the early dynasties down to that of Han, which commenced 
 206 years before the Christian era, confirm this statement, and 
 give reason to believe that the Chinese have always been fond of wine 
 made from grapes. Grosier says that the emperor Ouenti, of the 
 dynasty of Ouei, celebrated it with a lyric enthusiasm worthy of 
 Horace or Anacreon ; and we find in the large Chinese Herbal, book 
 133, that wine made from grapes was the wine of honour, which 
 several cities presented to their governors and viceroys, and even to 
 the emperor. In 1373, the emperor Tay-tsu, who ascended the throne 
 five years before, accepted some of it for the last time from Tai-yuen, 
 a city in the province of Chensi, and forbade any more to be pre 
 sented. " I drink little wine," said the prince, " and I am unwilling 
 that what I do drink should occasion any burden to my people. * 
 According to the same writer, the vine has undergone many revolu 
 tions in China. When orders were issued for rooting up all trees 
 that encumbered the grounds destined for agriculture, the vine suf 
 fered in common with the others ; and the extirpation of it has been 
 carried so far in most of the provinces, during certain reigns, that 
 even the remembrance of it was entirely forgotten. When it was 
 afterwards allowed to be planted, it would appear from the manner 
 in which some historians express themselves, that grapes and the vine 
 began then for the first time to be known. This probably has given 
 rise to the opinion that the vine has not been long introduced into 
 China ; it is however certain, without speaking of remote ages, that the 
 vine and grapes are expressly mentioned in the Chinese annals, under 
 the reign of the emperor Vou-ty, who came to the throne in the year 
 140 before the Christian era; and that since his time the use of wine 
 maybe traced from dynasty to dynasty; or as we may say, from reign 
 to reign even to the fifteenth century. With regard to the present 
 state of the culture of vines in China, Grosier declares that the two 
 
 * Du Halde, vol. i. p. 150, 159. 
 
 f Gutzlaflf s Hist, of China, vol. i. p. 149. 
 
216 
 
 preceding emperors to Kien-long, with that monarch himself, who 
 was on the throne when Lord Macartney visited the country, caused 
 a number of new plants to be brought from foreign parts, and that 
 three of the provinces in particular, viz. Honan, Shan-tong, and 
 Shan-si, repaired their former losses by the cultivation of them.* 
 Barrow remarked, that in his time no wine was made from the juice 
 of the grape, except by the missionaries near the capital.j Bell, speak 
 ing of this wine, of \vhich he partook at an entertainment given by the 
 Jesuits, says it was not of the best quality, although the grapes of the 
 country were excellent. According to Ellis, who left China in 1817, 
 the vine is cultivated to considerable extent in diiferent parts of the 
 empire, and the Chinese having an abundance of grapes, he was sur 
 prised that they should not have wines of the choicest quality. Our 
 wines, liqueurs, and cordials are, if possible, more relished by them 
 than by ourselves, from which, and their general attachment to the 
 richest and most expensive sorts of drink, it is singular that they have not 
 had recourse to the manufacture of those beverages common in other 
 countries. This, however, like their other peculiarities, may chiefly be 
 accounted for by their jealous policy of not imitating foreign nations. 
 But it might be attributed to another cause, namely, the quantity of 
 rain, which, at the time of the ripening of the grape, falls for a period of 
 five or six weeks, to the great injury of its vinous quality. Besides,the 
 people look more to the size of the fruit than to its produce in wine, 
 and for that purpose, as if not content with the quantity of rain which 
 falls in this season, they cut trenches for the conveyance of water to 
 the roots of the vine, in order to increase the size of the fruit. Ta 
 cultivate the vine successfully in any country requires heat, a good 
 soil, with little humidity. At Pekin, during the winter, the vine must 
 be buried in the same manner as practised by the Cossacks of the 
 Don, and put into training in summer. Dried grapes are in great 
 demand. The finest description is brought from the Ha-mi country. 
 Lord Macartney was presented by the emperor with grapes of an un 
 common form, being more oblong than olives and about the same size. 
 The people of Turkestan pay to the Chinese court a part of their 
 taxes in grapes ; from which, and the considerations just enumerated, 
 it is manifest that the Chinese only partially cultivate the vine, and 
 even that for the mere sake of the fruit as a table luxury. Such is 
 their frugality, that they consider it a sin against humanity to cul 
 tivate fruit on account of its liquor; whilst the ground, that its growth 
 
 * Grosier s Description of China, vol. i. chap. v. 
 | Barrow s Travels in China, 4 to. p. 304. 
 
217 
 
 would occupy, could produce sustenance for many individuals who 
 might otherwise perish from hunger. 
 
 Of rice-wines there are different sorts, but none of them have any 
 resemblance to the wines of Europe, either as to taste or quality; 
 being variously compounded, and never allowed in the manufacture 
 to preserve the mere flavour of the original material. That called 
 mandarin, being considered of a superior class, is drawn from rice of 
 a particular description, different from that which is eaten.* The 
 grain is steeped for twenty or thirty days in water, and then gently 
 boiled. When it is quite soft and pulpy, and completely diluted and 
 dissolved by the heat, it is allowed a considerable time to ferment in 
 proper vats prepared for the purpose, generally of glazed earthen 
 ware. The yeast employed is made from wheat, in which several 
 wholesome ingredients are added during the process of fermentation. 
 These consist of such fruits and flowers as impart an agreeable flavour 
 and pleasing colour. At the end of several days, when the motion, or 
 agitation occasioned by the fermenting process, has subsided, and 
 when the liquor has thrown up all the scum or dross, it is drawn off 
 into glazed vessels, where, by a second species of fermentation, it 
 clears itself and developes, by the taste and smell, its good or bad 
 qualities. When sufficiently fined, so as to show by standing for some 
 time, its body and colour, it is put into small jars, in which way it is 
 commonly sold and sent through the empire, or to Tonquin and Corea. 
 This wine is usually so strong, that it will keep for a great many 
 years, or, as some say, for ages. Within the empire it is principally 
 consumed among the higher orders, who can afford to buy it ; and 
 when exported it sells very dear. The lees are distilled, and yield a 
 strong agreeable kind of spirit, like brandy. This is called show, ckoo, 
 sau-tchoo, sam-tchoo, (literally burnt) or hot wine. The town of 
 Cha-tching, north-west of Pekin, near the great wall, is celebrated for 
 sam-tchoo. The city of Kyenchang, in the province of Kyang-li, is 
 also noted for a fine species of this wine, while that of Vu-si-hyen in 
 Kyang-nan, is in great esteem, owing its excellence to the goodness of 
 the water found there.f The city of Ta-chew is a great mart of this 
 spirit, from which it is exported to all parts of China. Navarette, in 
 his journey to the imperial residence, remarks, that in the district of 
 the city of Kian-hoa, the liquor of this class was made so good, that 
 he felt no regret for the wines of Europe. He represents it as exceed 
 ingly wholesome, and gives a proof of it in the instance of a person of 
 rank, above seventy years of age, with whom he was acquainted, and 
 
 * Du Haklc, vol. i. p. 303. f Ibid. 
 
218 
 
 who had been in the habit of drinking at breakfast, for the greater 
 part of his life, a pint and half of this wine. Some of the rice-wines 
 are so highly perfumed, and so odoriferous, that on opening a bottle 
 the air of the apartment assumes an agreeable fragrancy ; such is the 
 state of perfection to which these people have arrived in the making 
 of this luxury. Captain Hall, when in Chili, met with a kind of lemon 
 ade, the fragrance of which filled the whole house.* A description 
 of liquor termed Sew-heng-tsow is distilled in China from millet, or 
 kao-laing, (the holcus sorghum of naturalists) which is very pala 
 table, and, from its mildness, gently excites the animal spirits without 
 producing intoxication, or any other bad effects, unless immoderately 
 taken. This is a favourite beverage used even at the breakfast table 
 of every man of quality, where it is always drunk hot, and seldom in 
 less quantity than two cups at a time by any individual. 
 
 The denominations of the wines made from rice and other grain 
 are distinguished by their respective colours, which are generally 
 yellow, red, white, or pale ; hence if the wine be yellow, it is called 
 hoang-tsieou, hoang signifying yellow, arid tsieou fermented liquor. 
 But it has different names, and is differently estimated from the res 
 pective places of manufacture as before stated. A bottle of Kian- 
 nan wine, there called hosi-kuen from the name of a fountain, is sold 
 for about eight pence. A wholesome and much esteemed liquor, 
 termed Chao-tsing-tsieou is so called from a town in the province 
 where it is made, and is sold at a moderate price, being from four 
 pence to six pence the bottle. Tse-kiang, another fermented beverage, 
 has an agreeable tartish flavour, with strong intoxicating qualities, and 
 is in high repute. To tell a man that he drinks Chao-tsing-tsieou, or 
 Tse-kiang, is the same as to say, he lives too voluptuously, or drinks 
 too deeply. 
 
 In many of the provinces, an excellent description of wine is made 
 from the palm-tree, and is called Cha, a term which, in the amplitude 
 of the Chinese language, is also given to tea ; but the process of 
 making it differs little from that as practised in India, and already 
 described. Navarette says that a ;most superior and delicate species 
 of wine is prepared from the quince. But in a country so extensive 
 as China, abounding in every variety of fruit that grows in other 
 parts of the world, as well as some peculiar to the soil, with grain and 
 esculent substance that contain saccharine matter, what, it may be 
 asked, in the hands of so ingenious a people, must be the number of 
 wines or vinous liquors that daily sparkle on the tables of the luxurious? 
 
 * Capt. Hall s Journal, vol. i. p. 31. 
 
219 
 
 The festivals and private entertainments of the Chinese, which arts 
 numerous, give consumption to every description of drink. At all 
 their entertainments much ceremony is used, but this need not be 
 wondered at, when it formed a matter of state policy to regulate even 
 the etiquette to be observed at social and convivial parties. When 
 an invitation for dinner is given, a large sheet of red paper is sent 
 several days before, couched in terms of the most polite nature, and 
 written in all the pomposity of the oriental style. The following is 
 a copy of a note of invitation sent from a Chinese of consequence at 
 Canton, to a foreigner, inviting him to a marriage feast : 
 
 " To the great head of literature, venerable first-born, at his table 
 of study. On the 8th day of the present moon, your younger brother 
 is to be married. On the 9th having cleansed the cups, on the 10th 
 he will pour out wine, on which day he will presume to draw to his 
 lonely abode the carriage of his friend. With him he will enjoy the 
 pleasures of conversation and receive from him instruction for the well 
 regulation of the feast. To this he solicits the brilliant presence of 
 his elder brother ; and the elevation to which the influence of his 
 glory will assist him to rise, who can conceive ?" 
 
 Nor is such an invitation supposed to be given with sincerity, until it 
 has been renewed three or four times in writing. On the day previous 
 to the feast, another solicitation is sent on rose-coloured paper, by way 
 of a remembrancer, and in order to ascertain whether the guest will 
 attend. Besides, on the day appointed, the invitation is again repeated 
 to inform the persons invited that the feast is ready, and nothing 
 wanted but their presence. When the company have arrived and 
 partaken* of some refreshments, the dinner commences, the wine cups 
 are filled with Sew-heng-tsow, the host arises, all the guests follow 
 his example, and each holding a cup in both hands, and saluting each 
 other, drink the contents and sit down to the repast. The cups are 
 sometimes replenished with other domestic liquors, or cordials made 
 from lytchees, oranges, pine-apples and other fruit, which, although 
 rather strong, are pleasing to the taste. Sam-tchoo, or Fan-Tsow, is 
 always offered after the commencement of the second course, and on 
 the serving of every new dish, cups of Sew-heng-tsow are swallowed. 
 During the repast, the guests pledge each other after the European 
 manner, and sometimes with such etiquette that, with the cups held 
 by both hands, the parties remove to the centre of the room raising 
 and lowering their cups even to the ground, repeating the ceremony 
 three, six, or nine times, watching each other s movements strictly, 
 till their cups are brought to their lips at the same instant, when they 
 empty them of their contents; and, turning 1 them downwards, shew 
 
220 
 
 that not a drop has been left, after which they retreat in the same 
 ceremonious order to their seats. Every movement from the begin- 
 ing to the end of the entertainment is equally formal. Instead of grace 
 or a prayer before dinner, as is the custom in Christian countries, the 
 master of the house, when his guests are assembled, takes a cup of 
 wine, and after bowing to the company, solemnly advances to the 
 court-yard and raising his eyes and the cup to heaven, pours out the 
 contents on the ground as an offering of respect and satisfaction to 
 the deity, to whom he thus expresses gratitude for the pleasure of 
 seeing his friends. Each guest at these entertainments has a table to 
 himself, and the one for the master is always below the rest to shew 
 his regard for the company. It is customary on those occasions to 
 call in strolling comedians to add, by their performance, to the plea 
 sures of the social circle, which are seldom considered complete with 
 out them. When the guests are about to sit down to dinner, four or 
 five actors richly dressed enter the room, and, as a mark of reverence 
 to the assembly, bow so low that their foreheads touch the ground, 
 which ceremony they repeat four times. Then one of them presents 
 a book in which are written, in letters of gold, the titles of a number 
 of comedies that they can perform. One being chosen, the acting 
 commences to the music of drums, flutes, fifes, and trumpets. A 
 large vacant space left between the tables, which are placed in two 
 rows, serves for the stage ; and instead of side-scenes, the actors make 
 use of the adjoining rooms, from which they come to perform their 
 parts. A number of persons are frequently admitted into the court 
 yard to enjoy the performance, but they form no part of the guests. 
 The women are also present without being seen, having accomoda- 
 tions behind a lattice, through which they can behold all that passes. 
 Jugglers and mountebanks are often engaged to enliven the entertain 
 ment, and their pranks and deceptions are wonderful. One of them 
 will desire a guest to choose a glass of some favourite liquor ; when, 
 by boring a hole with a gimlet in any of the pillars by which the roof 
 of the apartment is supported, he will draw through a quill the liquor 
 required. In a similar way, other extraordinary feats of leger 
 demain, with pantomimic tricks, are exhibited. A dessert, or supper, 
 follows the dinner, when the same ceremonious conduct is observed. 
 Larger cups, however, are then used, and the master of the house 
 drinks with less reserve in order to encourage the company to follow 
 his example, which they generally do pretty freely. All is over 
 about midnight, when the party repair to their respective homes, 
 carried in chairs, preceded by domestics who have large lanterns of 
 oiled paper, on which the name and rank of their master are usually 
 
221 
 
 inscribed. Without these precautions they would be stopped by the 
 watchmen, to whose officer a card of thanks is usually presented the 
 next morning. On the day after the dinner, the host sends a large 
 red paper to each of the guests apologizing for the badness of the 
 dinner (which, by the bye, always consists of the greatest delicacies), 
 and an immediate reply is returned on the same sort of paper, praising, 
 in the like bombastic style, the unbounded gratification his feast had 
 afforded, and complimenting him on the polite manner with which he 
 conducted himself towards all his guests. 
 
 Dinners, when given to Europeans, are sometimes served in the 
 English fashion, with such meat and wines as they have been accus 
 tomed to at home ; and on these occasions the usual ceremonies are 
 dispensed with. In Pekin, it is common for some of the higher orders to 
 resort to hotels or taverns for the purpose of entertaining their friends, 
 where a dinner of twenty different dishes may be had at from nine to 
 ten francs for each person.* The Tartars have a good deal altered 
 the ancient ceremonial of the Chinese repasts, but there is still too 
 much form observed to render their entertainments pleasing, parti 
 cularly to strangers. 
 
 The following mode of making beer is observed in China. The 
 liquor is called tar-asun, and is extracted from barley or wheat. 
 The grain from which it is produced undergoes a certain degree of 
 malting, and after which it is coarsely ground and put into a keive, 
 where it is moistened slightly with warm water, and closely covered. 
 After it has stood for some time, boiling Avater is again poured upon 
 it, and the whole is stirred until it appears completely wetted and 
 mixed. This operation being performed, the keive is covered a third 
 time, and permitted to stand as before. It is then opened again, 
 stirring the whole contents and pouring in boiling water, until the 
 light material rise to the top, and the liquor assumes the strong 
 flavour of the grain, which is known by its having gained a deep 
 colour, and an adhesive or glutinous consistency. When the liquid 
 has become lukewarm, it is poured into a narrower vessel than the 
 keive ; and after being mixed with a small portion of Chinese hops, 
 the vessel containing the liquor is put down into the earth for the 
 purpose of fermentation. The Chinese hop is a prepared one which 
 bears its leaven within itself, and excites fermentation, though the 
 humulus lupulus, or common hop, is found climbing through the hedges.f 
 As soon as the working has ceased, and the liquor has begun to sub 
 side, large bags are filled with it, or rather coarse sacks made of a 
 
 * Timkowsld s Travels, vol. ii. \\ 173. 
 f Osbeck s China, vol. i. p. 33C. 
 
222 
 
 thickness suitable for tlie purpose, after which they are put into ii 
 press. The liquor extracted is poured into barrels, bunged up with 
 care, and immediately after placed in a cellar, as without this precau 
 tion it would soon become sour. In the distilleries, the same process 
 is observed for the preparation of the wort, or wash, from wheat, rye, 
 or millet, except that no hops are used when the liquor from the grain 
 is intended to be distilled. Before this extract is submitted to any 
 kind of fermentation, it is mixed with a preparation called pe-ka, con 
 sisting of rice-flour, licorice-root, aniseed, and garlic ; this, it appears, 
 not only accelerates fermentation, but is supposed to impart a peculiar 
 flavour. The whole of the mixture being duly fermented, undergoes 
 distillation, and the Sau-tchoo thus prepared, may, as Barrow remarks, 
 be considered as the basis of the best arrack, which in Java, as already 
 noticed, is exclusively the manufacture of the Chinese, and is nothing 
 more than a rectification of the above spirit, with the addition of mo 
 lasses and juice of the cocoa-nut tree.* Before distillation, the liquor 
 is simply called tchoo or wine; after that, the word show, sau, or sam, 
 is added, to express its hot, burning, or fiery nature. The tar-asun 
 is a sweet liquor, sometimes equal in strength and purity to Canary 
 wine ; but to strangers it has a disagreeable flavour. Bell, who 
 accompanied the Russian ambassador to Pekin, in the year 1720, 
 observed, that the emperor Kanihi and his courtiers were very fond 
 of this liquor, and a good cup of it warm, was presented to him of a 
 cold morning by the emperor s own hands, which he found very 
 refreshing.f 
 
 The great materials of distillation tlu oughout all China are rice and 
 millet, the former of which, according to Sir George Staunton, is 
 produced in great abundance in the middle and southern provinces of 
 the empire; while the latter supplies its place in the northern. The 
 millet of the northern provinces is the holcus sorghum, or Barbadoes 
 millet : the Chinese call it koiv-leang, or lofty corn. It is worthy of 
 remark, that as the barley-corn was made a standard of measure by 
 Europeans, so the Chinese formed their measures of capacity by the 
 number of grains of millet which they contained. May it not, there 
 fore, from the antiquity of this nation, be inferred, that the practice 
 of measuring by grain was borrowed from them, when it appears 
 from their most ancient records to have been in use from the earliest 
 period. An idea can scarcely be formed of the immense culture of 
 rice and millet, even on learning that the mere tribute, paid from the 
 
 * Barrow s Trav. p. 304. 
 f Bell s Travels, vol. ii. p. 9. 
 
223 
 
 different provinces into the royal treasury, yearly, as a duty on the 
 lands, amounts in those different kinds of grain to 40,155,490 sacks.* 
 According to the Chinese geography, Daisin-y-tundshi, the tribute 
 of wheat in Chinese da?i, or bushels, amounts to 6,396,286.f But 
 when the steepest hills and mountains are brought into cultivation, we 
 need scarcely wonder at the agricultural riches of China. The vrater 
 which runs through the level of the valley, is there taught to flow 
 across the mountain, and from terrace to terrace, to give nourishment 
 to vegetable matters, and assist the hardy labours of the husbandman. 
 The principal depot for rice and other grain is at Pekin. In that 
 city are immense magazines for storing the contributions from the 
 several states. The corn and rice are conveyed to the capital by 
 small boats, or junks, to the number of 10,455. The barges appointed 
 by the government for the conveyance of provisions, silk, rice, and 
 other necessaries from the southern provinces to Pekin, amount to 
 9,999, which number is kept up with a sort of religious punctuality. 
 The canal by which these are conveyed is said to have been con 
 structed for that special purpose, and was, therefore, denominated Yun 
 leang /to, which signifies the " grain -transmitting river." At every 
 dike, the cargo is shifted into other boats placed on the opposite side ; 
 and thus, at immense labour, is transported the produce of the extre 
 mities of the empire to the central parts. For the convenience of 
 removing the cargo from one boat to another, the rice is carried in 
 sacks and stowed on deck. Adjoining these magazines, is one belong 
 ing to the government, for the express purpose of holding rice-wine, 
 arrack, and other commodities. A missionary relates that, in the year 
 1664, he bought the very best wheat for three ryals (eighteen pence), 
 and rice of the first quality, " every grain as big as the kernel of a pine 
 apple," for five ryals (half-a-crown) the bushel. In the province of 
 Shan-tong, in the same year, wheat was sold for one ryal, or six-pence 
 the bushel. The wheat sent yearly to the treasury from this province, 
 is upwards of 1,271,494 dans. The produce of this empire being 
 so little liable to change, unless from unfavourable seasons, I am 
 
 * In 1696, the quantity of rice and corn brought into the emperor s stores con 
 sisted of 43,328,834 sacks with 38,550lbs. of dried fruits, viz. grapes, figs, nuts, 
 and chesnuts. 
 
 f The dan is equal to 12, 070 cubic inches French. The Daisin-y-tundsJd is very 
 scarce, and not to be had even among the booksellers at Pekin ; and if a copy of it 
 could be procured, it would cost at least 200 rubles of silver. Timkowski, who 
 was in China, in 1820, was informed by Father Hyacinth, of the Russian college, 
 that he had translated the greater part of this valuable work into the Russian 
 language, and it is to be hoped that it will speedily make its appearance in an Eng 
 lish dress. 
 
224 
 
 inclined to think that the prices are still the same. When Barrow 
 was at Pekin, rice sold from three -halfpence to two-pence per lh., 
 bread four pence, and wheat-flour from two-pence halfpenny to three 
 pence. Dobell, a late writer,* makes the price of rice cheaper, it 
 generally selling from three quarters of a dollar to one and a quarter 
 dollars the picul of 133^ English pounds. 
 
 As there does not appear any regulation confining distillation to 
 particular individuals, all the makers of wine distil from the lees, wliile 
 other persons manufacture from the grain direct. The produce is 
 *^ distinguished in Europe under the general appellation of rack, raki, or 
 arrack, a term in use from the earliest dawn of civilisation. The 
 manufacture of this liquor, Grosier tells us, is carried on to a great 
 extent through the whole of the Chinese dominions. Its strength 
 generally exceeds the common proof, and is free from that empyreu- 
 matic odour so often perceptible in European spirits. Numbers of 
 carts laden with it enter Pekin daily. The duty is paid at the gates, 
 which are nine in number, three on the south front, and two on the 
 other three sides, and the liquor is sold publicly in more than a thou 
 sand shops that are dispersed through the city and suburbs. The 
 sale of this attractive article is conducted in the same way through the 
 whole of the cities, towns, and villages in the fifteen provinces ; and 
 it is not a little surprising that, amidst a population of 333,000,000, 
 the consumption of so dangerous a beverage should be attended with 
 so few fatal consequences, since we are assured on the testimony of 
 the most respectable writers,f that a quarrel or murder occasioned by 
 intoxication is rarely or ever heard of. But, I apprehend, that to the 
 strictness of the police, and to a regulation rendering every tenth 
 housekeeper accountable for the conduct of the nine neighbouring 
 families, J more than to the steadiness of the Chinese, must be attri 
 buted this forbearance, since human nature is much the same in every 
 region of the world. As to the population of this empire, writers 
 disagree. Lord Macartney and Staunton rate it as just stated ; the 
 Abbe Grosier makes it 200,000,000; and Father Allerstain, 
 198,213,713; others limit it to 150,000,000. Most writers, how 
 ever, agree with Staunton, and from the opportunity he had of 
 obtaining accurate information, it may be presumed his estimate is 
 more to be relied on than any other. The population, as given by 
 order of the emperor Kea-king,in 1812, appeared to be 360,279,897* 
 
 * Travels, vol. ii. p. ) 92. 
 
 f De Guignes, Barrow, Osbeck, Van Praam, Sil. t!et Sacy, &c. 
 
 J Staunton Embassy, vol. ii. p. 56. 
 
223 
 
 The census of this vast empire is taken annually, and therefore ought 
 to be more accurate than that of any other nation, as officers appointed 
 for the purpose visit every village, town, and city, to collect the 
 returns of the householders, who are obliged to attach, on the outside 
 of their doors, the number of the inmates, male and female, attested 
 by their signature. These returns are made up and forwarded to the 
 government. No kind of imposition can be practised, as the reporter 
 is held accountable for the truth of his statement ; and any deviation 
 from accuracy is most severely punished. Were such a practice 
 adopted in this country, parliament could never be at a loss to ascertain 
 the physical and disposable strength of the empire at any time, and thus 
 make a considerable saving in the expense of obtaining such returns. 
 
 In so dense and populous a country, houses for general accommo 
 dation are very numerous. Abel gives the following picture of the 
 public houses he had an opportunity of visiting, while the embassy 
 stopped at the city of Tong-chow, on its return from Pekin : These, 
 says he, were large open sheds, fitted up with tables and benches, and 
 affording means of gambling and drinking to the lower orders of the 
 people. They were generally filled with players at dominos or cards, 
 who seemed to enter with intense earnestness into their game. The 
 cards were small pieces of pasteboard, about two inches long, and 
 half an inch wide, having black and red characters painted on them. 
 The beverages most largely partaken of in those houses were tea, 
 wine, and Sam-su. All the guests were smoking from pipes of 
 various lengths, from two to five feet, formed of the young and tender 
 twigs of bamboo, fitted with bowls of white copper about the size of 
 a thimble.* Every person smokes to excess, and should any one in 
 company refuse to smoke, he is accused of affectation, as it is deemed 
 necessary that every man should make a chimney of his mouth.f The 
 Chinese, in their cheerful and idle moments, amuse themselves at a 
 game on the fingers to procure drink and enjoyment, called houa 
 thsionan, or tsoey-moey. It is thus described by Dobell: The wine- 
 cups being filled, the two persons engaged stretch forth their right 
 hands towards the centre of the table, with their fingers closed. When 
 the hands come almost in contact, they open as many fingers as they 
 please, and each person cries out the number he opens, as one, three, 
 five, &c. Whoever hits on the exact number of fingers presented by 
 both persons, obliges his adversary to drink. " I have seen," says 
 he, "this game continued for an hour, until one of the parties, finding 
 himself the loser, and his head affected, is forced to retire. It is an 
 
 * Abel s Narrative, p. 117. f Dobell, vol. ii. p. 264. 
 
226 
 
 extremely noisy amusement when any number of guests engage in it. 
 In passing up and down Canton river on a holyday, one s ears are 
 assailed on all sides with this boisterous merriment." Another festive 
 trick, which they practise, is that of rapidly passing a bunch of flowers 
 from hand to hand, during which a kettle-drum is kept beating ; and 
 whoever holds the flowers, the instant the drum is stopped, is 
 obliged to drink a cup of wine as a forfeit. The public inns 
 and victualling houses have their fiddlers and comedians to entertain 
 their guests at meals, and other occasions of refreshment.* Such 
 houses, however, are seldom frequented for the mere love of drink 
 ing, and although intoxication is not unusual, that vice forms no part 
 of the general character of the people. Mr. Dobell says, that the 
 Chinese are in general sober, and that habitual intoxication is very 
 rare.f JUuus of a contrary opinion, for he says, that whatever may 
 / have been the assertion of travellers, his experience led him to con- 
 1 sider the Chinese scarcely less addicted to the use of spirituous liquors 
 than Europeans ; and that it is only their superior sense of decorum 
 that prevents them from exhibiting themselves as often in public 
 under the influence of spirits. There are likewise laws to regulate 
 the sale of spirituous liquors and to guard against irregularities. One 
 of these enactments says, " A man, who, intoxicated with liquor, 
 commits outrages against the laws, shall be exiled to a desert country, 
 there to remain in a state of servitude." This judicious ordinance 
 can scarcely fail in producing the desired effect, as the dread of punish 
 ment ought to counterbalance every inducement to criminal indulgence. 
 Martini and Navarette have stated, that the Chinese sometimes 
 drink to excess, although they are the reverse of a drunken people. 
 Occasional intoxication is not considered shameful, but treated with 
 ridicule or pity ; and the enactment here cited is only to restrain 
 habitual and egregious offenders. 
 
 The rice-wines are all drunk warm, as indeed is almost every 
 other kind of fluid. Whether this practice is owing to national habit, 
 or that it is more salutary to the people, who are of weak constitu 
 tions and subject to pulmonary and bowel complaints, it is not so easy 
 to determine ; but a general opinion prevails that fermented and spiri 
 tuous liquors made hot, are accounted not only agreeable, but preven 
 tives of disease, and hence one reason why the custom is so preva 
 lent. In warm climates, it is considered that heated beverages are the 
 most wholesome, and contribute to alleviate the sensations of fatigue. 
 Even in the parching climate of Hindostan, weak but warm liquors 
 
 * NieuhofTs Travels in China. f Travels, vol. ii. p. 239. 
 
227 
 
 are ready for all travellers at the public inns or choultries. Through 
 China, in like manner, warm tea and other hot beverages are sold at 
 public inns, along the roads, canals, and rivers ; and it is not un 
 common to see porters or carriers lay down their burdens to refresh 
 themselves with a cup of tea, and afterwards pursue their journey. 
 In Bootan and Thibet, it is the first object of a traveller to procure for 
 himself a dish of hot tea, which is generally served to him the moment 
 he arrives at a caravansary. The Chinese, rather than drink their 
 liquor cold, plunge the jug in which it is contained into boiling water, 
 until it obtains the proper temperature ; but the general practice is to 
 warm it over a fire. So careful are persons of rank respecting the 
 quality of their drinks, that besides the heating of all manufactured 
 liquors, they seldom take water without its being first subjected to 
 distillation, in order to free it of animalcule or other impurity. Some 
 philosophically account for the Chinese and other Orientals drinking 
 their liquors warm, on the grounds that in all hot countries the 
 stomach loses its activity by a too copious perspiration ; and conse 
 quently, every thing which warms it, not only invigorates it but 
 repairs its losses. The contrast is remarkable ; when we compare 
 the Chinese custom of drinking warm beverages even on ordinary 
 occasions, with that of the Russians, who, when in a profuse perspi 
 ration after coming out of a warm bath, drink copious draughts of 
 mead as cold as it can be procured, without sustaining the least injury. 
 It is customary in China to eat cold meats, though the drinks are 
 warm, and they are so particular in this respect, that attendants are 
 appointed at feasts to pour hot wine into the cups, and remove that 
 which is cold. The drinking cups usually employed by these people 
 are either of silver, porcelain, or precious wood. Very small cups 
 are used at first, but about the middle of an entertainment they are 
 changed for larger. They are always presented full, having no idea 
 of half -measures. It is facetiously related that a parsimonious host, 
 afraid of filling a bumper, presented a friend with a glass only half 
 full, when the guest, attentively looking at it, said, " This glass is 
 too deep ; one half must be cut off." The astonished host inquired 
 the reason, to which the other replied, " If the upper cannot hold 
 wine, of what use is it ?" 
 
 Among the Chinese, it is a common saying that wine is the way 
 to try people s strength ; and that those, that are strong always 
 shew it by their eating and drinking ; but that there are only three 
 occasions on which it is strictly proper ; and for eacli of these, three 
 cups are allowable ; these are for friendship, mirth, and to satisfy 
 nature. Sir William Tt-mple s regulation, mentioned in the Spectator, 
 
228 
 
 far surpasses this for its temperance. " Let the first glass be for 
 myself, the second for my friends, the third for good humour, and the 
 fourth for mine enemies."* After dinner, in order to promote a relish 
 for a cup, some highly seasoned or salt meat is used, which they term 
 a guide, and among friends when the liquor begins to exhilarate, or 
 the party are desirous of retiring, the same enticing inducements to 
 detain them are practised as in Europe ; so that social moments, we 
 may see, greatly assimilates man in every country. 
 / As distillation occupies the attention of multitudes in China, it is 
 / generally conducted on a limited scale by each individual. The 
 machinery of a still-house much resembles that in use on the continent 
 of Europe, or what is employed in this country by illicit distillers, 
 with the exception that the head and condenser of the still are of a 
 different construction, having no worm-tub. The condensation is effected 
 by a cylinder full of water surrounding the head, and kept full either 
 by a small stream or being poured in by the hand. The head is, for 
 the most part, globular, with a neck to fit into the breast or body of 
 the still. Near the neck, inside the head, is a gutter from which a 
 tube projects through the cylinder of water to convey the condensed 
 vapour into a receiver, as shewn in the annexed drawing. 
 
 
 * Spectator, vol. iii. No. 105. 
 
229 
 
 The process of distillation is laborious, but, as already observed, 
 the mechanical arts in this country are not progressively advancing, 
 and, therefore, the Chinese are regardless of the toil, which a little 
 exertion and ingenuity might obviate. The still is placed in a furnace 
 of brick work, and the fire so directed that the whole force of the 
 flame may bear on the central parts of the bottom. By this means 
 much saving of fuel is effected, and the economy of the people is 
 shewn here as in the other pursuits of life, it being a maxim among 
 them to let nothing go to loss that can be turned to advantage. 
 
 Although coal is plentiful in some of the provinces, yet a great deal 
 of it is deficient in that gaseous quality which renders it valuable. 
 Hence wood becomes expensive, and is for the most part sold by 
 weight, bringing a price in proportion to its goodness for fuel. Soft 
 pine is the cheapest, because it is easily consumed. Charcoal is com 
 mon, but very expensive. Under these circumstances, great caution 
 is displayed in every instance in which fuel is requisite. 
 
 When scarcity or famine is dreaded, distillation is prohibited, as in 
 Great Britain, by proclamation. Where stills are found afterwards 
 at work, the still-houses are destroyed, the workmen thrown into 
 prison, whipped, and condemned to carry the cangue or kia, a degrad 
 ing frame of wood placed round the neck, weighing from one to two 
 hundred pounds, which renders the culprit unable to do any thing for 
 himself so long as he is obliged to wear it.* The facility with which 
 fuel is conveyed by canals through the provinces, and the ease of pro 
 curing grain in every town and village, tend greatly to the encou 
 ragement of distillation. 
 
 The skill of the Chinese in distillation is not confined to the manu 
 facture of brandy from rice or millet alone. Besides the quantities 
 that are distilled from the produce of the palm and other fruits, a very 
 ardent spirit, said not to be unworthy of the emperors, is produced 
 from the flesh of sheep.j 
 
 The nature of the process seems to be as yet a secret to Europeans ; 
 some indeed have stated, that several vegetable substances are em 
 ployed, but this assertion appears to rest on mere conjecture. The 
 use of this liquor was first introduced by the Tartars, whose fondness 
 for the repasts which the flocks and herds of their native wilds afforded, 
 induced them to subject to the action of the still, the flesh of an 
 animal that had long formed the basis of a more simple, though per 
 haps not less intoxicating beverage. I allude to their lamb wine. 
 
 * Staunton s Translation of the Penal Code of China, 4to. p. 12 
 f Du Halde, vol. i. p. 303. Duvis s China, volt i. p. 330. 
 
230 
 
 The Chinese term for this liquor is Kau-yang-tsyew. It is said to 
 be a very strong, nutritious beverage, and the Tartars delight to get 
 drunk with it.* Kang-hi, who was of Tartar origin and wielded the 
 Chinese sceptre for sixty years, encouraged the manufacture of this 
 spirit by the use he made of it himself. It has, however, never been 
 a favourite in China, and we have little reason to expect that its 
 admirers, should any of them visit Europe, will ever be regaled with 
 a cup of this exhilarating draught. Of a similar description is, per 
 haps, the spirits made at Surat, denominatd spirit of mutton, spirit 
 of deer, spirit of goat > which derive their names from the practice of 
 throwing into the still a joint of mutton, a haunch of venison, or a 
 quarter of goat, with a view, as is conceived, to add a mellowness 
 and softness to the spirit.f 
 
 The inhabitants of the province of Quang-tong distil a very plea 
 sant liquor from the flowers of a species of lemon tree, which are said 
 to possess an exquisite odour, and like those of the Mahwah or Mad- 
 huca of Bahar, in India, have a strong saccharine quality. The fruit 
 of the tree is almost as big as a man s head ; its rind resembles that 
 of the orange, but the substance within is either white or reddish, and 
 has a taste between sweet and sour 4 The spirit is perfectly clear 
 and transparent and is held in high estimation. 
 
 From the refuse of their sugar plantations, in which the cane grows 
 to great perfection, particularly in the southern provinces, much rum 
 might be manufactured, but no attempt has yet been made to distil 
 that article. So great is the trade in sugar, that 10,000,0001bs. were 
 exported from the country in 1806. The sugar exported from Canton 
 for American consumption in four years, from 1815 to 181 9, amounted 
 to 39,670 piculs ; and from that port, in the same period, were ex 
 ported for European use, 21,400 piculs. The entire quantity car 
 ried from Canton by the American traders, from 1804 to 5th January, 
 1819, appears to be 67,673 piculs ;|| and the quantity imported into 
 Great Britain, the produce of the East Indies and China, for seven 
 years from 5th January, 1815, to 5th January, 1821, amounts to 
 1,073,730 cwt., which, at 2. 2s. per cwt., gives a sum of 2,254,833, 
 being at the rate of 4\d. per Ib. The Chinese are expert in the 
 manufacture of sugar and sugar-candy ; the latter has been celebrated. 
 
 * Grosicr, vol. ii. p. 319. 
 
 f Grose s Voyage to the East Indies, vol. i. p. 112. 
 
 J Du Halde, vol. i. p. 109. 
 
 Parliamentary Report, 7th May, J821, p. 183. 
 
 }| Ibid. p. 315. 
 
231 
 
 So far back as 1637, both these articles could have been purchased 
 for three half pence per Ib. of a quality as white as snow. 
 
 In their sugar establishments, simplicity seems to be the prevailing 
 consideration. Mr. Abeel, who visited one of these manufactories in 
 the island of Whampoa, describes the mill which expressed the liquor 
 from the cane, as composed of tliree vertical cylinders made of coarse 
 granite, with wooden cogs. The coppers or boilers were made of 
 cast iron, which the Chinese have the art of reducing almost to the 
 texture of common paper, and of welding, when broken, with entire 
 facility and firmness. These boilers were arrayed triangularly, and 
 with little regard to those principles of granulation which are else 
 where observed. All were performed by manual labour ; the mill 
 was placed below the level of the boilers, and the liquor carried in 
 tubs from the one to the other. As it attained consistency in each 
 of these vessels, instead of being passed through a strainer into the 
 next, it was transferred by hand to another part of the building, 
 whence, after the process of filtration, it was returned to its appro 
 priate cauldron.* 
 
 The wines of Europe are now imported into China, like other 
 articles of merchandise, and are often sold to considerable advantage. 
 The Xeres, or Sherry wine, is preferred on account of its strength, 
 and because it is not liable to change by heat. The Spaniards send 
 wines to Manilla, Macao, and other parts, from whence the Chinese 
 bring a considerable quantity, especially for the court of Pekin.f J) 
 
 The East India Company exclusively exported to China in ten 
 years, from 1810 to 1820, beer alone to the value of 14,309, and 
 wine in bottles and packages for the same period to the amount of 
 7,383. This trade is on the increase, and the reader is referred to 
 an account of all beer, ale, and spirits, both British and foreign, as 
 well as wine, exported from Great Britain to the East Indies and 
 China for a period of seven years, as given in the Addenda, for the 
 purpose of shewing at one view the extent of this commerce, and its 
 importance as a source of wealth and consumption to our home and 
 foreign manufacture. The Americans also are carriers of these 
 articles. In the year ending 5th January, 1819, one thousand gallons 
 of gin were imported by them into Canton. The superior quality of 
 European spirits renders their importation desirable, as much confu 
 sion and danger have arisen in the immoderate use of the ardent 
 
 * Abeel s Journal of a Residence in China, p. 83. 
 f Osbeck s Voyage to China, vol. i. pp. 315, 31fi. 
 
232 
 
 spirits of the country by the British sailors who frequent this port, 
 and of whose habits the Chinese take advantage by mixing their 
 liquors with ingredients of an irritating and maddening effect. It 
 superinduces a state of inebriety more ferocious than that occasioned 
 by any other spirit, and leading the men into the most riotous ex 
 cesses, tends to establish in the minds of the peaceable inhabitants 
 the most unfavourable opinion of the English character. When a 
 European vessel touches at Canton, it is common for the natives to 
 come on board and barter whatever articles may mutually answer the 
 parties. Among these, sam-su is not the least in request. This 
 liquor is generally carried in small pots ; and is so cheap, that nearly 
 three pints may sometimes be purchased for about three pence half 
 penny ; and for a small coin called joss, value about one-tenth of a 
 penny, a very strong dram of sam-su may be obtained. The gentle 
 man who assured me of this, was some time in China, and was often 
 surprised when his vessel lay in the roads off Whampoa, to see with 
 what despatch a quantity of sam-su, when ordered, was brought on 
 board from the shore. He was informed by the inhabitants that there 
 was no restriction on the making of it by any enactment of the state. 
 The sam-su brought to the vessel was generally of a yellowish colour, 
 and to his taste rather disagreeable ; but custom rendered it palatable. 
 He also added that he had drunk arrack distilled from rice, not infe 
 rior either in strength or quality to any of our best whiskey. Two 
 boats, called hoppoo-boats, are usually fastened to the stern of every 
 ship anchoring at Whampoa. lliese are supplied with every neces 
 sary that the sailors stand in neechof, and among the rest with a large 
 store of sam-su* Notwithstanding this convenience, adventurers 
 throng from the shore carrying quantities of drink and other articles ; 
 an intercourse often attended with unpleasant consequences. The 
 liquor now distilled at Canton is of a superior description to that 
 formerly manufactured, owing to a Chinese from Penang having 
 lately introduced the making of rum, since which that spirit can be 
 purchased at a cheap rate. 
 
 rln contrasting the habits of the Chinese with those of other 
 nations, we cannot but admire the general regularity and tempe 
 rance of this people, and the wisdom of the government by which they 
 are held in such moderation. Montesquieu has asserted, that drunk 
 enness increases in proportion as we recede from the equator to the 
 poles.* This assumption is highly questionable, particularly as 
 regards China, for, if such were the fact, the Chinese in the northern 
 
 * Spirit of Laws, vol. i. b. 14, chap. If). 
 
233 
 
 provinces would be greater drunkards than those of the southern ; 
 although the contrary is the case. For it does not appear that inebriety 
 prevails more at Pekin than at Canton, and still much less in many 
 parts of Europe, than in several portions of the torrid zone. To 
 other circumstances, therefore, rather than to approaches towards 
 the poles, should the love of strong drink be attributed. We find 
 that man in every clime has recourse to inebriants, either in a liquid or 
 in a vegetable form, and that more is to be imputed to the genius of 
 the religion than to either the climate or the want of inclina 
 tion for indulgence in intoxication. The Mahometans, the Budhists, 
 or Lamaics, the Brahmins, and other sectarians of the East, although 
 prohibited the public use of wine, often indulge in it to excess ; and 
 when it cannot be procured, they purchase enjoyment of a similar 
 nature, not so favourable to the prolongation of animal existence. 
 The sobriety and moral rectitude of the Chinese have been secured, 
 through a long succession of ages, by a systematic combination of 
 laws which have so blended the wisdom of the government with the 
 virtue of the people, that the stability of the empire has been preserved 
 unshaken from all external force and internal commotion, since the 
 days of Confucius to the present time. 
 
 In the tributary state of Ha-mi, which, though surrounded by 
 deserts, is accounted one of the most delightful countries in the world, 
 pomegranates, oranges, peaches, raisins, and prunes are of the most 
 exquisite taste ; and the jujubes, or dates, are so juicy, and of such 
 delicious flavour, that the Chinese call them perfumed jujubes. The 
 melons are brought to Pekin for the emperor s use, and have the 
 singular property of keeping fresh during the greater part of the 
 winter. Raisins are a most important production, and are of two 
 kinds ; one like the Corinthian, and the other like those of Malaga. 
 They are said to possess high medicinal virtues, and are much extolled 
 for their efficacy in many obstinate diseases. Wine is made, and of 
 such excellent quality, that it is transported in skins by means of 
 camels into various parts of China. It was from this region, that 
 Tai-song caused the vine plants of the species called majou to be 
 brought and planted in the imperial gardens at Pekin, and it is 
 asserted by some, that the art of making wine was first learned here 
 by the Chinese. The climate of Ha-mi, it is thought, is more favour 
 able to the culture of the vine than that of France; and the quality 
 of the grapes far exceeds that of most European states. The coun 
 try is embosomed in mountains, which protect it from the north and 
 east winds, and as it seldom or never rains, the vineyards are watered 
 from reservoirs constructed at the foot of the mountains, from which 
 
234. 
 
 they arc supplied by copious streams that trickle from the melting 
 snows on their lofty summits. Vast quantities of the grapes are 
 preserved, and form a valuable branch of commerce. They are not 
 pulled until quite ripe, and being carefully picked and dried in the 
 sun, are packed in mats, in which they become shrivelled, but without 
 losing much of the richness and flavour for which they are so remark 
 able. Large packages of these grapes form a portion of the annual 
 tribute sent to the government stores at Pekin. After supplying the 
 imperial tables, they are sold to the Mandarins and such of the inha 
 bitants as can afford to buy them. A most excellent description of 
 brandy is distilled at Ha-mi ; and drinks of various kinds are made 
 from the fruits which so plentifully abound. Many of the nomade 
 tribes of Eastern Tartary consume a good deal of the liquors of this 
 oasis of the wilderness, for which they barter a variety of articles. 
 
 The island of Hainan, although between four and five hundred 
 miles in circumference, has not been described by modern geogra 
 phers with that accuracy of delineation which an island of such mag 
 nitude merits, owing to the paucity of information arising from the 
 want of that intercourse which the extent of European enterprise 
 lias enabled us to obtain concerning other portions of the globe. The 
 defect, however, is in a great degree supplied by the late journey of 
 a gentleman from Manchao, in the south coast of Hainan, to Canton, in 
 the years 1819 and 1820. He describes the inhabitants to be in a high 
 state of civilisation ; the towns and villages numerous, and some of the 
 cities so populous as to contain 200,000 inhabitants. The agricultural 
 products of the island are much the same as those on the continent ; 
 and every portion of it is well cultivated. Rice is the principal 
 grain raised for food, and from which the wine used in the island is 
 principally made. The palm abounds, and cocoa-nuts form an article 
 of export. The cane is cultivated so extensively as to afford a 
 considerable supply of sugar for China. In the towns and cities, the 
 shops are represented as highly respectable, while the artisans have 
 arrived at an astonishing degree of perfection in the mechanic arts. 
 In carving, polishing, and mounting cocoa-nut shells, they display great 
 ingenuity, forming out of this material various domestic articles of 
 a beautiful jet black, elegantly ornamented with silver. 
 
 The liquors of Hainan are much the same as those used in the 
 Chinese empire, and are all drunk warm. An anecdote is related by 
 the traveller just mentioned, who, having called on the governor of 
 Keung-chow-foo, the capital, was treated with wine : but the servant 
 who attended him, in his officiousncss to fulfil his master s orders, 
 poured the hot liquor down the traveller s throat, cup after cup, in 
 
235 
 
 such quantities, and so rashly, that he made him not only tipsy, but 
 scalded his month into the bargain. The inhabitants of this island, 
 in their commerce with China, employ a great number of junks, some 
 of 400 tons burthen. They generally go in fleets ; that in which our 
 traveller passed into China was very numerous ; ihe river, for a con 
 siderable distance, as he expresses it, being covered with a forest of masts. 
 The cargoes, in general, consist of sugar, betel-nuts, salt, indigo, tanned 
 hides, tobacco, and cinnamon, for which are brought in return the 
 various matters necessary for the wants of the Hainanese. Among 
 these are cotton, furs, English broad-cloths, sweet-meats, liqueurs, 
 flints, porcelain, and opium. The habits and moral conduct of the 
 people of Hainan resemble those of China so much, that further 
 observation on that head is unnecessary. As in Tonquin and Cochin- 
 China, they distil arrack mixed with ealamba, which imparts to that 
 liquor a flavour highly esteemed by the natives. This wood grows 
 in the wild and mountainous parts of the island, and has a most deli 
 cious perfume. It is highly valued both in China and Japan, where 
 it is sold in logs at the rate of 200 ducats the pound, to make articles 
 of furniture for the courts. Being chipped and pounded, it is mixed 
 with the fermented rice, and in that state distilled like the juniper in 
 Holland. This wood is so hard, that the mountaineers of Hainan 
 make spades of it to dig gold from their mines, which they barter 
 with the people of the plains for such matters as they may stand in 
 need of. 
 
 In the island of Tai-oun, or Formosa, situated in the Chinese sea, 
 the inhabitants, particularly those on the coasts, manufacture rice-wine, 
 and distil a spirit from it, much in the same manner as already des 
 cribed. But the people of the interior, who are less civilized, make 
 their drink in a very different manner. Like their neighbours, they 
 plant rice and live on the produce ; but as they have no wine, or 
 other strong liquor, they make in lieu of it another sort of beverage, 
 which, if we may believe Georgius Candidius, a missionary, is very 
 pleasant, and no less strong than other wine. This liquor is made 
 by the women in the following manner : They take a quantity of 
 rice and boil it until it becomes soft, and then bruise it into a sort of 
 paste. Afterwards they take rice flour, which they chew, and put 
 with their saliva into a vessel by itself, till they have a good quantity 
 of it. This they use instead of leaven or yeast, and mixing it among 
 the rice paste, w r ork it together like baker s dough. They then put 
 the whole into a large vessel, and after having poured water upon it, 
 let it stand in that state for two months. In the mean time, the liquor 
 works up like new wine, and the longer it is preserved, the better it 
 
236 
 
 becomes ; and, as is said, will keep good for many years. It is an 
 agreeable liquor, as clear as pure water at the top, but very muddy 
 and thick towards the bottom. Though this residuum cannot be used 
 as a beverage, it is too precious to be thrown away or lost ; hence, to 
 make it potable, itr is sometimes diluted with water, but more fre 
 quently supped with a spoon, as a ragout or exhilarating pulp. 
 
 When the labourers go to work in the fields, they bring with them 
 some of this thick or muddy substance in cane vessels, which they 
 blend with fresh water, and after the mixture has stood a little time 
 for clarification, it is taken as a refreshment during the heat and 
 labour of the day.* The Formosans have another liquor, called 
 Masakhauw, or MacJiiko, made from rice. A vessel, about the sJze of 
 a hogshead, is nearly two-thirds filled with rice, chewed, and boiled ; 
 and then filled to the top with water. It is then luted and buried 
 seven feet under ground, where it is suffered to remain for a year, 
 when it is taken up and the liquor pressed from the grain by the 
 bands. In about eight days, during which it w r orks and settles, it 
 becomes a clear, wholesome beverage, equal to the strongest wine, 
 and will keep good for twenty or thirty years. Some of the wealthy 
 inhabitants Lave 200 or 300 vessels of it at one time stored in their 
 cellars. At the birth of a child, the parents prepare some vessels 
 of this liquor, and preserve it till the time of marriage. They have 
 another sort of drink called Cuihay, which is nothing more than the 
 second washings of the pressed rice, made by putting a small quan 
 tity of it into a calabash containing about two gallons of water. It 
 makes a cool, refreshing drink, having a slight flavour of the Masak- 
 hauw, bearing the same proportion to it in strength as small beer does 
 to strong. In the northern parts, between Keylang and Tamsay and 
 between Tamsay and Mount Gedult, a drink is made from wood ashes, 
 of considerable strength, but injurious to Europeans, from its excoriating 
 effects on the bowels, which usually lead to dangerous hemorrhage. Al 
 though these liquors are common as well as many others from China, yet 
 the natives seldom indulge in them to any degree of excess, j The palm 
 grows luxuriantly. Toddy is drawn from it, and the uses of the tree 
 for the various purposes of life are known to many of the inhabi 
 tants. The leaves are sometimes formed into cylindrical caps with 
 crowns, one above another, and surmounted with waving plumes, 
 which give them a majestic appearance. 
 
 Candidius s Account of the Island of Formosa, apud Churchill, vol. i. p. 405* 
 Ogilby s Atlas Chinensis, Fol. Lond. 1671, p. 10. 
 f Ogilby s Atlas Chinensis, p, 22, 
 
237 
 
 The products of this island are sugar, corn, rice, with most other 
 grains, fruits, and vegetables, common to the continent of China. But, 
 though fertilized and intersected by a great number of rivulets from 
 the mountains, it is very extraordinary that every kind of water in 
 the island is said to be a deadly poison to strangers, for which no 
 remedy has hitherto been found.* This, however, can only apply to 
 the water in its simple state, as by boiling, nitration, and other precau 
 tions, it may be rendered sufficiently safe for every purpose of life. 
 Neither is it natural to suppose, that a place of such magnitude as 
 Formosa would be unprovided by Providence in so essential an article 
 as that of good water, without which neither man nor beast can exist. 
 The climate is represented to be salubrious, the soil fertile, the ani 
 mals vigorous and numerous ; and the ox, a creature greatly depen 
 dant upon water, capable of exerting a strength and speed unknown 
 in any other part of the world. This assertion, respecting the delete 
 rious quality of the water, seems to be as preposterous as the story of 
 John Strays, who would make us believe that he saw a man with a 
 tail more than a foot in length, covered with red hair, and greatly 
 resembling that of an ox ; and that this deformity proceeded from 
 the climate, and was peculiar to all the inhabitants of the southern 
 parts of the island a relation too extravagant and incredible to 
 require refutation. Stripped of the marvellous, Formosa is a valu 
 able acquisition to China ; and were it not for the exactions of the 
 Mandarins from those who emigrate to it, numerous manufactories 
 would be established, and that island would rank high in commercial 
 importance; since it is known, that immense quantities of rice are , 
 raised in the plains, and that to the amount of 100,000 bushels are 
 annually exported from its harbours. The tribute imposed by the 
 Chinese on the inhabitants is paid in grain, and the contributions of 
 this article to the government stores are as respectable as many of 
 those from the most fertile parts of the empire. 
 
 The Coreans, an ingenious and enterprising people who inhabit 
 that extensive peninsula washed by the sea of Japan, and lying to 
 the north-east of the Chinese territory, manufacture a species of wine, 
 or vinous liquor, from a grain called paniz, (panicum or millet), or 
 from a coarse kind of rice.f They distil arrack in the same man 
 ner as the Chinese. In this country there are numerous taverns, but 
 no regular inns for the accommodation of travellers. In these houses, 
 
 * Grosier, vol. i. p. 227. 
 
 f Mod. Univ. Hist. vol. vii, p. 329. Malte-Brun, vol. ii. p. 498. P. Regis 
 Geog. Observ. in Du Haldc, vol. ii. p. 376, &e. 
 
238 
 
 music and dancing are kept up with the use of betel, tobacco, and 
 drink in the style and manner of the Chinese, whose habits and 
 customs they greatly imitate. Their subjection to the Chinese, and 
 their consequent intercourse with that people have given to the 
 Coreans a knowledge of almost all the liquors to be met with in 
 China. The southern districts are very productive in wheat, millet, 
 barley, rice, and a variety of fruits. The mountains are cultivated 
 in many instances by terraces to the tops, and the hand of industry is 
 visible in almost every part of the country. Traders from Corea go 
 every year to Pekin with the ambassadors, and carry with them whatever 
 articles of rarity they consider acceptable to their neighbours, and in 
 return, bring home a supply of all the productions of the capital, 
 among which the choicest wines form no inconsiderable portion. 
 
 Of this country it is to be regretted that so little is known. The 
 voyage lately undertaken by Captain Lindsay, in the Amherst, at the 
 instance of the president and committee of super-cargoes at Canton, 
 gives us little more than a glimpse of the country, as the jealousy of 
 the people prevents foreigners of free intercourse or even entrance 
 into their towns and villages. Captain Lindsay was accompanied 
 by the Rev. Mr. Gutzlaff, a zealous and pious missionary, and after 
 several vain attempts to procure an interview with the king, for 
 whom they had a letter with some presents, all they could effect was 
 a meeting with some of the chiefs, who entertained them in a tempo 
 rary shed, where they were served with some wine, or rather with 
 a spirit resembling once-distilled whiskey. Of this the chiefs par 
 took first, not through any incivility to the strangers, but as a national 
 custom.* 
 
 Of Japan, as of the other distant and oriental nations, the early 
 history is but little known. Marco Polo, in the third book of his 
 account of eastern countries, imperfectly describes it under the name 
 of Zipangri. The Portuguese, about the year 1542, were the first 
 who laid open to Europeans a knowledge of those islands.j The 
 inhabitants, though far advanced in civilisation, appeared altogether 
 unacquainted with chemistry as a science. In the practice of several 
 of the useful and ingenious arts they had made astonishing proficiency, 
 and in the manufacture of Sacki, a strong and wholesome beer pro 
 cured from rice, they were not excelled by any other people.J This 
 
 * Documents of a voyage to the North-East coast of China, in the Amherst, 
 printed by order of Parliament, 1833. 
 
 f Koempfer s Introd. Hist. Japan, vol. i p. 32. Thunberg, &c, 
 % Koempfer, vol. i. p. 121. 
 
239 
 
 liquor lias been the favourite drink from the most remote ages ; and 
 it is related of one of their emperors that, taking precedent from the 
 Chinese monarch Kya, he employed 2000 men to dig a large lake, 
 and having filled it with Sacki, sailed over it in a stately barge. 
 Captain Saris, while in Japan in 1613, met with several kinds of 
 strong liquor ; and when he delivered his presents to the emperor, 
 amongst which was a large drinking cup of superior workmanship and 
 value, the monarch proposed to drink, standing, the health of his Bri 
 tannic majesty, in a cup of spirits distilled from rice and as strong as 
 brandy, termed Sotschio. Having filled his goblet, containing about 
 a pint and a-half, he drank it off, ordering his secretary or cup-bearer 
 to see that every individual present had followed liis example. Sacki 
 is the beverage in general use.* It is as pure as wine, of an agree 
 able taste, and intoxicating if taken to any extent. When fresh, it is 
 whitish, but if permitted to remain long in the cask, it becomes 
 brown. Koempfer met with it in all the inns at which he stopped on 
 his journey to the metropolis ; and although no person whatever is 
 exempt from brewing it, yet there are numbers in the empire who 
 follow no other business than that of making sacki. It is manufac 
 tured to great perfection in the city of Osacca, and in such abundance 
 that it is sent from thence all over the kingdom, and even exported 
 to other countries by the Dutch and Chinese.f The term Sacki is 
 said to be derived from the name of this city, being the genitive case 
 of the word, omitting the initial letter. It is very probable that our 
 wine called sack had its name from this Japanese liquor, as that term 
 must have been introduced into Europe by the Spanish and Portu 
 guese traders, by whom sack was first made and sent from Malaga, or 
 the Canaries. This seems the more likely, as both those nations were 
 early acquainted with Eastern countries, and the names by which they 
 distinguished their favourite. The writers of the Universal History 
 state that Sacki was first brewed in the city of Jenkinosari, in the 
 year of the era 1347, answering to our A. D. 687 ; but this is at 
 variance with the annals of the country, in which it is mentioned 
 many years previous to that period. 
 
 The town of Muru, in the province of Bisen, is inhabited chiefly by 
 the brewers of Sacki, and the quality of the liquor made there is said 
 to be excellent. In 1825, the Dutch alone exported to the value of 
 nearly 14,000 florins. This liquor, for the most part, bears a great 
 resemblance to Canary wine, is sold in every tavern like our beer, and 
 
 * Titsingh s account of Japan, Ogilby s Atlas Japanensis. Folio, London, 1670. 
 f Koempfer, vol. ii. b. v. p. 426, 469, and 477. 
 
210 
 
 is used by the wealthy at their ordinary meals.* The common mode 
 of using it is by heating it in a kettle, and then pouring it into tea 
 cups made of lackered wood. At Batavia, sack! is drunk out of 
 wine glasses before meals to excite an appetite, the white or purest 
 kind being preferred on such occasions. Although Sacki is drunk 
 freely by all descriptions of persons, from the emperor to the meanest 
 subject, its immoderate use is seldom productive of much mischief. 
 Some, indeed, of the lower orders have been known to be beheaded 
 for being drunk and quarrelsome ;f but this is of rare occurrence. 
 The beer of Japan, as already remarked, is considered wholesome 
 and pleasant to the taste, but it is of such a nature, that it should be 
 taken not cold but moderately warm ; for when it is not heated, it 
 frequently occasions that dreadful and endemial species of colic, 
 which the Japanese call sen/ti, a disease which has proved fatal to 
 many, as well foreigners as natives. To cure this distemper various 
 means are used, but the principal is the acupunctura, or pricking of 
 the abdomen with a needle, so as to let out the hidden, or morbific 
 vapours. " I have been myself," says Kxempfer, " several times an 
 eye-witness, that in consequence of these three rows of holes, (Tor 
 such are the number of punctures) made according to the rules of art, 
 and to a reasonable depth, the pains of the colic have ceased almost 
 in an instant, as if they had been charmed away."^ Surgeons are 
 usually furnished with drawings of the parts where it is proper to 
 apply the needle. This instrument is generally made of gold or silver, 
 and the operation seems to be a species of cupping as practised by 
 the faculty in Europe. Caron informs us that the higher orders are 
 always entertained at visits with wine served out in varnished cups 
 called beakers, and when a person happens to be overcome by drink 
 he retires to sleep off his intoxication. Like wine and spirits in our 
 own country, sacki is made a medium of social intercourse, and intro 
 duced not only on joyous but on solemn occasions, such as holydays, 
 festivals, marriages, and funerals. The holydays are numerous, 
 being two in every month, besides five great annual festivals which 
 some devote to piety, but the greater number to amusement. These 
 afford opportunities of great indulgence in the use of national beve 
 rages, and those days being considered unlucky and all business stopped, 
 great liberty is taken, and few restraints are imposed either on the 
 passions or the appetites. Drinking parties are never held in public 
 
 * Thunberg s Travels, vol. iv. p. 39, 40, 41. 
 
 f Koempfer, vol. ii. p. 667. 
 
 $ Kcempfer, vol. ii. b. v. p. 426, 4G9, and 477. 
 
211 
 
 taverns in Japan, but always in private houses. The inns and 
 taverns are numerous, but they are chiefly appropriated to travellers 
 and strangers : hence there is seldom any public exhibition of intem 
 perance or irregularity. To be drunk in the day time, is, according 
 to Golownin, considered disgraceful; hence the lovers of drinking 
 do not indulge their propensity until evening, after the termination 
 of all labour and business. The Japanese are said to exceed most 
 other nations in the magnificence of their entertainments and fes 
 tivals. To these they invite not only their living but their dead 
 relations and friends ; the latter, by going in troops to their graves with 
 burning lamps in their hands, calling them by their names, and 
 entreating them to favour them with their presence. This is a 
 superstitious but innocent weakness, which influences many of the 
 oriental nations to pay respect to the memory of the departed by 
 frequent and ceremonious visits ta the city of the silent. 
 
 The following anecdote related by Titsingh, while it shews the 
 partiality of the Japanese for their Sacki, gives an interesting speci 
 men of their capabilities of sincere friendship, somewhat similar to the 
 well-known affecting story of Damon and Pythias : A certain 
 prince, named Tchouya, having conspired against the ruling monarch, 
 was condemned to death with some of his accomplices. At the 
 moment of execution, a man carrying two gold-hilted sabres and 
 covered with a flowing mantle, rushed through the crowd, and 
 addressing himself to the commandant, said, " My name is Sibata- 
 Zabrobe ; I am the friend of Tchouya, and am come to embrace 
 him, and to suffer with him." " You are a worthy man," replied the 
 commandant, " it wereto be wished that all the world were like you 
 I give you permission to speak to Tchouya." The two friends con 
 versed together for some time. Sibata expressed the extreme pain 
 he felt at his condemnation, and that he had come to Yeddo to share 
 his fate, as he would be ashamed to survive him. He then took from 
 the sleeve of his robe a small pot of sacki, and, after drinking it, the 
 two friends bade farewell to each other. Tchouya was melted into 
 tears ; he thanked Sibata for his kind and courageous resolution, and 
 declared that he was most happy in the opportunity of once more 
 embracing him before he died. Sibata weeping, replied, " our body 
 in this world resembles the flower Asa-gawa, which before sun-rise 
 is beautiful and magnificent, but immediately after fades and dies ; 
 or like the kogero insect, that exists only for a day : but after death 
 we shall be in a better world, where we shall enjoy each other s 
 society without interruption." With these words he rose, thanked 
 the commandant, and retired. The executioner had done his office, 
 
 B 
 
242 
 
 and Tchouya with his fellow-sufferers lay prostrate on the scaffold. 
 Sibata approached, and offering the commandant his two sabres, said, 
 " To you I am indebted for the consolation of having conversed 
 with my friend, taking a cup of Sacki, and bidding adieu to him 
 before his removal to a better world ; I entreat you to denounce me 
 to the governor of Yeddo, that he may order me to suffer like my 
 friend." " The gods forbid," replied the commandant, " were I to 
 do what you desire, you would die like Tchouya ; your courage 
 deserves a better fate. While all his other friends are hiding them 
 selves in dens and caverns, you have braved death to embrace him ; 
 such men as you are rare, and I could not betray them." The drink 
 ing of Sacki forms the last ceremony of those condemned to commit 
 suicide, which is an established punishment for all offenders against 
 the state. When the culprit receives the order for self-destruction 
 he invites his friends to meet him on the day appointed, and regales 
 them with sacki. Having drunk together for some time, till, perhaps, 
 the spirits have become exhilarated, the victim takes leave of them, 
 and the order of the court being read, he addresses the company in 
 a farewell complimentary speech ; then bending his head towards the 
 mat, he draws his sabre, cuts himself across the belly? penetrating to 
 the bowels, w r hen one of his confidential servants, placed behind for 
 the purpose, instantly strikes off his head. No disgrace is attached 
 to this unnatural mode of punishment ; on the contrary, the son 
 inherits all the father s property and honours, and none but persons of 
 the higher grade are privileged to be their own executioners. 
 
 Independent of Sacki, the Japanese have a variety of exhilarating 
 liquors made from wheat, rice, and other grain, and from these they 
 distil spirits to some extent. From the fruits of the country a very 
 nice description of wine is produced. Ko3mpfer, during his stay at 
 Jeddo, tasted an excellent sort made from plumbs. They tap the 
 palm, birch, and other trees, from the juice of which they manufac 
 ture various beverages with no inconsiderable skill. The vine is 
 planted merely as a curosity in the manner that w r e plant oranges and 
 lemons ; because the grapes do not readily ripen, and the people are 
 so attached to sacki, that they rarely think of any more agreeable 
 substitute. Grapes, however, according to Thunberg, are reared in 
 such quantities as to form a portion of the dessert at the dinners of 
 persons of rank. 
 
 Sacki, distilled from the flowers of motherwort, (a splendid odori 
 ferous plant, supposed to be the chrysanthemum Indicum, or the 
 hiou-hoa of the Cliinese, and celebrated by all the poets of that 
 country,) is a favourite drink at the court of the Dairi, being 
 
243 
 
 considered to Lave the properties of prolonging life. These flowers , 
 as soon as they open, are gathered ; and it is usual to mix leaves and 
 petals with boiled rice, from which a fermented beverage is prepared 
 and used in celebrating one of their favourite festivals. The partiality 
 for this drink is traced to the following traditionary legend : From 
 the sides of a hill near a village in the province of Nanyo-norekken, 
 a stream of pure water was formed from the dews and rains that 
 washed the luxuriant flowers of the motherwort with which this place 
 abounded. This stream, in its passage through the valley, served 
 the villagers for their ordinary drink, to the virtues of which the 
 extraordinary longevity of the inhabitants was attributable, some 
 living to the age of 100, others to 120, and 130, while a person 
 dying at 70 was considered to have a premature demise. 
 
 It is also customary to drink sacki distilled from peach blossoms for 
 the purpose of obtaining long life and good health, as the peach is 
 supposed by them to possess the properties of repelling all kinds of 
 infection. This practice originated in the following Chinese tale : 
 A female of exquisite beauty, said to be one of the immortals, having 
 presented one of the emperors with a peach, he was so struck with 
 its appearance, richness, and delicious odour, that he inquired where 
 it was procured. She replied, it was the produce of a tree not of 
 earthly growth, but came from one that bore fruit but once in 3000 
 years, and assured him that if he ate it, he would attain that age. 
 From this superstitious fable, the Chinese and Japanese regale them 
 selves with a beverage extracted from peach blossoms at the second 
 of their great annual festivals. 
 
 The apparatus for distilling is here, as in other countries, in pro 
 portion to the extent in which the manufacture is carried on ; and to 
 such perfection have they brought the art of distillation, that indivi 
 duals have been known to carry a portable still. Golownin saw one 
 in the possession of a Japanese traveller, with which he made spirits 
 from rice, drank freely of it himself and shared it liberally with others.* 
 The ingenuity of these people in the mechanic arts is well known, 
 and is nowhere more conspicuous than in the neatness and perfection 
 to which they have arrived in the formation and elegance of the bowls 
 and cups used for holding sacki. Many of them are so large as to 
 admit of ornamental figures, some of which are so artfully contrived 
 as to represent the actions of real life. Titsingh describes two of 
 this kind, one representing a young lady, and the other a servant 
 holding a parasol, which, when floating in a bowl of sacki, the servant 
 
 * Golownin s Captivity in Japan, vol. i. p. 273. 
 
244 
 
 would open the parasol, and follow his mistress, who always took 
 precedence. 
 
 The brewing vessels and stills in Japan are made of copper, a 
 metal very abundant in the country. Those used in the making of 
 sacki at the court of the Dairi, or spiritual prince, are only once 
 employed for that purpose, so that on all occasions of brewing and 
 distilling a new apparatus must be procured. In like manner, the 
 culinary utensils, in which his meat is prepared, are changed, and the 
 plates, dishes, bowls, and other table appointments, are broken after 
 each repast. 
 
 Rice is the principal food, tea is the common beverage, and as all 
 liquors are drunk warm, the kettle is seldom or never off the fire. 
 There are no casks for liquids ; but tubs that hold ten or twelve 
 gallons. These are broader above than below, and are bound with 
 wooden hoops, and have a small square hole at the top. The best 
 sacki, as well as sotschio is kept in large glazed earthen jars, or 
 lacquered and gilt flasks. 
 
 The early missionaries affirm that wine was common in Jesso and 
 in the vicinity of Matsmai, and that it was drunk freely, yet, as before 
 observed, grapes do not flourish in the country ; those which are found 
 are wild and tart, but are salted and eaten as a salad by the common 
 people. The sugar-cane is reared, but not to any extent, and its pro 
 duce is of a black colour. The principal supply is imported, and the 
 neglect of its culture is owing to the scarcity of land and the ease 
 with which it can be procured from the neighbouring countries. 
 Thunberg says that no canes have been imported for cultivation ; 
 and that the Japanese shewed him the juice of a tree that grows on 
 the adjoining islands, from which sugar was manufactured. This 
 juice had a disagreeable appearance, and was of a brownish hue. 
 According to this writer, the sugar-maple does not grow in Japan ; it 
 is, therefore, probable, that the juice alluded to was obtained from 
 the birch, which abounds in various parts of the empire.* 
 
 Honey, though frequently found in Japan, is confined to medicinal 
 purposes, mead being unknown. Many of the native fruits are pre 
 served in sacki, the acid of the liquor imparting to them an agreeable 
 flavour, highly prized by the people. It is common to see firkins of 
 cucumbers, immersed in sacki, exposed for sale in the public markets, 
 and to give a zest for drinking this favourite beverage, dhulish, from 
 which sloak is made, is frequently eaten before and after meals.f 
 
 Cordials of the nicest quality are prepared by the Japanese, and 
 
 Thunberg vol. iv. p. 93. f Golownin s Recollections of Japan, passim. 
 
245 
 
 what are prized as luxuries in many places are with them quite fami 
 liar. Buck- wheat (polygonum fagopyrum,) is reared to great extent, 
 and forms a portion of the food of the inhabitants. It is to be found 
 at the inns and places of refreshment on the roads, in the form of 
 cakes, and a pleasant beverage is brewed from it. But although the 
 hop (humulus lupulus,) was observed by Thuriberg to grow wild in. 
 the country, the people seemed altogether ignorant of its application 
 to the purposes of brewing.* In the ceremonies of drinking, in pre 
 senting a cup to a friend, it is usual to make a slight bend of the body^ 
 and lifting the left hand to the forehead, first taste the spirits to show 
 there is nothing in it injurious, and then hand it to the guest* 
 
 The passion for strong liquors among the Japanese is much the 
 same as that of other orientalists ; and it is held by them as a maxim, 
 that " to drink seldom but heartily when at it, is better than to tipple 
 frequently and in small quantities," an adage, however, little attended 
 to, as many of them take it as often as they can conveniently procure 
 it, and that without any restraint. It is a custom before dinner to 
 drink to the health of the guests, which act is always accompanied 
 with a profound bow. The women eat by themselves during the 
 courses, they drink a glass of sacki, and repeat the draught occasionally* 
 It has, notwithstanding, been said, that spirituous liquors are not used 
 by the women, except on some extraordinary occasions, or on public 
 festivals ;f but from the picture which Krempfer gives of a large 
 portion of the Japanese females, I am disposed to think that they are 
 not quite so abstemious. Thunberg asserts that sanctuaries for 
 women of pleasure are very numerous, and commonly the handsomest 
 houses, frequently situated in the vicinity of their idol temples. Such 
 is the want of decency, that these places are indiscriminately resorted 
 to by male parties as taverns for drinking sacki. Many of the Chinese 
 repair to Japan to mingle in its debaucheries ; hence it has been deno 
 minated the brothel of China, though at home, frailties of a similar 
 description are not wanting to stigmatize the character of the Celestial 
 Empire. 
 
 The trade with Japan has, for a series of years, been confined to- 
 the Dutch, who are allowed to send thither only two ships annually, 
 so that we know little of the internal policy or commerce of this 
 interesting empire, but what has been communicated through the 
 medium of writers, who, it may be feared, would not disclose what 
 might be prejudicial to the monopoly of their countrymen. Since 
 the year 1601, when the Dutch were first permitted to trade there, 
 
 * Thunberg, vol. iv. p. 85. f Mod. Univ, Hist. vol. vii. p. 376. 
 
246 
 
 those islands may be said to be shut up from every other nation ; 
 and we are taught to believe that every precaution is observed, with 
 which jealousy can inspire ingenuity, to keep foreigners from their 
 shores, and to prevent them from acquiring their language. Were 
 an embassy sent from Great Britain to Japan, it is not improbable 
 but that it would be followed by favourable results, and an immense 
 trade opened for the enterprise of English speculators. That the 
 Japanese are not averse to an intercourse with British merchants, is 
 evident from the circumstance that during the late war several of our 
 vessels were received at Nangasaki as Dutch ships, although the 
 people were well aware that they were English, but they could not 
 acknowledge them under any other flag than that of the Dutch. This 
 opinion of their favourable disposition towards the British is confirmed 
 by the fact of a ship from Bengal having got on their coast, to which 
 the natives rep-aired in great numbers to purchase such articles of 
 British manufacture as tliey could procure. Even the government 
 officers, who liad boarded the vessel for the purpose of directing the 
 captain to leave the country, shewed an anxiety to purchase cloth 
 such as that worn by him. When he said he had none, they desired 
 him to be sure to bring articles of that kind on his return ; adding 
 ironically, " But on no account was he to come back." 
 
 When the Portuguese were in possession of the trade of this 
 country, the export in gold alone, according to Koempfer, amounted 
 to 300 tons annually, making the enormous sum of 2,500,000 ster 
 ling. In exchange for this, the articles were various, and among 
 these, wines formed no inconsiderable share. 
 
 There can be no doubt that were judicious efforts made to promul 
 gate a true knowledge of Christian principles among a people so 
 shrewd and intelligent as the Japanese, free intercourse would be the 
 result, and the prejudices of paganism would fade away before the 
 superior light of the gospel. 
 
 Between the island of Kinsire, the most southerly of that group 
 Avhich forms the empire of Japan, and Formosa, are situated the Loo- 
 Choo islands, which have lately attracted considerable attention from 
 the interesting accounts given of them by Dr. M JLeod and Captain 
 Hall of the Alceste and Lyra. The inhabitants are represented by 
 these gentlemen as possessing most amiable dispositions, and enjoying 
 all the comforts of a land rich in every beauty which nature can 
 bestow. The orange, the lime, the tea-plant, and sugar-cane abound, 
 while rice, wheat, peas, melons, pine-apples, &c. are reared in great 
 plenty. Samtchoo is distilled by them to considerable perfection, and 
 is made much in the same manner as in China. Becchey speaks of a 
 
247 
 
 drink called Mooroofacoo, a dark-coloured cordial, possessing 1 a bitter 
 sweet taste, but inferior in strength to samtchoo. At a repast wit 
 nessed by this navigator, the company were closely plied with samtchoo, 
 or, as it is sometimes here called, sackee, in small opaque wine-glasses 
 which held about a tliimble-full : the example set by the host was 
 followed by the guests, each turning down his glass when empty. 
 This spirit is very ardent, and hence the propriety of using such 
 small glasses ; but the Mooroofacoo, which was distilled from grain 
 was drunk out of a small enamelled cup.* Of the samtchoo, or spirit 
 made from rice, nine jars, each containing about fifteen gallons, were 
 sent on board the Alceste and Lyra during their stay at Loo-choo. 
 Sacki is in use, and of a good quality, little inferior to that of Japan ; 
 besides which they have a liqueur named Chazzi, which resembles 
 rosolio, and is of a strong intoxicating quality .f 
 
 Gutzlaff, in his late visit to these islands, tasted some of their spiri 
 tuous liquors, which he says were v^ry clear and of excellent flavour. 
 Among the articles of export from Loo-choo, samtchoo spirits form 
 a portion, and are sent to Japan and China, J where they meet a ready 
 market. 
 
 It is customary with the inhabitants of these islands, as with the 
 people of China, to have games for the encouragement of drinking 
 and social intercourse. One of these consists in holding the stalk of 
 a tobacco pipe over the head, in which position the individual, by the 
 motion of his hands, turns it quickly round. And when he stops 
 twirling it in this way, whatever person in company the open bowl 
 of the pipe points towards, must drink a cup of wine. Another game 
 is that of forfeits by the fingers, which subjects the performer or his 
 opponent to drink a cup of wine, should either be unsuccessful in 
 calling the number extended by the sudden opening of the hand. It 
 is not a little remarkable, that a similar game, termed Mora, is prac 
 tised in the South of Europe, where it is generally played to deter 
 mine who shall pay the reckoning. 
 
 This game is said to have been known to the ancients, and would 
 imply an early intercourse with Eastern nations. 
 
 In some of the adjacent islands, they make a strong drink from the 
 remainder of their crops of corn, rice, pulse, &c. called Awamuri. 
 On the island of Jesso, although the people are but little advanced 
 
 * Beechey s Voyage, vol. ii. p. 473-4. 
 
 "j" M Leod s Voyage to China and Loo-Choo, 8vo. p. 78. 
 
 J Beechey s Voyage, vol. ii. p. 198. 
 
 Mod, Univ. Hist, vol. vii. p. 993. 
 
218 
 
 beyond the state of hunter* and fishers, they make a kind of wine 
 resembling sacki, which is very strong. This they drink in great 
 quantities, although they are seldom intoxicated ; a circumstance 
 ascribed by Father de Angeles, a Jesuit, to their use of the todo- 
 noovo, a kind of oil drawn from a fish of the same name, with which 
 they season their rice, and almost all eatables.* This fish, sometimes 
 spelt todo-noevo, a species of seal, is described as a small fish covered 
 with hair, having four feet like a hog s ; its oil is said to be an infal 
 lible preventive of inebriety. There seems nothing extraordinary 
 in the effect attributed to this oil, since it is common in our own 
 country to have recourse to melted butter to recover persons labour 
 ing under excessive intoxication. Ovalle, in his History of Chili, 
 mentions a similar effect to that produced by the todo-noovo, from 
 the use of certain star-fish caught on the coasts. These, when 
 reduced to a powder and mixed with wine, have the effect of making 
 the individual who drinks it abhor wine as much as he before loved 
 it. Another singular remedy for drunkenness mentioned by Ovalle, 
 is that of drinking the sweat of a horse infused in wine, which ever 
 after causes an utter dislike for that liquor. In many parts of Jesso, 
 Avild grapes are abundant, while millet and other grain are plentiful, 
 but the chief beverages drawn from these are manufactured by the 
 Japanese settlers, who have imparted to the Aborigines a taste for 
 those luxuries. 
 
 The islands lying near Jesso and Kamtschatka are commonly called 
 the Kuriles ; several of these, such as Kunashir, Exetooroop, and 
 Saghalien may be considered Japanese colonies, and have their chief 
 supplies of rice, tobacco, sacki, and other luxuries, from the mother 
 country. The Kurilians are warmly attached to tobacco and strong 
 liquors ; the former, often moistened by sacki, is sold by them without 
 restriction, but the latter only to a limited extent, lest excess in their 
 use might lead to the dangerous consequences of sickness, discord, or 
 criminal indiscretions. 
 
 In casting our eyes over the broad expanse of the Pacific Ocean, 
 we are presented with so many states and islands, that to describe all 
 would be superfluous ; and as they greatly resemble each other in 
 the productions of the soil, it may be sufficient to give a general idea 
 of the most considerable. The Mariana isles, about twelve in number, 
 were first discovered by Magellan, who had reason to form so unfa 
 vourable an opinion of the inhabitants, that he bestowed on them the 
 name of Ladrones, or island of thieves, in memory of the repeated 
 
 Pe Angeles apiul Charlevoix. Hist. Japan. Mod, Univ. Hist. vol. vii. p. 442, 
 
249 
 
 thefts which he experienced. The people were found to be extremely 
 rude and ignorant, but subsequent navigators have represented them 
 in a more favourable point of view. Wallis, in 1 767, remained upon 
 Tinian a month, and seemed pleased with the refreshment he pro 
 cured. The people speak a language bearing so close a resemblance 
 to that of the Philippine islanders that they are supposed to have sprung 
 from one common stock ; the productions are much the same, and they 
 closely resemble each other in many respects. Since the establish 
 ment of the Dutch in Guam, one of the principal settlements of this 
 group, the inhabitants have become better acquainted with the enli 
 vening qualities of the cocoa-nut tree, and of the rice cultivated at 
 Rota. In the island of Guam, a liquor called Touba is in use, of 
 which the natives seem to be extremely fond. De Pages represents 
 the brandy made from the fermented juice of the cocoa-tree as excel 
 lent.* The Manilla ships usually touch at these islands for refresh 
 ments in their voyage from Acapuleo. The Carolines, a cluster of 
 islands which lie to the south of the Ladrones, are but little known. 
 They are said to resemble the latter, both as to the natural produc 
 tions and the manners of the people. Captain Wilson, whose ship was 
 wrecked in 1783 upon the coast of Pelew, one of the principal of the 
 group of islands of that name, gives a pleasing picture of the inhabi 
 tants. The island is stocked with a great variety of plants and with 
 trees of various kinds ; among these may be reckoned the cabbage- 
 tree, the bread-fruit, and a tree producing a fruit like an almond. 
 Plaintains, bananas, oranges, and lemons are found. The leaves of 
 the palm serve as thatch for their houses, the milk of the cocoa sup 
 plies them with drink. A kind of sherbet is made, to which the 
 juice of the orange is added. It is remarkable that the crews of the 
 ships which were sent from Bombay to these islands, in 1790, among 
 the other supplies, introduced liquors to the notice of the inhabitants, 
 who thus acquired a taste for the luxurious drinks of their more 
 enlightened visitants. Captain M Clure, who commanded the ships, 
 remained on this island, resolved to pass the remainder of his life 
 among these ingenious and virtuous people Of New Britain and 
 New Ireland we know little, but such parts of them as have been 
 explored are considered abundantly fertile. The cocoa and different 
 kinds of palm trees flourish in the forests, while numbers of esculent 
 roots and vegetables are met with in the plains and valleys. The 
 natives are said to be unacquainted with the juice of the palm. The 
 Solomon islands seem to be as little known as the two just mentioned, 
 
 * Travels round the World, vol. i. p. 171. 
 
250 
 
 writers being divided as to their number and extent. Alvaro <le 
 Mendana, the Spanish navigator who discovered them in 1567, gives 
 a description of their inhabitants, little different from that applicable 
 to other islanders in the Pacific, their arts and habits being much the 
 same. When Cook visited the islands of the New Hebrides in 1773, 
 about sixteen in number, he found them well wooded and stocked 
 in abundance with sugar-canes and yams. The plantain, cocoa, 
 banana, bread-fruit, figs, oranges, and other fruits, appeared, though 
 not so abundant as in some of the other islands of this occean, but 
 from the fertility of the soil, they might be augmented with very 
 little labour to a supply sufficient for any exigence. Vegetables grow 
 in great profusion, and where the hills are covered with trees to the 
 top, the juice and intoxicating effects of the palm, or other material, 
 we may reasonably conclude, are not unknown. 
 
 Among the Friendly, Society, Feejee, Sandwich, and Navigators 1 
 islands, the Cava is in general used as a beverage. The best descrip 
 tion that has been given of it is by Mariner, who resided in the Friendly 
 Islands for many years, and was familiar with all their manners and 
 customs.* The cava plant, partly described under the appellation of 
 ava in the article on Borneo, is a species of pepper cultivated solely 
 for the purpose to which it is applied. It seldom exceeds five feet, 
 and has large leaves shaped like a heart with jointed stalks. The 
 root is carefully dug up, scraped clean with muscle-shells, and split 
 into small pieces. It is then distributed among the people, seated in 
 two circles, to be chewed. The deadly silence which had previously 
 prevailed is then broken by the cry of " my ma cava ; my ma cava ; 
 my lie cava" give me some cava, give me cava, some cava, by each 
 of those who intend to chew it. No one attempts to chew it but 
 young persons with good teeth, clean mouths, and free from disease. 
 Women often assist, and it is curious that in the process of chewing, 
 the root is kept wonderfully dry. In some places, says Kotzebue, 
 the old women only chew the root, and the young women merely 
 spit on it to thin the paste. The chewing of each mouthful occupies 
 about two minutes, and when thus masticated, it is placed on a piece 
 of plantain or banana leaf, and handed to persons appointed to collect 
 and place it in a wooden bowl of about three feet in diameter and 
 one foot in depth. In this vessel it is arranged in distinct and 
 separate portions, in order to give an idea of the quantity of drink 
 that it will make, to ascertain which it is shewn to the chief, 
 
 He was one of the crew of a vessel that was seized by the natives in the 
 year 1806. 
 
251 
 
 who, if lie considers that it will produce enough, gives orders 
 for its preparation, or directs an additional quantity to be 
 chewed. Two men, w r hose business it is to mix the material in the 
 bowl, sit opposite to each other with the bowl between them, one of 
 whom fans off the flies with a large leaf, while the other pours in 
 water from cocoa-nut shells. Then, with his hands carefully washed, 
 he intermingles and compresses the chewed matter; water contriving 
 to be poured in until it is deemed necessary to stop. Having gathered 
 all the ingredients equally and firmly together, a large quantity of 
 the fibrous substance is thrown over the entire surface of the infusion, 
 after which the man who manages the process commences the most 
 difficult part of the operation. By various, curious, and singular 
 evolutions of his hands and arms, he succeeds in working the fibrous 
 subject round the pulp, till it encircled by it in a roll, as if screwed 
 in a net. The mass is then taken out of the fluid, and raising it 
 breast high, is twisted more firmly by other surprising and graceful 
 motions of the arms, the muscles swelling and playing all the time in 
 an extraordinary manner. Great strength is exerted on these occa 
 sions, and the dexterity with which the whole is accomplished never 
 fails to excite admiration from all present. " Every tongue," says 
 Mariner, "is mute and every eye is upon him, watching each motion 
 of his arms, as they describe the various curvilinear turns, essential 
 to the success of the operation." Three times the fibrous substance 
 is thrown on the surface of the fluid, and the same operation each 
 time repeated, in order to collect all the dregs from the liquor, and the 
 roll is twisted and suspended over the bowl till not a single drop 
 will exude from the substance. In the mean time, some are distri 
 buting provisions, consisting of yams, ripe bananas, or plantains, to 
 be eaten with the cava, while others are busy making cups of leaves 
 of the banana tree. These leaves, having been cut into lengths of 
 about nine inches square, are folded in a particular manner, and 
 secured with a fibre of the stem, so as to form a cup not undeserving 
 of praise and imitation. In other islands, the drinking cups are made 
 of the cocoa-nut, rendered transparent, sometimes curiously carved, 
 but generally plain and of a yellow colour. The cava being strained 
 and clear, a ball of the fibrous matter already mentioned, which acts 
 like a sponge, is then dipped into the fluid, and squeezed out into the 
 cups which are alternately held over the centre of the bowl, giving to 
 each about the third of a pint. The cups are distributed with great 
 regularity according to the rank or stzitbn of the individual, whose 
 name having been announced, he claps his hands to shew in what part 
 of the circle he is seated, If he be a chief, the bearer presents the 
 
252 
 
 cup kneeling, but to every other person it is presented standing. On 
 one occasion, where Cook was present at a funeral ceremony, a bowl 
 of this drink, containing about a gallon, was prepared ; the first cup, 
 (which was formed of a plantain leaf,) being presented to the king, he 
 ordered it to be given to another person, the second he drank himself? 
 and the third was handed to Captain Cook ; cups were then given to 
 the other persons present, until the liquor was exhausted. Each cup, 
 as it was emptied, was thrown upon the ground, whence it was taken 
 up and carried to be filled again. Scarcely a w r ord was uttered during 
 the whole of this drinking bout ; but the utmost gravity was observed 
 by all, from the king to the meanest person present. On those habi 
 tuated to the use of cava, it has no great effect, but on strangers it 
 operates like spirits, occasioning intoxication, or a stupefaction like 
 opium, that deprives its votary of appetite, and renders him averse to 
 every kind of noise. From the ease with which it is procured, it may 
 be considered as a common beverage ; and there is no feast, nor cere - 
 mony, however trifling, without cava. The term cava, or ava, is 
 applied to every thing of a heating or pungent nature, whether relat 
 ing to ardent liquors or spices. At Otaheite, the cava root is for the 
 most part bruised, instead of being chewed before the infusion ; and 
 the leaves are also used in the same manner. This root, or drink, is 
 known in the Feejee islands by the name of Angona, and in most of 
 the neighbouring islands it is denominated ava, or uva. The com 
 mon drink among the South-Sea islanders is water, or the milk of the 
 cocoa-nut ; cava being only their morning beverage, or that which is 
 used at feasts, or on occasions of ceremony. It is taken to excess in 
 many places ; and its pernicious effects have been observed by several 
 navigators. Captain King saw a man who had drunk of it to such 
 excess, that he became delirious and convulsed. While in this situa 
 tion, he was held by two men, who busied themselves in plucking out 
 his hair by the roots as a sovereign restorative.* Its frequent use 
 has a tendency to emaciate tlie body, as testified by Captain King, 
 who, after an absence of some time, was surprised to find, on his 
 return, many of those who had been corpulent, in a short period 
 reduced to mere skeletons by the inordinate use of this liquor. When 
 a man first gives himself up to drinking ava., he breaks out in scales 
 about the head, while the eyes become sore and red. The infection 
 spreads gradually downwards over the body, till it is entirely covered 
 with a scale, or scurf, resembling a scurvy. These scales gradually 
 drop off, leaving the skin beautifully clear and smooth, and the body 
 
 * Cook s Voyage, vol. i. p. 350, 
 
253 
 
 free of all disease. It is said to be a cure for the venereal ; b lit from 
 the women riot being permitted to use it, the baneful infection brought 
 to those islands by Captain Cook s vessel still remains to pollute and 
 punish the inhabitants. The latest accounts respecting this drink are 
 given by Captain Beechy, in his voyage to the Pacific and Beering s 
 Straits, who relates, that a course of it is most beneficial in renovat 
 ing constitutions worn out by hard living and long residence in warm 
 climates. He gives an instance of a gentleman who had undergone a 
 course of it to cure a cutaneous disease, similar to St. Anthony s fire : 
 he took twice a day, half-a-pint, one before breakfast, and the other 
 before dinner, and at the end of six weeks there was a visible amend 
 ment ; the skin w r as freed of scrofula, and the whole system was 
 improved.* Spirituous liquors are in great repute amongst the chiefs, 
 one of whom thinks nothing of swallowing a tumbler of rum at a 
 draught. Women of the higher classes are, if possible, the greatest 
 drunkards. Dillon, in his narrative of a voyage for the discovery 
 of the fate of La Perouse, confirms this by a circumstance M hich 
 occurred at New Zealand ; proving, that no rank nor condition 
 amongst them is free from its influence. The high priestess, a 
 woman regarded by her country as more than mortal, came on board 
 the vessel to make some inquiries, and being invited into the cabin, 
 she seated herself without embarrassment, and after remarking that 
 the day was cold, demanded if there were any rum on board, and if 
 so, requested that some might be given to her. A full decanter being 
 placed before her, she filled a tumbler nearly to the brim, and quaffed 
 it to the bottom without hesitation. ] The missionaries have succeeded, 
 in a great measure, in putting down the use of ava, this drink benig 
 no longer allowed to be prepared, nor the root allowed to be culti 
 vated ; but unfortunately, its place has been partially supplied by the 
 introduction of wine and brandy. Kotzebue, however, who lately 
 visited those islands, says he never saw a drunken person during his 
 stay. 
 
 The intercourse, which these children of nature have lately had 
 with the civilized world, has put them in possession of different arts, 
 of which they were before ignorant, amongst the rest, distillation to 
 a certain extent. 
 
 In the Marquesas Islands, the aborigines use not only ava, but 
 procure a strong liquor from the root of ginger, for the purpose of 
 enjoyment, forgetting care, and sinking into profound sleep. In 
 
 * Beechy s Voyage to the Pacific and Beering s Straits, vol. ii. p. 434. 
 f Dillon s Voyage, vol. i. p. 228. 
 
Santa Christina, one of those islands, the sugar-cane was observed to 
 grow spontaneously to the height of six or seven feet, but the natives 
 were unacquainted with its properties and the uses to which it could 
 be converted. The cocoas, witli the bread-fruit, are the chief food 
 of the inhabitants. Here also is found a kind of nut, called #/ , as 
 well as the Ti root, which, when baked under ashes, is an agreeable 
 and wholesome article of subsistence.* The inhabitants are so hospi 
 table, that they not only freely share their liquors with their guests, 
 but they consider it an act of kindness to give their friends food 
 already chewed, that they may have only the trouble of swallowing 
 it. 
 
 In the Sandwich Islands, an excellent spirit is distilled from the 
 Tec root, Draccena, resembling the Draccena terminalis, something 
 like the beet of this country, and which is found growing wild about 
 the mountains and valleys. The leaves of this plant, which are broad 
 and oblong, are woven into a sort of cloak by the mountain inhabi 
 tants, resembling that made from the palm leaves as used in various 
 parts of the East. The stalk is used like the olive as a symbol of 
 peace, and of this plant the Otaheitans reckon six species ; three with 
 red and three with white flowers. In the Pitcairn and the other 
 adjacent islands, the Tee plant is extensively cultivated. Its leaves 
 are the common food of hogs and goats, and serve the natives for 
 wrappers in their cooking. The root affords a very saccharine juice 
 resembling molasses, which is obtained by baking it in the ground. 
 The plant requires two or three years to arrive at maturity. It is 
 then about 2 J inches in diameter. It is long, fusiform, and beset 
 with fibres. From the root a tea is made, which, when flavoured with 
 ginger, is not unpleasant. The root of the plant is larger and much 
 sweeter than that of the beet ; it is of a brownish appearance, 
 and is in perfection all the year round. When the natives collect a 
 quantity of this root, they bake it well under ground ; when suffi 
 ciently baked, they pound it up in an old canoe kept for that purpose, 
 mixing water with it, and leaving it to ferment for several days. 
 Their stills are formed out of iron pots, which they procure from ships 
 that call there. These they can enlarge to any size, by fixing cala 
 bashes or gourds with the bottom cut off, and made to fit close on the 
 pot, cemented well with a sort of clay called peroo, a copper cone is 
 also affixed, with which an old gun-barrel is connected, and passes 
 through a calabash of cold water wliich condenses the spirit. The 
 stills are commonly placed by a stream of water ; they take the water 
 
 * Roqucfcuil s Voyage Round the World. 
 
255 
 
 when warm out of the cooler, and replace it with cold, by which sim 
 ple process a spirit is produced, not unlike whiskey, only not so strong 1 . 
 This spirit is called by the natives Y-wcr-a, which signifies warm 
 water, or luma, in the imitation of the word rum. A man named 
 William Stephenson was the first who introduced distilling*. He was 
 a convict who had escaped from New South Wales, and lived on the 
 island, for many years. The credit of first discovering this mode of 
 distilling has been claimed by a person named Young ; but as it has 
 been justly observed, neither of them deserves much praise for the 
 introduction. Manning, who left Nootka Sound on the North-west 
 coast of America, at the time when the Spaniards formed an estab 
 lishment at that place, has cultivated the grape and peach on the island 
 of Woahoo, one of the most important of the Sandwich group, 
 from the former he makes very good wine, and from the latter good 
 peach brandy.* Arago says,f that Francis Marini, a Spaniard, was 
 the introducer of the vine into the Sandwich Islands ; and Captain 
 Lord Byron, who visited those islands in 1824, 1825, and 1826, J 
 attributed the introduction of the vine to the same person, and 
 expressed his approbation of some of the native wine. These islands 
 appear well adapted for the cultivation of the vine, provided that the 
 situations for the plantations be well chosen. Notwithstanding that 
 grapes are partially planted, and wine produced from them, the pre 
 vailing drink is ava, which most take for the love of it, while 
 others drink it to prevent corpulency. Kotzebue, one of the latest 
 circumnavigators, says that although ava has been represented as 
 tending to shorten life, particularly of those who use it freely, he met 
 several of its votaries in a very advanced stage of life. The chiefs 
 claim the drinking of it as their exclusive privilege, every one freely 
 partakes of it, but not until after he attains a certain age. Kotzebue 
 saw the son of a chief, a boy of ten years old, who boasted of having 
 obtained the right of drinking ava, and shewed, with much pride, a 
 spot on his loins where the irruption was already visible. The king 
 Tameamea II. was so addicted to drunkenness, that he would empty 
 a bottle of rum at a draught, a taste which unhappily tended to retard 
 the civilisation of his subjects. In Hanaruro, one of those islands, 
 runaway sailors have erected taverns, and have held out every induce 
 ment to profligacy in drinking, by the introduction of gaming and 
 other amusements. 
 
 * Vide Literary Gazette, November, 1821. 
 
 j- Arago s Voyage Round the World, 4to. p. 193. 
 
 $ Voyage to the Sandwich Islands. 
 
 Kotzebuc s New Voyage Round the World in 1823-4-5 and 6, vol. ii. p. 170. 
 
256 
 
 At Eimeo, one of the Georgian Islands, a group to the east of the 
 Friendly Islands, when visited by Mr. Ellis, intemperance prevailed 
 to a great extent; and he found that they were in possession of the 
 art of distillation from the Ti or Tee root (draccena terminates), which 
 art had been introduced some years previous to the Sandwich island 
 ers. Here as in other of the Polynesian islands, whole districts con 
 gregate to erect a public still, the apparatus of which, though rude, 
 answers the purpose intended. The body of this still consists of a 
 large stone, hollowed in the form of a pot, and placed on stones with 
 space beneath for a fire ; and on the top of this pot is placed a hollowed 
 trunk of a tree by way of a head, in which is inserted a long cane of 
 bamboo, conducted through a trough filled with cold water serving 
 as a condenser. Into this still the fermented Ti root, previously 
 macerated in water, is thrown, and the spirit runs into a calabash, 
 cocoa-nut, or other vessel used for the purpose. Annexed is a repre 
 sentation of a still of this description used in Tahite, the largest of the 
 Georgian Islands. 
 
 The process is conducted in a temporary shed erected on the occa 
 sion ; and here the men and boys of the district are anxiously awaiting 
 the produce. The first draught of the spirits, or ava, is given to the 
 chief, and which is denominated ao, the remainder is distributed 
 among the people who continue at the still for several days, or till 
 all the materials are exhausted, during which horrible excesses are 
 committed. At the preparation and work of these stills, the people 
 are insensible to every other pursuit, and often appear, in the course 
 of the revelry, more like demons than human beings. Sometimes in 
 
257 
 
 a deserted still-house might be seen the fragments of the rude boiler, 
 and the other appendages of the still, scattered in confusion on the 
 ground, and among the dead and mangled bodies of those who had 
 been murdered with axes or billets of wood in the quarrels that had 
 terminated their dissipation.* 
 
 It is consoling to the friends of humanity to find, that since the 
 introduction of Christianity into the South Sea islands, intoxication 
 has become less frequent, and the stills have shared the fate of many 
 of their idols, having been either broken or hidden under ground. As 
 the sugar-cane abounds in most of the islands in the Pacific Ocean, the 
 distillation of rum might become an article of traffic; but to the use 
 of this liquor the chiefs of the Society Islands are opposed ; and their 
 attachment to Christianity has led them to consider the use of spiri 
 tuous liquors as the greatest curse with which they could be inflicted. 
 So destructive were the effects of intoxication in the Georgian and 
 other islands, that in many places the country was nearly depopulated ; 
 for people living on such low vegetable diet could not bear the stimu 
 lus and violence which ardent spirits give to the constitution. Even 
 so prevalent was its baneful influence, that the priests, before going to 
 the temples to sacrifice to their gods, among which sacrifices infan 
 ticide formed no small portion, intoxicated themselves to render their 
 feelings callous. 
 
 Of late, drunkenness has become so hateful, that in a code of laws 
 established at Huahine, one of the Society Islands, the following 
 enactment forms the twentieth article, the bearing of which would 
 do honour to any nation : " If a man drink spirits till he becomes 
 intoxicated (the literal rendering would be poisoned), and is then 
 troublesome or mischievous, the magistrates shall cause him to be 
 bound or confined ; and, when the effects of the drink have subsided, 
 shall admonish him not to offend again. But if he be obstinate in 
 drinking spirits, and when intoxicated become mischievous, let him 
 be brought before the magistrates and sentenced to labour, such as 
 road-making, five fathoms in length, and two in breadth. If not 
 punished by this, a plantation fence, fifty fathoms long. If it be 
 a -woman that is guilty of the crime, she shall plait two large mats, 
 one for the king, and the other for the governor of the district, or 
 make four hibiscus mats, two for the king and two for the governor, 
 or forty fathoms of native cloth, twenty for the king and twenty for 
 the governor."! 
 
 * Ellis s Polynesian Researches, vol. i. p. 231. 
 . Ibid. vol. ii. 433. 
 
258 
 
 Many islands in the Pacific Ocean produce wheat, rice, Indian corn, 
 and every description of frnit peculiar to the West Indies. In 
 Otaheite, the sugar-cane grows so luxuriantly, that from two small 
 enclosures five tons of white sugar are annually manufactured. 
 
 With a great number of the islands classed by modern geographers 
 under the head of Polynesia and Australasia, our acquaintance is very 
 limited and comparatively superficial. Previous to the residence of 
 the missionaries in New Zealand, the inhabitants are said to have been 
 so ignorant as not to know the simple process of preparing food by 
 boiling ; and that differing from the tastes of men in other regions, 
 they abhorred all kinds of intoxicating liquors. Unfortunately, how 
 ever, the crews of the Southern whalers have made these people 
 familiar with the use of rum, brandy, and other inebriating beverages, 
 and the pumpkin is now cultivated for drinking vessels. 
 
 The natives of New Holland were represented as equally unac 
 customed to the use of any kind of spirits ; but the colonization of 
 that country and the number transported thither, have completely 
 altered their habits, and given them a thirst for the vice of intoxica 
 tion. Reid, who some time since visited the colony, remarked that 
 one could scarcely pass through the streets of Sydney without meet 
 ing them in a state of inebriety.* This indiscriminate censure is, 
 however, really applicable to such alone as were permitted to amuse 
 themselves for a certain time in the week, a liberty that was found 
 to be grossly abused, and which is now mostly restricted, if not alto 
 gether abolished, by the governor.f 
 
 The policy of licensing stills has hitherto been discountenanced by 
 the government ; but from the rapid progress of agriculture, nothing, 
 it is conceived, would tend more to the relief of the industrious than 
 the adoption of such a measure. It has been strongly urged by the 
 landholders, merchants, and other respectable inhabitants of the 
 colony, in a petition to the British cabinet, dated the llth February, 
 1819. 
 
 The advantages attendant on a permission to distil are forcibly 
 illustrated by Wentworth, in a short review of the actual loss which 
 the colonists have sustained from the want of it during the last fifteen 
 years. This loss he calculates to be not less than 250,000, a sum 
 which, had it been applied to the immediate encouragement of agricul 
 ture, would have imparted life and vigour into the whole community. 
 Allowing the colony, says that writer, to require 60,000 gallons of 
 
 * Reid s Voyage to New South Wales and Van Diemen s Land, 8vo. p. 266. 
 f Parliamentary Report on the State of the Colony of New South Wales, 183 2,p. 30. 
 
259 
 
 spirits annually, 20,000 bushels of grain would be expended in dis 
 tillation, the whole of which, when necessity required, might be 
 turned into the ordinary course of consumption, and directed to the 
 purposes of subsistence.* 
 
 That the erection of distilleries would be much to the advantage of 
 New South Wales, there can, from the improved state of that settle 
 ment, be no manner of doubt, and I see little more evil to be dreaded 
 from the domestic than from the foreign manufacture. The import 
 duty on spirits is ten shillings per gallon, while on wine it rates only 
 at nine pence. If spirits be abundant at this high rate of duty, why 
 need they be more so under a proper system of restriction and taxa 
 tion, although made within the boundaries of the colony ? The adop 
 tion of such a measure would not only improve the revenue, but offer 
 a sure and ready market to the farmer, as an encouragement for a 
 great portion of his labour and industry. 
 
 The manufacture of peach brandy, which is chiefly confined to the 
 Americans, might be successfully carried on by the people of New 
 South Wales, since the peaches grow in such abundance throughout 
 the colony, that the inhabitants employ them for no other purpose than 
 that of feeding pigs. This useful fruit appears to thrive in every 
 situation, as well on the most barren, as on the most fruitful soil. 
 Barley, rye, wheat, and oats grow in great perfection. 
 
 In the woods of New South Wales, wild honey is to be had in 
 abundance ; the natives are very fond of it, and in traversing woods 
 their eyes are continually cast up towards the trees in search of it, 
 or in watching the direction in which the bees fly when proceeding 
 to their retreat, and by these means their hives are easily discovered. 
 Bees generally fly in a right line when returning home, and, on this 
 principle, the Americans have invented several plans of ascertaining 
 the position of their nests. One of these is, that of procuring two 
 bees and marking their bodies by some white substance ; then two 
 persons, having each one of these, remove to some distance, and per 
 mitting them to escape at the same instant, and observing the line of 
 their direction, they easily determine where their cells are situated. 
 Some reckon the honey of New South Wales superior to European 
 honey ; the bee which makes it is very small, has no sting, and is 
 rather longer and more slender than a common fly, but very much 
 resembles it in other respects. The bees usually build at the joint of 
 a high branch to which the natives ascend by cutting notches in the 
 
 * Wentworth s Statist. Hist, and Political Description of New South Wales, 8vo, 
 pp, 114, 253, and 259. 
 
260 
 
 trunk. Mead, however, has not been manufactured, as the natives 
 are ignorant of this beverage, but, as English bees have been lately 
 introduced, this liquor may soon become familiar.* 
 
 The spirits with which the colony is supplied are principally fur 
 nished by merchants in India. At first, no person could trade in this 
 article to the settlement without a license ; but the restriction was 
 abolished a few years ago, and permission given for any one to sup 
 ply it witli this commodity, in consequence of which a considerable 
 quantity was sent thither in 1822. The spirits imported from 1831 
 to 1832 amounted to 352,549 gallons, and the imports of wine for the 
 same period to 104,406 gallons. The quantity of spirits exported 
 was 29,256 ; and of wine 37,548 gallons. During this time, 11,000 
 gallons of gin were distilled in the colony of which none were 
 exported. There consequently remained 334,283 gallons of spirits, 
 and 66,858 gallons of wine. 
 
 By an act of 3d Geo. IV. c. 96, distillation was permitted in this 
 colony, and regulations for conducting it issued by the governor, and 
 published in the Sydney Gazette on the 3d of February, 1821. 
 Liberty was given to commence on the 1st August, 1822. By these 
 regulations, it appears that no still of less capacity than forty-four 
 gallons is to be licensed, and that no grain whatever shall be distilled 
 but that grown in the colony. The governor has the power of 
 suspending distillation, when the price of wheat in the Sydney market 
 shall exceed 10s. per bushel for two successive days ; but in that case 
 distillation from fruit will be permitted. The spirit is required to be 
 of a strength of at least seven per cent, above hydrometer proof, and 
 a duty of 2s. 6d. per gallon is to be paid for as much spirit of that 
 strength as every still shall be found capable of producing from the 
 number of charges that can be worked oif in the space of 28 days. 
 
 The system of charging the duty on working against time, as 
 practised in Ireland, was adopted as better calculated for the security 
 of the revenue, in a colony possessing such imperfect means for its 
 collection, than any mode of survey by officers. The form arid 
 dimensions of stills were fixed in proportion to the diameter and 
 altitude ;| but whether the extension of the plan under which the 
 distilleries of the united kingdom are conducted at present, namely, 
 that of working according to the gravity of the worts and the spirits 
 drawn therefrom, under the regulations of the 4th Geo. IV. c. 81, 
 should be extended to this settlement, is a matter of serious considera 
 tion for the legislature, inasmuch as they are better calculated than 
 
 * Breton s Excursions in New South Wales, &c. 8vo. p. 277. 
 
 f Set! the description of these proportions in the article on Ireland. 
 
261 
 
 any other to prevent fraud and dereliction of principle, on the park of 
 those engaged in so important a branch of trade. 
 
 To prevent the sale of spirits in small quantities from the distilleries, 
 it is provided that no person who shall be a partner, or have an 
 interest in a licensed distillery, shall have a license to retail spirits, 
 and no licensed distiller is permitted to sell at any time a smaller 
 quantity of spirits than 100 gallons. 
 
 Great care has been taken to prevent a monopoly, and, to avoid the 
 expense and inconvenience of carrying grain to particular markets, 
 stills are allowed to be set up in any part of the colony. By recent 
 accounts from this settlement, it appears that at Sydney there is now 
 a number of breweries dispersed about the town, and at about a mile 
 distant an extensive new distillery, named the Brisbane, which pro 
 duces a good spirit from native grain, and also cordials of excellent 
 quality. In a different direction of the town, there is another estab 
 lishment of the same kind, not less respectable. Those concerns 
 furnish annually several hundred thousand gallons of a pure spirit 
 from barley and maize, while 8,000 hogsheads are the yearly average 
 of ale and beer supplied to the colony by thirteen breweries, the pro 
 duce of various descriptions of native grain. In the Sydney Monitor 
 of the 27th April, 1833, a gentleman who opened an extensive malt- 
 house and brewery at Windsor, proposed to supply the neighbour 
 hood with beer and ale equal to those of Edinburgh, while other 
 accounts shew the increase and efficiency of similar concerns. It 
 is a great encouragement to brewers, that the hop-plant thrives well 
 there. 
 
 It may be worth recording, that a Mr. Squires was the first brewer 
 in New South Wales, and his beer was of so good a quality, that to 
 commemorate its worth and the value of the manufacturer, the follow 
 ing doggerel couplet was placed on the tomb of one of its votaries 
 buried in the church-yard of Paramatta, now called Rosehill : 
 
 Ye who wish to be here 
 Drink Squires s beer. 
 
 The duty on spirits distilled in the colony, as before stated, is 2,s\ 
 6d. per gallon from grain, and 4s. 2d. from sugar and molasses, while 
 West India rum pays 6s. and all other imported spirits a duty of 7s. 
 6d. per gallon. These protecting duties secure a ready market to 
 the distiller when grain is low; but when it is high, the foreign article 
 is perhaps too nearly on a par with the colonial. 
 
 The duty is levied on the strength of all spirits imported in pro 
 portion to the degree in which they may exceed hydrometer proof. 
 
262 
 
 The rum sent from Bengal to the colony has been estimated as high 
 as thirty and forty per cent, above proof, while that brought from 
 other places seldom exceeded from twenty to thirty. In 1819, the 
 quantity of spirits issued from the bonded store to dealers, amounted 
 to 58,079 gallons, and in 1820, to 69,745 gallons. To which if we 
 add in the first year 18,743, and in the second, 17,062 gallons, given 
 out on account of government, the annual consumption of the colony, 
 making some allowance for the strength, and for what is sold directly 
 from the importer, may be estimated at 100,000 gallons. This is a 
 prodigious quantity, when we consider the population, which, in 1820, 
 did not exceed 28,939 persons, and of these there were 5,668 chil 
 dren. Making no allowance for the latter, the quantity of spirits 
 swallowed by each individual, yearly, comes to somewhat better than 
 five gallons and three pints, which exceeds the consumption of the 
 proportion for the population of Ireland by four gallons, and of that 
 of Scotland by more than three. If to this consumption of ardent 
 spirits there be superadded the same quantity of wine and malt liquors, 
 the amount will vastly exceed that used by the same number of inha 
 bitants in any part of the world. This statement may be illustrated 
 by the following anecdote told by an Irishman, located there with 
 many of his countrymen, as characteristic of the habits of these people, 
 some of whom are seldom sober during the whole year : " Why, 
 Denis," says an observer to one who was a great votary of St. 
 Patrick, " surely the saint could not be born on every day in the last 
 week ?" Och ! replies Denis, " it is only my own bad memory that 
 makes me so particular, for having a mighty love for St. Patrick, I 
 always begin keeping his birth a fortnight before hand, lest I should 
 forget the day ; and after it is over, why the devil burn me but I 
 always forget to leave off." 
 
 Masters are allowed, by an act of council, to pay servants part of 
 their wages in spirits, as they are found to be the best stimulants to 
 exertion ; and in order to prevent them from repairing to public- 
 houses to spend their earnings, which, before this regulation, was a 
 common practice, and productive of bad consequences. Servants 
 have been known to travel upwards of thirty miles to a public-house 
 to spend the few dollars which they had earned by hard labour. This 
 species of payment is a melancholy proof of the fondness of the inha 
 bitants for spirituous liquors. Breton states that a party of six 
 emancipated convicts drank, at one sitting, six bottles of sherry and 
 forty-one of porter. From this we need scarcely wonder at the 
 enormous consumption of the colony. 
 
 After the first settlement of New South Wales, it was a practice 
 
lo license military men to sell rum and arrack, which, while it les* 
 sened the dignity of the army, increased the demoralization of the 
 people. To remedy this evil, alterations were made in the retail of 
 spirituous liquors, and the government took the control into their own 
 hands and established a store at Sydney ; but this being attended 
 with inconvenience, the sale got into the hands of the people, and 
 licenses were granted accordingly. The amount of a license is 25 
 per annum. In 1823, the number of licensed publicans was eighty- 
 tliree, the free population at the time being nearly 9,000, while in 
 1832 and 1833, the licensed persons were one hundred and ninety- 
 five ; and in 1834, the number was two hundred and seventeen, the 
 licenses producing 5,425 ; and the direct duties on spirits for the 
 whole colony, 80,000. 
 
 Delirium tremens is a disease of frequent occurrence in this quarter. 
 Dr. Lang,* who had good opportunities of seeing the awful effects of 
 ardent spirits when used to excess, pathetically describes this malady ; 
 and in the case of a person whom he in vain endeavoured to dissuade 
 commencing the trade of a publican, gives a specimen of its frightful 
 workings. A short time after this person entered on business, he was 
 attacked with this distemper, and the Doctor, on visiting him, found 
 him apparently in the jaws of death his distracted wife and children 
 standing at the bedside in the utmost agonies. The patient labour-, 
 ing under this malady is distracted with imaginary horrors, he fancies: 
 himself haunted by apparitions, the whole frame trembles convul 
 sively under the influence of a disordered imagination, and the nervous 
 system is so frightfully excited, that the bodily functions are totally 
 enervated, and,, in many instances, death only brings relief to the 
 unhappy sufferer. 
 
 It is to be lamented, that although the settlers of New South Wales 
 are represented by Mr. Bigge as treating the Aborigines with kind 
 ness and humanity, yet they have adopted the practice of supplying 
 them with spirits, which sometimes stimulate them to the commission 
 of the most shocking outrages upon each other, and to acts very offen 
 sive to delicacy.f At Sydney, tho natives barter fish for old clothes, 
 bread, and rum, and their fondness for the last article has led to, 
 debaucheries of the most brutal nature so much so, that the hus 
 band disposes of the favours of his wife for a small portion of this 
 liquor ; and, shocking to relate, the offspring of such intercourse is 
 
 , f. . , ..;.,}.,.. c. . Cj \.^ 
 
 Account of New South Wales by Dr. Lang. 
 
 t Commissioners Report, printed by order of the House of Commons, 1823, 
 p. 59. 
 
264. 
 
 generally sacrificed at the instance of the unnatural husband.* 
 Scarcely, says a voyager, do the intoxicating fumes get into their 
 heads, when they breathe nothing but battle, and shout forth their 
 war-cries. Impatient for murder, they seek antagonists, provoke 
 them by ferocious songs, and demand death in the hope of inflicting 
 it. They find but too readily the opportunity they desire ; and their 
 war-hoop is answered by whooping not less terrible. Then the com 
 batants, drawn up in two lines, perhaps twenty steps from each other, 
 threaten mutually with their long-pointed spears, launch them at their 
 adversaries with wonderful strength and dexterity, arid finally attack 
 each other with ponderous and formidable clubs, called waddles, 
 JLimbs are fractured, bones smashed, skulls laid open ; no exclama 
 tion of pain escapes from these ferocious savages, the air resounds 
 only with frightful vociferations. He who falls without having found 
 a victim, dies rather of despair than from the hurts he has received ; 
 and the warrior, who has laid low a few enemies, soon expires, with 
 out regretting the loss of life.j In those conflicts, it is common to 
 see the combatants alternately stooping the head to receive the blow 
 of an antagonist, it being deemed cowardice to avoid a stroke. 
 Many of these rencounters are occasioned by the want of prudence in 
 Europeans, who exchange with them spirits for the skins of serpents 
 and other animals, instead of giving them such matters as would 
 administer to the comforts, ease, and civilisation of life. Fortunately 
 for the peaceable portion of society in that quarter, these scenes are 
 not of frequent occurrence, and the exertions of government are not 
 wanting to check them altogether. The settlers have succeeded to 
 engage many of the natives in the labours of the field ; and these poor 
 creatures ask no other reward for their toil than a good feast of boiled 
 pumpkin and sugar. Care is taken not to give them any drink till 
 their day s work is over, for, were their appetites satisfied, they would 
 do nothing after, hunger alone having the power of compelling them 
 to work. A draught of the washings of a sugar bag, which is called 
 lull, or a drink of grog, at the conclusion of the harvest, sends those 
 simple mortals happy and delighted to rove again among their native 
 wilds. Dawson, a late visitant, speaking of the Aborigines, says that 
 they are inordinately fond of bull ; which they sometimes prepare by 
 cutting up a sugar bag and boiling it in water. This they reckon 
 one of the greatest treats, and drink it till they are blown out like 
 an ox swelled with clover and can take no more.J They have an 
 
 * Cunningham s Residence, vol. ii. p. 20. f Arago s Voyage, 4to. p. 172. 
 % Dawson s Present State of Australia, 8vo. p. 60. Breton s Excursions in 
 New South Wales, 8vo. p. 1U5. 
 
205 
 
 ingenious mode of making drinking vessels of the bark of the tea-tree^ 
 a species of myrtle, and which display more ability than is usually 
 attributed to these savages. They strip the trunk of its bark, and 
 after neatly rolling it up, tie it at one extremity, and thus furnish a 
 goblet sufficient for the purpose. Of this bark they also make 
 baskets, and use its broad lamina as a shelter from rain ; it is 
 often spread as a carpet to keep out damp, and is as soft as velvet. 
 It grows in lairs, and is taken off the tree without a hatchet ; the 
 nearer the wood, the softer the coating, sometimes scarcely exceeding 
 brown paper in thickness. 
 
 Dawson assures us that the colony of New South Wales is in a 
 prosperous condition, and that at Sydney, houses are erecting on 
 every side, while distilleries are at work and steam-engines are com 
 mon. Grapes are found to succeed in every favorable situation 
 throughout the country. Not only does every establishment prosper, 
 but the vine is likely to afford a supply of wine. The sugar-cane is 
 said to thrive in many places, and fair samples of rum have been pro 
 duced. A plantation at Port Macquarie contains upwards of ninety 
 acres. As almost every species of fruit known to other countries 
 grows here, materials are afforded for the manufacture of all kinds of 
 drinks found elsewhere. In 1826, Mr. Townson, the author of 
 Travels in Hungary, with other enterprising gentlemen, was actively 
 engaged in the manufacture of Australian wine, and one of them, Mr. 
 George Blaxland, had succeeded so well as to have six pipes and a half of 
 it in his cellar. At present there are many acres of vineyards in the 
 colony; those of the more wealthy proprietors being, for the most 
 part, under the management of scientific and practical vine-dressers 
 from the south of Europe. Wine and brandy have been manufac 
 tured to a considerable extent from the grapes of the vineyards of 
 the Messrs. Macarthur at Camden, on the Cow-pasture river. The 
 quality hitherto produced had a strong resemblance to Sauterne, in 
 taste, strength, and appearance. The latest accounts say, that the 
 wine-crops afforded the best promise of a plentiful supply, and gave 
 every hope that tlu s portion of the globe may yet become a flourishing 
 wine country. The wine made in 1834, by Sir John Jameson, at 
 Regentville, was of a superior quality, and the saccharine property 
 of the grapes was such, that scarcely any brandy was deemed 
 necessary. 
 
 Cuttings of European and African vines have frequently been 
 imported into this settlement. Mr. Redfern, a respectable colonist, 
 brought with him from Madeira a number of cuttings, and encouraged 
 some Portuguese families acquainted with the culture of the vine, to 
 
266 
 
 emigrate to New South Wales, for the purpose of training the plants 
 and laying down vineyards. Mr. James Busby, British resident in 
 New Zealand, brought to New South Wales upwards of a hundred 
 varieties which he procured in France, and gave them for general 
 cultivation. On the policy of cultivating the vine in this colony, Dr. 
 Lang has made some judicious remarks tending to show, that if wines 
 were manufactured to any considerable extent, it might be the means 
 of advancing the cause of temperance, by placing within the reach of 
 the people a cheap and wholesome beverage, to the exclusion of those 
 inflammatory, deleterious, and expensive liquors so prejudicial to 
 health and morality.* 
 
 Temperance Societies are now established in this settlement, 
 which originated in Van Diemen s land through the instrumentality 
 of Mr. Backhouse, a member of the Society of Friends, and salutary 
 effects may be anticipated. Few places, perhaps, on the face of the 
 globe require the exertions of such institutions more. 
 
 The only drawback on distilleries and breweries is the scarcity of 
 barley, but this grain is likely to become more extensively cultivated, 
 being so essential to distillation and brewing. Manufactories of this 
 description have every facility for promoting the interests of the pro 
 prietors. Though wood is the chief material for fuel in the country 
 portions of the colony, native coal is used in great abundance, and 
 may be had at the Newcastle pits for five shillings the ton, and at 
 Sydney for twenty shillings ; the freight being fifteen shillings of the 
 money.f 
 
 In 1833, the following beverages rated at: 
 
 s 
 
 English Ale perhhd. 6 to 6 5 
 
 Do. per doz.O 11 to 13 
 
 Colonial do. per hhd. 60 to 80 
 
 Do. do. per doz. 6 to 8 
 
 English beer per hhd. 5 Oto5 3 
 
 Do. do. per doz. lltoO 13 
 
 Colonial do. per hhd 45 to 55 
 
 Do. do. per gal. 2 to 
 
 Rum per gallon 9 to 10 
 
 s. d. f. 
 
 Brandy per gal. 12 6 to 14 
 Gin do. do. 12 6 to 14 
 Colonial do. do. 7 6 to 
 Wine(port)per doz. 35 to 40 
 Madeira do, do. 35 to 40 
 Sherry do. do. 35 to 40 
 Claret do. do. 50 to 60 
 
 Cape per gal. 3 6 to 4 
 
 Elder per dozen 5 6 to 
 
 The imports into New South Wales for 1833, were : 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Beer and Ale . . 244,490 
 Cider and Perry . . 2,718 
 
 Rum .... 335,134 
 
 Brandy .... 20,899 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Geneva . . 17,368^ 
 
 Whiskey . . 112 
 
 Other Spirits . . 86 
 
 Wine . . 161,410 
 
 An Historical and Statistical Account of New South Wales, by the Rev. Dr. 
 Lang, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1834, vol. i. pp. 363 to 369. 
 f Cunningham s New South Wales, vol. ii. p. 3. 
 
207 
 
 Duty on Spirits imported in 1832 .? . , . . 
 Do. on ditto distilled in the Colony .... 
 
 Licenses to retail Wine, Malt, and Spirituous Liquors 
 Licenses to Distil Spirits ........ 
 
 Department of the Surveyor of the Distilleries 
 
 s; 
 
 81,585 1 
 
 1,032 
 
 7,785 
 
 25 
 
 520 16 
 
 ff. 
 7 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 The settlements of New Holland and Van Diemen s Land are 
 become places of such importance, that the government has turned a 
 great portion of the tide of emigration to their shores ; and many now 
 prefer going to those distant regions, than to those of the United 
 States or Canada ; the climate being more congenial to British settlers. 
 The agricultural products are valuable, and the efforts that are now 
 making by the settlers, who have already established themselves in these 
 quarters, as well as of those who emigrate there, are calculated to raise 
 the best expectations. Such is the fertility of Van Diemen s Land, 
 that Edward Curr, in his account of that settlement, relates that in 
 1821, fifty-thousand bushels of wheat were exported from that island 
 to Port Jackson,* besides what was sent to the Cape of Good Hope, 
 Isle of France, and Reio Janeiro : more recent accounts lead us to 
 conclude, that crops are as abundant there as in England. The 
 wheat is said to yield from 60 to 651bs. per bushel, and, what is sin 
 gular, it is not subject to the weevil. 
 
 In Hobart s Town, as well as in other parts of the settlement, are 
 several breweries and distilleries ; but the manufacture is not equal 
 to the consumption; hence there are considerable importations to 
 supply the defect, as is shewn in the following table : 
 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beer, in value . * 
 
 7,655 
 
 6,280 
 
 6,040 
 
 7,253 
 
 2,540 
 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Gal. 
 
 Brandy, (Proof), . 
 
 12,894 
 
 35,352 
 
 7,315 
 
 1,776 
 
 2,273 
 
 Geneva, .... 
 
 3,857 
 
 4,420 4,231 
 
 1,758 
 
 1679 
 
 Rum, 
 
 87,043 
 
 77,132 24,441 20,204 
 
 58,983 
 
 Wines, 
 
 53,532 
 
 30,458 15,198 16,084 
 
 18,118 
 
 New South Wales is represented to be rather barren immediately 
 about the coast, but beyond that the country improves, and the trees 
 of the forest rise to the most stately dimensions. When a tra 
 veller has advanced about twenty miles into the interior, he beholds a 
 country truly beautiful, displaying an endless variety of hill and dale. 
 
 An Account of the Colony of Van Diemen s Land, 12mo. London, 1824. 
 
268 
 
 clothed in the most luxuriant herbage, and disclosing regions fit to be 
 inhabited by civilized man. In those countries, the arts and manu 
 factures are progressing, and promise in a reasonable process of time 
 to emulate those in many parts of Europe. 
 
 Coasting along the east of Africa, little interest or information has 
 been obtained respecting the various nations extending from Abys 
 sinia to the settlements bordering on the Cape of Good Hope. In 
 the kingdoms of Adel and Ajan, the inhabitants are generally Maho 
 metans ; and though they pretend to comply with the restrictions of 
 the Koran, yet they indulge in the use of bousa and other intox 
 icating beverages. In Ajan, a species of brandy is made from dates 
 and raisins furnished by the Arabians, with whom the inhabitants 
 carry on a considerable intercourse. In Monemugi, which lies 
 west of Zanguebar, abundance of palm-wine is manufactured, and 
 honey is so plentiful that above the one-half of it is lost, the natives 
 not being able to consume it ; and therefore it might be to them a 
 valuable article, had they a regular intercourse with civilized 
 countries. 
 
 In Mozambique, the chief article of cultivation is the manioca or 
 mandioca root. The principal trees are the cocoa-nut, cachew, 
 mango, papaw, and orange. The natives are skilled in making beve 
 rages from the cocoa in the manner practised by the other nations. 
 They deal in palm-wine, and the Portuguese settlers have made them 
 acquainted with those liquors which they import from Europe. 
 
 The Zoola nation, which lies in the interior, between Delagoa bay 
 and the bay of Natal, has a description of beer with which the natives 
 regale and intoxicate themselves. This beer they make from a seed 
 termed loopoco : it is somewhat like rape in size and colour. It con 
 tains very powerful fermenting properties ; and when drawn off from 
 the vessels in which it has been prepared, it forms an excellent beve 
 rage, both potent and stimulating, and has a red or light brown tinge. 
 Mr. Isaacs, a late sojourner in this country, often partook of this 
 liquor, and acknowledges its enlivening and refreshing virtues. He 
 usually received it from the king, or as a present from some of his 
 chiefs.* They likewise make several sorts of drinks from their fruit ; 
 but the most common liquor used in the country is made from millet, 
 and is termed huyembo or puembo. 
 
 The Delagoa territory produces rice and maize to a great extent, 
 and from the latter grain are made various beverages. The sugar- 
 Isaacs Travels and Adventures in Africa, descriptive of the Zoolas, their 
 manners and customs, &c. 2 vols, 8vo. vol. ii. p. 319. 
 
269 
 
 cane is also found in great abundance, but it is not turned to the 
 advantage it might afford. The Persees on the coast of Malabar send 
 spirits to this territory, with other articles in exchange for the teeth 
 of the elephant and hippopotamus, ambergris, and gold dust. Besides, 
 since Delagoa bay has become the resort of many South- Sea 
 whalers, different liquors are sent thither from the Cape ; and the 
 Portuguese, carrying on a trade with the natives, introduce 
 wines, and other beverages. When a vessel arrives, an officer, 
 called the king of the waters, informs the chief, who imme 
 diately attends; and after receiving a present from the captain 5 
 makes a more than ample return in provisions. By securing the 
 friendship of the king of the waters, for a few empty bottles, or some 
 old clothes, buttons, or iron hoops, a constant supply of animal and 
 vegetable food may be obtained. The inhabitants of the interior have 
 two kinds of native spirituous liquors peculiar to themselves ; one 
 termed Epeahla, and the other Wocahnyvye. The first is pre 
 pared in the following manner: A large quantity of maize, with a 
 certain proportion of water, is put into a wooden mortar, and pounded 
 for half an hour, after which it is placed in the shade to ferment. 
 At the end of two days, it is taken out and boiled, and, when cold, a 
 small quantity of grain called Andrealo, a sort of millet well pounded, 
 is added to it, and the whole, after standing a few hours, is strained 
 through a mat bag, from which the Epedhld oozes out perfectly pure 
 and of a milk-white colour. In one day it is drinkable, and on the 
 next it is sour, and less than two bottles will occasion inebriation. 
 The Wocahnycye is obtained from the Makkahnyeyc, a fruit resem 
 bling guava, and which grows on a lofty tree of a whitish appearance, 
 called the Kahnyeye. When the requisite quantity of fruit is picked, 
 a small hole is cut in each, through wliich the juice is squeezed into a 
 large boiler, where, after having stood for some time over the fire, it 
 remains to ferment until the next day. More juice is then added, 
 and the same operation is repeated with the whole. At the close of 
 the second day it is drinkable, and will continue so for three days ; 
 yet its nature is not half so intoxicating as that of the Epeahla. It 
 is almost colourless, and has a sweet and pleasant flavour.* 
 
 In Sofala is made a beer from rice and millet, as well as other 
 liquors drawn from honey, palm, and different sorts of fruit. In 
 their feasts and funeral ceremonies, larger quantities of these liquors 
 are consumed. At stated periods of the moon, they pay an offering- 
 
 * Owen s Voyage to Africa, &c. edited by Boteler, 2 vols. 8vo, vol. i. p. 91. 
 
270 
 
 to their dead friends, particularly to their parents, before whose bones 
 which they collect after the flesh has been consumed, they place 
 victuals and liquors, and ask requests of them as if they were still living. 
 Immediately after this, they eat and drink those offerings to the dead 
 in social harmony. 
 
 In Moriomotapa, the beverages are made from honey, millet, and 
 rice. Palm-wine is esteemed a royal liquor, because it is chiefly used 
 at court. It is preserved in curious vessels made of horn, and is 
 commonly mixed with manna, ambergris, musk, and other highly- 
 scented perfumes. At the court of some of the monarchs of Mono- 
 motapa, it was customary for some of the musicians to be veiled 
 during the time of the emperor s repast to prevent them seeing him 
 eat or drink, while the courtiers cried aloud on the drinking of a 
 goblet, " Pray for the health and prosperity of the emperor. 
 
 In Quiloa, it was formerly a practice to drink human blood and 
 other liquors out of cups made of human skulls ; but since the slave 
 trade has diminished and civilisation advanced, this barbarous custom 
 has almost entirely disappeared. 
 
 At the Cape of Good Hope, since its colonization by the Dutch 
 under Van Riebeck, in 1650, the vine has been cultivated with con 
 siderable success. This was owing to the encouragement given to a 
 number of French families, who had emigrated from their native 
 country and settled in this colony, in consequence of the revocation 
 of the Edict of Nantes. A place is still pointed out, within a mode 
 rate distance of Cape Town, which is named after the circumstance 
 Fransche hoek t or French corner ; and here the vine was first planted 
 and the foundation of the wine trade of the colony originated. 
 
 The wine called Constantia, so much prized in Europe, is the pro 
 duce of two farms known by that name, and situated within eight or 
 nine miles of the Cape, close under the mountains on gently undula 
 ting grounds between Table Bay and False Bay. These farms, on 
 an average, yield about 75 leagers* per year, which, at 160 gallons the 
 leager, gives a quantity equal to 12,000 ; but De la Caille and Barrow 
 have calculated the produce at a great deal more. According to 
 Stavorinus, these two farms cover about 40 acres, and their annual 
 produce is about 60 pipes of red and 90 of white wine ; the latter is 
 made on the farm called little Constantia. Besides this excellent 
 wine, many other sorts are made of different flavours. Among these, 
 
 A leager is nearly four awms, and an awm contains about forty gallons, 
 English . 
 
271 
 
 the Madeira of the Cape, which is sent to Holland, America, the 
 Dutch settlements in India, and to England, is considered the best. 
 It is a boiled wine, and is said to be much improved by the voyage. 
 From 20 to 30 rix-dollars the leager, according to Barrow and 
 others, is the common price that the farmer obtains for his wine at 
 Cape Town, where it is afterwards sold at the rate of from 40, 50, 
 CO, to 80 and 100 dollars; and that too, perhaps, after undergoing 
 adulteration. Since the war has ceased, new common wine may be 
 had for a penny or three half-pence per bottle. A half awm, or 20 
 gallons of good wine may be procured for six dollars, or nine shillings. 
 Pontae rates at from 40 to 50 dollars the leager of 152 gallons; 
 others rate at from 25 to 30 dollars. 
 
 The trade in this article is of great consequence at the Cape, and 
 the merchants are particular in the mode of storing and securing the 
 wine. They generally keep it in vaults and cellars in large vessels 
 made of mahogany, or a wood resembling it, very thick, highly polished, 
 and shaped like a hogshead. These vessels are kept as clean as our 
 dining tables, and are bound round with great hoops of brass, while 
 the edges are secured with clasps of the same metal, so that neither 
 time nor accident can damage them. One of these tuns, or reservoirs, 
 will contain from six to seven hundred and even one thousand gallons. 
 The bung-holes are secured with plates of brass hasped down and 
 locked. The cocks are also strong and large, with locks aud keys to 
 them, so that the servants or slaves are prevented from abstracting 
 any of the wine, as the casks are never opened, except in the pre 
 sence of one of the proprietors. Many of these tuns are elegantly 
 carved and ornamented with figures.* A man-hole is usually made 
 near the cock and secured by brass screws ; it is occasionally opened 
 for the purpose of cleansing the vessel of the lees. Some of the 
 cellars are so spacious as to contain one hundred of these very large 
 casks. The wines are racked from vessel to vessel till completely 
 fined ; should any acidity appear, it is checked by simply dipping a 
 piece of rag in melted brimstone, and, when ignited, it is suspended 
 in the casks from the bung-hole, which has the effect of checking its 
 further progress. The lees of the wine is converted into argol, and 
 exported to England and other places for the use of dyers. The 
 licenses on the canteens are high ; they are mere dram-shops and 
 monopolies of the brewers, frequented only by the lower class of 
 people. When Mr. Barrow visited the Cape, a pint of good wine 
 might have been purchased for three -pence ; and, had it not been for 
 
 > * Pcrcival s Account of the Cape of Good Hope, 4to. 
 
2T2 
 
 the license on the privilege of retailing, it might have been obtained 
 for three half-pence. 
 
 There is no duty on wine in the colony except upon what is brought 
 to the Cape market, and there it is subject to a tax of three rix- 
 clollars the leager. Brandy or Brandewyn, as it is called at the Cape, 
 is also exempt, except on passing the barrier, when it is charged at 
 the same rate of duty as the wine. 
 
 With the manufacture of this spirit the vine-growers seem not to 
 be well acquainted, as it has been hitherto considered of an indifferent 
 quality. The brandy of the Cape is principally extracted from the 
 husks and stalks of the grapes, mixed up and fermented with the lees 
 of wine ; other ingredients are sometimes used of a less grateful 
 nature ; hence it is so fiery and unwholesome as to be rather a source of 
 disease than of assistance to the functions of life. The whole of the 
 operation is generally committed to the care of a slave, who, having 
 neither knowledge of nor interest in the process, pays no attention to 
 the quality of the spirit. Through this neglect it contracts a strong 
 empyreumatic flavour, which it never loses.* This spirit has been 
 long in use at the Cape, though the better sort of people among the 
 Dutch seldom drink of it, yet it is eagerly purchased by the Hotten 
 tots and Caffre hordes, who barter their cattle and other commodities 
 for it. This branch of industry, if well conducted, offers a good 
 opportunity to persons of capital and ingenuity, and besides affording 
 a lucrative article of commerce by which a fortune might be realized, 
 it would improve the quality as well as enhance the character of the 
 wines. The stills are small, averaging from 40 to 80 gallons, they 
 are made for the most part at Cape Town ; and are sometimes made 
 wholly of copper, yet commonly have only the bottom of that metal. 
 !N T o art is displayed in their erection, they being frequently worked 
 in the excavation of a bank, or in an open shed, without any mecha 
 nical contrivance or convenience of buildings. Francis Collison, an 
 Englishman, in 1832, erected a respectable distillery in Cape Town, 
 and made brandy from the wine purchased on his own account, or 
 distilled for the growers at a certain premium for his trouble. Reeves 
 and Mills had a distillery at work in 1833, but, from losses in 
 trade, it ceased in its operations. At Stellenbosch, a village about 
 five hours ride from the Cape, the firm of Muller and Company have 
 a good distillery, an excellent supply of water, and facilities for car 
 rying on business extensively. This concern is worked on the same 
 principle as that of Mr. Collison. 
 
 * Barrow s Travels in Southern Africa, 4to. vol. ii. p, 320. 
 
273 
 
 The following quantities of wine and brandy, gtated by Barrow to 
 Lave passed the barrier, will shew the extent of the trade for a period 
 of four years : 
 
 1799 6,953f leagers of wine and 598 J leagers of brandy. 
 
 1800 5,199J do. 472J do. 
 
 1801 5,463J do. 320 J do. 
 
 1802 4,03lf do. 273J do. 
 
 This includes the consumption of the town, the army and navy, as 
 well as the exportation for that time, which is said to be from 400 to 
 800 leagers of wine, and from 30 to 100 of brandy annually, besides 
 the produce of the Constantia farms. Since that settlement camo 
 into the hands of the British, this trade has gradually increased, 
 owing in a great measure to the salutary enactments of the legislature. 
 The revenue arising from spirits, beer, and brewing licenses, for the 
 year 1820, amounted to 1,527 10s. Od. 
 
 Great quantities of brandy are carried by means of waggons through 
 the most remote parts of the colony, and disposed of by persons deno 
 minated Smouses. The Dutch settlers prefer drinking brandy raw 
 or unmixed with water, and say of the English that they all murder 
 good brandy by making grog of it, adding, that punch and wine 
 are but foul water when compared to the pure, unpolluted, high- 
 flavoured brandy. A dram of this liquor is termed soopie, a word 
 synonymous with our glass. Drinking is often carried to excess, and 
 here, as elsewhere, productive of evil consequences, and sometimes 
 exciting to extraordinary feats. It is related of an individual, that 
 in his cups he laid a wager, that he would go into the forest and pluck 
 three hairs out of an elephant s tail, which he performed with great 
 eclat. Not satisfied with this chivalrous act, he made another bet, 
 that he would return to the forest and shoot the same animal. His 
 aim proving unsuccessful, the provoked beast rushed on him, forced 
 his tusks through his body, and trampled him to a mummy in an 
 instant. The negroes at the Cape, who sometimes carry their baccha 
 nalian propensities to excess, expose themselves to the damp of the 
 night. Quarrelling, arising from inebriety, is, however, rare ; nor 
 can it be said that the habitual drunkard is a character to be met with 
 in common. Many of the poor Hottentots, led astray by their weak 
 nesses, and exposed to the influence of the moon, have paid dearly 
 for their revels ; for strange as it may appear, it is unquestionable that 
 the lunar beams have produced the same effects as the solar, causing- 
 a mental derangement similar to that of a vertical sun. While meat 
 exposed to the influence of the moon, ha* been knowa to become 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 putrid in the course of a night, whereas, if secured from the lunar 
 influence, and exposed to that of the night air only, no bad conse 
 quences have been observed to follow. 
 
 The quantity of wine imported from the Cape into Great Britain, 
 &c. will be found in the Addenda. 
 
 The whole produce of the Cape is supposed at present to be about 
 12,000 Icagers, comprising only what crosses the barrier; with the 
 waste it may be computed at about 14,000 pipes. The consumption of 
 the colony is calculated at 6,000, the shipment to St. Helena about 
 2,000, arid the remainder is for this country and its dependencies.* 
 There are no breweries deserving of notice, though a kind of beer is 
 said to be made by the Dutch, in which a species of bitter herb is 
 used instead of hops. The whole of the malt drink comes from Europe, 
 and is of course very dear. 
 
 This colony is susceptible of great improvement, and might be made 
 of essential benefit to the British empire. Were the vine plantations 
 properly managed, and a due regard paid to the selection of the 
 grapes, and the manufacture of wine, much of the money that is sent 
 to foreign countries for this article might be saved and turned to our 
 own advantage. The vines, according to Latrobe, are permitted to 
 grow without espaliers, placed in rows like currant-bushes in our 
 gardens, in order to afford room to the vine-dressers to go between 
 them to weed them without injury. When arrived at a certain 
 height, the upper shoots are taken off to increase the quantity of 
 grapes, a method very different from that practised in Europe. 
 According to Stavorinus, a thousand of them will produce a leager 
 of wine and sometimes more. In the Constantia vineyards, few of the 
 planks exceed two feet in height, though some of them have been in 
 the ground for one hundred years. This peculiarity is said to be very 
 advantageous, for the fruit hangs so near the ground and is so shel 
 tered by a leafy screen of fine tall oaks, that the reflection of the sun 
 from the white earth below is nearly as powerful as his rays from 
 above. 
 
 The mdde of pressing the grapes in this colony, was formerly con 
 ducted in the following simple manner : The fruit is thrown into a 
 vessel, the bottom and sides of which are perforated with holes ; and 
 this is placed upon a cross piece of wood within another larger vessel 
 having a spigot and fauset through which the juice flows into a receiver 
 underneath. The grapes in the wine vessel are trodden by three or 
 four slaves, who support themselves during the operation by a rope 
 
 * Parliamentary Report, No. 70S,, 1821, p. 56, &c. 
 
275 
 
 from the coiling, continuing to trample till all the juice is expressed. 
 Since the time of the Cape wine getting into demand, presses of wood 
 have been introduced possessing a greater power in obtaining a larger 
 quantity of must, than what could be procured by the treading of the 
 slaves. 
 
 To the farmer the vine is the most profitable object of considera 
 tion, and may be considered the staple article of culture. The size 
 and flavour of the grapes in the colony are not inferior to those of the 
 best description in other countries ; but there are only certain portions 
 of the settlement consisting of light, dry soil which are the most con 
 genial to the production of good wines. That of Constantia, more 
 resembling a liqueur than a wine, is the best ; and it is singular, that 
 the vine, from which it is produced, loses its richness and luxuriance, 
 if removed to the distance of half a mile from that plantation. The 
 wines produced at the Drakenstein farm are said to be equally good 
 as the Constantia, though on account of the high character of the 
 latter, they do not bring one-sixth of the price. Ten or twelve diffe 
 rent kinds of wine are manufactured in the several districts, having 
 each a distinct flavour and quality, according to the situation and 
 nature of the soils in which they are produced. When the Dutch had 
 possession, the directors reserved to themselves the exclusive sale of 
 the Constantia wine, and as it could not be exported by others to 
 Europe under that name, the planters when thus prohibited, adopted 
 the expedient of giving to their wines the name ofmaag, or stomach- 
 wine, to secure a demand. 
 
 Much rain is unfavourable to the culture of the grape, and the juice 
 will not contain the same quantity of saccharine matter when exposed 
 to moisture, which it does when under a genial sun, and protected 
 from the coldness which always accompanies showers. To what cause 
 the poverty and want of richness and body in many of the Cape wines 
 may be attributed, it would be difficult to determine whether the 
 vines, if supported by trellis work, or planted like currant-bushes, 
 might flourish best and be most productive. It appears, however, 
 that more is owing to the mode of making the wine than to the quality 
 of the grape ; and this will appear evident when it is known that the 
 grapes of every description, good and bad, ripe and unripe, clean and 
 unclean, are all put together with the stems into the same press, shew 
 ing that the quantity more than the quality is the object ; and it is 
 therefore clear, that the liquor must partake of the consequences of 
 such admixtures. It has been alleged that even where great pains 
 were taken to make wine of the best possible kind, the attempt has 
 fallen short of producing- an article equal to that made in France, 
 
276 
 
 Portugal, or Madeira. Strange as it may appear, it is a certain fact 
 not yet accounted for, that good grapes sometimes produce inferior 
 wine, while bad grapes on the other hand have been known to yield 
 good wine. The grapes of Gascon y, Burgundy? and Champagne, as 
 well as those of the many celebrated vineyards on the Rhine, are 
 rather insipid. Other circumstances, therefore, besides fine materials, 
 seem to be required for the production of wine of a good quality. 
 A good deal must depend on the management of the fermentation, 
 and the fining of the liquor; while the bad quality of the brandy made 
 at the Cape and mixed with the wines must tend to injure them in 
 proportion to the use made of that spirit. 
 
 To whatever cause it may be attributed, the wines of the Cape do 
 not rank in such high estimation as those produced elsewhere. Some 
 endeavour to account for the earthy flavour of the wine as to its slightly 
 acid taste, by the shortness of the stems on which the grapes are 
 borne, as being consequently more exposed to the damps and vapours 
 of the soil from their low situation ; others think that these peculiar 
 ities are the consequence of the destructive effects of the east winds 
 bending the bushes to the ground, and causing the fruit to imbibe that 
 earthy flavour just alluded to. Perhaps a good deal is owing to the 
 soil, as well as to the salt-petre with which, it is said, the sands of the 
 country are impregnated. More, however, may be attributed to the 
 negligence of the vine-growers themselves, than to any other cause, 
 since the bunches of grapes are permitted to rest on the ground and 
 become coated with clay, in which state they are thrown into the 
 Avine-press, and consequently impart a disagreeable taste to the liquor. 
 The casks too, are bad, and often so much smoked with sulphur as to 
 leave its effects perceptible in the wine for two or three years ; and 
 often causing it to sour, especially if exported. The vines of different 
 countries ought to be tried here, as there are some better adapted to 
 particular soils than others. The muscadel grape is the one from 
 which the Constantia wine is principally made ; to this as well as to 
 the precaution of the farmer in not using the fruit nor bruising the 
 stalks until fully ripe, may be attributed the estimable qualities of 
 that wine. Were the grapes properly picked and assorted, previously 
 to being pressed, and strict cleanliness observed, there is nothing to 
 prevent the wines of the Cape from bearing a fair competition with 
 those of any other country, The earliest fruit of the season here is 
 the purple grape, next the hauny pod, both of Avhich are fleshy and 
 most used for the table or are made into raisins. The crystal grape, 
 which comes in last, is sweet and luscious, being all juice and quite 
 transparent. 
 
277 
 
 The practice of the government in farming 1 the retail licenses, has 
 tended to injure the character of the Cape wines, as the purchaser, 
 with the view of making the most of his speculation, employs tho 
 retailer to sell the very worst description of the article ; hence there 
 is a continual run on an inferior, cheap wine, to the total exclusion of 
 useful competition. Thirty three rix-dollars have been given by one 
 person for a year s privilege of licensing the retailers, and, like every 
 monopolist, the purchaser is always watchful of his own interest. 
 
 Wine, at the Cape, generally sells at from 20 to 40 rix-dollars the 
 
 half awm, or 20 gallons. In the frontier settlements, some thriving 
 
 vineyards are to be found, and the wine, particularly that kept for 
 
 the use of the owners, is of a superior quality. The vine-growers 
 
 have much to contend with from the nature of the seasons and the 
 
 rapid transitions which frequently occur in the state of the atmosphere, 
 
 while the labour of some years is destroyed by a sudden deluge of rain 
 
 or the sweeping blasts of an unexpected whirlwind. Many planters can 
 
 do little more than support a respectable appearance ; and although the 
 
 British government gave great encouragement to the cultivation of 
 
 the vine, yet the trade has not been successful in proportion to the 
 
 capital invested in it. Mr. M Kinnon, in his place in parliament in 
 
 September, 1830, stated that there were 1,900,000 embarked in the 
 
 Cape wine trade by British merchants alone. Every inducement was 
 
 held out to further the interests of the planters, and the consequences 
 
 were for some time visible ; but it is to be feared, as already stated, 
 
 that the quantity was the object of greater consideration than the 
 
 quality, which, in a great measure, has entailed upon it the character 
 
 of inferiority ; besides which, there is, no doubt, a prejudice against it, 
 
 through the influence of those whose interest it is to extol the virtue* 
 
 of other wines. The wine districts do not extend farther than 30 or 
 
 40 miles from Cape Town, and from the sandy nature of the roads it 
 
 requires 18 oxen to convey two leagers, or 304 gallons, from the most 
 
 remote of these districts to that place ; but as conveyance of this 
 
 nature is easily procured, it is attended with very little expense. 
 
 This colony derives much advantage from the interchange of its wine 
 
 with other articles, from the Mauritius, Brazils, Van Diemen s Land, 
 
 and New South Wales. 
 
 The scenery connected with the vineyards does not convey any 
 thing striking or sublime, and the boundaries of many of them are 
 only distinguished by small pillars. The settlements of great and 
 little Drakenstein, however, are singularly beautiful, and embrace a 
 tract of country six or eight miles in circumference. They are 
 situated about seven hours ride from Cape Town. Here, both red 
 
2T8 
 
 and white wine of excellent quality are made, and that called pontac, 
 (an imitation of port,) when of a proper age, is a superior article. 
 
 The Wagon -maker s Valley, as it is termed, is three hours ride 
 from Drakenstein, and is one of the most enchanting places in the 
 South of Africa. It is embosomed in hills, clothed with groves of 
 orange and citron, pomegranates and peaches, apples and shaddocks, 
 and every species of delicious fruit, which, heightened by the radiance 
 of a cloudless sun, and fanned by gently cooling breezes, render it 
 one of the most agreeable and fascinating retreats in nature. 
 
 The barley grown in the colony is of an inferior quality, resembling 
 bigg. Whether the process of malting is not there properly under 
 stood, or that there is a defect in the grain, is not well known, but it 
 does not germinate like the same description of grain in Great Britain. 
 For this reason, the breweries at Cape Town have been supplied 
 with malt chiefly from England, and the beer is of good quality and 
 in general use. The present brewing concerns are those of De Neys 
 and Co., Van Reenan, Letterstead, Le Britton and Co., Lyngenfelter 
 and Co., Whiskin and Co. The beer and porter made by these 
 traders are chiefly from sugar ; but all of them use grain in greater 
 or less quantities ; and, latterly, they have got into the practice of 
 malting the grain of the colony more extensively than formerly. The 
 Dutch Company, at an early period of this settlement, introduced the 
 Deventer method of brewing under the superintendence of Jacob 
 Lonwen. Hops are brought from Europe for the use of these esta 
 blishments, although it is thought that they might be cultivated in 
 some places of the settlement with success.* Maize is reared in 
 several varieties, particularly among the Caffres, one species of which 
 tastes like the sugar-cane, but is astringent and of a bitter flavour. 
 This kind is cultivated solely for the purpose of making beer, which is 
 conducted in the following manner : The grain is first malted, 
 afterwards dried and ground, and then boiled to a thick consistency 
 which is subsequently mixed with two parts of water. Before it is 
 completely cooled, a portion of the malt finely powdered is thrown 
 into the mixture, fermentation speedily commences, and the liquor is 
 in a short time fit for use. This beer is said not to be unpleasant, 
 and that with a little care it might be rendered valuable.f 
 
 Amongst the tribes on the coast of Caffraria, grain is preserved in 
 small pits about a foot in width at the surface, but gradually widening 
 
 Vide Notes on the Cape of Good Hope, 8vo. passim. 
 
 f Vide Appendix to 2d vol. p. 360, of Thompson s Travels in South Africa, 
 1827. 
 
270 
 
 to the bottom, all the sides being plastered with a mixture of sand 
 and cow-dung, and holding from about 10 to 28 bushels. The top is 
 secured by a flat stone, arid the whole is rendered impervious to water. 
 A similar practice is current in Malta, Egypt, and other parts of the 
 world. Dumont, when in slavery among the Koubals in Africa, 
 describes the matamores of this people as vast souterrains or immense 
 granaries of wheat, lodged under ground for its better preservation. 
 The excavations are made to the depth of 80 feet, wide in propor 
 tion, arid sometimes equal to a whole field in extent. The flooring 
 and walls are of timber, over which mats are spread, and over them 
 planks are placed. These reservoirs are filled to the height of 70 
 feet, and they are covered at the top with mats and planks as at the 
 sides and bottom. Over the whole, earth is spread to such a depth 
 that it may be cultivated with the same ease and success as any part 
 of the adjoining lands. This contrivance prevents strangers or 
 invaders from discovering those valuable repositories ; and the grain 
 within these souterrains keeps fresh for twelve or fifteen years. 
 Similar contrivances for the preservation of grain were resorted to 
 in France ; and during a season of scarcity, M. Ternaux, the cele 
 brated agriculturist, opened siloes or subterraneous granaries which 
 had been several years closed, out of which he supplied the public 
 with fresh and wholesome corn. 
 
 The Moors in Spain were likewise in the habit of depositing grain 
 in the caverns of rocks, lined with straw, the mouths of which were 
 covered with the same material, where it was preserved for a long 
 succession of years. On the birth of every child, a cavern was filled 
 with corn, which was destined to be its portion when it arrived at 
 maturity. 
 
 Distillation is unknown to the Caffrarian tribes, most of whom 
 have scarcely a vessel that would endure fire. The Caffres make a 
 sort of coarse earthen-ware by kneading clay and fine sand together, 
 and afterwards shaping the paste into a vessel with the hand. They 
 are again exposed to the influence of the sun for some time, and 
 hardened in a fire made of cow-dung ; these vessels serve for cooking 
 victuals and other culinary purposes. Notwithstanding they are so 
 numerous, yet the people carry their milk and other liquids in baskets 
 made from rushes, which are so close as to prevent the escape of any 
 fluid. One tribe of Cafires, the Amazizi, have the art of making a 
 spirituous drink from millet. A wine of fine flavour and of highly 
 intoxicating quality is made from a fruit, termed yayahoguhct, by the 
 Jamatians, a Caffre race that resides to the south of Mucaranga. 
 
280 
 
 During the stay of Damberger with the Jamatians, he often drank of 
 this liquor, and warmly enjoyed its taste, flavour, and influence. 
 
 The Koramas possess the method of making a very intoxicating 
 sort of mead or hydromel, by fermenting honey with the juice of a 
 certain root, and the colonial Hottentots, who are in possesion of the 
 secret, frequently sell portions of this fermenting substance for spirits 
 and tobacco. Of the latter article, the Bushmen at the Cape are so 
 excessively fond, that they smoke it with such adroitness as to diffuse 
 the steam through both the mouth and nostrils ; the pipe used by 
 these people is the shank-bone of a sheep. One circumstance 
 attending the weddings of the Hottentots is laudable, which is that, 
 though at other times prone to drunkenness, they never drink on these 
 occasions, neither do they dance nor play upon musical instruments. 
 Honey is plentiful in various parts of the interior ; the bees gene 
 rally construct their cells in the hollows of trees or cavities of rocks, 
 which are frequently discovered by means of a bird, known to natu 
 ralists by the name of the honey-bird. This creature serves as a 
 guide to the Hottentots for finding out the honey of the country. 
 When the voice of the bird is heard, the Hottentot answers by a 
 whistle and follows it, still whistling his response to every note, till 
 at length the little warbler conducts him to the luscious treasure from 
 which neither returns without the object of the pursuit. The honey 
 is, for the most part, mixed with an umbelliferous plant, termed Gli, 
 first reduced to powder and then blended with cold water ; after 
 letting it ferment for a night, a sort of metheglin is obtained, two 
 glasses of which are sufficient to produce intoxication. Of the pulve 
 rized root of this plant, two handfuls are considered quite enough to 
 make a few gallons.* 
 
 The sugar-cane might be cultivated to any extent, and rum and 
 sugar manufactured of a quality not inferior to any that are made 
 elsewhere. How far it might be the interest of government to give 
 a preference to the plantations in this quarter, I am not prepared to 
 say ; but, unquestionably, the country in the vicinity of the Cape is 
 more congenial to health) and affords better promise of a redundant 
 population than most of our other foreign colonies. For the emigrant, 
 it possesses many advantages and inducements, particularly as the 
 government patronise colonization ; but the prevalence and effects of 
 certain periodical winds render many parts of the country not so 
 healthy to Europeans as could be wished : still, however, from the 
 
 * Thunberg s Travels, vol. ii. p. 3J. 
 
281 
 
 productive nature of the soil, it seems to offer a sufficient remunera 
 tion for the toil of the agriculturist. Wheat, Indian corn, and other 
 grain thrive well, and tobacco coidd be made a most productive and 
 valuable source of commerce : hitherto the colonists have not cultivated 
 more than what serves domestic consumption ; but what has been 
 raised is not inferior to the best tobacco of Virginia growth. Of the 
 vine enough has been said to show how far a person might embark 
 with safety in its cultivation ; and from the local position of the Cape 
 arid its facilities for trade, an adventurer could scarcely fail of success 
 in embarking a capital in speculations in this colony in preference to 
 many others. 
 
 The island of St. Helena has little to attract attention ; but as it 
 is a sort of rendezvous for vessels passing to and from India, it merits 
 some notice here not from anything indigenous, but from its locality 
 and its having been the residence of Napoleon Buonaparte. In 
 Brooke s History of this island, are found some curious and quaint 
 regulations of its early governors. From 1673 to 1687, a tax of 10s. 
 was imposed on every hogshead of wine and arrack that was landed 
 on the island, and to prevent a scarcity of timber, which was much 
 consumed in the distillation of spirits from potatoes, an impost of 12d. 
 was levied for every hundred weight of wood appropriated to that 
 purpose, besides 4d. for every gallon of liquor so manufactured. Not 
 withstanding this restriction, the number of stills in the island became 
 at length such a nuisance, that it was found necessary to suppress 
 them entirely, which was effected by an order from England in 1700. 
 By an edict of one of the governors, in 1709, to regulate the sales of 
 the public houses, it was ordered that a bowl of punch, made with 
 one pint of arrack and having a due proportion of sugar and lemon, 
 should be sold for two shillings and no more, while arrack rated at 
 six shillings per gallon ; and a violation of this order was followed by 
 the forfeiture of the license and double the value of the liquor. If 
 any person considered this a grievance, he was at liberty to give up 
 his license for any unexpired portion of the year, and be refunded 
 for that time at the rate of A per annum. In 1754, the East India 
 Company issued laws to prevent intemperance in drinking ; for the 
 first offence, admonition only was resorted to ; for the second a fine 
 of five shillings was to be exacted ; and persons of rank were to pay 
 in proportion to their station, as it was expected that they should be 
 an example to others. 
 
 From a species of the gum-tree, which grows from 20 to 30 feet 
 in height, a kind of toddy is extracted by the inhabitants ; but it is 
 not collected nor used to any extent. Almost every valley in the 
 
382 
 
 island produces vines but in too scanty a portion to afford wine ; the 
 supply of this and other liquors being- brought from other parts of the 
 world. The only revenue accruing to the East India Company, 
 according to Lord Valentin, was that derivable from the rents of the 
 lands and the monopoly of the arrack imported into the island, which 
 annually netted 6,000. 
 
 Passing to the islands in the Mexican gulf, known by the general 
 name of the West Indies, we find the distillation of ardent spirits 
 carried on there to an extent not surpassed within the same limits of 
 territory in any other quarter of the world. The time at which the 
 manufacture commenced there is not exactly ascertained, but the first 
 plantation of sugar-canes was established, according to Oveido Valdes, 
 in Hispaniola or St. Domingo, by the Spaniards, in 1520.* The rapi 
 dity of the culture was such, that, in 1535, there were not less than 
 thirty plantations on the island ; and, according to Bingo, there were 
 in 1544, thirty four sugar-mills established. As the use of the still 
 was then known, it may be conjectured that not long after this period 
 the distillation of rum suggested itself, as the only means to compen 
 sate the planter for the loss incurred in disposing of the skimmings 
 and molasses, after their separation from the sugar. 
 
 As to the name given to this spirit, writers are at variance, some 
 attributing its derivation to one thing and some to another. In the 
 German language, it is simply termed rum ; in the Dutch rum, and 
 keelduivel ; in the Danish, rom, and geldyvel ; in the Swedish, rom, 
 rum ; in the French, rum, gueldive ; in the Italian, rum, taffia ; 
 in the Spanish ron, rom, tafia ; in the Portuguese, ron ; and in the 
 Russian, rom. The word rum seems to have been formerly used in 
 Great Britain to convey the idea of any thing fine, rich, best, or excel 
 lent ; thus to express a superior brandy, it was common to say rum 
 Nantz, because the best description of that liquor was distilled at 
 Nantz; and as spirits extracted from molasses could not well be 
 classed under the terms of whiskey, brandy, arrack, &c. it was called 
 rum, to denote its excellence or superior quality. This term is proba 
 bly taken from the last syllable of the Latin word saccharum (sugar) ; 
 and it is not a little singular, that the liquor itself has been always 
 known among the native Americans by the name of rum. 
 
 The process of manufacturing sugar from the cane, is too well 
 known to require a description here, and the molasses, from which 
 the rum is principally made, is the sirup of the sugar (or the drain- 
 ings after it is put into the hogshead), which no course of boiling can 
 
 Ilistoriu Nalui al. dc las Iiidias. Foyer s Hist. Barbadoes, 4to. p. 40. Alceda s 
 Dictionary. 
 
283 
 
 bring 1 to a thicker consistence. The distillation of this substance, 
 together with the skimmings of the boilers, has been thus described 
 to the author by a gentleman long resident in Demerary and the 
 West Indies : 
 
 From the liquor of the cane, which runs warm from the coppers 
 through a trough to a receiver prepared for that purpose, the skim 
 mings are taken, and, with some of the liquor itself, are pumped from 
 a cistern containing from 300 to 800 gallons, when the fluid is mixed 
 with water and molasses in the proportion of twenty-five gallons to 
 one hundred. When this mixture is sufficiently blended together in 
 the vats (which in some plantations amount to thirty), it is covered 
 over with boards or mats made of plantain leaves, and allowed to 
 ferment for three or fcfur days, or longer, should there be a want of 
 yeast or other ferment to make it work, which often occurs at the 
 commencement of the season. When reduced to a due degree of 
 acidity, which is ascertained by the subsiding of the fermentation, it is 
 run into a still proportioned to the vat, and wrought off as low wines, 
 in which state it is put into the still again. The first run, or discharge 
 after it is thus returned to the still, is taken off for high wines (as 
 they are termed), or strong rum, in the proportion of 25 gallons to 
 300, the strength of which, when tried by a glass-bead instrument, is 
 from 18 to 22. The second run of the still, which is drawn off in 
 cans and carried by negroes to another vessel, is of a strength from 
 23 to 26. From these two runnings of the still, the rum exported 
 from the colony of Demerary is made up. The deficiency in the 
 strength of the second distillation is supplied by an addition from the 
 first, which is always stronger than that exported, and of too ardent 
 a nature to be used by itself, 25 being colony proof. In the Wind 
 ward islands, one-third of the skimmings is mixed with one-third of 
 the lees, or dander, and one-third of water. When these begin to 
 ferment, which they usually do in twenty-four hours, the first mixture 
 of molasses takes place in the proportion of six gallons for every 
 hundred gallons of the fermenting liquor, and a day or two afterwards 
 an additional quantity of molasses is added. The fermentation is 
 tempered by the addition of cold or warm water. D under , a term 
 unfamiliar to the ear of a European distiller, is the lees or feculencies 
 of former distillations, serving all the purposes of yeast in the fermen 
 tation. It is derived from a Spanish word, redunder, the same as 
 redundans in Latin, and is well known among the planters in the West 
 Indies. The attenuating properties of this ferment are such, that the 
 materials, with which it is mixed, are said to yield a much greater 
 proportion of spirit than could be obtained if they were fermented 
 
284 
 
 without it.* It serves the same purpose as jalap mixed with molasses, 
 which has been sometimes employed in Great Britain for cutting down 
 the frothy head at the close of the fermentation ; and it is usually 
 preserved from one year to another for this purpose ; and in such 
 large quantities as to fill most of the backs or fermenting tuns. 
 Dunder soon becomes covered with so thick a film as to exclude the 
 air, and the sediment leaves the intermediate fluid pure and of a 
 bright amber colour, which, when carefully drawn off, is employed as 
 already described, in proportions suited to the nature of the fermen 
 tation, and to this dunder many attribute the best flavour of the 
 rum. Besides this very essential ingredient, various mixtures are 
 used in the fermenting process, such as tartar, nitre, sea-water, or 
 common salt. In some of the islands, a still usually makes about 
 220 gallons of rum in the day. These are produced from about 530 
 gallons of low wines ; or 113 of rum from 1200 gallons of wash ; 
 this liquor is of such a strength that olive oil will sink in it, and seldom 
 exceeds proof, though, sometimes, by double distillation, it is made to 
 approach the strength of alcohol. The process of distilling is in 
 general slow, and much caution is observed in the condensation of the 
 spirit. To provide against a scarcity of water, which often occurs in 
 the islands, they preserve, in large tuns or tanks, a sufficiency of rain 
 water to enable them to mix the molasses, &c. and to cool the worm 
 of the still. As the water becomes heated in the worm-tub, it is car 
 ried to coolers or cisterns, and, when cold, is run again upon the 
 worm. In most of the islands, the curing-houses for sugar and the 
 distilleries for rum are constructed on the sides of canals, and the 
 canes are carried either in boats or by negroes from the plantations 
 to these houses. From five to six immense copper boilers are kept 
 in each of those houses, while the greatest cleanliness is preserved in 
 the distillery, a precaution highly necessary in every concern of this 
 kind, and which must contribute largely to the strength and purity 
 of the rum.f In Jamaica, the operations go on without intermission ; 
 the negroes being formed into what are called spells or divisions, two 
 or three occasionally relieving each other at stated intervals. 
 
 The richness of flavour peculiar to this spirit, which has rendered 
 it famous in almost all parts of the world, is supposed to be derived 
 from the raw juice and the fragments of the sugar-cane, which are 
 mashed and fermented with the other materials in the tun. The 
 essential oil of the cane is thus imparted to the wash, and carried 
 
 * Edwards History of the West Indies, vol. ii. p. 232, 233. 
 f Williams s Tour through Jamaica, 8vo. p. 6. 
 
2S5 
 
 over in the distillation ; for sugar, when distilled by itself, has no 
 peculiar flavour different from other spirits. Time adds much to the 
 mildness and value of rum, which the planters often improve by the 
 addition of pine-apple juice. 
 
 To calculate the cost of rum to the sugar planter is difficult ; in 
 general, it is estimated that one-fourth of the entire produce of a plan 
 tation may in point of value consist of rum, and accordingly one- 
 fourth of the expenditure may be taken as the first cost of the rum, 
 and the remaining tliree-fourths as that of the sugar. Some say that 
 the charge of making rum bears a similar proportion to that of home 
 made spirits, but this is an erroneous assumption. Rum is made from 
 the molasses or that part of the cane-juice which will not crystallize 
 into sugar as also from the scum which is taken off during the 
 saccharific process, and which in sweetness is equal to one-fifth of 
 molasses, Let us take, as a standard, a distillery on a plantation 
 producing 250 hogsheads of sugar yielding 15,000 gallons of molasses 
 and scum equal to 5,000 gallons, netting in all 20,000 gallons of 
 molasses. These would produce about 15,000 gallons of proof rum, 
 which, when brought to the British market, would be reduced by 
 the voyage to about 13,500 gallons, the average loss being ten per 
 cent. These would cost the manufacturer throughout the islands 
 from Is. 4d. to Is. Id. per gallon, independent of all charges for 
 puncheons, freight, commission, and other unavoidable expenses. 
 
 From this statement, it must appear that the distiller of rum has 
 little or no profit, but being the grower of the material, arid having 
 his capital embarked in the trade, he is compelled to manufacture it 
 from necessity, and the sooner he can turn the article to account the 
 better he is enabled to bear loss and meet his engagements. 
 
 The average exports of rum from the principal islands, in 1787, 
 amounted to 6,345,966 gallons. From Barbadoes, in the medium of 
 eight years, from 1740 to 1748, the export amounted to 12,884 
 puncheons of 100 gallons each. In 1810, as appears from the Parlia 
 mentary reports, 3,428,452 gallons were exported to Great Britain 
 from Jamaica alone, and in 1813, not less than 3,763,281 gallons. 
 
 In the island of St. Domingo, the juice of the cane is chiefly con 
 verted into sirup and afterwards distilled into taffia or rum, of which 
 there is a very large consumption ; it being the favourite liquor of 
 the natives. In the neighbourhood of Cayes, on this island, there are 
 eighty-one small distilleries, or, as they are termed by the inhabitants, 
 gueldiveries, which consume about two millions of pounds of sirup, 
 annually affording about one hundred and eighty thousand gallons of 
 taffia, an inferior kind of spirit. Four thousand five hundred 
 
286 
 
 hogsheads of this liquor, with six hundred hogsheads of rum 
 of sixty gallons each, were made in 1826, most of the molas 
 ses having been purchased for the distillers ; the proprietors of 
 the plantations being generally too poor to erect distilleries. When 
 this island was in possession of the French, the manufacture of sugar, 
 both clayed and raw, was carried on to considerable extent : molasses 
 was then a limited export. In 1789, there were 25,7491bs. of it 
 shipped; in 1801, the quantity was 99,41 91bs., while for the nine 
 years previous to 1826, only once, (in 1822) were 211,9271bs. 
 exported ; the whole of the sirup being used in the manufacture of 
 taffia.* The quantity of rum sent out of this island has always been 
 limited ; all that is now made is required for home consumption ; but 
 considerable quantities of wines, brandies, and beer, are imported from 
 France ; Hock, Rhenish wines, and gin from Holland, with porter 
 and cider from the United States. In order to form a correct idea 
 of the extent of the rum trade of the West Indies, it may be sufficient 
 to state that from the 5th of January, 1829, to the 5th January, 1830, 
 there were exported to Great Britain and Ireland alone, 6,901,607 
 proof gallons, and in 1832, 6,934,759 gallons, a detail of which, as 
 sent from each of the islands, will be found in a Table of the Addenda. 
 
 It has been calculated that the quantity of rum consumed in the 
 United Kingdom amounted in 1800, to 3,049,590 imperial gallons, 
 while the consumption of 1829 was 3,375,866, shewing an increase 
 in the use of this spirit of upwards of ten per cent. Notwithstanding 
 this increase, the planters complained of the distressed and almost 
 ruinous state of the trade, alleging, that although they contributed 
 considerably towards the revenues of the empire, and had important 
 claims on the government, yet the consumption of home-made spirits 
 was encouraged to a degree highly injurious to their interests. In 
 1829, there were 22,690,270 imperial gallons of British spirits con 
 sumed, while in 1800, there were only 5,386,313 used, thus showing 
 in that period a preference to the use of the home-manufacture of 
 420 per cent., a measure calculated to bring destructive consequences 
 on the West India planter. 
 
 The superior quality of the rum manufactured in the colony of 
 Demerary has, it is thought, injured the demand for the rum of the 
 islands. Its distillation, as appears from Bolingbroke, has been 
 carried to a high state of perfection by the perseverance and skill of 
 several scientific men, who have succeeded in causing the rum of 
 Kssequibo and Demerary to be as much in request in the American 
 market as that of Jamaica is in England. 
 
 * M Kenzic s Notes on Hayti, vol. ii. p. 160. 
 
287 
 
 The following exports of rum , since the last establishment of the 
 British custom-house on that settlement are thus recorded : 
 
 From the 1st October, 1803, till September 10th, Pimchs. Hhds. 
 
 1804, 4,887 
 
 Ditto, 10th of September, 1804, till January 5, 
 
 1805. 504 
 
 Ditto, 5th January, 1805, till January 5th, 1806, 3,611 17 
 
 Ditto, 5th January, 1806, till January 5th, 1807, 4,722 17 
 
 Ditto, 5th January, 1822, till January 5th, 1823, 20,059 1839 
 
 The export from this colony into Great Britain for the year end 
 ing 5th January, 1823, amounted to 1,193,556 gallons; and for the 
 year ending 5th January, 1829, to 1,358,458 proof gallons. 
 
 The produce expected by a planter in Demerary is at the rate of 
 80 gallons for every hogshead of sugar which his estate produces, 
 each hogshead averaging 12001bs. The rum made on a sugar estate 
 is generally calculated to pay all its expenses.* In the West India 
 islands also, it has been computed, that if a plantation be carefully 
 managed, the sale of the molasses and rum together will defray the 
 ordinary charges of the estate. 
 
 Besides rum, the beverages common to most Europeans are fami 
 liar in the islands. Hospitality is a prevailing characteristic of the 
 inhabitants ; and the practice of drinking is too often carried to excess. 
 Most other liquors are preferred to new rum, which is considered 
 very unwholesome, and is not unaptly termed by the inhabitants 
 " kill devil." To its excessive use may be attributed the death of many 
 brave men in our naval and military service. A seaman, says Boling- 
 broke, belonging to one of his Maiesty s ships, stationed in the West 
 Indies, suddenly turned quite black in several parts of his body, and 
 was evidently in a putrescent state. The surgeon requested leave of 
 the captain to open and examine him, when a quart of new rum, 
 nearly as clear as when first issued from the still, was found in his 
 stomach, which had evidently caused his death. 
 
 Mr. M Kenzie, during his residence in St. Domingo, remarked, 
 that the victims to the climate were chiefly the crews of foreign 
 vessels who made too great a use of new rum, which, with the climate 
 itself, proved overwhelming.f 
 
 In a country where the heat of the climate must tend to relax the 
 strength of the body, we need not wonder at the fatal consequences 
 of drinking to excess : even at home we have too many deplorable 
 
 * Bolingbroke s Statistical Account of the Settlements on the Demarary, &c. 
 4to. p. 100. 
 
 f Notes on Hayti, vol. i. p. 14. 
 
288- 
 
 instances of a similar fatality caused by even a smaller portion of 
 ardent spirits. Moderation in all situations is conducive to health, 
 but in the warm regions of the tropics, where there are so many 
 sources of disease, forbearance and caution are especially neces 
 sary. 
 
 The cultivation of sugar has been lately introduced into the island 
 of Cuba ; but, from the indolence of the inhabitants, it is very unpro 
 ductive. In 1763, bees were introduced by emigrants from Florida, 
 and they multiplied so much in the hollows of the trees that they 
 soon obtained honey enough for their annual consumption. In 1777, 
 they exported honey to the amount of 715,0001bs. 
 
 Madeira, claret, punch, porter, and cider, are favourite liquors in 
 many of the islands, as also a drink, termed Sangaree, which consists 
 of half Madeira and half water, acidulated with lime juice and sweet 
 ened with sugar. This drink is also in much request in New Galli-. 
 cia, and other ports of South America. The ingredients in its coin- 
 position are a mixture of wine, sugar, lemon-juice, and spices. The 
 practice of partaking of these at all hours pretty generally prevails ; 
 even in the senate house at Barbadoes, the members drink punch. 
 On one occasion, when Pinckard was there, two persons suddenly 
 appeared with a large bowl and a two-quart glass filled with punch 
 and sangaree. These were first presented to the speaker, who, after 
 dipping deep into the bowl, passed it among the members. Nor were 
 the audience forgotten, as it was considered to be correctly in order 
 for strangers to join in this part of the debate.* The practice of late 
 breakfasts in different parts of the West Indies, particularly in St. 
 Domingo, has given rise to the introduction of wine and spirits at 
 those meals, and a succession of excess in their use through the day 
 has often been the consequence. Persons have been known to drink 
 so deeply on those occasions as to be carried off wholely senseless, 
 while the necessaries of life being procurable for a mere trifle, the 
 lower orders are thereby enabled to indulge more freely in the luxury 
 of their favorite drink, rum or tafia. 
 
 It is a custom in most of the West India islands to place on the 
 side-board a capacious bowl of cold punch, to allay thirst during the 
 heat of the day. To this a peculiar flavour is usually imparted by an 
 infusion of the juice of the acajou apple. 
 
 In the island of St. Kitts, a drink called Swizzle is much used ; it 
 is a mixture of rum with about six times the quantity of water, 
 rendered palatable by the infusion of some aromatic ingredients, 
 
 I 
 
 " Pinckard s Notes on the West Indies, vol. i. p. 469. 
 
289 
 
 This beverage is often expensive, because water has frequently to be 
 brought from the neighbouring islands, and sometimes rum and wine 
 are given in exchange. 
 
 From the fruit of a tree called Mamme, or Mamme-Sapota (Achras) 
 is made the highly esteemed cordial, L eau des noiaux. This fruit 
 the French term U apricot de Saint Dominique; it contains two 
 large stones, which are employed in giving spirits a ratafia flavour. 
 The Mamme is a splendid tree, lofty, shady, and green, shooting up 
 into a pyramidal figure, and producing only one large fruit in the 
 year. If eaten raw, it is indigestible, yet it makes an exquisite 
 conserve.* 
 
 When the negroes cannot procure rum, they make a fermented 
 liquor from cassada, resembling beer, which in Barbadoes is termed 
 piworree^ and in other places owjcou. This plant, the manioc or 
 mandioc of America, grows to the size of a large shrub, or small tree, 
 and produces roots somewhat resembling parsnips.J From both the 
 bitter and sweet cassada a nutritious bread is made, which is thus 
 prepared by the natives : When the roots are washed and scraped 
 clean, they are grated very fine and squeezed through a coarse bag 
 or sieve, either of hair or hemp, into pot or stone vessel, and dried by 
 a gentle heat, until the mixture becomes farinaceous or mealy. In 
 this state it is fit for use, and is frequently made into excellent pud 
 dings ; previously it is a deadly poison. From the roots a starch 
 called tapioca is prepared, which is a profitable export to the Brazi 
 lians. In some of the islands, the juice expressed from the cassada 
 is made into starch by the simple process of letting it stand until the 
 heavier parts collect at the bottom of the vessel. The water being- 
 drawn off and the residue dried in the sun, the tapioca of commerce 
 is produced. 
 
 The ouycou is sometimes brewed very strong, and it is considered 
 both nourishing and refreshing. Molasses and yams are used in the 
 preparation, and the liquor, after fermentation, is of a reddish colour. 
 Great quantities of this beverage are consumed at feasts, of which we 
 shall have occasion to speak hereafter. Anciently they had a liquor 
 like the Mexican Atolle, which was of thick consistence, and composed 
 of maize and flour seasoned with sugar and spices. The ouycou was 
 made thus : An earthen vessel, containing about sixty quarts, was 
 nearly filled with water, into which were thrown two pounded roots 
 
 * West India Skctcli Book. 
 
 f Vide Pinckard s Notes, p, 420. 
 
 | Robertson s Hist. America, vol. li. p. 7. 
 
290 
 
 of cassada with twelve sweet potatoes, a gallon of juice of sugar 
 cane, and a dozen of ripe bananas. The vessel being closed, the mix 
 ture was left to ferment for two or three days, and when completely 
 attenuated, the scum was removed from the surface, and the liquor 
 was then fit to be used. Though the material of this drink was said 
 to be strong and exhilarating, yet it was considered inferior to Maby 
 or Mobby, which is said to resemble French wine. The Maby is 
 made by mixing about half a gallon of clarified sirup with about 30 
 quarts of water, twelve oranges cut into quarters, with a like number 
 of red sweet potatoes. In about thirty hours after, during which it 
 has undergone the operation of fermentation, it is ready for the goblet. 
 This drink, as the name imports, is probably an imitation of the fer 
 mented juice of the Mabal palm found in the districts lying along 
 the Congo, from which many of the negroes in these settlements 
 have been carried as slaves, and no doubt brought the term with 
 them. 
 
 The bitter cassada is poisonous when raw, but heat deprives it of 
 that quality. Raynal asserts, that the cassada or manioc plant was 
 originally introduced into the West Indies from Africa, and that the 
 Indians were first instructed by the negroes in the art of converting 
 the poisonous root into wholesome food. Edwards contradicts this, 
 and shews from the first decad of P. Martyr, which bears date Novem 
 ber, 1493, that the cassada furnished the islanders with the principal 
 part of their food at the time when they were visited by Columbus, 
 and long before any of the negro tribes were brought thither.* 
 
 The attachment of the aborigines to the pleasures of intoxication is 
 well illustrated in the following circumstance, and shews that when 
 drink could not be obtained to effect this delightful sensation, they 
 had recourse to many subterfuges to supply the defect. Among 
 others, the fumes of tobacco were a favourite substitute. These they 
 exhaled through a tube formed like a Y, the two branches of which 
 were inserted into each nostril, while the stem was embedded in a 
 vessel of burning leaves. The vapour thus communicated soon 
 affected the brain of the inhaler, and produced all the stupifying 
 results and visionary pleasures usually ascribed to opium. This mode 
 of intoxicating was often preferred to that excited by drinking, and 
 so sudden were its consequences, that the stoutest individual has been 
 prostrated in a few minutes. But since the introduction of distilla 
 tion into these islands, forced methods of inebriation are seldom 
 practised. 
 
 * Edwards Hist, of W. Indies. Also Robertson s Hist, of America, vol. ii. note, p. 5J>. 
 
291 
 
 In tho Antilles, the vine never succeeded to any extent, but 
 formerly the Spaniards resident in the north side of Jamaica, culti 
 vated considerable vineyards, and made a good wine resembling 
 claret. But the ease with which the wines of Europe can be procured, 
 renders the cultivation of the vine for that purpose unnecessary. In 
 many of the sugar plantations on the island of Jamaica, each of the 
 negroes is allowed to take in calabashes about half a gallon of hot 
 purified cane juice, which he sometimes ferments by means of the 
 chewstickwithe, or chewed cane, making thereby a palatable kind of 
 beer. At other times he uses it in the simple, unfermented state, to 
 refresh him during the toils of the day. The overseer often carries 
 a quantity of it in a bamboo staff, but more frequently substitutes 
 rum in preference, and may be seen occasionally walking with one 
 end of his cane elevated to the clouds, while he is regaling himself 
 out of the other. It is a custom among the negroes here, which has 
 been carried from Africa, to make a libation, or first-fruit offering, by 
 pouring a little liquor on the ground before they drink any of it them 
 selves, a practice also prevalent in several parts of Asia. 
 
 For a view of the extent and importance of the revenue arising to 
 Great Britain from the rum imported from those islands, the reader 
 is referred to that part of this work which treats of home distillation. 
 
 To enter into a detail of the value of rum as an article of consump 
 tion for the British nation, and the advantages which might arise 
 from its unrestricted importation, would lead to the introduction of 
 considerations foreign to the design of this work. But it may be 
 observed, that a preference ought to be given to this article as exclu 
 sively the production and manufacture of colonies subject to our own 
 laws and government, rather than to the consumption of foreign grain 
 brought into Great Britain, and made into spirits at considerable 
 expense, to the injury of our agricultural .interests at home, and of 
 those of our dependencies abroad. 
 
 Prejudices injurious to the West India planters have too frequently 
 been formed from erroneous impressions of the condition of the 
 slaves ; and, therefore, a disinclination is manifested to encourage any 
 branch of manufacture in which they are employed. But without in 
 the most remote degree advocating slavery, which, in its mildest state, 
 must always tend to the degradation of our species, it may be proper 
 to shew that the manner in which the negroes are generally treated is 
 different from what is commonly represented. Most of the regula 
 tions affecting the slave population are not determined by the will 
 of the proprietor, but are settled by law and are calculated to promote 
 the comforts of the slaves. They are either provided with provision. 
 
292 
 
 ground, which they are permitted to cultivate, or furnished with an 
 equivalent in money or food. They are also clothed, and when ill, 
 have medical attendance and medicine. When old, their infirmities 
 are provided for hy a sort of superannuation allowance, averaging ten 
 pounds per annum. These regulations vary in different islands accord 
 ing to circumstances and localities, but all tend to soften the aspe 
 rities of slavery. In many of the islands it is the practice to give 
 each slave, in the morning before going to work, a cup of coffee, a 
 glass of rum, or some other warm beverage, such as ginger tea; 
 besides which he gets, once or twice a day, weak diversion, that is 
 rum and w r ater sweetened with molasses. That cruelties from harsh 
 and brutal taskmasters have been inflicted on many of those unfor 
 tunate beings, there can be no doubt ; but to brand all the planters 
 with a savage barbarity and want of feeling, would be wanton and 
 unfounded. Man here in a civilised state is not insensible to the feel 
 ings of humanity, nor does he act in opposition to those laws which 
 regulate society in other countries. 
 
 Since writing the foregoing, slavery in the colonies has, by an act 
 of the British legislature, been abolished; and it remains to be 
 seen whether, under a different system of treatment, the condition of 
 the Africans in the West Indies will be more conducive to their hap 
 piness by putting them on an equality with the intelligent and 
 polished inhabitants of those regions. 
 
 The Church of England, the Wesleyan Methodists, and other mis 
 sionaries have been, for some time, engaged among them in the incul 
 cation of sound religious principles, w r hich have for their object the 
 fear of God, the love of their fellow-men, and a respect for the laws 
 and regulations of civilized society. These, with the influence of the 
 useful arts of agriculture, manufactures, and trade, must prove of the 
 highest benefit not only to the well-being of the present generation, 
 but to the descendants of those who have been emancipated from the 
 thraldom of slavery. 
 
 On directing our observations to the American continent, we find 
 that when the Spaniards first visited Mexico and Peru, the inhabi 
 tants understood the preparation of several intoxicating drinks procured 
 from maize or Indian corn, from the manioc or roots of the yueca y and 
 from the agave or maguey^ a species of aloes. The Indian corn, 
 when bruised and fermented into a kind of inspissated drink, was 
 called chica,* and much resembled beer in its qualities. Chica is a 
 generic term for any sort of inspissated drink, such as the juice or 
 the grape simply boiled, or the liquor of the sugar-cane. Acosta is 
 
 * Skinner s Present State of Peru, 4to. p. 258. 
 
293 
 
 of opinion that this word is of Ilaytian origin, as it does not belong to 
 
 any known language in the Indies; the same observation applies to 
 
 the word maize. Chica, denominated the nectar of the Peruvians, 
 
 is made by pounding the maize into a fine powder and placing it in a 
 
 heap, around which a number of females place themselves, and chew 
 
 the material into a sort of paste. After chewing, it is taken from the 
 
 mouth and rolled between the hands into round balls, which are placed 
 
 in the form of a pyramid, like cannon shot in a fortification. This 
 
 operation being finished, they are then baked over a fire and put into 
 
 a, certain quantity of water where they ferment and form the fluid now 
 
 under consideration. Chica tastes like a mixture of table beer and 
 
 cider. It is considered as nutritious as porter, and, notwithstanding 
 
 the forbidding mode of preparation, is extremely grateful in hot 
 
 weather, and not by any means prejudicial to health. During the 
 
 time of the carnival, great quantities of Chica are consumed, as the 
 
 people, on such occasions, are permitted to amuse themselves in 
 
 various indulgences. Even females are often seen on horseback at 
 
 full gallop, contending for no more than a draught of Chica. In Peru, 
 
 is another kind of Chica, made from the Algaroba tree, accounted 
 
 very pleasing, and of which the people are extremely fond. When 
 
 taken moderately, it is considered wholesome, and conducive not 
 
 only to exhilarate the spirits, but to strengthen the constitution. 
 
 No Irishman shews greater partiality for his native whiskey, nor 
 indulges in it more freely, than the Peruvian does in his attachment to 
 his beloved Chica. To make the drink from the manioc or yueca, the 
 roots are boiled and bruised into a paste, which, as in the case of 
 Chica from maize, the women, by the application of their saliva, convert 
 into a fluid, called masato* in the manner practised for a similar 
 purpose by the inhabitants of Formosa, the South Sea islanders, and the 
 Brazilians. This fluid is left for three days to ferment, which, by the 
 infusion of some water, becomes a very powerful, intoxicating liquor. 
 When strained, it is sometimes called Kicbla, and the spirit distilled 
 from it puichiu. The Peruvians cultivate the yueca, and, in clearing the 
 forests for that purpose, they use hatchets made of stone, resembling 
 ours, but having, instead of a handle, two ears with a channel to secure 
 the extremity by means of cords.f Temple mentions a singular super 
 stition of the Peruvians, who, on one of their chiefs being slain, dipped 
 pieces of the clothes of the deceased in his blood, and afterwards sold 
 them to the women employed in making Chica, in order that these 
 rags might be thrown into it on particular occasions to produce a 
 
 * Skinner s Present State of Peru, p. 380. t 
 
 t Bonnyeastle s Account of Spanish America, vol. ii. p, 189. 
 
294. 
 
 charm, when all the Indians in the neighbourhood, male and female, 
 assembled to drink of this horrible beverage. At dinner parties, it is 
 customary to have on a side-table several bottles of rum, spruce beer, 
 and other liquors, with cakes and confections, of which the guests par 
 take on entering the room. The same glass is used by the whole 
 company, and it would be deemed uncourteous if any hesitated to 
 drink after another. The more lips the glass has touched, the more 
 friendship in the acceptance ; and should any individual from squeam- 
 ishness look for a place that had been untouched, he would be treated 
 with contempt by the rest of the company. When a lady honours a 
 gentleman by drinking to him, he takes her glass and cautiously 
 observes to place his lips on the very spot which she had touched with 
 hers, and then drains the contents to the last drop. It is usual at 
 parties, when the guests become mellow and a favourite toast is drunk, 
 to shiver the glasses to atoms, implying that the subject is too good 
 ever again to suffer the same glasses to be denied by being made to 
 contain a bumper to any less exceptionable sentiment.* The juice of 
 the Agave is by the Peruvians fermented in the same way as in 
 Mexico, where it is made into a kind of wine called pulque orpouchra, 
 by others denominated octli. When Francis Pizarro had his first 
 interview with the Inca Atahualpa, he was presented with a golden 
 goblet of this wine. The Inca, holding a similar one in his hand, 
 pledged him on the occasion of his visit, which he hoped would lead 
 to the good of himself, his country, and his people. Pizarro observed 
 that the inhabitants, at that time, understood the brewing of beer from 
 oats, and found ale-houses established for its sale. Pulque, orPouchra, 
 is at present in great demand all over the South American continent, 
 and the spirit extracted from it is known by the name of Mexical, or 
 agua ardiente de Maguey, from the circumstance of its distillation 
 having been first introduced at Mexico by the Spaniards. The 
 manufacture of this liquor was prohibited by the Spanish government 
 as injurious to the trade of their brandies ; but as it was a general 
 favourite among the inhabitants, and smuggled to a great extent 
 through the country, its distillation was at length publicly permitted 
 on the payment of a certain duty. 
 
 In the Theatro Americano, published at Mexico, in 1746, it appears 
 that 161,000 peros were raised by the tax on pulque.^ The consump 
 tion of this liquor, in 1791, amounted to 294,790 cargoes, that of 
 wine and vinegar to 4,507 barrels of 4^ arobas, and 12,000 barrels 
 
 * Temple s Travels, vol. ii. p. 311. 
 
 "j" Robertson s America, vol.iii. note, p. 196. Bonnvcastle s Account of Spanish 
 America, 8vo. vol. i. p. 63. 
 
295 
 
 of brandy. Since that period, wine is much more in use, and of pulque 
 the enormous quantity of 44 millions of bottles, each containing 
 58,141 cubic inches, have been annually consumed. 
 
 When Humboldt visited New Spain in 1804, the cultivation of the 
 maguey had become of great im portance to the exchequer. The 
 duties of entry on this article paid in Mexico, Puebla, and Toluca, in 
 1798, amounted to 817,739 piasters, or 178,880 sterling. The 
 expense of collection was 55,608 piasters, and the net profit to the 
 crown was 761,131 piasters, or 166,497. The entire revenue 
 derived from the fermented juice of the agave, through the whole of 
 New Spain, is said to exceed 800,000 piasters ; but it must be con 
 siderably greater, since a late writer computes the annual consump 
 tion in the city of Mexico alone at 1,000,000 of piasters. The 
 houses in that capital, for the sale of it, have of late become so nume 
 rous, that the police, to check the great irregularities which they 
 occasion, allow them to remain open no longer than from ten o clock 
 to four in the day.* This drink is allowed to enter the city only by 
 one gate, that of Guadaloupe ; and a similar regulation prevails in 
 most of the other cities of New Spain. 
 
 Large plantations of maguey are now under cultivation, both by 
 the natives and Spaniards ; and the mode of conducting the crops is 
 thus described : 
 
 The plants are set about nine feet asunder in rows, and require 
 little attention until the season of flowering, which has been averaged 
 at a period of ten years. In a plantation of 1000 aloes, it is calculated 
 that about 100 are in flower every year. The Indians know the 
 exact time at which the stem or central shoot, from which the flower 
 springs, is about to appear, when they instantly cut out the whole of 
 this stem, leaving a hollow or cup, formed by the rind, a foot and a 
 half in diameter and nearly two feet in depth. This is covered with 
 leaves, and the juice, which otherwise would have served for the 
 nourishment and support of the central stalk, flows into this cavity, 
 and in such quantities as to require its removal two or three times 
 a day. This sap is called aguamiel, or honey-water, from its ropy or 
 honey-like taste and consistency. A thriving plant yields from eight 
 to fifteen pints of this sap in a day. The exudation continues two or 
 three months, and each plant produces on an average about 150 quarts 
 annually. Great judgment is required in extracting the central 
 portion of the stem which bears the flower, for, if the operation be 
 made either too early or too late, the plant is wholly destroyed and 
 rendered unproductive. 
 
 * Bonnycastle a Account of Spanish America, TO!, i. p. t>3. 
 
296 
 
 A mistake prevails in Europe respecting the time which -the aloe 
 or agave takes to floweju which is said to be but once in a century ; 
 but we find that on the American continent, it blossoms after the date 
 of its being planted in a period varying from 8 to 18 years. The 
 plant is composed of a number of strong indented leaves at the base, 
 of from five to eight feet in length, with a stalk twenty-five feet high, 
 having twenty or thirty branches diminishing in proportion as they 
 are elevated from the base, and form a kind of pyramid bearing a 
 greenish yellow flower, standing erect in thick clusters from every 
 joint. Such is the majestic appearance of this plant, if undisturbed, 
 and it continues to produce these flowers for upwards of three months 
 successively. But it is at the critical moment that the central or 
 flower stem is about to appear that the ingenious planter extracts the 
 heart or central portion of the stalk, when, instead of an immediate 
 efflorescence, a flowing of juice commences and continues during the 
 period that the plant itself would have been ornamented with blossoms. 
 Annexed is a representation of the agave in the state at which the 
 juice is collected, with the skin, scraper, and gourd : the latter of 
 which has its smaller end terminated with a horn, and is used by the 
 planters in the same way as brewers in EuVope take samples from the 
 bungs of beer or porter barrels. 
 
297 
 
 In the preparation of the pulque from the juice thus obtained, no 
 barm or yeast is employed to cause fermentation. A quantity of the 
 sap is allowed to stand in a vessel for ten or fifteen days, in which 
 time it ferments and is termed madre pulque -, or the mother of * pulque. 
 This is distributed in small portions into the troughs or skins along 
 with the aguamiel to excite fermentation, and in twenty-four hours 
 after, the pulque is finished and in the very best state for drinking. 
 The Mexicans attribute to pulque the same virtues that the Irish do 
 to whiskey. Europeans dislike it at first from its heavy smell, some 
 what like sour milk or slightly tainted meat ; but in a little time, when 
 this disagreeable flavour has become familiar, it is esteemed both a 
 wholesome, cooling, and nutritious beverage, being always drunk in 
 a state of effervescence, and no bad effects arising from its slightly 
 intoxicating qualities. Some plantations of agave have been known 
 to bring in upwards of 1,666 annually. 
 
 It is surprising that in a country where heat is excessive and water 
 scarce, that some better and speedier mode than that of conveying this 
 drink to the great towns in skins on the backs of asses has not been 
 adopted. By this means much time is lost and the liquor suffers in 
 flavour, becoming heavy in the smell, and its freshness and cooling 
 properties are in a great measure destroyed. Writers differ as to the 
 cause of the foetid odour of the pulque, some attributing it, as already 
 stated, to the skins in which it is conveyed. Others say that it has 
 the same disagreeable flavour when preserved in vessels. " Perhaps," 
 says Humboldt, " the odour proceeds from the decomposition of a 
 vegeto-animal matter, analogous to the gluten contained in the juice 
 of the agave" In some parts of Mexico, there is a species of the 
 maguey which is inferior to that in the vicinity of the capital, as just 
 described. No pulque is made from it, but it is distilled into a strong 
 spirit called Chinguerite. 
 
 The utility of the agave or aloe plant is not restricted to the pro 
 duction of pulque, but its leaves and fibres have been converted to 
 many useful purposes. The Aborigines used the leaves, after a cer 
 tain preparation, as a substitute for paper on which their hieroglyphics 
 were written ; and pieces of it are still to be found in the country 
 resembling pasteboard, and some like Chinese paper. A durable good 
 sort of twine is manufactured from the fibres and twisted into ropes, 
 which are in great demand in the mining districts, and sometimes 
 employed as cordage for shipping. This is known in Europe by the 
 name ofpite thread, and preferred by naturalists to every other, as it 
 is not liable to twist. The plantations of maguey or agave are very 
 profitable, and, as the plants are propagated with great ease and 
 facility, many are engaged in its cultivation, from which an income of 
 
298 
 
 from 10 to 12,000 dollars has been annually derived by one individual. 
 This plant requires little or no water, and, although the parent one 
 withers as the sap is exhausted, a multitude of new suckers spring 
 from the root, and, Avhen transplanted, more of them supply its place. 
 The length of time that must elapse from the first laying down of a 
 plantation till it begins to prove productive, which, as already stated, 
 is from eight to eighteen years, proves a great drawback and discou 
 ragement to agriculturists. But, when once a good establishment has 
 been effected and matured, the proprietor is soon amply repaid for 
 his toil, as, henceforward, there is an annual succession of plants to 
 afford a constant supply for the market. A planter, who lays down 
 from 30 to 40,000 plants, is sure, according to Humboldt, to estab 
 lish the fortune of his children. The same writer thinks that the 
 agave used for distillation is different from that used for pulque, 
 although the produce of both is occasionally subjected to distillation, 
 and the brandy made from them is very intoxicating. It is worthy 
 of remark, that the juice of the agave, before the period of its efflor 
 escence, is very acrid, and is successfully employed as a caustic in 
 the cleansing of wounds ; or, if the leaves are bruised and boiled, they 
 produce a balsamic sirup used to cleanse and cure ulcers. The prickles 
 which terminate the leaves served formerly like those of the cactus 
 for pins and nails to the Indians. The Mexican priests pierced their 
 arms and breasts with them in acts of expiation, analogous to those of 
 the Budhists of Hindostan. 
 
 If proper attention were bestowed on the distillation of pulque, it 
 would yield an excellent spirit ; but many obstacles have been raised 
 against this measure by the rapacity of the Spanish merchants, 
 These gentlemen, at one time, carried their efforts so far as to solicit 
 the government to extirpate the plant altogether, but as the country 
 has passed into more liberal hands, a better order of things may be 
 expected to arise, and in the course of some time, the spirit of the 
 maguey may be brought to rival the brandies of Europe. As it is, 
 pulque-brandy forms a considerable branch of the trade of the pro 
 vinces, through which it is transported in leathern bags on the backs 
 of mules. Whether, however, the use of this liquor, generally speak 
 ing, may not be of more injury to the morals of the people than the 
 good it would produce either in an agricultural or a commercial view, 
 is not here a point for discussion ; but the ease with which intoxi 
 cating liquors are procured by the Indians of New Spain tends much 
 to shorten their lives and demoralize their characters. Rum, spirits from 
 maize, and the root of the jatropha manihot, with pulque, are the 
 favourites. Pulque, when not subjected to distillation, is nutritive on 
 account of its saccharine nature, and hence those who are addicted to 
 
299 
 
 it use little solid food ; used moderately it is nourishing and healthy. 
 Among those who inhabit the valley of Mexico, the environs of 
 Puebla and Tlascala, or wherever maguey or agave are extensively 
 cultivated, drunkenness is most predominant. In the city of Mexico, 
 tumbrels are sent round to collect the drunkards of the night who may 
 be found lying in the streets. They are carried to a watch-house in 
 the morning, and an iron ring is closed round their ankles, and in this 
 state they are compelled to cleanse the streets for three days succes 
 sively, as a punishment for their irregularities* a policy of proceeding 
 that does credit to the government. 
 
 The sugar-cane is also productive ; and in Mexico, as well as in 
 some of the other principal districts and towns, sugar-mills and distil 
 leries of rum on a large scale are kept at work. The cultivation of 
 the cane has become a matter of great importance in New Spain. 
 When Humboldt was there, the exportation from Vera Cruz alone 
 was 13,793,7501bs., valued at 312,525, which has since consider 
 ably increased. Little is now exported to Peru, as that country pro 
 duces more than sufficient for its own consumption. Some of the 
 plantations in New Spain are known to yield from 1,103,500, to 
 l,655,2501bs. of sugar annually. The quantity and quality of the 
 produce have been found to be in proportion to the nature of the soil, 
 and the elevation of the land on which it is cultivated. Such is the 
 fertility in some parts of the torrid zone in America, that it has been 
 estimated that all the sugar consumed in France, say 44,140,0001bs. 
 might be produced on a surface of seven square leagues, an extent, 
 according to Humboldt, not equal to the thirtieth part of the smallest 
 department of France. The chief bulk of the sugar of New Spain is 
 consumed in the country, which has been calculated at 35,000,0001bs. 
 annually. In most of the plantations, rum is distilled from the mo 
 lasses and the refuse of the mills ; and it forms no inconsiderable por 
 tion of the beverages of the country. From the molasses of a sugar 
 plantation, 30,000 barrels of coarse rum are made yearly, and the 
 speculation in this kind of trade is found to be lucrative, as the barrel 
 of rum sells in Mexico for 32 dollars, netting, after paying duty and 
 carriage, 24 dollars* 
 
 Vines are cultivated in these settlements to great extent, and the 
 wine in some places is not inferior to the best Spanish wine. In the 
 environs of Passo del Norte, the vineyards produre such excellent 
 wines, that they are preferred to those of Paras, in new Biscay, so 
 much celebrated as being the produce of the Vitis Vinifera of Asia, 
 
 * Humboldt s Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, vol. i. t p. 150. 
 
300 
 
 planted there by the first settlers. Under the old government, the 
 vine could hardly he included among the territorial riches of Mexico, 
 the quantity being so inconsiderable. But the political changes which 
 have taken place in that country, have given encouragement to the 
 plantation of the vine and the consumption of native produce, 
 tin shackled by the prohibitory and tyrannical laws of the mother 
 country. The inhabitants of Mexico and New Spain will soon be 
 enabled to supply not only their home consumption, Ibut that perhaps 
 of the whole of North America ; and Mexico may yet serve to that 
 portion of the globe, what France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy, have 
 long proved to the rest of Europe. 
 
 In so extensive a region as that of New Spain, where the heat is 
 intense and drink in great demand, ice is considered indispensable and 
 an article of great luxury. The right to sell it was a monopoly of 
 the crown, and the poor Indian, who had scaled the summits of the 
 highest mountains to collect this important material, could not dispose 
 of it without paying a duty to the government. Humboldt informs 
 us that a similar monopoly existed in France, to which a stop was put, 
 as the magnitude of the duty produced a rapid diminution in the use 
 of cooling liquors. The sale of snow in New Spain amounted, in 
 1803, to 26,000 piasters. 
 
 To enter upon a minute detail of the vegetable productions of 
 Mexico would be irrelevant to this work and extend beyond its limits. 
 It is sufficient to observe, that the gardens contain all the fruits of 
 Europe, and the fields are cultivated with various sorts of grain. 
 The food of the people is chiefly composed of banana, manioc, maize, 
 wheat, potatoes, &c. The maguey, or agave, may be considered as the 
 Indian vine, which forms the basis of most of their beverages. In 
 some places a drink is used called pinole, which is Indian corn baked, 
 ground, and the flour mixed with either milk or water, having a little 
 cinnamon or sugar superadded. Maize is cultivated to the utmost 
 extent, and witli a success hardly credible. The majority of the popu 
 lation of New Spain subsisted entirely on the flour of the maize ; it 
 is used in various ways, and is eaten boiled or roasted. When made 
 into bread it is very nutritive, and it is often used under the form of a 
 gruel, called by the natives atolle, with which are mixed sugar, honey, 
 and often ground potatoes. Hernandez describes sixteen different 
 sorts of atolle. Maize is sold cheap ; even in the capital it is bought 
 for two dollars the fanega of 1501bs. At present, a very palatable 
 kind of beer or fermented liquor is made from this grain, as well as 
 from the stalks denominated pulque demaize (llalli, tlaolli), and which 
 
301 
 
 is composed of a sugary juice or sirup, extracted by pressure from 
 the stalk. This compressed juice was formerly substituted for sugar.* 
 The Mexicans and Peruvians, previous to the arrival of Europeans 
 among them, were in the habit of pressing sugar from the stalks of 
 the maize, and were able to concentrate its juice by evaporation, as 
 well as to prepare the coarse sugar by condensing the sirup. Cortez 
 described to the Emperor Charles V. the Mexican sugar whicli he 
 saw exposed in the markets for sale, as " honey from the stalks of 
 maize and honey from the shrub maguey." The stalks of the maize 
 are so exceedingly sugary, that Humboldt says the Indians suck it as 
 the sugar-cane is sucked by the negroes, and it appears that they 
 were unacquainted with the sugar-cane previous to the landing of the 
 Spaniards. 
 
 The Mexicans domesticate bees for the purpose of obtaining honey. 
 As the insects are naturally prone to construct their cells in the 
 hollows of trees, the inhabitants excavate the trunks in portions of 
 from two to three feet in length, which they close at both ends with 
 clay, and bore a hole in the centre for the egress and ingress of the 
 bees. These receptacles are then suspended on a tree in a horizontal 
 position, and are soon occupied by an industrious colony. The honey 
 comb is so constructed, that it is unusual to have recourse at any time 
 to the destruction of the inmates ; all that is necessary being to 
 remove the stopper, introduce the hand and withdraw the honey- 
 sacks, for the Mexican bee forms cells for the reception of the larvae, 
 distinct from the combs. The hive generally affords two harvests in 
 the season. The honey is of good flavour but thin ; it is inferior to 
 that of Europe, and not easily fermented ; yet a good description of 
 hydromel is occasionally made of it, and much used in the country.f 
 
 The maguey is very common in Peru, a country susceptible of cul 
 tivation in such parts only as lie adjacent to the rivers, or whicli can 
 be conveniently irrigated. It makes a good hedge in consequence of 
 the strong prickles on the edge of its leaves, which prevent animals 
 from passing. The Indians build their houses of its flower stalks and 
 cover them with the leaves ; the fibres are converted into thread and 
 woven into clothing, while the prickles serve in the place of pins and 
 needles. The juice, when mixed with water, is allowed to ferment, 
 and forms a similar beverage to the Mexican pulque. Its leaves 
 supply the place of soap, for after the clothes are wetted, if they be 
 beaten with a bruised leaf of maguey, a thick white froth is produced, 
 
 * Ward s Mexico, (1827), 8vo. vol. i. p. 41, passim. 
 
 t Bcecliy s Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, vol. ii. p. 357. 
 
302 
 
 out of which, when the clothes are rinsed, they become perfectly clean : 
 even the flower buds, when boiled or pickled, are delicate eating. Of 
 the two varieties of maguey found in Peru, the leaves of the one are 
 of a deep green, while those of the other are of a beautiful pale green ; 
 but the latter is the most useful. 
 
 The soil of Peru, though unfavourable to the growth of Tegetables, 
 yields crops of potatoes, wheat, and rice, which, with the sugar-cane 
 and vines, are reared chiefly on the banks of ravines where vegetation 
 is extremely rapid. The grapes are highly flavoured but afford indif 
 ferent wine : notwithstanding, this article, as well as brandy, has been 
 for many years of some commercial importance. Pisco has long been 
 famous for its manufacture of brandy. Near the city of Conception 
 de Mocha, the vine-yards are numerous and fertile, producing a large 
 supply of wine for home consumption, as well as for the Lima market, 
 the cultivation of the vine not being forbidden here, as it is in Mexico 
 and New Granada. For want of proper vessels a large quantity is 
 either lost or injured ; and a wine is made called Muscadel, superior 
 to that of the same name in France, and not inferior to Frontignac. 
 The simple vessels used at this place to ferment and preserve the 
 wine are made of baked clay, having only a wooden cover, and hence 
 their brandy is greatly deteriorated. The vines grow chiefly on espa 
 liers, and are not on detached stems as are the generality of Euro 
 pean vines. The wine and other liquors are carried in goats skins 
 tanned for the purpose. These animals are carefully nurtured for 
 this object, as well as for their fat and for cord wain. A palatable 
 species of red wine with a flavour peculiarly aromatic, and denomi 
 nated Matte, is here prepared from the berries of a tree of that name. 
 These berries are black and formed in clusters round the slender 
 branches, being about the size of peas. Another beverage called 
 Theka, is made from the fruit of the maguc tree, and which somewhat 
 resembles a wild cherry. It grows in the woods in great abundance, 
 and the people make parties to gather it. From the city of Concep 
 tion, there are exported, at an average, 2,000 jars of wine containing 
 18 gallons each, chiefly to Lima, where Chili brandy may be had at a 
 very reasonable rate. About Lima, a great portion of the native 
 sugar is employed in making a drink called guarapo, which is the 
 expressed juice of the cane fermented ; it is the principal drink of the 
 coloured people, and of which the Indians of the interior purchase 
 great quantities, it being sold very cheap. Europeans consider this 
 an agreeable beverage, and when thirsty or heated, it is preferred by 
 many to every other sort of liquor. The Spanish monarchy, in con 
 junction with the Pope, prohibited the manufacture of rum among the 
 
303 
 
 Peruvians under heavy penalties, in order to secure the monopoly of 
 making spirits to the proprietors of vineyards, which privilege was, 
 however, attended with weighty exactions and imposts. 
 
 About 150,000 gallons of brandy are annually made at Pisco from 
 the vines in that neighbourhood. It is usually kept in jars in the 
 form of an inverted cone, the insides of which are coated with a species 
 of naphtha, and usually contain 18 gallons each. Pisco brandy is well 
 flavoured and tinged with colouring matter as in France. That termed 
 arguardiente de Italia is of a mild nature, possessing a flavour like 
 Frontignac, and therefore much valued. Owing to the trade in 
 brandy, little wine is made, and that even of an inferior character, as 
 it is too thick and sweet to be esteemed, which is attributable to the 
 practice of boiling the grape, a considerable time before it is fermented. 
 There is in the neighbourhood of Pisco, a remarkable vineyard called 
 de las hoyas, formed in the pits and holes which were excavations origi 
 nally made by the aborigines in search of water for irrigation. Here 
 the vines produce in great abundance, requiring no care save that of 
 pruning, for the branches are allowed to stretch along the sands 
 without any other support or protection. 
 
 Cider is very common in Peru, and is made in the following 
 manner : The women, after gathering a quantity of apples from the 
 woods, place them in a kind of trough formed by scooping the trunk 
 of a tree. They are then beaten until they become soft, when a 
 female presses them with her hands, and the juice is collected into 
 large gourds, calabashes, or prepared goats skins.* It is then poured into 
 earthen jars, some of which contain upwards of 1,000 gallons, and left 
 to ferment. This cider is usually drunk out of horns, and sometimes 
 to excess. Any redundance of this liquor is carried by the Indian 
 women into the neighbouring towns, and sold under the name of 
 chica. From a species of myrtle berry called mutillas, which is about 
 the size of a pea, of a deep red colour and aromatic flavour, the 
 Indians prepare a pleasant beverage called chica de mutilla. This 
 is effected by breaking them down in water, and allowing them to 
 ferment for a few days. Some wine and a bad description of brandy 
 are made from the wild grape of the country. Great quantities of 
 drink are consumed at the marriages and festivals of the Indians, to 
 
 * In Peru there are many varieties of the gourd. Of the white flowered, gene 
 rally called calabashes, there are twenty species, of which two are sweet and eatable. 
 The bitter kinds are remarkably serviceable when dried, as the cshells serve for dishes, 
 bowls, plates, bottles, tubs, trays, barrels for water, and baskets for fruit, butter, 
 and eggs, and are often cut, stained, and bound with silver. 
 
304 
 
 tlie amount, sometimes during a feast, of 1,000 jars, each containing 
 18 gallons. Even on the tomb or grave, liquor is poured by the 
 relatives of the deceased, as the last token of respect at the interment. 
 At the anniversary of a Saint, an Indian gives an entertainment to 
 all who choose to enjoy it ; when calabashes of chica, some holding 
 five or six gallons, are placed before the guests, with a number of 
 smaller ones, each containing about a pint. After the first course, 
 the chica is circulated freely, as well as during each successive 
 remove, and when about to depart, the stirrup cup is demanded, 
 much like the parting glass of the Irish, called deoch-a-doras. 
 
 Another curious practice among the Peruvians at their festivals, is 
 when at that stage of the repast where the women hand the small 
 tutema shells full of masato to the men ; all rise, and holding the cup 
 to the mouth, turn the head to the right and squirt the fluid through 
 the teeth as an offering to their departed friends, and afterwards 
 resume their seats. The same ceremony is again repeated as a pro 
 pitiatory offering to the aerial spirits, that they may protect their 
 property from the attack of wild beasts or the destructive influence 
 of the elements. The palm in Peru, as in other countries, adds a 
 luxury to the table. The leaves and stem, to which the nuts are 
 attached, yield by boiling an agreeable beverage, which, after fermen 
 tation, acquires a delicious flavour and vinous quality. 
 
 Large quantities of maize are, in various parts of Peru, converted 
 into chica, and it is remarkable that the grain used in all such cases 
 has been made to undergo the process of malting, a proof that the 
 making of malt must have been known to the Peruvians from the 
 most remote period. In making chica.no other ingredients are mixed 
 with the malted maize, called Jora ; when sufficiently boiled in 
 water, the fluid ferments like our ale or porter, and the produce is 
 very intoxicating. In some places, the natives believe that fermen 
 tation will not ensue if the malted grain be not previously subjected 
 to mastication. From this circumstance, many old men and 
 women assemble at the house where chica is to be made, and 
 are employed in chewing the Jora or malt. Having masticated a 
 sufficient quantity, they lay the chewed substance in small balls on a 
 calabash. These are suffered to dry, a little after which they are 
 mixed with newly made chica while it is warm. On account of a pro 
 hibition, no distillation of this article is carried on. The consumption 
 of chica in Peru is very considerable. In making one sort of it from 
 the grape, two or three hides are fastened together in the form 
 of a large sack, suspended by posts, and into this bag the grapes 
 are thrown. They are then trodden by a man, who is, during the 
 
305 
 
 process, often immersed to his shoulders, and occasionally relieved by 
 another. All the time the juice is running through a small leathern 
 tube placed at the bottom, and one is constantly employed carrying a 
 fresh supply of grapes which he throws into the sack till a sufficient 
 quantity of chica is manufactured. Another kind of chica is made 
 from the pods of the Algaroba, a sort of Acacia, by infusing them in 
 water, straining them, and allowing the residue to ferment. At the 
 end of three or four days it is palatable, and it is thought it would 
 produce a delicate species of wine. Two kinds of chica are usually 
 made from the same grain : one is called cluro, the water in which 
 the malt has been infused. This, when drawn off, is afterwards boiled, 
 and has then some resemblance to cider. Another is made by boiling 
 the grain with water for several hours, after which it is strained, fer 
 mented, and termed neto. The sediment is used as a kind of yeast 
 in making bread. The great antiquity of this beverage is proved, 
 beyond all doubt, to have been familiar among the aborigines before 
 they were visited by the Spaniards, as Mr. Stevenson affirms that he 
 drank chica that had been found in the huacas, or burying places, 
 where it must have remained upwards of three centuries. This chica 
 must have been of a very strong quality to have preserved its strength 
 so long, particularly without hops or other antiseptic ingredients. In 
 some places, chica is made so strong, that from three bushels of jora 
 only 18 gallons are obtained. 
 
 The Peruvians are not habitual drunkards, although they some 
 times indulge themselves beyond what prudence would dictate ; and 
 a late respectable writer assures us, that, during twenty years resi 
 dence amongst them, he never saw a female intoxicated. In Quito, 
 rum and brandy are most in consumption. From the rum distilled 
 here, a variety of liqueurs are made, but the lower orders prefer 
 chica from the maize, and in order to excite thirst or increase appe 
 tite, an Indian will sometimes swallow 20 or 30 pods of capsicum or 
 pepper, with some salt and bread, washing them down with two or 
 three quarts of his favourite beverage. Here, in the manrfer of the 
 Mexicans, delicate ices and ice beverages are made ; and at enter 
 tainments, ices are the greatest ornaments of the table, appearing 
 under every form and representing fruit of all descriptions so nicely 
 delineated, that, when mixed with real fruit, they cannot be distin 
 guished from it. 
 
 The Masato used by these people is a drink made by boiling a 
 quantity of ripe plantains, till they are quite soft, after which they are 
 reduced to a pulp by beating them in a trough. The matter is then 
 put into a basket lined with leaves, where it is left to ferment for 
 
 x 
 
306 
 
 some days. When about to be used, it is put into a fruit-shell or per 
 forated vessel, to which a quantity of water is added ; the whole is 
 compressed, and the filterings are collected in another vessel and drunk 
 with much pleasure ; the taste, though sub-acid, is very agreeable. 
 
 In parts of Peru, the natives distil rum from the sugar-cane in a 
 very simple manner. After the juice has been sufficiently fermented 
 it is put into a deep earthen pot having a hole in the side near the top 
 through which passes a wooden conductor with a groove or duct in 
 the handle. To the top of the pot a pan is luted with clay, constantly 
 full of cold water, serving as a condenser .and causing the spirit to fall 
 into the spoon, it flows along t!ie groove into a bottle which serves 
 as a receiver for the spirit. 
 
 This apparatus seems to be peculiar to the Peruvians, and would 
 lead us to suppose that distillation was in some degree known in the 
 New World before the intercourse with Europeans ; and we are told 
 that the Peruvians had discovered the art of malting before that 
 period, and the Sora, a kind of beer, of a very intoxicating nature, 
 was made from it and prohibited by the Incas, because it intoxicated 
 sooner than the other liquors of the country. It is not improbable 
 that this Sora, as well as the Vinafer spoken of by Garcilaso de la 
 Vega, might have been a distilled liquor. This conjecture is the more 
 reasonable when we take into consideration the advanced state of 
 civilisation among the Peruvians, and the monuments which still 
 jemain as specimens of their industry and art. One of these in par 
 ticular, the great road from Cusco to Quito, a distance of 700 leagues, 
 
307 
 
 is not to be surpassed by the labour of man, except by the great wall 
 of China.* Even the ruins of their temples evince such elegance in 
 architecture, that the very interstices of the stones are scarcely per 
 ceptible. From an infusion of ripe bananas in water, spirits are dis 
 tilled ; after the infusion has fermented, it is carefully strained before 
 the process of distillation, by which means the spirit is protected from, 
 any empyreumatic flavour which might arise from the sediment. 
 
 Chili is in fertility not inferior to any part of South America, and 
 is peculiarly adapted to European productions, as the corn, wine, and 
 fruits that flourish there sufficiently prove. In many parts the wine 
 forms a chief article of culture, and is planted in rows as at the Cape 
 of Good Hope, the plants being supported at intervals only as occa 
 sion requires. The wine-presses in general use are similar to those 
 of Spain, and the wine itself is stored in capacious cellars, in jars 
 termed batejas, each holding a quantity not less than a tun. Brandy 
 is distilled not only from the lees but from the inferior wines ; both 
 articles are transported in skins carried by mules to the neighbouring 
 provinces, as well as to Lima and to other cities, where they are sold 
 at a very moderate rate. At St. Jago, Valdivia, and Valparaiso, 
 wine can be had for three half-pence and two-pence the bottle. 
 Captain Hall observed, during his residence in Chili, that the natives 
 seemed to be well supplied with a good description of agua ardiente, 
 which was drunk after being made into punch ; and that it was cus 
 tomary to have at dinner a copious bowl of this beverage, out of 
 which, in common with wine, the guests pledged each other and toasted 
 their sentiments.f 
 
 Notwithstanding that aguaardiente not only abounds here but in 
 the other states of South America, it does not appear that the distil 
 lation of any kind of spirit was known before the discovery of this 
 region by the Spaniards ; for although we find in their arts considera 
 ble ingenuity and progress in civilisation, yet none of their inventions 
 seem to have extended so far as a chemical preparation of intoxicating 
 liquors. 
 
 Ovalle, in his History of Chili, says, that grapes were so plentiful 
 in 1646, that they could not be disposed of; and the wine was a 
 source of great injury to the Indians by their drinking it to excess. 
 White wines were made from that species of grape called Uba Tor- 
 routes and Albilla, which were much valued ; red wines were made 
 from the ordinary grape and a species called Mollar. The bunches 
 
 * Some parts of this road being conducted across the Cordilleras, are at the 
 astonishing elevation of 12,475 feet ahove the level of the sea. 
 f Hall s South America, vol. i. p. 180. 
 
308 
 
 of grapes, he says, were enormously large ; and lie mentions one that 
 filled a basket, and served as a meal for a numerous convent of friars. 
 The branches of the vine he describes as very large, and the trunks 
 of the trees as thick as a man s body. 
 
 Although the Chilian vines have been very productive ; yet, from 
 some cause or other, they do not rank very high. The vino depenco 
 made near Conception, on the banks of the Itali, is most in esteem, 
 and in taste and flavour it resembles Malaga more than any other. 
 When Captain Beechey, in 1825, touched at this place, he found the 
 wines greatly deteriorated, and the only palatable wine which he 
 could procure was that made from the grapes on the estate of General 
 Friere.* 
 
 From the borders of Peru to the river Maule, the mode of cul 
 tivating vines is by raising the sets to the height of three or four feet 
 by means of props or forked stakes. Beyond that river, they are 
 planted on the declivities of hills and reclined on the ground. The 
 vintage usually occurs in the months of April and May. 
 
 The lower orders of the Chilians have little inclination for wine, 
 their drink being chiefly water and Chica made from the grapes, 
 (which abound in the woods Avhere the birds deposit their seed,) by 
 pressing out the juice and boiling it, without reference to fermenta 
 tion. From the variety and luxuriance of the fruits such as quinces 
 as large as a man s head, peaches weighing upwards of a pound, with 
 apples, pears, oranges, lemons, and citrons of the finest description, 
 valuable domestic wines might be procured. Even from the fruit of 
 the myrtus luma, a species of myrtle which frequently grows to the 
 height of 40 feet, a pleasant wine is made, which is a good stomachic, 
 is held in high estimation, and by strangers is often preferred to Mus- 
 cadel. From the fruit called quelu, which is very sweet, small, and 
 of a colour between red and yellow, a very palatable drink is drawn : 
 from Molle, another fruit of the shape and colour of pepper, is made 
 a drink termed Huigan by the natives and Molle by the Spaniards. 
 This liquor is very agreeable, and in great request by people of respect 
 ability. Of Molle there are two kinds, the common (schinus mollis) is 
 usually found in the marshes, and the other is termed schinus huigan. 
 From the berries of these, a kind of red wine of an agreeable flavour, 
 but very heating, is prepared. The Indians manufacture a beverage 
 from those berries as strong and as pleasant as wine. Antonio de Her- 
 rera describes a beverage of a bright golden colour made from the fruit 
 of the Murtilla-tree, which strongly resembles the grape. This liquor is 
 
 * Beechey s Voyage to the Pacific , 4to. vol. i. p. 29. 
 
309 
 
 warm, very agreeable to the taste, and highly salutary, as it increases the 
 appetite, and never produces any painful consequences to the head, 
 though it bears a greater proportion to water than wine does. 
 From the grain of quinua (a species of chenopoduiin from tliree to 
 four feet high,) a very pleasant stomachic beverage is made. From 
 the berries of the maqui (cornus Chilensis) a species of wild grapes 
 which are very pleasant for eating, the Indians prepare a liquor, 
 termed theca, which is held in considerable estimation and is common 
 in Peru. 
 
 The aboriginal Chilians, long before the landing of the Spaniards, 
 employed leaven in making bread, and they were, besides, acquainted 
 with the process of fermentation, by which they obtained from their 
 grain and fruits, several kinds of inebriating liquors which they kept 
 in jars after the manner of the Greeks and Romans. From the clay 
 of the country they made every species of vessel suited to domestic 
 purposes, well glazed, and polished by a mineral varnish called colo. 
 Wooden vessels were also common, and even vases of marble of 
 excellent workmanship. According to Don Ulloa, the guaqueros, or 
 drinking vessels of the inhabitants of Quito, were of a very fine black 
 earth, and the place at which they were originally formed is unknown. 
 In shape they were round, having a handle in the middle with the 
 mouth on one side, and a representation of an Indian s head on the 
 other, whose features were so naturally expressed, that few workmen 
 of the present day could surpass it. Besides these, he adds, that 
 various sized vessels made of red and white earth were found among 
 the cemeteries of the aborigines, for the purpose of making and pre 
 serving the chica. Lane, in his account of the modern Egyptians, 
 says that he saw in the tombs at Thebes, many similar jars containing 
 the dregs of Bousa.* Some of the native Chilian earths have such 
 peculiar quality that the vessels made of them are said to communi 
 cate an agreeable flavour and smell to the liquors they contain. 
 Some of these vessels are handsomely ornamented with plants and 
 animals, and bring a great price in Peru and Spain. 
 
 At the interment of the dead, great quantities of chica are con 
 sumed, first in the entertainment of friends, and afterwards when they 
 arrive at the grave-yard. Here both provisions, and vessels filled 
 with chica and wine, are placed beside the corpse with a view of sus 
 taining it during its passage to the other world. Besides these, the 
 mound raised over the dead body is moistened with a quantity of chica y 
 as a libation to the memory of the departed. The attachment of 
 the people to fermented liquors is such, that they consider every 
 
 * Lane s Account of the Modern Egyptians, &c. 2 vols. 8vo. vol. ii. p. 34. 
 
810 
 
 entertainment a mockery unless they have abundance to drink ; yet, 
 generally speaking, their habits are temperate. 
 
 The aborigines use beer and cider as their common beverages, 
 which they make from Indian corn and apples ; yet they are 
 extremely fond of wine, which they procure from the Spaniards. At 
 their banquets, at which it is common for 300 persons to be present, 
 more meat, grain, and liquor are consumed than would be sufficient 
 to support a whole family for two years. These feasts are called 
 Cahuin, or circles, from the company seating themselves in a circle 
 around a cinnamon tree.* No entertainment, however, of any sort is 
 considered worthy of the name of a feast, unless there is drink in 
 abundance. 
 
 At Potosi, wine is seldom used except at great dinners. Claret 
 rates at 12s. the bottle ; Champagne from 12s. to 16s. ; English cider 
 from 6s. to 8s. At Cinti, about 40 or 50 leagues from Potosi, a 
 good wine is made which is sold from about 2s. to 2s. 6d. the bottle, 
 and which is said to resemble Burgundy. Rum and brandy sell from 
 8s. to 10s. the bottle. The cultivation of the vine and wine-making 
 might be a speculation useful in many parts of South America. In 
 the province of Tarija, good wine is produced little inferior to Bur 
 gundy. In the vicinity of San Lucas, fine wine and brandy are made, 
 even to the extent of exportation, and after leaving this village and 
 entering the valley of Cinti, it is a continued vineyard for nearly 
 twenty leagues. This place is celebrated for its wines and brandies 
 which are in great demand and sent to all the upper parts of Peru : 
 \vine is sold at Is. 3d. per bottle. 
 
 The genial warmth of the climate and soil in the valleys and plains 
 under the Andes, are particularly favourable to the growth of the 
 vine. Some of the vineyards, especially those in the vicinity of 
 Mcndoza, are said to contain 60,000 plants. The grapes are large, 
 black, and highly flavoured, resembling the Hambro species more than 
 any other. A duty of one dollar is imposed on every cask of brandy, 
 and four reals on every cask of wine. The wines and brandies of 
 Mendoza, San Juan, and Rioja, make their way to the Rio de la 
 Plata to the extent of 12,000 barrels annually, where they are 
 bartered for English merchandise, besides which, large quantities are 
 sent to Potosi, Santa Fe, and other places. In transporting these 
 over the immense plains of the Pampas, oxen and mules are 
 employed ;f the former, to the number of six in a wagon, travelling 
 about eight leagues in a day ; and the latter laden with skins in pack- 
 
 * Molina s History of Chili. 
 
 f Yide Account of the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, from the Spanish, 
 8vo. 1825. 
 
311 
 
 saddles, travel in troops together at the rate often or twelve leagues 
 u day. At night their saddles are carefully placed in a circle in 
 which the muleteers make a fire and repose themselves after the 
 fatigues of their journey.* While treating of the Pampas, the method 
 of preserving the grain, as resorted to by the inhabitants, is so curious 
 as to be worth relating. The entire skin of an ox is taken, the legs 
 are sewed up, and the whole is filled with corn. It is then suspended 
 between four stakes, the legs hanging downwards, so that it has the 
 appearance of a living animal. In this state, it is covered with hides 
 to prevent rats, birds, or vermine getting at it, as well as to preserve 
 it from any external injury. 
 
 The province of Paraguay consists chiefly of extensive prolific plains. 
 Among their vegetable productions, may be mentioned maize, wheat, 
 palms, figs, peaches, pomegranates, lemons, with innumerable others, 
 together with the vine, many of which are found even in a wild state. 
 Real wine is made of a good quality, and pulque from the maguey y 
 while in Buenos Ayres, liquors of every sort may be obtained. The 
 Indians cultivate maize from which they make their favourite drink, 
 and from a root resembling a chestnut in taste, they make an intoxi 
 cating liquor of an agreeable flavour. Schemdel calls this root man- 
 dioch pobiore, and the liquor drawn from it mandebocre. Mead is 
 a favourite beverag-e, honey being abundant, and the only process 
 observed in its formation is the mere boiling of the honey. From a 
 vegetable termed Arrachaca, cultivated in Paraguay, but more parti 
 cularly about Santa Fe, is obtained an inebriating liquor. The arra- 
 chaca when reduced to a pulp, and combined with other materials, fur 
 nishes a drink of a most agreeable and refreshing description. This 
 plant is said to be one of the most valuable in South America, as its 
 properties are such as to compete with, if not excel, those of the 
 potato. It is used in the same manner, is grateful to the taste, and 
 the most delicate appetite may use it without the dread of unpleasant 
 consequences, being nutritive and easy of digestion. Superior starch 
 is made of it, and it forms the basis of a variety of confectionary. 
 Spain always shewing herself unfriendly to agricultural extension, 
 issued at Mexico, in 1803, an order to root up all the vines in the 
 Northern provinces, merely because the merchants at Cadiz com 
 plained of a diminution in the sale of their wines. Fortunately this 
 order was never executed, under the impression that it might drive 
 the natives into hostility with the government, as the culture of the 
 vine formed no inconsiderable portion of their agricultural pursuits, 
 
 * Colt-lough s Travels in South America, 2 vols. 8vo. vol. i. p. 165. 
 
312 
 
 The greatest enemies to the vine in this country are the ants, 
 which give the planters the greatest trouble to subdue them. Owing 
 to the same jealous principle of the Spaniards, just alluded to, at Buenos 
 Ayres, grapes could not be cultivated but by special appointment, and 
 that only for the supply of the table. Grape-brandy was, until lately, 
 chiefly furnished from Europe, but at present it is principally distilled 
 in the country. The lower orders in Buenos Ayres are much prone 
 to irregularities, many of whom, when inflamed by spirits, are hurried 
 into the committal of very brutal acts. To repress extravagancies of 
 this nature, the government have put heavy licenses on the pulperias 
 or spirit-shops, from which a considerable revenue is obtained, while 
 25 per cent, duty is levied on all vines and liquors imported. Tra 
 vellers say that the effects of drinking are more perceptible here than 
 in England. In many it produces derangement, and others it incites 
 to the committal of suicide. In some of the South American districts, 
 the natives, in their drunken moments, carry gambling to such a 
 height, that even their wives are staked on the result of a game, and 
 the forfeit given up in case of loss. To the ease with which drink is 
 procured, the heat of the climate, and the consequent lassitude, may 
 be attributed those fatal consequences. To the native tribes border 
 ing on Paraguay and Brazil, the mandioc affords a drink both cooling 
 and renovating. The roots of this plant are sliced and boiled till they 
 become soft, they are then allowed to cool, the young women chew 
 them, and they are afterwards put into the same vessel which is filled 
 with water and again boiled, during which they are kept stirring all 
 the time. The unstrained juice is put into large jars which are buried 
 in the floor of the house for about half their depth. They are then 
 closely stopped and allowed to ferment for two or three days. A 
 notion is prevalent that if the liquor be made by men it is good for 
 nothing ; hence the labour falls to the lot of the females. On a day 
 set apart for drinking this beverage, the women kindle fires round the 
 jars, out of which they serve the men in half gourds with the hot 
 liquor, which they receive singing and dancing, and always empty at 
 one draught. Here it may be remarked, that no man when single is 
 suffered to partake of the drinking feast. During this drinking bout, 
 they smoke an herb called petun either in pipes of clay, the shells of 
 fruit, or in leaves rolled together in the form of a tube, forcing the 
 smoke through their nostrils, mouths, and artificial holes in their 
 cheeks. All this time the young married men dance with rattles on 
 their legs, but never eat anything during the interval, nor leave the 
 house until every drop is exhausted. In this manner they remove 
 from house to house, till all in the place or village is finished. These 
 
313 
 
 meetings are commonly held once a month, and have been known to 
 continue upwards of three days and nights. There are two kinds of 
 this liquor called Caou-in or kaatoy, red and white, and in taste 
 resemble milk. There is a great similarity in name between the 
 kaawy and the cava of Otaheite, and, as they are both made by masti 
 cation, seem to be nearly the same liquor, and produce nearly similar 
 effects.* Wherever the mandioc is cultivated, it is chiefly from it 
 that drink is manufactured. Many of the Brazilian tribes prepare a 
 better liquor from the acajee, the fruit of the acayaba. The acajee 
 is a kind of wild apple, and is in great request among the people of 
 this country. It is held in such estimation, that the ages of persons 
 are numbered by it, because it bears fruit but once a year, which 
 ripens about the close of December or early in January. If the rains 
 be moderate in Brazil at the time of the equinoxes, they are hailed 
 by the people as a promise of plenty of the acajee, and hence they are 
 sometimes called the rains of the acajee. The juice of this fruit fur 
 nishes an excellent cider. This liquor is obtained by squeezing the 
 fruit or bruising it in a wooden mortar. At first it is white but in a 
 few days it gets paler, having an astringent effect, and, after fermen 
 tation, becomes highly intoxicating. In about the course of half a 
 year it gets like vinegar, but, with care in the process of making, it 
 might keep much longer. Of the pulp, a sort of flour is made which 
 the natives value as the highest dainty. From the fermented juice of 
 the Cashew-nut, (anacardium occidentale,) a native of Brazil, is 
 obtained a spirit which some account not inferior to the best arrack, 
 rum, or brandy. Nine different kinds of liquors are said to be made 
 by the Brazilians, each possessing peculiar qualities, and it is related 
 of these savages they are as choice in the selection of the water as the 
 Europeans are in the choice of wine. The reason assigned for making 
 the women plant the maize, prepare their drinks, and attend to the 
 labours of the field, is, " because," say they, " women know to bring 
 forth, which is a thing that we do not know : when they sow and 
 plant, the stalk of maize produces two or three heads ; the root of 
 mandioc two or three baskets full, and every thing multiplies in like 
 manner from their hands. Why ? because women know to bring 
 forth and to make the seeds and roots bring forth also." A drinking 
 bout is customary at sowing time and at harvest. When a guest 
 arrives, this is his welcome ; when they rejoice, they get drunk ; and 
 when sorrowful, they get drunk likewise : thus making pretexts for 
 indulging in intoxication at all times. The liquors are kept not only 
 
 * Southey s History of Brazil, vol. i. p. 65. 
 
314, 
 
 in large jars, as already stated, but in vessels hollowed in solid wood, 
 and in large baskets so close in their texture, that with a little gum 
 and calking they are perfectly water-tight. 
 
 In Brazil, the policy of the government had prevented the appli 
 cation of its native produce in the composition of liquors for the 
 sake of encouraging the consumption of wines and brandy from Por 
 tugal. But since the removal of the Braganza family from the 
 mother country and the establishment of a regular government, the 
 manufactures of the Brazilians are better supported and more extended. 
 Sugar plantations are numerous, and the exportation of that article 
 has considerably increased, although the apparatus of the sugar-house 
 is very simple, without any of the large machines used by the West 
 India planters. Rum is distilled, of which great quantities are sent 
 to various parts of the New World as well as to Europe. To almost 
 every sugar plantation a still is attached, but, in too many instances, 
 of very rude materials and awkward construction. The still is a 
 mere earthen jar w r ith a long narrow neck, on the top of which is 
 placed a head or cap having on one side a pipe about six inches long, 
 into which is fixed a brass tube four feet in length. This tube is put 
 through an earthen vessel sufficiently large to hold a quantity of water 
 for the condensation of the spirit, forming a substitute for the worm 
 and worm-tub. The liquor, in many instances, undergoes only one 
 distillation; but when a superior article is required, it is distilled a 
 second time. The wash is fermented in large earthen jars, but no 
 rules have been established for regulating the quantities of the mate 
 rials employed for its preparation. A strong lee is said to be poured 
 on the sugar juice in order to thicken arid purify it. This lee is 
 procured by infusing in water the ashes of a kind of polygonum, 
 which, by the Indians, is called Cataya, by the Portuguese herva 
 debichu. Tin s plant has a bitter pungent taste like pepper, and is 
 considered of use in the making of rum. Many of the planters dispose 
 of the molasses to small distillers, who are generally of the lower class, 
 and, with two or more of these rude stills, obtain a livelihood without 
 much trouble ; for fuel being abundant, and the apparatus simple, the 
 men often leave the management of the still-house to women, while 
 they are at other pursuits. Lately, however, copper-stills have been 
 procured from Europe, the introduction of which among the more 
 wealthy planters has produced a great reformation in this branch of 
 business, and enabled them to manufacture the whole molasses on 
 their own plantations. 
 
 The sugar works in Brazil have become, in many parts, respect 
 able. These are usually erected near rivers, and some of them employ 
 
315 
 
 one hundred and fifty slaves. Besides the rum, from 4 to 5,000 
 arobas of sugar are made in one year. So far back as 1801, there 
 were calculated to be then in Paraiba and Mariache 180 sugar works, 
 \vhich have been greatly improved by the introduction of the steam- 
 engine. 
 
 Among the slaves and aborigines, besides rum, various other intoxi 
 cating liquors are used. A mixture of bleak sugar and water called 
 (jrapa is made by the negroes, which, although never fermented, is 
 drunk, on account of its cheapness with avidity, both by men and 
 women, who continue at it whole days, dancing and singing. To 
 give it a more intoxicating effect, the leaves of the acajee tree, which 
 are of a hot quality, are added. Cider is made by the Portuguese, as 
 well as another drink called kooi, of the apple acajee, and a sherbetta 
 of sugar, water, lemons, and nutmeg. The kooi is prepared by bruis 
 ing the acajee apples to obtain the juice, which is strained and allowed 
 to remain until cleared by fermentation. 
 
 From the root aipimakakara, a kind of manioc, a wine is prepared 
 called aipy. The roots are first sliced and chewed by the females, 
 then put into a pot of water and boiled until fit for expression. The 
 liquor thus obtained is called kaviaraku, and drunk lukewarm. 
 Sometimes the sliced roots are well mixed with warm water, and the 
 decoction is swallowed with avidity. In appearance, it is like butter 
 milk, and not having undergone any degree of fermentation, it can 
 not possibly keep many days. A better kind is made from barley or 
 maize, and likewise another liquor called vintro de batatas from the 
 batata root. 
 
 Drunkenness is not a prevailing vice amongst the Brazilians, but 
 the slaves are fond of indulging themselves in the pleasures of intoxi 
 cation when they can do so with convenience. Many excuses are 
 formed to effect this purpose, and some of them are ingenious enough 
 to defend this weakness. It is related of an old negro, who, as well 
 as others of his class, was supported at the expense of a neighbouring 
 monastery, that he would travel to a great distance to obtain liquor, 
 and, when reproved for his irregularity, he justified himself by saying 
 that he and his companions were not slaves to the monks but to their 
 patron saint ; and that the monks were only the distributers of the 
 saint s property in this world. The manner in which this honest 
 negro justified his attachment to spirituous liquors is, it is to be 
 lamented, much the same as that which is practised in more civilized 
 countries. It strongly reminds us of the reply of the Russian peasant 
 to his master on being reproved for intoxication : when asked how 
 he could reconcile such irregularity to his conscience, he replied that 
 
316 
 
 he could only have to make application to his saint to arrange all that 
 was requisite on that score. 
 
 As Brazil is now under a monarchy friendly disposed towards 
 Great Britain, and as vast advantages appear to offer to men of 
 capital and enterprise in the cultivation of the sugar-cane, it seems to 
 hold out inducements of no ordinary description to the adventurous. 
 The country is healthy, fruitful, and agreeable, and better adapted to 
 European constitutions than any part of the West Indies. From 
 these considerations it might be a good speculation to make an expe 
 riment in that part of the American continent. Agriculture is almost 
 unknown there, much less the improvements and machinery which 
 have advanced the arts and facilitated the labours of the industrious 
 artisans of this country. In Brazil, there is a species of myrtle called 
 pitanga,) (myrtus pitanga) which bears a fruit about the size of a small 
 plum, and is of a bright red colour, ribbed on the surface. It is of a 
 pungent, harsh nature, in consequence of which it is used as a conserve, 
 and from it a very agreeable spirit is distilled. Port is not so much 
 in use at Rio Janeiro as the Catalonian wine, or Cachaca, which is a 
 species of rum. When Dr. Walsh visited this country in 1829, he 
 found native Caxas, clear and transparent like water, much resembling 
 Scotch whiskey. In consequence of its cheapness, it has many 
 votaries, among whom sailors are not the least in number, as 
 it is found a salutary antidote against the effects of cold or damp. 
 The natives have a peculiar custom of bathing in a tub of punch 
 made of Caxas immediately before going to bed by way of refresh 
 ment, and as a preventive against cold. Servants have been known 
 to take a draught of it mixed with salt as if water, although it was 
 nearly as strong and pungent as aquafortis. The blacks are fond of 
 taking it in this way ; but it has less intoxicating effects on them than 
 on white people, which is no doubt attributable to habit. Some of 
 the negroes in the vicinity of Rio Janeiro meet annually and drink 
 for the space of sixteen days, during eight of which a sort of flagel 
 lation is inflicted daily on each of the parties. This is effected by 
 means of a thong with a small stone at the end. The tribes of the 
 Guaycuans never permit females to drink intoxicating liquors. A 
 species of snuff from the roasted fruit of the parica tree is prepared 
 by the women, and in the use of this powder a tube is applied alter 
 nately by one individual to the nostril of another, which, with the 
 drink, effects intoxication to such an extent that some lose their senses 
 and many their lives. 
 
 In the various towns of this territory are houses for the sale of 
 wines, and such other liquors as the country affords. In Rio Janeiro 
 
317 
 
 alone, there were, according to Luccock. in 1821, one hundred vint 
 ners, commonly called vinder-keepers^ besides a vast number of other 
 retailers.* 
 
 Brazil abounds with a species of wild ananas,\)ut the edible sort of 
 this fruit is cultivated in the plantations on account of its being large, 
 juicy, aromatic, and possessing great nutritive properties. Brandy, 
 (sometimes called Nandi,) of good quality, is made from it, as also from 
 the fruit of the anacardium and the cajueiro, which is found in all the 
 brandy districts. Some of the savage tribes, according to M. de la 
 Condamine, have an intoxicating liquor called kakouin, for which they 
 evince a warm attachment. From the alfarroba or algarroba tree the 
 people of Santiago del Estero collect pods which they pound and press 
 into a mass, and mould into cakes or square boxes. This is called 
 patay, and is much used for feeding horses. When infused in 
 water, it soon ferments and produces a wholesome intoxicating 
 beverage. The Jesuits, aware of its fascinating qualities and the facility 
 with which it could be converted to sensual purposes, very prudently 
 obstructed the cultivation of the alfarroba in the settlements over which 
 they had control.f The cakes made from the pods of the algarroba 
 are sometimes called arepas, and, though very coarse, are not unpala- 
 table.f From the fruit of the Buriti, one of the loftiest and most 
 beautiful of the palm tribe, is prepared a liquor which is said to be 
 nutritious and palatable, but has the singular property of tinging the 
 whites of the eyes without injuring the constitution. The fruit, which 
 is covered with red scales, is about the size and shape of a hen s egg, 
 and under these scales there is an oily pulp of the same vermillion 
 colour. From the fruit or nut of the pot tree (lecythis ollaria) beau 
 tiful drinking cups are made. This tree, which rises to the height of 
 100 feet, bears at the top a majestic crown of rose-coloured leaves 
 vaulted in the form of an umbrella. The nut is about the size of the 
 cocoa, and is borne on a stem, which, as the fruit gets ripe, bends with 
 the pressure, till at length a sort of lid at the top of the shell is obliged 
 to give way and the kernel falls to the ground. In high winds, it is 
 dangerous to walk within the range of these trees, on account of the 
 fall of the nuts from so great an elevation. 
 
 The mandioc plant in Brazil is of infinite importance, and is used 
 as food not only in that country, but through all South America. The 
 flour made from the root is called farinha de pao, or stick-flour. Cattle 
 are fed on the roots and stems, after being cut small and exposed for 
 
 * Luccock s Notes on Rio Janeiro. 
 
 f Southey s History of Brazil, vol. iii. p. 439. 
 
 % Stevenson s Narrative, vol. ii. p. 186 . 
 
318 
 
 some time in the sun to take away their noxious qualities ; though 
 some oxen from habit have been known to eat the roots quite fresh 
 without the least injury. Koster relates* that he had one of these 
 animals which was so attached to the mandioc that he would escape at 
 night from his stall and tare up the plants with such dexterity that it 
 was only from the marks of the feet that the thief could be discovered. 
 Yet it is singular, that although it has this attractive quality, its juice, 
 while pressing from the root in making tliefarinha, has produced fatal 
 effects. An instance of this given by the same traveller, in the case 
 of a sheep, which, in attempting to get some of the roots, had taken a 
 very small quantity of the liquid, the deleterious qualities of which 
 operated in a few seconds. The animal tottered, fell, rose, and fell 
 again ; and, although oil was administered, its body swelled to an 
 enormous size, and it died in about ten minutes afterwards. The 
 farinha of the mandioc is prepared much in the same way as that of 
 the Cassada in the West Indies and Mauritius. The roots are scraped 
 and then ground into a receiver, forming a pulp, which is afterwards 
 enclosed in long bags made of bark or reeds, and then hung up to 
 permit the juice to ooze from the material. The pulp, when thus 
 drained, is put on a pan either of copper or burned clay, to be dried, 
 during which operation it is kept constantly stirred to prevent burn 
 ing and to detach the mass into mealy particles. 
 
 The majority of the people use the mandioca, not merely as a 
 substitute for flour, but even in preference. It yields two crops in 
 the year, and is prepared by boiling and expressing the juice, which is 
 poisonous ; the sediment which remains after pouring off the water, is 
 the tapioca of the shops. 
 
 Patagonia is a region cold and inhospitable, consisting for the most 
 part of open deserts and savannas, yielding nothing but a few willows 
 on the rivers, without a single tree or shrub adapted for any mecha 
 nical purposes. Cayenne or French Guiana, celebrated for its pepper, 
 (capsicum armuum) affords little interest, though sugar, maize, cassia, 
 Indian corn, and several kinds of fruits are there to be found. Ama 
 zonia being little known and still uncivilized, nothing can be said of 
 it, except that it produces corn, grain, all kinds of tropical fruits, and 
 great quantities of wild honey, but to what purpose or advantage these 
 are converted remains yet to be ascertained. 
 
 Surinam, though fertile in general, is intersected by deep marshes, 
 or swamps, and extensive heaths, and the uncultivated parts are covered 
 with forests, rocks, and mountains. Sugar and other vegetable pro 
 ductions are to be found, among which the quassia tree, or bitter 
 
 * Korter s Travels in Brazil, vol. ii. p. 175. 
 
319 
 
 drug, well known by the porter brewers, grows wild in the woods, and 
 was first exposed for sale by a native called Quas, from whom it 
 derives its appellation. The sugar plantations are numerous along 
 the banks of the Surinam and Marivine. The city of Parimaribo, the 
 capital, is beautifully diversified with orange and lemon trees, and 
 fruits hanging in all directions in the utmost profusion. The whole 
 resembles an immense garden, affording to the passenger a most 
 grateful perfume and a refreshing shade. Rum and sugar are manu 
 factured in this settlement which give an impulse and interest to the 
 speculation of the inhabitants. On the coast of Surinam, the Indians 
 have various sorts of inebriating liquors, among these the juice of the 
 conmoo fruit is the most esteemed. The conmoo tree is one of the 
 smallest of the palm species ; the berries grow in bunches of a purple 
 colour, resembling grapes, and from a solution of them in boiling 
 water, mixed with cinnamon and sugar, an agreeable drink is obtained, 
 having the flavour of chocolate. From Cassava bread, the females 
 make a drink, termed piworree^ similar to that bearing the same name 
 in Demerara and Barbadoes. This bread is chewed and fermented, 
 and the taste of the liquor which it produces has a strong resemblance 
 to ale. Piworree, or Pywarree, is also made by the females chewing 
 the cassava flower and spitting it into a wooden trough. This matter, 
 by the addition of water, soon runs into fermentation and yields the 
 desired beverage. When a sufficient quantity is produced, a feast 
 ensues, and the parties drink so freely that they roll on the ground in 
 a complete state of intoxication, while the revelry is frequently kept 
 up for several days. Piworree, however, is a harmless species of 
 exhilarating drink, as it leaves no bad effects ; for, after a sound sleep, 
 the votary is perfectly restored to his wonted health and vigour. 
 
 From maize or Indian corn, a drink is manufactured by maceration, 
 and which is called chiacoar. The grain is first baked into bread, and 
 after being crumbled and macerated with water, it is duly fermented 
 and produces the liquor just mentioned. They make another drink 
 from yams, cassava, sour oranges and sugar, or treacle mixed, mace 
 rated and fermented with water. This drink is much used by the 
 Indians, but rum is the favorite beverage. Palm wine is in abundance, 
 and generally procured from the fallen trunk of the tree by making 
 incisions about a foot square in which the juice is collected, and after 
 a short exposure to the sun, it ferments and yields an intoxicating 
 wine.* 
 
 Here the vine fvitis campestris) grows in abundance without culti 
 vation. The grapes are large and of various colours, having a rich, 
 
 * Stedman s Surinam, vol. i. p. 392 ; vol. ii. p. 115. 
 
320 
 
 sweet juice. The Indians gather them and prepare them for keeping 
 by first sweating them on hurdles over a gentle fire, then drying them 
 in the sun, and afterwards storing them for provisions. These vines 
 are more of a creeping than of a climbing nature, extending their 
 branches horizontally to a considerable distance, and the pending fruit 
 almost touching the ground. 
 
 When Ferdinand de Soto invaded the Floridas in the middle of 
 the sixteenth century, the inhabitants wre familiar with the use of 
 the maguey, and had even converted it into conserves. Ponce de Leon, 
 an adventurer of a romantic and chivalrous spirit, was the first of the 
 many enthusiasts led to this region under the imaginary delusion that 
 in Florida there existed a fountain which had the power of restoring 
 youth and giving immortality to those who should drink of it ; a 
 notion quite in accordance with the superstition of the times and the 
 visionary pursuits of the alchymists of the age. No such fountain, 
 however, was discovered, many of those who attempted to find it, 
 never returned ; hence it was inferred by the votaries of the day, that 
 those persons had drunk of the immortalizing liquor, and had 
 discovered a spot too delightful to be abandoned through any 
 worldly or human consideration. That they had inebriating drinks 
 is certain; but it was beyond the range of intellect of the poor 
 Indian to ever think of a liquor that could render him immortal. 
 Their inventions never went further than the making of liquors from 
 indigenous fruit and grain. An acquaintance with the Spaniards, 
 however, soon familiarized them with European luxuries, and imparted 
 a taste for all exhilarating drinks. In the course of time, this incli 
 nation became so insuperable that the Spanish government, always 
 having a view to its own aggrandisement, encouraged distillation, and 
 in the Floridas as well as in the neighbouring districts, drew from it 
 a considerable revenue. But the manufacture at best was inconsi 
 derable when compared with the overflowing fertility of the country 
 a country deriving its name from the very appearance of the efflor 
 escence of its groves, hills, and valleys. And where nature is thus 
 bountiful, to what advantages, under a liberal government, might not 
 her gifts be turned. Nothing remarkable is recounted as peculiar to 
 the natives different from those of the surrounding nations ; their 
 feasts, entertainments, and ceremonies being characterized by the same 
 uniformity that marks other American tribes, in a similar state of 
 uncultivated nature. Bartram, in his Travels,* describes an assembly 
 of natives which he witnessed at Attasse, exhibiting a striking picture 
 
 * Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, &c. 8vo. pp. 449, 
 50, 51. Also Adair s History of the American Indians. 
 
321 
 
 of the aboriginal Floridans. During the ceremony, two slaves entered 
 the place of entertainment, carrying a couple of very large conch-shells 
 full of a sort of black beer. After various evolutions and move 
 ments, each presented his shell, one to the king, and the other to the 
 next in rank, uttering two notes extended as long as he could without 
 breathing, during which time from the king to the meanest individual 
 at the ceremony, each continued drinking. These two notes are of 
 such long and solemn duration that a spectator is struck with the awe 
 which they inspire, sounding somewhat like a-hoo-ojah and a-lu-jah t 
 and resembling the hallelujah of a Christian assembly. This cere 
 monious mode of drinking is continued as long as any of the liquor 
 remains. At the close of the autumn, the savages hold a solemn fast 
 in honour of the first fruits, or new crops having arrived at maturity. 
 To render this the more dignified, they renew their clothing, house 
 hold furniture, and cast away not only the old materials of this des 
 cription, but even the remaining grain, as well as the old provisions. 
 These are usually gathered into a heap and burned. To render the 
 ceremony still more imposing, they fast for three days, take medicine, 
 and put out all the fires in their villages, abstaining from the gratifi 
 cation of every appetite and passion. At this period, a general 
 amnesty is proclaimed, and even the captive is suffered to return 
 unmolested and rejoicing to his home. On the morning of the fourth 
 day, the sun illumines a scene of a very different description. Intoxi 
 cating beverages flowing in torrents, are accompanied for three days 
 by all the concomitant excesses which undue indulgence in every 
 gratification produces. 
 
 From a close observance of the manners and customs of the inha 
 bitants of the New World, and contrasting them with those of the 
 Old, a striking similarity in some instances appears. An attempt to 
 account for this would be foreign to the design of this work ; but it 
 may not be irrelevant to observe, that many are of opinion that the 
 American continent was peopled by adventurers from Africa, Asia, 
 or Europe. A very plausible conjecture is, that the posterity of 
 Japhet diverged eastward and westward throughout the whole extent 
 of Asia, so that those who arrived at the Pacific Ocean may have 
 passed to America by the way of Beering s Straits. Those who 
 came to the Atlantic shores may have crossed to this continent in the 
 direction of Newfoundland ; and others coasting along Africa may 
 have been driven to Brazil or the West India islands by chance, 
 through severity of weather or a deficiency in the knowledge of navi 
 gation. The description given by the Mexicans of their forefathers, 
 is a proof of this hypothesis, since they are described as having come 
 
322 
 
 from the north-west, and agreeing in their characteristics with the 
 Asiatic wandering Tartars. This opinion is strengthened by the 
 recent discoveries of Baron Humboldt and other scientific men ; and 
 it is almost certain that America was known to the Phoenicians. 
 Count Roehenstart, the Russian traveller, during his residence at 
 Mexico, writing to the Count De Legarde, says, that " guided by the 
 learned observations of the Baron," he was enabled to procure sepul 
 chral monuments of these people, which prove beyond a doubt the 
 fact of this matter. It is, however, to be regretted, that when the 
 Count was on his passage to Europe, these precious fragments of 
 antiquity, with a rare collection of natural and artificial curiosities, 
 were thrown overboard by a band of pirates who attacked and 
 plundered the vessel. 
 
 Portuguese writers allege that when they discovered in Tercera, 
 one of the Azore islands, an equestrian statue, made from a slab 
 of stone, was found, bearing an inscription on a rock beneath. The 
 head of the man was bare, his left hand rested on the mane of his 
 horse, and his right hand pointed towards the west, as indicating the 
 situation of another continent. If this be true, it evidently goes to 
 prove that the New World must have been known to the inhabitants 
 of the Old. 
 
 As it is well authenticated by Pliny* and others, that the Phoeni 
 cians frequently made voyages through the Red Sea, doubling the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and coming home by the Straits of Gibralter, 
 ^here is no improbability of one of these vessels having been driven 
 westward and having arrived at last in America. One of these 
 vessels, it is said, was driven to an island very far west, (perhaps the 
 same as Plato s Atlantis) larger than Asia and Africa together, having 
 a fruitful soil and navigable rivers ; and that through the Phoenicians, 
 the Carthaginians came to the knowledge of it, in which new region, 
 says Diodorus Siculus, the Carthaginians would not permit any other 
 nation to settle, but reserved it for themselves, that if ever they should 
 be driven from their native soil, they might have an asyulm. ^Elian 
 says, Silenus asserted that there was an extensive continent beyond 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa, from which it has been inferred that the 
 inhabitants of the Old World had some faint knowledge of the New. 
 Another circumstance, which gives additional strength to this reason 
 ing, is, that Professor Seyffarth, of Leipsic, in 1827, found among the 
 learned and curious repositories at Rome, a Mexican manuscript in 
 hieroglyphics, marked with the Mexican zodiac, from which it was 
 
 * Pliny s Nat. Hist. L. ii. s. 67. 
 
323 
 
 manifest that the Mexicans and Egyptians had intercourse in the most 
 remote antiquity, and that they had one and the same system of 
 mythology. Humboldt affirms that the ape forms one of the Mexican, 
 Mongul, Mandslmr, Tartar, and Chinese zodiacs ; and this analogy 
 is a further confirmation of the migration of the Americans from the 
 Old World. 
 
 It is remarkable that the people have preserved, in their traditions 
 and paintings, a record of the creation of the world, the building of 
 Babel, and the consequent confusion of languages. The artificial 
 mounds and apparent sites of extensive cities, the weapons of war 
 and other implements which have been found, some bearing Roman 
 characters indicative of their being made in the time of the CaBsars, 
 together with utensils composed of alloyed metals denoting the past 
 existence of an art at present unknown to the natives of the new con 
 tinent, are further proofs that the last hypothesis is more than conjec 
 tural, and that there is every reason to believe the inhabitants of 
 America had their origin from the Eastern hemisphere. Mr. Ferrell 
 states, that at the Bull Shoals, each a branch of White River in 
 Missouri, several feet below the surface, relics were found which 
 indicated that the spot had formerly been the seat of metallurgical 
 operations, where the alloy appeared to be lead united with silver. 
 Arrow heads cut out of flint and earthenware that had undergone 
 the action of fire, were also found in the same place. Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Galindo, while governor of Poten in Central America, 
 discovered the ruins of an extensive city called Palenque, extending 
 for more than 20 miles along the summits of the ridge which separates 
 the country of the wild Maya Indians from the State of Chicapas, in 
 the ancient kingdom of Gautemala. The principal buildings were 
 erected on the most prominent heights, and in several of them there 
 exist remains of stairs formed of stone and plaster. The stones of 
 the edifices are about 18 inches long, 9 broad, and 2 thick, gradually 
 inclining where they form a roof, but always placed horizontally. 
 The eaves are supported by large stones which project about two 
 feet. The wood-work lias disappeared, and the windows are small, 
 circular, and square perforations. Human figures in alto-relievo are 
 frequent on small pillars, and filigree work imitating boughs and 
 feathers, is perceptible in several places. Some of the sculptured 
 ornaments looked like the Corinthian foliage of the ancient architects. 
 These ruins are buried in a thick forest ; and the adjacent country 
 for leagues contains remains of the ancient labours of the people, con 
 sisting of bridges, reservoirs, monumental inscriptions, &c. Baron 
 
324 
 
 Humboldt observes, that the half civilized people met with in 1537, 
 by the conqueror Queseda, were clothed in cotton garments, and had 
 the most intimate relation with the people of Japan. Colonel Galindo 
 is decidedly of opinion that the Mayscas or Maya language was 
 derived from the Japanese, and that the builders of the city of Palen- 
 que must have dated their antiquity at a period long anterior to that 
 of Mexico, and their civilisation must have surpassed that of the Peru 
 vians. In fact, Palenque is, in its historical importance, considered the 
 Thebes of America. 
 
 A circus and several stone pyramids in the valley of Copon, in 
 Honduras, are rather more celebrated than the ruins of Palenque, 
 or those formed near Ocosingo, in the same part of this continent, and 
 bespeak a high state of civilisation. 
 
 Other testimonials have been found, intimating that the inhabitants 
 of the old world had early visited America. A circumstance related 
 in the Universal Gazette of Bogota for 1832, is worthy of notice. 
 A planter discovered a tumulary stone near the village of Dolores, 
 about two leagues from Monte Video, covered with unknown 
 characters. On removing this stone, he found a vault of brick-work 
 containing antique swords, a helmet, and buckler, much worn with 
 rust, and an earthen amphora of large dimensions. The following 
 words in Greek characters were deciphered : " Alexander son of 
 Philip, was king of Macedon, about the sixty-third Olympiad In 
 these places Ptolemy" On the hilt of the sword was an engraved 
 portrait, which appeared to be that of Alexander ; and on the helmet, 
 chased work representing Achilles dragging the dead body of Hector 
 round the walls of Troy. From this it has been inferred that Brazil 
 was explored by a contemporary of Aristotle, and that it is probable 
 that Ptolemy, the celebrated commander of Alexander s fleet, driven 
 by tempests into what the ancients called the Great Ocean, was cast 
 on the shore of the new continent, and had marked the event by the 
 erection of this monument. 
 
 During an expedition to the west of Montreal, undertaken by some 
 French travellers, pillars of stone were found at a distance of 900 
 miles from that capital, of great magnificence, and manifestly of 
 human structure, but of which the natives had no tradition ; nor did 
 they exhibit any marks relative to their origin or purport. One 
 stone, however, was discovered having another set in it bearing an 
 inscription in unknown characters, which was afterwards sent to 
 France to be deposited in the Royal Museum. The country in 
 which these pillars were discovered had the appearance of having been 
 
325 
 
 once the seat of civilisation, still retaining the vestiges of agricultural 
 labour.* 
 
 From the preceding facts and observations, as well as the high 
 state of civilisation found in Mexico and Peru, when first visited by 
 the Spaniards, it is evident that the inhabitants were descended from 
 a superior race of people ; and that the knowledge of malting, brew 
 ing, and fermenting, so well known to those two nations in par 
 ticular, indicates an origin from a country in which these were 
 perfectly familiar. 
 
 In the United States, the distillation of spirits is a manufacture of 
 considerable importance. It was practised, though rudely, by some 
 of the early settlers, and has continued to increase in proportion to 
 the progress of agriculture. The resources of the country are great, 
 and, as fuel is plentiful, there is scarcely any check to the efforts of 
 the industrious in this branch of trade. In a table of the Addenda 
 will be found a summary of the distilleries and breweries existing in 
 the United States, the only collected view that could be obtained. 
 This return was made by the marshals of the districts, and by the Secre 
 taries of the territories ; but it is thought to fall considerably short of 
 the actual number of stills and gallons of sp rits, &c. The value 
 of the whole distilled and fermented liquors of the States, in 1810, 
 was said to amount to 16,528,207 dollars; and if its increase have 
 kept pace with the population, the amount must now be prodigious. 
 Mr. Seybert, in his Statistical Annals of the States, published in 
 Philadelphia, in 1818, says that the number of the distilleries was 
 about 15,000. To encourage these and the brewing establishments, 
 as well as the making of wine, government has made such salutary 
 regulations, as cannot fail to render them of great service to the 
 agricultural interests of the country. The restriction on home-manu 
 facture is comparatively trifling, and lias been computed to amount 
 to little more, throughout all the States, than about one cent or 
 scarcely a penny per gallon, while on all beer, ale, and porter, imported 
 in bottles, a duty is imposed of fifteen cents, or if imported other 
 wise than in bottles, of ten cents per gallon ; and on spirits from grain, 
 first proof, forty-two ; second, forty-five ; third, forty-eight ; fourth, 
 fifty-two ; fifth, sixty ; and on all above the fifth proof seventy-five cents 
 per gallon. If the spirits should be made from any other materials 
 than grain, the duty on the first and second proof is thirty-eight 
 cents ; on the third, forty-two ; on the fourth, forty-eight ; on the fifth, 
 
 * Vide Kahn and Carver s Travels through North America. 
 
fifty-seven; and upon all above that number, seventy cents per gallon. 
 On wines imported from Madeira, on Burgundy, Champagne, 
 Rhenish, and Tokay, one hundred cents ; and on Sherry and St. 
 Lucar wines, sixty cents. On wines not enumerated above, when 
 imported in bottles or cases, seventy cents. Lisbon, Oporto, and 
 other wines of Portugal and Sicily, fifty cents. On the wines of 
 Teneriife, Fayal, and other western islands, forty cents; and on 
 different kinds not imported in cases and bottles, twenty-five cents 
 per gallon. The foreign spirits imported into America are consi 
 derable. It appears by the public returns, that in the year 1790, 
 3,678,199 gallons were imported; and in 1792, 4,869,992 gallons j 
 while in the latter year, 948,115 gallons of spirits, the produce of the 
 United States, were exported. During the years 1806 and 1807, 
 9,750,000 gallons a year were imported. The imports from various 
 parts of the world were, at a medium, during the same years, for 
 wine 3,881,000 gallons ; while those of rum from the United Kingdom 
 of Great Britain and Ireland, amounted to 41,836 proof gallons in the 
 period of five years, from 1826 to 1830, both inclusive.* 
 
 The Americans export spirits to Manilla, the Philippine islands, 
 and other parts of the East Indies ; to the Floridas, Honduras, Cam- 
 peachy, and the Mosquito shore ; also to the Spanish West Indies, 
 to their colonies, and even to China. In 1812, 101,243 gallons 
 of whiskey, besides wine and geneva, were sent to those places. 
 Large importations of wine are made from Madeira in return for 
 other merchandise. The wine is purchased at about 160 dollars a 
 pipe, and what is not consumed in the States is carried to the East 
 and West Indies. 
 
 The immense number of navigable lakes and rivers which intersect 
 this vast continent, affords great facility for the transportation of 
 spirits, and the interchange of commodities between the different 
 States. In the course of eleven months, terminating on the 1st July, 
 1811, among other articles, 3,768 barrels of whiskey were sent down 
 the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers ; whilst the spirits made at 
 Brownsville, near Pittsburg, are in such repute that they are fre 
 quently sent to New Orleans, a distance of nearly 2,000 miles. In 
 the year 1822, 7,500 barrels of whiskey, value 500,000 dollars, 3,000 
 barrels of cider, value 9,000 dollars, and 3,000 barrels of porter, 
 value 15,000 dollars, were sent from the Western States for consump- 
 
 * Vide Parliamentary Papers. 
 
327 
 
 tion ; giving a tolerably correct view of the increase of agriculture 
 and husbandry in this portion of America.* 
 
 In 1810, as appears by the report of the Secretary of the Treasury, 
 the quantity of malt liquors made in the States was nearly equal to 
 the consumption. The annual importation was reduced to 185,000 
 gallons, while the exportation of native beer, ale, and cider amounted 
 annually to 187,000. According to Bristed, 25,000,000 gallons of 
 spirits were yearly distilled and consumed in the United States, as 
 calculated in 1817, which must have since considerably increased. 
 
 In the early stages of the manufacture, the distillers and brewers 
 seemed to have no other object in view than to meet the consumption 
 of the States, and of the Indian tribes connected with them. But 
 they have long since turned their attention to foreign markets ; and 
 from the ease and cheapness with which they can now procure and 
 manufacture the raw materials, they are likely to become successful 
 rivals of all the nations of Europe. The government viewing this 
 trade as of some consequence to the revenue of the country, in 
 1813, imposed a duty on all the stills, and the spirits distilled within the 
 states. This duty stood as follows : viz. 
 
 Stills employed in distilling from native materials, such as rye, Indian 
 corn, apples, &c. including the content of the head : 
 
 Dol. Cents. 
 
 For two weeks .... Qi> 
 
 onemonth 18 
 
 two do 32 
 
 three do 42 
 
 four do 52 
 
 six do 70 
 
 twelve do 1 00 
 
 Stills employed on foreign materials, such as molasses, &c : 
 
 Onemonth 25 
 
 three do 60 
 
 six do 1 05 
 
 twelvedo 1 35 
 
 In 1814, these duties were increased ; but at the close of the war 
 in 1815, the additional duties were repealed. The internal imports 
 remaining in 1817, were those on licenses for stills, boilers, refined 
 sugar, &c., the collection of which depended on the oath of the manu 
 facturer, a collector, but no other officer, being employed. To collect 
 any description of revenue by means of oaths, is manifestly impolitic, 
 
 * Vid Excursion through the United States and Canada, in 1822 and 3, p. 118. 
 
328 
 
 as it is well known that to evade enactments of this nature, perjury 
 is unfortunately too seldom considered a crime ; and certainly a 
 low duty, such as that detailed, is less calculated to induce persons to 
 swerve from the strict path of rectitude, than when the duties are 
 high and oppressive. 
 
 The distilleries, for the most part, are conducted on a small scale ; 
 and, as might be expected when the trade is committed to a vast 
 number of people of opposite interests, a great deal of competition 
 as well as of ignorance prevails. Breweries not being generally 
 established, the want of barm has not failed to produce great 
 inconvenience; and the distillers in many of the principal towns, 
 as well as in the most remote parts of the Union, are obliged to 
 have recourse to various deleterious substitutes, for the fermentation 
 of their wash. Hence, combined with a want of due attention 
 to the attenuation of their pot-ale, arises that ardent quality which 
 renders their whiskey in many instances disagreeable to foreigners. 
 Great improvements, however, are said to have taken place ; and 
 their peach-brandy, which is now made in abundance, is allowed, 
 when matured by age, to be one of the most exquisite spirits in the 
 Vorld ;* yet, in making it, the peaches are suffered, in some instances, 
 to remain in the vat, till they are in such a state of putrefaction as to 
 be offensive.f Fifteen bushels are allowed to yield about six gallons 
 of strong brandy. In preparing them for the fermenting tuns, the 
 seeds are carefully taken out, and the substance of the peach is bruised 
 to a pulp and left for three weeks or a month in that state to ferment ; 
 a proper allowance of water is then added, and they are distilled. 
 Peaches are abundant in most of the States ; at Philadelphia, there 
 were 2,107 baskets of them at one market, and they sold for 12 cents 
 (6J.) per bushel ! The price at the same time in New York, was 
 about one dollar a bushel : a single orchard has been known to 
 produce 1,1 00 bushels. 
 
 Brandy is manufactured in America from various fruits ; and from 
 the persimon apple a valuable spirit is made by putting a quantity of 
 the fruit into a vessel for a week until it becomes quite soft. Water 
 is then poured in and left for fermentation, without the addition of 
 any other ingredient to promote it. The brandy is then made in the 
 common way, and it is said to be much improved when mixed with 
 sweet grapes that are found wild in the woods. 
 
 * Cox s View of the United States, p. 176. 
 
 f The peach tree on the river Ohio comes to maturity in three years. Hellish. 
 p, 343. 
 
329 
 
 Another kind of palatable liquor is procured from this apple. The 
 ripe fruit is bruised and mixed with wheat or other flour, and formed 
 into cakes which are baked in an oven. These are afterwards placed 
 over the fire in a pot full of water, and when they become blended 
 with the fluid, malt is added, and the brewing- completed in the usual 
 manner : thus is produced a beer preferable to most others. 
 
 In all the States, apples are abundant, particularly in New England 
 and New York, and therefore cider is the common drink of the inha 
 bitants. In a fruitful year, apples are so plentiful as to be given to 
 whoever will take the trouble to gather them. Vast quantities 
 are also consumed by cattle and swine. The cider, when well 
 made, is of excellent quality, and the least juicy apples afford the best 
 liquor. A barrel of cider sells from about one and a half to three 
 dollars. A field containing a thousand trees is not uncommon, and a 
 single tree has been known to produce six barrels of cider in one 
 season, a circumstance the more extraordinary when it takes three 
 barrels of apples to make one of cider. Mr. Stuart, a late writer, 
 says that much cider is made from the crab-apple, which is worth 
 about six-pence per bushel ; but that a considerable quantity of 
 engrafted fruit is usually mixed w r ith it. This liquor, he adds, is for 
 the most part generally inferior to English cider. The Shakers, a 
 religious sect, have two establishments in the State of New York, at 
 which they manufacture cider of an excellent quality, which sells so 
 high as ten dollars per barrel.* 
 
 From the maple, which abounds in Massachusetts, Vermont, Penn 
 sylvania, Rhode Island, Ohio, Tenessee, North Carolina, and other 
 states, an extensive supply of sugar is drawn. Of this tree, there are 
 three varieties, -hard, black, or rock maple ; white, silver, or middle 
 maple ; and soft, swamp, or red maple. Chemists have proved that 
 the saccharine matter is abundantly diffused through the vegetable 
 kingdom. Plants from which it is produced are most numerous in 
 the East and West Indies, and of these the maple is next in eminence 
 to the sugar-cane. Of the various kinds of this tree, the sugar-maple 
 (acer saccharinum), and the silver maple facer dasycarpum), are the 
 most productive. To the Americans it has proved a source of wealth 
 and domestic luxury. Even in Germany, it is asserted that those 
 trees will afford sugar equal in quality to any Muscovado of our islands, 
 and so cheap as 4d. or 5d. per pound.| 
 
 The sugar-maple trees grow to the height of from 80 to 120 feet, 
 and from 2 to 5 feet in diameter. They put forth a beautiful white 
 
 * Stuart s Three Years in the United State*, 2 vols. 8vo., vol. i. p. 267. 
 f Philosophical Magazine, vol. iii. p. J05. 
 
330 
 
 blossom in spring before they show a single leaf, and arrive at full 
 growth in about 20 years. The wood is very strong and of a fine 
 texture ; being very inflammable, it is not employed in building, but 
 is used chiefly for fuel. The mode of tapping the tree is by perfo 
 ration with an axe or auger, the latter is the preferable instrument. 
 The incision being about three-fourths of an inch in an ascending 
 direction, is afterwards gradually deepened to two inches. A spout 
 made of sumach or elder is introduced about half an inch into the hole, 
 and projects from 3 to 12 inches from the tree and 2^ feet from the 
 ground. The sap flows from four to six weeks, and in greater abun 
 dance where there is frost in the night and a thaw during the day, and 
 in fact, does not flow at all without frost. There are three modes of 
 converting the sap into sugar, viz., evaporation, freezing, and boling, 
 the last of which is the most general and rapid. Farmers have no 
 better apparatus for conducting the process, than one or two small iron 
 kettles, and with these they will make 200 or 3001bs. of sugar in the 
 space of a fortnight or three weeks. Others, however, carry on the 
 manufacture more scientifically, on an extensive scale. For the collection 
 of sugar from the maple tree at the time when the frosts are breaking 
 up in the Ohio and other States, whole families from neighbouring 
 villages and towns resort to those woods where the trees abound. Here 
 they pitch their tents, and the rendezvous is called ^sugar-camp. There 
 is no means employed but that of reducing down the sap by boiling 
 from its limpid state to a pulpy or inspissated consistence, and, while 
 cooling, it is stirred a little with a stick in order to granulate more 
 readily until converted into sugar. There are several modes by 
 which it is graned by the French settlers, who make it into a hard 
 substance. Those practised in the West Indies are probably the best. 
 The grane of this sugar is sometimes as large and as fine as that of 
 the best Muscovado. The sap of this tree is a very pleasant drink, 
 and the sirup is by many preferred to honey. A single maple will 
 produce in the season from 8 to 14lbs. of sugar, and one family has 
 been known to collect from 9 to 20 cwt. in a good year. One hundred 
 trees tapped in April with the attention of one man for fifteen days, 
 have been known to yield 1121bs. of sugar, 10 gallons of molasses, 
 and 1 barrel of vinegar. The trees, when properly heated, do not 
 suffer by this exudation, and when the sap has ceased to flow from the 
 incisions, plugs of wood are introduced into the auger-holes, which 
 in the course of two or three years are covered with them. The 
 maple is a hardy tree, and found to grow well in the cold climate of 
 Canada. It has been suggested that it might thrive in Great Brituiu 
 
331 
 
 and Ireland, and be productive of employment and profit to those who 
 would encourage its cultivation a speculation that might not be un 
 worthy of a trial. The aborigines collect twice a year, (during- the 
 spring and fall of the leaf,) large quantities of this sugar, which is of 
 a greenish hue, and in taste a little acid. The first collection takes 
 place in February, March, or April, according to the latitude and 
 climate ; the second occurs when the juice has not a sufficient body to 
 become sugar, and when it is converted into a sort of molasses, which, 
 mixed with water, affords a cooling draught during the heat of summer : 
 some boil it with hops and make it into beer. The time of collecting 
 the sugar is a period of great feasting amongst the poor Indians, who, 
 at intervals, are seen in groups of both sexes at the foot of the trees ; 
 the young dancing and playing at different games, the children bath 
 ing under the direction of the different Sachems, while the aged, 
 awaiting at intervals the collection of the sap, enjoy the festivities of 
 the scene, and occasionally partake of the innocent delights of the 
 season. The profits of the maple tree do not arise from its sugar 
 alone, for it affords most agreeable molasses and excellent vinegar. 
 The sap, which is suitable for these purposes, is obtained after that 
 which affords sugar has ceased to flow. 
 
 These sugars and molasses form the basis of a large proportion of 
 the rums at present manufactured by the Americans, to the great 
 injury of the British colonies, as is manifest from the great decrease 
 in the exports of these articles from thence to the States. The extent 
 and value of the maple sugar manufactory will be best illustrated by 
 the subjoined view of the returns of a few of the Sates for the year 
 1810: 
 
 Massachusetts 422,0001bs value, 82,400 dollars. 
 
 Vermont 1,200,000 120,000 
 
 Delaware 755,859 150,000 
 
 Virginia 1,659,447 
 
 Ohio 3,023,806 309,932 
 
 Indiana 50,000 
 
 Kentucky 2,471,647 308,932 
 
 Tennessee 162,340 
 
 Illinois 15,600 
 
 New York 64,000 10,000 
 
 The price varies from 7 to 16 cents per Ib. but it is in general cheap, 
 compared with that which is imported. It has been computed that 
 at least 71,000,0001bs. of sugar are required in the United States for 
 the annual consumption. Of this quantity, it will be seen that the 
 maple forms no inconsiderable portion. That made from the cane is 
 
S32 
 
 rapidly increasing, particularly in Louisiana and Georgia. Cane 
 plantations are extending as far as 150 miles north of New Orleans, 
 along the banks of the Mississippi. Though the cane does not succeed 
 every year, yet the profit of one good season is a sufficient remune 
 ration for several indifferent crops. The canes are generally cut in 
 November and December, and the sugar is immediately pressed out 
 by rollers. 
 
 The maple sugar has arrived to that importance that it forms an 
 article of export : in one year this export amounted to 4,374 dollars. 
 This article is in such demand at home, and so cheap, that it always 
 meets a ready sale. 
 
 The sap of the hickory becomes a fine white sugar merely by drying, 
 and is, in its native state, a very pure and sweet sirup. The juice of 
 the beech and birch, when fermented, affords a good liquor resembling 
 beer. Indian corn, which is nearly the staple grain of all the States, 
 affords a never varying supply of material for distillation. This grain 
 rising to the height of from 7 to 12 feet, is well calculated for a climate 
 where there is little rain in the summer, as from the peculiar construc 
 tion of its leaves it has the power of retaining in the interstices a quan 
 tity of dew or rain for its nurture. Although Indian corn (zea mays) 
 is more productive than any other kind of grain, yet it often suffers in 
 common with other vegetable productions from the various changes of 
 the seasons ; but in particular from the ravages of squirrels. When 
 the common food of the squirrel, such as nuts, masts, &c. fails in their 
 native forests, those animals, congregated in legions, leave their 
 wonted haunts, and spreading in every direction, devastate whole 
 plantations of Indian corn. So numerous, destructive, and greedy, 
 are those mischievous little creatures, that sometimes three or four 
 of them have been seen on the same stalk contending for the ears. 
 The farmers unite for their destruction ; and it is said that in one 
 week upwards of 20,000 have fallen victims to their vengeance. 
 
 The vine is found in America both indigenous and exotic. Its 
 abundance in the wild state induced one of its earliest discoverers, 
 according to Icelandic records, to give it the name of Vinland, in the 
 year 1001, after which dried grapes or raisins became an article of 
 export from that country to Norway. The fruit of the vine, in the 
 northern parts of America, is of a diminutive size. In Canada, the 
 grapes are very small, and although Ellis, in his voyage, tells us that 
 grapes grew spontaneously about Hudson s Bay, yet 1 cannot agree 
 with him, that the fruit was equal to the currants of the Levant, 
 owing to the coldness of the climate, and the stunted growth of the 
 plant. The French settlers in the Illinois territory, have turned the 
 
333 
 
 wild grape to some account ; and finding it growing there in luxuri 
 antly wild abundance, have made from it considerable quantities of 
 excellent wine, which they dispose of to the neighbouring settlers. 
 Hunter, in his Memoirs, says, when speaking of the Missouri and 
 Arkanzas country, that the grape vines producing black, red, flesh 
 and white-coloured fruit, are to be met with in astonishing quantities 
 in the hollows of prairies, the natural results when this plant is 
 exposed to a free circulation of air and the direct rays of the sun, 
 both of which it enjoys in the open prairies. He saw hundreds, 
 nay thousands of acres, covered with the vines, and loaded with the 
 most delicious grapes. And were it not for the wild animals, which 
 make paths in order to feed on the fruit, it would be impossible to 
 pass through the thickly intertwined branches. In parts of the country 
 bordering on the Osage river, the crab-apple, plum, and wild cherry- 
 tree abound, which serve as supporters to the vine, whose branches 
 are so thickly interwoven as to exclude the sun s rays from the ground 
 beneath. 
 
 The vine of late years has been much cultivated among the 
 Americans. In 1805, a company of emigrants, from the Pays de 
 Vaud, settled at New Switzerland, in Indiana, with a view of culti 
 vating the vine ; and formed an establishment there, extending about 
 seven miles along the Ohio. The vineyards are now very extensive, 
 and the settlement is in a prosperous state. In 1810, the crop of that 
 district exceeded 2,400 gallons; and in 1811, upwards of 2,700 
 gallons. The wine was allowed by correct judges to be nowise infe 
 rior to the claret of Bourdeaux. Vines have been also successfully 
 cultivated in some parts of Pennsylvania, and excellent wine made of 
 them.* Many sorts of foreign grapes grow luxuriantly in New Eng 
 land, and yield excellent fruit. The most delicate require to be 
 covered during the winter : the purple Madeira grapes bear the 
 winter very well. The grapes that have succeeded best are those 
 from the Cape of Good Hope and the Island of Madeira. Those of 
 the country yield wine of tolerably good quality, and from them, in 
 1810, there were produced 96 barrels, valued at 6,000 dollars. These 
 successes joined to other considerations, have given rise to the belief 
 that America, in a few years, will be completely independent of France, 
 as well as of the other European States, in the article of wine. 
 
 The severity of the winters in America, is, in Mr. Cooper s 
 opinion, no objection to the successful cultivation of the vine ; for, in 
 
 * Neilson s Recollections of six years Residence in the United States, Svo. 
 1830, p. 174. 
 
334 
 
 a country which extends from the 27th to the 47th degree of latitude, 
 it is scarcely possible to suppose that the vine cannot flourish. The 
 grape that affords good wine is rarely fit to be eaten ; hence Mr. Cooper 
 says, that had the Americans patience to try the experiment, the com 
 mon little fox-grape would in time afford a fine wine. This grape 
 greatly resembles that of the best vineyards of Switzerland, and the 
 fact of its not being a good eating grape is altogether in its favour. 
 This writer is of opinion, that to a fat soil, should be prefered a 
 gravelly hill side, well broken up with a good exposure to the sun, 
 for the site and produce of a good vineyard, which might be easily 
 found in any of the middle states of the Union.* The fox-grape, 
 (vitis vulpinum) is remarkable for the large size of its vine, which, 
 in many places, climbs to the tops of the highest trees, and takes such 
 full possession of them, that, after the fall of the leaf, the tree to 
 which it is attached seems to be loaded with its fruit. The vine at 
 the bottom, is commonly six or eight inches in diameter ; and instances 
 have been found of its measuring thirty-seven inches in circumference 
 near the ground. The fruit is very good after the frosts have 
 commenced, 
 
 In some of the plantations, brandy is made from the lees of the 
 wine ; but the apparatus is often ill adapted to the purpose. It may 
 be observed in general, that in the manufacture of spirits, the 
 Americans seldom practise that cleanliness and caution in brewing, 
 fermenting, and distilling, which, in other countries, are so essential to 
 flavour and quality. They ferment the wash, in many instances, on 
 the grain, and put the mixed mass into the still a practice calculated 
 to give the spirits a strong ernpyreumatical flavour, as no machinery 
 is used. 
 
 The error of mixing extraneous ingredients with the proper mate 
 rials is very prevalent ; among those is salt, which in Indiana is used 
 in great quantities. This custom prevailed a long time in Great 
 Britain and Ireland ; and in the highlands of Scotland, it is in some 
 places observed to this day. The affinity which salt possesses for the 
 watery particles of the material in the still, may, perhaps, render it 
 useful, but it is at present rejected by the great body of the distillers 
 of Europe. 
 
 The rums of New England are considered of good quality, and 
 some deem them not inferior to the best that are produced in the West 
 Indies. In 1810, they distilled in this State 2,472,000 gallons of rum ; 
 from grain, 63,730 gallons ; from cider, 316,480 gallons, while the 
 
 * Cooper s Residence in France. 
 
$35 
 
 breweries yielded 716,800 gallons. Besides this extensive manufac 
 ture, much is imported. Geneva is successfully imitated, particularly 
 since the tide of emigration has brought many intelligent men from 
 Holland, who possess sufficient knowledge of this branch of trade, to 
 render the American article equal to that manufactured in the Nether 
 lands. Many of the Irish emigrants distil, in genuine purity, that des 
 cription of spirits commonly called Innishowen or potheen, which is no 
 less a favourite on the other side of the Atlantic, than on the shores 
 of Magilligan, or the banks of the Shannon. The following mode of 
 making it at an early period, is thus described by an eye-witness : 
 To a bushel and a half of rye, four quarts of malt, and a handful of 
 hops, were added fifteen gallons of boiling water, which were allowed 
 to stand for four hours. These being increased by sixteen gallons 
 more, two quarts of home-made yeast were thrown in, and in this pro 
 portion either a large or small quantity of worts was prepared, which, 
 after being allowed ample time to ferment, was distilled in a simple 
 apparatus. One bushel of rye produced about eleven quarts of 
 a weak and inferior spirit, and sold at the rate of 4si 6d. per gallon. 
 The refuse of these small stills was used in feeding swine. 
 
 The use of malt liquors is increasing in all parts of America. Bot 
 tled porter is an article in much demand, but it is greatly inferior to 
 that made in Great Britain. Newburg, a town about 60 miles above 
 New York, is fanred for the brewing of good ale. Albany is also 
 celebrated for the excellence of its ale, which is sent all over the 
 States and greatly admired. This branch of manufacture, like many 
 others in America, is becoming of great interest and value. Besides 
 the advantages they possess in grain and water, hops are now culti 
 vated in different districts. New England affords a greater quantity 
 than any other spot of equal extent in the Union, yielding from 1,000 
 to l,5001bs. an acre, and sell for 6d. per pound. The manufacture 
 of malt liquors, although on the increase, is much below that in dif 
 ferent parts of Europe, but the preference is given to spirits, and 
 hence the distillery establishments are vastly more prosperous. 
 
 Honey is plentiful in different parts ; the bees are not only domes 
 ticated, but are often found lodged in the hollows of trees in the 
 forests, and men skilled in the business discover their retreats and 
 obtain great supplies. From the white clover which abounds, honey 
 is procured of the most pure and perfect sort, and might be increased 
 to any extent. In the Carolinas, there are prodigious quantities of 
 it, from which are made excellent spirits and very fine mead. There 
 is no plant in the States to which the bees are more attached than 
 buck-wheat. This is not, however, generally cultivated in Kentucky, 
 
336 
 
 which is one of the principal reasons why honey is not collected to 
 any extent in that settlement^ In many parts of the States, bees are 
 partial to the rich low grounds commonly called bottoms, from their 
 abounding in a variety of plants, shrubs, and flowers ; among which 
 the Polygonum scandens (wild buck-wheat) is peculiarly attractive. 
 
 In the enumeration of the various kinds of drink common in 
 America, it would be unpardonable to omit noticing the Ballston 
 Waters, in the State of New York, which possess qualities highly 
 exhilarating, sometimes producing vertigo, that has been followed by 
 inebriety and drowsiness. These waters are considered by the 
 farmers of the neighbouring districts as an excellent beverage, and 
 are sent for at a distance of from 6 to 10 miles for refreshment to the 
 labourers during the hay-making and harvest ; thus superseding, in a 
 great measure, the use of any kind of ardent spirits.* The proper 
 ties of the Saratoga water, situated seven miles from that of Ballston, 
 are of the most remarkable nature, and the quantity of gas it contains 
 is such, that a very nice sort of breakfast-bread is baked from it 
 instead of yeast. 
 
 To entitle persons to retail wine and spirituous liquors, they are 
 obliged to take out a license at the following rates, viz : 
 
 Retailers of wine and spirits, including merchandise, 25 dollars. 
 
 Wines alone, 20 
 
 Spirits alone, 20 
 
 Domestic spirits, 15 
 
 Merchandise, other than wine arid spirits, 15 
 
 But in all places in which the population does not exceed one hun 
 dred families to the square mile : . 
 
 Retailers of wine and spirits, including merchandise, 15 dollars. 
 
 Wine and spirits, 15 
 
 Spirits alone, 12 
 
 Domestic spirits, 10 
 
 Merchandise, other than wine and spirits, 10 
 
 These licenses are generally obtained from the mayor or chief 
 magistrate of a city or town. In New York, both wholesale and 
 retail wine and spirit dealers are termed grocers, and their premises are 
 labelled with the words " grocery stores" The small retail shops, com 
 monly called "grog shops" are for the most part at corners of streets, 
 and the proprietors are chiefly Irishmen. The principal article for 
 consumption is Yankee, or New England rum. The price varies 
 according to the quality from 2d. to 6d. the glass ; and it is rarely 
 drunk otherwise than with cold water. Any infringement on the 
 
 * Dwight s Travels in New England and New York, vol. iii. p. 399. 
 
337 
 
 regulations by which licenses are governed is visited by different 
 degrees of punishment. All spirits brought into the city of New 
 York from the country are inspected on their arrival, as also the 
 spirits made in the city, by officers appointed for the purpose. One 
 is called Inspector General of domestic spirits, with five others who 
 act under him. In Connecticut, persons selling spirits without license 
 forfeit 10 dollars for the first offence, 20 for the second, 40 for the 
 third, and so on in proportion. 
 
 The following is a pretty correct view of the rates at which the 
 different kinds of liquors are sold in the United States : 
 
 Brandy from 11 dollars (5s. 8d.) to 2 dollars (9s.) per gallon. 
 Holland Gin, 11 do. 2 do. do. 
 
 Jamaica rum, 1 do. (4s. 6d.) 1J do. (5s. 8d.) do. 
 New England rum and whiskey, 33 cents (Is. 3d. or Is. 
 
 6d.) to 50 cents (2s. 3d.) do. 
 
 Madeira wine, 12 to 18 dollars per dozen. 
 
 Claret, 3 to 15 do do. 
 
 Table beer, 6d. per quart. 
 
 Bottled beer, 6jd. do. 
 
 Common ale, 5^d. do. 
 
 Best ale, 7d. do. 
 
 Porter, 6jd. do. 
 
 Cider, 1 1 s. 3d. per bar. 
 
 From the cheapness with which spirits can be procured in the 
 United States, averaging scarcely more than 38 cents the gallon, the 
 people indulge themselves to excess, and run into all the extravagancies 
 of inebriety. Notwithstanding this round charge against the Americans, 
 it would be doing them injustice not to state that the beastly slave to 
 habitual intoxication is not a common character among them, although it 
 is admitted that there is a greater consumption of liquor in the States in 
 proportion to the population, than in any other quarter of the known work . 
 How this happens it is difficult to determine ; some attributing it to 
 one cause and some to another. That it is a great evil all admit, and 
 it can oidy be accounted for from a combination of circumstances 
 which rarely occur in other places. The influx of emigrants, their 
 lack of acquaintance, want of employment, habits of former living, 
 new associations, excessive heat in summer, and cold in winter, alike 
 conspire to work on the frailties of human nature, and to reduce indi 
 viduals to this debasement of character. Indeed, when the moral 
 habits become once depraved, it is difficult to restore the mind to the 
 exercise of religious pursuits. 
 
 z 
 
338 
 
 From the reports of several societies to the government oil tlie 
 growing evils of intoxication, it was found necessary that some active 
 and determined measures should be taken ; and in order to check this 
 baneful vice, the American legislature, in 1821, wisely enacted a law 
 which places the concerns and property of habitual drunkards in the 
 hands of a committee appointed by the Court of Chancery, thus ex 
 tending to them the jurisdiction, exercised by the court with regard to 
 the estates of lunatics. 
 
 So great was the consumption of spirits, that in New York, there 
 were not less than 1600 spirit sellers; and throughout the whole of 
 the Union, the number of dram-shops exceeded that among us in a 
 tenfold proportion. One-tenth of the entire population of the States 
 resides in that city, which, it is said, consumed spirits to the amount 
 of three millions of dollars ; and allowing for the remaining nine-tenths 
 a consumption in the same ratio, the money squandered in this way 
 would amount to six millions of dollars. 
 
 By a report of the trustees of the alms-house for the city and 
 county of Baltimore in 1827, it appears that of 623 adults, admitted 
 into that asylum during the year ending April, 1826, it was positively 
 ascertained that 554 of that number had been placed there from the 
 necessitous circumstances to which they were reduced by excessive 
 drunkenness. No wonder that so awful and calamitous a state would 
 await such a number of individuals, when we find that even boys 
 acquire the habits of drinking much earlier than they do in Europe* 
 Not only to the causes enumerated as laying the foundation of such 
 vicious propensities, but to the practice of smoking may be attributed 
 a great deal of this weakness. It is no uncommon thing to see a boy 
 of 12 or 14 years old, with a cigar in his mouth, walk into a tavern in 
 the forenoon to take a glass of brandy and bitters to quench that 
 thirst which the free use of tobacco always occasions ; and it is well 
 known that habits , when early contracted, become in some measure 
 constitutional. A bad practice also prevails in America of breakfast-* 
 ing very early, which creates a desire for food in the middle of the day, 
 at which time a glass or two of ardent spirits is taken, and hence the 
 excitement which this custom has established, was kept up during the 
 day. And we find that at taverns it was common to see a tub of 
 water, with a ladle in it, placed constantly on the counter, from which 
 every man that comes in, helps himself, while a decanter of spirits is 
 given to take out of it what quantity he may think proper, it being 
 considered that water taken without such mixture was dangerous. 
 
339 
 
 An American for the most part justifies his grog-drinking propensity 
 by alleging the deleterious qualities of the water a circumstance 
 confirmed in an anecdote told of a European emigrant \vlio had resided 
 many years in the New World, and who on visiting the Southern 
 States, was asked what kind of water they had in New York. 
 " Really," replied he, " I cannot pretend to say, as I never tasted 
 water there that was not mixed with some kind of liquor." By the 
 general practice of tippling a great deal of time is squandered and the 
 moral principles at length sink into degeneracy. Captain Basil Hall, 
 in his Travels through the States in 1827 and 1828, says that he did 
 not witness any extraordinary excesses, though he saw sipping to be 
 a universal practice, that is, taking a little at a time and that every 
 hour of the day,* though he adds, that in the aggregate they, perhaps, 
 do not take more than in other countries^ where the means of procur 
 ing ardent spirits are as ample, and the liquor is as abundant. If general 
 report respecting the character of the Americans be true, there is less 
 of social intercourse and enjoyment in their drinking than among 
 Europeans, for, instead of indulging themselves in chat over a glass, 
 they generally swallow at the bar of a tavern whatever they wish to 
 take, rather than retire to a room for the sake of conviviality. These 
 solitary drunkards usually distinguish their draughts by the low, cant 
 terms of "phlegm dispensers" " eye openers, * "perfect love" " life of 
 man" " mint-julep" c. Forty millions of dollars, it is thought, are 
 thrown away annually on spirits in the States, and it is frightful to 
 think that among the prosecutions for irregularity in one year at New 
 York, 800 of these cases arose from intemperance, while of 730 per 
 sons committed the same year to the work-house in Baltimore, 554 
 were for intoxication ; and in the entire of the States, it is conjectured 
 that not less than 31,000 fall annual victims to this debasing propensity. 
 No wonder, then, that the people of the States should be so anxious 
 for the establishment of Temperance Societies, since the good order of 
 the community depends upon its regular and moral constitution; 
 
 A brief sketch of the rise, progress, and effect of these societies 
 may not be uninteresting. The first meeting for the suppression of 
 intemperance was called at Boston, in February, 1824, and the result 
 was the formation of a society, the leading features of which were, 
 that its members pledged themselves to abstinence from drink, and to 
 endeavour to change the habits of the nation with regard to the use 
 of intoxicating liquors, as much as lay in their power. Subscriptions 
 were entered into to the amount of 2,480, and such was the increase 
 * Travels in North America, 3 vols. 8vo. vol. ii. p. 90, 
 
340 
 
 of those societies, that in the close of 1 829, there had been formed 
 more than 1,000 Temperance Societies, upwards of 50 distilleries 
 stopped, above 400 merchants relinquished the sale of spirits, and 
 upwards of 1,200 drunkards had been reformed. The crew of the 
 United States sloop of war (Falmouih), was amongst the first of the 
 seamen that shewed an example of abstinence, 70 of them having 
 resolved to abstain from spirits, while between 40 and 50 of the crew 
 of the Brandy wine frigate followed the example. In 1824, the 
 imported spirits amounted to 5,285,000 gallons, while in 1830 they 
 amounted only to 1,195,000, shewing a difference in the consumption 
 / of 4,090,000 gallons in the course of six years, which is mainly attri 
 butable to the influence of these societies. Between the 1st January, 
 
 1830, and 1st January, 1831, one hundred and fifty vessels sailed from 
 the port of Boston without carrying ardent spirits. On the 1st May 
 
 1831, the number of Temperance Societies had increased to 2,200, 
 and that of the members to 170,000, giving an addition of 179,000 
 members, being 70,000 members, and 1,202 societies increased in the 
 space of two years. 
 
 From their influence, and the state of public opinion, it was com 
 puted that 300,000 more had formed the resolution of not using 
 strong liquors, nor furnishing them for the use of others. One thou 
 sand distilleries had been stopped, and the use of ardent spirits excluded 
 from more than one hundred public-houses. The following year the 
 Society extended its efforts by a promulgation of its principles through 
 all parts of the States, Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, 
 Mexico, all Europe, Palestine, and the Sandwich r lslands. In 1832, 
 the clergy endeavoured to exclude drunkards from the communion 
 table, and preached strongly against the use of intoxicating liquors, 
 which was a powerful auxiliary to this w r ork of sobriety. In 1831, 
 fifty thousand members were added to the Temperance Society of 
 the State of New York, and it was computed that in that year, 
 1,500,000 people of the States abstained from the use of ardent spirits, 
 and from furnishing them to others. There were then 4,000 Tem 
 perance Societies, embracing 500,000 members; 1,500 distilleries had 
 stopped, 4,000 merchants gave up the spirit business, and 4,500 drunk 
 ards were reformed. To aid these moral efforts, the Adjudant General 
 issued an order prohibiting the distribution of spirits amongst the 
 army, and substituting Slbs.of sugar, and 4lbs. of coffee for every 100 
 rations as an equivalent for the spirits formerly in use. The same 
 order prohibited the introduction of spirits, into any fort, camp, or 
 garrison of the Union, and the selling of them to the troops. In 1833, 
 
341 
 
 a " Congregational Temperance meeting" was held at Washington, at 
 which the Secretary at War, Mr. Lewis Cass, presided, when it was 
 declared that " The liherty and welfare of the nation are intimately 
 and indissolubly connected with the morals and virtues of the people ; 
 and that in the enactment of laws for the common benefit, it is equally 
 the duty of the legislative body to guard and preserve the public 
 morals from corruption, as to advance the pecuniary interest, or to 
 maintain the civil rights and freedom of the community." In that year, 
 the American Temperance Society contained 2,000,000 of members 
 out of a population of 15,000,000, of which 2,000,000 were slaves, 
 consequently every third man in the country was engaged in the 
 suppression of intemperance. In 1834, the number of Temperance 
 Societies had increased to 7, 000, while the same number of merchants 
 had ceased to sell ardent spirits, and 1,000 vessels belonging to the 
 States were performing their voyages without them. Even onboard 
 the steamers, through the influence of these societies, the practice of 
 giving brandy to the passengers has been discontinued, and a regula 
 tion, somewhat similar, has been introduced into many of the public- 
 houses, now almost wholly frequented by travellers, not to sell wine 
 or liquor of any description except to boarders. 
 
 As a further inducement to Temperance, the Boston Insurance 
 Company agreed to return 5 per cent, on the premium of every 
 vessel navigated without spirituous liquors, and such general encou 
 ragement to abstinence continues to be given, that the societies are 
 progressing with vigour and efficiency. 
 
 It must be admitted that few countries required a greater regene 
 ration in point of sobriety, and it is much to their credit that they 
 have as yet surpassed all other nations, who have followed their 
 example in this work of reformation. 
 
 The proximity of Canada to the United States, has rendered the 
 propensities of drinking familiar and habitual to many of the inhabi 
 tants, among whom the practice of manufacturing liquors is pursued 
 nearly in the same manner, but the trade is not equally extensive. 
 
 Numbers of distilleries are now to be found both in Upper and Lower 
 Canada. The Canadian distilleries arp mostly made of wood and 
 worked by steam. On the river Humber, seven miles from the city 
 of Toronto, a distillery has been erected by Mr. Robson, with a 
 description and drawing of which I have been favoured by a gentleman 
 lately resident in that country ; and the annexed engraving has been 
 expressly executed for this work. 
 
343 
 
343 
 
 A is the brick work, in which the iron boiler, with A cylindrical 
 flue running through the centre, is inserted. B and C are the first 
 and second wooden stills of the same size, being 4 feet 8 inches at 
 bottom and 4 feet, 6 inches at top, with an altitude of 6 feet. D is 
 the doubling or low wines still, 2 feet 10 inches at bottom, and 2 feet 
 4 inches at top, the altitude being 3 feet, 9 inches. E is the worm- 
 tub, 6 feet at bottom, 5 feet at top, and 9 feet in altitude, supplied by 
 a copious stream of water. F the low wines and feints receiver. G 
 is the recipient for the spirits previous to passing through the recti 
 fiers or filtering vessels, and is 2 feet at bottom, 2 feet, 4 inches at 
 top, by 2 feet in height. The top diameter of H and I is 2 and the 
 bottom 3 feet ; the altitude being 5 feet. The vessels (H and I) are 
 filled with charcoal and other material tlirough which the liquor gra 
 dually descends in a limpid, gently-flowing current into J, the final 
 receiver or store cask. K is a tank or large vessel for holding warm 
 water for distilling purposes, supplied from the top of the worm-tub, 
 the heat of which is supported by steam from the tube c connected 
 with the boiler, and having a stop-cock for regulation at e. The tank 
 is a reservoir for supplying the mash-tubs with water, of which in the 
 concern there are 14, each measuring 3 feet 4 by 3 feet 6 inches in 
 diameter, ranged on a loft above the stills, in such a manner that after 
 the worts have undergone fermentation in these tubs, they are let 
 clown by a leader or trough into the second still C at g. When the 
 first charge is worked off, the remainder is let into the first still and 
 the second still is charged from the mash-kieve. To facilitate the 
 operation, there are pipes with proper stop-cocks from still to still, 
 such as that at/, and it will be perceived that the whole process of 
 distillation is effected by means of steam admitted through the tube d, 
 projecting from the main upright pipe of the boiler into the first still, 
 B, and so proceeding by other pipes through the other stills. The 
 tubes which convey the steam into the stills, descend to nearly 3 or 4 
 inches of the bottom. 
 
 All the vessels and pipes, as well as the stills, are made of pine ; 
 the pipes are 9 inches square with a bore of 2^ inches in diameter. 
 The steam-boiler is 7 feet deep, the height of which, at the fire-place, 
 is 8 feet, and it is supplied by water from the worm-tub by the 
 pipe , regulated by a stop-cock or ball of lead which is worked 
 by the cord b. It is not necessary to describe the other vessels 
 of this concern, as they are similar to those employed in the 
 distilleries of Scotland and Ireland. The greatest disadvantage 
 attending this apparatus, is the liability of the timber becoming soon 
 unserviceable when the operations are discontinued far any time; but 
 
344 
 
 in a country like Canada, where wood is so plentiful, this inconvenience 
 is easily remedied. 
 
 The wash is usually made from rye, wheat, or Indian corn, with a 
 mixture of one-twentieth part of barley-malt, or one pound to the 
 bushel of mixed grain : some use more. This is ground or crushed 
 in a mill, and then mashed with water at a heat from 158 to 162, 
 others go so so high as 180 and 190 Fahrenheit. The mashing 
 continues till the material is well mixed, and the quicker the mashing, 
 it is considered the better. When mashed, a cover is immediately 
 put on the tub or tubs, or kieves ; in order to preserve the heat as 
 much as possible. The mash is then allowed to remain, with an occa 
 sional stir of the rakes, for about two hours, until the liquid attains 
 its proper sweetness ; at this stage, cold water is added to reduce the 
 heat to 60 or 64, but mostly to 70 and 74, when yeast is added. 
 This yeast is home-made, in country places in particidar, but in the 
 towns it is usually procured from brewers. The tubs or kieves are 
 again covered and allowed to stand until completely fermented, when 
 the operation of distilling commences. The grains and all are put 
 into the still. 
 
 Brewing and distilling are generally carried on in the Canadas from 
 the beginning of October till May. Every person is at liberty to 
 distil as much as he pleases on paying 3s. 9d. for the annual registry 
 or license of Ms still, besides Is. 3d. per gallon on its contents ; yet 
 it is asserted that excess in the use of spirituous liquors is not common, 
 particularly in country places. Distillers are not allowed to sell in 
 quantities less than three gallons without a license, which is obtained 
 from the clerk of the court of the district, and is termed " a store 
 license." For an offence against this regulation, a fine of from 5 to 
 25, according to the culpability of the offender, is imposed, on the 
 testimony of a credible witness. The half of this fine was at one time 
 given to the informer, but latterly he gets nothing. Spirits thus made 
 are commonly sold at from Is. 8d. to 2s. 6d., Halifax currency, or 
 about Is. 4djf. to 2s. Id. sterling, per wine gallon. The spirits is 
 generally of an inferior strength. 
 
 No duty is charged on malt in the Canadas ; and the distillers have, 
 therefore, every encouragement to make use of it in what proportion 
 they may deem necessary for the production of a good and palatable 
 spirit : the ale made from it is celebrated in the West Indies. 
 
 Hops grow in abundance, but particularly flourish in the London 
 and Western districts of Upper Canada. Besides this native supply, 
 quantities are brought from the States and sold generally in bales at 
 from lie?, to I5d. (Halifax currency) per Ib. 
 
345 
 
 The Dutch settlers cultivate apples to great extent, and make 
 a corresponding 1 quantity of excellent cider, the climate being 1 
 extremely favourable to the growth of this fruit and that of melons. 
 Culinary vegetables arrive to great perfection, as well as most of the 
 European fruits. Currants, gooseberries, and raspberries are very 
 fine ; the latter are indigenous and found every where. A sort of 
 native vine is also very common, bearing poor sour grapes not much 
 larger than currants. In almost every part of the country, are to be 
 found two species of the sugar-maple, one is called the swamp-maple, 
 from its being found in the savannahs or plains, the other is called 
 the mountain, or curled-maple, from its growing on hills or high dry 
 grounds and also from the grain of its wood being beautifully varie 
 gated with stripes and curls. The swamp-maple yields more sap 
 than the mountain-maple, but affords less sugar ; two or three gallons 
 of the one producing as much as six or seven gallons of the other. 
 The maple juice is collected in the early part of the spring, which is 
 a laborious business, as it is obtained from a vast number of trees 
 widely dispersed over a great space of ground, and the approach to 
 which is difficult in consequence of the snows. The process of making 
 the sugar is nearly the same as in the States. The juice when boiled 
 is thrown into vessels where it cools in the form and consistence of 
 cakes, and is sometimes mixed with flour, which renders it thick and 
 heavy ; but this is to augment the weight and is considered necessary. 
 It is seldom clarified, though in Upper Canada, it is often made very 
 white and nearly equal to loaf sugar. These cakes of maple-sugar 
 are so hard that they must be scraped down with a knife the better to 
 enable them to dissolve in fluids, and the flavour strongly resembles 
 Canadian horehound, besides which they are said to possess strongly 
 medicinal qualities.* A sampleof the common maple-sugar given to me 
 by a settler, manufactured by himself, resembles the brown sugar of 
 Jamaica ; but is more strongly granulated, and without any other 
 peculiar characteristic. A large quantity of this sugar is annually 
 manufactured, but not to that extent which the country could afford, 
 owing to the cheapness of the article imported from the East and 
 West Indies. 
 
 In the making of maple-sugar, in order to render it as white as 
 possible, it is customary, after the molasses has been partially drained 
 off from the tubs, to lay a piece of cotton cloth over the sugar and 
 apply a cake of rye dough, about one inch thick, which causes the 
 
 * Lambert s Travels through Canada and the United States, vol. i. p. 83. 
 
346 
 
 dregs of the sugar to rise and adhere to the cloth, which must be 
 occasionally removed and cleansed, until the sugar has been fully 
 purified. 
 
 Rum might he manufactured from the maple sugar, but that liquor 
 is principally brought from the West Indies. The great consumption 
 of foreign spirits lessens the demand for those distilled in the 
 province, the French settlers preferring the imported article. 
 
 The following are the imports (in gallons) of the different kinds 
 of liquors at Quebec, Montreal, Gaspe, and New Carlisle, for seven 
 years : 
 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 Madeira wine 
 
 15,353 
 
 16,16X> 
 
 32,669 
 
 22,327 
 
 35,200 
 
 23777 
 
 17217 
 
 Port . . 
 
 39>394 
 
 44,809 
 
 56,619 
 
 79,592 
 
 78,800 
 
 62157 
 
 93257 
 
 Teneri|fe 
 
 24,590 
 
 66,781 
 
 29,049 
 
 94,227 
 
 40,750 
 
 46175 
 
 23872 
 
 Faval . . . 
 
 1,971 
 
 2,090 
 
 532 
 
 100 
 
 4,252 
 
 
 
 83 
 
 Sicilian and ) 
 Spanish > 
 
 17,991 
 
 152,049 
 
 165,172 
 
 131,721 
 
 430,000 
 
 218731 
 
 81242 
 
 Other kinds . 
 
 65,122 
 
 58,368 
 
 66,011 
 
 62,376 
 
 91,000 
 
 50177 
 
 51771 
 
 Brandy . . 
 
 86,607 
 
 81,629 
 
 64,215 
 
 183,613 
 
 296,000 
 
 140300 
 
 273350 
 
 Gin . . . 
 
 13,873 
 
 67,124 
 
 73,414 
 
 60,520 
 
 160,000 
 
 71530 
 
 92406 
 
 Rum,Whis-7 
 key, &c. 5 
 
 1,133,150 
 
 1,449,758 
 
 1,428,283 
 
 1,099,578 
 
 1,082,000 
 
 915988 
 
 994191 
 
 In 1836, the following were the prices of the several beverages 
 in consumption in the principal towns of Lower Canada : 
 
 Wine Champagne per doz., from .. 
 
 Claret, do. 
 
 Madeira, per 110 gallons, 
 
 Port, per 130 do. 
 
 Figuiera, per do. 
 
 Sicilian red, per 120 gallons, ., 
 
 Sherry, first quality, 130 gal.., 
 
 Common, per gallon, 
 Spanish red, first quality, 120 gals. . 
 
 Do. common, do. 
 
 Teneriffe, L. P. do. 
 
 Cargo, do. 
 
 Canadian strong beer per gallon, 
 
 Table do. 
 Brandy Cogniac per gallon, 
 
 Bourdeaux, do.. 
 
 Spanish, do. 
 
 Canadian, do. 
 Hollands Pale in casks, do. 
 Montreal gin, do. 
 
 Do. Whiskey, do. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 ... 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 ... 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 6 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 ... 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 ... 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 ... 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 ... 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 ... 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
347 
 
 s. d. 5. ct. 
 
 Montreal, made in imitation of Scotch, 5 .. 6 3 
 
 Rum Leeward Islands, (1 a 5) do. ... 3 3 ... 034 
 
 Demerara, (1 a 4) do. ... 3 4 ... 3 6 
 
 Jamaica, (1 a 2-J) do. ... 4 ... 4 1 
 
 The number of inn-keepers in Lower Canada, in 1836, was 1180, 
 and of spirit stores 966 ; while the distilleries amounted to 85. The 
 import duty on wine, rum, brandy, and gin, is 6d. and on whiskey, 
 3d. per gallon, as an encouragement to British manufacture. 
 
 The number of inn-keepers in Upper Canada, in 1836, exceeded 
 (according to Evans,) 1007, whose licenses varied from 3 to 10 ; 
 and there were 1063 merchants shops, besides 138 storehouses, in 
 most of which spirits were sold. The license for selling spirits and 
 wines in quantities not less than one quart, was 5. 3s. The penalty 
 for selling without a license, or less than tine regulated quantity, 
 was 20. 
 
 The stills as measured by gallons in the several districts of Upper 
 Canada, in 1836, were as follow : 
 
 Eastern, 
 
 unknown 
 
 Prince Edward, 
 
 ... 150 
 
 Ottawa, 
 
 120 
 
 Newcastle, 
 
 ... 1463 
 
 Bathurst, 
 
 352 
 
 Toronto city, 
 
 uncertain 
 
 Johnstown ... 
 
 228 
 
 Home, 
 
 ... 967 
 
 Midland, 
 
 848 
 
 Gore, 
 
 ... 824 
 
 Niagara, 
 
 425 
 
 Western, 
 
 uncertain 
 
 London. 
 
 1 089 
 
 
 
 Total, 6,466 
 
 From the increase of emigrants, Canada is fast advancing in agri 
 culture and commerce ; the exports of grain to England alone, are 
 said to have been, in one year, nearly three millions of bushels. 
 Besides wheat, barley, rye, oats, &c., buck-wheat is reared to consi 
 derable extent in Lower Canada. At present there are upwards of 
 107,000, acres under cultivation of this grain, and large quantities are 
 consumed in the distilleries. In the States, buck-wheat is much 
 grown, and cakes made of its flour are the bread most in consumption 
 at breakfast : in this custom they resemble the Japanese. This grain 
 is also in use among the distillers of the Union. In Canada, Indian- 
 corn has been found an uncertain crop, owing to the coldness of the 
 climate, and the hardier grains are those most in requisition. 
 
 The beet-root, or mangel-wurzel, is cultivated, but not to any 
 extent ; although it is reared in the United States to such advantage, 
 that they, in the present year (1837), have sent a deputation to France 
 in order to ascertain the best mode of extracting sugar from it. 
 
348 
 
 Wines are manufactured from the different fruits which are common 
 in the country. From frosted potatoes, the Canadians manufacture 
 a good wine, especially if the potatoes are not so much frosted as to 
 become soft and watery. They crush them to a pulpy consistence, 
 and to each bushel add ten gallons of water, which is first prepared by 
 boiling for one half-hour with -^Ib. of hops and ^lb. of common ginger. 
 This mixture is thrown upon the potatoes in a suitable vessel, and 
 allowed to stand for three days, after which a little yeast is added. 
 When the fermentation has ceased, the liquor is drawn off into a cask 
 clear of the dregs, when -Jib. of raw sugar is added to every gallon 
 which the cask contains. Here a partial fermentation takes place, and 
 after three months it is deemed fit for use. Some add the sugar in 
 the first instance. 
 
 The distillers make whiskey from potatoes when injured by frost, 
 and allege that they produce a greater quantity and a finer quality of 
 spirit than if they were used fresh ; the frost having more strongly 
 developed the saccharine principle. To promote the fermentation, 
 about one-fourth of malt-wash is added ; care, however, should be 
 taken to allow the malt-worts to ferment at least six hours before the 
 potato-wash is added ; otherwise the potato-wash, which runs quickly 
 into fermentation, will be sooner ready for the still than the malt- 
 wash. Hence the effect would be to generate an acid which would 
 render the spirit coarse, and, when diluted with water, produce a 
 milky or bluish colour, offensive both to the taste and to the eye. 
 
 The Canadas afford a sufficient supply of honey for the manufac 
 ture of mead, though wild and not of first rate quality. In the hollows 
 of the trees in the woods, bees nests are abundant, but these sweet 
 treasures are unsought for by any but the bears. Chateaubriand asserts, 
 that bees are imports, not indigenous, in the New World, and that 
 they were emigrants with Columbus. " These pacific conquerors," he 
 says, " have robbed the flowers of the New World of such treasures 
 only as the natives knew not the use of, and these treasures they have 
 employed solely to enrich the soil from whence they derived them. 
 What a happy world if all invasions or conquests resembled that of 
 those children of the sky I" On the contrary, Dr. Dwight affirms that 
 the honey-bee is a native of America, since it was found in the forests 
 too early, and at too great a distance from European settlements, to 
 have been derived from importation. 
 
 Among the drinks of the Canadians, spruce beer is in considerable 
 repute. The mode of making it is, by first boiling the shoots, leaves, 
 chips, and cones, of the black pine tree in water, to which highly- 
 dried rye, barley, or maize-meal is added. The mixture is then 
 
319 
 
 fermented by means of barm, but in order to overcome the resinous 
 flavour of the fir, sugar, or molasses, is superadded. This liquor, which 
 is fit for drinking on the second day, is of a fine amber colour ; it is 
 diuretic, wholesome, agreeable, and will keep for a length of time 
 without becoming acid, owing to the influence of the resinous principle 
 of the fir. A more simple mode is practised in Lower Canada, 
 namely, The top branches of the spruce tree are boiled, and molasses 
 added to the liquid, and then fermented, after which it is commonly 
 bottled and fit for use. 
 
 As country taverns are numerous, they are generally established 
 on the public roads during the summer ; but in the winter, temporary 
 wooden establishments are erected on the rivers which are then frozen, 
 and are the public thoroughfare of travellers. Sometimes fatal acci 
 dents occur by sudden thaws and floods, by which these floating 
 taverns are swept away with their inmates. The trunks of trees are 
 sometimes scooped out and made convenient resting places, having 
 accommodations for travellers ; they are so large as to admit of being 
 moulded into temporary dwellings. An inn of this kind was made in 
 a sycamore growing on the banks of the Mohawk river, in Oneida 
 County. When cut down, it took 31 yoke of oxen to remove it, 
 though denuded of its branches. It formed a saloon, was handsomely 
 furnished, and sufficiently capacious to contain upwards of forty 
 persons. 
 
 The numerous hordes of savages who wander through the vast 
 woods and deserts of this great continent, use, for the most part, 
 beverages either made by themselves or furnished by their civilized 
 neighbours. Their propensity to intoxication is in general very 
 strong, but their poverty prevents them from indulging in it. Brandy, 
 says Kalm, has killed more of them than any of the diseases with 
 which they have been infected. That liquor was unknown to them 
 before Europeans visited the country. To die by drinking brandy 
 was considered a desirable and honourable death. A savage being 
 asked by a French officer what he thought this drink was made of, 
 gave for answer " It is made of tongues and hearts ; for when I 
 have drunk of it, I fear nothing, and I talk like an angel." These 
 kind-hearted creatures, when a stranger appears among them, conduct 
 him to a hut where he is presented with the calamut of peace, and a 
 bowl, sacred to friendship, filled with maple juice, when after having 
 taken his pleasure of the liquor, the host quaffs the residue as a pledge 
 of future confidence and alliance. When they assemble together for 
 any purpose, they never separate without a drunken revel, which 
 
350 
 
 often continues for several days. Regardless of what may be the 
 fatal effects, they continue till the last drop is exhausted. 
 
 One very extraordinary meeting, at which a great deal of the 
 native and foreign beverages is consumed, is termed the feast of the 
 dead. It is peculiar to all the American savages residing in the Gulf 
 of Mexico, the Mississippi, and the Ohio, and is strikingly worthy of 
 attention. During the feast, which is probably a remnant of Mexican 
 superstition, the bodies of all who have died since the last solemn 
 festival of the kind are taken out of their graves, though they may- 
 have been interred at the greatest distance, and brought to the carnival 
 or rendezvous of carcasses. It is not difficult to conceive the horror 
 that must be excited by this general disinterment, but the enthusiasm 
 of the [ndian mind renders it insensible to that feeling. When the 
 feast is over, the dead bodies are again interred ; and some indivi 
 duals perform incredible journeys with their deceased friends on their 
 backs to deposit them in the grave from which they had been raised.* 
 This ceremony of respect, though so rudely performed to the memory 
 of departed friends, is in coincidence with the annual festival kept in 
 Bengal, Thibet, and other Eastern nations, in honour of the dead ; 
 and it corroborates the opinion that the Americans are descendants 
 of the great Asiatic family. 
 
 The practice observed by many members of the Greek Church in 
 Albania, in Europe, is a further illustration of this fact. They hold 
 feasts at their interments, and have commemorations on the 15th, 21st, 
 and 40th days after, with repetitions at the end of the third, sixth, 
 ninth, and twelfth months ; and at the expiration of three years, when 
 the bones are disinterred, washed with wine, tied in a bag, and depo 
 sited in a church for three days before they are placed in the ceme 
 tery. Even the relatives give entertainments on those occasions in 
 in proportion to their circumstances.f 
 
 The Brazilian savages usually meet, on the day appointed for 
 a feast, early in the morning at the first house of the village, where 
 they consume most of the liquor, and make themselves merry with 
 dancing; They afterwards remove to the next house, and then pro 
 ceed until nothing is left, or until they can drink no longer ; the 
 scene that follows this general intoxication is disgusting in the 
 extreme. 
 
 Some of the tribes, bordering on the United States sensible of .the 
 dangers attendant on such excesses, have wisely decreed a prohibition 
 of spirituous liquors^ and one infringing this law is deprived of the 
 
 * Bolingbroke, &c. 4td; f Hughcs s Travels, vol. ii. p. 85 
 
351 
 
 right of citizenship. The Ricaras evinced great resolution in this 
 respect, refusing, with a degree of indignation, an offer of whiskey 
 from an American party, and testifying surprise that their great 
 father, the President, should send them a liquor which possessed the 
 quality of making them fools. The Muscogulges, in a treaty with 
 the whites, stipulated that the latter should not sell spirituous liquors 
 to the allied nations ; these they called " French poison or liquid fire." 
 A warrior of the Kansas tribe exhorted his countrymen " not to 
 drink the poisonous strong water of the white people. It was sent 
 by the bad spirit to destroy the Indians. I have seen its evil effects, 
 but its victims are all gone ; like a decayed prairie tree, I stand alone, 
 the companions of my youth, the partakers of my sports, my toils, 
 and my dangers, recline their heads on the bosom of our mother : 
 my sun is fast descending behind the western hills, and I feel that it 
 will soon be night with me. Beware of the destroyer arid the magic 
 charms of its influence." 
 
 It is remarkable, says Dr. Robertson, that the women are not per 
 mitted to participate in the debauches of the Indians. Their pro 
 vince is to prepare the liquor, to serve it about to the guests, and to 
 take care of their husbands and friends, when their reason is over 
 powered. Although this observation is applicable to some tribes, it 
 is not universally so. A recent traveller assures us, that a drunken 
 Indian and his squaw act more like demons than rational beings when 
 under the paroxysm of inebriation ; and that sometimes a whole 
 village, both men and women, is so debased by it, as to bear no inapt 
 resemblance to the infernal regions. The white traders often unge 
 nerously take advantage of such occasions to defraud the Indians, who, 
 when they become sober, seek a desperate revenge either in the 
 destruction of life or property. A gentleman, who was an eye-witness, 
 gives the following description of a scene, that took place after the 
 interment of an Indian of the Occoquan tribe : - 
 
 The dance, says he, took place by moonlight, and it was scarcely 
 finished when the chief or principal warrior produced a keg of whiskey, 
 and having taken a draught, passed it round among his brethren. 
 The squaws now moved the tomahawks into the wood, and a scene of 
 riot ensued. The keg was soon emptied. The effects of the liquor 
 became apparent in the looks and motions of the Indians. Some 
 rolled their eyes with distraction, others could not keep on their legs; 
 At length succeeded the most dismal noises. Such whoops, such 
 shouts, such roaring, such yells, all the devils of hell seemed collected 
 together. Each strove to do an outrage on the other* This seized 
 the other by the throat, that kicked with raging fury. And to com- 
 
352 
 
 plete the scene, the whole warrior was uttering the most mournful 
 lamentations over the keg 1 he had emptied ; inhaling its flavour with 
 his lips, holding it out with his hands in a supplicating attitude, and 
 vociferating to the byestanders, Scuttawawah ! Scuttawawah ! 
 More strong drink ! More strong drink ! 
 
 Amidst the weakness and depravity into which intoxication betrays 
 those uneducated beings, some admirable specimens of presence of 
 mind and firmness of disposition are related, that would do honour to 
 any country. An old warrior is said on one occasion to have been 
 placed in a very embarrassing situation, through the insulting conduct 
 of a set of drunken fellows that he met accidentally in a dram-shop, on 
 the borders of one of the States. This chief, after taking some drink 
 by way of refreshment, was so affected by it, that he seemed to forget 
 his native dignity, and entered into very familiar conversation with 
 the whites. Advantage was taken of this weakness, and the party 
 insisted on his drinking more, threatening, in case he did not, to drench 
 him w r ith whiskey. The man, with a noble and fearless countenance, 
 turned upon the company, and addressing himself, with a contemptuous 
 and scowling aspect, to the landlord, who was a highly respectable 
 person, said " No blood when much talk chattering belongs to 
 women and wild geese." Then snatching a board on which was 
 pinned a piece of w r hite paper, he placed it at the distance of a hundred 
 yards ; and, taking aim with his musket, shot a ball through the centre ; 
 reloaded, and repeated the act with the same success. Immediately 
 after he grasped his tomahawk and threw it against a tree, with such 
 force and precision as to cleave the part intended. " Thus," said he, 
 addressing the astonished beholders, " Indian man provide for his wife 
 and little ones in peace thus defend them in war." The effect was 
 such as anticipated, and his rude opponents retired without oifering 
 him further molestation. Another anecdote favourable to the char 
 acter of the American savages is related by Dr. Dwight. An Ame 
 rican called one evening at an inn in the town of Lichfield, and 
 requested of the landlady to furnish him with some drink and a supper, 
 observing at the same time, with great candour, that he could not then 
 pay for either, as he had no success that day in hunting. Both drink 
 and supper were refused, and he was ordered to go about his business 
 for a lazy, drunken, good-for-nothing fellow. The Indian was about 
 to retire, when a man that was present, observed that he appeared 
 much distressed, and showed by his countenance that he was suffering 
 very much from want and weariness. He directed the hostess to 
 supply him with what he desired and that he would pay the expense. 
 Accordingly, drink and supper were served up, which, Avhen the 
 
353 
 
 Indian had finished, ho turned with a grateful heart to his benefactor, 
 and assured him that he should remember his kindness, and whenever 
 he was able he would recompense it. For the present, he observed, 
 lie could only reward him with a story, which he would relate if the 
 landlady would permit him. She having consented, and addressing 
 himself to his benefactor, he said, " I suppose you read the Bible." 
 The man assented. " Well," said the Indian, " the Bible says, God 
 made the world, and then he took him and looked on him, and says its 
 all very good. Then he made light, and took him, and says its all very 
 good. Then he made dry land and water, and sun and moon, and 
 grass and trees, and took him and looked on him, and say its all very 
 good. Then he made man and took him, and looked on him, and 
 say its all very good. Then he made woman, and took him and looked 
 on him, and he no dare say one such word ;" after saying which, the 
 Indian withdrew. Some years after, the man who had thus treated 
 the Indian was captured by a native tribe and carried into Canada, 
 where he would have suffered death but for the interference of an old 
 Indian woman, who adopted him in the room of a son that she had 
 lost in the wars. There he lived for an entire winter,, and, in the 
 course of the following summer, when one day working alone in the 
 forest, he was accosted by an unknown Indian, who desired him to 
 meet him on a given day, at a place which he pointed out. The fear 
 of fatal consequences deterred him from fulfilling his engagement ; 
 but, soon after, he was again accosted by the same Indian, who eluded 
 him for not performing his promise. The man apologized, when the 
 Indian told him he would be satisfied if lie would meet him at the 
 same place on a future day, which he named. He complied, and found 
 the Indian punctual to his appointment, and provided with two mus 
 kets, ammunition, and two knapsacks, which he divided between them. 
 Bending their course towards the south, they travelled for several 
 days, shooting such game as came in their way, and sleeping by night 
 in the forest, at a fire kindled for their preservation, till at length they 
 reached an eminence which presented a cultivated country interspersed 
 with houses, and bearing all the appearance of civilisation. The 
 Indian stopping short, turned to his companion, and asked* him if he 
 knew the ground. " Yes !" replied the man eagerly, " there is Lich- 
 field !" His guide, who had been mysteriously silent during the 
 course of the journey, then reminded him that many years before he 
 had relieved the wants of a famishing Indian in that town, and exclaimed, 
 " I that Indian, now I pay you ! Go home !" Having said this, he 
 
 2 A 
 
354 
 
 bade him adieu, and the man joyfully returned to his own home."* 
 D wight, in describing the savages of New England, says, their 
 devotion to strong drink is excessive, and that they will part with 
 every thing they possess for ardent spirits or cider. The pleasures 
 which intoxication excites, vary the dull course of feeling, and impart 
 visions of transport which nothing else seems so well calculated to 
 elicit. To this passion for drink, the poor Indian is chiefly directed 
 by the allurements of the white traders, a great portion of whose 
 profits is derived not only from the sale of the spirits, but from the 
 advantage obtained by them over the natives in the moments of intoxi 
 cation. To encourage this "Vice among them seemed a part of their 
 trade, and the Indians, becoming familiar with the licentiousness of 
 these traders, imbibed a dislike and a distrust for all Christians ; and 
 hence the difficulties which missionaries have had to encounter 
 amongst them. The extravagance and folly which too often occur 
 among the white?, in their intercourse with the natives, have been 
 productive of great mischief to their moral habits : ever ready 
 to grasp at whatever would afford immediate enjoyment, they held 
 strong drink to be foremost in the comforts of life, exiling it, in 
 the language of the Shakers, " one of God s good creatures." It was 
 a maxim among the Iroquois,that a drunken man ought not to be held 
 responsible for his actions, nor be accounted as a moral agent ; hence 
 at times they became intoxicated, that they might quarrel without 
 disgrace, as they never disputed unless when under the influence of 
 liquor ; it being considered scandalous for a man to fight when he 
 was sober. An old chief of this nation, being in Albany upon one 
 occasion, got intoxicated to such excess, that in the morning he found 
 himself lying in the streets naked, and, revolting at his self-degra 
 dation, he resolved never again to deliver himself over to the power 
 of strong water a resolution he was never known to violate. The 
 fatal effects of ardent spirits among the native Americans, are too well 
 known to require further illustration, indeed these liquors have done 
 more mischief than their diseases and wars combined. Humboldt, 
 however, states, that in the forests of Guiana, on the banks of the 
 Orinoco, the Indians shewed an aversion to brandy; and he met with 
 several tribes who were very sober, and whose fermented drinks were 
 too weak to intoxicate. The missionaries have done a great deal 
 towards the reformation of the natives of North America. Some of 
 them are now preachers, and in many parts of Upper Canada, 
 
 * Dwight s Travels in New England and New York, vol. i. pp. 87, 88. 
 
355 
 
 in particular, they will not allow spirits to be vended amongst 
 them. 
 
 Kotzebue, in his account of New California, describes the town of 
 Pueblo (a new Russian settlement), as seated in the midst of orchards 
 and hedges of vines bearing luxuriant clusters of the richest grapes ; 
 and good wine is consequently obtained. About Ross, another 
 Russian settlement in New California, (lat. 38J) he thinks that the 
 vine might be cultivated to great advantage, as wild grapes were 
 found in abundance on the banks of the rivers, the clusters large, the 
 fruit sweet and well-flavoured, and eaten without any inconvenience 
 both by settlers and Indians. The vitis vinifera of the Greeks and 
 Romans was first planted in California by missionaries in 1769, though 
 they found a species of wild vine bearing large grapes of a sour 
 quality. Since that period, good wine is produced in various districts 
 of the country to a considerable extent. The natives manufacture 
 vases from the stalks of rushes, which they render impenetrable to 
 water by a lair or varnish of asphaltes, and in these they carry wine 
 and other liquors to suit their convenience. When the Californians 
 were solicited to carry on a trade with the Mexicans, they resisted 
 the measure nearly in the following words : " There is amongst us 
 no quarrelling, nor fighting for another man s property ; we live happy 
 and contented ; we are trained to valour, not to revenge. How diffe 
 rent is the conduct of Christians ! They drink fire (spirits) ; they 
 beat their families, assassinate their friends, rob each other, and, under 
 the mask of religion, persecute the helpless, and betray the strong. 
 How then can we suffer Christians to come among us ?" 
 
 The Californians intoxicate themselves by a species of beverage made 
 from an herb, which they chew in the same way as some of the South 
 Sea Islanders inebriate themselves withava. They also make use of 
 drink from the infusion of the pod of the mosquite tree steeped in 
 water. It is naturally of a saccharine nature, and, when fermented, 
 readily intoxicates. Wine is made in some parts of California from 
 the grape, and a spirit from the Mezcal, a species of socotrine aloe. 
 In making this spirit, the green leaves of the mezcal are cut off to 
 prevent them from giving a bad taste to the spirits. The heart of 
 the plant is roasted in an oven, which is merely a hole three or four 
 feet deep, and twelve feet in diameter. This hole is heated by wood 
 until reduced to charcoal, when stones are spread over it, and when 
 they become hot the prepared hearts of the mezcal plant are piled on 
 them, and then covered with grass to keep in the heat. When suffi 
 ciently roasted, they are taken out and thrown into leathern sacks, 
 
356 
 
 into which is poured a proportionable quantity of water which pro 
 duces fermentation. In the course of six or eight days, the liquor, is fit 
 for the still, and, after double distillation, acquires great strength and is 
 then marketable. The wild bears are so fond of the fermented mezcal, 
 that they often visit a distillery to obtain a draught of it, on which a 
 watchman is ever on the look out to prevent their dcpradations. The 
 vine yields excellent fruit, producing wine resembling Canary. Here 
 also maize and the jatropha manihot flourish luxuriantly. Roque- 
 feuil, in his Voyage round the World, describes that portion of Cali 
 fornia along the San Sacramento river as very fertile, vines growing 
 spontaneously, and maize so productive, as hardly to require any 
 attention. Jewett, in his account of the inhabitants of Nootka Sound, 
 says, that they were unacquainted with ardent spirits before their 
 intercourse with the whites ; but they soon became fond of rum, and 
 preferred it to any other liqtior. From a people so extremely rude, 
 that their choicest viands are eaten with a profusion of train-oil for 
 sauce, not excepting even the most delicate fruit, strawberries and 
 raspberries, little can be expected, particularly as they knew no other 
 mode of boiling them than that of throwing burning stones into the 
 water. The yama, a species of berry that grows on bushes, like 
 currants, of about two or three feet high, is black and about the size 
 of a pistol-bullet, of an oblong shape, and open at top like the blue 
 whortle-berry. The taste is sweet, mixed with a little acidity. The 
 women gather them chiefly on the mountains : great quantities are 
 collected, and, to preserve them, they are pressed, dried, and laid up 
 in baskets for use. Strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries 
 abound ; from all of which it is singular that the natives have never 
 discovered the art of extracting any inebriating liquor.* 
 
 Leaving the Western World, the first islands of any consideration 
 in the wine and brandy trade in the Atlantic Ocean, are the Azores 
 nnd the Canary Islands. The Azores are fruitful in grain, and the 
 vine is cultivated so extensively, that the island of Pico alone, accord 
 ing to Captain Mundy, produces 20,000 pipes of wine annually.| 
 The chief vineyards in this island are planted on the sides and base 
 of the peak, which is a conical mountain, giving name to the island, 
 iind rising to the height of 7,000 feet above the level of the sea. As 
 the peak was generated by the eruption of fire from the bottom of 
 the ocean, its soil is decomposed lava lying on a stratum of lavatic 
 
 _ * Jewell s Advenlures and Sufferings among the Savages of Nootka Sound, 
 8vo. 1824. 
 
 f Pen and Pencil Sketches of a Tour in India, vol. ii. p. 371. 
 
357 
 
 stone. Hero the vines grow luxuriantly, and nothing can exceed the 
 grandeur of the decorations on the sides and base of this majestic cone, 
 consisting of gardens, vineyards, and corn-grounds, with groups of 
 people perpetually occupied, exhibiting a wonderful contrast to the 
 rude uncultivated summit of its snow-topt apex. This extraordinary 
 volcanic production has the singular property, that when the peak 
 is struck accidentally, or intentionally, it reverberates sounds causing 
 sensations as if the vibrations were issuing from unfathomable caverns 
 equally unknown as the depths of the ocean that surrounds it. 
 
 The wine is of the colour and flavour of Madeira, is cheaper by 50 
 per cent., and held in great estimation in the West Indies, from its 
 superiority over the wines in a hot climate. On this acccount the 
 colonial merchants keep an agent at Fayal, who contracts for the 
 principal portion of each vintage of the island ; same of thgse are so 
 fertile as to afford two crops in the year, and the export of grain and 
 pro visions is so considerable, as, in good seasons, to freight 70 vessels, 
 each from 80 to 100 tons burden. For the preservation of corn, pits 
 are dug with an entrance large enough to admit a man, and to receive 
 about three lasts of corn, each containing 108 bushels of 401bs. a 
 bushel. Here the grain is stored in July, and secured by a stone-lid 
 with a lock, which is then carefully covered with earth to keep it air 
 tight. In this manner it is preserved to suit the convenience and meet 
 the wants of the inhabitants. A spurious spirit is frequently imported 
 into these islands from the Brazils, which the common people use in 
 preference to their own wine ; but the consumption has been nearly 
 counteracted by the pure West India rum and the liquors of their 
 own distillation.* 
 
 The Canaries, which at one time had large sugar plantations, and 
 were the only settlements likely to cope with our colonies in the West 
 Indies, have been long devoted to the cultivation of the vine. The 
 brandies distilled in those islands, particularly in that of Grand Canary, 
 are in great demand in the foreign settlements of the Spaniards and 
 in North America. The island of Teneriffe alone, produces about 
 25,000 pipes of white wine annually, of which the greater portion is 
 exported, and the remainder is kept either for home consumption, or 
 to be manufactured into brandy.f M. Bory estimates the average pro 
 duce of wine in this island to be but 22,000 pipes, while the whole of 
 the Canaries are said to yield 40,000 pipes. Among the Teneriffe 
 wines is to be included the vin de malvasia, or malmsey, a very rich 
 and luscious sack, which was, in the seventeenth century, a great 
 
 * History of the Azores, 4lo. p. 294. 
 f Staunton * Embassy, vol. i. p. 88. 
 
358 
 
 favourite in England. Sac was the beverage so highly prized by 
 Falstaff, and administered to the dying Lefevre, by the philanthropic 
 and warm-hearted hero of Sterne in his Tristram Shandy. This wine 
 was denominated Malvasia, or Malmsey, from the name of a town in 
 the Morea, and supposed to be a corruption from Malea, the ancient 
 name of a portion of Laconia, in the Grecian Peleponnessus. Various 
 reasons have been assigned for the application of the term sac, some 
 referring it to one origin, and some to another. Whether sac be a 
 corruption of the word sec(dry), or is derived from Xeque, a town of 
 Morocco, where this wine was produced in abundance, or else from 
 being made from half-dried grapes, as was frequently the practice, or 
 from the skins, sacks, or bags, in which the Spaniards preserved their 
 wine ; or from sacco, (saccus in Latin) the Spanish for a linen bag, or 
 that sac signified a white wine as being clarified by filtration through 
 a linen bag, as was the case with some of the wines of the ancients, 
 must ever remain a matter of mere conjecture, or of hypothetic assump 
 tion. For the probable derivation of the term (sack), which has 
 caused, perhaps, more research than the matter deserves, the reader 
 is referred to page 239. Sweet woods are so plentiful, that the 
 common utensils of the vineyards, as well as the wine-casks, are made 
 of them, which are said to impart to the liquor an odoriferous flavour. 
 A view of the quantity of wine shipped from the Canaries to Great 
 Britain, for a series of years, will be found in a Table of the Addenda. 
 The island of Madeira is remarkable for being the first place in the 
 western hemisphere, in which the Arundo saccharifera, or sugar 
 cane, was cultivated. Little sugar, however, is now raised in this 
 island, the grapes engrossing the whole attention of the inhabitants. 
 The little sugar that is made is uncommonly fine, and said to emit an 
 odour similar to that of the violet. It is a boast of the inhabitants 
 that they have the best wheat, the finest sugar, and the finest wines 
 in the world, besides the clearest water, the most salubrious air, and 
 a freedom from all noxious animals. The vine was introduced into 
 Madeira from Cyprus, by Prince Henry of Portugal, some time pre 
 vious to the year 1445, or, as Chaptal has it, to 1420. The cultiva 
 tors say, that the varieties of this plant in the island are unlimited. 
 The best wine is that made in the south ; the wines of the north 
 are very inferior, and remarkable for their acidulous qualities. 
 What is called Tinta, or tent, resembles Burgundy, when new, both 
 in colour and flavour. Age gives it the appearance of port : it is the 
 only red wine made on the island, and, to fix its colour, it is allowed 
 to ferment with the husks of the fruit ; but a great portion of it is 
 mixed with other wines. Here it may be remarked, that in making 
 
359 
 
 Madeira wine, grapes of every description are mixed together, 
 except the Malmsey and Sercial grapes. The former affords a wine 
 superior to any sweet wine, and the latter, another preferable to any 
 dry wine, combining, as a late writer expresses it, with the ordinary 
 richness and flavour of the Madeira, an serative property and stimu- 
 lancy, as it were of spirit, that leaves nothing to be desired : the 
 grape from which the sercial is made, is said to have come from 
 Hockheim. The Bual, another wine of a rare grape, is excellent, 
 and said to be of Burgundy descent.* Of Malmsey there are three 
 kinds, the fermentation of which is checked at an earlier stage than 
 that of any other description made in Madeira, in order to increase 
 its richness and sweetness : about 500 pipes of Malmsey are the 
 annual productions of this article alone. It is calculated that one 
 pipe of wine to an acre is the average produce of the vineyards of the 
 island, making in all, according to Staunton, about 25,000 pipes, of 
 120 gallons each.f This produce, however, must vary in proportion 
 to the favourable or unfavourable nature of the seasons. In 1813, 
 the produce of the whole island was 22,314 pipes, of which 101 went 
 to the Bishop ; that of Porto Santo, was 695 pipes ; according to 
 Walsh, who visited this island in 1828, the produce was about 30,000 
 pipes. In the management of the vineyards, the practice is much 
 the same in Madeira as in France, and the other wine countries of 
 Europe. The propagation is by cuttings, and it is only about the 
 fourth year after planting, that the fruit produces wine. It was not 
 until after disappointments in the produce of the grapes, that the 
 inhabitants were persuaded to engraft their vines, a practice which 
 has since proved to be of great advantage. The vines are supported 
 on trellis work of cane about three feet from the ground. Grapes 
 grow in Madeira, at an elevation of 2,700 feet above the level of the 
 sea, but no wine can be made from any reared at a greater elevation 
 than 2080 feet. The stony and poorest soils produce the best wines, 
 resembling in those respects, the vineyards of the Rhine, where 
 the vine grows among the dry shingles with scarcely a particle of 
 mould. The mode of obtaining the juice from the grape is pressure 
 with the feet and arms on the fruit, when collected and placed in a 
 trough, or reservoir, constructed for the purpose. The stalks are 
 afterwards subjected to the force of a lever, which, acting on a board, 
 causes the remaining fluid to exude, and thereby increase the 
 quantity of the must. Sufficient care was not taken for a long time, 
 
 * Rambles in Madeira and Portugal, 8vo. pp. 155, 156. 
 f Staunton s Embassy, vol. i. p. 52. 
 
360 
 
 in Madeira, to separate good grapes from those of an inferior quality ; 
 and hence the produce was often of an indifferent description. Of 
 late years, however, the greatest possible care has been taken to 
 select the best fruit for the wine- press ; and to that is owing the 
 character of the wines of this island. The general average growth 
 is from 25,000 to 30,000 pipes, the annual exports of which are said 
 to be from 15,000 to 16,000 pipes ; 7,000 of these are sent annually 
 to England, 3,000 to America, and 5,500 to India. 
 
 Madeira wine will not bear the sea without a powerful admixture 
 of brandy ; and this is generally added, immediately after the fer 
 mentation, and before it is refined with isinglass. But this opera 
 tion is often performed in England, after which it is termed London 
 particular, and the brandy is added more or less, according to the 
 climate for which it is designed. 
 
 In the making of the wines, gypsum is used to clarify and mellow 
 them, but how far this practice is valuable, must be for the considera 
 tion of those conversant with the manufacture. When one or two of 
 the planters have taken in their vintage, which happens in Septem 
 ber, all must immediately follow,* the example ; otherwise the rats, 
 the lizards, and the wasps, would commit great ravages, being the 
 principal enemies to be encountered. Besides those, the dogs have 
 to be chained, or muzzled, to prevent them from devouring the grapes, 
 of which they are so excessively fond. The brandy used in the 
 vineyards is made chiefly from the wines manufactured in the north 
 of the island, and from the lees of the several vintages. The streets of 
 the towns in Madeira, particularly those of Funchal, the capital, are 
 exceedingly steep and paved with small stones, set edgewise, which 
 render the way sharp and slippery. To carry burdens up those 
 ascents, a small breed of bullocks are trained for the purpose, and 
 yoked two a-breast. In the removal of wine, as well as of other 
 articles, a slide capable of holding two casks, is attached by ropes to 
 the bullocks, which are guided by a peasant with a prong, and having 
 a cord running through the tips of their horns, by which they are 
 managed. Another person keeps the slide constantly moistened with 
 a wet cloth, by which it glides along freely. The skins of goats and 
 calves are dressed whole and inflated, preserving the shape and size 
 of the animal, and employed for carrying water and wine occasionally. 
 
 Flowers and slirubs being abundant, bees are numerous, and honey 
 is to be had of the finest description. The people are so particularly 
 careful in their treatment of those insects, that they extract the 
 honey from the hive without killing any of them. This is effected by 
 means of a tube filled with dry cow-clung, which being ignited, the 
 
SGI 
 
 smoke is driven into the hive, foul the bees forced from their cells, 
 to which they return their labours, after being deprived of their 
 former treasure. Mead, however, forms no part of the native 
 beverages, though it might be manufactured to an extent capable of 
 supplying a larger population. 
 
 For an account of the extent of the wine trade of Madeira for 
 several years, see the table in the Addenda. 
 
 As there are not any other islands in the Atlantic, -which afford 
 materials connected with this subject, and a survey having been 
 taken of the various beverages, wliich foreign nations have at dif 
 ferent times invented, Europe is next to be considered, as being the 
 most important portion of the civilized world, where the arts and 
 sciences have made the greatest advances, and where luxury is car 
 ried to a pitch of refinement hitherto unknown. To the efforts of 
 the Greeks much is to be attributed, and from them the Romans bor 
 rowed most of those inventions, the knowledge of which they dissemi 
 nated wherever their conquests extended. The crusades also laid 
 open to the observations of Europeans, a state of existence superior 
 to their own, that seemed to elevate the human character beyond 
 that of which they had any previous conception. To acquire the 
 luxuries of the East, a spirit of enterprise was excited, and an 
 impulse given to commerce that led men to the exercise of every 
 faculty, which could tend to surpass, enable them to imitate, or serve 
 to procure, whatever was considered in other countries as valuable, 
 rare, or magnificent. To these purposes, the discovery of the art of 
 printing and the application of the mariner s compass contributed 
 not a little. 
 
 Of the chemical attainments of the Saracens, a brief history has 
 already been given ; but whether to them is to be attributed the 
 introduction of the still into Spain, or to other factitious circum 
 stances, cannot be accurately determined. Anderson, in his History 
 of Commerce, has placed the date of the introduction in the year 
 1150, but on what authority he has not related. That this art was 
 known at an early period, there can be no question, even sup 
 posing that the Saracens were the first who introduced it into 
 Europe. From the writings of Rhazes and Geber, the former of 
 whom resided in Seville, at the court of Almanzor, in the ninth cen 
 tury, it appears that distillation was practised with success in their 
 time, proving that Anderson had not made himself sufficiently 
 acquainted with its origin and progress. When, therefore, this art 
 was so familiar in the ninth, why fix its introduction in the twelfth 
 century, as has been done by the various compilers of almost all our 
 
362 
 
 Encyclopaedias ; thus resting on the solitary assertion of a writer, 
 who seems to have been little conversant with the subject, and who 
 displays neither research nor accuracy in so important a matter. In 
 a former part of this work, it was shown that the art of distillation 
 was practised by the people of the East, long before it was known to 
 the Arabs ; and this is further confirmed by the authority of an 
 ancient Hindu manuscript, cited by the Asiatic Journal, from which 
 it appears that a distilled liquor, resembling brandy, was known, 
 under the name of Kea-Sum, from an early period of antiquity. 
 Amongst the African Moors, it was practised with a rude apparatus 
 in the same way, as it is, at the present day, in many parts of the 
 East. 
 
 The first spirit of which there is any account in Europe, was made 
 from the grape, and sold as a medicine both in Italy and Spain, 
 under the Arabic term alcohol. The Genoese, in the thirteenth 
 century, dealt largely in it, and are said to have acquired consider 
 able sums in the sale of this article, named likewise aqua vitce. They 
 were the first Europeans who prepared this liquor from grain, and 
 they sold it in small bottles at a very dear rate. In 1270, a Floren 
 tine physician recommended spirit of wine, as possessing great 
 virtues and effecting valuable medicinal purposes. Mariana tells us, 
 that the vine was among the first objects of the early husbandry of 
 the Spaniards ; and that although the primitive inhabitants com 
 monly drank water, yet they were no strangers to wine, hence 
 affording them, from the most remote antiquity, an article on which 
 to exercise their inventive powers. If, according to this writer, 
 Tubal,the son of Japheth, were the first man that peopled Spain, after 
 the flood, no doubt the art of wine-making, as practised by Noah, 
 was made familiar to the Spaniards.* Strabo states, that although 
 the making of beer was peculiar to the Egyptians, yet it was com 
 mon in other countries, where different methods were employed in 
 manufacturing that liquor ; and that the ancient Lusitanians (Por 
 tuguese,) before wine was plentiful among them, used zythum as a 
 substitute, which, of course, must also have been familiar in Spain. 
 
 Polybius speaks of a Celtic king of part of Iberia, or Spain, who 
 affected great pomp, and had, in the middle of his hall, golden and 
 silver bowls full of barley-wine, of which every one quaffed at 
 pleasure ; a custom that afterwards prevailed in different parts of 
 Europe. The Egyptians, no doubt, communicated the invention of 
 
 Mariana s History of Spain, folio, pp. 2 and 5. Stephen s Translation, 
 1699. 
 
363 
 
 this liquor to the Babylonians and Hebrews, who, it is probable, 
 transmitted it northwards to the Thracians and CeltH, both of Spain 
 and Gaul, and thence to the British Isles. Aristotle s notion of this 
 liquor is rather extraordinary. Those intoxicated with it, he says, 
 fall on the back of their heads, whereas those deeply affected with 
 wine fall on their faces. This wine from barley was called %vrov 
 (brutonj, by the Greeks, which, in all likelihood, w r as its original 
 Egyptian or Celtic name, and from the same word may have been 
 derived our familiar term brew. 
 
 A long period elapsed after the introduction of alcohol^ before it 
 was used in the preservation of wine. The improvements, which 
 were subsequently introduced in the manufacture, brought the spirit 
 into frequent and common use, and hence it became an article of 
 great value in commerce. 
 
 At present, brandy is distilled in almost every province of Spain ; 
 but the quantity produced and consumed is much smaller than that 
 of wine, the manufacture of which is carried on to a vast extent. 
 From Catalonia alone, it is computed that England receives annually 
 10,000 pipes ; Guernsey and Alderney, 4,000 ; Holland and the 
 north of Europe, 20,000. To other countries, 350,000 pipes have 
 been frequently exported. Valencia and Malaga, since the establish 
 ment of a free trade to America and elsewhere, export upwards of 
 12,000 pipes yearly.* 
 
 The quantity consumed in the kingdom is very considerable : 
 5,000 hogsheads, according to Townsend, are required for the supply 
 of Madrid alone, besides 18,000 arrobas of brandy.f From this state 
 ment and an inspection of the annual exports to Great Britain, con 
 tained in a table of the Addenda, a tolerably correct estimate of the 
 magnitude of the Spanish wine-trade may be formed. 
 
 Spain was at one time most extensive in the spirit business, and, 
 it is said, even more so than France ; but, the regulations of the 
 government, which obliged the manufacturer to vend his spirits to 
 none but the farmers of the revenue, with a heavy taxation on the 
 article, tended to cripple the trade, and eventually operated almost to a 
 prohibition. At preseut,one-eighth of the produce goes to the crown, 
 which claims, besides, the right of purchasing the remainder. The 
 provinces, however, to prevent confusion or embarrassment, generally 
 agree upon a composition for these exactions. The greater number 
 of the brandy distilleries are in Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, and 
 
 * Burgoing s Modern State of Spain, vol. iii. p. 277. 
 f The arroba weighs 25lbs. 
 
364 
 
 Gallicia. At Mataro, in Catalonia, there are six distilleries, and at 
 Villa Franca, twelve. In the entire province are made about 35,000 
 pipes annually, and in Valencia from 500,000 to 600,000 cantaras of 
 4 English wine-gallons each. The taverns, in which wine, brandy, 
 beer, and other liquors, are sold, pay a license for the privilege, 
 which, in Madrid alone, amount in one year to upwards of 2,300. 
 
 It may be here interesting to detail the process observed by the 
 Spaniards in the distillation of brandy. 
 
 Wine to the amount of four-fifths of the content of the still, is thrown 
 in, the head is luted on, the fire kindled, and in abont one honr and a 
 half, the still begins to run, producing a spirit of fifteen per cent, above 
 hydrometer proof, and equal in quantity to one-twentieth of the charge. 
 Afterwards it declines to glass proof, and then to feints. The over 
 proof and glass proof are drinkable immediately, and the feints are 
 either distilled again with the next charge of wine or rectified by them 
 selves. When wines used for distillation are old, heavy, or over 
 charged with thick substances, and when a very fine clear spirit is 
 desired a quantity of pure spring-water is thrown into the still along 
 with the wine ; but this expedient is regulated by the judgment of 
 the distiller, nor is it universally practised. No other ingredient is 
 employed in the distillation of brandy : but liqueurs are scented by 
 different aromatics, of which considerable quantities of a very inferior 
 sort are distilled for country consumption. 
 
 Brandy of the first distillation, retains more vinous flavour than 
 when rectified. When the wine is good, and a high proof is not 
 required, the first distillation is preferred. No brandy can be pro 
 duced from unfermented liquors, nor are grapes, in their natural state, 
 ever thrown into the still. About a gallon of the first run is put in 
 with the feints, rather for being of a low proof, than for any great 
 quantity of the essential oil that it contains, or for any bad taste that 
 it may have. All the art practised for preventing any disagreeable 
 flavour, consists in the skill with which the fermentation of the juice 
 of the grape is conducted, and in a proper management of the fire, 
 that the vegetable essential oil may not be too much raised, nor the 
 volatile salts forced over, in too great a quantity. The spirit, as it 
 comes from the still, is perfectly transparent ; but it frequently receives 
 a change of colour from the wood of the cask, or the contrivance of 
 the dealer. 
 
 It has always been supposed by merchants and distillers, that a 
 rapid distillation produces a fiery brandy, of a bad, disagreeable, 
 empyreumatical taste ; nor, is there any practicable method for pre- 
 
305 
 
 venting the liquid from boiling over, or remaining foul, but a proper 
 management of the fire. 
 
 Iw Spain, stills are made of copper, as also are the heads and worms ; 
 but few of them are tinned. Those in general use, with few excep 
 tions, differ little from each other in shape, being cylindrical from the 
 bottom to the shoulder, commonly 33 inches in diameter, and the same 
 in altitude, but about two inches deeper in the centre than at the side. 
 The breast of the still is convex, the head is in the form of a com 
 pressed globe, and the pipe, which connects it with the worm, is joined 
 to the lowest part of the circumference, where a kind of gutter, or 
 canal, is formed in the inside, for the purpose of conveying the con 
 densed liquor to the pipe. The worms are small, only two inches 
 and a half in diameter at the mouth of the condenser, and fifteen feet 
 in length, making about five circular turns. A correct representation 
 of the whole is given in the annexed engraving. 
 
 The worm-tub is usually from five to seven feet high, and from four 
 to five feet in diameter ; some of them are built round with brick and 
 mortar. The furnaces are like ovens, the bottom of the still falling 
 about a foot under the line of the dome, or breast, arid about two feet 
 from the ground, on which the fuel is laid, without any grate, -vsh-pit, 
 or stopper to the entrance of the furnace. The still, when charged 
 with wine, is run off in about fourteen hours ; but, when rectifying, 
 in about eighteen or twenty-two hours, wood being principally used 
 for fuel. Distillation from grain is not practised. 
 
 The aloe, or pita plant, is much celebrated in Spain, and, possess 
 ing much mucilage, it yields, when fermented and distilled, a good 
 brandy ; and were not wine so plentiful, it would afford a supply of 
 
366 
 
 this spirit, sufficient, perhaps, for the country. Sugar is made from the 
 fruit of the arbutus, and an excellent spirit is distilled from it. 
 
 The excise on brandy was first imposed in Spain under Philip II., 
 in 1590 ; but the administration and monopoly were given up by 
 Philip V. in 1717, when a duty of three reals vellori* for every arroba 
 of brandy of all sorts was laid both on the exports and imports, and six 
 reals vellon for every arroba of aniseed, cordial, and all other waters.f 
 In 1747, brandy again became a royal monopoly, at which period 
 public warehouses were appropriated for its sale. 
 
 According to the statement of an early writer, quoted by Towns- 
 end,t three and one-eighth gallons of wine, (the amount of twice that 
 quantity of grapes,) as it comes from the press, cost one shilling and 
 two-pence for the labour ; and it requires four hogsheads of ordinary 
 wine to yield a hogshead of brandy, Holland s proof ; hence it has 
 been inferred, that corn would be a more profitable crop ; but the 
 attachment of the Spaniards to the cultivation of the vine has been so 
 long established, that, in many parts of the kingdom, they neglect 
 almost every other kind of agricultural pursuit. 
 
 During the time that the Moors had possession of the southern 
 parts of Spain, the cultivation of many valuable plants was intro 
 duced ; and among the rest the sugar-cane, which has continued to 
 be an object of attention for nearly 800 years. Yet there is no 
 account of distillation of any kind from it, a circumstance much to 
 be wondered at, since it afforded a material for that purpose of the 
 most substantial nature ; and which, it might be thought, was as likely 
 to arouse the exertions of experimentalists, as it had done before in 
 India and various parts of the East. The sugar-canes of Andalusia, 
 as well as those near Granada, are as large and juicy as those of any 
 other country, while between Malaga and Gibraltar there are no less 
 than twelve sugar manufactories. 
 
 The Arabians were the first who introduced sugar into medical 
 preparation, and it was then called Sal Indicum, or Indian salt, 
 clearly indicating its origin ; and the Spaniards and Portuguese 
 afterwards communicated the secret of making it to the West Indies 
 and the American settlements, where the plant itself is said to have 
 been indigenous. 
 
 The Moors, during their sojourn in Spain, encouraged the cultiva 
 tion of the vine, with as much assiduity as they paid to other fruits ; 
 
 * A real vellon is equal to 2|d. British. 
 
 f The Theory and Practice of Commerce by Don Geronymo. De. Uztariz. 
 
 $ Osorio, who wrote in 1687. 
 
367 
 
 for they wore not insensible to the pleasures of tire juice of the grape, 
 although forbidden for forbidden pleasures too often form a main 
 source of the enjoyments of every country. That the Moors drank 
 wine is quite certain, from their luxurious mode of living and the 
 traditions of the nation. This is further confirmed by the circum 
 stance of a circular room in the Moorish palace, in Granada, called the 
 Alhambra, being still shown to strangers and travellers, as a place set 
 apart for men to drink coffee and sherbets, under which were 
 included wine and other liquors. 
 
 Vineyards are to be found in every province of Spain, but chiefly in 
 the South and East ; those of Valencia, Catalonia, and Andalusia, are 
 the most productive, celebrated, and numerous. In the neighbour 
 hood of Malaga, the mountains are clothed to their very tops with 
 vines. The vineyards are above 7000 in number, producing three 
 crops annually, and keeping 14,000 presses constantly at work dur 
 ing the vintage, which turn out upwards of 80,000 arrobas of wine, 
 of which more than one half is exported. In the district of Axar- 
 quia are produced those wines called in foreign countries Malaga, 
 and in England, mountain wine. Another wine produced in the 
 vicinity of Malaga, is the Pedro- Ximenes, distinguished for its deli 
 cate flavour, and as being the produce of a grape transplanted from 
 the Rhine. The Lagrima de Malaga is a delicious wine, something 
 resembling Constantia, and the Guindre is but common mountain wine, 
 having the juice of cherries incorporated.* Some exquisite wines 
 are produced from the Valencian vineyards, particularly those of La 
 Torra, Perales, Segorbe, Vinaroz, and Benicarlo ; and from the 
 tintilla grape of this province a vino (into is obtained, which bears a 
 strong resemblance to the rota wine. The Catalonian wines are in 
 considerable estimation ; the Malmsey of Sitgas is nearly equal to 
 some Malaga, and the wine of the Priory is of a choice quality. The 
 red wines of this province are inferior to the white, less care being 
 taken in the selection of the grapes, and in the management, fermen 
 tation, and refinement of the liquor. In this province, the inhabit 
 ants plant the highest cliffs with vines ; and, rather than allow a piece 
 of ground to remain useless, descend by ropes from projecting preci 
 pices to cultivate spots, which nature seemed to have intended solely 
 for the resort of the eagle, or for the habitation of the chamois. 
 Arragon also affords a good vino (into, especially that obtained from 
 the grape named grenache. The muscadine wine of Fuencarl, near 
 
 * Jacob s Travels in the South of Spain, 4to p. 246. 
 
368 
 
 Madrid, ranks among the highest order, and the Navarre wine of 
 Peralta, as well as that sort named rancio, is in considerable repute. 
 The wines of Andalusia, particularly of the plantations of Xeres de 
 la Frontera, near Cadiz, with those of San Lucar and Trahugena, are 
 of the first character. Paxarete, a place eight or ten leagues from 
 Xeres, gives name to a luscious, palatable, Malmsey wine, the pro 
 duce of a vineyard belonging to the friars of the Convent of St. 
 Hieronomo. There is also a wine bearing this name at Xeres, which 
 is of equal quality, and in this vicinity the finest sherry is manufac 
 tured, a dry description of which, the Amontillado, is made in imi 
 tation of the wine of Montilla near Cordova. The Amontillado, which 
 is little known in England, is a very rare kind of wine of accidental 
 produce, and may be said to be a phenomenon in wine-making, as no 
 cultivator can be certain by what sort of grape it will be produced, 
 or from what treatment it may be obtained. 
 
 Of the light wines of Spain, the Valdepenas is, in the opinion of 
 Sir Arthur De Capell Brooke, the best.* The constitution of this 
 wine being remarkably delicate, renders the transport of it a matter 
 of risk and uncertainty; and this is the reason why it is not more 
 common in England. It resembles a light Burgundy, but it is far 
 more delicate and smooth in its flavour, and some think altogether 
 superior. It is difficult to meet with this wine free of that strong and 
 rancid taste imparted to it from the borracha or skin in which it is 
 conveyed. This flavour, denominated olor de bota, is esteemed by 
 many, who may be considered epicures in wine, and arises from the 
 pitch or other resinous matter with which the skins are secured. 
 Sometimes the vintage of the Valdepenas is so abundant, and ctisks 
 or bottles so scarce, that wine-growers often spill the old wine when 
 it happens to be the produce of an inferior vintage, in order to make 
 room for that of an inferior quality. Mr. Swinburn informs us, that 
 during plentiful seasons, casks cannot be found to contain the wine, 
 and large quantities of grapes remain ungathered notwithstanding, 
 public notice being posted on the church doors, that by giving a small 
 acknowledgment, all who choose may gather. The wines of La 
 Mancha and Manzanarez, though thinner, are next in estimation to 
 Valdepenas. Neither the wines of New or Old Castile, are in much 
 estimation, except those made near Valladolid, which, though light, are 
 very pleasing. The wines of Murcia are heavy, rough, and luscious ; 
 those made in the plains of Valencia are below mediocrity ; but the 
 
 Brooke s Travels in Spain and Morocco, vol. ii. p. 287-8. 
 
369 
 
 vines on the hills which have had the benefit of a southern sun, afford 
 wine of a very good quality. The wine of La Torre is excellent ; 
 the wines made at Mos du Marquis de Peralez, are little inferior, 
 yielding au excellent brandy. In the environs of Murviedro, they 
 are of a heavier and richer quality : in this province also, is manu 
 factured the noted wine called rancio. 
 
 The wines of Granada are aromatic, and preserve an agreeable 
 flavour, without the richness peculiar to some of the other Spanish 
 wines. The produce of the vineyards of Biscay is characterized as 
 sour and harsh, destitute of body, and of those pleasing qualities 
 which render other wines agreeable. The defects of the wines of 
 Biscay have been attributed more to the mismanagement of the 
 manufacture, than to the inferiority of the grape. 
 
 Grapes reared on gravelly soils, produce wines preferable to those 
 reared on rich or heavy soils ; and the vines are differently treated 
 in their growth. Some are trained on trellises, some on espaliers, 
 others, like currant or gooseberry- bushes, are not permitted to grow 
 high, and, therefore, gradually form thick and strong stocks, capable of 
 supporting the fruit, poles never being employed for that purpose. 
 In some places, the stalks or cuttings are planted in small hil 
 locks, of about two feet and a half high, and three feet in distance.* 
 The produce of the vines varies according to the soil and the care 
 taken in the cultivation ; and the size of the fruit is in the same pro 
 portion, so that in some places, a bunch of grapes may be found to 
 weigh twelve or fourteen pounds, while, in others, it does not weigh 
 one half as much. 
 
 In the districts of Malaga, three crops of grapes are obtained, one 
 in June, another in the beginning of September, and the last, four or 
 five days after. The grapes of the first gathering called earlies, yield 
 a wine of the consistency of honey ; those of the second gathering 
 produce a clear wine, stronger and better than that produced by the 
 earlies ; the third gathering, termed tardies, makes the real wine of 
 Malaga. 
 
 The Xeres wine, just spoken of, comes from the vineyards in the 
 neighbourhood of that city, called the Puebla district, which extends 
 over a tract of country 45 miles in length, and 18 in breadth, having 
 555 houses attached to the vineyards. This wine is called Sherry in 
 England, which term is but a corruption of the word Xeres, to 
 render the pronunciation more agreeable. The vines of this district, 
 of which there are several sorts, are usually trained low and close to 
 
 2 B 
 * Vide Laborde s View of Spain. 
 
370 
 
 the soil, on account of the heat. The Sherry is made from a grape 
 tinged with a brownish red, of a dry flavour, and devoid of sweetness. 
 From the sweetened juice of the unripe grape, an agreeable cooling 
 drink, called agras or agrace, is in great request during the summer, 
 and has a pleasing acidulous flavour. 
 
 The vintage commences towards the close of September, and is 
 finished about the first of November. From the early gathering, or the 
 least ripe of the fruit, the inferior kinds of Sherry, known by the 
 name of St. Lucar and Manzanilla, are produced, the consumption of 
 which is very great both at home and in England. The real sherry 
 wine is procured from the full ripe grapes of Xeres. Should the 
 grapes be gathered in a wet season, particularly from young vines, 
 the quality of the mosto, or juice, is assisted with wine boiled down 
 and mixed with it, previous to the fermentation taking place, by 
 which means the deficiency of saccharine matter, arising from wet 
 weather and want of sun, is made up : about two jars of this boiled 
 wine is added to each butt of mosto. In making sherry wines, there 
 is an indiscriminate use of red and white grapes, which are gathered, 
 dried on mats, and, when freed from the stalks and bad fruit, are put 
 into vats, in which they are trampled on by the peasants, having heavy 
 wooden clogs, or shoes with nails made for the occasion. After this 
 operation, the entire mass is submitted to the action of a screw-press, 
 turned by the peasants. Previous to this, a quantity of burned gyp 
 sum is strewn over the surface ; the must is next collected into casks, 
 in which it is allowed to remain nearly two months in store, for the 
 object of fermentation. When the process has ceased, the wine is 
 drawn from the lees, and then receives an addition of brandy, by way 
 of giving it body and ardour. If the ripe bunches of fruit at first 
 selected, be not sufficient to yield a butt or two of mosto, they are left 
 on mats exposed to the open air, until enough is obtained by the 
 ripening of the remaining fruit. Less wine is procured from the 
 grapes thus exposed, but the quality is better ; while, from the same 
 gathering, two descriptions of wine are obtained by two different 
 pressings. The juice of the first pressing is called yenas, or first 
 fruits, that of the second pressing, ayuapies ; and when brandy is not 
 to be made, there is sometimes a third pressing called esperigo, or 
 speregoit, in order to augment the quantity. In wet seasons, yesso, 
 or quick-lime, is used for absorbing the superabundant moisture. 
 Immediately when the pressing of the mosto is over, it is put into 
 clean butts, and after the fermentation has ceased and the liquor 
 appears clear, it is racked off into other casks well cleansed and 
 smoked with sulphur. In the following spring, when the second, or. 
 
371 
 
 as it is called, tho insensible fermentation, has taken place, it is again 
 conveyed into other casks, but there sulphur is not smoked ; and, in 
 autumn, when the heat of summer has subsided, the same operation is 
 a third time repeated. The following spring, the wine is again 
 removed into fresh casks, when, if found weak or sickly, a jar of 
 brandy is added, the wine being now eighteen months old. The 
 wines of Xeres may be chiefly divided into two kinds, the dry, or 
 sherry, and the sweet or muscatel, and Pedro Ximenes, the latter of 
 which is more generally known by the name of Paxarete. 
 
 The wine trade at Xeres was some years ago confined to a few 
 individuals, but there is now great competition in the market, numbers 
 having embarked in it a large capital. At Xeres, nothing so much 
 surprises the stranger, and is more worthy of inspection, than the 
 bodegas, or wine-vaults, a term ill-suited to convey an idea of those 
 really splendid and extraordinary establishments. Instead of descend 
 ing into alow, dark, grovelling, and musty magazine like the London 
 dock wine vaults, spacious as they are, you first pass through a street,, 
 one entire side of which, for the extent of a quarter of a mile, is occu 
 pied by one of these bodegas ; and entering through large folding 
 doors, you find yourself, to your astonishment, in what appears to be a 
 church of considerable dimensions, with a lofty roof, and divided into 
 spacious aisles. In the centre you see, in large characters, " Bodegas 
 of Jesus," and at the sides, " Nave of St. Andrew, St. Pedro, St. 
 Jago." Your eye runs along the lower part of the building, and you 
 see some thousand butts of wine ranged along the aisles and against 
 the arched pillars. A delicious fragrance soon convinces you, not 
 withstanding the pious inscriptions you have been reading, that you 
 are in a place exclusively dedicated to the enjoyments of the body. 
 On entering, you are waited upon by the superintendent of the bodega, 
 who accompanies you through the diiFerent aisles, and who explains 
 to you, on passing each barrel, the name, quality, age, and peculiar 
 flavour of the wine within it ; and in order that you may understand 
 it practically as well as theoretically, his observations are rendered 
 clear and intelligible by a full glass of the delicious liquor. You pro 
 ceed slowly through the whole range of the bodega, occasionally 
 reposing, like Bacchus, astride a huge butt, and sipping bumpers of 
 luscious Paxarete, fragrant muscatel, or dark creamy sherry, half a 
 century old. While on the outside, every thing is blazing with the 
 intenseness of the noontide heat ; within, a delightful coolness and a 
 soft mellow light prevail ; and you fancy you should like to pass the 
 remainder of your dayfe in this pleasant retreat. In this manner you 
 
372 
 
 keep quaffing- the nectar which is so liberally supplied to you, until your 
 senses become not quite so cool and collected as when you first 
 entered, and you think it high time to make your retreat into the hot 
 and dusty streets of Xeres. Each wine establishment is conducted 
 by an overseer, who is called the capataz, and to whom is intrusted 
 the purchasing of the different wines from the grower, the selection, 
 and the mixing of them, as also the proving and tasting of the brandies 
 required; in all of which, considerable judgment, skill, and expe 
 rience are evinced. The interior of one of those large bodegas may 
 be compared to an immense hospital filled with patients, and the 
 capataz or superintendent to the visiting physician. The former goes 
 his daily round, accompanied by one of the superintendents of the 
 bodega, whom we will call apothecary. As he passes each butt, he 
 begins his enquiry into the state of his patient ; not by feeling his 
 pulse, but by tapping, which is immediately performed by his atten 
 dant, who runs a spike into it, and presents him with a bumper of the 
 contents. On tasting it, he may probably find that the wine is sick, 
 as it is called by merchants, being usually the case with young wines ; 
 ajar or two of brandy is, therefore, prescribed for the invalid, and the 
 dose is forthwith administered. A second butt may be found to be 
 equally qualmish, and is relieved in the same manner. The body, or 
 constitution of a third, may probably be naturally weak and delicate; 
 this is strengthened and improved by being mixed with wine which 
 is sounder and stronger : while a fourth may be at the last extremity, 
 so as to require the application of musk. Speaking, however, more 
 seriously, the bodega requires a great deal of skill, constant attention, 
 a nice taste, and a discriminating judgment, in the selection not only 
 of the wines, in improving the delicacy and flavour of the former, 
 increasing or diminishing the body, dryness, and colour, and finally 
 giving such a variety of shades and difference in flavour and price, as 
 may best suit the particular market and gratify the taste and caprice 
 of John Bull. 
 
 A recent visiter says, that the more respectable of the wine-mer 
 chants of Xeres never ship wine for England, till it has attained the 
 age of two years ; that is, till the bulk of the wine has attained that 
 age. But, according to the price it is proposed to bring, it contains 
 a larger or smaller mixture of a more or less expensive wine. The 
 higher qualities of sherry are made up of wine, the bulk of which is 
 from three to five years old, and this is also mixed in various propor 
 tions with older wines. Thus, from the gradual mixture of wines of 
 various ages, no wine can be farther from what might be called a 
 natural wine thati sherry. Brandy is added in very small propor- 
 
373 
 
 tions to the good wine never in greater quantities than four or five 
 per cent, while they remain in the cellar ; and frequently not at all, 
 unless the wine should become scuddy or mothery ; and thus the 
 finest wines are frequently entirely free from it ; but, on their ship 
 ment, a small dose of brandy is considered absolutely necessary, even 
 to fine wines to make them bear the voyage, as it is said ; but, in 
 reality, because strength is one of the first qualities looked for by the 
 consumers. When wines become mothery in the London docks, they 
 send them back to be cured, and this curing consists of nothing more 
 than an addition of brandy ; perhaps, indeed, it is chiefly effected by 
 the motion of the voyage. The soleras, or store-casks, in which the 
 wine is kept, are left with avoid of one-fifteenth of their contents, and 
 the access of the air is admitted through a loose wooden bung, which 
 merely covers without closing the aperture. The wine is purchased 
 by the exporters from the growers generally when it is one year old. 
 The whole extent of the Xeres vineyards, which supply the genuine 
 sherry for the British market, amounting to 2,500 butts, does not, it 
 is said, exceed 700 acres. A great portion of the wines exported to 
 England under the name of sherry, and sold by retail under forty 
 shillings per dozen, is either that of Port St. Mary, St. Lucar, or 
 Malaga. 
 
 In cleansing the wine-casks, a good deal of thyme is used as a 
 sweetener : a little of this plant mixed with the liquor is considered 
 to impart to it a more grateful savour, besides rendering it sudorific, 
 healing, and restorative ;* w r hile red beet is often infused into various 
 wines to improve their colour and appearance. 
 
 Around Alicant and the adjacent country, from which is obtained 
 the vino tinto, (tintilla) or tent wine, are reservoirs erected for hold 
 ing water for the refreshment of the vines, which must have cost 
 immense labour and expense. One of these, El Pontano, situated 
 between two mountains, within four or five leagues of the town, holds 
 water sufficient to supply the whole district for a year. The walls 
 of this reservoir are two hundred feet high, and at the base upwards 
 of forty feet thick. Another in the canton called Huerta de Alicante, 
 is surrounded by a wall sixty feet in height, and broad enough for 
 three waggons to go abreast. At one time, a stupendous basin near 
 Lorca in Murcia burst, by which 6,000 persons perished, and 24,000 
 other animals, while the loss was estimated at 2,083,333. In the 
 vicinity of Murcia, two grand reservoirs still remain as monuments of 
 the industry of the Moors, which have stood upwards of 700 years 
 
 * Phillips History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. ii. jp. 382. 
 
374 
 
 unimpaired. Within one league of Merida, in Estremadura, are two 
 very large reservoirs resembling lakes. The country people call them 
 Albnfera and Albuera. One of them is ninety feet in length and 
 fifty-one in depth ; it is surrounded by thick walls ornamented with 
 two beautiful towers ; a fine flight of steps leads to the bottom. The 
 other reservoir is two leagues distant ; it is small, but the walls which 
 encompass it, and the great tower which serves it as an aperture for 
 air, are much finer than those of the former. The basins are supplied 
 by rain-water and by springs, and have fish in abundance. The great 
 reservoirs at Constantinople resemble these more than any others of 
 which there is a description. The roof of one of them is sup 
 ported by six hundred and seventy-two marble columns, consisting of 
 three tiers standing on the top of each other, enclosing a space capable 
 of holding 1,237,939 cubic feet of water. Dr. Walsh, in his narra 
 tive, describes another magnificent cistern, scarcely known to the inha 
 bitants of Constantinople, but which existed previous to the Turks 
 taking possession of that city, yet affords the great supply of water to 
 the inhabitants, is called the subterranean palace, and resembles a 
 great lake extending under several streets. 
 
 Among the many works of art in Spain, the subterraneous recep 
 tacles for grain, called Siloes and Stlhos, are remarkable. These 
 are large, excavations which were constructed by the Moors for the 
 preservation of grain to provide against scarcity. They resemble 
 inverted cones, and are cased with freestone. They are dry, secure 
 from damp and atmospheric air, and seem to have been made in 
 imitation of those constructed in Bcetia and other provinces of Cartha- 
 gena. These public granaries and extensive magazines are termed 
 positos, of which there are not less than 5,000 in the country. They 
 are under the regulations of government ; and when it is requisite to 
 establish any of these granaries, every landed proprietor is obliged to 
 deposit a quantity of corn proportionable to the extent of his farm. 
 The following year he takes back the corn he had thus deposited, and 
 replenishes the empty granary with a larger quantity; and in this 
 manner he continues to increase annually the stock till a certain mea 
 sure of grain is deposited. Then every one receives back the whole 
 corn which he has furnished, and replaces it by an equal quantity of 
 new corn. Whenever a scarcity happens, these repositories are 
 opened, and the corn dealt out to the people at a moderate price. In 
 some places, seed corn is also distributed to necessitous husbandmen, 
 who are bound to restore as much in lieu of it during the ensuing 
 harvest. 
 
 In a country where so much care is taken in the preservation of 
 
375 
 
 grain, and its distribution is so well directed for the benefit of the com 
 munity, it might be supposed that the people would be comfortable ; 
 but notwithstanding these precautionary measures, added to the exten 
 sive cultivation of the vine, many of the farmers are very poor. In 
 the district of Malaga, distress is so great, that it prevents them from 
 making their crop into wine, or waiting to the proper time of vintage. 
 The consequences are, that they are constrained to gather the grapes 
 before they arrive at maturity, and to sell them at a low price, to the 
 great depreciation of the quality of the wines. To prevent these 
 results and to relieve indigent farmers, the council of Malaga estab 
 lished a bank that issues loans to poor cultivators, which enables them 
 to make their wine in the proper season and sell it to advantage. 
 
 Although wine-making principally occupies the attention of the 
 Spaniards, yet other beverages are manufactured, among which cider 
 is a favourite in some of the provinces. About the middle of the seven 
 teenth century? the orange plantations in the Asturias and Gallicia 
 were converted into orchards, because the demand for cider was so 
 considerable, as to render its manufacture a profitable speculation. 
 From the Asturias alone, 28,000 arrobas* are sent anually to the 
 settlements in America ; the Biscay as well as the Bastan cider of 
 Navarre is deemed excellent. Mead, from the quantity of honey 
 which Spain affords, might be manufactured to any extent, but the 
 wine and cider supersede its use. Honey of a peculiarly nice quality 
 is obtained from the mountain districts ; this article, which is in good 
 demand in Italy, is said to owe its aromatic flavour to the rosemary 
 plants, which abound in those mountains, and from which it is col- 
 lected. In New Castile, the care of bees forms no inconsiderable 
 portion of property. Near Alcaria, and in the mountains of Cuenca, 
 the honey collected is of the best quality, and so abundant that 4,000 
 arrobas, or 1,000 quintals, equal to 96J cwt. have been secured in a 
 season. From the quercus suber, or cork tree, portable hives are formed 
 by rolling the bark, cut into lengths of three or four feet, into the 
 form of a cylinder, with rests inside, and apertures for ingress and 
 egress, and then placing them either in the fields or gardens. 
 Though honey is not an article of great importance in Spain, yet it 
 was stipulated by the articles of peace in 1715, between the Moors 
 and natives, that a certain quantity of honey should be a portion of 
 the contributions exacted by the Moors. 
 
 In Spain, there are but few breweries. On the coast of Biscay, at 
 Santander, there are three, one of which furnishes upwards of 
 
 The arroba of wine contain 947 cubic inches. 
 
376 
 
 200,000 bottles of beer, for the consumption of their foreign settle 
 ments. Little of this liquor is consumed at home, wine being the 
 principle beverage. Grapes pay a tithe or duty, first as fruit, second 
 as wine, third when converted into brandy or vinegar ; hence the 
 importance of their cultivation to the farmer, the trader, the clergy, 
 the government, and the bulk of the people. 
 
 The Balearic islands, being contiguous to Spain, and forming as it 
 were a portion of the Spanish empire, may here be properly noticed : 
 In Majorca, vineyards are so numerous that they produce on an aver 
 age 952,748 arrobas of wine, of which the natives consume 575,630 
 annually, and distil brandy to the amount of 37,400 dollars, half of 
 which is exported. The quality of wine is excellent, of which the 
 lightest and most delicate are Muscadel, Malvoisia, Pampot, Reda, 
 and Montona. It has been computed that the whole exports of these 
 articles to Spain and America, are to the value of 685,590 livres in 
 wine, and to 177,000 livres in brandy. The quality of the brandy, 
 particularly that distilled at Palma, is considered fine. Here is a dis 
 tillery for orange-flower water. The vineyards are laid out with 
 great taste, while the rugged and almost inaccessible declivities of 
 rocks and mountains are rendered subservient to the comfort and 
 industry of the inhabitants. The mountain, on which is situated the 
 town of Banalbufar, is a striking instance of the care and enterprise 
 of the natives. This lofty eminence, from top to bottom, is cut into 
 steps, like a flight of stairs, and the earth is supported by little walls 
 of flint and stone, and by this means is entirely covered with beauti 
 ful and luxuriant vineyards. The town contains upwards of 6,000 
 inhabitants, most of whom are employed in making wines of various 
 descriptions. 
 
 In Minorca, the soil, though light and stony, is favourable to the 
 vine. Red and white wines are made, and some of both exported, 
 which, with the home consumption, may be valued at 1,600 annually. 
 The honey of this island is of prime quality, but no mead is manufac 
 tured, hence the superfluous quantity is exported. Wheat and 
 barley are cultivated, the grain is not thrashed, but trodden out by 
 asses and oxen on the bare rocks, but the supply is too scanty to 
 permit any distillation. 
 
 The small but fertile island of Ivica, produces fine fruit and good 
 wine, but little more than what the wants of the inhabitants require. 
 
 The Spaniards are not more zealous in the cultivation of the vine than 
 the people of Portugal. In many of the provinces of that kingdom, the 
 sides of the steepest hills and mountains are converted by means of ter 
 races into vineyards. In most places through the country, the vine grows 
 
377 
 
 like a gooseberry or currant bush, two or three feet high and about 
 three yards asunder. In pruning, all the branches are cut off in 
 winter, leaving only the stump, with the remains of the stem, about 
 half an inch in length. These shoot again, and by the time of 
 vintage are ten or twelve feet long. The best grapes grow about the 
 stump, and so abundantly as to conceal it altogether. The fruit 
 is gathered in August and September, and conveyed to a house 
 prepared for the purpose, having a stone floor, with grooves to convey 
 the juice when pressed out through a tube into a cellar adjoining, 
 where barrels are ready for its reception. The grapes are trampled 
 by human feet and afterwards put under a press, wrought by 
 machinery, where they are again pressed, till all the juice is com 
 pletely collected, and the fruit becomes a solid mass. From this 
 latter, mixed with an infusion of weak wines after a proper fermenta 
 tion, spirits are distilled stronger than any brandy, and equal, for the 
 most part, to spirits of wine. The cellars in which the wine is depo 
 sited for fermentation, are so very warm, and the inflammable gas 
 evolved from the fluid so highly ignitible, that no candle can be intro 
 duced, lest it might take fire and blow up the concern. In 1681, 
 although the wines of the Portuguese were of an inferior quality, 
 large quantities were exported from Lisbon. The English, in par 
 ticular, encouraged the manufacture to such an extent, that from 
 1750 to 1755, a pipe of the best quality could be procured for ten 
 milreas, or 2 15s. 6d, of our currency. 
 
 During that period, many of the proprietors of vineyards, rather 
 than sell their wines at reduced prices, or run the risk of loss in 
 keeping them, converted the greater part of the poorer sort into 
 brandy. Large portions of this were used to strengthen the wines 
 intended for exportation, and the surplus was either sent to the 
 colonies in America, or bartered for slaves on the coast of Africa. 
 
 The taste of the English, says Link, and their fondness for drink 
 ing, are evidently the causes that induce the Portuguese to mix so 
 much brandy with the wines. All that they manufacture have now 
 some brandy added, even before fermentation.* 
 
 In 1756, the board which was appointed to superintend the wine 
 trade of Portugal, made a monopoly of the brandy distilleries for the 
 provinces of Beira, Minho, and Tras os Montes, and after some time 
 succeeded in procuring the entire management of them throughout 
 the kingdom. This board had the power of regulating and fixing 
 the prices of th different sorts of wines, and even of prescribing the 
 
 * Link s Travels in Portugal, p. 371 
 
378 
 
 limits within which they should be manufactured, with the privilege 
 of selecting those proper for exportation, from those fitter for home 
 consumption. This board, now better known by the name of the 
 Wine and Brandy Company, or the General Company for the Culti 
 vation of the Vineyards of the Alto Douro, hold their meetings at 
 Oporto, and are approached in all cases either by petition or memo 
 rial; the principles on which it was founded being now greatly modi 
 fied and almost abandoned. No wine could be sold or brandy distilled 
 but by their permission. All duties were laid on and. levied by them, 
 as well for what was manufactured in the country as for the spirits 
 imported ; but it has now in a great measure ceased to enforce its 
 right to this monopoly. Experience has proved that chartered com 
 panies have, for the most part, been productive of injury to trade and 
 commerce, and have tended much to the obstruction of improvement 
 in manufactures, enterprise, and general industry : of this the com 
 pany just spoken of is a striking exemplification, as it failed in accom 
 plishing any one of its purposed objects. 
 
 The chief wine districts of Portugal commence 50 miles from 
 Oporto, clothing in picturesque beauty the banks of the Douro. The 
 Rev. W. M. Kinsey, speaking of the cultivation of the vine in the 
 upper Douro, says the process is perfectly simple The vine plants 
 are pruned about December, when nothing is left but very small 
 twigs, similar to those planted in other parts of the country. As soon 
 as vegetation has commenced, the earth is loosened about the stems ; 
 and this process is frequently repeated till the blossoms appear. In 
 some places this practice is found requisite with the view to an increase 
 of produce acting on the richness of the soil, by intermingling plants 
 more abundant in alkali ; but this is contrary to the regulations of 
 the Wine Company ; and indeed, although a larger stock of grapes is 
 produced by this system, they acquire a taste peculiar to the herb, 
 which has been sown for the purpose of serving as manure to the 
 vineyard. Skill and attention are required on the part of the culti 
 vator after the plant has blossomed, and even when the grapes are 
 approaching to a state of ripeness. Either too much rain or too much 
 heat may spoil the grape under the most flattering appearances. A 
 good vintage principally depends on due proportions of heat and 
 moisture, particularly in the spring at the cleansing of the flower, as 
 at an after period, when the grapes are more advanced, cold fogs in 
 the spring often destroy a great part of the growth, and again too 
 much sun frequently dries up the coat of the grape, which does not 
 prove sufliciently succulent for want of rain. Previously to the 
 gathering, the farmers have recourse to water, which they throw into 
 
379 
 
 the lagar, or wine-press, for the mass would not ferment without it. 
 The quality of the wine very much depends upon the care taken to 
 perfect the process of fermentation. The vintage in the upper Pouro 
 commences when the grapes begin to shrivel. In these parts it is 
 very difficult and expensive to convey the grapes to the press, the 
 whole district consisting of steep hills and narrow valleys. This 
 process is performed by treading, and a great number of men, assisted 
 by Gallegas, are thus employed at a vintage time. 
 
 After the wine has been pressed from the grapes, it is suffered to 
 stand in very large butts until the wine fair, which takes place annually, 
 according to the determination of the Company, either in February 
 or March. Immediately after the fair, the wine is brought down to 
 Villa Nova, and is there defecated or racked off into clean casks, 
 which the Oporto wine-merchants call giving it clean shirts ; and an 
 alinude of brandy, being in the proportion of about one to twenty-one 
 parts of must, is added to each cask. An additional quantity is 
 mixed with it from time to time, until about two almudes of brandy 
 have been thrown into the pipe, which is, with few exceptions, all 
 the brandy it takes to England. But it has been remarked, that it is 
 too much the custom at Oporto to cleanse the wine of its thicker par 
 ticles, the effect of which is, not simply to refine it, but to weaken, if 
 not destroy, those natural inherent properties, upon which both the 
 body and the flavour of the wine would otherwise depend. It fre 
 quently happens that a well-flavoured wine is deficient in colour ; and 
 to bring this up, the brighter wine of inferior vintage is mixed with 
 it. It is fair to presume, therefore, that the distinction of wine into 
 vintages is not so purely true, and so entirely a matter of fact, as an 
 Englishman supposes it to be. Mr. Kinsey quotes a writer who 
 expresses his regret, that the British merchants residing in Oporto 
 do not seem to be aware, that in one single pipe, and much more in 
 a single vat, different qualities of wine are to be found at the top, in 
 the middle, and at the bottom.* To heighten the colour of Port, the 
 Portuguese infuse the juice of the berries of the phytolacca, an ingre 
 dient much more pernicious than elder berries, formerly used 
 for the same purpose : these berries yield a spirit of a harsh and 
 unwholesome quality. 
 
 The Portugal vintages are usually conveyed under the distinctions 
 of primary or factory wines (vinhos da Feitoria) ; and secondary wines, 
 (vinhos de Ramo.) The factory wines are again ranked under the 
 head of vinhos de embarque, or export wines ; and vinhos separados, 
 
 * Portugal Illustrated, p. 329. 330. 
 
380 
 
 or assorted wines. The lighter wines are improved by an admix 
 ture with the stronger ramo, a purpose for which the latter is com 
 monly purchased. Oeiras, Carcavellos, and Lavradio produce wines 
 of a high reputation, while the growth of Alenquer, Torres Vedras, 
 Lamego, and Moncaon, possess a high character. The wine of Barra- 
 a-Barra, near Lavadrio, is one of the best of Portugal. The vineyards 
 of Coimbra are said to produce inferior grapes of a tart flavour. The 
 Colares Port, a red wine of Colares near Cintra, the white wine of 
 Termo on the Douro, with the wines of Bucellas in the vicinity of 
 Lisbon, and of Setuval in Estremadura, are all in great estimation : 
 the sweet wines of Carcavellos, and the muscadine of Setuval are too 
 familiar to require description or panegyric. 
 
 The great exports of wine are from Oporto, or Porto, on the Douro , 
 from the name of which city is derived our term port. The vicinity 
 of Oporto is said to yield annually 80,000 pipes of wine, 20,000 of 
 which are exported, and the whole quantity sent out of the kingdom 
 during the same period is computed at 780,000.* The exports to 
 Great Britain alone, are detailed in a Table of the Addenda. 
 
 The bad quality of the native brandy has, hitherto, made it of little 
 commercial importance, but the late introduction of the sirup of the 
 fig will, no doubt, if judiciously managed, improve its flavour and 
 retrieve its character. 
 
 No spirits are made from corn in Portugal, but some are occa 
 sionally made from damaged figs and raisins unfit for other purposes. 
 In Algarve, the project was once instituted for making spirits from 
 the carob, or locust pod, but it was not successful. 
 
 Many of the stills used in Portugal, particularly those in the neigh 
 bourhood of Lisbon, are made in London. The size is arbitrary, 
 varying generally from 140 to 4 or 500 gallons. The body and head 
 are of copper, but the worms are mostly of pewter. The farmers use 
 small stills of a bad construction ; a tube of copper, or a musket 
 barrel thrust through a cask, frequently performs the office of the worm 
 and cooler, and the spirits, of course, are bad. In charging the still, 
 the Portuguese fill it to within 8 or 9 inches of the top with wine, 
 which is slowly worked off, and, unless intended for exportation, it is 
 rarely distilled. In the second distillation, it is made of such a 
 strength, that oil will sink in it. White wine yields more spirit than 
 red wine, and on the purity of both depends the goodness of the 
 brandy. 
 
 In no country with which we are acquainted, has brandy been 
 
 * Playfair s Translation of Boetticher, Table No. 11. 
 
381 
 
 manufactured to such extent or perfection as in France. The distil 
 lation of it commenced there, according to Le Grand, in 1313, but as 
 in the instance of Spain, little more was manufactured at first than 
 what served the purpose of the vineyard. Its superior quality, how 
 ever, soon recommended it to general notice, and at an early period, 
 large quantities of it are mentioned among other articles of Euro 
 pean commerce. 
 
 It is strange, that although the Phocseans are said to have cultivated 
 the vine in Gaul, COO years before Christ, we should have no authentic 
 notice of distillation earlier than 1313. The first attempt at the dis 
 tillation of wine is attributed to Arnaud de Villeneuve, professor of 
 medicine at Montpellier in the thirteenth century. 
 
 According to Macrobius, the Gauls had no knowledge of the culti 
 vation of the vine till Rome had arrived at a high state of prosperity. 
 Some Roman wine given by a Helvetian to the Gauls so delighted 
 them, that they were induced to attack the Roman capital with a view to 
 obtain this beverage ; but they were repelled by Camillus, and obliged 
 to retire. About 270 years afterwards, Fabius Maximus introduced 
 the use of the vine into Gaul, though some think it was introduced 
 by the Greeks when they were in possession of Marseilles, nearly 500 
 years before Christ ; but, however this may have been, there were no ad 
 vances in its culture till after the arrival and conquests of the Romans. 
 Beer was the common drink at Paris till the time of the Governor 
 Julian, who, in a Greek epigram, ridiculed the people, because Bacchus 
 did not smell of nectar, but like a goat ; and was only a god of oats 
 and barley. He disliked beer, which no doubt led to the introduction 
 of wine in its stead, and, of course, to the more extensive cultivation 
 of the grape His epigram has been thus translated : 
 
 " Whence art thou, thou false Bacchus, fierce and hot ? 
 
 By the true Bacchus, I do know thee not ! 
 
 He smells of nectar ; thy brain-burning smell 
 
 Is not of flowers of heav n, but weeds of hell. 
 
 The lack-vine Celts, impoverish d, breech d, and rude, 
 
 From prickly barley-spikes thy beverage brew d : 
 
 Whence I should style thee, to approve thee right, 
 
 Not the rich blood of Bacchus, bounding bright, 
 
 But the thin ichor of old Ceres veins 
 
 Express d by flames from hungry barley grains, 
 
 Child-born of Vulcan s fire to burn up human brains." 
 
 The liquors used at the ancient feasts of the Gauls were wine and 
 beer, the latter being the more common of the two. The beer was 
 termed zijthus^ highly valued, and given at their feasts to the warriors 
 
382 
 
 with the best portion of their meats. In the time of the Romans, 
 there were merchants resident in Gaul for the purpose of carrying 
 wine from the southern provinces up the Rhine, and bartering it for 
 slaves. Diodorus Siculus says, that they became so fond of wine, 
 particularly that manufactured in Italy, before it began to abound in 
 their own country, that they have been known to give a slave for a 
 gallon.* Their love of this liquor hurried them into great excesses, 
 and whole armies are said to have fallen victims to their enemies 
 through its direful effects. It appears that Charles the Great was 
 forced to make some severe laws against it, one of which obliged the 
 judges on the bench and the pleaders at the bar to continue fasting. 
 Others forbade that any one should be forced to drink more than he 
 wished, or that the soldiers in the field should invite any man what 
 soever to drink upon pain of excommunication, or being condemned 
 to drink enormous draughts of water by way of punishment. When 
 Winceslaus, king of Bohemia, came to treat with Charles VI., at 
 Rheims, in 1397, he got intoxicated every day with the wine of the 
 country, and chose rather to forego every thing than not indulge in 
 this excess. 
 
 In ancient times, according to Strabo. a whole vintage has been 
 exhausted at one feast among the Lusitanians. The coryphceus, or 
 chief guest at an entertainment, who conducted the eating as well as 
 the drinking, always began first, and then presented to his neighbour 
 the cup, rather pitcher, which thus went round the circle, for it seems 
 that all drank out of the same vessel, and no man could drink before 
 it came to his turn, or refuse it when it did come : hence, in all 
 probability, is derived the custom of drinking to one another, which 
 was, it appears, common to the Scythians, Persians, Greeks, and 
 Romans, as well as to the Gauls and most of the northern nations. 
 At their feasts, the Gauls, like the Persians, talked upon affairs of 
 state as the cup went round ; and, as they generally sat till morning, 
 the liquor was sometimes productive of much disorder, frequently 
 terminating in desperate conflicts. These assemblies were usually 
 accompanied with music, songs, and dancing, and the dancers, who 
 were commonly armed cap-a-pie, beat time with their swords upon 
 their shields. On some occasions, the company dressed themselves 
 in the skins of beasts, and in masquerading habits, many of which 
 were very indecent ; but soon after the introduction of Christianity, 
 these practices were abolished. The liquors used on those occasions 
 were beer and wine, the beer being the more common of the two, 
 
 * Diodorus Siculus, Lib. v. 
 
383 
 
 because the grape was not then in a flourishing state of cultivation in 
 France. 
 
 Pliny and Columella speak of the vintages of Gaul, and of particu 
 lar varieties of the grape, for which reason the Italian merchants at 
 that time carried on an uninterrupted lucrative traffic with the 
 Gauls. Posidonius, much about the same period, says that the terri 
 tory of Marseilles afforded abundance of the wines used in the loftier 
 grades of society. Strabo says that the whole of Gallia Narbon- 
 nensis afforded every sort of fruit to be found in Italy; but beyond the 
 Cevennes, grapes seldom came to any maturity. The banks of the 
 Cher, Marne, and Moselle, formerly abounded with vines ; but from 
 the uncongenial nature of the soil and climate, vineyards have now 
 given place to crops of wheat, rye, oats, potatoes, and other vegetable 
 productions more appropiate to the soil and valuable to the inhabi 
 tants. The greater portion of France, however, may be said to be 
 one continued vineyard, since in the culture of the grape, upwards 
 of 4,265,000 English acres are under cultivation ; producing annually 
 893,000,000 wine gallons or 3,563,000 tuns English measure, nearly 
 one-seventh of which is consumed in distillation, averaging in value 
 about 29 millions sterling. 
 
 In the cultivation of the vine in France, it is generally kept low, 
 the plants being three or four feet apart, and the rows so separated 
 as to admit of a horse passing between them without injury to them. 
 Plantations are made by dibbling in cuttings of the vines of two feet 
 in length, the earth being pressed firmly to the lower end, an indis 
 pensable part of the culture, as observed by Xenophon. In pruning, 
 the branches are cut away till within a foot of the ground, and after 
 wards the young shoots are tied to short stakes with wheat, or rye- 
 straw, or whatever is least expensive. In the southern provinces, 
 the vine is occasionally supported by the elm or maple, or it is grown 
 without bearers, and the intervals between the rows employed in rear 
 ing some other vegetable crop. In some places, the vine is conducted 
 along trellises or bound upon low rails in a horizontal manner : the 
 quincunx order of planting is, however, a favourite. Formerly the 
 wines of Orleans and the Isle of France were more estimable than 
 those of Burgundy and Champagne ; but they have never yet equalled 
 the wines of Cote d Or or the Bordelais. The vinum theologicum, or 
 that raised on church lands, was always superior to other wines, the 
 clergy being more solicitous for the quality than the quantity ; and 
 from their retired habits and learning, they had greater skill in direct 
 ing the fermentation of the grape, better methods of improving its 
 produce, greater assiduity and experience in the culture of vines, and 
 
384. 
 
 the treatment of the vintage. At present, the Champagne, Burgundy, 
 Dauphin y, and Bordelais wines, are the best in France ; those of 
 Langnedoc, Roussillon, and other southern districts, rank high as 
 sweet wines well adapted for distillation, but are more characterized 
 by strength than flavour. 
 
 The Champagne wines are principally produced in the department 
 of Marne, and, following a distinction that originated in the ninth 
 century, are divided into River wines (vim de la Riviere de Marne) 
 and Mountain wines (vins de la Montague de Reims), the former, a 
 white, the latter, a red wine. The red champagne is brisk and 
 sparkling, and distinguished by an agreeable flavour and aroma ; but 
 in the opinion of the first judges, the very effervescent wines are not 
 always the best, much of the strength evaporating with the froth, 
 carried off by the escape of the carbonic acid gas. On this account 
 the less sprightly frothing wines are by some connoisseurs preferred. 
 The white Sillery Champagne wines bear the character of superiority, 
 and the Ay wines are the most celebrated of the river wines ; of the 
 latter it is related that Charles V., Francis I., Henry VIII., and Leo 
 X., had each of them a commissioner, who resided at Ay to procure 
 intelligence of the best growth, while those of Verzy, Verzenay, 
 Mailly, Bouzy, and St. Basle, are the most esteemed of the Reims 
 mountain wines. The Clos St. Thierry furnishes the only red wine 
 that has the rich colour and agreeable aroma of Burgundy, combined 
 with the delicate lightness of Champagne. Those wines are placed in 
 cool cellars, and when well manufactured, will be in prime order from 
 ten to twenty years. The vaults in which they are stored are exca 
 vated in a rock to the depth of 30 or 40 feet. The white wines of 
 Arbois and Papillon resemble those of Champagne ; and if we 
 believe the anecdotes related by Sully of Henry IV, the Arbois wine 
 was a great favourite with that monarch. Whether Champagne, or 
 Burgundy, were the better wine, was long a matter of disputation 
 among the faculty of medicine, till, in 1778, a decision was pro 
 nounced in favour of Champagne. 
 
 The reputation in which Burgundy was so long held, arose not 
 only from its intrinsic value, but from its being the favourite of the 
 Dukes of Burgundy, who were, on that account, styled " Princes des 
 bons vins." The vineyards of Romance Conti, containing little more 
 than six English acres, are said to yield some of the nicest quality : . 
 that of Chambertin, which is said to rival it, was the wine preferred 
 both by Louis XIV. and Napoleon Buonaparte. Next to these in 
 excellence was the wine of the Clos- Vougeot ; but since it has ceased 
 to be church property, it has considerably degenerated, and is now 
 
385 
 
 supposed to b inferior to that of Romanee da St. Vivant, Musigny, 
 Clos de Premau, and several others. The vineyard of Clos-Vougeot, 
 so long celebrated, is seated on the left side of the road between 
 Nuis and Dijon, and contains about 180 English acres, enclosed by 
 an eight feet wall ; in the centre are a dwelling-house and press- 
 house. This wine will not keep beyond twelve years, without losing 
 both its strength and flavour. The vineyard of Clos-Vougeot for 
 merly belonged to the Bernardino monastery of Citeaux, from which 
 it was wrested at the beginning of the Revolution. The Macon, or 
 red Burgundy, so familiar in England, comprises both the produce of 
 the Maconnais and the chief wines of the Beaujolais, forming part of 
 the department of the Rhone. But the white wines of Burgundy 
 are considered amongst the best white wines in France, arid the Mont 
 Rachet Burgundy, of which there are three varieties, A hie, Chevalier, 
 and Bdtard Mont Rachet, arc remarkable for their high perfume and 
 agreeable nutty flavour. 
 
 The wines of Dauphiny are reckoned among the finest in France, 
 of which those of Vienne and Vivarois are alluded to by Pliny ; and 
 the celebrity of the Condrieux, Cote Rotie, and Hermitage wine* 
 is of long standing. The famous vintages of the Hermitage, so deno 
 minated from the ruins of a hermitage on the rock on which the vine 
 yard is situated, are gathered immediately behind the town of Tain, oil 
 the left bank of the Rhone, about twelve miles from Valence. The Cote 
 Rotie and Hermitage have a strong similarity in perfume, taste, and 
 flavour, while the wines of Vaucluse, though resembling both, are 
 much inferior. The plants cultivated for red wine are the great and 
 small siraSj and for white, marsanne and roussanne grapes. They 
 have no supporters, and are pruned about eighteen inches from thcj 
 ground. All the grapes are small, though the yearly produce is from 
 fifteen to eighteen hundred hogsheads. The vineyards of Cote Rotie 
 are on the southern declivity of the hill, to the west of Ampujis, on 
 the right bank of the Rhone seven leagues from Lyons ; and the 
 wines, while they resemble the Hermitage, are inferior in point of 
 strength, richness of body, and powerful aroma. Dauphiny produces 
 likewise a wine resembling Constantia, but much more luscious and 
 renovating. In the manufacture of this wine, the richest grapes are 
 selected, and hung up on poles or lines, or else spread on straw for 
 about two months, until they are nearly half dried, from which pro 
 cess the liquor which they produce is styled " Vin de paille" tliat is, 
 " Straw wine." 
 
 Languedoc, Roussillon, and Provence produce wines, particularly 
 thos^e denominated sweet, which are of a most delicate flavour, but 
 
 2 c 
 
386 
 
 ,.jf. 
 
 not equal to the Hermitage or Cote d Or. The Beaucaire red wines 
 of Languedoc, (the cante-perdrix of Rabelais,) have a bright rose-tint, 
 and the Comas is a stronger description of wine, having a flavour of 
 ratafia, and it will keep and improve for twenty years. Of a similar 
 description are the red wines of Tavcl, Chuzclan, St. Geniez, Lirac, 
 and St. Laurence. The Ronssillon red wines, being strong in body 
 and reckoned the most durable in France, are used most for distilla 
 tion, and for adding vigour to the Bordelais and other weak wines ; 
 those of Bagnols, Cosperon, and Collioure, are of the choicest descrip 
 tion. The Frontignac wine is long celebrated, the aroma of which 
 is thought to resemble that of elder flowers ; the muscadel of Lunel 
 is a delicate wine, less cloying than the Frontignac, while the vine 
 yard of Rivesaltes, about two leagues east of Perpignan, yields the 
 best muscadine wine in the universe. At Salces, a white wine is 
 manufactured from the maccabec grape, by which name it is dis 
 tinguished, and is thought to resemble Tokay, but in richness it is 
 inferior to the Rivesaltes : the Provence wines, however, are of ordi 
 nary quality. 
 
 The wines of Gascony and Guienne are much esteemed ; the vine 
 yards of Lafitte, Graves, Chateau Margaux, and Haut-Brion, produ 
 cing some of the best red wines,, while the vineyards of Sauterne and 
 Barsac are in considerable repute. In Gascony, the vines are planted 
 in the quincunx order, three feet asunder, and supported by frames 
 borne on props about twelve inches high. The sort most cultivated 
 is the verdot. Medoc, which is one of the most famous vineyards of 
 the Bordelais extending along the left bank of the rivers Girondeand 
 Garonne, within two and a-half leagues of Bourdeaux, comprehends, 
 Lafitte, Latour, and other famous vineyards. The plants cultivated 
 for the white wines are the malbec, sauvignon, rezinot, andsemillon, 
 and are usually trained on poles five or six feet high, and are propa 
 gated either by quicksets or layers. The Graves wines were so 
 termed from the nature of the soil that produced them ; but they 
 now comprise both the Avhite and red, which grow on the gravelly 
 lands near Bourdeaux. The regulation of the vintage varies in dif 
 ferent provinces, according to the whim of the grower, or the long 
 established custom of the district. In the manufacture of the better 
 sort of wines, great care is taken in the selection of the grapes, and 
 even a different management is observed between those of the red 
 and white descriptions ; a singular distinction is, that all rotten or 
 unripe red grapes are cast away, and the rotten or over ripe parts of 
 the. white grapes are preserved. In some places, the vintage occupies 
 eight or ten weeks ; in making the best wines the stalks are rejected. 
 
SS T 
 
 but no precise time is allotted for the fermentation ; and in making* 
 the white wines, the grapes are hut indifferently pressed and partially 
 freed from the stalks. The wines of Bordelais, celehrated by Auso- 
 nius, still maintain a high reputation, of which the red is in greater 
 consumption than the white. The Palus wines, being rough and 
 strong, are generally purchased for the purpose of heightening the 
 strength of other wines. Claret may be accounted a sort of artificial 
 or intermediate wine, since it is a compound formed by the admix 
 ture of several other wines, consisting of a hogshead of Bourdeaux 
 wine having incorporated three or four gallons of Alicant or Beni- 
 carlo, two quarts of stum wine, with a small portion of Hermitage. 
 The whole compound when sufficiently fretted, after undergoing u 
 partial fermentation, becomes that familiar vinous liquor designated 
 Claret. 
 
 Having described the wines of the first character in France, it may 
 be sufficient to say, that of the others that of the finest white are the 
 Sauterne, Beaumes, Preignac, and Barsac j and that of the red wines, 
 Rozan, Gorce, Leoville, Larose, Bran-mouton, and Pichon-Longue- 
 ville, are of second rate quality. Experience has proved that the 
 oldest vines invariably yield the richest fruit and afford the best 
 wines. In the Clos-Vougeot vineyard, from which issues the most 
 celebrated Burgundy, no vines have been planted during three centu 
 ries, but the plants are renewed by laying the old trunks without ever 
 separating the root from the stock or even using any manure what 
 ever. This vineyard contains about one hundred and sixty arpents, 
 from which nearly two hundred hogsheads of two hundred and sixty 
 bottles, value five francs a bottle, are annually produced* 
 
 Notwithstanding the natural goodness of most of the wines of 
 France, it has been found useful to heighten the colour of red wine 
 by the fruit of the vaccinium uliginosum, a species of bilberry ; the 
 juice of this berry, when distilled, yields a strongly intoxicating spirit. 
 In the south of the kingdom, bugloss (anchusa tinctoria,) is culti 
 vated for the sake of its roots, which are employed to give a rich red 
 colour to spirits of wine ; vintners use them in staining the corks of 
 their port-wine bottles, and in heightening the colour of inferior wines. 
 The climate in this country congenial to the growth of the vine, 
 does not run equi-distant from the equinoctial, but cuts tho parallels 
 of latitude obliquely, so that from 47 ^ in the west to 49 J" in the 
 east, seem to be the natural boundary, while in Germany the vines 
 thrive in the 52d degree of latitude. Normandy, Picardy, and Artois, 
 lying without these zones, are not, therefore, wine districts. Other 
 fruit, however, abounds. Orchards are numerous, particularly in 
 
388 
 
 Normandy, and cider seems to be a staple article. The fields in this 
 province are filled with fruit of every description, among which are 
 pears of an enormous size, supposed to be the largest in Europe, and 
 seem, according to Mr. Webster, as if they had been sent for antedi 
 luvian giants.* The cultivation of the vine in France, although occu 
 pying so much of the soil and the industry of its population, is held 
 by some to be a national evil, by others a national benefit. That 
 both considerations may be true, is reconcileable on the ground that 
 one bad crop produces more absolute distress than can be alleviated 
 by a succession of several good ones, owing to the superabundant 
 population and the minute subdivisions of property ; while, on the 
 other hand, the vine renders lands valuable, which, without it, would 
 be of little or no value, and afford neither profit to the owner nor 
 employment to the peasantry. The extension, therefore, of vine 
 yards in France has been considered injurious more from the conse 
 quent diminution of the quantity of corn land than from any injury 
 arising from their produce. With this view, Charles IX, in 1567, 
 endeavoured to restrain the cultivation of the vine in order to favour 
 other branches of agriculture, and his measures were still more rigor 
 ously enforced by Louis XV. under similar impressions and for similar 
 purposes. The various uses to which the vine is applied are surpris 
 ing, amongst others, its leaves, dried in the shade and infused in a 
 tea-pot, produce an excellent substitute for tea ; and the vine prun- 
 ings, cut small and mashed in boiling water in the same manner as 
 malt, on being fermented, become a good beverage : if distilled, they 
 produce an excellent spirit of the nature of brandy. The fermented 
 liquor extracted by mashing the tendrils, when allowed to pass the 
 vinous and run into the acetous fermentation, affords an uncommonly 
 fine vinegar .f Wine, in a moral point of view, has. perhaps, been of 
 little injury to the French people ; but that perfect sobriety is charac 
 teristic of the nation has not been asserted. 
 
 The general impression respecting the comparative propensities of 
 the different nations of the world to stimulating beverages, is, that 
 in wine countries, drunkenness does not prevail to such a degree as 
 in those nations where the vine is not cultivated, which has induced 
 many to assert that in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, 
 the people are less prone to inebriety than the inhabitants of Great 
 Britain, Sweden, Russia, Denmark, &c. Travellers of experience 
 inform us that such is not the fact, one of whom, Mr. Cooper, the 
 
 * Webster s Travels through the Crimea, Turkey, and Egypt, vol. i. p. 49, 
 f Philosophical Magazine. No. 1 1 9. 
 
389 
 
 distinguished American writer, says that a residence of six months in 
 Paris changed his views entirely. " You will," says he, " judge of 
 my surprise when first I saw a platoon of the Royal Guard literally 
 a whole platoon, so far as numbers and the order of their promenade 
 were concerned staggering drunk, within plain view of the palace of 
 their master. Not a day passed that I did not see men and women 
 in the same situation in the open streets. To convince some persons 
 who doubted this, I took them into the streets and satisfied them of 
 their mistake, and on one of these occasions, we passed thirteen drunken 
 men during the walk of an hour, many of them so far gone as to be 
 unable to walk."* The charge of drunkenness against the French 
 has been attempted to be palliated, by alleging that the practice was 
 introduced by the army during the Revolutionary wars, while others 
 assert that there never w r as a time when drunkards did not abound in 
 France ; and Cooper asserts that he saw more instances of inebriety 
 in the streets of Paris than in London. An entire guard of soldiers 
 got intoxicated, and actually arrested innocent people in the streets, 
 whom they confined in the guard-house. The official reports show 
 ten thousand cases of females imprisoned for drunkenness in Paris, 
 during one year. 
 
 The duties on wine are collected in the following manner : The far 
 mer, after the vintage, goes to the nearest city or town with samples of 
 his wines, and as soon as he gets orders from a merchant or a private 
 person for a quantity, he accordingly brings it for delivery, and at 
 the barrier, or gate, the duty is paid either by the purchaser or the 
 farmer himself. It is scarcely possible to evade payment of this duty, 
 because every one who intends to remove wine must first procure a 
 permit from the Receveur principal of his department, which permit 
 accompanies the wine, is shown to the collector who receives the 
 duty, and is then entered in his book, and he initials the permit to 
 prove that it has been regularly entered. If the wie be for a private 
 person, the permit is kept by him as a protection, to show that it has 
 been legally obtained. Collectors, or receivers of this duty, are sta 
 tioned at each entry of the town or city like toll-keepers in Great 
 Britain ; and they account to the chief collector for the receipts at the 
 end of every week. The regulations for securing the duty on brandy 
 are the same as those for wine, but the rate is higher, and any per 
 son may make brandy of the produce of his own vintage, not, how 
 ever, without first specifying his intention to do so to the proper col 
 lector. There is a distinction between such persons as these and the 
 professed distillers of brandy ; the latter purchase the wine for that 
 
 * Cooper s Residence in France, val. ii. 
 
30 
 
 purpose, and pay a license for permission to distil, while the former 
 pay nothing for their privilege ; the licensed distiller, moreover, is 
 subjected to the inspection of officers, who keep an account of his stock 
 of wine, so that he can neither add to nor diminish it without detec 
 tion and risk of forfeiture or a penalty, the whole business being con 
 ducted by permit. Frauds are sometimes detected, but from the 
 lightness of the duty, there is little temptation to commit them, while 
 a strict check is kept on all wine and brandy venders by the entries 
 of the visiting officers. 
 
 The manufacture of beer has been long familiar in France, and is 
 of such importance that so early as 1268, laws were drawn up and 
 approved of by the Mayor of Paris to regulate the trade. The brew 
 ers at that time were called cervoisicrs from cervoise, the term given 
 to beer. In 1489, the laws were revised on account of the abuses 
 that were practised in the breweries ; and again in 1630, ten new 
 regulations were added to the code, and registered in parliament in 
 1714. In 1801, there w r ere seventy-eight master brcw r ers in Paris ; 
 but it is proper to observe, that no one can open or carry on a ware 
 house in that capital without having regularly served five years of an 
 apprenticeship, and three years as a foreman. The law wisely 
 enforces that some of those corporations shall examine the ingredients 
 used in brewing, lest any noxious or deleterious substance be employed ; 
 and it likewise enjoins that barm shall not be sold in any place with 
 out a previous inspection. No oxen or other animals are allowed to 
 be fed, or kept within the range of the brewery in order to prevent 
 their filth and annoyance. Formerly, each brewer could have only 
 one pan, copper, or mash-kieve per day, containing fifteen septieres 
 of malt. Three members of the corporation annually elected, are 
 obliged to inspect the breweries, all of which they may visit when 
 ever they please. 
 
 While on the subject of French breweries, it may not be irrelevant to 
 describe the process commonly observed in preparing dry barm. When 
 a sufficient quantity of brewers barm is collected, it is put into thick bags 
 or sacks, a number of which are- placed together in a press and squeezed 
 for some time. The first liquor which runs from them serves the work 
 men for drink ; that which flows on a second pressure is used by tanners 
 in the preparation of leather, which it is said to render more pliable. 
 When the liquor is completely extracted from the bags, and there 
 remains nothing but the spirit of malt and hops, the residuum is left 
 to dry in the bags under the weight of the press, and only drawn out 
 to be sold to bakers, or such as may require it. One pound of this 
 barm will serve to leaven five hundred pounds of dough for the 
 
391 
 
 lightest bread. In the event of a dull sale, the maker is obliged to 
 keep this barm in a very dry place, and as free from air as possible. 
 A similar process is observed in Flanders. Cobbett, in his Cottage 
 Economy, speaks of a substitute for barm in America, which he calls 
 yeast-cakes^ and is thus described : " The people of Long Island 
 make a parcel of these cakes once a year, and when they bake they use 
 them instead of leaven^ and the bread produced from them is excel 
 lent. The materials for a batch of cakes are three ounces of good 
 fresh hops, three and one-half pounds of rye-flour, seven pounds of 
 Indian corn meal, and one gallon of water. Rub the hops so as to 
 separate them. Put them into the water, which is to be boiling at 
 the time. Let them boil half an hour; then strain the liquor through 
 a fine sieve into an earthen vessel. While the liquor is hot, put in 
 the rye-flour, stirring the liquor well and quickly, as the rye-flour 
 goes into it. The day after when it is working, put in the Indian 
 meal stirring it well as it goes in. Before the Indian meal be all in, 
 the mess will be very stiff; and it will in fact be dough, very much 
 of the consistence of the dough that bread is made of. Take this 
 dough, knead it well, and roll it to the thickness of one-third of an 
 inch, and cut it into cakes with a tumbler. Take a clean board, or 
 tin plate, on which place the cakes and leave them to dry in the sun, 
 and occasionally turning them, they will soon become as dry as ship- 
 biscuit. After this they must be kept perfectly dry. When going 
 to bake, take two of these cakes and put them into hot water, first 
 breaking them into pieces, and leave them near the fire-place all 
 night. In the morning they will be dissolved, and then use them in 
 setting the sponge precisely as you would use the yeast of beer." In 
 some parts of France and the continent, bread is made by letting the 
 fermented dough turn sour, then mixing it with the flour intended to 
 be baked, care being taken to put only a sufficient quantity to raise the 
 bread without running the risk of acidity. 
 
 The mode of making beer in France does not differ much from that 
 practised in England. Formerly it was customary to subject the 
 barley to a partial germination, which was effected by steeping it for 
 about four and twenty hours ; after which it was spread on the floor, 
 until it had arrived at that degree of growth that the sprout or shoot 
 was nearly 4 or 7 ^ths of an inch in length. It was then dried on 
 hair-clothes placed on a floor with interstices to admit the heat from 
 an oven beneath. When sufficiently dried, it was ground so as to 
 free the meal from the bran ; it was then mashed in a vat, similar to 
 those now in use, with a regular and false bottom. The heat of the 
 water was ascertained by means of a thin wooden rod plunged into the 
 
392 
 
 eopper, when tha ebullition on it* side determined the temperature ; 
 but this practice has been discontinued since the adoption of the ther 
 mometer. After the grain was properly mashed, it was suffered to 
 remain in the mash-tun for one hour ; and the liquid was then per 
 mitted to run into a reservoir by the removal of a stopper in the 
 centre of the kieve. New liquor was then poured into the mash-tun, 
 and worked a second and a third time with the same malt, till it had 
 discharged all its remaining substance. The quantity of liquor used 
 in the copper and mash-tun at these different operations, was properly 
 adjusted, and twelve bushels of malt were allowed to one hogshead 
 of water. The material of the reservoir was removed to the copper 
 where it was boiled with hops, in the proportion of eight and one-half 
 pounds to each hogshead of liquor. In order to deepen the colour of 
 the beer, it was boiled for the space of four and twenty hours ; but if 
 a pale colour were desired, it was merely allowed to begin to boil. 
 To ferment this liquid when properly cooled, about a wine-gallon of 
 yeast was allowed for every hogshead of the whole brewing, and it 
 was usual to infuse a little coriander-seed to heighten the flavour of 
 the beer. The French government, during the present year, (1837,) 
 have, it is said, refused to license many of the gaming-houses in Paris, 
 several of which have been converted into beer-houses. 
 
 The distillation of brandy and other strong waters in France, 
 became an object of such consideration, that in 1639, the public autho 
 rities made it subject to the direction of the law. As the regulations 
 under which the brandy trade is governed, are in some degree similar 
 to those established for breweries, a detail of them would afford little 
 interest. In various parts of France, distillation is carried on from 
 both white and red grapes ; the fermentation of the red is not gene 
 rally so perfect as that of the white, the spirit from the red being 
 less palatable. No reason, however, has been assigned for this diffe 
 rence, which may, perhaps, arise from a want of proper attention to 
 the fermentation ; several sorts of wine admitting of different degrees 
 of attenuation. Experiments have shewn that the decomposition of 
 the white exceeds that of the red grape from 20 to 25 per cent. In 
 this country, as in many other parts of the continent, a great mistake 
 has been committed in the improper selection of the grapes intended 
 for distillation. It must appear evident that bad fruit cannot produce 
 good drink, and it may, therefore, be inferred, that it is, in a great 
 measure, owing to this want of discrimination that an inferior liquor 
 is produced. The French are chargeable with not separating, at the 
 commencement of the vintage, the wines intended for drink from those 
 to be converted into brandies ; hence it frequently happens that gene- 
 
393 
 
 rous and good wines, which might bo drunk without any modification, 
 are sacrificed to the still, while, on the contrary, the thin small wines, 
 both red and white, are set apart for the table, to the disadvantage of 
 the grower, seller, and consumer. To make a superior brandy, the 
 fruit, or wine, to be distilled, should be of the best description. 
 Formerly, aromatic seeds and juices were made use of as necessary 
 ingredients, but that practice has been long abandoned, since it was 
 found that a pure spirit was more easily obtained from the simple 
 fermented juice of the grape, than from any mixture to which recourse 
 had been made. 
 
 The general method now observed in the manufacture of brandy 
 differs in nothing from that practised in the distillation of malt- wash, 
 or molasses in Great Britain, except that a little of the natural lee is 
 thrown into the still along with the wine to improve the flavour. 
 The stills generally employed are made of copper, set in brick-work, 
 with proper flues and dampers, and differ in their conformation accord 
 ing to the taste or caprice of the owners. In some of them the bot 
 toms are broad, in others, narrow. The most common and appro 
 priate form is that of a frustrum of a cone, with a concave bottom, 
 having the greater base upwards. From its construction, the bottom 
 receives the force of the flame with greater precision than if it were 
 flat ; and from its convexity inside, the sediment falls on that part of 
 the bottom resting on the brick-work, and by this means saves burn 
 ing, and the consequent empyreumatical flavour which might be 
 given to the spirit. The stills are worked slowly and cautiously, and 
 the fluid kept at a regular temperature, so that the spirit may be drawn 
 off as pure as possible. 
 
 The ingenuity of the French chemists and the unlimited means 
 which they have had for the exercise of their talents, have enabled 
 them to effect improvements in the construction of stills and of distilling 
 machinery, which have considerably facilitated the progress of this 
 branch of business ; and a still has been lately employed by M. Charles 
 Derosne, so contrived that it has the advantage of continuous distilla 
 tion, without being attended with extraordinary expense in fuel, or any 
 of the disadvantages of the ordinary stills. A description of this 
 apparatus appeared of such importance, that I procured, through a 
 friend at Paris, a copy of the original design as engraved by Bernard 
 and Delarue. The conception of this still originated with M. Cellier 
 Blumenthal, who, in 1819, assigned it to M. Derosne, by whom, in an 
 improved state, it was exhibited in October, 1827, at Paris, before the 
 Society for the promotion of French industry, when, from its superi 
 ority, be obtained the gold medal. 
 
394 
 
395 
 
 An apparatus of this description on the largest scale can distil from 
 10 to 12,000 litres of wine, (each 2,113 pints) in twenty-four hours, 
 and produce from 1,500 to 1,600 litres of alcohol, or from 21 to 
 2,400 litres of hrandy, 22 decrees over proof. One of the great 
 benefits of this still is, that of requiring no water for condensation, the 
 wine itself serving that purpose, and its bringing over, without inter 
 ruption, a continued stream of spirit of sufficient strength for market 
 able purposes. 
 
 The body consists of a boiler, or still A, (sometimes two are 
 employed as in the engraving,) surmounted by a large cylinder, B, 
 which is divided into compartments by a number of copper shelves 
 perforated with holes. Through these the vapour rises, and, in its 
 ascent, comes in contact with the wine to be distilled, descending 
 through the same perforations, so that both are retarded in their pro 
 gress and blended together ; the lighter material still continuing to 
 rise through C, till at length it gains the condenser D, a copper 
 cylinder in which a worm is placed horizontally. This condenser is 
 filled with wine, which, while it serves the purpose of condensing the 
 vapours in the worm, becomes itself heated ; and, in that state, is 
 conveyed to the still by the junction pipe 5 and 6. To collect the 
 spirit thus condensed, each coil of the worm has, at the bottom, 
 a tube for the purpose of drawing off the liquor, either in the refri 
 geratory E, by the upper long inclined tube, or by the lower one 
 sent back again to the rectifier, or upper part of the cylinder, marked 
 C, for re-distillation. At b rising from the discharge-cock a, is a 
 glass tube to show the height of the liquor in the boilers, A A", and in 
 the first still forms a junction at the pipe c. The glass tube c shows 
 the process in the rectifier, which is only an extension of the lower 
 column B ; while the tube f shows the progress in that part of the 
 cylinder near the narrow pipe at 3, where the vapour passes into the 
 first coil of the worm in the condenser D, which is divided into two 
 chambers by a partition at k, but having a communication at the 
 lower part near the coils. The still is charged from the receiver F, 
 through a cock at t. This receiver is filled from the superior one G, 
 by means of a ball-cock at v t the ball floating on the top at u, which 
 opens or closes the cock, according as the liquor in it increases or 
 diminishes ; and thus regulates the quantity of wine required to be 
 distilled in a given time. The liquor in the receiver F, is conveyed 
 to the still, through the funnel and pipe at s and 9, communicating at 
 the bottom with the refrigeratory, E, and, rising through that vessel, 
 enters into the condenser, D, by the pipe 8 and 7, having a small tube 
 at its apex, n^ which is ahvays open. The refrigeratory, E, contains a 
 
396 
 
 worm into which the condensed vapour passes through the pipe at 4, 
 having at bottom a cock p, for emptying the vessel ; also a cock at o 
 for the purpose of letting off water when the work is finishing. H is 
 a hydrometer attached to the lower part of the refrigeratory E, with 
 a thermometer to ascertain the temperature and strength of the 
 spirits which run into the receiver. On the top of the first boiler, A, 
 is a safety pipe, d. The figures 1, 2 are the junction between A, B, 
 and C. The pipe 11 and 11", with a cock at g, is for the purpose 
 of returning to the rectifier, C, the weaker spirit from the near coils of 
 the worm in D. The pipe 12, 12", brings by means of the two cocks 
 (Ji and i t ) the liquor condensed in the posterior part of D into the 
 superior part of C. The figure 13 shows a tube that communicates 
 with B inside the boiler A", but this is most frequently dispensed 
 with. The cock J is used for emptying into B the liquid to be dis 
 tilled and contained in D, when the operation is finished. The letters 
 k, /, m, mark the openings into the upper part of D, and are kept shut 
 and luted during the operation. In these openings, are small pipes, 
 two at k, one of which is generally kept shut, and the other goes down 
 a few inches into the liquid in D, and remains chiefly open to prevent 
 accidents. 
 
 Before commencing work, A must be filled with wine until within 
 two or three inches of the pipe 5. A" is also filled to the height of 
 six inches above the discharge pipe e. Before the fire is applied to 
 the boiler, all the other parts of the apparatus must be filled with 
 wine. The two receivers, G and F, must be also full, and when the 
 condenser, D, and the refrigeratory, E, are full, the further admis 
 sion of liquor is prevented until the wine in the coppers has parted 
 with its spirit, and the fluid in the condenser is of such a heat, as to be 
 admissible into the distilling column, B. When that part of the con 
 denser, D, which rests upon C, is so warm that the hand cannot be 
 kept upon it, the cock, , at the receiver F is opened. At this stage, 
 begins what is termed the continual process, since the supply of the 
 vessels with wine, the evaporation, condensation, and cooling, go on 
 independently, attention to the fire being all that is necessary. 
 
 The system practised by this apparatus is founded on the action of 
 the vapour produced in A, as compared with the quantity of liquid 
 which runs from F to D ; and to regulate this and ascertain what 
 was passing in the apparatus, the indicators, e and /, were contrived. 
 A damper, as shown at z, has also been made to moderate or accele 
 rate the action of the fire. When the distillation is rapid, and the 
 vapour is quickly condensed, the liquid may rise in the column, and 
 when perceptible at the middle of the indicator, at c, it may be con- 
 
397 
 
 eluded that there is too much of the aqueous vapour furnished by A. 
 The fire must then be decreased by pushing the damper into the 
 chimney. When the liquor in /is seen coloured, it is then also neces 
 sary to slacken the action of the fire, lest there might be an admixture 
 of the liquid passing through D, with the spirit as condensed in the 
 worm during the progress to E ; or the same end may be accom 
 plished by a prompt regulation of the temperature of D. 
 
 When there is occasion to stop the working for four or five days, 
 the most simple method of leaving the apparatus in such a state as to 
 be readily resumed, is to extinguish the fire as soon as the wine has 
 ceased to run from G ; by which means, a charge will remain in the 
 different compartments, sufficient for the re-commencement of 
 operations. 
 
 This very ingenious invention has not been applied in Great Britain 
 so far as I can learn, because it has been strongly urged as an objec 
 tion, that the heavy and inspissated consistence of our malt-wash would 
 not readily flow through the minute perforations in the shelves of the 
 cylinders, while it would subject the machinery to interruptions and 
 accidents, to which it would not be so liable in the distillation of 
 wines. If this objection could be overcome by any modification or 
 improvement the revenue might be readily secured, as there is no 
 part of this apparatus which could be converted to an improper pur 
 pose ; while, from the little expense attending the working of it, 
 persons of limited capital might find it their interest to employ such 
 a machine. 
 
 It is common among provincial distillers in France, to ascertain the 
 strength of the spirits by putting a quantity of the brandy, as it runs 
 from the still, into a clear glass bottle of four or five inches in length, 
 swollen at the centre, which, when well shaken, enables them to 
 determine by the size and stability of the head, the quality of the 
 liquor and the state of the still : although this is an old and a common 
 practice, yet all the improvements in the use of the hydrometer are 
 fully known and practised by the French distillers. 
 
 The stills are worked by small faggots, chiefly of ash : the head of 
 the still is taken off at each time of charging, and the furnace filled 
 with wood. The dampers are then closed and not opened, unless the 
 fire is too dull, or in order to give it air. This requires caution, for 
 if the fire get strong, there is danger that the still may be burned or 
 the head blown off; to prevent which, cold water is thrown on the 
 head and worm, an expedient that not only contributes to cool the 
 still, but to deprive the liquor of its pungency. Great quantities of 
 brandy are distilled at Bourdeaux, Rochelle, Cogniac, and in the 
 
3B8 
 
 department of Charente, the Is!o of Rhe, Orleans, Bt>is, Poictiers,-- 
 Angers, Tours, Nantes, Burgundy, Champagne, and Montpellier. 
 
 In the time of Ambrose Pare, who was physician to Charles IX. 
 and Henry III., stills were made in the country of glass and tin ; the 
 former were considered the best, but some w r ere made of potter s 
 earth shaped in various ways, some cylindrical, viz. round and oblong, 
 others twisted, &c.* He gives a receipt for the manufacture of pure 
 aqua vitce, which was obtained by a seven-fold rectification, and was 
 considered a very valuable medicine in the cure of epilepsy, diseases 
 proceeding from frigidity, wounds and punctures of the nerves, syn 
 cope, gangrene, and putrescence. It was used by itself, as well as to 
 form a vehicle for other medicines. He also mentions a liquor similar 
 to that distilled in China from the flesh of sheep, which, he says, was a 
 restorative. This liquor was extracted from the flesh of calves, kids, 
 chickens, fat -hens, partridges, and cock -pheasants, pounded small; 
 to which were added some barley, the juice of fresh roses, with a little 
 citron and cinnamon- water ; the produce of these formed the liquor. 
 
 In the North of France, distillation is carried on from rye and 
 barley malt, and at Dunkirk and other places, cattle are fed on the 
 grains, wash, and refuse of the distilleries, as in Ireland and Scotland. 
 These distilleries are not more than one-tenth the size of our own 
 establishments ; and the old mode of fermenting the wash on the 
 grains is practised there, as is common with the Flemish and Dutch. 
 In the operation only one still is used ; but the required strength is 
 obtained by repeated distillations. In Normandy, a spirit is made 
 from sour apples, which partakes much of the flavour of the fruit; and 
 another spirit is manufactured, termed Eau d vie de bic. A great deal 
 of brandy is made from cider generally, also from sirup and molasses, 
 particularly where there are sugar-houses. A spirit resembling whis 
 key is also made from the fruit of the sloe-tree. Some of this is 
 manufactured by the peasantry in the neighbourhood of Thionville, 
 and is preferred by many to real brandy. The fruit \vhen quite ripe 
 is gathered, and with the kernel bruised to a pulp, in which state it 
 undergoes fermentation for some days, and is afterwards distilled. 
 
 In some parts of the North of France, the root of the Jerusalem 
 su iidioke (Helianthus tiiberosus), has been introduced for the purpose 
 of distillation. The wash made from this vegetable is found to yield 
 a very pure, strong spirit, which resembles that obtained from the 
 grape more than any other substitute that has hitherto been tried. 
 As the root grows readily in Great Britain and might be cultivated 
 abundantly, it would be well to try the experiment here, as we have 
 
 * Fare s Works, folio, c, 3. p. 848. 
 
399 
 
 no medium spirit betvreen genuine French brandy and the fiery pro- 
 duce of grain, sold under the denominations of gin and whiskey. I:i 
 Ireland, the cultivation of this plant would he attended with great 
 advantage, since it thrives well in a boggy soil, and in a country like 
 it, where there are so many unreclaimed and wastelands, its culture 
 would be a profitable speculation, for, while the roots would afford a 
 tine material for distillation, the tops would yield more fodder than 
 the same space of ground, if sown with ordinary grain. 
 
 From potato-berries, large quantities of brandy have been distilled 
 in France for some years past. The process is very simple : the 
 berries being gathered at full maturity, are then carefully bruised by 
 means of cylinders, the pulp is put into vats, and left to ferment ; 
 when this is finished, it is distilled and brandy is obtained nineteen 
 degrees in strength (nearly Dutch proof,) being at the rate of a hec 
 tolitre (one hundred quarts,) for every twenty or twenty-four hecto 
 litres of uiicrushed berries. This spirit is pretty -well flavoured. 
 Some say that these berries produce, after fermentation, as much brandy 
 as the grapes of Lorraine ; these, however, yield little less than half 
 their volume in wine, which, one year with another, affords about one- 
 tenth of strong brandy. 
 
 From the potato itself, large quantities of spirit are drawn, and the 
 French have been particularly successful in the management of this 
 distillation and in procuring the greatest produce. But as the process 
 is fully treated of in other parts of this work, it is unnecessary to 
 dwell further on it here. 
 
 Distillation from beet-root is also carried on in different places in 
 France, and theFrench people have arrived to a degree of perfection in 
 this manufacture surpassing anything yet attempted in Great Britain. 
 The long struggle between England and France, during the domi 
 nation of Buonaparte, led to the cultivation of the beet and to the 
 various uses to which it has been applied. Sugar was so largely 
 extracted from it, that it served as a good substitute for foreign sup 
 plies ; and it has been so extensively grown that it now affords a most 
 valuable material for the manufacture of spirits. The sugar is gene 
 rally in the proportion of seven or eight parts to one hundred parts 
 of the root ; and it is computed that a hectare of land, (nearly two 
 and one-half acres,) yields two thousand four hundred kilogrammes, 
 (47 cwts. 36 Ibs), and such is its extent of culture, that some growers 
 obtain from 7 to 8,000 cwts. annually. It has been calculated that 
 the cultivation and other incidental expenses do not cost the farmer 
 more than from five to eight shillings the hectare. When the sugar 
 is prepared and the molasses is completely drained from the vats, 
 
400 
 
 the pulp affords little less nourishment for cattle, than the root in its 
 natural state ; and the residuum of the distillery has latterly been con 
 verted into potash. A manufactory, exclusively for this purpose, 
 has, it is stated, been erected in the vicinity of Valenciennes. 
 
 The works employed in the manufacture of beet-root sugar, through 
 out France, amount to upwards of four hundred, and the produce is 
 stated to be thirty millions of kilogrammes. Such is the ardour with 
 which the French are said to pursue the trade, that Ferney, once the 
 residence of the celebrated Voltaire, has been turned into a manufactory 
 of this article. Chestnuts have been latterly used for the extraction 
 of sugar ; and, in many instances, they are said to yield a proportion 
 above that of the beet-root. But, without entering into further par 
 ticulars, it may be generally observed that as France exceeds almost 
 all other European countries of equal extent in the variety and rich 
 ness of its vegetable treasures, it would be difficult to give a more 
 comprehensive view of the matters on which a people so speculative 
 and ingenious might exercise their industry. It may therefore suffice 
 to say, that the spirits drawn from materials other than the grape, 
 have been estimated at 95,000 hectolitres at a strength of 19 by 
 Carder s areometre. 
 
 A great quantity of the brandy and spirits manufactured in France 
 ^s used in the making of liqueurs in which the French have always 
 excelled. The introduction of these beverages took place, according 
 to Beckman, in the year 1533, on the occasion of the marriage of 
 Henry II. when Duke of Orleans, with Catherine De Medicis. The 
 art of making them was derived from the Italians, to whom the inven 
 tion is attributed ; they were termed by them liquor i, and vended 
 through foreign countries under that appellation. Their pleasing 
 palatable qualities ensured them a ready admission to the tables of the 
 great, while their seemingly mild and medicinal properties offered a 
 temptation to the weak and delicate, whose constitutional debility 
 required a succession of artificial stimulants. Louis XIV. became so 
 addicted to them in his old age, that he could scarcely endure exis 
 tence without them. A list of these compounds, with the mode of 
 making them, would occupy a small volume ; and it is to be feared 
 that advantage is too frequently taken of the innocency of the name, 
 to cover an indulgence in stronger liquors. 
 
 In making brandy from the skins of the grape, it has been lately 
 discovered that the presence of the stones communicates an empyreu- 
 matical taste to the liquor ; and hence it has been recommended to 
 separate them not only on that account, but as a profitable specula 
 tion, since an oil of a very superior description can be obtained from 
 
401 
 
 the stones, that answers as a highly valuable lamp-oil, as well as being 
 preferable to many other oils used for the purposes of the table. As 
 a lamp-oil it yields a brilliant flame without either smoke or smell, and 
 is of so good a nature that an ounce of it, subjected for an hour to a 
 heat of 176* of Fahrenheit, loses only forty grains. 
 
 The value of the brandy annually exported amounted, at the com 
 mencement of the last century, to 5,852,900 livres ; in 1778, to 
 4,660,221 ; in 1784, to 11,350,200 ; in 1787, to 14,657,300. In the 
 year 1789, there were exported to the Baltic, 17,800 hogsheads, and 
 in 1790, 13,22.* Townsend, when he visited Montpellier in 1787, 
 purchased the best wine for one half-penny per quart. The abun 
 dance at that time was so disproportioned to the demand, that the 
 inhabitants distilled us much as freighted 32 vessels, containing 
 2,400.000 gallons, the principal part of which, he says, was smuggled 
 into England.f Notwithstanding this vast manufacture, the impor 
 tation of foreign spirits into France is sometimes very considerable. 
 In 1787, the value of the corn spirits imported, amounted to 1,874,000 
 livres, and that of wine-brandy to 3,715,000. 
 
 The revenue arising to the state, according to Young, from the 
 duties on wine and home-made spirits, amounted under the govern 
 ment of Louis XVI, to 56,250,181 livres, or 2,460,444 sterling. 
 But it was not near so much during the late revolutionary wars ; it 
 has, however, since the general peace of Europe increased to a degree 
 highly beneficial to the French nation. In the beginning of the four 
 teenth century, so great was the export of this commodity, that the 
 port of Bourdeaux alone, sent out in one year 1,350 vessels laden 
 with wine to the amount of 13,429 tuns. In the time of M. Lavoi 
 sier, there were consumed in Paris 281,000 muids of wine, brandy, 
 cider, and beer, amounting to 18,928,000 bottles. In 1822, France 
 exported to England 1,179,687 gallons of brandy. The annual 
 exports of wine in France, are computed to be 22,000,000 gallons, 
 valued at 2,000,000 sterling ; but these form only 8 X 8 part of the 
 whole produce of the vineyards of the country. The consumption in 
 Paris alone, amounted, in 1834, to 596,585 hectolitres of wine; 27,794 
 of brandy ; 12,352 of cider and perry; and of beer to 78,948 hectolitres. 
 The wine-shops in the city, in 1833, were 2,000 ; while through the 
 entire country, the wine-sellers numbered 240,000, and the consump 
 tion averaged eighteen gallons for each individual. The total sums 
 levied on the wines amounted, in 1835, to 12,833,333 sterling. 
 
 * Oddy on European Commerce. 
 
 f Townsend s Travels, vol. i. pp. 47, 48, 
 
 2 J> 
 
402 
 
 The market for wine in Paris is held in a large square called Halle 
 aiix vin$ t and covers a space of 325,000 square yards. It is divided 
 into streets, with stores on each side, named after different kinds of 
 wines, or districts where the best descriptions are produced. One of 
 the large buildings is appropriated for brandy, and the others are set 
 apart for wines ; while suitable accommodations are provided for the 
 merchants and the officers, who superintend the entrance and delivery 
 of the wines. Here the dealers resort to select and make purchases 
 of such liquors as they require. It was computed that these buildings 
 would contain from 6 to 700,000 casks, each of which pays a duty of 
 ten-pence, and sometimes fifteen hundred are entered in a day ; the 
 quantity being measured and certified by the officers. This market 
 place forms a sort of promenade and is attractive from its appearance, 
 having rows of trees planted, and some of the buildings surrounded 
 with terraces. This commodious and extensive structure is a further 
 illustration of the genius and enterprise of Buonaparte. The wines 
 sold out of this market to merchants and others, in one year, have 
 amounted to 4,000,000 of hectolitres. 
 
 The rate of wine in Paris may be considered rather high, when 
 compared with the country prices, but this is owing to the duty and 
 the various expenses attending its conveyance to the capital. The 
 Vin de Mdcon varies from eleven-pence to one shilling and two-pence 
 the bottle. Indifferent Bourdeax sells at six-pence, while Champagne 
 of the best quality brings from four to five shillings the bottle ; and 
 other wines are sold, according to their quality, in similar proportions. 
 The environs of the city are filled with little ale-houses, termed guin- 
 guettes, where the middling clases resort on Sundays and holydays, to 
 regale themselves with wine and other beverages, which can be 
 obtained at a cheaper rate there, than in the city. The wine made in 
 the immediate vicinity of Paris is very inferior, and is termed Vin de 
 urenne, from its indifferent character. 
 
 In concluding the subject of French distilled and fermented liquors, 
 it is much to be regretted, that in a country where there is such a 
 redundance of valuable wines, the restrictions of commerce should 
 have rendered access to these commodities so difficult, and their gene 
 ral use so limited on account of the heavy duties imposed on them, 
 In many parts of France, (particularly in the south-west,) as observed 
 by Dr. Bowring, the wine-cellars are glutted, and people complain of 
 the want of a ready sale, and ruin, in many cases, stares the unfor 
 tunate growers in the face ; since they have been known in some 
 instances to sell their wine at a half-penny a bottle, while in the region 
 bordering on the Moselle, they have disposed of it at from three-half- 
 
403 
 
 pence to two-pence a gallon. When wines can be procured at so 
 cheap a rate, it might be for the general interest of the country were 
 the duties reduced so low as to permit a free intercourse between the 
 British and French nations. Many of our manufactures would natu 
 rally be received in exchange, and, as it would relieve the wine 
 growers of their superabundant produce, it would give an impetus to 
 our home-trade, and prove of mutual advantage to both countries. 
 
 Habit has rendered our palates familiar with Portuguese and Spa 
 nish wines, particularly with the former, to which it may, in a great 
 measure, be said we have been slaves, to the almost total exclusion of 
 the superior wines of other nations. The Methuen treaty has been 
 for some time abrogated ; but although the duties on French wines 
 have since become the same as on other imported wines, yet the duty 
 is still too high. Were some further reduction made in this respect, 
 it would ultimately tend to the increase of the national revenue, and 
 prove beneficial in its consequences to the moral state of the people 
 of this empire, by diminishing the use of many of those deleterious 
 beverages, to which the great mass of the lower classes are so strongly 
 addicted. A table of the exports will be found in the Addenda. 
 
 Few countries, from the nature of the soil and climate,~should afford 
 better wine than Italy ; and although rakia is imported, an excellent 
 brandy is manufactured in different states. The classical reader is so 
 familiar with the virtues and excellence of the produce of its ancient 
 vineyards, as to make a description and encomium almost unneces 
 sary ; its history, therefore, would afford little interest while it is so 
 imperfectly known, that it cannot be clearly shewn to whom the 
 country is indebted for its introduction. To Janus, stripped of his 
 fabulous clothing, the Italians are said to have been indebted for a know 
 ledge of agriculture and the use of wine, to the effects of which he fell 
 a victim by a body of drunkards, who, while labouring under its influ 
 ence, imagined they had been poisoned by him. The face of the 
 country is so diversified with hill and dale, wood and water, as to 
 render the prospect always delightful. The plantations, which are 
 picturesque and numerous, are intermingled with fruit trees of every 
 description, while the oak and the poplar serve as supporters to the 
 vine, the branches of which, spreading in every direction, train the 
 clusters of fruit, as they fall, into festoons, and cover them with a lux 
 uriant canopy. The walls of the cottages are often found covered 
 with vines, while the approaches to the doors are under an umbrage 
 of fragrant fruits and flowers. In other situations the vines are sup 
 ported by trellises of reeds or poles, presenting the appearance of 
 innumerable ranges of espaliers extending as far as the eye can reach. 
 
404 
 
 Every vino plantation contains a handsome cottage for the vine-dresser, 
 and all has the appearance of active and animated industry. 
 
 In so diversified and luxuriant a land as Italy, the wines must be in 
 proportion to the nature of the soil and the management of the vine 
 yards. At one period, particularly in the time of Theodoric, wine 
 was so cheap, that a gallon of it was sold for less than three-farthings, 
 and a modern traveller says, that a goblet of the best sort can be pur 
 chased for the same money. For many years, however, the Italians 
 have paid little attention to the cultivation of the vine, no ground, 
 generally speaking, being exclusively appropriated to that purpose. 
 The vines are commonly planted without distinction of species, on the 
 edges of corn fields, trained upon trees, or found spontaneously clam 
 bering on hedge rows, and shooting up trees to the height of fourteen 
 or fifteen feet, affording the peasant without toil, a sufficient supply 
 of wine for his own consumption. The vine being but an object of 
 minor consideration, no pains are taken in the tillage of the vine 
 yards, in gathering the grapes, in selecting the good grapes from the 
 bad, nor in cleanliness during the operations of treading, fermenta 
 tion, or in casking and preserving the wine when manufactured. 
 
 The calcareous hills in the centre of Tuscany are said to produce 
 the best wines in Italy, and they are distinguished by different appel 
 lations from the names of various kinds of grapes from which they 
 are produced, as Aleatico, Columbano, Tribbiano, Vernaccia, fyc. all 
 red wines. Among the white wines formerly made in Tuscany, was 
 the Verdedy a greenish coloured liquor, the favourite of Frederick II. 
 of Prussia, and much celebrated by travellers. The white muscadel 
 wines of Albano and Monte-Fiascone, and the red and white wines 
 of Orvieto, are of an inferior description, though the produce of the 
 Church territory. 
 
 In Naples, wines are abundant, both red and white : many of them 
 rank high ; the best kind, termed Lacryma Christi, is produced from 
 the vineyards near Vesuvius. A notion prevails that this wine ought 
 not to be drunk by any but those long accustomed to the climate. 
 This, however, seems to be an erroneous opinion, for, if not taken to 
 excess, there is no more danger to be apprehended from it than from 
 any of the other wines of Europe, the proximity to Vesuvius having no 
 influence whatever on its valuable properties. The city of Pompeii, so 
 long buried under the eruptions of Vesuvius, is mantled with vineyards 
 planted on the lava by which it was overwhelmed ; and until 1748, 
 the wine-growers were ignorant that they were trampling on the ruins 
 of a once populous and magnificent city, within whose walls the 
 Falernian, the Coecuban, and the Rhaetican once flowed to the inspi- 
 
405 
 
 ration of some of the best bards that ever struck the lyre. The value 
 of the wine and the extent to which it was consumed may be inferred 
 from the number of public taverns discovered within the ruins of 
 Herculaneum being no less than 900, while in Pompeii the counters 
 and flaggons that were chained to the posts, indicated the estimation 
 in which that beverage was held. It is remarkable, that in the villas 
 discovered at Pompeii, the wine- cellars are placed, as Columella directs, 
 at a distance from the bath and bake-house. 
 
 In Calabria, vines produce after being two years planted, and bear 
 during sixty and sometimes one hundred years. The wines are various 
 in quality, owing to the goodness of the fruit and the process in the 
 making. The Palina and Nicostra are said to be good for eight years, 
 while others, particularly the red wines of Monte Leone, do not keep 
 above three years, and the white wines not much beyond six months. 
 In the vicinity of Gierace is made the vino Greco, a rich, sweet, white 
 wine, the produce of vines brought originally from Greece.* Around 
 Reggio, vineyards are numerous and the wine is of good quality. 
 Were proper encouragement given to the rearing of vines, Calabria 
 might be made to yield a superior class of wines, but unfortunately 
 the poor peasantry have little interest in this, or any other improve 
 ment of the soil, beyond what supports existence, as they have been 
 greatly oppressed by the heavy exactions of their rulers. 
 
 No country should be supplied with a better wine than Italy, as 
 there is scarcely any other intoxicating beverage used, and as the 
 grapes form a great portion of the culture of th* country ; yet travel 
 lers complain that very little good wine is to be found in the whole 
 peninsula. One great cause of the Italian wine beir.g of so inferior a 
 character, is, as akeady stated, owing to the negligent mode of its culti 
 vation, and the want of cleanliness and attention to the process in the 
 different stages of the manufacture. Grapes are often gathered before 
 being ripe, and the good and bad promiscuously trodden in the same 
 trough ; hence the produce cannot be expected equal to that arising 
 from fruit perfectly ripe, freed from stem, and of prime character. 
 To the bad mode of fermentation may be added another cause, that 
 of constantly putting fresh must into the vat until the whole ceases to 
 ferment under an exhaustion of strength, and this is done from igno 
 rance of the real nature of fermentation ; besides, leaving the vats 
 open and exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, which must greatly 
 tend to injure the aroma and body of the liquor. In short, to the 
 ignorance, obstinacy, and carelessness of the Italians, the inferiority of 
 
 Elinhirst s Calabria, 8vo. 
 
406 
 
 their wines is wholly chargeable Even in the days of Pliny, nearly 
 2,000 years ago, the Italians were reproached with indifference in the 
 cultivation of the vine, their avarice inducing them to sacrifice the 
 quality to the quantity. It may be observed in general, that notwith- 
 standing the complaint lodged against the Italian wines, excellent 
 descriptions of native produce are occasionally to be met with in 
 almost every town of Italy. The common wine at Florence and Rome 
 has little flavour. The better kinds are the Monte Pulciano, the 
 Orvieto, and the Aleatico, the first of which has not any peculiarity 
 and is comparable to weak claret. The Tuscan wines neither bear 
 carriage nor keep long, and are usually kept in chestnut casks : when 
 sent to England, they are generally put up in thin glass flasks packed 
 in chests, secured by a plaiting of straw ingeniously worked round 
 them ; and, before the wine is corked, a little oil is poured in, perhaps 
 to prevent the air from escaping. In some of the large palaces, wine 
 is sold by retail, that the proprietor may thus turn into money the 
 produce of his estate. For this purpose, a little window or wicket is 
 opened in some convenient part of the wall, just large enough to 
 admit the flask which the purchaser intends to be filled. The nobility 
 of Great Britain would consider such a practice as highly derogatory 
 to their rank and character. Near the town of Como, the birth-place of 
 Pliny the younger, and lately celebrated as the residence of the consort 
 of George the Fourth, vineyards are pretty numerous, particularly on 
 the hills adjoining ; and at various places in the rocks, which become 
 steep at the edge of the lake, there are wine-cellars in which the inn 
 keepers and dealers of the place keep their wines: from these a supply 
 is forwarded in boats to Como as occasion requires. No distillation 
 from grain is carried on, although Indian corn is cultivated in Carniola, 
 Styria, and Italy, to considerable extent ; this grain was introduced at 
 Verona upwards of 200 years ago. Here it is called fermentone ; at 
 Milan, melgone ; in Piedmont, granane ; in Tuscany, granturco ; in 
 South America, maize; and by Linnaeus, zea mays. It i& remarkable 
 that this grain does not thrive in a latitude farther north than that 
 which is congenial to the growth of the vine, say, 50 degrees from 
 the equator. It forms one of the chief articles of food in those coun 
 tries ; with the stalks cattle are fed, and the fogolia^ or chaff, is used 
 for mattresses. 
 
 In a country so particularly gifted by nature,, and abounding in 
 flowers, plants, and trees of every sort, honey must be plentiful. The 
 bees, however, are not left to their own instinctive operations, but 
 are reared in cylindrical hives, hollowed from the trunks of trees com 
 monly a foot in diameter and two feet in height. These hives are placed 
 
407 
 
 on shelves at a considerable elevation on the outside of the houses,* 
 so that the owner may watch the industry of the insects and avail 
 himself of their labours. 
 
 The island of Sicily has been celebrated from the earliest ages for 
 its extraordinary fertility ; corn is said to have grown there sponta 
 neously, hence the poets made it the residence of Ceres, the goddess 
 of plenty. When the Greeks were at war with Xerxes, such were 
 the resources of Sicily, that Gelon, who had made himself absolute 
 at Syracuse, offered to furnish the whole Grecian army with a supply 
 of corn during the entire period of the war, provided they would 
 make him commander of their forces. In this island, the vine is said to 
 have been cultivated earlier than in any other part of Europe, and 
 this opinion seems to be borne out by the testimony of Homer, who, 
 speaking of this fertile place, says, 
 
 " The soil untilled a ready harvest yields ; 
 With wheat and barley wave the golden fields : 
 Spontaneous wines from weighty clusters pour, 
 And Jove descends in each prolific shower." 
 
 Diodorus Siculus extolled the fertility of the Sicilian vineyards, 
 and the excellence of their produce. 
 
 Agrigentum and Palermo, the most noted cities in Sicily, were famed 
 amongst ancient records as the watchwords for luxury and dissipa 
 tion ; and the inhabitants were celebrated for their hospitality and 
 the liberal distribution of their generous wines. Plato, speaking of 
 the Agrigentines, says, they built as if they were always to live, and 
 supped as if they were never to sup again. The modern wines of 
 Sicily are said to be of an inferior character, the body of which is 
 rendered too ardent by the quantities of brandy with which they are 
 adulterated. The Sicilians do not take that care in the manufacture 
 of their wines which the quality and abundance of their grapes demand ; 
 and they tire equally inattentive to the distillation of their brandies, 
 which are disliked from their harshness and pungency ; and to this, 
 perhaps, may be attributed the disrepute into which the Sicilian wines 
 have fallen. What is called the Faro red wine is in great repute on 
 account of its strength and resemblance to port, which it rivals in 
 quality when kept three or four years. In addition to the quantity 
 consumed in the island, about 10,000 pipes are annually exported. 
 
 Fifty different sorts of wine are still produced in the district of 
 Syracuse, and the once celebrated Calabresian wine was the produce 
 
 * Cadell s Journey, vol. ii. p. 67. 
 
4-08 
 
 of its vineyards. To this place, Polis, tyrant of Syracuse, and an 
 Argive by birth, transplanted from Italy the grape which produced 
 the Vinum Pollium, an article held in the highest estimation. 
 
 In the Lipari islands, some good wines are manufactured : from 
 the largest island of this group, about two or three thousand barrels 
 are annually exported. Two sorts of grape, (termed Passole and 
 Passolina) are dried ; the latter is more generally known as the 
 Corinthian grape, and affords from ten to twelve thousand barrels of 
 wine for sale. About two thousand barrels of Malmsey wine are 
 made in the island, and which for its excellence is much esteemed. 
 
 Spirits of a good description are distilled in many of the islands of 
 the Mediterranean. In Corsica, excellent wines are made: the white 
 wine produced about Capo Corso is of two kinds, one resembles Xeres, 
 so much, that large quantities are sent yearly to Germany, and sold 
 there under that name ; it is also sent to England and Leghorn, and 
 sold as Spanish wine : there are many other fine wines produced in 
 this island, one species of white resembling Frontignac, another kind 
 at Furiani might pass for Syracusan, while there are some very like 
 Tokay and Burgundy. Indeed, in few islands are to be found so many 
 varieties of wines, or grapes producing more rich or generous liquor, 
 and the brandy distilled there is of superior quality. 
 
 Of the wines of Sardinia little is said, but there is sufficient made 
 to enable the inhabitants to export to the north of Europe, particu 
 larly to Russia and the Netherlands ; brandy is also distilled in such 
 quantities as to aiford sufficient for exportation. In the small Island 
 of Elba, two kinds of wines are manufactured, red and white, the 
 grapes being of superior quality ; the wines are rich, strong, and well- 
 flavoured, the Vermont and Cleatico are highly esteemed. In making 
 them, the grapes are trodden under foot, as the inhabitants have not 
 hitherto used the press. Brandy of great purity and excellence is 
 distilled, and, were its value with those of the wines of this island 
 known in England, quantities might be imported much to the advan 
 tage of the British dealers. 
 
 Malta produces little or no wine, but a large portion of its revenue 
 is derived from a low duty on spirits and wine imported, the former at 
 l^d. per gallon, the latter, when of an inferior quality, at the same 
 rate, but the better kind of wine pays 2d. per bottle, and tLv tax 
 raised on this article amounted annually to nearly 10,000. 
 
 Among the Ionian islands, that of Cephalonia is the most respect 
 able, and its wines have been celebrated from the earliest periods, 
 especially its red wines ; and it is also noted for the goodness of its 
 muscadine raisins and currants, from which an advantageous commerce 
 
is conducted. The native grapes are as large as plums and the wine 
 made from them is strong and pleasant. Abundance of well flavoured 
 honey is produced there, but mead is not common. 
 
 The vine in this island is principally cultivated on stony ground ; 
 hence the wines are called " Vino di Sasso" or wines of stone, from 
 the love of stony ground evinced by the plant. Muscadel makes a 
 sweet wine like Constantia : this vine delights in a rich soil, but the 
 Vino di Sasso is the best among the dry wines. Here there are a 
 great variety of grapes, and the Marsala of Sicily is not to be com 
 pared to that of Cephalonia.* The whole produce of the Island 
 amounts to from 30 to 35,000 casks, the half of which is red and is 
 of a spirituous nature ; the remainder consists of white wine of an 
 agreeable taste, including 8,000 casks of muscadel, some of which is 
 of inferior quality. From three to four thousand casks of brandy are 
 distilled annually, which are sent to Trieste, Venice, Leghorn, England, 
 and Russia. And from the aromatic herbs and flowers, liqueurs are 
 prepared in two establishments erected for the purpose ; honey to the 
 amount of 80 or 90,0001bs. is collected from the bees of the Island. 
 
 The island next in importance is Corfu, the wines of which, for the 
 most part, are also red ; but though sweet, they are not considered 
 equal in body to some produced in the neighbouring islands. The best 
 description may be obtained for 4d. or 5d. a bottle, at the capital. 
 
 The wines of Zante are accounted excellent, and some of them 
 approach to Tokay, they have the appearance of claret, but are rather 
 sweet, and sell at from 6d. to Id. the bottle : white wines are scarce 
 in this island. Here are to be found the finest muscadine grapes, 
 which are dried and exported to England and other parts of Europe. 
 Walpole enumerates no less than forty different species of grape 
 cultivated in this island, of which ihevitis corinthiaca is the principal. 
 The stem of the Eptakoilos, one of those species, is selected for a 
 matrimonial crown at nuptial ceremonies, and care is taken to select 
 a branch that has forty knots, which being a proof of the prolific 
 qualities of the vines is so communicated to the bride. f 
 
 According to Hughes, there are as many sorts of wine as grapes ; 
 some sweet like the muscat, others luscious like the Cyprus, a few 
 slightly acid like the Rhenish, but most are dry like the Sherry. 
 These last named wines bear the same comparative superiority in 
 point of strength over those of the other islands as they seem to have 
 done in ancient times ; yet many ages must elapse in the civilisation 
 
 * Napier s Ionian Islands, 8vo. p. 263. 1833. 
 
 t Memoirs Relating to European and Asiatic Turkey, 4to. p. 293, 4, 6, 6, 7. 
 
410 
 
 of the people and the cultivation of their vines, before the produce 
 can rival that of ancient Greece, which was held in such estimation 
 as to be dealt out in single portions at the tables of the great, like 
 imperial Tokay at our modern banquets.* 
 
 Zante is remarkable for its abundant produce of currants, the proper 
 name of which is Corinths, from being originally cultivated about 
 Corinth in Greece. From seven to eight thousand millions of pounds 
 are the common annual produce. The price varies from 14s. to 18s. 
 per cvvt. The new currants always form part of the dessert at the- 
 tables of the respectable inhabitants. 
 
 From the arbutus unedo, the fruit of which is eaten and esteemed a 
 delicacy, a spirit is drawn, as also a vinegar of a bright golden colour. 
 The annual produce of wine in Zante averages about 45,000 Vene 
 tian barrels ; and of the honey of the island, of which there is a consi 
 derable quantity collected, the greater portion is sent to Venice. 
 
 The wine of Ithaca is esteemed the best in the Ionian islands ; it 
 is like port in appearance, of a sweet flavour, and, as has been remarked 
 by a recent visiter, excellent enough to justify the taste of Penelope s 
 suitors in draining large goblets of it to the health of their fair mistress. 
 Here it may be noted that the modern Greeks, who are strongly 
 attached to wine, do not follow the custom of putting a glass into the 
 goblet for each guest ; but use only a single goblet, out of which every 
 individual drinks in turn. Captain Jones, in his travels through 
 Sweden, relates that a similar practice is prevalent in that country.f 
 Ithaca abounds in currants, 5,000 cwt. of which are annually exported. 
 A small quantity of wine is also shipped from it, and reckoned 
 amongst the best in the Ionian isles : the colour and flavour are inter 
 mediate between port and claret ; arid the liquor is not spoiled by 
 impregnation with turpentine, as is commonly the case with the wines 
 of the Grecian continent. 
 
 From the island of Santa Maura the annual exports are about 1,000" 
 barrels, and the island of Zea raises about 7,000 barrels, and ships 3 or 
 4,000 barrels of wine of an excellent flavour while on the island, but 
 during the course of a voyage, it generally becomes sour and often 
 putrid, an effect produced by the want of brandy to preserve it.f 
 
 The island of Crete, now called Candia, is described with enthu 
 siasm by travellers, for the mildness of its climate, the fragrance 
 of the air, the fertility of the soil, and the picturesque beauty of its, 
 
 * Vide Hughes Travels. 
 
 f Travels in Norway, Sweden, &c. 2 vols. 8vo. vol. i. p. 70. 
 
 | Gait s Letters from the Levant, 8vo. p. 252. 
 
411 
 
 scenery. This was once the centre of arts, commerce, and politeness 
 it also contained above 100 populous cities: here, too, surrounded by 
 vineyards, is the immortalized Mount Ida, and the extraordinary 
 labyrinth of the famed Minotaur. Savary, when at the monastery of 
 Mount Ida, visited the cellar in which Tournefort had reckoned 100 
 casks of wine, but he found only 40 barrels of a large description. It 
 is customary for the superior, at the end of each vintage, to descend 
 into this cellar and bless the new wines. The following is the form of 
 the benediction used on the occasion : " O Lord God, who lovedst 
 men, look down on this wine, and on those who shall drink it. Bless 
 our casks as thou didst bless the well of Jacob, the pool of Siloam, 
 and the drink of thy Holy Apostles. O Lord, who didst condescend 
 to be present at the wedding of Cana, where by changing water into 
 wine thou manifestedst thy glory to thy disciples, send now thy holy 
 Spirit on this wine, and bless it in thy name. Amen."* A similar 
 practice is observed in Russia, with regard to apples, before they are 
 eaten. As soon as they are known to be ripe, the high priest solemnly 
 blesses them in the most public manner, thus making it a regular 
 religious ceremony .f This custom is, perhaps, borrowed from the 
 Jewish practice alluded to in Exodus xxii. 29. Pliny informs us 
 that the Romans never tasted of the new corn and wine till the priests 
 had offered the first fruits to the gods ; and Horace accounts those 
 persons wicked who sent presents of the first fruits to the rich before 
 the gods had been thus honoured. The wines of Candia are said to 
 be generally of a fiery quality, to intoxicate quickly, and to be inju 
 rious to the nervous system. 
 
 In Cyprus, wine forms a considerable branch of trade, and is of a 
 superior quality. It may be obtained for about three pence a bottle. 
 The Greeks carry it to market in leathern bags, which give it an 
 unpleasant flavour, a circumstance adverted to in other places.J Some 
 of the Cyprian wines have a pitchy smell, owing to the vessels which 
 contain them being half sunk in the ground, and pitched over to pre 
 vent the earth from attracting the wine. The old superior wines are 
 deer, but the ordinary sorts are cheap and abundant. Limasol pro 
 duces the finest muscadine wine of Cyprus, some of which has the 
 consistence of oil, and may be kept to a great age. The muscat wine 
 is a perfect liqueur, but it cannot be purchased for less than a dollar 
 and a half the okka. The Commendaria wine, so called as being 
 
 * Savary s Letters on Greece, vol. i. p. 267. 
 
 f Johnson s Travels through part of the Russian Empire and Poland, 4to. p. 3 1 2, 
 
 J Bramson s Letters, vol. i. p. 312. 
 
 An okka or oke is 3lbs. 2oz. 
 
the produce of a domain belonging to the knights of Malta, is held in 
 the greatest estimation amongst the natives. The muscadine is a rich 
 dessert wine ; the Commendaria is a sweet wine improving in delicacy 
 and flavour in proportion to its age. Perhaps there is no country on 
 earth which yields such abundance of luscious fruit. The juice of the 
 Cyprian grape resembles a concentrated essence. The wine of this 
 island is famous all over the Levant, so that in the hyperbolical language 
 of the Greeks, it is said to possess the power of restoring youth to 
 age and animation to those who are at the point of death. Cyprian 
 wine, however, is not much relished by Englishmen on account of its 
 sweetness which renders it repugnant to their taste. Though a 
 powerful aperient, it sometimes disorders the bowels even after being 
 kept a number of years. When bottled for 10 or 12 years, it more 
 resembles Tokay than any other wine, but the Cyprians prefer keep 
 ing it in casks, where, although exposed to the air, it will keep for 
 any number of years. After having thus withstood the vicissitudes 
 of the season for a single year, it is supposed to have passed the 
 requisite proof and it then sells for three Turkish piasters the gooze or 
 about 21 pints for five shillings, and afterwards the price augments in 
 proportion to the length of time it has been kept. Commendaria of 
 40 years standing in cask is -considered a balm, and is preserved on 
 account of its supposed restorative and healing quality for the sick 
 and dying. The casks are never filled, and the bung is merely covered 
 with a bit of sheet lead, which is almost daily removed to let customers 
 taste it. Upon these occasions a hollow cane or reed is immersed in 
 the liquor, and by suction a specimen is brought up and poured into 
 a glass. Both the Commendaria and Muscad are white wines ; when 
 quite new they have a slight violet tinge which age soon removes ; 
 afterwards they retain the colour of Madeira. Cyprus produces red 
 wines also ; but they are little esteemed and used only as weak liquors 
 for the table. It seems to be want of attention that prevents the reci 
 wine being rendered as famous as the white as it possesses all the 
 requisites to make it excellent. The flowers of the smilax aspara> 
 called in Cyprus Zulobatos, which are extremely fragrant,are immersed 
 in wine to give it a grateful odour.* Cyprus and Candia, when 
 under the government of the Venetians, supplied the greater part of 
 Europe with wines : Candia alone is said to have exported upwards 
 of two hundred thousand jars of malmsey annually. Lately, the yearly 
 produce was equal to 40,000 jars, or 10,000 barrels, Italian measure. 
 Each of these jars holds about five bottles of Florence measure. The 
 Venetians carry off a great deal of it, and .some is sent to France, 
 
 * Dr. Clarke s Travels in Greece, &c. vol. 4. p. 18, 19, 20, 
 
413 
 
 England, Holland, and to different parts of Italy. It is a custom iu 
 Cyprus to bury large vessels of wine on the birth of a child, which 
 are not raised until the solemnization of its marriage, which is perhaps 
 upwards of twenty years after. During this period, the wine is said 
 to acquire an exquisite flavour, and to become a real luxury to a deli 
 cate palate. The Cyprians, in making wine, carry the grapes from 
 the terraces with shovels into limos or cellars paved with marble or 
 covered with cement, and obliquely inclined. They are then squeezed 
 as often as is necessary, in small presses called patitiri, the juice flowing 
 into a cistern placed at the lowest part of the floor. It is afterwards 
 conveyed into large earthen conical pitchers, half immersed in earth, 
 where it is allowed to ferment for 40 days, and then closed with a 
 clod of baked earth. From dried grapes an excellent spirituous liquor 
 is made, partly for home consumption, and partly for exportation to 
 Syria. 
 
 After the conquest of Cyprus by the Turks, some of the wine found 
 there was eighty years old ; it was sent to the seraglio as a most 
 valuable rarity, and it kindled in the fire and burned like oil. It is 
 related of the Emperor Selim II., that he conquered Cyprus on 
 account of its delicious wines, remarking on that occasion to Mustapha 
 Ms generalissimo, " I purpose to conquer Cyprus, an island which 
 contains a treasure that none but the King of kings ought to possess." 
 In Cyprus, bees are reared and the honey collected in the following 
 manner : The people build a wall formed entirely of earthen cylinders 
 each about three feet in length, placed one above the other horizon 
 tally, and closed at their extremeties with mortar. This wall is then 
 covered with a shed, and upwards of 1,000 may thus be contained 
 in a very small compass. The contrivance is simple, and was doubt 
 less suggested by the more ancient custom still existing in the Crimea 
 of harbouring bees in cylindrical hives made from the bark of trees. 
 The hives of Egypt and Palestine are of the same form ; those of 
 Egypt are, according to Hasselquist, made of coal dust and clay, well 
 mixed together. They are about a span in diameter, and from 6 to 
 12 feet long. They are dried in the sun and become very hard. 
 Walpole, in his route from Smyrna to Halicarnassus, passed hives of 
 this description made of earthenware, and from 2 J to 8 feet in length. 
 
 Rhodes, the largest island of the Cyclades, is extremely fruitful, 
 aud luxurious in grain, fruits, and flowers ; but owing to the igno 
 rance, despotism, superstition, and injudicious policy of the Turks, the 
 interests of agriculture are entirely disregarded, and a great portion 
 of the land is wholly uncultivated. Rhodes, so called from rhodon, 
 a rose, with which this island very much abounds, was renowned for 
 
414 
 
 the brazen Colossus, a statue of Apollo, placed over the harbour, 
 holding a ship in the right hand, and in the left, a light -house for the 
 direction of mariners. Some say it was 120 feet, others 70 cubits in 
 height, so that ships passed in full sail between its legs into the har 
 bour of the capital. After having stood 1360 years, it was thrown 
 down by an earthquake, and it took nine hundred camels to carry 
 away the fragments. The basis on which it rested was triangular, 
 and its extremities were supported by sixty marble pillars. A wind 
 ing stair-case led to its summit, from which, by the assistance of a 
 great looking-glass hung about its neck, one could perceive Syria, and 
 the vessels steering through the Levant and the JEgean seas to 
 Greece, Egypt. Rome, and Carthage. The vine is little attended to 
 by the inhabitants, though Rodwell observed bunches of Rhodian 
 grapes three-fourths of an ell in length, and each grape as large as a 
 plum. Dandini saw others of the same size at Mount Libanus, and 
 Pliny mentions bunches of African grapes that were larger than an 
 infant. Wine has latterly become an article of export. 
 
 The tyranny of the Turks over the inhabitants of the Greek 
 islands, rendered the possession of property precarious, and induced 
 many of the wealthy to appear as if they were really poor. An 
 anecdote is related by a late traveller in Candia, illustrative of this 
 fact, and which may not here be considered irrelavant. He was invi 
 ted to a friend s house to dine, the approach to which was so wretched, 
 that he anticipated nothing but the most humble fare. After passing 
 through several winding and dirty alleys, he was ushered into what 
 appeared to him a complete lumber-room, dark, smoky, and filthy, and 
 even without a window to let in a single ray of light. The hostess, 
 dressed like a cook, placed before the traveller and his companions 
 some three-legged stools, on which wood, meat, and tobacco appeared 
 to have been alternately chopped. The door being barred, in an 
 instant, as if by magic, the walls were curtained with the most splen 
 did Persian tapestry, and the apartment lighted up in the most bril 
 liant manner. A service of the most beautiful porcelain adorned the 
 table, as well as knives, forks, and spoons of silver, with elegantly gilt 
 decanters of polished glass, filled with the richest Cyprian wines 
 The dinner was sumptuous, the confectionary rich and various, and 
 the entertainment altogether such as would not disgrace a monarch. 
 Copious libations of wine terminated the repast, and in a moment, the 
 whole disappeared as if by the wand of a necromancer, leaving the 
 room in the same dismal state as on the first entrance. 
 
 In all the islands of the Archipelago, wine is made in greater or 
 kss quantities j and from the abundant saccharine matter of the 
 
415 
 
 grapes, it is customary to add one-fourth, or even one-third part of 
 water in the process. Throughout all these islands, the method 
 observed in manufacturing wines is nearly the same as that which 
 Tournefort describes as practised in Scio : " They plant their vines 
 011 the hills, and cut the grapes in August, and let them lie in the sun 
 to dry for seven or eight days, after which, they press them and 
 then leave them in tubs, the cellar being all the while closely shut. 
 When they would make the best wine, they mix among the black 
 grapes a sort of white one, which smells like a peach-kernel ; but in 
 preparing nectar, so called even to this day, they make use of ano 
 ther kind of grape, somewhat styptic, which renders it difficult to 
 swallow. The vineyards most in esteem are those of Mesta, from 
 whence the ancients had their nectar. Mesta is, as it were, the 
 capital of that famous quarter, called by the ancient* Ariousia.* 
 
 The wine of Scio was famous from time immemorial, and of which 
 Julius Ca3sar was particularly fond. It is delicate and higlily fla 
 voured, but will not bear a sea voyage. The figs of this island, are 
 of an incredible size ; but mastich is the chief object of cultivation. 
 There, flocks of tame partridges are said to be common : they feed in 
 fields and vineyards by day, and at night are called home by a 
 whittle, to which they invariably attend. From the fruit of the mul 
 berry tree, the people of Scio distil a weak but agreeable brandy ; 
 and from Homer s wine, another description of brandy is distilled, 
 which ranks much higher in public estimation. This wine, according 
 to Delle Valle, grows in a district excelling all the others in beauty, 
 aud furnishes the wine just spoken of, sometimes called Homer s 
 nectar, from a tradition, that this was the birth-place, or burying 
 ground of the great bard, and that this liquor was given to him 
 when he was weaned from the breast. Some, however, affirm 
 that Homer was interred in Nio, an island which produced a 
 wine held in high estimation. Scio affords various wines, of wlu ch 
 the red is the most relished, and which, it is asserted, was originally 
 manufactured there : little is exported, the inhabitants making too 
 good a use of it themselves. About three miles from the capital, on 
 the sea-shore, is shown the spot where Homer is said to have kept 
 Lis school, a most enchanting and beautiful situation, reflecting great 
 credit on the taste of the poet. It is a rock, on which are still visible 
 the remains of seats cut out, and a table with a noble group of trees 
 close by, shading a fountain of limpid water constantly flowing from 
 thexocks. Here also is a spring of water, famous for its medicinal 
 
 * Vovage in the Levant, vol. i. p. 253. 
 
416 
 
 qualities, and in such estimation, as to be transmitted in large 
 quantities to Constantinople, for the use of the Grand Seignior s 
 seraglio. A magnificent harbour appears in front, cottages lurk 
 amidst delicious gardens in the rere behind precipices of purple 
 rocks, rising in their nakedness. Here the followers of the Pro 
 phet enjoy the coolness of the shade, smoking their pipes, and 
 performing their ablutions where Mseonides was inspired/ No 
 stronger proof can be given of the celebrity of the wines of Scio, than 
 the ancient coins of the island, which have in front a sphinx, with a 
 bunch of grapes ; for the reverse an amphora, with other symbols of 
 the island s fertility. 
 
 Milo is fertile in fruit, and affords wine of a respectable character. 
 Paros, another of the Cyclades, is not less celebrated for its wine, 
 than for its marble. From this island were brought those remarkable 
 stones, known by the title of the Arundelian Marbles, and which have 
 been so interesting to antiquarians. The wine of Lemnos, or Stali- 
 mene, is cheap, rough, and badly made. The earth called terra sigillata, 
 once much esteemed for its medicinal virtues, and of which were 
 made the drinking-cups of the Grand Seignior, being a test of poison, 
 was chiefly procured from this island. The antiquities of Naxos, or 
 Naxia, relate almost exclusively, to the worship of Bacchus. Naxia, 
 was formerly renowned for a kind of marble termed Ophites, which 
 was speckled like the skin of a serpent, and of which drinking cups were 
 made. It produces wine, oranges, and lemons : the lemon-juice arid 
 the distillation from the lemon-rind, are sent to Russia. 
 
 In Syros or Syra, among the ancient customs still existing, the 
 ceremonies of the vintage are particularly conspicuous. Before sun 
 rise, a number of young women are seen coming towards the town, 
 covered with the branches and leaves of the vine, where they are met, 
 or accompanied by their lovers singing, and joining in a circular 
 dance. Tenos produces a sufficiency of wine for its own consump 
 tion, of which there is a small quantity of that denominated Malvasia. 
 In Andros, a good deal of wine is made, but very little exported, 
 being all consumed at home : the inhabitants are characterized as 
 great drunkards. 
 
 Samos produces the rich muscadine wine, formerly esteemed under 
 the name of Malmsey. Unlike every other wine, the sweet muscato 
 is best in the first year, as its fine perfume passes off in the course of 
 the second ; and as it grows old it becomes strong and spirituous, 
 like the Commendaria of Cyprus. Mead might be manufactured 
 here, as honey is very plentiful. The Carob-tree is reared in Samos, 
 and a great quantity of its fruit is sent into Russia, where it is dis- 
 
417 
 
 tilled into a spirit, used by the common people. In Turkey, this fruit- 
 is used chiefly in feeding horses ; among the Romans, the carob was 
 the standard of a weight, as the barley-corn is with us a standard of 
 measure. Mycone produces a red wine, of e which* about five thou 
 sand barrels are made annually ; the quality resembles that of claret, 
 but the inhabitants have a mode of making different kinds ; and as 
 the claret sort is the most expensive, they will rather cheat than give 
 it genuine. When the grapes are fresh pulled, the claret flavour of 
 the wine is best obtained by drying the grapes in the sun ; the other 
 sorts, and which stand the most watering, are produced differently : 
 when the grapes are too much dried, the wine becomes rather sweet. 
 Most of the wine made on the island of Mytileue is sold to the 
 Greeks, who convert it into brandy. From Tenedos, upwards of 
 80t),000 okes of wine are annually exported. The Turkish govern 
 ment farmed the revenue on this article, which commonly amounted 
 to 30,000 piasters, or at four shillings each, to 6,000. The Avine of 
 Tenedos is sent in large quantities to Constantinople, Smyrna, and 
 Russia ; and although not celebrated by the ancients, like the wines 
 of Scio and Lesbos, yet it is considered superior to that of the sur 
 rounding islands. According to the writers of the Universal History, 
 the muscato wine of Tenedos is the most delicious of all in the 
 Levant ; and it may be proved that this island has in all times pro 
 duced great abundance of good wine, sin.ce on some of its ancient 
 medals, is to be seen the branch of a vine, charged with grapes, a 
 plain indication, that it was, at a remote period, famed for this article.* 
 The brandy made from it is reckoned very good, and the little that 
 is exported pays about four paras, or four-fifths of a penny per oke. 
 The wine of Tenedos will keep from 14 to 16 years; after that it 
 loses its red colour and becomes white, but retains its strength and 
 flavor to a much longer period. Good wine of Tenedos not only excels 
 every other wine of Greece, but, perhaps, cannot be equalled in 
 Europe. The red wine is strong, and as dark and rough as port ; a 
 small quantity of muscadel is made and much esteemed. The red 
 muscadel sells at eight paras, or four-pence the okc ; the white at 
 thirty. There is an export duty on wine of two paras the oke, and 
 rakee, the common raw spirits, pays four paras the oke ; a large tax is 
 levied on the vineyards : from the Greeks, eleven paras, or 5-|d. 
 
 * Hobhousc, in his account of his Journey through Albania, &c., with Lord 
 Byron in 1809-10, alluded to these medals, and refers to a " Catalogue of Coirs 
 of the Grecian Commonwealth, chiefly out of Goltzius, in Walker on coins and 
 medals, p. 43, London, 1G92." Vid. Hobhousc, vol. ii. p. G74. 
 
 E 2 
 
418 
 
 are taken for every thousand vines ; from the Turks only five paras 
 are taken. In 1829, the wine sold for l^d. a quart. 
 
 The Russians draw a considerable supply of wines from Santorin, 
 (the ancient Thera,) one of the most esteemed of which is vino santo. 
 This is sold at the vintage for three or four paras the oke, or one 
 penny per bottle, and is made from white grapes. The vine-growers 
 expose the grapes to the sun for seven or eight days, spread on the 
 terraces, or flat roofs of the houses ; they are then pressed, or trodden 
 in a vat, and the liquor is put into casks, and carefully bunged up till the 
 fermentation ceases. It soon becomes a sweet and luscious wine, 
 and is exported from the island to the amount of 1,000,000 of okes. 
 Some brandy is made, but the quantity is inconsiderable.* 
 
 The island of Skopelos, which lies south of Salonica, produces 
 grapes of good quality, and its wine has been long in repute, and is 
 preferable to many contine ntal wines of Greece. The inhabitants make 
 a cake from the must of wine, boiled with a certain proportion of flour, 
 which forms a paste of an agreeable flavour. This cake, in its com 
 position, is said to resemble the mustaceum, or bride-cake of the 
 Romans. Dr. Holland conjectures that this island is the ancient 
 Peparethos, the excellence of its wines being alluded to by various 
 writers, and particularly by Pliny, who maintains that the Physician 
 Apollodorus recommended its use to Ptolemy, adding that it was not 
 agreeable till it had been kept six years. 
 
 Of all the grapes cultivated in Turkey in Europe, there are none 
 which excel that of Corinth; it has fewer stones, is more juicy than 
 the common grape, and is in great request. It is said to have been 
 brought to the Morea, from Naxia, about the year 1580, although no 
 plant of that kind is at present in that island. This species of vine 
 now abounds in Patras, along the coast of Achaia, as well as in the 
 Ionian islands. A dry, light, and flinty soil seems the best adapted 
 to its culture, while a thick, moist, and close earth seems uncongenial 
 to its nature, whence it is alleged that a flinty soil, mixed with a 
 sufficient quantity of clay, is best calculated to yield the best vine 
 yards. Wrench vines flourish best in a southern or eastern aspect, 
 and prefer the hills to the plains, while the Corinthian vines, on the 
 contrary, prefer the plains to the hills, and though they delight in 
 being sheltered on the south, yet they regard a westerly situation, 
 beyond every other, and the vicinity of the sea to mountains and 
 wild prospects. 
 
 The process observed in the cultivation of the Corinthian vine 
 
 Olivier s Travels through the Ottoman Empire, vol. 11. p. 259. 
 
419 
 
 does not appear to differ much from that observed 2,000 years ago, 
 as described in the writings of Coluniella. In laying out a vineyard, 
 the slips are cut and planted in December, and procured from the 
 finest vines of a neighbouring district; those taken from the adjoining 
 vineyards never succeeding to any extent. In the greater part of Greece , 
 the vines are permitted to creep unrestrained along the ground, and 
 to make use of each other for support. The Corinthian vines bear from 
 the seventh year, but their chief produce does not commence till the 
 twelfth ; they usually last from eighty to one hundred years. Like 
 the tobacco, which withers beneath the gnawings of a worm peculiar 
 to itself, the Corinthian vine has a vital enemy in a worm called 
 Scatari. During the winter, it lives on the roots, and in the summer 
 ascends the branches and consumes the young buds, with its double 
 saw and strong forceps. Its life is short, as it comes forth and dies in 
 the same year ; like a true wine-bibber, it fattens and expires in its 
 own gluttony : hence the adage so current in the Morea, " that glut 
 tons die of dropsy as the Scatari does." The gathering of the 
 grapes in the vintage is performed by women, with small knives bent 
 at the point. These grapes are dried, pressed, preserved, and 
 exported to different parts. A very fine species of brandy is made 
 from them by the Jews, in different places of the Turkish empire. 
 
 In the Morea, the vine is cultivated, and wine forms a consider 
 able portion of the exports of the country. The Malmsey, for which 
 Greece was once celebrated, has long become extinct. A sweetish 
 red wine is made at Horraa, which, according to Lake, has more 
 body and a richer flavour, than any wine he met with in the Morea. 
 Pliny, Theoplirastus, and ./Elian concur in reporting, that this wine 
 had the property of making men mad and women fruitful. 
 
 Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of Mantinraa, and the 
 wine is made by treading the grapes with the feet, the liquor running 
 into a cistern, from whence, after fermentation, it is carried by the 
 customary usage in skins to Tripolizza. It is a small light-coloured 
 wine, to which resin, and often lime, is added. During the vintage, 
 the labourers have an allowance of bread and wine, with fifty paras a 
 day, for their support and trouble. The wines are generally stored in 
 vaults or cellars, most of which are of great magnitude. At Megaspilio, 
 there is a fine convent, which is said to be one of the earliest monastic 
 foundations in Greece. One of the barrels in its cellar contains one 
 hundred and sixty loads of wine, each load being two goats skins, 
 which, calculating at 8 gallons the skin, amounts to 2,560 gallons. 
 Notwithstanding the influence of Islamism, the Greeks indulge in 
 the use of wine and brandy, which is in general consumption even 
 
420 
 
 the Turks themselves partake freely of these liquors. Spencer, one 
 of the latest travellers through Turkey, says, that every day during 
 his residence in Constantinople, he saw as many drunkards, as he had 
 ever seen in any city of Christendom ; while at marriages and fune 
 rals in the Morea, the social howl is handed round as in other parts 
 of Europe. 
 
 The medium annual average of grapes in the Morea may 
 be estimated at 10,000,0001bs., and the sales may be reckoned at 
 8,000,0001bs., at about l^d. per pound. A description of the mode 
 of drying and preserving the Corinthian grapes may not be uninter 
 esting : At one end of the vineyard is a floor in a sloping direction, 
 
 to allow rain or moisture of any kind to run off. The bottom of the 
 floor is of earth, so well beaten as to present a glittering surface, hard 
 and smooth like marble. This is effected by a mixture of cow-dung, 
 bullocks blood, and straw tempered in water. This finely-polished 
 surface prevents the earth from mixing with the grapes, and as it reflects 
 the heat, dries the fruit the more speedily, which is spread on its sur 
 face bunch by bunch, care being taken to turn them every twenty- 
 four hours. In a good season, tenor twelve days are the usual period 
 of drying, but in a rainy season, twenty or thirty days are required. 
 The stones are taken from the dried grapes by means of small rakes 
 made of the stalks of the Lixivium Africanum of Linnaeus, and, when 
 properly cleansed, and separated from every thing extraneous, they 
 are conveyed to magazines called serails, which are buildings of a 
 peculiar construction. They are sealed hermetically, having only 
 two entrances, one above and another below, in the former of which 
 the grapes are .thrown, until the magazine is completely filled. In a 
 short time, they become so compressed by their own weight, as well 
 as by other means, that a small viscous liquor is exuded, which unites 
 them so closely, that it afterwards requires a shovel with an iron 
 point to detach pieces from the mass, when they want to pack them 
 in casks for exportation. It is only at the time of sale that the bot 
 tom door is opened. There is occasionally a pleasant wine extracted 
 from the Corinthian grape, which is as strong and sharp as brandy ; 
 but the quantity it yields is so small, that few vine-holders will sacri 
 fice their grapes, by submitting them to the press for so unprofitable 
 a purpose.* 
 
 Mount Parnassus, in Li vadia, is, whenever practicable, planted with 
 vines, and the wines of this district are of excellent quality, particu 
 larly those made from the grapes on the southern side : of these the 
 
 Seaujour s Commerce of Greece, Letter viii. 
 
vineyards of Arracovia arc the most remarkable. These arc 
 managed with as much skill as any of the plantations on the Rhine. 
 The plants are all old stocks, from which one scion only is suffered 
 to grow for the year, and which are afterwards pruned again. Walls 
 are built to protect the ground from being washed down the steep 
 declivities by torrents, which present the appearance of terraces ; 
 and the views from these are highly picturesque and sublime, owing 
 to their great elevation. The Vale of Tempe produces wine resem 
 bling Claret, which is considered to possess a much better flavour 
 than any in Greece. On entering Pergetos, Dr. Holland saw four 
 or five stills at work by the side of the road ; the materials of distil 
 lation being the raisins of the country, the spirit of which is used to 
 a considerable extent in every part of the Morea. 
 
 In Albania, Macedonia, Epirus, and Thessaly, there are vineyards 
 of considerable extent and prosperity, which the Grand Seignior 
 encourages, on account of the advantages which they yield to the 
 revenue. The vine is cultivated in the valleys below the town of 
 Metzovo, in Albania, but their wine is thin, poor, and strongly 
 impregnated with turpentine an ingredient considered necessary for 
 its preservation. In Greece and other parts of Turkey, wine is con 
 veyed from one place to another in skins, made secure by a resinous 
 preparation, which, from incorporating with the fluid, gives it a disa 
 greeable flavour. Some allege that this resinous odour makes it a 
 better stomachic, and tends to its preservation. From the Pinus 
 Maritima^ a resin is collected, used throughout Attica and other 
 places, to preserve tho wine from becoming acid, and is employed in 
 the proportion of an oke and half to twenty okes of wine. From 
 this it has been conjectured, that the pine-cone was rendered sacred 
 to Bacchus. To the worship of Bacchus the drama is supposed to 
 owe its origin, and the principal theatre in Athens was dedicated to 
 him. In the days of Lysicrates, the theatre was, in some respects, 
 more hallowed than the temple, and the exhibitions given there were in 
 honour of the gods, particularly of Bacchus. 
 
 At Kirk Iklisie, an inspissated juice is made from bruised grapes, 
 and which is a common marketable article in Constantinople. It is 
 usually formed into rolls about a yard in length, containing walnut 
 kernels. Persons fond of sweet-meats are very partial to this mixed 
 preparation. The whole trade of Kirk Iklisie consists in the sale of 
 this conserve, together with wine and corn. The wine is of a bright 
 gold colour, tinged with violet, very pleasing to the eye, and like 
 Champagne in flavour, but having a greater degree of strength. If 
 
422 
 
 properly managed, it might rank among the choicest wines.* 
 The district of Boaotia furnishes very good wine, that of Orcho- 
 menus in particular, is considered equal to hock, having a flavour 
 somewhat similar, but possessing less acidity, while it is as clear as 
 spring-water. 
 
 The soil in the vicinity of Salonica is very favourable to the nur 
 ture of the vine, and from the exports of this port an idea may be 
 formed of the agriculture of that and the surrounding country. The 
 annual average quantity exported has been estimated at 1,000,000 
 kilos of wheat, 500,000 of barley, and 100,000 of Indian corn, the 
 kilo weighing about 551bs., and being from 5 to 6^ piasters in value. 
 Honey is so very easily obtained in Greece and many other parts 
 of European Turkey, that mead might be made an article of consi 
 derable importance in trade, and also a wholesome cooling beverage 
 preferable to most of the adulterated wines. The honey to be met 
 with at Athens is procured from Mount Hymettus ; it is quite trans 
 parent and of a tough consistency, so that the dish containing it may 
 be inverted without spilling, and the surface, if indented with a knife, 
 will yield to the impression like a mass of dough. As an article of 
 food, it is considered very heating, and sometimes causing fever. 
 This effect has been attributed by Dr. Clarke to the peculiarity of 
 the flowers on the mountain on which the bees feed. These are 
 chiefly wild thyme, tliymus serpyllum, salvia pomifera, and salvia 
 verbascum. The ancients believed that bees were first bred in Mount 
 Hymettus, and that all other bees were but colonies from this moun 
 tain ; so that the primeval breed may still exist among the numerous 
 wild stocks which inhabit the nollow trees and clefts of the rocks. 
 To the flowers of the Satureia Capitata is owing the celebrity of the 
 honey gathered on the mountains of Pendeli and Hymettus ; indeed, 
 most of the honey of Attica is drawn from the flowers of this plant. 
 Galen speaks of it as the favourite food of bees. Attic honey is, still 
 in high estimation, and presents of it are sent to Constantinople. The 
 honey of Lebadea, or Livadia, in Bceotia, is conveyed to the Grand 
 Seignior s seraglio ; but is much inferior to the Athenian honey, 
 which is as clear as crystal, and so solid that it may be cut with a 
 knife. In the Morea are many apiaries, the produce of which is of 
 the finest quality, and equal to the honey of Hymettus, hut much paler 
 in colour. From Mani and Bardhunia are annually exported 10,000 
 okes of honey to Constantinople, Candia, and the other islands. To 
 
 Vide Clark s Travels in Greece. Frankland s Tour to and from Constanti 
 nople in 1827-8, 2 vols. 8vo. vol. i, p. 70; 
 
423 
 
 the south of St. Angelo, in the Morea, stands Cerigo, anciently Cythera, 
 which is celebrated as the birth-place of Venus. In this island, honay 
 is a staple commodity : in 1811, it contained no less that 1280 bee 
 hives, producing honey of prime quality. For a table of the exports 
 and imports, see the Addenda. 
 
 In the northern provinces of Turkey, a good deal of spirits is manu 
 factured. At Zara, the capital of Dalmatia, is distilled from the 
 Marasca or Amarma cherry (so called from its bitter taste), that liquor 
 or liqueur denominated Maraschino, so celebrated through Europe. 
 This liquor is consumed to great extent along the coasts of the Adri 
 atic. To the essential oil of the nut or stone of the Marasca or Ama- 
 rasca, when ground and brought over in the still, this drink is said to 
 owe its exquisite flavour.* There is also made among the islands on 
 the coast of Dalmatia an excellent kind of brandy called rakia., which 
 is drawn from the husks of the grape mixed with aromatics. About 
 two thousand Venetian barrels of this spirit are manufactured, one 
 year with another, at the town of Pago, in the island of that name. 
 These the inhabitants principally export to Italy and Venice. 
 
 The white wines of the Moldavian mountains are considered deli 
 cious. The slopes of the hills are covered with vines, which produce 
 wines in such abundance that large quantities are sent into Russia and 
 Transylvania. The severity of the winter, instead of proving inju 
 rious to their wine, is turned to good account, as it is exposed in large 
 butts to the open air. As soon as its watery particles become frozen, 
 they are perforated with a hot iron, by which means the vinous part 
 being higlily concentrated is drawn off, and equals that of Hungary 
 in strength and flavour. To this practice of freezing wine, Ovid, in 
 his letter to Vestalis at Rome, makes allusion, and lamenting the situ 
 ation he was in during his exile, bitterly complains, that not only the 
 Euxine was frozen, but even the wine that he was to drink. Virgil 
 also notices the freezing of wine, when describing the misery and 
 hardship of a Scythian winter : 
 
 " The brazen cauldrons with a frost are flawed. 
 The garment, stiff with ice, at heart is thawed : 
 With axes first they cleave the wine, and thenc^ 
 By weight the solid portions they dispense/ f 
 
 Wine is made in such quantities as to be exported. It forms also 
 an object of public revenue, and an excellent brandy is distilled from 
 it. Bees are reared in great numbers ; the hives are formed in the 
 trunks of trees, which are hollowed for that purpose. Those hives 
 
 * Vide the Abbe Fords Travels in Dalmatia, p. 291, also Cadell s Journey in 
 Carniola, Italy, and France, p. 18. 
 f Georg. B. iii. v. 364. 
 
424 
 
 intended to be preserved till the next year, are kept in cellars covered 
 carefully with straw to protect them from the inclemency of the wea 
 ther. Mead is manufactured, hut to no great extent, as the honey is 
 chiefly exported to Constantinople and the. wax to Venice and Vienna. 
 These matters form a very valuable article of trade, but, contrary to 
 the practice in Great Britain, a duty is charged on the bees and not 
 on the manufacture. This impost amounts on an average to 50,000 
 annually. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Jassy and the adjoining country, there 
 are vineyards producing an abundance of grapes, the wine of which, 
 for the most part, is consumed in Poland. It is reported by a late 
 traveller, that the wine of the environs of Patnar is, without exception, 
 one of the most generous wines of Europe, and not surpassed even 
 by the best Tokay. When kept in a good cellar for three years, it 
 is as strong as brandy, and three glasses of it are said to make a man 
 drunk. It is of a green colour, and becomes deeper in proportion to 
 its age. 
 
 The quantity of wine made in Wallachia has been estimated at 
 eleven millions of piasters annually ; notwithstanding this, the mer 
 chants of this province are obliged to import from other countries to 
 the amount of nearly six millions of piasters for home consumption, 
 while they export to Russia a kind of wine called Tokchany. At 
 Schumla,a principal article of commerce with the interior is wine, and 
 at Rustchuk, a trade in wine is carried on with Vienna. 
 
 Since the introduction of the vine into Hungary by the Emperor 
 Probus, in the third century, the culture of the grape has continued 
 to be an object of great importance, not only there, but throughout 
 the whole of the German empire. Previous to that time, Germany 
 was without vines, and so meanly did the Romans think of the coun 
 try, that they even doubted whether fruit could grow in such a soil 
 and climate. That the vine was unknown while Hungary was under 
 the dominion of the Hims, is certain, since in the verses of a Chinese 
 princess who was married to a Tanjouor Hungarian chief, she laments 
 that sour milk was her only drink, raw flesh her only food, and a tent 
 her only palace. At the time of Attila s conquests in the fifth cen 
 tury, wine, it appears, was a common beverage, as it is spoken of with 
 much familiarity on the occasion of the feasts given to that monarch 
 as described by Gibbon.* But as to the exact period of its introduc 
 tion, it is not perhaps a matter of such importance, as the success with 
 which the plant has been cultivated, it having met with nearly equal 
 encouragement to that which it has experienced in any other portion 
 of Europe. The common mode of planting the vine is scarcely ever 
 
 * Decline and Fall, &c. vol. vi. chap. 34, pp. 77-78. 
 
425 
 
 more than from four to five feet high. This method of planting is 
 considered favourable to extensive produce, but not to goodness of 
 quality. Were the sap, by a different treatment of growth, permitted 
 to ascend through higher and more numerous ramifications of the 
 branches, it would cause, it is conceived, a greater delicacy in the 
 fruit and prevent that harsh, acid, and watery taste, which is attri 
 buted to many of the Rhenish wines where a similar culture is observed. 
 To this practice also, it may be recollected, has been attributed the 
 sourish and earthy taste of the Cape wines, as noticed when treating 
 of that colony. 
 
 The produce of the wine districts of Hungary alone, has been esti 
 mated by Schwaitner at 18,000,000 eimers, which is more than one- 
 half of the whole vintage of Austria and its provinces, calculated by 
 Blumenbach at 32,873 eimers, or 2,522,955 pipes of 126 gallons each. 
 The principal vineyards are those of Ofen, Pesth, Tokay, Gross war 
 den, Erlau, Werchetzs, Honthu, CEdenburgh, Rusth, &c. with the 
 Syrmien wines and the red wine of Menes. Schwaitner computes 
 the annual value of Hungarian wines to be 110,000,000 florins, or 
 289,300,000 francs. The wines made at the vineyards from Pres- 
 burgh to beyond Posing, are considered excellent, and known by the 
 name of St. George. 
 
 Great as the quantity of wine yielded by these vineyards may 
 appear, it is said to be equal to no more than one-sixth part of what 
 France affords. The consumption of wine in Hungary is very consi 
 derable, but it scarcely exceeds the export, as may be inferred from 
 the commercial tables of Austria Proper in 1807, from which it appears 
 that among the goods exported were 
 
 Common Tokay wine, 2813 casks, worth 168,780 florins 
 
 Tokay Ausbruch, worth 10,800 
 
 Other kinds of Ausbruch, 124 eimers, worth 3,720 
 
 Common Hungarian wine, 39,077 eimers, 474,462 
 
 So great is the encouragement given to the sale of the produce of 
 the country, that the emperor, in 1804, forbade the use of foreign 
 wine at his table. The most celebrated wine of the empire is Tokay, 
 which has continued to maintain its character since the thirteenth 
 century ; and is among other wines as is the pine-apple among fruits. 
 
 This delicious wine takes its name from an inconsiderable town of 
 Hungary, around which are vineyards extending over a country about 
 twenty miles in diameter from Szanto to Tolesva. The vineyards in 
 the vicinity of the mountains bear the name of Hegallya or Submon- 
 tine, by which the wine itself is sometimes denominated. Those 
 plantations are superintended with a care and assiduity unequalled in 
 
426 
 
 any other part of Europe, displaying a regularity and neatness which 
 give to each the appearance more of a flower-garden than of a vine 
 yard. The plants are supported by upright props at measured dis 
 tances, leaving ample space for an approach to each, while proper 
 shelter is provided to guard the young plants during the winter. 
 The vintage takes place late in October, by which time the fruit 
 arrives at the greatest possible maturity : even some of the grapes 
 are partly dried on the trees. Much depends on the season for the 
 quality and quantity of the produce, should unhealthy dews or pre 
 mature frosts set in , the vintage must be unproductive in proportion. 
 In gathering the grapes, those thoroughly dried are separated from 
 such as are nearly ripe, while all the damaged sorts are cast aside, 
 thereby preventing any unpleasant taste or flavour to characterize the 
 wine. Of the Hegallya there are four or five varieties, which are 
 studiously kept separate ; the ripe grapes are pressed by themselves 
 from which the ordinary sort of wine consumed in the country is 
 produced, being in general sweet and strong in body. The 
 description of Tokay, which is chiefly made for foreign consumption, 
 is made from a mixture of half-dried grapes with the common kind. 
 This juice, which is very rich and luscious, forms the basis of those 
 two celebrated wines termed Tokay Ausbruch and Tokay Maslas- 
 The half-dried grapes are piled together, which, from their own weight, 
 cause the flow of a thick sweet sirup, commonly called Tokay essence. 
 After this, a slight pressure is made on the heap by which there is an 
 increase of juice ; care, however, being taken not to permit any par 
 ticles of the fruit to be carried with it, lest they might injure the 
 flavour. The juice thus obtained is mixed in a certain proportion 
 with that of the common grape pressed in a hogshead with holes in 
 the bottom, so that none of the gross matter is suffered to be incor 
 porated with the liquor : this mixture, after undergoing fermentation, 
 yields the prime Ausbruch. The Maslas is obtained by mixing juice 
 prepared from the residue of the half-dried grapes with the common 
 wine, both that which is procured by treading, and that winch is had 
 from the press. The Tokay wines are of different colours ; those of 
 a straw colour, having a greenish tinge, are accounted the best. Some 
 are clear, others thick and turbid ; the latter sort is often very excel 
 lent. Poland affords a ready market for Hungarian wines, where the 
 best description of them is to be procured, from the length of time 
 they are preserved. In the vicinity of Tokay, good old wines are to 
 be had for a ducat or twelve francs the bottle, while in Poland, they 
 are sold according to their age at from two to five ducats the bottle ; 
 and at Vienna, they rate at 12 sterling the dozen. At the late Duke 
 
427 
 
 of Queensbury s sales^ some years since, Tokay was knocked down at 
 150 per dozen, or about one guinea a glass. It is a prevailing notion 
 that real Tokay is to be had from those vineyards only which are in the 
 possession of the Emperor of Austria ; but this is now considered ail 
 erroneous opinion arising from a compliment to the monarch ; as it is 
 well known that from the vineyards in possession of the nobles and 
 other land-owners, wine equally excellent is produced. On the whole, 
 it is generally acknowledged, that the wines of Tokay are superior to 
 those of any other country in the world. Hungary abounds with 
 luscious wines made after the manner of Tokay, both white and red. 
 The wine manufactured at Menes, on the borders of Transylvania, 
 vies with that of Tokay. It is of red colour, sweet and strong, having 
 a most delicious flavour ; but in this and in many other things, a name 
 often conveys a meaning of superiority when not justly merited 
 Having been thus minute in describing the manufacture of wine of 
 such celebrity as that of Tokay, it may not be uninteresting to give 
 the method of making the common wines in Hungary, as well as in 
 other parts of the German empire. 
 
 When the season arrives for gathering the grape, all the wine 
 presses and the casks, both new and old, are carefully cleansed with 
 boiling water, or sometimes with boiling wine, or a decoction of the 
 vine-leaf. Every thing being prepared, the labourers, accompanying 
 their work with songs, or cheered by the well-known music of the 
 bagpipe, commence the vintage. The vine-gatherers stand in varied 
 ranks ; women and children, young and old, freeing the vines from 
 their bonds, and collecting the grapes into the wooden troughs, or 
 pales, which they carry with them ; behind them follows weinzedler, 
 watching that no grapes are left ungathered. The men collect from 
 each the grapes that have been gathered, and carry them in tubs to the 
 persons employed to prepare the must, who throw the grapes into a vessel 
 for the purpose, and beat them with large sticks. This vessel has a 
 double bottom, the upper one of which is pierced with holes, so that 
 the juice which is pressed out escapes through it ; and when the 
 upper part is full, the grapes are emptied into the wine-press, or, if 
 they are to be carried from the place, into a cask set in a frame. 
 The gathering is generally divided into two parts, the white and the 
 red ; for the white wine, all white and rose-coloured grapes are 
 taken, the mouldy and rotten are seldom rejected, but all bruised 
 together, and placed without delay upon the press, and the expressed 
 juice is immediately put into casks. In the Rhinegau, the vessels 
 usually hold eight ohms, or 346 gallons ; and they are made thus 
 spacious, under the impression that the greater the body collected, the 
 
428 
 
 better for the fermentation and quality of the wine. This made 
 the wine-growers emulous of each other, in the size of their vessels : 
 hence the cause of those enormous tuns built in different parts of 
 Germany. The Tun of Heidelberg, which stands in a cellar, under 
 the Elector s Castle, is 33 feet in altitude, 24 feet in diameter at the 
 bottom, and contains 800 hogsheads, or 50,400 gallons.* On the 
 top of the tun is a platform and balustrade, the ascent to which is by 
 a stair-case of 50 steps. It is adorned with vines, grapes, glasses, 
 large festoons, and other devices, in basso-relievo, with a number of 
 apophthegms in the German language. This tun was broken to pieces 
 by the French, in 1693, but rebuilt in 1729; it was usually filled 
 with tlie wine, termed vin du Neckar, the produce of grapes which 
 grow on both sides of the mountain. Mrs. Trollope, in her late visit 
 to Heidelberg, seems to think that this tun is vastly inferior to 
 Meux s great vat.f The tun at Konigstein, made in 1725, though 
 less celebrated, holds 3709 eimers, exceeding that of Heidelberg by 
 609 eimers, or 49 hogsheads. The approach to it is by a staircase of 
 32 steps, a smaller tun is suspended within the large one, which is 
 34 feet deep, and 24 feet wide. The top is railed round, and affords 
 space for nearly twenty persons to regale themselves at a time. 
 Cups are preserved for the use of visitants, and the Latin inscription, 
 which graces the head of this enormous cask, welcomes the traveller 
 to exhilarate himself freely, according to the dignity of the vessel, 
 and drink to the prosperity of the whole universe. At Griiningen, 
 near Halberstadt, is a tun 30 feet long, by 18 feet deep ; and at 
 Tubingen is a cask 24 feet long and 16 feet deep. When a vintage 
 is great and the press small, the bruised grapes are often put into 
 sacks and trodden under foot. The husks are brought from these 
 sacks to the press, and what remains after pressure is put into vessels, 
 where they are kept to be distilled into brandy. The red grapes are 
 gathered precisely in the same way as the white, only having been 
 bruised, they are put not immediately into the press, but into large 
 vats, where they undergo a kind of fermentation .J 
 
 Respecting Hungarian wines, Dr. Clarke justly observes, that " the 
 opinions of different individuals are so opposite, that one traveller 
 will probably condemn what another has extolled ; perhaps, there 
 fore, the best judgment may be afforded by comparison. The finest 
 wine of Tokay is very like that of Cyprus ; it has the same sweet 
 ness j and it is also characterised by that slight effervescence, from 
 
 Chauchard s Germany, 4to. Chaptal on Wines, 
 f Belgium and Western Germany, vol. i. p. 325. 
 J Hungarian Miscell. Ap. Bright s Travels. 
 
429 
 
 which the Commendaria of Cyprus is nevqr exempt. To com 
 pare it with other preparations brewed by English housewives, it 
 is something like Mead, or very luscious old raisin wine ; and we there 
 fore pronounce it bad. The wines of Buda we thought were better, 
 because they have more of a resinous flavour. But nothing is more 
 likely than that the very reasons we have now urged, in affirming 
 the bad quality of genuine Tokay, may be considered by others as 
 proofs of its excellence.*" On the whole, if the wines of Hungary are 
 not found to be so palatable to our taste, it is, perhaps, owing to the 
 custom of drinking the wines of Spain. Portugal, and France, not to 
 any inferiority in the wines of this country. Having scarcely any 
 beer, and the waters of Hungary being generally impregnated with 
 minerals, wine is, therefore, made in great abundance, and for the rea 
 sons just given, the inhabitants have every inducement. It is a prac 
 tice in the Bannat for every nobleman to keep on his grounds an inn 
 to sell wine to the miners.f In Temesvar, the capital, red Tokay 
 may be procured for two florins a pint, while the native wine is cheap 
 and good. 
 
 In Hungary, though brandy is distilled from the grape, yet the dis 
 tillation of a species of it from potatoes is carried on to considerable 
 extent. An excellent brandy is likewise made from plums, fermented 
 and treated nearly in the same manner as peaches in America. 
 Were agriculture in Hungary on a level with that in other countries, 
 the produce would be immense. Oats, barley, rye, sarrazan, or 
 buck-wheat, grow most abundantly in Sclavonia, Transylvania, and 
 Croatia, and wherever the height of the mountains, or the diversity 
 of the forests, does not affect the temperature. In good years 
 they export upwards of six millions of bushels of wheat into the 
 neighbouring countries. Millet and rice are also cultivated, as w r ell 
 as maize ; and in Transylvania, maize is the main article of suste 
 nance, while rye is grown for the purposes of distillation. 
 From elder-berries, when properly fermented, a pleasant and whole 
 some wine is made, and a pure and strong spirit is distilled from 
 them. 
 
 Hungary, in fact, may be said to afford, in its various districts, all 
 the beverages which promote the comforts and contribute to the 
 luxury of the human race. Its grain, fruits, and vegetables, all yield 
 their several proportions ; and the vineyards are computed to pro 
 duce from 18 to 20,000,000 eimers, (fifteen gallons each,) of various 
 
 * Clarke s Travels, vol. via. p. 405. 
 
 f Travels through the Bannat, Let. xi. p. 97. 
 
430 
 
 sorts of wine ; while the brandy distilled from the grape and the 
 plum, (the latter termed Slivovitza,) is of enormous extent. 
 
 In the beautiful valleys formed in many parts of the Croatian 
 mountains, the vine flourishes exuberantly ; the valley of Vinodol, 
 adjacent to Ezirquenicza, takes its name from the number of vine 
 yards with which it is crowned, and the wine made there resembles 
 Champagne. The wines produced in the northern and eastern dis 
 tricts are said to be of great strength and excellent flavour ; some are 
 thought to rival the best Burgundy. It has been computed, that in 
 the whole of Croatia, there are not less than 28,000 acres occupied 
 as vineyards, yielding 160,000 seaux of wine. Plums being the 
 most common fruit of the country, there is a very favourite spirit, 
 termed Schliwowitza, distilled from it, which is in general use, as also 
 a liquor made from pears and barberries, which latter is used instead 
 of wine. Honey is obtained in considerable quantities, and is, toge 
 ther with the wax, chiefly exported. The wine manufactured there 
 is not sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants ; the imports 
 of this article are principally from Dalmatia, and annually average 
 800,000 florins. At Fiume, one of the principal cities, 1,GOO eimers 
 of liqueurs are manufactured yearly, which are mostly consumed in 
 the Austrian dominions. 
 
 Although the Croats are generally poor, yet they go to great 
 expense in their marriage and funeral ceremonies, the anniversary of 
 a saint, or the baptism of a child. An entertainment on one of these 
 occasions will last for several weeks, and will cost more than would 
 support a family for half a year. 
 
 In the German districts bordering on the Rhine, the vine is culti 
 vated to considerable extent, and the vines are of every variety. No 
 ingenuity is wanting to promote its growth, as well on the barren 
 rocks, as in the valleys. Opposite to the village of Remagen, on the 
 road from Bonn to Coblentz, is a vineyard containing 200 acres, on a 
 singularly picturesque, basaltic hill, called Erpeler Ley. This was 
 once a barren rock, and it was planted by setting each plant in a 
 separate basket, filled with earth and grass, and then placed in the 
 cavities and interstices of the rock ; and thus the place became, in a 
 few years, beautifully clothed and ornamented with luxurious vines. 
 The heavy impost on wines in this quarter has rendered the article 
 rather unsaleable, and instead of proving advantageous to the govern 
 ment, it has pressed heavily on the agriculturists. This duty rates at 
 one rix-thaler on every 160 bottles; hence the owner, being seldom 
 able to pay the taxation before he can remove the wine from the eel- 
 lar, is deprived of the benefit of a ready and profitable market ; and 
 
431 
 
 in consequence; the wines of one vintage are seldom removed, till 
 they are intermingled with those of another. The Moselle wines 
 are superior to the Rhenish, less injurious to the stomach, and more 
 easily preserved, but, like many other impositions, the name of this 
 valuable wine is often attached to a spurious or inferior article. The 
 various windings of the Rhine (termed the father of wine,) present 
 romantic, sublime scenery, which in many places is heightened by the 
 abundance of vines that adorn the surface. Near the town of Ober- 
 wesel, on the right bank of the river stands the perpendicular rock of 
 Rostein, which, by means of terraces, bears vines to the very summit, 
 that afford a wine equally esteemed, and ranking with the best 
 Rhenish. The cultivation of the vine, it is to be regretted, is not so 
 profitable on the Rhine, as one might be led to expect. Its produce 
 and sale are of rather a precarious nature, being a commodity of 
 luxury, not of necessity ; and if not of a commanding quality, will 
 scarcely obtain a price sufficient to pay rent and labour. This remark* 
 however, is not to be understood as applicable to the whole of the 
 wine districts, for where a moderate duty is charged, and the quality 
 of the drink superior, there is always a ready consumption. In some 
 places, the wines bring, even on the spot, from five to six florins the 
 bottle. 
 
 The king of Prussia encourages the wine-growers on the Rhine, 
 by giving a preference to their liquor, which makes it have a general 
 consumption in that kingdom. One district, called the Rhinegau, 
 may be said to be an extensive vineyard, being a succession of undu 
 lating hills, completely covered with rich verdure, and forming an 
 amphitheatre truly enchanting, the vines of which obtain a celebrity 
 in proportion to their aspect and position. The vineyards of the 
 Duke of Nassau, called the Steinberger Cabinet, produce wine, now 
 more estimable than that of Johannesberg, in the same neighbourhood. 
 The hill of Johannesberg contains about 55 acres, and is the property 
 of Prince Metternich ; it produces about 25 butts of wine, each con 
 taining 1,300 bottles, bringing at an average 28,000 florins. Of this 
 wine, the Emperor of Austria gets a tithe for his own immediate use. 
 This vineyard was in full bearing upwards of a century ago, and the 
 vintage is generally a week or two later than in any other part of the 
 Rhinegau ; the grapes are permitted to fall, from their extreme ripe 
 ness, and are gathered by means of wooden forks continued for the 
 purpose. Prince Metternich has an old-fashioned castle on this hill, 
 once the religious cloister of St. John, under which there are cellars of 
 most capacious and singular construction, in which the wine is deposited. 
 
 The Bacchanalian paradise, denominated the Rhinegau, extends along 
 
432 
 
 the right bank of the Rhine to Lorich, several leagues below Ding-en, 
 and, from time out of mind, has been renowned for its superior vines. 
 This district was presented by an old Carlovingian king to an Arch 
 bishop of Mayence, and a remnant of the rampart and ditch, with 
 which it was surrounded, is yet visible at Biberich. Writers have 
 remarked, that the right bank of the Rhine is much more fruitful than 
 the left, which is accounted for by the direction in which the river 
 runs, exposing that bank to the southern sun, while the left is kept 
 comparatively barren by the winds from the north, and scarcely any 
 of the celebrated wines are made on the left side of that river. The 
 Rhinegau is divided into superior and inferior cantons, relatively to 
 the excellence of their wines the former contain the villages on the 
 heights the latter, those on the banks of the river. The strongest 
 wines are said to be made on the most elevated situations, the most 
 wholesome on those of moderate height, while the wine of the low 
 grounds is sour, and requires keeping. In travelling through this dis 
 trict, the eye is delighted with the undulating landscape, presenting 
 vine-covered slopes, spotted by white country houses, villas, and 
 steeples villages and ruined convents resting in the valleys, which, 
 contrasted with the black purple aspect of the rocks and with the deli 
 cate green of the vines, gives a mellow, luxuriant richness to the 
 scenery. A bacchanalian might be supposed to drink intoxication 
 from the prospect : every thing having a blushing vinous colour. 
 
 The vineyards of Grafenberg }jjield as choice a vintage, and pro 
 duce as good wines, as any on the banks of the Rhine, and superior 
 tD those of the Moselle. The Rhine wines constitute a distinct order 
 of themselves. They are drier than the French white-wines, and 
 characterized by a delicate flavour, and an aroma quite peculiar, and 
 which should be reckoned sourness by the uninitiated. In the Aus 
 trian states, the wines are almost all of an inferior quality, being sharp 
 and often entirely acid. The Hock, or Hochheimer, is a Mayn wine, 
 and derives its name from the village Hochheim, which is situated 
 above Mentz, on the banks of the Mayn. Riesbeck tells us, that the 
 vineyards here belong to the chapter of Mentz, and that the 
 Dean enjoyed the revenue of it. This wine, although it still has 
 a good character, is considered inferior to the best wines of the 
 Rhinegau, and, in Riesbeck s opinion, was the only wine in Germany 
 which he found to be without any sour taste.* Hock wine is of such 
 strength and body, that a tea-spoon full of it has been known to 
 flavour a large tumbler of water. The vineyards which produce this 
 
 Baron Riesbeck s Travels through Germany, vol. ii. p. 319. 
 
433 
 
 wine, are on a little hill consisting of about eight acres, and so situated, 
 that they seem to court the influence of the sun, and are protected by 
 the town from the northen blasts. Every one contains about four 
 thousand vine-plants, valued at a ducat each, and this little spot pro 
 duces in a good year, upwards of twelve large casks of wine, bringing, 
 as soon as made, nearly 150 a cask. This place has been rendered 
 remarkable by Buonaparte making a present of it to General 
 Kellerman. 
 
 Frankfort is the great mart for the sale of Rhenish wine, which 
 consists of two sorts, red and white ; the former the stronger of the 
 two. The white wines are distinguished by their particular proper 
 ties, or by the places where they grow. According to the former 
 classification, those of Nierstein, Markobrunner, Steinberg, Rudes- 
 heim, Bingen, and Bacharach, are the strongest, and have more 
 body. Those of Schlossberg, (Johannisberger,) Steinberg, Geissen- 
 heim, Rothenberger, and Hochheim, are the most endowed with 
 aroma and perfume, and of moderate strength. Lastly, those of Lau- 
 benheim, Asmannshausen, (red) Bischteim, are the most agreeable, pos 
 sess a most delightful flavour, with a requisite degree of perfume, and 
 are the most wholesome of all the Rhenish wines. 
 
 The wine Bacharach has been celebrated from the earliest period. 
 The Romans called that place Bacchi ara, (the altar of Bacchus) ; 
 and Pope ^Eneas Sylvius used to import a tun of it to Rome every 
 year, and the Emperor Vinceslus was so fond of it that he sold the 
 citizens of Nuremberg their freedom, for four casks annually. Near 
 Worms, on the road towards Mayence, stands the gothic monastery 
 of Leibe Frau, (the Dear Virgin,) noted for the excellence of its 
 wine, denominated by way of eminence, Liebfraun-Milch, (the 
 Virgin s Milk,) the produce of the Tokay grape being of a peculiar 
 and delicate flavour, and almost as colourless as water. 
 
 The several sorts of wines in the Rhinegau and other districts along 
 the Rhine, take their names from the respective places from which 
 they are produced, being as follows : 
 
 Hellenberg, f ^ Asmanrihausen and 
 
 Hinterhauser,* \ / Rihlesheim. 
 
 Rodlanberg, 
 
 Kapellgartcn, j near Gcissenhcim. 
 Rothenberger, ( 
 
 Schlossberg, at Johannisberg. 
 
 Markobrunner, at Hattenheim. 
 
 Steinberg, at Everback. 
 
 Graefenberg, at Kiedhich. 
 
 * Hinterhauser, or Stinterhauser, signifies behind the houses, so called from the 
 vines standing on lower land from the hill, behind the village. 
 
 2 p 
 
434 
 
 Hauptberg, at Rauenthal. 
 
 North of Mayence, on the left bank of the Rhine, 
 
 Scharlachberger, (red) near Bin gen. 
 
 Rheiii-Dieboch, (red.) 
 
 Muscateller, f 
 
 Kuhlberger, ( near Bacharach. 
 
 Engeholle, (red) near Oberweasel. 
 
 South of Mayence. 
 
 Dienheim, South of Mayence. 
 
 Niersteiner and Oppenheim. 
 
 Laubenham. 
 
 Liebfraumilch. 
 
 West of the Rhinegau, on the right bank of the Rhine. 
 Guttenfels, near Caub. 
 
 Rosteiner. 
 
 East of the Rhinegau. 
 
 Hochheim. 
 
 Wiekesh. 
 
 Costheim. 
 
 Most of the vineyards enumerated are of small dimensions, and 
 the quantity of wine they aiford is trifling in proportion to the 
 immense quantity sold under the denomination of Rhenish wine. To 
 procure a genuine article, it is necessary to have recourse to the pro 
 prietor of a vineyard, or to some respectable merchant, from whom 
 alone may bo expected wine of the best quality. Dr. Granville, who 
 was in that country in 1827, gives the following rates at which wines 
 were disposed of, which will convey an idea of the imposition prac 
 tised in the wine trade : 
 
 Riideskeim wine of 1825, was sold at Frankfort in 1827, for 1,100 
 rix-dollars the ohm, or 15 dozen bottles, at 17 shillings the bottle- 
 The Schlossenberger, (Johannisberg,) for 700 rix-dollars ; the Stein- 
 berger, for 900 rix-dollars ; while in 1822, the same three kinds of 
 wine brought respectively 1400, 750, and 980 rix-dollars. The same 
 growth in 1818 produced : 
 
 Johannisberg, 3,000 rix-dollars, for 15 dozen. 
 
 Riidesheim, Bergwein, 910 rix-dollars. 
 
 The Tavern wines of Germany are, according to Cooper, of a 
 superior quality to those of the same class in France. 
 
 Wine of a great age is frequently offered for sale. Markobrunner, 
 said to be of the vintage of 1719, and Johannisberg of that of 1726, 
 were disposed of; the former at 590 sterling for 15 dozen, or 48 
 guineas for one dozen, while the latter was sold at 664 the 15 
 dozen, or 55 guineas for one dozen.* The passion for old wines has 
 
 Grnnville s Journey to St. Pctcrsburgh, 2 vols. 8vo. vol. i. p. 189, et passim. 
 
435 
 
 sometimes been carried to great excess. At Bremen, there is a wine- 
 cellar, in which five hogsheads of Rhenish wine have been kept since 
 1625, which cost 50 ; and it has been calulated, that had this sum 
 been put out at compound interest, a bottle of this wine would be 
 worth 908,311, and a single wine glass of it would cost 113,492- 
 
 In the days of Riesbeck, Austria exported to the adjacent German 
 States upwards of two millions of guilders worth of wine, equal to 
 175,000. 
 
 Along the banks of the Rhine, vineyards are to be found every 
 where, and the vines growing on places the most inaccessible, even 
 among fragments of slate rock. The towns and villages are sur 
 rounded with vineyards. On every spot of ground, against every 
 wall, against every house every garden in a little arcade is formed 
 by vines every stick, every piece of wood, is a prop for a vine, or 
 contributes to form a trellis. " Lend me your walking-stick to sup 
 port my vine," is, according to a recent traveller, a familiar expres 
 sion : " The vine will support you when the stick cannot : lend me 
 your umbrella to prop my vine ; the vine will some day shelter you 
 from wet, much better than frail silk."* Such are the sayings which 
 the value and estimation of the vine have occasioned. 
 
 Among the Germans, the vine is of such high agricultural interest, 
 and wine of such commercial importance, that the establishments 
 connected with them are, in many cases, on a most extensive scale. 
 The immense wine-vaults in Bremen, particularly those called the 
 Rosenkeller, are a specimen. These subterraneous stores are so capa 
 cious as to be able to contain 2,000 hogsheads, besides enormous 
 vessels for holding wine, one of which alone is said to hold 120 hogs 
 heads ; and that the wine it contains has remained in it upwards of 
 two centuries. Twelve of those casks occupy one apartment, and by 
 way of distinction have been denominated the Twelve Apostles : one 
 of them is termed Judas, being said to contain the best wine, as if 
 from its age and strength it is better qualified to betray. These 
 vaults are finely arched in the Gothic style, and are remarkable for an 
 echo little inferior to the whispering gallery in St. Paul s, as a person 
 speaking softly at one end may be distinctly heard at the most remote 
 extremities by placing the ear against the wall. In travelling along 
 the banks of the Moldau not far from Prague, from time to time the 
 doors of spacious wine-caves meet the stranger s eye in places quite 
 remote from human dwellings. Speaking of the monastery at Erbach, 
 Dr. Render says, the wine-cellars excited the utmost astonishment, 
 being so capacious that a coach and four might easily drive round and 
 
 * Two Hundred and ftiue Days on the Continent, vol. i. p. 107. 
 
436 
 
 turn in it with the greatest facility, and the number of large casks it 
 contained was really amazing, each being seventeen or eighteen feet 
 in height. The monks were hospitable to an extreme, each of them 
 had four bottles of the best wine for his daily allowance, and when they 
 entertain strangers they were allowed an ad libitum. 
 
 At the Green Man Inn, St. Goar, are preserved two large silver 
 goblets of great antiquity and curious workmanship, the sides of which 
 are embossed with various figures and inscriptions. One of them was 
 presented to the city of St. Goar by Christiana, Queen of Sweden, 
 and the other by one of the Princes of Hesse. Before drinking out 
 of one of these cups, strangers have to undergo a singular ceremony : 
 the visiter is seated in a chair, in the middle of a large room, having 
 a heavy silver collar put round his neck, a gilded crown on his head ; 
 and he is then asked whether he will choose to be baptized with wine 
 or with water ; if he say water, a large quantity is poured on his 
 head ; but if he prefer wine, which is generally the case, he is obliged 
 to drink a certain number of toasts out of the two silver goblets. The 
 newly baptized stranger then writes his name in a record-book kept 
 for the purpose, after which the wine is passed about freely amidst 
 singing and jocularity. The cellar used on this occasion, which is 
 called coronation, is said to have belonged to the two sons of Charle 
 magne, and much conviviality and cheerful enjoyment are the com 
 mon attendants.* 
 
 The time of the vintage in Germany is always a period of great 
 rejoicing, and that festival is annually celebrated with great eclat and 
 hilarity. On such occasions, beneath an umbrageous bower, a table 
 is ornamented with flowers, and a kind of throne is erected in the 
 centre, on which is laid the first bunch of ripe grapes in imitation of 
 an altar to Bacchus. After the master of the ceremony has made a 
 speech suitable to the occasion, the persons assembled, young and old, 
 dance round the altar, and regale themselves with the comforts of the 
 season. 
 
 Plutarch mentions a feast of this kind celebrated by the Greeks 
 and Romans in the time of the vintage, at which their tables were 
 loaded with all kinds of fruits, placed under tents made of vine- 
 branches and ivy, intermingled with aromatics ; and from the strong 
 similarity between this and the Jewish feast of the Tabernacle, des 
 cribed in Leviticus, chapter xxiii., Plutarch considered that people 
 worshippers of Bacchus. 
 
 Whether owing to climate, to custom, or to whatever cause, it has 
 been observed that the inhabitants of wine countries are in general 
 
 Tour in Germany. 
 
437 
 
 more cheerful, tranquil, and regular in their dispositions, than those 
 who are drinkers of beer, ale, and spirits ; and those characteristics 
 are not less remarkable at the time of vintage than in any other season 
 of the year. This is exemplified by the inhabitants of the Rhinegau, 
 who are a strong, handsome, healthy, and cheerful class of men, 
 capable of bearing a great deal of labour ; and hence the inhabitants 
 of the south are said to be stouter than those of the north ; for the 
 blood of the wine-drinker is considered purer than that of the beer- 
 drinker ; and as life is said to be in the blood, the remark on this 
 assumption may be justifiable. On the contrary, it may be urged 
 that men who never tasted any description of fermented liquor, and 
 who are accustomed to the lowest diet, are found capable of under 
 going fatigue equal to that of any other race of people ; a circum 
 stance known to every observer. It is a practice amongst the pea 
 sants in the north of Italy, never to go out in the morning without 
 eating bread and drinking some wine ; and they look remarkably stout 
 and healthy. Grapes are said to be particularly wholesome when 
 eaten with the morning dew on them ; hence they are regularly 
 served up at breakfast, not only as a zest but as a luxury. At Vevay, 
 in Switerzland, the physicians of Geneva order patients to subsist 
 during the vintage, altogether on grape diet, the period of which is 
 usually three weeks. The common daily allowance is about 71bs. of 
 grapes, without tasting any other sort of sustenance, not even drink 
 of any description. In cases of insanity, the same regimen is said to 
 be very efficacious in restoring the patient to a sound state of mind,* 
 which is a further proof of the renovating power of the grape worthy 
 of investigation and inquiry, and to which it might not be beneath the 
 faculty in this country to direct their attention. 
 
 Were the properties of the grape sufficiently known, the vine would 
 become an obj ect of cultivation in every part of Europe, where the 
 climate would permit its growth. The vine does not shew a prefer 
 ence for any particular soil, but a dry is much better than a moist situ 
 ation. Limits, however, for its cultivation seem to have been pre 
 scribed by nature, which no ingenuity of man can surmount. In some 
 of the northern provinces of France, as Brittany and Normandy, the 
 vine is not cultivated at present, though it was formerly reared there 
 to considerable extent ; it has given place to the apple and the crab, 
 cider being the chief beverage. The regions of culture for this plant 
 do not lie parallel to the equator, but in an oblique direction from 
 north-east to south-west, from about 35 C to 52^ north latitude. In 
 the inland parts of France and Germany, the utmost limits of it are 
 
 * Bakcwcll s Travels in Switzerland and Auvergnc, vol. ii. p. 20. 
 
438 
 
 about 49 or 50, but the further north, the produce is the more infe 
 rior. In some-places a s the Crimea and the southern parts of Russia 
 it does not exceed 47 or 48* of latitude. In Asia, the vine does 
 not flourish in a higher latitude, since none are to he found to grow 
 more northerly than Astracan and the foot of Mount Caucasus. In 
 the New World, the southern states are the most congenial to the 
 vine, and the northern seem unfriendly to its culture. It is true, that 
 the vine is found considerably to the north of this continent, but it is 
 stunted and impoverished in growth in proportion to its distance from 
 a certain latitude, generally that of 37^. 
 
 The vine appears to occupy two belts on the earth s surface, both 
 of which lie in the warmer regions of the temperate zones, seldom 
 exceeding 51 in the northern, and rarely approaching to 40 in the 
 southern hemisphere, and is chiefly confined to an elevation of 2,460 
 feet above the level of the sea. In Switzerland, this elevation is 
 limited to 1,760 feet ; in Hungary, to 900 feet ; on the Alps, to 2,000 
 feet;inTeneriffe,to 2,500; but in the Appenines and Sicily, the 
 extent is 3,000 feet, while it does not grow at all in the high lands 
 of tropical America ; yet, according to Jacquemont, in his Jour 
 ney in India, the vine prospers at the height of 10,000 feet above the 
 level of the sea,* but much of this diversity depends on ordinary cir 
 cumstances. It seems, however, that the produce of the vine attains 
 a maximum in the south of Europe and the western parts of Asia. 
 This, perhaps, may be owing not so much to climate as to the superior 
 state of cultivation bestowed upon it. The higher the latitude, the 
 more inclined to acidity is the grape ; hence the difference between 
 the Rhenish, Sicilian, and Grecian wines. The strength is also influ 
 enced by the proximity to the equator, for which reason Madeira 
 wine is stronger than that of northern latitudes. 
 
 Considering these relations to be correct, it is evident that it is not 
 altogether on temperature or climate but to other causes must be 
 attributed the success in the cultivation of the vine, as regards both 
 quality and quantity. If the growth of the vine depended on tempe 
 rature, then the vicinity of London would afford better vineyards than 
 that of Zurich or Geneva, and the summer heat of Moscow is higher 
 than that of Paris ; yet grapes in the former ripen only under glasses. 
 In Madeira and the Canary islands, the main temperature is not much 
 lower than in Algiers and Cairo ; yet the culture of the vine is very 
 considerable in those islands, whereas in Algiers the temperature is 
 already too high, and in Cairo, the vine is planted only for the sake 
 of its shade. To determine the primitive seat of the vine is still 
 
 * Jacqucmont s Letters from India, vol. i. p. 272. 
 
439 
 
 more difficult than that of its artificial distribution : in the Caucasus 
 arid the islands of the Levant, it frequently occurs wild, and every 
 thing- concurs to point out these and the western portions of Asia 
 as its original home.* 
 
 Besides the use that is made of the grape in different countries to 
 promote the comfort of man, in Germany, as well as in France, the 
 refuse of the vintage is even converted into an excellent food for 
 cattle, on which they fatten with the same facility, as those animals do 
 which are fed on the refuse of the corn-distilleries in Great Britain. 
 The mass of the grapes, as it comes from the press, is broken with the 
 hands in order to divide the lumps, and is then thrown into casks 
 where it is moistened with water, and covered with earth, with mixed 
 straw to the depth of seven or eight inches. When the weather is 
 such that the cattle cannot go into the fields, about six or seven pounds 
 of this refuse soaked in warm water with bran, straw, turnips, pota 
 toes, and oak or vine leaves, preserved purposely in water, is given 
 to them in a tub, evening and morning. Horses and cows are said to 
 be fond of this food, but it is given to the latter in moderation, as it 
 has a tendency to make their milk turn sour ;f it is a singular coin 
 cidence that the mills; given by cattle fed at the corn-distilleries is of 
 a thinner consistence, and more liable to turn sour, than that of cows 
 fed on hay or pasture. 
 
 When Dr. Bright visited Pesth in 1814, the prices of wine and 
 spirits were as follows : 
 
 1 eimer, (nearly equal to 10 gals. Eng.) of old Ofen 
 
 wine from 30 to 40 florins. 
 
 Ditto, last year s Ofen wine 15 to 20 
 
 Ditto, old white Ofen wine 32 to 45 
 
 Ditto, last year s old White Ofen 18 to 32 
 
 Ditto, of spirits distilled from plums 35 to 90 
 
 Ditto, from grain 52 to 55 
 
 These prices being considered dear at the time, the Doctor, in 
 order to afford some standard of comparison, has also stated the prices 
 that prevailed during the fair held at Pesth in the latter end of the 
 year 1813, viz: 
 
 I eimer old red Ofen wine 14 to 20 florins. 
 
 Ditto, the same year 8 to 1 2 
 
 Ditto, common wine of the country 6 to 8 
 
 Ditto, of spirits distilled from plums 25 to 30 
 
 Ditto, from grain 22 to 25 
 
 Edinburgh PhilosophicalJournal, No. xxii. October, 1824. 
 f Chaptal on the Cultivation of the Vine. 
 
440 
 
 The same writer considered five-pence a high price for a bottle of 
 wine. In Riesbeck s time, it could be purchased at from two to four 
 emitters the bottle. Although the peasants in Hungary are permitted 
 to purchase vineyards, they are obliged to pay one-third of the pro 
 duce to the lord of the soil, a heavy tax when the chance of bad vin 
 tages, which too often happen, and the occurrence of other casualties 
 are considered. 
 
 The quantity of wine produced annually in Carinthia is estimated 
 at 100,000 eimers : the quality is not considered superior, yet it meets, 
 notwithstanding, with a ready sale. In this duchy, they brew two sorts 
 of beer ; both of which are in estimation as good and wholesome 
 beverages. Apples being abundant, large supplies of cider are pro 
 duced, equal in body and flavour to that of Normandy ; and from 
 which a good brandy is distilled. 
 
 Thg cultivation -ef beet-root was, at one period, a matter of some 
 importance to the Germans, and various manufactories were estab 
 lished for the purpose of extracting sugar from it as well as from 
 other vegetable substances. At one of these establishments called La 
 Source, Jacob says, that they fed fifty cows on the refuse. The milch 
 cows maintained on it were in good condition, and the butter they 
 afforded was of excellent quality.* 
 
 The Germans, in most of the wine districts of the Rhine, distil 
 from the skins of grapes that have been pressed, a spirit called troster, 
 which they mix with ground barley or rye, and ferment in the usual 
 way. This spirit is considered very wholesome, and forms a great 
 article of commerce between them and the Dutch. From Upper and 
 Lower Austria, immense quantities of this liquor are sent into Hol 
 land, where, after a second distillation, it assumes the name of gin, 
 and is exported to various parts of Europe. The prevailing notion 
 that all foreign gin is manufactured in Holland is erroneous, as Dr. 
 Render assures us that the greater part is manufactulbd in Germany. 
 The revenue it produces forms a very considerable Branch of the 
 Austrian finance. 
 
 At Vienna, Krems, Waidhofen, Lintz, Freystadt, Ems, Gmunden, 
 c. several distilleries are employed, not only in this manufacture, 
 but in that of grain exclusively. A considerable portion of the pro 
 duce of these stills is transported to Moravia, Bohemia, Styria, Ca 
 rinthia, &c., some is sent into Hungary ; but the quantity is trifling, as 
 the people of that country distil for themselves. Almost every pea 
 sant there may obtain leave for that purpose on payment of two 
 florins, or four shillings and six-pence, to the landlord from whom he 
 
 * Jacob s Journey through Germany, p. 56. 
 
441 
 
 rents his farm. There are several distilleries of importance at Fiume, 
 Ujlak, Pilis, Buda, Pesth, Rosenau, Presburg, Steeldweissenburgh, 
 Debritzen, &c.* in which distillation is carried on from several sorts 
 of grain, wine, and the refuse of the vintage, from plums, prunes, 
 and various other fruits, and from potatoes. The principal part of 
 these spirits is sold at the fairs in the country, of which there are 
 above 2,000 in the year. At these fairs, they are exposed in booths 
 or magazines in casks, to the amount of many thousand eimers. The 
 stills in general use are made of copper, but are not of large size : 
 wood is the common fuel, though in some places peat is used. 
 
 Distillation from potatoes has been long carried on in Germany, 
 particularly in Lithuania, Hungary, and the eastern part of Prussia, 
 &c. ; and the residue, after the termination of the process, proves of 
 the greatest benefit to cattle, particularly to cows, as it increases their 
 milk. The spirit is considered superior in taste to ordinary malt 
 spirits: some add 17J bushels of malt to 100 bushels of potatoes, 
 but 10 bushels have been found sufficient. This quantity of Berlin 
 measure yields five muids of brandy from 36 to 32 per cent, of alco 
 hol ; the muid contains 240 canns. Others have found that the 
 same quantity of alcohol is produced from 100 bushels of potatoes, as 
 from 24 bushels of wheat or 33 of barley. 
 
 The same sized vessels are used as those for malt spirits made in 
 equal proportions, and nearly the same quantity of fuel, as the potatoes 
 are steamed by the vapour of the water which is heated for mashing, 
 so that it is only in the space of J of each hour, during the process, 
 that any extra fuel is required. 
 
 The potatoes are steamed in a barrel strongly hooped, and placed 
 on a stool by the side of a still. The end which is uppermost has a 
 square hole, fitted with a close cover, by which the barrel is filled 
 with the potatoes ; a smaller opening, with a door shutting very close, 
 is made at the bottom of the barrel to extract the potatoes when 
 ready : there are two holes, one to receive the neck of the still, and 
 the other in the middle of the lower end of the barrel, to turn out the 
 condensed steam ; this latter hole has a basket over it to prevent its 
 being stopped up. 
 
 As soon as the potatoes are sufficiently steamed, which is known 
 by taking out some of them by the door in the side of the barrel, the 
 neck of the still is taken out of the barrel, and the potatoes are drawn 
 out into a hopper, from whence they pass through two wooden or stone 
 rollers that are placed horizontally near the door by which they are 
 extracted. The rollers are turned inwards by means of a handle, 
 
 * Bright * Travels in Hungary, 4to. p. 228. 618. 
 
442 
 
 and have below them iron scrapers to clear them. The bruised pota 
 toes fall into a trough, from whence they are taken and well mixed 
 with the mash made of ground malt. 
 
 In some instances, the yeast of beer is used as the ferment ; in 
 others, artificial yeast made of rye-meal, mixed at first with cold and 
 afterwards with boiling water, so as to form a thick consistence : 
 some yeast of beer is then added, and afterwards the artificial, at 
 different times, so as to keep up the fermentation. 
 
 As potatoes work much easier than malt, less yeast is required, and 
 the fermentation is very rapid ; in some instances, a thick crust is 
 formed. 
 
 Professor Balling, of Prague, has succeeded in making an excellent 
 beer from potatoes, which is strong and well flavoured : his process 
 has been practised with success in various places, and differs little 
 from that observed in preparing the wash for distillation. The Ger 
 mans have been very assiduous in turning this vegetable to various 
 useful purposes ; and amongst others, we are indebted to the inge 
 nuity of the Prussians for a valuable sort of cheese, which is said to 
 keep for many years. 
 
 Notwithstanding the extent to which wine is made, and distillation 
 is carried on throughout various parts of the German empire, immense 
 quantities of spirits are yearly imported. In 1802, there were 470 
 pieces, 198 casks, 1101 pipes, 16 chests, 33 hogsheads, and 14 ankers 
 of brandy imported into Hamburgh, besides 15 casks, four pipes, and 
 one chest of arrack; also 215 pipes, 72 pieces, 52 casks, and 1347 
 ankers of Geneva, together with 2991 casks, 39 9 hogsheads, and 2236 
 puncheons of rum. This vast supply always finds a ready consump 
 tion in the interior, whither it is carried by means of the Elbe, &c. 
 In the same year, wine to the value of 2,381,815 florins, were sent 
 from Hungary into the German States of Austria, including Galicia, 
 while wine, and other liquors to the amount of 29,865 eimers, valued 
 at 219,989 florins, were sent into Hungary. The greater proportion 
 of the wine and spirit trade of Germany consists in an internal com 
 merce, and an interchange of the produce of one province with that 
 of another : its external or foreign trade being principally confined to 
 the free towns. The table in the Addenda shews a return of the 
 wine sent to Great Britain from the Austrian dominions, including 
 Hungary and the districts of the Rhine, for the years therein specified. 
 Bees are so plentiful in Austria, that 1,200 tons of wax, and 19,500 
 tons of honey, are annually produced. 
 
 A good description of wine is produced in some parts of Bohemia. 
 The red wine of Melnik is considered of superior quality, and resem- 
 
443 
 
 bles Burgundy : that of Leitmeritz is a very pleasant wine, but infe 
 rior to the other.* 
 
 The extent of the Bohemian vineyards, as stated by M. Blnmenthal, 
 is about 4,408 joch, and the produce something less than six eimers 
 the joeh, making 26,448 eimers for the whole : the eimcr being equal 
 to 15 English wine gallons, shows a produce of 60 gallons, or nearly 
 a hogshead to each English acre. From the cherries of this country, 
 which are very large and of a delicious flavour, a superior brandy is 
 distilled. 
 
 Although Moravia is as fertile as Bohemia, and as well cultivated, 
 yet the wines produced in that province are not considered of 
 equal quality. Among the lower order, spirituous liquors are com 
 monly in use. About Gratz, a species of white wine is produced 
 of inferior quality. In Trieste, from which there are 600,000 bottles 
 of Rosoglio annually exported, there is a cordial known by the name 
 of Zora, which is a great favourite ; and the drink called Sirmischer 
 Slivovitz is here to be met with, as well as at Vienna and Prague. 
 It is distilled from fermented plums, and is made in Sirmia, near Bel 
 grade, the capital of ancient Illyricum In the vicinity of Trieste, 
 the wine is in general disagreeable, either from imperfect fermenta 
 tion, and being used in too fresh a state, or from being too old and 
 having become acid : that of Proseco is the best in the country. 
 
 The Bohemian malt drinks have been long celebrated, particularly 
 those of Prague, in which city breweries are numerous, and well con 
 ducted. The produce of a quarter of malt, 32 bushels, is from 100 
 to 112 gallons. In the process of brewing, the boiling fluid, after 
 being conveyed to the mash-tun, is suffered to remain till at a tem 
 perature of from 115 to 122 when 14, two quarters of ground malt 
 are thrown in, after which the mashing commences, and continues for 
 upwards of three quarters of an hour : during this time, water, or the 
 remaining liquor of the former brewing is run in, so as to raise the 
 heat from 138 Q to 147, according to the practice and judgment of 
 the brewer. When the mashing is completed, and all the liquor 
 drawn from the copper, as much of this liquid as the copper can hold 
 is sent back, and brought to the boiling point, and then poured on the 
 quantity remaining in the kieve, when it is again mixed with what 
 was left in that vessel, and brought to the temperature of about 154. 
 A third mashing is conducted in the same way, leaving the goods in 
 the tun at the temperature of 165, and a fourth mashing leaving the 
 heat at 176, terminates these operations. At this stage, the liquid is 
 
 * Bramsen s Letters, vol. i. p. 60. 
 
444 
 
 allowed to remain in the kieve for an hour, and is then run into the 
 underbade, by an ingeniously contrived false bottom, perforated with 
 holes, from which it is conveyed into the copper, where it mixes with 
 that portion of the fluid which remained. When this last charge has 
 boiled for about 15 or 20 minutes, it is returned to the mash-tun, shewing 
 at the surface a heat of 183 ; about 351bs. of hops are then added 
 to about two-thirds of a barrel of the drainings in the underback, and 
 the whole is put into the copper and boiled for 45 minutes, when half of 
 the hops are withdrawn, and set aside for boiling with the remaining 
 worts in the tun. These two quantities, after an hour s boiling of each 
 separately, are taken to the coolers. The copper is again filled with 
 liquor, and when boiling, poured on the goods in the kieve without 
 mashing. After being drained, it is boiled along with the hops of the 
 two preceding worts, for an hour and half, and then cast into a 
 separate cooler. After being brought from 68 to 72 temperature, 
 the three worts are mixed with 241bs. of barm, and then barrelled. 
 Here the fermentation takes place, which continues for three or four 
 days ; and in about as long again, it is fit for storing. The floors of 
 the vaults which are employed for this purpose are covered with ice, 
 on which the barrels are placed, when received from the brewer, 
 when, after remaining for five or six weeks, the beer is then con 
 sidered fit for use. At Vienna, the malt is bruised by iron rollers, 
 and thrown into the mash-kieve, where it is mixed with cold water, 
 in the proportion of 28 barrels of water, to 14 one-third English 
 quarters of malt. In the mean time, a square copper is heating with 
 liquor, into which are put from two to three barrels of the cold worts, 
 from the kieve, being part of four barrels let into the under back ; 
 when this mixture comes near boiling, the head is skimmed, after 
 which it is boiled three quarters of an hour. About 18 or 20 barrels 
 of it are then run into the mash-tun, where the whole is completely 
 mashed for nearly an hour, and the heat raised to the temperature of 
 104. At this period, the small quantity of cold worts which had 
 been left in the underback is pumped into the copper, and the wort 
 which is in the mash-tun is slowly conveyed into the underback, 
 from which it is again pumped, until the copper is full. About a barrel 
 is now left in the underback, while the remainder of the worts lies in 
 the kieve : the second mashing is conducted in a similar manner ; and 
 the copper, when just at the boiling point, is turned on the goods in 
 the mash-tun, and mashed for an hour, leaving the heat at 135; 
 having settled a little, they are drained from the tun, pumped into the 
 copper, and boiled about 30 minutes. Being now quite clear, they are 
 returned into the kieve, mashed for half an hour, and left at a heat of 
 
415 
 
 162. On opening the cock, the first eight or ten gallons being foul, 
 are thrown on the goods, and the rest pumped into the copper till full ; 
 boiling is now kept up for half an hour, when as much is run into the 
 kieve, as will leave room for the quantity left in the underback ; the 
 copper is again suffered to boil another half hour, when the whole 
 contents are run on the goods : it is then charged with cold liquor till 
 about half full. M ashing for the last time is continued half an hour, 
 the heat being about 180, and the liquor is permitted to rest for an 
 hour before draining. The run from the mash-tun next commences, 
 and the liquor in the copper being entirely run off into another 
 vessel, the pumping of the worts from the underback takes place : 
 481bs. of hops are now put into the copper, and the pumping con 
 tinued until it is full, the underback retaining the remainder of the 
 run from the kieve. The surface of the grains is skimmed, and the 
 liquor which had been kept apart as above-mentioned, at a heat of 
 133, is thrown on them ; the whole of this mixture is allowed to re 
 main in the kieve till room is made for it in the copper : the worts 
 and hops having boiled an hour and a quarter, part of them are cast ; 
 but before let on the cooler, 12 gallons of cold wort reserved from 
 the first mash for this purpose, at a corner of the cooler, are spread 
 over the bottom. The worts in the kieve, as well as those in the 
 underback, are pumped into the copper, and boiled with the hops an 
 hour and half, the second worts are then cast and the brewing is 
 finished. Lest any saccharine matter should remain, some cold water 
 is mixed with the grains, run off and carried to a distillery, one of 
 which is connected with every brew -house : the quantity of beer pro 
 duced from such brewing is 34 barrels. From the coolers the worts 
 are let down into a tun at a heat of from 86 to 90, well mixed with 
 GOlbs. of yeast, and when fermentation appears, the whole is drawn off 
 into casks of 25 gallons each, and placed on stillins where it is kept 
 working till fit for consumption. There is no malt duty charged at 
 Vienna, but there is a city and country duty on beer, the former of 
 which is much heavier than the latter. 
 
 The brewers of Vienna keep up their establishments in respectable 
 style ; and among the carriages which generally throng the roads 
 leading to this city, are numbers of brewers drays drawn by large 
 Flemish horses, with harness decorated with broad, glittering, brass 
 plates. These drays are invariably attended by dogs of a peculiar 
 breed, having enormous heads like lions ; they seem, however, to be kept 
 rather for show than for any protection they afford, as they are gentle 
 and docile. The population of Vienna in 1833, was 329,873 inhabi 
 tants, being about 70,000 more than Berlin. The city has 40 public, 
 80 coffee, and 500 smoking-houses. 
 
L 
 
 r 
 
 The practice of smoking, which has rendered so many houses for 
 the enjoyment of this luxury necessary at Vienna, is so prevalent 
 throughout Germany, that it has become not only a national failing but 
 a nuisance. If it \vould add either to the dignity or comfort of man, 
 it would be the more excusable, but the reverse is the case, for while 
 it wastes property, which could be otherwise usefully employed, it 
 generally superinduces habits of drinking, and in no respect contri 
 butes to the health or character of the individual who uses it. Sir 
 Arthur Brooke Faulkner, in his Visit to Germany, thus writes on the 
 subject :* 
 
 " The length to which the Germans push the practice of smoking, 
 is quite insufferable to the unpractised nose of the alien. It is true, 
 you may avoid the society of smokers by shutting yourself up, but 
 even this will not avail, unless you are hermetically sealed. There 
 is hardly an occupation with which one can suppose it possible to 
 conjoin the process, whereof the tobacco-pipe is not the accompani 
 ment. The coachmen drive and smoke ; the cavalry officer is seen 
 smoking while he rides at the head of his regiment ; the peasantry 
 smoke at the plough and the spade ; during the frosty weather, you 
 were met at every corner where there was a sheet of ice, by groups 
 of persons skating and smoking. I am sure it is no small deduction 
 from the luxury of eating and drinking, that smoking cannot be com 
 bined with them. Whether a German sleeps and smokes, I have not 
 inquired ; but if it be not physically an impossibility, I would take 
 an even bet that he does. Their wives might tell us." 
 
 From the attention paid to the care of bees, honey is produced in 
 abundance ; mead is manufactured, and is of some moment in the 
 trade of the country. Many of the distillers purchase the honey for 
 the making of rosoyllo, and use it as a sirup instead of sugar. Some 
 farmers are so extensive in the rearing of bees, that they have from 
 three to four hundred caps under management at one time ; and for 
 the purpose of feeding, the bees are often transported from place to 
 place, where buck-wheat, or lime-trees, are plentiful. On these occa 
 sions it rarely happens that any accident or loss is sustained, the bees 
 returning instinctively to their respective stocks, with a precision and 
 an accuracy truly marvellous. 
 
 It appears that the name of aqua vitce, and the practice of distil 
 ling spirit of wine, from aromatic herbs, were known in Hungary so 
 early as the fourteenth century, and that a queen of that country 
 rendered herself famous by a medicinal preparation from rosemary 
 
 Visit to Germany and the Low Countries, 2 vols. 8ro. vol. i. p. 237. 
 
417 
 
 in which aqua vita formed a principal part. The receipt for making 
 it was copied from her breviary by Prev r ot, who died in 1C31, and 
 whose book was published by his two sons at Frankfort, in 1659; 
 it runs thus : " Take of aqua-vitce four times distilled, three parts, 
 and of the tops and flowers of rosemary two parts. Put these toge 
 ther in a close vessel ; let them stand in a gentle heat fifty hours, and 
 then distil them. Take one dram of this in the morning, once every 
 week, either in your food or drink, and let your face and the diseased 
 limb be washed with it every morning. It renovates the strength, 
 brightens the spirits, purifies the marrow and nerves, restores and 
 preserves the sight, and prolongs life." Among the Germans, the^ 
 manufacture soon became of such importance, that many of the nobles 
 kept stills for the purpose of distilling waters of all sorts, for the 
 benefit of their families and the poor. An instance of this may be 
 found in tho consort of Philip the Second, Duke of Griibenhagen, 
 a princess of Brunswick, who in 1560, supported a still and laboratory 
 of that kind, at her palace at Griibenhagen, in the circle of Lower 
 Saxony.* Tacitus has given an early proof of their skill in the 
 making of beer,j" and their celebrity in the brewing of that beverage 
 seems to have gathered strength by time. The quantity furnished in 
 the different cities and towns is immense. Some years since, there 
 were 110 fewer than two hundred and fifty privileged brewers in the 
 town of Rostock, who exported annually 800,000 barrels, under the 
 name of Lubeck beer, the excise raised from w T hich composed the 
 chief revenue of the Duke of Mecklenburgh. The Mum of Brunswick 
 is well known, and justly appreciated for its good quality. The pro 
 cess observed in the manufacture has been, it is said, always kept 
 secret ; and to prevent discovery, the men who brewed it were hired 
 for life. The following receipt was procured by General Monk, at the 
 court of Brunswick, in the reign of one of our Charleses, and is given 
 in the Harleian Miscellany :J " To make a vessel of sixty-three 
 gallons, the water must be first boiled to the consumption of a third 
 part. Let it then be brewed, according to art, with seven bushels of 
 wheat-malt, one bushel of oat-malt, and one bushel of ground-beans ; 
 and when it is tunned, let not the hogsheads be too full at first ; when 
 it begins to work, put to it of the inner rind of the fir three pounds, 
 of the tops of fir and birch, each one pound ; of carduus benedictus 
 dried, three handfuls ; flowers of rosa solis, two handfuls ; of Bur net, 
 
 * Beckman s Hist. Tnven. vol. iii. p. 148. 
 f De MoribusGermanorum, sect, xxiii. 
 J Harleian Miscellany, vol. i. pp. 524-5. London, 1744. 
 
418 
 
 Betony, Marjoram, Avens, Penny -royal, flowers of Elder, wild thyme, 
 of each one handful and half; seeds of cardamum bruised, three 
 ounces ; bay -berries bruised one ounce ; put the seeds into the vessel : 
 when the liquor hath wrought awhile with the herbs, and after they 
 are added, let the liquor work over the vessel as little as may be, fill 
 it up at last, and when it is stopped, put into the hogshead ten new- 
 laid eggs, the shells not cracked or broken ; stop all close, and drink 
 it at two years old ; if carried by water it is better." 
 
 " Dr. ^Egidius Hoffman added water-cresses, brook-lime, and wild 
 parsley, of each six handfuls, with six handfuls of horse-radish, rasped 
 in every hogshead ; it was observed that the horse-radish made the 
 Mum drink more quick than that which had none." 
 
 With regard to the origin of the term Mum, no decided opinion can 
 be given. It is said to come purely from the German w r ord Mumme, 
 the name of a strong ale, which, from its intoxicating qualities, pro 
 duces silence, by rendering its votaries incapable of utterance. This 
 term answers to that applied by the Danes to a mask, because it exhi 
 bits the parties using it, wearing, as it were, a new face. The most 
 plausible derivation of the term is, that this drink was invented by 
 Christian Mummer, of Brunswick, and that the word Mum is merely 
 an abbreviation of his name. 
 
 In ancient times it appears to have been the practice to mix a great 
 variety of ingredients in the manufacture of almost every kind of 
 beverage, and the more singular the taste or flavour, the more highly 
 prized was the article. Of what description the Mum made as above 
 described was, must be left to the conjecture of the reader. The fol 
 lowing practice, stated to be in use a few years since, appears more in 
 accordance with modern improvement : The malt was mixed with a 
 greater proportion of water, than was used in brewing beer or ale ; 
 after remaining saturated in the mash-tun for about two hours, it was 
 drawn off and re-boiled. This liquid was again introduced into the 
 kieve, on a quantity of fresh malt merely wet, and which had stood 
 there soaking for about an hour in water ; after this the worts were 
 drained off and pumped into coolers, from which they were sent to 
 the coppers, and boiled with a large quantity of hops for some hours- 
 The produce was of a rich glutinous nature, and after undergoing a 
 partial fermentation, it was put into casks for sale, under the title of 
 Mum. From the materials left in the kieve, two other brewings were 
 effected, the first making a strong kind of beer, and the second an 
 inferior sort, or table drink. None of these drinks, however highly 
 they may rank in Germany, are equal to the beer, ale, or porter 
 brewed in the British empire. In many parts of Germany, the people 
 brew for themselves, as is customary in Great Britain. 
 
419 
 
 The wine of Griinberg is famed for its astringent qualities : it is 
 manufactured in large quantities from the grapes of the vineyards that 
 surround the city, and is much used to increase the strength of infe 
 rior wines. It is an apophthegm in Germany, when speaking of this 
 wine, to say, " you can mend the holes of a stocking by putting some 
 Grunberg wine into it !" 
 
 At Liibeck, there are numerous sugar-refineries, and considerable 
 quantities of sugar arc extracted from the beet-root. 
 
 In Germany, says a late writer, I have not seen three people drunk 
 in three months. In Bavaria, and the north, the common people 
 drink a good deal of beer, but it is like the fine Edinburgh table-beer 
 in strength and appearance. It is weak, highly fermented, and 
 strongly hopped, and an immensity is drunk without intoxication. In 
 the kingdom of Prussia, the principles of the Temperance Society 
 have made astonishing progress. Publications inculcating the doc 
 trine of abstinence from intoxicating liquors, are read at school by the 
 young, and thus Temperance principles form a portion of daily and 
 practical education. 
 
 In Switzerland, which is one of the most mountainous districts of 
 Europe, the cultivation of grain has been so limited, as scarcely to 
 admit of distillation. The surface, soil, and climate are so irregular 
 and diversified, that in some places, grapes do not ripen, while in many 
 others, even corn does not arrive at maturity the inhabitants are 
 often seen reaping on one side of a mountain, and sowing on the 
 other. In the plantation of the vines, the hills are, in many places, cut 
 into terraces, from which, particularly about the lake of Geneva, 
 grapes and wine of a tolerable quality are obtained. The vines are 
 chiefly trained either against trellises or kept low, and tied to short 
 poles. 
 
 At what time the vine was first cultivated in Switzerland, we are not 
 informed, but it is very probable that it was introduced into that coun 
 try by the Romans, since we learn from history, that the Helvetians 
 paid peculiar veneration to the god of wine, and preserved his gifts 
 not in wine-cellars, but in casks ; and that experiments were under 
 taken in agriculture, so that the Falernian hills were rivalled by the 
 vineyards of the Rhine. In corroboration of this, Roman measures 
 have been found in the country ; and so late as 1807, four great 
 amphorae were discovered in a subterraneous apartment in the wood 
 of Vaux. 
 
 Some of the vineyards on the Lake of Zurich are very old, and 
 are said to have borne the vine for 500 years. The vines of Vevay, 
 owing, it is supposed, to their exposure to the sun, are accounted the 
 
450 
 
 finest in Switzerland. The best wine comes from St. Saphorin, a 
 hamlet adjoining the town. In the canton of Berne, the mountains 
 are covered with vineyards, and those between Vevay and Lausanne 
 are much esteemed. Vines are planted in the valleys on the nor 
 thern and southern frontiers. The red and white wines of Malantz 
 are reckoned the best in the canton of the Orisons. In the canton of 
 Basle, the hills are covered with the finest vineyards, from which good 
 wines are produced. Near the capital, in the field of St James, is 
 grown that celebrated red wine called " the blood of the Swiss," from 
 a sanguinary conflict between 30,000 French, commanded by the 
 Dauphin, afterwards Louis XT., and 1,600 Swiss, in which G,000 of 
 the former were slain, while only 16 of the latter remained to des 
 cribe the valorous achievements of their brethren. From this 
 memorable circumstance, the following couplets, termed the Drinking 
 Song of the Men of Basle, must be read with interest: 
 
 Drink ! drink !-- the red, red wine, 
 
 That in the goblet glows, 
 Is hallow d by the blood that stain d 
 
 The ground whereon it grows ! 
 Drink ! drink ! there s health and joy 
 
 In its foam to the free and brave ; 
 But twould blister up like the elf-king s cup, 
 
 The pale lip of the slave ! 
 Drink ! drink ! and as your hearts 
 
 Are warm d by its ruby tide, 
 Swear to live as free as your fathers liv d, 
 
 Or die as your fathers died !* 
 
 The richness of the valleys and the declivities of the mountains of 
 Switzerland afford abundance of fruits, in the cultivation of which 
 the inhabitants have been very successful. From many of these, 
 particularly from the Machaleb cherry, a very superior spirit called 
 Kirschenwasser or cherry-water, much resembling our whiskey, is ma 
 nufactured. This, in the opinion of Stolberg, is no way inferior either 
 in purity, strength, flavour, or taste, to that made from corn at Dant- 
 zic.f Coxe also speaks of it as a pleasant spirit, and many agree, 
 that it is not excelled by the Dalmatian maraschino. It is distilled 
 in the cantons of Zurich, S chaff hausen, Lucerne, Berne, Neufchatel, 
 &c. Quantities of it are exported yearly to Germany, Italy, and 
 France, and it ranks in quality with that exported from the depart- 
 
 Planche s Lays and Legends of the Rhine. 
 \ Stolberg s Travels, vol. i. p. 146. 
 
451 
 
 merit of the Upper Rhine. Cider is also manufactured to some 
 extent, and is an article of great importance in their traffic with thtf 
 neighbouring countries. 
 
 Brandy is distilled in Switzerland from the refuse of the grapes, 
 after the must is pressed out, in the following manner : Casks are 
 filled with the skins, which are squeezed as compactly as possible, and 
 are covered closely to prevent the ingress of air : fermentation gene* 
 rally sets in, in about three days ; and when it has subsided, which 
 occupies a considerable time, it is then deemed fit for the still. When 
 the process of distillation is about to take place, the fermented mass 
 is mixed with a due proportion of water, that preserves it in a proper 
 consistence for the action of the fire, which is moderately applied to 
 prevent cmpyreuma, or burnt flavour. It is calculated that a vessel 
 containing 32 cubic feet of this material will yield 19 T V or ten .gallons 
 of pure brandy. 
 
 Through the Pays de Vaud and several of the cantons where the 
 vine is cultivated, good brandy is made, but not to such extent as to 
 require particular notice. When Clarke travelled through the coun 
 try, the best wines were sold for six-pence per quart, and the worst 
 for three half -pence. In 1779, there were exported 10,029 casks, 
 each containing 80 bottles; in 1781, 24,568 casks, and in 1782, 
 11,354.* 
 
 Although in Holland, as in Switzerland, the quantity of grain 
 reared is inadequate to the consumption of its inhabitants, yet 
 there are few countries better supplied with that necessary of life. 
 From Russia, Poland, Elbing, Koningsberg, and Flanders, are drawn 
 those immense resources, which not only enable the Dutch to export 
 grain in large quantities, but to distil it to great extent. When Dr. 
 Shannon visited that country in 1774, there were at Weesoppc, in 
 the vicinity of Rotterdam, 300 stills of from 300 to 500 gallons each ; 
 at Scheidam, in the following year, there w r ere 120 stills, and in 
 1792, no less than 220. The entire stills of the province amounted to 
 400, and their average contents were from 250 to 400 gallons. It- 
 has been calculated, that the annual produce of spirits in the Dutch 
 distilleries, is nothing short of 14,000,000 of gallons, 4,560,000 of 
 which are consumed in the country. Antwerp was formerly cele 
 brated for its extensive trade in wine and other liquors. In 1560, 
 according to Guiceiardini, 40,000 tuns of Rhenish wine were brought 
 annually to Antwerp, from which it was exported to the various 
 countries trading to that city, and then sold at 36 crowns the tun. -, 
 
 * Coxc s Travels in Switzerland, vol. i. p. 58, 
 
452 
 
 The best Geneva we now have, is obtained from Holland, and is 
 made, according to Dr. Rees, from an ordinary spirit distilled a second 
 time, with an addition of some juniper-berries. The original liquor, 
 however, is prepared in a very different manner. 
 
 It was a custom in the distilling of spirits from worts, or other fer 
 mented liquors, to add in the working some aromatic ingredients, 
 such as ginger, cortex winteranus, or grains of paradise, to take off 
 the bad flavour, and to give a pungent taste to the spirit. Among 
 other things used with that intent, some tried the juniper-berry, 
 (genevre, as it is called in French,) and finding that it gave not 
 only an agreeable flavour, but a very valuable quality to the spirit, 
 the distillers adopted it generally, and the liquor has since been sold 
 under the French name genevre, or, as it is rendered in English, 
 geneva. It is highly probable that this spirit, now so esteemed 
 throughout Europe, owes its name to the juniper wine, invented or 
 brought to perfection by Count De Morret, son of Henry IV. of 
 France, to the use of which he attributed his good health and long 
 life. This liquor was considered so wholesome and made with so 
 little expense, that it was called "the wine of the poor " 
 
 The juniper-berries employed in the distilleries, are generally 
 brought from Germany, Italy, or Sweden. In the latter kingdom, 
 they are frequently made into conserves and are eaten at breakfast. 
 The Swedes prepare from them a beverage which they consider use 
 ful as a medicine ; and in some places, particularly in Lapland, they 
 are roasted and substituted for coffee. The exports of juniper- 
 berries for the use of distillers, are about 350 barrels annually, and 
 the imports of Holland from Odessa alone in order to supply the 
 manufacturers of Geneva, are very extensive. This aromatic berry 
 is found in various portions of the globe : Dr. Gerard met it in abun 
 dance on the Himaleh mountains, at an elevation of 13,300 feet 
 above the level of the sea.* In Sweden, it is a practice to strew the 
 floors of the apartments with juniper sprigs over which sand is scat 
 tered, a practice once prevelant in the presence chambers of sove 
 reigns. In Carniola, a kind of wine is made from juniper-berries by 
 steeping them in water, of which the inhabitants seem very fond ; but 
 in Holland their chief use is in the distillation of geneva. The berries 
 remain two years on the trees before they are ripe. In the mode for 
 merly practised, the juniper was added to the malt in the grinding ; 
 a proper proportion was allowed, and the whole was reduced to meal 
 and worked in the common way. The spirit thus obtained was 
 
 * Gerard s Letters, published in the Calcutta Transactions, 
 
453 
 
 flavoured ab origine with the berry, and exceeded all that could be 
 made by any other method. 
 
 The two principal modes observed in the preparation of wash for 
 geneva are thus described : A quantity of rye-flour, coarsely ground, 
 is mixed with a third or fourth part of barley-malt, proportioned to 
 the size of the tub in which the vinous fermentation is to be effected. 
 This they mix with cold water, and then stir it with the hand to 
 prevent the flour from gathering into lumps, and to facilitate its disso 
 lution. When this point is attained, water is added of the heat of 
 human blood. The whole is well stirred, after which the ferment is 
 mixed with the wort, having been previously diluted with a little of the 
 liquor. The fermentation generally begins six hours afterwards ; if 
 it commence earlier, there is reason to apprehend that it will be too 
 strong, and means are employed to check it. If the fermentation be 
 well conducted, it generally terminates on the third day, when the 
 liquor becomes transparent, and assumes an acrid taste, hot and fiery 
 on the tongue. Having attained this point, the wash is well roused 
 or stirred, and the mash with all the corn is put into the still, and 
 then commences the first distillation, which is conducted very slowly. 
 This is a matter of the utmost importance, as it is considered that 
 when the first distillation proceeds rapidly, the essential oil goes over 
 with the spirit, arid mixes with it so intimately that an unpalatable 
 taste of the grain is imparted, which no subsequent process can neu 
 tralize without employing ingredients hurtful to health. This liquor 
 is then rectified over juniper-berries once or twice, according to the 
 sort of spirit which it is intended to produce. For common use, one 
 rectification is deemed sufficient, though it is not considered so fine 
 or pleasant, as that which has undergone several rectifications, and 
 which is called double geneva. Some distillers mix the juniper- 
 berries with the wort, and ferment them together ; but in that case 
 they only draw a spirit from it for the use of the interior, or for 
 exportation to England ; the juniper, however, is most commonly 
 used at the rectification and not before. 
 
 The second method pursued by the best distillers is as follows : 
 The malt and rye are mixed with warm water in given proportions, 
 and thoroughly blended together, until all the farinaceous substance 
 is incorporated ; the liquid is then allowed to rest until the flour has 
 settled at the bottom. The wort is afterwards permitted to flow into 
 the fermenting tub, where a similar operation takes place, with 
 another quantity of water poured upon the same grain, and these 
 operations are repeated, until the wort thus drawn from it at different 
 times, has abstracted the whole saccharine matter in the flour. This 
 
454. 
 
 liquid is put into tKe fermenting tun or vessel ; and when it comes to the 
 proper temperature, about blood heat, the ferment or yeast is added. 
 The fermentation is considered milder and more regular, by this 
 method than the other. 
 
 Another practice in making geneva is, to use in proportion as 
 follows : viz. One hundred of barley-inalt, two hundred of rye-malt, 
 mashed with 460 gallons of water at a temperature of 162. When 
 the infusion has been continued for a sufficient time, cold water is 
 added until the wort is brought to about 451bs. of saccharine matter 
 per barrel. It is then run into a back, at a temperature of 80, 
 with half a gallon of yeast. Fermentation soon commences, and is 
 generally finished in two days, when proper attention is paid to the 
 temperature of the place. The wash is then put into the still, reduced 
 to about 151bs. of saccharine matter the barrel, together with the 
 grains, and undergoes three distillations a few juniper-berries and 
 a small quantity of hops being introduced to communicate the flavour. 
 Some pour all the water which they intend to use, into the tub or 
 kieve at once, and put the flour gently into it, while two or more 
 persons are employed in stirring it well with sticks made for that pur 
 pose, in order to mix the flour and prevent it from gathering into 
 lumps : when the whole is properly reduced and mixed together, they 
 proceed to draw it off into a cooler, before it is put into the ferment- 
 Ing vessel. In all cases the gravity of the wort is low, seldom 
 exceeding forty degrees ; and by distilling from a mixture of wash 
 and grains, the produce is allowed to be much greater than that 
 obtained in Great Britain from wash alone.* Gin is a spirit supposed 
 to be produced only in its greatest purity by the Dutch, from the 
 uncommon care taken in its manufacture, and its perfection is greatly 
 attributable to the manner in which the wash is prepared, and the 
 extraordinary pains bestowed on the fermentation in the course of 
 attenuation. Certainly if care be not taken at this stage of the pro 
 cess, it would be difficult to produce a fine spirit free from any pecu 
 liar flavour, which is the great characteristic of good Holland gin, the 
 spirit only discovering in any mixture, merely the aroma of the juni 
 per. No grain is used in the Dutch distilleries but the most perfect 
 kind, after it lias undergone the process of malting. Wheat is con 
 sidered the best for producing the choicest spirit ; but barley is more 
 productive. Rye, however, chiefly of Russian growth, is the princi 
 pal article used, as it produces one -third of spirit more than wheat or 
 
 * Vide Parl. Rep. on Distillery Duties, 1799, apud Cookson s Obs , 
 Dist Rep.,. No, 2. p, 20G. 
 
455 
 
 barley. The fermentation of the wash is completed in about three 
 days, and in the distillation the first operation is conducted very 
 slowly and with great caution : in the second process, or re-distillation 
 the juniper-berries are introduced, which give it the peculiar flavour 
 by which it is distinguished. Modern ingenuity, however, has art 
 fully substituted oil of turpentine for the juniper, as less expensive 
 and answering the purpose of giving it the peculiar flavour of this 
 spirit. The cleanliness of the Dutch is proverbial, and this is no 
 where more rigidly observed than in their distilleries, which con 
 tributes not a little to the excellence of the spirits. Lime water is 
 chiefly used in cleansing the vessels, and the practice of plastering the 
 staves of their fermenting tuns with lime is thus obviated ; a practice 
 much more commendable than that in common use, and less liable to 
 produce acidity. 
 
 Kcempfer attributes the discovery of this spirit to Professor Sylvius 
 of Leyden, who died in 1672. Like brandy, it was first sold in the 
 apothecaries shops ; but the distillers finding that it was drunk with 
 avidity by the common people, commenced the manufacture of it 
 themselves, and it shortly after became an article of great trade. 
 The Dutch, whose mode of distilling enabled them to obtain a milder 
 spirit than the people of other countries, succeeded better in the 
 manufacture, and for a series of years it seemed to have been in their 
 hands a complete monopoly : but as it has been imitated with success 
 in other parts of the world, they have now many rivals, and the 
 exportation of this article has been considerably diminished. 
 
 The geneva imported into Great Britain from Holland, for the 
 year ending 5th January, 1834, appears to have been 347,597 gallons ;* 
 for the year ending 5th January, 1835, 277,141 ; and the quantity that 
 went into consumption for the latter year, 19,648 imperial gallons.f 
 
 In 1831, the duty on distilled spirits in the Netherlands amounted 
 to 2,905,350 francs ; in 1832, to 4,560,238 francs ; and during 1834, 
 it was estimated at 5,922,744 francs. This increase was owing to the 
 favourable operation of a new law. Although spirituous liquors are 
 consumed to a considerable extent, drunkards are rarely ever seen, 
 except in a few instances, among the lower orders of the people. The 
 tobacco pipe and goblet are inseparable companions after dinner, but 
 the Dutchman prefers the practice of fumigating his head with smoke, 
 to that of steeping his senses in the oblivious waters of Bacchus. 
 
 The stills used by the Dutch are those of common construction ; 
 improvements, however, have been introduced, amongst which is that 
 
 * Parl. Tables, p. 19. Vide Addenda, f Ibid, 
 
456 
 
 of M. Cellier Blumenthal, being an alteratiou of Derosne s apparatus 
 adapted to the distillation of the wash in continuation, and by means 
 of which rectification can be carried so high as to produce the 
 strongest alcohol. 
 
 The brewing of beer and ale was early practised in the Netherlands. 
 Isaac and John Hollandus, who were natives of that country and 
 flourished in the thirteenth century, have written with great ability 
 on the subject, as well as on fermentation and distillation. Delft, 
 among other places, became famous for its beer, and it was for many 
 years the great staple of that port ; what is now made there is chiefly 
 consumed in the neighbourhood. At Gouda and Muyden. it is made 
 in great perfection, and in the latter place, on account of its valuable 
 qualities, it is called Flemish physic, while London porter is imitated 
 with success. At Brussels, there are great varieties of malt drink, 
 and of beer not less than thirty or forty sorts : that of Louvaine, in 
 South Brabant, is said to be the most esteemed. 
 
 There the number of brewers are about 24, some of whom make 
 300 barrels of beer weekly. Mr Booth has detailed the pro- 
 ces of manufacturing two sorts of beer in that city, named 
 Pieterman and WJiitebeer Seven quarters arid a half of barley malt, 
 and as much raw wheat, both finely ground and mixed together, are 
 put into 18 sacks ; also seven quarters of finely-ground raw wheat 
 are put into sixteen sacks, from which 40 barrels of strong Pieter 
 man, 35 of table beer, and 12 barrels of small beer are produced. 
 Two coppers, two mash tuns, and five coolers, are employed, but as 
 the method of brewing is never likely to be practised in Great Bri 
 tain, a particular description seems superfluous. No saccharometer 
 is used to direct the superintendent, the whole process depending on 
 his taste and experience. When the brewing is collected in the tun 
 and well mixed with yeast, the drink is drawn off into casks placed 
 on their end, and holding about a barrel and half each ; here the fer 
 mentation commences, and is finished in about forty-four or fifty 
 hours. No kiln or fuel is used to dry the malt, the air being the only 
 medium of effecting that purpose. On this account the grain is spread 
 on upper lofts ; but, from this defective system, no malt can be 
 made in the winter season : barley alone is employed, from which 
 the dust is never separated ; hence the grain, from the nature of the 
 drying, never attains that crispness and sweetness which are the 
 characteristics of good malt. The grain and hops are of a very fine 
 quality, and the latter forms an article of considerable commerce. 
 The beer is sent to Antwerp, Brussels, Liege, Tirlemont, and other 
 places, to the amount of 150,000 casks annually. What adds to the 
 
457 
 
 reputation of the beer of Louvain, is the peculiar quality of the 
 water. The brewers of Brussels use malt and raw wheat in equal 
 proportions, and from four quarters of each, when finely ground, 19 
 barrels of strong beer are drawn. To prevent too much adhesion, a 
 quantity of wheaten chaff is thrown into the tun, and the whole 
 moistened with cold water, after which it is mashed with 18 
 barrels of hot liquor. This mixture is of a thick consistency, and the 
 heat after mashing is about 122". Having remained in this state 
 about an hour and a half, it is run into the underback, immediately 
 pumped into the copper, and is mixed with 5 Gibs, of fine hops. From 
 the thick nature of the worts, the run is slow, but to facilitate the pro 
 cess, wicker baskets are plunged into the kieve, through the interstices 
 of which the worts flow, and are drawn out by small bowls or ladles. 
 
 A second mash with ten barrels of liquor, is permitted to stand ail 
 hour. Three other mashes succeed, ending at the temperature inter 
 mediate between 134 and 173. These mashings being collected 
 in the copper and at the boiling point, three handfuls of unslacked 
 lime are thrown in, and the whole is boiled for eighteen hours. The 
 worts being sent to the coolers, are allowed to remain there till they 
 become quite cold, in winter even to the freezing point, before they 
 are put into the fermenting tun, where they lie for two days without 
 any apparent change, and then run into casks to undergo fermenta 
 tion. This beer is kept for many years ; at the end of the first year 
 it is muddy, but at the end of the second it is clear, and the longer 
 it is kept the lighter it becomes. The beer of the winter brewing is 
 termed Pharo, and that of the summer, Lambie. 
 
 There are extensive breweries in Bruges, and the facilities which 
 the manufacturers have of obtaining grain, of which large quantities 
 are exported, render the trade in malt liquors extensive and beneficial* 
 Mrs. Trollope mentions a very grotesque group, in alto-relievo, 
 which she saw over the door of a brewery in that city : it represents 
 the process of brewing, with several figures employed in mashing, 
 cooling, and putting the beer into casks ; while winged seraphs are 
 are seen tasting it, with the blessed Virgin and her infant 
 son looking on.* Making sugar from beet-root was an object 
 of attention at the time Buonaparte had a control over Con 
 tinental affairs ; but the manufacturers had so much the advantage 
 over the farmers, that the latter thought that their land could be 
 turned to a more profitable purpose, and the trade consequently 
 declined. When the West Indian sugar stood at five shillings the 
 pound, the beet-root article could be purchased at less than one shilling- 
 
 * Belgium and Western Germany, vol. i. p. 28. 
 
458 
 
 The process of making the sugar consisted in reducing the clean roots 
 to a pulp, by means of a cylinder perforated with holes like a grater, 
 and revolving in a trough. The pulp formed by this machinery was 
 put into bags of hair or linen cloth, and pressed much in the same 
 manner as that observed in making the dry barm at Paris. The 
 liquor was collected, boiled, and after being mixed with a proportion 
 of lime, the saccharine matter was precipitated; a solution of sul 
 phuric acid being added, and the whole being boiled a second time, 
 the saccharine matter became then granulated, and the sugar, when 
 refined, of a very good quality. This manufacture is not now of much 
 consequence, since the free admission of VYest India and other sugar 
 into that country. Distillation from the beet-root has been tried ; 
 but where grain is so abundant, it supersedes the necessity of extract 
 ing spirits from this vegetable. 
 
 In Hanover, although there are various tracts of heath and marshy 
 ground, the soil produces most of the grains and fruits of Europe ; 
 even the grape is cultivated in some places for making wine. The 
 beer of this country has been long celebrated for its excellence, and 
 upon this article and spirits, an annual revenue of upwards of sixty 
 thousand pounds is levied. There are few towns in the kingdom in 
 which distillation is not carried on, while the breweries are numerous. 
 The principal establishments are at Embeck, Gosslar, and Hanover : 
 the latter is noted for a particular kind of beer, which is held in high 
 estimation throughout the country. The Embeck beer was once 
 accounted the Burton of Germany, and vended in every part of the 
 Empire. In the fifteenth century it ranked so high, that a barrel was 
 considered of equivalent value to a hogshead of wine, and was the 
 favorite drink of the sovereign. One of the largest houses at Ham 
 burgh was built for the express purpose of selling this liquor, which 
 is still known by the name of the Eimbeckischen Haus. After all 
 the praise that has been lavished on it, the modern beer of Great 
 Britain is considered superior to it. 
 
 A brewer previous to his commencing work, must notice the proper 
 officer, stating the time when the malt is to be mashed, with the 
 quantity and kind of grain to be used, also the hour when the vats are 
 to be filled ; and the duty is imposed in proportion to the quantity of 
 grain, and the beer obtained. If the brewery is on a small scale, one 
 shilling is charged for every bushel of wheaten malt, eight-pence for 
 barley, and six-pence for oats : where the quantity of beer produced 
 is large, the duty is then charged by the gallon. 
 
 A distiller likewise must inform the Collector before he begins to 
 work, and have his still guaged, at the same time leaving the head 
 
459 
 
 with that officer. The duty is charged according to the capacity of 
 the still ; arid on each removal of the head for work, he is obliged to 
 pay for the time it is kept, which cannot in any instance be for a 
 shorter period than twenty-four hours, but may be for as long as he 
 thinks proper, paying proportionally so much per day, according to 
 the dimensions of the still, as already stated. Any infringement of 
 those regulations is strictly punished according to law ; but it is plain 
 that these enactments are insufficient to prevent smuggling, inasmuch 
 as a fraudulent trader may have in some concealed place, at all times, 
 a second head for his still. 
 
 These regulations are nearly similar to what were observed some 
 years ago, in Great Britain and Ireland. The collection of the 
 revenue is managed by a board of eleven members, some of whom 
 are appointed by the crown, and some by the states. The subor 
 dinate officers are six superintend nts over districts, each of whom 
 are divided into circles, and in every circle there is a collector ; sub 
 ordinate to these again, are other officers, some of whom are posted 
 at the gates of the towns and cities, and are denominated secretaries. 
 The intelligent reader will readily perceive the regulations which 
 follow from the appointments without further detail. It may be 
 remarked that in Germany of late years, distilleries have increased, 
 while breweries have decreased in the same ratio. This change, we 
 are "assured, has made no alteration in the morals of the people, as 
 drunkenness is now less prevalent there than formerly. 
 
 The improvements in distillation have advanced considerably in the 
 German Empire, but not to the extent observable in France and 
 Great Britain. One great cause of this is attributable to Guild and 
 Corporation laws, which tend to retard the progress of the mechanical 
 arts, and to depress the exercise of the inventive powers and the 
 ingenuity of the artisan. There almost every species of industry is 
 restricted, and diiferent trades have different privileges. Some curi 
 ous regulations respecting them might be selected ; among others 
 those of brewers and distillers have not been exempted. In Lune- 
 burgh, particular houses only had a hereditary right to distil brandy, 
 and no other persons than the twelve representatives of those families 
 could keep a distillery.* 
 
 Wine being so common and cheap, the Germans do not encourage 
 distillation to the same extent as in other countries. What progress 
 Temperance Societies may have made remains to be ascertained, but, 
 if the following anecdote be authentic, it aifords a curious specimen 
 
 * Hodgskin s T/avels in tlie North of Germany, vol. ii. F. 181. 
 
460 
 
 of the opinions entertained by some of the German divines on the 
 subject of intemperance. In a sermon preached by one of them, he 
 exclaimed that " intemperance consisted in passing those bounds 
 which nature had prescribed. It was intemperance for men who were 
 quarrelsome in their cups, ever to drink wine : to some a goblet was 
 refreshment, to others, two caused sickness, and such were intem 
 perate, when they drank more than one. Many enlivened society, 
 and were kind when they had drunk four bottles, and it was not right 
 in them to take less. Many more felt their hearts warm with grati 
 tude to the Deity, as the generous juice circulated in their veins, 
 when they had drunk eight bottles with them intemperance began at 
 the ninth. These persons he pronounced to be the peculiar favou 
 rites of heaven, and bowing to his congregation, he acknowledged with 
 fervour, that he himself was one of those happily gifted mortals." 
 
 In the Prussian territories, the manufacture of ardent spirits has 
 never been an object of great importance, at least in a commercial 
 point of view, although few countries have finer grain, or are more 
 extolled for the excellence of their ale. It was remarked by Wolf- 
 stane the Dane, when he navigated the Baltic as far as the country 
 now called Prussia, in the eighth century, that the people there 
 brewed no ale, because they had plenty of honey. This abun 
 dance of honey was noted many centuries before by Pytheas, when 
 mead was the common drink of the meanest of the people, while the 
 rich drank mares milk, or, perhaps, a spirituous liquor prepared from 
 it.* In the Polish department, strong waters are made from wheat, 
 rye, barley, pulse, and also from cider. These are drunk chiefly by 
 the common people, and often by the higher orders, who use them 
 after they have been rectified with anise-seed, cinnamon, or other 
 spices. 
 
 In the recent southerly territorial accessions of Prussia, the vine is 
 in cultivation ; and anise, canary, coriander, mustard, and poppy- 
 seeds, are grown for the use of distillers and others. In Prussia, a 
 well as in many parts of Germany, a brewery, a distillery, and some 
 times a public-house, are the necessary appendages of every exten 
 sive farming establishment. Potatoes are distilled to a considerable 
 extent, and it is calculated that two bushels of them aiford the same 
 proportion of ardent spirit as one bushel of barley. Nine bushels of 
 potatoes are usually mixed with one of malt, to draw the wort 
 which, by distillation, produces a spirit, containing 80 per cent of 
 alcohol, and paying a very unpopular duty of six-pence per gallon, 
 
 * Macpherson s Annals, p. 263^ 
 
461 
 
 Before it is sold to the retailers, it is reduced to 50 per cent of 
 alcohol ; and the sum paid by them is about fourteen-peiice per 
 gallon. The residuum, after the spirit is extracted, is given to cattle, 
 and, in nutritive quality, is deemed equal to two-thirds of the value of 
 the potatoes before the wort was extracted. 
 
 The cultivators of grain complain greatly of the heavy duty 
 imposed on the distillation of corn, but without much reason, since 
 the tax is paid at a high degree of strength, and the spirits are sup 
 plied to the retailers at a very inferior strength. 
 
 During the late protracted wars, many exertions were made, as 
 well as experiments, by Von Thaer, to procure sugar from native 
 plants, of wbkh the common garden turnip was the most productive . 
 from this plant, from beet, and other roots, sugar has been extracted 
 of a colour, strength, and consistency equal to that of the sugar-cane. 
 Considerable quantities of goldwasser, a spirit infused with seeds 
 and spices, are distilled at Dantzic, and from thence sent into the inte 
 rior. The supplies of grain necessary for the stills kept at work in 
 that city and neighbourhood, are drawn from the public granaries, 
 which are so numerous and important, that a short description of them 
 may not prove uninteresting. The buildings which compose them, 
 says Oddy, are so extended, that they form a separate town, and 
 consist of ranges of from four to five stories high. They are situated 
 upon an island formed by the river Mottlau, which runs close by the 
 city on one side, and is met by another branch at a place called the 
 Forestadt on the other. There are three bridges on each side of the 
 island, at the end of streets over it, from the city to the Forestadt. 
 In the night, all the bridges are drawn up, excepting the two at the 
 end of the main street, across the centre of the island, communicating 
 between the old city and the Forestadt. On this island, are all the 
 principal ware-houses for ashes, hemp, linens, and the extensive 
 granaries forming seventeen streets, besides the large centre one that 
 extends the whole length of the island. To guard these warehouses, 
 from twenty to thirty ferocious dogs of a large size are kept, amongst 
 which are blood-hounds ; these are let loose at eleven o clock at 
 night. To command and to keep the dogs within their districts, as 
 well as to protect the passengers from harm, there are large, high 
 gates at the end of each of the streets leading to the main one. No 
 light is allowed, nor is any person suffered to live on this island. The 
 dogs prowl about the whole night and cause great terror. It would 
 be impossible without them to keep property secure, amongst the 
 hordes of Poles, Jews, and others who resort to Dantzic, as no exem 
 plary punishment would have half the effect which the dread of 
 
462 
 
 these dogs produces. In winter, when the water is frozen over, and 
 Avhen the dogs might be liable to stray, there are three keepers 
 placed at particular avenues with whips, to drive them within their 
 range. This brings to our recollection what ^Elian tells us in his 
 History of Animals, that a thousand large mastiffs were constantly 
 kept at the temple of Adranus, which stood in the city of Adranum, 
 now Adderno, and that they were taught to fawn upon such as 
 brought presents to the temple, to conduct persons home at night, and 
 to fall furiously upon thieves and tear them in pieces. In the Bazaar at 
 Moscow, the property of the shopkeepers is protected at night by dogs 
 chained to their doors. Under the arcade, a certain number of these 
 animals are fixed to a long rope, placed from one end to the other, 
 passing the doors of all the shops, which are locked up, and left solely 
 under their protection.* The arsenal of Tripoli, in Africa, is guarded 
 in like manner by immense dogs belonging to the Bashaw, kept for 
 that purpose ; but, to the disgrace of the governor, these animals are 
 supported by the courtesans of the town, who are obliged to 
 bring them food every day, at the expense of their own degradation. 
 Owing to the measures adopted at Dantzic, no fire or robbery was 
 ever known ; and the expense levied on each building for these pre 
 cautions is very reasonable, considering the immense property they 
 contain. Vessels lying along side of those warehouses are not allowed 
 to have a fire or light of any kind on board, nor is a sailor nor any 
 other person suffered even to smoke. The corn annually received 
 and exported from Poland, through the medium of those granaries, 
 is computed at 730,000 tons, or 365,000 lasts. The grain stored in 
 those warehouses is brought down the Vistula from the interior of 
 Poland, principally by Jews, and the boats which convey it are from 
 one to three months on the voyage. These vessels are rudely con 
 structed, and after the cargo is disposed of, they are sold for firewood, 
 or formed into huts for the owners until a market is obtained. In con 
 veying grain in these boats, there is no artificial covering as a pro 
 tection from the weather ; it is piled in the boats so as to present 
 sloping sides like the roof of a house, and the surface thus exposed 
 to the clamp, soon begins to vegetate and form a thick matted cover 
 ing, serving all the purposes of a tarpawling, and presenting the 
 appearance of a verdant mound of earth, around which flocks of birds 
 are seen to hover in the fearless pursuit of food. At Elbing, as well as 
 at Dant/ic, the warehouses are guarded during th6 night by ferocious 
 dogs ; and since no evil consequences ensue from this mode of pro- 
 
 * Barrow s Excursions, p. 111. 
 
463 
 
 tecting property, it is to be wished that the Prussian practice were 
 extended to those portions of the civilised world, where it might be 
 applicable, as it would save men from the labour arid degradation of 
 nightly watching. 
 
 The preparation of rosolio is an important branch of distillation at 
 Dantzic. It is an agreeable spirit, composed of the juice of the plant 
 ros solis, brandy, sugar, cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, and other ingre 
 dients, and is in great demand in the German states. The rosolio of 
 Dantzic is chiefly prepared from honey, blanched by exposure to 
 frost, and afterwards washed with spirits. The honey thus prepared 
 is hard and white as snow : the Italian rosolio is made by a nearly 
 similar operation, and for which there are several distilleries at Leg 
 horn. The people of Dantzic say, that the honey employed is pro 
 cured from the forests of Kowno on the river Niemen, and its pro 
 perties are principally attributable to the honey collected by the bees, 
 which feed on the blossoms of the lime-trees in those forests. In 
 Moldavia and the Ukraine, the Jews have a method of making honey 
 into a hard and white sugar, which is employed by the distillers of 
 Dantzic in the manufacture of liqueurs. This process consists in 
 exposing the honey to the frost during three weeks, sheltered from 
 the sun and snow, in a vase of some material, which is a bad con 
 ductor of caloric. The honey does not freeze, and ultimately 
 becomes transparent and hard as sugar. Rosolio is considered ser 
 viceable for paralysis and other disorders. Various seeds and aro- 
 matics are used by the distillers of that city, perhaps more than else 
 where for flavouring spirits. Kummel, their favourite flavour, is that 
 of the cumin, (Cuminum Cyminium) an annual indigenous plant of 
 Kgypt, but caraway or fennel (fceniculum) seeds, are generally mixed 
 with cumin, and sometimes substituted for it, in the distillation of 
 Kiimmelwasser. Coriander seed, as well as Calamus aromaticus, (the 
 acorus of botanists)* is also employed by the distillers of Dantzic, to 
 correct the empyreumatic odour of spirits, and give a grateful and 
 palatable aroma to the liquors with which they are incorporated. 
 
 Formerly a strong medicinal beer was made in Dantzic from the 
 berries of the sweet-brier, which was found both salutary and agreea 
 ble ; another description of liquor, called black beer, is made in that 
 city and held in considerable estimation : it is a species of spruce 
 beer, and is made in a manner similar to that practised in Canada. 
 
 Distilleries are numerous in Dantzic ; many work from grain, 
 
 * Tliis is an odoriferous reed brought originally from India, but now found in 
 the North of Europe and in North America. 
 
464 
 
 others from molasses, and several from various saccharine materials. 
 The stills are, for the most part, made of wood, steam being the chief 
 agent ; others are worked in the usual manner. In many, the machi 
 nery is curious, simple, and efficient. 
 
 The exports of corn-brandy from Dantzic in 1802, amounted to 
 1,098 ohms ; and in 1804, to 14,312 florins and 276 ohms. The 
 imports of rum and French brandy in 1803, were 1,412 hogsheads ; 
 and in 1804, 1,383 ohms. Through the other principal ports of 
 Prussia in 1804, 1,224 hogsheads of brandy were received.* 
 
 The excise raised on mead, malt, beer, wine, and spirituous liquors 
 in the Polish part of Prussia is of some importance, but in no degree 
 equal to the means they might possess of extending it. In the ma 
 nagement of the distillery, the Prussians have not hitherto shown much 
 skill. Most of their concerns are poor and ill adapted to the work. 
 At Pillau, Elbing, Kb ningsberg, &c., the stills wrought some years 
 since, were oblong squares of copper, generally about ten feet in 
 length, three feet in width, and three feet in depth. Wood is the 
 common fuel, though coal is plentiful, particularly in Silesia, and peat 
 may be procured in some of the states in abundance. But as a too 
 intimate acquaintance with the luxuries of life seldom contributes to 
 the felicity of the human race, it is, perhaps, fortunate for these people 
 that the great bulk of their agricultural produce is exported in the 
 raw rather than in the refined state. 
 
 In the eastern part of Prussia, as no wine is made, the common 
 beverage is beer or spirits from corn. The establishments for brewing 
 and distilling are consequently numerous, but some of them approach 
 in magnitude to those of England. The whole quantity of beer that 
 is brewed is 4,243,000 fass, or casks of 50 gallons each. The con 
 sumption of corn-brandy is, on an average, 8,000,000 gallons annually. 
 
 In Berlin, there is a description of malt drink called White Beer, 
 made from a mixture of wheat and barley malted in the ratio of five 
 parts, (3.83 quarters) of the former to 0.76 quarters of the latter, with 
 about nine barrels of liquor at the temperature of 95. The wheaten 
 malt is considered requisite for the sake of the flavour and colour. 
 This mixture is mashed for about thirty minutes, during which five or 
 six barrels of liquor nearly boiling are conveyed from the copper into 
 the tun, after which the mashing is kept up for fifteen minutes longer ; 
 the heat of the mash being at 126. In an hour after, fifteen pounds 
 of hops, mixed \vith two barrels of worts taken from the top of the 
 kieve, are boiled in the copper for a quarter of an hour, during which 
 four barrels more of worts are added, making in all six barrels in the 
 
 * Oddy on European Commerce, 4to. Vide Addenda. 
 
465 
 
 copper. The whole, with the exception of a barrel left to keep the 
 bottom from burning, is returned to the kieve at a heat of 201, and 
 after a few minutes mashing- is allowed to stand half an hour, the 
 heat at this period being 153. Six barrels more from the top of the 
 kieve are now put into the copper and raised to a heat of 205 ; the 
 contents of both copper and kieve, grains included, are then thrown 
 into a vessel called a tap-tun having a false bottom covered with 
 straw, the temperature being then 167- Having remained undis 
 turbed in this vessel about fifteen minutes, the cock between the real 
 and false bottom is opened, but in so small a degree in order to render 
 the liquor the finer, that it requires seven hours to draw it off. At 
 this stage, six barrels of liquor are added and the whole is pumped 
 into the coolers, from which it is sent to the fermenting tun at a heat 
 of 72, when a gallon of yeast is added and in two hours fermentation 
 commences. In the space of eight or ten hours it is put into casks 
 and delivered to the traders, with whom the fermentation is finished 
 generally in three days ; on the fifth it is bunged, is bottled on the 
 ninth, and is drinkable on the fourteenth or fifteenth day. By this 
 practice the manufacturer is a dependent for a supply of barm, either 
 on his own or the customers of other brewers. 
 
 From the proportion and quantity of grain stated, 18 -J barrels of 
 beer are usually obtained ; this drink seldom requires fining, is well 
 flavoured, and will keep for six months. 
 
 Between Dresden and Meissen, the vineyards which adorn the 
 banks of the Elbe are the property of the king, and the wine which 
 they yield is in higher estimation than any other in his dominions. 
 In the whole of Prussia, it is estimated that there are 36,908 acres 
 employed in vineyards. Hops are raised in Brandenburgh, Pome- 
 rania, Silesia, West Prussia, Saxony, and on the Rhine, in sufficient 
 quantities to supply the inhabitants within the kingdom : the average 
 quantity produced is annually about 550,000 bushels, which are sold 
 by measure. The wines are calculated to be from 390,000 to 420,000 
 eimers ; an eimer being fifteen gallons. In Brunswick, there are 
 eighty or ninety breweries of mum and beer, with about thirty-two 
 distilleries from corn. In Konigslutter, there are nine distilleries of 
 ardent spirits. In Magdeburgh and Genthin are distilleries and brew 
 eries. In Berlin, within the walls, are one hundred and forty-three 
 distilleries and forty-two breweries. 
 
 In Wurzen and Potsdam, there are considerable breweries which 
 engage a great number of the inhabi tants. The vineyards about Lutzen 
 in Saxony, although affording abundance of grapes, yield but an indiffe 
 rent description of wine ; and, therefore, it is more profitably applied 
 
 2 H 
 
466 
 
 in making vinegar and brandy. At Weimar, breweries and distille 
 ries are chiefly employed to supply the city, though there is a great 
 trade in corn. In Saxe-Gotha, aniseseed and ciimminseed are raised 
 to considerable extent and converted into essential oil, which is in 
 great demand for the flavouring of spirits. 
 
 In Silesia, ale-houses are numerous, and no postillion drives a stage 
 without stopping to enjoy a schnap an irresistible temptation, since 
 every ale-house hangs out a board with the seductive salutation, 
 " Willkommer mem Freund" Welcome, my Friend ! 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Hirschberg, there is a spring so impreg 
 nated with oxygen, that the common people crowd to it on Sundays 
 to intoxicate themselves cheaply. 
 
 In Germany, honey is an abundant production. The number of 
 bee-hives in Prussia alone, are estimated at 521,000, and the sales of 
 the honey bring yearly about 356,091. 
 
 It was customary among the superior class of the Tcutones, (an 
 ancient people of Germany) to drink mead for a period of thirty days 
 after marriage. From this practice is probably derived the familiar 
 expression, " to spend the honeymoon Hence mead may be classed 
 amongst the most ancient and favourite beverages of the Germans, as 
 proved by the testimony of Pytheas already noticed. Next in anti 
 quity is the beer described by Tacitus ; but it is highly probable that 
 cider may dispute the precedency, as Tatian, a writer of the second 
 century, makes frequent allusion to it as a common drink among the 
 Helvetians. 
 
 Throughout Poland, all the distilleries are farmed exclusively to 
 the Jews by the nobles, who receive large sums for granting this 
 privilege. One nobleman has been known to receive 3000 annu 
 ally for leave to distil on one of the largest of his estates. The liquors 
 manufactured by them are corn spirits usually drunk without water. 
 The wash, previous to the distillation, is mixed with the essential oils 
 of fennel and caraway seeds, to render the spirits more palatable, and 
 of which enormous quantities are consumed to the real injury of the 
 morals of the people. This led Joseph II., when he obtained posses 
 sion of Galitzia, to prohibit the Jews from either pruning the vines or 
 distilling spirits ; but these regulations were disregarded after his 
 death, and the Jews are now sole masters of this branch of commerce. 
 Every traveller in Poland must lament the drunkenness of the pea 
 santry, particularly as it is effected by the avarice of the nobles, since 
 according to the excesses of the people, the larger are the returns to 
 the lords of the soil.* 
 
 Neale s Travels through Germany, Poland, Moldavia, and Turkey. 
 
467 
 
 The present Farmer- General (1837) is M. Steinzler, a banker at 
 Warsaw, who has purchased a lease of the liquors for twenty years, 
 for which he paid 7,600,000 florins, or 182,400 sterling; therefore 
 the same monoply is to be continued for the aggrandisement of an 
 individual, to the degradation of the community. 
 
 The cheap whiskey of the country is drunk by the Polish peasantry 
 in enormous quantities, whenever they can obtain it. " I was informed," 
 says Jacob , " and had reason to credit the accounts, that when the 
 peasants brought to the market-towns their trifling quantities of pro 
 duce, a part of the money was first used to purchase salt, and the rest 
 spent in whiskey, in a state of intoxication that commonly endured 
 till the exhaustion of the purse had restored them to sobriety."* 
 
 There is no duty on the spirits sold in the country portions of 
 Poland ; and the supply of that commodity, in a populous neighbour 
 hood, affords a profit, unequal, however, to the interest of the capital 
 invested in the soil, the farming stock, utensils, and other requisites, 
 added to the expense of erecting the distillery. The spirit from corn 
 is sold in the country at ten-pence per gallon ; but on paying a high 
 duty, or being a subject of monopoly farmed by tlie government to 
 distillers, on the entrance of the cities and towns, it is retailed in 
 them from three shillings, to three shillings and six-pence per gallon. 
 The duty on beer is collected by the brewers to whom it is farmed 
 by the government. 
 
 In Lithuania, spirits are consumed to a considerable extent. Tra 
 vellers say, that every town on the road sells spirits, and that the lower 
 orders are seen to stop and take their schnaps ; even women carry a 
 private bottle, and when they meet, apply it to each other s mouths, 
 and separate after a reciprocation of kisses. When travelling on 
 horseback, they do not forget their favourite beverage, and observe 
 the same ceremonies in drinking as when on foot. 
 
 When Buonaparte had control over Poland, he encouraged the cul 
 ture of white beet in order to obtain sugar with a view to injure the 
 British trade in that article ; but the experiment was of short dura 
 tion, as it is not now cultivated for such a purpose. 
 
 The propagation of bees is an object of great attention with the 
 Poles, and their honey is classed under three heads, namely, lipiec, 
 leszny^stepowey prasznymird, each of which deserves particular notice. 
 Lipiec honey is the produce of bees that feed only on a species of 
 lime-tree of the genus talia, called kamiennalipsa,OY stone lime. It 
 is held in high estimation on account of its efficacy in the cure of 
 affections of the chest, particularly those connected with the lungs j it 
 
 * Report on the Trade in Corn, &c. of Northern Europe. 
 
408 
 
 is peculiarly agreeable in flavour, white as chalk, has little wax, and 
 is, therefore, easier of digestion : the forests of Kowno in Lithuania, 
 are alone noted for this production. Such is the value set upon lipiec, 
 that a pound of it has been known to sell for two ducats at the very 
 place where it was collected. In the forests about Kowno there are 
 no caps, the bees living in the hollows of trees excavated by the 
 peasantry for that purpose. The hives are protected from the seve 
 rity of the winter by a coating of clay and straw : every peasant is 
 entitled as a right to that portion of the forest with the hives to which 
 he has paid attention ; and any infringement of this right, or a robbery 
 of the honey, is punished by the extraordinary infliction of drawing 
 the intestines of the culprit through the navel, and rolling them round 
 one of the trees which he had despoiled of its treasure. Kosciusko, 
 who was a Lithuanian by birth, was so partial to the mead termed 
 lipiec, from the honey of that name, that, during his exile in Switzer 
 land, he wrote to General Wawrzecki to procure him a supply from 
 the manufactory at Kowno. 
 
 The leszny honey is the produce of bees that feed in the pine 
 forests ; and the stepowey prasznymird, or the honey procured solely 
 from the field flowers, is considered excellent ; and that from the 
 Ukraine is accounted the best. The poor people there reckon more 
 on the produce of bees than on that of grain ; and it is not uncommon 
 for some of the farmers to have from four to five hundred ule, or logs 
 of wood in their bee enclosures, which are called parsieka, or bee 
 hives, in order to collect the honey. To accomplish this purpose, 
 these logs, which are of birch and about six feet high, are hollowed in 
 the middle and are about five feet in length, and one foot in width. 
 The aperture is covered with boards, leaving only a small opening for 
 the passage of the bees. An idea of the quantity of honey collected 
 may be conceived, when it is known that one of these large cavities 
 is often filled in a favourable season at the beginning of August. 
 From this superabundance of honey in Poland, the common drink 
 may readily be supposed to be mead ; and this is manufactured to the 
 utmost perfection. In the process, three parts of water are added to 
 one of honey, and to 163 gallons of this mixture about 501bs. of hops 
 are added. This amalgamation is termed a waar or brewing. While 
 the water is in a boiling state, the honey and the hops are stirred in 
 it, till they become milk-warm : it is then put into a cask where it 
 ferments for some days. The liquid is then conveyed into a cask 
 in which whiskey had been kept, is bunged closely, and put into a 
 cool cellar, and after lying three years in this state, it is considered to 
 have arrived at a state of excellence and continues to improve by age. 
 
469 
 
 The common mead is manufactured in the same way, except that 
 a quantity of malt is added. In Hungary, ginger is used in the pro 
 cess ; in Poland this is not customary, though many think it would 
 make a better stomachic. Wisniak, Dereniak, and Maleniak are other 
 descriptions of mead, with the addition of wild cherries, berries of the 
 cornus mascula, and raspberries ; and their spirituous qualities are 
 such that they will keep for many years. The mead drawn from the 
 lipiec honey is purely that obtained from the honey itself, mixed with 
 a certain proportion of water and fermented in the usual way. 
 
 According to ancient Polish writers, bees were so superabundant 
 in their time, that they not only filled the hollows of trees, but even 
 the ground was covered with their cells. The Poles at one period, 
 brewed hydromel to such an extent, that the workmen were fre 
 quently drowned in the huge vats employed in the manufacture. It 
 was at one time a mark of Polish gallantry to take off a lady s shoe, 
 and pass it round the table, filled with wine or hydromel as a bumper 
 to her health. 
 
 A description of honey of an intoxicating nature, is collected in 
 some parts of Poland. This honey is gathered by the bees, from the 
 azalea ponticci) chiefly at Oczakow and Potesia; and is solely used 
 for medicinal purposes, no mead being manufactured from it, nor can 
 it be eaten like other honey, as it produces nausea as well as inebria 
 tion. Before quitting the subject of honey in this quarter, it may be 
 interesting to know that in the fourth and fifth centuries, it was a com 
 mon practice to collect bees together by hissing, or whistling, in the 
 same manner as was done by beating on brass ; and it is still a prac 
 tice in Lithuania and Russia, to lead bees to feed and gather them 
 home by the blowing of a whistle, a surprising phenomenon in the 
 history of these insects. 
 
 In a country so favoured by the beneficence of Providence, it is 
 lamentable that many of these gifts should be converted to purposes 
 disgraceful to the human character ; and if it be true, as reported by 
 a respectable writer, that the ministers of religion desecrate their 
 high office, by vending spirits to the people as a source of emolument, 
 what can be expected from the community when they find their 
 teachers thus lend themselves to pander to their vices ? 
 
 The Danes, among the other inhabitants of the North who drew from 
 France a vast quantity of her brandies, at present distil from corn to 
 a large extent. In 1800, the distillers of Copenhagen, amounting to 
 316, formed a corporate body; their consumption of grain in that year 
 was 287,824 tons, which yielded 2,347,850 gallons of spirits. At 
 Flensburg, two hundred stills are employed, the produce of which is 
 
470 
 
 principally sent to Iceland and Norway. In tlie town and neighbour 
 hood of Husum, in the Duchy of Schleswick, the manufacture of 
 ardent spirits is prosecuted with much vigour. There, as well as in 
 other parts of the Danish territory, the feeding of cattle on the refuse 
 of the stills, forms a very profitable part of the trade. Denmark, 
 Schleswick, and Holstein produce corn in such abundance, that the 
 export in one year frequently amounts to 105,000.* 
 
 The average estimate of the spirits exported from Denmark, 
 amounts in value to about 100,000 rix-dollars, or 22,500. The 
 crown draws a large proportion of the national resources from the 
 excise on this article, and from the licenses permitting its manufac 
 ture and sale. The wash used in the distilleries is principally made 
 from malted barley and rye, but scarcely any oats are used : conside 
 rable quantities of the spirits are converted into cordials, and much 
 drunk in the taverns and retail shops, in the form of drams termed 
 schnaps.^ 
 
 Besides the ardour with which the Danes prosecute the distillation 
 of spiritSjthey make very good beer and ale. Beer is of great antiquity 
 amongst them. The Scandinavian word braga (beer), is probably 
 the primitive of our terms brag and braggart, the Scandinavians 
 being great boasters over their cups. The Saxons and Danes were 
 passionately fond of beer ; and the drinking of it was considered one 
 of the principal enjoyments of the heroes admitted into the hall of 
 Odin. From the word braga may have been derived the appellation 
 braggot, from brag, malt, and gots, a honey-comb, a species of drink 
 common in Wales, made from malt, honey, and spices ; and the word 
 bragwort, the name of a weak kind of mead, may be referred to the 
 same origin. 
 
 A considerable portion of the hops employed in the Danish brew 
 eries, is of the growth of the islands of Funen, Falster, Bornholm, and 
 the peninsula of Jutland ; but the consumption is so great that they 
 annually import hops to the amount of 55,000 rix-dollars. As honey 
 forms an important article in their domestic economy, and in the com 
 position of their liqueurs, great attention is paid by the Danes to the 
 culture of bees, over which the schoolmasters of the country have a 
 peculiar superintendence, and mead is manufactured extensively. 
 
 At entertainments, the inhabitants do not usually indulge to excess 
 in drinking ; when a sufficient supply of wine or other liquors has 
 been served, the host rises, and thanks his guests for doing him the 
 
 For further particulars on the Trade of Denmark, see Addenda, Also 
 Boetticher s Statistical Tables, No. 2. 
 f Clarke, vol. v. p. 41. 
 
471 
 
 honor of dining or supping with him, or politely bows to them : the 
 company then simultaneously rise, and bowing to the host and to each 
 other, either depart or retire to another apartment to drink coffee. 
 
 From the king to the peasant, there is a simplicity and homeliness 
 of manner amongst the Danes, which renders society agreeable. 
 Their kings have been noted for encouraging this cordiality of feeling. 
 In 1796, a colony of Dutchmen settled in the country, and the king 
 was so pleased with their industrious habits, and so anxious to encou 
 rage them, that he, with his court, visited them once a year, dressed 
 in the same style as the Dutch boors, and partook of a feast prepared 
 of the simplest dishes. There the royal visitor, after the example 
 of his ancestor Odin, quaffed the circling goblet of braja or beer, 
 and spent the evening in temperate enjoyment. 
 
 The Danes furnish the island of Iceland with beer and ardent spirits, 
 in exchange for dried fish and other commodities of that country. 
 A considerable quantity of their liquors is transported thither, to 
 afford the inhabitants of that chilly region the pleasures arising from 
 those warm and exhilarating beverages. The following return of the 
 imports of Iceland for one year, will serve as a specimen of the ine 
 briating liquors consumed by the inhabitants :- viz. 569 barrels of 
 Danish and 226J barrels of French brandy, 47^ barrels of rum, 86 J 
 hogsheads of wine, 53 barrels of mead, and 52^ barrels of beer. 
 
 In Iceland, from the coldness of the climate, neither grain nor 
 fruits are cultivated, except a species of wild corn, which is dried in. 
 a sofn, or kiln, afterward ground by hand-mills made of lava, and the 
 meal made either into bread or porridge, which the peasantry account 
 delicious. During the usurpation of Cromwell, the Icelanders 
 brewed their own ale (bjor), and appear to have been very fond of 
 it, as the term drinking -house -, given to the place where they con 
 gregated to carouse, strongly implies. The English, at that period, 
 exported thither large quantities of strong ale which was highly 
 valued, and drunk with avidity. 
 
 According to Henderson, there were numerous mineral springs in 
 Iceland, termed Olkelldar, or Ale-wells, from their taste and their 
 inebriating effects when taken fasting ; but which are now seldom 
 used, having fallen into disrepute. In the island of Zealand, the inns 
 have no sign over the door, except that of a ship, but are distinguished 
 only by the proprietors names. The taverns and inns are in general 
 very good, but coffee-houses, such as those to be met with in France, 
 England, and Germany, are nowhere to be found, the confectioners 
 shops serving as substitutes. In Copenhagen, which contains a popu 
 lation of above 106,000 inhabitants, industry and activity prevail ; 
 
472 
 
 but these virtues are, in some degree, counterbalanced by the propen 
 sity of the lower orders for spirituous liquors. The sale is extensive 
 not only there, but also in the neighbouring towns. Elsinore has, 
 on that account, been not unaptly called by sailors, " the Gin-shop" : 
 there all the British vessels lay in a stock of spirits, to serve them 
 during their absence from England.* 
 
 In Norway, nature has so stinted her gifts as to oblige its inhabi 
 tants to depend on others partly for the necessaries, as well as for the 
 luxuries of life, Norway annually imports 300,000 quarters of corn, 
 of which Christiana alone imports from Denmark 100,000 barrels- 
 In the northern districts, the grain for the most part is destroyed by 
 incessant rains ; and what remains is preserved in wooden sheds, 
 heated by means of stoves^ or dried by the winds on poles, fitted up 
 for that purpose.f A practice somewhat similar is observed in many 
 parts of Sweden, with this difference, that the shocks of corn are 
 spread on wooden frames raised several feet from the ground. | The 
 chief beverage known to the primitive inhabitants of Norway, is that 
 which is drawn from the birch tree. The mode of procuring the 
 juice is, by boring a hole in the trunk,, and then stopping it with a 
 cork, through which, when a quill open at both ends, is thrust, the 
 juice passes at the rate of a large drop every second. Amidst the 
 immense forests that darken the mountains of Norway, great quanti 
 ties may be obtained in this way. The inhabitants manufacture it as 
 follows : To a given quantity of juice is added a proportion of sugar, 
 mostly two pounds to every gallon. These are boiled together, until 
 all the impurities rise to the top and are skimmed off. To the 
 remainder, when properly cooled, is added a little yeast, to promote 
 fermentation. About three or four days complete the whole of the 
 process. In extracting the juice, it is found to run more freely 
 when the tree is moderately shaken by the wind, than in still and 
 warm weather : the tree suffers little, if the hole be stopped with a 
 wooden peg. Not only from the birch tree can a liquor be drawn, 
 which may be converted into a good drink, but also from the willow, 
 the poplar, the sycamore, and the walnut, all of which, when fer 
 mented, yield a palatable and strong wine. Some of the better 
 classes in Norway, in making birch-wine, employ several ingredients, 
 such as lemons, sugar, and raisins. The liquor, when boiled, is set 
 to cool, and when brought to a proper temperature, a little yeast is 
 
 * Jones s Narrative, vol. i. p. 56. 
 
 t Coxe s Travels. 
 
 $ Accrbi s Travels, 2 vols, 4to> 
 
473 
 
 * 
 
 added. It is then allowed to ferment. Some immediately barrel it 
 and put some raisins and isinglass into the vessel, in order to clear it. 
 As soon as the feculence is worked off, the liquor is bunged up and 
 laid aside for use. In Norway, many of the houses are covered with 
 birch-bark, as it possesses qualities to resist rain and the inclemency 
 of the weather, for a number of years. From its containing a great 
 quantity of inflammable matter, torches are made of this bark, cut 
 into long narrow stripes, and twisted together. When dried, ground, 
 mixed with meal, and boiled, it is given to swine : in years of 
 scarcity, it is mixed with corn and baked and used for human food, 
 w r hile the twigs of the tree afford fodder for the horses. From the 
 berries of the sloe an agreeable sort of wine is collected. 
 
 A distillery on a small scale was established in 1793, for the manu 
 facture of brandy, but no account has been given of its success. Ale > 
 to a considerable extent, is imported, and dealt out with freedom at 
 weddings, christenings, and other entertainments. Ale and beer are 
 now made in the country, but not to such extent as to prevent impor 
 tation ; they are, however, of inferior quality : native hops are 
 employed, which Barrow says he saw growing ^luxuriantly in Nor 
 way. Malt drink was held in such estimation amongst the Nor 
 wegians, that we are told that King Abreck, of Hordoland, chose 
 Gierheld to be his queen, because she excelled in the art of brewing. 
 Very good ale is brewed in the families of gentlemen for domestic 
 use ; but in many districts, it has a tartness, caused by the mixture of 
 oats with bere. For stronger drink the Norwegians depend on the 
 Danes, Dutch, and French, who carry on a profitable trade with the 
 country. So far back as the thirteenth century, a company of mer 
 chants settled at Bergen, who imported various articles of commerce, 
 amongst which were malt, ale, wine, and spirituous liquors. At pre 
 sent the Dutch carry on a great trade with the Norwegians in this 
 way, and in return for their gin, in particular, receive large supplies 
 of juniper -berries. The Swedes also furnish them with corn-brandy, 
 but in small quantities ; what they manufacture themselves, Barrow 
 affirms, is purer than that of Sweden. This spirit they distil from 
 barley, and occasionally from rye and oats ; it is generally flavoured, 
 sometimes with anise-seed, and sometimes with caraway seed : others 
 say, this is effected by the flowers of some mountain plants or by the 
 juniper berry, with the addition of a little sugar. Dr. Clarke attributes 
 the flavour to the infusion of the haeg-berry, or bird-cherry, (prunus 
 padus) the juice of which is red ; the spirit, however, is clear, but if 
 distilled on the plant, it is thought the flavour might be retained, while 
 the colour would disappear. Since the introduction of the potato* 
 
and the attention paid to its cultivation, the Norwegians distil from it 
 to a considerable extent. Laing, in his Journal, thus describes the 
 process, as carried on in a small concern which he visited at Dron- 
 theim : The potatoes are first steamed, and afterwards bruised 
 between two cylinders, the pulp is then run into vats, with a small 
 proportion of ground malt ; to every eight barrels of potatoes, 721bs. 
 of malt are used : the fermentation produced by a mixture of yeast 
 is generally finished in three days, after which distillation is carried on 
 in the usual manner. The produce varies in proportion to the quality 
 of the potatoes. Every farmer is entitled to distil the produce of his 
 own farm, but pays a trifling license if he buys the potatoes and 
 works as a trader. A still is commonly kept on every farm, not only 
 on account of the spirits, the consumption of which in every family 
 is very great, but for the refuse or wash for the support of the cattle. 
 The spirit is generally flavoured like the corn brandy with aniseseed ; 
 it is strong and fiery, but neither harsh nor ill tasted. There is com 
 monly one brewing and distillation every week, or at least every fort 
 night, the operations of which are conducted by the women. The 
 process of steaming the potatoes is effected much in the same manner 
 as already described when treating of Germany : they are put into a 
 barrel with iron hoops, having a small door in the side at its bottom, 
 which is bored with holes to let out the water ; the barrel is usually 
 placed on a stand with rollers for the purpose of conveying it from 
 one part of the concern to another ; the steam is conveyed into this 
 barrel by a pipe connected with the head of the still or boiler, and 
 enters the barrel near the bottom through a grating : the condensed 
 steam falls through the holes in the bottom. The operation of steam 
 ing is commonly finished in an hour and half ; and the potatoes are 
 considered sufficiently prepared for the purposes required, when they 
 are fit to be eaten. By boiling the potatoes in steam, the flavour is 
 said to be improved, and it prevents the spirits from partaking of the 
 flavour of the potato ; it is thought to be more profitable to distil 
 them with a mixture of ground wheat and malt, rye, or any other 
 kind of grain, than to distil the potatoes by themselves : the best pro 
 portions for this mixture are considered to be to six heaped barrels 
 of potatoes, weighing 78 stones of IGlbs. each, 9j- stones of wheat or 
 other corn, and five of malt from bere or bigg, are to be added. If 
 other proportions be taken, the wort or wash is apt to become so 
 heavy as to be liable to burn or singe in the still, and by observing 
 these ratios, any quantity, great or small, may be made with certain 
 and good effect. The ground grain and malt are first mixed with 
 about 120 quarts of water, heated to 50 Q of Reaumer, or 144 of 
 
475 
 
 Fahrenheit and no higher ; the bruised potatoes are then shovelled 
 into the vat, after which about 450 quarts of boiling water are poured 
 in, and again cooled down with cold water to 20 of Reaumer or 77 
 of Fahrenheit. The mixture of grain and malt is then thrown in, a 
 little yeast being added ; the vat is then closed up and left to ferment 
 to ascertain when it is fit for the still, the rule is to divide the scum of 
 seeds and froth upon its surface, and if the scum does not run toge 
 ther of itself, nor the opening close with air-bubbles from below, the 
 fermentation is over. The quantity of potatoes and grain above- 
 mentioned has been estimated to yield from 160 to 190 quarts of 
 strong spirits. The distillation of spirits being unrestricted in Nor 
 way and practised in every farm-house, renders the price very low, 
 usually about 14d. per gallon. Barrow states, that although corn- 
 brandy is plentiful arid cheap, being only from 4d. to 6d. the quart 
 bottle, and that great quantities are consumed, yet drunkenness is a 
 vice not common among the Norwegians.* This is the more singular^ 
 since, according to Laing, they have the wines and brandies of France 
 and Spain cheaper than the people of those countries, owing to the 
 expenses of land carriage and municipal taxes. 
 
 Although in Sweden, grain is cultivated to some extent, yet there 
 are but few distilleries in that kingdom. It is curious that among 
 these few should be ranked the palace near Abo, formerly the frequent 
 residence of the Swedish monarchs, and that of Calmar, in the pro 
 vince of Smaland, once the habitation of the celebrated Margaret. 
 
 In 1772, Gustavus III. declared his determination to make the 
 distillation of brandy, for the sake of its revenue, a royal monopoly. 
 To effect this, he prohibited private stills, previous to which every 
 farmer was at liberty to distil from corn, or any other substance he 
 pleased. This measure rendered the monarch very unpopular ; and 
 he was obliged to have recourse to force to suppress the insurrections 
 it occasioned. During three years, he persevered in this monopoly ; 
 but in 1775, he rescinded the prohibition, so far as to grant the privi 
 lege of distillation to a limited number of individuals on the payment 
 of a certain sum for a fixed number of years. The want of a suffi 
 cient number of farmers or contractors of this royal monopoly, forced 
 the king to abandon his plan ; and he became himself the only dis 
 tiller in the kingdom. A dignitary of the church remonstrated with 
 his Majesty on this occasion, and remarked that there were two things 
 with which a prudent king should not meddle, namely, religion and 
 brandy. With tlie concerns of the first, Gustavus had little to do ; 
 but the second he pursued with ardour : he even interdicted the 
 
 * Barrow s Excursions, p. 227. 
 
476 
 
 importation of foreign brandies, and levied heavy penalties on the 
 slightest infringement of any of his regulations, which occasioned 
 numerous complaints, remonstrances, and menaces, in every part of 
 the kingdom ; and discontent rose so high, that even in the metropolis, 
 it was found necessary to station guards at the Royal Brandy Facto 
 ries, to prevent their destruction by an indignant populace. This 
 expression of public feeling led to a modification of the laws ; but 
 the power of the crown is still predominant. 
 
 In 1793, a large distillery was erected near Gripsholm, within about 
 25 miles of the capital. It was calculated to work annually about 
 1,200 Riga lasts of grain, or 18,000 tons. A term of twenty years 
 was given to the proprietors for working it, after which it was to 
 become a royal monopoly. In that distillery there were 96 vats of 
 equal size, in each of which was usually mixed four tons and a quar 
 ter of flour, two thousand canns of water, and ten canns of common 
 yeast. Each vat yielded from 80 to 84 canns, and sometimes 90 
 according to the grain : the mixture was stirred at intervals, until fer 
 mentation took place, when the vats were covered and luted down 
 with a composition of lime. In four days the wash was ready for the 
 still. The number of stills amounted to twenty-six, four of which 
 contained 4,000 canns, the others 2,000. The process was slow, 
 from six to seven hours being employed in bringing over the wash, 
 and a proportionate time for the spirits. One-fourth part of the 
 grain used was barley, and as each ton yielded twenty-two canns of 
 spirit, the crown exacted twelve of these, at a strength six degrees 
 above proof. The remaining ten fell to the proprietors, which they 
 sold at sixteen shillings and four runsticks pef cann, making upon 
 18,000 tons, 180,000 canns ; on the whole produce nearly 400,000. 
 There were ninety-six workmen employed, at about fourteen or six 
 teen plottes per month. 
 
 Grain is not the only ingredient used in the Swedish distilleries. 
 A large species of black ant, which affords on distillation a resin, an 
 oil, and an acid, is employed with rye to give flavour and potency to 
 the brandy. This insect is commonly found on small round hills at 
 the bottom of the fir tree. It is, says Consett, less a matter of surprise 
 that they should use these insects in their distilleries than that they 
 should eat them, and consider them highly palatable and pleasant. 
 " As I was walking," he remarks, " with a young gentleman in a 
 wood near Gottenburg, I observed him sit down upon one of those 
 living hills, which from the nature of its inhabitants, I should rather 
 have avoided, and begin with some degree of keenness to devour these 
 insects, first nipping off their heads and wings j the flavour he declared 
 
477 
 
 was of the finest acid, rather resembling that of lemon. My young 
 friend entreated me much to follow his example, but I could not over 
 come the antipathy which I felt to such kind of food."* Chemists 
 have tried the distilling of ants, and have obtained an acid resembling 
 vinegar ; its properties and attractions are not yet distinctly deter 
 mined. 
 
 The propensity of the Swedes for strong drink of all kinds is well 
 known, and their wish to refine upon this luxury may have led them 
 to adopt the ant as the Dutch have the juniper. To their constant 
 use of spirits, Fortia attributes the thinness of the population. Several 
 attempts have been made to restrain them in the exercise of so fatal 
 an indulgence, but to no purpose.f They allege that the practice of 
 drinking is conducive to health, and even the most temperate adhere 
 to the custom of taking an allowance both morning and evening.^ 
 At their dinner parties, which in general are given with great cere 
 mony, the company assemble in an adjoining room, where a sideboard 
 or table is spread with bread, butter, cheese, pickled salmon, and corn- 
 brandy. To these, says Thompson, who on one occasion met fifty 
 persons at a private house, the company pay a visit, and each takes a 
 dram by way of whet to his appetite. Clarke, however, asserts, 
 that he had never seen a drunken mob in Sweden upon the Sabbath 
 day, nor drunkenness on any day among the peasants. If intoxication 
 prevail in that country, it will be found perhaps in the better classes 
 of society. 
 
 Where the lower orders use beer as a common drink, breweries 
 may be expected to abound. In 1809, there were 159 registered 
 establishments of that kind in the country. Some years previous to 
 that period, they were enabled to export 232 barrels from Stockholm, 
 and in 1790 they shipped off 169 barrels. When Thompson, who 
 lately travelled in Sweden, visited Gottenburg, a Mr. Lorent was 
 erecting a brewery for porter, to enable him to imitate that of London, 
 which he sold at the inns for two shillings and six-pence the bottle. This 
 brewery succeeded so well, that in 1826 its porter was of such good 
 quality, and came so near to that of London, that it was jocularly 
 said, " they got their water from the Thames." The porter of this 
 house is in demand throughout Sweden^and has, in a great measure, 
 superseded the necessity of any importation from England. The 
 concern is now kept under the firm of Lorent and Nooning, who, it 
 
 * Vide Consett s Remarks in a Tour through Sweden, &c. 
 
 f Portia s Travels. 
 
 J Clarke s Travels, vol. v. p. 135. 
 
 Thompson s Travels in Sweden, 4to, pp. 12 & 13. 
 
478 
 
 is said, have embarked therein a capital of 50,000. Great encou 
 ragement is given by the Swedish government to the consumption of 
 p orter in preference to that of ardent spirits, the use of which has 
 been attempted to be restrained by every means that could well be 
 devised ; even those who keep post-horses or vehicles for hire are 
 prohibited from selling spirits, or any matter whicli might afford an 
 excuse for an indulgence in the use of ardent spirits. Could the per 
 nicious practice of taking schnaps or drams, which is too prevalent, be 
 restrained, it would have a powerful effect in reforming the habits 
 and curbing the propensities of the lower classes from those irregula 
 rities into which they too frequently fall. Although the vice is gene 
 rally condemned, yet those who are often busy in its condemnation, 
 render themselves frequently reprehensible in this respect. An anec 
 dote proving the truth of this observation is related of a young man, 
 who being intoxicated, met two sober young friends that reproached 
 him for his intemperance ; but the moralists had a short-lived triumph, 
 for in the evening of the same day, when he had become sober, he 
 met his admonishers reeling along as drunk as Bacchus. " What !" 
 said he, as he stood eying them with a look of pity and contempt, 
 " are these the persons that reproved me this morning for an irregu 
 larity into which they themselves have so grossly fallen in the 
 evening ?" 
 
 The good old practice of domestic brewing is still followed in Swe 
 den, and the beer is represented as sweet and wholesome. In the 
 year 1797, there were fifty breweries and forty-seven vintners in 
 Stockholm. Regnard describes a drink which he met with in that city, 
 termed calchat, consisting of beer, wine, and sugar. Formerly it was 
 customary in Sweden to drink healths out of goblets of a size propor 
 tioned to the rank or respectability of the person whose health was 
 proposed, so that a goblet to the health of a king was as much, if not 
 more, than could be taken as a bumper. At entertainments in some 
 parts of Sweden, a beverage is used termed bishop, which consists of 
 a mixture of Burgundy, Claret, Sugar, Spices, and Seville Oranges. 
 At Stockholm, every description of luxury is to be found which is 
 common in Europe, and although the manufactures are insufficient 
 for the supply of the country, the deficiency is made up by importa 
 tion, a view of which may be seen in a Table of the Addenda. 
 
 As agriculture in Sweden has been carefully attended to, much of 
 the sterility of the soil has been overcome, and the land, in many 
 places, rendered tolerably productive. Oats, barley, rye, and wheat 
 are cultivated, but not in sufficient quantity for home consumption, 
 since it has been calculated that upwards of 300,000 tons of grain 
 
479 
 
 arc yearly imported. In the north of the kingdom, there are neither 
 apples, pears, plums, cherries, nor any kind of fruit cultivated ; but 
 nature has been bountiful in bestowing on it a profusion of wild fruit; 
 of these there are six species of raspberry, three of currants, four of 
 whortle berries, and a peculiar sort of wild gooseberry. 
 
 In order to save grain, which is sometimes so scarce and dear in 
 that country, it was proposed in 1747, by Mr. Charles Skytes, to 
 distil brandy from potatoes. The experiment was tried, and it was 
 found that an acre of potatoes compared with an acre of barley, would 
 yield a spirit in the proportion of 566 to 156, even admitting the 
 potato to grow in the worst kind of ground, and the barley in the 
 best. It has been ascertained by Dr. Anderson, that 721bs. of 
 potatoes, when properly fermented, will produce one English gallon 
 of pure spirit, considerably above proof, with an additional quart 
 something below proof. This liquor has been found to possess quali 
 ties of the best description both in taste and flavour. The annual duty 
 on the spirits distilled in the country, has seldom exceeded 41,541. 
 Besides the use to which potatoes have been converted by the 
 Swedes in the distillation of spirits, they have extracted sugar from 
 them, and the apples of this vegetable, when ripe, ferment and yield 
 vinegar by exposure to the atmosphere. 
 
 At Upsala, there are public cellars like the tap-rooms in England, 
 where beer, brandy, and wine are obtained in great abundance. 
 The beer is made at Stockholm, the brandy is highly flavoured with 
 anise-seed, and when mixed with water, it appears as white as if milk 
 had been mingled with it. These cellars are often the arena of 
 revelry and drunkenness, in which, according to Clarke, the students 
 spend more of their time than is favourable either to the practice of 
 morality, or the pursuits of literature. There is such a rage for the 
 use of anise-seed in Sweden, that they mix it with bread and drink. 
 The bread, which is generally made of rye, is so full of it, that both 
 it and their brandy are, at first, unpalatable to strangers. The 
 Swedes are as partial to this plant, as the Chinese are to the use of 
 the illicium anisatum for seasoning dishes ; and the Japanese also 
 display such a love for it, that they have garlands of it in their 
 temples, before their idols, and on the tombs of their friends, besides 
 using its powdered bark, as an incense to their gods. Linnaeus him 
 self has left a memorial of the national partiality for this plant, by 
 naming it illicium, which signifies an allurement. Great quantities 
 of the seed are used at the brandy distilleries of Helsingberg ; and 
 although some dilute this liquor with water, it is the common practice 
 to drink it raw, not only in Sweden, but throughout Norway and 
 Russia. 
 
480 
 
 All the post-houses on the mountainous passes in Sweden and Nor 
 way are tax free, and they have the privilege of selling corn-brandy for 
 the accommodation of travellers. Spruce beer is a beverage much in 
 use among the Swedes. It is said to have originated from the salu 
 tary effects produced by boiling the tops of the spruce fir, and giving 
 the liquid to the soldiers employed against the Russians, during 
 a war with that people, and at a time when the scurvy had made 
 great ravages. The recovery of the army was on this occasion so 
 miraculous, that the Swedes ever after continued to call this fir, the 
 scorbutic tree. 
 
 From the fruit of the rubus arcticus, a most delicious wine is pro 
 cured, the use of which is confined to the nobility in Sweden ; and 
 the Swedes make an agreeable liqueur, resembling lemonade, from 
 the berries of the rubus chamcemorus. 
 
 Among the Swedish imports, English porter is still an estimable 
 commodity, notwithstanding the prosperity of the native breweries. 
 The privilege of importing this liquor is confined to Gottenburg, and 
 the consumption of it is great, on account of the number of hands 
 employed in the fishery and oil trade. Brandy, however, is the 
 favourite beverage, and the custom of using it before breakfast and 
 dinner, is as much a characteristic of a Scandinavian or of a Russian, 
 as the ceremonious gifts of tobacco and coffee are of a Turk or of an 
 Arabian. Strangers in Sweden are subject to many diseases, which 
 never attack the natives ; and if you ask how they escape these dis 
 orders, they answer that they preserve their health by drinking 
 brandy, morning and evening. But they do not confine the drinking 
 of brandy to these two periods of the day, for the dram bottle is ever 
 at hand, even in the king s palace ; and there are fourteen different 
 stages in the day s dram-drinking, each having a distinct name, but it 
 is expected that the Crown Prince, who is favourable to Temperance 
 Societies, will bring about a reformation in this degrading habit. 
 
 The population of Sweden, in 1830, was 2,904,538, of whom the 
 half may be considered consumers of brandy. These may be divided 
 into three classes, according to the number of drams taken daily : 
 viz. 
 
 Canns. 
 1 million take 5 drams daily, or 60 canns yearly, 30,000,000. 
 
 3 36 18,000,000. 
 
 2 24 12,000,000. 
 
 The cann is valued at a rix-dollar, or one English shilling, which 
 gives an amount of 60,000,000 rix-dollars spent on brandy. 
 
481 
 
 The following is a return of the number of pans employed, with 
 the amount of canns of brandy manufactured in Sweden, during the 
 years specified : viz. 
 
 Pans. Canns. 
 
 1825 172,346 3,651,210 
 
 1826 172,586 3,583,253 
 
 1827 162,733 3,362,562 
 
 1828 169,744 3,483,856 
 
 1829 173,126 3,542,956 
 
 The quantities of foreign spirits imported during the following 
 years, were 
 
 Canns. Rix-dollars. 
 
 1826 80,143 value 130,901 
 
 1827 94,7.20 151,127 
 
 1828 89,038 153,901 
 
 1829 119,835 206,470 
 
 1830 141,998 236,737 
 
 1831 129,115 271,066 
 
 1832 190,570 388,716 
 
 1833 169,312 345,402 
 
 1834 151,576 301,249 
 
 For a view of the importation of wine, together w r ith the quantities 
 of malt-liquors exported, the reader is referred to the Addenda. 
 
 The cann is computed to hold 30 drams ; and 100 canns are equal 
 to 69^ English wine-gallons. 
 
 The number of pans has been reduced to about 150,000, which is 
 mainly" owing to the exertions of the Temperance Society ; 
 but unfortunately the imports show that the efforts of this 
 Society are, as yet, but limited. The brandy-pans, as they 
 are termed, are of various sizes : some are only large enough 
 to make four canns, while others can make ninety and upwards. 
 However writers may be divided with regard to the char 
 acter of the Swedes, on the whole it may be affirmed, that no person 
 of fine feelings and warm fancy can, without regret, quit a country 
 so remarkable for its picturesque scenery and the hospitality of its 
 inhabitants. 
 
 In Lapland, a large portion of which is subject to Sweden, scarcity 
 is sometimes so great that the inhabitants are compelled to feed upon 
 the bark of trees : yet, amidst this desolate region, a late traveller 
 
 ascribes the only evils with which the people are beset to the habitual 
 
 2 i 
 
482 
 
 use of brandy.* Their love for this liquor is such, that they have 
 been known to give a crown for a glass,f and to exchange one of their 
 best rein-deer for six drams of the common Swedish spirit.J They 
 regard their passion for it as a misfortune, but when remonstrance is 
 made on the subject, they say that without brandy they could have 
 no wives. This unhappily is too true, for when a young Laplander 
 wishes to choose a wife, he must first furnish a friend with some 
 bottles of brandy, to mediate between him and her father, who is dis 
 posed to permit the visits of the lover only in proportion to the 
 brandy he brings. 
 
 This perquisite too often induces a parent to postpone the nuptials 
 of a daughter for two or three years. From the pleasure it gives 
 in this world, they consider a little of it necessary for comfort in the 
 next, hence they put iiito the coffin of a deceased friend a flask of 
 brandy with other articles, in order that he may cheer himself on his 
 journey. 
 
 In a country where the winters are so rigorous and the cold so 
 intense, it need scarcely seem surprising, that an ignorant and savage 
 people should have recourse to strong liquors, to enliven the solitude 
 of their rocks and mountains, and to give a brisker flow to their 
 spirits. It is a ceremony not unworthy of relation, that when a Lap 
 lander has laid hold of the glass or mug, out of which he is about to 
 drink, he first dips his forefinger into the liquor, rubs a little of it to 
 his forehead, then on his bosom, and with the celerity of lightning, 
 empties the contents into his stomach. These innocent people think 
 that those precautions prevent the ardour of the spirits from injuring 
 either head or heart.|| Their chief supply of brandy is drawn from the 
 border fairs of Norway, Sweden, Muscovy, and Finland. To these 
 places they generally resort in caravans, or companies, travelling in 
 sledges drawn by the rein-deer, and their furs, baskets, cheese made of 
 rein-deers milk, dried fish, toys, and the deer itself, for their favourite 
 liquor, and for such necessaries as they may want. Whole families 
 go to market in this way, and seldom return without experiencing 
 some of the fatal consequences of too great an indulgence in their 
 passion for strong liquors. 
 
 Lapland abounds with the rubus chamcemorus, or, as it is called 
 cloud-berry, from being found on the tops of mountains, the fruit of 
 
 * Vide Clarke s Travels, vol. v. p. 404. \ Ehrenmalm. 
 % Clarke s Travels, vol. v. p. 425. 
 Ibid. vol. v. p. 404. 
 jj Thompson s Travels in Sweden, p .343. 
 
483 
 
 which is about the size of a good hazel-nut ; it is of a scarlet colour 
 at first, but as it ripens, becomes yellow : when eaten with sugar or 
 cream, it is cooling and delicious, being full of saccharine matter and 
 strongly subject to fermentation ; it is singular that no intoxicating 
 beverage has been made from it, either by distillation or otherwise, 
 and particularly amongst a people whose propensity for strong drink 
 is so ungovernable. Of this fruit, great quantities are sent annually 
 from the gulph of Bothnia to Stockholm ; it is used in sausages and 
 in making vinegar, and Clarke praises its medicinal virtues in cases 
 of debility.* The Laplanders are so passionately attached to spiri 
 tuous liquors, that they will kiss the ground in obeisance to any one 
 from whom they hope to obtain this liquor, and exclaim, " Auna, 
 Anna, minule vina," give me, give me, a little wine ! " Addi mungi 
 vedni !" give me some brandy wine ! A few years ago, for six drams of 
 common Swedish brandy, a Laplander would press the acceptance of 
 one of his best rein-deer, and deem it an affront if this remuneration 
 were declined. 
 
 Linnaeus, in his tour through Lapland, states, that he taught the 
 natives to make a beverage from the tops of the fir, which it is likely 
 was the same as our spruce beer, and shewed them how to render the 
 sap of the birch valuable as an agreeable drink. The Laplanders use 
 the bark of the birch dipped in train oil as a celery. 
 
 A few of the wealthy Laplanders brew beer from grain. At mar 
 riages, brandy is freely circulated, and when the bridegroom demands 
 the rein-deer, the promised portion of his wife, if he neglect to 
 bring brandy with him, he is generally disappointed of the expected 
 dowry. It is a prevailing custom in Lapland to make love through 
 the medium of brandy, and a marriage is never concluded without 
 drinking several bottles of spirits ; the warmth of a lover s attach 
 ment is estimated by the quantity of spirits he distributes ; a par 
 ticular name is given to the spirituous liquor thus brought by the 
 lover to the habitation of his mistress, and that is soubbouvin, or the 
 lover s wine. At the funerals of the Laplanders, spirits are sprinkled 
 over the place of interment ; all the mourners drink of it, the rein* 
 deer employed in carrying the deceased to the grave are, three days 
 after, slaughtered to make a feast for the mourners, at which repast 
 the paligaviny or fortune liquor, is drunk in honor of the deceased, 
 whom they think is happy.f Such is the Laplanders attachment to 
 brandy, that lying-in women are accustomed to drink it, seasoned 
 
 * Clarke s Travels, vol. ix. p. 371-2. 
 f Regnard s Journey to Lapland. 
 
484 
 
 with pepper, partly for the sake of its intoxicating quality, by way of 
 narcotic, and partly to hasten and ease the pains of labour. The 
 mothers even pour it down the throats of infants, and at all their 
 christenings and funerals, intoxication prevails, the ceremonies of 
 rejoicing and mourning being made mere pretexts for dram-drinking. 
 At feasts, says Malte-Brun, they seldom depart before the whole 
 repast is consumed The puolem-vine, or brandy brought from 
 Flensburg, circulated freely, and mirth is evinced in noisy loquacity. 
 All the guests thunder the wild discord of their jolias, or national 
 songs, and the amusement is sometimes varied by cards made from 
 the bark of trees, and coloured with the blood of the rein-deer. The 
 Laplanders, when inflamed with liquor, never commit any acts of 
 cruelty, shewing only an elevation of spirits which prompts them to 
 shout, jump, and laugh, craving drams with hysteric screams, till they 
 drop on the ground in total disregard of all that belongs to them, 
 offering every thing they possess for brandy. When sober, they are 
 as gentle as lambs, and of the most placable disposition. Like the 
 gipsies, they practise several modes of divination, one is by inspecting 
 a cup of liquor ; and which, to ensure the greatest possible certainty, 
 must be a cup of brandy , which at once explains and ensures the 
 whole business of the prophecy, evincing that the love of strong drink, 
 even on such occasions, predominates over the love of money. 
 
 Notwithstanding the love which the Laplanders display for intoxi 
 cating liquors, and the consequent mental imbecility which the use of 
 these liquors produces, yet several of this nation have manifested 
 talents of no ordinary description. Schober and Weber give an 
 account of a Laplander who was gifted with uncommon memory and 
 facility in the acquisition of languages ; but his inordinate desire for 
 spirits unfortunately proved his ruin. This person was early taken 
 from his native land, and educated in Sweden under the auspices of 
 Charles XI. He was afterwards sent to Lapland to preach the 
 gospel to his countrymen, having previously qualified himself in theo 
 logy. After labouring about half a year in this pious undertaking, he 
 got weary of the employment, and, mounted on a rein-deer, he 
 entered Stockholm in the dress of a J apland peasant ; there he 
 remained for a short time, collected some money, which he spent in 
 brandy, and then repaired to Copenhagen. In that city, he repre 
 sented himself to be a Lapland prince, was admitted to the presence 
 of the king, and afforded much amusement to the courtiers by his 
 singular exploits in d linking. Under the same title, he visited 
 the principal courts of Germany, following the customary course of ine 
 briety. He visited France, learned the language of that country in a 
 
485 
 
 month, and after receiving presents from Louis XIV., proceeded 
 through Germany and Poland, to St. Petersburgh, where he had been 
 only six weeks, when he was able to express himself with clearness 
 and fluency in the Russian language, even so as to preach before the 
 emperor, with whom he became so great a favourite, that he settled 
 on him an annuity of 250 rubles. He then repaired to Astracan, and 
 in a short time became master of the Tartarian language. In one of 
 his drunken moments, while lying in a street, he was seized by some 
 Calmucks, carried into the country, and presented to the Khan. His 
 head was shaved, his person dressed in the costume of the people, 
 and himself provided with two wives. In the course of a month he 
 could converse familiarly with the inhabitants ; but although he was 
 treated with the greatest kindness and familiarity, he took the earliest 
 opportunity of escaping to Astracan, where he studied the Persian, 
 the Mongul, and the modern Greek languages. But before he could 
 further shift the scene of his eventful life, his dissipation put a period 
 to his existence,. 
 
 The taste and habits of the Finns are little better than those of their 
 Lapland neighbours, for without tobacco, beer, and brandy they con 
 sider life to be joyless. Old and young possess the same propensity, 
 and although little acquainted with bodily debility, their excessive use 
 of inflammatory liquors undermines their physical vigour, and often 
 renders them disgusting objects of intemperance and folly. 
 
 The desire to obtain tobacco and brandy often induces the Finns 
 to undertake incredible journeys; both men and women would sooner 
 eat their provisions raw, and even starve, rather than be deprived of 
 those luxuries. It is related of one, that having travelled from a great 
 distance to Abo to purchase an iron pot, he observed some brandy 
 and tobacco in a shop for sale ; and such was his infatuation, that he 
 spent all he had in their purchase, and returned home without the 
 utensil for which he had undergone such fatigue. 
 
 When the people repair to the great fair at Abo, they Immediately 
 have recourse to their favourite liquor, and in this weakness they are 
 indulged by the artful traders who traffic with them. While under 
 the influence of intoxication, they disclose all their plans to each other; 
 and in these unguarded moments, the trader or his agent contrives to 
 hear their communications, in order to take advantage of their 
 simplicity.* 
 
 It is calculated that, on an average, a Finlander annually 
 consumes fr m 27 to 30 rix-dollars in brandy, which is equal to the 
 
 * Clarke s Travels, vol xi. pp. 334-5. 
 
486 
 
 purchase of a cask. Neither Finn nor Norwegian drinks brandy to 
 keep him warm, to promote digestion, or to lighten labour, all is con 
 sumed before the door of the merchant with whom he trafficks, and 
 the infatuated being would be surprised at himself were he to return 
 home without becoming raving mad with brandy. Edicts have been 
 issued to prevent the merchants supplying them with this liquor to 
 excess, but to no effect. The poor creatures, when reproved for such 
 irregularity, exert all the little intellect and ingenuity they possess to 
 defend the practice. With the greatest self-complacency, they urge 
 as an unanswerable argument, that " brandy is as equally strong, and 
 as equally nourishing as bread, because like bread it is prepared from 
 grain, and bread being the staff of life, brandy which is prepared from 
 it, must be equally nourishing as it is exhilarating :" thus this unfor 
 tunate propensity enervates every spring of activity, every incentive 
 to improvement, and every moral sentiment.* By the influence of 
 this beverage, the imaginations are carried to the height of frenzy and 
 enthusiasm. In their moments of merriment, they boast of an inter 
 course with fairies at banquets and dances ; they talk with triumph 
 of the feasts which they have shared in the elfin-caverns, where 
 wine, brandy, and tobacco, the productions of the fairy regions, have 
 flowed in abundance. With these and similar notions, many of the 
 gloomy days of life are enlivened ; while poverty is forgotten amidst 
 the reveries of intemperance and folly. 
 
 When Mr. Bullock, an Englishman, visited Finland in 1822, for 
 the purpose of procuring a herd of rein-deer, he could effect nothing 
 without brandy. One of the natives, finding he could not get a glass, 
 told this traveller and his companion that " he wondered what sort of 
 people they were not to have so much as a drop of brandy." Barrow, 
 who lately visited Finland, confirms the observations of Mr. Bullock ; 
 he affirms that drunkenness is a habitual vice among the Finlanders ; 
 they drink votki raw, and in large quantities, so that they soon become 
 intoxicated. 
 
 It may be generally remarked of all these northern hordes, that the 
 precept of their ancient god who recommended full cups, has been 
 devoutly followed ; ale and mead were the favourite beverages of 
 Odin, but these have long given place to the more bewitching delu 
 sions of the alembic. To these may be added as a favourite amongst 
 the Finlanders, the pleasing liquor extracted from the birch-tree, a 
 drink, which, in some places, is manufactured much in the same man 
 ner as in Norway ; it loses its strength, flavour, and agreeable qualities 
 in about ten days, if not made with the greatest care. 
 
 Vide Von Buch s Travels through Norway and Lapland, p. 296. 
 
Ml 
 
 Finland being thinly inhabited and badly cultivated, there are few 
 manufactories ; and though barley, rye, and buck-wheat, are culti 
 vated, yet the poorer sort of people, for want of better sustenance in 
 times of scarcity, dry even straw which they bruise and mix with 
 some meal, and make bread from this compound. At Abo, the 
 capital, however, may be found every species of European wines, 
 and that sort of claret called La-Fitte, which here, as well as in Swe 
 den, is denominated Long Cork, and is a great favourite with the 
 people. Votki is also plentiful ; in flavour it resembles whiskey, is 
 exceedingly fiery, but when mixed with water and sugar, is by no 
 means an unpleasant beverage, although by some it has been execrated 
 as a most unpalatable and villainous spirit. 
 
 In most of these northern regions, the rein-deer moss (lichen ran- 
 giferinus) is also used as fodder for cattle, and has the effect of adding 
 a superior richness to the milk and butter : being crisp and agreeable, 
 it is sometimes eaten by the inhabitants. The flowers of the heegberg 
 (cornus mascula) flavour their distilled spirits : the moss, besides 
 being a substitute for mortar, is employed in calking the interstices 
 between the under- walls, and in closing fissures in their humble 
 habitations. 
 
 In Russia, distillation is one of the most extensive and beneficial 
 branches of trade carried on in that empire, brandy being the idol of 
 the people. According to Storch, this art was first introduced into 
 the country in the sixteenth century, the knowledge of which was 
 obtained from the Crimea when that peninsula was in the possession 
 of the Genoese. Shortly after its introduction, spirits became the 
 rival of mead, the chief and original drink of the country. 
 
 The manufacture and consumption of brandy are calculated at 
 5,500,000 vedros.* For the production of this quantity, about 
 1,650,000 chetverts,f or 11,000,000 poods of corn are necessary. 
 The sale of it has been hitherto a monopoly of the crown, and the 
 right to distil it confined, with the exception of a few privileged pro 
 vinces, to the nobility who possess landed estates. In all those parts 
 of the empire where grain abounds, distillation is carried to the greatest 
 extent. The fertility of Little and White Russia, Livonia, Karkof, 
 Varonitch, Orel, Kursk, Kalouga, Tula, Iver, Nijegorod, Kazan, 
 Simbirsk, Penza, Tambov, Saratov, c. affords ample means to 
 distillers. 
 
 The following enumeration of a few of these distilleries made some 
 
 * A vedro is a measure that contains 2 T 7 Q- Imperial gallons, 
 f A chetvert is reckoned equal to. 5| Winchester bushels. 
 
488 
 
 years since in the province of Peiraa and the adjoining districts, may 
 afford an idea of the magnitude of these establishments. 
 
 1st, A distillery belonging to the crown domain Doorzovye, where 
 150 labourers were employed to work 80 stills, in which were made 
 100,000 barrels or eimers of corn spirits.* 
 
 2d A distillery in Brilovskoi belonging to the imperial college of 
 finances, where, from 90 stills worked by 160 men, 110,000 barrels 
 were produced annually. 
 
 3d, A private distillery consisting of 20 stills which made 30,000 
 barrels. 
 
 4th, A distillery in the district of Insara belonging to a private 
 family, in which 24 stills, wrought by 55 men, yielded 7,000 barrels. 
 
 5th, A distillery in the district of Moksha, the property of the 
 Annikof family, where from 6,000 chetverts of corn and 3,000 fathoms 
 of wood, 15 stills, wrought by 40 men, produced 33,000 barrels. 
 
 6th, A distillery at Kutlinskaya, Sloboda, where from five stills 
 wrought by 30 workmen, 7,650 barrels of spirits were made from 
 1,700 chetverts of corn ; 1,530 fathoms of wood were consumed as 
 fuel. 
 
 7th, A distillery in the village of Suamenskoi, where two stills 
 wrought by 20 men, produced from 400 chetverts of corn, 1,600 
 eimers of spirits, and burned 550 fathoms of wood. 
 
 8th and 9th, Two distilleries in the village of Nishnayashkaffta, in 
 the district of Gorodishtshe, the property of a nobleman, one of 12 
 the other of 13 stills, managed by 50 workmen ; these yield together 
 50,000 eimers of spirits annually. 
 
 10th and llth, Two distilleries in the village of Siramas belonging to 
 a noble family, in one of which were 12 stills wrought by 50 work 
 men, producing 11,000 barrels of corn spirits; and in the other, 5 stills 
 farmed out and wrought by 10 men, 4,000 eimers of spirits were 
 yearly made. 
 
 12th, A distillery near the village of Petrovka in which were 13 
 stills worked by 70 men, who in some years distilled 7,000 eimers of 
 brandy. 
 
 13th and 14th, Two distilleries, one in the village ef Stolipina, the 
 other near the village of Mamsa, they consisted of 35 stills each, and 
 were worked by 90 men, who distilled upwards of 90,000 eimers 
 annually. 
 
 15th, A distillery in the district of Kerensk, in the village of Nikol- 
 sky, or Kitta, containing 30 stills wrought by 72 men ; from 2,135 
 
 An eimer is equal to about 3 English wine-gallons. 
 
489 
 
 chetverts of eorn and 2,000 fathoms of wood, 5,000 eimers of spirits 
 were distilled. 
 
 16th, A distillery near the village Polivanova, the property of a 
 noble family, where 16 stills wrought by 45 men produced 8,150 
 eimers of spirits from 2,370 chetverts of corn, and a consumption of 
 7,000 fathoms of wood. 
 
 In the whole of Penza there were 397 stills wrought by 982 men, 
 in these stills 86,279 chetverts of corn, and 96,375 fathoms of wood 
 were consumed in the manufacture of 554,401 eimers of spirits ; the 
 annual produce of spirits in the district is, according to Pallas, 
 2,000,000 gallons. 
 
 When Captain Alexander visited the seat of war between the Turks 
 and Russians in 1829, grain was so abundant in those parts, that the 
 proprietors found the distillation of it the most profitable mode of 
 consumption. One distillery he knew to produce one hundred vedros 
 per day, each] vedro of twelve quarts being sold for two rubles or 
 twenty-pence British. 
 
 Rye and barley are the kinds of grain principally used in all distil 
 leries ; these for the most part are malted and mixed in proper propor 
 tions. To a vessel containing about 500 gallons of boiling water, are 
 put 900 pounds of ground barley malt, or rye and barley ground to 
 meal ; these when well mashed with rakes and thoroughly mixed toge 
 ther, are allowed to stand until the liquid becomes viscous and holds 
 in solution the saccharine matter of the grain; water is afterwards 
 added to bring it to the consistence at which they wish to ferment it. 
 When the wash is completely finished, the liquor is drawn from the 
 tub or kieve, and put into proper vessels, where barm or yeast mixed 
 with cold water is added, and the vessels being secured from the 
 admission of atmospheric air, the material is allowed to ferment, until 
 it has arrived to that stage at which it is deemed fit for the still. 
 Some only draw a part of the wort from the mash-kieve in the first 
 instance, and mix it with barm, allowing the remainder to stand 
 until it becomes a little tartish, before they pour what was taken out 
 into the kieve. The whole materials, brewing, grains, and all, are 
 there mixed and fermented together. This rude mode of preparing 
 wash has been long practised in Russia, and is considered highly inju 
 rious to the produce of the grain. The extract is said generally to 
 fall far short of what is obtained in Holland or in our own country. 
 While eighteen gallons of spirits were taken from a quarter of grain 
 in Britain, eight only were obtained in Russia, hence it is estimated 
 that the Russians annually lost in their distilleries not less than to the 
 value of 3,500,000 and an half sterling.* From a chetvert of corn, 
 * Parl. Rep. on Distilleries, and Evidence thereon, 1799. 
 
490 
 
 weighing 9 poods* or 3601bs. a Mr. Vassili Nicolaveteh Subof, director 
 of economical affairs in the government of Pensa, extracted six eimers 
 and a quarter of spirits ; while others from the same quantity of grain, 
 could get only five eimers. This he attributes to the temperature of 
 the hot water used in the mash, which he regulated by means of cold 
 water and ice, and preventing the spirituous parts from making their 
 escape during the progress of fermentation. His general extract was 
 seven eimers and four-fifths of common proof spirits, from ten poods 
 or 4001bs. of grain.f At the distilleries formerly conducted at Mos 
 cow, were usually drawn from one chetvert of barley malt, five or five 
 and a half vedros of brandy. But there are few instances in which the 
 Russian distillers can be said to have shewn much improvement or 
 real practical knowledge. 
 
 Spirits are commonly distilled of such a strength, as that not less 
 than one-half of the fluid shall burn away, either in a silver or copper 
 vessel ; but of late the hydrometer has, in some places, been adopted 
 as a test of more accuracy. 
 
 The revenue arising from the sale of brandy is very extensive, 
 according to Tooke, who estimated its amount at from eight to nine 
 millions of rubles. Until 1752, it was farmed for 540,000 ; until 
 1770, for 620,000; until 1774, for 900,000 ; and until 1778, for 
 1,500,000; in 1779 it was let for four years at the sum of 1,800,000, 
 since which time it has been gradually increasing. So far back as 
 1789, the licenses to inns and taverns yielded 1,708,338, and the 
 brandies sold in the cities of Petersburg, Moscow, and the parts adja 
 cent, amounted to 3,320,000 rubles per annum. This is not remark 
 able, when in the city of Moscow alone, there were no fewer than 
 4000 kabaks or shops for the retail of brandy. The crown, or rather 
 the chamber of revenue, farms all the kabaks, and the contractor or 
 merchant who supplies them with spirits is prohibited from distilling 
 himself, but is obliged to buy all from the functionaries of government, 
 who either draw the brandy from their own distilleries, or obtain it 
 by contract from those of the privileged provinces. When any per 
 son farms the kabaks, he is allowed to keep beer, mead, and wine in 
 addition, which, with other trifling advantages, enables him to pay the 
 government three rubles for every vedro of brandy, and to sell it in 
 those houses at the same price. 
 
 Besides the produce of the corn distilleries, the Russians make 
 several intoxicating beverages. Beer is brewed in Petersburg, Mos- 
 
 A pood is equal to 40lbs.Russian weight, or 36T%lbs. English, 
 t Pallas s Travels, vol. i. 
 
491 
 
 cow, Nislmey Novgorod, Riga, and other places. That of Riga is of 
 a superior class; and the ale brewed on the Okka, in the government 
 of Nislmey Novgorod, is said to resemble Burton both in quality 
 and flavour. Some of the establishments for conducting this branch of 
 trade are pretty extensive. We are told of one that Mr. Herrmann 
 visited, which had seven long vats, each holding about 250 vedros 
 or 25 barrels of 40 gallons each. One and a half chetvert of rye- 
 malt, three of oat-malt, tliree of barley-malt, and one and a half pood of 
 hops were used at one brewing. From this, 130 vedros of beer were 
 obtained, which sold for about 20 rubles. Nine brewing establishments 
 at Serphuchoff, several at Oral, and in many places beer is so cheap 
 that it may be had for an halfpenny a bottle.* Strahlenberg says, that 
 they make of oatmeal, or wheat and hops, a thick white liquor called 
 braga, which when fresh is pleasant enough, having a tartish or vinous 
 flavour, remarkably heady, and is drunk only by the common people.f 
 The Usbecks make this liquor of rice and occasionally of millet. The 
 brown beer of the Calmucks, called schara, signifying red or dark 
 yellow, has to this a strong resemblance. In some of the southern 
 provinces it is made of millet softened to a pulp and mixed with 
 malted rye and barley, with an addition of oats. This liquor seldom 
 assumes a clear colour, but when sufficiently fermented it is reckoned 
 very intoxicating. Hops are plentiful in many parts of the empire, 
 and grow wild, particularly in Little Russia or the Uralian moun 
 tains, on the Altay, and in Taurida. Some are cultivated by the 
 peasantry, but the chief supply is drawn from foreign markets. Boetti- 
 cher calculates the annual import of this article at 21,8744 
 
 The ordinary household beverage of Russia is quass, a word signi 
 fying sour, one of the ancient Scythian beverages, a drink prepared, 
 according to Tooke, as follows : To one chetvert about 351bs. 
 of barley-malt, two or three handful* of rye-malt, and the same pro 
 portion of unbolted rye-meal, are added, and the whole mass is thrown 
 into iron pans, where it is stirred with a quantity of warm or boiling 
 water until it resembles thin porridge. About two inches deep of 
 oat husks are then thrown over it, when the pans are placed in an 
 oven where they remain for 24 hours. Boiling water is again poured 
 upon it, till it is full to the brim. It is then poured into wooden 
 vessels, the bottoms of which are covered inside with straw, having 
 a plug or cock to let out the liquid. Lukewarm water is now added, 
 and the whole is suffered to stand for some time. When it has stood 
 
 * Cochrane s Narrative, vol. i. p. 105. 
 
 f Strahlenberg on Northern and Eastern Asia. 
 
 t Vide Playf. Trans. Bocttichcr s Tables No. 12. 
 
492 
 
 as long as necessary, it is drawn off into casks, in each of which a 
 piece of coarse rye-bread is put to acidulate the quass. 
 
 The casks are placed in a cellar, and in twenty-four hours it is fit 
 for drinking-. From the proportions of grain mentioned, six or seven 
 vedros of quass are obtained. It may be made of barley-malt alone ; 
 but the rye-meal is absolutely necessary. 
 
 In most places, continues Tooke, they do not go circumstantially 
 to work. It is even customary to leave out the barley-malt, adding 
 much more meal than rye-malt : the proportion to half a pood of meal 
 being only two or three handfuls of malt. Instead of bread they put 
 in some yeast of the former brewing. Some add raisins, which cause 
 the quass to acquire a strong foam. Numbers make quass from 
 rye-meal only. But in all the modes of making it, cold or tepid 
 water is poured on the ingredients, the pans being greased and set in 
 hot ovens. 
 
 Another kind of quass, called kisslysclitscliy, is made with boiling 
 water and rye-meal alone, the mixture being violently and frequently 
 stirred about in hot water. Cold water is poured upon it, and the 
 vessel set by fermentation, after which it is bottled. This fine drink 
 foams vehemently, and effervesces with the solution of a gas that 
 sparkles like seltzer water. The kisslyschtschy has some resemblance 
 to the hornerbier of Vienna. In some houses they also use a small 
 quantity of honey or raspberries and cranberries, with other fruits, in 
 making quass from which it acquires an agreeable ruby colour and 
 becomes extremely pleasant to the taste. 
 
 The most simple mode of making quass is, as described by Mr. 
 Johnson, by steeping a certain quantity of bread in hot water, until it 
 gets into the acetous fermentation in which state it is checked and fit 
 for use.* 
 
 Granville describes the manufacture of quass in a different manner. 
 He says, that it is composed of 201bs. of rye, lOlbs. of rye-malt and 
 31bs. of barley-malt, the two species of malt being mixed together with 
 tepid water in an earthen vessel till it forms a sort of liquid paste. 
 It is then covered for an hour, after which some water is poured over 
 it, and the rye-meal is gradually added, stirring it all the time so as 
 to form a paste-like dough. The vessel is then covered and made 
 air-tight with bread-paste, when it is placed in an oven of a tempe 
 rature equal to that when bread may be considered half-baked, where 
 it remains to the following day. The oven is then heated again, and 
 the vessel replaced in it, and on the third day is removed, and the 
 paste diluted with river water, during which operation it is stirred 
 
 Journey from India to England,, 4to. p. 257. 
 
493 
 
 continually with a large wooden spoon. The whole fluid is next put 
 into a barrel with a sufficient quantity of leaven, where it is stirred 
 well for some minutes and set aside in a place of moderate tempera 
 ture. As soon as froth appears on its surface, the barrel is carefully 
 closed and carried to an ice-house or cold cellar, and at the end of 
 two or three days it is fit for use* To the ingredients mentioned 
 above, some add half a pound of mint and two pounds of wheaten and 
 buck-wheat flour, which are said to improve its taste and heighten its 
 effervescence. In the southern parts of Russia, quass is made by 
 filling a large barrel with fruit, sometimes plums, apples, crabs, or, in 
 short, any fruit of which a sufficient quantity can be procured. The 
 cask is then filled with water, and the whole is allowed to ferment : 
 at the expiration of fifteen days it is fit to drink. When a portion 
 of this quass is drawn out of the vessel, water is poured in to supply 
 its place ; and thus a sufficiency is kept up until the time of year when 
 it can be again manufactured.* 
 
 In the Philosophical Transactions, there is a letter from Doctor 
 Gutlirie to Dr. Priestly on the antiseptic regimen of the natives of 
 Russia, in which is given the mode of preparing the common and 
 better sorts of quass used in that empire, which does not differ mate 
 rially from that already mentioned, but which the reader may consult 
 should his curiosity lead him to further enquiry .j 
 
 Barrow gives a good sketch of the arts that are practised by the 
 keepers of the quass, or gin shops, to obtain customers. At the out 
 side of the door are invariably stationed two or three young men, 
 eacli dressed in a pink-coloured coat, which folds over the breast, 
 and is tied in with a sash at the waist, with loosejblue trousers tucked 
 into a clumsy pair of boots. They wear their hair very long and 
 divided in the centre.}: When any one passes near a shop, these 
 decoy lads plant themselves directly in his way and commence a series 
 of salutations, bowing almost to the ground w r ith their hair hanging 
 dishevelled about the face, rendering their appearance ludicrous, and 
 in this posture they earnestly entreat his entrance, and in such a 
 manner that it is scarcely possible to pass without purchasing a 
 draught. The quass, which is carried about in glass decanters and 
 vended in the streets, is very different from that sold in the shops. 
 The latter is a most delicious beverage, especially on a sultry day in 
 summer, when brought up iced from the cellars. A great portion of 
 
 * Holderness s Journey to the Crimea, 8vo. pp. 21-2-3. 
 
 f Vol. 68, pp. 627-8-9. 
 
 $ Barrow s Excursions to the North of Europe, in 1833, QVO, p. 110. 
 
494 
 
 the liquor sold under the name of quass is a weak spirit mixed with 
 raspberries. Mr. Barrow, as well as Dr. Lyall, asserts that the Rus 
 sian peasantry are rather temperate, that is, they do not indulge in 
 excesses of drunkenness, and that many of them could not be induced 
 to taste spirits. 
 
 The Russians have also a good kind of beer called pivo, which is 
 in common use and resembles the German beer. Among the better 
 classes, English porter is esteemed a luxury. Various sorts of drink 
 are vended by men through the streets of St. Petersburg, amongst 
 which is one called Sbitena or Sbetin, a favourite with the populace. 
 It is made of honey and hot water, and it is customary to mix pepper 
 with it, and to drink it hot with the addition of boiling milk. The 
 taste of this liquor is agreeable, but it is not intoxicating if taken 
 merely by itself.* 
 
 Mead, the ancient and favourite drink of all the northern nations, 
 is as much in request in Russia as quass. It is manufactured in great 
 perfection, and is usually of two kinds, white and red. To make the 
 first, says Tooke, two poods of white honey are mixed in five ankers 
 of clear river or soft water, and boiled and skimmed till nearly an anker 
 is boiled away. The liquor is then strained through a fine sieve or 
 piece of linen into a broad open vessel, and mixed with a couple of 
 spoonfuls of beer lees, and a pound of white bread, kalatsch. After 
 it has stood in the vessel, in a moderately warm place, and fermented 
 for thirty-six hours, it is poured through another sieve or piece of 
 linen into a cask, in which has been previously put a pound of small 
 shred isinglass for clarifying it. 
 
 For red mead, to one pood of honey they add eight vedros of water, 
 and reduce them by boiling to six vedros. When cold, the juice of 
 about half a chetvert of pressed or bruised cranberries, strained 
 through a sieve is mixed with it. A small portion of yeast is then 
 applied, and a roll of clean sand with about four ringlets of isinglass 
 or the albumen of eggs is thrown into the vessel to clear or fine 
 the liquor. Cinnamon, cloves, ginger, mace, and other spices are 
 infused. It is placed in a cool cellar, and, after standing there for 
 some weeks, it is either bottled for use or drawn from the cask direct. 
 When properly made and preserved, it is considered by many as 
 equal in strength and flavour to Tokay. Clarke met some Cossack 
 mead thirty years old, which tasted like Madeira. 
 
 Strawberries, raspberries, and cherries, are often used in the making 
 of mead, and, in most cases, the stones or seed of the latter are bruised 
 
 * Granville s St. Petersburgh, vol. ii. p. 422. 
 
495 
 
 and put in along with the fruit ; and these, with the aromatics usually 
 employed, are thought to improve the flavour and quality. 
 
 The honey of which the metheglin is made in such abundance, is 
 of the best kind, and forms a considerable article in the trade of the 
 empire. The great bulk of it is drawn from the bee-hives reared in 
 the Oka, on the Don, in Little and White Russia, in the Polish pro 
 vinces, and in the western tracts of the southern Ural. Independent 
 of the internal consumption, the export to foreign countries is consi 
 derable, and amounts in value, on an average, to from 6 to 10,000 
 rubles in the year. 
 
 There are many tribes in Russia who scarcely follow any other 
 employment than that of rearing bees. Pallas and Tooke tell us, 
 that among the Bashkirs are individuals who possess, besides their 
 bee-gardens, some hundreds, nay some thousands of wild bee-hives 
 in the forests, and obtain annually from 40 to 100 poods of honey. 
 The hives are formed in the hardest and strongest trees, upwards of 
 five fathoms from the ground, by excavating the trunk, and closing 
 the aperture with a board perforated with small holes for the bees to 
 enter. The greatest enemies to their labours are bears, who fre 
 quently make terrible havoc among the hives. To defeat the pur 
 poses of this animal, the peasant is often obliged to have recourse to 
 some curious contrivances, of which the following appear the most 
 singular : 
 
 Knives are placed in such parts of the tree where the bees are 
 situated, that the bear in climbing or coming down, may encounter 
 death almost at every step ; some, however, have been cunning 
 enough to elude this contrivance altogether, by removing the knives 
 with their paws. A block of wood is sometimes suspended before the 
 entrance to the hive, which, as often as the bear attempts to remove 
 it, falls back and hits him on the head,. when he becomes so enraged, 
 that he is frequently precipitated to the bottom, on spikes prepared 
 to receive him. Boards are often suspended from a neighbouring 
 branch, like scales, and so fastened to the tree where the animal 
 climbs, that when he gets upon the platform and attempts to rifle the 
 hive, he finds himself in a moment separated from the object of his 
 search, and swinging in the air, with the prospect of a descent upon 
 spikes below, threatening instant death. Others, again, cut the 
 trunks into blocks, which they hollow and close at both ends, leaving 
 an opening on the side for the bees : this plan is generally found to 
 prove more than a match for the ingenuity of the luxurious brute. 
 Another method of destroying this formidable enemy to honey, is, by 
 putting strong spirits into the honey-combs in the trees, and the bear, 
 
496 
 
 ravenous of the honey, and unmindful of the flavour of the spirits, 
 takes so much that he soon becomes intoxicated, and falls an easy 
 prey to his destroyers. 
 
 To the industry displayed by the Russians of the southern pro 
 vince, in the rearing of bees and preservation of honey, much praise 
 is due ; and were these labours imitated by our own countrymen, the 
 money transmitted from Great Britain to other nations for honey, 
 which is said to be not less than 240,000 annually, might be saved. 
 
 The other liquors most common in Russia, besides those already 
 mentioned, are made from fruit of various sorts, such as apples, pears, 
 plums, currants, cherries, gooseberries, raspberries, bilberries, cran 
 berries, &c., and the juice of the birch tree. The preparation of these 
 varies in different places, and is generally regulated according to the 
 judgment or taste of the persons who conduct the process. Tooke 
 observes, that in making cherry-wine, about five or more vedros of 
 the ripe fruit are crushed in a tub, until the stones are broken ; and 
 that to each vedro, one and an half or two pounds of honey and a 
 pint of good brandy or wine are added, with a little yeast to 
 make it ferment. When it has properly cleared itself of the yeast, 
 it is poured into kegs or bottles and placed in a cool cellar. 
 
 Among the plants which grow in the deserts, near the banks of the 
 Volga, the dwarf almond tree (amygdalus mana) is the most plen 
 tiful. Its fruit is called babovnick, or Calmuck walnuts. Some 
 landed proprietors collect this fruit, and extract from it an oil which, 
 though bitter, is very agreeable in salads. Its taste somewhat resem 
 bles that of peach kernels, and a spirituous liquor is also distilled 
 from it.* These are the principal drinks made and used by the 
 Russians. 
 
 In some of the southern parts of the empire the vine is cultivated ; 
 and wine is made, but not to such extent as to supply the popular 
 demand. Dr. Clarke observed, that the wild vine flourished at 
 Woronetz, which lies in the 54th degree of North latitude ; while it 
 is well known that the vineyards of Europe terminate many degrees 
 nearer to the equator. The most important vineyards are those of 
 Astracan, which, at one time, were cultivated at the expense of the 
 crown, but are now principally in the possession of private individuals. 
 These vineyards are 135 in number, 21 of which still belong to the 
 state. Vines were first brought into that region from Persia, by an 
 Austrian monk, in the early part of the seventeenth century ; and 
 their culture having been found to succeed, the Czar Ivan Vassilie- 
 
 * Pallas s Travels. 
 
497 
 
 vitsh, in the year 1613, caused them to be planted about the city. 
 Peter the Great also encouraged their cultivation ; and the grapes 
 became so excellent in his time, that they were exported to St. 
 Petersburg)* for the use of the imperial table, and for such of the 
 nobility as could afford to purchase them, a practice still carried on 
 to advantage. Great caution is observed in the carriage of those 
 grapes ; they are packed in red millet, in wooden cases, to prevent 
 bruises on the road. A pood of them costs between two and three 
 rubles on the spot. In the vineyards above mentioned, white and 
 red wines of a superior description are produced, which some compare 
 to the Lacryma Christi of Germany, the Vinde grave, or the Cham 
 pagne of Burgundy. In making wine, the grapes are put into canvas 
 bags, trodden with the feet in troughs, and afterwards squeezed in 
 wooden presses. Pallas found in the cellars of the proprietor of two 
 villages near Astracan, 14,000 vedros of wine, ready for sale, kept 
 in very large casks : some of these were near 20 years old, the pro 
 duce of the Hungarian grape. The wines here contain a considerable 
 portion of brandy, and no description is sold until it is three years 
 old. A good sort of wine is made from grapes without stones, called 
 Kyshmis. Here are annually pressed from 4 to 5,000 eimers of wine, 
 and the oldest casks are always filled from those succeeding in the 
 order of time. In some of the vineyards, the bunches of grapes are 
 so luxuriant, that they measure from two to three spans in length 
 and mills are erected for conveying water through the plantations. 
 
 In the government of Astracan, brandy of an excellent kind is 
 distilled in considerable quantities, with which they preserve their 
 wines, as well as supply the numerous kabaks and caravansaries. 
 At Sarepta, on the Volga, distilleries of spirits and breweries of beer 
 have been established by a Moravian colony, who settled there some 
 years ago. They brew also a description of beer from the water 
 melons which there abound ; it is regularly hopped like other beer : 
 a marmalade is prepared from this fruit, which is used as a substitute 
 for sirup of treacle, and it is supposed that a tolerable wine might be 
 made from it, were the process undertaken. The Cossacks, particu 
 larly those of the Don, cultivate the vine, but not in such abundance 
 as to permit its being distilled into brandy. The grapes are said to 
 be good, and were they not pulled too soon, the wine manufactured 
 from them would, in the opinion of Dr. Clarke, surpass all others in 
 the world. The Don wines consist of white and red ; and were the 
 French practice in making them followed, from the rich and generous 
 nature of the fruit, they could not fail to maintain the good opinion 
 given of them by the Doctor. 
 
 2 K 
 
408 
 
 The practice of burying the vine during winter is injurious ; but this 
 the Cossacks are obliged to do, to save it from the severe frosts of the 
 country. A similar practice, as mentioned by Strabo, was observed 
 from the most remote antiquity, in the country near the Bosphorus.* 
 In 1772, the whole produce of the vineyards of the Don did not 
 exceed from 70 to 80 hogsheads, of 40 eimers. each ; but the increase 
 since that period has been considerable.! A number of German 
 vintners have been encouraged to settle on the banks of this river, 
 which has influenced others to establish breweries in the neighbouring 
 districts. The vineyards of Count Platoff are remarkable for their 
 extent and excellence, as well as for the various sorts of delicious 
 wines which they produce; some of them, when not adulterated, are 
 equal to the light French wines. These wines are in general plea 
 sant, and effervesce like champagne, but have more the flavour of 
 burgundy. It is a practice among the Russians in summer to 
 serve along -with their wine a plate of ice, a piece of which is put into 
 each glass, when the wine is about to be drunk. The best Don wine 
 is made near Tcherkask, and it is usually manufactured from grapes 
 not quite ripe, which some conjecture to be the cause of all wines 
 exhibiting effervescence. Klaproth mentions a kind of champagne 
 called Symlianskii, which is distributed over all Russia, a great 
 favourite, and commonly bearing the name of Donslnj vino. It is, 
 Jiowever, frequently injured by the intermixture of potash, which 
 causes it often to produce headache and disorders of the stomach.J 
 The wine made on the banks of the Terek, of the Volga, near Saratov, 
 in Ekaterinoslav, and in the Taurida, are good ; and were its sale not 
 injured by the importation of Greek and Moldavian wines, it might be 
 turned to great advantage. The Caucasian Tartars, although they 
 profess the Mahometan faith, drink wine publicly, which they render 
 very inebriating, by hanging the unripe heads of poppies in the casks 
 while fermentation is going on. The mountains inhabited by these 
 people are very fertile, and the vines grow so luxuriantly, and climb 
 to such a height about the trees, that in many places the inhabitants 
 find great difficulty in gathering the grapes. 
 
 The wines of the Crimea rank so highly, that they are in demand 
 even in the remote governments of the empire ; and at St. Peters- 
 burgh, they are in such repute, that there is a chartered company for 
 the management of the sales of these wines, supported by the emperor 
 
 * Geogv. Lib. viii. 
 
 t Pallas s Travels, 4to. vol. ii. 
 
 % Klaproth s Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia, 1807-8, p. 85. 
 
 Tooke. 
 
499 
 
 and other high characters. The valleys of Soudak and Koos are 
 considered to yield the best. Upwards of 30,000 eimers are annually 
 produced, nearly one-third of which is sent to Cherson. The impe 
 rial vineyards at Soudak, a name which signifies the valley of grapes, 
 are of great extent and afford many varieties, not only of the native 
 vine, but of others introduced at different periods. Soudak grapes 
 are considered the best in the whole Taurida, particularly one sort of 
 an oblong shape, and of the size and firmness of a small plum, the 
 bunches of which are sometimes four or five pounds weight. The 
 wines made here are distinguished by the names of the places from 
 which the vines were brought, such as white wine of Corfu, red 
 French wine, white Hungarian wine, and red Claret. 
 
 The whole quantity of wine produced in 1821 from these vine 
 yards was 60,000 vedros, each equal to fifteen small-sized bottles, 
 which was disposed of at about from 2^ to 4 rubles the vedro, yielding 
 a revenue of nearly 200,000 rubles. Since the royal vineyards have 
 been placed under the superintendence of Baron Bode, their produce 
 both in fruit and wine, has greatly improved, owing entirely to his 
 great care and exertions.* Pallas attributed the inferiority of the 
 wine in his time to the over irrigation given by the Tartars to their 
 vineyards, which, although it increased the size of the grapes, very 
 much injured the flavour. During the time that Mary Holderness 
 resided in the Crimea, namely, from 1815 to 1820, she observed that 
 vineyards were once a very profitable culture, but that since the free 
 importation of Greek wines, the home manufacture had been seriously 
 injured. Improvements were then beginning to take place, and the 
 culture of the vine, formerly confined to the valleys, was ascending the 
 sides of the hills, and likely to repay the care and toils of the planter .f 
 The cellars at Soudak are very superior ; that of Admiral Mondizinoff, 
 excavated in the side of a mountain, is calculated to hold 100,000 
 vedros, which at 10 quarts the vedro, would be upwards of 2083 
 pipes, of 120 gallons each. 
 
 The Jews are great traffickers, not only in the fruit, but in the 
 making and vending of wines. They are the chief purchasers of the 
 grapes brought from the mountainous districts of the peninsula, as 
 well as of those from the neighbouring vineyards. In Karasubarar, 
 near the centre of the Crimea, they possess a number of very fine 
 wine cellars, but which seldom contain any but new wine, owing to 
 the rapidity of the sales. At this place there are upwards of two 
 
 * Travels through the Crimea in 182 a , 2 vols. 8vo. vol. i. p. 281, by Captain 
 Alexander. Lon. 1830. 
 
 f HoHcrness s Journey, 8vo. p. 282. 
 
500 
 
 hundred stops open for the sale of fruit alone ; and the price of a 
 vedro of wine, of fifteen bottles, varies from three to six rubles. 
 When Webster visited the peninsula in 1826, the whole annual pro 
 duce was reckoned to be 6,750,000 pints of wine, Paris measure, 
 and the grapes were in such estimation that they were sent to 
 Moscow and Petersburg!!, where they procured a rapid sale. 
 
 Among the Grim Tartars, it was formerly a great trade to prepare 
 bekmess,or marmalade, and the misseless, or sirup, from their grapes ; 
 but the sale of fruit and wine was found to be more profitable, and 
 lest any thing should be lost in this way, brandy was distilled from 
 the refuse of the vintage. The vats in which the fermentation was 
 carried on were pits made in the earth, well covered and plastered 
 with clay. The lees of 100 eimers of wine generally yielded four 
 eimers of brandy. Besides this home distillation, large importations 
 are made of sekis-kayavodka, or brandy prepared in the island of 
 Scio, from fruit and the lees of the grape. Many of the farmers 
 import fruit, wine-lees, and a poorer sort of wine from the Greek 
 islands of the Archipelago, to supply their distilleries with materials. 
 
 The Crimea was early distinguished for its fertility and commerce. 
 Mithridates drew annually from this country and its dependencies 
 twenty minse of corn, or 720,000 bushels, with 200,000 ounces of 
 silver : and Strabo* relates, thatLeucon II, kingof the Bosphorus, sent 
 from Theodosia to Athens, during a great scarcity, 100,000 medini of 
 corn, 330 millions of pounds, making 148,660 tons. An idea of the 
 state and pomp of Mithridates, and of the extent to which the luxury 
 of wine drinking had been carried in those days, may be formed from 
 the circumstance recorded by Appian, that when Pompey visited the 
 city of Talura in the Taurida, he found 2,000 cups of onyx set in 
 massive gold along with other articles of immense value ; hence the 
 city went by the name of Mithridates wardrobe. Such was the im 
 mensity of trade in that quarter, that at the port now called Sebas- 
 tapal, the great mart and rendezvous of the merchants of the ancient 
 kingdom of Colchis, 120 interpreters were kept by the Romans, to 
 facilitate their commercial transactions. Yet with all this wealth, 
 power, and intercourse with other nations, it does not appear that 
 any knowledge of distillation existed in that peninsula ; nor can I 
 find that this art was introduced there previous to the settlement of 
 the Genoese in the 15th century This opinion is confirmed by 
 Storch, who believes the Crimeans first learnt it from the inhabitants 
 of Italy or Spain, and various coincidences in terms yet remain as a 
 further corroboration ; for instance, the Genoese term for a cask or 
 
 * Book vii. p. 448. 
 
501 
 
 barrel is bari, and that of the Crim- Tartars baril, bringing it. very 
 near our English word barrel. 
 
 The arraki of the mountain Tartars, which is prepared from sloes, 
 dog-berries, elder-berries, wild grapes, and plums, is sold in common 
 with the strong beer, or busa, brewed from ground millet. HODS 
 are grown in the Crimea, the best are found among the German 
 settlers who use them in their private brewings. The ordinary drink 
 of the people is made by triturating and dissolving cheese in water : 
 from the boiled juice of apples, pears, and grapes, a nice description 
 of marmalade called nardenk, or nardek, is made, which is purchased 
 by the Tartars of the Steppes, and used by them in drinks and for 
 other domestic purposes. The Mahometan Oimeans use sherbet, a 
 mixture of coarse honey and water. Wine they do not drink with 
 out the consent of their priests, and that only in time of sickness, 
 even then it is but sparingly allowed, though it might be of essential 
 service ; but many of the Mahometans here drink brandy like 
 their brethren in other parts of the world, alleging in excuse that the 
 Prophet forbade nothing in the way of drink, but liquors that were 
 fermented. Under this flimsy pretext they drink beer, thinking it 
 does not come under the law, because they are ignorant of the manner 
 in which it is made. From Trebisond and Sinope, quantities of marma 
 lade and bekmess are brought, and again sent in considerable amount 
 to Taganrog, in the sea of Asoph, for the use of the distilleries. 
 When a failure occurs in the vineyards, the deficiency in the grapes 
 is supplied by the beckmess, from which and the marmalade a spirit 
 is made, held in such high repute, that it is sold in many parts of the 
 Russian empire as French brandy. In every town and village, a 
 khan, or species of inn has been established, from time immemorial, 
 called the odd, expressly for the reception of strangers, where they 
 are accommodated with a couch, fire and refreshments, free of expense. 
 It is generally the mollah, or priest, who takes upon himself the bene 
 volent office of entertaining strangers, from whom a small remunera 
 tion is expected, but not demanded. In the Crimea, there are no 
 inns, but travellers find no inconvenience in consequence, as they 
 are supplied with every comfort by the hospitality of the inhabitants. 
 Honey is an article very plentiful in the Crimea, and it affords 
 many delicate conserves and agreeable beverages. Bees, of course, 
 are much nurtured, and the Tartars are most expert in their manage 
 ment ; such is their discrimination, that some of them, on seeing bees 
 at work on the flowers in the fields, can immediately tell to what 
 village they belong ; even many are so clever in this respect, that 
 they know of what owner they are the property. Many of the hives 
 
502 
 
 are very large ; one at Karagoss was> by way of eminence, called the 
 Espravnek. The largest, when full, yield from 60 to SOlbs. of honey 
 and wax ; middle sized ones from 30 to 601bs., and the least from 10 
 to SOlbs. For the most part, the bees hive in the hollowed trunks of 
 trees cut for the purpose, to about six inches in diameter, and many 
 of these trunks are carried from place to place, to suit the convenience 
 of feeding. They are laid horizontally, piled one upon another in 
 gardens, and when honey is to be extracted, the trees are detached 
 merely by the smoke of burning paper held at the bottom of the hive, 
 without the aid of sulphur, or the destruction of the insects. The 
 cylinders are so heavy that it requires at least two stout men to carry 
 one of them. So extensive are some villages in the honey trade, that 
 one of them has been known to possess 50 hives at a time ; and 300 
 hives are no uncommon stock. Large speculations are made in this 
 way on account of the preference given to the honey of the Crimea, 
 beyond that of Russia, its superiority arising from the nature of the 
 flowers from which it is drawn, and the care taken in having it pure. 
 
 Among the peasantry residing between Trebisond and Dunabourg, 
 it is a common practice to hang the hives in the woods, that the bees 
 may have the benefit of the first flowers of the lime trees, because 
 they yield the finest description of honey. * The honey of the Crimea 
 is so excellent, and in such demand, that it forms a principle article 
 of the exports to Constantinople, where it commands a rapid sale. 
 
 From the walnut, which is cultivated to great extent in the Crimea* 
 a sweet clear liquor is extracted in the spring, at the time the sap is 
 rising in the tree. This liquor is procured by piercing the trunk, and 
 placing a spigot in the incision ; the fluid thus obtained soon coagu 
 lates into a substance used as sugar. As yet it does not appear that 
 this juice has been converted to any inebriating purpose ; but the 
 inventive faculty of man may, in time, render it subservient to the 
 gratification of appetite in that way. Some of those walnut trees 
 yield 60,000 nuts annually, valued from 80 to 100 copieks per thou 
 sand. The oil expressed from the nuts is a profitable article, and the 
 paste, after expression, serves as food for many of the poor. Cakes 
 made from the walnut in this manner are common for sale in the 
 shops of Geneva and Savoy, while the ashes of the nut serve as a sub 
 stitute for soap in washing. On the Dnieper and at Cherson, a good 
 deal of spirits is distilled, and at Odessa, a town built on the Dniester 
 since 1792, there are not less than six distilleries and as many 
 breweries. At Odessa, which is the great commercial port of the 
 
 * M. Holderness s Journey, p. 27, also Tooke s Russia, vol. iii. p. 388. 
 
503 
 
 Crimea, spirits are so cheap as to shew their evil consequences in the 
 intemperance of the peasantry. Among the higher classes, however, 
 intoxication is rare, although wine and liqueurs are familiar, while 
 spirits are used as a zest for dinner. This last ceremony is con 
 sidered as a part of the entertainment before proceeding to the 
 dining room ; and it is, therefore, deemed a characteristic of polite 
 ness to serve the guests with a glass of aqua vitce, to increase an 
 appetite for the luxuries of the table.* 
 
 Georgia, a country which next claims attention, is so beautifully 
 diversified with hill and dale, wood and water, that some travellers 
 have fancied it to have been the seat of our first parents. The vine 
 seems to grow there in all its native luxuriance, and although wild, it 
 appears to revel as. if in its primitive home ; and after yielding more 
 wine than is necessary for the inhabitants, such is the superabundance 
 of the grapes, that large quantities are permitted to rot on the 
 branches, or to be consumed by the fowls of the air, since they can 
 not be converted to any useful purpose. In the provinces on the 
 Black Sea, the vine thrives without any cultivation, and is seen cling 
 ing round all the large trees, giving the country the appearance of a 
 vast and continued vineyard. 
 
 The Georgian wine is light, and resembles a good French Vin du 
 pays. It is not kept in casks but in hogs skins, the insides of which 
 are first rubbed with naptha : the flavour is, in consequence, disagree 
 able and requires a long period to reconcile it to the palate. In some 
 places, the wine is kept in large jars, and in this state it is considered 
 excellent ; but when it is transported to other places, it is parried in 
 hogs skins called boordooks.f These skins are sometimes inflated, 
 bound together, and employed as floats on the crossing of rivers. 
 
 At Teflis, the capital, wine is commonly kept in capacious earthen 
 jars, below the surface of the ground, but on bringing it thither, the 
 skins of buffaloes, goats, and swine, are used for that purpose. Pass 
 ing through the streets of that city, a stranger is struck with surprise 
 at seeing those stuffed skins standing on pieces of wood like living 
 animals, and viewing the owners drawing wine from them, as if it 
 were the blood of the animal. This method of supplying wine is 
 attended with disadvantages, as the hairy sides of the skins are first 
 coated with naphtha, and afterwards turned inward, which communi 
 cates a disagreeable taste and flavour to the liquor ; but of this the 
 people take no notice, as custom has rendered it familiar. Wooden 
 vessels are not to be had, and bottles are very rare, because the price 
 
 f Kotzebue s Narrative of a Journey into Persia, 8vo. p. 58. 
 * For the exports, &c. of Odessa, see Addenda. 
 
504 
 
 of (hem would amount to six or eight times as much as the wiiie ; 
 nothing therefore is in use but these boordooks, or prepared skins. 
 Wine is so plentiful and cheap at Teflis, that it is sold from a penny 
 to two-pence the bottle ; beer is sold in the public market. 
 
 In this province, wine is consumed to great extent ; respectable 
 persons use silver ladles instead of wine-glasses, but frequently intro 
 duce immense horns ornamented with silver. These are emptied to 
 the last drop, and it is not uncommon to see them pledge each other 
 in repeated bumpers, in the same manner and with the same ease 
 that ale or porter is quaffed in this country ; yet this practice does not 
 seem to be carried to the excess of intoxication, which has been 
 attributed to those people. A late traveller states, that after an 
 entertainment given by one of the princes of Georgia, the guests 
 were conducted to an outhouse, which they were told was the wine- 
 cellar ; but to his astonishment there was no appearance of either 
 wine or drinking utensils. In a short time, however, several persons 
 with spades entered the apartment, and clearing away a portion of 
 the surface of the floor, two immense jars as large as hogsheads were 
 exposed, and after raising the covers the wine was handed about in 
 silver ladles, and even the peasants who attended as spectators were 
 supplied with copious libations in earthen jugs. In several districts 
 of Georgia, both red and white wines are made of excellent quality. 
 The red is said to resemble Burgundy, and the white to be like 
 claret, and in no respect inferior to either. The Georgians have the 
 reputation of drinking immoderately ; some of them are said to con 
 sume seven bottles in the day without being much intoxicated ; but 
 this is to be understood only of the affluent portion of the community. 
 
 Sherbet, which is a very common drink, is, for the most part, com 
 posed of water, sugar, and acid ; and when iced, is very agreeable 
 in warm weather, but is not comparable to European lemonade. This 
 liquor forms a very choice beverage at entertainments, and the host 
 is often complimented by his guests on the cheerfulness of his coun 
 tenance, and is said to look as " red as his apples, as brilliant as the 
 sun, as placid as the moon/ and they bid adieu with a wish that " the 
 roses of happiness may ever bloom in the garden of his destiny." 
 Kotzebue relates of the Sardar of Erivan that he eagerly drank of 
 liqueurs that were presented to him, and made no secret of his love 
 of spirituous liquors, at the same time openly declared that he could 
 not live without them. He observed that the Persians quaffed wine 
 and liqueurs in immense quantities, and lie met with several instances 
 of a man drinking off a bottle of rum at one draught, without the 
 appearance of any inconvenience from it. The Sardar s physician 
 
505 
 
 defended the practice of drinking spirits, arid in doing so said, that 
 Mahomet was a fool to forbid wine, and he recommended it as a 
 panacea to his patients. In this opinion he resembled a brother Ma 
 hometan, who defended his partiality for strong drink, by saying that 
 
 the Koran affirms that the faithful shall have wine in paradise a 
 
 wine delicious to the taste, but not intoxicating, from which he inferred 
 that the prophet only intended that wine should not be drunk to 
 excess, since it is sinful to suppose that what is lawful in heaven is 
 unlawful on earth. 
 
 At Mozdok, near the Caucasus, and in Georgia, the people chiefly 
 subsist by their vineyards, and a spirit prepared from grapes, which 
 they not only dispose of at home, but send quantities of it into Russia. 
 These people make a good sort of wine from ripe mulberries, and an 
 acid wine drawn from peaches is in common use, while that from the 
 grape is considered excellent. Of the grape wines, the Modosk is 
 generally inferior; that called Kislar, from the vine of that name, is 
 the best, and is considered little inferior to Hermitage either in strength 
 or flavour. The brandy made at Kislar, or Kitzliar, is of superior 
 quality, and is a more lucrative article of commerce than wine* 
 Kislar brandy is in request over all Russia, and is sent to the most 
 distant parts of Siberia. From water-melons a good brandy has been 
 distilled, and to the culture of this plant much attention is paid in the 
 southern provinces of Russia : they flourish in many places in great 
 luxuriance, and some of them have been known to weigh 301bs. 
 
 On the Terek, a beer termed Terskaia braga is brewed from millet 
 by soaking it in water, then bruising it, and after that boiling it, in 
 which stage a quantity of ground malted rye and barley is poured 
 upon it to reduce it to the t desired temperature ; oats are then added, 
 and the whole is left to ferment. When this process is completed, 
 the liquor is freed from the husks of the grain, and at this stage it is 
 fit for use. Klaproth met with bouza in Georgia made from peas 
 which is the common basis of it in that country. In some of the 
 mountain passes of the Caucasus, the late Emperor Alexander per 
 mitted some families to cultivate small pieces of ground free, having 
 at those places a depot of flour, brandy, &c. always ready for chari 
 table purposes. In Mingrelia, as well as Georgia, is to be found that 
 description of honey called stone honey, which is dissolved in water 
 and used for a common beverage. At Imerethi, or Imiretta, adjoining 
 Georgia, the k wa-tapli, or stone-honey, is found quite solid, brittle, and 
 not viscous. It has a pleasant spicy flavour, and is discovered in the 
 cliffs of the rocks, the honey and wax forming one mass as hard as 
 sugar-candy. These lumps or cakes are generally white at first, but 
 
506 
 
 through time become yellow, and the people~carry it in their pockets 
 to assist in refreshment. The vine grows to such perfection^that the 
 trunks of the trees are frequently above fifteen inches in diameter. 
 The finest fruit grows without cultivation, and there is an abundance 
 of almonds, quinces, pears, arid plums. From the great quantity and 
 superior quality of the fruit of this country, it has been compared to 
 an extensive orchard. The wine of Imiretta is reckoned superior to 
 that of Tenis, the Don, and the Crimea ; it is sent in skins to the 
 neighbouring countries, while a considerable portion of the revenue 
 paid to the Mephe, or prince of the country, is collected from this 
 article. 
 
 Ssar, a kind of beer resembling English porter, is made by the 
 Karatschio, and it is considered the best in the Caucasus. Brandy 
 is distilled by those people from barley and wheat ; they have 
 scarcely any other beverage except this and bouza ; and, although 
 Mahometans, they partake of both without any scruple of conscience, 
 and at funerals and marriages indulge in it to excess. 
 
 The Circassians manufacture from millet a beverage called hautkups, 
 which is also named yantzokbl by the Cossacks of the Terek. The 
 tribes near the Ckeiban, especially the Ubuch tribe, cultivate the 
 vine, and make a considerable portion of very good wine. The Souate 
 wine is of excellent flavour, resembles Champagne, and if well made, 
 would, according to Spencer, rank among the best wines in the 
 world.* But the usual drinks of the Circassians are skhou, a species 
 of sour milk and a spirit, which, like other Tartar nations, they distil 
 from mare s milk. They have also a liquor distilled from corn of a 
 tolerably good quality, the art of making which is said to have been 
 communicated to them by the Cossacks ; but it is more probable that 
 they acquired it from the Persians, or some of the neighbouring 
 nations. From whence skhou, or as it is termed by the Turks 
 yaourte, had its origin is a matter of doubt : some allege that the 
 Almighty himself revealed the knowledge of its use to Abraham ; 
 others say that it was presented by an angel to Hagar in the wilder 
 ness when driven from the house of her master and fainting with heat 
 and thirst. Be this as it may, all preparations of milk are held sacrecl 
 among the Tartars. 
 
 The following engraving exhibits the still used by some of the 
 tribes of the Caucasus. It consists of an earthen jar, or pot, sometimes 
 made of copper, covered with a lid, having a neck entering into the 
 
 Travels in Circassia, Krim Tartary, &c. in 183*6, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
507 
 
 head, which is enclosed in a tub supplied by a small water-pipe to 
 effect condensation. 
 
 In addition to their ardent spirits, some of the tribes make a sort 
 of drink termed JBak-sima, which very much resembles the bouza of 
 the Turks. 
 
 In Circassia, no public inns are to be found, they being considered 
 unnecessary from the great hospitality of the people, who contend 
 with each other for the entertainment of any stranger that happens- 
 to come among them. His appearance is a sufficient passport, and 
 his wants have an indisputable claim on their generosity and feeling. 
 Considerable attention is bestowed on the cultivation of bees for the 
 purpose of making mead, of which they are particularly fond. The 
 bees are kept in hives, placed on stocks, and carried along with the 
 people as they remove from place to place with their flocks and 
 herds. A good description of honey is likewise obtained from the 
 mountain bees ; it is commonly preserved in goat-skin bags, having 
 the hairy side outwards, and is, in this manner, carried for sale to the 
 public markets. From the Caucasus is obtained that celebrated 
 inebriating, or, as it is usually termed maddening honey,* which the 
 bees collect from the blossoms of the rhododendron and azalea pontica. 
 This extraordinary production never fails to affect the mind with 
 
 * Klaproth s Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia, 4to. p. 405. 
 
508 
 
 strange reveries, and frequently causes such whimsical conduct as to 
 give the individual who has partaken of it the appearance of insanity, 
 with all the wildness of intoxication. We learn from Aristotle, that 
 the honey gathered in the plains around Trebisond had the same 
 maddening quality, and he attributes this effect to the bees collecting 
 it from the flowers of the box-trees ; that it had also a purgative 
 quality, and was almost an infallible remedy against epilepsy. He adds 
 that it deprives those who eat it of their senses, and in this manner it 
 operated on the army of Xenophon, when on his retreat through Asia 
 Minor. The superstition of the country attributes to Merissa, or 
 Mereime (Mary) the mother of God, the protection of bees, and the 
 people say, that the thunder in its wrath would have exterminated 
 them all, but that this holy woman concealed one of them in her sleeve, 
 by which means the species was preserved. In commemoration of 
 this event, a festival is held in September, on which occasion the 
 Circassians regale themselves with viands and beverages prepared 
 with honey. 
 
 The honey of this country is indebted, for its very superior quality 
 and flavour, to the wild thyme and other aromatic flowers of the 
 mountains upon which the bees feed, and it forms a most important 
 article in the husbandry and domestic economy of a Circassian. 
 Clarified honey, bleached in the sun till it is quite white, is a common 
 substitute for sugar, while the honey of the comb is not only a constant 
 article at table, but is used in almost every sort of cookery. From 
 the walnut-tree a good description of sugar is obtained, which is 
 considered a valuable remedy for diseases of the lungs and general 
 debility. The mode of procuring it in the Caucasus is the same as 
 that practised in the Crimea. 
 
 The Circassians make a kind of half-fermented liquor denominated 
 fada or fada-chusch, that is ivhitefada, but in Tartar, braga. Brandy 
 they call arka or fada jitza, signifying black fada. Mead they term 
 fada flescli or red, fada : braga is very common and brandy little in 
 consumption. Another drink called tuschag-tgo, made of water in 
 which grape-juice boiled and concocted, is in use among the 
 Circassians, but is more common with the Persians as a renovator, 
 or cooling sherbet. Here the respectable people have bowls of silver 
 or gold weighing from 300 to 500 ducats, out of which they drink on 
 all occasions of ceremony in the name of God, of the saints, or of 
 their deceased relatives and friends, relating the most remarkable 
 occurrences of their lives with their heads uncovered, evincing all 
 possible veneration and respect. 
 
 Though the Circassians are rather an abstemious people, yet they 
 
509 
 
 sometimes fall into excesses in drinking, especially at their religious 
 ceremonies, one of the principal of which consists in sacrificing a he- 
 goat on the death of a friend. Having killed the animal, the skin 
 with the head and bones is placed on a cross at the top of a long pole 
 erected perpendicularly, in view of the relatives and friends of the 
 deceased. The flesh of the goat is then boiled, roasted and eaten, 
 after which the men pay certain marks of adoration before the skin, 
 when the women withdraw, and the men regale themselves amply 
 with aqua vitce or such other intoxicating beverage as is most easily 
 procured. Unhappily, these religious funeral-rites seldom terminate 
 without desperate and fatal consequences. This ceremony of the 
 Circassians is not unlike the circumpotatio, or funeral feast of anti 
 quity, so frequent among the ancient Greeks and Romans, which in 
 like manner was productive of disastrous effects : hence Solon at 
 Athens and the Decemviri at Rome endeavoured to prevent the practice 
 altogether, thinking it improper that mirth and drunkenness should 
 accompany the grief and distress occasioned by the demise of friends. 
 
 In that part of Tartary near the source of the Kuma and Pod- 
 kumka, has lately been discovered a mineral spring of an acid taste, 
 strongly intoxicating and losing little of its inebriating qualities by 
 removal to any distance : of this water, the Circassians occasionally avail 
 themselves ;* and which is said to resemble the Ballston waters 
 of North America. 
 
 Siberia, which includes all the northern parts of Asiatic Russia, is 
 so thinly inhabited and has so little intercourse with the civilized 
 world, little respecting it is known either as regards its manufacture 
 or agricultural produce. In many parts of this extensive region, 
 spirits are extracted from such fruits and grain as the country affords, 
 but the principal supply is drawn from Russia. At a distillery on 
 the river Uk, wrought some years since, there were 106 coppers, 28 
 coolers, and 6 stills. To every cooler was reckoned 10 chetverts of 
 rye-malt, with a fifth or seventh part of oats or barley. The coppers 
 were so proportioned, that they were commonly filled out of one cooler 
 and held 42 vedros. The worts were usually drawn from the mash- 
 tun, and the fermentation was completed in four days. From 30 to 
 40,000 chetverts of corn were the annual consumption ; and from 
 each chetvert three or four vedros of common brandy were obtained. 
 In another establishment, about sixty versts north of the city of 
 Irkulsk, the annual quantity of brandy made amounted to 60,000 
 ankers.f But a few districts of this immense territory, three-fourths 
 
 * Klaproth s Travels, p. 277. 
 
 f Billing s Account N. Parts of Russia, 4to. 
 
510 
 
 of which lie in the same latitude as Norway and Lapland, yield grain 
 sufficient for the ordinary consumption of the population, the beve 
 rages are mostly drawn from the different species of vaccinium or 
 berries that abound ; of these, the cranberry, bilberry, raspberry, 
 strawberry, gooseberry, &c. are the principal ; from the prunus fru- 
 ticosa, which grows plentifully, an agreeable wine is made. From the 
 Her acleum panacea and the HeracleumSibericum, a saccharine matter 
 5s obtained, which being subjected to distillation, affords a strong liquor, 
 and though not very palatable, is in request in Kamtschatka. The 
 birch yields a sap that is converted by some of the mountain tribes 
 into an intoxicating liquor by fermentation, after the manner of the 
 Norwegians. The trade with Siberia being a monopoly of Russian 
 merchants, the brandy, wine, and other liquors transported thither, 
 form a profitable part of their traffic. 
 
 As several of the chief towns are made depots for the articles 
 necessary to supply the country, and the mode of their conveyance 
 from place to place being curious, a description of it cannot fail to be 
 interesting. In transporting goods from the magazines of Yakut to 
 Ochotskjfroin twenty to thirty thousand horses are annually employed, 
 and instead of using wagons or carts, the packages are generally 
 thrown across the backs of the animals. In the article of rye-flour, a 
 single horse will carry six poods, which are packed in leathern bags 
 called sumas; one of these is suspended on each side: in this manner 
 they are very convenient for carriage and bid defiance to every sort of 
 weather. The sumas are made of green ox-hides stripped of the hair 
 into which the flour is forced when they are damp, and the surface 
 when dry is as hard as stone. The flour then, for about half an inch 
 thick, becomes deeply incrusted on the skin, and in this way the con 
 tents are preserved in the most perfect state through the whole winter 
 and will remain so for almost any length of time. The horses engaged 
 in this labour are managed by the Yakuts, who have an extraordinary 
 influence over them, one man superintending from twenty to thirty 
 with the utmost ease and indifference. When on the journey, should 
 the driver stop at any time, such is the docility of those horses, that 
 they will not proceed without him, and although permitted to feed 
 indiscriminately in pastures during the night, they are collected in 
 the morning by the halloos of their keepers ; should any of them be 
 at so great a distance as not to hear him, mounted on one of them, he 
 is soon carried within the hearing of another, which, immediately on 
 hearing his voice, begins to nejgh. This serves as a signal to all the 
 rest, after which they are immediately seen galloping towards him as 
 if sensible of approaching a friend. 
 
511 
 
 In the province of Yakontsk, koumiss is in much repute and of 
 good quality ; the process is similar to that observed in Tartary. 
 The people are very expert in the management of their milk and 
 butter, which are carried in bags called simmire, and made of horse- 
 hides. Their butter is chiefly made while travelling, the new milk 
 or cream being mixed with a little sour ; the agitation during a jour 
 ney of a few hours produces butter and butter-milk. The natives of 
 Yakoutsk lead a pastoral life in a country abounding with fine mea 
 dows which are well stocked with horses and horned cattle. Their 
 best koumiss is prepared from mares milk, and is made in large tubs 
 of birch-bark where the mother on which the fermentation is produced, 
 is contained, and, being always esteemed in proportion to its age, it is 
 preserved with the greatest care, and is bequeathed as a legacy from 
 father to son.* 
 
 Of Siberia, it may be generally remarked, that agriculture, from the 
 misgovernment of its rulers, is retarded by the encouragement given 
 to the hunting of foxes and sables, both for the sake of the personal 
 comfort of their countrymen whose garments they line, as well as for 
 their own private emoluments. The blessings of civilisation might, 
 with a little attention, be productive of the happiest effects, and eradi 
 cate, in a great measure, that unfortunate passion for ardent spirits, 
 which seems to be the ruling propensity of the inhabitants of this 
 portion of the Russian empire. Many, however, are found to be 
 sober and industrious, and were their minds cultivated in proportion 
 to the range of their intellect, they might become an enlightened 
 community. If the habits which agriculture necessarily begets were 
 more generally extended, their introduction would be attended by 
 the most beneficial results. It is satisfactory to find that within these 
 few years back, wheat, rye, barley, and all sorts of vegetables, are 
 becoming plentiful ; and in many parts of this extensive country 
 yield more than a sufficient supply for the inhabitants. Civilisation 
 is on the advance, and even in the interior of Siberia, towns con 
 structed according to the conceits of modern architecture, are now 
 found, anticipating, as it were, the progress of commerce and the 
 effects of nature. The wines and other luxuries of Europe are car 
 ried thither and sold at a very moderate price, and society in those 
 places is sometimes found of a polite and agreeable nature. 
 
 In Kamtschatka, the most eastern district of the Russian empire, 
 a spirit resembling brandy is distilled from a sweet grass, called by 
 the natives slatkaia trava; by others, sloha trava; in botany, spondi- 
 
 * Dobell s Travels, vol. i. p. 343. 
 
512 
 
 llumfoliole pinnatifide. When this plant lias attained its full growth, 
 it is about six feet high, and is covered with a white down, not unlike 
 hoar frost. It is, in taste, as sweet as sugar, but is extremely fiery, 
 ardent, and pungent. The stock is hollow, and consists of three or 
 four joints with large leaves issuing from each. When the principal 
 stem, which is tuberous, runs to seed; it is very tender and palatable 
 when stripped of the rind, and denominated pootchkee. The stalks of 
 the leaves are also hollow, but the juice is so inflammatory that great 
 care is taken in eating them that they shall not toucli the lips, for if 
 they should, an immediate blister would be the consequence. Before 
 the country was subjected to the Russians, this grass was employed 
 as a principal ingredient in the cookery of the Kamtschatdales, but 
 has since been chiefly appropriated to the making of brandy. When 
 prepared and dried, it is purchased by the government at the rate of 
 from three to four rubles the pood. It is gathered and made ready 
 for the distilleries in the following manner : " The stalks being cut, 
 and the downy substance scraped from the surface, they are placed in 
 small heaps till they begin to heat and smell. When dry, they are 
 put into sacks of matting, where they remain for a few days, and 
 become gradually covered with a saccharine powder, which exudes 
 from the hollow of the stalk. Only one quarter of a pound of the 
 powder is obtained from thirty- six pounds of the plant in this state. 
 The women, w r ho conduct the business, find it necessary to defend 
 their hands with gloves, while they are scraping the stalks, the rinds 
 being of a quality so acrid as to lacerate any part it might touch. 
 The spirit is drawn from the plant in this state by the following pro 
 cess : Bundles of it are steeped in hot water, and the fermentation 
 is promoted in a small vessel with berries of the gimolost ; or of the 
 golubitsa; care being taken to close the mouth of the vessel, and to 
 keep it in a warm place whilst the fermentation continues, which is 
 often so violent as to agitate the vessel which contains the fluid, and 
 occasions a considerable noise. When the first liquor is drawn off, 
 more hot water is poured on, and a second fermentation ensues in the 
 same manner. Both liquors and herbs are then put into a copper 
 still, and the spirit is drawn off in the usual way. The liquor thus 
 prepared, is called by the natives raka. According to Steller, the 
 spirit distilled from this plant, when unscraped, is very pernicious to 
 health, and produces sudden nervous disorders.* 
 
 Lesseps says, that those who drink of it are sure to be extremely 
 agitated during the night, and to experience on the next day melan- 
 
 Cookc, vol. iv ; and Lesseps 1 Travels, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
513 
 
 choly and disturbed sensations. But, notwithstanding- those disad 
 vantages, it is drunk by the inhabitants with extraordinary avidity. 
 Those who do not practise the distillation of it, procure it from Rus 
 sia ; and the Cossack traders, who are well aware of their attachment 
 to its delusive qualities, sometimes take advantage of this frailty, as 
 
 the following anecdote related by Lesseps will fully illustrate : A 
 
 Kamtschatdale had given a sable for a glass of brandy : inflamed with 
 the desire of drinking another, he invited the seller into his house. 
 The merchant thanked him, but said he was in a hurry. The Kamts 
 chatdale renewed his solicitations, and proposed a second bargain ; he 
 prevailed " Come ! another glass for this sable ; it is a finer one 
 than the first ! No ! I must keep the rest of my brandy. I have 
 promised to sell it at a certain place, and I must begone ! Stay a 
 moment ! here are two sables ! Tis all in vain ! Well, come I will 
 add another ! Agreed ! drink !" Meanwhile the three sables were 
 seized and the hypocrite made a fresh pretence to get away ; his host 
 redoubled his importunities to retain him, and demanded a third glass. 
 Further refusals were given, and further offers were made. The 
 higher the chapman raised his price, the more the Kamtschatdale was 
 prodigal of his furs. Who would have supposed that it should have 
 ended in the sacrifice of seven most beautiful sables for the last 
 glass ! They were all he had, 
 
 It is known that a Kamtschatdale will sell his last sable for a glass 
 of brandy, and^such is the desire for it, that it is computed that 16,000 
 bottles have been consumed in the period of three or four months by 
 6 or 700 people. It is calculated that the money expended on spirits 
 by one family in two or three months would be sufficient for their 
 support for the whole year, while after these extravagancies they are 
 reduced to the greatest want and misery. The vending of spirits in 
 this country was in the hands of the government, but latterly the 
 monopoly is given up ; yet without advantage to the people, as an 
 extra quantity of spirits of an inferior quality is sold throughout 
 the country by itinerant merchants resembling our pedlers, who fre 
 quent those regions for the sake of the furs. When a Russian mer 
 chant enters the hut of a Kamtschatdale, he takes as much liberty as 
 if the house were his own, occupying the best apartment without 
 ceremony, and ordering dinner or supper in the same way, as 
 well as food for his dogs. In the mean time he is over-reaching the 
 poor host in the purchase of his furs in many instances only giving 
 a glass of spirits and a leaf of tobacco, for what, if fairly sold, would 
 produce something considerable to the unsuspicious and deluded 
 
 Kamtschatdale. 
 
 2 i, 
 
514 
 
 The fondness of these people forvatk?/,OY whiskey, impels them to 
 great exertions in hunting sables and foxes, that by means of their 
 skins they may procure a supply of their favourite beverage for the 
 winter, together with tea and tobacco, regardless of every other 
 luxury. 
 
 Besides brandy, the Kamtschatdales make use of a beverage equally 
 potent, extracted from a red mushroom known among the Russians as 
 a strong poison, and which is considered to be the same as the amanita 
 muscaria of France and Britain. This they ferment in a vessel with 
 fruits, arid scarcely give it time to clarify ere they invite their friends 
 to partake of it. A noble emulation inspires the guests to disburden 
 the master of the house of this nectar, and the company seldom sepa 
 rate until the whole is exhausted. For the use and invention of this 
 liquor they are indebted to their conquerors ; mushrooms in Russia 
 being exceedingly abundant, the quality is well known. 
 
 Coxe tells us, that he seldom entered a cottage without seeing great 
 quantities ; and in the market-places, where they were exposed for 
 sale, the varieties were as remarkable as the number, being white, 
 black, brown, yellow, green, and pink.* The annual sale of these at 
 Moscow amounted to upwards of one thousand waggons. 
 
 The species of mushroom carried to Kamtschatka is named muchu- 
 mor, and, when boiled, communicates a strong intoxicating quality to 
 the water. It would appear from Strahlenberg, that the rich, in some 
 places, lay up great stores of mushrooms ; and the poor who cannot 
 buy, watch, with wooden bowls, their bacchanalian emissions, in order 
 to procure the liquor after a secondary process. But there is strong 
 reason to believe that this is a misrepresentation, as Strahlenberg, the 
 only person that mentions this circumstance, was never in that country, 
 and the testimony of subsequent writers is against him. 
 
 The Shamans, conjurers, or priests among the Kamtschatdales, 
 never attempt to perform their incantations, or to exert their abilities 
 in deception, until they have first eaten of mushroom, (moohkamore, 
 mouchomore, or agraricus muscarius) which immediately throws them 
 into a kind of madness, foaming all the time at the mouth while 
 uttering their cabalistic words and expressions, which are carefully 
 explained by the magician after the frenzy and delirium occasioned 
 by the dose have ceased to operate.f This mushroom, according to 
 Kotzebue, when taken in small quantities, is said to excite an agree 
 able hilarity of spirits ; but if immoderately used, will produce insanity 
 for several days. The Kamtschatdales, animated by this vegetable, 
 
 * Coxe s Travels, vol. vii. p. 394. f Dobell, vol. i. p. 158. 
 
515 
 
 production, entertain their guests and amuse themselves by exercising 
 their peculiar talents in imitating men and animals.* After the same 
 manner, the priests among the American Indians, when consulted, 
 inhaled the fumes of tobacco to such a degree, that it threw them into 
 a stupor or frenzy? during which their credulous votaries believed they 
 were conversing with the gods, and on their recovery they delivered 
 the answers to the questions propounded, which they artfully pretended 
 were received in their communication with the invisible world. 
 
 From the kipri plant, (epilobium) is brewed a common beverage 
 rather agreeable ; a mixture of this vegetable with the sweet herb 
 slokatrava,) boiled and fermented, produces a good vinegar. The birch 
 tree yields by tapping a great abundance of juice which the natives 
 drink without any preparation ; it is pleasant and refreshing, but 
 purgative when unfermented. From the bark, while young, an agree 
 able, wholesome food is procured by cutting it into long stripes, drying 
 it, and afterwards stewing it with their caviar or preserved fish. Wild 
 berries of various kinds are numerous, of a large size, and fine quality ; 
 the principal are red currants, raspberries, whortleberries, cranberries, 
 blackberries, heathberries, wild cherries, and strawberries of a strong 
 aromatic flavour. These are preserved as jams or jellies, but with 
 out sugar, and form during the winter not only a considerable portion 
 of their provision, but a fine sauce for their fish ; tliey also serve for 
 puddings and make a decoction for their ordinary beverages. Koumiss 
 is not unknown to them, and their butter and milk are preserved in 
 birch-bark vessels called by the natives Toots, by the Russians Bourak. 
 These vessels are often ornamented with flowers and figures stamped 
 and inlaid with talc, which adds considerably to their appearance. 
 They have a lid made so tight that they may be carried safely by 
 the handle, which runs across and serves as a keeper. Besides these 
 vessels, drinking-cups are made from the bark, and very ingeniously 
 fashioned. 
 
 The Kamtschatdales are not wanting in intellect, although to a 
 stranger they at first appear stupid ; they are a people more than 
 dull, and are best known after having drunk a glass of watki, a fail 
 ing which not only increases their poverty but renders them devoid 
 of principle. To their fondness for th is liquor has been attributed 
 much of the misery and the scanty population of that portion of Asia, 
 and not to the climate or barrenness of soil. If we believe Dobell, 
 they are a thirsty race, and as fond of the pleasures of the tea-pot as 
 
 * Kotzebue s New Voyage Round the World, in 1823-4-5-G, 8vo. London. 1830, 
 2 vols. vol. i. p. 16. 
 
516 
 
 of the bottle. The first thing, says that traveller, that you must do 
 when you arrive at one of their houses, is to treat the family with tea, 
 and he adds, that he once saw a Kamtschatdale drink eleven half-pint 
 bowls of it at a sitting, and afterwards declare he could have com 
 pleted the dozen had there been water enough in the kettle. This 
 excessive love for tea is surpassed only by the Yakuts, who drink an 
 incredible quantity of melted butter, some of whom have been known 
 to consume at a wedding from twenty to thirty pounds a man, con 
 tending with each other for pre-eminence in the consumption of tliis 
 luxury ; and what is still more singular , the master of a family consi 
 dered himself honoured and was delighted to see half a dozen of these 
 great butter drinkers come to his feast.* 
 
 Of watky or whiskey made from rye, great quantities are drunk 
 by the Kamtschatdales. Individuals have been known to swallow 
 from six to eight glasses of watky without having any perceptible 
 effect, and for this enjoyment, as already observed, they would barter 
 anything they possess. Sometimes they are driven to great irregu 
 larities, while under the influence of intoxication, and their timid dis 
 position alone protects them from the natural consequences. Dobell 
 records a remarkable instance of this nature in one of his own men, 
 who, having got drunk, became so furious that he rushed from his pre 
 sence w r ith a large knife in his hand, seeking the superior of his tribe, 
 prince Zachar, crying out that he w T as an unjust man, and that he 
 would stab him. In vain did his companions endeavour to restrain 
 him ; he continued to rave in this manner until he got near to the 
 prince s dwelling, when he bellowed out with all his force, " come 
 out, Zachar, if you dare. I am prepared to kill you !" The prince 
 hearing this, immediately sallied forth, and with bosom bare, desiring 
 the crowd to stand aside. He advanced boldly up to the Karaikee, 
 and with an undaunted countenance and thundering voice, said, "here 
 is the breast of your prince ! strike if you dare !" The Karaikee 
 seemed petrified ; he raised his hand, but, afraid to strike, the knife 
 dropped from his powerless arm to the ground. " Coward," ex 
 claimed Zachar, " you have saved your life, for if you had aimed a 
 blow at me I would have hurled you to the earth, and your own 
 knife should have let out your heart s blood." The prince then 
 ordered the Karaikee to be confined until he became sober. The 
 following anecdote is further illustrative of the dangerous effects, 
 caused by the excessive use of watky, and shew T s the uncommon 
 attachment that this people have for strong liquors : One of them 
 
 Dobell s Travels in Siberia, vol. 1. 
 
517 
 
 being offered some valuable trinkets, needles, &c., for some rein-deer 
 he smiled and said, " these are pretty things, but I am an old man, 
 and dislike such baubles : my delight is to smoke, and now and then 
 when I can buy liquor, to get heartily drunk ; therefore you shall 
 have this rein-deer for watky and tobacco ; I want nothing else." 
 The bargain was concluded, the old man soon became drunk, but the 
 effects not continuing so long as could have been wished, he, with two 
 of his companions, entered the tent of the purchaser, with their knives 
 drawn in a threatening manner, upbraiding him with having given 
 bad liquor, and threatening to kill him for the imposition. The nar 
 rator had fortunately at the moment his loaded pistols in his hand, 
 and presenting them at the party said, in a commanding tone, " the 
 first man that advances one step further, I shall shoot him instantly." 
 They paused, trembled, and, dropping on their knees, asked pardon 
 for their misdemeanor. They were then disarmed, and a present was 
 made to them of another jug of liquor.* 
 
 The great fondness of those rude and simple people for spirits of 
 all kinds, causes them often to pay at the rate of a ruble per glass for 
 a very spurious species of brandy ; yet, with all their love for it, they 
 seldom have recourse to undue means of obtaining it. Sauer relates 
 a pleasing instance of this honest feeling in a Kamtschatdale, who 
 usually accompanied him on his aquatic excursions, and expended 
 every farthing of his money on spirits : " I one day," says he, " saw 
 him coming to my habitation, and to tempt him, I hid myself in an 
 adjoining roam, leaving a glass of brandy upon the table, andabottle, 
 half-full, close to it, with some sea-biscuit. He came in, saw nobody, 
 and called me, but obtained no answer. Upon which he advanced to 
 the table, and smelt the glass ; " It is brandy," said he, " but I will not 
 drink, and the bottle half -full ! Well, I won t taste you ; but I ll go 
 seek master, and scold him for leaving you in this manner. I ll just 
 smell again and go." I stepped out of the window into the garden 
 and went to meet him ; when he accosted me in the following 
 manner: "I have been into your room, and saw a glass full of 
 brandy; perhaps you won t believe me, but indeed I did not taste it." 
 
 " I dare say you did." " No, by I did not, I knew you would 
 
 not believe me ; but a Kamtschatdale will never take anything with 
 out permission." " Well, I must believe you ; will you come and drink 
 it ?" " Yes, that I will, but I wanted to scold you for leaving it so. 
 A stronger instance than this of forbearance could scarcely be pro 
 duced from among a people vastly superior in civilisation. The 
 
 *Dobell, Yol. i. p. 165. 
 
518 
 
 sale of spirits and the whole of the distillery business are as already- 
 observed, a monopoly of the crown, and farmed to the highest con 
 tractor, not only in the remote regions of Kamtschatka and Siberia, but 
 throughout the whole Russian territory. In some provinces, these 
 contracts are made for a term of three years only : the contractors 
 have a comptoer in each town for the sale of the brandy, and the 
 retailer must have his license and his brandy from the person thus 
 appointed. The contractors are termed Farmers- General, and are 
 under the control of the vice-governors of provinces. The system 
 is considered a bad one, as it is the means of enriching individuals at 
 the expense of the bulk of the people, and giving them a spurious for 
 a genuine commodity. 
 
 This monopoly renders the situation of a vice-governor very lucra 
 tive, and in some instances yields him annually half a million of 
 rubles, or upwards of 20,000. The money is obtained by a per 
 centage on every vedro or anker of spirits sold in the province, and a 
 certain sum paid by the retailers for licenses. In return for this, all 
 the trouble he has is to visit the different distilleries and Kabaks, to 
 ascertain if the spiiits be adulterated, but having already received his 
 bribe from the farmer-general, his inspection may naturally be con 
 sidered in proportion to the extent of the fee. Next comes the 
 farmer-general to make his inspection, then his secretary or chief 
 agent, each receiving an emolument, and the retailer reducing the 
 article to meet these expenses, gives ultimately to the purchaser 
 drink of a very bad description. Milton has noticed a similar system 
 used in his day, taverns called cuirsemay^ were farmed out by the 
 emperor, or bestowed on some duke or gentleman, as a reward for 
 his services. 
 
 The serfs consume most of their earnings in these Kabaks, or dram 
 shops, which are conducted by license under certain regulations, and 
 in many parts the keepers of those houses are Jews,who know well 
 IIOAY to manage their unfortunate customers, and often boast of the 
 great quantity consumed weekly by these misguided creatures. 
 
 As the emoluments increase in proportion to the consumption of 
 spirits, it manifestly becomes the interest of the governor of a pro 
 vince to promote that consumption, for while it increases the revenue 
 and adds to his interest with the government, it also enriches his 
 own coffers, hence the quantity, and not the quality, produced at the 
 public distilleries is chiefly studied. A proof of this is what is related 
 of General Kaptzevitch, governor of Tomsk in Siberia, who ordered 
 the officers that had charge of distilleries, to receive a certain number 
 of stripes, if the quantity of spirits extracted from the grain was not 
 
519 
 
 more than double what had been produced under the preceding 
 governor.* 
 
 The love for spirituous liquors is prevalent in Russia ; but it is 
 generally remarked that quarrels through intoxication are less fre 
 quent in that country than in many others, the people always pre 
 serving good humour in their jolly moments. The Russian plebeian 
 does not sit down to enjoy his friend and his glass as is common in 
 Great Britain and Ireland, but enters the Kabak, lays down his 
 money, drinks off two or three glasses of vatki or agua ardiente, and 
 retires, regardless of the quarrels or the follies of his neighbours; or, 
 if inclined to sit over his glass, the passing events or occurrences of 
 the day have no effect on him, as he seems the mere creature of 
 enjoyment. The attachment to drinking has been long a charac 
 teristic of the people. 
 
 Barbaro, a Venetian ambassador, who visited Russia in the middle 
 of the 15th century, particularly notices the drunkenness of the Rus 
 sians, and relates that the Grand Duke, in order to check this vice* 
 had directed that no more beer should be brewed, nor mead manufac 
 tured, nor hops used ; but all was to no effect, as the passions of the 
 people could not be restrained by any enactments of the monarch. 
 
 At the entertainments of the respectable classes in Russia, sweet 
 vodtki is drunk, as well as wine of various descriptions. Taking a 
 glass before dinner is a common practice, on which occasions, accord 
 ing to Dr. Clarke, slices of raw turnips are handed on salvers along 
 with the brandy. Count Platoff, whose military exploits are so well 
 known, gained the affections of the Cossack soldiery by his suavity of 
 manners, and attention to their comforts. He knew it was the failing 
 of his countrymen to be fond of a glass, and in private conversation 
 with any of them, in which he made himself familiar, he would con 
 clude with asking, "dost thou drink vodtki?" If he received a nega 
 tive, he would say it was well, yet a little was necessary to pro 
 tect against fatigue and bad weather ; adding, that a small glass of 
 something warm, and especially spirits with mustard, was the best 
 medicine. Such is the weakness of the peasantry, that in their most 
 serious acts, they mingle the levities of drinking. It is related of 
 one, that during his devotions in the evening, he would occasionally 
 suspend his orisons to take a draught of quass, and in the middle of 
 the night he would leave his bed to repeat his libation. Even among 
 the army, spirits are distributed on anniversaries, festivals, and times 
 
 * Cochrane s Narrative, vol. i. p. 119, 189. 
 
520 
 
 of public rejoicing. It was a practice of the late Emperor Alexander, 
 to give a ruble and a glass of brandy to every private soldier. One 
 of the young princes, who was in the habit of officiating on one of those 
 occasions, mistook the nature of the order, and directed, five times 
 in succession, that the glass should be repeated and another ruble 
 given. Such was the delicate feelings of respect that the father had 
 for the word of his son, that he permitted the men to receive it, but 
 privately reprimanded him for his indiscretion by stripping him for 
 a time of liis military trappings and honors. 
 
 Although the manufacture of spirits throughout the w r hole of the 
 Russian empire is prodigious, immense quantities are yearly imported. 
 In 1768, the whole amount of the imports of the vine came to 
 697,000 rubles, and the exports from the several parts of Russia, 
 exclusive of those in the Caspian, in 1793, were 3971 oxh, 9 ankers 
 of corn brandy and other spirits, valued in rubles at 66,218. 
 
 In 1794, the entries at the port of Petersburgh were for wine, to 
 the value of 734,000 rubles, and for brandy 7,000 rubles. 
 
 In 1796, the imports at the same port were 
 
 Of ale and porter, 7033 casks, amounting in rubles to 469,217 
 
 Brandy, arrack, rum, and shrub, 112 hhds. 32,605 
 
 Liquors, 21 hhds. 7,902 
 
 Wines of all kinds,19,427 hhds...., 1,568,367 
 
 The imports in 1797, were 
 
 Of beer and porter, 4,500 casks, valued at rubles 327,350 
 
 Arrack, rum, and brandy, 3544 ankers 90,237 
 
 Strong liquors, 3180 bottles 8,680 
 
 Wines of all kinds in hogsheads, 11,294, 985,411 
 
 In 1802, the ralue of the imports were 96,056 rubles. 
 
 In 1803, there were 6507 ankers of arrack, brandy, and rum, 
 imported into Petersburgh. These imports have greatly increased 
 since the establishment of peace among the several powers of Europe, 
 notwithstanding the high duties imposed by the tarifs of the court, 
 which tend to discourage an intercourse with foreign nations in the 
 purchase of articles that may be produced at home, even in an inferior 
 degree. Man, it is well known, is, in all regions, partial to that 
 which best pleases his palate, and hence in those parts of the empire 
 where the brandies and wines of France, the gin of Holland, or the 
 rum of the West Indies, have made their way, a preference is given ; 
 since they are accounted vastly superior to any beverage manufac 
 tured within the boundaries of the Russian territories. 
 
521 
 
 The imports of liquors into Peter sburgh, in the course of four suc 
 cessive years, were : 
 
 1 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 
 55 
 
 859 
 7,289 
 583 
 4,840 
 376,587 
 13,911 
 4,124 
 1,365 
 53,155 
 
 14 
 931 
 6,627 
 753 
 
 2,400 
 423,927 
 9,159 
 6,058 
 1,051 
 86,282 
 
 36 
 696 
 7144 
 667 
 5760 
 393441 
 6559 
 4215 
 1100 
 119609 
 
 28 
 248 
 3723 
 873 
 4747 
 329051 
 10472 
 4379 
 867 
 156934 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wiiip fli a TVID iP nf 1 bottles 
 
 
 Do. Portuguese & Spanish,pipes 
 
 Do. All kinds, bottles 
 
 The imports of wine into the principal ports of Russia, during the 
 following years, were : 
 
 I 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 Wine in hogsheads, 1 28,729 
 
 49,132 
 
 114788 
 365019 
 
 510499 
 87,165 
 371627 
 
 51,711 
 149413 
 503191 
 
 
 Do. in bottles i 99,581 
 
 118406 
 472365 
 52,094 
 
 Do. Champagne in bottles ...J 337489 
 Do. with Liqueurs in casks.. 
 
 Besides the above, the produce of the vintage in seven governments 
 of this Empire, amounted in 1834, to 27,824 hogsheads of wine which 
 are consumed within the Empire. 
 
 The prices, when Tooke compiled his work, stood as follows : 
 
 A hogshead of beer, when purchased from a Russian brewer, costs 
 8 rubles ; from an English brewer, 20 rubles ; brandy was 65 rubles 
 the anker ; port wine from 350 to 250 rubles the pipe ; French, from 
 250 to 150 rubles the hogshead ; Madeira, 300 rubles the hogshead ; 
 champagne, per case of fifty bottles, 200 rubles j Rhine w r ine from 
 one ruble, fifty kopeeks, to three rubles, fifty kopeeks per bottle ; 
 Hungary wine from two rubles, fifty kopeeks, to six rubles the bottle. 
 
 Wine, spirits, and other kinds of drink, are offered for sale in great 
 abundance at the public fairs throughout the different parts of the 
 empire, and London porter is to be had in almost every village ; thus 
 is a facility given to the general use of these beverages. An idea of 
 the extent to which this species of trade is conducted, may be formed 
 from knowing that at a fair in Nizni Novgorod, there were for sale 
 of wine and brandy alone, a quantity worth 6,580,000 rubles, while 
 in the wooden bazaars exclusively, were sold to the amount of 
 4,380,000 rubles, a ruble being ten-pence of our money. The 
 revenue on spirits at Kazan is said to amount to 4,000,000 rubles , 
 
522 
 
 the consumption of which in that city, on a feast day, is estimated at 
 5,000 rubles, and on ordinary days at ahout 1,500 rubles.* In Mos 
 cow, there are about 500 inns and taverns, 200 restaurateurs, 150 
 kabaks or gin shops, 80 beer houses, and 180 wine vaults. 
 
 In Petersburg!!, at the corner of every street is an open kabak for 
 the sale of spirituous liquors, not unlike the old gin shops of London. 
 The better classes consume prodigious quantities of champagne, as 
 well as other descriptions of wines. At dinners of respectability, rich 
 fish soups are introduced, composed of champagne and other expen 
 sive wines, some of which have been known to cost 3,000 rubles? 
 which at lOd. per ruble amounts to 120. No water is used in these 
 expensive soups, and the effect on the company is frequently apparent. 
 Both at Petersburg!! and Moscow, the nobility and gentry entertain 
 in a very sumptuous manner, and their services of plate on such occa 
 sions are costly and superb. Chancellor tells us that when he visited 
 this empire, even so far back as the sixteenth century, the Duke of 
 Moscovy had two cups of gold set with pearls and precious stones on a 
 table in the middle of the dining chamber, out of which he usually 
 drank. These cups were placed in the centre of a large table around 
 which was a great variety of other gold cups for the nobles ; among 
 these stood four crudurces, or pots of gold and silver for holding the 
 drink, and each fully a yard and half in height. At one entertainment 
 given by the Duke, there were 200 persons all served with drink in 
 golden goblets, and so numerous were the vessels of gold, that there 
 was not room on the tables to contain them.f Though the Russians 
 still entertain expensively, the respectable portion of the community 
 are temperate, which forms one of the best and most striking features 
 of their character. The young nobles and officers of the army are 
 particularly fond of French wines, of which Champagne is the 
 greatest favourite. It may be generally observed that the people of 
 this empire are like their fellow men in other countries, prone alike 
 to various vices and possessing many virtues. 
 
 In the British Empire, the distillation of spirits has been long an 
 object of attention, both to the government and the people ; but the 
 period at which this important branch of trade originated in these 
 kingdoms seems now not certainly known. It is indeed probable, 
 that before the introduction of agriculture, mead or honey diluted 
 with water, was the only strong liquor known to the inhabitants of 
 
 * Cochrane s Narrative, vol. i. p. 107. 
 
 t Chancellor s Voyage to the Northern Parts of Russia. Pinkerton s Voyages 
 vol. i. 
 
523 
 
 the British Isles. This was considered a favourite beverage among 
 the Britons long after they had become familiar with other liquors ; 
 since the maker of mead ranked in the courts as the eleventh in 
 dignity among the princes of Wales, and took precedence of the physi 
 cian ; nor could a cask of it be manufactured without acquainting the 
 king or violating the law. According to Macpherson, cider, ex 
 tracted from wild apples, was early known to the British in common 
 with other northern nations, and when the Romans invaded England, 
 such was the acquaintance of its inhabitants with intoxicating 
 liquors, that intemperance and inebriety were ranked among the 
 national vices. Eumenes, in his panegyric upon Constantius, 
 remarks that in the year 296, Britain produced such abundance of 
 corn, that it was sufficient to supply not only bread, but also a drink 
 which was comparable to wine.* This, no doubt, was ale, the Saxon 
 eale, the common drink of the Celtse, which was known long before 
 the Romans had extended their conquests to these islands. The 
 manufacture had become of such uncommon importance in the year 
 694, that Ine, king of the West Saxons, directed that every pos 
 sessor of a farm of ten hides of land, or, as much as required ten 
 ploughs, should, among other articles, pay him twelve ambers of 
 Welsh ale, each containing above seven gallons of English wine 
 measure. 
 
 It is generally admitted, that the vine was first planted in Britain 
 by the Romans, and that its cultivation became considerably extended 
 after its introduction, but the climate not being so congenial to this 
 plant as that of warmer countries, from which wine was so easily 
 obtained, it never attracted that attention which, under other circum 
 stances, might have rendered it an article of importance in the country. 
 It wasplanted, it may be said, more as an exotic for curiosity, and the 
 luxury of its fruit, rather than for making from it drink either for 
 domestic or commercial purposes. Hence we learn that wine was 
 manufactured by the monks from the grapes reared in gardens 
 attached to the monasteries, evidently shewing that it was by a garden 
 cultivation, rather than by a vineyard or field plantation, that this 
 exotic was nurtured ; besides, from what has been already stated, it 
 is evident, that England is without the limits of those degrees of 
 latitude which are congenial to the growth of this fruit ; and in 
 Camden s opinion, it was reared more for ornament than use, and if 
 cultivated by the monks at all for the purpose of making wine, it was 
 because they were familiar with its treatment, many of them having 
 
 * Macpherson s Annals. 
 
524 
 
 come from the countries where it was a common article of culture : 
 and they could, therefore, the more readily meet the uncongeniality of 
 the soil and climate by their skill and attention. 
 
 It would appear that the use of wine was formerly prohibited in 
 those religious establishments, as we find that in the year 738, wine 
 was permitted to the monks of England, by a decree of Bishop 
 Ardan, founder of the monastery of Lindesfern in Northumberland.* 
 
 The Isle of Ely is said, from the abundance of its vintage, to have 
 been denominated the isle of vines ; and the bishop of which, shortly 
 after the conquest, commonly exacted three or four tuns of wine as 
 the tithe of the vineyard, while a certain quantity was reserved in his 
 leases for rent. But even in that island, which was the most favoured 
 place of its culture, the growth was neither permanent nor valuable ; 
 for it appears that in seasons the produce was mere verjuice, shewing 
 clearly that no human skill nor exertions could make the vine flourish 
 in a country to which it was an alien * 
 
 At Roganeia, in the hundred of Rochford, a vineyard is said to 
 have consisted of six arpents, and to have yielded, on an average, 20 
 modii of wine ; while we are told that Gloucester excelled all other 
 parts of England, in the abundance and pleasant taste of its grapes, 
 and that the wine was of a superior description, little inferior to the 
 wines of France. Windsor Park was noted for its grapes, part of 
 the produce the king kept to himself, a part was sold for his profit, 
 and the tithe on the whole formed a part of the living of the Abbot 
 of Waltham, parson both of old and new Windsor. Notwithstanding 
 these historic records, it may be asked, if the growth of the vine was 
 natural or flourishing in England, why discontinue it, or send such 
 sums of money to foreign countries for an article, which might be so 
 cheaply procured at home ? The answer is obvious. England is not 
 the country for its cultivation either with respect to soil or climate, 
 and we find that even in the times in which the vine is said to have 
 flourished most, foreign wines were imported very largely, a proof 
 that the home produce was very scanty, and that to prosecute the 
 cultivation of the vine, was neither successful nor profitable. Misled 
 by the specious reports of William of Malmsbury, Bede, Stowe, and 
 others, many in England attempted to cultivate the vine, but with 
 out any advantageous effect ; and we find in the present day that it 
 thrives best when treated as an exotic in our gardens and green 
 houses : England being a country so far north and so exposed to 
 cold and the moisture of the great Western Ocean, that it could not 
 
 * Ilollinshed s Chron. vol. i. p. 281. Speed s Chron. fol. sec. viii. p. 252. 
 
525 
 
 he expected to be favourable to its culture. This is fully corrobora 
 ted by the endeavours made some years since to establish vineyards 
 in the Isle of Wight, but those efforts completely failed in conse 
 quence of the causes just mentioned. 
 
 There are, however, instances in England of the vine growing to 
 great perfection, such as that planted in 1758 at St. Valentine in 
 Essex, which has extended to more than 200 feet ; and it was known 
 in one year to yield 2,000 bunches of ripe grapes. The vine at 
 Hampton palace, planted in 1769, has a stem 13 inches in circum 
 ference, with branches 14 feet long. It has produced in one year 
 upwards of 2,000 bunches of grapes, the average weight of each 
 bunch being a pound.* 
 
 The Romans who remained so long masters of England, and to 
 whom wine was so familiar, must have made their British vassals 
 acquainted with this grateful liquor ; and the Saxon invaders, their 
 immediate successors, do not appear to have diminished the prevail 
 ing taste for this luxury. Hence we find that a feast given by Hen- 
 gist, about the year 450 to Vortigern, the British king, after the com 
 pletion of Hide castle, that Rowena, the beautiful daughter of the 
 Saxon chief, is represented with a golden goblet filled with wine, 
 drinking to the health of the monarch ; and this is regarded as the 
 first instance on record of drinking healths in Britain. When the 
 practice of drinking healths first commenced, cannot be determined, 
 but the earliest Persian records afford many instances of it. In that 
 country it was fashionable to drink the health of the reigning 
 monarch in bumpers of Zabul wine, and afterwards to kiss the 
 ground in token of respect and submission. Among the Jews, drinking 
 healths implied either a blessing or a curse, according as good or evil 
 was desired for the individual toasted. In the time of Homer, the 
 practice of pledging in drinking was customary ; and from the 
 Greeks, the Romans borrowed that ceremony. At the feasts and 
 social meetings of both the Greeks and Romans,it was a common prac 
 tice to toast the healths of their respective friends, in as many cyathi 
 or goblets as there were letters in the name of the individual men 
 tioned thus six cups were usually drunk during the reign of Augus 
 tus Caesar, answering to the number of letters in his name, by the 
 way of paying him divine honors. At these feasts, it was also fre 
 quent to drink to the honour of the gods and goddesses, and it has 
 
 * On the coast of Barbary, vines have been found with stems of 8 or 9 feet in 
 girth ; and in Italy, vines have continued productive for 300 years. Pliny men 
 tions one of continued bearing for 600 years. 
 
526 
 
 been reported that six hundred glasses have been quaffed on one of 
 these occasions by a single individual. The glasses, however, could 
 not have been more capacious than thimbles, while the time for con 
 sumption must have been very lengthened. Roman antiquarians 
 state, that a person was appointed at every public feast or entertain 
 ment, to regulate the toasts and the quantity of the liquor to be 
 drunk. This person was chosen by a throw of dice, and denominated 
 Arbiter Bibendi, decider of drinking ; and after first pouring out a 
 libation to the gods, the guests saluted each other with the words 
 bene mihi, my own health; or bene vobis, your health, or some such 
 similar convivial sentiment. 
 
 Among these assemblies, each guest was obliged to keep the round 
 or leave the company ; hence the proverb " drink and begone." 
 
 To this Horace refers, but gives more license : 
 
 Thus every guest may drink and fill 
 As much or little as he will ; 
 Exempted from the Bedlam rules 
 Of roaring prodigals and fools. 
 Whether in merry mood, or whim, 
 He fills his goblet to the brim ; 
 Or better pleased, to let it pass 
 Is cheerful with a moderate glass.* 
 
 From the Olympic songs of Pindar, we learn that an opulent 
 father used to pledge, in the midst of his relations and friends, the 
 youth on whom he had fixed for his son-in- law, as a public announce 
 ment of his sanction.")" 
 
 From all this it is reasonable to think, that the practice of drinking 
 healths was first introduced into England by the Romans, and not 
 by the Saxons, who were more a savage than a polished people, little 
 accustomed to the luxuries or refinements of civilized nations. Some 
 suppose that the drinking of healths in Britain was of Scandinavian 
 origin, and draw the conclusion from the writings of Snorro 
 Sturluson, who, when speaking of the practices at the feasts of their 
 gods, and even after the introduction of Christianity, says it was 
 customary to drink the health of Christ, St. Michael, and other saints, 
 in the place of Odin, Niord, and Frey, the early objects of their 
 national idolatry 4 This practice of the Scandinavians may be easily 
 traced to the Greeks, by whom three cups were always taken at their 
 meals ; the first dedicated to Mercury, the second to the Graces, and 
 
 Horat. Sat. Lib. ii. s. vi. v. 67. 
 f Find. Olymp. 7. 
 % Henderson s Iceland, vol. ii. p. 67 
 
527 
 
 the third to Jupiter. Besides these, they drank healths to all their 
 tutelary deities ; to Mercury, the god of sleep, on going to bed, 
 in order to have pleasant dreams ; to Jupiter, as their great preser 
 ver ; and to the other gods in their respective superintendencies. 
 The Greek Scholiasts affirm, that in taking a cup or glass, it was 
 customary to name a friend, and having drunk his health, to pour 
 a portion of the liquor on the ground, repeating his name a second 
 time in token of high regard. Apuleius tells ns that drink was taken 
 not only in remembrance of the dead, but more particularly in honor 
 of fellow-soldiers, whose memories were toasted out of golden cups in 
 honor of their valorous actions hence perhaps the origin of the 
 modern custom of drinking in solemn silence to the memory of an 
 exalted or venerable character. A drink called wassail, a word com 
 pounded of wacs, wishing, and hael, health, implying the wish of good 
 health, seems to convey an idea of the origin of this practice, which 
 was once very common in England. At Christmas, it was customary 
 for young persons to go about with a large bowl of liquor, drinking 
 healths. This beverage was a preparation of ale, made by the admix 
 ture of spices, apples, sugar, and other ingredients, and denominated 
 wassail, while those who served it were called wassailers, which at 
 length became the common appellation for topers and drunkards. 
 Thus Shakspeare 
 
 The king doth wake to-night, and takes his rouse, 
 Keeps wassail, and the swagg ring upspring reels." 
 
 Baily says, this drink was customary among the monks of St. 
 Albans, and usually placed before the abbots, to drink the health of 
 their fraternity. 
 
 It appears from the most authentic accounts of the earliest settle 
 ment of the Saxons in Britain, that wine was familiar among them, 
 yet it was not used with profusion. A great bowl of wine from 
 which the obbce, or big-bellied jugs of the monks, were filled twice a 
 day, for their dinner and supper, was all that Ethelwold allowed to 
 the entire inmates of his monastery ; and at festivals, a sextarium of 
 mead was the quantity distributed among six of the brethren at 
 dinner, and among twelve at supper. On certain occasions, such as 
 one of the great high feasts of the year, a measure of wine was 
 allowed. The favourite drinks of these people were ale and mead ; 
 and in the well-known dialogues preserved in the Cotton library in the 
 British Museum, and quoted by Turner, in his history of the Anglo- 
 Saxons, where a youth is questioned as to what he drank, he replied, 
 " ale if I have it, or water if I have it not. I am not so rich that I 
 can buy me wine, and wine is not the drink of children but of the 
 
528 
 
 elders and the wise." Of ale, indeed, there were at that time throe 
 sorts, hut these were merely modifications of the same beverage. 
 Pigment, morat, and cider were in use. The first of these liquors was 
 sweet and odoriferous, being made of honey, wine, and spices of 
 various kinds ; while the second was made of honey diluted with the 
 juice of mulberries ; and the third was prepared from such fruits as 
 the country afforded. It was customary, however, to use pure wine 
 without any mixture of spices, but to serve the spices on a plate by 
 themselves, which were taken after the wine as a stomachic.* The 
 pigment, or pimint, as it was called, was rather a medicinal prepa 
 ration of the wine, made and sold by the apothecaries who were styled 
 pigmentariij from which it took its name. During these times, it 
 would appear to have been a custom among the Saxons that when 
 dinner was over, and the dishes removed, they continued drinking till the 
 evening.f Wine was used, and the stronger it was, the more it Avas 
 desired. In old times, the best was called Thcologicum^ because it 
 was obtained from the clergy and religious men, to whose houses 
 many of the laity would often send for bottles, being sure that they 
 should not be served with the worst sort, as the vintners would have 
 thought that their souls would go to the devil if they served the 
 clergy with any but the best. 
 
 At entertainments among the Britons, the gentry sat in the centre 
 of the hall around a table, behind whom the attendants, or guards, 
 formed another circle. When dinner was over, the principal person 
 called for a cup of ale and pledged the guest on his right ; the same 
 cup filled to the brim was drunk by each person in succession, the 
 attendants at the same time regaling themselves behind. Women 
 were admitted and highly honoured on those occasions ; but they 
 always retired before intemperance commenced. In the reign of 
 Edgar, drinking was so prevalent, and carried to such excess, that a 
 law was enacted that no man should drink beyond certain wicks or 
 marks made in the pots and sometimes pins for the purpose of limit 
 ing the potation :f hence the phrase, that when an individual had 
 become jolly, he was said to be in a merry pin, having the limits 
 assigned to temperance; and we are told that a whole company drank 
 out of a single vessel handed from one to another, such being the 
 practice of those times. Pledging each other in drinking was another 
 
 * Mill s Hist, of Chivalry, vol. i. p. 169, note. 
 
 t Turner s Hist. Ang. Saxons, vol. ii. chap. iv. p. 51, &c. 
 
 $ Basil Rennet s Hist. England, vol. iv. p. 91. 
 
 William of Malmsbury, B. ii. p. 31. 
 
529 
 
 custom and is said to have had its origin from the death of Edward the 
 Martyr, who was murdered by the treachery of his step-mother, El- 
 frida. The meaning of a pledge was a security for the safety of the 
 individual drinking, who all the time was exposed to the attack of an 
 enemy, his arm being raised to his head, his face partly covered, and 
 his body unprotected. When, therefore, a person was about to drink, 
 he addressed the guest next him to know if he would pledge him, and 
 being answered in the affirmative, the sword or dagger of his compa 
 nion was raised to protect him while drinking.* So debased was the 
 conduct of the Danes in England during the reign of Edgar, and so 
 addicted to inebriety were they, that their bad example induced that 
 monarch, by the advice of Dunstan, Bishop of Canterbury, to put 
 down all the alehouses, excepting one in every village or small town. 
 
 The Norman conquest greatly contributed to the progress of civi 
 lisation and refinement, by the introduction of all the improvements 
 and discoveries known among the French, Italians, Greeks, and 
 Saracens : hence the Normans, on their invasion of England, called 
 the inhabitants barbarians, and so great was their superiority in civili 
 sation, that William of Malmsbury tells us that one of the great 
 distinctions between the Britons and Normans was, that the latter 
 built magnificent and stately castles, whereas the former consumed 
 immense fortunes in riot and hospitality while residing in mean dwel 
 lings. Much refinement and knowledge were also introduced into 
 England by the means of the crusades ; and it has even been stated, 
 with every probability of truth, that the art of distillation was made 
 known in England so early as the time of Henry the Second. During 
 the reign of Henry the Third, in 1256, the manufacture of ale had 
 become of such consequence, that the price of it was fixed in propor 
 tion to that of corn or wine, and a brewer might sell two gallons 
 of it for a penny in cities, and three or four for the same price in the 
 country.f 
 
 In 1302, barley-malt rated at 3s. 4d. per quarter, and from the 
 cheapness of wheat, the brewers malted that grain also. The beer 
 made from barley was 3d. or 4d. a gallon, while that from wheat was 
 but IJd., wheat being then only about 2s. the quarter-f This caused 
 a proclamation prohibiting tlie malting of wheat, lest it should prevent 
 the encouragement of its growth for bread, and give the advantage to 
 corn and other inferior grain. The Chronicles of Rymer shew that 
 in 1504, ale sold for about 3d. and beer for 2s. 4d. a gallon. The 
 
 * Strutt s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Britons, vol. i. p. 49. 
 
 f Hume, vol. ii. p. 333. 
 
 $ Vide Fleetwood s Chronicon Preciosum, p. 75. 
 
 2 M 
 
530 
 
 method of making this liquor, as practised by the ancient Britons and 
 other Celtic nations, is thus described by Isidorus and Orosius : " The 
 grain was steeped in water and made to germinate, by which its spirits 
 were excited and set at liberty, it was then dried and ground, after which 
 it was infused in a certain quantity of water, and being fermented, it 
 became a pleasant, warming, strengthening, and intoxicating beverage." 
 The reader will perceive that this is the same drink described by 
 Pliny, and mentioned in the early part of this work, as common to the 
 several nations in the West of Europe. The grain usually employed 
 in its manufacture was barley, but wheat, oats, and millet were some 
 times used.* In Arnold s Chronicle, published in 1521, maybe seen 
 a receipt for making beer, which is nearly as follows : " Ten quar 
 ters of malt, 2 of wheat, 2 of oats, with lllbs. of hops, for making 11 
 barrels of single beer." The ancient Welsh and Scots had two kinds 
 of it, called common and spiced ale, and the value of each was thus 
 determined by law : " If a farmer hath no mead, he shall pay two 
 casks of spiced ale, or four casks of common ale for one cask of mead." 
 By this statute, a cask of spiced ale, nine palms in height and eighteen 
 in diameter, was valued at 7. 10s. of our present coin; and a cask 
 of common ale of equal dimensions at about 3. 13s. of the same 
 currency. At this period, common ale was an article of such luxury 
 among the Welsh, that it could only be procured by the great and 
 opulent. Previous to the introduction of Christianity, this liquor was 
 in such repute, that the Saxons and Danes believed that " to drink 
 large and frequent draughts of it was one of the greatest pleasures 
 enjoyed by the heroes admitted into the hall of Odin.""j* Meetings 
 were formerly held in England for the express purpose of drinking 
 ale, denominated Scot-ales. One of these called give-ale, seems to 
 have been a remnant of Anglo-Saxon superstition. These drinking 
 bouts were sometimes held in public-houses and sometimes in the 
 church or church-yard. The expense of a Scot-ale was defrayed by 
 joint contribution ; and when held in taverns, the clergy were not 
 allowed to be present. There were occasionally common drinkings 
 termed leet-ale, clerk-ale, church-ale, and bride-ale, the last of which 
 still prevails in Scotland under the name of penny bride-ale, a prac 
 tice intended to assist those who are unable to defray the expense of 
 a wedding- dinner.J In some parts of Germany, similar superstitious 
 customs long prevailed. On making an additional window to a new 
 
 * Henry s History of England, vol. ii. pp 361-2-3-4. 
 
 f Mallet s Northern Antiq. chap. iv. Antiquarian Repertory. 
 
 % Supplemental vol. Encyc, Britannica. 
 
531 
 
 building-, or altering an old one, was the Fensterbier (window-beer), 
 a festivity of drinking and dancing. At the dinner after the cere 
 mony of baptism, the mother was presented by the male sponsor with 
 a glass of wine and a piece of money, to relieve her from the beer- 
 soup, the sole aliment which she was permitted to taste during her 
 confinement. At the churching of women, was also a boozing-match 
 termed Karkbier (church-beer), and weddings had their concomitant 
 indulgences, though not designated by any particular name. Funeral 
 solemnities were attended with the Grabbier (sepulchral-beer), malt 
 potations appearing to have formed an essential part of all ceremonial 
 observances.* At the feasts and entertainments given in England in 
 those times, the consumption of ale and wine was very considerable. 
 Three hundred tuns of ale and one hundred tuns of wine were con 
 sumed at the installation of George Neville, Archbishop of York, in 
 the year 1466. Much of the wine on those occasions was warmed 
 and mixed with spiceries, and used at breakfast, as well as at other 
 meals. Great families took four meals a day, breakfast at seven, 
 dinner at ten, supper at four, and livery, a meal now unknown, 
 between eight and nine in the evening. They sat at dinner from ten 
 in the morning till one in the afternoon, by which indulgence three of 
 the best hours of the day were wantonly consumed. The side-boards 
 were always well supplied with beer, ale, and wines, which were 
 served in pewter and wooden cups. A quart of beer and a quart of 
 wine for two individuals were the allowance at the morning repast ; 
 and at the liveries, or evening collations, a gallon of beer and a quart 
 of wine. The custom among shop-keepers, mechanics, and labourers, 
 was to breakfast at eight, dine at nine, and sup at six. 
 
 In the time of Elizabeth, ale was so common in England, that it 
 was used at breakfast in conjunction with animal food with the same 
 familiarity that tea is now used with bread and butter. Houses for 
 the sale of this beverage were first licensed in England in the time 
 of Edward the Sixth, by an act of the 5th and 6th of that monarch. 
 In 1603, by a statute of James the First, the power of licensing inns 
 and alehouses was granted by letters patent to certain individuals, in 
 which it was enacted, that no victualler could sell less than one full 
 quart of the best ale for one penny, and two quarts of the smaller sort 
 for the same. In 1643, in the reijn of Charles the First, a tax was 
 laid for the ensuing year on beer and ale, calling it by a new name 
 Excise, a word, some say, borrowed from the Belgic acciisse, which 
 signifies tribute. 
 
 * Letters from Mecklenburg and Holstein, by George Dowries, Svo 
 
532 
 
 As great abuses were at first committed under the mode by which 
 this branch of revenue was collected, it was soon after placed on the 
 same footing with that of the other branches of excise.* This duty, 
 however, was not very productive, as appears from an abstract of the 
 money raised in England for a period of nineteen years, viz. from 
 November the 3d, 1640, to November the 5th, 1659, during which 
 the whole amount of wine-licenses is rated at 312,200. In 1663, 
 the amount was 20,000 ; in 1688, lO,OOO.f About this period, 
 the ale and beer brewed in England came, on an average of some 
 years to 4,950,413 barrels of strong, and 2,254,006 barrels of small 
 beer annually. In the year 1691, the quantity brewed by the common 
 brewers in the city of London and its suburbs, amounted to 1,222,764 
 barrels of strong beer and ale, and 865,831 barrels of small beer. 
 
 The duty upon these articles being doubled in that year, it set 
 a number of private brewers to work, which so affected the licensed 
 brewers, that in the year 1695, the annual quantity of strong beer 
 and ale was reduced to 909.299 barrels, and the small beer to 813,824 
 barrels. In 1724, the quantity of strong beer brewed in London and 
 the neighbourhood was 1,172,494 barrels, and of small beer 789,495 
 barrels, while in the whole kingdom the strong beer was computed at 
 4,075,871, and the small beer at 2,465,695 barrels.^ For further 
 satisfaction the reader may consult the Tables in the Addenda in 
 which he will find an account of the beer and ale brewed in England, 
 for certain periods from the year that the excise on that article was 
 put under the management of Commissioners in the time of James 
 II., and embracing portions of the reign of William III, Anne, George 
 I., II., III., IV., and William IV. In 1822, there were in London 
 98 brewers and 37 licensed victuallers, who brewed 2,000,932 barrels, 
 of which 1,673,603 were strong, and 327,329 table beer. In the 
 rest of England were 1488 brewers and 20,575 licensed victuallers, 
 who brewed 5,547,875 barrels, of which 4,345,015 were strong, and 
 1.202,860 table beer. From the 5th January, 1829, to 5th January, 
 1830, there were brewed in the London district 1,521,064 barrels of 
 strong, and 261,824 of table beer ; while in the country there were 
 made 4,483,724 barrels of strong, and 1,1 18,643 of table beer.|| The 
 number of brewers in London in 1836, were 106 common brewers, 
 
 * Sinclair s Hist, Revenue, p. 208. f Ibid. pp. 261, 268. 
 
 J Maitland s History of London. 
 
 Parliamentary Paper, No. 571, ess. 1823. 
 
 J| Parl. Paper, No. 191, 25th March, 1823. 
 
533 
 
 and 25 victuallers, with 130 persons licensed for general sale ; who 
 brewed all they sold. In London and throughout England, the 
 consumption of malt was : 
 
 YEARS. BUSHELS. BUSHELS. 
 
 1832, London 4,462,915 England 25,884,159 
 
 1833, 4,777,134 26,796,973 
 
 1834, 5,392,244 28,944,723 
 
 1835, 5,404,682 29,897,333 
 
 1836, 5,907,951 30,921,797* 
 
 In the whole of England, for the year 1836, there Arere 2,099 
 licensed brewers. The victuallers were 54,551, besides 36,536 victual 
 lers licensed to sell on the premises, with 4,118 victuallers licensed 
 not to sell on the premises. 
 
 The use of malt liquor, some are of opinion, was not introduced into 
 England before the time of Henry VII. in whose reign the breweries, 
 or beer-houses, as they were then termed, were twice put down by 
 the legal authorities, either for selling without license or for making 
 the liquor too weak. By an act of Henry VIII. in 1532, only two 
 descriptions of beer, strong and double, were permitted to be manu 
 factured, the strong fixed at 6s. 8d. and the double at 3s. 4d. the 
 barrel. The public demand increasing yearly, induced the brewers to 
 advance their prices contrary to the statute, so that in 1591, the 
 government ordered that the brewers should sell at the prices fixed 
 by law. The Brewery Company which was incorporated in the time 
 of Henry VI. 1438, remonstrated on the hardship of being obliged to 
 dispose of an article at a rate far below its value, every material 
 employed having considerably increased in price from the time of 
 passing the statute. Notwithstanding the enactment, the consump 
 tion continued to increase, and during the time of Elizabeth, the export 
 of beer had become a valuable branch of commerce. The Queen 
 herself, in her right of purveyance^ a prerogative then inherent in the 
 crown, caused considerable quantities of beer so obtained to be sold 
 on the continent for her own emolument. 
 
 The sovereigns of England had the prerogative of purchasing 
 necessaries for the support of the royal family at an appraised 
 value, even without the consent of the proprietor. This inquisitorial 
 privilege was known by the names of purveyance and pre-emption ; 
 but it became at length so disagreeable to the people, that the right 
 was abolished and the Excise was established in its stead by the Long 
 
 * Vide Parliamentary Paper, 1837. 
 
534 
 
 Parliament in 1643, and afterwards made hereditary to the crown.* 
 This import is supposed to have been originally planned by a Mr. Pirn, 
 and was at first laid on spirits only. The customs were also an 
 ancient prerogative of royalty, and at first consisted of small sums 
 paid for the accommodation of warehouses, weights, and measures, with 
 some small duties levied as fines and tribute for the liberty of traffick 
 ing. Besides these means of subsistence for the regal household, in 
 some of the early reigns, deficiencies were frequently supplied by 
 tyrannical exactions, and by a voluntary contribution entitled a 
 benevolence. Edward I., when about to engage in a war with France, 
 had recourse to the latter expedient, and summoned the wealthiest 
 persons in his dominions that he might obtain sufficient assistance. 
 The money raised in this way was sometimes very considerable, for, 
 being given spontaneously, it was often munificent. Interesting inci 
 dents are related respecting such donations. Among these, it is 
 stated, that the monarch just mentioned, applied personally to a rich 
 widow, who, though advanced in years, was so charmed by his agree 
 able manners and handsome person, that she answered his request 
 saying, "By my troth, for thy lovely countenance thou shalt have 
 20 !" With which the king was so much pleased, that he gave the 
 old lady a kiss, and she was so delighted with this mark of royal 
 condescension that she added 20 more to the benefaction. Though 
 Benevolences were annulled by Richard III. yet Henry VII. endea 
 voured to raise money by that impost. 
 
 The duty first imposed on beer in 1660, by the 12th Charles II., 
 and granted to him for life, was two-shillings and six-pence per barrel 
 for strong, and six-pence for table-beer, at the same time that a duty 
 was laid on wine as well as on wine licenses : this revenue w T as farmed 
 till 1684, when it was placed under Commissioners. For some years 
 previous to that time, it was managed by George Daikwood and 
 partners. In 1688, the excise on this article, clear of all deductions, 
 amounted to 666,383.f By the 5th of William and Mary, in 1694, 
 the duties were raised to four-shillings and nine-pence on strong, and 
 one-shilling and three-pence on table beer ; but the products were 
 not so great, and they afterwards continued to fluctuate according to 
 the change of the duties. The increase of population and the habits 
 of the people have now rendered the consumption of this beverage 
 prodigious, and notwithstanding that the duty was 10s. on every barrel 
 exceeding 16s. and 2s. on every barrel of 16s. or under, the net 
 
 Sinclair s History of the Public Revenue of the British Empire, p. 34. 
 f History of the Revenue, p. 281. 
 
535 
 
 amount of revenue for the year 1821 came to 2,549,620 18s. 9-d,* 
 and the average annual produce for the eight succeeding years was 
 3,259,439. 
 
 In 1504, ale was sold in England at 3d. per gallon, and it was about 
 twenty years after, that hops were introduced, which event is thus 
 noticed by one of our writers : 
 
 "Hops, reformation, bays, and beer, 
 Game into England all in one year." 
 
 Another version of this distich is, 
 
 " Hops and turkeys, carp and beer, 
 Came into England all in a year." 
 
 Which latter is considered the more correct. As the first version in 
 which allusion is made to the Reformation, would fix the introduction, 
 of hops to Henry the Eighth s time, this error seems palpable, the use 
 of this plant in brewing being well known long before, although it 
 appears to have been unknown to the ancients as a preservative of 
 beer, nor have we any account of their having employed any other 
 substance as a substitute. 
 
 Hops were used by the brewers in the Netherlands early in the 
 fourteenth century ; and the use of them in malt liquor was brought 
 into England from Artois. Some say, though perhaps incorrectly, 
 that tlu s circumstance first gave that drink the name of beer, to dis 
 tinguish it from the softer and more ancient malt liquor called ale. 
 Yet it is certain that beer, as a beverage from malt, was known and 
 used under that name long before ; for, previous to the Norman con 
 quest, brewing was a business of some consequence in London. The 
 word ale is derived from the Saxon eale, and beer, according to some 
 philosophers, is from the Welsh bir ; but its natural origin appears to 
 be from here, the Celtic term for barley, the grain from which it was 
 first produced. The planting of hops was prohibited in the reign of 
 Henry VI., and brewers were forbidden to use them in ale by an 
 edict of Henry VIII. In the 5th year of Edward Vl.f privileges 
 were granted to hop-grounds, and lands were set apart for their 
 cultivation, so that their praises were celebrated by a poet in the 
 following couplets : 
 
 " The hop for his profit I thus do exalt, 
 It strengtheneth drink and it flavoureth malt ; 
 And being well brewed, long kept it will last, 
 And drawing abide, if you draw not too fast."J 
 
 * Parl. Paper. f ^ & G Edw - 6 > c - 5 - 
 
 Tusser s 530 Points of Good Husbandry, 1557. 
 
536 
 
 In the reig n of James I.,* hops were cultivated to some extent in 
 England, but not in such quantity as to supply the demand, since, in 
 1608, a statute was passed against the importation of bad hops. The 
 great supply, however, was drawn from abroad until 1690, when, to 
 increase the home plantations, a duty of 20s. per cent, over and above 
 all other charges, was put upon what was imported ; and in 1710, the 
 duty of one penny per pound was imposed upon all hops reared in 
 England, and three-pence on foreign hops.f Having been so circum 
 stantial in the history of hops, it may be naturally enquired of what 
 service they are in brewing, and what was substituted for them pre 
 vious to their introduction. The answer requires little research. 
 Experience has proved the salutary effects of bitters on our digestive 
 organs ; and hence the use of hops in malt liquors, as they seem to 
 diminish their noxious effects, prevents them from becoming sour, 
 invigorates the stomach, and promotes digestion. Valuable as they 
 are in malt liquors has been found, yet, like the introduction of any 
 novelty, they were opposed, and in particular by the citizens of London, 
 In a petition to parliament as a nuisance, in common with Newcastle 
 coal. The one as spoiling the taste of the drink and endangering the 
 health of the people, the other as offending by its disagreeable smell 
 and injurious effects.f Previous to the use of hops, ground-ivy, called 
 alehoof or tunhoof, (glechoma hederacea) was generally employed for 
 preserving beer. The ale, says Parkinson, in his Theatrum Botani- 
 cum, published in 1640, which our forefathers were accustomed to 
 drink, was a thicker drink than beer, but left off since hops were 
 added, as they altered the quality and made it more healthful in pre 
 serving the body from the repletion of gross humours which the ale 
 engendered. The hop, (humulus lupulus,) as an ingredient in our 
 malt liquors, is found to possess in itself, elements of activity which 
 other materials that have been employed in its stead, do not possess, 
 combining the properties of astringency, bitterness, and aroma. Be 
 sides narcotic and diuretic principles, it imparts to the beverage a 
 tonic quality and an agreeable flavour, modifying the bitterness with 
 a warm and stimulant property. The application of this vegetable is 
 to remove from the beer the active principle of its fermentation, for 
 which purpose a certain quantity of hops is boiled with the wort, 
 before it is set to ferment, and no other material has yet been found 
 capable of supplying its place, as its essential oil conveys a pleasing 
 
 * Hume, vol. vii. p. 242. 
 
 f Anne, c. 1 2. 
 
 t Blithe s English Improver Improved, 3rd Ed. 1653. 
 
537 
 
 flavour, and prevents the fluid from running into the acetous or putrid 
 fermentation. The brewers about Paris are said to use buxinia, (an 
 extract from boxwood,) as a substitute for hops, and which is said to 
 possess a powerful, bitter, and sudorific principle. Quassia and other 
 bitter materials that have been tried to supply the place of hops, are 
 both hot and unpleasant, and as they contain no saccharine matter to 
 produce spirit through the vinous fermentation, they add nothing to 
 the real strength or richness of the liquor ; besides, they are wholly 
 destitute of the aromatic flavour which the hops impart, and incapable 
 of communicating that fine, full, and bitter quality, so much prized by 
 the lovers of beer, ale, and porter. Quassia, a tree of Guiana, and 
 so called in honour of a drunken doctor, a negro named Quassia, who 
 discovered the virtue of the wood in curing malignant fevers, is a bad 
 substitute for hops ; for though sufficiently bitter, it wants astringency, 
 and other properties, particularly those which are sufficient to precipi 
 tate the vegetable mucilage or gluten. Gentian is little better, though 
 it has been used in this way from a remote period. This plant is 
 said to have received its name from Gentius, King of Illyria, who 
 first discovered its medicinal qualities 167 years before the Christian 
 era. Common mugwort (artemisia vulgaris) and water trefoil (meny- 
 antkes trifoliata,) have also been tried and found equally deficient in 
 the hop principle. 
 
 Wormwood, before the hop acquired so much estimation, was 
 employed as a preservative for ale and beer ; many preferred the 
 flavour it imparted to that given by the hop. The French distil it, 
 and manufacture it into a liqueur that is greatly admired,* but its 
 value as a bitter in malt drink can never supersede the virtue of the 
 hop. Horehound has also been made use of as a succedaneum when 
 hops were dear. Besides the articles already mentioned, there are 
 many plants, which yielding bitter astringent juices, are, or might be, 
 substituted for hops. In Sweden, Norway, and the Highlands of 
 Scotland, heath (erica,) and common broom were used in some places, 
 and are still occasionally employed for a similar purpose. In certain 
 parts of France and Germany, nothing but broom-tops is resorted to ; 
 and in Guernsey, the teucrium scordonia serves perfectly well to 
 answer the intention. English hops are accounted preferable to 
 those of the Continent, as they possess more gallic acid and 
 tanning Kent, which has been denominated the hop-garden of 
 
 * The Japanese, according to Thunberg, (vol. iii. p. 71) use the leaves of worm 
 wood for tinder. They are so prepared as to form a material of a brownish 
 colour, which is easily ignited. 
 
 f Paris s Pharmacologia, vol. i p. 311. 
 
538 
 
 England, is considered to yield the best. Among- these is a peculiar 
 species much esteemed by porter-brewers, and is the produce of the 
 Humulus Germanicus, a plant well known in other parts of Europe. 
 As a substitute for hops, a bitter wood was, at one j time, imported 
 from Jamaica, particularly when there was a scarcity, which was sold 
 so high as 80 the ton ; but being vastly inferior to hops, the govern 
 ment put such a duty on it, that it operated as a prohibition. Though 
 some brewers use birch-bark, and others that of the common oak, 
 (Quercus Gallus) yet it is not for the preservation of the drink, but 
 because these materials, containing much tannin and other astringent 
 matter, imbue the liquor with a rough, bitter flavour essential to its 
 composition. It is to be regretted that either from want of knowing 
 how to obtain the right flavour from malt and hops, or from avarice and 
 to vend a spurious for a genuine article, many brewers, regardless of 
 the laws, use deleterious ingredients, either for the sake of colour, 
 taste, or strength, or to economize malt and hops. Spanish liquorice 
 properly employed, gives colour, flavour, and richness. Cocculus 
 Indicus, or what is called the black extract made from the berries, 
 which gives a fictitious strength highly pernicious, causes head-ache, 
 and other dangerous affections. Nux-vomica. a species of poison, and 
 the berry of a tree indigenous to Ceylon and the Coromandel coast, is 
 also used. Dr. Fleming says, that the Hindoos of Upper India are 
 in the habit of adding it in the process of the distillation of arrack ; and 
 Roxburg, in his Botany, says that it is added in order to render the 
 spirit more intoxicating. The fruit from which the seeds or real 
 Nux-vomica of the shops is obtained, is about the size of a large 
 apple, having a round, smooth, hard, shell of a rich orange colour. 
 When ripe it contains a soft jelly-like pulp, containing the seeds from 
 two to five in number, which are flat, nearly round, an inch broad, 
 and about one-eighth of an inch in thickness. The pulp is considered 
 perfectly harmless, as it is eaten eagerly by many sorts of birds, and 
 the root is used for the cure of native intermittent fevers, and the 
 bite of venomous snakes : such is the drug which is too often incau 
 tiously used by some of our brewers ! Capsicum., a very hot pepper, 
 although employed to give warmth and briskness to the liquor, is not 
 deleterious, but, on the contrary, wholesome, and a safe corrective of 
 flatulency. Salt of steel, and sulphate of iron (copperas,) are impro 
 perly substituted for this ingredient, and have the eifect of giving a 
 fine head and colour to porter. Grains of paradise, as well as capsi 
 cum, either in their natural state, or in the form of a concentrated 
 tincture, are used for imparting pungency to beer. Ginger-root, 
 coriander-seed, and orange-peel^ are employed as flavouring sub- 
 
539 
 
 stances ; alum, and sometimes oil of vitriol, are resorted to for the 
 purpose of giving it the relish of age. 
 
 Hops yield a crop of great uncertainty, and are attended with much 
 risk to the contractor, for which reason although this plant appears to 
 give encouragement to agriculturists, from the fact of 45,662^* acres 
 of land being devoted to its growth in England, yielding at an average, 
 20,000, OOOlbs. annually, yet there might be policy in giving np the duty 
 on it altogether, as this measure might induce brewers to employ 
 nothing else in the manufacture of their beer, which they have often 
 been compelled to do from the high impost, at least that has been 
 urged as a reason for doing so. The duty on hops, previous to the 
 year 1801, was only a penny per pound, or 9s. 4d. the cwt., but since 
 that date it has been two-pence a pound, or 18s. Sd. the cwt. The 
 gross of this article for 1821 was 241,303. 4s. 2\d. and the net 
 amount 221,372. 17s. \\\d.\ In 1831, there were 43,500 acres of 
 hops under cultivation, and the average of the duty for that and 
 the preceding year was 280,182. In 1835, the duty averaged 
 409,055 18s 2d. 
 
 The trade in malt liquor in England employs an immense capital, 
 since, besides what is consumed in the country, large shipments are 
 annually exported. In a Table in the Addenda, in which the exports 
 to India and China are stated, will be found an account of the quan 
 tities of this commodity sent to those countries. The following is 
 the aggregate of the exports of strong beer to different parts of the 
 world for ten years, viz. : . 
 
 YEARS. BARRELS. TEARS. TUINTS. 
 
 Imperial measure. 
 
 1826 53,013 1831 8,884 
 
 1827 42,602 1832 11,330 
 
 1828 59,471 1833 11,629 
 
 1829 71,842 1834 10,405 
 
 1830 , 74,902 1835 12,880 
 
 The brewing of porter, a drink which chiefly differs from ale and 
 beer by being made with higher dried malt, commenced some time 
 about the year 1722. It was then the common practice in taverns to 
 call for a pot of half-and-half, meaning half ale and half two-penny, 
 sometimes an equal portion of ale, beer and two-penny was demanded 
 called three threads. To avoid all this trouble of drawing these 
 liquors from their respective casks, a person of the name of Harwood 
 
 * Parl. Paper, 1822, No. 232. 
 f Finance Accounts, 1822, p. 48, 
 
540 
 
 formed the plan of brewing a drink that would answer every purpose, 
 and partake of the same flavour united. He effected his object, call 
 ing the beverage entire, or entire butt, because it was taken from one 
 butt or vessel ; and from being purchased by porters and such like 
 persons, it was ever afterwards distinguished by the name of porter. 
 
 In the manufacture of this liquor, the English have not been excelled 
 by any other nation, although it is imitated in most of the countries 
 of Europe. Popular opinion will have it that the water of the Thames 
 is superior to any other for the making of porter, but Mr. Richardson 
 alleges that this is a mistaken idea arising from vulgar prejudice, since 
 it is indisputable that other water makes malt-drink equally good, 
 and some of the principal brewers find the New River water as ser 
 viceable. The specific gravity of the former is 1000. 3, and its spissi- 
 tude 1000.182, while the specific gravity of the latter is 1000.8, and 
 its spissitude 1000.344.* 
 
 It is said that the annual quantity of porter brewed in London 
 exceeds 1.316,345 barrels of 36 gallons each ; and that the consump 
 tion of porter and ale in that metropolis amounts to 2,000,000 of 
 barrels and upwards. This vast supply is chiefly drawn from the 
 breweries within the city, which, in respect to size, style of building, 
 and ingenuity of operations, are not surpassed, nor indeed equalled by 
 any other establishments of the kind in the world. Some idea of 
 their magnitude may be formed from the brewery of Messrs. Bar 
 clay, Perkins, and Co., once the property of Mr. Thrale, the friend 
 of Dr. Johnson. This concern occupies a space of about ten acres 
 in area, and the buildings which contain the vats are of extraordinary 
 dimensions. There are upwards of 100 of these vessels on the pre 
 mises, the average content of each being 4,000 barrels, and the fer 
 menting tuns are also so capacious as to contain 1,400 barrels severally. 
 There are, moreover, three copper boilers holding respectively 150 
 barrels. The machinery of the establishment is worked by two steam- 
 engines, one of which is twenty-two horse power, and the produce of 
 the liquor is from 3 to nearly 400,000 barrels ; while the malt con 
 sumed in a year exceeds 100,000 quarters, and the hops upwards of 
 3,000 bags. It gives employment to at least 200 persons on the 
 premises and in various other ways to almost twenty times that 
 number, while 160 horses belonging to the proprietors are constantly 
 engaged in conveying materials to and from the brewery* As a 
 matter of novelty, five and t\venty gentlemen dined in one of the 
 coppers, and when they had retired, fifty of the workmen went into 
 
 * Vide Treatise on Brewing. 
 
541 
 
 it and regaled themselves at the same table. His Majesty George 
 III. partook of an entertainment in a similar manner, given in one of 
 the tuns in Whitehead s establishment, which was conducted on a 
 magnificent scale suited to the dignity of the Royal visitant. This 
 need not appear incredible, since the vats in these concerns are of most 
 enormous size. One for holding porter in Meux s brewery is; 65J 
 feet in diameter, and 25^ feet in altitude, containing 20,000 barrels, 
 giving a surface of 3,370 square feet, equal to a room of 58J in each 
 of its lineal dimensions, and competent to accommodate nearly 100 
 persons at dinner. In 1814, one of the large vats in this establishment 
 burst, from which the porter rushed with such impetuosity, that the 
 adjoining streets resembled rivers, and the surrounding houses were 
 so filled with the liquor that eight persons were drowned amidst the 
 multitude who were making their escape from its ravages. Domestic 
 brewing is carried on throughout the country in various degrees of 
 extension ; the farmers brew for their own use even to half a bushel 
 of malt. The manner in which this home manufacture is conducted 
 will be best comprehended by the following detail of the process : 
 The apparatus generally consists of a rum puncheon cut into two 
 unequal portions, forming vessels of different capacities ; the smaller 
 serves as an underback, and the larger for a mash-keive and ferment 
 ing tun. Two or three tubs, about the size of mashing-tubs, are 
 employed as coolers or as receivers of the worts from the keive. The 
 boiler is usually either a large pot or copper cauldron. The keive is 
 set in a block or stool in such a position that the run from it must fall 
 into the underback from the spigot, and when a perforated piece of tin or 
 copper cannot be had to cover the hole through which the worts run, 
 a bunch of birch-twigs like a besom, is placed over it to prevent the 
 grain from being carried off with the liquor. During this preparation for 
 the brewery, the water for washing is kept boiling in the copper from 
 which it is poured into the keive in sufficient quantity to answer for 
 the first running. The necessary heat of this water is ascertained by 
 suffering the steam to subside, so that a person looking into the keive 
 can see his image reflected from the surface. If mashing is commenced 
 at a greater heat, experience has shown that it would become thick 
 like pudding and not run off. When the water in the keive has come 
 to the temperature just stated, the malt, consisting of about three- 
 fourths or seven-eighths of the whole quantity, is gently poured in, being 
 first well bruised between cylinders, the person in attendance taking 
 care to mix or stir it briskly while throwing it in, so as to prevent it 
 getting into lumps. Too much caution in this respect cannot be 
 observed, as much of the extract depends on the proper mixing of the 
 
54<2 
 
 grain with the water. When thus mixed the residue of dry malt is 
 lightly scattered over the top or surface of the keive, and then the 
 whole is covered with sacks or a lid to preserve the heat, ?ind the 
 better to saturate the malt. In this state it is allowed to stand for 
 three hours, at the end of which the spigot is drawn partly out in 
 order to obtain a portion of the liquor to know if it be sufficiently 
 fine ; if not, further time is given, and it is successively tried until it 
 is found to be quite clear, when it is run into the underback. At this 
 stage, the hops, consisting of about l^lbs. are laid loose either in the 
 vessel or in a bag, while the water in the meantime is preparing for 
 a second mash. The heat of this water ought to be of a higher degree 
 of temperature than that used in the first mashing, the spigot being 
 secured at the bottom of the keive, the water is admitted when another 
 mixing takes place. The keive is again covered and allowed to 
 stand about two hours: during this operation, the produce of the first 
 brewing is kept boiling in the copper, to which it was immediately 
 conveyed, along with its proportion of the hops, after the commence 
 ment of the second mashing. In order to ascertain when the worts 
 are sufficiently boiled, a small quantity is taken out, and if flakes are 
 seen to be suddenly precipitated to the bottom, the process is con 
 sidered completed ; but an error can scarcely take place by its boil 
 ing too much, for, if not well boiled, the liquor will never appear fine 
 in the glass. The worts of the second mashing being collected, are 
 boiled in the same manner, bnt for a shorter time, as there is less glu 
 tinous matter to separate. After the first worts are boiled, they are 
 strained through a sieve, &c. When cooled to a blood-heat, a small 
 quantity is put into the fermenting tun with the addition of some 
 barm. As soon as fermentation commences, the worts are kept adding 
 in small quantities, until all is poured into the tun. Care is necessary 
 to preserve the fermentation in a proper state, for if too cold, it would 
 cease altogether, and if too hot, the drink would be flat and without 
 briskness, but if properly managed, it would preserve a fine body and 
 show a sparkling in the glass : about sixteen hours accomplish all 
 the purposes of fermentation in the tun, when the barm at the top is 
 skimmed off and the liquor drawn into a barrel previously well cleansed 
 and dried. The barrel should be filled to within an inch of the bung 
 to give room for further working, and it should be filled so close to 
 the bung-hole, that all impurities should get leave to escape through 
 it. A small quantity ought to be kept out to fill up the vacancy in 
 the cask occasioned by the working. When the fermentation has 
 subsided, the bung should be merely laid on the bung-hole, afterwards 
 the cask slightly bunged, lest it should burst, and when the fermenta- 
 
543 
 
 tion has completely ceased, it is closely bunged and fit for drinking 1 . 
 The produce of the second mashing is treated in the same way as the 
 first, but the drink is considerably inferior ; if a third mashing take 
 place, some add a couple of pounds of either raw sugar or molasses, 
 which produce a tolerably good small beer. Allowing a bushel and 
 a half of malt to cost 9s. 4d. and the hops employed 1*. 6d., the amount 
 of such brewing would be worth 10s. lOc?., and taking the produce at 
 10 gallons of strong, and 14 gallons of inferior beer, the average price 
 for each gallon would only be about b^d. per gallon for a good and 
 wholesome beverage, and much superior to what is to be had in the 
 common taverns at 3d. per quart. Another mode of brewing on a 
 small scale for domestic purposes has been thus described: A porter 
 barrel set on end, having the upper head removed, perforated with 
 gimlet holes, and placed on brackets within about three inches of the 
 real bottom. Between these two bottoms a cock should be placed to 
 drain off the liquor. Another barrel will answer the purpose of an 
 underback to receive the worts as they run off. A tin boiler with a 
 cock at the bottom, covered inside with a grating to prevent the hops 
 from running out, will serve the purpose of heating the liquor for the 
 mash, as well as for boiling the hops. Fifteen gallons of boiling, and 
 five of cold water, are to be thrown into the mash-tun, to which two 
 bushels and a half of ground malt are to be added. During these 
 operations, a person is constantly stirring the malt and water, and 
 should continue to do so for half an hour. All this time it would be 
 well to keep the barrel covered with some folds of linen to prevent 
 the escape of heat. In the course of an hour, the cock may be opened 
 by degrees, the liquor will then run clearly, and when all has been, 
 run off, 20 gallons of water almost boiling, is to be poured over the 
 residuum and allowed to percolate, so as to wash down the worts 
 remaining. The total amount of worts obtained may be reckoned at 
 23 gallons. The wort is then to be boiled for about twenty minutes, 
 with S^lbs. best hops, then drained off, cooled to about blood-heat, or 
 98 of temperature, when after the infusion of a quart of good yeast, 
 the fermentation commences, and is encouraged till its completion. 
 When the fermentation shows a tendency to go down, the liquor is 
 racked off into a cask closely bunged, and in about a month it is fit 
 for drinking. 
 
 In Staffordshire, Shropshire, and Warwickshire, as well as in the 
 midland counties, it is a common practice for women to brew, and 
 many of them follow it as a means of livelihood, going from house to 
 house, as the wants or the calls of the farmers, or victuallers, require. 
 This has been the practice for centuries: hence the term " ale-wives" 
 
544 
 
 as recorded in several of the old statutes. Those who are in the 
 practice of constant brewing, whether for the supply of their own tap 
 rooms or for those of their neighbours, have commodious apparatus 
 for the purpose, with a thermometer and other scientific instruments ; 
 and brewing in England may be said to have arrived at a degree of 
 perfection unknown in other countries. 
 
 The ingredients for making a good strong keeping ale, should be 
 in the following proportions 40 bushels of best pale malt to 501bs. 
 of hops. For the first mash 10 barrels of water at 172 may be let 
 on, and raked for half an hour, water at 180 may then be poured in, 
 so as to pass through the malt and to wash away all the worts previ 
 ously soaked in the mash. These liquors, when boiled down with 
 the hops, fermented and finished, ought to produce 8 barrels of ale 
 at lOOlbs. gravity on Dicas s Saccharometer, although what remains 
 is inferior to what has been previously obtained. The same malt and 
 hops will, however, serve for making table-beer. AVith this view, a 
 second mashing may be made with water at the temperature of 185, 
 and even a third mashing, at a temperature of 190^, the quantities 
 being such, that after boiling on the same hops, fermenting, and 
 finishing, there will be 12 barrels of beer, at 301bs. gravity. 
 
 A good description of ale may be procured from 40 bushels 
 of prime pale malt and 301bs. of good hops. The temperature at 
 mashing may be as already stated, and it may be calculated to produce 
 both ale and beer. In this case 12 barrels of ale at 701bs gravity, and 
 10 barrels of beer at 301bs. will be produced. If the object is merely 
 to obtain ale at 701bs. of gravity, the quantity produceable will be 14 
 barrels. If table-beer of a good quality, without any ale is required, 
 the quantity of materials to produce 30 barrels of finished beer would 
 be 40 bushels of malt, 251bs. of good hops, as much water as will 
 produce 35 barrels of hopped wort ; and this will finish about 30 
 barrels of beer. In calculating the quantity of water necessary to 
 produce a given quantity of a first mash, it will be of use to know 
 that an imperial bushel of ground malt absorbs and retains about 6* 
 imperial gallons of wort. 
 
 Burton ale is in high estimation for both strength and quality. It 
 is made from the palest malt and best hops, having a gravity so high 
 as from 36 to 401bs. a barrel. If the malt be not very good, only one 
 mash can be made for this liqour ; but if it be of prime quality, two 
 mashes may be made, not losing sight of the great specific gravity 
 which ought to be produced. The heat of the liquor should be 185 
 or 190, adding 5 for the second mashing. If only one brewing is 
 to be made, the wort may be boiled an hour and a quarter ; if two, 
 
545 
 
 the worts should be boiled three quarters of an hour for the first, and 
 an hour or an hour and a quarter for the second ; keeping constantly 
 in mind that long boiling is injurious to the colour, a property of no 
 small recommendation to the value of the ale. The quantity of hops 
 must be Jibs, to the bushel of malt varied by circumstances, but the 
 more hops that are used the higher will be the colour of the ale. 
 During the process of fermentation the heat should be about 75, and 
 as the first temperature would therefore be 55 > at an average the 
 quantity of yeast, both on account of the circumstances and the great 
 weight of the wort, should not be less than Jib. to the barrel. The 
 excellence of Burton ale arises not only from the use of the best malt 
 and hops, but from the peculiar quality of the water, which is impreg 
 nated with saline particles from the rocks of gypsum, over which it 
 flows. 
 
 The revenue arising from the breweries of England, as already- 
 noticed, was of great importance to the state, not only from the duty 
 imposed on beer, but from that raised on malt, of which such immense 
 quantities are annually consumed by the brewers. In the year ended 
 5th January, 1828, the number of bushels of malt charged with duty 
 was 25,096,337 ; in 1829, there were 30,517.819; and in 1830, 
 there were 23,428,074.* The duty of 2s. 7d, a bushel on this article 
 for the three years in question, amounted to 10,209,621. 7s. 6d* 
 averaging 3,403,207. 2s. 6d. annually. If to this be added the duty 
 on beer for one year, (taking the average of the same three years) 
 being 3,087,716. Os Id., the yearly aggregate of both will be 
 6,490,928. 2s. 7d., a prodigious revenue levied on one article of 
 agricultural luxury* 
 
 In England, the malt charged with duty after the abolition of 
 the beer duty, was, in 
 
 YEARS. BUSHELS. BUSHELS. . 
 
 1831, from barley 32,963,470 bigg 38,630,157 duty 4,257,781 
 
 1832, do. 31,669,769 do. 40,492,339 do. 4,090,678 
 
 1833, do. 33,789,009 do. 42,735,480 do. 4,364,413 
 
 1834, do. 34,449,646 do. 4,449,745 
 
 1835, do. 36,078,855 do. 4,660,185 
 
 Much has been written against the malt duty, as pressing on thd 
 agricultural interests of the country, and that a high impost on it may 
 have this tendency, there is reason to believe, but, that a moderate 
 duty would prove injurious, is questionable* It is argued that the 
 present charge on malt is too high, and that a much greater quantity 
 would be consumed, and the public benefited either directly or indi- 
 
 * ParL Paper, No. 183, 21st June, 1830. 
 
 2 tf 
 
546 
 
 rectly by a reduction. The demand would increase the price of 
 barley, the malster make greater exertions, more hands would be 
 employed, and the price of labour advanced in proportion. 
 
 It has been calculated that in the 37 years ended in 1828, the 
 malt tax brought 135,700,000 into the treasury. Before the late 
 beer duty was repealed, the malt consumed in England and Wales 
 was ^ by public, and | by private brewers. As a principle main 
 tained throughout this treatise, that high duties are not only injuri 
 ous to the interests of the manufacture on which they are imposed, 
 but also to the revenue, is well exemplified in the case of the duty 
 under consideration, since it appears that in 1787 the quantity of 
 malt made was 3,400,000 quarters ; and in 1828 the quantity manu- 
 actured was 3,100,000, notwithstanding an increase of 6,800,000 
 in the population during this interval of 40 years. 
 
 The regulations under which the present malt duty is levied, 
 although giving considerable privileges to the malster, are still suffi 
 ciently vexatious, and often place character and property at the mercy 
 of designing individuals. A low duty would lessen not only temp 
 tation to evade the law, but induce the trader to act with fairness 
 and put him less in the power of persons connected with his con 
 cerns the results to the revenue would, it is confidently maintained, 
 be proportionably advantageous. 
 
 By an act passed in the reign of his late Majesty, the duty on 
 beer and ale was repealed, * under the impression of affording to the 
 people a cheap, good, and wholesome beverage, and relieving them 
 from a tax which operated against their industry. Of the policy of 
 this measure much has been argued by its advocates and opponents ; 
 some contending that while it aiforded satisfaction and saving to the 
 consumers, it would increase the use of the beverage, and conse 
 quently augment the revenue by a greater consumption of malt. On 
 the other hand, it has been urged that an experiment of this nature 
 would tend to deteriorate the article by placing its manufacture in 
 the hands of men, who would take advantage of the public, in the 
 absence of the regulations under which it was governed, which required 
 beer to be made from malt and hops alone, by substituting raw grain 
 in lieu of malt. Both arguments are deserving of serious attention, 
 but perhaps sufficient data have not yet been obtained since the pass 
 ing of the late bill to enable a just estimate to be formed of either 
 its salutary or injurious consequences. The reader may form a judg 
 ment of this, by a comparison of the quantity of malt charged before 
 and since- the abolition of the beer duty, as previously given. 
 
 * Will. iv. c. 51. 
 
547 
 
 To add to the comforts of the poor and working classes of society") 
 is an object worthy of legislative interposition, but whether permit 
 ting the unrestrained sale and use of beer and ale will tend to effect 
 that object without the risk of demoralisation, is a point yet to be 
 determined by experience. From the parliamentary returns of 
 1831, it appears that 5379 beer-houses were opened under the new 
 act in England and Wales, while the number of licensed public-houses 
 was 45,624. The beer-houses in Wales alone were 1773, equal to 
 nearly half the number opened in England, being 3606, from which 
 it is evident that the increase of the establishments for the sale of 
 beer had multiplied extensively by the removal of the former restric 
 tions, and consequently affording greater opportunities for drinking 
 and irregularity. As to the financial consideration of the question 
 and the benefit which the abolition of the beer duty has conferred 
 on the public, it might be contended that if the revenue is not 
 likely to be decreased by the measure, in consequence of the in 
 creased consumption of malt, where is the substantial advantage 
 afforded to the public when the burden is removed from one article 
 and placed on another, which eventually goes by an indirect way 
 to affect the consumer ? It is well known that a considerable 
 quantity of grain consumed in the breweries of Great Britain, is 
 drawn from foreign countries; hence it follows, that an increase 
 of the consumption of malt is an increase of the demand for foreign, 
 produce, to the injury of the home agriculture. But admitting 
 that the grain manufactured is of domestic growth, is not the 
 abrogation of the duty on beer a kind of bounty for its con 
 sumption, to the injury of the great bulk of the people ? for, however 
 favourable the law, as it stands, may appear to be, as regards the 
 consumers of malt drink, yet any thing that will enhance the price of 
 agricultural produce must militate against the industry and earnings 
 of the gross of the population. Besides, it is a melancholy reflection, 
 that a temptation and a facility to become dissipated should be put 
 in the way of the public ; nor can it be denied, that the beer bill must 
 greatly contribute to this evil consequence, however plausible the 
 reasoning may be in favour of the moderation of the people. 
 
 Man is unfortunately too prone to yield to the dictates of appetite 
 in preference to those of reason ; hence the irregularities of which we 
 have too often to complain even amongst the wiser and better educated 
 portions of society. " When a nation," says Playfair, " becomes the f 
 slave of its revenue, and sacrifices every thing to that object, abuses 
 that favour revenue are difficult to reform ;" but salutary restrictions 
 on the use of intoxicating beverages can never, with justice, be com- 
 
548 
 
 plained of as an oppresssion, on which account no well-wisher to his 
 species or his country should be desirous to see an unlimited indul 
 gence in whatever would tend to encourage vice, or render man either 
 contemptible or odious. 
 
 When the duty on beer existed in Ireland, it was considered as 
 affecting the comforts of the people, and as a sort of oppression on the 
 nation, as well as giving encouragement to the consumption of ardent 
 spirits. With a view of remedying this evil, the duty was repealed 
 altogether ; but experience has shewn that none of the anticipated 
 consequences followed, nor was the revenue on malt thereby increased, 
 as had been expected. Whether the same results may be the con 
 sequences of the present measure, time alone can determine. 
 
 The revenue raised on this article was of the utmost importance in 
 England, and the regulations under which that revenue was collected, 
 while they gave protection to the fair trader, served equally to ensure 
 to the public a genuine article. As matters now stand, nothing but 
 the competition of trade can protect the public from the avaricious 
 malpractices of cunning and nefarious manufacturers ; and since we 
 find that from January 1827, to February 1831, there were in 
 England and Wales 303 informations, many of them for a second 
 offence, against persons for adulterations in beer, of which number 
 only 13 were acquitted ; * what may not be expected when the trade 
 is without any legal restrictions ? 
 
 In Great Britain, the partiality for malt drink has been more exten 
 sive than in Ireland ; and, therefore, the people would hail any mea 
 sure as a boon that would permit them a freer enjoyment of long 
 established practices. In Ireland, a taste for ardent spirits has been 
 always a national characteristic, but this is more attributable to the 
 inattention of the legislature than to any peculiarity of the natives 
 either in taste or constitution. The English have been restricted 
 almost to aprohibition in the use of every other beverage except that of 
 beer and ale, but that their taste might not be equally inclined with 
 that of their Irish brethren to a more potent liquor, is mainly to be 
 traced to the vigilance of legislative interference, since we find that 
 the inhabitants of both countries are alike disposed when they have 
 equal access to the same gratification. 
 
 That the duty upon beer affected the industrious part of the com 
 munity alone, is an idle assumption, for we find that the weight of any 
 tax generally falls upon the idle consumer, who seldom thinks of 
 making compound interest on the money he might employ if no such 
 tax existed ; for if it did not exist, the money would probably be 
 
 * Parl. paper, No. 136 ^ 10th Feb. 1831. 
 
549 
 
 wasted in the purchase of a more expensive gratification. What possi 
 ble evil could have existed by the continuance of the beer tax, I 
 have yet to learn ? Would less beer or ale be consumed, fewer of the 
 fields be cultivated, or the population of the country be diminished ? 
 Every person is able to answer these questions ; in short, the aboli 
 tion of the duty has been more to still the popular clamour, frequently 
 the result of inconsideration, than from any conviction of its utility 
 either to the state or to the community. The brewing of beer was 
 as unrestricted before the repeal of the late laws, as it is at present, 
 and the only difference it makes as regards the trade, is, that the 
 visits of the Excise officer are not so obtrusive as formerly on the 
 deleterious manufacturer, and the terrors of his appearance and his 
 power to inflict penalties for misdemeanor, no longer haunt the 
 imagination, nor conjure up fear to the guilty heart. Every person, 
 before the annulling of the act, had liberty to brew beer and ale, 
 either for domestic use, or for sale, and those who made it for their 
 own private purpose, had nothing to do with the officers, or excise 
 regulations, so that the liberty of the subject is nothing bettered by 
 the late enactments. 
 
 Though beer is chiefly made from barley, yet it has been produced 
 from other materials than grain. The fold beet, (mangold wurzel) 
 sometimes called the root of scarcity, on account of its esculent 
 qualities, has been successfully employed in this way. From this vege 
 table, ale is made of different strengths and qualities. A good drink 
 is obtained from ten pounds of the root to a gallon of water ; but 
 fifteen pounds to the gallon make a better beverage. 
 
 The best mangold wurzel ale is procured from a portion of two- 
 thirds of the root, to one third of malt. The method observed in the 
 process is to cleanse the roots well, scrape off the rind, slice them, and 
 boil them down to a pulpy consistence. From this, the liquor is 
 squeezed out till not a particle remains. This juice is then boiled 
 with hops in the ratio of six ounces of "the latter to nine gallons of 
 the former ; yeast is then added in the usual way, and the liquor is 
 speedily fermented. Mangold wurzel is also used in distillation, and 
 an act has been passed legalizing its manufacture into spirits ;* the 
 red species is the most common, but the pale yellow sort is pre 
 ferred by the distiller and sugar-boiler : though possessing the vinous 
 principle in a considerable degree, yet it is scarcely half so productive 
 in that respect as the potato. Mangold Wurzel requires little care 
 in its cultivation, and from its value to farmers, is daily getting into 
 estimation ; it grows some times to a great size ; a single root has 
 
 * 4 William IV. cap. 74. 
 
550 
 
 been known to weigh 321bs., measure 30 inches in circumference, 
 and, including the top, to be 4 feet in height. 
 
 Spruce Seer) which is a common drink in Great Britain and 
 Ireland, is either white or brown, according as sugar or molasses is 
 employed in the making. In Norway, Sweden, Denmark,, and 
 America, where pines abound, this liquor is made from a decoction 
 of the leaves, rind, and branches ; but with us it is an essence or fluid 
 extract procured by boiling the shoots, tops, bark, and cones of the 
 Scotch fir (pinus sylvestris) which are used in the process. A solution 
 of any of the natural or prepared sweets, with a due proportion of 
 spruce, makes spruce beer, spruce ale, or even spruce wine. 
 
 Molasses is commonly adopted ; sugar is preferable, and honey is 
 excellent. Various recipes have been given for the manufacture of 
 this beverage. The following may be taken as a pretty correct 
 standard : To 8 gallons of boiling water, tempered by 8 gallons of 
 cold water, add 161bs. of treacle for brown, or 161bs. of lump sugar 
 for white spruce, with 6 table-spoons full of essence ; mix them well 
 together, and ferment them with half-a-pint of barm for two days ; 
 and then bottle for use. A weak extract of malt makes a good spruce 
 beer, when well regulated in the process. The virtues of this liquor 
 are, perhaps, not so well known as they should be; it may therefore be 
 proper to observe, that all preparations from spruce are warm, stimu 
 lating, and anti-scorbutic, sweeteners and purifiers of the blood, 
 cleansers and healers of internal ulcerations, and, like other bitters, 
 strengthened of the vessels, dissolvents of mucus, and expellants of 
 calcareous concretions : hence, in long voyages, essence of spruce is 
 now deemed indispensable. When this article was first used in mak 
 ing a beverage, is not well known ;* from the mildness of its effects, it 
 has attracted less of that notice which intoxicating liquors usually 
 command : while, however, its medicinal qualities are of benefit to man, 
 it has not by its consequences, depreciated his character, or lowered 
 him in his moral dignity. 
 
 The manufacture of cider in England is of some importance, and 
 its qualities have been long celebrated. As a summer drink, it is in 
 great demand, being less subtle and impetuous than wine, possessing 
 so agreeable an acidity, and so capable of allaying thirst, that it is 
 accounted superior to some of the ales ; besides, it does not cause 
 flatulence, and serves as an agreeable, gentle aperient, very salutary 
 in warm seasons. By distillation it produces a good spirit, but is 
 seldom converted to that purpose, in consequence of its acidity ren 
 dering the liquor rather disagreeable ; but this is greatly remedied by 
 
 * Vide page 480. 
 
551 
 
 rectification. In Normandy, a great deal of cider is distilled, some of 
 which is sent to tliis country under the name of arrack, or some other 
 foreign spirit, according to the way it has been flavoured. The inven 
 tion of this liquor is attributed to the Normans. As however the 
 term cider was applicable to all kinds of strong liquors except wine, 
 it is reasonable to think, that its invention was long known to the most 
 ancient nations, since the apple is spoken of in several parts of holy 
 writ, and the liquor produced from it is celebrated by the Greek and 
 Roman writers. Cider is alluded to by Tertullian and St. Augustine, 
 from which some have supposed that it was of African origin, and 
 brought from that continent by the Carthaginians into Europe. Its in 
 troduction into England is thought to have been about the time of the 
 conquest, though in contradiction to this, it is asserted that apples were 
 plentiful in Britain centuries before that era ; and Whittaker says the 
 use of this beverage was introduced by the Romans.* Like many 
 other inventions, the exact period of its origin cannot be determined 
 in this, or any other country. No nation has so highly appreciated 
 the value of cider as the English ; and Phillips has immortalized its 
 virtues in a classical poem in imitation of Virgil s Georgics, which 
 Johnson says, " need not shun the presence of the original." 
 
 In cider, the aqueous, oily, and vinous principles are so admirably 
 blended, and the wholeis so imbued with the grateful flavour of the 
 rind, the aroma of the pulp, and the bitter of the seeds, that, when, 
 matured by time, the liquor becomes both delicious and wholesome. 
 The lovers of cider say that those who drink it are more healthy and 
 strong, and have better complexions than persons addicted to ale or 
 wine ; and according to Lord Bacon and Dr. Baynard, it promotes 
 longevity. In the estimation of Sir George Baker, it possesses such 
 medicinal qualities that drinking it in large quantities has been known 
 to cure several persons of dropsy.f 
 
 In the process of making good cider, the apples should be assorted 
 according to their kinds, and the degrees of ripeness, and left for 
 some time in heaps. They should afterwards be bruised in a mill or 
 trough, and allowed to remain in open vessels a day or two, and then 
 pressed between hair-cloths, the liquor running into a vat or large 
 cask, and suffered to stand there until fermented, when it should be 
 drawn off and placed in other vessels till it becomes fine and clear ; 
 and lastly, racked off and kept in casks, or bottled for use. A por 
 tion of brandy, with a little flour of sulphur infused, renders the 
 liquor purer and less liable to grow hard and sour. 
 
 * Hist. Manchester, vol. i. p. 321-2. 
 
 t Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians, 1772. 
 
552 
 
 Modern cider-makers conceive that while fermentation is going 
 forward, the introduction of a moderate proportion of sugar would 
 greatly tend to the improvement of the liquor on the principle that 
 the French recommend amelioration of their harsher wines by a similar 
 mixture during fermentation. This, it is thought, while it strengthens 
 the body of the drink, imparts to it a peculiarly rich quality. 
 
 A similar practice is common in Burgundy, and in the process of 
 making wine it is singular that a preference is given to sugar extracted 
 from potatoes, not only on account of its cheapness but of its more 
 readily amalgamating with the fluid than either the sugar of the cane 
 or of the beet-root. The wines of Burgundy are never brandied, 
 except those made up for the English market, the sugar supplying 
 the place of any addition of spirits. Were sugar extracted in large 
 quantities from potatoes in the cider districts of England, an improve 
 ment might be made in this drink at a trifling expense. 
 
 A very strong liquor may be obtained from cider, by allowing it 
 to freeze, and then drawing off* that portion of the fluid which remains 
 unfrozen in consequence of retaining its heat. A most wholesome 
 liquor called Pomona wine, is prepared, by adding 1 gallon of brandy 
 to 6 of new cider after being racked oft", which, when eight or twelve 
 months old, is a good substitute for wine, and preferable to many of 
 the wines sold by retailers. 
 
 Perry, a beverage prepared from pears, in the same manner as cider 
 from apples, is considered to be, when well made, not inferior to some 
 wines, and has been often passed for champagne on account of its close 
 resemblance in taste and sparkling. It is, therefore, frequently used 
 by retailers in the adulteration of that wine. At the period of fixing 
 the duty on ale and beer, cider and perry were also subjected to a 
 taxation of Is. 3d. per barrel ; but the law being now repealed, it 
 may be sufficient to state, that the revenue on cider and perry was 
 never considerable ; the last three years before the repeal of the act, 
 which took place in 1830, the amount of revenue was, in 1828, 
 37,380 on 3,161,971 gallons ; in 1829, 25,015 on 2,677,195 gal 
 lons ; and in 1830, 49,044 on 4,129,453 gallons. 
 
 The principal cider and perry districts of England are in Hereford, 
 Gloucester, Devon r and Worcestershire. The apples that are fa 
 vourites of the table, are seldom fit for cider-brewing ; those of a 
 red and yellow colour are most esteemed. The harsher sort of pears 
 produce the best perry ; the redder and more tawney they are, the 
 more they are preferred ; and crab-apples mixed with them are said 
 to improve the quality of the liquor One great advantage attending 
 the culture of pear-trees is, that they will thrive on land where apple- 
 
553 
 
 trees would perish, and that they grow so large that a single tree has 
 been known to afford from one to four hogsheads of perry. An 
 extrordinary tree in Herefordshire has more than once produced 
 fifteen hogsheads in a year. This tree covers nearly half an acre of 
 land, and like the Banian of the East, its extended branches becoming 
 heavy, bent their extremities to the ground, took root, and produced 
 other branches, each forming, as it were, a distinct tree. For further 
 information respecting the mode of manufacturing those liquors, the 
 reader is referred to works written expressly on the subject.* 
 
 As to wine, it was always held in such high estimation, that the 
 importations were carried on extensively. In 1272, Edward I. 
 imposed a duty of two shillings on every tun of wine imported into 
 England in lieu of the old impost called prisagef an ancient branch 
 of the royal prerogative. This tax afterwards obtained the name of 
 butlerage, because it was paid to the king s butler ; this duty charge 
 was abolished in 1311. When the first duty was levied on wines, the 
 importations were principally French and Rhenish ; the Spanish, 
 Portuguese, and Italian wines being then little known. About the 
 year 1300, the merchants of Gascony were settled in London in 
 great numbers; and in 1317 an order was issued, "that merchants 
 who are not of the freedom of the city are forbidden to retail wines 
 or other wares within its precincts or suburbs." Home-made wines 
 were also in repute in those times, since we find that in the reign of 
 Henry III., a gentleman held his manor of Norfolk on condition of 
 supplying the king, annually, at his Exchequer, with two vessels termed 
 mites of wine made of pearmains ; and in the subsequent reign of 
 Edward I., pearmain cider was also called wine, which, perhaps, might 
 account for the mention of vineyards in old times in Kent, Sussex, and 
 other parts of England, to prove the existence as well as the extent 
 of which has caused much trouble and controversy. If an argument 
 were wanted to show even the inutility of vineyards in Britain, the 
 cheapness of foreign wine at the time the vine is said to have been 
 cultivated in England, is conclusive, since, according to Stowe, in 1342, 
 the price of Gascon wines in London was only 4d., and that of 
 Rhenish 6d. per gallon; and in 1389, foreign wine was but 20s. per 
 tun for the best sort, and 13s. 4d. for the second, making it about 
 
 * Knight s Treatise on the Apple and Pear ; Crocker s Tract on the Art of 
 making and managing Cider; Marshall s Rural Economy of Gloucestershire; 
 Shannon on Brewing ; also the writings of Nicol, Abercrombie, Neill, Forsythe, 
 Vancouver, &c. 
 
 t Sinclair s Hist. Revenue, p. 40 and 94. 
 
554 
 
 three half-pence per dozen, certainly much cheaper than it could 
 possibly be made in England. At those periods, the English were 
 much addicted to habits of inebriety and spent a great portion of their 
 incomes in riotous feasts, where eating and drinking were carried to 
 excess] without elegance or reputation. According to Holliushed, 
 the strongest wines were in the greatest request, while claret and 
 other light wines were scarcely thought of. Giraldus Cam- 
 brensis describes the tables of the monks as loaded with the 
 most costly and delicate dainties, as well as an excessive abundance 
 of different sorts of wines, such as claret, mulberry wine, mead, 
 and various sorts of strong liquors, so that no room was found 
 for ale. This writer relates that the monks of St. S within, at 
 Winchester, fell prostrate before Henry II., and with tears in their 
 eyes, complained of their bishop having withdrawn three dishes from 
 the usual supply of their tables. When the monarch found that they 
 had still ten left, he told them he was himself contented with three, 
 and that he would curse the bishop, if he did not restrict them to 
 that number. The laity also indulged in the luxuries of the table. 
 John of Salisbury says, that they drank wine out of gilded horns, 
 strewed their houses with flowers, and sung songs when they became 
 inebriated. 
 
 In 1354, there were 1829 tuns of wine imported into England, and 
 wine was so abundant, that in 1392, when Richard II. after a long 
 absence, was received in London by the citizens, with great demon 
 strations of joy, the very conduits in the streets, through which the 
 cavalcade passed, were allowed to run with every variety of this 
 beverage.* To this extravagance there are few parallels, except that 
 of Potemkin, when he gave a magnificent feast to the empress 
 Catherine, at his palace in the Taurida, when the conservatory fountains 
 were filled with champagne and claret, and served to the company by 
 means of silver pumps applied to those reservoirs ; at this time white 
 wine was sold at 6d. and red at 4d. per gallon.f Chaucer the poet, 
 in the reign of Edward III., was the first who received a potation of 
 wine daily from the king s butler, and Richard II., in 1398, granted 
 him a tun of wine yearly during his life, with a pension of 20, both 
 of which grants were confirmed by Henry IV. In the reign of this 
 monarch, among the articles which furnished the breakfast table of 
 the nobility, were, for a gentleman and his lady in lent, a quart of 
 beer and a quart of wine ; and a gallon of beer and a quart of wine 
 
 * Maitland s London. f Stovre. 
 
555 
 
 at their liveries, a kind of repast taken in their bed-rooms immediately 
 before going to rest. At this time, wine was usually drunk warm 
 and mixed with spices, but whether to promote health or to gratify 
 the palate is now unknown. Under Edward VI. wine rated at from 
 4d. to 15d. a gallon, and it was a singular enactment, that none but 
 such as could spend 100 marks yearly rent, or was worth 1000 marks, 
 or the son of a duke, earl, viscount, or baron, could keep any vessel 
 of Gascony, Guienne, or Rochelle wine for his family s use exceeding 
 10 gallons, under forfeiture of 10. None could be retailed without 
 a license, and only two taverns could be kept for retailing, in any 
 city or town, except in London ; which was permitted to have 40 
 York, 8, &c. &c., and none of these could retail wines " to be spent 
 or drunk within their respective houses." In the time of Henry VIII. 
 wine was used at breakfast in common with beer, and we are told 
 that a quart of each was the usual quantity served to two persons. 
 At an entertainment given to Queen Elizabeth, at Kenil worth Castle, 
 by the Earl of Leicester, it is said that an immense quantity of wine 
 was consumed, besides 365 hogsheads of beer. In her reign the 
 English were extravagant in the use of wines ; Harrison enumerates 
 fifty-six sorts of French, and thirty-six of Spanish, Italian, Greek, 
 and Canary wines, so that 30,000 tuns were annually imported. To 
 these were added, hippocras, worm-wood wine, stale ale, strong beer, 
 clarey, or claret, and bracket. The beer of the gentry was commonly 
 a year or two old, and was denominated March beer, from the month 
 in which it was brewed. About this time, drinking-glasses were 
 introduced from Venice, and, from their novelty, were more prized 
 than silver cups, or those made from horn, however highly orna 
 mented. 
 
 Up to the period of the Revolution, the principal supply was brought 
 from France, at which time, according to the report of the commis 
 sioners of trade and plantations, not less than 20,000 tuns were the 
 imports for one year. The duties on these wines, in 1713, were as 
 high as 24 per tun. From 1770 to 1782, they were from 60 to 96. 
 On other wines the duties were upwards of from 30 to 45 per 
 tun. During the four last years of this period, the average quantity 
 imported appears to have been 14,094 tuns, while the re-exportation 
 was 2,006, leaving a balance of 12,000 tuns for the consumption of 
 the country. The quantity of every description of wine imported 
 into England for a series of five years from 1823 to 1827, both 
 inclusive, was 26,539,916 imperial gallons, and the export for the 
 same period 4,997.410,leaving 2 l,542,506,averaging 6,308,501 gallons 
 for the annual consumption of a population of 13,894,572. 
 
556 
 
 The quantity of wine imported and exported from 1834 and 1835 ; 
 with the rate and net revenue thereon is as follows : 
 
 
 IMPORTED. 
 
 EXPORTED. 
 
 Rate of 
 Duty. 
 
 NET KI 
 1834 
 
 VENUE. 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1835 
 
 Cape wine, 
 
 484,298 
 
 587,748 
 
 5,668 
 
 3,184 
 
 2s.9d. 
 
 72,048 
 
 71,935 
 
 French, 
 
 363,376 
 
 370,446 
 
 128,506 
 
 113,236 
 
 5s.6d, 
 
 71,031 
 
 74,080 
 
 Portuguese, 
 
 4,213,427 
 
 4,269,890 
 
 296, 53 
 
 475,084 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Madeira, 
 Spanish, 
 
 372,698 
 3,446,563 
 
 204,825 
 2,732,028 
 
 173,910 
 
 688,024 
 
 179,735 
 692,730 
 
 C 5s.6d. 
 
 1,562,341 
 
 1,545,493 
 
 Other sorts, 
 
 885,754 
 
 874,614 
 
 346,575 
 
 409,612 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 The high price on foreign wine induced many to manufacture an 
 article from gooseberries, currants, and other fruits, as substitutes ; 
 but it is to be presumed that the reduction of the duties by a recent 
 act,* will have the effect of rendering it unnecessary to have recourse 
 to the home produce to the same extent as formerly. 
 
 The fruit from which the home-wines are chiefly made, is the 
 gooseberry, currants, raspberry, strawberry, cherry, plum, &c. In 
 former times, wines were made from mulberries, blackberries, quinces, 
 peaches, apricots, and even from the sap of the birch, beech, sycamore, 
 and some other trees. Of all the domestic wines, the gooseberry 
 and currant are the most common, owing to the abundance of those 
 fruits ; the gooseberry has a fine body and pleasing acidity ; the 
 currant a rich aroma, and mellow softness. The manufacture of these 
 wines, if it may be so called, is too familiar to require description or 
 specific directions. The following method, however, of making 
 superior currant wine, as recommended in a French publication, may 
 not be unacceptable : 
 
 For currant wine Eight pounds of honey are to be dissolved in 
 15 gallons of boiling water, to which, when clarified, must be added 
 the juice of 81bs. of red or white currants. The whole is then 
 fermented for 24 hours, and for every two gallons of water, must be 
 added two pounds of sugar. This preparation is afterwards clarified 
 with the whites of eggs and cream of tartar. 
 
 For gooseberry wine The fruit should be gathered when dry and 
 about half ripe, and then pounded in a mortar. The juice, when 
 properly strained through a canvas bag, is mixed with sugar, in the 
 proportion of 31bs. to every 2 gallons of juice. It is then left in a 
 quiet state for 15 days, at the expiration of which it is carefully poured 
 off, and left to ferment for three months, when the quantity is under 
 15 gallons, and for five months when double that quantity. It is then 
 bottled and soon fit for drinking.f 
 
 1 and 2 Will. IV. c. 30. 
 
 f Bibli. Physico. Econom, 
 
557 
 
 Some make a very excellent description of wine from a mixture of 
 gooseberries and currants, the gooseberries being most predominant. 
 
 The mixture is bruised and fermented in the usual way ; but this, 
 as well as every other description of home-wine, is much improved 
 both in flavour and body by the addition of a due proportion of pure 
 spirits ; indeed without this ingredient, all domestic wines are prone 
 to run into the acetous fermentation. 
 
 Plums make a very fine sort of wine, and with a mixture of other 
 fruit and ingredients, produce the best substitute for port that has yet 
 been invented. Sloes are said to be superior to plums for wine- 
 making, and like them afford an excellent tart in confectionary. 
 From effler-berries is easily manufactured a pleasing sort of wine, 
 which, when warmed, is much esteemed, and forms a comfortable and 
 grateful beverage to the English farmer when he returns from the 
 toils of the day. From the red-berries of the mountain-ash or service 
 tree (pyrus aucuparia,) an agreeable wine is made, from which has 
 been distilled a good species of brandy. 
 
 Birch wine is still made in some parts of England ; at Overton 
 Hall it is manufactured in the following manner, differing little from 
 the process already described, as practised in Norway : in March, the 
 trunks of the trees are bored to the depth of an inch and a half nearly, 
 and about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, at the distance of a 
 foot from the ground. Directly below the orifice, a metal tube is 
 fixed into the bark through which the juice flows into a receiver 
 placed underneath. When the weather is warm, the water thickens 
 and closes the perforation, so that in a few days there is no exudation; 
 but if the weather be cold or windy, there will be a constant discharge 
 for a month. Some trees will produce 24 gallons in a day ; others 
 but a trifling quantity. This birch liquid brings 6d. a gallon, when, 
 sold for the purpose of making a light or small wine. If not imme 
 diately disposed of after being taken from the tree, it will not keep 
 sweet more than a day ; it is heated nearly to boiling in order to pre 
 serve it, and then left to cool. 
 
 When a sufficient quantity is then collected, to every gallon of 
 juice, 21bs. of sugar and ^lb. of raisins are added. This mixture is 
 boiled for an hour, skimmed, and left to cool to such a temperature, 
 that when yeast is added, fermentation commences. In this state it 
 is left to work for ninety-six hours, after which it is casked, when 
 51bs. of raisins and loz. of isinglass are added for every 20 gallons. 
 The bungs are left open, and in less than a month it is cleansed of the 
 feculence, the casks are then closed up for about three months, and in 
 a few weeks, after bottling the liquor, it is fit for use, but like most 
 other wines it improves greatly with age. 
 
558 
 
 From many of our vegetables, good wines may be obtained. The 
 parsnip in particular, yields an excellent description, and is said to 
 approach nearest other imitations. The making of it is not expensive, 
 and it only requires age to render it a wholesome and valuable 
 beverage. 
 
 From potatoes which have undergone, if it may be so termed, a 
 species of malting by exposure to frost, wine of a tolerable quality 
 has been obtained. The frosted potatoes are bruised and put into a 
 press : for every bushel of these, 10 gallons of boiled water is pre 
 pared. Into this water are put Jib. of hops and Jib. of white ginger, 
 which after having been again boiled for thirty minutes, is poured on the 
 mashed potatoes in a vessel adapted to the purpose. Here it is suffered to 
 remain three days, when barm is added, and after the fermentation 
 has subsided, the liquor is carefully drawn off into casks, when Jib. 
 of common sugar is again put to every gallon of the contents. In this 
 state it is kept for three or four months, before it is considered fit for 
 drinking. 
 
 From these home-made wines, brandies of a nice flavour and qua 
 lity have been distilled, some of them superior to the common brandies 
 of France, and to which none of the English compounds bear any 
 comparison. From turnips, it is said, the London imitators of foreign 
 wines make an article which passes with the public as genuine. 
 
 In the shops is frequently sold a home-made wine under the name 
 of port, which is manufactured from raisins with a mixture of sugar 
 colouring, aud flavouring ingredients so well managed, that good 
 judges are sometimes deceived : red and white wines are thus made 
 at the option of the manufacturer. In a similar way, have imitations 
 of wine been made from sugar, honey, molasses, &c. &c. ; all of these 
 have been classed by the revenue under the denomination of sweets. 
 
 Imitations of almost every description of foreign wine have been 
 attempted, and with such success as to frequently meet with a ready 
 sale ; but as all imitations fall short of the original, and as it is not 
 within the range of this treatise to give instructions for the manufac 
 ture of mock articles, the reader is referred for further information to 
 Dr. Shannon s elaborate Treatise on Brewing. It has been asserted, 
 and with justice, that great deception has been practised in the wine 
 trade by the venders of wine in general, and if we believe Dr. Clarke, 
 a great portion of the champagne used in this country is made from 
 green gooseberries and sugar, being an imitation of the common 
 champagne of France, which is made with green grapes and sugar. 
 The home-made wines, or sweets, have been subject to an excise 
 duty, which for the year 1833. amounted to 2,763 7*. on 10,534 
 
559 
 
 gallons ; and for 1834, to 2,866 9s. on 114,658 gallons : this duty, 
 however, has been abolished. 
 
 The duties and drawbacks on all descriptions of foreign wines rate 
 as follows Cape wines are chargeable with 2s. 9d. a gallon on impor 
 tation, and in exportation a drawback is allowed to the same amount. 
 On every other description of wines a duty of 5s. 6d. must be paid 
 on importation, and a like sum is given as a drawback on exportation. 
 This equalization of the duties on wines, while it has simplified their 
 collection, has added much to the encouragement of their consumption, 
 and must eventually tend to the increase of the revenue, besides leav 
 ing this valuable luxury more easily attainable. It is an extraordinary 
 fact, that the names given to wine in every country bear a strong 
 resemblance to each other, as if Providence had intended it as the 
 general exhilarating beverage of mankind ; all seem to be derived from 
 the original Hebrew word T", from the verb ine to press, according 
 to Parkhurst, or the Chaldaic iaino, which is in Greek oivo ?, Latin vinum ; 
 Spanish and Italian, vino ; French, vin ; Celtic or Welsh, gwin ; 
 Cimbric, uin ; Gothic, wein ; old German, uuin ; Danish, vien ; Dutch, 
 wiin ; Irish, Jion ; and in English, wine. 
 
 With respect to distillation, the spirit of inquiry which had influ 
 enced all Europe in the vain search after the philosopher s stone, was 
 in England productive of some good effects, as the discoveries of 
 Friar Bacon, who lived in the thirteenth century, fully prove. He 
 it was who laid the foundation of chemical science in these countries, 
 but with all his knowledge, he was himself a believer in a universal 
 elixir, and proposed it to Pope Clement X. as a matter worthy of his 
 highest consideration. The Pontiff thought otherwise, and for this 
 and his other discoveries, he was supposed to have some dealings with 
 the devil ; on which account he was excommunicated, and as a further 
 punishment, subjected to ten years imprisonment so much for the 
 superstition of the times. Bacon was deeply conversant in the Gre 
 cian and Arabian learning, and being familiar with many Oriental and 
 other languages, he made himself acquainted with the writings of 
 the most eminent alchymists and philosophers, from whose discoveries 
 he was enabled to make still farther advances in chemical analysis. 
 He is said to have known the nature of phosphorus, the composition 
 and power of gunpowder, and his elixir vita must have been the 
 result of experiments in distillation. To this profound philosopher, 
 as well as to the efforts of Albertus Magnus, Arnoldus de Villa Nova, 
 Raymond Lully, and others, we are indebted for an early and prac 
 tical knowledge of the chemical labours of the Arabians, whose inde 
 fatigable researches first laid open to European investigation the 
 
560 
 
 sources from which aqua vitce, or the great elixir of life, might be 
 drawn. But that the Arabians were not the inventors of distillation, 
 I have endeavoured to show, in other parts of this treatise, from prin 
 ciples based on the progress of civilisation, the introduction of luxury, 
 and the general history of mankind. In England, for a long period, 
 the manufacture of aqua vita was slow, and like the progress of the 
 alembic in other parts of the world, was sold in the shops of the apo 
 thecaries as a medicine. We find from a catalogue of the mercantile 
 productions of every state in Europe, appended to a poem by Haluyt, 
 entitled " The Progress of English Policy," that in 1430 the Genoese 
 traders brought into this country, rack or arrack, shewing that they 
 were in the habit of making it and dealing in it, like any other article 
 of traffic or commercial speculation. 
 
 France, for a series of years, was the great still-house of Europe, 
 as her wines afforded a constant supply for the distillation of brandy ; 
 but as the knowledge of agriculture advanced, and grain became 
 plentiful, the demand for that spirit diminished, and the home manu 
 facture at length attained to such importance, that it was taxed with 
 a duty of two-pence per gallon in the reign of Charles the Second. 
 At first it was thought expedient to lay the duty on spirits of the 
 first extraction, or, as they were termed, low wines, and the earliest 
 returns of the English distillery on record are made up in that way. 
 
 The produce of all the stills in England in 1694, amounted to 
 1,885,752 gallons of low* wines, or 754,300 gallons of spirits, and in 
 1743 it had increased to 12,498,800 gallons of low-wines, or 
 4,999,520 gallons of spirits. The duties, in 1751, were raised to 
 four-pence on the gallon of loiv^wines, and to one shilling on the 
 gallon of spirits. The manufacture decreased in consequence, and 
 the produce was only 11,200,000 gallons of low wines in that year. 
 The duties were also raised in 1760, and then amounted to 9d on 
 the gallon of low wines, and to 2s. 3d. on the gallon of spirits, equal to 
 36 T Vd. on the gallon of pot-ale, or wash. These high and increasing 
 duties tended to decrease the operation of the stills ; for we find that 
 in 1783, the whole amount of spirits charged with duty in England, 
 was only 1,364,801 gallons. In 1785, the contents of the stills which 
 were worked from the raw material, amounted to 223,877 gallons, 
 exclusive of those of the rectifiers, amounting to 159,852 gallons. The 
 revenue then arising from the gross distilleries was 324,895. 9s. Id. 
 In 1802, it was estimated at 500,000 and on the 5th January, 1812, 
 it amounted to o05,015. 
 
 The following exhibits the quantity of spirits charged with duty in 
 England, with the amount thereof, for five succeeding years : 
 
561 
 
 YEARS. GALLONS. . g. <J 
 
 1831, 7,434.047 2,787,767 1*26 
 
 1832, 7,259,287 2,722,232 12 6 
 
 1833, . 7,717,303 2,893,988 126 
 
 1834, 7,644,301 2,866,612 17 6 
 
 1835, 7,315,053 2,743,144 17 6 
 
 The imports of foreign spirits from an early period were very 
 considerable ; and in the time of Elizabeth they were of such impor 
 tance, that they ranked among the commodities bestowed by the 
 crown on individuals who had distinguished themselves either in civil 
 or military employments. In the subsequent reigns, till the time of 
 Charles the Second, they were subjected to various changes and 
 regulations, a detail of which could afford but little interest to the 
 general reader. It is enough to show that the imports of colonial and 
 foreign spirits, on which consumption duties were paid, amounted to 
 in 
 
 YEARS. IMP. PHOOP GAL. TEARS. IMP. PROOF GAL- 
 
 1820, 7,526,696 
 
 1821 7,261,531 
 
 1822, 7,849,520 
 
 1823 7,157,334 
 
 1824, 8,068,427 
 
 1825, 7,013,338 
 
 1826, 12,887,487 
 
 1827, 11,072,935 
 
 1828, 12,172,768 
 
 1829, 12,217,276 
 
 1830, 12,509,502 
 
 1834, 12,152,052 
 
 1832, J2,224,116 
 
 1833, 12,403,165 
 
 Of foreign and colonial spirits were imported and exported in 
 
 IMPORTED. EXPORTED. YEAR. IMPORTED. EXPORTED. 
 
 1834, Rum .... 5,158,489 . . 1,642,282 
 
 Brandy. . . 3,170,297 . . 912,335 
 
 . Geneva, . . 347,597 . . 261,571 
 
 Other sorts. 46,432 . . 43,160 
 
 1835 . . 5,540,170 . . 1,678,374 
 
 2,105,755 . . 1,117,253 
 
 < . 277,141 . . 280,768 
 
 . . 57,651 . . 25,779 
 
 In these years the duty on rum was 9s. per gallon, and on the other 
 liquors l.2s. 6d. In 1834, the quantity retained for home consump 
 tion was 3,345,177 gallons of rum, and 1,420, 172 gallons of the other 
 sorts producing a net revenue of 3,100,669 ; and 1835, the gallons 
 of rum for home consumption were 3,416,966, of other sorts 1,348,740 
 yielding a revenue of 3,047,359. 
 
 It may be seen that, notwithstanding the high duties on all foreign 
 spirits,large importations of them have been made into England, which 
 when added to the home-made spirits, show that the people, although 
 attached to porter, beer, and ale, consume no small portion of ardent 
 liquors. Were it not at variance with the domestic arrangements 
 and policy of the kingdom, the use of rum should be more encouraged, 
 being an article preferable to any imitations, how well-soever manu 
 factured. 
 
 2 o 
 
562 
 
 It has therefore been contended, that to lower the duty so as to 
 allow rum to compete with the home manufacture, would be for the 
 advantage of the public, as a great deal of the spirits distilled in 
 England is made from foreign grain ; such a regulation would tend 
 to the encouragement of colonial produce, and assist the home agri 
 culturist by preventing an influx of corn from other countries. Sugar 
 has become an indispensable article of life, is reared at great expense 
 and trouble, and the planter has materials left which can only be 
 turned to account by distillation. To encourage the consumption of 
 rum, therefore, is the interest of the government, not only as regards 
 our colonies abroad, but as it would exclude the introduction of 
 foreign gin and brandy, as well as the grain from which many of our 
 compounds are manufactured. Whether it might be a wise specula 
 tion to admit the free use of molasses in our distilleries, as has been 
 suggested, is a point that involves a variety of considerations ; but, on 
 the whole, it may be observed, that rum can only be manufactured to 
 perfection in the plantations where the materials from which it is 
 made, are produced : and here it may be asked, what spirit can be 
 considered superior to pure old genuine West India rum ? The fur 
 ther circulation of this spirit, by an equitable duty, could scarcely fail 
 of checking the baneful practice of smuggling a practice carried on 
 to an extent equally injurious to the revenue and. public morals. The 
 enormous expense attending the support of an establishment for the 
 suppression of this evil, perhaps, more than counterbalances the good 
 resulting from it : the dangers consequent on the execution of this 
 duty, and the rencounters between the smugglers and the protecting 
 officers, afford numerous anecdotes characteristic of the ingenuity and 
 ability of the parties employed. I recollect an incident related of an officer 
 engaged in this service, which shows what a brave and determined 
 man can accomplish on a trying occasion. While a party of smugglers 
 were regaling themselves in a tavern on the eastern coast of England, 
 and recounting their several exploits and contrivance in defeating the 
 revenue officers, one of them boasted that he had never met a person 
 able to take from him a single tub of gin, rum, or brandy. What, 
 said one of the company, have you never met with Mr. Bateman ? 
 If you had, you would find that the very devil himself could not 
 escape him." " I wish," said the other, " I had a trial of his skill, I 
 should teach him to be cautious in attempting to put a hand on my 
 property." At this juncture, Mr. Bateman entered the tavern, when 
 the other exclaimed" there he is," and calling him by his name, 
 repeated what had just passed. " Well," said the excise-man, " I 
 am not anxious to pick a quarrel with any body, but if any occur- 
 
563 
 
 rence should bring your friend and me to issue in future, I would only 
 ask for fair-play." It was jocularly agreed that if such an incident 
 should ever happen that the parties would recollect what had taken 
 place. Some time after, this officer met the vauntcr carrying a tub 
 of smuggled geneva, and recognising him, instantly exclaimed, " what, 
 my friend, have we at length met ? I must see what it is you are now 
 carrying." " No," answered the other roughly, not recollecting the 
 person by whom he was accosted, " no man shall examine what I 
 carry." " Well then," rejoined the officer, " let the better man have 
 it ; and, as once agreed, all I ask is fair play." The cask was laid 
 down, and to it they went, both having excellent cudgels. The fight 
 was for a long time well contested ; but the officer at length proved 
 the better man, and suffered the smuggler to escape only with his life, 
 on the condition of carrying the tub of geneva to the very tavern, 
 where he had boasted so much of his prowess. 
 
 Another anecdote is told of this person, that, on one occasion, 
 assisted by a brother officer, he succeeded to seize on the coast of 
 Kent, 300 tubs of geneva, and to make prisoners of 17 men a matter 
 so extraordinary, that he was suspected of being in collusion with the 
 smugglers. On this supposition, he was brought before the com 
 missioners for examination, but he proved that he had acted as became 
 a man of spirit, honour, and integrity. 
 
 Having given a brief view of the nature and extent of the spirit, 
 wine, and beer trade in England, it only remains to make a few 
 remarks on the present mode of distillation in that part of the empire. 
 
 By the enactment of 1825,* no person can obtain a license for con 
 ducting a distillery, unless he occupies a tenement of the value of 
 20 a-year, pays parish rates, and resides within a quarter of a mile 
 of a market town containing 500 inhabited houses. Before obtain 
 ing a license, the amount of which is 10, he must lodge \vith the col 
 lector, or other officer of excise, an entry or registry of his premises, 
 the several apartments and utensils, specifying the contents of the 
 vessels and the purposes for which they are intended ; and every 
 such roiom and utensil must be properly labelled with its appropriate 
 name and object. With the registry must be delivered a drawing, 
 or description of the construction, use, and course of every fixed 
 pipe in the distillery, as well as of all casks and communications, 
 therewith connected. Pipes for the conveyance of worts or wash 
 must be painted red, those for low wines or feints, blue ; those for 
 spirits, white ; for water, black. No still can be licensed of a less 
 
 * 6 Geo. iv. cap. 80. Part of this act, as far as regards rectifiers, dealers, and 
 retailers of spirits, is extended to Ireland by 9 Geo. IV. cap. 45. 
 
564 
 
 content than 400 gallons ; nor can the distiller make spirits, at the 
 same time, from different materials, such as grain, sugar, and potatoes, 
 nor he cannot cease distilling from one material and commence with 
 another, until he shall have completed a month s work of the one 
 article and have given six days notice before commencing a change ; 
 nor can any distiller brew or make worts, or wash, during the dis 
 tilling period, so that both operations cannot be carried on at the 
 same time. Besides, the produce of each day s brewing must be 
 separate, and the officer must be served with a notice in writing for 
 every such brewing. The distiller is obliged to give notice, six days 
 previous to the commencement of his work, of the gravity at which 
 he intends to make his worts or wash, which cannot be less than 50, 
 nor more than 90 degrees ; and a like notice, if he wishes to make 
 any alteration. The worts of every day s brewing must be collected 
 in a fermenting back within the space of 8 hours after the running 
 commences from the coolers, and then a notice must be immediately 
 served on the officer specifying the back with the gravity and quan 
 tity of the worts collected ; no yeast nor barm can be added until after 
 the officer shall have taken an account of the gravity and quantity of 
 wort in such back, which must be within two hours from the delivery 
 of the notice to the officer. Should the gravity, or quantity, after such 
 account has been taken, exceed that previously ascertained by 5 
 per cent, the distiller is subject to 200 penalty, and the whole to be 
 charged as a new back or brewing ; nor can distillation begin until a de 
 claration has been made, that all worts or wash in the distillery is collect 
 ed into the fermentingbacks,and eight hours notice must be given before 
 the contents of any back are removed to the charger or vessel from 
 which the still is supplied. Until one back is completely distilled into 
 low-wines, another cannot be removed, and a notice must be given, in 
 order that the strength of the low-wines may be ascertained before 
 they can be removed from the receiver to the charger, while the 
 low-wines, spirits, and feints, produced from each back, must be kept 
 separate until an account is taken of their strength and quantity by 
 the officer. In a distillery, there are three modes of charging the 
 duty either on the wash, low-wines, or spirits, whichever is the 
 highest ; and the manner of doing it is as follows : On worts or 
 wash, the strength is made out at one gallon of proof spirits, for every 
 five degrees of gravity attenuated in every five gallons of wash. The 
 low-wines are estimated according to the strength brought to proof 
 making an allowance of 2 per cent, in favour of the distiller ; and the 
 spirits which are produced from the low-wines of each back, are 
 calculated at proof, the feints remaining, being deducted. If any 
 
565 
 
 spirits should be found beyond the proportions just stated from 
 any given quantity of wash, it is called an " undue excess" and charged 
 with duty accordingly. These charges of duty are made out at the 
 end of each period ; besides which, there is an annual charge or compare 
 made of the quantity of spirits that ought to have been produced, 
 with the actual quantity charged ; and should a deficiency appear, 
 the trader is subject to pay the duty on the difference. This com 
 pare must be returned by the officer within one month after the 
 expiration of the year s license, and the trader is obliged to pay the 
 amount within ten days after. 
 
 In the process of the work, the charges are made from the highest 
 guage without any allowance for waste or dregs in the worts ; and 
 the distiller is required, at the end of every distilling period, to make 
 a return of the quantity of wash distilled, and the spirits produced, 
 and no spirits can be removed from any distillery in a less quantity 
 than 80 gallons, at a strength of 25 or 11 per cent, above, or 10 
 below hydrometer proof. 
 
 Distillers in England can warehouse their spirits for exportation 
 only, or for removal to Scotlandjor Ireland, without payment of ex 
 cise duty, at a strength of either 25 or 11 per cent, over hydrometer 
 proof. All spirits manufactured in the United Kingdom by simple 
 distillation are, by the Act, denominated ip\&\i\ British spirits ; but all 
 spirits produced by rectification, and having any flavour communi 
 cated thereto, and all liquor which shall be mingled or mixed with 
 any such spirits, is deemed a compound called British brandy; and 
 all other spirits re-distilled or mixed with juniper-berries, caraway- 
 seed, anise-seed, or any other seeds used in the compounding of 
 spirits, shall be deemed and called British compounds : lastly, all 
 spirits of the strength of 43 per cent, and upwards over proof by 
 Sikes hydrometer, are called spirits of wine, or alcohol. 
 
 The mere working of the still in England is a simple mechanical 
 process, to perform which, the distiller is not restricted to time. The 
 concerns are in general so large that the stills are in proportion ; some 
 of them containing from 10 to 20,000 gallons and upwards ; hence 
 an entire back is conveyed at once into one of these stills, and the 
 charge of the low-wines still is the produce of the wash from the 
 wash-still. At the period when the fermentation has ceased in the 
 fermenting back, and the wash becomes fine and of a vinous flavour, 
 it is conveyed into the wash-still and made into the low wines. These 
 are afterwards put into the low-wine still and made into spirits 
 and feints. 
 
 The particular skill requisite in conducting a distillery to ad van- 
 
56G 
 
 tage relates to the brewing and fermentingv in order to obtain the 
 entire saccharine matter of the grain, or rather the material from 
 which the spirit is to be extracted, a sort of knowledge which has 
 absolutely become a science in the hands of those who possess it. 
 As all the apparatus connected with a distillery are kept under lock 
 and key, the moment a distiller is about to commence the operations 
 of making spirits, the Officer of Excise attends with a bunch of 
 keys to open the following locks : viz., the lock on the cock in the 
 back, then that leading into the charger, and as soon as it is full, the 
 cock between it and the back, is again secured, when a guag^ of the 
 wash is taken ; after which the discharging-pipe is unlocked to permit 
 the run into the still. After this, the furnace door and discharge-pipes 
 of the still are unlocked, and the distiller is permitted to proceed with 
 his work until the distillation is completed. When the wash-still 
 is charged, which is generally with something less than three-fourths 
 of its contents, the locks are again replaced and sealed up, and the 
 officer takes stock the second time to ascertain the decrease of wash 
 and the state of the other locks, which are commonly found to 
 correspond : the decrease or quantity stands as a charge against the 
 distiller. 
 
 During the working of the still, one or two officers visit the con 
 cern, and inspect the process ; and when the still is completely off, 
 they either re-charge under a previous notice, as before stated, or if 
 no such notice is served, they lock up the furnace door. The same 
 locking and unlocking take place in the case of the low wines still. 
 The produce of this still, known by the name of spirits and feints, 
 run into separate vessels properly secured, and when the distillation 
 of the low-wines still is completed, the officer takes an account of 
 the quantity and strength of the spirits and feints in the same way 
 as with the low-wines, reducing them by calculation into proof spirits ; 
 after which the liquor is added to the stock of the house, and the feints 
 left to be re-distilled with the residue of the succeeding back. At 
 the conclusion of each distilling period, the officer makes a return to 
 the collector of the quantity so distilled, the duty on which must be 
 paid unless the spirits be warehoused. 
 
 Previous to the enactment, of which an epitome has just been given, 
 distillation was confined to a few capitalists ; but, with a view of en 
 couraging a fair competition in the trade, and inducing the people to 
 take the spirits directly from the distillers, the act was passed which is 
 now in operation. Formerly, English spirits, although they were 
 made from the finest materials, could not, from the grossness and 
 rkhness of the wash, be rendered palatable or saleable without under- 
 
567 
 
 going- rectification to remove their coarseness and harshness. Accord 
 ingly, a number of the traders, denominated rectifiers, were called 
 into action between the distillers and consumers. These rectifiers 
 re-distilled the spirits with the addition of certain drugs and flavour 
 ing materials, such as juniper-berries, spirits of turpentine, &c., by 
 which they made a sprt of compound called British gin ; or else with 
 spirits of nitre, prunes, &c>, manufactured an imitation of brandy and 
 other foreign liquors. 
 
 All spirits, whether made in England, Scotland, or Ireland, were 
 obliged to pass through the medium of these traders, who were, by 
 a mistaken enactment, made the arbiters of public taste. To the 
 liberal views of the Earl of Ripon, while Chancellor of the Exche 
 quer, must be attributed the correction of the abuse and the destruction, 
 of the monopoly. He saw that were the distiller enabled to make a 
 good, pure spirit, not only would there be a direct supply to the 
 consumer, but the liquor would be unquestionably more palatable and 
 wholesome in its natural state, than when compounded and impreg 
 nated with such materials as have been described. The only apparent 
 defect in this law is the duty not having been sufficiently lowered to 
 enable the distiller to give the people spirits, on such terms as would 
 allow them to drink punch like the Scotch and Irish. From this the 
 most beneficial effects would ensue, the trade would become prospe 
 rous, and an augmented consumption increase the revenue ; geneva 
 and brandy would decrease in proportion- smuggling be checked 
 foreigners no longer enrich themselves at our expense and an impe 
 tus be given to our agriculture. For the four years ended January, 
 1825, when the duty was 1-1*. &%d. per gallon, the annual average 
 consumption in England was 4,143,606 imperial proof gallons, and 
 for the four years ended January, 1830, the duty then being but 7s. 
 the consumption was 7,384,804 gallons, showing a vast increase in 
 consequence of the favourable changes in the law and the lowering of, 
 the duty.* 
 
 Owing to the alterations which this law made in the spirit trade, 
 it was amongst other things enacted, that no person could carry on 
 the business of a rectifier, or compounder of spirits, with a still less 
 than 120 gallons content. A house employed for this purpose cannot 
 be within a quarter of a mile of a distillery ; nor can any distiller nor 
 rectifier carry on the business of a brewer, maker of sweets, vinegar, 
 cider, or perry, or be a refiner of sugar on the same premises ; while 
 over the gate or entrance of every such establishment, the name of 
 
 * Purl. Papers, No. 469, 27th May, 1830. 
 
568 
 
 the proprietor with the words, " Rectifier or Compounder," must be 
 painted in large characters. Rectifiers and compounders are obliged 
 to charge the still with a quantity of liquor in the proportion of not 
 less than seven parts in ten of the whole quantity the still is capable 
 of holding, the head included ; and every such still must remain so 
 charged until the rectifier or compounder shall draw off the spirits : 
 the whole quantity is to be worked off within sixteen hours from the 
 time of the officers taking the account of it. As soon as the work has 
 ceased, the head, if not permanently soldered to the body, must be 
 taken off and secured until the work recommences under the super 
 intendence of the officer. All spirits received into the stock of a 
 rectifier or compounder, must remain in bulk until an account of the 
 strength and quantity be taken by the officer and calculated in proof 
 gallons. Rectifiers may send out compounded spirits at any strength 
 not exceeding 17 per cent, under proof, and in any quantity not less 
 than two gallons. Any private person having more than eighty gal 
 lons is accounted a dealer, and subject to all the pains and penalties of 
 an unlicensed trader. 
 
 While treating of the beverages of England, those of Jersey, 
 Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark, should not be overlooked, though not 
 celebrated for any peculiar species of liquor, if we except the great 
 quantities and excellent qualities of the Jersey cider. Orchards are 
 attached to almost every farm in the island, which are very produc 
 tive and well-cultivated* Cider is a principal article of export, and 
 so extensive, that the doors of the farm-houses are generally made 
 very wide, and are arched over for the facility of moving the cider- 
 casks. Parsnips are a cheap article of agriculture ; they form the 
 principal portion of the food of both man and beast, and are much 
 used in fattening geese, hogs, and horned cattle. Distillation in those 
 islands is sometimes carried on to such extent as to afford a consider 
 able quantity for exportation. In 1829, there were sent into Eng 
 land 29,503, and in 1830, 31,774 proof gallons of spirits, the joint 
 produce of Guernsey and Jersey.* From the former, in 1833, there 
 were exported 116,832 gallons of cider, and 19,568 gallons of potato 
 spirits ; of both of which there is a very considerable consumption on 
 the island. The latter island is so productive of cider, that in 1831, 
 there were exported to England 50,000 hogsheads; and it is thought 
 the home consumption, with what was sent to Newfoundland and 
 other foreign parts, amounted to as much. When the extent of this 
 island, which is but twelve miles in length and six in breadth, is con- 
 
 * Parl. Paper, No. 531, lOtb June, 1830. 
 
569 
 
 sidered and the wonderful quantity of this liquor which it affords, it 
 is not surprising that it has been denominated a sea of cider. 
 
 The Aborigines of Scotland, having been principally shepherds 
 ignorant of the arts, their drink must have been as simple as their 
 labours, and as limited as their knowledge ; but as luxury increased, 
 and the toils of agriculture became irksome, it is natural to conclude 
 that their inventions in fermented liquors would proportioriably 
 advance, and that they would seek to dissipate their care and elevate 
 their spirits by some sort of beverage. This solace they are said to 
 have found in an intoxicating drink, called by their poets, " the joy of 
 the shell."* 
 
 Thus Ossian " Now on the side of Morna, the heroes gathered to 
 the feast. A thousand aged oaks are turning to the wind, and the 
 souls of the warriors brighten with joy." 
 
 In the Western Islands, many of the customs of the ancient Caledo 
 nians and Britons are still preserved, and, amongst others, the old manner 
 of drinking. In former times, large companies assembled, composed 
 principally of the chief respectable men of the islands. This assemblage 
 was called a sheate, streak, or round, from the company always sitting in a 
 circle. The cup-bearer handed about the liquor in full goblets or shells, 
 which the guests continued to drink until not a drop remained. This 
 lasted for a day at least, and sometimes for two days, and in this 
 practice our round of glasses is supposed to have originated. During 
 the revel, two men stood at the banquetting door with a barrow, and 
 when any one became incapable, he was carried to his bed, and they 
 returned to dispose of the others in the same way. Sir Walter Scott, 
 in a note to " The Lord of the Isles," states, that this custom was still 
 in existence, and relates an anecdote of a gentleman of temperate 
 habits, who, forming one of a company of this description, although 
 permitted to remain neutral, was obliged to submit to the ceremony. 
 Martin, in his History of the Western Isles, says it was deemed a 
 breach of hospitality among persons of distinction to broach a cask of 
 aqua vitce, and not see it finished at the time. If any of the party 
 retired for a few minutes, he was obliged, on his return, before he sat 
 down, to make an apology in rhyme for his absence, which if unable 
 to perform he was compelled to discharge such a share of the reckon 
 ing as the company thought proper to impose. This custom, which 
 is yet prevalent, is termed Beanchiy JBard, signifying the Poet s con 
 gratulation. 
 
 The ancient inhabitants made a liquor by bleeding the birch trees, 
 
 * Ossian, vol. ii. p. 9, and Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. 
 
570 
 
 which were common in the country. They also fermented a beverage 
 with honey, bees being very plentiful in the woods, and mead, a drink 
 of the same description, is still used in the western parts of the king 
 dom. In process of time, when grain became abundant, they brewed 
 an ale which was called loin, a word signifying provisions ; this is 
 probably the malt drink which Buchanan calls vinum ex frugibus 
 corruptis. Some say they made a drink from the juniper, and others 
 that they made one from heath. But at this remote period, it would 
 be both idle and unprofitable to endeavour to determine a matter so 
 unimportant, and concerning which, there are, I believe, no records. 
 Yet, it is reasonable to presume, that the Scotch were not less expert 
 than their neighbours in the preparation of all those liquors, that were 
 common to other nations in the same circumstances. I shall not 
 attempt to trace the progress of their inventions in this respect, but 
 descend to modern times, in which we have certain data and unques 
 tionable information^ 
 
 In 1272, a duty by gauge was placed upon wine ; but it was not 
 until 1482, that we find the manufacture of beer or ale in Scotland 
 noticed by the government, although it abounded in that country long 
 before.* At the union, a duty was introduced similar in point of 
 regulation to that imposed in England, on two-penny ale, which was 
 the principal malt drink in use at the time ; it was rated at 2*. l^d. 
 per barrel. Several alterations followed, but in proportion to the, 
 advance of the duty, the work of the brewery decreased. 
 
 In 1760, the excise stood at 3s. 4^d. per barrel. 
 
 The state of the beer trade in Scotland will appear from the sub 
 joined number of barrels brewed in four successive years, viz : 
 
 STRONG. SMALI>. 
 
 !827 ............ 122,158 ......... 271,335 
 
 1830 ............ 111,071 ......... 229,384 
 
 From this it is evident, that the beer trade in Scotland for these 
 periods was rather on the decline, a proof that when the tax on any 
 article is too high, the people will be disposed to seek some other 
 substitute. The late abolition of the duties may have some effect in 
 restoring this trade, but it is difficult to bring back the taste of a 
 nation when once diverted from any peculiar habit of indulgence. 
 
 The gross amount of the revenue raised on beer in Scotland in 
 1821, came to 84,847. 6s. lO^d. and the net sum to 71,324. Os. 2Jd.| 
 In 1827, the amount of duty was 74,015 6s. Od., and in 1828, it 
 * Acts. Jac. 3. c. 89. f Finance Account, 1822, p. 41. 
 
571 
 
 came to 76,385. Is. Ojd.* The quantity of malt made in 1821 
 amounted to 1,299,497 bushels, and in 1822 to 1,347,431 bushels.f 
 The gross amount of revenue in 1821, came to 231,605, 9s. 3d. ; 
 net 231,480. 10s. 10d.; and in 1822, to 183,071. 6s. 7d., net 
 157,258. 19s. Id, The quantity of malt used in the breweries for 
 1827 was 77,873 quarters, and for 1828 was 83,080 quarters. The 
 total revenue derived from malt in 1827 was 340,077. 14s. 3d., net 
 124,864 2s. Id., with a drawback of 214,876 12s. lOd. ; and in 
 1828, the gross amount 484,193 14s. Od., net 185,856. 17s. 10d., 
 with a drawback of 298,224. 12s. 2d., these drawbacks were on 
 account of malt used in distillation. 
 
 In 1830, the gross revenue on malt was 514,392 12s, Sd., the 
 net 179,153. 6s, Od., leaving a drawback on the gross quantity of 
 334,438. 17s. Od.{ The following is the quantity of malt made in 
 Scotland, and the amount of duty for the years specified : 
 
 YEARS. BUSHELS. AMOUNT OF DUTY. 
 
 From Barley, 1831 3,321,702 429,053 3s. 6d. 
 
 Bigg, do 865,249 86,524 18s. Od. 
 
 Barley,1832 2,971,297 383,792 10s. 5d. 
 
 Bigg, do 743,033 74,303 6s. Od. 
 
 Barley,1833 3,433,862 443,540 10s. 2d. 
 
 Bigg, do 868,171 86,817 2s. Od. 
 
 Barley, 1834 3,580,758 462,514 11s. 6d. 
 
 Bigg, do 910,534 91,053 8s. Od. 
 
 Barley, 1835 3,604,816 465,622 Is. 4d. 
 
 Bigg, do 854,737 85,473 14s. Od. 
 
 The regulations, under which the beer trade in Scotland and Eng 
 land is conducted, since the passing of the late Act, are the same. 
 Every brewer is obliged to pay license in proportion to the quantity 
 of malt used in each year, terminating 10th October, with a draw 
 back of 5s. on every barrel exported to foreign countries, which 
 drawback is obtained by the brewer swearing that the quantity of 
 malt employed in making the beer, was in the proportion of two 
 bushels imperial measure for every barrel of thirty-six gallons. 
 Every brewer must make entry with the excise officer of his pre 
 mises, rooms, and utensils for brewing and storing the beer and malt; 
 nor is he to have raw or unmalted grain in his concerns under a 
 severe penalty a restriction designed to prevent illicit or improper 
 practices. By the Parliamentary returns of 1830, there were in 
 Scotland 168 licensed brewers, 26 retail brewers, 17,713 victuallers, 
 
 * Parl. Paper, No. 30, 18th Feb. 1829. f Parl. Paper, No. 512, 2d July 1823. 
 Parl. Paper, 16th August, 1831. William IV. c. 51. 
 
572 
 
 and 268 victuallers who brewed their own beer; while in 1836, there 
 were 242 licensed brewers, with 17,062 victuallers, and the malt 
 consumed in the breweries of Edinburgh and throughout Scotland was, 
 for five years ending 5th January, 1837, as follows : 
 
 YEABS. BUSHELS. BUSHELS, 
 
 1832, Edinburgh, 432,507 Scotland, 990,056 
 
 1833, 477,388 1,085,867 
 
 1834, 477,485 1,139,601 
 
 1835, 474,310 1,138,180 
 
 1836, 591,945 1,281,102 
 
 The Scotch were familiar with all the wines used in Britain at an 
 early period of their history ; but have generally evinced a greater 
 partiality for ardent spirits. On an average of the imports and 
 exports of wine ended 1827, there were 436,055 imperial gallons 
 imported, and 62,124 exported, leaving for the consumption of a 
 population of 2,365,807 only 373,931 gallons, being to each indivi 
 dual something better than a pint and one-fifth annually. Home 
 made wine is a manufacture not carried on to any great extent, nor 
 is it an art of great antiquity in Scotland. The home-made wine for 
 fifteen years ended 1820, was but 806 barrels,[22 gallons, the duty on 
 which amounted to only 1,905. 8s. 5d. ; and for fouryears ended 1834, 
 the number was 23,090 gallons, yielding 577 5s. Od. when the duty 
 entirely ceased. 
 
 Previous to the equalisation of the duties, the consumption and 
 export of wine were rather on the decline, chiefly owing to the excess 
 of the imposts and the port charges, which placed almost every des 
 cription of wine beyond the reach of the middling and inferior classes. 
 Since the late regulations, the trade has increased ; but the improved 
 quality and the low price paid for the spirits have materially tended 
 to divert the public taste from the use of wine, beyond what is suffi 
 cient to supply the tables of the opulent, or to gratify the palate of 
 the luxurious. 
 
 On reviewing the Scotch system of distillation prior to the present 
 laws, the difference is found to be considerable. At the Union, in 
 1707, the duty on spirits was much the same as that levied in Eng 
 land. The whole quantity made in the year 1708, (the earliest date 
 of any regular account for Scotland,) was 50,844 gallons. The manu 
 facture rapidly increased until the year 1756, at which period the 
 distilleries yielded 433,811 gallons of spirits ; an additional duty was 
 then imposed, and the quantity decreased accordingly^ About twenty 
 years after (1776,) commenced the export to England, which again 
 increased the manufacture. 
 
 The mode of collecting the duty in Scotland, till the end of the 
 
573 
 
 year 1784, was by an actual account and survey of the quantity of 
 tcash, low wines, and spirits, made by the distiller. From the 1st 
 November, 1 784, the whole duty was rated on the wash thus : for 
 every 100 gallons, the distiller was allowed a credit for 20 gallons in 
 his spirit stock one to ten degrees over hydrometer proof. The same 
 regulation was established at that time in England ; but in Scotland 
 it only continued for about two years, and in 1786 gave way to the 
 licensing system. By this plan, the distillers in the Lowlands were 
 charged at the rate of l. 10s. Od. per annum for every gallon con 
 tained in each still ; and in the Highlands only l. ; the still in the 
 latter place was limited to a certain size, and the spirits to be made 
 were not to exceed a defined quality, while a line of demarcation was 
 drawn for the sale of their respective spirits. At the same time, it 
 was thought that a still could not be worked more than from four to 
 seven times in the week. It was discovered, however, that the dis 
 tiller could work with greater despatch and make a larger quantity 
 of spirits than was previously supposed. Upwards of 300,000 gallons 
 were stated as the amount smuggled into England in 1787, over and 
 above all that had been brought to charge. 
 
 The duty on the contents of the still was raised in 1787 to 3 ; 
 while, at the same time, such stills as were entered for the English 
 market were exempt from this duty, and the spirits charged at the 
 rate of 2s. 6 d. a gallon on their importation into England. 
 
 Improvements continued to be made in the method of distilling 
 rapidly, in consequence of which the duty on the capacity of the still 
 was augmented, successively, from 3 to 9, 18, 54, 108, and 
 lastly to 162. Such was the increase of rapidity in work, that in 
 1799, a still of forty-three gallons could be wrought off in two mi 
 nutes and three-quarters, or nearly twenty-two times in an hour.* 
 This despatch was principally effected by altering the still from its 
 original, deep, and contracted form, to a shallow and broad construc 
 tion, by which a larger surface of the liquid was exposed to the action 
 of the fire. To so great a height was this improvement carried, that a 
 still of forty gallons, of which the head formed ten, lias been known 
 to be four feet broad, and only three or four inches in altitude at the 
 sides."\ 
 
 In 1802, an Act was passed, imposing, in addition to the existing 
 license of 162, an obligation of 2,025 of spirits per gallon of still- 
 room, at the rate of nine-pence per gallon, and enacting that the wash 
 brewed, should produce, at least, 1 1 per cent. This law placed the 
 
 * Vide Dr. Jeffrey s Report. 
 
 f For a view of an improved still of this kind, see the Philosophical Magazine, 
 vol. xi. 
 
474 
 
 Scotch distillery on a very respectable footing, and the trade con 
 tinued so regulated until 1814, the only alteration in the interim 
 being an increase of duty on account of the wash, and an increase of 
 the per-centage to 16 J gallons of spirits for every 100 gallons of 
 wash, but in that year the whole scene changed ; the English system 
 was put into force by one sweeping act of Parliament, and the old 
 Scotch plan was laid aside. Rapid work, small stills, and large chim- 
 nies, gave place to lob, large stills, chains, and locks. Numerous 
 alterations in the internal economy of distilleries followed, and much 
 money was thrown away by the alterations consequent on the change 
 of system. The persons engaged in the Scotch trade, not being 
 then an united body, tamely submitted to the measure, some from 
 curiosity, and some from a notion that opposition would be useless, 
 while others, being rich, were indifferent. On the part of the govern 
 ment the attempt was made with the best intentions ; that of promoting 
 one uniform system, but in making the change, the different materials, 
 or, in other words, the difference between the Scotch and English 
 barley and malt, was quite forgotten. The English barley and malt 
 might yield a produce of 19 per cent, when the Scotch could not. 
 Another important matter overlooked, was the want of rectifiers in 
 Scotland, to reduce the spirits made under the Act to a marketable 
 standard. While 1 1 per cent, was the medium of calculation, under 
 a former law, for the making of wash or potale, excellent spirits were 
 made, sold, and consumed : spirits from potale, producing 1 6 J per 
 cent, were barely tolerated ; but the spirit made from wash, producing 
 19 per cent., was scarcely drinkable, being so harsh and ardent as to 
 be unfit for punch and quite unsaleable. The consequence was ruin 
 to many respectable distillers, as well as great injury to the revenue 
 by the production and smuggling of Highland whiskey a liquor, 
 which, from its mildness and good flavour, was more consonant to the 
 tastes and habits of the Scotch people. In the following year, great 
 amendments were made, the old Scotch plan was revived, grafted on 
 a continuation of the English system. Tin s, however, was found not 
 to answer, as the trade gradually declined every year, until 1817, when 
 it appeared by the returns of the sales of legal spirits, that another 
 and more effectual change was necessary. The trade had, in a great 
 measure, got into the hands of smugglers, and thus reduced to an 
 illicit traffic, flourished in different parts of the country beyond all 
 conception. In this state of things, all systems, English as well as 
 Scotch, or mixtures of either, ceased at once, all monthly or yearly 
 obligations were dispensed with; 10 and 12 per cent, according to the 
 gravity of the worts, were substituted for 19 per cent ; and what is 
 
575 
 
 now termed the Scotch system, or rather a new system, took place. 
 The law which introduced this alteration, brought with it a lowering 
 of the duty, and served to correct many of those abuses which pre 
 vailed to an alarming degree. This law was so framed, that the 
 manufacturer could be accommodated to the gravity of the wash, from 
 which he wished to distil and pay duty in proportion to the saccha 
 rine matter obtained from the grain, thus : 
 
 From ("Sllbs. gravity 15 gallons spirits"! were required 
 
 100 gals. 75 do 14 do. of a strength 
 
 wash ^70 do 13 do. j> equal to 7 per 
 
 of [ 65 do 12 do. cent over hy- 
 
 1.60 do 11 do. J drometer proof.* 
 
 But the act has since undergone modifications, and as its operations 
 have extended to Ireland, a full explanation of the whole will be found 
 under that head. 
 
 The method of distilling in Scotland is much the same as that 
 practised in England ; and the process observed in the preparation of 
 the wort or wash is nearly the same. 
 
 The spirits manufactured from grain in Scotland are made either 
 from malted barley or bere and bigg, which are both grain of the 
 same nature, but inferior in quality to barley ; or from a mixture of 
 such malt, with barley or bere, raw or unmalted. Wheat is sometimes 
 used, but its high price in general limits its distillation. 
 
 The malt, or mixture of malt and raw grain, when ground, is 
 mashed in a quantity of hot water, either by machinery, or by work 
 men, with rakes provided for the purpose. When the fluid becomes 
 fully impregnated with the saccharine, or farinaceous and fermentable 
 part of the grain, it is drawn off into an underback or receiving-vessel, 
 adjoining the keive, and in that state it is termed worts. From the 
 underback it is pumped into coolers, and allowed to cool down to a 
 certain degree of heat, and is then run into tuns, or backs, where, with 
 the addition of yeast or barm, it ferments, and when attenuated, is 
 called wash. From this wash, imperfect spirits, or low icines, are 
 distilled ; and when they have undergone a second distillation, they 
 are sold in Scotland for consumption ; but in England they are not 
 commonly used for drinking in that state, but pass from the distiller 
 to the rectifier, who, by further distillation, prepares them for the con 
 sumer in the form of compounds. Dr. Thomson, Professor of 
 Chemistry in the University of Glascow, is of opinion, " that the vast 
 quantity of porter-yeast used by the Scotch distillers, and often in a 
 state almost approaching to putrefaction, cannot but have an injurious 
 
 * 58 Geo. III. c. 50, 1 Geo. IV. c. 74, and 3 Geo. IV. c. 52. 
 
576 
 
 effect upon the flavour of their spirits, and has undoubtedly contri 
 buted to the reputation of Highland over Lowland whiskey. The 
 Highland distillers, especially the smugglers, have not the means of 
 procuring yeast from London. Of course, their wash is less perfectly 
 fermented, but the flavour given to the Lowland whiskey by the yeast 
 may be distinctly perceived ; and, on that account," says the Dr. " we 
 are disposed to suspect that the flavour of the spirits always suffers 
 in proportion as the fermentation is brought nearer a state of perfec 
 tion."* 
 
 The character of the Scotch whiskey ranks high, and it continues 
 to compete with any other spirits made in the United Kingdom. For 
 this, it is, no doubt, indebted to the care and attention bestowed on its 
 manufacture, as well as to the selection of the materials. The large 
 quantities of malt that have been consumed in the Scotch distilleries, 
 help to raise its reputation, although imputations were cast upon the 
 manufacturers, insinuating that all spirits said to be produced by them 
 from malt were made in the ordinary way, by a mixture of malt and 
 raw grain- But without entering minutely into this matter, it is 
 certain, that the traffic in spirits has considerably increased to the 
 great advantage of the Scotch distiller. Making spirits purely from 
 malt was long considered a desideratum, and for this purpose the legis 
 lature granted an allowance or drawback of Is. 2d. for every gallon 
 of proof spirits made wholly from malt, with the view of increasing 
 legal distillation in the Highlands and throughout Scotland generally. 
 The taste of the people was habituated to this description of spirits, 
 and the supply of this article was commonly obtained from illicit 
 distillers, to counteract which and to bring a palatable spirit into the 
 market were the great object of the enactment. The premium of 
 Is. 2d. was confined to the spirits consumed in Scotland, for in case 
 of export to England, the whole duty was paid without the allowance 
 of any drawback. The consequence was that illicit distillation greatly 
 decreased, as is evident, when it is known that in 1821, the year pre 
 ceding the grant of the drawback, there were in Scotland only 106 
 legal distillers, but in 1828, they amounted to 273. It may be here 
 remarked, that as there were no markets for the grain raised in the 
 Highlands, recourse was had to illicit distillation ; but, since the 
 encouragement given by the recent laws, a ready consumption is 
 afforded for the superabundant produce of grain, and the land-owners 
 now find it their interest to co-operate with the government in the 
 suppression of illicit traffic and the encouragement of a fair trade. On 
 
 * Supplement vol. to Encyc. Brit. art. Distil, 
 
577 
 
 the whole it appears that the envied advantages which the Scotch 
 manufacturers have over the other distillers of Great Britain, arise from 
 several local and other circumstances, among which may he reckoned 
 the abundance and cheapness of barley, the lowness of fuel, and the 
 permission of bonding spirits free of duty. Whether, however, the 
 Scotch possess any advantage over the English distiller upon any 
 other grounds than that of the lowness of the duty, may be questioned. 
 To render the present distillery laws unobjectionable in every part 
 of the empire, and to remove that envy and jealousy which must 
 always exist, so long as there are imposts in one portion of the country 
 that are not applicable to another, it might be prudent to equalise the 
 duties everywhere, putting all the distilleries in the United Kingdom 
 on the same footing. The late act has approximated towards this 
 object, and it seems a measure better calculated than any other to put 
 down illicit practices and to silence all complaints and remonstrances. 
 Neither would lowering the duty in England have a tendency to 
 produce any immorality on the part of the people more than in Scot 
 land, where no extraordinary evil consequences have arisen from the 
 unrestricted use of spirituous liquors. It is a fallacious assumption, 
 that because the quantity of spirits made under a low duty is greater 
 than under a high duty, that the consumption of the spirits is increased 
 accordingly ; for, as there is little temptation to smuggle, a preference 
 is given to the legal article, and hence the apparent increase of con 
 sumption where there is none in reality. Indeed it might be a ques 
 tion in political economy and moral philosophy, whether, if there were 
 no duty whatever on spirits, but a corresponding impost on some other 
 article, it might not be equally serviceable to the revenue of the 
 country, and the correct habits of the people. 
 
 In distillation, the same precautions are not requisite on the part of 
 the legislature to secure us as good an article as is required in the 
 manufacture of ale or beer, in which there are so many opportunities 
 for adulteration. In spirits, it is otherwise, since it is well known 
 that the unrestricted produce of the unlicensed stills has given a 
 beverage more esteemed than that sanctioned by the law, although 
 supported by premiums and other influential inducements. As a duty 
 on spirits has become necessary both in a financial and moral point of 
 view, its equalisation is calculated to obviate all objections on the part 
 of the manufacturer, to stimulate all to honorable competition, and 
 finally prove successful in opposition to foreign and home smuggling, 
 which have so long proved destructive of the happiness and good order 
 of a large portion of the community. 
 
 Some of the distilleries in Scotland are upon a very extensive scale 
 
 2 p 
 
578 
 
 while others again, particularly in the Highlands, are of a very small 
 magnitude, the whole being often comprised in the compass of one 
 apartment, the content of the whole still being, in many cases, little 
 more than 40 gallons, while the large concerns in the Lowlands range 
 so high as from 2000 to 10,000 gallons and upwards. In some con 
 cerns there are several stills of great dimensions for the manufacture of 
 wash and low-wines, for the making of which the regulations are much 
 the same as those in England, the distiller having it at discretion to 
 work either quickly or slowly. 
 
 The produce of these distilleries, with the disposal thereof, stands 
 as follows : 
 
 ^EXPORTED TO 
 
 Years. Galls, made. England. Ireland. 
 
 Year f!828, 9,105,275 2,438,706 679,021 "| 
 
 ended J 1829, 10,117,027 3,232,513 986,368 I Imperial 
 
 Jan. 5 J 1830, 9,649,070 3,008,686 811,243 [Measure 
 
 (.1832, 4,861,478 2,363,768 487,178 J 
 
 The quantity which paid duty for home consumption for the same 
 years was, in > 
 
 YEARS. IMP. GALL. AMOUNT OF t>TJTY. 
 
 (1828, 4,752,199 673,228 3s. lOd. 
 
 \ 1829, 5,716,180 809,792 3s. 4d. 
 
 (1830, 5,777,280 818,448 
 
 The spirits charged with duty in Scotland, were, in 
 
 1831,-.., 5,700,689 . 950,114 16s. 8d. 
 
 1832, 4,861,478 810,246 6s. 8d. 
 
 1833...... 5,988,556 998,092 13s. 4d. 
 
 1834, 6,045,043..... 1,007,507 3s. 4d. 
 
 1835, 6,013,932 1,002,322 Os. Od. 
 
 By 6th George IV. chapter 58, a duty of 2s. lOd. per gallon was 
 imposed on all spirits distilled in Scotland or Ireland; and by 1st 
 William IV. chapter 49, an addition of sixpence per gallon on all 
 spirits made in the empire; but by the 4th and 5th William IV. 
 chapter 75, from the first September 1834, all spirits made in Ireland 
 were reduced to 2s. 4d. per gallon ; but no alteration was made in 
 Scotland or England. 
 
 The home-made spirits and beer exported from Scotland to foreign 
 countries were in 
 
 1830, Spirits, 12,807 gallons Beer, 2617 barrels. 
 
 1831, do. 10,955 do do. 2935 do. 
 
 1832, do. 13,371 do do. 2337 do. 
 
 1833, do. 19,531 do do. 2854 do. 
 
 1834, do. 25,141 do do. 2889 do. 
 
579 
 
 Before distillation had arrived to any degree of perfection, the imports 
 of foreign spirits were, considering the circumstances of the country, 
 in a proportion perhaps greater than those of the sister kingdom, 
 although the commerce of the latter began to establish itself long 
 before. The great supply, prior to the introduction of rum, was drawn 
 from France and Holland ; but without entering into detail, it may 
 suffice to shew that the actual quantity of rum, brandy, geneva, and 
 other foreign liquors that paid duty, with the amount, was for 
 
 TEARS. GALL. RUM. GALL. BRANDY, &C. . S. D. 
 
 1828, 185,214 42,756 126,952 7 5 
 
 1829, 188,189 45,749 130,872 4 11 
 
 1830, 152,461 43,228 112,853 15 9* 
 
 By the foregoing returns, the yearly average of spirits which paid 
 duty for home consumption is 5,415,186 of rum, and other foreign 
 liquors 219,165, in all 5,634,351 imperial gallons, which, for a popula 
 tion of 2,365,807, gives little more than 2 gallons 3J pints to each 
 individual annually a consumption sufficiently moderate to entitle 
 the Scotch to the character of a temperate people. 
 
 Throughout the Highlands, and the various islands connected with 
 Scotland, the benefits of the new distillery laws have been sensibly 
 felt by the suppression of smuggling, and by giving an article to the 
 people equally agreeable as that which was formerly clandestinely 
 obtained. 
 
 Distillation is now legally conducted there to such extent, that the 
 Highlands send spirits to different parts of the Lowlands and else 
 where ; and this intercourse is considerably facilitated by the several 
 new roads lately constructed under the auspices of the government. 
 It is pleasing to observe that this freedom of communication has given 
 an impetus to industry, and called into useful activity the exertions 
 and energies of the people, to surmount the difficulties thrown by 
 nature in their way, and even to render trackless heaths and rugged 
 rocks fertile. This northern portion of Scotland has Jong been emi 
 nently distinguished for its hospitality, so much so, that it is said the 
 doors of the houses are left open at all hours as a general permission 
 for strangers to enter and partake of the kindness of the inmates with 
 out ever asking their names, on which occasion whiskey forms no 
 small portion of their entertainment : even on leaving a house in 
 which a person has been hospitably entertained, it is a common prac 
 tice for the host to accompany his guest to the door, first drink a glass 
 of spirits himself, and afterwards to present another to his retiring 
 
 * Parl. Pap. No. 211 26th March, 1830. 
 
580 
 
 friend. This ceremony, denominated door-drink (deoch-a-doras), is 
 similar to the parting cup amongst the natives of Switzerland, and 
 precisely that used at present in Ireland under the same appellation. 
 A like practice is prevalent in the Hebrides, where the baneful custom 
 of taking spirits in the morning is generally observed. As soon, says 
 Dr. Johnson, as a man appears in the morning, he swallows his glass 
 of whiskey, and no man is found so abstemious as to refuse this 
 morning dram which they call a skalk; but, notwithstanding this habit, . 
 he did not consider them a drunken race.* Ossian celebrates the 
 hospitality of the Highlanders in the following beautiful strain: " The 
 towns of Cathmor rose on the banks of Atha ; seven paths led to his 
 hall ; seven chiefs stood on those paths and called the stranger to the 
 feast. But Cathmor dwelt in the wood to avoid the voice of praise.f 
 Cathmor was the chief of Clutha. The feeble dwelt in his hall. The 
 gates of Cathmor were never closed ; his feast was always spread. 
 The sons of the stranger came and blessed the generous chief of 
 Clutha. Bards raised the song and touched the harp ; joy brightened 
 on the face of the mournful."f 
 
 At funerals, considerable quantities of spirits are consumed, and 
 after the ceremony of interment is over, the friends of the deceased 
 are invited to a plentiful repast, where whiskey is put about very 
 lavishly, and the evening of the day of sorrow closes as a festival of 
 revelry bordering sometimes on intoxication. 
 
 It is to be regretted, that notwithstanding the encouragement which 
 the present statute affords, smuggling still prevails to some extent in 
 the Highlands, and also in the islands, both affording places of con 
 cealment for that purpose in a pre-eminent degree, as they abound 
 with deep ravines, isolated glens, rocks, and solitary valleys. 
 
 An adventure of a singular nature befel a gentleman who lately 
 visited the Hebrides. While making some geological researches, he 
 was induced to descend a precipice to examine the nature of the strata 
 of a rock, and entering a cave that attracted his attention, he was 
 astonished to hear the noise of persons, as if revelling at a banquet. 
 Being fearful of danger he was about to retire, when he was accosted 
 by a person inside and requested to advance. Considering compliance 
 the best policy, and his curiosity being a good deal excited, he followed 
 the individual into the cavern, and was no little astonished to find 
 himself introduced to a number of persons seated on benches round a 
 
 * Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. 
 Temora. Calthon and Colmar. 
 
581 
 
 table, regaling themselves with as much apparent satisfaction as if in a 
 palace. On looking round, he perceived a number of casks of spirits 
 ranged as if in a cellar, with old swords and other weapons of defence, 
 plainly indicating that he had fallen in with a party of smugglers. 
 Apprehensive that he was an officer of the revenue, he was eyed with 
 great distrust, and questioned most particularly as to his pursuits ; but 
 finding that his profession was of a different nature, they told him 
 candidly what they were, treated him with much kindness, arid, after 
 enjoining secrecy, suffered him to depart, but not without partaking of 
 a hearty glass, and a share of all the luxuries of their solitary grotto. 
 According to Pennant, the people of the Hebrides extract an acid 
 for punch from the berries of the mountain ash, and also distil from 
 them an agreeable spirit. 
 
 If we admit with Boethius that there formerly existed in Cantyre 
 an alembical liquor called usquebaugh drawn from thyme, mint, anise, 
 and other fragrant herbs, it may be inferred that the knowledge of its 
 manufacture was obtained from Ireland, where that liquor was so 
 superior and prevalent. In Dr. Johnson s time, whiskey was very 
 plentiful in the Hebrides ; several stills were then in the island of 
 Cal, and more spirits were made than the inhabitants could consume. 
 Martin, in his description of the Western Islands, says that in some 
 places they preserve their ale in large earthen vessels, and think they 
 are better for that purpose than wood. When the ale becomes flat, 
 they render it brisker by the immersion of a hot stone or a toasted 
 barley cake ; some use a hot malt-cake for the same purpose. The 
 natives preserve their yeast by an oaken withe, which they twist and 
 put into it, and for future use keep it in barley straw. This withe, 
 which is from four to six inches about, is boiled in wort, well dried, 
 and being steeped again in wort, causes it to ferment and produces 
 yeast. The rod is cut before the middle of May, and being preserved 
 and used in the manner stated, serves for a length of time one of 
 these fermenting withes has been known to answer the purpose for 
 upwards of twenty years. In the island of Lewis, which affords here, 
 oats, and rye, usquebaugh is distilled ; this usquebaugh, when three 
 times distilled, was called trestarig ; and, when four times distilled, 
 nsquebaugh-baul^iiiore than two spoonsfull of which were sufficient to 
 endanger life. 
 
 In Harris, the natives in brewing beer, use the seeds of a white wild 
 carrot as a substitute for hops, and say it answers the end sufficiently 
 well, besides giving the drink a good relish.* 
 
 * Martin s Western Isles, p. 192. 
 
582 
 
 Every family of distinction in those islands had a cup-bearer, who 
 always filled and carried the cup round the company, taking the first 
 draught himself. This office was hereditary, and a town with land 
 was the reward of the service. There was another office held in the 
 Highlands at a symposium, or drinking- bout, by a person called a 
 henchman, whose business was to attend his master, stand behind 
 his chair or at his haunch, hence the appellation. The duty of this 
 person was to act as secretary, and to be ready on all occasions to 
 venture his life in defence of his chieftain. In the isle of Skie, the 
 root of Carmel or Knaphard (Argatilis Sylvaticus) was used to pre 
 vent drunkenness, and for its aromatic flavour preferred to spice in 
 the distillation of aqua vitae. 
 
 In St. Kilda, the juice of nettle-roots, mixed with barley-meal 
 dough, was used for yeast in the brewing of ale, which produced all 
 the desired effects. Though these islanders indulge in the use of 
 intoxicating liquors, yet they are in general a temperate people, and 
 live to a great age. Martin records the instance of a man named 
 Tairville, who arrived at the age of 180, and who never drank any 
 malt liquor, distilled waters, nor even wine. 
 
 In Kirkwall, the capital of the Orkneys, there were two licensed 
 distilleries, and one in Stromness, with a few small breweries, but 
 they did not afford a sufficient supply of drink for the inhabitants. 
 These islands exhibit many vestiges of the inroads of the Scandina 
 vians, of the worship of Odin, with several pagan tombs, monuments, 
 or temples for sacrifices. In the graves have been found various 
 relics of antiquity, implements of war, urns of pottery containing 
 human bones, glass beads, and cups of the same material, capable of 
 holding half a pint, shewing that the inhabitants were familiar w r ith 
 the drinks of their ancient northern neighbours. 
 
 In the Shetland islands, the brewing of ale was once quite familiar, 
 but, owing to the duty on malt and the poverty of the inhabitants, it 
 has nearly fallen into disuse. Formerly, it is said, they possessed the. 
 art of distilling a spirit from heather, a secret which has perished along 
 with the other institutions of the Picts. It is certain, however, that 
 not more than a century ago, they used heather in brewing, as hops 
 are used at present, but further than this, nothing certain is known.* 
 
 Some of the lairds and respectable land proprietors still make ale 
 for domestic use, and which is accounted a pleasant, wholesome beve 
 rage. The drink most in use is bland, a preparation from the serum 
 of buttermilk, which is found in almost every house. 
 
 * Edmondston * View of tire Zetland Islands, vol. ii. p. 50. 
 
58S 
 
 Bland, which is of Scandinavian origin, is made by pouring boiling 
 water into new-churned buttermilk, when the curds sink to the bottom, 
 and the liquid, after standing a little time, undergoes a slight fermen 
 tation: in a few months it becomes as clear as water, possessing a very 
 agreeable portion of acidity. The Icelanders use a similar beverage 
 under the same denomination. The Shetlanders are remarkable for 
 hospitality, and a stranger finds no difficulty in procuring accommoda 
 tion at a moderate charge, where inns are not convenient. The law 
 enacted in the reign of James the I. did not extend to the Shetland 
 islands, otherwise the individual might be without lodgings, since that 
 act prohibited persons putting up at any places but inns, or, as they 
 were termed, hostelries. The resident gentlemen have not only 
 comfortable dwellings, but plenty of the necessaries and most of the 
 luxuries of life. In ancient times, wine was so abundant, that at 
 marriages it was customary to wash the feet of the bridegroom in a 
 tub of wine. The Shetland and Orkney islands are supplied with 
 spirits and other liquors, partly from their own distillation and partly 
 from Holland, England, Scotland, and even, during the fishery season, 
 from the northern parts of Ireland. 
 
 In Ireland, where distillation is carried on to greater extent than in 
 any other portion, of the world of equal magnitude, and where it 
 forms a branch of such great commercial importance and enterprise,, 
 the speculative mind is naturally led to enquire into the causes which 
 have produced sueh wonderful efforts in this branch of trade. Afr \ 
 what time, therefore, this art was introduced into Ireland is a subject 
 equally interesting to the artisan and the philosopher. The better to 
 come to a correct conclusion on the point, it will be necessary to take 
 a view of the state and progress of the arts and of agriculture in this, 
 country from a remote period. Ireland, it is admitted, was the seat 
 of learning and the sciences, when all the other parts of Europe were 
 involved in darkness. From the early settlement of eastern emigrants 
 and the frequent intercourse with foreign nations, it might be thought 
 that the knowledge of distillation, if such an art were then known, 
 must have been coeval with the first settlers. 
 
 Vallancey asserts on good authority, that the Bramiris, or as some 
 will have it, the Druids, came into Ireland along with the Scythians, 
 and, according to Gebelin, brought with them numerous improvements 
 in philosophy and the arts. 
 
 On comparing the customs of the Phffinicians and Irish, a great 
 similarity appears. Both worshipped Bel, or the sun, the moon, and 
 stars, and many of the practices of that intelligent commercial people 
 were prevalent in Ireland, because a constant intercourse was kept up 
 
584 
 
 between our ancestors and that nation. Vallancey shews that every 
 thing we owe to the Milesians had an Oriental origin, and Sir William 
 Jones is of opinion that the Goths and Hindoos had originally the 
 the same language, gave the same appellations to the stars and planets, 
 and had the same religious rites and opinions, as also that the Greeks 
 took their pagan deities, with the fables and the whole machinery 
 of their mythology, directly or indirectly, from India, where all are 
 still found in the Sanscrit books and Indian temples. Ccesar tells us 
 that the Druids were great astronomers, and it is curious that the 
 Irish word for a year, literally signifies the circle of Bel, or the sun. 
 The ancient customs of the country proclaim, in a great number of 
 other instances, their Eastern descent. The practice of employing 
 mourners to lament the loss and sing the praises of the deceased, is 
 manifestly derived from the Jews, as well as that of drinking at wakes, 
 which, it is to be lamented, has been too often abused. This excess 
 was carried to such a height by the Israelites, that the Sanhedrim 
 made a decree that ten cups only should be drunk on such occasions.* 
 Homer s account of the dirges sung by the women at the funeral of 
 Hector, proves the antiquity of the cry or dirge, as used by the ancient 
 and modern Irish. In Russia, a similar practice prevails, when mead 
 is carried to the grave to be drunk as a parting offering to the 
 deceased. 
 
 Pearce, during his residence in Abyssinia, observed that a cry similar 
 to that in use in Ireland, was common amongst the Abyssinian s at 
 their funerals, particularly at the burial of persons of distinction. 
 There are numbers of men and women in that country, who gain a 
 living by making rhymes and attending at cries ; and if they are 
 superior poets, they receive high wages in corn, cattle, and cloth. 
 He was acquainted with a very handsome middle-aged woman, Avho, 
 though she had a large estate to live on, had studied poetry from her 
 infancy, and attended gratuitously at all cries, in order to distinguish 
 herself. The same description of women are employed to conduct 
 the cry, even at the present day in Ireland ; and many of them are 
 very happy in their recitations on those occasions. To such effusions 
 the celebrated Curran attributed his early predilection for poetry and 
 oratory. 
 
 Christianity, which carries with it civilisation in all its bearings, 
 was first introduced into this island from Asia, and not directly from 
 Rome, all concurring to prove the extent of our intercourse and com- 
 
 * Vide Mathew ix. 23., also 2 Chron. KXV. 25. 
 
585 
 
 munications with other nations. If the Phoenicians, Egyptians, or 
 any of the Asiatics, were, at an early period, acquainted with distil 
 lation, it is likely that they would have introduced it into Ireland, 
 where they came in great numbers to traffic and to settle. These 
 colonists would also diffuse a spirit of commercial enterprise through 
 the country, which would render its harbours better known than those 
 of the adjacent isles. 
 
 Accordingly, we learn from Tacitus, that " the ports and landing- 
 places of Hibernia were better known than those of Britain, through 
 the intercourse of merchants ;"* and it appears that in the time of 
 Ptolemy the town of Wexford was familiar to that geographer .f The 
 Leabhar Lecan, or Liber Lucarius, distinctly mentions, that, at a very 
 early period, the Irish had made great progress in the arts, in the dyeing 
 of purple, blue, and green, and in the separation and refining of gold.f 
 On the river Liffey in particular, A.M. 28 15, in the reign of Tighern- 
 mas, there was a great smelting house where orban and orbuid, white 
 and yellow gold were refined ; and a famous artist called Juachadan 
 or Uachadan of Cualane, in the county of Wicklow, brought the 
 manufacture of cups and goblets from this metal to great perfection. 
 
 That the art of making glass was early known in Ireland, is certain 
 from the specimens of that and crystal found in the cairns raised in 
 honour of the dead ; and this is further confirmed by what has been 
 dug up from the ruins of old buildings, particularly from those of 
 Down, which were rudely painted and scarcely transparent, as if done 
 in the infancy of the invention. We are informed that St. Patrick 
 shewed to Ailbeus, one of his disciples, an altar of beautiful workman 
 ship having a glass chalice at each of its four corners. 
 
 The familiarity of any art often prevents an account of it, and hence 
 the paucity of information, which some of the most enlightened writers 
 have in their records, respecting inventions and other matters, a know 
 ledge of the origin of which would be, at the present day, of the 
 highest interest. 
 
 If we are to credit our early annalists, magnifying glasses and the 
 use of the telescope were known to the Irish Druids ; and that even the 
 polarity of the loadstone was not to them a secret ; nor the effects of 
 gunpowder among the arcana of philosophy and the other phenomena 
 of physical science. Hence it is inferred, that the shaking of the 
 Druidical grove near Marseilles, as described by Lucan, and the strange 
 
 * Vita Agricobe, c. 24. f O Halloran s Ireland, vol. ii. pp. 246, 434. 
 
 J For the materials used in the art of dyeing, among the ancient Irish, see 
 Walker s Historical Essay on the dress of the ancient Irish, p. 261. 2d Ed. 8 TO. 
 
586 
 
 sounds echoing from it, with the flickering blaze issuing therefrom, 
 arose from a preparation of materials similar to gunpowder. 
 
 The skill of the Irish in other respects is confirmed by the variety, 
 richness, and splendour of the various articles discovered from time 
 to time in different parts of the kingdom, such as swords, with gold 
 handles, shields of pure silver, helmets and corslets cased with gold, 
 horse-trappings, and even bridle-bits of the same precious metal. 
 The crowns of the ancient monarchs were of pure gold. O Halloran 
 mentions two he had seen, neither of which had the cross on it, 
 which renders it probable that they were made before the introduc 
 tion of Christianity.* One of these crowns, Walker, in his Irish 
 Bards, says, was dug up in 1692 in the county of Tipperary, and which 
 is thought to be still preserved in France.f 
 
 Our annals relate that at a very early period of the world, A. M 
 3355, at Arigiod-Ross, on the banks of the Suir, there was a mint for 
 the coinage of money, where, even before that time, shields and targets 
 of pure silver were fabricated, and a mint was erected at Clanmac- 
 nois for the coinage of silver. So rich was the country in the precious 
 metals, and affording so many opportunities to exercise the ingenuity 
 of the artisan, that the tax on Leinster paid annually to the monarch, 
 for a series of 400 years, was in part 6000 ounces of pure silver, 
 3000 copper cauldrons, 3000 mantles richly embroidered ; while Cor- 
 mac Cas, in A. D. 222, was enabled to bestow 300 ounces of silver 
 in a day as rewards to the bards and literati. Music and poetry 
 were particularly cherished, and had arrived to a degree of perfection 
 unequalled in other countries. To this some of the earliest writers 
 bear testimony : Cambrensis says, " that of all the nations within our 
 knowledge, the Irish is beyond comparison the chief in musical compo 
 sitions ;" and Geminiani, the celebrated Italian Composer, who was 
 struck with the harmony of our airs, declared that " he found none of 
 so original a turn on this side of the Alps." Handel himself confessed 
 he would rather have been the author of Aileen Aroou than of all thes 
 music he had ever composed. 
 
 Neither were the Irish less attentive to commerce than to the 
 encouragement of the arts, for in the reign of Ollamh-Fodhla, 
 A.M. 3082, amongst other wise regulations of that monarch, were 
 enacted laws for the extension of trade and the improvement of manu 
 factures ; and to prevent imposition or breaches of these regulations, 
 sixty persons conversant in those affairs were usually despatched into 
 the different great cities and manufacturing towns to discover abuses, 
 and prevent persons not properly qualified to carry on trade on 
 manufactures to the injury of the country. As a proof of the very 
 * Hist. vol. ii. p. 92. f Hist, of the Irish Bards, vol. ii. 32. 
 
587 
 
 early intercourse we had with other nations, and with the Cartha 
 ginians in particular, it is affirmed, that the victory obtained at 
 Cannae is much to be attributed to the valour of Irishmen, since the 
 swords found on the field of battle as well as the shields dug up 
 there, were the same as those used by the ancient Irish ; and when the 
 Carthaginian and Irish swords were examined by the assay-master 
 of the mint, he pronounced that they were cast in the same mould.* It 
 was even asserted by early writers, and credited by Usher, that Connal 
 Cearnach, master of the Ulster Knights, was actually at Jerusalem at 
 the time of the crucifixion of our Saviour, and that he related the 
 whole story to Cormac, king of Ulster, on his return to Ireland. 
 
 From all these circumstances, it is quite evident, that whatever 
 may have been the extent of the knowledge of the arts at those early 
 times, the Irish were familiar with it, whether serviceable or orna 
 mental ; and that the use of liquors must have been well known 
 among a people so conversant with the manners and habits of other 
 nations. This opinion is further corroborated by the accounts we 
 have of an order of people during the time of the Druids, called 
 beatachs, brughnibhs, or keepers of open houses, established for the 
 express purpose of hospitality. No man could presume to assume 
 the title of Beatach, who had not seven town-lands comprising seven 
 ploughed lands, he was also to have seven ploughs going, and 
 to be master of seven herds of cattle, each herd containing one 
 hundred and twenty cows ; his house was to be accessible by 
 four different roads, and a hog, a beef, and a mutton, were always 
 to be ready for the entertainment of the traveller, and of such houses 
 not less than eighteen hundred belonged to the two Munsters. The 
 keepers of these open house* were distinguished by a garment of four 
 colours, which was a high mark of respect, when it is known that they 
 ranked next to the nobility, who wero privileged to wear only five 
 colours. This laudable spirit of hospitality derived from our Scythian 
 ancestors, is, to this day, kept up amongst the various hordes of 
 Asiatics, who are confessedly descended from the same stock. Burck- 
 hardt speaks of these houses of hospitality in Syria, and says, that 
 taverns are open in each district for the accommodation of travellers, 
 at the public expense, in which all sojourners are maintained as long 
 as they choose, provided they do not unnecessarily prolong their 
 stay. Hence few of the natives, when travelling, think of putting 
 money into their pockets, because they are sure of being everywhere 
 well received, and of living as comfortably, and perhaps better than 
 
 * O Halloran, vol. ii. Prel. Disc. p. 54. 
 
588 
 
 in their own houses.* A similar practice is observed throughout 
 various parts of the Turkish empire, where houses, termed Khans, 
 are erected for the reception of travellers, which are so endowed 
 that every night the guests are entertained free with a comfortable 
 supper, be their number more or less, according to the capacity of 
 the building.f The Choultries in India, which are similar to the 
 Beatachs in Ireland, are attended by an inferior Brahmin who resides 
 convenient ; and he not only furnishes refreshments, but congi, or rice- 
 water, to assuage the thirst of the traveller. In the same manner we 
 are informed, that, in ancient times, noblemen in England were 
 accustomed to keep open houses, where all their vassals and all 
 strangers had full liberty to enter and eat as much as they pleased ; 
 from this custom, the title of Lord is derived, which signifies a 
 dispenser of bread. 
 
 The Gauls were also remarkable for hospitality, and it is related 
 of Luernius, the king of the Auvernions, that he made an enclosure 
 of twelve furlongs square, in which he regaled all visiters, during 
 several days, with every species of exquisite meat and liquors ; and 
 that Ariamnes caused lodges to be erected on the high roads, 
 capable of accommodating four hundred persons, which number he 
 entertained for a whole year. Strangers were not permitted to pass 
 without partaking of refreshments ; and, if time would not permit 
 them, to eat, they were compelled to drink. 
 
 The caravansaries in the East, or, as they are termed in Persia, 
 houses of hospitality, are, according to O Connor, in his Chronicles of 
 Eri, the car-rah-man-saras, " the seats of the stations for food, J" or 
 the Beatachs once so numerous in Ireland, for the purpose of receiv 
 ing the distressed, and sheltering the nightly wanderer, to ad 
 minister to his comforts and protect him from injury. The Beatachs 
 were also bound to inquire from their guests at their departure, 
 what they stood in need of, and in what they could be served. The 
 name of the guest, to what family he belonged, or his place of des 
 tination, were not to be asked, the whole displaying a magnanimity, 
 a hospitality, and a spirit of humanity, not surpassed in any other 
 country. 
 
 The hospitality for which Ireland is so proverbial, has, in some 
 degree, been observed among the more northern nations, as we find 
 in the Havamaal, or sublime discourse of Odin : " Be humane and 
 gentle," says that venerable code, " to those you meet travelling OB 
 
 Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, p. 295, 35 l r 
 f Sir Paul Rycaut s Ottoman Empire, p. 167. 
 % Chronicles of Eri, vol. i. p. 151. 
 
589 
 
 the mountains or on the sea; and to the guest who enters your dwel 
 ling with frozen knees, give the warmth of your fire : he who hath 
 travelled over the mountains hath need of food and well-dried 
 garments."* 
 
 Many extraordinary instances of Irish hospitality, both in ancient 
 and modern times, might be related as illustrative of the preceding 
 historical facts. One in particular of Mr. Mathews, recorded by 
 Sheridan, in his Life of Swift, is well worthy of recital. This gentle 
 man resided at Thomastown in the county of Tipperary, and possessed 
 an estate of ,8,000 a-year. At this place he built a spacious man 
 sion, open at all times for the reception of respectable visitants, and 
 surrounded by a demesne of 1,500 acres, laid out in the most tasteful 
 and improved manner. The house contained forty commodious 
 apartments for guests, with accommodations for servants, and each 
 apartment was furnished with every convenience, even to the most 
 minute article. When a guest arrived, Mr. Mathews shewed him 
 his apartment, saying, " this is your castle, here you are to command 
 as absolutely as in your own house ; you may breakfast, dine, and 
 sup here, whenever you please, and invite such of the guests to accom 
 pany you as may be most agreeable to you." He then shewed him 
 the common parlour, " where," he said, " a daily ordinary was kept, 
 at which he might dine when it was more agreeable to him to mix in 
 society, but, from this moment, you are never to know me as master 
 of the house, and only to consider me as one of the guests." 
 
 During meals, Mr. Mathews took his seat, without any regard to 
 difference of rank or quality. There was alarge room fitted up exactly 
 like a coffee-house, where a bar-maid and waiters attended to furnish 
 refreshments at all times of the day. Here such as chose, breakfasted 
 at their own hours. It was furnished with chess-boards, backgammon- 
 tables, newspapers, pamphlets, &c. in all the forms of a city coffee 
 house. 
 
 A detached room was fitted up as a tavern, into which such of the 
 guests as chose, might retire after dinner and regale themselves with 
 an extra-glass, though there was a moderate supply of wine always 
 at the table in the ordinary. A waiter with a blue apron attended, 
 and helped every person to whatever description of liquor he liked, in 
 the same manner as is practised in public houses, and as if each of the 
 guests were to pay a share of the reckoning. 
 
 Here, too, the midnight orgies of Bacchus were often celebrated, 
 with the same noisy mirth as is customary in his city temples, without 
 
 * Mallet s Northern Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 144. 
 
590 
 
 in the least disturbing the repose of the more sober part of the family. 
 Games of all sorts were allowed, but under such restrictions as to 
 prevent gambling, and so as to answer their true end, that of amuse 
 ment without injury to the purses of the players. There were two 
 billiard-tables and a large bowling-green ; ample provision was made 
 for all such as delighted in country sports ; fishing-tackle of all sorts, 
 a variety of guns with proper ammunition, a pack of buck-hounds, 
 another of fox-hounds, and another of harriers, with twenty choice 
 hunters in the stables for those who were not properly mounted for 
 the chace. So well was every matter arranged, such checks were 
 kept upon the domestics who were of tried integrity, the articles of 
 life so cheap, and the demesne alone furnishing every article save 
 that of wine, liquors, and groceries, that the host s fortune was fully 
 adequate to support this generous and hospitable establishment. No 
 confusion nor disorder ever arose from the multiplicity of visiters, as 
 all was conducted with the same ease and regularity as in a private 
 family. It was an established rule that all might depart when they 
 thought proper, without any ceremony of leave-taking, and the ser 
 vants were enjoined not to receive any perquisite, as it was considered 
 the highest insult if any offer of that kind were made. 
 
 Attracted by the wonderful accounts related of Mr. Mathews, the 
 celebrated Dean Swift resolved to visit him, and to be convinced that 
 the report was neither romantic nor exaggerated. When Mr. Mathews 
 learned that the Dean was on his journey, he immediately despatched 
 a coach and six which met him with a store of the choicest viands, 
 wines, and other liquors, at the end of the first day s journey. On 
 coming within sight of the house, the Dean, astonished at its magni 
 ficence, exclaimed, " what, in the name of God, can be the use of such 
 a vast building ?" " Why, Mr. Dean," replied Dr. Sheridan, who was 
 his companion on this occasion, " there are no less than forty apart 
 ments for guests in that house, and all of them probably occupied at 
 this time, except what are reserved for us." " Then," said the Dean 
 mournfully, " I have lost a fortnight of my life," the time which he 
 had promised to spend at Thomastown, adding suddenly, " but there 
 is no remedy, I must submit !" 
 
 Mr. Mathews received him at the door with uncommon marks of 
 respect ; and then conducting him to his apartment, after some com 
 pliments, made his usual speech, acquainting him with the customs of 
 the house, and retired, leaving him in possession of his castle. Soon 
 after the cook appeared with his bill of fare, to receive his directions 
 about supper, and the butler, at the same time, with a list of wines 
 and other liquors. " And is all this really so," said Swift, " and may 
 
591 
 
 I command here as in my own house ?" The gentleman before men 
 tioned assured him that he might, and that nothing could be more agree 
 able to the owner of that mansion, than that all under his roof should 
 live conformably to their own inclinations, without the least restraint. 
 
 " Well, then," said Swift, " I invite you and Dr. Sheridan to be 
 my guests while I stay, for I think I shall hardly be tempted to mix 
 with the mob below." Three days were passed in riding through the 
 demesne without ever seeing Mr. Mathews or any of his guests. On 
 the fourth, Swift entered the room where the company were assembled 
 before dinner, and addressed Mr. Mathews in one of the finest 
 speeches he ever made, expatiating on all the beauties of his improve 
 ments with the skill of an artist, and the taste of a connoisseur ; and 
 concluded by saying, " now, ladies and gentlemen, I am come to live 
 among you, and it shall be no fault of mine if we do not pass our time 
 agreeably." So much was he fascinated with the place, and finding 
 himself so happy, that instead of the fortnight which he had originally 
 intended, he passed four months there, to his own satisfaction and to 
 that of all who visited the place during that time. 
 
 Of the varieties of drink made use of in ancient times, there is no 
 distinct detail. All writers affirm that Ireland abounded in milk and 
 honey ; but that a drink was made resembling the Tartarian koumiss, 
 as conjectured by Ledwich, is improbable. By the chronicles of Eri 
 it appears, that the early inhabitants lived chiefly on milk, and were 
 the same as the galactophagi, or milk-eaters, mentioned by Homer ; 
 the corresponding compound word in the language of Eri, is 
 geal-lacdfoghaC) a liver on unskimmed milk, or with more propriety 
 curd-eater^ which, without much stretch of fancy, might lead us to 
 conjecture that cheese must have been in early use in this country. 
 The food of the ancient Irish was, according to Strabo, milk, butter, 
 and herbs ; hence he called them herb-eaters.* 
 
 That mead, or honey- wine, called in Irish miodh, meadh, and 
 milfion (in Icelandic, miced, in Saxon, medo, medu, in German, 
 mede, meth, in Dutch, meethe, in Welsh, meddeglyn, mctheglyn,) 
 must have been plentiful in Ireland, is an incontestable fact, since it 
 was the common drink of the people in the days of Druidism, and 
 mead is mentioned with praise in the life of Berach, who flourished in 
 the seventh century, as noticed in the annals of Ulster.f For these 
 reasons, the Brehon laws wisely provided for the propagation and 
 preservation of bees, since they were deemed among the most valu 
 able part of the property of the early Irish. " Whover plunders or 
 
 * Strabo, Geog. B. iv. f Harris s "Ware, p. 183. 
 
592 
 
 steals bees out of a garden or fort," says the Brehon code, "is subject 
 to a like penalty as if he steals them out of a habitation, for these are 
 deemed of equal penalty by law." 
 
 Bees in an enclosure or fort, and in a garden, are of the same 
 account (as to property, penalty, &c.) as the wealth or substance of an 
 habitation.* Camden tells us that, from the earliest period, bees were 
 not only in hives, but in trunks of trees, and in the holes of the earth, 
 hence there was such a profusion of honey, that it became an article 
 of exportation. 
 
 The most ancient songs and poetry, which the country affords, are 
 replete with praises of mead ; and in a poem by Alfred, king of the 
 Northumbrian Saxons, A.D. 685, he notices honey and the drinks 
 used at the banquets, 
 
 Pliny and Virgil praise the liquors made by the mixture of honey, 
 raspberries, and white currants ; hence it is evident, that mead and 
 metheglin were favourite beverages in that age. Mead was at that 
 time prepared in the following manner : A quantity of honey, col 
 lected fresh from the combs, was blended with water till it came 
 to a proper consistency. It was then boiled for better than an hour, 
 suffered to cool, and left to ferment in a close vessel. 
 
 Modern times introduced the addition of spices of various descrip 
 tions, according to the taste or fancy of the manufacturer. A small 
 quantity of barm was added to promote fermentation and increase the 
 levity of the fluid. 
 
 Barm w r as a Celtic discovery arising from the knowledge of brew 
 ing. It was found that the froth or spume of their curmi, (de 
 nominated burm by the ancient Welsh) mixed with flour and water, 
 in the composition of bread, rendered it lighter and pleasanter than 
 leaven, eggs, milk, honey, or the lees of wine, as used by other 
 nations ; hence the application of its use in the fermentation and 
 clarification of vinous liquors. 
 
 The modern mode of making mead is as follows : To a hogshead 
 of water add eight gallons of honey ; blend them well together, and 
 boil them an hour in a copper ; skim the mixture and draw it off into 
 a receiver, and leave it till it becomes lukewarm ; then cask it with 
 some yeast, and when fermentation is completed, bung the casks 
 closely. In the process, some introduce whites of eggs, mace, 
 ginger, cloves, cinnamon, rosemary, lavender, sweet-brier, lemon- 
 peel, orange-peel, with other spices and aromatics, to heighten the 
 
 Walker s Historical Essay, 2nd. Ed. p. 164. Anthologia Hibernica, vol. ii. 
 p. 132. note. 
 
503 
 
 flavour and render it more palatable, and make it a useful stomachic. 
 At the present day, great quantities of mead are manufactured in 
 various parts of Ireland, particularly in the counties of Cork, 
 Limerick, Waterford, and Tipperary ; and cider of a superior 
 quality is equally" abundant in those counties, and sold at a very 
 reasonable rate. The introduction of cider into Ireland was in the 
 reign of Elizabeth ; and it was first made at Affane, in the county 
 of Waterford,* a drink which Phillips, in his admirable poem on this 
 liquor, says, 
 
 " far surmounts 
 
 Gallic or Latin grapes." 
 
 A wooden flaggon, called a meathcr or mether, implying acid- 
 drink, is still to be found in this country, and is considered a relic of 
 high antiquity and veneration. It is formed out of a solid piece of 
 wood having four sides, with two handles opposite to each other, so 
 that it may be raised to the lips with greater ease. Tradition vene 
 rates the very name of mether as a drinking utensil, since it makes us 
 familiar with the associations of our early ancestors. Although the 
 mether was used in former times as a drinking vessel, yet it is 
 thought that the cornet, or horn, was more ancient. This was at first 
 merely the horn of a cow or bullock ; but in process of time, it was 
 made of brass. The crooked cornet of Pliny, and our corna are, 
 perhaps, one and the same instrument. 
 
 Among the drinking vessels used by the ancient Irish, was the 
 Concha Marina or blaosg, corresponding to the Buccina or shell of 
 the Murex, used by the Romans. Formerly, both in Ireland and 
 Scotland, drink was served at feasts in this utensil ; hence the 
 expressions " feast of shells," and " hall of shells," may be accounted 
 for as occurring in Irish and Erse poetry. 
 
 The corna, in its natural form was polished, and ornamented accord 
 ing to the fancy of the times. The same description of drinking-horns 
 was common in England and Denmark. In the latter country, they 
 usually drank out of nothing but the horns of an ox ; and, in the museum 
 at Copenhagen, there are preserved two of those horns made of gold, 
 found among others of alike kind at different times in Jutland. These 
 horns are ornamented with hieroglyphics ; one of them represents a hu 
 man figure with a dog s head, a device common in Egypt, it is supposed to 
 represent Anubis or Hermes of Hades. From this it may be conjectured 
 that these horns are of Celtic origin, and all derived from the same stock, 
 
 * Walker s H iit. Essay" on Gardening, 8vo. p 166. Anthologica Hibernica, 
 
 vol. i. p. 194. 
 
 2 Q 
 
594 
 
 that of the Titan Celts, who inhabited the coasts of the Mediterranean, 
 nnd existed in Greece, in Gaul, and in the Atlantic Isles, before any 
 of the Gothic and Grecian colonies had made their way into Europe. 
 These instruments were used not only at the convivial board, but 
 were the usual vehicles for carrying a supply of drink as well in the 
 field of battle as in that of the chase. To this practice Chaucer 
 alludes in the following distich : 
 
 " Janus sits by the fire with double berde 
 " And drinketh of his bugle- horn the wine." 
 
 To these horns were neatly appended, stoppers or lids, to secure 
 the liquor. Grose records, that in the will of Prince ^Ethelstan, 
 he is found bequeathing his drinking-horn, along with his military 
 accoutrements ; and Pennant describes one of these ox-horn cups 
 which he saw at Dunvegan Castle in Scotland,* as tipped with silver, 
 of a spiral form, and used at festivals, when each guest was obliged 
 to drink off its contents at one draught. 
 
 The northern nations held this species of drinking-vessel in high 
 esteem, and employed the capacious horn of the great Aurochs for 
 that purpose. Those cups graced the halls of kings ; and out of them 
 the ancient heroes quenched their thirst. Even in Ireland, at the 
 present day, horns are used by the gentry in some places for the 
 purpose of distributing ale or beer among the domestics, labourers, 
 or attendants ; and hence the expression of a horn of ale, beer, or 
 whiskey, is familiar to almost every Irish ear. Horns, therefore, 
 being the early drinking vessels of the descendants of both Greeks 
 and Goths, account for representing Bacchus with bulls horns ; 
 and why he has sometimes been called Taurus. 
 
 From the practice of drinking out of horns, filled to overflowing, 
 may have originated the cornu-copice, or horn of plenty, so familiar in 
 heathen mythology, and from which was supposed to issue a super 
 abundance of all the riches of art and nature. These drinking- 
 horns, being the first in use, have, no doubt, been continued in con 
 sequence of their antiquity. The scriptures mention them in diffe 
 rent places.f 
 
 Horns were fixed on the ancient altars not only for use, but for 
 ornament ; the sacred oil of the tabernacle was kept in a horn ; the 
 sacrifices were frequently bound to the altar by cords from them ; 
 and some altars were constructed entirely of these materials, so that 
 they were held as sacred from the most remote times.J Galen re- 
 Pennant s Tour in Scotland, Voyage to the Hebrides, vol. ii. p. 194. 
 f 1st Samuel xvi. Isai. xxxii. 24. J Exodus ii. 27. 
 
595 
 
 reports, tli at at Rome, oil, wine, honey, and vinegar, were measured 
 in horn vessels ; Horace speaks of them as being common utensils ; 
 Pliny describes the use of horn-drinking cups as familiar to all the 
 nations of the north ; Caesar mentions that in the Herciuian forest, 
 large cups made of the horns of the Urus were in general use. 
 
 Xenophon gays the same of many of the nations of Europe and 
 Asia; and the ancient poets, JEschylus, Sophocles, and Pindar, 
 always represent their heroes drinking out of horns ; and, in some 
 parts of Africa, these are the only vessels used for keeping liquor. 
 Travellers, in ancient times, always carried a horn for the purpose 
 of taking up water from a spring to quench their thirst. Such a horn 
 had Samuel when commanded to fill it with oil and proceed to Beth 
 lehem to consecrate a king over Israel. 
 
 The drinking-vessels of the Greeks, Britons, and the Celtic 
 nations, were of various sizes and materials. The ancient Britons had 
 cups of silver, wood, and earth, with horns of oxen and other animals. 
 In the Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin, through Wales in 1158, 
 mention is made of Hirlas, or the drinking horn of Owen, who was 
 Prince of South Wales in 978. It is described as a vessel of curious 
 workmanship, " with an enriched lid of gold," and was the subject 
 of a poem composed by one of the Cambrian Bards, translated by Sir 
 Richard Colt Hoare, from the original of Giraldus Cambrensis. The 
 horn of Ulphus, preserved in the Cathedral of York, which is made 
 of ivory, 27 inches in height, and 5 inches in breadth at the top, has 
 a chain fastened to it by which it may be hung up ; and was pre 
 sented to that church by a northern prince about the beginning of the 
 eleventh century. In the museum of the College of Dublin, is a 
 similar ivory horn of sixteen sides, about 16 inches high, gilt, and 
 mounted with brass. Round the mouth-piece is this inscription in 
 Gothic characters " Tiguranius, (or Tighernan,) O Lavan made 
 me for the love of God." This horn, which was certainly made for 
 a drinking- cup, has been called the charter-horn; but, for what 
 reason cannot be determined, unless from the practice which is said 
 to have been observed in the conveyance of estates or other property 
 by the donor giving a drinking-horn, or cup, in ratification of the 
 charter. The conformity between the ancient horns of the north and 
 those of the east, shews them to have had one common origin 
 and object. 
 
 The Caledonians generally employed shells, which are still in use 
 among the Highlanders, and from the horn of the Urus drinking-cups 
 were made and ornamented with silver. Neale, in his Travels, saw, 
 at Para, the horn of a rhinoceros admirably sculptured in low relief, 
 and which- was said to have been found among the sands of Egypt. 
 
596 
 
 Its form was scaphoid, resembling that of the double-headed paterae, 
 in use among the ancients for pouring libations on the altars of the 
 gods, some of which, of pure gold, have been dug up lately in the bogs 
 of Ireland. 
 
 The intemperate Thracians were accustomed to empty them in their 
 drinking matches at a single draught, a practice which the Highland 
 chieftains of the present day still observe. It was probably owing 
 to such an exploit, that Alexander the Great met with his sudden 
 death, as he was in the very act of employing a drinking-horn called 
 the cup of Hercules, when he fell down and expired. The horns of 
 the rhinoceros were particularly selected by the ancients for their 
 paterae, from an opinion that they possessed an occult, magical 
 quality, so that no poisonous liquid could be poured into them with 
 out being shewn by a cold dew exuding through the pores and 
 appearing on the surface. It was this superstitious notion that 
 induced Mithridates never to drink from any other vessel than 
 the horn of a rhinoceros, as he was in constant dread of being poisoned. 
 The Chinese of the present day use large cups of this description on par 
 ticular occasions of ceremony, and at the close of their entertainments. 
 Porcelain cups, it is thought, were first introduced at Rome by Pompey, 
 when he returned from the shores of the Caspian sea, and such w r as at 
 that time their value that one which held three sextari, sold for twenty 
 talents (3860), and Nero gave three hundred talents (57,900) for a 
 single vessel. 
 
 Augustus, upon the conquest of Egypt, selected out of all the 
 spoils of Alexandria, a single murrhine cup for his own use. This 
 murrhine is believed to have been porcelain, and it is said that Cleo 
 patra drank her narcotic wine out of china; and such was the fancy 
 for those costly cups, that Nero, according to Pliny, paid 6000 
 sestertia, (nearly 50,000) for two glass cups with handles.* 
 
 Antiquarians are divided respecting the substance called murrhine, 
 and whether cups made of it were ever introduced into Ireland, or 
 any of the British Isles, is uncertain ; but they were held in high 
 estimation by the ancients. Dr. Hagar asserts, that they were formed 
 of a Chinese stone called yu, diversified in colour, and bearing a 
 polish like agate. This yu, which is a kind of pebble, is distinguished 
 by the names of the water-yu, and the land, or earth-yu, one being 
 found in rivers, and the other in mountains. 
 
 That the Romans might have procured these from the East is 
 highly probable, since we are assured that three centuries before the 
 
 Pliney, B.xxxvi. 26 vide Dr. Vincent s Appendix to the Periplus of NearclHis, 
 p. 44. 
 
597 
 
 Christian era, the cups used at the tables of the Chinese princes were of 
 gold, silver, and yu stone, and in the times of Augustus and Nero, a 
 yu-cup was a most acceptable offering to a Chinese sovereign. 
 
 In a passage of Martial, allusion is made to the Romans using 
 murrhine-goblets in drinking warm Vine, which Dr. Hagar quotes as 
 an additional proof that these vessels were procured from China, 
 since in that empire all liquors are drunk warm. The extravagant 
 price for yu need not be wondered at, being so very rare ; and even 
 at the present day, yu stone is considered by the Chinese more 
 valuable than gold, since nine or ten years are incessantly employed 
 in the manufacture of a single piece.* 
 
 Those stones are from two to twelve inches in diameter ; some as 
 white as snow ; some of the most beautiful emerald green ; others 
 yellow, vermilion, and jet black. The rarest and most esteemed 
 varieties of this stone are the white speckled with red ; and the green 
 veined with gold. Many of the wealthy Romans used drinking- 
 vessels, the inside of which were cut and polished, forming mirrors ; 
 so that the person drinking might see his own image multiplied. 
 A goblet of this description was, among other valuable gifts, pre 
 sented by Valerian to the Emperor Probus. 
 
 Vallancey states, that, by the ancient Brehon laws, a tax or tribute 
 to the chief was placed on each load of cromer indi, or cocoa-nuts, 
 the shells of which were used as drinking-cups by the Irish, which 
 is a corroboration of the early intercourse of this people with the 
 Eastern nations. About the beginning of the 17th century, the 
 French introduced cups made of ice for the double purpose of drinking 
 and keeping the wine cool. 
 
 The Pretender, during his wanderings amongst the fastnesses of 
 Scotland, was in the habit of drinking out of a cup, with a glass 
 bottom, through which he could observe and guard against the 
 motions of an enemy. Such cups were common in the feudal times. 
 
 A curious antique cup, holding about a quart, was presented with 
 rose-water to the Queen after dinner, at the civic entertainment given 
 to her on the 9th November, 1837. This cup belonged to James I., 
 and bore the following quaint inscription on the frieze, or fillet that 
 surrounded the upper part : 
 
 " To faithful soules, 
 
 Christ giveth drink right goode." 
 
 The salver, on which it was served, had once graced the board 
 of George L, whose arms were engraved thereon. 
 
 Amongst the cups used in ancient times, there were none more 
 
 * Hagar on the Numismatical Hist, of the Chinese, vide Valpy g Classical Jour. 
 
598 
 
 extraordinary than those made of human sculls ; some using those of 
 their |enemies ; others, those of their friends. Herodotus informs 
 us, that they were shaped into cups by cutting them off below the eye 
 brows, sometimes neatly varnished, and the Scythians, if poor, covered 
 them with leather, but if rich, in addition to that, they deco 
 rated them with gold. Rubruquis says, that the Thibetians made 
 handsome drinking-cups of the sculls of their parents, that they might 
 the better recollect them in the times of their festivity. It is told 
 of the Persian monarch Shah- Abas the Great, that having slain an 
 tlsbeck prince, he made a drinking-cup of his scull set in gold, which 
 was used on solemn occasions by his successors. An Usbeck ambas 
 sador, being at the court of Ispahan, was presented by the emperor 
 with this cup full of wine, and was asked if he knew of what it was 
 composed. Being told that it was the head of his king, the ambas 
 sador discreetly remarked : " My king was happy in dying by the 
 hand of so great a monarch ; but to me he appears much more glorious 
 at present, since I see his memory preserved by so mighty a king as 
 your majesty I" It is related of Ghenghis Khan, that he was in the 
 habit of using a silver-enchased scull, as a drinking- cup not only in 
 ordinary but on festive occasions. 
 
 Alboin, king of Lombardy, converted the scull of his father-in-law 
 Gunimond, whom he had slain in battle, into a drinking-cup, and 
 presented it filled with wine to his wife Rosamond, as a trophy of his 
 victory. We are informed that Gerald Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildaie, 
 drank out of a scull as a vessel at that time in common use-. About 
 thirty years since, Mr. McCarthy, a gentleman of the county of Cork, 
 who, in the language of the Beauford Manuscript, was " Titular king 
 of Munster," being the descendant of M Carthy More, prince of that 
 province, had in his possession a cup said to be made from the scull 
 of an ancestor of Brian Boiromhe, whom the McCarthys had slain in 
 battle. It was highly polished and had a lid of silver. It was said to 
 be the custom of the Irish to retain such cups, arid pledge their friends 
 from these favourite vessels ; many of which have been found buried 
 in bogs, and several of them are still in the possession of old families. 
 
 It is, however, strongly maintained, that the practice of drinking 
 out of human sculls was not an usage common in Ireland. Vallancey 
 quotes a French writer to show that the ancient Gauls made drinking- 
 cups of their enemies slain in battle, and asks " Do not such authors 
 know, that their ancestors imported this barbarous custom from the 
 East ?" The polished Arabians and Persians, he adds, did the same. 
 Their poems, which we admire so much for their soft imagery, were 
 delivered at their evening conversations, when the goblet scull of their 
 
599 
 
 enemy, filled with delicious wine, was passing- in its festive round, 
 while the minstrel sung as follows : 
 
 " Boy, bring the wine, for the season of roses is come like nightingales, let us 
 sink at once into nests of roses ; in the recess of the garden, quaff off the goblet of 
 wine. * * * 
 
 The pleasantest beverage is the blood of our enemies. 
 
 The most salutary shade is that of spears. 
 
 The sword and the dagger are fragrant flowers. 
 
 Our drink is the blood of our enemies ; 
 
 And our cups are their sculls." 
 
 Vallancey,in his specimen of an Irish Dictionary, observes, that the 
 term bollog, signifies a large shell of the murex species, a drinking- 
 cup of horn, and also a scull from its hemispherical or round figure : 
 hence he infers, that the supposition of the ancient Irish drinking out 
 of the sculls of their enemies was ridiculous. The term scull, it is 
 affirmed, was usually given by the Goths to their drinking-vessels, 
 and Dr. Jamieson has ingeniously argued, that the same appellation 
 was given to drinking-cups in England and Scotland at a very 
 remote period ; so the idea of drinking out of these sculls in these 
 countries, does not imply barbarism, but a general practice under that 
 term. Notwithstanding the plausibility of these arguments, it is more 
 than probable, that the ancient Irish indulged in libations out of the 
 sculls of their enemies, since so many specimens of these drinking 
 vessels have been found to exist in the country. 
 
 The large scull which was converted into a drinking-cup by Lord 
 Byron, as well as the appropriate verses of his Lordship and Mr. 
 Thos. Moore on the occasion, maybe in the recollection of the reader. 
 
 The following is a representation of the cups common in Ireland, 
 at an early period. 
 
600 
 
 That the vine ever flourished in Ireland as a plant of general 
 culture, is questionable ; yet it is asserted by Ledwich and others, 
 that the vineyards were once common in the country ; and an old 
 canon, to the following effect, is cited in proof of the assertion : 
 " If fowl destroy a crop, a vineyard, or garden, enclosed with a hedge 
 of five feet high, the owner shall make a recompense ;" from which 
 it has been inferred, that the culture of the grape was once practised 
 here on no ordinary scale. The venerable Bede, who flourished about 
 the end of the seventh century, says, that " Ireland is pleasantly situ 
 ated, that it abounds with honey, and is not destitute of vines,"* but 
 this should not lead us to conclude that Ireland was a wine country. 
 Certainly we have in the national records compound terms for every 
 thing relative to the grape, such asjion-amhuin, a vineyard, jion-dios, 
 a wine-press,yz0/z-c/iaor, a grape, Jinavain^ a vineyard, &c. Besides, 
 Colonel Vallancey speaks of an Irish almanack of the fourteenth 
 century, in his possession, in which mention is made of the time of 
 gathering the grapes, and drinking must or new wine. In the annals 
 under A.M. 3050, Fiachda II. was surnamed Fionsgothach, (the 
 flower-king) from Jion, wine, and sgoth, a flower, wine made from 
 flowers being then much in use ; but from what description is unknown. 
 All these matters do not warrant the assumption or belief that the 
 vine ever formed an article of general cultivation in this country. 
 Its plantation could only have been at best an object of partial atten 
 tion, either in gardens or grounds attached to abbeys and monasteries, 
 and even these were confined to the south of the kingdom. From 
 what has been already advanced respecting the vine in other countries, 
 it must be evident that Ireland could not be a land for its propagation 
 encircled, as it is, by an immense ocean, subject to great moisture, 
 and beyond the range of that zone, to which the growth of this fruit 
 is naturally restricted. 
 
 Wine, however, was early in use in Ireland, as it is mentioned in 
 the earliest annals and poems. Adamnan notices it, (B. 2. c. i.) while 
 the annals of Tigernach, A.D. 534, record the circumstance of an Irish 
 monarch being drowned in this liquor after the manner of Prince 
 George, Duke of Clarence, brother to Edward IV. who chose to be 
 drowned in a butt of Malmsey. 
 
 It is remarkable, that in a country where the arts were manifestly 
 carried to such perfection, that the study of alchymy, (so enthusiasti 
 cally pursued by the rest of mankind in other parts of the world,) does 
 not appear to have formed a branch of speculative knowledge in 
 
 Bede, Eccles. Hist. B. i. c. 1. 
 
601 
 
 Ireland ; but, although our annals arc silent on this subject, it does 
 not follow but such a study may have been pursued ; and that it was, 
 seems highly probable, since it is certain that the study of medicine 
 was not neglected by our ancestoi s ; for we are informed, that in the 
 reign of Cormac Cas, there was a famous medical college in Munster, 
 and a poem is still extant in celebration of the great abilities of 
 Finighin, a chief professor. On the other hand, were it certain that 
 the Irish did not pursue a search so vain and futile as that of the 
 philosopher s stone, it would argue in favour of the solidity of their 
 judgment, and, from what does appear, that their attention was 
 directed to considerations of a higher nature those of regulating and 
 preserving the purity of their history, laws, and usages. 
 
 When Partholanus, a Grecian colonist, came to Ireland, (A. M 
 1798,) it is said, that he brought with him ploughmen and brewers. 
 If such be the fact, the knowledge of malting among the Irish must 
 have been coeval with the first settlers. 
 
 That agriculture was, at an early age, carried to considerable extent 
 in Ireland, we have every reason to believe. O Halloran and 
 O Connor assert, that the first employment of the Milesian colony, 
 after their arrival from Spain, consisted in clearing a portion of the 
 country of the woods and forests, with which it was covered ; and 
 that history records, with particular respect, those monarchs who gave 
 the greatest encouragement to the cultivation of the soil. Though 
 there is an omission in the fragments of those times, the hand of 
 industry has supplied us with sufficient evidence to prove, that this 
 country was more populous than at present, since streets and other 
 remains of towns were sometime since visible on the tops of moun 
 tains ; and the marks of the plough with ridges, are still to be found 
 at great elevations, having under a bog of five or six feet in depth, a 
 soil fit for all the purposes of vegetation ; and hence the island was 
 preferred by foreigners to Great Britain, on account of its fecundity. 
 This is not to be wondered at, when it is certain, from tradition and 
 living testimony, that bogs have been known to grow, to move, and to 
 settle on tracts of land formerly well cultivated ; and it is a singular 
 circumstance, that three distinct growths of trees have been imbedded 
 in three distinct strata of bog. Harris and others state, that in 1601, 
 when Tyrone and O Donnell marched to the relief of Kinsale through 
 Connaught, a considerable portion of ploughed land over which they 
 then passed with their army, is now a bog ; and that the mansion- 
 house of a nobleman is to be. seen in the midst of it. The popula 
 tion of the country could not be inconsiderable, since in Munster alone, 
 during the reign of Brian Boiromhe, 30,000 fighting men could be 
 
602 
 
 brought into the field, composed of 25,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry ; 
 with a fleet of 300 sail fully manned, of which it is said Callachan, one 
 of the Munster princes, furnished 120 ships. For the subsistence of 
 so great a population, the cultivation of grain must have been consi 
 derable the irrigation of land was then practised and wheat, or 
 cruitneach, as it is termed in Irish, was abundant ; which grain, some 
 say, was introduced by the Cruithnii, a race of Scandinavian Picts. 
 But it is more probable, that it was introduced many centuries before 
 through an intercourse with foreign nations ; and that barley was also 
 cultivated and ale brewed from it previous to our first acquaintance 
 with the Danes in the nineth century, is indisputable. Orna, accord 
 ing to Vallancey, is the Irish term for barley, and Strahlenberg says, 
 that Arba Buda is the Calmuck term for wheat, corresponding nearly 
 with the Irish epithet Arbha Budh, signifying yellow grain. From 
 these circumstances, it is manifest that ale or beer from grain 
 was early brewed in this island, and the silence of Bede and Cam- 
 brensis on the subject is no proof to the contrary, though Ledwich 
 inconsiderately admits that it is.* We learn from the writings of 
 Cormac M Cullenan, Archbishop of Cashel and king of Munster, who 
 flourished in the ninth century, that the making of malt and brewing 
 of ale were then familiar in this country. 
 
 Cuirm was a common term applied to beer and ale ; and brocat or 
 sainlinri) (in Welsh bracat\ was a name for a drink brewed from 
 malt, brae or breach signifying malt ; hence the word meant a good 
 or agreeable ale from malt. Cuirm, in its general acceptation, implied 
 festive drinking, with hospitable welcome and cordiality ; and it yet 
 justifies the common saying " I will hold no cuirm with an evil com 
 panion or a dangerous neighbour !" 
 
 In the fifteenth chapter of Jonas s life of St. Columbanus, (who 
 wrote between 589 and 640) there is the following curious passage 
 illustrative of this subject : " When the hour of refreshment 
 approached, the minister endeavoured to serve about the ale (cerevi- 
 siam) which is bruised from the juice of wheat and barley, and which, 
 above all the nations of the earth, except the Scordiscoa and Dardans 
 who inhabit the borders of the ocean, those of Gaul, Britain, Ireland, 
 and Germany, and others who are not unlike them in manners, use ; 
 he carried to the cellar a vessel which they called a typrus, and placed 
 it before the vessel in which the ale was deposited, when having 
 touched the spigot, he suffered it to run into the typrus"^ 
 
 Grain, in those days, was separated from the husk, not by threshing, 
 
 * Antiquities, 2nd Ed. 4to. p. 371. f Messingham, Flor. p. 226. 
 
603 
 
 but by burning, till the ear was fully disengaged from the straw and 
 chaff. This was, generally, the work of the women. 
 
 The same method was practised in the Highlands of Scotland, and 
 a similar mode of separation was observed by Mr. Turner, when he 
 passed through Bootan to Thibet.* 
 
 Parched corn still forms a portion of the food of the Arabs resident 
 in Palestine, while our Milesian ancestors were so expert in the pre 
 paration of grain in this way, that they could produce bread in the 
 course of one hour after reaping. 
 
 The introduction of water-mills, to render grain more subservient 
 to domestic purposes, took place about the year 500, and is attributed 
 to the monks of that period a proof that agriculture was then more 
 extensive than some prejudicial writers are willing to acknowledge : 
 for although querns continued to be used for many ages afterwards, 
 that is no evidence that grain was not abundant. 
 
 Tigernach mentions two warriors who were killed in a mill in 
 Leinster in 1651 ; and Cormac s Glossary derives the wordmuiland 
 (a mill), from mol, a shaft, and ond, a stone, the principal parts 
 of the machinery. Even in modern times others deduce the term 
 mill from mol, to grind, and lind, a pond, because driven by water. 
 There is little doubt that w^ater-mills were older than Christianity in 
 Ireland, a country in which grain was cultivated 1500 years previous 
 to that era. Many of the townlands, at the present day, retain the 
 name of Mullein, compounded or associated with the names of the 
 owners, shewing the places or sites of mills. 
 
 Querns may be considered as one of the earliest inventions for 
 grinding grain, and are supposed to be the same kind of machine as 
 that referred to in different books of the Old Testament,! and still 
 used in the East and among the Sclavonic tribes of Europe. This 
 was, and is, the work of the women, especially of the female slaves. 
 In the course of time, shafts w r ere fitted to them, so that cattle might 
 supply the place of manual labour. 
 
 Water-mills for the grinding of grain are said to have been the 
 invention of Mithridates, and were first erected in Rome on the Tiber, 
 in the time of Augustus, and the event is celebrated by Antipater in 
 a Greek epigram, so that their introduction into this country was not 
 remote from their invention, and not until they were considered 
 effective by the improvements they had undergone. It was a consi- 
 
 * Turner s Embassy 4to. p. 185. 
 
 f Exodus xi. 5. Numbers xi. 8. Judges, ix. 53. Matthew, xxiv. 41. Quern, 
 Aglo- Saxon civeoni and czi-yrn, signifies a mill. 
 
604 
 
 time after the invention of water-mills, that wind-mills were 
 introduced. Dr. Clarke observed, that in Cyprus, the mode of grind 
 ing- grain was the same as that anciently practised in Scotland, 
 Lapland, Ireland, and all parts of Palestine, as well as throughout 
 the Levant, which was uniformly by querns or hand-mills. This mode 
 of grinding grain was commonly managed by women. The process, 
 as observed by him at Nazareth, was thus effected : Two women 
 seated opposite each other held between them two round flat stones ; 
 in the centre of the upper one was a cavity for pouring in the corn, and 
 by the side of this an upright wooden handle for the purpose of moving 
 the stone. One of the women with her right hand pushed this handle 
 to the female opposite, who again sent it to her companion, and thus 
 a rotatory and rapid motion was given to the upper stone, the left hand 
 being constantly employed pouring in a fresh supply of grain, while 
 the flour and bran fell from the sides of the machine ; thus illustrating 
 the observations of our Saviour, alluding to this custom in his predic 
 tion concerning the destruction of Jerusalem : 
 
 " Two women shall be grinding at the mill, the one shall be taken 
 and the other left."* The same practice seems to have been commoa 
 in the days of Homer, as appears from the following quotation : 
 
 A woman, next a labourer at the mill 
 
 Hard by, where all the palace mills were wrought, 
 
 Gave him the omen of propitious sounds. 
 
 Twelve maidens, day by day, toil at the mills, 
 
 Meal grinding some, or barley, some of wheat, 
 
 Marrow of man. 
 
 Full fifty female menials serv d the king 
 
 In household offices ; the rapid mills 
 
 These burning, pulverize the mellow d grain.f 
 
 The description given by Dr. Johnson of the handmills that he saw 
 used in the Hebrides, being similar to those already noticed, and to the 
 querns formerly used in Ireland, is worthy of recital.J 
 
 These mills consisted of two stones about a foot and a half in 
 diameter, the lower a little convex to which the concavity of the upper 
 was fitted ; in the middle of the upper stone was a round ball, and on 
 one side a long handle j the grinder shed the corn gradually into the 
 hole with one hand and worked the handle round with the other ; the 
 corn slid down the convexity of the lower stone, and by the motion of 
 the upper it was ground in its passage. 
 
 * Matthew, XXIV. 41. f Cowper s Odyssey, Lib. 20-105, and Lib. 7-10. 
 J Journey to the Western Islands 
 
605 
 
 Where expedition was necessary, two women were commonly 
 employed in the operation, and it is an extraordinary coincidence, that 
 this mode of grinding grain in Ireland and Scotland should exactly 
 correspond with the method used in Asia from the most remote period, 
 a striking and unquestionahle proof that our arts had their origin in 
 the East ; and it is, therefore, not singular that our antiquaries should 
 have traced our ancestry to that quarter. 
 
 Even in Chili, amongst the Indians, maize is ground by a species 
 of quern formed of two stones, one moveable within the other which 
 is hollow. This is worked by a woman, who, with her right hand, 
 keeps the stone in motion, while, with her left, she supplies the grain 
 as the flour falls into a receptacle for the purpose. 
 
 About the time of the introduction of water-mills, ale was in com 
 mon use and home-made ; but the wine in general requisition was 
 imported from Poictou in France, and of which Cambrensis speaks as 
 having met with in great plenty. 
 
 Carnden relates, that the ancient and peculiar drink of the Irish, as 
 well as of the Britons, was ale. This is confirmed by Dioscorides, who 
 flourished under Nero. That writer, speaking of the Britons and Irish, 
 whom he called Heberi, says, that they used a liquor called curmi, 
 made from barley,* a name, according to Pliny, given to the same 
 description of drink in common use amongst the Egyptians and other 
 nations, as noticed in a former part of this publication. Camden 
 must, therefore, be in error when he remarks, that curmi is corruptly 
 written for the old British word cwrw or kiurw, which, he says, signi 
 fies al j a name taken from those Banes who called it oela, not as 
 Resilius derives it from Alica. 
 
 It is the same liquor which Julian the Apostate, who died in 363, 
 in one of his epigrams, denominated Trvgoyjjvjj *#* B^O/MOV a B^d^ov, 
 curmi made of wheat and oats, not the liquor of Bacchus, or in other 
 words, the offspring of corn, a liquor like wine without wine. This 
 drink, the same perhaps as the lean or leuan of the Scotch, famous in 
 the rhymes of the bards, although considered wholesome, is ridiculed 
 by H. d Abrinces, a Norman, poet to Henry III., in the following 
 couplets : 
 
 Sure tis some monster of the Stygian pool, 
 They here call ale, the draughts how thick and foul 
 First taken down are passed so wond rous thin, 
 Plenty of dregs must needs remain within. 
 
 * Lib. XI. c. 110. 
 
606 
 
 But the learned Frenchman, Adrian Turnebus, in his treatise on wine, 
 doubts not but those who drink this liquor, if they avoid excess, will 
 be longer lived than those who drink wine ; whence, continues 
 Camden, it happens that many of our ale-drinkers live to the age of 
 one hundred years.* But the name of the liquor is not of such impor 
 tance as that of substantiating the fact, that ale or beer was known in 
 Ireland from the most remote antiquity. According to Ware, the 
 Irish had no peculiar name to distinguish this drink, except the word 
 leaun, which signifies liquor in general, and which was understood to 
 apply equally to ale or beer. Whether the ingredients were infused 
 into beer, in ancient times, to give it an antiseptic quality, writers have 
 not been sufficiently explicit ; but the practice of infusing bitter herbs 
 into vinous, as well as other sorts of drink, is, we have seen, very 
 ancient. 
 
 The poculum absinthiatum was, in early ages, accounted a whole 
 some beverage, and worm-wood was supposed to be an antidote for 
 disorders occasioned by inebriety ; while some French chemists affirm 
 that beer made with worm-wood intoxicates more quickly, and that 
 it greatly assists the digestive organs. 
 
 The modern Swiss still solaces himself, amidst the Alpine snows, 
 with a spirit distilled from gentian, the bitterness of which, though 
 repugnant to others, is relished by him as a most delightful luxury. 
 The nepenthe of Helen, with which she solaced her guests, was one 
 of those mixtures that the Egyptians were in the habit of infusing 
 with their beer ; and the practice of brewing heath, which was anciently 
 carried on in Ireland, could not have been any thing else than boiling 
 with malt a quantity of that plant, for the purpose of giving it an 
 antiseptic and better quality. 
 
 In some of the Western Islands, heath, as already observed, formed 
 a principal constituent of the beer of the inhabitants ; but the accurate 
 knowledge of its use perished with the extirpation of the Picts. 
 Wormius speaks of the drinking of heather-beer, as one of the 
 pleasures, which the souls of departed heroes enjoyed in the society 
 of the gods. The Danes, when in possession of this country, are said 
 to have brewed boir, or beer, from heath ; but it is certain that this 
 shrub would yield a very unpalatable drink without the addition of 
 some saccharine matter. As a proof of this, a gentleman in the county 
 of Donegal, tried, some years since, to manufacture beer from heather, 
 but was unsuccessful; hence it may be presumed, that the term 
 heather-beer means nothing more than the name, the flower and tops 
 
 * Camden s Brit. vol. ii, p. 303. 
 
607 
 
 of the heath being used as a substitute for hops ; since it is well known, 
 that previous to the introduction of the latter plant, broom, worm 
 wood, and other bitter herbs, have been so employed. 
 
 AVhen heather-beer, therefore, is spoken of, it should be understood 
 as implying the art of making beer, in the same way as we associate 
 the idea of that drink when speaking of hops ; but what kind of grain 
 was employed, together with heath, is, now, merely a matter of con 
 jecture. It is, however, more than probable, that buck-wheat (poly- 
 gonum fagopyrum), was the chief ingredient, since it is a hardy 
 grain, and most commonly found growing amongst heather ; and from 
 which peculiarity, the Germans termed it heide-korn from heide (heath) 
 and horn, Anglice corn. From the early acquaintance of the Danes with 
 the properties of this corn, there is every reason to believe that it was 
 it they employed in the manufacture of their beer a use to which it 
 is still applied in Denmark, where it is extensively cultivated. Banister, 
 in his Synopsis of Husbandry, says, that this grain has a singularly in 
 toxicating quality, and that he observed swine, which had eaten of it, 
 so inebriated, that they could scarcely move. Of its virtues much has 
 been previously stated, both as regards its value as an article of food, 
 subsistence for bees, and a commodity useful in the distillery. 
 
 An English gentleman, in a late interesting paper on the proper 
 ties of heath, says, that when it is two or three years old, if cut down 
 by a scythe, and dried as much as possible in the shade, it will pro 
 duce, when infused in a vat or mash-tub, with boiling water mixed 
 with grain, a very considerable quantity of strong and small beer, as 
 well as spirits by distillation. 
 
 The tradition, which gives to the Danes the credit of extracting a 
 liquor from heath, also reports that the practice of making it was lost 
 with their expulsion. After being effectually defeated at Clontarf, 
 and obliged to fly to their native country, the only remaining survivers 
 were a father and his two sons, whose lives were promised them as a 
 reward for the secret of making this beer. The father, knowing the 
 attachment that youth have to life, and dreading that if his children 
 survived him, they would discover the secret, which he had resolved 
 should die with him, proposed that if his sons were slain, he, himself, 
 would divulge the secret, alleging that if he did so while they were 
 living, they would destroy him. In accordance with this suggestion, 
 the young men were put to death, at which the father rejoiced, know 
 ing that the secret was then with himself, and, with heroic bravery, 
 exclaimed, " now my purpose is accomplished ; youth cannot be 
 practised on for the love of life, to tell a secret, which pain shall not 
 
608 
 
 extort from me ; let me share the same fate with my sons I am 
 prepared I fear not the worst you can inflict I am ready to die !" 
 The father shared the fate of his sons, according to his desire, and 
 thus, it is said, the knowledge of the art died with him. 
 
 A few years since, in sinking for a water-course in a townland of 
 the county of Limerick, a mill, with the machinery, and a portion of 
 brewing utensils, were said to have been discovered, together with 
 some cakes of bread and heather, concealed in the position in which 
 they were left by the Danes. It was also stated, that a book, or ma 
 nuscript, containing the receipt for the making of heather -beer, had 
 been found at the same time ; but that it was clandestinely taken 
 away. If this statement be correct, it is a corroboration of what is 
 here advanced, that the Danes employed other ingredients than heath 
 in the manufacture of their beer, and it would seem that they used 
 bread instead of grain, like the Egyptians and Abyssinians of the 
 present day in the composition of Bouza. 
 
 In our own days, by an infusion of worm-wood in hot ale, a drink 
 called purl is used, by bacchanalians, as a morning draught, after a 
 night s debauch, both in England and Ireland, wormwood being 
 accounted a corrector of inebriety. The ancients mention a wine 
 made from it as a wholesome and agreeable drink. According to 
 some, it was an infusion of the leaves of the plant in a quantity of 
 wine ; but others say it was produced directly from the plant by 
 fermentation. The practice, in former times, of fermenting worts by 
 means of yeast or barm for the purpose of making beer, is allowed to 
 have been introduced into Ireland by the Celts, and the yeast was 
 preserved by means of a furze or whin-bush, (gorze, ulex europeus,} 
 kept in the chimney from brewing to brewing. This, when dipped 
 in the wort, like rennet in making cheese, caused the liquor to ferment. 
 We are told that during the intercourse between the Irish and the 
 people of Chester, in 1156, ale was mentioned as an article of 
 export into that city, from which it is evident that brewing was fami 
 liar in the country at that period. In 1184, the rapacious Philip of 
 Worcester, then governor of Ireland, in one of his excursions, meanly 
 wrested from the clergy of Armagh, a cauldron of copper used for 
 brewing, which was sent to Down, but afterwards restored to its 
 proper owners. 
 
 The ancient Irish, at their ordinary entertainments, were served by 
 waiters with drink in cups of wood, horn, brass, or gold, according to 
 the 4 rank or consequence of the party. They usually sat in a circle on 
 rushes or beds of grass, instead of benches or couches. Three-legged 
 wooden tables were placed before them after the manner of the ancient 
 
609 
 
 Gauls ; and were covered with victuals, such as bread baked on grid 
 irons, or under ashes, milk in a variety of forms, flesh and fish boiled 
 and fried. In the Clironicles of Eri, we find that when the assembly of 
 the Olam met, mention is made of their going forth to the high cham 
 ber, and of the boards being spread, and of the horns going round to 
 excess, while, at the same time, the words of wisdom and of age were 
 thus expressed : " Beware of strong drink, my son, it lifteth high, 
 yea, very high ; it abaseth low, yea, very low, the spirit of man ; it 
 is the fall of reason, the poison of man s life." When festivities were 
 held at night, the place of assembly was illuminated by tapers of 
 immense size as thick as a man s waist, from which issued a brilliant 
 flame, that rendered every object visible at an incredible distance. 
 It was by one of these lights, that O Donnell was led to the tent of 
 his enemy, Shane O Neil, the invader of Tyrconnell, in 1557, on which 
 occasion the latter narrowly escaped destruction. These torches 
 were composed of the pith of rushes twisted together, having a small 
 fibre of the skin or bark left on each to prevent cohesion, and were then 
 well saturated with grease or oil prepared for the purpose. Rush 
 lights of a similar nature, though on a smaller scale, are yet common 
 among the peasantry, in lighting up their cabins, when from poverty 
 or other causes, candles cannot be procured. At many of those 
 repasts, moderation, then as in modern times, often lost its due res 
 traint, for, notwithstanding the admonitions of the wise and expe 
 rienced, " popular resentments were excited, as liquor inflamed the 
 passions, and contests rarely ended without bloodshed on the spot."* 
 Such occurrences are not to be accounted extraordinary in a country 
 where faction and ambition too often disturbed the peace of society, 
 and proved the bane of liberty and the prosperity of the nation. 
 At an entertainment given at Tara, about the year 222, when Cormac 
 and Feargus, kings of Ulster, were contending for the monarchy, it 
 was contrived by the artful Feargus, in order to render his adver 
 sary s pretensions to the throne unavailing, to have the hair and beard 
 of Cormac set on fire, when he had become heated over his cups ; it 
 being an inviolable law that no person could sit on the throne, who 
 had any defect either of body or mind. And we find that it was 
 owing to an indulgence in the use of drink, at one of those festivals, 
 that the Danish chieftain, Turgesius, in 852, fell a victim to the just 
 vengeance of Malachy, king of Meath, whose daughter he wished to 
 violate and obtain for a concubine. 
 
 Among the reciprocity of presents mutually interchanged between 
 
 * O Connor s Dissertations, p. 110. 
 
610 
 
 the chiefs and monarchs, gold and silver drinking-cups formed no 
 inconsiderable portion. An idea of the extent to which this was 
 carried, maybe formed from the fact, that, on one occasion, six of the 
 Munster princes were presented, amongst other gifts, with seven cups 
 each, two with eight, and the four others with ten cups of gold, being, 
 no doubt, in proportion to their rank, to the splendour of their tables, 
 and the quantity of drink consumed at their palaces. Such was the 
 abundance of drinking-cups, as well the value set upon them, that we 
 find Cathair Mor bequeathing fifty drinking-cups with broad hoops, 
 and fifty brown marble vases, as a legacy to Fiacha Baiceda ; and we 
 have instances on record of the Boige, (a small vessel weighing five 
 ounces of gold, which was used for drinking Sainlinn, or ale) having 
 been transmitted from father to son as an heir-loom. At Tara, the 
 great seat of the monarchy, we read of one hundred and fifty cups of 
 massive gold being the common supply to keep up the splendour of 
 the regal table ; and it appears to have been the general practice 
 among the Irish kings to use large cups at their repasts and entertain 
 ments. We are told, that Tireldach the monarch, received with other 
 articles as ransom from O Brien, king of North Munster, (in 1152) a 
 very large cup, called by way of pre-eminence, the cup of Brieii 
 Boru.* 
 
 It was customary in those times, for the nobility and chieftains to 
 have their Bacghal, Bachlamal, or cup-bearer, whose office was to hold 
 the cup or Bachla at meals and feasts.f The office of cup-bearer 
 (in Irish, deochbheire) is so ancient, that it is difficult to ascertain the 
 period of its origin. So remote as the time of Pharaoh, it was a 
 station of consequence at court, inasmuch as it brought the individual 
 in contact with the monarch, and was therefore a place of great trust. 
 Our translators of the Bible have rendered the Hebrew word 
 for cup-bearer, butler^ which is a corruption of the old English word 
 boteler, implying a person having the charge of bottling liquors. 
 Among the Persians and Arabians, the cup-bearer was termed saky, 
 and he had peculiar privileges. With the Parthians, according to 
 Athenseus, men used to serve with swords by their sides ; and in the 
 same manner among the princes of Germany. Ambrose, deHelia et 
 
 * O Halloran, vol. i. p. 209. f Camden s Brit p. 143, Ed. 1695. 
 
 J In Hebrew, the cup-bearer was termed TTptyft (Mtuhke), from npU7, to give 
 drink to; in Greek, o<vo^co$, from o<vo?, wine, and #&>, to pour; in Latin, 
 pocillator, from poeulum, a cup, and pincerna, from Tnvsiv, to drinfi, and xigvoiv, 
 to mix. The chief cup-bearer was called ^^o<vo ^;o?, in Hebrew *]127, Shar. 
 See Genesis, ch. xl. 
 
611 
 
 Jejun. (c. 13) describes their Babylonian belts and girdles, covered 
 with gold buttons, their gold collars, gold scabbards, and shining 
 hair. Under the Roman emperors, their clothes were of cloth of gold, 
 as .appears from a passage in ^Elius Lampridius. Homer and Xeno*- 
 phon speak of cup-bearers as important personages, who were com 
 mon in the palaces of all the Oriental monarchs : even the prophet 
 Nehemiah, in some measure, boasts of being cup-bearer to Artaxerxes, 
 king of Persia, this being the most respectable and confidential situ-- 
 ation in the whole court.* The importance attached by the ancients 
 to the office of cup-bearer is familiar to every classical reader. The 
 Athenians had their butlers, who inspected the wine and supplied the 
 guests with licpior ; and at entertainments, the heralds performed the 
 office of cup-bearers. Thus in the Odyssey (L. i. v. 142.) we read, 
 
 " The heralds and the busy menials there 
 
 Minister d to them ; these their mantling cups 
 
 With water slaked." 
 
 Euripides, when a boy, gave wine to the dancers round the altar 
 of Apollo, as appears from the testimony of Theophrastus and Hie* 
 ronymus Rhodius. Statues were erected in Alexandria to the cup 
 bearer of Ptolemy Philadelphus, clad in a tunic and holding a cup. 
 
 Mercury, the herald of the gods, is introduced by Alcseus and 
 Sappho, filling the goblets at the celestial banquets. Among the 
 Greeks it was customary for handsome young men to fill the cups ; 
 and Hebe, the goddess of youth, and daughter of Juno, served nectar 
 to the gods, while Ganymede, the most beautiful of mortals, was 
 translated to heaven to serve at the table of Jupiter. In sacred 
 feasts among both Greeks and Romans, only freemen were allowed to 
 minister, and wore loose dresses, the better to show their freedom ; 
 but for private persons the noblest captives were selected. Thus 
 Horace, (B. i. Ode 29.) 
 
 " What royal boy, with perfumed haif, 
 
 Shall leave his palace halls, thy cup to bear ?" 
 
 The Greeks and Romans gave immense prices for the handsomest 
 youths that could be procured, to fill the office of cup-bearer, and pre 
 sent the full goblets of wine, which were commonly of splendid work 
 manship, and decorated with garlands. Thus Homer, (Iliad, B. i.) 
 
 " The youth with wine, the copious goblets crowned, 
 And pleas d, dispense the flowing cups around." 
 
 Juvenal speaks of the flower of Asia costing more than the move* 
 * Nehem. i. 1.; ii. 1. 
 
612 
 
 ables of the Roman kings ; and Pliny, (B. 7. c. 12) says, that a 
 dealer named Toranius sold two beautiful boys to Mark Antony, for 
 200,000 sesterces. Boys, who had reached the years of puberty, 
 served at the tables of the ancient Britons. 
 
 Quintus Curtius informs us, that the concubines of the Indian kings 
 served the wine at the banquets, and carried the sovereign to bed 
 when he had drunk to excess. Females were, on some occasions, 
 employed as cup-bearers by the Greeks, and we read of Hecamede 
 preparing a mixed drink, and of the female attendants of Circe per 
 forming the same duty. Even the native American chiefs had their 
 cup-bearers to attend at festivals and on solemn occasions. In the 
 ages of chivalry, knights-errant had their cup -bearers, who were gene 
 rally their squires, and were as proud, dignified, and chivalrous as their 
 masters. In every civilised country, a cup-bearer was equally known 
 and respected. In Ireland, a cup-bearer was, from the earliest times, 
 an indispensable and honorary attendant at the court of every monarch 
 and at every public festivity Cormac, king of Ireland, speaking of 
 a banquet, says, " The prince should light his lamps, welcome his 
 guests with clapping of hands, and procure comfortable seats ; the 
 cup-bearers should be respectable and active in the distribution of meat 
 and drink ; there should be a moderation of music, short stories, a wel 
 coming countenance,jfaz /fefor the learned, withpleasant conversations*" 
 In serving the wines, it was customary for the cup-bearer to taste 
 them, for the purpose of shewing that they contained nothing poison 
 ous. This custom of tasting wines in the courts of monarchs, or at 
 banquets and public entertainments, is said to have originated with the 
 Persians, as we learn from Xenophon. Amongst the Romans, this 
 custom is thought to have been introduced by Augustus Tiberius, who 
 employed a wine-taster, and succeeding emperors, as well as other 
 eminent persons, followed the example. The tasting of wines, it is 
 evident, had its origin in suspicion arising from the fear of every man 
 in power, who, though he may have justly punished the guilty and 
 rewarded the meritorious, yet ran the risk of drinking the poisonous 
 bowl or meeting the assassin s dagger. The office of wine-taster, lately 
 abolished in this country, must have originated from this custom. At the 
 feasts of the ancient Irish, large vases or coolers stood at hand, filled with 
 various liquors ready for distribution by the cup-bearers. These vessels 
 were of different materials, some of brass, others of mixed metals, and 
 most of them very expensive and highly ornamented, equalled, perhaps, 
 in modern times only by the silver wine-cooler of George I V, which 
 weighed eight thousand ounces, contained thirty-eight gallons, and 
 was capable of holding six men. Next in magnitude and splendour 
 
013 
 
 may be mentioned the beautiful fountain and cistern exhibited by the 
 Marquis of Exeter, at Burghley, near Stamford, on the visit of the 
 Duchess of Kent and her present Majesty, when Princess Victoria, 
 in September, 1835, and which weighed three thousand, five hundred 
 ounces of silver. 
 
 The splendour of an Irish court, in ancient times, will be best 
 understood by the description of the hall of Tara, which, in the reign 
 of Cormac, was 900 feet square, and the diameter of the surrounding 
 rath was 7 dice or casts of a dart ; it contained 150 apartments, 150 
 dormitories for guards, with 60 men in each ; the height was 27 
 cubits ; there were 150 common drinking-horns, 12 doors, and 1000 
 guests daily, besides princes, orators, and men of science, engravers 
 of gold and "silver, carvers, modellers, and nobles. There were 27 
 kitchens and nine water-cisterns for washing the hands and feet of the 
 visitants. The banqueting hall consisted of 12 stalls or divisions in 
 each wing, 16 attendants on each side, and two to each table : 100 
 guests in all.* 
 
 On the first day of November, three days before the feast of Sam- 
 hui?i, or the moon, in this splendid court sat the monarch with his 
 face to the west, elevated on a throne, in the centre of the hall. On 
 his right was the king of Ulster, not so much elevated. On his left 
 the king of Minister ; behind him was the king of Connaught, and 
 before him was the king of Leinster. The nobility, bards, and others 
 had their stations allotted to them according to their rank. At these 
 assemblies, the records of the kingdom were examined, in order to 
 preserve the annals from mistakes or doubtful matters : hence the 
 ofigin of our Irish Psalters. 
 
 We find, that wines were plentiful in Ireland, at an early period, 
 and our annals state, that Brian Boiromhe exacted a tribute from the 
 Danes of Limerick, about the year 970, of 365 tuns of wine, besides 
 the same quantity from the ports of Dublin, Wexford, and Drogheda : 
 among the items of this tribute we find 268 tuns of Spanish wine, 
 shewing the extent of the commerce of Ireland, at that period, even 
 in articles of luxury. A large portion of this wine was consumed at 
 Cean-Corraah, near Killaloe, the residence of the monarch. There 
 one hundred servants were every day at dinner and supper. From 
 the kitchens, there were two long corridors parallel to each other 
 leading to the banqueting hall, along which the servants were stationed, 
 passing from hand to hand the various services of meats, fruits, wines, 
 
 * From an old Irish fragment, found in Trinity College, Dublin, as given by 
 Vallancey. 
 
G14 
 
 c. Across the Shannon ran a bridge of wood communicating with 
 the royal wine-cellars, which, to this day, bear the name of Cloch-na- 
 Fhionne, the wine-store, or building. At this palace, the immortal 
 Brian entertained the princes and nobles of the kingdom with an 
 urbanity and a splendour not surpassed in modern times.* The 
 annual consumption was estimated at 2670 beeves, 1370 hogs, 365 pipes 
 of red, and 150 hogsheads of other wines. The monarchs, during 
 the residence of the Danes, were paid certain subsidies from those 
 traders in money, wines, and merchandise, on the first days of May 
 and November, and hence the larger sea-ports, in particular, were 
 bound to pay tribute in proportion to the extent of their commerce 
 arid the privileges they enjoyed. This tribute, at one time, consisted 
 in 6,240 bullocks, 6000 cows, 4000 sheep, 5000 hogs, 5140 cloaks 
 of purple, green, and scarlet, besides 420 tons of iron. 
 
 From all that has been said, and the free intercourse that subsisted 
 so long between the Irish nation and the continent of Europe, it 
 would be wonderful that any of those arts, which tend either to increase 
 our knowledge, or add to the comforts of life, should have escaped 
 observation or remained uncultivated. It would, therefore, be ano 
 malous among such a people, were some of the more simple arts 
 unknown to them ; so far from that, we find that they were scarcely 
 ignorant of any of those inventions or discoveries, which regarded 
 national interests or domestic comforts. Learning, it is generally 
 admitted, shone brilliantly here when most of the other portions of 
 Europe were immersed in ignorance. Such was the proficiency of the 
 nation in literature, that the Anglo-Saxons and Scots acquired from this 
 country the elements of their learning or philosophy. Bede records 
 that schools were open to foreigners, where they were supplied 
 gratuitously with meat, drink, clothes, lodging, and even books. 
 Surely, then, where there was such an extension of knowledge, the 
 mechanical arts could not have been overlooked nor neglected. The 
 remnants of magnificent churches, monasteries, and princely castles, 
 over which the hand of time has spread the foliage of the ivy ; the 
 lofty round-towers, that seem to bid defiance to the ravages of time ; 
 the sculpture by which many of those buildings are ornamented; and 
 the splendid, antique, and costly works of art found in the bowels of 
 the earth, are indubitable monuments of a polished, industrious, and 
 superior people* 
 
 In the luxuries of domestic life, the Irish also excelled, for, as we 
 bave seen, their feasts were luxurious, their clothing superb, their 
 
 * O Halloran., vol. iii= p. 331?. 
 
615 
 
 drinks excellent, and so varied, that no other nation, in this respect, 
 possessed greater enjoyments. When, however, aqua, vitce was first 
 introduced or manufactured in Ireland, is not accurately determined. 
 
 Spirituous liquors have been noticed in some of our earliest songs ~\ 
 and writings ; and the English, shortly after the invasion, in the time 
 of Henry II., found the people indulging in potations of this liquor: 
 History informs us, that the knowledge of aqua vita was first known 
 in Europe in the reign of that monarch ; but it is more than probable 
 that it was known in Ireland before the English were acquainted with 
 it. The strong affinity between the Irish language and the primitive 
 languages of Asia, as stated by Vallancey and other etymologists, 
 and the intercourse the Irish had with that quarter of the world, lead 
 to the supposition that the art of distillation was introduced directly 
 from India ; but it is more likely that it was received from Spain or 
 Italy, where it was early known under the epithet of acqua vite or 
 acqua di vite (water of the vine), the grape being the material from 
 which a spirit was originally extracted in those countries. The. 
 monasteries being the repositories of science and the original dispen 
 saries of medicine, it is a natural surmise that the term acqua vite 
 was there corrupted into the Latin and universal appellation aqua 
 vitce (water of life), from its salutary and beneficial effects as a medi 
 cine; and from the Latin tongue being the general conveyancer of sci 
 entific discovery, as well as of familiar correspondence, the term aqua 
 vitce may have crept into common use to signify an indefinite distilled 
 spirit, in contradistinction to acqua vite, the mere extract of the 
 grape. The dissolution of the monasteries gave the secret of this 
 invention to the public, and the elixir of the alembic soon attained the 
 summit of popular regard. 
 
 Campion relates, that when the new settlers were attacked by any 
 of the diseases common to the country, they used aqua vitce or usque 
 baugh, the ordinary drink of the inhabitants, as the best restorative 
 of health, and chief preventive of contagion. Speaking of a famine 
 which happened in 1316, he says it was caused by the soldiers eating 
 flesh and drinking aqua vitce in Lent. It would seem that aqua vitce 
 was employed in Ireland, at one time, as opium has been amongst the 
 Turks, to inspire heroism ; and this is exemplified in the case of a 
 knight, named Savage, That lived in 1350, who, previously to entering 
 the field of battle, ordered to each soldier a mighty draught of aqua 
 vitce. We learn from Ware and Ledwich, that the aqua vitce, or 
 usquebaugh of the Irish, was of a less inflammatory nature than that 
 made in England, because the latter is supposed to be of more recent 
 invention. Its virtues, and the directions for making it, both simple 
 
616 
 
 and compound, are recorded in the Red Book of Ossory,a work com 
 piled about 500 years since, and which, likewise, contains a 
 receipt for making 1 another liquor termed nectar, composed of a 
 mixture of honey and wine, having ginger, pepper, and cinnamon, 
 other ingredients incorporated. This mixture was called piment, 
 from its pungency and spicy nature, and, on account of its delicious 
 quality, it was much celebrated by the early French poets, who con 
 sidered the perfuming of wine with foreign aromatics, then so dear 
 and difficult of procuring, as the very acme of taste and ingenuity. 
 In Ireland, it was an early practice to imitate foreign liqueurs, which, 
 from the praise of the poets alluded to, must have even excelled those 
 of Italy and France. Aqua vitce was first used in the country as a 
 medicine, considered as a panacea for all disorders, and the physicians 
 recommended it to patients indiscriminately for preserving health, 
 dissipating humours, strengthening the heart, curing colic, dropssy, 
 palsy, quartan fever, stone, and even prolonging existence itself beyond 
 the common limits. Hence it was eagerly sought for, and the taste, thus 
 formed, has been transmitted from generation to generation, with an 
 attachment which time seems rather to strengthen than to diminish. 
 
 The Latin epithet, aqua vita, the Irish term, usquebaugh, and 
 the modern word, whiskey, are, in point of fact, synonymous. Aqua 
 vitce signifying the water of life, and usquebaugh, which should be 
 written Iskebaghah or Isquebeoh, the former implying water of life, 
 and the latter living water. As Isque, or Iske, means water, it must 
 appear evident that the Avord whiskey is only a slight alteration in 
 the pronunciation of this Irish term. Both O Brien and Vallancey 
 admit that ai, ay, or ey, are old terms for water, and Isque, or Iske, 
 implying water, the compound word literally means water of waters. 
 The word whiskey, therefore, is of very comprehensive import, and 
 fully expressive of this sense-subduing beverage. Buil-ceann was 
 also another appellation by which spirits were distinguished, bull signi 
 fying madness, and ceann the head ; terms fully explanatory of its 
 infuriating effects and the temporary derangement which it occasions. 
 Fear-buille is the Irish expression for a madman. Antiquarians 
 inform us, that buil-ceann was made from a species of black oats, 
 which, if not malted, must have indeed produced spirits of a very 
 inflammatory and fiery description, particularly when newly manufac 
 tured ; and from its powerful effects it procured the name of strong 
 waters, afterwards abbreviated into X waters, the letter X being anci 
 ently used as the symbol of purity or perfection. 
 
 Vallancey states, that from time immemorial this letter was con 
 sidered a sacred character among the Egyptians, Chaldeans ; Thibe- 
 
6J7 
 
 V 
 
 tians,and Indians ; and was respected as a high indication of divine 
 excellence. The Egyptians, however, did not exactly represent it- by 
 the figure of an X, but as a direct and an inverted X thus J[ : this 
 sacred symbol is frequently to be found on the columns of the colossal 
 temples of that celebrated and wonderful nation. On the great 
 temples of the Dalai-Lama at Puta-La, or the Holy Hill, as well as at 
 Teshoo-Lomboo, are numerous characters of this kind, all bearing 
 reference to the lofty attributes of the divinity of the Tliibetians. 
 From the sacred application of this character it has descended to 
 common purposes, yet still bearing affinity to its literal meaning, as 
 in the instance of X waters, &c. 
 
 It is curious to observe, that this ancient symbol so common in 
 Oriental climes, is frequently to be found in Ireland on the pillar-stones 
 or Phalli of our pagan ancestors. The less learned antiquary con 
 siders those characters which are marked cross-like, to be Christian 
 insignia or pagan monuments; but the researching philosopher will 
 only estimate them in the proper sense as a part of Oriental heathen 
 ism. That the letter X was most commonly written so as to repre 
 sent a cross, long before the era of Christianity, seems remarkably 
 strange, when we are brought by consequences to the full conviction that 
 the Cross of Christ was the true symbol of perfection, of which all pre 
 vious characters of the kind may be considered as merely typical. 
 
 On the statue of Osiris at Rome was engraved the figure of a cross ; 
 and in the Temple of Serapis at Alexandria were found on the demoli 
 tion of that edifice, by the order of Theodosius, crosses cut in stone ; 
 these, in the interpretation of the wise men of Egypt, signified vitam 
 venturam ; which discovery is reported to have occasioned the con 
 version to Christianity of some of the Gentiles.* The application of 
 the letter X to whiskey, ale, or beer, was, and continues to be, a dis 
 tinguishing mark of its strength and purity; and lest the single 
 character might not be sufficient to indicate the strength of 
 some of our malt liquors, it has been doubled, as in the instance 
 of double X porter, now so strongly recommended by the faculty, 
 for its refreshing and strengthening qualities. To usquebaugh the 
 letter X has never been applied, because this appellation was ex 
 tended to aqua vitce in its compound state after the admixture of 
 raisins, fennel-seed, and other ingredients, to mitigate its heat, render 
 it more pleasant, less inflammatory, and more refreshing. 
 
 The origin of the term aqua vitce, as applied to exhilarating liquors, 
 it is not easy to determine, unless by an admission of the reasoning 
 
 * Socr, Hist. Eccles. lib. 5. cap. 17. Sozomon. Hist. Ecclcs. lib. 7. cap. 15. 
 
618 
 
 already advanced. Water, in the opinion of the ancient philosophers, 
 constituted the basis of all matter ; and Moses having written that 
 the " spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters," it was inferred 
 that a living or prolific principle was thereby communicated ; hence 
 the early Persians considered water the source of all bodies, 
 (aqua omnia), and the Koran states, that " God made every living 
 thing of water." May not, therefore, the appellation of aqua vitce, or 
 water of life, have been derived from this prevalent opinion, since it 
 was reckoned to possess so many renovating and revivifying virtues. 
 The distillation of this liquor was partially carried on through the 
 kingdom, and this from malt alone. No restriction appears to have 
 been put either upon its manufacture or use, until the time of Henry 
 VIII. when it was decreed, " that there be but one maker of aqua 
 vitce in every borough-town upon pain of 6s 8d. ;" then a heavy 
 penalty, when money was so scarce and property so low in value. 
 At that time the Irish were great proficients in compounding liquors ; 
 but their usquebaugh was their famous drink, and in great demand. 
 Whatever might have been its original materials or composition, its 
 qualities were estimated in proportion to the spices and other aroniatics 
 used to heighten its qualities, as commonly practised at that perioiL 
 We also find that no ale should be sold above 2d. per gallon upon 
 pain of 8d. toties quoties ; and that no wheaten malt should go to any 
 Irishman s country upon pain of forfeiture of the same in value. This 
 last restriction arose, no doubt, from an anxiety to limit the use of 
 wheat in the manufacture of ale and ardent spirits, it being an article 
 properly confined to the making of bread ; and hence there was ne 
 prohibition against sending bread, ale, or aqua vitce, beyond the pale. 
 So early as the reign of Edward I, in 1300, the Irish exported to 
 Scotland, wheat, oats, malt, and ale, for the purpose of enabling the 
 monarch to carry on his warlike operations in that kingdom. At the 
 same period, the mayor and community of Drogheda made him a 
 present of 80 tuns of wine, and chartered a vessel belonging to their 
 own port, by which it was conveyed to him at Kirkcudbright. 
 These historical facts prove that malt was plentiful in Ireland ; and 
 although it is only from occasional incidents that brewing and distil 
 lation can be traced to their origin, or to their introduction into this 
 country, yet sufiicient facts have been adduced to prove that both 
 were common at a remote period, and perhaps anterior to a connexion 
 with Great Britain. Dr. Ledwich has stated, contrary to the standing 
 authentic records of the nation, that distillation from malt commenced 
 in 1590 ; but it no where appears that the Irish then distilled from 
 any description of grain but what had been malted, as the practice 
 
of employing raw grain in distillation is of much later date. Why 
 this antiquarian has fixed on 1590 as the era of distillation in Ireland 
 is somewhat strange, since we find by an act of parliament passed at 
 Drogheda in 1556, that distillation had become so extensive as to 
 cause to be enacted a law against distilling aqua vitce, " a drink," to 
 use the language of [the enactment, " nothing profitable to be daily 
 drunken and used, now universally made throughout this realm, 
 especially in the borders of the Irishry, whereby much corn, grain, and 
 other things are consumed, c."* This law prohibited the making of 
 aqua vitce without a license from the Lord Deputy under the Great 
 Seal, on pain of imprisonment, and a fine of 4. But peers, gentle 
 men of 10 per annum in lands for life, or inheritance, and freemen 
 of towns corporate, had liberty to make aqua vitce. 
 
 Notwithstanding the frequent use of spirits at that period, our 
 wealthy and luxurious countrymen indulged in the use of rich and 
 costly wines. Hollinshed, in his Chronicles, says, that the great 
 Shane O Neil, who proved so violent an opponent to Elizabeth, 
 usually kept in his cellar at Dundrum, 200 tuns of wine, of which, as 
 well as usquebaugh, he drank copiously, and sometimes to such 
 excess, that his attendants were often obliged to bury him in the earth, 
 chin -deep, until the heating effects of the intoxication had abated.f 
 
 The fatal effects of attachment to whiskey are well illustrated in 
 the fate of the castle of Maynooth, which, in the early part of Eliza 
 beth s reign, fell into the hands of the Lord Deputy Skeffington, 
 through the treachery of the governor, Christopher Parese, who kept 
 the garrison so intoxicated, that they were unable to make any resist 
 ance. Its ruins, which stand in front of the college in that place, 
 yet proclaim its former strength and magnificence. The spoils 
 obtained, while they enriched the conqueror, proved disastrous not 
 only to the betrayer, who lost his head for his perfidy, but also 
 to the noble family by whom he was entrusted. 
 
 With respect to the nature or peculiarity of the spirits used 
 in those times, it is now not easy to determine ; but usquebaugh 
 seems to have been a general name for all compounded spirits, and 
 plain whiskey as we have it at present, was not the common beverage, 
 it being customary to infuse the liquor with some savoury, or tasty 
 ingredients. In the making of usquebaugh, saffron formed not, as 
 is said by some, a basis, but a chief ingredient in its composition. 
 In modern times, the application of this term conveys the idea of a 
 cordial, or liqueur, and as such, the drink is now manufactured. It 
 
 * Rol. Parl. 3 & 4. Philip 8c Mary, c. 7. Vcsey s stat. vol. i. p. 251. 
 f Hollinshed, vol. vi. p. 331. 
 
620 
 
 must, therefore, appear evident, whether usquebaugh be applied to the 
 ancient or modern spirits, that its value, flavour, and goodness 
 depended on the judgment of the maker, and the prevailing pre 
 judices of the day hence the materials employed, varied according 
 to the caprice of individuals and the fluctuation of public opinion. 
 Various receipts, therefore, have been given for its composition, among 
 which the following is considered one of the best : " To make 10 
 gallons of this cordial, 2oz. of cloves, nutmegs, and cinnamon, must 
 be taken, with 4oz. of anise, caraway, and coriander-seed, divided 
 into equal portions ; also half-a-pound of sliced licorice root. The 
 seeds and spices being first bruised and mixed with the licorice, are 
 put into a still with 1 1 gallons of proof spirits and 2 gallons of water ; 
 and as soon as the spirits is found to come over, a small bag contain 
 ing about 2oz. of saffron, is fastened to the end of the worm, so that 
 the run of the liquor must pass through and carry with it the tincture 
 and essence of the saffron." During the operation, it is usual to press 
 the saffron-bag in order to convey all the essence of this ingredient 
 into the fluid, and when the process is finished, the liquor is sweet 
 ened with the best lump sugar. 
 
 The French and others, in addition to the articles already enume 
 rated, use essential oil of citron, bergamot, oranges, and lemons, with 
 angelica-seed, vanilla, mace, cubebs, raisins, and dates; but no 
 limitation can be given for making an article designed to gratify 
 every palate. 
 
 The predominant and early use of saffron in the manufacture of 
 usquebaugh among the Irish, arose from the extensive application 
 and well-known virtues of that plant, in several, useful, domestic 
 purposes. In dyeing yellow, saffron (crocus sativus,) was the chief 
 ingredient, as it gave that admired tinge to the flowing shirts and 
 garments, worn by our early ancestors. Its exhilarating, heating, 
 and aromatic qualities were also so familiar that it was employed as a 
 part of the Irish Materia Medica, being found a great stimulant and reno 
 vator. On this account it has been called cor hominis, the heart of man ; 
 and from enlivening the spirits, it gave rise to the saying, when 
 speaking of a person in a cheerful state of mind, dormivit in sacco 
 croci, he hath slept in a sack of saffron. The English, according to Lord 
 Bacon, were rendered sprightly by a liberal use of saffron in sweet 
 meats and broths ; and Boerhave calls it a true and genuine rouser 
 of the animal spirits. 
 
 Its use in colouring the ancient Irish apparel, was grounded on 
 the opinion and prejudice, that it tended to strengthen the body and 
 limbs virtues which no other colouring substance was thought to 
 
621 
 
 impart ; and here it may be noticed, that the loose and flowing robes 
 of the Irish bespeak an Oriental origin and imitation. The Irish 
 were not the only people that employed saffron on particular occa 
 sions in preference to other substances equally valuable. The Poles 
 and Spaniards use it in their sauces and richest delicacies, while its 
 application to the colouring of butter, cheese, creams, and conserves, is 
 too familiar to require further notice. 
 
 The mixing of saffron and aromatic spices with spirits is also of 
 Oriental origin, it being the practice of almost every nation to put 
 ingredients into their liquors to gratify the taste by rendering them more 
 palatable. Thus, in modern times, it is the prevailing practice to 
 render spirits more agreeable by diluting them with water, adding 
 lemon and other ingredients to neutralize the pungency or ardour of 
 the spirit, as exemplified in our common drink termed punch. 
 
 The beverage called punch, so popular in this country, and 
 throughout the whole of the British empire, is a compound drink, 
 which is generally believed to have originated in the East, and is said 
 to have been first made by the English at Nemle, near Goa. The 
 Persian punj, or the Sanscrit pancha, signifying^*?, is most probably 
 the source of its derivation ; since it denotes the number of ingre 
 dients of which it is composed. 
 
 The palc-puntz of Surat, as well as the boule-ponge met w r ith by 
 Bennin in 1644, (see page 156 of this work,) are merely terms for 
 the liquor known to us as punch. The former consisted of arrack, 
 rose-water, juice of citrons, spices, and sugar. 
 
 Freyer, in his travels, says, that the word punch is purely Indian, 
 and is understood to mean the mixture of five ingredients as a drink. 
 Struys and Mandelslo, both old w r riters, support the same opinion, 
 and clearly show the liquor to be Oriental. How well the making 
 of punch is understood by our countrymen requires no comment! 
 
 The following account of a jovial bowl of this beverage may 
 be amusing: In the year 1694, a bowl of punch was made at the 
 house of the Right Hon. Edward Russell, Commander-in-chief in the 
 Mediterranean. It was made in a fountain in the centre of a garden 
 surrounded by four walks, each of which w r as covered over-head 
 with orange and lemon trees, and having a table the whole length of 
 it, spread with a cold collation, confectionary, &c. The following 
 ingredients were mixed in tlie fountain, viz., four hogsheads of 
 brandy, eight hogsheads of water, 25,000 lemons, 20 gallons of lime- 
 juice, 1,300 weight of fine, white Lisbon sugar, five pounds of 
 grated nutmegs, 300 toasted biscuits, and a pipe of dry Malaga. 
 A large canopy was raised over the fountain to keep off the rain, 
 
62S 
 
 and a boy belonging to the fleet, towed round the circle, and filled 
 the cups to the company, of which it was computed more than 6,000 
 men partook. 
 
 The partiality of some individuals for this beverage is well illus 
 trated by the following anecdote, which the Author had from an 
 authentic source : A gentleman in the south of Ireland, who was 
 fond of fox-hunting and other field-sports, seldom sat down to 
 dinner without a few friends, who were equally social. After 
 returning on one occasion, accompanied by his fellow-sportsmen, and 
 partaking of a good dinner, he and his guests applied themselves to the 
 enjoyment of the bottle. After drinking to a reasonable hour, one of 
 them conceiving he had taken his quantum, and having to attend a 
 fair on the following day, retired to his home. But what was his 
 surprise when he called at his friend s house, on his way at six 
 o clock in the morning, to find the servant coming to the door with a 
 kettle of water. Suspecting its purpose, he exclaimed, " Ah! John, is 
 
 your master still at the punch ? Yes ! by H ," replied the other, 
 
 " this is the twelfth kettle, since you left him last night !" 
 
 The subjoined lines, translated from the German of Schiller, are 
 taken from the Dublin University Magazine for January, 1835, as 
 conveying some good moral reflections on this subject :~~ 
 
 Four be the elements : Pour the still water- 
 Here we assemble em Unwarning by sound, 
 
 Each of man s world Eternity s Ocean 
 
 Or existence an emblem. Is dark ning around ! 
 
 Press from the lemon Mingle the spirit, 
 
 The slow-flowing juices The life of the bowl 
 
 Bitter is Life Man is cold mortar, 
 
 In its lessons and uses ! Unwarmed by a soul. 
 
 Bruise the fair sugar lumps Drink of the stream 
 
 Nature intended Ere its potency goes 
 
 Her sweet and severe No bath is refreshing 
 
 To be every where blended. Except while it gl owg. 
 
 Malt-drink in Ireland, as has been already stated, was of early 
 origin, but its general use was inconsiderable till after the English 
 invasion. A duty of 5s. 3|d. ty barrel was imposed on it in 1787, 
 when its consumption became of some magnitude. While it was in 
 operation, this duty varied in proportion to the exigencies of the state 
 and the views of the ministry ; but the government, from a wish to 
 encourage the use of malt liquors, and the advancement of agriculture, 
 thought it expedient to repeal the duty altogether ; at the same time 
 [ the duty was raised on malt from 9Jd. to Is. 3d. the bushel, and 
 afterwards gradually increased to 4s. 5d., and was again lowered to 
 
623 
 
 2s. 7d., the present standard duty. It appears from the Parliamen 
 tary returns, that since 1796, the year in which the Irish beer-duty 
 was rescinded, there has been on the whole, a falling off in the con 
 sumption of malt, notwithstanding- the immense increase in the popu 
 lation, clearly shewing that the abolition of the beer-duty did not 
 answer the intention, and proving that the Irish people preferred J 
 spirits. 
 
 To what this taste may be attributed might be worthy of inquiry ; 
 for it must be admitted, that an Irishman has nothing inherent in his 
 composition to render him more devoted to ardent spirits than the 
 native of any other country. The most plausible reason for this pre 
 dilection seems to be, that the malt-drink made in Ireland was never 
 of strength, flavour, nor purity, equal to that manufactured in England : 
 hence to the warm and exhilarating spirit a preference was given, 
 rather than to the thin, cold, and unpalatable beer or ale to be met in 
 the shops and taverns of the kingdom. In England, the greatest care 
 was observed by the brewers ; in Ireland the trade was in the hands 
 of persons, the majority of whom were men of no capital, subject to 
 no check nor regulation, and studying every thing but the interest of 
 the public, while malt and hops formed but a small portion of the 
 drink imposed on the community. On the other hand, it may be 
 argued that the high duty on these articles induced the brewer to 
 limit their use as much as possible, and to this the inattention of the 
 legislature, in no small degree, contributed. Had the duty on malt 
 been lowered, and a lighter duty been laid on beer with a higher ,_- 
 impost on whiskey, it might have had the effect of making Ireland 
 more an ale and beer than a whiskey country, and have prevented 
 many of those misfortunes that have arisen from the unrestrained and 
 prevalent use of ardent spirits, to the disgrace of the national character. 
 It can scarcely be questioned, that were the trade conducted under 
 the control of wholesome laws and the regulations of government, it 
 could not fail to have a salutary effect by producing a pleasant, 
 wholesome beverage, encouraging the fair trader, and punishing the 
 deleterious manufacturer. The quality of the Irish malt-drink has, 
 of late, through the conduct of some spirited individuals, been greatly 
 improved, and is getting into greater repute not only at home but in 
 the sister kingdoms, and even in foreign countries. The quantity of 
 malt used in the breweries in the year ending the 5th July, 1827, 
 was 1,391,456 ; and in the year ending 5th July, 1828, 1,415,832 
 
 * Parliamentary Paper, No. 30. Sept. 1828. 
 
624 
 
 bushels, yielding for the one, at the rate of two bushels of malt for 
 every barrel brewed, 695,728, and for the other 707,916 barrels of 
 the different sorts of malt liquor.* r l he following- is the number of 
 bushels used by the licensed brewers for the years specified : 
 
 YEARS. BUSHELS. BUSHELS. 
 
 1832, Dublin 491,227 Ireland 1,543,265 
 
 1833, do 539,226 do 1,683,285 
 
 1834, do 790,713 do. 2,055,326 
 
 1835, do 577,021 do 1,829,589 
 
 1836, do 617,035 do 2,032,856 
 
 The malt drink exported was, for the year ending 5th January, 
 
 1826, 9,855-] 
 
 1827, 10,800 
 
 i9ft n Ofii I 
 
 18J8 > 11,261 f 
 
 1829, 14,499 
 
 1830, 15,207 J 
 
 Of these, there were sent to England 11,101, and to Scotland 
 220 barrels, while in 1829 there were sent to the former 11,754, and 
 to the latter 118 barrels.f The imports of beer during those two 
 years were 747 barrels from England, and 875 from Scotland. In 
 1832, there were in Ireland 216 breweries, and in 1837, there were 
 247 breweries, in which the malt consumed in that year, was 2,034,557 
 bushels. 
 
 To establish a brewery in Ireland on a moderate scale would 
 require no great capital. For a concern calculated to turn out 30 
 barrels per week, two coppers only would be requisite, one to boil 
 fifteen and another to boil six barrels. A mash-keive to answer those 
 coppers should be about 78 inches in diameter and 40 in altitude. 
 The under-back need not be of great capacity, one of five barrels 
 content would be sufficient, as the liquor is immediately pumped from 
 it to the coppers. The cooler, usually made of inch and quarter 
 plank, should be such as not to admit the worts to be, at any time, 
 more than 2^ inches in depth, the more shallow the better, but much 
 must depend on the size of the cooler and the magnitude of the apart 
 ment where it is erected. Two fermenting tuns, of from 15 to 61 
 barrels content each, would be adequate for such an establishment ; 
 they are usually made from American pine. The cost of these 
 articles may be estimated at 
 
 * Parl. Pap. No. 190, March, 1830. 
 t Par!. Pap. No. 190, March 1830. 
 
625 
 
 s. d. 
 
 2 Coppers, 60 
 
 1 Mash-keive, or tun 8 00 
 
 1 Underback, 200 
 
 1 Cooler, 12 
 
 2 Fermenting tuns, 12 
 
 A Wort and water pump,..,...., ^ 500 
 
 A Handmill for bruising or grinding malt 10 
 
 40 Barrels, at 11s. ^ barrel, , 22 
 
 70 Half do. at 8s. do .28 00 
 
 70 Quarter barrels, at 5s 17 10 
 
 1 Large Dray, 700 
 
 1 Small Dray, 3 10 
 
 Casks, stillings, troughs, instruments, &c 40 
 
 Total, 267 
 
 To work a concern of this kind, it would require two men and a 
 boy constantly, with a cooper occasionally to prepare the casks, the 
 expense of which may be reckoned at 40 annually. From these 
 data may be easily calculated, what capital might be necessary for a 
 concern on a larger scale, and which would be proportionably cheaper. 
 The common process of brewing is to bruise or grind the malt ; the 
 bruising by cylinders is preferred. The grain is then put into the 
 mash-keive which is supplied with water at a heat of 160, where it 
 is well raked to saturate it with the water, and is allowed to remain 
 for three hours, during which it is covered with a lid, to prevent it 
 absorbing so much of the oxygen of the atmosphere as would render 
 it liable to become sour, to get too cold and not take out the extract. 
 The liquor is now drawn off, when another mashing at a temperature 
 of 180 takes place in the usual manner, and is allowed to stand 
 covered for one hour. A third or final mashing at boiling heat and 
 then standing for one hour, covered as before, completes the operation. 
 If, by any accident, the keive should be set, as it 1 is termed, or not run 
 off, as sometimes happens, boiling water is then introduced and 
 remashed,in order that the extract or fluid may flow the more readily. 
 The produce of the mashing is called worts, and is successively con 
 veyed to the cpppers, in which, for about three hours, it is boiled 
 with a proportion of 2Jft)S. of hops for every barrel intended to be 
 made. This liquor is sent to the coolers, where it is allowed to reach 
 the temperature of 63 or 64 Q before it is conveyed into the ferment- 
 ing-tun, where from 40 to 43 gravity by Dicas s Saccharometer is 
 considered a sufficient strength to yield beer at 20s. ^ barrel. Half 
 a gallon of good, thick barm is considered necessary to ferment each 
 barrel of malt brewed or mashed. If the malt be good, it should 
 
 2 s 
 
626 
 
 produce 2 J barrels of 32 gallons English, or from 40 to 41 gallons 
 Irish. If ale be brewed at 40s. the barrel, worts of from 70 to 751bs. 
 gravity will be sufficient, and each barrel of malt employed in this 
 way, will, after taking off the ale at the gravity above specified, give 
 one barrel of table beer, the worts of which require four hours boiling 
 on the same hops. The heat in the fermenting-tun should never be 
 allowed to rise more than from four to five degrees, to regulate which, 
 the thermometer is commonly suspended in the vessel. In summer, 
 the heat of the worts put into the tun should be the lowest possible ; 
 but in no season should they be allowed to remain more than twelve 
 hours in the cooler. Worts running into the tun generally cool at 
 two degrees, and an allowance should be made on that account ; but it 
 is better to have them rather cool than warm, as a few gallons can be 
 easily heated to bring them up to the necessary temperature. After 
 being fermented in the tuns, the time for removal into the casks is 
 indicated by the froth in the tun becoming rather settled ; but it is 
 never allowed to fall or get down, as it was termed in the old dis 
 tilling laws. Every three hours, for the first twenty-four, while 
 the beer is working in the casks, it ought to be filled up by its 
 own discharge collected from the troughs, on which the casks 
 are placed. After the first twenty-four hours it is filled occasionally, 
 in the same manner, every five or six hours ; and so on in proportion 
 as the working ceases : in three days it is commonly fit for use. 
 Brown patent malt should be employed to give the liquor colour, if 
 designed for publicans ; but if for private use, pale drink is preferred. 
 For fining the liquor, isinglass dissolved in sour beer and strained, is 
 the material generally used, a pint of which is sufficient for a barrel : 
 more than what would clear, would injure it, as it thins it and gives 
 it a tendency to become acid. 
 
 When sending out beer and porter from the public breweries, it is 
 a common practice to put in two gallons of unfermented worts into 
 each barrel which causes a sort of fermentation, tlirowing up a head 
 at the bung and making the liquor appear strong and fresh. 
 
 In extensive breweries, the malt is commonly ground by rollers, 
 of which there are more or less employed, according to the extent of 
 the concern, but the mode of brewing is the same. To regulate the 
 heat in the keive, some brewers use what they term a dash-box, which 
 is a species of cylinder placed in such a position as to have discharge 
 pipes running into it from the different coppers, with fixed thermo 
 meters to ascertain the heat of the liquor, while a tube with a cock 
 conveying cold water, is attached, in order to enable the brewer to 
 convey the liquor into the keive at whatever temperature he may 
 
627 
 
 desire, fins obviates the old method of taking the heats in the 
 coppers, and saves much time and trouble. The mashing of the grain 
 is usually performed by machinery as in distilleries, manual labour 
 being dispensed with. When the mashing is completed, in order to 
 prevent the escape of heat, the tun is covered by a fixed suspended 
 lid, around the circumference of which there hangs about two feet of 
 canvass, which, when the raking is finished, is drawn round the 
 circuit of the keive, thereby forming a complete covering : in 
 some large breweries no covering is used. In this stage the 
 liquor is permitted to remain, till the solid parts settle, when the liquor 
 is drawn off into the underback. Three mashings are commonly made 
 to extract the whole of the saccharine matter, the produce of which 
 is sent to the copper, where it is boiled with the hops in the propor 
 tion of one pound and an half to a bushel of malt, and when boiled for 
 some time, it is discharged into the jack or hop-back. This vessel 
 has a double bottom, the upper one of which serves as a strainer, being 
 made of iron perforated with holes, through which the liquor exudes, 
 leaving the residuum. 
 
 This residuum of the hops is conveyed back to the copper and 
 boiled with the second or third worts, while the liquor thus drained 
 is sent to the cooler. In this stage of the process, the worts remain 
 thinly spread over a large surface for cooling, and sometimes fans, 
 worked by machinery, are placed on the coolers to accelerate this 
 object ; but where expedition in cooling is required, a refrigerator is 
 generally employed. That of Mr. Avyard is commonly used, which 
 consists of a number of thin metal tubes, arranged in a horizontal 
 position in a cistern, into which there is a constant run of cold 
 water, made to flow over the tubes in order to cool the fluid 
 running through them. Various contrivances for the same purpose 
 have been made, such as metallic plates, so placed in a cylindrical 
 vessel, as to form conduits for the warm worts to flow through one 
 set of plates, while through another set, in a contrary direction, a cor 
 responding quantity of water runs, absorbing the caloric from the 
 worts, and reducing them with great rapidity to the desired tempe 
 rature. The average temperature at which the worts are set is about 
 60, when they are sent into the squares or gyle-tuns, and yeast is 
 added. As soon as the fermentation begins to subside, the liquor is 
 conveyed into fixed fermenting vessels, usually small casks, where 
 the liquor cleanses itself by working off the yeast, carrying with it a 
 quantity of the fluid which falls into troughs prepared for the purpose. 
 The beer thus carried over, is replaced by a quantity taken from a 
 small reservoir adjoining, and the liquor is maintained at the same 
 
628 
 
 level in all the fermenting vessels by means of a regulating cock. 
 When the fermentation has ceased, the liquor is sent into large vats, 
 or barreled and sent into market. 
 
 In the brewing of porter, the first mash should be heated in the 
 copper to 150, in the proportion of two barrels to each quarter of 
 malt, which ought to be a mixture of best pale and brown malt, 
 and should be kept mashing for about three-quarters of an hour, 
 while the liquor should remain on the goods for an hour. The tap of 
 the mash-tun is then opened to let off the liquor as quickly as possible, 
 and the tap should be left open till the next liquor is brought into the 
 tun that the goods may drain. In the mean time, the second liquor has 
 been heating, and may, in from two to three hours, have acquired the 
 heat of 160 ; the quantity being one barrel to a quarter of malt. Mash 
 this, for half or three quarters of an hour ; let it stand for one hour, 
 and then let it be run off in the course of half an hour more. At 
 about five and one-half hours from the beginning, the third mash should 
 be made at 180, the quantity being one barrel to the quarter ; mash 
 this for half an hour, let it stand an hour and tap as before. 
 
 A fourth liquor is seldom mashed, but if it be, it may be cold or 
 blood warm, as it is of no use but to make the sour -beer for finings ; 
 and it is of little consequence how it is done. Some brewers use it for 
 the first liquor of the next brewing ; but this, perhaps, is not a good 
 plan, as it may taint the whole brewing. 
 
 These worts are to be boiled with from twelve to fourteen pounds of 
 hops to the quarter of malt, if the liquor is intended for keeping eight 
 or twelve months; but, in the ordinary run of porter not intended for 
 keeping, five pounds may be sufficient. The first worts should be 
 boiled one hour, the second two, and the third four hours. 
 
 The worts are now to be cooled down as expeditiously as the wea 
 ther will permit, to about 60, if the medium heat of the atmosphere 
 be about 60. If it be more or less, allowance must be made. All the 
 three worts are to be brought together into the gyle-tun, and about 
 five pints of yeast to the quarter of malt put in, and due time allowed 
 for fermentation and cleansing. The criterion for cleansing is the 
 attenuation, and one great point in porter making is, that of separat- 
 i rig the barm completely from the liquor. The proportion of colouring 
 is arbitrary, as it greatly depends on the colour of the malt. For 
 merly it was the practice to employ Socotorine aloes, in the proportion 
 of half an ounce to a barrel, in the second worts ; and to give a reten 
 tive head, as much salt of steel as would lie on a half-crown piece was 
 added with the finings to a barrel. Quassia, in the proportion of a 
 pound to about twenty barrels, was used as a substitute for the aloes, 
 
629 
 
 and copperas for the salt of steel, but these ingredients being noxious 
 and unwholesome, have been discontinued. 
 
 As the colour of porter is chiefly to be attributed to the quantity of 
 brown or roasted malt used, care is taken to infuse such a quantity of 
 that material as will produce the degree of colour required, and fining 
 is effected by isinglass dissolved in stale beer, till it becomes of a 
 glutinous consistence, a pint of which is the usual allowance for a 
 barrel, but sometimes more is necessary. 
 
 A good colouring article is procured by moistening a quantity of 
 brown sugar with water, spreading it in a frying-pan to about an inch 
 deep, placed on a fire, and stirred until it is ignited ; when it is burned 
 sufficiently, the flame is extinguished, and water is added to the resi 
 duum till it has the consistency of molasses, and it is then mixed with 
 the worts in the copper in such quantity as the depth of colour requires. 
 In Ireland, the brewing trade, though not so extensive as in Eng 
 land, is, notwithstanding, conducted on a respectable scale. In Cork, 
 Ban don, Limerick, Fermoy,Waterford, Clogheen, Clonmel, Kilkenny, 
 and Carlow, are the principal establishments of the south. That of 
 Beamish and Crawford, situated in the South Main-street, Cork, is 
 the most considerable ; it is elegantly fitted up, having appropriate 
 machinery, with vessels on an extensive scale, and is capable of 
 brewing upwards of 150,000 barrels of porter annually. The con 
 cerns of Messrs. Lane and Co., W. Cashman and Sons, W. Condon 
 and Co., in that city, are respectably conducted, and the liquor pro 
 duced is of superior quality. In the north, there are many highly res 
 pectable breweries, viz. Drogheda, Castlebellingham, Dundalk, Newry, 
 Armagh, Monaghan, Dungannon, Donoughmore, Lurgan, Belfast, 
 and Derry, where malt drink is manufactured to great perfection. 
 The ales of Drogheda, Castlebellingham, Lurgan and Belfast, have 
 obtained a high character, while the porter and ales of Dublin are 
 accounted equal to any brewed in the empire : the extensive exporta 
 tion of these articles is a proof of this assertion, for, until within these 
 few years, there was not any export of porter to England, the British 
 manufacturers supplying that commodity ; and such was the force of 
 prejudice, that nothing but an English beverage could satisfy an Irish 
 palate. The house of Messrs. Arthur Guinness, Sons, & Co., was the 
 first to open the trade of exportation, and they have been success 
 fully followed by several other respectable houses in Dublin. The 
 premises of this most enterprising firm are situated at James s Gate, 
 in the west of the city. The range of buildings covers nearly four 
 acres ; the arrangement and machinery are upon the most complete 
 and efficient plan, and every department is so systematic and well- 
 
630 
 
 managed, that the work proceeds with the utmost precision and regu 
 larity ; no confusion, bustle, nor disorder ensues; the grain is taken up, 
 and weighed in its passage to the lofts, hy ingenious mechanical con 
 trivances. There are three mash-tuns capable of mashing 600 barrels 
 at a brewing, with three coppers containing 2,040 barrels. The 
 mashing is performed by rakes worked by steam-engines, of which 
 there are two of fifteen horse-power that work all the machinery on 
 the premises. 
 
 Under the bottom of the mash-keives there is a screw fixed in a 
 trough, so contrived as to draw off all the grains into an adjoining 
 yard, where they are disposed of to the public. The labour of one 
 man is sufficient for a keive, through a hole between the real and 
 artificial bottom of which he is employed to discharge the grains, to 
 be carried off by the screw. This aperture is secured and rendered 
 water-tight by means of a cover fastened down to prevent the egress 
 of the liquid. There are three immense fermenting tuns, and forty- 
 four vats calculated to hold from 350 to nearly 3,000 barrels; 
 three of which contain the latter quantity. 
 
 In one apartment are an immense number of fixed casks in which 
 the liquor undergoes the process of cleansing, and in another a number 
 of cylindrical vessels, termed rounds ; there are 100 of these, holding 
 six barrels each, so arranged in rows as to admit between them large 
 and deep troughs to hold the discharge of the barm, as it works off 
 from each vessel. 
 
 The number of persons employed is very great, among which are 
 no less than eighty coopers. The concern is lighted with gas, and to 
 secure it from fire, there are pipes so contrived that any quantity of 
 water can be instantaneously conveyed to every part of the premises ; 
 these pipes are supplied from a cistern holding 1,100 barrels, and so 
 elevated as to command the entire establishment. The quantity of 
 porter capable of being sent out annually, is, at an average, upwards 
 of 100,000 barrels, that of the other brewers of the city is equally 
 respectable in proportion to the magnitude of their concerns. The 
 reputation of the Dublin double X porter being so high, the demand 
 for it in England is almost incredible ; and it is said to be improved 
 by the voyage, the motion of which is thought to operate upon it, 
 in the same manner, as Madeira-wine is acted on by the agitation of 
 the ship. The export houses are Messrs. Arthur Guinness, Sons, and 
 Co., Manders and Powell, Watkins, D Arcy and Co., O Connell and 
 Co., L. Finn, Messrs. Sweetman, and the Messrs. Conlan, &c. &c. 
 Besides the places already mentioned, there are several breweries in 
 Ireland which manufacture excellent malt-drink j of these, the esta- 
 
631 
 
 blishment of Mr. Cassidy at Monasterevan, and that of Darley & Co. 
 at Stillorgan, are eminent, while the neat concern worked by Mi" 
 Colgan at Kilcock, endeavours to rival more extensive houses in the 
 quality of its liquors. 
 
 The practice of domestic brewing- is not carried on to any extent in 
 Ireland, the making of malt-drink being almost exclusively confined 
 to the public establishments. The art of extracting a good ale, or beer, 
 from malt is very simple, and it is surprising this has been so long 
 overlooked when the means are sufficiently ample for the purpose. 
 Many have neglected it on account of their ignorance of the process, 
 others from a fear of the revenue laws, and some from not having 
 proper apparatus, and the public drink being so easily procured. From 
 a careful perusal, however, of what has been just written as well 
 as the account given of domestic brewing in England, it will be seen 
 that it might be to the advantage of the landlords and farmers 
 to brew for themselves. This practice could not fail at all times to 
 produce a pleasing, wholesome beverage, alike acceptable to the poor 
 and to the rich. 
 
 To persons desirous of more minute and extensive knowledge on 
 this subject, the following works may be consulted to advantage, viz : 
 Shannon s Treatise on Practical Brewing, Richardson s Philosophical 
 Principles of the Science of Brewing, Combrune s Theory and Prac 
 tice of Brewing, Baverstock on Brewing, the Art of Brewing in the 
 Library of Useful Knowledge, and the several articles on the subject 
 in the different Encyclopaedias, &c. 
 
 From the first period of the introduction of aqua vitce, the distilla 
 tion of ardent spirits, with the exceptions noticed, remained uncon- | 
 troled by duty till the Restoration, at which time it had acquired 
 sufficient magnitude to be deemed a productive article of revenue. 
 On the 25th December, 1661, a duty of four-pence was established 
 on every gallon of aqua vitce distilled in the kingdom. 
 
 This duty was collected by means of a system of survey calculated 
 to ascertain the quantities of wash, low-wines, and spirits produced 
 in a given period, and as the distiller was not obliged to shew any 
 stated quantity of work in the month, (that being the period for mak 
 ing up the accounts,) the increase or decrease depended, in a great 
 measure, on the vigilance and integrity of the officer, whose business . 
 it was to attend the distillery. 
 
 Shortly after the accession of George III. a specific quantum of 
 work in the way of charges or doublings was laid on the stills of this 
 kingdom, which, in 1779, the time at which the principal change took 
 place,* numbered 1,1 52, producing a revenue of 63,818. In 1782, 
 
 * 19 Gco. 3, 
 
632 
 
 on a five hundred gallon still there were four doublings, and the fol 
 lowing year eight., the duty being fourteen -pence per gallon ; while 
 in 1792, there were sixteen charges on two hundred gallon stills, the 
 general size wrought at that time. The charges gradually increased 
 until 1806, when the trade assumed a degree of importance that it 
 had not previously possessed, being then principally confined to a few 
 individuals of weighty capital.* 
 
 At this* period, the government refused to license stills under five 
 hundred gallons, and, in the same year, all the laws relating to the 
 distillery trade in the kingdom were compressed into one act,f in 
 which every thing relating to the business was fully defined. Among 
 other matters, it was found to be necessary to fix the dimensions of 
 stills, to p!ace the process on an equitable footing, as it was obvious 
 that if these dimensions were not determined, the distillers could 
 produce a much greater quantity than the law required, by making 
 the bottoms of their stills as large as possible, so as to have the advan 
 tage of exposing more surface to the heat of the furnace. 
 
 It was ordained, that the diameter of every still, taken in the 
 middle part, most remote from the bottom, should be to the altitude 
 of each still, taken in a perpendicular line from the centre of the 
 diameter to the bottom, in the proportion of not more than three 
 to one i. e., for every inch of altitude, the diameter should not 
 exceed three inches, and so on in proportion. 
 
 This law ceased to operate on the 10th of October, 1823. It was 
 soon discovered that the ingenuity of the Irish distillers, like that of 
 their Scotch neighbours, when the license system prevailed, far out- 
 stript the enactments of the legislature in the extent of work. In 1807, 
 it was considered prudent to license stills of two hundred gallons and 
 upwards ; the work was then considerably increased on all stills from 
 200 to 1250 gallons capacity, but no addition was made at that time 
 to the work of larger stills. In 1815, there were 5,675 per cent, 
 added, on an average to the proportions of work previously required ; 
 and, in the same year, an act was passed allowing stills of from forty- 
 four to one hundred gallons to be licensed. Considerable advan 
 tages were granted to these, in expectation that they might tend to 
 the suppression of illicit distillation, it being intended that they 
 should be confined to those districts of country in which that baneful 
 practice prevailed. 
 
 The charges on those small stills were far short of the proportion 
 allotted to the larger ones, A still of one hundred gallons contents 
 
 * Vide Addenda for the number of stills and their contents for some years prior 
 to 1806, with a scale of work required by stills in that year, 
 t 46 Ceo, 3. c. 88. 
 
633 
 
 was also obliged to perform ninety charges monthly. Under this 
 regulation also, it was soon discovered that the distillers turned the 
 advantages thus granted them to their own private emoluments, 
 instead of preparing whiskey similar to the illicit spirit commonly 
 called Innishowen, * or Potheen, which was the intention and expec 
 tation of government. In consequence of this, their work was 
 increased in 1817, to two hundred doublings monthly; notwithstand 
 ing this great addition, the proprietors of large distilleries were 
 jealous of the superior advantages which they imputed to the smaller 
 stills. In 1816, twenty per cent, was again added to the work of stills 
 exceeding one hundred gallons, and in 1817, ten per cent. more. 
 
 To gratify the curious, there is given in a table of the Addenda, a 
 correct list of all the stills that were at work in Ireland in the month 
 of February 1818, with the quantity of spirits produced by them 
 weekly, in proportion to their doublings or charges : also the aver 
 age consumption of grain and coals in each, specifying such as were 
 obliged, from their local situation, to use turf. On comparing that 
 table with the scale of work for 1806, as exhibited in the table of the 
 Addenda, the increase appears prodigious, and indeed almost incredible 
 It is a striking instance of the results produced by the ingenuity and acti 
 vity of man when powerfully excited ; for it is a well-known fact, that 
 when work in distilleries was not half so great as it then was, much 
 more difficulty was experienced in its performance. Such was the 
 skill acquired by practice, that four doublings could be worked off in 
 less than an hour, which at one time was the lengthened labour of 
 twenty-eight days. 
 
 To the Scotch distillers who had established themselves in the 
 country, and whose experience enabled them to introduce improve 
 ments, previously unknown, this increase, in a great measure, may be 
 attributed. But great as the quantity unquestionably was, the market 
 was clandestinely supplied with a very considerable surplus, which 
 by some has been stated as a fifth, but by others, to approach nearly 
 to a half of the whole consumption. 
 
 At various times, plans have been suggested for the improvement 
 of distilleries. Among the many, one of a curious nature was 
 proposed by Mr. Birch, of Roscrea, calculated to obviate the difficulty 
 of procuring fuel in the interior of the country. That gentleman 
 shewed that it was practicable to work a still by the application of 
 steam much more advantageously than by the use of either turf or 
 
 * Innishowen is a barony in the county of Donegal, pre-eminent for illicit dis 
 tillation, and the superior quality of its spirits, and Potheen was a name given to 
 this drink on account of its being distilled in a small pot. 
 
634 
 
 coals ; and that it would, besides, produce a greater quantity of spirits 
 in a given time, than could be done by any other known process. 
 
 What gave rise to this method, was the great scarcity of fuel 
 experienced at the Roscrea distillery, occasioned by the badness and 
 want of turf in wet seasons. In the year 1818, the Board of Excise 
 was solicited for permission to work by steam ; and, notwithstanding 
 the determined opposition of the distillers in Dublin, the plan was 
 put into execution under the superintendence of an able pro 
 fessor of chemistry assisted by several practical revenue officers. In 
 carrying on the experiment, the liquor in the still was boiled by the 
 force of steam, raised in a boiler prepared for that purpose, and con 
 veyed by a pipe which communicated with the exterior of the still 
 only, filling up with steam the spaces or interstices in the body of the 
 still, and also the space between the still itself and its case, which case 
 was made of wood, and every part of it exposed to view. 
 
 Previous to this trial, which was conducted at Roscrea, there were 
 independently of the steam-engine, four furnaces ; one for the still, 
 and one for each copper, which contained 212 superficial feet; but by 
 the proposed plan of working these furnaces, they were reduced to 
 two, containing only sixty-four superficial feet subject to fire influ 
 ence. It, moreover, appeared that steam, not exceeding 225 of tem 
 perature, was able to produce the highest charge of the excise laws 
 with a saving of upwards of four -fifths of the fuel, and the same of 
 all other attendant expenses. According to a calculation made at the 
 time, the expense of working a two hundred gallons still with coal, 
 amounted to 4390, of which 540 only afforded employment to the 
 people, whereas, when worked with turf, employment would be 
 given to the amount of 8,316. 13s. 4d. ; all circulating at home to 
 the best advantage. 
 
 The great saving of fuel effected by the steam system, might 
 appear consistent with the important consideration of employment to 
 the poor ; but, although a still worked by steam would not consume 
 more than one-fifth of the quantity of turf or coal, that would be 
 required by the common mode, yet it was argued, that for the same 
 reason it would be the means of erecting in the interior ten distil- 
 eries for one, and thereby diffusing the business more generally 
 and with greater effect. 
 
 This ingenious method of distilling was ultimately rejected by the 
 Board of Excise, on the principle that it was considered to afford 
 facilities to smuggling under the existing regulations ; but, since 
 the act of the 4 Geo. I V. chap. 94, has relieved the distiller from the 
 production of a limited quantity in a given time, this steam method 
 
635 
 
 is worthy of a serious consideration, and, perhaps, further experience 
 would render its adoption of considerable benefit in the remote parts 
 of the country, where native fuel is scarce, and foreign cannot be pro 
 cured but at an enormous expense. 
 
 As bearing on the subject, it may prove satisfactory to practical as 
 well as speculative distillers, to bring under their consideration an 
 enumeration and a description of some of the principal inventions of 
 modern times in the art of distillation, which have had for their object 
 a saving of fuel, time, and labour, and an improvement in the article 
 manufactured. In endeavouring to effect these purposes, the French 
 have been peculiarly industrious ; and to their ingenuity this country 
 is indebted for many valuable suggestions. 
 
 Amongst the first attempts to effect continuous distillation, was 
 that of M. Jean Jeaques St. Marc, who was a veterinary surgeon 
 attached to Buonaparte s personal staff. After the battle of Waterloo, 
 he became a distiller in France ; from whence he removed to England 
 about the year 1823. There he induced some enterprising capitalists 
 to embark with him in the speculation of making brandy from potatoes ; 
 and a distillery for that purpose, upon an extensive scale, was erected 
 near London, together with a rectifying establishment ; both of 
 which, after working three years, were broken up, and disposed of 
 at a loss of between forty and fifty thousand pounds. 
 
 During this period, St. Marc availed himself of the operations in 
 these works to improve the still he had been working, the principle 
 of which, being that of continuous distillation, he brought from France ; 
 in this he was assisted by M. Peire Alegre, a chemist of considerable 
 celebrity. Having completed the machinery, he, in 1827, obtained for 
 the invention, a patent for the United Kingdom, and immediately after 
 disposed of it to some gentlemen in London, and returned to his 
 native country. 
 
 The adaptation of this apparatus to distillation in England then 
 devolved on Mr. Joseph Budworth Sharp, under whose judicious 
 arrangement and directions, some of the most extensive establish 
 ments in London, Bristol, Liverpool, and other parts of England, 
 have been worked with great success. One of these stills at the 
 rectifying concern of Messrs. J. and W. Nicholson at Clerkenwell, 
 at one operation, produced the enormous quantity of one thousand 
 gallons of gin in one hour, the cleansing and flavouring processes pro 
 ceeding at the same time. This apparatus was introduced into the 
 West Indies, and several of the colonies, with, it is said, considerable 
 advantage, inasmuch as it produced spirits of great strength, with a 
 saving of fuel, puncheons, freight, and shipping-charges, in the expor 
 tation of rum. 
 
637 
 
 The foregoing engraving and following description of the appa 
 ratus, will be found to differ somewhat from those of the paten 
 tees, as well as from those in the London Encyclopaedia ; both of 
 these having been published, previously to the system being reduced 
 to practice upon an extended scale of operation. 
 
 It will be seen by the plate, with a delineation of which I 
 have been favoured by Mr. John Rees, a proprietor, that this appara 
 tus consists of seven coppers placed one above another, numbered in 
 the section, fig. I. 1 to 7. Eight were originally intended, but 
 seven have been found sufficient ; six to contain wash, and the 
 upper one, water. These coppers, or compartments, are attached by 
 flanges and bolts, and communicate with each other by the double 
 tubes, A, through which the vapour ascends ; and by the pipes B, by 
 means of which the wash descends, from one copper to another, 
 in succession, from the uppermost but one, N 6, into which it is 
 introduced by a pipe and cock C, from the wash-charger D ; the 
 intermediate charger, described by the patentees, as surrounding the 
 upper compartment, having been dispensed with. The lowest, or 
 first copper does not differ from an ordinary still of similar dimensions. 
 The second and third, each contain four of the double tubes, A, and 
 two of the pipes, B. The fourth, fifth, and sixth coppers, have also 
 the last-mentioned pipes, and one double tube A, in each, placed 
 under a semispherical vessel, or dome E, constructed upon, 
 and tightly flanged and bolted to the bottom of the several coppers 
 just mentioned. The vapour, after undergoing the process in the 
 several domes, which will, hereafter, be described, passes into six 
 spiral tubes or vertical worms F, immersed in the water of the upper 
 compartment, and attached to the top of the dome in No. 6. One 
 only of these worms is shown in the section, and two of the 
 attaching pipes. The upper end of the vertical worms communicates 
 with the chamber G, which is surmounted by a small dome and pan, 
 the latter containing water ; after undergoing the final control of 
 which, the vapour passes off by the line over H, to the common 
 worm for condensation. 
 
 The water is introduced into the upper compartment by the pipe 
 and cocks, I, from the sky cooler, and the waste water, which is 
 generally used to scald the backs, is conveyed away by the pipe K, 
 with a cock to empty the compartment entirely, w T hen required. There 
 is also a cock, L, by which water can be conveyed from this into all 
 the other compartments, each of them being furnished with a cock, 
 M, communicating with that next below it, for the purpose of 
 
638 
 
 bringing down the wash at the close of a back ; and also with a man 
 hole N, to admit a person to cleanse the several compartments. The 
 small inverted double tubes O, are for the conveyance of the con 
 densed portion of the vapour from the bottom of the several domes, 
 into the third compartment, for re-distillation. And the pipes P, 
 are to carry off the small portion of vapour generated by the wash 
 round the domes. This is conveyed into a coil of worms inclining 
 towards bent pipe P, to which it is attached, passing through the 
 water of the upper compartment, and communicating with the second 
 coil of the ordinary worm. 
 
 The lower compartment has only the usual discharge-cock Q, the 
 second not having been found requisite. Thus one compartment, 
 and several articles have been dispensed with ; all tending to simplify 
 the operation. But the rouser or chains, which M. St. Marc alleges 
 were unnecessary, have been found indispensable to prevent burning ; 
 as have also valves in the three lower compartments, to provide 
 against the remotest chance of collapsion. These compartments have 
 glass gauges to them, to ascertain, at all times, the level of wash 
 they contain. The foregoing being a description of the apparatus, it 
 only remains to add a short detail of its operation. The first three 
 coppers (of which the second and third only are intersected by the 
 double pipes,) distil almost at the same time ; the lowest being that 
 submitted to the action of the fire, operates on the others by the 
 discharge of its vapour, which ascending, by means of the pipes, passes 
 into the wash, and is there condensed, infusing its caloric to that liquid, 
 which is thereby quickly brought into a boiling state. The over power 
 from the wash in the second section or compartment, passes into the 
 third copper with similar effect. 
 
 The new vapour, necessarily stronger than the first, ascends into 
 the fourth section, where it is received under a semispherical dome, 
 which prevents it from communicating directly with the cold wash 
 contained in that copper. In this place the most watery portion of 
 the vapour is condensed, and it gives up its caloric, which contributes 
 to heat the wash that surrounds the dome. The most volatile or 
 spirituous part, which passes into the dome of the fifth section, experi 
 ences the same effect on coming in contact with a cold body. 
 
 The same operation takes place from one dome to another up to the 
 last. As the vapour, which rises, is exposed to a cold temperature, 
 it is condensed, yielding its caloric ; and it is after a succession of 
 condensation that the spirit becomes divested of all weak and watery 
 particles, which, thus liquified, return from one dome to another, 
 
639 
 
 being partially re-distilled in their progress, according to their degree 
 of gravity, until the least spirituous reaches the third copper, there to 
 undergo a new distillation. 
 
 To explain why the watery vapour is forced to return to the third 
 copper, and is there found totally separated from the alcohol, it is 
 sufficient to state, that water does not boil under a heat of 212 of 
 Fahrenheit, while alcohol boils at a heat of 173. When, therefore, the 
 watery and alcoholic vapours rise and are successively received in one 
 or more atmospheres of from 17 4 Q to 190, or 200, the watery 
 vapour becomes separated from the alcoholic and is condensed, and 
 the latter only passes out and is received at the desired strength, 
 care being taken to regulate the temperature of the water contained 
 in the uppermost copper, which is traversed by the strongest and 
 most alcoholic vapour, before it passes into the worm. 
 
 From the foregoing particulars, it is evident that a large portion of 
 the spirit is distilled by vapour, or steam, and is, consequently, more 
 pure than that obtained by the ordinary apparatus. If, therefore, as 
 is generally supposed, that all bad flavour arises from long and violent 
 exposure of the wash to the action of the fire, this process is calcu 
 lated to obviate entirely that injurious effect, and to obtain a spirit 
 wholly divested of any empyreumatic or disagreeable taste. One dis 
 tillation only is effected by the fire ; this is immediately succeeded by 
 two vapour or steam distillations, and subsequently by four purifying 
 consecutive processes, which divest the spirit of all impurities, and it 
 comes over, at one operation, of the strength of 35 or 40 per cent, 
 over proof by Sykes s hydrometer. 
 
 A still of seven compartments, such as described, will produce 
 spirits no stronger than 35 or 40 per cent, above proof; but by increas 
 ing the number of coppers or sections, there might be obtained, by a 
 single operation, the highest pure alcohol of the chemists. 
 
 To ascertain the precise time for charging after the exhaustion of 
 the wash in the lower copper, it is only necessary to open what is 
 called the proof-cock placed in its side ; and if the vapour issuing from 
 it, will ignite on the application of a candle, it is evident a fresh charge 
 is wanting* The discharge of the spent wash from the lowest vessel, 
 the supply from the next copper to replace it, and the opening of the 
 cock in the pipe, communicating between the charger and the top of 
 the still to admit more wash, are all the work of about a minute, 
 during which distillation never ceases. 
 
 The advantages of this apparatus are numerous, but may be briefly 
 stated to consist in the saving of about two-thirds of the fuel usually 
 
640 
 
 consumed ; an increased produce, by economising what is lost by eva 
 poration in the three operations, with their pumpings, &e. on the 
 ordinary system a considerable saving of labour, there being but one 
 furnace, and one tail-pipe instead of three, or sometimes four. To 
 which may be added the advantage of dispensing with low-wines and 
 feints receivers and chargers, together with their connexions and 
 pumps, and the power required to put the latter in operation. 
 
 A safe of a superior nature has been constructed by Mr. Sharpe, 
 one of the patentees ; it is attached to the end of the worm, and holds 
 a large glass cylinder in which a thermometer is suspended ; at each 
 side of this cylinder are two smaller ones in which are placed hydro 
 meters, one for ascertaining the strength of the liquor when above, 
 and the other when below proof. The safe is so ingeniously contrived 
 as to enable the distiller to see the strength and colour of the spirits, 
 and also to take a sample, which, however, is registered against him 
 upon a dial, and no spirit can be surreptitiously obtained, while it 
 serves to prevent fraud both on the proprietor and the revenue. 
 
 The cost of one of these stills with all its appendages, when com 
 pletely ready for work, on the largest scale, is not less than from 
 ,1,600 to 1,700, but from the number of years that it will stand 
 distillation, it may be accounted cheaper than any of those belonging 
 to the old system, the bottom being the only part liable to injury ; 
 but that is easily supplied, and with expense comparatively trifling. 
 An objection has been urged against this still, that it deprives the 
 spirit of the essential oil, which imparts that flavour so familiar to, 
 and popular amongst Irishmen. 
 
 The apparatus invented by M. M. Adam and Duportal for produc 
 ing alcohol at a single process is generally known, and those who 
 are acquainted with Wolfe s Apparatus so common in chemical labo 
 ratories, will understand clearly the principles on which this ingenious 
 machinery is constructed, and the full effect of its operations. 
 
 The still of Professor Solimani which has undergone improvements 
 by Curadau is based on the principles of the still of Adam and Dupor 
 tal. It consists of a boiler and three refrigeratories, and spirits of any 
 strength can be obtained by means of it ; but it is better adapted for 
 the distillation of wine than of wash. A drawing and description of 
 this still may be found in the Register of Arts and Journal of Patent 
 Inventions. 
 
 Mr. Winter, a distiller in France, constructed an apparatus on 
 the principle, that the mixed vapours of water and spirits are not 
 condensable at the same degree of temperature, water requiring a 
 
641 
 
 heat above 212 to be kept in a state of vapour, while spirits of 
 intense strength will evaporate at a heat very little above the common 
 atmospheric temperature. This apparatus is applicable to stills of 
 every description, and enables the distiller to extract the whole of the 
 spirits in the wash, at a single operation. Its great excellence con 
 sists in condensing the aqueous portion of the mixed vapour from the 
 still before psissing into the worm. To effect this purpose, the vapours 
 from the still are first made to enter into a peculiar kind of receiver 
 surrounded by a water-bath, the temperature of which is uniformly 
 preserved at 170, or thereabouts, according to the strength of the 
 spirit required. In this receiver the aqueous particles, or those that 
 require a heat of more than 170 to be kept in a state of vapour, are 
 condensed, while the spirituous vapours from their superior levity 
 pass into the second receiver. This second receiver is also of a 
 peculiar construction, and being kept at a lower temperature than the 
 first (at 140 or less), the whole of the weaker vapour, or that which 
 is condensable at from 140 to 170 of temperature, is therein reduced 
 into a liquid state, while the strong, spirituous vapour ascending alone, 
 through certain very narrow spaces, contained between concentric 
 cylinders, into the upper part of the apparatus, is there collected into 
 a third receiver prior to passing into the worm. The worm is 
 surrounded as usual with cold-water, whose powerful refrigerating 
 effect upon the strong, spirituous vapour with wliich it is charged, 
 causes it to pass rapidly into the fluid state. 
 
 With this apparatus, it is thought, the distiller would have no 
 occasion to send his spirits to the rectifier, an attention to the tempe 
 rature of the two baths being all that is required for rectification in 
 the most perfect manner. As a confirmation of the value of the 
 apparatus it is stated, that feints 80 per cent under proof, produced, at 
 one operation, spirits 55 per cent over proof. 
 
 The late ingenious Mr. Watt, having ascertained that liquids boiled 
 in vacua at a much lower temperature than when under the pressure 
 of the atmosphere, applied the discovery to distillation. The saving 
 of fuel by distilling in vacua would be immense, since it is well known 
 that the heat of the hand in an exhausted receiver is sufficient to 
 make water boil. All liquids boil in a vacuum at about 145 lower 
 than in the open air, under a pressure of thirty inches of mercury ; 
 water, therefore, would boil in a vacuum of 67. After him Mr. 
 Tritton contrived an apparatus for this purpose, wliich from its simpli 
 city, is deserving of attention. The vessels are arranged in the 
 manner of Wolfe s apparatus, as represented in the subjoined 
 drawing, and of such strength as to bear, when empty, the external 
 
 T 2 
 
642 
 
 atmospheric pressure. The vacuum is produced and maintained by 
 air-pumps, or by the admission of steam to expel the air, and after 
 wards condensing the steam into water. 
 
 M 
 
 A is the body of the still, B is a water bath into which it is 
 immersed, which prevents the liquor fiom burning or acquiring an 
 empyi eumatic flavour : C is the head or capital, and D its neck curving 
 downwards and entering the condensing vessel, E F is a refrigera 
 tory or close vessel containing cold water for converting the spirituous 
 vapours, which, having been raised in the still, are contained in the vessel 
 E. Attached to the bottom of this vessel, is a pipe for conveying the 
 liquid and the uncondensed vapour into a vessel G, which being 
 surrounded with cold water contained in the vessel H, acts also as a 
 refrigeratory and reduces the whole of the remaining vapour into a 
 liquid state. I is an air pump for effecting a vacuum in the vessels A, 
 E, G ; K is a stop-cock for preventing any communication between 
 the vessels E and G, when the contents of G are drawn off by the 
 cock M, by which means a vacuum is preserved during that operation 
 in the vessel E and the still. I is an air cock for admitting air into 
 the vessel G to allow the contents to run out at M: N is a discharge 
 cock, to the still A. Without a vacuum being produced the matter 
 in the still can never be heated beyond 212", that being the greatest 
 heat thiit the surrounding water is capable of receiving or transmitting. 
 
 As this apparatus affords a convenient and easy mode of removing 
 the pressure of the atmosphere by the air-pump, the distillation is 
 effected at the low temperature of 132, and the regular application 
 of so low a degree of heat cannot fail to produce a spirit of the clearest 
 and strongest quality. On this principle of boiling in vacuo several 
 machines have been contrived for obtaining vegetable extracts for 
 
C43 
 
 medicinal purposes, and it appears that they have been attended with 
 great practical advantages. The management, it would seem, depends 
 upon the fact, that vegetable bodies, when heated at lower tempera 
 tures than the boiling point of water, suffer less change in their essen 
 tial properties than when exposed to greater heat. Dr. Arnott 
 observes, that the essential oils of lavender, peppermint, &c. never 
 had the natural flavour and virtues of the plants until within the last 
 few years, since this plan was adopted.* Why should not, therefore, the 
 produce of the vinous fermentation distilled in this way, retain more 
 of its valuable properties than when submitted to higher temperatures 
 under atmospheric influences. 
 
 Sir Anthony Perrler, of Cork, invented a mode of distilling by which 
 the liquor is allowed to flow gradually in a thin stratum through a 
 number of circular channels over a heated surface, wliile drag chains 
 hanging in loops in those channels are made to revolve by the opera 
 tion of a wheel and pinion. These agitate the liquor and prevent any 
 settlement, or burning, at the bottom of the vessel. This method is 
 not now practised, and although evincing considerable judgment and 
 ability in the inventor, has not been productive of any eventual 
 service worthy of further notice. 
 
 Mr. Grimble, a London distiller, obtained a patent for a still, the 
 peculiarity of which consists in a kind of refrigeratory composed of a 
 great number of small copper tubes placed vertically over the head 
 of the body in the boiler. Through, these, the vapours must pass in 
 their way to the condensing worm, while, by the air circulating freely 
 amongst them, the heat of the ascending vapour is sufficiently 
 abstracted to cause the aqueous portion to condense and fall back into 
 the still, so that nothing but strong spirits passes into the worm. 
 This contrivance has the reputation of being very successful in its 
 operations. 
 
 Mr. Evans has contrived a still of a novel character, and for 
 which he has procured a patent. It consists of a copper cylinder, 
 which is made to revolve vertically over the furnace by turning on a 
 horizontal axis. A strong fire is applied to it, and the gross matter 
 in the still is prevented from burning by the constant rotatory motion 
 of the wash. The vapour, as it is generated, passes through the hollow 
 axis of the still into a large worm, which also revolves horizontally 
 upon hollow axes, through one of which the vapour enters ; the 
 
 * Elements of Physics, voli. pp. 386-7. 
 
 To effect a vacuum, Dr. Arnott has contrived a simple method, which, if the 
 reader wishes to know, he will find in the volume and pages here quoted. 
 
G44 
 
 chamber which contains this revolving worm, is kept at a temperature 
 suited to condense the aqueous vapour and to allow the spirituous to 
 pass on through the other hollow axis to a refrigeratory of the ordi 
 nary kind. The large worm, as it revolves, conducts the water 
 obtained by the condensation of the aqueous vapour back into the 
 still, something after the manner of the water-screw of Archimedes. 
 
 The manner of charging the still, as well as the other arrangements 
 connected with this plan, reflect great credit upon the inventor. From 
 a consideration that alcohol is not altogether the result of the vinous 
 fermentation but the product of a subsequent elementary change, that 
 a greater quantity of spirit might be obtained by subjecting the 
 fermented liquor under distillation to a high instead of a low tempe 
 rature, and to effect this object without carbonizing the substances 
 submitted to the action of the fire, the rotatory still and worm were 
 contrived by Mr. Evans.* 
 
 The patent distilling apparatus of Mr. Williams is distinguished 
 by an enlarged capacity of the still-head for the separation of the 
 aqueous vapour by condensation, previous to its passing into the refri 
 geratory, as also in a peculiar arrangement of vertical tubes, and a 
 flattened worm in octangular coils. To these is affixed an additional 
 apparatus, containing a refrigerating saline mixture for the more effec 
 tual cooling of the spirit. This contrivance is well adapted for warm 
 climates, and for overcoming obstacles created by the high tempera 
 ture of the atmosphere. An ingenious distilling apparatus was con 
 trived by Mr. Hebert, (editor of the Register of Arts and Journal of 
 Patent Inventions,) by which the wash or wine is made to spread, in 
 an extremely thin and expansive sheet, over a large hollow cone of 
 copper and descending by its own gravity to the bottom. Within 
 this cone is the fire or water bath which causes a rapid evaporization 
 passing between the surface of the still and an external casing also of 
 a conical figure ; thence passing along the neck ; it enters a convoluted 
 tube in a wash reservoir. The wash in this vessel being of a lower 
 temperature, causes a portion of the vapour to condense and fall into 
 a recipient beneath, in which also the uncondensed part is received 
 previous to passing into a refrigeratory. From this it .ascends through 
 numerous small metallic tubes surrounded with cold water, and by this 
 means is instantly condensed. The vapour in passing through the 
 convoluted tube, imparts a great portion of its caloric to the wash that 
 surrounds it, and the wash in consequence comes upon the still hot, 
 requiring but a slight accession of heat to force it off in vapour. 
 
 J Vide the Register of Arts and Journal of Patent Inventions, vol. iv. p. 151. 
 
615 
 
 This vapour, likewise, giv*es back the caloric it received, so that the 
 quantity of fuel required to work this apparatus is exceedingly small. 
 The work is so uniform, that there is no necessity of stopping the 
 process to discharge and recharge ; and the work continues uninter 
 ruptedly so long as there is a constant supply of wash. 
 
 The plan of Mr. James Frazer, of Hounsditch, London, for which 
 a patent was obtained in 1826, differs from others in several particu 
 lars. The wash-still, instead of being exposed to the fire, is immersed 
 in boiling water, the vapour from which enters the low-wines still, 
 where it is condensed. The wine that abstracts the heat from the 
 wash becomes itself vapourized and is conducted into a refrigeratory. 
 The first and second distillations are, in this manner, conducted 
 together by a continuous process. 
 
 Mr. Shannon, author of the Treatise on Brewing and other works, 
 invented a still of a cylindrical form with double ends, by which he 
 thought the heat and flame should be so diffused around, that the 
 whole mass of liquid would receive almost an equal portion of the fire, 
 and which, in his estimation, would be much more safe from accidents 
 than the common still. This still was made to admit another at the 
 top sufficiently large for a spirit still to rectify the spirit drawn from 
 the wash in the under-still, so that it could be adapted to either a 
 gross or rectifying manufactory. It was intended to possess the 
 advantages and effect the work of two stills at the same time, the 
 raw spirit running from the lowest still or cylinder while the rectifi 
 cation of the spirit or the compounding of it into brandy or gin, was 
 going on in the upper-still with the same fuel and attendance ; and this 
 appears to be the first attempt at continuous distillation in Great Britain. 
 Adapted to this invention is a refrigerator consisting of a number of 
 oblong squares, arranged in a zig-zag manner, and continues in a des 
 cending chain like the common worm, and may be compared to a 
 very large worm flattened to two or three inches in width. To pre 
 serve the vapour within the folds of this machine from coming in con 
 tact with the atmosphere, Mr. Shannon contrived a condensing valve, 
 to prevent the waste of the ethereal and more volatile parts of the 
 vapour from being carried off by the elastic air generated, or extri 
 cated in the process. 
 
 The object of Mr. Shannon was principally to prevent the 
 trouble, delay, and expense of applying a much greater heat than is 
 necessary to raise the vapour out of the still in the old system, and 
 then compress it again to descend through a column of air within, 
 
616 
 
 heavier than itself, and overcome the counter -pressure of the 
 atmosphere without, which protracts the process of distilling , 
 overheats the wash, elevates the grosser particles, and impairs the 
 quality of the spirits of the first character, in a degree that has seldom 
 been remedied by any succeeding process of cleansing, flavouring, or 
 rectifying. 
 
 Mr. W. Gutteridge, of 30, Budge-row, London, has invented a 
 still of a very peculiar nature, which he denominates the Torricellian 
 Still, after Torricelli, the Italian Philosopher. It is a self-supplying 
 apparatus, the advantages of which are stated by him to be numerous 
 and unprecedented, and founded on the theory of atmospheric pres 
 sure. The arrangement of the operations are : 
 
 1st, Raising cold water by means of a syphon from any level below 
 the surface of the ground, on which the distillery is erected. 
 
 2nd, Conveying any quantity of warm water into the head of tlie 
 still from the top of the tank, after condensing the alcoholic vapour in 
 the final condenser, and so diffusing it on its entering, as to increase 
 its temperature to 176 before coming into contact with the vapour 
 conductor. By this contrivance, one syphon is made to raise cold 
 water to the tank, and hot water to the still-head at the same time. 
 
 3rd, The vapour conductor in the still is made to condense 
 a maximum of aqueous vapour with a minimum of water, thereby 
 obtaining a strong and pure spirit in the shortest time possible. 
 
 4th, The power of ascertaining when the feints are rising on the 
 body without interrupting the delivery of the superior spirit, and 
 preventing them from passing through the still-head and final con 
 denser, by which means neither this condenser nor the pure spirit can 
 ever be contaminated with the feints ; also in determining during 
 the coming of the spirit from the head when the whole of the spirit is 
 separated from the charge in the body. 
 
 5th, Retaining in that part of the still-head, called the recipient, the 
 feints obtained from each charge, their re-distillation and rectification 
 iu each succeeding charge during a period of any duration, by which 
 means no feints will appear except from the last charge. 
 
 6th, Keeping wash, or the material to be distilled, from the fire, 
 and distilling wholly by steam at the atmospheric pressure, if judged 
 expedient. 
 
 7th, The final condensers acting more effectually than the 
 common worms. 
 
 8th, The reduction of the height of this apparatus compared with 
 other stills, places it under the hand of the distiller for more accu 
 rate and ready examination. 
 
647 
 
 For further particulars respecting Mr. Gutteridge s still, the reader 
 is referred to his own explanatory book, with the various engravings 
 therein illustrative of the subject. 
 
 A still for continued distillation was, some time since, erected in 
 Ireland by Mr. William Morrissy, for which he took out a patent. 
 It was considered that he had taken this idea from one which he 
 had seen either in Spain or Portugal. But the apparatus was found 
 not to answer the distillation of corn-wash, that being a material too 
 heavy for its operation, and the machinery did not succeed accord 
 ing to expectation. It was used, with success, in the distillery of Mr. 
 Martin, at Sligo, for the distillation of low-wines, being found to 
 answer the purpose, as it produced spirits of excellent quality. 
 
 This still consists of a boiler with a man -hole and a proper dis 
 charge-cock, and a glass-tube to regulate the material in the still. 
 An upright cylinder having a vast number of plates is constructed so 
 as to allow the vapour and liquid to pass alternately. This cylinder 
 is surrounded by a dome terminating in a curved arm, which leads 
 into an intermediate charger, in which are a set of plates calculated 
 for condensing the vapour ; these pipes are surrounded by the wash, 
 or low- wines contained in the intermediate charger. At the bottom 
 of these pipes is a small tube connected with each, so as to allow the 
 condensed vapour to pass into the still at the pleasure of the distiller. 
 Above the dome of the cylinder, is a charger connected with 
 the intermediate one for a supply of the material to be distilled ; 
 and from the intermediate charger, the vapour, passing through a 
 condenser, descends through a pipe into the worm in the tub, 
 where it is finally condensed. There are two charging-pipes, one 
 acting immediately at the top of the cylinder, the other at 
 some distance lower ; the lower one is so arranged by a 
 regulator on the cock as to enable the distiller to ascertain exactly 
 the number of gallons that pass to the cylinder in any specified 
 time, while the upper one, by a similar regulator, enables the 
 distiller to obtain, at pleasure, spirits of any strength from proof to 
 alcohol in one operation from the weakest material. A tolerably 
 correct notion of this still may be formed from an inspection of that 
 of Derosne, which it resembles in appearance. One of Mor- 
 rissy s stills was worked for some time near Cashel, but failed, as 
 was supposed, in consequence of the imperfect manner in which the 
 pipes and joints were constructed by the copper-smith. One very 
 unpleasant occurrence respecting this still was, that when a strong 
 fire was applied to it, there was such a frightful noise, as to cause a 
 
648 
 
 stranger to run away through fear of an explosion. This might have 
 been obviated by opening the small cock, which led from the first 
 section into the still, and by lessening the intensity of the heat. 
 
 Mr. Joseph Shee, of Cork, obtained a patent for a still, or rather 
 a continuation of four stills, having four chargers and four worms in 
 one tub, and four receivers ; the various vessels forming its com 
 ponent parts with their uses are of the same kind as those for the 
 common still. While the first still is at work with, say, 900 gallons of 
 wash, the first charger is re-charged with an equal quantity ; the 
 vapour generated in the first still rises in the head and passes 
 through the close pipes from still to still until it returns to the first 
 charger, through which it passes into the first worm, where it is con 
 densed, and runs into a receiver, from whence it is pumped up into 
 a second charger ; so that when the distillation of the 900 gallons in 
 the first still is completed, the low-wines produced from it, about 
 350 gallons, are pumped into the second charger, and run into the 
 second still, from whence the vapour is made to pass directly into its 
 own or second worm, and from thence conveyed into the second 
 receiver, and the operation is continued from still to still until the 
 entire process is completed. The whole operation in the stills may 
 be thus briefly stated : 
 
 The first still under which only fire is applied, (the others being 
 
 heated from it are, properly speaking, steam-stills,) being charged 
 
 with 900 gallons of wash, the first charger is re-filled with 900 more. 
 
 In No. 1 still, 900 gallons are distilling, and will produce 350 
 
 gallons of low- wines. 
 
 In No. 2 still, 350 gallons of low-wines are distilling, and will 
 produce 140 gallons of feints. 
 
 In No. 3 still, 140 gallons of feints are distilling, and will produce 
 100 gallons of strong feints. 
 
 In No. 4 still, 100 gallons of feints are distilling, and will produce 
 80 gallons of strong spirits. 
 
 Hence, as Mr. Shee observes, it is evident that a single fire under 
 the first still operates at once upon five chargers with only the same 
 expenditure of fuel, time, and labour, that, in the ordinary mode, is 
 required for a single charger. 
 
 For further particulars respecting this ingenious contrivance, the 
 reader is referred to Mr. Slice s own description of the machinery 
 and its advantages, as possessing a large share of merit and high 
 interest. 
 
 A still of an ingenious nature was constructed by Mr. Thomas 
 Haig, of Leith, in 1829. It consisted of the body of the ordinary 
 
619 
 
 still, with a very high head and swan-like neck, continued by a 
 pipe through which the steam traversed a chamber containing 300 
 upright tubes, each 1^ inches in diameter. Through these, the steam 
 ascended (after undergoing a partial condensation,) into another 
 upright pipe, having a semicircular top bending downwards into a 
 horizontal pipe, through which the vapour again ascended into 
 another chamber containing 1500 upright tubes, each -J inch in 
 diameter, through which the steam evolved, and finally passed into 
 the worm and the last stage of refrigeration. From the two cham 
 bers were tubes, which conveyed back to the still such portions of 
 the liquor as would not ascend. The spirits produced by this mode 
 of distillation were of excellent quality, and the feints were much 
 purer, having less of the essential oil in them than those produced in 
 the ordinary way. What has been the final success of this invention 
 I have not been informed. 
 
 The patent apparatus of Mr. Stein is deserving of notice as effect 
 ing distillation by means of four elliptical stills, the object being to 
 economise in the expense of fuel, rather than to obtain spirits of any 
 required strength at one operation. " The heat absorbed in the con 
 version of a given weight of water into steam, exceeds greatly that 
 which is required to raise its temperature to the boiling point , one 
 pound of water converted into steam raising 61bs. of water to the 
 point of ebullition. The heat thus evolved varies in different liquids, 
 and is in all considerable ; and as distillation is ordinarily conducted, 
 this heat is not merely lost, but occasions a considerable additional 
 expense, from the great quantity of water required to reduce the 
 vapour to the liquid state." To obviate these two sources of loss, 
 Mr. Stein contrived his apparatus so that one portion of liquid formed 
 into vapour shall be reduced to the liquid form by another portion of 
 the liquid which is evaporated by the heat given out in the conden 
 sation. But to convert a fluid into steam, not only a certain quantity 
 of heat is required, but the heat must be of a certain intensity ; thus 
 although a pound of steam at 212 would raise 61bs. of water to the 
 boiling point, it would convert no portion of it into steam, as the 
 moment the water had acquired the heat of the steam it would receive 
 no further portion of heat from it ; but if the steam is formed under 
 a pressure exceeding that of the atmosphere, its heat as indicated by 
 the thermometer is increased, and it will consequently continue to 
 impart heat to a liquid which has attained the boiling point under a 
 less press urejhan the steam employed to heat it. Upon the com 
 bination of these two principles, Mr. Stein s apparatus has been con- 
 
650 
 
 structed." For further particulars his own description may be 
 consulted. 
 
 Mr. ^Eneas CofFey, of Dublin, invented a still, for which, in 
 1832, he obtained a patent. The principle on which his apparatus has 
 been constructed, is, on the points of temperature at which water and 
 alcohol boil, 212 for the former, and 173^ for the latter; mixtures 
 of these boil at intermediate heats in proportion to their quantities. 
 When the steam of water is made to pass through a liquid composed 
 of water and alcohol, it will be condensed until it has raised the mix 
 ture to its own boiling point, after which the alcohol evaporates by 
 the further application of steam. When a mixture of steam and 
 alcoholic vapour is made to pass through a liquid composed of water 
 and alcohol, similar effects are produced, for after the mixture has 
 arrived at its boiling point, the vapour passing through loses some of 
 its watery parts, and an equivalent quantity of alcohol is volatilized ; 
 and the mixed vapour, after pasing through the liquid, carries off a 
 larger portion of alcohol than it brought with it. When a mixture 
 of steam and alcoholic vapour passes into a condenser, or worm, the 
 vapour first condensed will contain more than a mean proportion of 
 steam or watery vapour ; and, if the size of the condenser, or worm, 
 be not sufficient, or the temperature of the bath in which it is im 
 mersed be too high to condense all the vapour, that portion of 
 it which escapes uncondensed will contain more alcohol than the 
 portion condensed. 
 
 Keeping these observations in view, it will be easy to understand 
 the nature and advantages of Mr. Coffey s apparatus. 
 
 The body of the apparatus consists of an oblong vessel, BB , and 
 and two columns erected thereon, C, D, E, F, and G, H, I, K. 
 
 The first of these columns is called the analyzer , the second the 
 rectifier. 
 
 The whole is made of wood, lined with copper, and the wood being 
 five or six inches thick, little or no heat is lost by radiation. 
 
 The oblong vessel has a copper plate or diaphragm, c d, across the 
 middle of it, which divides it into two chambers, B B . This diaphragm 
 is perforated by a great number of small holes, for the passage of 
 the vapour upwards during the process, and it is also furnished with 
 several valves which open upwards as shewn at e y e, e, e, whenever 
 the vapour is in such quantity as not to find a free passage through 
 the perforations. 
 
652 
 
 A pipe V, V, descends from this diaphragm nearly to the bottom 
 of the lower chamber B, into a pan forming a steam trap, and there 
 is a valve on the top of this pipe which can be opened or shut at 
 pleasure, by means of a rod t, passing through a stuffing box on the 
 top of the vessel. Glass tubes at x, x 9 shew at all times the level of 
 the liquor in the chambers BB\ 
 
 The column C, D, E, F, which is called the analyzer, consists 
 of twelve chambers, f f f f f-> formed by the interposition of 
 eleven copper diaphragms gh gh, &c., similar to the large dia 
 phragm c, d, that is to say, these eleven diaphragms are per 
 forated with very numerous holes, and furnished with valves opening 
 upwards. To each of them is also attached a dropping pipe, p p p, 
 &c., by which the liquor is allowed to flow from plate to plate ; the 
 upper end of each of those pipes projects an inch or two above the 
 plate in which it is inserted, so as to retain at all times, during the 
 distillation, a stratum of wash of that depth on each diaphragm ; the 
 lower end of each pipe dips a little way into a shallow pan lying on 
 the diaphragm underneath, forming thus a steam trap by which the 
 escape of vapour through the pipe is prevented. The pipes are 
 inserted at alternate ends of the diaphragm as shewn in the figure. 
 
 The column G, H, I, K, is divided, in a similar manner to that 
 just described, into chambers by interposed copper plates or dia 
 phragms. There are 15 chambers in this column, the lowermost ten 
 k k k &c., constitute the rectifier, and its diaphragms are perforated 
 and furnished with valves and dropping pipes, precisely similar to 
 those of the analyzer. 
 
 The uppermost five of these frames formed ihejimsked spirit con 
 denser, and are separated from the other ten by a copper sheet, or 
 diaphragm, without small perforations, but having a large opening at 
 W for the passage of the spirituous vapour, and a dropping pipe at 
 S. There is a neck about the opening W, rising an inch or so above 
 the surface of the diaphragm, which prevents the return of any finished 
 spirit by that opening. 
 
 Under the dropping pipe S, is a pan much deeper than those of 
 the other dropping pipes, and from this pan a branch pipe y passes 
 out of the apparatus, and carries the condensed, but still very hot 
 spirits, to a worm, or other refrigerator, wherein they are cooled. 
 
 The chambers k f k k f k f of this finished spirit condenser, are formed 
 of plain unperforated diaphragms of copper, with alternate openings 
 at the ends, large enough both for the passage of the vapour upwards, 
 and of the condensed spirit downwards ; the use of these diaphragms 
 being merely to cause the vapour to pass along the pipes m m in a zig 
 
653 
 
 zag direction, and to be thus more perfectly exposed to their con 
 densing surface. 
 
 In every chamber, both of the finished spirit condenser and of the 
 rectifier, there is a set of zig-zag pipes, placed as shewn in the plan, 
 figure 2, each set of these pipes is connected with the others by the 
 bends 1 1 1 1, and they thus form one continued pipe m m, leading 
 from the wash pump Q to the bottom of the rectifier, whence it finally 
 passes out at N, and rising up, enters the top chamber of the analyzer 
 where it discharges itself at nf. 
 
 M is the wash charger, L a smaller wash vessel connected with it 
 and with the wash pump, this vessel is called the wash reservoir, and 
 is not, strictly speaking, a necessary part of the apparatus ; its use is 
 to retain a sufficient reserve of wash, to prevent the apparatus being 
 idle during the delay, which the Excise regulations render unavoid 
 able, between the emptying of the wash charger, and the refilling it 
 from a new back. 
 
 The pump Q is worked continuously during the distillation, so as 
 to supply the apparatus with a regular stream of wash. It is so con 
 structed, as to be capable of furnishing somewhat more than is neces 
 sary, and there is a pipe n with a cock on it, by which part of what 
 is pumped up may be allowed to run back, and the supply sent into 
 the apparatus regulated. 
 
 A is a steam boiler having nothing peculiar in its construction, the 
 steam from it is conveyed into the bottom of the spent wash receiver 
 by the pipe b, which, after entering the receiver, branches into a 
 number of smaller pipes perforated with holes, by which the steam 
 is dispersed through every part of the wash in which they are immersed. 
 These perforated pipes are not shewn in the drawing. 
 
 Mode of action When commencing an operation, the wash-pump 
 is first set in motion to charge all the zig-zag pipes m m m, until the 
 the wash passes over into the analyzers at n . The pump is then stopped, 
 and the steam let into the bottom of the apparatus by the pipe b b. 
 The steam passes up through the chambers B B , and by the pipe z 
 into the analyzers, from whence it descends through i i to the bottom 
 of the rectifier at N. It then rises through the chambers k k, enve 
 loping the zig-zag pipes, and rapidly heating the wash contained in 
 them. 
 
 When the attendant perceives, by feeling the bends / / /, that the 
 wash has been heated in several layers of these pipes, perhaps eight 
 or ten layers, (but the number is not of much moment,) he again sets 
 the pump to work, and the wash now boiling 1 hot, or nearly so, (and 
 
654 
 
 always in rapid motion) flows from the pipe m at w , and passes down 
 from chamber to chamber through the dropping- pipes, in the direction 
 shewn by the arrows in a few of the upper chambers. It may be 
 here observed, that no portion of the wash passes through the small 
 holes perforated in the diaphragms which separate the chambers. 
 These holes are regulated both in number and size, so as to be not, 
 more than sufficient to afford passage to the vapour upwards under 
 some pressure. The holes, therefore, afford no outlet for the liquor, 
 which can only find its way down in the ziz-zag course indicated by 
 the arrows. It is, therefore, obvious, that the wash as it passes down 
 is spread into strata, as many times as there are diaphragms, and is 
 thus exposed to the most searching action of the steam constantly 
 blowing up through it. As it descends from chamber to chamber, 
 its alcohol is abstracted by the steam passing through it, agreeably to 
 the 3d and 4th preliminary principles we have laid down, and by the 
 time the wash has reached the large chamber B, it is in the ordinary 
 course of the operation, completely deprived of its alcohol. 
 
 The wash, as it descends from the analyzer, accumulates in the 
 upper large chamber B , until that chamber becomes nearly filled, 
 which, when the attendant perceives to be the case, by the inspection 
 of the glass tube, he opens the valve of the pipe V, and discharges the 
 contents of B, into B ; then shutting the valve, the wash from the 
 analyzer again accumulates in B , and, when it is a second time nearly 
 full, the contents of the lower chamber B are discharged from the 
 apparatus altogether, through the cock N, and the charge in B let 
 down into B, by opening the valve as before, and thus the process 
 goes on so long as there is any wash to supply the pump. When all 
 the wash is gone, a quantity of water is let into the reservoir L, and 
 pumped through the pipes m m, to finish the process and obtain the 
 last portions of alcohol. This winding up of the operation by sending 
 water through the pipes, takes place on the distillation of every back 
 of wash, in consequence of an Excise regulation, which requires the 
 distiller to keep the produce of each back separate from that of any 
 other. Were it not for this regulation the distillation would go on 
 uninterruptedly, so long as there was any wash in stock; the addition 
 of water for winding up would be necessary but once during the dis 
 tilling period, and the manufacturer would save much time and fuel 
 at present wasted by these interruptions. 
 
 It has been already said, that in the ordinary course of the opera 
 tion, the wash is stripped of all its alcohol by the time it has reached 
 the bottom of the analyzer, but, as a precautionary measure, the cham 
 bers B B have been superadded, in each of which the spent wash is 
 
655 
 
 exposed for about half an hour to the action of the steam blowing 
 through it. 
 
 There is a small apparatus (not shewn in the engraving) by which 
 a portion of the steam in the chamber B is condensed, cooled, and 
 made to flow constantly through a sample jar, in which is an hydro 
 meter, or, what is better, two glass bubbles, one of the specific gravity 
 1000, the other 998. The attendant knows all is right when these 
 bubbles, or even the lightest of them, floats in the sample. And thus, 
 the chamber B may be emptied without any risk of loss. 
 
 The course of the wash being understood, that of the steam will 
 require very little description. 
 
 The steam, as it rises, is first blown through the charges of spent 
 wash in the chambers B 7 B, thence it passes up through the layers of 
 wash on the eleven diaphragms of the analyzer. In its passage it 
 abstracts from these layers of wash their alcohol, depositing in its 
 place an equivalent quantity of water. After traversing the whole 
 of the analyzer, the vapour, now containing much alcohol, passes by 
 the pipe i ? , into the bottom of the rectifier, and, as it ascends, it enve 
 lopes the pipes m m, heating the wash, and, at the same time, parting 
 with its more watery portion, which is condensed, and falls, in a boiling 
 state, on the several diaphragms of the rectifier. By the time the vapour 
 reaches the passage W, in the bottom of the finished spirit-condenser, 
 it is nearly pure alcohol, and, as it is condensed by the wash in the 
 pipes, and falls on the diaphragm, it is conveyed away by the pipe y to 
 a refrigerator. At the top of the spirit condenser is a large pipe, R, 
 which serves as a vent for the incondensable gas which is disengaged 
 in the process, and this pipe also communicates with the refrigerator, 
 so that, should vapour at any time be sufficient to pass out of the 
 apparatus, no loss is sustained beyond the waste of fuel caused by 
 condensing that vapour by the water of the refrigerator instead of the 
 waste of the condenser. 
 
 The liquor condensed on the several diaphragms of the rectifier, 
 after being blown through by the vapour passing up from plate to 
 plate, descends to the bottom in the same manne r as the wash de 
 scends from chamber to chamber in the analyzer; but this condensed 
 liquor still contains a portion of alcohol, and it is conveyed by the 
 pipe S to the pump Q, by which it is pumped up with the wash to be 
 again distilled. 
 
 A thermometer at m r shews the attendant the temperature of the 
 wash as it issues from the pipe m m, into the analyzer, which is the 
 only guide he requires for managing the operation ; for, when the 
 temperature is what it should be, nothing can go wrong in the work. 
 
656 
 
 Whenever the thermometer indicates too high a temperature, more 
 wash should be let into the apparatus, said, vice versa ; the quantity 
 being regulated by the cock on the pipe n. It would seem, how 
 ever, that very little nicety is requisite on this point. The attendant 
 finds by experience that the fluctuation of a few degrees above or 
 below the proper heat is of little consequence ; and, we observed, 
 that he very seldom found it necessary to alter the supply of wash. 
 
 The water for supplying the boiler passes through a long coil of 
 pipe immersed in the boiling, hot, spent wash, by which means it is 
 raised to a high temperature before it reaches the boiler. It will be 
 seen that the vapour passing through this apparatus is all condensed 
 by the wash, not water; and, therefore, no heat is wasted, as in the 
 common process. The consequence of this is, that about three-fourths 
 of the fuel used with the common stills is saved, a matter of very 
 important consideration, in a national point of view. 
 
 According to the common process, it requires 121bs. of coals to dis 
 til a gallon of proof spirits,* of which, as we have said, 9lbs. are saved 
 by the new system ; and, assuming the whole quantity of spirits 
 distilled in the empire to be 36,000,000 gallons, which (colonies in 
 cluded) we believe is not over the mark, the saving of fuel arising 
 from the new methods of distilling, which, no doubt, will be soon 
 universally adopted, will amount to 140,000 tons of coal per animm.f 
 
 The apparatus of Mr. Coffey, erected at Inverkeithing, in Scot 
 land, distils 2,000 gallons of wash per hour, and that at Bonnington, 
 near Leith, upwards of 3000 gallons per hour. The still erected for 
 Messrs. Thomas and George Smith, at White-chapel, has been now 
 upwards of a year at work, making, I understand, 60,000 gallons 
 of proof spirits in the period of five days, or obout 12,000 gallons 
 daily ; and from the purity of the spirits, and the immense saving of 
 fuel, labour, &c., is giving the highest satisfaction. 
 
 The Messrs. Currie at Bromley, are working on the same extensive 
 scale ; but they are using two of Mr. Coffey s stills. The one which 
 he has lately erected for Sir Felix Booth, Bart., at Brentford, bids 
 fair to rival all the others. There are no brewing coppers in this 
 distillery, that process being entirely carried on with a peculiar appa 
 ratus, which Mr. Coffey has constructed for Sir. F. Booth for that 
 purpose ; and, instead of the numerous and wasteful fires necessary 
 
 When the coals are of the best quality, the furnaces scientifically constructed, 
 and when strong wash is vised, a gallon of spirits can be distilled with much less 
 than 12 Ibs. of coals ; but we have good reason to believe the average consumption 
 is riot less than that. 
 
 f The author is indebted to Thomson s Records of General Science for the 
 foregoing description of this apparatus. 
 
657 
 
 in the common distilleries, the whole of the process of brewing and 
 distilling in this very extensive work is performed by the economical 
 fires of two steam-engine boilers. 
 
 The still worked by Mr. Busby, in Dublin, is a beautiful specimen 
 of this apparatus, and is giving great satisfaction by the production 
 of a very superior spirit. 
 
 The Stills generally in use in Ireland, under the present law, are 
 of the common kind, consisting of a very large dome-shaped copper, 
 similar to the coppers used in breweries, with a worm and worm- 
 tub of great magnitude. The Stills, however, are so familiar that 
 a more minute description would be unnecessary. 
 
 To enable the reader to form a correct idea of the figure of the 
 Still formerly in use, a representation is subjoined, with a delineation 
 of a person working the machinery, and another standing by the head 
 to prevent its getting foul. 
 
 While exertions were making to lessen the labour and bring 
 to perfection the process of distillation, plans were, at the same 
 time, devised to secure the revenue on the quantity of spirits 
 actually produced. One of the first attempts to effect this object, 
 was made at Carrickfergus, in 1821, by Captain Thomas Pottinger, 
 by means of machinery placed in enclosed vessels. The prin 
 ciples on which his experiments were conducted had a two-fold object* 
 First, to keep the produce out of the reach of the distiller during 
 the process ; and, at the same time, allow him to ascertain the 
 strength, heat, and colour of the spirits while running. Secondly, 
 
 2 u 
 
658 
 
 to secure the casks so as to prevent any defalcation in the contents, 
 or diminution of the charge. To secure these objects, a glass jar 
 was stationed at the end of the worm, in which was placed an 
 hydrometer, and to the outside was affixed a scale to indicate the 
 strength, the heat being at the same time determined by an adjoining 
 thermometer. To prevent all access to the fluid, or run from the 
 worm, a glass cylinder was placed overhead, which, it was impossible 
 to remove, without breaking. To effect the second object, the 
 different receivers were covered by iron plates, bolted and screwed 
 within. Each was furnished with a ball-cock to prevent its being 
 filled above a certain height, in which was placed a very large copper 
 ball attached to a pump to regulate the strength of the liquor at the 
 time of pumping. These balls were in reality hydrometers, which, 
 when the liquor became stronger than the usual standard, sank to 
 the bottom, and, by that means, opened an air-valve which commu 
 nicated with the pump, and prevented it from working. To these 
 contrivances, a machine was super-added within the spirit receiver, 
 by which the spirits were measured, as they came from the worm, 
 and the quantity registered by an index. The whole was so secured 
 as to be inaccessible to the distiller, or the visiting officers. 
 
 At the suggestion of Mr. Coffey, (inventor of the still,) who was 
 appointed by the Commissioners to superintend Captain Pottinger s 
 operations, fresh experiments were made, with a new and improved 
 apparatus, on a still containing 500 gallons. The improvements of 
 Mr. Coffey were, that no wash could be put into the still without 
 being measured and recorded. For this purpose, a close vessel was 
 employed, denominated " the wash measuring gauger," having two 
 stop-cocks, or rather a double-cock, so constructed that the act of 
 opening the one for filling the charger, shut the other for employing 
 it; while, at the same time, the distiller was enabled to fill his 
 charger and convey the contents into the still. This double cock 
 was enclosed in an iron box containing a few wheels, by the revolu 
 tion of which, the quantity of wash put into the still was marked on 
 an index visible through small glass apertures. In this measuring 
 charger, an overfall pipe was fixed to shew when it was full, which 
 contained a valve to prevent any liquid being forced up through it. 
 A similar charger was constructed for conveying the low-wines into 
 the still, on the breast of which was a close copper case, in which all 
 the communicating pipes terminated. This case contained a valve 
 opening and shutting at pleasure. The discharge-cock was so con 
 structed as to let every thing pass freely out, but nothing into the 
 still. The air, or safety-valve, was fixed on the lying" arm, in such a 
 
659 
 
 way that no fluid could be conveyed through it into the still. All 
 the receivers were close vessels communicating with the still by means 
 of a force-pump through the measuring charger already described. 
 In the same manner the spirits receiver was connected with a vessel 
 termed " the spirits measurer," through which all spirits were filled 
 and emptied by means of a double-cock, similar to that attached to 
 the wash charger, and by this means the number of gallons taken out 
 of the receiver was accurately recorded. In the spirit measurer was 
 placed a small, close vessel of thin copper, so connected with the 
 filling and emptying-cocks, that at each time of drawing off, about 
 one-eightieth of a gallon was retained. From this sample vessel, as it 
 may be termed, a pipe, terminated by a cock, proceeded through the 
 bottom of the measurer into a metal box secured by a lock. This 
 contrivance enabled the officers at any stated period, to ascertain the 
 average strength at which the distiller had drawn off his spirits, and 
 to make a surcharge, if such were deemed necessary. 
 
 Experiments were lately made at the Excise Distillery, St. 
 Catherine s Dock, London, by Captain Rudkin, to try a safe and 
 meter at the worm- end, in order to do away with the usual survey on 
 the process, and that of the subordinate officers altogether. These 
 proving unsuccessful, he obtained money from the Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, through Dr. Birkbeck, for further experiments ; and the 
 Hope Brewery, a small concern in Brown-street, Spitalfields, was 
 fitted up with a still of 600 gallons for the purpose, and a safe and 
 meter of another description were attached to it. A measurer hold 
 ing about 20 gallons was fixed in a safe three feet in height by two 
 feet in breadth ; the strength of the run from the still was determined 
 by a hydrostatic balance which acted in conjunction with the mea 
 surer. It was worked for four or five periods, and made 800 gallons 
 of spirits; but the result not having yet been made public, no con 
 clusion can be drawn respecting the use or value of the machinery. 
 No apparatus, however, can determine with any degree of accuracy, 
 what the mental powers and vigilance of men are enabled to ascer 
 tain by the present system of survey, the utility of which has been 
 fully confirmed by the test of time and the ordeal of public opinion. 
 
 The process of distillation is generally conducted in the following 
 manner : 
 
 The keive or vessel in which the grain is mashed, is thoroughly 
 cleansed by washing and liming, while the underback is prepared in 
 the same way. Lime, when moderately used, has been found by 
 experience to be the best sweetener. The lime is allowed to remain 
 
660 
 
 on the vessels in a wet state, for about two hours before the scalding 
 water is poured in, and afterwards suffered to stand until it is of that 
 heat that a man can go in and wash out the vessels. This process 
 must be done so as to leave no remains of any acid matters whatever, 
 as the least portion thereof would prove highly injurious ; and here 
 it may be generally observed, that, without a constant attention to 
 cleanliness, nothing can be effected in any stage of the work. Some 
 distillers with every twenty pounds of lime, mix five pounds of pot 
 ash, and keep it in a stirring state until an effervescence takes place. 
 This solution is made thin like wash, and applied round the whole 
 vessel, after which it is washed off in the same order in which it was 
 put on. The scalding of the vessels is more particularly to be attended 
 to in April, May, June, and July ; but when a sufficient quantity of 
 good water cannot be readily procured, the solution of lime and potash 
 is indispensable. Some use soda with the lime in place of potash, say 
 in a proportion of two ounces of soda to every four pounds of lime ; 
 but on account of the superior strength of the potash, it is preferred. 
 The malt, barley, and oats, or whatever sort of grain the distiller 
 means to use, is ground to a proper consistence and placed in bags 
 near the keive, where it is kept until a sufficiency of water is let into 
 the keive from the coppers, and then the bags are emptied in gradu 
 ally. The quantity of the grain depends on what kind is to be used; 
 if a mixture be employed, it must be in the proportion of one-seventh 
 of malt to equal parts of oats and barley ; this being the general 
 ratio in a distillery working from what is called raw or mixed grain; 
 some consider one-fifth malt, two-fifths here or barley, and two-fifths 
 of oats or wheat, as the best proportion ; others one-seventh malt, one- 
 fifth oats, one-half wheat, and the remainder bere or barley. Wheat 
 is considered a dangerous material to use in a large proportion, in 
 consequence of the adhesive quality of the wort. Although these are 
 the general proportions of grain used, yet the distiller is commonly 
 guided by the state of the markets. In all cases the quantity of liquor 
 employed for the first or break-up mash for each barrel of twelve 
 stones of ground grain, varies from forty to fifty-four Irish gallons at 
 the discretion of the distiller : twenty gallons is the quantity generally 
 used in the second mashing, and fifty in the third. It may sometimes 
 happen that he is deficient in some of the particular kinds of grain, 
 in which case he must supply the difference with whatever sort he 
 has most of on hands, All the grain is not put in at the same time, 
 the malt being commonly put in first, the oats next, and the bere, or 
 barley, last. While the grain is being removed into the keive, the 
 
661 
 
 mixing either by machinery or hand rakes is going on. The tempe 
 rature of the water is generally from about 144 to 146, or from 
 140 to 150, where water is only employed, which is the case at 
 commencing each period ; but the next day when the small worts are 
 used, the heats are from 146 to 148 and 150 at finishing. These 
 heats are regulated by the judgment and experience of the distiller, 
 who manages them according to the description of grain which he 
 uses, and the state in which it may be in, whether new from the mill 
 or a long time ground. In the latter case, and should the grain be only 
 a week or ten days ground, the heats already specified would be suf 
 ficient ; but if just come from the mill, the heat will of course be 
 lowered a degree or two, say to 140. Some distillers pay little 
 attention to the state of the grain, and they do not alter the range of 
 the temperatures, but this matter is deserving of due regard, as it 
 must have its influence on the liquor in -the keive. The machinery, 
 or rakes continue plying until all the grain is thoroughly mixed, when 
 the remainder of the liquor intended for the mash is let in from the 
 copper, by some in two parts, and by others in three, at a tempera 
 ture of from 198 to 212, so as to raise the keive from 148 as the 
 case may be, to 152 at finishing. Every brewing consists of three 
 mashings, one for strong worts, another for weaker ; the last is sent 
 to the coppers as small worts to assist in the next brewing. But the 
 number may be said not to be completed until all the extract is taken 
 from the keive, which may extend to a fourth mashing. 
 
 As to the quantity of worts drawn off the keive, the whole of the 
 first and second mashing is let into the underback. Caution is to be 
 observed in draining the keive so as to let as little of the gross muci 
 lage in with the worts as possible. The liquor of each of the twa 
 mashings is successively pumped into the coolers, if the keive is not 
 large enough to contain the whole worts intended for the back, where 
 it is allowed to remain until it is at a heat of from 66 to 70 or 74. 
 It is then permitted to run into the back where barm is applied. 
 The gravity at which the worts are intended to be collected or set, 
 is regulated either in the run from the keive, on the coolers, in a wort 
 receiver, or in the back itself, but commonly in either of the two latter 
 vessels. The proportion of yeast is from one to two gallons per 
 cent., this, however, like other matters, must a good deal depend on 
 the quality of the article, as well as on the experience and judgment 
 of the distiller. If working at 50 of gravity, from fifteen to twenty 
 gallons of barm are usually given to one thousand gallons of worts. 
 Where much barm is used, the liquor may be run into the back at a 
 
662 
 
 lower heat, and when little is added the heat is required to be higher ; 
 but this depends much on the season of the year : caution, however, 
 should he used in applying the quantity of barm, as too much would 
 injure the flavour of the spirit. 
 
 The fermentation commences generally in the course of three or 
 four hours, and if the working appears dull, slow, or stubborn, more 
 barm is introduced ; bub is sometimes added with the barm, and 
 sometimes not, until the worts have been undergoing fermentation for 
 twenty-four hours. Bub is made from ground barley and strong 
 worts, and sometimes from strong small worts from the coolers, pro 
 perly blended and boiled with some hops, in the proportion of one 
 pound to a barrel of worts. The meal of peas, beans, and oats is fre 
 quently used in making this article, owing to their fermentive proper 
 ties. This mixture is let off into a cooler where it remains till it 
 arrives at a temperature of 74 Q , after which it is allowed to ferment 
 by the addition of some barm in a tun from which it is removed, when 
 in a high state of fermentation, into a back as already stated. If a 
 quantity of bub is not thus used, a greater portion of barm must be 
 applied ; the quantity of bub depends on the extent of the worts set, 
 and is added so as to enable the distiller to take advantage of the 5 
 per cent, increase allowed by law. The finer the grain is ground, the 
 better for getting the whole of the extract ; but the finer, the greater 
 should be the precaution observed in working, because it might set as 
 distillers say, or become so thick that the saccharine matter would be 
 blocked up by an extra heat : hence distillers always take care to 
 manage the warmth of the liquor so as to prevent accidents of this 
 nature, by not allowing the heat to run too high, or too low. The 
 temperature of the water for mashing malt only, is from 150 Q at 
 commencing, to 165 or 170 at finishing ; the heat of the first mash 
 being 150, and gradually raised in the course of the mashing by the 
 addition of more liquor from the coppers until the process is concluded- 
 Malt bears a higher heat than either raw or mixed grain. For beer 
 or ale brewers use higher heats on account of the malt they use being 
 more highly kiln-dried and prepared for the purpose; for distillation it 
 is not necessary to have malt so highly dried. For pale beer, brewers 
 use nearly the same description of malt as distillers. A back may be 
 considered as fit to go to the still when it is fully attenuated or will 
 ferment no more ; at this stage it possesses a vinous taste, and if pro 
 perly fermented, shows no gravity, and is then called wash, it being 
 during the process of fermentation indiscriminately called worts and 
 iv ash. 
 
6G3 
 
 Distillers and brewers, though familiar with the change which worts 
 undergo in the process of fermentation, are still ignorant of the various 
 anomalies which occur in the process. It is well known that although 
 two backs have been charged with an equal quantity of worts from 
 the same mashing of the same heat, supplied with equal portions of 
 the same barm and treated in the same manner, yet when the fermen 
 tation ceased, one was found to be attenuated to the consistency of 
 water, while the other shewed a gravity of two degrees. This could 
 not be owing to the preparation or previous disposition of the ferment 
 ed liquor, nor could it be attributed to the yeast. Could it then arise 
 from the admission or exclusion of the external air, heat, or cold, or 
 to any other accidental circumstance ? Some might say it was to the 
 want of due proportions of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic gas, others 
 to a different cause ; but the results have proved that the true reason 
 cannot be satisfactorily given. Backs have been known to go on 
 rapidly in fermentation till near the conclusion, when on a sudden 
 they fell off and left a considerable quantity unattenuated a conse 
 quence which the most experienced could not explain. It has been 
 asserted on respectable authority and confirmed by experience, that 
 light has considerable effect on fermentation, since of two backs, one 
 exposed to the light and the other excluded from it, the former was 
 uniformly found more productive than the latter ; to such apparently 
 trifling incidents are many of those irregularities that daily occur to 
 be attributed. 
 
 To render fermentation perfect and advantageous, is a very difficult 
 undertaking which requires great experience and close attention, and 
 on the success of this process in conjunction with the skill observed 
 in mashing, the value, flavour, and produce of the spirits depend. 
 Worts of a high gravity are more difficult to ferment than worts of 
 a less density, and there are degrees of inspissation which prevent a 
 tendency to fermentation, besides a fervid heat is the bane of all vinous 
 fermentation, whereas a tepid one, or imperceptible warmth, is its great 
 promoter. A good deal also depends on the state of the weather ; 
 hence the distillers begin to work about the end of October, and leave 
 off in May, the colder months being found most congenial to brewing 
 and fermentation. 
 
 No fermentation will take place at the freezing point, nor at the 
 temperature of 90, so that at the intermediate degrees according to 
 quantity, gravity, and other circumstances, are the worts to be sent 
 to the tuns 70 is the highest rage of heat, though much higher has 
 been used in cold situations. Large masses of worts are found, when 
 
664 
 
 fermented together, more productive than small portions, and not so 
 liable to be affected by change of weather ; neither is the same por 
 tion of spirits to be always got from the same materials. Raw corn 
 worts are more likely to run into the acetous fermentation than malt 
 worts, and the liquor made from them is more susceptible of receiv 
 ing a communication of flavour in rectification than that made wholly 
 from malt. 
 
 Here it may be satisfactory to define the nature and properties of 
 fermentation, so far as regards brewing and distillation. 
 
 Chemists divide fermentation into four different heads, the saccha 
 rine, the vinous, the acetous, and the putrefactive. Starch is the 
 only substance liable to the saccharine fermentation ; for, when it is 
 kept moist for some time, it generates about half its weight of sugar. 
 The vinous fermentation requires sugar, water, and yeast, under a 
 certain temperature. 
 
 The real theory of the process is accounted for by the known fact, 
 that the sugar which disappears is almost equal to the united weights 
 of the alcohol and carbonic acid generated. The saccharine juices 
 of fruits do not require the addition of yeast, since they contain, 
 within themselves, some principles like it, that cause the fermentive 
 process : thus the juice of the grape, the apple, &c., ferments 
 spontaneously, but not without the free admission of atmospheric 
 air. 
 
 When grains, (as oats, malt, here, &c.,) are intended to be con 
 verted into fermented liquors, it is necessary to have a portion of 
 them malted in order the more readily to cause the farinaceous parts 
 to be converted into the saccharine substance. 
 
 It was formerly thought essential to subject the entire quantity 
 intended to be brewed to this process ; but experience has proved that 
 a mixture of raw with malted grain will answer that purpose, and 
 convert the whole mass into a saccharine fluid. The farinaceous part 
 of grain merely mixed with water, passes into a state of acidity, but 
 when combined with a portion of saccharine matter, it undergoes the 
 vinous fermentation. Care must be taken that the quantity of water 
 be not too great, as in that case the acetous fermentation would 
 take place, and if too little water be employed, the process will be 
 dull and doubtful. In the vinous stage, the heat is moderate, 
 seldom exceeding that of the human body ; in the acetous it is much 
 higher, and in the putrefactive it is still greater even so high that 
 putrefying substances heaped together have been sometimes known 
 to kindle into flame. 
 
665 
 
 All vegetable substances which undergo spontaneous fermentation, 
 are more liable to become acetous, than those fermented by yeast. 
 This may be accounted for by the consideration of the mucilaginous 
 and extractive matter not being properly blended by the active prin 
 ciple of barm hence, were it practicable, fermenting without the 
 aid of this important and essential material, would be attended not 
 only with great risk but with certain loss. 
 
 On a trial instituted by the Crown against a distiller for adding 
 yeast to worts before being collected in the fermenting wash-back, by 
 which he was subject to a penalty of 200, it was endeavoured to be 
 proved, that in samples which had been taken by two inspecting officers, 
 and which when distilled, produced spirits, yeast had not been em 
 ployed, and that the result was the effect of spontaneous fermentation, 
 though the samples so taken showed from the commencement, a pro 
 gress of attenuation from 50 to 4 in a period of three days. 
 Evidence on the part of the distiller alleged, that spontaneous fer 
 mentation commences in from three to five days ; one of the wit 
 nesses, a practical distiller, stated, that he set two gallons of worts at 
 a gravity of from 46 to 47, and a temperature of from 70 to 74, 
 and that they came down in about four days to 5 which was the 
 lowest of two or three experiments of this nature, the average being 
 from 6 to 8. Another witness tried how fermentation would act 
 on two gallons of pure malt wort, without barm, bub, or any fer 
 mentable matter, and he found the operation to commence in about 
 twenty-four hours after, and to continue attenuating for 10 or 12 
 days, producing a good spirit. He afterwards tried four gallons of 
 worts from mixed grain at a gravity of 78 5, at a temperature of 79, 
 and procured about half-a-pint of spirits, but the process of attenu- 
 nation stopped at 141bs. Had this quantity been regularly fermented 
 and distilled, it is considered that it should have yielded about two 
 quarts of spirits, evidently shewing the defective nature of spon 
 taneous fermentation. Another experiment was tried on two gallons 
 of worts made from a mixture of barley, malt, oatmeal, and wheat, 
 and set at a gravity of 51 and 70 temperature ; these were above 
 five days attenuating, stopped at a gravity of 8. 5, and yielded about 
 a naggin of spirits, besides a considerable portion of feints. 
 
 In opposition to these testimonies, it was urged on the part of the 
 Crown, by the evidence of two Chemists and a Revenue Inspecting 
 Officer, in support of the correctness of the samples, that no spirits 
 whatever could be produced from worts by spontaneous fermentation, 
 as without barm, or the addition of some other fermentive matter, 
 
666 
 
 worts would run into the acetous fermentation, and instead of alcohol 
 produce acetic acid. One of the most intelligent of those Chemists, 
 stated, that after seventy-four experiments, he found that in no 
 instance, worts without the addition of fermentive matter, have un 
 dergone the vinous fermentation, and that worts that have been sub 
 mitted to spontaneous fermentation, produced nothing but vinegar, 
 as without the addition of some fermentative material, such as yeast, no 
 spirits could be obtained. This is confirmed by the experiments of 
 Fourcroy and Vanquelin. Some experimentalists have asserted, that 
 fermentation may take place without barm in worts impregnated with 
 fixed air ; and that the operation is quicker or slower in proportion 
 to the quantity of air which the worts have imbibed perhaps this is 
 caused by the fluid containing an extraordinary quantity of fixed air, 
 which, by some disposition of the air itself to assume its elastic 
 state, may produce the fermentive process. The briskness, pungency, 
 and pleasing acidulous taste of all fermented liquors, depend on the 
 quantity of fixed air which they contain. Should they become flat 
 or vapid, they may be brought to their original vigour by a restoration 
 of the lost serial acid, which may be effected by various practical ope 
 rations, as shewn by the experiments of Dr. Henry, an eminent 
 Chemist, of Manchester ; but this has never been resorted to by 
 either distillers or brewers. It is absurd to speak of fermenting in 
 large concerns without barm, because time cannot be spared, and even 
 were it practicable, the waste of property would be incalculable. 
 Experience has proved that fixed air is one of the great principles 
 of fermentation, it has, therefore, become the practice to ferment 
 in close, instead of open, vessels, in order to prevent the waste of the 
 alcoholic material, with the escape of the fixed air, or carbonic acid 
 gas, by which it is impregnated. It is thought that by putting the 
 yeast first into the tun and pouring the worts upon it, a better mix 
 ture of the ingredients and a speedier and superior fermentation will 
 be the consequence, which may be readily accomplished where there 
 is a wort receiver: the same mass should be allowed to ferment 
 without any subsequent addition, for new and old worts never amal 
 gamate to be sufficiently productive, though a contrary practice has 
 been sometimes followed. 
 
 The law has determined that no fermentive matter shall be added 
 to worts until two hours after being set, or until the officer has ascer 
 tained the gravity, so that though fermentive matter be added at a 
 very high temperature, even that of 160, nothing is effected, as no 
 fermentation can take place until the temperature be reduced to at 
 
667 
 
 least 90, when the process becomes rapid and violent, arid the 
 introduction of barm would be immediately discovered. In such 
 cases, the attenuation would not be so low as if the ferment had been 
 added when the liquor was at a proper heat, say from 60 to 80 : 
 neither would the produce be so ample, while the distiller would 
 inevitably be subjected to a heavy penalty ; so that the law as it now 
 stands, cannot be defeated by any trick or subterfuge of this nature. 
 Spontaneous fermentation is so slow, uncertain, and inefficient that 
 it cannot be resorted to for any useful purpose, whether for the pro 
 tection of the fraudulent trader, or to defeat the intentions of the 
 legislature. 
 
 Some are of opinion, that the power of the leaven, whether in 
 herent, or added, is not altered but merely suspended, when the tem 
 perature is too high, and that in a few days it will resume its 
 original vigour ; but an experienced gentleman assures me that the 
 effects of the barm are destroyed. Whether fermentation be ex 
 cited at a high or a low degree of heat, leaven is absolutely necessary 
 to extricate the alcohol from the substances with which it is 
 combined. 
 
 A French Itinerant, a few years since, succeeded in obtaining money 
 by teaching to ferment without yeast, and one of his pupils, an Irish 
 distiller, became a professor of the same art, by which he was a con 
 siderable gainer. Yet this gentleman, in the course of his practice, 
 was heard to exclaim on account of the bad working of his concern.- 
 " What am I to do for good barm ? without it this establishment must 
 be ultimately ruined !" a proof that the pretensions of any person to 
 distil without yeast are vain and futile. 
 
 It was usual to mix with the wash when going into the still, a quan 
 tity of soap in proportion to the magnitude of the charge, at the rate 
 of one pound to 800 gallons ; the mode of preparing the soap was to 
 mix it in a bucket, with a quantity of wash or warm water, that it 
 might be reduced to a liquid state. Soap was employed from being 
 found by experience to be the best corrector of the too rapid work 
 ing of the material in the still, and operating as a preventive to any 
 waste in getting the extract, and also to keep the liquor from rising 
 into the condenser along with the steam : under the present act it is 
 discontinued. 
 
 The first run from the still is called low wines or singlings, and is 
 usually allowed to flow until about 70, under proof: it is sometimes 
 taken off lower or higher according to the utensils or working of the 
 house 5 this first running is termed the strong low-wines. What runs 
 
668 
 
 after is preserved in a separate vessel and called weak low wines. 
 These are redistilled, the strong low wines first and the weak after 
 wards. From both is obtained a quantity of strong spirits, and the 
 residue is termed feints, being the weak liquid after the spirits are 
 extracted. These feints are redistilled with the low wines of the next 
 back. 
 
 Spirits are made at different strengths ; some distillers strike them 
 off so low as 3 or 4 over proof, but the general practice is to strike 
 them off at a strength of from 12 to 18 over proof; much, however, 
 depends on the work and views of the distiller. It is customary to 
 calculate that from a given quantity of grain a certain quantity of 
 spirits can be drawn, the present practice enables distillers to get from 
 7 *Q to 8-rVo- imperial gallons of proof spirits from every barrel 
 mashed ; and even sometimes nine gallons, much depending on the 
 quality of the grain. 
 
 Distillers tabulate their coppers and keives, by which means they 
 are enabled to determine what quantity of liquor at a given tempera 
 ture is necessary in mashing a certain quantity of grain according to 
 the gravity of the worts required. For example, suppose it is in-, 
 tended to set 7,000 gallons at 5144 at the first mash, 4,000 gallons 
 may be drawn off at 60 : now by multiplying 4,000 by 60 the pro 
 duct is 24,000. Again, by obtaining from a second mash 3,000 gal 
 lons at 40, that in the same manner of calculation will afford 120,000, 
 which added to the 24,000 makes 360,000; this divided by 7,000 (the 
 entire number of gallons designed to be set,) gives a gravity of 
 
 Some distillers draw all the worts from the keive at the first mash 
 ing, particularly where the vessels, viz., the mash-tun, under-back, 
 and coolers, are sufficiently capacious. Where this is not the case, 
 the calculations are made in the foregoing manner. If, however, the 
 small worts in the copper shew a gravity of any consideration, due 
 allowance must be made in the quantity of grain to be mashed. 
 Suppose it to be at a gravity of 13 on an average, it is easy to cal 
 culate what quantity of grain is to be added to draw off worts of the 
 desired gravity. 
 
 If the worts should exceed this gravity, less grain is required to 
 bring the worts to the standard ; and if under, more grain must be 
 employed for that purpose. 
 
 To illustrate this subject, let it be a question to know what quan 
 tity of grain would produce 4,400 gallons of worts, at 51 of gravity, 
 
669 
 
 allowing 1,500 gallons of small Avorts to remain of the previous brew 
 ing. The calculation will stand thus : 
 
 44001 f 
 
 1500 / The average quantity of liquid used for the first j 48 gals, per 
 
 j mashing, as stated on page 660, is barrel. 
 
 5900 J I 
 
 For the second mashing 20 do. 
 
 third do. 50 do. 
 
 118 gallons 
 Then 5,900 divided by 118 quotes 50, the number of barrels required. 
 
 Suppose that on the last day of the distiller s brewing period, he 
 has worts in three coppers ; viz. 
 
 No. 1 200 bar at 22 
 
 2 200 13 
 
 3 200 4 
 
 and he wishes to use all these worts, but no water in addition ; and 
 he knows by experience that his malt and raw corn will yield 116 
 of gravity per barrel of 12 stone, or 1681bs. ; it is required to deter 
 mine how many barrels of malt and corn are necessary to ensure a 
 wort of 43 gravity. The operation is 
 200X22 = 4400 
 
 200X13 = 2600 
 200x 4 = 800 
 
 600 7800=13 
 
 As 116: Ibar. :: 7800 : 
 
 600 
 
 shewing that 67 T 7 ^ barrels of malt and corn arc sufficient to yield 13 
 the average composition of the three coppers. 
 
 Now since the required gravity is 43 
 The average gravity, 13 
 
 The difference or complement is 30 
 
 Then, As 13 : 67^ : : 30 : 155 T V T > the number of barrels required 
 at 30 gravity ; hence arises the following general rule for all calcula 
 tions of this nature : 
 
 RULE. 
 
 Find the mean gravity and the adequate number of barrels of malt 
 and corn required at the desired gravity, as in the preceding direc 
 tions : then say, As the mean gravity : is to the number of barrels 
 of malt and corn thus found : : so is the complement or difference of 
 gravities to the number of barrels of malt and corn required ; or 
 
670 
 
 thus, Divide the product of the complement of the gravities and 
 number of barrels by the mean gravity, and the result is the barrels 
 of malt required. 
 
 To know what malt and corn would be requisite to produce a wort 
 of 50, allowing 46 barrels at 13 to be on hands at commencing, and 
 the grain, on an average, to possess 120 of extract per barrel of 12 
 stones. The calculation is as follows : 
 
 46 barrels at 13 produces 46x13=598 extract, and 50 13=37 ; 
 then 46x37 = 1702, which divided by 120 quotes 14^ barrels or 2 
 stones nearly, the quantity necessary to be brewed to produce the 
 complement required. 
 
 To brew and ferment at one operation has lately been attempted, 
 by which it is thought the quantity of the spirit is augmented while 
 the quality is improved. The process is by mixing lOOOlbs. of malt 
 finely ground, with 300tbs. of wheatenmeal ; then gradually adding 
 200 gallons of water, stirring it well all the time till completely mixed, 
 and afterwards adding 500 gallons of boiling water, mixing the whole 
 quantity thoroughly. It is then suffered to stand for two hours and 
 again mixed, and when cold about 12 or 13 pounds of solid yeast are 
 added, and the whole allowed to ferment in a warm place in a vessel 
 loosely covered. This experiment may, in course of time, lead to 
 beneficial results, but the certainty of success is not founded on suffi 
 cient grounds to ensure a recommendation of its adoption. 
 
 Many distillers use super-carbonate of soda, and others alkalis, for 
 the purpose of facilitating fermentation and correcting acidity ; but 
 these should not be resorted to without great caution, as they cause 
 too violent a working of the back, loss in produce, and impart an 
 injurious flavour. Some add sulphuric acid to the wash, in order to 
 prevent an oil from the grain coming over with alcohol, which, if not 
 effected, the taste and flavour of the spirits is apt to be injured. 
 
 To make pure spirit, all required is, a good wholesome grain, 
 caution in brewing, a regular fermentation, and attention to the dis 
 tillation. It is manifestly the interest of every distiller to purchase 
 the best description of grain, whether malted or unmalted ; a clear, 
 full, hard, and well preserved grain, free from must or smell of any 
 kind, is the best. All the raw grain used in distilleries is kiln-dried 
 before it is sent to the mill, in which process great care should be 
 observed, so that it is not too dry or too crisp, it being sufficient to 
 dry it to that consistence termed mill-free, that is, when it is thought 
 to break freely in grinding. 
 
 At the close of any period, a distiller may satisfy himself as to the 
 correctness of the work by dividing the number of gallons obtained, 
 
671 
 
 by the number of barrels of grain consumed, and should this not 
 shew from 7 to 8 of imperial proof, there must, from the pre 
 vious principles, appear to be an error somewhere, either in conduct 
 ing the process, or from a defect in the materials. 
 
 Formerly it was the practice, in order to make spirits shew a 
 fictitious strength, to add a mixture of vitriol and oil to make it 
 stand what is termed one to tivo, but by this auxiliary, the flavour 
 was injured ; besides, it was common to superadd almond oil and 
 burned sugar to give it the appearance of age : but these subterfuges 
 are now rarely resorted to, nothing being employed to render the 
 spirit more palatable than its own intrinsic excellence. 
 
 The spirit distilled from pure malt is considered superior to that 
 made from a mixture of malt and raw grain. To assign a reason for 
 this would require an analysis and detail of the process of malting ; 
 but it may be sufficient to observe, that the eifects of the malting 
 process are similar to that which the grain undergoes in the course of 
 vegetation when sown in the earth. To illustrate this, it is necessary 
 to state, that by the heat and moisture of the ground, the cotyledons 
 of the seed are changed into sugar and mucilage before germination 
 is completed. Malting is only the artificial method of effecting a 
 similar operation, taking care to check the growth of the grain by 
 kiln-drying, that advantage may be taken of all the sugar that it is 
 capable of evolving. Barley contains starch and sugar ; and a con 
 siderable portion of the former is converted into the latter by the 
 malting, so that the quantity of saccharine matter is increased in 
 proportion. Illicit distillers, as if aware of the value of this change, 
 almost always use malted grain. From a want of scientific know 
 ledge and proper utensils, they conduct their business in a different 
 manner from that pursued by licensed traders. In preparing the 
 malt, the sacks of barley are generally steeped in bog-holes or other 
 places, where it remains forty-eight hours, or until completely satu 
 rated with the water. They are then drawn out, and drained for 
 ten or twelve hours, where it lies till it begins to chip or germinate, 
 and is turned occasionally, until all appear alike germinated. It is after 
 wards spread on the floor by degrees till such time as the buds shew 
 three points, and kept at a regular heat till the bud or germ has 
 grown half down the grain, at which period of time each of the 
 particles may be nearly seen through, or become transparent. At 
 this stage it is spread thicker on the floor, and brought to a heat 
 easily perceptible to the hand ; then thrown into a round heap and 
 suffered to remain in that state for twenty-four hours, or longer; and 
 
672 
 
 this is termed the rot or withering heap. It is then carried to the 
 kiln and dried by turf the kiln-head on which it is dried is covered 
 with rotten straw, over which, if convenient, is placed hair-cloth or 
 matting. The period of drying- a kiln-head or crop, as it termed, is 
 commonly for twenty -four hours, when directed by a person of experi 
 ence. While on the kiln, it is carefully turned by the hand so as 
 to expose every particle to a like degree of heat, and to prepare it for 
 grinding. This process consists merely in bruising or breaking the 
 grain, but not reducing it to flour. When thus prepared, it is taken 
 to the still-house, which is generally a hovel or excavation near a run 
 ning stream, or where there is a full supply of water. The quantity 
 of malt to be brewed is commonly from sixteen to seventeen stones. 
 After being bruised or mashed in the usual way, it is covered in the 
 keive, with a lid or sacks, and allowed to stand for three or four 
 hours. The worts are then drawn off and cooled to a temperature 
 regulated by the finger, no instrument being used for that purpose ; 
 and commonly to the same degree as that which is observed in 
 regular distilleries. The worts are then put into a pipe or puncheon, 
 with about a gallon of barm. The worts soon begin to ferment, 
 generally an hour or two after the barm is added ; they are allowed 
 to stand in a state of fermentation for twenty-four hours, and then 
 prepared. These two brewings, after undergoing the fermenting 
 process for about eighteen hours, are considered fit for the still, and 
 in the ordinary course of working, a brewing is made each morning. 
 The quantity of pure spirits drawn from these two brewings, usually 
 consists of 223 gallons of from one to two, or from two to jive ; or, 
 in other words, the spirit is of that strength that it will bear one 
 gallon to about two of spirits, or two gallons of water to jive of 
 spirits to bring it to proof. The usual strength at which illicit spirits 
 are made, is from four to six over proof on Sykes s hydrometer ; but 
 sometimes it is made at 8 per cent, over proof ; and, in many cases, it 
 has been sold at a strength of 30 over proof. 
 
 Illicit stills are generally made of tin or copper ; sometimes of a tin 
 body and copper bottom ; often a large, black, metal pot is used. The 
 worm is either made of copper or tin, according to the caprice of the 
 smuggler. These stills range from 40 to 74 gallons content, one being 
 made to serve the double purpose of a still and copper. The fuel 
 employed in the working of the stills has no effect on the flavour of the 
 whiskey, whether it be of turf, woodj .or coal. 
 
 In making the malt, and in the mode of distilling, the flavour is 
 altogether formed ; no machinery is employed in the still to keep the 
 liquid from burning ; and hence the empyreumatic taste and smell are 
 
673 
 
 communicated to the liquor, and also to the backing, as it is called, 
 of oatmeal and hot water. 
 
 In distilling the wash, the strong low- wines are separated from the 
 weak, the latter being thrown back into the still with the succeeding 
 charge of wash ; a similar practice is observed in making spirits, the 
 feints being put into the still with the next charge of low-wines. 
 Thus the spirits are preserved pure and clear, nothing whatever being 
 used in the distillation but a small quantity of soap thrown into the 
 still with the pot-ale to neutralise, or keep down the barm, (as they 
 term it,) which would, otherwise, cause the run of the low-wines to 
 become coloured like the wash, or to get foul. It is a mistaken 
 notion to suppose that soap is used only by the great distillers, since it 
 is considered an indispensable article by every person who understands 
 the mode of working a still on the old system. 
 
 The manufacture of these illicit stills has been long a favourite 
 beverage in Ireland, being from malt without adulteration, and pos- | 
 sessing a flavour which habit has rendered most agreeable. This, 
 combined with the high duties on legally-distilled spirits, and the 
 want of a ready market for the disposal of the grain of remote and 
 mountainous districts, induced the people to embark in this illicit 
 traffic to an extent, which was not only injurious to the agriculture 
 and revenue of the country, but to the morals and peaceful habits of 
 the community. To such an extent was it carried, that in 1806, out 
 of 11,400,030 gallons, (the computed consumption of spirits in Ireland 
 in that year,) 3,800,000 gallons were allowed to be the produce of 
 illicit manufacturers; and in 1811, 1812, and 1813, there were no 
 less than 19,067 illicit distilleries destroyed by the revenue and 
 military. 
 
 To put down this illicit trade, various enactments were passed by 
 the legislature, among which that of fining the townlands on which 
 any portion of a still, wash, low wines, or other materials for distilla 
 tion were found, was not the least oppressive. The annual average 
 of fines levied for seven years under the act for the suppression of 
 this evil, amounted to 50,989 for all Ireland, while in one county 
 alone the sum laid for 1806, was 2,620 ; in 1807, 2,750 ; and in 
 1814, 18,125. How could it be expected to be otherwise, when it 
 was proved before the parliamentary commissioners, that many men 
 were found to declare that they had never done a day s work in their 
 lives but at illicit distillation, and that they knew nothing else by which 
 
 they could gain subsistence. 
 
 2 x 
 
674 
 
 Many interesting and curious facts might be related of the extra 
 ordinary contrivances of the people to evade the law and prevent 
 detection, such as the artful construction of distilleries on the boun 
 daries of townlands, in the caverns of mountains, on islands in lakes, 
 on boats in rivers ; of carrying away and secreting revenue officers 
 for weeks together to prevent their giving testimony, the romantic 
 manner of their treatment while in confinement, and the various 
 other schemes and devices to defeat the intentions of the govern- 
 ; ment. 
 
 Among these may be mentioned the instance of a person who had 
 constructed a distillery so artfully, that it eluded the vigilance of the 
 most expert officers of excise, though known to have long existed in 
 the neighbourhood. A determined gentleman of this department 
 resolved to find it out at all hazards, and, on one moonlight night 
 unaccompanied by any person, he followed a horse led by a peasant, 
 having a sack across the back of the animal, which, he suspected 
 contained materials for this mysterious manufactory. When the 
 horse had arrived at a certain place, the sack was removed 
 from his back, and suddenly disappeared. The officer made his 
 observations, returned to his residence, and having procured mili 
 tary assistance, repaired to the place where the horse had been 
 unloaded. All was silent, the moon shone bright, the ground was 
 unmarked by any peculiar appearance, and he was almost inclined, 
 (as well as those who accompanied him) to think that he laboured 
 under a delusion. Perceiving, however, some brambles loosely scat 
 tered about the place, he proceeded to examine more minutely, and 
 on their removal, discovered some loose sods, under which was found 
 a trap door leading to a small cavern, at the bottom of which was a 
 complete distillery at full work, supplied by a subterraneous stream, 
 and the smoke conveyed from it through the windings of a tube that 
 was made to communicate with the funnel of the chimney of the 
 distiller s dwelling-house, situated at a considerable distance. 
 
 Another distillery has been known to be worked on the site, and 
 in conjunction with a lime-kiln, which, from the kiln being continu 
 ally in operation, kept the other for years without detection. So 
 cunningly were some of those still-houses situated, and so artfully 
 constructed, that the smoke proceeding from them was made to issue 
 as if from burning heath, or sods of peat, ignited for manure. Their 
 position was, for the most part, either on a commanding eminence, in 
 the centre of a bog, or in a well-secured fastness ; but always calcu 
 lated to prevent the identity of townland or proprietorship, while the 
 
(575 
 
 portability and easy removal of the apparatus rendered the discovery 
 and seizure of those stills difficult and hazardous. On the approach 
 of a stranger, an alarm was given either by deputing a messenger or 
 sounding a horn, while the machinery was removed, and the potale 
 always destroyed or conveyed into receptacles under ground prepared 
 for such exigencies. Thus the still-hunter was often disappointed of 
 his expected prize, the poor distiller put to the loss of many a brewing, 
 and the excise officer rendered the object of the hatred and vindictive 
 feeling of the unreflecting peasantry. 
 
 The subjoined engraving represents a distillery of this description 
 at full work, with a party of police approaching to seize it, while two 
 peasants may be seen on the rocks, sounding their horns to alarm tie 
 smugglers 
 
 The fines on towiilan.-ls having been abolished, it was found 
 
 sary to adopt some other measure to put down illicit distillation 
 
 recourse was, therefore, had to a Revenue Police, the Excise officers 
 having too much other business to attend to, and the difficulty and 
 expense of procuring regular military assistance being almost insur 
 mountable. Accordingly, a Revenue Police was established in 1822, 
 and was gradually augmented in proportion to the exigency of the 
 service. In 1826, this force amounted to thirty-two parties; in 
 
676 
 
 January, 1833, to fifty-seven parties, and in the present year to 
 seventy parties amounting, including officers and men, to upwards 
 of 1200 persons. They were distributed through those parts of the 
 country in which illicit distillation most prevailed, and though their 
 exertions have been very great, yet they have but partially sup 
 pressed the evil. 
 
 Their services will be best appreciated by an enumeration of the 
 detections made by them in four successive years : 
 
 Stills. Malt Bush. Distilleries. Worts Galls. Spirits seized. 
 
 1830... 804 25136 1788 122263 624 
 
 1831... 723 24901 1479 106908 353 
 
 1832... 974 47688 2299 203472 1150 
 
 1833. ..1539 71782 3300 320813 6944 
 
 Since the re-organization of the Revenue Police under the super 
 intendence of Colonel Brereton,and the judicious alterations made by 
 him, this force has become more effective, and will, no doubt, prove 
 of great benefit to the Revenue. 
 
 Experience has proved that illicit distillation has always decreased 
 in proportion to the lowness of the duty, so that it was almost anni 
 hilated by the reduction which took place in 1823, by causing a sub 
 stitution nearly universal of the legal for the illegal article. Differ 
 ence of opinion, however, exists respecting the extent to which a 
 reduction of duty should be made ; perhaps the best means to prevent 
 the evil under consideration, would be to reduce the duty in propor 
 tion to the average price of grain in the provinces, so that the temp 
 tation to manufacture spirits from it, would be less than the grain 
 itself would bring in the market. Such a measure could scarcely fail 
 of having, at least, a powerful influence, if not of effecting a total 
 suppression of the illegal practice, while it would give the preponde- 
 
 L ranee in favour of the legal manufacturer. 
 Of the many plans which have been laid to obstruct the revenue 
 officers in the discharge of their duty, the following is not the least 
 deserving of notice : On the approach of the Assizes in 1803, when 
 many were about to be prosecuted for illicitly distilling, an officer, 
 stationed at Dunfanaghy, in the County of Donegal, who was to sup 
 port the informations, was suddenly seized, blind-folded, and carried 
 uway by a body of men in disguise, and brought to the island of 
 Arran on the western coast. From thence he was conveyed to the 
 islands of Goal, Innismay, &c. where he was closely confined, often 
 threatened with the loss of life, and was even obliged, by way of 
 
677 
 
 humiliation for his active services, to assist in the working of an illicit 
 still ; while, like another Tantalus, the cup of pleasure was held to his 
 parched lips, without the liberty of gratifying his thirsty desires. At 
 the end of thirteen days, when the necessity for his confinement had 
 ceased, he was again blindfolded, taken from the island, and sent a 
 considerable distance into the interior of the country, where the mask 
 was removed from his face, and he was allowed in the solitude of 
 night, to make his way to his disconsolate family, who, all the time, 
 had looked upon his restoration as hopeless. Another officer, on a 
 similar occasion, was hurried from his bed, without any covering 
 except his shirt and trousers, put into a sack, thrown across the back 
 of a horse, and, in this manner, was conducted to the margin of a lake, 
 where, in his own hearing, a consultation was held whether he should 
 be drowned by tieing a stone to the sack and committing it to the 
 deep, or that he should be put to a more lingering and torturing* 
 death. In this awful state of suspense he was removed to a moun 
 tainous part of the country, where he was subjected to every kind of 
 insult and privation, continually menaced with death in every shape 
 of barbarity, led out at night as if about to be executed, and again 
 conducted to his solitary habitation, anticipating a renewal of further 
 cruelties. In this state he was retained for a considerable time, till 
 the Judge who presided at the Assizes, during the trial of some per 
 sons for illicitly distilling, suspecting the parties as being accessary to 
 this outrage, told them, that if the officer who had been taken away, 
 were not immediately liberated, he would pass such a sentence on them 
 as would for ever put it out of their power to commit such another 
 offence, and gave them but twenty-four hours for his restoration. 
 This had the desired effect : the unfortunate man was again put into 
 a sack and restored to his family in the same manner as that in which 
 he had been carried away. 
 
 To the vigorous measures of government, aided by the gentry of ^ % 
 the country, but more to the lowering of the duty and the encourage- \ 
 ment given to small stills, the present decrease of illicit distillation 
 may be mainly attributed ; and though it still exists, its prevalence is 
 but comparatively partial. 
 
 The legal distilling establishments of the country are, for the most 
 part, conducted on an extensive scale, the stills ranging from 500 to , 
 20,000 gallons contents. In Cork, the establishments of Wyse, 
 Callaghan, Morrogh, Lyons, O Keeffe, Shee, and Daly, are of immense 
 magnitude, while the concern of Murphy, as well as that of Hackett 
 at Middleton, are little inferior. The distillery of Clonmel contains 
 

 3 mash-tuns containing 52,000 gallons, and capable of using 400 
 barrels of grain in a day. It has 5 coolers containing 25,000 gallons, 
 with 12 wash-backs holding 167,000 gallons ; one wash-charger of 
 14,700 gallons ; 2 low wines and feints chargers 6,000 gallons ; 2 
 low-wines stills 13,000 gallons, and one wash-still of 20,400 gallons. 
 
 The quantity of wash fermented and consumed in a period of 12 
 days, varies from 158 to 160,000 gallons, producing about 19,000 
 gallons of proof spirits. The charge for the year ended 5th January 
 1838, was 384,000 gallons. This concern works about nine months 
 in the year, and gives daily employment to about one hundred and 
 fifty persons. 
 
 Brown s establishment in Limerick has two stills for wash, coii- 
 containing 28,000 gallons, and two for low-wines, containing 12,000 
 gallons. There are eleven wash-backs, each averaging 30,000 gal 
 lons, one wash-charger, 36,600 ; two low- wines receivers, 4,500 ; two 
 feints receivers, 4,500 ; two low-wines and feints chargers, 25,000 ; 
 one under-back, 11,000; one bub-tun, 15,000; one spirit receiver, 
 3,500 ; five spirits store-casks, each 20,000 ; one metal cooler, in 
 three parts, 100,000 ; arid one worts receiver containing 40,320 gal 
 lons. In a bonded warehouse on the premises, there are generally 
 sorted from 500 to 800 puncheons of spirits. There are also two malt- 
 houses, which work six months in the year, each of which wets 530 
 bushels of barley twice in the week. The machinery is worked by 
 two steam-engines, one of which is of 40 horse power. Besides 
 3000 tons of coal annually consumed, there are upwards of 20,000 
 boxes of turf brought down the Shannon from a bog about seven 
 miles distant ; in the cutting, drying, and making up of this turf, five 
 hundred persons are constantly employed. The site of the distillery 
 occupies about three acres, and the machinery and utensils are 
 estimated to have cost upwards of 200,000. A medical gentle 
 man has a salary for attendance on the labourers, to whom half wages 
 are given in case of their being rendered incapable of work, either 
 from age or accident. 
 
 The distillery of Mr. James Jameson, Marrowbone-lane, Dublin, 
 has four stills ; two for wash, containing 27,675 gallons ; two for 
 low-wines, 13,807; two metal mash-tuns, 67,776; six coppers, 
 83,935 ; two under-backs, 9,423 ; seven coolers, 88,260 gallons ; 
 besides cooling-pipes of great extent. There is a wash-charger hold 
 ing 26,422, and an intermediate one containing 17,831 gallons ; there 
 are ten fermenting wash-backs capable of holding 382,098 gallons. 
 One of these alone holds 51,798; and three others upwards of 
 
679 
 
 46,500 gallons each. The two low- wines receivers contain 15,395 
 gallons ; two low-wines chargers, 20,705 ; two feints receivers, 8936 ; 
 one spirit receiver, 5729 ; and three spirits store-casks containing 
 22,902 gallons. In a period of four days, (the time occupied in dis 
 tilling,) 35,000 gallons of spirits are manufactured, and two hundred 
 and forty tons of coals are consumed in thirteen days, the usual 
 time occupied in brewing and distilling. This establishment works 
 about eighteen periods in the year, so that 630,000 gallons of spirits 
 are produced and 4320 tons of coals are consumed. The machinery 
 is worked by two steam-engines, one of twenty-six, and the other of 
 fourteen horse power. There are warehouses on the premises for 
 bonding spirits, capable of containing 1600 puncheons, and the con 
 cerns occupy a space of nearly five acres in extent. 
 
 In one of the large concerns worked in the city of Dublin, the 
 capacity of the stills worked, are two for the distillation of \vash, 
 17,456 gallons, two for that of low- wines, 9,022 gallons each; be 
 sides these, there are four coppers for brewing, containing 59,832 
 gallons, with two mash-tuns, holding 9,118 bushels of grain. In 
 these are usually mashed 3000 bushels at one brewing ; the under- 
 back contains 8,321 gallons, and there are four coolers that hold at one 
 inch in depth, 5,893 gallons. The tun for making bub, contains 2,790 
 gallons, and there are thirteen backs capable of receiving 432,414 gal 
 lons of wash at a time. The jack-back contains 2,065 gallons, the wash 
 charger, 26,938 ; the two low-wines receivers, 14,887 ; the spirit 
 receiver 4,695, two feints receivers, 9,431 ; two low-wines and feints 
 chargers 18,695 ; three store-casks for spirits 11,902 gallons. In one 
 brewing period 15,290 bushels of malted and unmalted corn are 
 mashed, producing 262,747 gallons of wash at 60 of gravity, which 
 is completed in six working days ; and in six succeeding days, the 
 entire is distilled, producing, at an average attenuation, 31,150 gals, 
 of proof spirits, the duty on which, at 2*. 4d. per gallon, amounts to 
 3,634 3s. 4d. The coal consumed for the twelve days occupied 
 in brewing and distilling is 200 tons, and there are 30 men constantly 
 employed in the concern. The barm alone for one period, stands the 
 proprietor 360, while the produce of the grains and hog-wash brings 
 in return 400. In one year this establishment completed eighteen 
 distilling periods, turning out 60,730 gallons of proof spirits, and 
 yielding a revenue of 65,415. Taking this as a fair standard, on 
 which to found a calculation of what may be the expense attending 
 the manufacture of spirits in Ireland, it does not appear to exceed 
 2s. 6d. for every gallon distilled. 
 
r 
 
 680 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Allowing 4 for malt 2184 at 6s. 3d per bush. 682 10s. Od. 
 
 4 for barley 6553 at 3 4J 1105 16 4 
 
 4- for oats 6553 at 2 74 860 1 7* 
 
 The average cost for grain would be ... 2648 8 
 
 200 tons of coals at 12s. per ton. ... 120 
 
 Carriage, at 2s. per do. ... 20 
 
 Barm. 360 
 
 Total cost of materials ... ... 3148 8 
 
 Deduct for hog-wash and grains ... ... 400 
 
 Net cost for materials. ... ... 2748 8 
 
 Add duty, at 2s. 4d. per proof gal. ... ... 3634 3 4 
 
 Stands distiller for materials and duty. ... 6382 114 
 
 Rating sales, at 5s. 7d. per gallon 25 per 
 
 cent. O.P. the whole 24,920 galls, at 
 
 that strength, or 31,150 at proof, 
 
 would bring ... ... 6956 16 8 
 
 Balance to meet expenses, &c. ... .. 574 5 4 
 
 On this principle it is easy to calculate what the price of whiskey 
 should be, to make the trade of a distiller an object worthy of 
 speculation. 
 
 Few countries afford better means or facilities for conducting this 
 business than Ireland, grain being plentiful, fuel cheap, water in 
 abundance, workmen numerous, and eager for employment, with a 
 ready market always to be had for the disposal of the commodity. 
 In estimating the qualities of grain for distilleries, much depends on 
 the soil, climate, and season ; hence calculations founded on any 
 given data, without considerations of this kind, might lead to errone 
 ous results, the relative proportions of mucilage, sugar, gluten, and 
 nutritive, or soluble matter, varying in different countries. The 
 grain of the south of Europe excels that of the north, owing to the 
 different influence of heat, dryness, and moisture. It must, there 
 fore, be valuable to the distiller, brewer, or experimentalist, to be 
 presented with the following tabular view of the chemical analysis 
 of the principal articles from which spirits, or other liquors, are, or 
 may be, extracted, as given by Sir Humphrey Davy and other 
 I eminent philosophers. 
 
681 
 
 Names of Articles. 
 
 In parts 
 of 
 Meal. 
 
 Soluble or 
 nutritive 
 matter. 
 
 Mucilage 
 or 
 Starch. 
 
 Saccha 
 rine 
 matter 
 or sugar 
 
 Gluten 
 or 
 Albu 
 men. 
 
 Matter in 
 soluble in 
 evapora 
 tion. 
 
 Barley, bere or bigg 
 
 1000 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 1000 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 1000 
 
 920 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 570 
 89 
 71 
 574 
 65 
 148 
 136 
 73 
 98 
 136 
 99 
 from 260 
 to 200 
 42 
 64 
 39 
 32 
 39 
 23 
 39 
 
 790 
 82 
 75 
 59 
 
 84 
 61 
 
 77 
 
 70 
 426 
 67 
 39 
 501 
 36 
 14 
 13 
 41 
 3 
 13 
 9 
 200 
 to 155 
 7 
 9 
 31 
 29 
 30 
 18 
 28 
 
 70 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 121 
 119 
 24 
 95 
 119 
 90 
 20 
 to 15 
 34 
 51 
 3 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 103 
 22 
 32 
 35 
 29 
 13 
 4 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 to 30 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 2 
 4 
 6 
 
 Millet 
 
 Oats, or corn 
 
 Rice 
 
 Rye .. 
 
 Wheat sown in ) 
 Autumn J 
 
 Do. in Spring 
 Beans (common) ... 
 Beans (kidney) 
 
 Peas, (drV) . 
 
 
 Tares 
 
 
 Beet (Red) 
 
 
 Beet (White) 
 Cabbasre* . . 
 
 ... 
 
 Carrot 
 
 
 Mangold wurzel ... 
 
 ... 
 
 Potato 
 
 
 Turnip (common) 
 Turnip (Swedish) 
 Clover (Red) 
 
 ... 
 
 Clover (White) ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 Saintfoin 
 
 
 The basis of all spirits and vinous fermentation is sugar, and no 
 intoxicating beverage can be obtained from any substance, which does 
 not contain a portion of this material ; nor is there any substance, 
 which contains it, that is not productive of the alcoholic principle to a 
 greater or less degree, either in proportion to the saccharine quantity, 
 or to its combination with other matter. Chemists are divided as to 
 
 * Cabbages were in common use among the ancients, and Cato wrote volumes 
 descriptive of their nature and value. The Indians had such veneration for cab<. 
 bages that they swore by them, and were, in that respect, as superstitious as the 
 Egyptians, who paid divine honors to leeks and onions for the great benefit, which 
 they conceived, they derived from them. 
 
682 
 
 the constituent parts of sugar; all, however, agree that it is composed 
 of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, but no experiments have yet deter 
 mined the exact proportion of each ; and a recent analysis has proved 
 that the difference between the composition of starch and that of sugar 
 is trifling, and that the former principle is easily converted into the 
 latter by natural, as well as artificial operations, and that this occurs 
 as Avell in the germination of seeds as in the process of malting: ^ence 
 it is evident why those fruits, roots, and seeds, or grain, which contain 
 the largest proportion of starch, yield the greatest quantities of alcohol 
 or spirits. The quantity of saccharine matter contained in any grain, 
 or edible plant, will be found by making a tincture of the vegetable 
 to be assayed in rectified spirits of wine, which, when saturated by 
 heat, will deposit the sugar by standing in a cool place. 
 
 The following table exhibits the quantity of alcohol, (sp. gr. .825 at 
 60 Fahrenheit) in several kinds of wines and other liquors, as ascer 
 tained by the experiments of Mr. Brande. 
 
 Per cent, per measure. Per cent, per measure. 
 
 Port, average of six kinds.... 23.48 Hock 8.88 
 
 Do. highest, 25.83 Palm wine, 4.70 
 
 Do. lowest, 21.40 Vinde Grave, 12.80 
 
 Sherry, average of four kinds 1 7.92 Frontignac, 1 2.79 
 
 Do. highest, 19.83 CotiRoti 12.32 
 
 Do. lowest, 13.25 Rousillon, 17.26 
 
 Claret, average of two kinds 14.42 Cape Madeira, 18.11 
 
 Calcavella, 18.10 Cape Muschat,.... 18.25 
 
 Lisbon 1 8.94 Constantia, 1 9..75 
 
 Malaga, 17.26 Tent, 13.30 
 
 Bucellas, 18.49 
 
 Red Madeira 18.40 
 
 Malmsey Madeira 1 6.40 
 
 Marsala 25.87 
 
 Shiraz, 15.52 
 
 Syracuse, 15.28 
 
 Nice, 
 Tokay, 
 
 ,14.63 
 
 9.88 
 
 Do 17.26 Raisin Wine, 25.77 
 
 Madeira, highest, 24.42|Grape Wine, 18.11 
 
 Do. lowest, 19.34JCurrant Wine, 20.55 
 
 Red Champagne, 11. 30, Gooseberry Wine...... 11.84 
 
 White do 12.80 Elder Wine. Cider & Perry, 9.87 
 
 Burgundy, 11.55 Stout, 6.80 
 
 Do 11.95 Ale, 8.88 
 
 White Hermitage, 17.43 Brandy, 53.39 
 
 Red do 12.32 Rum 53.68 
 
 Hock 14.37[Hollands, 51.60 
 
 From the preceding table, it appears that port, madeira, marsala, 
 raisin, and currant wines, contain the greatest bulk of alcohol, so that 
 
a person after taking a bottle of any of those, will have swallowed 
 nearly an half pint of alcohol, or almost a pint of pure brandy, with 
 out experiencing 1 those intoxicating effects, which either alcohol, or 
 brandy, would produce separately. In wine, the alcohol is so blended 
 with other matter as to prevent it acting with such vigour on the 
 stomach, until its influence is changed by the powers of digestion, 
 and, by this combination, its activity on the system is completely 
 modified. 
 
 To what intoxication may be attributed, whether to the alcohol, 
 or pure spirits, incorporating with the blood, or to the sympathy of 
 communication between the stomach and the head, has not yet been 
 clearly ascertained. But if conjecture be admitted, the most plausible 
 hypothesis seems to be, that the heat of the stomach acting on the volatile 
 principle of the fluid, causes it to ascend to the brain, and to affect 
 it through the medium of the nerves. A case is recounted of a person 
 brought dead into Westminster Hospital, after having drunk a quart 
 of gin for a wager, within the lateral ventricles of whose brain a 
 quantity of clear fluid was found, strongly impregnated with gin.* 
 In support of a contrary hypothesis, it is urged from the experiments 
 of Majendie, that the blood of a dog, which had been made to 
 swallow some diluted alcohol, exhaled a strong odour of the spirit ; 
 but by what means it makes its way to the seat of reason may still 
 remain one of those secrets, into which the eye of the philosopher can 
 never penetrate 
 
 Observation and experiment have recently proved, that persons 
 accustomed to the drinking of ardent spirits are subject to spon 
 taneous combustion a proof that the blood must be strongly impreg 
 nated with the alcoholic principle. A case of this kind was lately 
 described in the New York Courier, in the instance of an old man, 
 who had drunk a large quantity of rum. Having been bled, and a 
 lighted taper applied to the blood, it burned blue, and continued to 
 blaze freely for thirty seconds : every toper, therefore, should be 
 cautious of coming in contact with any ignited material, since he is 
 as liable to blow up as a cask of French brandy. 
 
 The growing magnitude of distillation in Ireland led, as before / 
 remarked, to the passing of numberless acts of parliament for its 
 regulation. Still, however, the ingenuity of the distillers baffled the 
 provisions of any enactment, by which the trade was governed, and 
 
 * Pharmacologia of Dr. Paris, vol. i. p. 142. 
 
684 
 
 they succeeded to smuggle to an enormous extent. Besides this evil, 
 private distillation had so forced itself on the notice of government, 
 from its demoralizing tendency, that it was found necessary to direct 
 an inquiry into the laws which controled the operations of the distil 
 lers of the United Kingdom. During the course of that inquiry, a vast 
 mass of information was collected, and the respective merits of the 
 various systems then in use were compared and determined, so far as 
 regarded the practibility of extending one uniform plan of work to the 
 whole empire. After a close examination, it was considered that the 
 principle of the law then existing in Scotland, (a law originally sug 
 gested by the distillers themselves) which was that of charging the 
 duty according to the gravity of the worts, or wash, with the use of 
 the saccharometer for that purpose, was the best calculated for obtain 
 ing the object in view. The value of this instrument, as applied to 
 distilling purposes, was for a long time known to the trade, and had 
 in 1799, attracted the attention of the Scotch officers of the revenue ; 
 but its application as a test, or criterion ibr ascertaining the gravity 
 of worts was not introduced till 1816, when the law in Scotland was 
 modified to embrace all the checks of the English system, with the 
 other improvements consequent on the use of the saccharometer. 
 
 The extension of the Scotch system to Ireland, afforded the oppor 
 tunity of revising the act, under which it was conducted ; and instead 
 of distillers being restricted from making worts lower than 60, (which 
 was the case in Scotland,) it was thought expedient to remove every 
 obstacle of this description, and permit them to distil worts at any 
 gravity from 30 to 80, to be ascertained by such a saccharometer 
 as the Lords of the Treasury might order. 
 
 While on this subject it may be proper to remark that the saccha 
 rometer, (from <ret%et%, sugar, and /MT%OV, a measure) is a simple machine 
 invented in 1784 by Mr. Richardson, a brewer at Hull. 
 
 It is usually composed of brass, and is nothing more or less than as 
 its name imports a measure of sweetness, or saccharine matter. 
 The form of that now used in the Excise department, and known by 
 the name of Bate s saccharometer, (from Wm. Brettell Bate, the in 
 ventor, ordered by the Treasury in 1823, to be used instead of Allan s 
 under the act of the 4th Geo.4, ch. 94.) is about 1\ inches long, consisting 
 of an elliptical ball, or float, with a flat graduated stem of 4^ inches 
 in length, having a small loop at the bottom. The divisions on the 
 scale are numbered downwards from 1 to 30, and it is supplied with 
 five weights fitted to the loop, and marked 970, 1000, 1030, 1060, 
 
685 
 
 and 1090 : the first weight being for attenuation below water, the 
 1000 at water, and the others above water. The instrument is accom 
 panied with a book of tables to assist in the calculation of the gravities, 
 and to which the reader is referred for further illustration. It was 
 constructed to ascertain the sweetness of worts, or to compare their 
 weight with that of equal quantities of the water employed. In fact, 
 it may be said to be a hydrometer calculated to shew the specific gra 
 vity of wash instead of spirits. For, as spirituous liquors are strong 
 in proportion to their levity, or weak in proportion to their gravity, 
 and as the hydrometer will sink deeper in strong than in weak spirits, 
 so the saccharometer will sink deeper in weak than in strong worts. 
 
 Respecting the history of this instrument, which has become the 
 standard for the collection of the revenue, and the regulator of the 
 work of brewers and distillers, it is a curious fact that Mr. Richard 
 son, previous to its invention, had realized a considerable independence 
 but that after the application of the saccharometer, his manufacture 
 was less esteemed, and he lost that custom and celebrity by which he 
 had previously acquired so much : such too frequently has been the 
 fate of those by whom society has been most benefited ! 
 
 Traders have been in the habit of using the saccharometer invented 
 by Mr. Dicas, of Liverpool ; it is calculated to shew the gravity or 
 saccharine matter in an English ale-barrel of 36 gallons, equal to 44 
 gallons wine-measure. When a wort, therefore, is stated upon it to 
 be of 60nbs., or 60 gravity, the meaning is, that 36 gallons of such 
 liquid weighs its weight of water and 60ft>s. more, so that among dis 
 tillers and brewers by degrees of gravity is meant the excess of the 
 weight of worts above that of an equal bulk of water in 1000 parts of 
 the latter : hence the heavier the malt infusion, or worts, as it is 
 termed, the greater the value, since it holds in solution a greater 
 quantity of saccharine matter. All liquids, as well as most other 
 bodies, expand by heat and contract by cold, consequently worts, or 
 wash, are effected, less or more, by the temperature. Experiments 
 have shewn that a cubic foot of rain-water at a heat of 60, weighs 
 1000 ounces avoirdupois, but when raised to the temperature of 100 
 It increases its volume to T ^ T of its bulk. Water, therefore, has been 
 called 1000, and it is indifferently expressed 1000, or decimally 1.000 
 and is used as the standard of all substances, whether solid or fluid. 
 Hence in tables of specific gravities, the figures express how many 
 times 1000 ounces of the different substances a cubic foot contains. 
 
 The following is the specific gravity of most of the various liquids 
 and other articles mentioned in this work : 
 
686 
 
 Acetic Acid, 1.007 Steam, 690 
 
 Alcohol or ^commercial 837 Oxygen,.,.., 1.044 
 
 Spirits of Wine, J highly rect. 829 Sugar, white, 1.606 
 
 Atmospheric or common air 1.000 Vapour of Alcohol, 2.100 
 
 Azote or Nitrogen gas, 969 Vinegar distilled, 1.010 
 
 Beer, pale, 1.023 Water, rain 1.000 
 
 brown, 1.034 distilled, 1.000 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas, 1.520 sea, 1.026 
 
 Cider, 1..018 Wine, Burgundy, 992 
 
 Honey, 1.450| Bourdeaux, 994 
 
 Hydrogen Gas, 074 Champagne, white,.... 998 
 
 Milk of Cows, 1.032 Canary, 1.033 
 
 Mare s, L034 Constance, 1.082 
 
 Ass s, 1.035; Madeira, 1.038 
 
 Ewe s 1.040. Malaga, 1.022 
 
 Goat s 1.034 Port, 997 
 
 Opium, 1.336 1 Tokay, 1.054 
 
 As there are 1728 cubic inches in a cubic foot, and 277,274 in an 
 
 1728 
 imperial gallon, ^ 7 ^-6.2325, the gallons in a cubic foot. 
 
 The specific gravity of any fluid may be found by weighing a cer 
 tain quantity (a quart for instance) and mul f iplying the weight by the 
 number of quarts in 6.2325 gallons. It is customary, however, for 
 the sake of convenience and accuracy, to use a small phial with a 
 narrow neck, and when completely filled with the fluid to weigh it in 
 a scale that will turn with the tenth or less of a grain. Suppose then 
 the weight to be 1490.2 grains ; and as 6,2325 weigh 1000 ounces, 
 say 6.2325gal. : lOOOoz. : Igal. : 160.44oz.=77011grs. the weight of 
 
 a gallon, and =9712.6grs. the weight of a pint: consequently 
 
 8 
 
 9712 6 
 
 _J =6,5176, by which the weight of any fluid being multiplcd, 
 
 the product will be the weight of an imperial pint of that fluid, this 
 being again multiplied by 49.86, the number of pints in 6,2325 gal 
 lons, the product is the specific gravity. 
 
 To save such calculations and the trouble attending them, instru 
 ments have been invented upon the principle that bodies immersed in 
 a fluid meet with a resistance proportioned to the specific gravity of 
 such fluid : hence their use and importance in determining the strength 
 of spirituous liquors. 
 
 To ascertain correctly the specific gravity of worts, the use of a 
 thermometer is indispensable, in order to determine what is to be 
 added to or taken from the ge neral standard of 60, at which point 
 tables of specific gravities are usually calculated. 
 
 To determine the quantity of spirit to be drawn from wort or \vash> 
 
687 
 
 it was presumed to be in all cases directly according to its attenua 
 tion. The work of the Scotch distillers proved that worts of 5ft>s. 
 gravity should produce one gallon of proof spirits, or in other words 
 for every 5 of gravity attenuated in every 100 gallons of worts, there 
 ought to be one gallon of proof spirits, to which one-fifth might be 
 added for a maximum. Suppose, then, 10,020 gallons of worts are 
 set at a gravity of 60, and that it is required to know what quantity 
 of proof spirits should be expected from them, on the presumption 
 that this is a correct theory. Allowing the whole to be attenuated, 
 so as to show either nothing by the instrument, or a gravity of 31bs 
 or degrees, the calculation will be : 
 
 When attenuated to water : 
 
 60 gravity at commencement 
 attenuated. 
 
 60^ 
 
 57 
 
 10020.0 
 60 
 
 5) 6012.000 
 
 Proof gallons 
 Add| 
 
 1202.4 
 240.48 
 
 When 3 is the gravity : 
 
 60 gravity at commencement 
 3 attenuated. 
 
 Spirits 
 Addf 
 
 10020.0 
 57^ 
 
 5) 5711.400 
 
 1142.28 
 228.456 
 
 Maximum 1442.88 Maximum 1370.736 
 
 Thus having the gravity of any wort correctly ascertained at the 
 outset, it is easy to estimate the quantity of proof spirits, which ought 
 to be extracted, giving credit in all cases for any unattenuated matter, 
 it being presumed that no spirit can be drawn from any unfermented 
 liquid. The reason why the degrees of attenuation are placed as 
 decimals in the examples given above, is to prevent the trouble of 
 dividing by 100 the number of gallons allowed in the whole quantity 
 for every five degrees of attenuation. The real operation is simply 
 that of a question in the Rule of Three, the statements of which are, 
 
 As 100 : 60 : : 10020 : 6012 and 
 As 100: 57:: 10020: 5711.4 
 
 which severally divided by 5 gives the respective quantities of spirits. 
 On the foregoing theoretical and practical deductions was founded 
 the Act of 4 Geo. IV. c.94, for the regulation of the Scotch and Irish 
 distilleries. This law, which received the royal assent on the 18th 
 July, 1823, permits stills of a capacity so low as 40 gallons to be 
 licensed, without any restriction as to a higher content ; but for minute 
 particulars the act itself must be consulted. Here it may be sufficient 
 
688 
 
 to state, that there are three modes of charging the duty, either on 
 the wash, the low-wines, or the spirits, whichever of them happens to 
 be highest. The brewing and distilling must be conducted in alter 
 nate periods ; during the process of brewing there can be no distilla 
 tion, and during distilling there can be no brewing. Six days notice 
 must be given before commencing or re-commencing brewing, and 
 a notice of the gravity under which the trader intends to work ; and 
 which may be from 30 to 80. This gravity cannot be changed 
 until the expiration of a month. If the worts of a brewing are col 
 lected in a receiver, a declaration of the quantity and gravity must be 
 delivered to the officer, who is obliged to take an account of them in 
 one hour after ; but if collected in the fermenting-back, (the running 
 of the wort into which must be finished in six hours) the gravity must 
 be taken within two hours. No fermentable matter can be added before 
 this gravity is taken. Should the gravity or quantity exceed the decla 
 ration by 5 ^ cent, a penalty of 200 is incurred. When the increase 
 exceeds 5 ^ cent, the wort is deemed new and the distiller is charge 
 able with the duty accordingly. The duty on the wash is a percen 
 tage of one gallon for every 5 degrees attenuated ; on the low- 
 wines, by a comparison of their strength with that of proof spirits 
 after making an allowance of 5 ^ cent, on the whole ; on the spirits 
 by the produce of low-wines and feints calculated as proof spirits. 
 
 Exclusive of the regular daily charges of any of the three modes 
 just mentioned, whichever may be the highest, and which are charged 
 at the expiration of every distilling period a yearly account is to be 
 made up of all the wash distilled during the term of the license, at 
 the respective monthly gravity or gravities declared by the distiller, 
 reduced to proof spirits. And if that calculated quantity of spirits 
 shall be more than what the distiller has already been charged with, 
 he must then pay the duty on the difference, which amounts, in fact, 
 to this, that although he gets credit for bad fermentation in the 
 charge from each back, yet it is the declared gravity which is even 
 tually charged and paid for. The ordinary charge against the distiller 
 must be made within six days after every distilling period, and the 
 deficiency charge at the expiration of the license, on the 10th of 
 October, must be returned within one month after. 
 
 The officer is enjoined to keep a regular debtor and creditor 
 account of the stock of spirits, and should any excess be found it is 
 forfeited to the crown, together with the sum of ten shillings for 
 every gallon of such excess if there be a deficiency, there is a for 
 feiture of ten shillings on every gallon so deficient, provided such 
 decrease shall not exceed three per cent. ; nor is this forfeiture to be 
 
(>S9 
 
 exacted, if the trader prove the deficiency not to have been occasioned 
 by fraud, either practised or intended. 
 
 The liberty of warehousing spirits without payment of duty, which 
 the act permits, is a great indulgence and accommodation, as it gives 
 the trader the use of the money till a market offers, or till it suits his 
 own convenience. At storing, the strength must be either 11 or 25 
 per cent, over proof, and the casks cannot be of less content than 100 
 gallons each ; but by Sec. 10 of the 6th and 7th Wm. IV. c. 72., a 
 distiller is now permitted to store casks so low as 20 gallons. A 
 rent is required at the rate of one penny per week for every 40 
 gallons when placed in warehouses belonging- to the crown ; 
 but, by a subsequent regulation, traders have the privilege of re 
 lieving themselves from this rent by storing the spirits on their 
 own premises, under the look and key of the revenue. It has been 
 suggested that it would be advantageous to the revenue, were all the 
 spirits manufactured throughout the empire, stored in the warehouses 
 of the crown and delivered from thence for either home or foreign 
 consumption. By this means, no spirits could leave the distillery 
 without the knowledge of the officer, unless by incurring a palpable 
 risk, which, it is presumed, no respectable trader would attempt. 
 
 Spirits may be sent from Ireland to England, on payment of the 
 difference of duties, which is 5s. 2d. per gallon ; the duty in Ireland 
 being 2s. 4d., and in England 7$. 6d. With regard to Scotland, the 
 duty there is 3s. 4d., which nearly amounts to an interdiction of inter 
 course between Ireland and that country. In England, distillation may 
 be said to be a monopoly, since it is still confined to a few capitalists, 
 while in Scotland and Ireland it is open to every speculatist. The 
 mode of charging the duty is, however, much the same in all parts 
 of the empire, being regulated by the saccharometer and hydrometer, 
 under the survey of officers. The former instrument having been 
 already described, it only remains to give an account of the latter. 
 
 The hydrometer, as its name imports, (from l v^a^ water, and 
 /MTov, a measure) is a test of the density, or gravity of water. 
 This instrument is constructed on the principle that all bodies weigh 
 in proportion to the quantity of gravitating matters they contain, and 
 is merely a ready substitute for the hydrostatic balance, to which it is 
 preferred, on account of the ease and expedition with which it can be 
 used ; for this reason it has been adopted by government to ascertain- 
 the strength of spirituous liquors. To illustrate the general prin 
 ciple, let water be the standard of comparison, a cubic inch of which, 
 at 60 of Fahrenheit, weighs 1000 ounce* ; and since, as has been 
 
 2 Y 
 
690 
 
 already stated, all bodies weigh in proportion to their particles of 
 gravitating materials, and that gold is more minute, simple, and 
 cohesive than any ether body, if it be adulterated with any other 
 metal, its specific gravity, or comparative weight, must be less in pro 
 portion to the quantity of alloy with which it may be amalgamated. 
 The weight, therefore, of gold is a sure criterion of its quality, and 
 by experience the purity, orimpurity of substances, whether solid or 
 fluid, may be obtained. Besides, when it is said that the specific 
 gravity of proof spirits is 923, the meaning is, that a cubic foot of 
 the liquor will weigh exactly 923 ounces ; and if the specific gravity 
 of alcohol be reckoned as 825, it implies that a cubic foot of alcohol 
 will weigh 825 ounces, avoirdupois. The relation which all other 
 spirits has to this standard, or proof, is expressed by saying that they 
 are so much above, or under proof ; so when it is said, that a spirit is 
 25 per cent, above proof, it implies that 100 gallons of it will admit 
 of 25 gallons to reduce it to the strength of proof; and if it be 25 
 per cent, under proof, it is considered to contain 25 gallons of water 
 more than is contained in 100 gallons of proof spirits : in other words, 
 proof spirits are a mixture of an equal quantity of water and alcohol. 
 Hence a table might be easily formed to shew what quantity of water, 
 or spirits, should be added to any given portion of spirits to render it 
 true proof. From this explanation, it will be seen that the calculations 
 made from any instrument are simple and easy of comprehension ; 
 but, for the practical application, recourse must be had to the instruc 
 tions accompanying the instrument, and explanatory of the tables 
 and sliding-rule constructed for computing the strength of spirits at 
 different temperatures. 
 
 The following general rule may be adopted for calculating the 
 strength of spirits, whether above or below proof, viz. : To reduce 
 the strength to hydrometer proof, divide the quantity by its degrees 
 of strength, whether over or under hydrometer proof. When over 
 proof, add the quotient to the quantity ; if under proof, subtract it 
 therefrom, which gives the quantity at hydrometer proof. 
 
 A simple method of ascertaining the specific gravity , and conse 
 quent commercial value of JEther, Spirits, Sulphuric, and other 
 acids, &c., was recommended for twenty-five years by Sir James 
 Murray, M. D. of Dublin, part of whose plan has been since adopted 
 by Mr. Gilpin. I subjoin a representation of it which was given 
 to me by Sir James, in 1823, when my former work was in 
 the press. 
 
e>9i 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 The adoption of this principle would be important to country 
 purchasers, who are often imposed upon when forcing and deleterious 
 ingredients are mixed in spirits, to make them produce a head, or 
 appear strong. An economical hydrometer can thus be furnished, 
 which, avoiding thermometric calculations, may be understood, and 
 used by any person. 
 
 By this plan, the spirit to be examined is brought to the one con 
 stant and uniform temperature for experiment ; this is easily effected 
 by placing a bottle of the liquor, during a few minutes, in a basin of 
 tepid water. To those who are not supplied with a thermometer, a 
 simple one can be supplied by an artist at a trifling expense, having 
 a single mark engraved on it, say at 65, to which every sample of 
 spirit can be readily brought, and examined in a room of nearly the 
 same temperature. 
 
 Sir James Murray has observed that where the balance is accurate 
 and the stem, or tube, of the flask is small, a difference of a half, or 
 even a quarter of a degree, will be apparent on the scale engraved on 
 its neck. Half a pint, or a pint, has been the usual quantity tried. 
 The vessel is a light, thin flask, attached to the end of a beam by a 
 small ring of brass, fixed round the part of the stem at P, and 
 engraved proof, 
 
 A is the flask, or regulator, having the degrees of the scale cut on 
 its neck. B denotes the weight attached to the opposite end of the 
 beam, and filed, or ground down, until it exactly counterpoises the 
 flask containing real proof marked P. 
 
692 
 
 Now, it is plain, that if the sample for trial be stronger than real 
 proof, by which the instrument was first adjusted, it will consequently 
 be lighter, and in order to counterpoise the weig ht B, more of the 
 liquor must be added until the scale is balanced. The height at 
 which the liquor stands in the stem is then to be noted, and every 
 line, or mark, tells the number of degrees, above proof, that the spirit 
 amounts to. 
 
 If, however, the sample be weaker than true proof, in that case 
 less bulk will make the same weight, and every degree under the 
 proof-mark, P, shews the result as so many degrees under proof . By 
 these means, therefore, the different liquors are tested by a single 
 weight, and the inconvenience and trouble of using a variety are 
 rendered unnecessary. 
 
 Sir James Murray also recommended another method on the same 
 principle which is very simple, (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 
 
 An accurate lever, or steel-yard, is furnished with a solid glass 
 weight, B, at one end, say 20 or 30 ounces weight ; this is filed, or 
 ground away until it counterpoises a flask A, of true proof spirit at 
 
 65, accurately and completely filled up to a ground stopper this 
 
 flask is suspended by a wire, ring, or hook, in a notch cut in the 
 beam at C, which is there marked proof. 
 
 Now, it is plain, that if the same flask be filled with weaker spirits at 
 65, it will weigh more, and it must then be moved forward by the 
 ring, or wire, on the arm of the steel-yard, or lever, until it is poised; 
 and the number at which this occurs denotes the degrees of strength, 
 lelow-proof. But if the sample be stronger than true proof, then 
 the same vessel will not hold a similar weight, and the ring and flask 
 must be drawn nearer to the extremity of the lever ; and the line 
 where it balances, indicates the degree, above proof, without the slight 
 est trouble or inconvenience. 
 
 This, therefore, is very superior to the thousand grain bottle, 
 because no weights, nor further calculations, are requisite. Theoperose 
 small deductions or additions of Dicas and others are avoided, so that a 
 common porter can, in a moment, use the proposed instrument. 
 
693 
 
 Sir James Murray luis found that proper giass rods terminating in 
 solid glass balls for weights, are the most suitable beams, or levers. 
 When well poised on glass balls or pivots, they are neat and accu 
 rate, and are not liable to vary, like metallic substances, from damp, 
 friction, or oxydation. 
 
 The thermometer, (Fig. 3.) having only a single line, or degree, 
 (65) is cheap, simple, and effectual. 
 
 Of hydrometers there are various sorts made of different materials, 
 but Dr. Blagden is of opinion that those made of glass are the most 
 accurate. Glass hydrometers are so subject to accidents, that metal 
 ones have been preferred. Sykes s instrument is the one in general 
 use, and was adopted by the act of 56 Geo. III. chap. 140, and subse 
 quently confirmed by the 58th Geo. III. chap. 28. This hydrom 
 eter consists of a hollow ball one inch and an half in diameter, having 
 a flat stem 3. 4 inches long, divided on both sides into ten equal parts, 
 and each division is subdivided into five equal parts. At the other 
 end is a small conical stem 1. 13 inches in length, having a pear- 
 shaped bulb at its extremity. The whole instrument, which is made 
 of brass, is 6. 7 inches long, and is accompanied with nine circular 
 weights, numbered 10, 20, 30, 40. 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and an ad 
 ditional one of a solid rectangular form, with a notch in each to fit 
 them to the stem. The square weight is made for the summit, and 
 the others for the conical part at the under portion of the ball. By 
 the separate application of these weights in succession, the range of 
 strength between pure water and alcohol is determined. Each weight 
 is equivalent to ten principal divisions. The weight numbered 60 
 indicates proof at the "temperature of 51 of Fahrenheit; and by 
 the addition of the square on the top, it sinks it to the same point in 
 distilled water of the same temperature. This square weight being 
 just one-twelfth part of the entire weight of the whole hydrometer, 
 together with its bottom weight, marked 60, causes the scale to shew 
 the difference between water and proof spirit, which, the act of par 
 liament states, must weigh ~\ of an equal bulk of distilled water. 
 Before the invention of this instrument, much fraud was practised 011 
 the public, as there was no accurate method of enabling purchasers of 
 spirits to detect the deceptions of unfair dealers. 
 
 The following anecdote, being in point, is worthy of preservation : 
 
 A shopkeeper at Canton, sold to the purser of a ship, a quantity 
 of distilled spirits according to a sample shewn ; but, not standing in 
 awe of conscience, he, afterwards, in the privacy of his store-house, 
 added a certain quantity of water to each cask. The spirit having 
 been delivered on board, and tried by the hydrometer, was discovered 
 
694 
 
 to be wanting in strength. When the vender was charged with the 
 intended fraud, he, at first, denied it, for he knew of no human 
 means which could have effected the discovery; but, on the exact 
 quantity of spirits, which had been missed, being specified, a super 
 stitious dread seized him, and having confessed his roguery, he made 
 amends. On the instrument of his detection being afterwards shewn 
 to him, he offered any price for what he foresaw might be turned to 
 great account in his trade. 
 
 Having described the hydrometer, it remains only to remark that 
 in order to ascertain exactly, the quantity of pure alcohol in any por 
 tion of the mixture of that material, M. Gay Lussac has constructed 
 an alcohometer. The scale is divided into 100 degrees; each of 
 these degrees indicates the proportion of pure alcohol contained in 
 100 parts of mixture. Thus, for instance, when the instrument indi 
 cates 25, it signifies that 100 parts of the liquor submitted to proof, 
 contain 25 of pure alchohol, and 75 of water pure alcohol indicates 
 100. Pure alcohol cannot be frozen though rectified spirits may, by 
 the rapid evaporation of sulphurous acid. According to Saussure, 
 alcohol consists of 
 
 Carbon ... 52.17 
 
 Oxygen ... 34. 79 
 
 Hydrogen ... 13.04 
 being, as already observed, the constituent principles of sugar. 
 
 Although the standard specific gravity of alcohol is rated at .825, 
 yet experimentalists have obtained it so low as .791, and at the 
 intermediate degrees of .817, .809, .804, .799, .797, and .796. Alco 
 hol is colourless, has a fragrant odour, and a highly pungent taste ; 
 it is very inflammable, burning with a blue flame without smoke: 
 during its combustion, water and carbonic acid are formed, the 
 quantity of the water exceeding that of the alcohol consumed. It 
 combines with water in every ratio, and their union is accomplished 
 with a considerable evolution of heat, and the bulk of the liquor is 
 less than that of the two before their admixture. The highest rectifi 
 cation of this spirit is called absolute alcohol, from its being con 
 sidered absolutely free from water ; it is so very volatile that even at 
 the density of 820, it will boil at the temperature of 176 Fahren 
 heit, the barometrical pressure being 30 inches. It produces con 
 siderable cold during its evaporation; in it many of the vegetable 
 principles and essential oils are soluble; it is the only solvent of the 
 vegetable alkali, and is of the utmost utility in the Materia Medica. 
 Among the various matters from which alcohol can be extracted, 
 
potatoes* have been brought through chemical analysis to yield con 
 siderable quantities. In conducting the process for that purpose^ 
 both in France and Great Britain, the first object is to obtain the 
 greatest quantity of starch the potato is capable of affording. This 
 is effected by bruising the potatoes to "a pulp, then separating the 
 starch from the dregs by means of a hair-sieve, and submitting the 
 result to the usual process of fermentation. The preparation of 
 starch obtained from good potatoes by French experimentalists, has 
 been upwards of 14 cwt. of wet starch from 49 cwt. of potatoes; 
 but the common result is from 18 to 20 per cent, of dry, or from 27 
 to 30 of wet starch. For a charge of 242 gallons imperial measure, 
 from 176 to 187 Ibs. of wet starch, or two-thirds of the same amount 
 dry, are taken, thrown into a vat, and mixed with 44 gallons, or 
 nearly half the weight of water. The mixture is then carefully 
 stirred with rakes lest the starch should settle at the bottom ; and in 
 this state, from 110 to 132 gallons of boiling water are gradually 
 added. The whole soon becomes thick, and is converted into a paste, 
 or jelly. At first, it has a milky appearance, and shortly after 
 becomes transparent, at which period it is in a proper state for un 
 dergoing the saccharine change. From 44 to 551bs. of malt, the finer 
 grained the better, previously softened by steeping in water are then 
 added; ten minutes after which the material is immediately liquified, 
 and in this state it is suffered to remain for three or four hours, dur 
 ing which it acquires a sensibly saccharine taste* To prepare it for 
 fermentation, it requires a further mixture of water to make it up to 
 about 242 gallons. To put this quantity into fermentation, nearly 
 two quarts of good barm are considered sufficient. 
 
 Another mode of obtaining spirits from potatoes is : Strew or 
 spread over the bottom of a keive on which are thrown the bruised 
 potatoes, say 8831bs. as they come from the grating machine, where 
 they remain from a quarter to about half an hour to drain. Two 
 workmen then commence stirring them with rakes in from 88 to 110 
 gallons of boiling water. The mixture soon assumes a jelly-like 
 appearance ; 551bs. of finely-ground malt judiciously soaked are then 
 added, and after being well agitated it is left at rest for three or four 
 hours. All the liquor which filters through the bottom during the 
 time, is drawn off by a cock and conducted to the fermenting tun. 
 The mass is allowed to remain for a quarter of an hour longer, and 
 
 * This valuable root is supposed to have been introduced into Europe from 
 Virginia (North America), but it is said to have been known, at a very early period, 
 in Tucuman,a province of Paraguay, where potatoes arc termed camotes^ and com-^ 
 monly grow to the size of seven pounds and upwards. 
 
690 
 
 the liquor is drawn off as before. A second quantity of water is then 
 added, amounting to about 44 gallons, the whole is stirred, left to 
 drain, and the liquid thus obtained,is also sent to the fermenting tun. 
 This treatment cools the liquid considerably, but to cool and exhaust 
 the pulp of all the fermentable matter, which it may still contain, from 
 44 to 66 gallons of cold water are thrown over it, which on draining 
 through is received into the fermenting vat with the liquid extracts. By 
 this time the pulp on the false bottom is nearly exhausted, but retains 
 almost three-fourths of a liquid charged with fermentable matter, 
 which may be used to feed cattle, or may undergo another draining. 
 In the routine of these operations the fermentable liquid is gradually 
 cooled, till, at the end of the process, it acquires a temperature very 
 suitable to the commencement of fermentation with a specific gravity 
 of 1.035. 
 
 To convert the starch of potatoes into a sirup, or saccharine con 
 sistence, is the first consideration in preparing it for distillation. 
 Kirchoff, a Russian chemist, discovered, in 1811, that sulphuric acid 
 best effected this important purpose, by diffusing a certain quantity of 
 the starch through water rendered pungent by a suitable proportion 
 of the acid. The mixture is then boiled for 36 hours, stirring it 
 carefully during the first hour, to prevent its settling at the bottom. 
 At the expiration of that time, it becomes almost entirely fluid, and 
 only requires stirring at intervals ; accordingly, as the water evapo 
 rates, it ought to be replaced. When the liquid is sufficiently boiled, 
 pulverized chalk is added to saturate the sulphuric acid ; after cooling 
 and settling, it possesses a sweet agreeable taste : being clarified and 
 having evaporated to the consistence of sirup, it acquires an intense 
 saccharine flavour and yields, on cooling, crystals of sugar. In this 
 process, Kirchoff employed common starch, and after his experiments 
 became public, many chemists were engaged in varying and improv 
 ing the discovery. Lampadius substituted the starch of potatoes 
 for that of wheat, and altered the process of Kirchoff in other respects, 
 for, instead of a vessel of metal, he used one of wood heated by steam 
 from an adjoining boiler, and conveyed through pipes descending 
 perpendicularly to the mixture at the bottom. Sir George Tuthill 
 put into an earthen vessel a pound and a half of potato starch, a 
 quarter of an ounce of sulphuric acid, and six pints of distilled water 
 at a boiling heat. These he kept stirring for thirty-eight hours, 
 adding a supply of fresh water to keep the mixture in a degree of 
 uniform fluidity. At the expiration of twenty-four hours, it became 
 sweet, and increased in saccharine quality during the remainder of 
 the process. When it had boiled for thirty-four hours an ounce of finely 
 
697 
 
 pulverized charcoal was infused, and, in two hours more, some fresh 
 lime was thrown in to saturate the acid, and the boiling was continued 
 for half an hour longer. The liquor was then strained through calico, 
 and the residuum, consisting of charcoal and sulphate of lime, after 
 repeated washings by warm water, was dried, and weighed seven- 
 eighths of an ounce. The clear fluid having settled to the consistence 
 of sirup, was, in eight days, converted into a crystalline substance 
 like common brown sugar, with a mixture of treacle. This saccha 
 rine matter weighed one pound and a quarter, and its qualities were 
 considered as intermediate between those of cane and sirup. Profes 
 sor De la Rive of Geneva, and M. Theodore De Saussure, by a further 
 investigation of these results, found that during this process no gas is 
 evolved, that the conversion proceeds equally well in close vessels, 
 and that no portion of the sulphuric acid is decomposed. Whence it 
 is fair to conclude, that the conversion of starch into sugar is nothing 
 more than its combination with water in its solid state, or rather with 
 its elements. M. Braconnot has recently extended still further our 
 views concerning the artificial production of sugar and gum. He 
 found that well-dried elm -dust, shreds of linen, &c. when treated with 
 sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1.827) and afterwards diluted with water, and 
 the acid saturated with lime, yielded, by evaporation, a glutinous 
 matter, which was convertible into a crystallized sugar, by further 
 boiling with diluted sulphuric acid at 30 or 40. Nothing can more 
 satisfactorily illustrate the facility with which one proximate principle 
 is convertible into another ; and strange as the statement may appear 
 to persons not familiar with chemical speculations, it is nevertheless 
 indisputably true that a pound weight of rags can be easily converted 
 into a pound weight of sugar,* and be distilled into spirits. 
 
 Such was the origin of the art which has been so successfully 
 applied to France in the manufacture of spirits from potatoes ; and it 
 has rendered the saccharizing of starch by sulphuric acid, a simple and 
 practicable branch of manufacture. 
 
 M. Zeize has stated, that a small quantity of chloride of calcium 
 (oxymuriate of lime) moistened with water, added to the wash made 
 from potatoes or grain, (the liquid being allowed to subside before it 
 is distilled) makes the spirit produced more like brandy. It is freed, 
 he says, from the peculiar taste of all corn-spirits, and is considered 
 as good as the brandy made from wine. The chloride must be of the 
 best quality, and to determine the quantity necessary to be used, a 
 
 * Paris .s Elements of Medical Chemistry, p. 195. 
 
698 
 
 little of the wash should be first tried with it as a test of the pro 
 portion requisite. 
 
 M. Dubrunfaut, a French chemist, in his Art of Distillation, (pub 
 lished at Paris in 1824,) has given the results of various experiments 
 made by him in the saccharizing 1 and distilling of potato starch. From 
 4 gallons, 3J pints, to 5J gallons imperial measure of spirits at 19 
 (935 sp, gr.) was the ordinary quantity obtained from llOlbs. of starch 
 saccharized by sulphuric acid ; but it is thought that this could be 
 considerably increased by various means, particularly by diluting and 
 cooling the worts rapidly, as delay in this stage of the process tends 
 to diminish the alcoholic principle. 
 
 When 22 libs, of starch are submitted to the action of sulphuric 
 acid, 13 T ^ gallons of spirits of 935 degrees specific gravity are obtained. 
 But since it is known that starch acted on by sulphuric acid, produces 
 an equal weight of sugar, and that sugar in fermentation gives nearly 
 half its weight of carbonic acid-gas, and the other half of pure 
 alcohol, it is evident that this quantity is far off the actual quantity 
 that ought to be produced ; and after all the ingenuity of the chemist, 
 what has been accomplished only proves that there is yet much to be 
 done to perfect the process of transforming starch into alcohol. 
 
 In Sweden, an improvement in the distillation of brandy from 
 potatoes has been lately introduced by M. Siemen of Pyrmont, who 
 was invited to Stockholm by the government at the instance of M. 
 Berzelius. The Danish monarch also induced him to visit Copenha 
 gen, to communicate his plan of operations to Professor Oersted, who 
 gave it his unqualified approbation. 
 
 The potatoes are heated by steam at high pressure above the tem 
 perature of 212, and reduced to a fine pulp by the rotatory motion 
 of an iron cross in the same vessel in which they are steamed. The 
 pulp is then diluted with hot water and a little caustic potash. One 
 pound of potash is sufficient for three or four tons of potatoes. The 
 effect of high steam heat is to render the pulp extremely miscible 
 with the alkaline water, so that every thing , except the skins, readily 
 passes through a sieve. This fine pulp is speedily cooled, and it is then 
 fit to be fermented in the ordinary mode. A great quantity of yeast 
 is also produced during fermentation, which serves either for future 
 operations, or for bakers use. M. Siemen states the product of spirit 
 by his process to be more than one-third greater than is obtained by 
 the common method, which amounts to 13 quarts from a ton of pota 
 toes. In the experiments made, under the personal inspection of 
 Professor Oersted, at Copenhagen, from 16^ to 17 quarts of spirits at 
 
699 
 
 50 of Tralles alcohometer, were obtained from a ton of potatoes, 
 making a fair allowance for that portion of the product due to the 
 malt used in the maceration. This spirit is stated to have a good 
 flavour, though the produce is inferior to that obtained by the French 
 chemists. In an article in De Thaer s Annals of Agriculture, M 
 Miiller asserts that an apparatus on Siemen s principle, costing from 200 
 to 250 Prussian dollars, is capable of producing 50 per cent, more of 
 of spirit from potatoes than the apparatus generally used in Germany, 
 calculating from the price and produce of potatoes and rye in 1820. 
 M. Miiller declares that 100 tons of the former converted into spirits 
 would produce a profit of from 500 to 600 rix-dollars, while the same 
 space of ground that produced them, if sown with rye, would not 
 give more than from ten to twelve rix-dollars. 
 
 About the year 1832, a gentleman visited the distillery of Messrs. 
 Calder, at Eyemouth, in Berwickshire, and found that they had 
 worked for some short time from potatoes. He considered the 
 spirits, (which had the flavour of Hollands,) to be pure and good, and 
 although it was affirmed that no grain or malt had been used, he 
 strongly suspected the contrary. The fermentation was described 
 as beautiful, the head rising seven or eight feet like clouds of cotton ; 
 and when beaten down to the surface of the worts, it rose again in the 
 same majestic manner. The gravity worked at was 40 and the 
 attenuation was good. The potatoes were ground in a mill, like a com 
 mon pepper-mill in shape, but made of sheet-iron perforated like a 
 grater. The pulp, thus produced, was mashed in the keive or 
 mash-tun, with water of a high degree of temperature, say boiling, 
 from which the worts ran off pure and freely. A spurge, or small 
 worts of about 20 gravity, was obliged to be used, otherwise the 
 worts at the noticed gravity of 40 could not be got off : the pro 
 duce was good as there was no deficiency. The spirits were sent to 
 the London market, and so long as they were called "grain .spirits" 
 in the permits, they were highly prized ; but when this error was 
 corrected, and they were denominated spirits " distilled from pota 
 toes" the price fell and they were not so much sought after. About 
 the same time, Mr. Jamieson, of Fairfield, near Enniscorthy, com 
 menced distilling from potatoes. They were sliced, dried on a corn- 
 kiln, ground to flour, mixed in certain proportions with corn, and 
 mashed in the ordinary manner. But the manufacture was aban 
 doned in consequence of the opposition of the peasantry, through fear 
 of a scarcity and dearth in the article. From some late experiments 
 of M. Dubrunfaut, he proposed to brew from the starch of potatoes 
 an excellent beverage resembling French beer, the starch being ma- 
 
700 
 
 eerated and fermented with hops. By fermenting the saccharized 
 starch with honey instead of hops, a palatable liquor was made, 
 having all the qualities of Louvaine beer. Potato starch being free 
 from any peculiar taste, seems capable of receiving flavour in fer 
 mentation from any substance that gives repute to our beer, or home 
 made wines. Dr. Hare, having observed a strong analogy between 
 the saccharine matter of the sweet potato and molasses, or the sac- 
 charum of malt, boiled a wort made from the potatoes, of 1060 
 specific gravity, with a proportionate quantity of hops for the space 
 of two hours. It was then cooled to about 56, and yeast added. 
 As far as could be judged, the phenomena of the fermentation and 
 the liquor produced, were precisely the same as if malt had been 
 used. The wort was kept in a warm place until the temperature was 
 85 Fahrenheit ; and the fall of the head showed the attenuation to 
 be sufficient. Yeast subsequently rose, which was removed by 
 skimming. A further quantity of yeast was precipitated by refrigera 
 tion, from which the liquor being decanted, became tolerably fine for 
 new beer, and resembled, in flavour, ale made from malt. It has been 
 computed, that five bushels of potatoes would produce as much wort 
 as three bushels of malt, while the residue, as food for cattle, would 
 be worth half as much as the potatoes employed. 
 
 In the opinion of some, (particularly those who have not em 
 ployed sulphuric acid in the saccharizing of starch,) the best time 
 to use potatoes in distillation is in spring, when they begin to vege 
 tate. The growth of the buds must be checked as in the process of 
 malting ; and this is easily done by spreading them on a floor, and 
 by subsequent turning, so as to deprive them of as much of their 
 aqueous matter as possible. When reduced to a pulpy consistence, 
 diluted with boiling water, and drawn off and cooled to a proper 
 temperature, the liquid is then fermented in the same manner as 
 grain worts ; and such has been the treatment observed by many, 
 who have tried the distillation of potatoes in this country. Sprouted 
 potatoes produce as perfect farina in July as in December, and equal 
 in quantity to what they would have yielded earlier in the season, 
 being, according to Sir John Sinclair, about 141bs. per cwt. 
 
 In Prussia, it is very common to cultivate potatoes for the manu 
 facture of starch and treacle. The treacle is found to be very pro 
 fitable, and though not possessing so much consistence as that 
 imported from the West Indies, yet it is not inferior in sweetness, 
 and can be sold to the consumers at a more reasonable rate. 
 
 In the Journal of Arts, it is stated that potato apples yield, by 
 proper treatment, as much alchohol as an equal quantity of grapes 
 
701 
 
 when bruised and fermented with one eighteenth or one-twentieth 
 part of their weight of yeast.* 
 
 From these details on the application of potatoes in the manufac 
 ture of spirits, persons may be induced to try experiments that 
 might ultimately prove advantageous, If they proceed by the reduc 
 tion of the farina to a pulpy substance, the operation is simply by 
 boiling; if by the reduction to starch, it may be mechanically 
 effected, at little expense and labour, either by pounding, or grating, 
 and elutriation with cold water. To saccharize the starch, from one 
 to two parts of sulphuric acid, are considered sufficient for every 
 hundred parts of starch, when the heat applied is above 212 ; a 
 period of two or three hours is thought sufficient to produce crystallized 
 sugar : the heat in this process is best communicated in a wooden 
 vessel by means of steam. 
 
 Besides the spirit which can be extracted from potatoes, beet-root, 
 or mangel-wurzel, has latterly become an article of attention for the 
 same object ; but whether its extensive cultivation for this purpose 
 might be advantageous, sufficient experiments have not been tried 
 in this country, to enable a correct judgment to be formed. The Act 
 of the 2d and 3d Wm. IV. chap. 74, and not the 4th Wm. IV., 
 as quoted in the note page 549, (which received the royal assent 
 on the 1st August, 1832,) specially provides for the distillation from 
 this article, without any admixture of malt, or other grain ; but 
 there is a manifest anomaly in confining the distillation to the mere 
 extract of the root, to the exclusion of other ingredients, which 
 might be beneficial in the process. 
 
 In France, the distillation of this article has been followed with 
 considerable success, by several experienced chemists, and the pro 
 duce is good ; but it is from the molasses, after the extraction of the 
 sugar, that the spirit is drawn, f 
 
 The beet-root is first well cleansed and rasped into a pulpy 
 state, the sugar is extracted, and the residue, or molasses, is fer 
 mented in the usual way, but it has been found serviceable to add a 
 mixture of ground malt, which gives force and strength to the fer 
 mentation, rendering it more complete, and producing a spirit of 
 greater body and more palatable flavour. With a cylindrical screw, 
 or hydraulic press, from 70 to 80 per cent, of juice has been pro 
 cured ; and this liquid, w r hen yeast is applied under a proper tem 
 perature, soon begins to ferment, and rapidly undergoes the necessary 
 
 * Journal of Arts for 1819, Art. 18. 
 
 f Margraff, the Prussian chemist, first procured sugar from the white beet in 
 1747. 
 
702 
 
 attenuation for the still. Sulphuric acid, it is stated, has, in some 
 instances, been added with effect to the solution of treacle and 
 water in the fermenting-hack ; but this is highly questionable, and is 
 in opposition to the principles of vinous fermentation. 
 
 A distillery was lately fitted up at Battersea for the distillation 
 of beet-root. The wooden still employed was from 6 to 700 gallons 
 content, and was worked by steam pipes passing through the wash. 
 The process observed there was simple, the roots were sliced, and the 
 juice was squeezed out by a hydraulic press. The fermentation 
 proved uncertain, owing, no doubt, to the want of malt ; some of the 
 backs not commencing to work for many days, and stopping when 
 half attenuated ; others commencing early and fermenting better ; 
 but none of them attenuating below 5. The spirit was coarse and 
 impure, and the produce did not exceed two-thirds of the noticed 
 gravity. 
 
 To speculate, therefore, on the distillation of beet-root as a profita 
 ble branch of manufacture, would prove, it is to be feared, (as the law 
 now stands) a hazardous enterprise ; and the more so as the Act of 
 the 1st Victoria, chap. 57, has imposed a duty on the sugar extracted 
 from that vegetable. 
 
 Mr. Hercules Bradshaw, an enterprising gentleman of Hills- 
 borough, in the county of Down, who cultivated the beet-root to a 
 very considerable extent, established a manufactory for extracting 
 sugar from it. Samples of good sugar were produced, and the 
 manufacture of the article was so promising as to induce many of 
 the farmers in the vicinity to speculate largely in the cultivation of 
 the root, the more particularly from having a ready market con 
 venient. It is probable (had not the law interfered,) that Mr. Brad 
 shaw would have succeeded to the full extent of his expectations, as 
 the result of his experiments was highly satisfactory. 
 
 Within these few years, it was found, that in making bread in 
 which barm was employed, a portion of alchohol was generated, by 
 means of what has been termed the panary fermentation. To collect 
 this spirit which was lost in the oven, Mr. R. Hicks, of London, was 
 amongst the foremost in contriving an oven and apparatus for pre 
 serving the alchohol thus evolved. The oven, for which he obtained 
 a patent in 1830, is made of metal, having a floor of bricks in the 
 bottom, with doors to shut perfectly air tight ; whilst a pipe is 
 attached to the top of the oven, through which the vapour ascends, 
 and is condensed below in a common worm. By this mode, it was 
 stated, that from every 4lbs. of bread, from half an ounce to an ounce 
 
703 
 
 of proof spirits was obtained, and that the bread was considered 
 greatly superior to that made in the common manner. The Lords of 
 the Treasury, considering this invention of much importance to the 
 revenue, authorized, by a warrant dated 16th May, 1831, the Com 
 missioners of Excise to permit the use of this apparatus, under 
 such regulations as might be thought necessary for the secu 
 rity of the revenue. Accordingly, it has been directed, that "on 
 application being made for such permission, the party be required 
 to make entry and take out license as a distiller, and maker of low- 
 wines and spirits ; and to enter into bond with a sufficient surety or 
 sureties, in 500 for the due performance of the conditions, on which 
 the apparatus is to be used." 
 
 Mr. Smith, of the Thames Bank Distillery, to effect the same 
 object, used for an oven, a circular vessel of cast iron, about 8 feet 
 in diameter, by 18 inches in height, having its bottom covered with 
 tiles to prevent the bread from being scorched by the iron : the 
 heat was communicated by means of fire on a revolving furnace 
 placed beneath. In the top of the oven was a circular opening about 
 18 inches in diameter, with a head and worm attached in the manner 
 of the common still. When the oven was heated to the proper tem 
 perature, the bread was put in and the door securely closed. The 
 vapour from the bread ascended into the worm, where it was con 
 densed, and passed into a small receiver in the form of low wines. 
 Its strength was about 87.5 per cent under proof, or equal to 12^- 
 per cent proof spirits, and which, of course, required re-distillation by 
 means of a still to render it marketable. 
 
 This oven baked 60 quartern loaves at a time, producing j of an 
 ounce of proof spirits for each loaf, or 45 ounces for the whole batch, 
 being nearly the third of a gallon, and it was expected that from each 
 loaf, an ounce might be obtained. Several ovens on similar princi 
 ples have been tried, but without that success which would warrant 
 their continuation for any useful or profitable purpose. 
 
 The process of rectifying spirits is a matter worthy of attention, 
 as it is one of the chief means of correcting the taste and flavour of 
 spirituous liquors : it would require, however, to do justice to the 
 subject, a disquisition of some length to detail the various methods 
 resorted to, for the accomplishment of this object. While rectifica 
 tion serves to concentrate alchohol, and deprive it of the essential oils 
 and acids, by which raw or plain spirits are distinguished, it prepares 
 them for the acquisition of any flavour, which the rectifier may be 
 desirous of producing. 
 
701. 
 
 This branch of trade is, by a late law, greatly simplified. Before a 
 rectifier can obtain a license which costs ten pounds, he must make an 
 entry of his premises and utensils. He must have a still contain 
 ing 120 gallons imperial measure in the body, independent of the 
 head, but is at liberty to have as many larger or smaller as he 
 pleases. The officer keeps an account of all the raw or plain spirits 
 received by permit, and twelve hours before the commencement of 
 work, a notice is served on him, when he attends and unlocks the 
 furnace door, which had been previously secured to prevent operations. 
 The still being charged with of its contents, (which is ascer 
 tained by dip), the aperture through which this is effected, is 
 secured by a lock, while during the course of the work, the officer 
 makes two visits, one to inspect the progress and the other to show 
 the still off, when the furnace door is again locked, if the trader 
 should cease to work, or the still is recharged if the work is to continue. 
 A general stock of the concern is taken every 42 days at least, or 
 oftener if the officer considers it expedient, on which an occasional 
 check is kept by the Supervisor; but if a decrease be found in a greater 
 proportion than five gallons to every hundred, a penalty is incurred. 
 In Ireland, the business of a rectifier is confined to the manu 
 facture of spirits of wine, cordials, and liqueurs, with imitations 
 of brandy, rum, and geneva, and forms but a small branch of trade ; 
 while in England, all raw spirits are modified and sent into consump 
 tion through the means of the rectifiers, in the form, or under the 
 name of British compounds. 
 
 In 1835, there were in England 108 rectifiers ; in Scotland, 11 ; 
 and in Ireland, 20. The chief grievance which the persons in this 
 trade have to complain of (particularly in Scotland and Ireland) is the 
 prohibition against the exportation of their manufacture. By the act 
 of the 6th and 7th Wm. I V. c. 72, countervailing duties were imposed 
 on certain compounds, tinctures, and medicated spirits on their remo 
 val from Ireland to England, or Scotland, or from Scotland to Eng 
 land, but as the articles enumerated in the schedule, form but a 
 limited portion of the manufacture of the trade, the rectifiers are, in 
 no respect, benefited by its provisions. And hence the business of 
 rectification must continue to present few inducements to persons of 
 capital and enterprise to embark in it, until a change in the law will 
 offer a reciprocity of intercourse and advantage. 
 
 The lowness of price obtained for the plainer article, prevents, 
 for the most part, any efforts to improve the description of liquors 
 coming through the hands of these traders, as well as the exertions 
 
705 
 
 of scientific men, if better encouragement were given, to introduce 
 improvements into the present system of work. If the cultivation of 
 native fruits and the making of wine therefrom were more particu 
 larly attended to, an excellent brandy (subject to a moderate duty), 
 might be produced to the exclusion of the foreign commodity, a great 
 portion of which is made from grain and cider. The consumption of 
 sugar in the making of these wines, would, there is little doubt, coun 
 terbalance the loss of duty on the foreign brandy. 
 
 Having given an ample detail of the various intoxicating beve 
 rages, and other exhilarating substances used in the different countries 
 of the world, and having presented a full explanation of the most 
 improved practice of brewing and distillation, I shall take leave of 
 the subject by making a few observations on the effect, which the 
 inordinate use of spirits may be supposed to produce on the population 
 of the empire, illustrated by details of its influence on man from the 
 earliest records of history. 
 
 Whether, as previously alluded to, drunkenness had any effect in 
 contributing to the destruction of mankind by the deluge, it would be 
 impossible to determine ; but we have seen that Noah proved him 
 self to have been no stranger to its evil consequences. The vice of 
 Lot and his daughters is a melancholy instance of its baneful influ 
 ence. To irregularity occasioned by intoxication, many important 
 events, revolutions, and occurrences are to be attributed. Babylon 
 fell through its delusive effects, for while revelry, banqueting, and 
 inordinate excesses were going on> the enemy were enabled to take 
 advantage of the indiscretions of the hour, and to destroy the boast 
 and glory of a mighty and powerful empire. Alexander, who sighed 
 because he had not another world to conquer, fell a victim to the 
 direful potency of wine ; maddened by its influence, Persepolis was 
 destroyed through the instigation of Thais, and Alexander himself 
 prematurely sunk under the pressure of an inordinate debauch. His 
 mighty empire crumbled into atoms, leaving its vestiges as the frag 
 ments of a stupendous edifice erected by the power of a gigantic mind, 
 and destroyed by the same influence, through the wantonness of u 
 drunken frolic. The Romans, it is well known, after a siege of three 
 years, could not reduce the city of Syracuse, owing chiefly to the 
 talents of Archimedes, till the celebration of a feast of Bacchus had 
 rendered the inhabitants so incapable of exertion, that Marcellus, the 
 Roman general, taking advantage of the irregularity, entered the city 
 in triumph, and made captives of a people, whom he could not have 
 subdued had they not yielded to the temptations of excessive drinking. 
 
 2 z 
 
706 
 
 Lycurgus, king of Thrace, finding his subjects addicted to this vice, 
 proscribed the cultivation of the vine, and established agriculture in 
 its stead. 
 
 Its influence over the Persians and other Orientalists, as well as 
 amongst the rude and barbarous African tribes, it would be tedious to 
 recapitulate ; ample testimony has been given of its pernicious con 
 sequences on the aborigines of the American continent, while its 
 frightful demoralizing power has been lamentably exemplified through 
 out the vast expanse of the Polynesian and Australasian islands. 
 
 To recount the numerous fatal instances occasioned by drunken 
 ness which history exhibits, would not only exceed the limits of this 
 work, but afford ample materials for a volume. 
 
 Throughout Europe, a taste for intoxicating beverages prevails less 
 or more in different regions. In the wine countries, although this dis 
 position may be carried to great length, yet the effects are less visible 
 than in those parts where ardent spirits is the predominant liquor. 
 This is easily accounted for, when it is known that the alcoholic 
 or intoxicating principle is in wine combined with other ingredients 
 which diminish its influence on the human frame ; but in spirits it is 
 collected and uncombined with other materials by which its activity 
 on the system is the more powerful and enervating. Irishmen have 
 the reputation of being more generally prone to the use of spirituous 
 liquors than their neighbours, and the national character has been 
 tarnished in consequence. So far back as the time of Henry VIII., 
 we find that the legislature warmly exerted itself in the suppression 
 of this vice, while an Irish parliament under Elizabeth was equally 
 intent on checking its destructive ascendancy. But it does not appear 
 that any encouragement was given to the substitution of ale for 
 spirits ; hence the inclination of the population was never diverted 
 from the native beverage, but allowed to take root and spread with 
 the increase of every succeeding generation. The force of habit 
 is powerful, and daily experience shews what it is capable of effecting, 
 even in the use of tobacco a weed which imparts less vigour to the 
 body or pleasure to the mind, than the talismanic enchantment derived 
 from the elixir of the bottle. 
 
 To the peculiar circumstances of the country, involved as it has 
 been, from an early period, in foreign and domestic broils, combined 
 with the want of education and of regular employment, a love of com 
 pany, the hospitable and social habits of the people, together with a 
 number of festive and holy-days, (all so many scenes of revelry and 
 intemperance), may be attributed the influence and hold which the 
 
707 
 
 use of intoxicating liquors has obtained over the lower orders of the 
 Irish. 
 
 In France, Spain, and Italy, where wine and brandy are in the 
 greatest abundance, and within the reach of the lowest class of the 
 people, drunkenness is not so prevalent, and forms but a small portion 
 of the errors of the day. From this it might be inferred that there 
 are fewer excitements to excess in drinking, when the article can be 
 purchased at a moderate rate, than when it is made a source of temp 
 tation by a heavy duty, and rendered a luxury by the difficulty of its 
 attainment. The evil effects of illicit distillation corroborate this 
 assumption, as contraband trade with a consequent disregard for the 
 laws, has been always the result of laying an impost on any article 
 beyond the ability of the consumer to purchase. " Surely (says Play- 
 fair) it would be well to take some mode to prevent the facility with 
 which people get intoxicated, and the temptation that exists to do so. 
 The great number of public-houses and the way in which they give 
 credit, are undoubtedly, in part, causes of this evil. It would be easy 
 to lessen the number without hurting liberty, and it would be no injus 
 tice if publicans were prevented from legal recovery for beer or spirits 
 consumed in their houses on credit. There could be no hardship in 
 this, and it might tend to produce a great reformation in the manners 
 of the lower orders."* The facilities for obtaining beer and spirits 
 in the empire may be seen by an inspection of the enumeration of the 
 licensed houses for the retail of those articles, according to the 
 returns of 1837 : - 
 
 England, 45,394 
 
 Scotland,.. 17,026 
 
 Ireland, 33,729 
 
 Besides these, there are numerous spirit-grocers, who sell so low 
 as a glass not to be consumed on the premises, as well as innume 
 rable shebeen and private houses in every quarter of the country, 
 vending, for the most part, a spurious and adulterated article.f 
 
 The consumption of spirits of all sorts on which the duty was paid 
 for 1836, amounted in the three kingdoms to 31,402,417 gallons. 
 
 To counteract the evil consequences of drinking to excess, Tempe 
 rance Societies have been formed in several parts of Great Britain, 
 (the first established in Ireland being in 1829,) which are now in active 
 operation, disseminating their principles among all classes of the 
 
 * Decline and Fall of Nations, 4to. p. 226. 
 
 f See the last Table of the Addenda for the consumption of spirits for a series 
 of years. 
 
708 
 
 community. In speaking of these societies, it may not be irrelevant 
 to remark, that while they are calculated to do much good, a want 
 of union amongst the members must prove injurious to the great object 
 that all should have in view. 
 
 Some carry their notions of abstinence to great length, even denying 
 the use of every thing that has undergone the fermenting process, 
 (not reflecting that the juice of the grape contains, in its simple state, 
 all the elements of alcohol ;) while others are not so fastidious, and 
 allow the moderate use of wine and malt liquors. Without, however, 
 attempting to draw a line of demarcation between them, it is to be 
 feared, no matter how influential example may be, that unless some 
 reward, token of approbation, or substitute be given, the nominal 
 term of Temperance, or the mere pledge of any individual, will have 
 little effect in producing any substantial reform amongst the lower 
 classes. It has, therefore, been considered, that were those who have 
 given testimony of their reformation, assisted in their respective avo 
 cations or pursuits of life, by the patronage of the superior classes of 
 society, or by the distribution of honorary distinctions, or pecuniary 
 rewards, it would induce numbers to abandon their irregular habits, 
 enrol themselves as Temperance members, and would finally lead to the 
 comfort and happiness of thousands of families. In England, it is said 
 that there are above 300,000 Temperance advocates, and an equal 
 number in Ireland and Scotland a gratifying statement to the friends 
 of religion and tranquillity. And it is to be hoped that this virtuous 
 example will be successfully followed throughout the British empire, 
 and in every nation where man is debased by the brutality of drunk 
 enness. The Spartans used to shew to young persons their serfs or 
 Helots in a state of intoxication, in order to make them detest the 
 crime of inebriety, and were a similar mode of exemplary exposure 
 practised in every part of the world, it might have its influence in 
 rendering the vice more odious and contemptible. 
 
 Even the poor Indians hold intoxication in abhorrence, accounting 
 it a species of madness; and the word, which in their language signifies 
 a drunkard, is also the term for a maniac. To what shameful extrava 
 gance the love of strong liquors led the Athenians in their bacchanalian 
 festivals, is well known to every classical reader. So much were the 
 Romans disgusted with the obscenity of these orgies, that they sup 
 pressed them by a decree of the Senate. But, although their prudence 
 led them to reprobate those scandalous acts of wantonness and folly, 
 many of their governors ran into riotous excesses at the public expense, 
 and without regard to the laws of decency or decorum. An extra- 
 
709 
 
 vagant instance of this description is exemplified in the intoxicated 
 frenzy of Nero, whose banqueting hall (styled Domus Aurea), exhibited 
 every mark of voluptuousness and debauchery. This building was 
 so constructed, that the ceiling, partitions, and other compartments 
 had a rotatory motion, similar to that of the celestial bodies, shewing 
 the different seasons of the year, and letting fall on the heads of the 
 bacchanalian votaries, at each revolution, showers of essences, flowers, 
 and perfumes, to delight the senses; while the most costly wines were 
 dealt about with an unsparing profusion, to infatuate the mind and 
 excite the passions. The conduct of Nero was not more remarkable 
 for its extravagance and folly than that of Aurelius Antoninus, (sur- 
 named Heliogabalus,) who, after plunging into the vortex of every 
 dissipation, so far degraded himself as to invite the lowest and most 
 abandoned of his subjects to his banquets; while the infatuated 
 propensities of Caligula led him to feed his horse with gilt barley, and 
 cause the animal to drink wine with him out of a golden cup. 
 
 The vice of drunkenness has tended to degrade man more than any 
 of the other weaknesses, to which human nature is prone. It is well 
 remarked in the Guardian, when personifying the follies of life, " that 
 drunkenness was the only vice that did not change the face of its pos 
 sessor into that of another creature ; but this is to be taken far from a 
 privilege, for these two reasons : because it sufficiently deforms them of 
 itself, and because none of the lower rank of beings is guilty of so 
 foolish an intemperance."* "A drunken man," says Addison, "is a 
 greater monster than any that is to be found among all the creatures 
 that God has made, as indeed there is no character which appears 
 more despicable in the eyes of all reasonable persons. Bonosus, one 
 of our own countrymen, who was addicted to this vice, having set up 
 for a share in the Roman empire, and being defeated in a great battle, 
 hanged himself. When he was seen by the army in this melancholy 
 situation, notwithstanding he had behaved himself very bravely, the 
 common jest was, that the thing they saw hanging upon the tree 
 before them was not a man but a bottle."f The Scythians abhorred 
 the Bacchanalian feasts of the Greeks, because they thought it was 
 unreasonable to suppose that a God should drive men into all the 
 violent transports of madness which drinking produces. The Lace 
 daemonians had no notion of drinking for pleasure, and they not only 
 accounted drunkenness infamous, but severely punished those who 
 were detected in such criminality. On returning from their public 
 
 * Guardian, No. 66. f Spectator, No. 569. 
 
710 
 
 meals, no persons were allowed torches or lights, because it was ex 
 pected that men who were perfectly sober should be able to find their 
 way in the dark. A law was enacted by Pittacus, king of Lesbos, 
 that "he who committed a crime when drunk, should receive a double 
 punishment" one for the crime itself, and the other for the inebriety 
 which prompted him to commit it. 
 
 Paley observes, that " the guilt of any action in a drunken man 
 bears the same proportion to the guilt of the like action in a sober 
 man, that the probability of its being the consequence of drunkenness 
 bears to absolute certainty." The British laws consider drunkenness 
 an aggravation, not an excuse for criminal behaviour, and have pro 
 vided, that he, who is guilty of any crime through his own voluntary 
 drunkenness, shall be punished for it as if he had been sober. The 
 offence is punishable either in the ecclesiastical courts, or by a justice 
 of the peace according to the statute. It is even a sufficient cause 
 to remove a magistrate himself from office. 
 
 By the laws still in force,* if any person shall be convicted of 
 drunkenness before a magistrate, he must forfeit five shillings for the 
 first offence, or sit six hours in the stocks; and for the second offence, 
 he must enter into a bond with two sureties in 10 each, to be of 
 good behaviour, or be committed : our late enactment is but a modifi 
 cation of those. 
 
 In the time of the Commonwealth, the magistrates of Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne punished drunkards by making them carry a tub, which they 
 called the drunkard s cloak. A hole was made in the bottom, (which 
 was turned upwards), to admit the head of the delinquent to pass 
 through, and two smaller ones were perforated in the sides for the 
 hands. This he was obliged to carry in the open streets, so long as 
 the magistrates chose, exposed to the contempt and ridicule of the 
 people. 
 
 The sacred writers observe, that " Wine is a mocker, strong drink 
 is raging; and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise.f " Be not 
 among wine-bibbers; among riotous eaters of flesh for the drunk 
 ard and the glutton shall come to poverty.J Who hath woe ? Who hath 
 sorrow ? Who hath contentions ? Who hath babbling ? Who hath wounds 
 without cause? Who hath redness of eyes ?" "They that tarry 
 long at the wine ; they that go to seek mixed wine. Look not thou 
 upon wine, when it is red, when it giveth his colour in the cup ; when 
 itmoveth itself aright at the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth 
 
 * Jac. I. c. 521. Ja. I. 47. f Pror. xx. 1. J Ibid, xxiii. 20, 21. 
 
711 
 
 like an adder."* " Woe unto them that rise up early in the morning-, 
 that they may follow strong drink, that continue until night, till wine 
 inflame them ! And the harp and the viol, the tabret and pipe, and 
 wine, are in their feasts : but they regard not the work of the Lord, 
 neither consider the operation of his hands. Woe unto them 
 that are mighty to drink wine, and men of strength to mingle 
 strong drink."")" 
 
 These quotations so strongly express the evil consequences of 
 drunkenness, that commentary on them is almost unnecessary ; yet, 
 it may be stated : 
 
 1st, That this frailty is an enemy to the common concerns of life, 
 as well as to those of futurity, since it expels from men s minds all 
 reverence to God, and respect for man, and excites to the gratifica 
 tion of every base and inordinate inclination. 
 
 2d, That while it produces but a momentary pleasure, it engenders 
 a lasting regret, so that it has been justly said of it, that it 
 works like so much poison, and is difficult to cure as the biting 
 of a serpent. 
 
 The pernicious effects of drunkenness are thus beautifully expressed 
 by Prior : 
 
 Unhappy man, whom sorrow thus and rage 
 To different ills alternately engage ; 
 Who drinks, alas! but to forget, nor sees 
 That melancholy sloth, severe disease, 
 Memory confused, an interrupted thought, 
 Death s harbingers, lie latent in the draught ; 
 And in the flowers, that wreathe a sparkling bowl, 
 Fell adders his^ and poisonous serpents roll. 
 
 The destructive influence of intoxication is too familiar to require 
 much further illustration j extravagance, anger, and lasciviousness 
 follow in its train ; the duties of life are neglected by the derange 
 ment of the faculties and the consequent incapacity and stupefaction 
 which it occasions ; while the expense it incurs, robs society of its 
 legitimate support, and the unhappiness it produces, tends to shorten 
 life, and embitter the last moments of existence. 
 
 The waste of property which a habit of continual drinking pro 
 duces, will appear monstrous, when it is certain that many men 
 consume at least a bottle of wine daily; and, taking that at an 
 average of 2s. 6d. the bottle, this, would, in twenty years, amount 
 to 912. 10s. a sum which, if properly applied, would be the means 
 
 * Prov. xxiii. 29. 30, 31. 32. f Isaiah v, 11. 12. 22. 
 
712 
 
 of meliorating the condition of many a helpless widow and orphan. If, 
 amongst the lower orders, spirits and ale be taken into consideration 
 as the common beverages ; and allowing to each individual a consump 
 tion of three pence a-day, this would come to 4. 11s. 3d. annually, 
 or ,91. 5s. in twenty years. This though comparatively small, 
 and far under the actual outlay, is so enormous that when applied to 
 the aggregate population of Great Britain and Ireland, (upwards of 
 twenty-four millions,) estimating at fifteen millions of drinkers, the 
 whole would shew a sum of 68,437,500 annually, or 1,368,750,000 
 in twenty years. 
 
 That the excessive use of inebriating liquors is productive of 
 incalculable evil to the community at large, is a truth, which not 
 even the drunkard himself, in his sober moments, would be disposed 
 to deny. Were we to examine the prisons, bridewells, houses of 
 correction, penitentiaries, lunatic asylums, and other places of incar 
 ceration, we should find a vast number of the inmates of those abodes 
 of human degradation to have been the victims of vice and folly, 
 through the inordinate use of intoxicating liquors ; while the numerous 
 paupers that unhappily throng every city, town, and village, may owe 
 their misery, in a great measure, to the same desolating cause. But 
 while the abuse of ardent spirits and intoxicating beverages of all 
 kinds is to be lamented, yet it is urged by some, that a moderate and 
 salutary use of them is not to be condemned, as they have been found 
 beneficial on various occasions, have added to the comforts of life, and 
 heightened the enjoyments of society when kept within the bounds of 
 reason and propriety. And they further allege, that the invention of 
 spirituous liquors is no more to be attributed to an evil propensity in 
 man, than any other invention or discovery, which has been productive 
 of the best consequences : the evil, they assert, lies in the excess of 
 the application the good in the restriction. So that if man debases 
 himself by an immoderate use of any of the bounties of nature, that 
 is no condemnation of their value and importance. It is an aphorism in 
 China, that " the drunkard s fault is not the wine s, but his own." 
 True ! for had he abstained from the wine, the fault would not have 
 occurred. 
 
 It was customary among the ancient Egyptians, in order to prevent 
 excesses at festivals, or other entertainments, to bring into company 
 the figure of a corpse, to remind the guests of mortality, and the 
 slender thread on which life existed, as well as the necessity for 
 temperance and moderation in their enjoyments. 
 
 Montesquieu is of opinion, that drunkenness predominates through 
 out the world in proportion to the coldness of the climate or the 
 
713 
 
 distance from the equator towards the pole, and that tfie law of 
 Mahomet was one of climate suited to that of Arabia, as the law 
 mentioned by Plato, Aristotle, and Eusebius, (which forbade the 
 Carthaginians to drink wine,) was a law of a similar description. 
 
 Ample testimony of the melancholy effects of drunkenness may be 
 found on reference to the minutes of evidence taken before the Com 
 mittee of the House of Commons, which was appointed in June, 1834, 
 to inquire into the extent, causes, and consequences of intemperance 
 among the labouring classes of the United Kingdom. Before this 
 Committee were laid scenes of the most appalling nature, arising from 
 the habitual and excessive use of ardent spirits, and it appeared that 
 most, if not all, of the desperate atrocities which had been committed 
 were chiefly owing to its influence. It is worthy of remark, that 
 during the Irish rebellion in 1798, there was one-fourth of a 
 greater proportion of spirits used than in either of the two preceding 
 or succeeding years. It has been estimated that in England, four- 
 fifths of all the crimes in the country have been committed under the 
 excitement of inebriating liquors. During the year 1832, there were 
 taken into custody by the London police, 32,636 persons for drunken 
 ness alone, not including any of the numerous cases in which assaults, 
 or more serious offences, had been committed under the influence of 
 drink. This statement relates merely to the suburbs of London, 
 without any of the numerous cases that occurred in the city itself. 
 It is, moreover, alleged, that more than one-half of the insanity 
 amongst the population is occasioned by inebriety of 405 patients 
 admitted into a lunatic asylum, at Liverpool, 257 were known to 
 have lost their reason by this vice. 
 
 From the preceding facts and observations, it must be obvious that 
 the assumption, which has been urged by some, of a high duty on 
 spirits leading to excess in its indulgence, is contrary to experience 
 and actual practice. Yet it cannot be affirmed, that to the operation 
 of a low duty, the great bulk of the irregularities which take 
 place, is to be attributed. It is not in the management of distillery- 
 laws, or their adaptation to the suppression of smuggling, either in 
 public or private distilleries, that we are to look for the causes, which 
 have produced in Ireland those acts of wickedness and bloodshedj 
 that have so much disgraced the character of a country yielding to 
 no other in fertility of soil, in beauty of scenery, or in the valour 
 and ingenuity of its inhabitants. By a more general diffusion of 
 knowledge, the inculcation of sound religious principles, and a com 
 plete participation in all those privileges, which the union with Great 
 
714 
 
 Britain must ultimately produce, aided by the meliorating hand of 
 time, and an impartial administration of the laws, the character of 
 the Irish may be rescued from the imputations, which, in some instances, 
 have been wantonly, and, in others, but too justly cast upon it. 
 
 The establishment of manufactories the encouragement of indus 
 try the opening of markets in remote districts the draining of 
 bogs the cultivation of waste lands the formation of canals con 
 necting our great lakes and navigable rivers and the construction of 
 railroads, effecting a more ready communication with the populous 
 cities, towns, and villages, together with a judicious and well-managed 
 poor-law, would tend much to the improvement of the people ; and 
 by thus giving them employment, serve to eradicate many of those 
 causes of discontent, which have too long proved destructive to the 
 happiness and prosperity of the empire Besides the advantages 
 which these various sources of improvement would introduce, they 
 would be the means of elevating the mind, and raising man to a more 
 dignified station in the scale of his being. He would look around 
 him with more complacency and satisfaction on his fellow-mortals, 
 who, with himself, would be in the enjoyment of those comforts, 
 which habits of industry, united to religious practices, necessarily 
 produce. 
 
ADDENDA. 
 
ADDENDA. 
 
 A Tabular View of the Opium Trade of Great Britain, including 1 
 that of our India Settlements, with China : [see page 136.] 
 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Exported 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 Retained 
 
 Revenue 
 
 from India 
 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 for con 
 
 at 9s. per 
 
 to China. 
 
 
 
 
 sumption. 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 
 
 Chests. 
 
 1823 
 
 38,375 
 
 11,016 
 
 20,985 
 
 9,509 
 
 5,172 
 
 1824 
 
 87,142 
 
 40,309 
 
 22,752 
 
 10,199 
 
 8,080 
 
 1825 
 
 123,084 
 
 64,466 
 
 20,582 
 
 9,329 
 
 8,055 
 
 1826 | 79,829 
 
 49,776 
 
 28,329 
 
 11,348 
 
 10,743 
 
 1827 
 
 113,140 
 
 87,333 
 
 17,322 
 
 7,894 
 
 8,865 
 
 1828 
 
 84,186 
 
 95,739 
 
 20,680 
 
 6,483 
 
 11,111 
 
 1829 
 
 48,634 
 
 41,919 
 
 23,970 
 
 4,522 
 
 11,409 
 
 1830 
 
 209,076 
 
 170,080 
 
 22,608 
 
 4,528 
 
 15,643 
 
 1831 
 
 9,967 
 
 25,045 
 
 25,937 
 
 5,187 
 
 20,108 
 
 1832 
 
 68,378 
 
 19,562 
 
 30,258 
 
 6,052 
 
 15,823 
 
 1833 
 
 106,846 
 
 53,001 
 
 35,407 
 
 7,088 
 
 21,279 
 
 1834 
 
 48,216 
 
 31,604 
 
 28,467 
 
 5,700 
 
 20,213 
 
 1835 
 
 85,481 
 
 74,126 
 
 31,181 
 
 6,249 
 
 21,350 
 
 Table of the quantities of Arrack exported from Ceylon, as noticed 
 in page 182 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 To Great Britain. To British Colonies. 
 
 To foreign States! Value. 
 
 1833 
 1834 
 
 Gallons. 
 7,593 
 6,156 
 
 Leaguers. 
 3,250 
 2,022 
 
 Gallons. 
 98 
 
 s. 
 12,425 9 
 7,737 16 
 
 The duty on Batavia arrack, in 1826, was 4s. 6d. ; in 1827, 7s. 6d. ; 
 1828-9, the same; 1830,5s.; 1831,4s. 6d.; 1832,4s. 6d.; 1833,4s. 3d. 
 The duty charged, in 1834, on the importation of this commodity into 
 Great Britain from the East Indies, was 15s. per gallon, and 9s. from 
 the Colonies ; and on other foreign arrack, l. 2s. 6d. 
 
717 
 
 Exports from the Mauritius, vide page 190 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Colonial Rum. Brandy & Geneva 
 
 Colonial cordials. 
 
 Arrack 
 
 Wine. 
 
 1833 
 1834 
 
 Gallons. 
 55,569 
 24,625 
 
 Gallons. 
 5,964 
 9,827 
 
 Gallons. 
 331 
 746 
 
 Galls. 
 43,874 
 7,770 
 
 Galls. 
 6,107 
 12,675 
 
 Table of the Exports from Great Britain to the East Indies and 
 China, alluded to in pages 163 and 231 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 ALE & BEEH. 
 Tuns. 
 
 RUM. 
 
 Proof gallons. 
 
 BRANDY. 
 
 Proof gallons. 
 
 GENEVA. 
 
 Proof gallons. 
 
 WrNEs. 
 Gallons. 
 
 1829 
 
 4,202 
 
 11,431 
 
 141,714 
 
 21,711 
 
 354,424 
 
 1830 
 
 3,424 
 
 8,931 
 
 74,994 
 
 15,040 
 
 235,905 
 
 1831 
 
 3,097 
 
 14,886 
 
 92,614 
 
 19,428 
 
 198,942 
 
 1832 
 
 4,709 
 
 33,444 
 
 146,258 
 
 27,657 
 
 331,713 
 
 1833 
 
 4,046 
 
 12,460 
 
 112,826 
 
 30,001 
 
 326,190 
 
 1834 
 
 3,044 
 
 3,919 
 
 234,478 
 
 35,459 
 
 314,393 
 
 1835 
 
 3,619 
 
 5,046 
 
 239,364 
 
 34,967 
 
 300,618 
 
 An Account of the Wine imported into Great Britain from the 
 Cape of Good Hope, referred to in page 274 : 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 
 IMPERIAL, GALLONS, 
 532,614 
 
 565,490 
 843,172 
 591,078 
 746,925 
 356,070 
 742,811 
 758,538 
 966,367 
 544,335 
 427,823 
 278,057 
 454,202 
 483,996 
 587,748 
 
 Exports from the United Kingdom to the Cape :- 
 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. i 
 
 Beer & Ale in tuns. 
 
 138 
 
 99 
 
 48 
 
 68 
 
 62 
 
 112 
 
 174 
 
 90 ! 
 
 Wine in gallons. . 
 
 8,933 
 
 26,993 
 
 23,843 13,131 
 
 6,190 
 
 7,952 
 
 9,089 
 
 17,458j 
 
 Spirits do 
 
 39,949 
 
 119499 
 
 46,073 
 
 62,739 
 
 36,112 
 
 35,307 
 
 52,392 
 
 82,583: 
 
718 
 
 Rum exported from the West Indies, (in proof gallons,) as alluded 
 to in page 286 : 
 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 
 116,794 
 
 155,514 
 
 72,680 
 
 112,594 
 
 Barbadoes 
 Bahamas . ... 
 
 1,554 
 4 
 
 2,357 
 
 5,329 
 4000 
 
 24,532 
 1 797 
 
 
 201,362 
 
 234,618 
 
 137,750 
 
 160,078 
 
 
 
 2,987 
 
 55,420 
 
 17 239 
 
 Demerara 
 Dominica 
 
 1,693,004 
 31,853 
 394,289 
 
 1,859,710 
 36,321 
 298,933 
 
 1,716,525 
 44,097 
 603,544 
 
 1,915,240 
 46,090 
 715,713 
 
 
 3,532,823 
 
 3,213,503 
 
 3,463,997 
 
 3,583,861 
 
 Montserrat, ... 
 
 39,815 
 45,971 
 
 49,075 
 51,243 
 
 52,910 
 35,410 
 
 54,125 
 52,633 
 
 St. Christopher 
 St. Lucia 
 St. Vincent ... 
 
 176,807 
 38,113 
 275,373 
 370,733 
 
 219,706 
 12,817 
 173,262 
 428,810 
 
 78,394 
 13,505 
 269,072 
 299,758 
 
 125,420 
 6,357 
 
 278,785 
 314,205 
 
 Tortola 
 
 206 
 
 
 25,660 
 
 22,193 
 
 Trinidad . 
 
 16,058 
 
 12,941 
 
 11.710 
 
 8.567 
 
 A table of Distilleries and Breweries in the United States, as 
 mentioned at page 325 : 
 
 States. 
 
 Number 
 of stills. 
 
 Galls, ot Spirits 
 Tom Grain,Fruit, 
 Molasses, &c. 
 
 Brew 
 eries. 
 
 Quantity of Beer, &c. 
 
 
 60 
 
 3,012,510 
 20,560 
 173,285 
 1,193,398 
 1,828,339 
 1,374,404 
 1,102,272 
 6,552,284 
 27,600 
 860,742 
 2,367,589 
 1,000,000 
 22,073 
 2,220,775 
 801,245 
 1,886,691 
 436,853 
 545,212 
 
 10,200 
 20,400 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 1 
 
 24,400 barrels 
 135,950 gallons 
 
 75 barls. of currant 
 .. [wine 
 
 2,170 galls, beer 
 71,275 gls.perday 
 476 barrels 
 9,330 do. 
 4,251 do. 
 
 96 do. 
 
 1,878 do. 
 1,500 do. cider 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 
 
 New- York 
 
 591 
 560 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 3,594 
 51 
 400 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Ohio 
 
 343 
 
 28 
 2,000 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Tenessee 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 ... 
 
 Georgia 
 
 126 
 6 
 
 Mississippi Territory 
 Illinois Territory 
 Michigan Territory . . 
 
719 
 
 Exports of wine from the Canaries to Great Britain, as alluded to 
 in page 358 : 
 
 YEARS. IMPERIAL GALLONS. 
 
 1820 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 
 269,970 
 225,015 
 204,123 
 169,312 
 247,494 
 254,278 
 273,558 
 417,703 
 
 YEARS. IMPERIAL GALLONS. 
 
 1828 ... 107,919 
 
 1829 ... 80,808 
 
 1830 ... 83,822 
 
 1831 ... 105,875 
 
 1832 ... 97,269 
 
 1833 ... 233,730 
 
 1834 ... 214,861 
 
 1835 ... 211,707 
 
 The imports of Wine from Madeira into Great Britain, as menti 
 oned in page 361 : 
 
 YEARS. IMPERIAL GALLONS, 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 
 554,011 
 513,328 
 443,008 
 463,548 
 495,194 
 543,133 
 577,378 
 308,546 
 
 YEARS. IMPERIAL GALLONS. 
 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 
 452,509 
 320,580 
 304,726 
 356,514 
 
 288,783 
 301,057 
 372,698 
 204,825 
 
 The exports of Wine and Brandy from Spain into Great Britain, 
 as alluded to in page 368 : 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 WINE. 
 
 Imp. gallons. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 WINE. 
 
 Imperial gallons. 
 
 BRANDY. 
 
 Imperial gallons. 
 
 1820 
 
 979,128 
 
 1828 
 
 3,188,357 
 
 4,582 
 
 1821 
 
 1,001,883 
 
 1829 
 
 2,841,031 
 
 1 
 
 1822 
 
 1,278,506 
 
 1830 
 
 2,505,438 
 
 32,179 
 
 1823 
 
 1,618,632 
 
 1831 
 
 2,605,328 
 
 69,319 
 
 1824 
 
 2,083,206 
 
 1832 
 
 2,446,050 
 
 4,389 
 
 1825 
 
 2,754,873 
 
 1833 
 
 3,368,530 
 
 178,067 
 
 1826 
 
 2,364,573 
 
 1834 
 
 3,446,563 
 
 61,640 
 
 1827 
 
 2,433,141 
 
 1835 
 
 2,732,028 
 
 15,880 
 
 The duty on wine is 5s. 6d., and on brandy, l. 2s. 6d. per Imperial 
 proof gallon. 
 
720 
 
 Exports of Wine from Portugal to Great Britain, as alluded to in 
 page 380 :- 
 
 EARS. 
 
 IMPERIAL GALLONS. YEARS. 
 
 IMPERIAL GALLONS. 
 
 1820 
 
 ... 2,457,410 1828 
 
 ... 3,985,146 
 
 1821 
 
 ... 2,752,392 
 
 1829 
 
 2,398,803 
 
 1822 
 
 3,283,907 1830 
 
 2,603,113 
 
 1823 
 
 2,991,350 
 
 1831 
 
 2,763,211 
 
 1824 
 
 2,625,249 
 
 1832 
 
 2,116,245 
 
 1825 
 
 4,952,126 
 
 1833 
 
 2,226,733 
 
 1826 
 
 ... 3,114,050 
 
 1834 
 
 3,941,402 
 
 1827 
 
 3,311,135 
 
 1835 
 
 4,269,890 
 
 Exports of Wine from France into Great Britain, as referred to 
 in page 403 : 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 WINE. 
 
 Imperial gallons. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 WINE. 
 
 Imperial gallons. 
 
 1820 
 
 239,566 
 
 1828 
 
 550,949 
 
 1821 
 
 240,146 
 
 1829 
 
 498,320 
 
 1822 
 
 269,353 
 
 1830 
 
 352,136 
 
 1823 
 
 329,509 
 
 1831 
 
 351,102 
 
 1824 
 
 276,105 
 
 1832 
 
 311,448 
 
 1825 
 
 1,083,538 
 
 1833 
 
 275,366 
 
 1826 
 
 489,657 
 
 1834 
 
 363,376 
 
 1827 
 
 384,208 
 
 1835 
 
 370,446 
 
 View of the produce of Wines in the Ionian Islands, and the 
 extent of the trade carried on with the United Kingdom in Inebriat 
 ing Liquors : ( Vide page 408.) 
 
 Islands. 
 
 Produce of 
 wine in 
 barrels. 
 
 r rice 
 per 
 3arrel 
 
 Trade with the Islands collectively. 
 
 Years 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Beer 
 
 &Ale. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Spirits. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Spirits. 
 
 Corfu 
 
 88,964 
 45,730 
 63,730 
 62,292 
 9,045 
 36,200 
 861 
 
 s. d.] 
 8 4 
 
 12 6 
 10 
 5 
 8 2 
 8 4 
 13 0_ 
 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 
 1,294 
 1,577 
 
 2,464 
 224 
 604 
 1,898 
 1,262 
 
 19,790 
 6,563 
 18,461 
 16,084 
 17,430 
 16,728 
 15,233 
 
 Tuns. 
 66 
 
 36 
 81 
 62 
 17 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 . 
 
 galls. 
 
 671 
 124 
 1444 
 898 
 382 
 747 
 920 
 
 galls. 
 
 18 
 6 
 
 996 
 
 Cephalonia .. 
 Zante 
 
 Santa Maura 
 Ithaca 
 
 
 Paxo 
 
 
721 
 
 The imports and exports of Turkey, the Morea, and the Greek 
 islands, as mentioned in page 423 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wine exported 
 from Turkey. 
 
 Spirits imported 
 into Turkey. 
 
 Wine imported 
 into Turkey. 
 
 Beer and 
 
 Ale. 
 
 
 gallons. 
 
 gallons. 
 
 gallons. 
 
 Tuns. 
 
 1827 
 
 292 
 
 12,802 
 
 2,801 
 
 22 
 
 1828 
 
 528 
 
 3,948 
 
 2,114 
 
 23 
 
 1829 
 
 1,180 
 
 19,857 
 
 1,904 
 
 52 
 
 1830 
 
 1,492 
 
 10,656 
 
 3,070 
 
 81 
 
 1831 
 
 666 
 
 14,671 
 
 1,648 
 
 34 
 
 1832 
 
 566 
 
 54,390 
 
 4,602 
 
 20 
 
 1833 
 
 794 
 
 11,968 
 
 7,656 
 
 47 
 
 1834 
 
 5,754 
 
 101,068 
 
 2,524 
 
 39 
 
 The Austrian, Hungarian, Rhenish, and other liquors imported 
 into Great Britain, as referred to in page 442 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 IMPERIAL GALLONS. 
 
 Years. 
 
 IMPEBIAL GALLONS. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Brandy Geneva. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Geneva. 
 
 1820 
 
 32,881 
 
 .. . 
 
 . . . 
 
 1828 
 
 92,325 
 
 294 
 
 35,971 
 
 1821 
 
 27,828 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1829 
 
 85,858 
 
 56 
 
 27,024 
 
 1822 
 
 29,200 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1830 
 
 70,660 
 
 239 
 
 12,201 
 
 1823 
 
 26,332 
 
 . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 1831 
 
 71,352 
 
 209 
 
 2,509 
 
 1824 
 
 27,666 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1832 
 
 60,568 
 
 4 
 
 28,070 
 
 1825 
 
 146,346 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1833 
 
 54,361 
 
 1,175 
 
 93,537 
 
 1826 
 
 86,023 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1834 
 
 58,376 
 
 2,735 
 
 61,193 
 
 1827 
 
 80,734 
 
 544 
 
 16,798 
 
 1835 
 
 52,075 
 
 40 
 
 37,269 
 
 Geneva imported from Holland into Great Britain, as alluded to in 
 page 455 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Proof gallons. 
 
 i Years. 
 
 Proof gallons. 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 281,900 
 335,424 
 
 142,988 
 204,787 
 210,038 
 
 ! 1832 
 ! 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 
 228,219 
 311,452 
 228,386 
 217,115 
 220,317 
 
 The juniper-berry, which forms a constituent part in the manufac 
 ture of gin, has been found growing wild in the Western portion of 
 Ireland, and were its culture properly attended to, it might be fur 
 nished in such quantities as to obviate the necessity of foreign supplies. 
 
 3 A 
 
Imports and Exports of Liquors in the undermentioned ports of 
 Prussia, as referred to in page 464 : 
 
 Imports, in Centners of 113 Jibs. each. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Wine spirits 
 
 Spruce 
 Beer. 
 
 
 Years 
 
 Brandy 
 Rum and 
 Arrack. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Malt 
 Liquors. 
 
 Beer. 
 
 Centners. 
 
 Ei- 
 
 mers. 
 
 Kegs. 
 
 Dantzic 
 Do. 
 Konigsberg, 
 Do. 
 Stetten 
 
 1834 
 1835 
 1834 
 1835 
 1834 
 1835 
 
 5,008 
 4,142 
 1,811 
 859 
 11,010 
 11,057 
 
 11,126 
 22,401 
 54 
 11,725 
 85,200 
 99,276 
 
 3,135 
 2,335 
 3,623 
 2,716 
 13,543 
 11,057 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 2616 
 2205 
 
 16,170 
 30,871 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2400 
 1830 
 
 1S3642 
 18679 
 
 360 
 216 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 Do. 
 
 Trade in Spirits, Wines, &c. between Great Britain and Denmark, 
 as mentioned in note page 470 : 
 
 
 [mports from Denmark, 
 
 Exports to Denmark. 
 
 
 in gallons. 
 
 
 Years 
 
 Rum.l Brandy. 
 
 Geneva. 
 
 Wines. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Greneva 
 
 Wines. 
 
 Beer & Ale 
 in tuns. 
 
 1827 
 
 3 
 
 93 
 
 94 
 
 85,006 
 
 41,655 
 
 3188 
 
 119 
 
 5,302 
 
 18 
 
 1828 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 14,202 
 
 38,959 
 
 2875 
 
 ... 
 
 5,801 1 17 
 
 1829 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 2054 
 
 23 
 
 12,282 
 
 4927 
 
 6 
 
 6,102 14 
 
 1830 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 19,342 
 
 2520 
 
 99 
 
 3,825 ! 14 
 
 1831 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 110 
 
 25,2 1 7 
 
 2443 
 
 CO 
 
 5,313 1 8 
 
 1832 
 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 35 
 
 64,422 
 
 1G71 
 
 62 
 
 5,141 
 
 29 
 
 1833 
 
 ... 
 
 100 
 
 897 
 
 156 
 
 20,915 
 
 1194 
 
 ... 
 
 6,912 
 
 7 
 
 1834 
 
 , 8 8 
 
 345 
 
 18,203 1290 ... 23,971 
 
 7 
 
 Trade in Spirits and Wines between Great Britain and Sweden, 
 as mentioned in page 481 : 
 
 Years 
 
 Import 
 Rum. 
 
 5 from Sweden, in galls. 
 
 Exports to Sweden, in galls. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Wines. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Geneva. Wines. 
 
 1827 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 . 
 
 49 
 
 16,222 
 
 391 
 
 ... 
 
 5967 
 
 1828 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 10,331 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 5210 
 
 1829 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 15,998 
 
 532 
 
 ... 
 
 2822 
 
 1830 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 12,341 
 
 448 
 
 ... 
 
 1004 
 
 1831 
 
 .. 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 . . . 
 
 7,895 
 
 410 
 
 9 
 
 5872 
 
 1832 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 3,291 
 
 14,342 
 
 336 
 
 100 
 
 3390 
 
 1833 
 
 63 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 285 
 
 7,640 
 
 1138 
 
 21 
 
 6806 
 
 1834 
 
 109 
 
 35 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 14,421 
 
 387 
 
 231 
 
 4022 
 
723 
 
 Tables of the Ale and Beer brewed in England for certain periods, 
 as referred to in page 532 : . 
 
 Year. 
 
 James II. 
 
 Year. 
 
 William III. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Small Beer. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Small Beer. 
 
 1684 
 
 Barrels. 
 4,384,093 
 
 Barrels. 
 1,933,924 
 
 1689 
 
 Barrels. 
 5,134,309 
 
 Barrels. 
 2,707,726 
 
 1685 
 
 4,654,564 
 
 2,102,021 
 
 1690 
 
 4,690,711 
 
 2,645,656 
 
 1686 
 
 4,780,097 
 
 2,255,062 
 
 1691 
 
 4,669,544 
 
 2,374,731 
 
 1687 
 
 5,044,311 
 
 2,435,169 
 
 1692 
 
 3,796,805 
 
 2,378,642 
 
 1688 
 
 4,989,000 
 
 2,54-3,856 
 
 1693 
 
 3,529,498 
 
 2,385,996 
 
 Year. 
 
 Anne. 
 
 Year. 
 
 George I. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Small Beer. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Small Beer. 
 
 1708 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 3,756,920 
 
 Barrels. 
 2,295,008 
 
 1721 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 3,935,717 
 
 Barrels. 
 2,315,737 
 
 1709 
 
 3,540,031 
 
 2,215,883 
 
 1722 
 
 3,982,066 
 
 2,320,118 
 
 1710 
 
 3,391,799 
 
 2,113,862 
 
 1723 
 
 4,049,091 
 
 2,389,248 
 
 1711 
 
 3,336,286 
 
 2,106,970 
 
 1724 
 
 4,075,871 
 
 2,465,695 
 
 1712 
 
 3,306,696 
 
 2,049,313 
 
 1725 
 
 3,997,249 
 
 2,327,351 
 
 Year. 
 
 George II. 
 
 Year. 
 
 George III. and IV. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Small Beer. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Small Beer. 
 
 1746 
 
 Barrels. 
 3,592,800 
 
 Barrels. 
 2,161,600 
 
 1818 
 
 Barrels. 
 5,572,505 
 
 Barrels. 
 1,504,165 
 
 1747 
 
 3,774,400 
 
 2,136,200 
 
 1819 
 
 5,895,705 
 
 1,568,797 
 
 1748 
 
 3,885,800 
 
 2,204,200 
 
 1820 
 
 5,650,850 
 
 1,523,825 
 
 1749 
 
 3,913,100 
 
 2,132,700 
 
 1821 
 
 5,811,455 
 
 1,530,027 
 
 1750 
 
 3,851,800 
 
 2,178,000 
 
 1822 
 
 6,018,618 
 
 1,530,189 
 
724 
 
 George IV. and William IV. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Small Beer. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Small Beer. 
 
 1823 
 1824 
 
 Barrels. 
 6,512,645 
 
 6,774,938 
 
 Barrels. 
 1,716,395 
 
 1,799,664 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 Barrels. 
 6,507,929 
 
 6,677,933 
 
 Barrels. 
 1,791,364 
 
 1,840,489 
 
 1825 
 
 7,142,046 
 
 1,877,094 
 
 1829 
 
 6,060,247 
 
 1,665,351 
 
 1826 
 
 6,812,131 
 
 1,882,695 
 
 1830 
 
 3,645,594 
 
 1,286,107 
 
 The number of stills and their contents, with their scale of work, 
 as mentioned in page 632 : 
 
 
 Dublin. 
 
 Cork. 
 
 Rest of Ireland. 
 
 
 No. Contents. 
 
 No. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 No. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 
 [1798 44 1 39,523 
 
 12 
 
 13,892 154 
 
 64,562 
 
 
 1799 37 34,372 
 
 12 
 
 13,892 127 
 
 52,690 
 
 
 1800 32 j 29,154 
 
 11 
 
 12,998 122 
 
 47,602 
 
 
 18011 32 i 29,136 
 
 7 
 
 7,046 
 
 85 
 
 32,553 
 
 Years < 
 
 18021 31 | 33,911 
 
 7 
 
 7,971 
 
 66 
 
 33,720 
 
 
 1803 32 : 29,797 
 
 7 
 
 7,971 
 
 81 
 
 42,141 
 
 
 1804 28 i 24,446 
 
 10 
 
 11,334 
 
 77 
 
 45,050 
 
 
 1805 26 22,323 
 
 10 
 
 11,378 
 
 54 
 
 31,605 
 
 
 .1806! 15 11,871 
 
 7 
 
 6,981 
 
 29 
 
 18,046 
 
 Size of Still. 
 
 Charges required. 
 Monthly. 
 
 Spirits required 
 Weekly. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 500 
 
 74 
 
 3,237 
 
 750 
 
 74 
 
 4,856 
 
 1,000 
 
 72 
 
 6,300 
 
 1,250 
 
 66 
 
 7,218 
 
 1,500 
 
 64 
 
 8,400 
 
 1,750 
 
 62 
 
 9,493 
 
725 
 
 A table of the stills that were at work in Ireland, in the month of 
 February, 1818, as alluded to at page 633 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 W3 
 
 T3 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 |s 
 
 Names. 
 
 Residence. 
 
 EJ 
 
 CO 
 
 03 
 
 -8 
 
 If 
 
 3 
 
 i* 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 a* 
 
 OJ ^ 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 A 
 
 "C 
 
 be o 
 
 
 
 Hj 
 
 I 
 
 & 
 
 Ji 
 
 
 
 Gals. 
 
 
 Gals. 
 
 Tons 
 
 Jameson and Dewar 
 
 Dublin 
 
 1510 
 
 135 
 
 17,836 
 
 300 
 
 John Jameson 
 
 
 
 1256 
 
 143 
 
 15,715 
 
 280 
 
 Robert Haig 
 
 ... ... 
 
 1250 
 
 143 
 
 15,640 
 
 280 
 
 James Jameson 
 
 , 
 
 1002 
 
 154 
 
 13,501 
 
 260 
 
 Nicholas Roe 
 
 ... ... 
 
 751 
 
 172 
 
 11,300 
 
 240 
 
 John Power 
 
 i 
 
 751 
 
 172 
 
 11,300 
 
 240 
 
 John Morrogh 
 
 Cork 
 
 1021 
 
 154 
 
 13,756 
 
 260 
 
 William Wyse ... 
 
 
 
 501 
 
 189 
 
 8,285 
 
 220 
 
 Samuel Perrott 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 189 
 
 8,268 
 
 220 
 
 P.W. Callaghan ... 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 189 
 
 8,268 
 
 220 
 
 John Brown 
 
 Limerick 
 
 501 
 
 189 
 
 8,285 
 
 220 
 
 Ditto 
 
 ... 
 
 501 
 
 189 
 
 8,285 
 
 220 
 
 George Connell 
 
 ... 
 
 206 
 
 272 
 
 4,902 
 
 150 
 
 James Shaw 
 
 Belfast 
 
 503 
 
 189 
 
 8,306 
 
 220 
 
 Robert Thomson ... 
 
 Newry 
 
 509 
 
 189 
 
 8,417 
 
 220 
 
 Malcolm Brown ... 
 
 Dundalk 
 
 500 
 
 189 
 
 8,268 
 
 220 
 
 Andrew Stein 
 
 Clonmell 
 
 500 
 
 189 
 
 8,268 
 
 220 
 
 John Birch 
 
 Roscrea 
 
 306 
 
 1741 
 
 4,666 
 
 Turf 
 
 John Cassidy 
 
 Monasterevan 
 
 200 
 
 1941 
 
 3,400 
 
 Do. 
 
 James Mullaniif ... 
 
 Longford 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 ,750 
 
 80 
 
 Ilolton & O Beirne 
 
 Athlone 
 
 101 
 
 2171 
 
 ,919 
 
 Turf 
 
 Robert Hackett ... 
 
 Birr 
 
 101 
 
 2171 
 
 ,919 
 
 Do. 
 
 John Robinson 
 
 ... ... 
 
 101 
 
 2171 
 
 ,919 
 
 Do. 
 
 Robert Codd 
 
 Drogheda 
 
 101 
 
 304 
 
 ,682 
 
 100 
 
 John Thomson 
 
 Carrickfergus 
 
 99 
 
 200 
 
 ,732 
 
 80 
 
 John Fulls 
 
 Dungannon ... 
 
 98 
 
 200 
 
 ,715 
 
 80 
 
 Michael Regan 
 
 Galway 
 
 98 
 
 200 
 
 ,715 
 
 80 
 
 Alexander Stewart 
 
 Londonderry 
 
 94 
 
 200 
 
 ,645 
 
 80 
 
 D. and A. M Intyre 
 
 Killether 
 
 77 
 
 200 
 
 1,347 
 
 60 
 
 Patrick Brennan ... 
 
 Kilkenny 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 1,750 
 
 80 
 
 Bartholomew Finn 
 
 Galway 
 
 53 
 
 200 
 
 927 
 
 40 
 
 William Gathers ... 
 
 Newtonlimavady 
 
 49200 
 
 857 
 
 40 
 
 William Leatham... 
 
 Buncrana 
 
 49200 
 
 857 
 
 40 
 
 Total gallons of spirits made weekly ) 
 with the coals used... 
 
 209411 
 
 4750 
 
726 
 
 The extent of the trade in spirits, wine, and malt liquors in Ire 
 land, as noticed in page 707 : 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 
 SPIRIT 
 
 s. 
 
 WINE. 
 
 ALI 
 
 : AND BI 
 
 ER. 
 
 
 Distilled. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Brewed. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 1719 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 
 173,564 
 
 323,124 
 
 1,111,726 
 
 601,457 
 
 299 
 
 6,408 
 
 20 
 
 136,075 
 
 327,082 
 
 1,386,293 
 
 574,687 
 
 292 
 
 6,164 
 
 21 
 
 131,299 
 
 292,125 
 
 940,147 
 
 546,256 
 
 393 
 
 6,093 
 
 22 
 
 125,280 
 
 388,007 
 
 1,143,752 
 
 535,756 
 
 244 
 
 6,328 
 
 23 
 
 133,773 
 
 379,601 
 
 1,007,632 
 
 545,586 
 
 273 
 
 5,878 
 
 24 
 
 132,642 
 
 415,062 
 
 1,227,315 
 
 568,768 
 
 246 
 
 5,636 
 
 25 
 
 134,080 
 
 327,194 
 
 1,172,678 
 
 564,234 
 
 163 
 
 ,791 
 
 26 
 
 169,211 
 
 346,360 
 
 1,313,319 
 
 540,628 
 
 266 
 
 ,427 
 
 27 
 
 218,936 
 
 411,622 
 
 1,425,352 
 
 548,862 
 
 355 
 
 ,080 
 
 28 
 
 155,233 
 
 4 4,222 
 
 1,260,297 
 
 514,845 
 
 424 
 
 ,144 
 
 29 
 
 129,309 
 
 409,544 
 
 1,521,085 
 
 455,761 
 
 470 
 
 4,646 
 
 30 
 
 134,738 
 
 538,316 
 
 1,246,238 
 
 455,102 
 
 1,059 
 
 ,384 
 
 31 
 
 174,791 
 
 336,922 
 
 957,420 
 
 500,707 
 
 1,362 
 
 6,048 
 
 32 
 
 184,028 
 
 221,682 
 
 1,294,459 
 
 532,960 
 
 983 
 
 5,883 
 
 33 
 
 225,871 
 
 375,227 
 
 1,145,653 
 
 516,438 
 
 770 
 
 5,331 
 
 34 
 
 268,349 
 
 396,474 
 
 1,134,979 
 
 522,877 
 
 455 
 
 5,100 
 
 35 
 
 209,045 
 
 383,301 
 
 1,170,845 
 
 463,829 
 
 705 
 
 6,258 
 
 36 
 
 195,738 
 
 627,690 
 
 1,255,227 
 
 441,132 
 
 1,157 
 
 5,365 
 
 37 
 
 228,807 
 
 605,723 
 
 911,40) 
 
 451.185 
 
 1,349 
 
 3,707 
 
 38 
 
 216,785 
 
 404,092 
 
 1,324,869 
 
 488,421 
 
 1,057 
 
 3,870 
 
 39 
 
 211,038 
 
 531,878 
 
 1,122,796 
 
 496,401 
 
 1,159 
 
 3,612 
 
 40 
 
 239,811 
 
 472,758 
 
 1,154,807 
 
 478,869 
 
 1,989 
 
 2,392 
 
 41 
 
 248,276 
 
 382,841 
 
 1,167,907 
 
 455,844 
 
 5,278 
 
 3,253 
 
 42 
 
 272,238 
 
 662,741 
 
 759,398 
 
 456,602 
 
 9,464 
 
 5,618 
 
 43 
 
 354,166 
 
 566,131 
 
 1,087,656 
 
 542,840 
 
 1,323 
 
 2,578 
 
 44 
 
 402,272 
 
 385,650 
 
 754,655 
 
 601,246 
 
 1,937 
 
 3,572 
 
 45 
 
 452,315 
 
 290,288 
 
 1,046,235 
 
 561,546 
 
 3,899 
 
 3,958 
 
 46 
 
 334,415 
 
 411,362 
 
 596,688 
 
 503,294 
 
 4,914 
 
 3,758 
 
 47 
 
 402,075 
 
 489,388 
 
 506,762 
 
 48^,259 
 
 14,552 
 
 4,490 
 
 48 
 
 531,443 
 
 333,919 
 
 1,328,932 
 
 550,898 
 
 8,255 
 
 4,686 
 
 49 
 
 565,383 
 
 538,097 
 
 1,016,599 
 
 583,155 
 
 11,895 
 
 3,866 
 
 50 
 
 598,546 
 
 820,843 
 
 2,030,690 
 
 605,465 
 
 12,655 
 
 6,217 
 
 51 
 
 598,179 
 
 967,655 
 
 1,396,196 
 
 601,649 
 
 14,018 
 
 4,737 
 
 52 
 
 596,090 
 
 786,639 
 
 1,126,823 
 
 625,399 
 
 21,274 
 
 6,461 
 
 53 
 
 623,334 
 
 1,165,085 
 
 1,029,672 
 
 592,348 
 
 20,477 
 
 5,573 
 
 54 
 
 561,230 
 
 1,473,380 
 
 2,014,509 
 
 587,322 
 
 20,054 
 
 4,663 
 
 55 
 
 498,304 
 
 919,133 
 
 1,779,639 
 
 556>581 
 
 16,840 
 
 4,431 
 
 56 
 
 479,861 
 
 1,239,997 
 
 1,183,003 
 
 539,346 
 
 13,572 
 
 4,312 
 
 67 
 
 404,460 
 
 746,517 
 
 746,009 
 
 489,825 
 
 10,949 
 
 3,566 
 
 58 
 
 399,793 
 
 842,515 
 
 691,477 
 
 449,738 
 
 15,228 
 
 4,125 
 
 59 
 
 107,543 
 
 1,285,665 
 
 1,368,118 
 
 501,002 
 
 16,557 
 
 3,882 
 
 60 
 
 225,217 
 
 742,623 
 
 1,713,556 
 
 545,558 
 
 13,500 
 
 4,899 
 
 61 
 
 432,130 
 
 956,101 
 
 905,971 
 
 588,217 
 
 18,837 
 
 4,923 
 
 62 
 
 692,875 
 
 1,390,632 
 
 1,522,137 
 
 618,399 
 
 18,008 
 
 4,908 
 
 63 
 
 668,487 
 
 1,273,674 
 
 1,338,797 
 
 618,208 
 
 22,099 
 
 4,259 
 
 64 
 
 661,215 
 
 1,742,309 
 
 1,313^450 
 
 622,658 
 
 28,935 
 
 5,031 
 
 65 
 
 715,475 
 
 2,141,415 
 
 1,777,086 
 
 578,068 
 
 27,788 
 
 4,926 
 
 66 
 
 649,396 
 
 2,216,709 
 
 1,678,064 
 
 568,834 
 
 32,441 
 
 5,353 
 
 67 
 
 354,964 
 
 2,577,057 
 
 1,566,101 
 
 565,332 
 
 29,488 
 
 4.139 
 
 68 
 
 657,637 
 
 2,744,289 
 
 1,592,634 
 
 522,344 
 
 40,542 
 
 4,231 
 
 69 
 
 831,114 
 
 2,789,361 
 
 1,583,421 
 
 529,499 
 
 45,452 
 
 3,596 
 
 70 
 
 801,174 
 
 2,396,396 
 
 1,519,707 
 
 501,562 
 
 38,440 
 
 3,995 
 
 71 
 
 734,253 
 
 2,675,131 
 
 1,392,672 
 
 439,863 
 
 44,105 
 
 3,216 
 
727 
 
 SECOND TART. 
 
 SPIRITS. | WINE. | ALE AND BEER. 
 
 Years 
 
 Distilled. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Brewed. Imported. 
 
 Ex. 
 
 Kirted 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Fori-i n. 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Barrels. Barrels. 
 
 Barls 
 
 1772 
 
 758,788 
 
 2,566,835 
 
 - 
 
 131,769 
 
 1,308,972 
 
 1 2,600 
 
 433,160 47,736 
 
 2,491 
 
 73 
 
 959,881 
 
 2,213,394 
 
 63 
 
 40,788 
 
 1,555,291 
 
 9,576 
 
 447,330 58,675 
 
 2,944 
 
 74 
 
 1,026,124 
 
 2,072,527 
 
 - - 
 
 22,741 
 
 1,571,802 
 
 1 1 ,592 
 
 461,03s 1 51,995 
 
 2,307 
 
 75 
 
 980,40 [ 
 
 1,799,123 
 
 267 
 
 18,066 
 
 1,287,903 
 
 10,584 
 
 465,207 53,906 
 
 l,97<> 
 
 76 
 
 ,160,341 
 
 2,445,204 
 
 - - 
 
 20,308 
 
 1,279,330 
 
 9,072 
 
 458,460 66,954 
 
 1,990 
 
 77 
 
 ,115,352 
 
 2,297,704 
 
 - - 
 
 73,077 
 
 1,293,127 
 
 8,820 
 
 472,840 71,797 
 
 1,343 
 
 78 
 
 ,127,112 
 
 1,605,375 
 
 - - 
 
 10,053 
 
 1,088,546 
 
 6,804 
 
 478,902] 70,369 
 
 1,261 
 
 79 
 
 \)94,026 
 
 1,451,994 
 
 10 
 
 19,009 
 
 707,490 
 
 3,276 437,812i 48,274 
 
 99b 
 
 80 
 
 ,229,416 
 
 1,069,535 
 
 - - 
 
 1,577 
 
 1,017,654 
 
 4,788 429,200 
 
 40,459 
 
 412 
 
 81 
 
 ,787,298 
 
 594,748 
 
 3,966 
 
 25,898 
 
 1,269,082 
 
 10,837 
 
 485,826 
 
 54,365 
 
 719 
 
 82 
 
 2,076,855 
 
 776,477 
 
 1,45B 
 
 886 
 
 992,702 
 
 7,308 
 
 503,492 
 
 63,495 
 
 l,00(j 
 
 83 
 
 ,771,513 
 
 864,787 
 
 1,185 
 
 76,993 
 
 931,593 
 
 13,608 
 
 452,098 
 
 54,456 
 
 1,253 
 
 84 
 
 ,436,502 
 
 1,763,600 
 
 230 
 
 14,761 
 
 1,07 9,40 -; 
 
 13,356 
 
 388,027 
 
 4,2 51 
 
 2,084 
 
 85 
 
 ,450,415 
 
 1,450,677 
 
 _ _ 
 
 15,763 
 
 1,151,270 
 
 14,868 
 
 361,903 
 
 48,381 
 
 2,054 
 
 86 
 
 1,849,449 
 
 1,501,451 
 
 70 
 
 29,040 
 
 836,806 
 
 12,600 
 
 383,400 
 
 55,282 
 
 1,727 
 
 87 
 
 1,960,418 
 
 1,292,385 
 
 579 
 
 44,835 
 
 986,656 
 
 27,259 
 
 395,087 
 
 68,492 
 
 2,285 
 
 88 
 
 2,229,663 
 
 1,387,585 
 
 68 
 
 21,350 
 
 1,564,803 
 
 8 r 316 
 
 412,137 
 
 74,725 
 
 1,298 
 
 89 
 
 2,801,429 
 
 1,459,236 
 
 152 
 
 8,541 
 
 1,306,707 
 
 11,592 
 
 389,318 
 
 91,009 
 
 1,122 
 
 90 
 
 2,926,795 
 
 1,472,822 
 
 408 
 
 5,345 
 
 1,436,030 
 
 16,884 
 
 434,397 
 
 109,049 
 
 1,372 
 
 91 
 
 3 508,244 
 
 1,208,195 
 
 _ _ 
 
 9,242 
 
 1,553,272 
 
 25,532 
 
 467,430 
 
 101,655 
 
 1 ,452 
 
 923 520,082 
 
 836,482 
 
 299 
 
 47,948 
 
 1,574,893 
 
 55,692 
 
 531,648 
 
 125,058 
 
 1.677 
 
 93 
 
 3,436,440 
 
 708,560 
 
 429 
 
 34,579 
 
 1,468,449 
 
 44,352 590,307 
 
 125,057 
 
 49; 
 
 94 
 
 3,936,355 
 
 451,316 
 
 135 
 
 4,081 
 
 1,132,642 
 
 25,704 
 
 535,359 
 
 76,255 
 
 809 
 
 95 
 
 4,262,036 
 
 610,809 
 
 1,011 
 
 8,997 
 
 1,492,525 
 
 32,760 
 
 521,822 
 
 72,393 
 
 1,076 
 
 96 
 
 3,704,681 
 
 317,941 
 
 1,216 
 
 6,655 
 
 3,209,041 
 
 33,920 
 
 528,686 
 
 58,738 
 
 2,611 
 
 97 
 
 3,867,174 
 
 143,080 
 
 58,615 
 
 15,204 
 
 1,308,875 
 
 33,920 ! 567,284 
 
 67,188 
 
 797 
 
 98 
 
 4,783,954 
 
 84,* 81 
 
 2,866 
 
 10,053 
 
 363,052 
 
 21,672 600,038 
 
 50,914 
 
 1,149 
 
 99 
 
 4,253,187 
 
 136,085 
 
 4,055 
 
 7,614 
 
 1,802,619 
 
 41,076 
 
 545,806 
 
 25,178 
 
 1,631 
 
 1800 
 
 3,621,498 
 
 393,783 
 
 3,152 
 
 13,994 
 
 2,788,699 
 
 57,456 
 
 449,790 
 
 19,709 
 
 444 
 
 1 
 
 1,565,380 
 
 1,319,717 2,270 
 
 691 
 
 1,210,349 
 
 67,032 
 
 398,746 
 
 17,972 
 
 36., 
 
 2 
 
 5,237,195 
 
 1,951,931 227,519 
 
 242,478 
 
 1,493,205 
 
 125,643 
 
 402,942 
 
 10,495 
 
 2,108 
 
 3 
 
 4,807,143 1,257,135 1,130,019 259,724 
 
 2,441,932 
 
 65,772 
 
 561,438 
 
 9,884 
 
 5,782 
 
 4 
 
 4,713,736 454,219 930,800 80,963 
 
 1,860,257 
 
 53,676 
 
 695,100 
 
 3,209 
 
 6,775 
 
 5 
 
 4,612,335 319,3571,196,569 117,988 
 
 1,994,846 
 
 40,572 
 
 770,68S 
 
 3,143 
 
 9,707 
 
 6 
 
 4,648,772 210,0341,044,548 32,703 
 
 1,226,732 
 
 104,580 
 
 760,371 
 
 2,160 
 
 5,797 
 
 7 
 
 5,641,060 352,078 531,648 61,583 
 
 1,289,162 
 
 154,476 
 
 750,307 
 
 2,449 
 
 4 510 
 
 8 
 
 2,006,837 467,057 648,706 24,872 
 
 2,424,065 
 
 79,632 
 
 751,146 
 
 2,188 
 
 4,630 
 
 9 
 
 233,7501,052,968 512,098 70,996 
 
 1,753,078 
 
 160,272 
 
 960,300 
 
 1,708 
 
 5,713 
 
 10 
 
 6,412,625 1,758,321 76,990 20&,665 
 
 1,670,818 
 
 174,384 
 
 V, 
 
 1,101 
 
 4,098 
 
 11 
 
 7,088,566 746,017 136,355512,653 
 
 1,372,341 
 
 274,428 
 
 3d 
 
 1,378 
 
 5,393 
 
 12 
 
 1,462,948 532,344 793,140 148,184 
 
 542,101 
 
 169,S48 
 
 1 1 
 
 528 
 
 8.727 
 
 134,667,5591,057,390 411,843 166,533 
 
 1,471,428 
 
 224, .-,32 
 
 9, % 
 
 338 
 
 6,266 
 
 145,666,825 664,990 144,351 545,212 
 
 1,198,764 
 
 331,884 
 
 O 
 
 3 >, 
 
 215 
 
 6,814 
 
 154,615,405 405,187 942,038 213,953 
 
 891,828 
 
 410,760 
 
 o -2 
 
 173 
 
 8,022 
 
 164,821,358 285,708 580,559 175,824 
 
 1,050,840 
 
 149,436 
 
 05 1 
 
 220 
 
 8,55fi 
 
 173,100,386 71,527 
 
 196,268 67,083 
 
 639,620 
 
 194,040 
 
 3 
 
 163 
 
 5,480 
 
 184,473,016 163,811 
 
 48,260 95,329 
 
 491,652 
 
 216,468 
 
 I-H 0> 
 
 194 
 
 1,153 
 
 19.3,968,269 45,477 
 
 43,833 20,792 
 
 779,688 
 
 272,160 
 
 s ** 
 
 162 
 
 679 
 
 204,636,192 108,439 
 
 236,713 59,764 
 
 843,696 
 
 80,136 
 
 t^-. o 
 
 317 
 
 4,128 
 
 214,230,377 67,213 
 
 516,885! 34,485 
 
 858,728 
 
 111,888 
 
 J3 ^ 
 
 23513,185 
 
 224,318,012 69,751 
 
 415,912; 43,111 
 
 696,270 
 
 68,544 
 
 2 1 * 
 
 - - 
 
 5,483 
 
 234,135,045 45,884 
 
 656,9791 14,152 
 
 690,228 
 
 57,456 
 
 I 
 
 ~ 
 
 6,09( 
 
728 
 
 Trade of Ireland in Wine and Spirits for the following years, 
 partly in continuation of the foregoing table : 
 
 "V 
 
 Spirits in gallons. 
 
 Gallons of wine 
 
 i ears* 
 
 
 
 
 retained for 
 
 
 Distilled. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Paid duty on Fo 
 reign & Colonial. 
 
 consumption. 
 
 1824 
 
 2,844,677 
 
 899 
 
 29,010 
 
 567,573 
 
 1825 
 
 6,360,411 
 
 11,421 
 
 25,260 
 
 955,278 
 
 1826 
 
 8,833,863 
 
 15,788 
 
 43,457 
 
 687,263 
 
 1827 
 
 9,046,959 
 
 56,801 
 
 10,805 
 
 692,140 
 
 1828 
 
 7,283,317 
 
 8,637 
 
 14,678 
 
 789,832 
 
 1829 
 
 9,725,259 
 
 6,718 
 
 37,210 
 
 850,680 
 
 1830 
 
 9,208,538 
 
 12,651 
 
 32,419 
 
 757,674 
 
 1831 
 
 8,694,742 
 
 15,146 
 
 34,487 
 
 757.381 
 
 1832 
 
 8,731,101 
 
 28,396 
 
 31,636 
 
 766,339 
 
 1833 
 
 9,172,725 
 
 28,695 
 
 28,417 
 
 795,250 
 
 1834 
 
 9,459,160 
 
 ... 
 
 27,150 
 
 ... 
 
 1835 
 
 9,307,448 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 . 
 
 1836 
 
 11,076,272 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1837 
 
 11,809,603 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 Quantities of all sorts of Wine, as well as of Foreign and Colonial 
 Spirits consumed in the United Kingdom, with the amount of revenue 
 thereon : [vide page 707.] 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wine in Impe 
 rial gallons. 
 
 Amount of 
 duty. 
 
 Spirits in Im 
 perial gallons. 
 
 Amount of 
 duty. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 4,586,485 
 
 1,989,817 
 
 3,446,460 
 
 2,776,750 
 
 1821 
 
 4,686,885 
 
 2,006,498 
 
 3,337,715 
 
 2,732,323 
 
 1822 
 
 4,606,999 
 
 1,982,882 
 
 3,347,343 
 
 2,767,538 
 
 1823 
 
 4,845,060 
 
 2,088,232 
 
 3,540,338 
 
 2,941,767 
 
 1824 
 
 5,030,091 
 
 2,153,112 
 
 3,869,317 
 
 3,096,838 
 
 1825 
 
 -8,009,542 
 
 934,665 
 
 3,505,273 
 
 2,874,042 
 
 1826 
 
 6,058,443 
 
 ,424,326 
 
 5,855,090 
 
 3,551,548 
 
 1827 
 
 6,826,361 
 
 ,600,587 
 
 4,661,762 
 
 2,935,662 
 
 1828 
 
 7,162,376 
 
 ,700,051 
 
 4,658,332 
 
 2,942,912 
 
 1829 
 
 6,217,652 
 
 ,473,546 
 
 4,722,991 
 
 2,946,939 
 
 1830 
 
 6,434,445 
 
 ,524,168 
 
 -4,975,728 
 
 3,078,017 
 
 1831 
 
 6,212,264 
 
 ,535,484 
 
 4,892,795 
 
 3,054,448 
 
 1832 
 
 5,600,291 
 
 ,715,812 
 
 5,171,144 
 
 3,427,783 
 
 1833 
 
 6,207,770 
 
 ,633,830 
 
 4,879,967 
 
 3,130,657 
 
 1834 
 
 6,480,544 
 
 ,705,520 
 
 4,765,349 
 
 3,100,669 
 
 1835 
 
 6,420,342 
 
 ,691,508 
 
 4,765,706 
 
 3,047,359 
 
729 
 
 A view of the Trade of Groat 
 of the American continent : 
 
 Britain with several of the States 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gallons of all sorts Imported. 
 
 Galls, of all sorts Exported. 
 
 Spirits. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Beer, &c. 
 
 Tuns. 
 
 Spirits. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 108,119 
 
 31,418 
 
 449 
 
 1,181 
 
 602 
 
 1828 
 
 79,344 
 
 90,342 
 
 379 
 
 1,018 
 
 3,779 
 
 1829 
 
 50,262 
 
 71,149 
 
 335 
 
 7 
 
 4,649 
 
 1830 
 
 53,913 
 
 67,014 
 
 307 
 
 9,443 
 
 2,325 
 
 1831 
 
 126,299 
 
 83,235 
 
 311 
 
 172 
 
 6,629 
 
 1832 
 
 73,205 
 
 91,147 
 
 398 
 
 2 
 
 1,236 
 
 1833 
 
 77,670 
 
 184,035 
 
 514 
 
 3,557 
 
 1,133 
 
 1834 
 
 105,902 
 
 133,534 
 
 464 
 
 1,871 
 
 7,772 
 
 
 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 
 1827 
 
 5,705 
 
 9,217 
 
 14 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1828 
 
 8,673 
 
 9,289 
 
 13 
 
 * , 3 
 
 49 
 
 1829 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1830 
 
 1,008 
 
 23,751 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 1831 
 
 772 
 
 2,180 
 
 21 
 
 ... 
 
 461 
 
 1832 
 
 1,712 
 
 5,721 
 
 8 
 
 , , . 
 
 53 
 
 1833 
 
 4,085 
 
 2,473 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
 61 
 
 1834 
 
 303 
 
 2,443 
 
 11 
 
 ... 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 COLUMBIA. 
 
 
 1827 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,566 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1828 
 
 4,743 
 
 1,784 
 
 23 
 
 ... 
 
 6,219 
 
 1829 
 
 5,794 
 
 588 
 
 7 
 
 ... 
 
 118 
 
 1830 
 
 1,680 
 
 190 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 ... 
 
 1831 
 
 1,119 
 
 450 
 
 15 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1832 
 
 4,895 
 
 2,050 
 
 15 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1833 
 
 1,439 
 
 772 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 159 
 
 1834 
 
 985 
 
 3,345 
 
 22 
 
 ... 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 
 1827 
 
 12,533 
 
 114,008 
 
 381 
 
 24 
 
 11,106 
 
 1828 
 
 17,980 
 
 135,685 
 
 436 
 
 3 
 
 4,515 
 
 1829 
 
 13,717 
 
 59,948 
 
 397 
 
 1,085 
 
 1,817 
 
 1830 
 
 9,470 
 
 13,062 
 
 560 
 
 17 
 
 1,462 
 
 1831 
 
 7,145 
 
 10,299 
 
 315 
 
 5 
 
 2,915 
 
 1832 
 
 14,741 
 
 27,358 
 
 257 
 
 6 
 
 1,398 
 
 1833 
 
 10,238 
 
 25,633 
 
 467 
 
 3 
 
 1,421 
 
 1834 
 
 13,662 
 
 19,744 
 
 606 
 
 3 
 
 895 
 
 
 
 EIO DE LA PLATA. 
 
 
 1827 
 
 2,900 
 
 19,298 
 
 21 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1828 
 
 5,600 
 
 17,584 
 
 64 
 
 , , . 
 
 ... 
 
 1829 
 
 5,602 
 
 14,481 
 
 76 
 
 ... 
 
 102 
 
 1830 
 
 16,749 
 
 7,193 
 
 112 
 
 ... 
 
 214 
 
 1831 
 
 905 
 
 1,960 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 1,013 
 
 1832 
 
 1,644 
 
 8,464 
 
 78 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 1833 
 
 5,753 
 
 7,836 
 
 103 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1834 
 
 20,687 
 
 18,906 
 
 74 
 
 150 
 
 599 
 
 [Continued in next page. 
 
730 
 
 Years 
 
 Spirits. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Beer, &c. 
 Tuns. 
 
 Spirits. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 
 
 
 CHILI. 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 5,335 
 
 5,356 
 
 11 
 
 215 
 
 3 
 
 1828 
 
 15,483 
 
 9,613 
 
 24 
 
 ... 
 
 20 
 
 1829 
 
 6,125 
 
 4,189 
 
 12 
 
 ... 
 
 141 
 
 1830 
 
 5,959 
 
 2,905 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 1,479 
 
 1831 
 
 6,413 
 
 5,597 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 1832 
 
 6,363 
 
 10,952 
 
 7 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1833 
 
 6,058 
 
 13,047 
 
 14 
 
 ... 
 
 114 
 
 1834 
 
 27,865 
 
 13,435 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 PERU. 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 11,265 
 
 6,483 
 
 6 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1823 
 
 11,477 
 
 9,900 
 
 19 
 
 ... 
 
 23 
 
 1829 
 
 4,662 
 
 1,818 
 
 6 
 
 ... 
 
 50 
 
 1830 
 
 11,179 
 
 7,112 
 
 5 
 
 ... 
 
 11 
 
 1831 
 
 6,163 
 
 5,487 
 
 8 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 1832 
 
 6,453 
 
 4,339 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1833 
 
 5,921 
 
 10,823 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 23 
 
 1834 
 
 16,222 
 
 10,007 
 
 14 
 
 3 I 3 
 
 Tables showing the rates of duties on spirits, as imposed by acts of Parliament in different 
 years, with the quantity on which dutyVas paid, together with the number of licensed 
 distillers working during those years. 
 
 
 England. 
 
 {Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Paid duty for con 
 
 ? 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Low 
 
 High 
 
 U5 
 
 c 
 
 
 sumption. 
 
 
 
 .S 
 
 Duty per 
 
 9 
 
 lands. 
 
 lands. 
 
 o 
 
 Per 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 J3 
 
 gallon. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 gal. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 Out} per gal. of still cont. 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1791 
 
 
 
 3 4f 
 
 _ 
 
 3 12 
 
 1 4 
 
 2301 1| 
 
 4,072,735 
 
 
 
 3,416,766 
 
 17.94 
 
 . 
 
 3 10f 
 
 _ 
 
 10 16 0^ 
 
 16 
 
 105 1 
 
 4,594,793 
 
 
 
 4,153,785 
 
 1795 
 
 . 
 
 4 4i 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1991 5| 
 
 4,711,640 
 
 
 
 3,6 1 2,083 
 
 1797 
 
 . 
 
 4 101 
 
 _ 
 
 64 16 4 
 
 300 
 
 210 
 
 2,808,948 
 
 __ 
 
 4,694 254 
 
 1798 
 
 . 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 7 16 Ol 
 
 1761 11 
 
 3,630,872 
 
 . 
 
 4,173.439 
 
 1799 
 1800 
 
 
 5~41 
 
 87 
 55 
 
 per gal. spts. 
 
 
 
 165 2 41 
 124 
 
 4,114,936 
 4,335,550 
 
 1,670,3883,553,594 
 775,7501 275,013 
 
 1802 
 1803 
 
 _ 
 
 8 OJ- 
 
 84 
 88 
 
 3 101 
 
 3~41 
 
 120 
 115 
 
 2 101 
 3 61 
 
 3,464,380 
 5,353,309 
 
 1,158,5584,715,098 
 2,022,409 4,343,095 
 
 1804 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 5 9f 
 
 5 01 
 
 90 
 
 4 1 
 
 3,678,679 
 
 1,889,7573,543,599 
 
 1807 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 5 8| 
 
 4 111 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 4,741,939 
 
 2,653,478 5,597,2 .4 
 
 1810 
 
 ](: 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 2 61 
 
 4,787,555 
 
 1,748,140 4,630,675 
 
 1811 
 
 17 
 
 10 22 
 
 62 
 
 8 01 
 
 6 71 
 
 32 
 
 
 4,776,330 
 
 1,581,524 
 
 6,378,479 
 
 1812 
 
 1 
 
 , 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 * ii 
 
 3,622,970 
 
 1,318,115 
 
 4,009,301 
 
 1813 
 
 If 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 5 71 
 
 4,292,477 
 
 1,234,291 1,809,849 
 
 1815 
 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 9 41 
 
 9 41 
 
 34|6 11 
 
 5,468,987 
 
 1,591,148 
 
 4,323,844 
 
 1816 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 3615 71 
 
 4,745,484 
 
 918,859 
 
 3,557,200 
 
 1817 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 107 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 36 
 
 4,133,063 
 
 1,906,950 
 
 3,58o,932 
 
 1819 
 
 lv 
 
 11 81 
 
 147 
 
 
 
 
 
 38! 
 
 4,146,505 
 
 2,125,150 
 
 3,676,516 
 
 1823 
 
 1C 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 2 4f 
 
 2 42 
 
 362 4| 
 
 3,803,812 
 
 2,303,286 
 
 3,590,376 
 
 1826 
 
 W 
 
 7 
 
 263 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 10 
 
 83 
 
 2 10 
 
 7,407,204 
 
 3,988,788 
 
 6,837,408 
 
 1830 
 
 i: 
 
 7 6 
 
 249 
 
 3 4 
 
 3 4 
 
 82 
 
 3 4 
 
 7,732,101 
 
 6,007,631 
 
 9,004,539 
 
 1831 
 
 t; 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 7,434,047 
 
 5,700,389 
 
 8,710,672 
 
 1832 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 233 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 7,281,900 
 
 5,405,439 
 
 8,657,756 
 
 1833^2 
 
 
 
 243 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 7,717,303 
 
 5,988,556 
 
 8,168,596 
 
 1834 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 2 4 
 
 7,644,301 
 
 6,045.043 
 
 9,708,416 
 
 1835 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 7,315,053 
 
 6,013,932 
 
 11381223 
 
 (1836 
 
 1: 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 7,558 ; 889 
 
 6,025,844 11 800000 
 
731 
 
 In reference to the Act of the 3d and4th Philip and Mary, passed at 
 Drogheda in 1556, and quoted in page 610, it appears from the 5th 
 Jac. I. that this act was inefficient for the purpose, and that a grant 
 was made on the 23d March, 1607, to Walter Taillor of Dungurey, 
 county Galway, empowering him to recommend persons to the Lord 
 Deputy to be licensed for the distillation of aqua-vita, within the 
 province of Connaught, and none were to be licensed bnt through 
 his certificate. After a month s notice of this grant to Taillor, if any 
 should be found distilling without his nomination, their property 
 became forfeited to him for his sole use and benefit. Besides, he had 
 liberty for seven years to distil in any place, town, or village in the 
 province, and to make, or cause to be made aqua-vita?, usquebaugh, 
 and aqua compositors he might think fit, and to sell the same in any 
 part of Ireland, he might choose, paying the crown rent of 40. Irish, 
 per annum. 
 
 A similar grant for seven years, was made to Sir Thomas Philips, 
 Knt. for the county of Colrane, (now Colerain) otherwise called 
 O Cahane s country, or within the territory or country called the 
 Rowte, county Antrim ; rent, 13s. 4d. Irish, 
 
 Another license was, on the 23d March, 1608, granted to George 
 Sexton, gent, for seven years, for the province of Leinster ; rent, 5s. 
 Irish. 
 
 A similar license was granted, on the 10th January, 1608, for seven 
 years, to Charles Waterhouse, gent, for the whole province of Mun- 
 ster ; rent, 6s. 8d. Irish. 
 
 In virtue of these grants, innumerable licenses were issued to divers 
 persons to make and sell aqua-vita?, &c. throughout Ireland, until 
 the 18th of May, 1620, when that privilege was withdrawn, incon 
 sequence of complaints of the indulgence being confined to a few 
 individuals. A grant was made, on the 22d March, 1609, for the 
 support of the Right Hon. Lady Arabella Seymour, (then Stewart,) 
 for the term of 21 years, empowering Sir George St. Poll andllenrie 
 Yelverton, Esq. to nominate and appoint at their pleasure such per 
 sons as they might think nt to keep a tavern in any part of Ireland ; 
 and to buy and sell in gross or by retail, by the gallon, or by a greater 
 or lesser measure, good and wholesome wines ; and to make and sell, 
 in gross by retail, aqua-vita? and usquebaugh. 
 
 A grant in reversion, after the expiration of the above, was given 
 for 32 years at 100 marks rent to James, Viscount Doncaster ; and 
 licenses were continued to be granted for the keeping taverns, making 
 and selling aqua-vitce and usquebaugh until the 17th August, 1529. 
 
732 
 
 Cromwell, for the better ordering of licenses to be granted in Ireland, for the 
 sale of wine, and the making and retail of aqua vita, appointed Thomas Longe, 
 Esq. and Dr. Joseph Waterhouse, Commissioners, to treat, contract, and compound, 
 in his name and on his behalf, with any person or persons whatever, being natural 
 born subjects or denizens, for and concerning the licensing or the keeping of any 
 tavern or taverns, and for selling, uttering, and retailing wines, as well as the making, 
 selling, and retailing aqua vitce fee 100 per annum to each. 
 
 Besides these regulations, in 16 12 a duty was imposed on all wines imported into 
 Ireland at the following rates, viz. : on every tun of Spanish, Levant, or Canary, 
 imported by natural-born subjects of Ireland or England, 40s. Irish, and by stran 
 gers, 2. 13s. 4d. ; upon all French, l. 6s. 8d., and by strangers, 40s. (10th. 
 Jac. I.) 
 
 From the foregoing extracts, with which I was favoured by a gentleman inti 
 mately conversant with the records of the country, the intelligent reader will observe 
 the great contrast between the present and former systems of licensing distillers, 
 and others connected with the wine and spirit trades illustrating, in this respect, 
 an obscure portion of Irish history. 
 
 In the notice of brewing porter, page 628, the heat at which the liquor is sent to 
 the tun is there stated to be 60. Other brewers send it to the tuns at from 
 60 to 64 of temperature, according to the strength, or specific gravity of the 
 liquor ; but a good deal depends on the heat of the weather and the situation of the 
 utensils. 
 
 In the first mashing, the heat of the water poured on good dry malt, should be 
 165, and the proportion of water run in from the copper, should be to the quarter 
 of malt, 3j barrels. The mashing, or raking of the grain should continue for about 
 half an hour. In the second mash, the heat of the liquor or water should be 175, 
 and the proportion let in from the coppers, should be from 1^ to 1| barrels of water 
 to each quarter of malt, and the raking in this mash should continue from twenty 
 minutes to half an hour, and be let stand, for three quarters of an hour before 
 drawn off the keive. After the first and second mashings are over, in order to take 
 out any saccharine matter that may remain, brewers are in the habit of running 
 water into the kieve at a heat from 180 to 1 84, which is technically called a dash ; 
 and this dashing is continued till the specific gravity shews one degree or nothing 
 on Richardson s saccharometer. The hops to be used are in the proportion of 2 
 Ibs. to the hhd. or 1 |lbs to the barrel for plain porter, and for double X, 5lbs. to 
 the barrel or 7f Ibs to the hhd. Country porter requires 24lbs. of saccharine 
 matter, and 4|lbs. of hops to the hhd. or 3lbs. to the barrel. The liquor is sent 
 to the fermenting tuns at a heat of 61 for double X, and at 65 for plain porter, 
 to bring it on the more quickly. 
 
 In the brewing of ale, the heat of the first mash is from 160 to 165, ajad after 
 this, all the liquor run into the keive is accounted a dash. The worts of the first 
 and second mashings are boiled together, and the proportion of hops is 5lbs. to the 
 barrel of malt. From these two mashings, the quantity of liquor sent from the 
 kieve to the coppers to be be boiled, is reckoned at 3^ barrels to the quarter of 
 malt; and it is cooled down and sent to the fermenting-tuns at a heat of 61 . No 
 brown malt is used in the making of ale, as this liquor is generally estimated by its 
 paleness. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 Abas- Mirza, anecdote of . t . . f 87 
 
 - - Shah, drinking-cup of . . . . 598 
 
 Abdelrrhman, Sultan, his prohibition of intoxicating liquors ; 66 
 
 Abulfeda, his notice of Mahomet . . . 35 
 
 Abyssinians, beverages of the, 58 distillation practised by, 60 hospitality of, 
 
 61 drinking- vessels of, 59 and 63 cup-bearers of, 60, 63 entertainments 
 
 of, 62 
 Achmet Cachef, anecdote of ..... 40 
 
 Addenda . " ..^ . ; . ",. . 716 
 
 Adel, beverages of . . . . Ji ." 268 
 
 Afghanistan, liquors used in, 167 grapes of, ibid 
 
 Africa, liquors of, . *."* . . 268,269,270 
 
 Agave, liquor from, 296 mode of cultivating, . . 298 
 
 Agras, a Spanish drink . . " . " * . 370 
 
 Agua-ardiente, . "V , ^ . . V ^ . 303,307 
 
 Aipy, what made from . . V* 315 
 
 Air en, a term for Koumiss, ... 140 
 
 Albania, ...... 421 
 
 Alboin, drinking-cup of, ..... 591 
 
 Alchyraist, anecdote of an . . !iT i! ; . 50 
 
 Alchymy, early notice of, 23 derivation of, 31 antiquity of in China, 209 
 Alcohol, origin and explanation of, . . . . 31,362 
 
 Alcohometer, description and use of, f^ " " ; * r . K; i -^ ." : - 693 
 
 Aldemey, distillation in - f . . . 568 
 
 Ale, early name of, 10 antiquity of in Asia, 137 manufacture of, in Great 
 
 Britain, 544 Burton, ibid duty first imposed on in Scotland, 570 ancient 
 
 name of in Ireland, 603. 
 Ale-wives, why so called .... -. . . 543 
 
 Alembic, derivation of that term . r - .* ,:,.. 31 
 
 Alexandrian library, destruction of, . 23 
 
 Algiers, liquors used in, . . . . . .. 81 
 
 Ali Bey, treasurer of, . . *tc :: . 40 
 
 All Effendi, anecdote of, . . .. ;_ * > 40 
 
 Al-Mamon, remarkable observation of, . ^ * : .. 32 
 
 Almohdi, anecdote of - * v j $... * . 36 
 
 Al-Mokanna, remarkable suicide of . - f * . .., . * 24 
 
 Almond trees, liquors from .. , , . , 499 
 
 Anecdotes of smuggling . . . .-- . 562-3, 674, 676, &c. 
 
731 
 
 Page 
 Angola, wines of . . . . . . 69 
 
 Anis, a kind of arrack . .... 198 
 
 Anise-seed, use of in Morocco, 79 in Sweden, 479 
 
 Annabon, liquors of, . . . . . . 71 
 
 A manita muscaria, inebriating effects of the . . . 122,514 
 
 America, opinions respecting the primitive population of, 321 to 325 early notice 
 
 of distillation in, ibid brandies of, 328 cider of, 329 sugar and rum of, 
 
 332, 334 vines of, 333 honey of, ibid Temperance Societies in, 339 
 
 Indians of, 349 
 
 Amphora 1 , found in Pompeii, - .... 14 
 
 Aqua-vittz, 191 ; derivation of, 615 
 
 Arabia, liquors of . . . . J; . . 48 
 
 Arabians, remarks on their reputed knowledge of the Arts and Sciences, 29 
 Araffer, a liquor, ...... 187 
 
 Arbutus unedo, spirit from the . . 410 
 
 Arjan, a Calmuck and Kirghis drink, . . . . 146 
 
 Arrachaca ....... 311 
 
 Arracan, liquors of . . . . . . 179 
 
 Arrack, etymology of 140 manufacture of, 160, 161, 162, &c Pariah, 1 64 con 
 sumption and manufacture of in Siam, 176, 178 -in Ceylon, 183, 185, 
 187 in Java, 194 Batavia, 193 in Cochin- China, 205 in China 232 in 
 Corea, 237, &c. 
 
 Artichokes (Jerusalem), distillation from . . . 398 
 
 Ashantee, instance of an extraordinary drinker in, 76 drinking-vessels used in 
 
 ibid customs observed in, ibid 
 
 Assam, brandy of, . . , . . . 179 
 
 Astracan, brandy of, . . . . . . 479 
 
 Attenuation, ....... 663, &c. 
 
 Auguur Asji,a kind of grape ; 85 
 
 Aureng-Zebe, anecdote of, ..... 96 
 
 Ava, drink from . . : . . . 198,250,255 
 
 Awamuri, a liquor of the Japanese Islands . . . 247 
 
 B 
 
 Baamboo, a liquor of Sierra Leone, > 74 
 
 Bacanassi, a liquor of the Sunda islands, .... 1 98 
 
 Baksima, a drink ...... 507 
 
 Baksoum, a beer of Tartary . . . . 149 
 
 Balearic islands, wine and brandy of the . , . 376 
 
 Ball, a mead of Tartary . . . 145 
 
 Ballo, a kind of beer, . . . * . 65, 82 
 
 Ballston Waters, exhilarating qualities of, ... 336 
 
 Bananas, distillation from . . . ~ ..-* . 307 
 
 Banquets, at Benin, 71 superb one of Tamerlane, 149 among the Lusitanians, 
 
 382 that of Prince Potemkin, 554 magnificent one of the Duke of Moscovy, 
 
 522 practice observed at those of the Greeks and Romans, 525 among the 
 
 Britons, 528 of the ancient Irish, 608 curious custom observed at those of 
 
 *he ancient Egyptians, 712 
 
735 
 
 Page 
 
 Banqueting-hall of the king of Loango, 70 of the Irish monarchs at Tara, 613 
 
 of Brian Boriomhe, ibid that of Nero, 709 
 
 Boabab-tree, description and uses of, ; . . . 74 
 
 Barbary, drinks of . . . . . . 81 
 
 Barm, origin of the use of, 592 mode of preparing dry barm in France, 393 
 
 Bassa latifolia, spirit from the flowers of . . . 163 
 
 Batata root, liquor from .... , ? 315 
 
 Batavia, liquors of . ..... 195 
 
 Bathing in punch, 316 in milk, . 145 
 
 P.satachs, keepers of houses of entertainment . . . 587 
 
 Beer, the early drink of the Egyptians, 7 its invention to whom attributed, 9 
 early names of 10, 535 speculation concerning in Turkey 43 manufacture 
 of in Tripoli, 80 in New South Wales, 261 at the Cape of Good Hope,278 
 from rice at Sofala, 269 in France, 391 antiquity of in Asia, 137 in Peru 
 304 its use among the aborigines of Florida, 321 in Spain, 375 from 
 potatoes, 442 manufacture of in Bohemia, 443 in Austria, 444 in Germany, 
 447 in Holland and throughout the Netherlands, 456 in Hanover, 458 
 in Dantzic, 463 in Prussia 464, 465 in Poland, 467 early attachment of 
 the people of Norway to, 473 in Sweden, 477, 478 in Lapland, 483 in 
 Denmark, 470 formerly brewed in Iceland, 471 in Russia, 490 spruce, 
 348, 550 policy of rescinding the duty on questioned, 546 made from 
 Mangel-wurzel, 549 manufactured in the Caucasus, 506 from water-melons, 
 497 made from heather, 606. 
 
 Bees, mode of rearing in Africa, 63 in Bootan, 173 in Cyprus, 413 in Greece, 
 422 in Germany, 446 fed on flesh in Bokhara, 169 in Poland, 467 in 
 Russia, 495 in the Crimea, 501 in Circassia, 507 in America, 335~in 
 Ireland, 591. 
 
 Beet-root, distillation from in France, 399, 701 ale made from, 549. 
 Benin, wines of, 71 customs observed in, ... 72 
 
 Berlin, beer of . . . . . . . 464 
 
 Betel, its importance in the East, .... 204 
 
 Birman empire, liquors of 174 entertainments and cup-bearers in, 175 cups 
 
 used in, ibid 
 
 Birch tree, liquor from . . . " ... 472,557,469,510 
 
 Bohemia, malt-drinks and brandy of, . . . 443 
 
 Borneo, drinks of, . . . . . 195 
 
 Bootan, liquors of, 173 horns used by travellers in, ibid 
 
 Bokhara, melons and liquors of, 168 meals of the monarch in, ibid food for bees 
 
 in, 1^9 
 Bour, a beverage used in Nubia, ..... 57 
 
 Boule-ponge, a liquor of India, . ... . 156 
 
 Bourbon, liquors of, . . . ." . . 189 
 
 Bouza, . . . . .; . . 50, &c. &c. 
 
 Braga, the Fada of the Circassians, . . 608, 505 
 
 Bramins, anecdotes of one, 161 ; abstinence of from wine, 162 
 Brandy, material from which made in Morocco, 78 prevents the elephantiasis 79 
 made from honey, 82 in Persia, 85, 94 Kislar, 505 in Bucharia, 148 
 
736 
 
 Page 
 in India, 165 imports and exports of, 176 at the Cape, 273 Pulque, 268 
 
 in Peru, 305 in Chili, 307 in Paraguay, 312 in the United States, 328 
 in Madeira, 360 in Spain, 354, 365 in France, 398, 400 .in Hungary, 
 446 in Switzerland, 451 in Hanover, 448 in Dantzic, 463 in Poland, 
 466 in Denmark, 469 in Norway, 474 in Sweden, 474 in Russia, 489 
 in Kamtschatka, 511. 
 Brew, derivation of the word .... 363 
 
 Brewery, expense of establishing one in Ireland, 625; discovery of an ancient one 
 
 for the brewing of heather-beer, 608 
 Brom, a drink of Java, ...... 1 94 
 
 Brum, a drink of Sumatra, . . ;. ;..,.. 192 
 
 Bual, a wine of Madeira, . . . 359 
 
 Buenos Ayres, . . . . 4 311 
 
 Bucharia, wine and brandy of, . . . . 148 
 
 Bull, a drink of New Holland, ..... 264 
 
 Bursa, a drink of the Kiwenses, ..... 150 
 
 Burton ale, . . ; . 544 
 
 Busa, a drink ofFezzan, . . 67 
 
 Brian Boriomhe, large wine-store of . . , , 614 
 
 C 
 
 Cabul, liquors of, 167 
 
 Cacongo, liquors of, .71 
 
 Caffraria, beverages of, .... 270 
 
 California, liquors of, ...... 355 
 
 Callu, a term for palm- wine, . , 1 54 
 
 Cambodia, beverages of, . . . . . . 179 
 
 Canada, 341 spruce-beer, 348 distillation from potatoes in, Hid 
 
 Canary isles, wine of . . . . . 357 
 
 Candia, liquors of, .... : 410 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, remarks on the settlement at, 270 exports of, 273, 717 
 Caroline islands, beverages of, . . ." . : . 249 
 
 Carthaginians, their early connection with Ireland, 587 
 Caucasus, maddening honey of . . . . . 507 
 
 Celebes, beverages of the . . . . . 1 98 
 
 Cephalonia, wines of . . . . . 409 
 
 Ceylon, liquors used in, 180 distillation in, 183 extraordinary mode of drinking 
 
 in, 181 marriage feasts of, 187 exports of, 716 
 
 Chalibonian wine, . . . . 5 
 
 Chemistry, early knowledge of, 20 origin of the term, 21 
 Chili, liquors of, 307 drinking vessels used in, 309 
 Chica, 292 mode of making in Peru, 293 
 
 China, remarks on, 208 early notice of distillation in, 211 early commerce of, 
 212 taste for literature in, 213 cultivation of the vine in, 218 rice- wines 
 and brandies of, 217, 218 entertainments and invitations in 219, 220, 221 
 manufacture of beer in, 221 population of, 224 drinking-cups used in, 227 
 anecdote of a host in, ibid distillation in, 228-9 lamb-wine of, 230 manu 
 facture of sugar in, 231 
 
737 
 
 Cider, derivation of, 7 made in Barbary, 78 in the United States, 329 iu 
 Peru, 393 in Canada, 345 in Great Britain, 550 in Ireland, 593 dis 
 tillation of in Normandy, 398 wine from, 552 
 Circassia, liquors of . . : . . . . 506 
 
 Cochin- China, liquors of ..... 205 
 
 Coca, used by the Peruvians for opium . . ; i . 123 
 
 Coco de mer, cups formed of . . . . . 191 
 
 Congo, palm-wine of, 68 cup-bearers in, ibid wine-taster of the king of, 69 
 Constantia wine, ...... 270 
 
 Corea, beverages of . . . . t 237 
 
 Corinth, and derivation of currants . . . , 410 
 
 Crete, or Candia, wines of . . . ; , 410 
 
 Crimea, beverages used in ..... 500 
 
 Criminals, strong drink given to before execution . . 5 
 
 Cup-bearers, ancient names of, 610 antiquity of, ibid their costume, 611 their 
 
 importance and privileges in Oriental courts, ibid among the Greeks and 
 
 Romans, &c. ibid the ancient Britons, 6 1 2 female employed by the Indian 
 
 kings, &c. ibid at the Irish court, ibid of the American Chiefs, ibid in 
 
 Congo, 68 in Loango, 70 In Japan, 239 in Abyssinia, 60, 63 inDahomy, 
 
 64 in Ashantee, 76 the Friendly Islands, 251 in China, 227 among the 
 
 Burmese, 175 the Lusitanians, 382 in the Western Islands, 569, 582 
 
 Cups for drinking used among various nations, 55,147, 149, &c. &c. interesting 
 
 account of, 593 
 
 D 
 Dahomy, beverages of, 64 drinking-cups used in, ibid stratagem of a monarch 
 
 of, 65 
 
 Dantzic, beverages of, 463 grain stores at and mode of guarding, 462 
 Darfur, liquors of ....... 66 
 
 Date tree, description of, 51, 52 wine made from in Nubia, 55 revenue and 
 
 trade in, 55, 81 
 Denmark, beverages of . . . . . 469 
 
 Distillation, origin of, 21, 22, 23 from dates in Egypt, 51 in Nubia, 55 in 
 India, 158 in Sumatra, 192 in China, 211 in Japan, 243 in Persia, 
 85,95 at the Cape, 273 in Mexico, 298 in Peru, 303 in Chili, 307 
 in Paraguay, 312 in the United States, 328 in Canada, 343 in Madeira, 
 360 in Spain, 364 in Portugal, 380 in France, 398 in Hungary, 446 
 in Switzerland, 451 in Hanover, 458 in Dantzic, 463 in Poland, 466 
 in Denmark, 469 in Norway, 474 in Sweden, 475 in Russia, 489 in 
 Astracan, 497 in the Crimea, 500 in Siberia, 500 in Kamtschatka, 511 
 in England, 559 in Scotland, 572 in Guernsey and Jersey, &c. 568 in 
 Ireland, 631 illicit distillation, 671 
 
 Drinking, anecdotes of . . * . . 12, 13, 36, 37, 38, 39, &c. 
 
 Drinking-glasses, from whence first procured . 555 
 
 Drunkenness thought to be one of the chief causes of the deluge, 4 remarks on, 705 
 Druzes, liquors and customs of ... 47 
 
 E 
 
 Egypt, account of the drinks used in. . . 51 
 
 3 B 
 
738 
 
 Page 
 Egyptians, wine of > *>- " . ,$.-. . . 5 
 
 Eldon, wine of . r ; ? * & 
 
 Elba, wines of . o ., . . . * " 408 
 
 Elephants fed on sugar . ... 157 
 
 Embeth, a wine of Cacongo ..... 71 
 
 England, on the cultivation of the vine in, 523 antiquity and extent of its manu 
 facture and. trade in malt-liquors, 529 to 545 immense establishments for 
 brewing, 540 great importance of the duty on malt, 545 policy of repealing 
 the beer-duty considered, ibid manufacture of cider, 550 perry, 552 
 home-made .wines, 556 imports and exports of wine, ibid and Addenda dis 
 tillation, 550 imports and exports of spirits, 561 rectifiers, 565, 704 for 
 the number of distillers see Addenda, 730. 
 
 Erivan, attachment of the people of to punch ... 90 
 
 Europe, introduction of distillation into . . "* 361,615 
 
 Excise, origin of the term ..... 531 
 
 F 
 
 Fada, a Circassian beverage . . . . 508 
 
 Fermentation, 662 remarks on spontaneous, 665 
 
 Fezzan, beverages of ....;. 67 
 
 Finland, propensity of its inhabitants for strong liquors ... 485 
 
 Feasts of the dead . . \ . . 78,241,269,350 
 
 Floridas, beverages of, 320 feasts and manners of the aborigines of, 321 
 Formosa, drinks of ...... 325 
 
 France, 380- remarks on the introduction of the vine into, ibid distillation of 
 brandy in, 392 of the Jerusalem artichoke and potatoes, 398 from beet-root, 
 399, 7 01 manufacture of liqueurs in, 400 remarks on the wine-trade, 402 
 Frankfort, sale of Renish wine at .... 433 
 
 Friendly Islands, beverages of, 250 cup-bearers of, 251 
 
 G 
 
 Gauls, liquors and feasts of the . , t ^ v _., . . ... 380 
 
 Gaza, wine of . , -,.,..- . . . 5 
 
 Gear, an ale of Ragada in Africa , . . - . 66 
 
 Geber, writings of . . . ... 25 
 
 Geneva, manufacture of . . . . . ., . % " 452 to 455 
 
 Gentian, use of, 537 notice of distillation from, 606 
 
 Georgia, liquors of j ,. . s .. -. . ; 503 
 
 Georgian Islands, distillation in . . . j 256 
 
 Germany, vintage and wines of, 436 to 440 distillation from potatoes in, 441 
 
 Gold Coast, liquors of the , *..* 72 
 
 Goldwasser, a liquor of Prussia ."* . . ,._ 261 
 
 Grapa, a drink of the Negroes . , "^ .". -, 315 
 
 Grapes, varieties of in Persia, 91 how preserved, 93 
 
 Greece, liquors of . . . . ,, . 408 to 422 
 
 Guallo, a liquor of Congo . . . "".... . 68 
 
 Guarapo, a Peruvian drink . -. . 302 
 
 Guinea, partiality of the natives for strong liquors . ;- - 72 
 
730 
 
 H 
 
 Hainan, notice of that island ..... 234, 235 
 
 Ha-mi, interesting account of , * . * 233 
 
 Hanover, beverages of, 458 distillation in, 469 
 
 Hautkups, a beverage of the Circassians i . . 506 
 
 Health-drinking, origin of . . . . 525 
 
 Heath, use of, 537 distillation from, 582 607 
 
 Heather-leer, manufacture of, 606 anecdote respecting, 607 discovery of a 
 
 brewery for, 608 
 
 Hemlock peculiar application of . . ..V . . 12,127 
 
 Hippocrates, his recommendation of wine ... 95 
 
 Honey in Syria, 48 in Egypt, 54 in Nubia, 57 distilled into brandy, 82 
 
 intoxicating kind of, 469, 507 notices respecting in New South Wales,. 
 
 258 in Caffraria, 280 Honey-bird or indicator, 280 in the United States, 
 
 335 in Canada, 348 Cyprus, 413 Greece,422 Germany, 446 Austria, 
 
 442 Prussia, 460 Dantzic, 463 Poland, 467, 468 Russia, 495, 496 
 
 the Crimea, 501 Georgia,505 in Circassia, 507 in Ireland, 591. 
 
 Honey-moon, derivation of the term .... 466 
 
 Hops in the United States, 335 history of and introduction into England, 535 
 
 substitutes for, 536 soporific qualities of, 128 its tops esteemed a delicacy, 
 
 129 
 
 Hemp -plant, inebriating qualities of . . . .117,118,121 
 
 Hungary, wines of, 424 brandy, 429 early notice of aqua-vitae in, 446 
 Horns used for drinking, and great size of . . .. 59, 504 
 
 Hydromel, 69 manufacture of in Abyssinia, 60, 61 in Poland, 469 
 Hydrometers, description and use of, 689, 690, 693 anecdote respecting, ibid 
 
 I 
 
 Iceland, beverages of, and remarks on . . - .. 471 
 
 India, early notice of fermented liquors in, 151 ancient cups used in, 156 
 
 cultivation of the sugar-cane, 157 distillation, 158-9 arrack, imports and 
 
 exports of, 162-3 use of spirituous liquors in, 170 
 
 Inebriating drinks, what led to their discovery, 2 account of in the Padma Puran, 
 
 a sacred book of India, 151 
 
 Intoxication, to what attributed ..... 683 
 
 Ionian Islands, wines of, 408, 720 imports and exports, ibid 
 
 Ireland, 583 progress of the arts in, 585 hospitality of its inhabitants, 588 early 
 
 beverages of, 591 drinking-vessels used in, 593, 597, 598,599 early notice 
 
 of wine, 600 early knowledge of malting, 601 introduction of water- 
 
 mills into, 603 manufacture of heather-beer, 606 entertainments and 
 
 cup-bearers in 610, 613 aqua-vita early manufactured in, 615 distillation 
 
 known in at a remote period, ibid, 6 1 6, 6 1 7 principal brewing establishments 
 
 of, 629, 630 extensive distilleries in, 668-9, see Addenda, 725, 726, 730 
 
 concluding remarks on, Z05 
 
 Isle of France, liquors of the . . *;.,...< * 190 
 
 Italy, wines of . . . , " . "" 404 
 
740 
 
 Page 
 Ithaca, wines of ..... 410 
 
 J 
 
 Japan, beverages of, 238 cup-bearers in, 239 antiquity of brewing in, ibid 
 drinking- vessels of, 240, 243 curious notice of stills and brewing utensils, 
 244 distillation in, 243 remedy for drunkenness in, 248 remarkable and 
 pathetic anecdote of two natives of, 241 singular effects of the todonoevo in, 
 248 
 
 Jassy, wines of . . . * . 424 
 
 Jatropha-manihot, spirits from .... -^f . %9Q 
 
 Java, distillation in, 193 drinking-cups of, . -, v 196 
 
 Jerusalem artichokes, distillation from . . i. 398 
 
 Jersey, liquors of ) . . . . . 568 
 
 Jesso, island of . . . . . . - *\l 244 
 
 Jora, malt of the Peruvians .... "U 304 
 
 Jin-jin-di. an African drink ..... 77 
 
 Juniper-berries, uses of in Lapland, Sweden, and Holland . 452 
 
 K 
 
 Kava, a beverage peculiar to many islands in the Pacific and mode of preparing, 
 
 250 wonderful effects of, 252. 
 Kamtschatka, 51 1 spirits made from grass in, 512 anecdotes of the inhabitants 
 
 of, 513, 514, 516, 517. 
 Kea-sum, ancient name for brandy . . . . . 362 
 
 Kebul, spirit from ..... 169 
 
 Kirschwasser, or cherry-water, a brandy of Switzerland . 450 
 
 Koramas, mead of the ...... 280 
 
 Kislar, brandy distilled from water-melons at, 505 wine from mulberries, ibid 
 from peaches, ...... ibid 
 
 Koumiss, a beverage of the Tartars, 136 from mares milk, 137 mode of pre 
 paring, 138 made from the milk of cows, sheep, and camels, 140, 167 distil 
 lation of, 140, , : . . ." .. . 142 
 Kriska, a liquor of the Gold Coast *. * ~; . 73 
 Kiimmelwasser, a beverage . . . . " . 463 
 
 Kutuki, anecdote of . . 139 
 
 Ladrone Islands, beverages of . . . . 248 
 
 Laghibi, a liquor of Tripoli . . . . . 80 
 
 Lalo, a preparation of the Boabab , . . ." ^ 74 
 
 Lamb-wine . . . . . . .""> . 159,226 
 
 Lapland, beverages of, 481 anecdote of a native . !l ;{ 484 
 
 Lebanon, wine of . . . ." . - ; t V 5 
 
 Lemnos, wine of ; .." , : , - . ..: 416 
 
 Lemon tree, liquor from the . . " . . v 230 
 
 Lipari Islands, wines of the . . Jfa . - 408 
 
 Liqueurs, origin and invention of . . i v 400 
 
 Liquor of immortality in China and Japan, 210, 243 in the Floridas, 320 
 
 Loo- Choo Islands, beverages of the . . ,. - : 246 
 
741 
 
 Page 
 Loango, cup-bearers in, 70 customs observed in drinking in, ibid 
 
 Lotus plant, account of 8 wine from, . . T "+ . 80 
 
 Lotophagi, why so called i . . . . 8, 80 
 
 Louvaine, beer of - &% * . . . 456 
 
 Lugibi, a liquor of Fezzan . . . . . 67 
 
 Luneburgh, regulations respecting distillation in . . 459 
 
 M 
 
 Maby, a drink of the West Indies, ; . . 290 
 
 Macassar, beverages of . . . . 199 
 
 Madagascar, curious notions of the natives respecting the rivers of Paradise, 3 
 
 beverages of 187 cups of, 189. 
 Madeira, wines of ...... 358 
 
 Mahayah, a spirit from figs, . . . . . 78 
 
 Mahometans, prohibition of wine amongst, 33 anecdotes respecting, 35, 36, 37 
 
 90 mode of evading the prohibition by the Moors, . 78 
 
 Mahwah tree, beverages from ..... 153, 173 
 
 Maize, spirit from, 292 sugar from, 300 beer from, . 304 
 
 Malt early known to the Peruvians, 304 in Ireland, . 671 
 
 Mandebocre, a liquor of Paraguay . . . . 311 
 
 Mangel-wurzel, ale from, 549 distillation from, 701, . 399 
 
 Manilla, beverages of . . . . . 200 
 
 Mariana Islands, liquors of . . . . . 248 
 
 Maraschino, a liquor of Dalmatia .... 423 
 
 Masakhaw, a beverage of Formosa .... 236 
 
 Masato, an American drink ..... 305 
 
 Mathews, Mr., anecdote of . . . . . 589 
 
 Mauritius, beverages of . . . . . . . 1 90 
 
 Maximin, his great powers in drinking .... 13 
 
 Mead of the Tartars, 146 of the Germans, 446 of the Russians, 494 in 
 Circassia, 508 India, 165 Poland, 467 Spain, 375 Moldavia, 424 
 Germany, 446 Prussia, 460 Dantzic, 463 in the Crimea, 502 deriva 
 tion of the term, 591 antiquity of in Ireland, . ibid 
 Meather, or Mether, antiquity and use of . . . 593 
 Mediterranean Isles, beverages of . . . \ 408 
 Melons, beverages from ; . . . . 160, 168 
 
 Mexical, a spirit from the agave ..... 294 
 
 Mexico, liquors used in, 298 punishment for drunkenness in 299. 
 
 Mezcal, spirit from the . . . . r V . 355 
 
 Milaffo, a wine of Congo ..... 67 
 
 Milk of Mares distilled by the Tartars, 140 preparation of in Iceland, ibid used 
 for a bath, 145 procured from vegetables, ibid that of sheep distilled by the 
 Calmucks, 146 specific gravity of that of different animals, 686. 
 Minorca, wines of . . . . 376 
 
 Mindanao, abundance of honey in . V .. * ^02 
 
 Mitylene, wines of . . . . . . 417 
 
 Moluccas, beverages of the ... 1 99 
 
 Morocco, inebriating liquors in l *T . 87 
 
742 
 
 Page 
 
 Moorafacoo, a drink used in the Loo-Choo Islands . 247 
 
 Mother wort, beverage from ... 242 
 
 Mum, 447 origin of the term, 448 receipt for making, ibid 
 
 Mushroom, (Amanita Muscaria) beverage from . . . 514 
 
 Must, at what heat fermentable 2 
 
 N 
 
 Naples, wines of .... 404 
 
 Naxos, or Naxia, marble cups of, 416 distillation from lemons in, ibid. 
 Negroes, beverages of in Africa ..... 63 
 
 Ncpaul, beverages of, 165 human sculls used as drinking-vessels in, ibid. 
 Nepenthe of Homer, what . . .;*;.. . .* 6,606,97 
 
 Netherlands, brewing in . . . . . . 456 
 
 New Holland, distillation in . . . 258 
 
 New South Wales, remarks on, 259 distillation in, 260 beer of, 261 intem 
 perance in, 262 anecdote of an Irishman in, ibid t cultivation of the vine in 
 266. 
 Nicobar Islands, beverages of the .... 1 80 
 
 Norway, distillation from potatoes in .... 474 
 
 Nubeez, a Persian liquor ..... 01 
 
 Nubia, liquors of *. . ,. 55 
 
 O 
 
 Oases, notice of the . . . . * 52 
 
 Observations on the effects of drinking in India . . 169 
 
 Ombelbel, a name given to Bouza : 56 
 
 Opinions of Davy and Paris respecting the origin of Genii, Gouls, &c. among the 
 
 Arabians, 5O. 
 
 Opium, derivation of the word, 97 manufacture of in Asia, ibid in Persia, ibid 
 in India, 98 revenue arising from, 100 price of in India, 101 smoked 
 extensively by the Mandarins, ibid its effects, 102 its use denounced by a 
 Mussulman preacher, 104 sale and use of in Siam, 106 in Borneo and 
 Sumatra, 106, 107 among the Celebes, ibid its effects on the Javanese, 108 
 used by the Rajpoots, Gracias, &c. 110, 111 its effects on animals, 1 16, 
 117 used by the Indian jockeys, 117 by Chinese thieves, 125 specimen of 
 a Chinese proclamation against, 134 substitutes for, J 17, 125 export of, 716. 
 Opium-eaters, anecdotes of, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 132, 134, 135, 
 
 136 quantities used by, 132. 
 
 Oporto, wines of . . . . \ : 378 
 
 Otaheite, liquors used in . . c . . . 252 
 
 Otee, an African ale . . . - . . ; . 66 
 
 Ouycou, a beer of the West Indies . ""-\? * ;* * " . - ; 289 
 
 P 
 
 Palestine, vineyards of . . . . * ,* fl 4 
 
 Pali, an African wine . . . *... ,.rvj, , - 71 
 
 Palm-wine, mode of obtaining at Sierra Leone, 73 used as a bribe in courtships, 
 
 78 as offerings to the dead, ibid in India, 154 supposed to be the "strong 
 
 drink" of the Scriptures, 7 in Peru, 304. 
 
743 
 
 Page 
 Palmyra, origin of the name - . -t; t s.-, < V - : xi- ; " V 7 
 
 Paraguay, beverages of, 311 distillation of brandy in, 312. 
 
 Patagonia, liquors of . . . f V * 318 
 
 Peaches, brandy from, 243, 255 distillation from, -. ^i: -^ 328 
 
 Perfumes in wine " * : / " r; . *f-J - - fc - - : 5 
 
 Perry, manufacture of -V . *- y>-- c - ; " f * J 552 
 
 Persians, drinks of, 82 anecdotes of, . : - : * rr " " ?- " 87,88 
 
 Persimon apple, brandy from ..... 328 
 
 Peru, liquors of, 293 antiquity of malting in, . 304 
 
 Phaur, a beer from rice . . . " 165 
 
 Pigment, or Piment . . , " * f V 528 
 
 Pitto, a drink of Dahomy . ; r . "* ** 64 
 
 Pitcairn Islands, beverages of . . - . - -- * . 254 
 
 Piworree, a liquor of Barbadoes ..... 289 
 
 Plums, wine from ...... 557 
 
 Poland, beverages of ... . : > "**;" 446 
 
 Pomegranates, wine from, 92 cider from, . . 208 
 
 Pledging in drinking, origin of . *}>*:. / !* -.* 528 616 
 
 Pompeii, remains of taverns in . . . . . 405 
 
 Poppy, its intoxicating effects ..... 96 
 
 Porter, derivation of the term, 539 importance of the trade in England, 540 in 
 
 Ireland, 626,731. 
 
 Prussia, mead of, 451 distillation from potatoes in, r.*: ibid 
 
 Portugal, wines and brandies of . . *\ : .- ;i< 376 to 383 
 
 Potatoes, Abyssinian beverage from 63 wine and spirit from in Canada, 348 from 
 the berries of in France, 399 brandy from in Hungary, 429 distillation of 
 in Germany beer from, 442, 699 distillation of in Prussia, 460 in Nor 
 way, 474 manufacture of spirits from, 695, 696, 697, 698, 690, 700. 
 Pottinger, Captain, Lis plan for collecting the duty on spirits . 657 
 
 Punch, the derivation of, 621 anecdote of a drinker of . . 622 
 
 Punjabee chiefs, their mode of feeding horses I : * : 157 
 
 Q 
 
 Quass, a Russian beverage l . , * . ,. 491,492 
 
 Quassia, use of . . . , ,. * , . . . - 537 
 
 Querns, notice of . . . . . * / 603 
 
 Quiloa, human sculls formerly used as drinking-cups in . " 270 
 
 Quinces, wine from . . *. . . "s. 218 
 
 R 
 
 Rabbins, opinions of respecting the vine . . . 3 
 
 Rectifiers, regulations respecting in England, 567 in Ireland, 703 number of in 
 
 Great Britain, and Ireland, 704 suggestions for the improvement of their 
 
 trade, ibid, . . , . . . > 705 
 
 Rhazes, his introduction of chemical preparations into medicine . 24 
 
 Rhine, wines of the -V , . " . . u ." 430 
 
 Rododendron crysanlhum, its inebriating effects V"~ 129 
 
 Rice, wine from . 211, 217, 22G 
 
744 
 
 Page 
 Rose-water, early made by the Persians, 91 quotation from a Saadi respecting, 93. 
 
 Rosolio, 41 made at Dantzic, 463. 
 
 Rubus arcticus, wine from . . . . - 480 
 
 Rubus Chamcemorus, liqueur from .,> . . : ibid 
 
 Rudkin, his plan for the collection of the duty on spirits -. . 658 
 
 Rum, distillation of in the Carnatic, 158 made in China, 218 derivation of the 
 term, 282 its manufacture in the West Indies, 283 in Brazil, 314 in the 
 United States, 331, 334 trade of in England, . . 561 
 
 Russia, 487 revenue derived from brandy in, 490 extensive breweries, 491 
 mead manufactured to great extent, 494 importance of honey for home-con 
 sumption, and as an article of commerce, 495 mode of rearing bees, ibid 
 cultivation of the vine, 496 imports and exports, 520, 521 distillation a 
 monopoly of the crown, . . . . . 518 
 
 S 
 
 Saccharometer, invention and use of . . . 684 
 
 Sack, derivation of the term ..... 357 
 
 Sacki, a Japanese beer, 238 derivation of the term, ibid. 
 
 Saffron, early use of in Ireland ..... 620 
 
 Sagwire, a species of palm- wine . . . . 195 
 
 Sal-Indicum, first name for sugar in Europe . . . 366 
 
 Sam-tchoo, a Chinese liquor . . . . . 217 
 
 Sandwich Islands, liquors of . . . . 254 
 
 Sangaree, a drink of the West Indies .... 288 
 
 Saracens, opinions concerning their inventions and discoveries controverted, 21, 
 
 163, 361. 
 
 Sardinia, wines of ...... 406 
 
 Satschio, a Japanese brandy ..... 240 
 
 Savages of America, their feast of the dead, 350 anecdotes of their chiefs, 351 
 
 Sbitena, or Sbetin, a Russian drink, . . . 494 
 Scotland, primitive beverages of, 569 brewing in, 570 distillation, 572. 
 Sculls, used as drinking. cups, 165, 270 curious anecdotes respecting, 598. 
 
 Seneca, his complaint of women using wine to excess . 12 
 
 Shetland Islands, distillation from heather formerly practised in . 592 
 Shiraz, wine of, 84 derivation of, ibid. 
 
 Siam, liquors of . . . . . 1,~; 176 
 
 Siberia, liquors used in . . . . . . 509 
 
 Sicily, wines of . . . . . 407 
 
 Sierra-Leone, drinks used there, 73 introduction of the vine, 74. 
 
 Skins of beasts used for holding wine, 18, 19 among the Tartars, 139 in Pom 
 peii, 140 in Madeira, 603 in Georgia, 502 among the Pampas, 311 
 
 Soliman I., his exertions to prevent drunkenness . . 39 
 
 Sora, a beer of Peru ...... 306 
 
 Spain, early notice of distillation in, 362 custom of a Celtic king of, 362 early 
 cultivation of the vine in, ibid brandies of, 363 wines, 367 granaries, 374 
 breweries, 375 cider, ibid mead of, ibid. 
 Specific gravity, 686, 69? anecdote respecting, 693. 
 
743 
 
 Page 
 Spirits, a preservative against the plague, 39 spontaneous combustion occasioned 
 
 by, 683. 
 Spontaneous fermentation, remarks on . . . ;; i , i 665 
 
 Springs, intoxicating . . . . . 466, 509 
 
 Spruce-beer, origin of in Sweden, 489 use of in Great Britain, . 550 
 
 Still, supposed to be alluded to in St. Matthew, 10 introduction of into Europe, 
 361 Calmuck, 142 Mysore, 159 native Indian, 160 used in Thibet and 
 Bootan, 172 in Ceylon, 186 China, 228 the Georgian Islands, 2 56 Peru, 
 306 Canada, 342 Spain, 365 Desrone s, 393 St. Marc s, 635 Solimani s 
 640 Winter s, ibid Sir Anthony Perrier s, 643 Grimble s, ibid Evan s, ibid 
 Williams s, 644_Shannon s, 645 Gutteridge s, 646 Morrisy s, 647 
 Shee s, 648 Stein s, 649 that of Mr. Cofley, 650, 651, &c. the one 
 formerly in use in Ireland, 657. 
 
 Sugar, cultivation of in Upper Egypt, 54 known early in India, 152 derivation 
 of the word, ibid elephants and horses fed on in India, 157 substitute for 
 in Bokhara, 168 manufacture of in Siam, 177 in Java, 195 in Manilla, 
 202 in China, 230 in the Marquesas, 254 in New South Wales, 265 in 
 the West Indies, 218, 287- -in Peru, 299 from maize, 310 in Brazil, 314 
 from the maple, 329, 330, 331 in Spain, 366 from the walnut-tree, 502 
 from rags, 697 from beet-root, or mangel-wurzel, 702. 
 
 Sweden, use of the ant in distilleries of, 476 distillation from potatoes in, 479 
 Switzerland, wine of, 449 distillation of brandy in . ,.. f . 451 
 
 St. Helena, early distillation from potatoes in, . . 281 
 
 Sumatra, beverages of . . . , ".. 190 
 
 Surinam, liquors manufactured in . . . .. 319 
 
 T 
 
 Taffia, a name for rum . . . . . v . ^ ,- 285 
 
 Taffilet, wine and beer of ." --." * r ,tyr<?. * atrt 80 
 
 Talipot-tree, description of /. jiio i v : ... 200 
 
 Talwagen, a liquor of Ceylon, , ; rt .; ,. .1 ,. ., . 183 
 
 Taroot, vineyards of . - . . l.: ! . 49 
 
 Tartars, distillation early known to, 142 cup-bearers of, 143 their mead, 146 
 luxury of their princes, ibid their cups and drinking-vessels sard to counte 
 ract poison, 147 genius for poetry, ibid their wine from lamb s-flesh, 150 
 their large bags, 139. 
 
 Tamerlane, banquet of, . . ., v , :., 149 
 
 Teutones, customs of ... . . " , " 466 
 
 Tee-root, a liquor distilled from .... 254 
 
 Temperance Societies, origin of in the United States, 338 in Van Diemen s 
 
 Land and New South Wales, 266 in Prussia, 449 in Sweden, 480-1 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, 707. 
 
 Temperance, opinions of a Hanoverian Preacher respecting, 460 law respecting 
 
 in China, 226 enforced by Alomprah, 175 in the Society Islands, 257 
 
 remarks on, ./ii ti^m, .> * ,.- 705 
 
 Teracina, a Tartar drink from rice ti^fj . . - 146 
 
 Theka, a Peruvian liquor . . . * .- 302 
 
 Theophrastus, practice of drunkards in his day . . 12 
 
 3 c 
 
744 
 
 Thibet, liquors vised in, 171 distillation in, . . . 172 
 
 Toak, a Madagascar drink ..... 187 
 
 Toddy, mode of procuring . . . . 155 
 
 Tokay wine, . . . . . . .- - 428 
 
 Tonquin, beverages of, 205 sociality in, 207 cups used in, ibid cider of, 208. 
 
 Torgilla, or Tergilla, challenge of in drinking ... j 3 
 
 Torquatus, his extraordinary powers of drinking . 13 
 
 Toupare, a Madagascar drink . . . .--. - 188 
 
 Tripoli, beverages of . * . . . 80 
 Tuns, enormous one at Heidelberg, 428 at Koningstein, ibid at Halberstadt, 
 
 428 at Tubingen, ibid. 
 
 Turkestan, beverages of, 150 melons of, ... ibid 
 
 Turks, mode of living and hospitality of ... 38 
 
 U 
 United States, distillation in, 325 cider of, 329 sugar, ibid, 330, 331, 332 vine 
 
 of, ibid rum of, 334 malt liquors, 335 honey, ibid Temperance Societies 
 
 in, 338. 
 
 Usquebagh, 615, 616 receipt for making, . . . 620 
 
 Usuph, a drink of Morocco ..... 78 
 
 V 
 
 Van Diemen s Land . . . * . . . 167 
 
 Vanhorn, his excess in drinking .... 13 
 
 Vegetables, various from which spirits may be produced . 681 
 
 Vienna, malt-drinks of, 444 brewers of, ... 445 
 
 Vaults for wine, enormous ..... 435 
 
 Vellipatty, a beverage of Ceylon . . . . 138 
 
 Vines, when first cultivated by the Romans, 11 of Persia, 85 of India, 156 of 
 
 Madagascar, 188 of New South Wales, 265 of the Cape, 270 of New 
 
 Spain, 299 of Chili, 307 of the United States, 333 of Spain, 367 
 
 climates suitable for, 437 cultivation of in Portugal, 376 formerly in England, 
 
 524 in Ireland, 600 
 
 Vineyards, tax on in Persia, 63 in Portugal, 373 in France, 384 in the Crimea, 
 
 499 
 
 Vintage in Germany, 427 great sports at, . . 436 
 
 Vintro de Batatas, a kind of beer ... 315 
 
 Vodtki, Russian brandy ... 519 
 
 W 
 
 Walnut-tree, sugar obtained from . . 502 
 
 Water-melons, brandy from . . . 505 
 
 Watky, the Kamtschatdale name for whiskey . 516 
 
 West Indies, distillation of rum in, 283 exports of, 285 hospitality in, 287 
 
 Western Islands, curious customs observed at ancient entertainments in, 569 
 
 dignity and emolument attached to the office of cup-bearer, 582 
 
 Whidah, beer of, 72 skill of the woman in brewing in, ibid 
 
 Whiskey, derivation of the word " . * 616 
 
745 
 
 Wine, supposed to be known before the flood, 2, 3 Women forbidden to drink, 
 12 Men forbidden the use of till a certain age, 12 Excess of women in, 
 ibid Origin of the term, 559 Pucine, virtues of, and where produced, 13 
 Coecuban, ibid Setine, ibid Falernian, 14 Other wines used by the 
 Greeks and Romans, 15 to 19 Shiraz, 84 Kislar, 505 New South Wales, 
 265 Constantia, 270 of Chili, 307 the Dnited States, 333 Canada, 348 
 Georgia, 503 Spain, 367 Portugal, 376 France, 383 Mediterranean, 
 408 Ionian Isles, ibid Corinth, 410 Hungary, 425 From pomegranates, 
 92 Vaults for, 435 Home-made, 556 Proportion of alcohol in different 
 sorts, 682 
 
 Wine-taster, his duties in Congo, 69 said to have originated with the Persians, 
 612 the office lately abolished in Ireland, ibid. 
 
 X 
 
 X waters, explanation of and antiquity of its symbolical application 616 
 
 Xenophon, his account of drink in Armenia ... 9 
 
 Xeres, wines of . . . . . . . 369 
 
 Y 
 
 Yankee, a term for New England rum . .. . . 336 
 
 Yeast . ....... 319 
 
 Yowrt, a Turkish drink . . . . . : 245 
 
 Y-wer-a, a liquor of the Sandwich Islands i . 255 
 
 Z 
 
 Zabul, wine of Persia ...... 525 
 
 Zante, wines of . . .... . 409 
 
 Zealand ....... 471 
 
 Zeher-e-koosh, delightful poison .... 87 
 
 Zoolas, beer of the ...... 268 
 
 Zora, a German liquor ...... 443 
 
 Zosimus, notice of ... 21 
 Zythum, . . . . . . . 9, 10, 44, 362 
 
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