SB SM flMfl TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF AMERICAN HISTORY PREPARED FOR USE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BY W. C. DOUB, A.B. (Stanford University) COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS FOR KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA SAN FRANCISCO THE WHITAKER AND RAY COMPANY (incorporated) 1900 Copyright, 1900 BY W. C. Doub ADOPTED BEFOEE PUBLICATION BY THE KERN COUNTY BOAED OP EDUCATION AND MADE THE BASIS OP ALL THE HISTORY WORK IN THE GRAMMAR SCHOOLS OF KERN COUNTY Publisher's Note— Owing to the hurry in getting out this, the first edition, the following mistakes have occurred, viz: Line i, page 32, the date 1775 should be 1755. Line 28, page 49, the date 1777 should be 1787. Line 30, page 49, the date 1777 should be 1787. 54 a 633 CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTORY NOTE 5 PREFACE 7 EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE 11 SEVENTH-YEAR WORK 15 Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America . 15 Discoveries and Explorations 16 Disposition of Territory in the New World .... 17 North American Indians 13 Origin and Growth of the Thirteen Colonies ... 18 Colonization of New France 26 Relation of the Indians and the Colonists .... 27 Social and Industrial Conditions of the Colonists in 1700 27 French and Indian War 30 Institutional Life in the Colonies in 1775 .... 33 The Revolutionary War 41 Government During the Revolution, and Prior to the Adoption of the Present Constitution .... 46 The Constitutional Convention of 1787 49 EIGHTH-YEAR WORK 53 Government in the United States 53 Washington's Administration 55 Adams' Administration 60 Jefferson's Administration 61 Madison's Administration 63 Monroe's Administration 65 John Quincy Adams' Administration ....... 68 Progress of the United States from 1790 to 1825 . . 69 Jackson's and Van Buren's Administrations .... 72 Administrations of Harrison, Tyler, and Polk ... 77 Administrations of Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce, and Bu- chanan 79 Lincoln's Administration . 81 The Political History of the United States from 1865 to 1900 .............. 96 Progress of the United States since 1865 . ... 104 INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The Topical Discussion of American History prepared by Superintendent Doub is thoroughly in harmony with the spirit of the times. It is a product of the general feeling among progressive educators that history should cease to be a mere exercise in memory gymnastics, and become a genuine study of human life and experience. In the grammar school, as well as in the high school or the university, history should be so presented that man is ever seen to be its real object. It should never for a single moment be lost sight of, that, while the right study of history affords a training for the reason and the judg- ment scarcely rivaled by that gained from any other source, yet its chief subject-matter is man in his political and other social relations. It is the things which are really important in human progress, in the struggle for existence, that one wishes to know. Lists of dates, and genealogical tables of royal or noble personages, are not so helpful to the youth preparing himself for citizenship as a knowledge of the institutions of his country and state, or even of his county, village, or school district. The conviction is deepening, that history cannot be best taught through the use of one book. The element of comparison is the vital principle of right historical study. Even the best single text-book is not so good as topical reading in several works. Already this is con- ceded to be true for the high school; and surely, within proper limits, it is just as true for the lower grades. In all departments of the public schools, teachers are making the grave mistake of placing before their pupils too weak 6 INTRODUCTORY NOTE. food. They should serve stronger meat. Teachers under- estimate the intellectual capacity of those whom they are attempting to lead. Place before the boy or girl interesting and really valuable material, though perhaps such as is commonly supposed to be attractive only to older minds, and it is surprising with what avidity it is seized and mastered. Without a proper training one cannot hope for the best results. To teach history well, one must know his- tory. Yet in the grammar and in the elementary schools the teacher cannot always be a specialist. Should his salary and other conditions not warrant a preparation such as he would be glad to obtain, he can always have the next best thing. He can provide himself with some of the most suggestive helps. The day is past when the grammar school teacher's knowledge of history should be confined to the meager scraps gathered in a text-book. If he cannot have access to a good library, he may, at any rate, own one or two standard treatises for constant reference in each field of study. Then there are valuable professional aids which he cannot afford to do without. Thus the Report of the Committee of Seven, Hart's Source-Book, and the Old South Leaflets should be in every hand. George Elliott Howard. Stanford University, July 26, 1900. PREFACE History as now taught in the elementary schools is largely a process of memory. The pupil is required to devote practically all of the time which is given to the subject to the memorizing of dates and events. The unity and development of the subject, the causes and results of different movements, the influence of past con- ditions upon the present, are almost entirely lost sight of. When the subject is completed, in place of an under- standing of its real scope and significance, there remains to the pupil but a mere skeleton of the history studied. The few dates and unconnected events which may be remembered are practically worthless, either as mental training or as preparation for citizenship. American history, if properly taught in the elementary schools, should be an invaluable preparation for American citizen- ship. Without a real understanding of the development of our institutions, one is not in a position to vote in- telligently upon many of the leading issues of the day. It is the duty of the public schools to give to this republic, as a part of the price of their existence, boys and girls possessing a knowledge and understanding of the social, industrial, political, and constitutional develop- ment of the United States. Because of an understanding of the issues of the day, and of a patriotism derived largely from an honest study of the important facts of our national growth, they will have the moral courage to vote and act as their judgment dictates. The object of this little volume is to secure a better consideration of American history in the elementary 8 PREFACE schools than it receives at the present time. The volume has been called " A Topical Discussion of American History" because it differs essentially from a mere out- line in that most of the important points are discussed and summarized. From an examination of the teaching of history in the elementary schools, the conclusion has been forced upon me, that, notwithstanding the fact that at institutes and educational meetings, educators are constantly agitating the question of a topical method of teaching the subject, and that a number of outlines in American history embodying the principles of that method have been prepared for use in the elementary schools, very little has been done in applying the method. This may be due to the fact that the outlines already prepared do not meet the actual requirements and needs of our schools. As a rule, the references cited are not available for the use either of teacher or pupil, and the outlines are too meager. In fact, they seem to presume that the teacher in the elementary school has had the advantage of a college or university training in history and historical method. In preparing the "Topical Discussion of American History" the constant aim has been to overcome the above-mentioned defects. The authorities referred to are within the reach of the pupils in the elementary schools. The more difficult topics — in fact, nearly all of the sub- jects mentioned — have been discussed in such a way as to indicate to the pupil and to the teacher their true relation and importance in history. In the development of each topic, and in the selection of the words used in each discussion, there has been a constant regard for the age and ability of the pupil, — the manner of treat- ment and the words used becoming more difficult as the work in the two-years' study of American history pro- PREFACE y gresses. Many minor events considered unimportant, and which are found in the average orthodox text, have been purposely omitted, the object having been to select only such topics as have some real bearing on the growth of American institutions. In working out many of the details of this book, valuable assistance has been received from D. W. Nelson, city superintendent of the Bakersfield schools, and from Charles F. Wright, teacher of history and political science in the Kern County High School. Information con- cerning any error, as well as any suggestions which will make this book more valuable to pupils and to teachers, will be thankfully received. W. C. Doub. Bakeesfield, California, July 17, 1900. EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE. I Only the following authorities have been referred to in this topical discussion: History of the United States, California State Series; School History of the United States, McMaster; The Colonies, Thwaites; Formation of the Union, Hart; Division and Reunion, Wilson, the last three mentioned forming a set of books com- monly known as Epochs of American History. 1 The California State History is referred to, not because of its value as a text-book, for as a text-book it possesses very little merit, but because it is the only text-book on the subject which can be legally used in the elementary school of California. It is suggested that to meet this condition in California, some pupils be requested to pur- chase copies of McMaster's History instead of the State History, and that a part of the library money be used to place copies of McMaster's History and of the Epochs of American History in the school library. This plan has been tried in Kern County, and it has furnished a suffi- cient number of reference books to successfully carry out the work in history as outlined in this book, and in the other subjects similarly treated. In the country districts about one half of the library money has proven sufficient to purchase the required reference books in the subjects of History, Geography, and Reading. In cities it will be 1 In case either teacher or pupil desires to make a fuller inves- tigation of any subject than is possible from the above-mentioned works, the tables of references given at the beginning of each chapter in the Epoch Series will prove to be of valuable assistance. V2 EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE found necessary to induce the pupil to purchase some of the books. If the State History alone must be used much better results will be secured by using this, or a simi- lar topical discussion, than can be secured without its use. II The use of this topical discussion in connection with the State History alone should prove quite beneficial; its use in connection with McMaster's History should give rise to still better results; its use in connection with both McMaster's History and the Epochs of American History should bring about excellent results. Other histories can be used in connection with the work herein outlined with equally good results. McMaster's School History of the United States and Epochs of American History have been specifically referred to because they are being ex- tensively used with most beneficial results in the schools of Kern County. No book with less merit, however, than McMaster's History should be in the hands of each pupil, and it will be difficult to secure a history which will prove the equal of the Epochs of American History for reference in grammar-school work. Ill A few of the subjects have not been discussed; merely a bare outline has been given. This has been done in order to give the pupil an opportunity for securing some training in arriving at generalizations with no other as- sistance than can be gained from the reading of the authorities cited. IV This topical discussion has been prepared primaril} for the teacher, but its use in the hands of the pupil will be found to be of great value. If the pupil does not pos- EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE 13 sess a copy, he should be required, when a topic is assigned, to write out in full the discussion there given, and to make a note of the references there cited. This should be done in a note-book, and the pupil should follow the statement of the topic by a careful summary of important facts and material derived from his own reading of the authorities mentioned. Pupils who pos- sess copies of this book should, nevertheless, keep careful note-books embodying the results of their individual reading upon different subjects. V The teacher should take care that no more work be assigned for one lesson than the average pupil can thor- oughly master. But twenty-eight general topics have been given for the two years of work. On some of these topics one lesson will be sufficient, others will require for their proper consideration ten or more lessons. Under no circumstances, however, should the pupil during his last two years in the grammar school attempt to do more work in history than is herein outlined. VI The pupil should be required to read all the references given if they are available. The discussion of some of the topics in this book is quite full, but in no case should a pupil be permitted to substitute this discussion for a thoughtful reading of the references. VII It is strongly urged that, some time during the year preceding the one in which history is taken up as a sep- arate study the pupil be given, as a part of his regular work in reading, a history reader consisting of the 14 EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE biographies of some of the principal men connected with American history. In Kern County, Eggleston's First Book in American History has been used as a regular school reader during a part of the work in the sixth year, and the result has been very satisfactory. Hand in hand with the training in reading, there has been given a good preparation for the study of American history. VIII The abbreviations used in citing authorities are as follows: S.S. History of the United States, California State Series. M. School History of the United States, McMaster. E. The Colonies, Thwaites (Epochs of American His- tory, Volume I.). E. II. Formation of the Union, Hart (Epochs of American History, Volume II.). E. III. Division and Reunion, Wilson (Epochs of American History, Volume III.). A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF AMERICAN HISTORY SEVENTH -YEAR WORK CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA I Increasing Importance of Commerce The increasing importance of commerce and navi- gation, as shown by the enterprise of Venice, Genoa, and Portugal, and the capture by the Turks of the overland trade routes to the important trade centers of the East, made it necessary for the people of western Europe to discover other lines of communi- cation, or discontinue their commercial relations with the Eastern nations. S.S. 9-10; M. 9-10. II Invention of the Compass The invention of the compass, and improvement in ship-building and navigation, made it possible for mariners to undertake long sea voyages. Before the compass was invented, it was unsafe for ships to go far from land, because when the sun or stars were hidden by clouds or fog, the sailors could not guide the ship in the right direction. III Revival of Learning in Europe The revival of learning in Europe, and the accounts of Marco Polo and other travelers, made the people of the West anxious to ascertain the shape and extent of the earth's surface. This desire, 16 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF taken in connection with the increased facilities for making long sea voyages, would have led, sooner or later, to the discovery of America, even had Columbus not been successful in finding the new land. S. S. 8-9. DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS Spain, England, France, Portugal, and Holland were the nations which took the principal part in exploring and settling the New World. Of these nations, Portugal made no settlements in North America. Her principal colony was Brazil, in South America. I Spanish Exploration and Settlement Spain explored and settled most of the West Indian Islands, Florida, the southwestern part of the United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America, except Brazil. The principal Spanish explorers were Columbus, De Soto, Balboa, Magellan, and Ponce de Leon. S.S. 14-15, 20-22; M. 11-17, 19-22; E. 23, 27-31 II English Exploration and Settlement England explored and settled the eastern part of North America from Florida to Canada. The prin- cipal English explorers were the Cabots, Drake, Raleigh, and Gilbert. S.S. 23, 25-26, 32-35; M. 14, 26-29; E. 25, 36-37. III French Exploration and Settlement France explored the larger part of the Mississippi Valley and the eastern part of Canada. She settled AMERICAN HISTORY 17 the eastern part of Canada, and established trading- posts between New Orleans and the Great Lakes. The principal French explorers were Cartier, Denys, Champlain, La Salle, and Marquette. S. S. 23, 25-30; M. 60-65; E. 32-36. IV Dutch Exploration and Settlement Holland explored and settled the present state of New York. Hudson was the principal Dutch ex- plorer. S.S. 71; M. 36-39. DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD Discoverers took possession of the territory in the New World in the name of their sovereigns. Thus European nations came to base their claims to territory on the " right of discovery." It was upon this so-called right that France claimed all the territory drained by the Mississippi and the St. L.awrence, and their tributaries; England, the Atlantic coast from Canada to Florida; and Spain, Florida, South America (except Brazil), Mexico, the western part of the United States, and most of the West Indies. England granted her territory in North America to companies and to individuals, at the same time establishing crown colonies, which were under the direct control of the sovereign. Many of these grants extended from " sea to sea," thus in after years giving rise to conflicting claims, on account of the overlapping of territory claimed by different colonies or countries. S.S. 29-35; E. 43, 63-68. 18 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS In studying this subject the following topics should be emphasized: I Mode of Living II Tribes III Religion IV Characteristics of the Indians S.S. 16-19; M. 66-73; E. 7-19. ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE THIRTEEN COLONIES I The Southern Colonies, with Special Reference to Virginia In order to get a general view of this subject, read thoughtfully the following references: 1 S.S. 56-70; M. 26-35, 54, 57-58; E. 64-91. 1. Purpose of Settlement and Character of Early Emi- grants The first settlers of Virginia did not come to the New World for the purpose of making it their permanent home. Most of them were gentlemen of leisure, gold-seekers, and fortune-hunters. Af- ter securing wealth it was their intention to re- 1 Bear in mind that the aim of this reading is, not to prepare for a recitation, but to give the pupil a general view of the sub- ject. It is of the utmost importance, however, and the teacher should not fail to require the pupil to faithfully perform this work. In order to make sure that the pupil does this work well, he should be required to make copious notes while reading, and these notes should be read and discussed in class. Give the pupil ample time for this reading. AMERICAN HISTORY 19 turn to England. Later, men of wealth, and men of the sturdy middle class of England, settled in the South for the purpose of making a home for themselves and children. For a number of years, however, there were many poor people, vagabonds, and criminals sent to the Southern Colonies under contract. The services of these people were sold to the highest bidder, and the terms of the con- tract provided that they must work for the party purchasing them for a certain number of years, in order to repay him. Persons thus sold into tem- porary slavery were called " indentured servants," and their descendants largely go to make up the poor whites of the South. Negro slavery was early introduced into all the Southern Colonies, and the negroes soon formed a large part of the population. S.S. 34, 57; M. 31-32; E. 65-66, 69-75. 2. Leading Men of Early Southern History Make a thorough study of the men named be- low, because around their lives center the princi- pal political facts in the growth and development of the Southern Colonies previous to 1700. a. Captain John Smith S.S. 57-58; M. 31; E. 70-72. b. James Oglethorpe S.S. 65-67; M. 57-58; E. 258-262. c. George Calvert and his son Cecil S.S. 60-61; M. 34-36; E. 81-87. d. Nathaniel Bacon Study Bacon's Rebellion, with special refer- 20 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF ence to popular government in Virginia from 1660 to 1700. S.S. 67-69; E. 78-80. 3. Industrial Life in the Southern Colonies before 1690 a. Classes of Laborers Labor in the household and on the planta- tion was performed almost entirely by inden- tured servants and slaves. The idea was gradually growing in the South that manual labor was dishonorable and unworthy of free men and women. M. 33-34; E. 74. b. Occupations Agriculture was the chief occupation in the South. For many years tobacco was the lead- ing staple, and was used as a medium of ex- change, taking the place of money. Other staples were tar, pitch, resin, lumber, rice, and indigo. Unlike the North, the South produced but very few of her manufactured articles. II New England, with Special Reference to Massa- chusetts In order to get a general view of this subject, read thoughtfully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 36-55; M. 40-53; E. 112-153. 1. Purposes of Settlement and Character of Emi- grants The first settlers of New England were men of strong character and stern determination. They belonged to the sturdy middle class of England, AMERICAN HISTORY 21 and came to the New World to secure religious liberty and to establish permanent homes for themselves and their children. The character of these settlers shaped the future history of New England. For more than 150 years, on all ques- tions in which a principle was involved, she could not be changed from the position which she considered to be right. These stern men and women were well fitted to endure the hardships of early New England life. S.S. 37-38; M. 40-42; E. 114-117. 2. Leading Men of Early Neiv England a. John Winthrop Study carefully the work of John Winthrop in the Massachusetts colony. S.S. 49-50; M. 47; E. 127, 129, 135-138, 156, 161. b. Roger Williams in Rhode Island S.S. 42-44; M. 49-50; E. 132-133, 136, 146-149, 160, 165. 3. Church and State in New England In New England the church and state were closely related. At first none but church members could hold office or take any part in public affairs. People were compelled to attend church on Sun- day, or pay a fine. The Bible was the guide in public affairs, and any law not in harmony with its teachings was considered unconstitutional. In other words, the church was superior to the state, and the early settlers of New England were doing the very things for which they had so 22 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF severely condemned the English government. There was less religious freedom in New England than in old England during the same time. M. 48; E. 127-128. 4. The Town in Neiv England In the Southern Colonies the county was the unit of local government. County officers were elected to transact the business in about the same way as they are elected in California and other Western States. In New England, however, the county was not the unit of local government, at least to any great extent. The town took its place. By far the larger part of the population lived in towns. A large part of the local public business was transacted at town meetings, at which all free- men had the right to vote. At these meetings many questions were decided, and the town officers were elected. E. 55-57. 5. The Growth of New England With the exception of Maine, the colony of Massachusetts was the parent of the other New England colonies. Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Vermont were settled by people from Massachusetts, and with the exception, in some cases, of a difference in opinion on reli- gious questions, these colonies were practically the same. The town was the unit of local govern- ment, and the members of the law-making body of each colony were elected at the town meetings. S.S. 43-46; M. 49-51; E. 140-153. AMERICAN HISTORY 23 6. Industrial Life a. Classes of Laborers There were but few slaves in New England, most of the labor being done by freemen who owned property. In the Southern Colonies those who labored were held in contempt by the wealthier classes, but in New England labor was considered honorable, and even well-to-do and educated men worked on their farms. b. Occupations The occupations of New England were agri- culture, commerce, fishing, and ship-building. This section of the country, because of its sterile hills and small valleys, w as not adapted to the extensive cultivation of a few staple products, as was the South. Because of this condition the people devoted most of their industrial efforts toward fishing, commerce, and ship- building, becoming in the latter industry fa- mous the world over. III. The Middle Colonies, with Special Reference to Pennsylvania In order to get a general view of this subject, read thoughtfully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 71-80; M. 54-58; E. 195-232. 1. Purpose of Settlement The colony of Pennsylvania was established for the purpose of providing a home for the Quakers, a religious sect, the members of which were being persecuted in England. The other 24 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF Middle Colonies were founded mainly for commer- cial purposes. 8.S. 73-75; M. 55-56. 2. William Penn Study carefully the work of William Penn in Pennsylvania. E. 215-217. 3. Character of Emigrants Make a thorough study of this subject, com- paring and contrasting the character and aims of the first settlers of Pennsylvania with those of Massachusetts and Virginia. S.S. 73-75; M. 103; E. 221-222. 4. Rapid Growth of the Colony, Due to — a. Civil and Religious Liberty S.S. 73-75; M. 55; E. 215. b. Friendly Relations with the Indians S.S. 75; M. 71-72; E. 216-217. c. Social Equality and Brotherly Co-operation S.S. 75; E. 224. d. Cheapness of Land JR. 215. 5. New York Founded by the Dutch Do not make a detailed study of this topic. Emphasize the events leading to colonization, the object of settlement, and the acquisition of the colony by the English. S.S. 71-72; E. 196-207. AMERICAN HISTORY 25 The Town and the County in the Middle Colonies In the Middle Colonies, as in the South and in New England, the people were practically inde- pendent, in so far as local government was con- cerned, and also had a voice in making the laws for the colony. In some parts of the Middle Colonies the town was the unit of local government, while in other parts it was the county. The topography of the country largely decided this question. If the country consisted of a large number of small valleys the town was usually the local political unit; if it consisted of large valleys, and the soil and climate made agriculture the chief occupa- tion, the county was, as a rule, the local political unit. E. 57-58, 203-204. Industrial Life in the Middle Colonies a. Classes of Laborers There were but few slaves in the Middle Colonies, and, as in New England, labor was considered honorable, and most of it was per- formed by freeman, who were also property holders. b. Occupations Agriculture was the chief occupation. The soil was rich, and the climate allowed a greater variety of crops than in the South. Pennsyl- vania, also, early began the manufacture of leather, paper, and cloth. S.S. 78-79, 83; E. 224-226. 26 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF COLONIZATION OF NEW FRANCE In order to obtain a general idea of this subject, read thoughtfully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 91-96; M. 76-82; E. 246-257. France established permanent settlements along the eastern coast of Canada and along the St. Lawrence River. She also established military and trading posts in the northern part of the Mississippi Valley. The French, however, seemed unfitted to build up colonies in the New World. The French colonists seldom raised enough food products to meet their own requirements, and were often compelled to import foodstuffs from the mother country. The French colonists devoted most of their time to trading with the Indians. Quebec, on the St. Lawrence River, was the largest and most important city. I Champlain Study carefully the work of Champlain in New France. S.S. 91-92; E. 246-247. II Explorations and Forts of the Mississippi Valley S.S. 92-93; M. 60-65, 76, 79; E. 247-249. It will be seen from the study of this topic that France based her claim to the Mississippi Valley on discovery and exploration, and emphasized it by the burying of military plates upon which were engraved statements of her claim to this territory. AMERICAN HISTORY 27 RELATIONS OF THE INDIANS AND THE COL- ONISTS Do not attempt a detailed study of the various Indian wars and massacres. Too much time is often wasted on this subject. Stress should be placed on the general re- lations of the Indians to the colonists, and upon the way in which those relations affected colonial development. I Alliance of the Western Tribes with the French Observe how this alliance made the Iroquois of New York enemies of the French, and how it pre- vented the latter from pushing their settlements toward those of the English colonists on the Atlantic coast. M. 60-62; E. 246. II Relations with the English 1. In General E. 17-19. 2. Pequod War S.S. 44; M. 71. 3. King Philip's War E. 170-172. 4. In Pennsylvania S.S. 75; E. 216-217. SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE COLONIES IN 1700 At this point clearly fix in mind what constitutes the social life, the industrial life, and the political life of the people. 28 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF The amusements of the people, the social relations be- tween the various classes of society, treatment of neigh- bors, customs of dress, daily manner of speaking and acting toward others, and all those things which interest or amuse men in a social way, constitute the social life of a people. Those things which men do to make a living, as the raising of crops, and the carrying on of commerce, manufacturing, and mining, constitute the industrial life of a people. Voting, nominating men for office, serving as public officials, discussing and taking an interest in public questions, and advocating a change in the laws or a change in the form of government constitute the politi- cal life of a people. This subject should be given careful consideration. Spare no effort to obtain a thorough understanding of the every-day life of the people at this period. Compare the social and economic conditions of the people living in 1700 with the conditions under which they live at the present time. I Social and Industrial Conditions in the Southern Colonies l 1. Land and People E. 96-98. 1 The sub-topics given in connection with this subject do not fall logically under the heads " Social" and "Industrial." The topics are identical with those given in the Epochs of American History. It would be good training for the pupil to have him arrange this material under its proper heads. A clear conception of the conditions in the colonies is necessary to a proper under- standing of colonial history. The pupil should devote sufficient time to this subject to enable him to discuss, in well-written compositions, the social and industrial condition of the people in 1700 in the Southern, in the Middle, and in the New England colonies. AMERICAN HISTORY 21 2. Slavery and Servants E. 98-100. 3. Middle and Upper Classes E. 100-101. 4. Occupations E. 102-104. 5. Navigation Acts E. 104-106. 6. Social Life E. 106-109. 7. Political Life and Conclusions E. 109-111. II Social and Economic Conditions in New England 1. Land and People E. 179-181. 2. Social Classes and Professions E. 181-184. 3. Occupations E. 184-186 4. Social Conditions E. 186-188. 5. Moral and Religious Conditions E. 188-190. 6. The Witchcraft Delusion E. 190-192. 1 See note, page 28. 30 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 7. Political Conditions E. 192-194. Ill Social and Economic Conditions in the Middle Colonies l 1. Geographical Conditions E. 218-220. 2. People E. 220-222. 3. Social Classes E. 222-224. 4. Occupations E. 224-226. 5. Social Life E. 226-229. 6. Intellectual and Moral Conditions E. 229-231. 7. Political Conditions and Conclusions E. 231-232. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR In order to secure a general view of this subject, read thoughtfully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 98-110; M. 76-92; E. II. 22-41. I Causes of the War While the immediate cause of this war was the conflict of claims on the part of the French and the 1 See note, page 28. AMERICAN HISTORY 31 English to territory in the Ohio Valley, it was not the fundamental or underlying cause. For a num- ber of years before this war began, France and England had both foreseen that there must be a struggle to determine which nation should be- come the predominant power in the New World, and they were maturing their plans for that inevi- table conflict. The war was to determine whether North America should be French or English in ideas, government, and religion. S.S. 98-100; M. 76-85; E. II. 23-24. II Relative Strength of the Parties E. II. 27-28. III Campaigns Do not try to remember the details of the cam- paigns, but study carefully the purpose, the scope, and the result of each one. While studying these campaigns, follow carefully, by the use of maps, the movements of the armies, and it would be well to have maps drawn occasionally, without reference to a book, locating the operations of each campaign. 1. Campaign against Fort Duquesne This campaign includes Bracldock's defeat in 1755, and the capture of the fort by Forbes in 1758. S.S. 104-105; M. 87-88; E. II. 31-33. 2. Campaign against Louisburg S.S. 106; M. 89; E. II. 33. 3. Campaign against Quebec This campaign includes the attempts to reach 32 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF Quebec in 1775 by way of Crown Point and Ticon- deroga, and its capture by Wolfe in 1759. S.S. 103, 106-108; M. 88-89; E. II. 34. IV Results 1. Geographical Results England secured all of Canada, and all of the territory east of the Mississippi, except a small strip of land at the mouth of that river. Spain secured all of the territory west of the Mississippi, from the Isthmus of Panama to the present northern boundary of the United States. S.S. 109-110; M. 90-91; E. II. 34-37. 2. Political Results a. On English Influence in North America This war decided that English customs, ideas, and institutions should forever predomi- nate in North America. E. II. 39. b. On the English Colonists The war gave the colonists a feeling of unity and strength, and a military experience that proved of great value as a preparation for the Revolutionary War; it gave England an excuse for taxing the colonists to defray a portion of the expense of the war, and thus brought on the dispute which caused the Revolution. E. II. 40-41. AMERICAN HISTORY 33 INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 1775 In every community of people, however low in the scale of civilization, may be found the rudiments of these organizations or institutions; viz., the church, or religion; the school, or education; the state, or government; busi- ness, or industrial life; and society, or social life. All of the efforts put forth by any people must be along one or more of these lines. In civilized countries these institu- tions are plainly marked in every community, and each individual in the community bears certain relations to all of these organizations or institutions, and is useful or otherwise, as a member of society, in proportion to his activity in these five directions. To illustrate: In the ideal community, each person takes an active part in some organization that advocates his views on religion, he interests himself in the educational affairs of the com- munity, he takes an active part in politics, follows some occupation successfully, and contributes to the happiness and culture of the people in whose society he lives. 1 I Origin of Colonial Institutions Place much emphasis upon the fact that the social, the political, and the industrial ideas and life of the colonists were derived from England. The colonies did not originate their political, social, or religious ideas. They brought them over from England. The 1 Too much care cannot be taken by the teacher to fix definitely in the mind of the pupil the meaning of institutional life. The pupil should be required to point out many examples of these five institutions in his own neighborhood. Let him select some prominent man in the community, state, or nation, and show his relation to religion, education, government, business, and society. He will then be prepared to successfully study institutional life in the colonies. 34 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF English in America were like the English in Europe. The colonists were proud of the history of England, proud to be called Englishmen. They spoke with reverence of England as the Mother Country. While it is true that colonial institutions and American institutions were derived from England, the fact should not be overlooked that the conditions in the colonies, and later the conditions in the United States, brought about a modification of those institu- tions. There was an aristocracy in the colonies, especially in the South, but the primitive condition of the country and the common dangers and hard- ships made the division between the upper and the lower classes less marked than in England. The set- tlements being separated and exposed to the constant danger of attack from the Indians, the ability for local self-government and the desire to control their own political affairs were stimulated and developed. The freedom of the woods and the freedom of their lives developed a strong relf-reliance and a dislike for restraint in religious and political matters. The above facts are necessary to a correct un- derstanding of the history of the United States, and hence at this point in the study of history it is necessary to understand clearly that colonial and American institutions have been derived from Eng- land, and are similar in a general way to English institutions, and it is also necessary to understand clearly that these transplanted institutions have been modified by the conditions which have existed and still exist in the New World. S.S. 81-82; E. II. 5-10. AMERICAN HISTORY 35 II The Five Institutions in the Colonies 1. Government in the Colonies a. Local Government In New England the religious zeal, the severe climate, the short, rapid rivers, and the hostility of the Indians and neighboring French led the people to settle in towns. As each citizen was entitled to take part in the town meetings, a great impulse was given to popular government. Here the people exer- cised the right of regulating their own local affairs from the beginning. In the South the mild climate, the long and broad rivers, the friendly Indians, and large plantations caused the people to live widely apart. This comparatively isolated condition had the effect of concentrating local political power in the hands of a few men, usually the owners of the large plantations. Although in both sections of the country the spirit of in- dividual freedom grew, perhaps, with equal rapidity, the principles of local government were worked out more fully in the New England towns than anywhere else in the colonies. All local questions which involved the welfare of the town, including the election of all town officers, were decided at a general town meet- ing, where each male citizen was entitled to a vote. S.S. 47-49, 68-69; E. II. 11-13. b. Colonial Governments Colonial governments may be divided into three classes, on the basis of the manner of A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF selecting the governor. In the charter govern- ment the people chose the governor. In the proprietary government the proprietor selected him, and in the royal government he was ap- pointed by the king. With this difference, however, the people enjoyed the same rights in all the colonies. In each colony there was an assembly chosen by the people, and al- though the governors and assemblies often disagreed on matters of legislation, the assem- blies usually had the decisive voice in making nearly all of the internal laws of the colonies. S.S. 81-82; M. 105-107; E. 58-61; E. II. 13-17. (1) Charter Government A charter government was one estab- lished by a written contract between the king and the colonists, stating the share which each should have in the govern- ment of the colony. This charter or contract could not be changed legally without the consent of both parties. S.S. 41-44, 61; M. 29-30, 32, 34, 46; E. 60-61, 66-69, 72, 125-127; E. II. 13-17. (2) Proprietary Government A proprietary government was estab- lished when the king granted a large tract of land to some individual, who, by the terms of the grant, acquired the right to organize a colony and appoint the gov- ernor. S.S. 74; M. 105-106; E. 82, 89, 215. AMERICAN HISTORY 37 (3) Royal Government In the case of a royal colony, the king appointed a governor and issued to him all instructions for the management of the colony. The royal governments were directly under the control of the king, and not under that of Parliament. S.S. 81-82; M. 105-106; E. 67-69, 174- 176, 271-277; E. II. 15. c. Colonial Unions From their foundation there were many forces at work in the colonies which encouraged the formation of a union. Their common origin and interests, their troubles with the Dutch and with the Indians, and the disposition on the part of England to interfere with their liberties, all tended to draw them more and more closely together. S.S. 49; M. 51-52; E. 154-157, 269-271; E. II. 28-30. 2. Industrial Conditions in the Colonies a. Classes of Laborers No great change had taken place in the laboring population since 1700. The South still depended largely upon slaves and inden- tured servants; the Middle Colonies depended more upon free labor; and the New England Colonies depended almost entirely upon the free labor of their inhabitants, and labor was not regarded as a disgrace. b. Occupations In the South, agriculture, centering around 38 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF the production of enormous quantities of rice and tobacco for the European markets, was the only industry. In the Middle Colonies, the people were engaged in commerce, as well as in agriculture. In New England, the people de- voted their attention to farming, fishing, com- merce, and ship-building. c. Absence of Manufacturing Industries This was due, in the South, to the nature of the country, which made agriculture on a large scale so profitable. It was due in the Middle and Northern Colonies to the restrictive system of England, as manifested in her Navigation Laws, which prevented or discouraged one colony from sending its surplus products to another colony when they might just as well have been imported from England. d. Absence of Specialized Artisans and Mechanics Everything required on the farm was made in one way or another by the farmer or his sons. Division of labor in the colonies and specialization of industry were to be developed in the future. S.S. 82-83; M. 101-104; E. 278-282; E. II. 18-21. 3. Social Life in the Colonies In general there was an absence of city life. Places which could be considered of any impor- tance, such as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, were mere provincial towns. " The largest of these were mere collections of a few hundred houses ranged along streets, none of AMERICAN HISTORY 39 which were sewered, and few of which were paved or lighted." 1 Travel was infrequent, especially from one colony to another, and the citizens of one colony had little opportunity for coming into touch with those even in the neighboring colonies. The roads were poor and the means of transpor- tation very inadequate. Few people possessed wheeled vehicles, and those in use were of a very clumsy description. Along the coast and rivers it was possible for the people to travel from one place to another in boats and sailing-vessels, but inland the bulk of travel was on horseback or afoot. In the South the better class of people were aristocratic, but their isolation made them very hospitable. They were always ready for showing the welcome and hospitality for which their large, roomy, brick or stone mansions were so well fitted. To the northward the tastes of the people were simpler, and quite in keeping with their sturdy, industrious, and democratic life. S.S. 83-90; M. 93-105; E. 280-282; E. II. 18. 4. Education in the Colonies In the greater part of New England some public provision was made for the teaching of the elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic, while the larger towns provided sufficient instruc- tion for entrance into the local colleges, but the schools were very poor. In the Middle Colonies there was, on the whole, very little public in- struction. In Virginia children received instruc- tion from private tutors, or perhaps from the clergyman of the parish, provided their parents 1 M. 99-100. 40 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF were able to pay for such instruction. Georgia and the Carolinas were without any public educa- tional institutions. The people in the far South depended upon colleges in England and in the North. While there were a number of colleges in existence, — Yale, Harvard, King's (Columbia), New Jersey (Princeton), Pennsylvania, and William and Mary, — the work which they gave was very narrow in scope, and of the grade of work done in the present high school. The pro- fession of law — hitherto of little importance — was beginning to occupy a position of con- siderable prominence. In fact, it was the only profession which could be compared with the ministry. E. II. 18. 5. Religion in the Colonies While in New England the sturdy Puritans were still conservative, as regards religious affairs, they were becoming more and more liberal. The Congregational Church, with the full support of the people, was practically the only church, save in Rhode Island, where freedom of religion had long prevailed. The clergymen of New England went to make up the leading, educated, and influ- ential class of the North, and tended to dominate the life of the times until the church and state became separated at the time of the Revolution. In Pennsylvania, religious freedom prevailed, while in Maryland all tax-payers were by law compelled to support the Church of England. Farther south, the Established Church was grad- ually becoming less important; the ministers AMERICAN HISTORY 41 were often easy-going men, and without the moral strength required of them, if they wished to be important and influential men. S.S. 85. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR Causes At the close of the French and Indian War in 1763 the English colonists in America were loyal English subjects. They were proud of their English origin; proud of English history, considering it part of their own inheritance; proud to be called English- men; and spoke with reverence of England as the Mother Country. In less than fifteen years from this date, the same colonists were in open rebellion, carry- ing on war against England. There were vital and fundamental causes which brought about this change of feeling, and these causes were the causes which led to the Revolution. 1. English Control of Colonial Commerce In order to control the commerce of the colonies, England passed trade laws known as the Naviga- tion Acts. The Navigation Acts were funda- mentally connected with the causes of the Revolu- tion. These laws extended from 1651 down to the Revolution. Their object was to secure to Eng- lish merchants a monopoly of the carrying trade of England and her colonies. In some cases small duties were levied on exports and imports, but these duties were mainly levied in order to secure the better enforcement of the Navigation Acts, and 42 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF not in order to raise money for the English gov- ernment. The laws regulating colonial commerce were not rigidly enforced until after the French and Indian War. A careful study should be made of these laws with regard to their general scope, their evasion by the colonists, and their general effect on com- merce. Bear in mind that, although these laws irritated the colonists, they did not offer any serious objection to them until Writs of Assistance were issued, enabling English officers to enter private houses and search for smuggled goods. S.S. 51, 113-114; M. 108; E. II. 17, 19, 44-58, 66. 2. Taxation without Representation Distinguish carefully between the Navigation Acts and taxation for the purpose of raising rev- enue, particularly direct taxation. The colonists would, perhaps, have submitted to the Navigation Acts and to the nominal taxes which some of them imposed. They would not, however, pay the taxes levied for purposes of revenue, and especially direct taxes, unless they had some voice in voting such taxation. They did not object to the amount of the tax, but to the principle in- volved. Englishmen, by more than a century of struggle, had secured the right to vote taxes through their representatives. The colonists con- sidered themselves Englishmen with all the rights of Englishmen, and hence they refused to submit to taxation without representation. In other words, the Revolutionary War was brought about because Englishmen in America were denied the rights enjoyed by Englishmen in England. And AMERICAN HISTORY 43 it should be remembered that these rights were denied colonists in America, not by the people of England, but by the King and his Ministers. The common people of England, like the colo- nists, were opposed to the levying of taxes where the parties taxed had no voice in the voting of them. When William Pitt became Prime Minis- ter, he represented the English people on these questions, and was a stanch friend of the colonists. It would probably be safe to say that a majority of the common people of England opposed the Revolutionary War from beginning to end, and were glad that the colonists resisted the unjust taxation, because they believed that if the King could unjustly tax the colonists, he might attempt to overthrow the constitutional liberties of Eng- lishmen in England. a. The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress S.S. 114-118; M. 114-115; E. II. 48-53. b. The Townshend Acts, the Tea Tax, and Other Revenue Acts S.S. 119-124; M. 117-120; E. II. 53-58. 3. The Five Coercive Acts S.S. 124; M. 120-121; E. II. 59-60. 4. The First Continental Congress S.S. 124-127; M. 121-122; E. 60-63. II Campaigns In order to secure a general view of the subject, 44 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF read thoughtfully the references given below (see note, page 18): S.S. 130-175; M. 126-154; E. II. 70-101. After the British under Gage were compelled to leave Boston they adopted three general plans of campaign. The first was to separate New England from the other colonies by occupying New York City and the valley of the Hudson, the second was to cap- ture Philadelphia and overrun the Middle Colonies, and the third was to land an army in Georgia, move northward, and subjugate the colonies one by one. 1. Concord and Lexington S.S. 132-137; M. 129-131. 2. The Siege and Capture of Boston S.S. 132-137; M. 129-131. 3. The Campaign to Separate New England from the Other Colonies This campaign, on the part of the English, was a failure. They captured and occupied New York City until the end of the war, but the army under Burgoyne, which had for its object the capture of the valley of the Hudson, was compelled to sur- render to the Americans. This was the last attempt made by the English to separate New England from the other colonies. The results of the surrender of Burgoyne were important. It not only defeated the attempt of the English to separate New England from the other colonies, but induced France to acknowledge Amer- ican independence, and to make a treaty with the AMERICAN HISTORY 45 Americans, which bound her to assist their cause with money, ships, and men until that indepen- dence should be acknowledged by the other nations of the world. S.S. 155-158; M. 139-141; E. II. 85. 2. The Campaign against Philadelphia and the Mid- dle Colonies The English were partially successful in this campaign. Washington was driven from New York, New Jersey was overrun, and Philadelphia was captured. The English, however, could hold no more territory than that actually occupied by their armies. When the English received the news of the treaty with France they evacuated Philadelphia, and after the indecisive battle of Monmouth, closely followed by Washington, they hurried on to New York City to defend that place against the French fleet. S.S. 146-154; M. 135-139, 141-142. 5. Campaigns against the Southern Colonies From an English standpoint this campaign was partially successful. Savannah was captured, and Georgia and part of South Carolina were overrun. Several American armies were utterly destroyed. But when the inefficient Gates was superseded by Greene the tide turned in favor of the Americans. At King's Mountain and at the Cowpens small British forces were utterly destroyed. The in- decisive battle of Guilford Courthouse so weakened the British army that Cornwallis, with Greene in pursuit, retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina. With the exception of Charleston and Savannah, 46 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF Greene compelled the British to evacuate all of South Carolina and Georgia. Meanwhile Corn- wallis marched north and fortified Yorktown. Here he was attacked by the combined French and American forces, and compelled to surrender, October 19, 1781. Cornwallis' surrender practi- cally ended the war. S.S. 163-172; M. 144-146; E. II. 88. Ill Results England acknowledged the independence of the American colonies; they were given control of the territory extending from the Atlantic to the Mis- sissippi, and from the Great Lakes to Florida; England secured the right to navigate the Missis- sippi; the Americans obtained the right to fish on the Newfoundland Banks, and the republican spirit received a remarkable stimulus throughout the world. S.S, 173; M. 149-152; E. II. 95-101. GOVERNMENT DURING THE REVOLUTION, AND PRIOR TO THE ADOPTION OF THE PRESENT CONSTITUTION The central government, which controlled the general affairs of the country during the Revolution, was vested in the Continental Congress, and the colonial governments were changed to state governments. During the latter part of the Revolution a written constitution, called the Articles of Confederation, was adopted. The government created by this constitution conducted the general affairs of the country until the present constitution came into effect. AMERICAN HISTORY 47 The first Continental Congress met in 1774, and the second in 1775. The Congress which controlled affairs to the clcse of the Revolution may well be termed the Continental Congress. The people from the various states elected delegates to this Congress. It was never formally granted power from any source, but the people recognized the fact that there must be some general authority, and its acts were usually complied with. I State Government When the colonies declared their independence, there were no longer any legal colonial governments. The colonial governments were created by the author- ity of England, and when that authority was abolished these governments ceased to exist. At the suggestion of Congress the states adopted written constitutions consistent with the Declaration of Independence. These writtten constitutions mark the beginning of the present state governments. M. 155; E. II. 80-82. II Central Government 1. Under the Continental Congress S.S. 124-125; M. 121-122, 128-129; E. II. 60-63, 73-80. 2. Under the Articles of Confederation a. The Northwest Territory and the Ordinance of 1787 This is very important, as forming the basis of all territorial government in the United States. The fact should be emphasized that this document, providing as it did for the terri- 48 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF torial organization of the public domain lying north of the Ohio and west of Pennsylvania, and forever prohibiting slavery or involuntary servitude therein except as a punishment for crime, occupies a place in American political development second only to the Federal Con- stitution. S.S. 179-180; M. 159-162; E. II. 107-109. b. The Defects of the Confederation The government created by the Articles of Confederation, which, although drawn up by the Continental Congress in 1777, did not go into effect until 1781, proved very inadequate. Its leading defects were, — (1) The lack of an executive body to enforce the laws of Congress. (2) The absence of a judicial body to settle disputed points of law. (3) The limited powers granted to the legis- lature. The Congress created by the Articles of Confederation could not levy taxes or regulate commerce, — both of which are the necessary powers of a strong cen- tral government. As a result of this inefficient control of national affairs, the credit of the United States became very poor among foreign nations, paper money became almost worthless, the commerce of the states was almost destroyed, riots took place in some of the states, and property interests became unsafe. Be- cause of the above weakness in the Arti- AMERICAN HISTORY 49 cles of Confederation, the people generally- desired a stronger central government, S.S. 179-180; M. 155-156; E. II. 102- 119. THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1787 The constitutional convention is distinctly an Ameri- can institution, and the one which framed the present Constitution of the United States is by far the most im- portant one which has ever been held in America. The pupil and teacher should study carefully the work of this Convention, and as far as possible enter into the spirit of its proceedings. I Events Leading to the Convention Since the close of the Revolution, Washington, Hamilton, and other leading statesmen of America, had been urging the necessity of establishing a cen- tral government with powers sufficient for the con- trol of all national affairs. As the general condition of the states became more and more unsettled and unsatisfactory, and property interests became en- dangered, men of affairs everywhere were anxious for a strong, stable government. In order to revive the rapidly declining commerce of the states, due largely to the fact that each state levied a different rate of import duty, Virginia issued an invitation to a few of her sister states to send delegates to a convention to be held at Annapolis in February. 1777. This convention recommended that all the states send delegates to a new convention, to meet in Philadelphia in May, 1777, "to take into con- sideration the situation of the United States," and make provisions for a stronger central government. 50 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF II The Constitutional Convention This Convention, which met at Philadelphia, May 25, 1787, numbered among its members the ablest statesmen in America. Here were to be found nearly all the men who had taken a prominent part in American affairs during the fifty preceding years. These men framed a constitution which has endured for more than one hundred years, and which has answered the requirements of a nation that has ex- panded beyond the fondest dreams of any of those who took part in the Constitutional Convention. While the Convention was called for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation, its members did not believe this feasible, and they at once began work on a new constitution. 1. Leading Men of the Convention Study briefly the work of the following men: Washington, Franklin, Hamilton, Madison, El- bridge Gerry, Kobert Morris, and Charles Pinckney. S.S.; M.j E. II. (See indexes.) 2. Proceedings of the Convention Though the questions discussed were intricate and the interests of the states often conflicting, the proceedings were marked by calm deliberation. The questions on which the Convention found it difficult to agree were those concerning the nature of the national government, representation in Congress, and control of commerce. Some of the members of the Convention favored making the states practically independent; others favored the creation of a centralized government similar to the present republic of France, in which the powers of the states would be restricted to purely local affairs. It was finally decided to delegate AMERICAN HISTORY 51 to the national government all powers necessary to the control of national affairs, but the states were to retain all powers not specifically granted to the national government. This left to the states sufficient powers for the control of all in- ternal affairs. The smaller states desired equal representation in both houses of Congress, while the larger states contended that the representation in both houses should be according to population. The disagree- ment on this point was so emphatic that for a while it looked as though the Convention would adjourn without accomplishing the object for which it had met. This question was finally settled by giving each state equal representation in the Senate and basing the representation in the House on population. For the purpose of representation and direct taxation, three fifths of the slave population was to be counted. The third point of disagreement was on the national control of commerce. The commercial states were in favor of placing the control of com- merce entirely in the hands of the national govern- ment. The agricultural states wished to retain the power of controlling commerce, and the Southern States desired the free importation of slaves. It was finally agreed that the national government should control commerce, but the im- portation of slaves was not to be interfered with prior to 1808. S.S. 182-186; M. 165-168; E. II. 121-128. 3. Sources of the Constitution It is supposed by many that the Constitution 52 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF of the United States was created by the Constitu- tional Convention. Even Gladstone has referred to it as the greatest document ever struck off at one time by the hand of man. This idea as to the origin of the Constitution is not correct. The political ideas contained in the Constitution were being developed by the colonial governments and colonial unions for more than a century before its adoption. Great political wisdom on the part of the members of the Convention was shown in formulating these ideas into a practical constitu- tion and in adding new ones. The Convention is entitled to great credit for this, but it should not be assumed that its members created these ideas. M. 168-169; E. II. 124-125. 4. General Features of Government Provided for in the Constitution The Constitution created three departments of government, each, in a general way, independent of the other. The departments are, — The legis- lative, or law-making department, consisting of two Houses, a Senate and a House of Representa- tives; the executive, or law-executing department, now consisting of a President, the President's Cabinet, ministers, postmasters, and other officers; and the judicial, or law-interpreting department, now consisting of a Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, District Courts, Circuit Courts of Appeal, and a Court of Claims. 1 1 The fact should be brought out here that the Constitution is a mere skeleton, which, since its adoption, has been clothed with flesh and blood through Congressional legislation and the decisions of the Supreme Court. AMERICAN HISTORY 53 EIGHTH -YEAR WORK GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES 1 In the city, county, state, and nation, government is divided into three departments, — legislative, executive, and judicial. In the state and in the nation the legisla- tive department consists of two houses. Government is divided into three departments for the purpose of preventing an abuse of power on the part of officials, and for the purpose of securing a maturer consideration of laws, both in their making and execu- tion. If the same body of men made the laws and exe- cuted them, and had the power to say whether they were 1 Before beginning this year's work in history proper, the pupil should have a general knowledge of government in the United States. Do not attempt to hold in mind many details, — as the salaries, the names, and the minor powers and duties of the various officials, — but have clearly fixed in mind what con- stitutes the legislative, executive, and judicial departments of the city, county, state, and national governments. The pupil should be able to state how the members of each department are elected, and the general powers and duties connected with each department. He should understand why it is necessary for gov- ernment to be divided into three separate fields, and what advan- tages are secured, in national and state government, by having two houses in the legislative department. The pupil should devote no more time to this subject than will be required to understand the general features of government as outlined in this note, and under no circumstances should this time exceed more than one school month, as the remainder of the time will be required for the work in history. In studying this topic, use Duvall's Civil Government Simpli- fied (The Whitaker and Ray Company, San Francisco). The Con- stitution of the United States and some good civil government should be continually referred to. 54 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF in conflict with constitutions or other laws, they would very likely abuse their privileges, and they might even attempt to overthrow popular government. History contains so many proofs of this fact that the people of the United States insist that law-making, law-enforcing, and law- judging shall each be done by a different body of men. Aside from preventing an abuse of power and an attempt to overthrow popular government, this method secures better services in each case. A body devoting its entire time either to law-making, law-executing, or law- judging will do better work than if it attempts to perform all the functions of government at the same time. The legislative department is divided into two branches in order to secure a maturer consideration of laws. One house serves as a check on the other, and thus tends to prevent hasty discussion and hasty action. A proposed law which must pass two houses will usually receive a more thorough consideration than it would if required to pass but one legislative body. The members of that body which is usually termed the lower branch of the legislature are always elected by the direct vote of the people, and, as a rule, this is true of the upper branch. The members of the upper branch of the national legis- lature, however, are elected by the legislatures of the several states. The original object of this was to have the states represented in the Senate as political units. Since the formation of political parties, however, the election of Senators is decided by the dominant political party of a state, and, consequently, the original object which their election by the legislature was intended to fulfill is no longer secured. The chief executive officers of the city, county, state, and nation are elected by the direct vote of the people. AMERICAN HISTORY 55 In theory the President of the United States is elected indirectly by the people, but in practice it amounts to a direct vote. The judicial officers of the nation are ap- pointed by the President of the United States and con- firmed by the United States Senate. The judicial officers of cities, counties, and states are usually elected by a direct vote of the people. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION In order to obtain a general idea of the events of this administration, read carefully the references given below (see note, page 18): S.S. 190-205; M. 197-209; E. II. 137-164. I Organization of the New Government The important work of putting the machinery of the new government into operation devolved upon Washington and Congress. 1. Organization of the Executive The Constitution does not provide for the President's Cabinet. It was seen, however, that the President would require assistance in enforcing the laws of the United States, and Congress pro- ceeded to create various executive departments under the control of the President. The secretaries of these departments constitute the President's Cabinet. The number of Cabinet officers has been increased from time to time. S.S. 192-193; M. 198; E. II. 143-145. 2. Organization of the Judicial Department The Supreme Court was established by the Constitution, and Congress was given power to 56 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF organize such inferior courts as might be required from time to time. It established Federal courts inferior to the Supreme Court in the following order: Circuit Courts, District Courts, Court of Claims, and Circuit Court of Appeals. S.S. 193; M. 197; E. II. 145-146. II Legislation 1. Tariff, or Import Duties In order to secure revenue for the new govern- ment, Congress at once proceeded to levy import duties. During the discussion of the bill for this purpose, the question as to whether one of the main objects of import duties should be the pro- tection of American industries was first brought before the American people. S.S. 191-192; M. 197; E. II. 146-147. 2. Financial Legislation The new government found the national treasury empty and the credit of the United States among foreign nations almost worthless. Alexander Hamilton was made Secretary of the Treasury and brought forward a plan for placing the financial affairs of the government on a firm foundation. This plan proved him to be one of the ablest financiers in the United States. His plan was as follows: a. A slight increase in the duties laid by the first tariff. b. An excise or internal tax to be placed on distilled liquors. c. The. funding of the national debt. The old bonds of the nation had fallen to AMERICAN HISTORY 57 twenty-five per cent of their face value. New United States bonds were to be issued for the total face value of the old. d. The assumption of state debts. Debts contracted by the states during the Revolution were to be assumed and paid in full by the national government. e. Establishment of a United States Bank. The management of the bank was to be private, but the United States was to be a large shareholder, reserving the right of examining into its financial condition. After much discussion the different portions of Hamilton's plan were adopted, with the result that confidence and credit were at once restored, and business resumed a normal condition. S.S. 194; M. 198-201; E. II. 147-151. Ill Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs In 1793 war broke out between France and Eng- land. The majority of the people of the United States was in favor of assisting France. To do this meant the destruction of American commerce and war with the English and the Indians along the frontiers of the United States. It also meant that the United States should be involved in European struggles which did not affect American affairs. The time, therefore, had come when the United States must decide whether she would meddle in European affairs not concerning her and which must often involve a useless loss of life and property, or whether she would remain neutral. Washington foresaw the vast importance of this decision, and 58 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF after mature deliberation announced that the policy of the United States should be non-interference in European affairs. This decision has marked Washington as a statesman of the highest rank. The people all over the United States, in mass meet- ing and through the press, were urging the govern- ment to assist France, but Washington held fast to his purpose, and was finally sustained by Congress. Thus was born "American Neutrality," and the United States has ever held steadfastly to that prin- ciple. The importance to the United States of this principle or unwritten law can hardly be overesti- mated. It has saved this nation from many a bloody and useless war, and has permitted it to develop its natural resources unmolested by Euro- pean quarrels and conflicts. The United States under Washington established the unwritten law that she should not interfere in the affairs of Europe which did not concern her, and thirty years later, under Monroe, she established the unwritten law that no European nation should interfere with strictly American affairs unless directly concerned. M. 206-208; E. II. 158-160. IV The Rise of Political Parties Political parties in the United States had their real origin during Washington's administration. They began with the difference of opinion on the part of the people and statesmen of the United States as to the nature of the new government. Washing- ton, Hamilton, and Adams were the leaders of those who believed that the constitution should be loosely interpreted; that is, that the new government should exercise not only the powers specifically granted to AMERICAN HISTORY 59 it by the constitution, but that it should also assume such implied powers as might be necessary to carry out those powers specifically delegated to it. They also believed that the government should be con- trolled by the wealthier classes. Jefferson and Madison were the leaders of those who believed that the constitution should be strictly construed, — that Congress should assume no implied powers. They did not believe that the government should be con- trolled by the wealthier classes. They had faith in the common people, and believed that the affairs of government could be safely intrusted to them. Property qualification as a test for voting has since been abolished, and to-day, in this respect, the ideas of Jefferson prevail, though he himself, in a measure, became a convert to the loose construction of the constitution. Washington, Hamilton, Adams, and their followers became known as the Federal Party, and Jefferson and his party were called the Anti- Federal or Republican party. S.S. 200-201; M. 197-205; E. II. 155-157. Invention of the Cotton-Gin In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton-gin. This machine has had more influence on the political and industrial history of our country than any other American invention. It made cotton the leading product of the South, and increased a thousand-fold the value of slave labor, in the work of separating the seeds from the cotton. S.S. 204-205; M. 195-196. 60 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION In order to get a general idea of the events of this ad- ministration, read carefully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 206-210; M. 209-215; E. II. 164-175. I Breach with France The Jay treaty with England prevented a war between the United States and that nation and gave to England valuable commercial rights. France was irritated at the United States for not assisting her in her war with England in 1793, and this treaty, favorable as it was to England, still further exaspe- rated her. For a while diplomacy seemed unable to avert a war between the United States and France, and war had actually begun on the sea, but the uni- form success of the American navy and a change of government in France caused the latter nation to open diplomatic relations, by which the war was averted. S.S. 207-208; M. 210-213; E. II. 166-168. II The Alien and Sedition Acts The firm stand taken by the Federalists against the insolence of France made President Adams and the Federalists very popular with the people; but the passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws brought them suddenly into great disfavor. The Alien Act gave the President power to deport from the United States any foreigners whom he considered dangerous to the country. The Sedition Act gave the President and the officers of the government the right to im- prison those who opposed the measures of the gov- ernment or spoke with disrespect of its officers. The AMERICAN HISTORY 61 Sedition Act was aimed against the press, and was the first and last attempt of the national government to interfere with its freedom. S.S. 208-209; M. 211-212; E. II. 168-170. III The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions The Alien and Sedition Laws were fiercely attacked by the Republicans, led by Jefferson and Madison. This opposition took definite shape in the legisla- tures of Virginia and Kentucky, where it was resolved that if a national law did not meet the ap- proval of a state, the law might be held null and void in that state. These resolutions are of great importance, because they were the first definite ex- pression of the doctrine of state's rights as opposed to national authority. S.S. 209; M. 212; E. II. 170-171. IV Causes of the Fall of the Federalist Party E. II. 173-175. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION In order to get a general idea of the events of this administration, read carefully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 211-218; M. 215-228; E. II. 176-198. Jefferson was the first Anti-Federalist or Republican President. The success of the Republican party was due in part to the unpopular laws of Adams' administration, but the main cause of its success was the fact that Jefferson represented the rising democracy of the United States. He believed that the masses of the people were 62 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF capable of self-government, while the Federalists believed that the wealthy and educated classes should control the government. No party advocating these ideas of the Federalists ever again secured control of national affairs. I The Purchase of Louisiana During the administrations of Washington and Adams, Jefferson had advocated a strict construction of the constitution, but in the purchase of Louisiana he gave a looser construction to the constitution than the Federalists had ever dared to make. S.S. 214; M. 218-219; E. II. 185-187. II European Interference with American Commerce From 1803 to 1815, France and England were almost continuously at war. Each nation tried to injure the other by destroying its commerce. In order to do this, each would declare the ports of the other to be in a state of blockade, although they were unable to make such blockade effective; and each claimed the right to take as prizes all merchant vessels trading with the enemy in violation of the commercial regulations which each had issued. This policy, if carried out, would have resulted in the destruction of American commerce. The United States maintained, however, that a neutral state had a right to trade freely with either of the nations at war, unless her ports were actually blockaded. From 1803 to 1809, the dispute on this point between the United States and England and France was almost continuous; and on several occasions it came very near involving the United States in war. In fact, it would have done so had it not been for the weak attitude of President Jefferson. AMERICAN HISTORY 63 Jefferson tried to injure first England and then France by having Congress pass, first, an act forbid- ding the importation of goods from England or her colonies, and later another act preventing the send- ing of goods from the United States to any foreign nation. These laws were called the Non-Importa- tion Act and the Embargo Act. S.S. 216-217; M. 224-231; E. II. 191-198. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION In order to obtain a general idea of the work of this administration, read carefully the following references (see note page 18): S.S. 219-232; M. 233-240; E. II. 200-222. I. The Congress of 1811 The Congress of November 4, 1811, marks a new epoch in American history. Very few of the states- men who controlled affairs during and for a quarter of a century following the Revolution were now members of the national legislature. Statesmen of a younger generation had come into power. They represented the young and rising democracy of America, and especially of the West. They were full of hope and strength, believed in the future greatness of the United States, and were humiliated and angered at the continuous insults offered this nation by France and England. From the first they were determined to end this humiliation, even though compelled to resort to war. The question with them was, Against which nation should war be declared? England and France were almost equally guilty. S.S. 219-221; M. 230; E. II. 203-205. 64 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF II. The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Independence 1. Causes The causes of this war were interference with American trade and impressment of American seamen. As Great Britain was the greater offender, war was declared against her, though the feeling against France was bitter because of her inter- ference with American commerce. S.S. 221-222; M. 231; E. II. 205-206. 2. The War on Land In this war the Americans were, as a rule, un- successful in their campaigns on land. The sol- diers were untrained, and the officers, frequently owing their appointments to political reasons, were generally incompetent. Neither nation, how- ever, was successful in invading the territory of the other. The two most notable land events of the war were the capture of Washington by the British and the disastrous defeat of an army of British veterans at New Orleans by General Jackson. S.S. 223-228; M. 233, 235, 238; E. II. 209-210, 212-214. 3. The War on the Ocean Although, at the beginning of this war, the Americans had but twelve vessels as against Eng- land's twelve hundred, the American navy suc- ceeded in winning a series of brilliant victories, and often against great odds. Because of Eng- land's superiority in the number of ships, most of the American vessels were finally either driven AMERICAN HISTORY 65 from the sea or blockaded in the harbors of the United States. Perhaps even more important than the work of the regular navy was the injury which American privateers did to the commerce of England. S.S. 228-229; M. 234-236; E. II. 210-212. 4. Results The points of dispute which caused the war were not mentioned in the treaty of peace. The treaty provided for the restoration of the con- quests of both parties, and arranged for the settle- ment of boundary disputes and other minor points. But the main result of this war was the com- mercial independence of the United States, and never since then has any nation interfered with American commerce or attempted the impress- ment of American seamen. The destruction of American commerce caused the birth of American factories, for during the war the people of the country were compelled to rely upon home industry for their manufactured goods. The naval success of the Americans won the respect and the admiration of the world. S.S. 229-230; M. 239; E. II. 218-222. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION In order to obtain a general idea of the work of this administration, read carefully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 233-239; M. 259-265; E. II. 231-244. 66 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF The opposition on the part of the leaders of the Federalist party to the war of 1812 was the death-blow of that organization. During Monroe's administration there was scarcely any discussion of party politics, — so little, in fact, that the period has been called the " Era of Good Feeling." It was characterized by wonderful in- dustrial progress, and a rapid growth in the idea of national unity. The influence of the nation abroad was rapidly increasing. I Decisions of the Supreme Court The Supreme Court, in a series of important de- cisions, firmly established the supremacy of the national government, and in many cases specifically defined the limits of the state governments. E. II. 234-236. II Missouri Compromise The Missouri Compromise had its origin in the desire of the free and the slave states to each prevent the other from securing a larger number of repre- sentatives in the United States Senate. The Northern States, having a larger population than the Southern, would always have a majority in the House of Representatives. The Southern States, knowing this, were determined to have control of as many votes in the Senate as the Northern States, and thus be in a position to prevent any legislation in- jurious to the slavery interests. In order to retain this control a slave state must be admitted into the Union with every free state. This required that the territory included in the Louisiana Purchase should be half slave and half free. The North was de- termined that it should be all free, and when the AMERICAN HISTORY 67 bill for the admission of Missouri came before Con- gress threats of disunion were freely made by the South. It was finally settled by a measure in Con- gress known as the Missouri Compromise. The terms of this Compromise were: ( 1 ) Maine should be admitted as a free state, and Missouri as a slave state. (2) The Louisiana Purchase should be divided by the parallel of 36° 30', and in all territory north of the line, excepting Missouri, slavery should be forever prohibited S.S. 235; M. 275-276; E. II. 236-241. Ill The Monroe Doctrine About 1815 Russia announced that she claimed the Pacific Coast from Alaska down to the 51st par- allel, and that no foreign vessel could approach within 100 miles of the shore. It was her evident intention to shut the United States out from the Pacific Coast. John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State, entered a vigorous protest against these de- signs of Russia, in which he stated that neither North nor South America was subject to further European colonization. Between 1810 and 1822 all of the Spanish- American colonies in North and South America, taking advantage of the weakened condition of Spain, threw off the Spanish yoke and established independent republics, which were recog- nized by the United States as independent powers. These republics included Mexico and all of South America, save Brazil, which still belonged to Portugal. In 1815 nearly all of the European powers except England formed what is known as the Holy Alli- ance, their object being to perpetuate monarchical 68 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF government and to assist Spain in the recovery of her lost possessions. Great Britain proposed that the United States combine with her against this Holy Alliance. The United States declined to act in concert with Great Britain, but President Monroe, at the suggestion of Adams, included in his annual message to Congress a statement known as the Monroe Doctrine. This statement defined the atti- tude of the United States on the question of European colonization in the New World and European inter- ference with American republics. The doctrine has ever since been adhered to by the United States, and is in substance as follows: (1) European nations will not be permitted to establish any new colonies in America or to add any more territory to those already existing. (2) European nations will not be permitted to in- terfere with the internal affairs of American republics. The Monroe Doctrine was the logical result of the principle of American Neutrality established by Washington. SS. 236-237; M. 262-265; E. II. 241-244. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION In order to obtain a general idea of this administra- tion, read carefully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 240-245; M. 297-300; E. II. 248-262. All of the candidates for President in 1824 were Repub- AMERICAN HISTORY 69 licans, there being no other organized political party. Most of the national legislation during this administra- tion was influenced by the personal aims and ambitions of the various statesmen, and had for its main object the support or defeat of the aspirations of some possible candidate for the Presidency. The principal events of this administration were the passage of laws regarding internal improvements; the disagreement between Congress and the President con- cerning the rights of the Creek and the Cherokee Indians in the state of Georgia; and the passage of a high tariff known as the " Tariff of Abominations." S.S. 241-244; E. II. 253-258. PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1790 TO 1825 I Our Country in 1790 There were about four millions of people in the United States in 1790. Of these seven hundred and fifty thousand were slaves. Very few of these people lived west of the Alleghany Mountains. The country abounded in natural resources, but they were un- developed. It required two months for a courier to go from the seat of government to the most distant frontier. Jefferson said that it would be a thousand years before the country would be thickly populated as far west as the Mississippi. The chief sources of wealth were agriculture and commerce. Nearly all manufactured articles were imported from England. M. 175-176; E. II. 138-139. 70 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF II Industrial Development 1. Immigration and Emigration One of the most important factors in the in- dustrial development of the United States at this period was the wave of immigration flowing toward America. Refugees from France, and laborers from England, Ireland, and Germany, came to America in such numbers that it seemed as if all Europe were coming to the new republic. Another important factor was the migration of many people, who left their old homes in the Eastern States and moved to the west of the Alleghanies, carrying with them their laws and in- stitutions. This stream of emigration moved west- ward in three channels. The first, composed largely of people from New England, pushed along the borders of Lake Champlain and up the valley of the Mohawk. The second, made up of settlers from Pennsylvania and Virginia, passed into the valleys of West Virginia and Kentucky. The third stream came from Virginia and North Caro- lina and the emigrants settled in the valley of the Tennessee River. The Southern stream settled the country south of the Mason and Dixon line. The two Northern streams settled the valley of the Ohio, known as the Northwest Territory, from which were created the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. S.S. 202-203; M. 241-242; E. II. 246; E. III. 4-5. 2. Modes of Travel and Communication In 1790 the means of travel and communication were of the same rude kinds which prevailed dur- ing colonial times. For forty years scarcely any AMERICAN HISTORY 71 improvements in transportation had been made. But the travel incident to the mighty stream of emigration now moving westward gave a powerful stimulus to improvements in the means of trans- portation. The demands of the hour for better and more rapid communication led to the digging of canals, the building of roads and bridges, and finally to the construction of railroads and tele- graph lines. S.S. 236; M. 187-189, 252-253; E. II. 224-225, 227-228, 253; E. III. 4-5. 3. Inventions The two most important inventions of this period were the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney in 1793, and the steamboat by Robert Fulton in 1807. In a few years steamboats appeared on the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Great Lakes. They aided greatly in the settlement of the western part of the United States. S.S. 212, 253; E. III. 5. 4. Our Country in 1825 The population of the country had now in- creased to the neighborhood of twelve millions. The center of population was gradually moving toward the West. Old cities were declining, and new ones springing up. New York was rapidly approaching the two -hundred -thousand mark, which it reached in 1830. " This growth of popu- lation, it is important to note, had not been creative of cities, so much as of simple and, for the most part, sparsely settled agricultural com- 72 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF muni ties, living each its own arduous, narrow life in comparative isolation." 1 M. 279-291; E. II. 260-261; E. III. 2-8. JACKSON'S AND VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRA- TIONS In order to obtain a general view of these administra- tions, read carefully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 246-253; M. 294-317; E. III. 23-115. The election of Jackson marks the beginning of a new epoch in the history of the United States. Almost as many states had been created out of the territory between the Alleghany Mountains and the Mississippi as had at first comprised the nation. These new states represented the vigorous, and to a certain extent the rough frontier, life of the republic. They represented the rising democ- racy, — the belief that one man is as good as another, irre- spective of his wealth or birth. The effect on American politics of this belief is first seen in the election of Jeffer- son, and later in the election of the war Congress of 1812. All of the Presidents before Jackson, however, belonged to the wealthy, cultured, and aristocratic class. Jackson was one of the common people. His life had been an almost continuous struggle with poverty and adverse circumstances. He was blunt in manner and speech, headstrong and independent. He typified the rough frontier life of the Western States. He could see nothing good in an enemy and nothing bad in a friend. Any opposition to his public measures he considered as *E. III. 5-6. AMERICAN HISTORY 73 a personal attack. With all of his faults, he had the wel- fare of the nation at heart. Jackson's election marks the complete triumph of democracy in the United States, the introduction of the " Spoils System" into politics, the destruction of the National Bank established by Hamilton, and the tempo- rary suppression of secession in South Carolina. The financial legislation enacted by Congress during his ad- ministration and through his influence caused the financial panic of 1837, and during Van Buren's admin- istration, resulted in the establishment of the independent treasury system which exists at the present time. I The "Spoils System" The "Spoils System" consists in the giving of as many offices as possible to those who have helped elect successful candidates. Almost every officer up to the President of the United States has the power of appointing men and women to office. If the can- didate elected is a Democrat he usually appoints Democrats to office; if he is a Republican he usually appoints Republicans to office. It does not matter how faithfully an officer may have performed his duties, his position is usually given to some member of the successful party, and often the new officer is less competent than the one whose place he fills. As a result of this condition of affairs, public busi- ness frequently suffers serious injury. Jackson was responsible for the introduction of the " Spoils System " into the politics of the United States. He claimed that to the victors belonged the spoils of office, — that the successful candidate might fill the offices under his control with personal followers. Dur- ing the first nine months of his administration Jackson 74 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF removed more than one thousand men from office, whereas all of the preceding Presidents together had not removed more than seventy-three, and then only for good cause, and not because of their political connections. Since Jackson's administration the officers of both parties have appointed men and women to office because of their political influence. During the last twenty-five years the evil effects of the " Spoils System " have been greatly lessened by the passage of national legislation known as "the Civil Service Laws." These laws compel the Presi- dent of the United States to select certain officials by means of examination, and the officers thus se- lected cannot be removed except for just cause. S.S. 247-248; E. III. 30-34. II Nullification and Secession The high tariff passed in Adams' administration was bitterly denounced by the people in some of the Southern States. The North and South were devel- oping along different lines. They were in many respects becoming two different peoples. Because of different interests, much of the legislation favored by one section was opposed by the other. Under Jackson's administration, the tariff was the main question of difference. Later it was the slavery question. Calhoun, speaking for the South, and especially for South Carolina, maintained that the nation was a mere compact; that a state could nullify a law of Congress, and had the constitutional right of with- drawing from the Union. The legislature of South Carolina, taking this view of the question, passed resolutions nullifying the tariff laws. Jackson, how- AMERICAN HISTORY 75 ever, threatened to hang as traitors all who forcibly resisted the collection of tariff duties. His firm stand, together with a modification in the tariff rates, checked the secession movement. S.S. 249; M. 301-305; E. III. 51-68. Ill The Bank of the United States The first United States Bank was established in 1791, at the suggestion of Hamilton. Its charter, having a duration of twenty years, expired in 1811. The second Bank of the United States was estab- lished in 1816, with privileges extending over a similar period; thus its charter expired in 1836. The United States held a large number of shares in both of these banks, and reserved the right to in- spect their financial condition at any time. All of the surplus money of the United States government was deposited in them. Jackson was bitterly opposed to the second bank of the United States, and before its charter expired, withdrew from it all national funds, depositing them in state banks. Through his influence Congress re- fused, in 1836, to renew the bank's charter. The depositing of the surplus money of the national government in state banks brought about the creation of a large number of state banks, which proceeded to issue paper money to an amount far in excess of the gold and silver which they kept on hand for purposes of redemption. A large part of the national taxes was paid in paper currency, and a dollar of paper money soon became of less value than a dollar of gold or silver. Jackson, becoming alarmed, issued a letter known aBthe " Specie Letter,' 1 which required all of the taxes of the United States 76 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF to be paid in gold or silver. Men at once took their paper money to the banks, asking for gold and silver in return. But the banks had not the gold and silver with which to redeem their paper money, because they had issued a far larger quantity of paper money than they could possibly redeem. As a result of this condition they were compelled to close their doors. Paper money, being thus dis- credited, declined rapidly in value; specie payments were everywhere suspended; thousands of men and women lost everything they had formerly possessed; factories were forced to suspend operation; and thus was precipitated the financial crisis or panic of 1837. President Van Buren, in order to protect the national government, induced Congress to pass what is known as "the Independent Treasury Act." Under the terms of this act the United States was enabled to purchase such land in the various states as might be required for the erection of government buildings in which to deposit the public money of the nation. This system, commonly known as the Sub-Treasury System, has proven to be very satis- factory. S.S. 259-262; M. 305-311; E. III. 69-98. IV The Nominating Convention Up to Jackson's second term the candidates for President and Vice-President of the United States had always been nominated by Congress or by state legislatures. In 1832, however, the candidates for these offices were nominated by national conventions, and this has been the custom ever since that time. M. 306; E. III. 62-63. AMERICAN HISTORY 77 THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON, TYLER, AND POLK In order to obtain a general idea of these administra- tions, read thoughtfully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 259-279; M. 320-343; E. III. 133-160. The important feature of these administrations was the expansion of slave territory, which was secured by the annexation of Texas and the war with Mexico. The Southern leaders foresaw that unless more territory was secured from which to create new slave states it would be only a question of time before the Northern or free states would control the national government. The annexation of Texas was eagerly sought by the South, and once accomplished, it was made a pretext for war with Mexico, in order that still more territory might be secured from which to create slave states. I Annexation of Texas Texas declared her independence of Mexico, but Mexico never acknowledged that independence. The United States, however, annexed Texas, and sent United States troops to the disputed boundary be- tween Texas and Mexico to protect her new territory. S.S. 267; M. 320-322; E. III. 141-149. II Mexican War 1. Causes The causes of this war were the desire on the part of the South for more slave territory, the annexation of Texas, and the occupation by 78 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF United States troops of territory on the Rio Grande claimed by Mexico. S.S. 274; M. 326; E. III. 149-150. 2. Campaigns This war was a series of successes for the American army. There were but two campaigns — one under Taylor, on the Rio Grande, and another under Scott, who captured Santa Cruz and then marched upon and captured the City of Mexico. S.S. 274-278; M. 326-328; E. III. 150-152. 3. Results of the Mexican War a. Territorial Results The territorial result of this war was the acquisition by the United States of the fol- lowing territory: California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and part of Colorado. The United States paid Mexico eighteen mil- lion dollars for this territory. In 1853 the United States purchased from Mexico, for ten million dollars, a strip of territory west of the Rio Grande, which is known as the Gadsden Purchase. b. Political Results The political result of this war was the re- opening of the slavery question. Representa- tive Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, proposed an amendment — known as the "Wilmot Pro- viso" — to a bill pending in Congress. This proviso represented the position of the North regarding slavery in the territory secured from Mexico, and declared that slavery should not AMERICAN HISTORY 79 exist in any of the territories. It failed to pass Congress, but its discussion throughout the country created a very bitter feeling between the North and the South. S.S. 275-278; M. 329, 333; E. III. 152-154. THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR, FILL- MORE, PIERCE, AND BUCHANAN In order to obtain a general view of these administra- tions, read carefully the following references (see note, page 18): S.S. 280-302; M. 335-363; E. III. 161-212. The important features of these administrations were the events which may be considered as the immediate causes of the Civil War. These were the Compromise of 1850, — known as the "Omnibus Bill," — the "Kansas- Nebraska Act," the "Dred Scott Decision," and the election of Lincoln. I The Compromise of 1850 During the discussion as to what position slavery should have in the territory secured from Mexico, the feeling became so bitter in the North and in the South that the hotter-headed in both sections made open threats of withdrawing from the Union. Web- ster and Clay, alarmed as to the outcome, introduced and urged compromise measures. The compromise of 1850 was the result. By this compromise, among other things, California was admitted as a free state, and slavery in the remainder of the Mexican cession was left unsettled. This compromise proved to be 80 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF but a temporary measure, and secured merely a lull in the slavery agitation. S.S. 282-283; M. 339-343; E. III. 165-178. II The Kansas-Nebraska Act The Fugitive Slave Law, which was part of the Compromise of 1850, was being energetically made use of by the South, and this served to create a more intense feeling against slavery in the North. " Uncle Tom's Cabin," though an unjust representa- tion of the slavery system, was a powerful instru- ment in intensifying this feeling. Under these conditions the Democrats elected Pierce to the Presidency, and secured control of both houses of Congress. The leaders of both parties were anxious to let the slavery question rest, but Senator Douglas introduced a bill, known as the Kansas- Nebraska Act, which provided for the organization of Kansas and Nebraska into territories, and which expressly stated that the question of slavery should be left to the people of those territories. This bill became a law, and as Kansas and Nebraska were both north of 36° 30', it repealed the Missouri Com- promise of 1820. Settlers from the North and the South at once rushed into Kansas, and that territory became the scene of a bloody civil strife. S.S. 289-292; M. 346-352; E. III. 182-187. III The Deed Scott Decision Dred Scott was a slave taken by his master from Missouri into a free state and into a free territory of the North. On his return to Missouri he sued for his freedom, on the ground that slavery could not exist in a free state. The Supreme Court of the United AMEKICAN HISTORY 81 States held that a slave was not a citizen, but property, and therefore had no rights in the courts. This meant that neither the Congress of the United States nor the legislature of a territory could prevent slavery from spreading throughout the territory of the United States. This decision still further em- bittered the North. S.S. 297; M. 255-256; E. III. 197-199. IV Election of Lincoln Lincoln's position on the slave question was made plain in the Lincoln-Douglas debates. He then de- clared that he was emphatically opposed to the extension of slavery, and that the nation must in time become all slave or all free. The majority of the people of the North agreed with him. Upon his election to the Presidency, the South recognized that slavery would not be further extended, and that they would forever lose control of the national gov- ernment. They considered it necessary, in order to preserve the institution of slavery, to withdraw from the Union, and this withdrawal marks the beginning of the Civil War. S.S. 299-302; M. 360-363; E. III. 204-212. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION The Civil War 1. Causes of the Civil War The immediate causes of the Civil War were the events mentioned above in connection with the previous administrations. The remote or real causes of this war were the differences in the to- 82 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF pography and climate of the South and the Nortn, and the introduction of slavery into the English colonies of North America. The large navigable rivers of the South, with wide, fertile plains extending on either side of them, favored the extensive cultivation of a few staple products. These products were rice, cotton, and tobacco. The production of these staples did not require skilled labor, and slave-labor could be used with profit in their production. The warm, mild climate of the South was favorable to the negro, and reduced the cost of his clothing and his shelter to a minimum. These conditions in the South made slave-labor profitable and the extension of the system very important. In the Northern States the conditions were almost reversed. In the North there were but few broad valleys, the soil was less fertile, and the climate was severe. The topography, the soil, and the climate did not favor the extensive culti- vation of those staples in the production of which slave-labor could be used with profit. The in- dustries of the North required a large amount of skilled labor, and for this kind of labor the negro was unfitted. At first slavery existed in all of the Northern Colonies, but it was gradually abolished. This was largely due to the industrial conditions, which made slave-labor unprofitable. In the Southern Colonies the slavery system was ex- tended because slave-labor could be used with profit on large plantations. This was especially true after the invention of the cotton-gin and im- proved weaving machinery had increased many AMERICAN HISTORY 83 times the production of cotton. There were, per- haps, from the first some people in the North who opposed slavery because they thought that it was morally wrong, and this number gradually in- creased. This was largely due, however, to the fact that the Northern people were not accustomed to slavery. From the time the North abolished slavery and its continuance in the South became assured, the two sections began to drift rapidly apart, especially in their social and industrial life. The South remained to the close of the Civil War strictly an agricultural country. It had all the necessary resources for manufacturing, but as her wealth was in the hands of large slave-holders, and the slaves could not be used with profit ex- cept on the plantations, that source of wealth was left undeveloped. This prevented the growth of large cities and repelled immigration. Labor was considered degrading, and hence the South did not possess the prosperous middle class. So- ciety consisted of the landed aristocracy, the slaves, and the poor whites. Long before the out- break of the Civil War, Southern society rested firmly on the institution of slavery, and to destroy slavery meant in a certain sense the destruction of the social and the industrial institutions of the South. Therefore the statesmen and slave-owners of the South would not for a moment favorably consider the abolition of the slavery system. While the South for nearly a hundred years remained stationary in her industrial develop- ment and society was becoming firmly molded around the institution of slavery, the North and 84 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF West were making gigantic strides in their industrial development. Inventions, which in- creased many fold the power of man, were being made full use of in the North, while in the South they were scarcely used at all. Men of wealth found investment for their money in the North, and manufacturing, railroad-building, and other industries rapidly increased in importance. Labor was considered honorable, and nearly all of the foreign immigrants located north of the Mason and Dixon line. All the forces referred to above caused the North and South to drift wider and wider apart, both socially and industrially, until by 1860 they had in these respects become two different peoples. There was a strong sentiment in the North that slavery was morally wrong, while in the South it was considered right and just. Nearly all of the Southern churches maintained that it was sanc- tioned by the Scriptures. The statesmen of the South foresaw that it was only a question of time when the slave states must leave the Union, or give up the institution of slavery, and thus wreck the foundation of Southern society. They chose to fight, rather than give up the institution. The people of the North, under the same circumstances, would probably have followed a similar course. In other words, there were forces at work from early colonial times which made the Civil War inevitable. Neither the people of the North nor those of the South can be held responsible for this war. It was caused by forces beyond their control. It was one of those questions in advancing civil- ization which must usually be settled by the sword. AMERICAN HISTORY 85 2. The Comparative Resources of the North and the South a. Available Soldiers Of the thirty-one million of residents in the United States, but nine millions belonged to the seceding area, and of these more than three million five hundred thousand were slaves. All told, the total adult male population of the South was about two million eight hundred thousand. " The North was to call more than two million and a half men into the field before the war ended." 1 While, numerically, the North was far superior to the South, it must be remembered that the Southern people were practically united to a man. Such was far from being the case in the North. A very large percentage were also directing all of their energies toward industrial pursuits, this being a time of great industrial growth and expansion. b. Available Leaders and Commanders Here, if anything, the Southern people had the advantage in having at command so many men of military training and great military genius. While both sections had graduated many officers from the government military schools, it so happened that the Southern men were of greater ability. c. Military Supplies In the beginning the South had the advan- tage in this direction on account of the military supplies which had been stored in Southern 1 E. III. 244. 86 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF arsenals before the outbreak of hostilities. But as the North tightened the blockade and pre- vented their enemy from drawing on England for further war material, the South became seriously handicapped because of the scarcity which prevailed. Not until the outcome of the war had been practically decided had the necessary factories been put into operation for supplying the needs of the Southern armies. The North, being a manufacturing country, with factories already in operation, was able to provide itself with the war material which its armies required. d. Financial Resources " In its extraordinary straits for money the government of the Confederacy had resort to every expedient known to finance, even the most desperate." 1 An immense amount of paper money was issued, only to depreciate in value until it became almost worthless. In the North, on account of a much stronger credit, the government was able to float immense quantities of bonds and to issue paper money without its depreciation to any very great extent as compared with the currency of the Confederacy. On account of the industrial activity of the North the Union was able to raise very large sums of money from taxation, — an expedient which the South was almost entirely deprived of when the blockade closed the only outlet for its agricultural products. 1 E. III. 247. AMERICAN HISTORY 87 e. Facilities for Transportation Before and during the war a vast network of railroads was being woven between the different states of the North. When the crisis came the Union was able to transport soldiers and military supplies from one point to another with comparatively little delay. In the South, on the other hand, railroads were compara- tively few and poorly equipped, nor had they the iron needed for replacing worn-out rails, or the workmen who should have been ready to repair and keep the different lines in good working order. There was no lack of agricul- tural products, "but the means of distributing what the fields produced, of bringing it within reach of the armies, and of others who were almost starving, were wretchedly inadequate." * M. 383; E. III. 220-221, 232-233, 239, 244-248. 3. Campaigns of the Civil War At the beginning of the Civil War, the national government determined to enforce the laws of the United States in the South, and prevent the seced- ing states from leaving the Union. In order to accomplish these purposes, it was decided to blockade the South, capture Richmond, open up the Mississippi, and cut the Confederacy into two sections. In a short time three great armies were organized, — the Army of the Potomac, the Army of the Cumberland, and the Army of the Tennes- see. The Army of the Potomac was to defend Washington and capture Richmond. The armies 1 E. III. 248. 88 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF of the Cumberland and the Tennessee were to operate in the West and open up the Mississippi. a. Operations of the Army of the Potomac, down to the Time when Grant was Placed in Com- mand of all the Armies of the United States After the disastrous battle of Bull Run, the troops around Washington were placed under the command of McClellan, and called the Army of the Potomac. The proposed work of this army was to capture Richmond. Two plans were proposed for reaching Richmond. The authorities at Washington thought that the better way was for the army to proceed directly South. McClellan objected to this, on account of the many rivers in the path, besides which strong fortifications had been erected by the Confederates. He advised that soldiers be landed from transports at Yorktown, Virginia, and from there proceed against Richmond. McClellan's plan prevailed, and in the spring of 1862, with an army of one hundred thousand men, he was transferred to the vicinity of Yorktown. After several months of hard fight- ing the campaign ended in failure. S.S. 309-310; M. 392-393; E. III. 224-225. In August, 1862, McClellan was ordered back to defend Washington. A month later, the armies of Lee and McClellan met at Sharps- burg, or Antietam, in western Maryland. Here a great battle was fought, with the result that Lee was compelled to retreat across the Poto- mac and for the time abandon his idea of AMERICAN HISTORY Q\) invading the North. As McClellan did not follow Lee with sufficient energy to meet the approval of the authorities at Washington, he was removed and Burnside was placed in com- mand. In December, 1862, Burnside was de- feated at Fredericksburg, and his command was given to General Hooker. In the spring of 18G3, Hooker crossed the Rapidan, only to meet with a terrible defeat at the hands of Lee's army. In this battle Stonewall Jackson, one of Lee's ablest generals, was accidentally killed by his own men. Encouraged by his victory over Hooker, Lee again attempted to invade the North. Amid great excitement throughout the North, Hooker was removed, and General George A. Meade given command of the Army of the Potomac. The two armies met at Gettysburg, a village in southeastern Pennsylvania. Here, on the first, second, and third days of July, 1863, was fought one of the greatest battles in the history of the world. Lee's army was defeated, and he never again attempted to carry the war into the enemy's country. Meade did not pursue Lee's shat- tered forces. The Army of the Potomac fought no other great battles until after Grant assumed command of all of the armies of the United States, in March, 1864. S.S. 311, 313; M. 394, 396; E. III. 224-226, 230. b. The Work of Grant in the Civil War In the early part of 1862, Grant was placed in command of the Union force at Cairo, Illi- 90 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF nois. His first important work was the capture of Fort Donaldson, on the Cumberland River. After three days of righting, Buckner, as com- mander of the Confederate forces, asked Grant what terms would be granted him if he should surrender the fort together with his force of fifteen thousand men. Grant replied, " No terms, except unconditional and immediate surrender, can be accepted." Buckner sur- rendered under the terms mentioned, and thus Grant won the first great Union victory. Grant now moved up the Tennessee and fought the Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Land- ing. Albert Sidney Johnson, in command of the Confederate army, was killed and his army forced to retreat. Grant's next important work was the siege and capture of Vicksburg. Vicksburg was a well-fortified city on the Mis- sissippi, defended by thirty-seven thousand sol- diers under the command of Pemberton. After a siege of seven weeks, the city was compelled to surrender on the fourth day of July, 1863, just one day after the defeat of Lee at Gettys- burg. Port Hudson surrendered five days later, and the Federal government had secured control of the Mississippi from Minnesota to the Gulf. These events were the beginning of the end, and the cause of the South from this time onward steadily declined. Grant next turned his attention to Chatta- nooga, at which place Bragg had defeated Rose- crans and laid siege to the Union army. Under the direction of Grant, the two brilliant battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge AMERICAN HISTORY 91 were fought. The Confederates under Bragg and their army were driven southward toward Atlanta. In March, 1864, Grant was made commander- in-chief of all the Union forces. He gave his personal attention to the Army of the Potomac, but directed the movements of all of the Fed- eral troops. Sherman was placed in com- mand at Chattanooga. He moved South, captured Atlanta, and then made his famous march to the sea. Early in the spring of 1864, Grant took command of the Army of the Potomac, consisting of about one hundred and twenty thousand men. He moved his army southward, crossed the Rappahannock and entered the Wilderness. Here he met Lee's army of sixty thousand men, and a terrible struggle ensued. In one month Grant lost sixty-four thousand soldiers, but he forced Lee to retreat and take up his position within the fortifications of Richmond. Grant laid siege to the city. Sherman's march through the South and Sheridan's raids with his cavalry had cut off a large part of Lee's provisions. Lee evacuated Richmond and attempted to escape, but Grant surrounded his army and forced a surrender at Appomattox Court House, a little place about seventy-five miles west of Richmond, April 9, 1865. The surrender of the other Confederate armies soon followed, and the Civil War was over. S.S. 313-314, 316, 321-322, 324-325, 328-333; M. 388-392, 397-399, 402-406; E. III. 223- 224, 230-232, 234, 237-238, 252. 92 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF c. The Work of the Navy in the Civil War (1) Blockade of the Southern Ports At the beginning of the war the national government, in order to cripple the Con- federacy as much as possible, decided upon a complete blockade of the Southern ports. Until this blockade was effected, the South could export cotton, sugar, and tobacco, and import arms and other military sup- plies. To accomplish this blockade, the national government had at first about twenty-four vessels, but it built and equipped a navy with marvelous rapidity, and by the close of the year 1861, had the blockade fairly effective. There were more than three thousand miles of coast for the Union vessels to watch, however, and many vessels, known as blockade- runners, would slip past the Union vessels in the night and succeed in bringing sup- plies to the Confederates. During the war, more than fifteen hundred of these blockade-runners were taken or destroyed by the Union fleet. S.S. 317; M. 410-412; E. III. 229-230. (2) Commerce-Destroyers While the North was busy in perfecting a blockade of the Southern coast, the Con- federates were fitting out vessels called Commerce-Destroyers. It was the business of these vessels to watch the great high- ways of commerce and to destroy as many Union merchant ships as possible. The most AMERICAN HISTORY 93 famous vessels of this kind were the Florida, the Alabama, and the Shenandoah, all of which were fitted out in England. They did an immense amount of damage to the commerce of the North during the war. In 1872, a board of arbitration, to which the case had been submitted, decided that England should pay to the United States the sum of fifteen million dollars on account of the injury done to American commerce during the war by Confederate "Commerce- Destroyers" which had been fitted out in English ports. This settle- ment is known as the " Geneva Award." S.S. 345; M. 412-414; E. III. 229-230. (3) The Revolution in Naval Warfare In the early part of 1862 the Confed- erates raised a vessel which had been sunk in the navy-yard at Norfolk, Virginia. They covered it with a double plating of iron, and christened it the Virginia. This was the first ironclad warship ever con- structed. With this vessel the Confederates destroyed several of the larger Union war- vessels at that time lying in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Before it had completed the work of destruction at that port, the Monitor, an ironclad vessel built in New York by John Ericsson, arrived on the scene. A battle took place between the two vessels which was to be the most im- portant single event of the war, proving as it did that a few ironclad vessels could 94 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF destroy the largest wooden navy afloat. A complete revolution in naval construc- tion now took place, and the great wooden war-vessels of the world were rapidly supplanted by iron-protected fighting- machines. S.S. 318-319; M. 414-417; E. III. 229. 4. Results of the Civil War The main results of the Civil War were the destruction of slavery, the great industrial develop- ment of the South, which the destruction of slavery made possible, the enfranchisement of the negro, and the race problem which this enfranchisement created and which has not yet been settled. Since the War the industrial development of the South has been extremely rapid. Iron and coal fields second to none in the world have been discovered. The production of cotton has vastly increased. Manufacturing establishments of every kind have been springing into existence. Many large manufacturing establishments are moving their machinery from New England into the South. The social and the political status of the negro in the South is a difficult question to solve, and its final solution belongs to the future. Another important result of the War has been the unification of the nation. Sectional feeling has almost vanished because slavery, its cause, has been removed. During the Spanish- American war, ex-Confederate soldiers fought side by side with Federal soldiers who had been their old opponents in the Civil War. AMERICAN HISTORY 95 Other results of the war were the destruction of more than six billion dollars' worth of property and the loss of about seven hundred thousand of the best men of the nation, the South losing al- most as many of these as the North. THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1865 TO 1900 In order to secure a general view of this period read carefully the references given below (see note page 18): S.S. 337-366; M. 425-432; 437-451, 462-476; E. III. 254-299. I Reconstruction of the Seceding States After the Civil War had ended it became neces- sary to reorganize the state governments in the South, and to decide on some method by which the Southern States could again send Senators and Representatives to the national Congress. During the summer of 1865, while Congress was not in session, the Southern people, under the direction of Johnson, reorganized their state governments and elected members to both branches of Congress. Most of the newly organized legislatures at once pro- ceeded to pass laws which practically re-enslaved the negroes. When Congress met in December, 1865, it repudi- ated all these acts, and proceeded to reconstruct the Southern States according to its own ideas. It passed, over the President's vetoes, a number of laws for the purpose of securing to the negro civil rights, and placed soldiers in the Southern States to see to 96 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF it that these laws were enforced. All of the soldiers were not withdrawn until 1877. Before the seceding states regained all of the rights which they had lost by secession Congress compelled them to ratify three amendments to the constitution of the United States. The Thirteenth Amendment made the negro free, the Fourteenth made him a citizen, and the Fifteenth gave him the right to vote. S.S. 337-342; M. 425-431; E. III. 254-271. II Scandals in the Departments of the National Government Under Grant's administration, for the first time in the history of the United States, officials in both the legislative and the executive departments were found guilty of fraud in the performance of official duties. Members of Congress sold their votes to corporations. This is known as the " Credit Mobi- lier" affair. The Secretary of War, W. W. Belknap, was impeached for accepting bribes, but escaped con- viction by resigning. S.S. 348; E. III. 277-280. III Civil Service Reform Andrew Jackson introduced the Spoils System into American politics. Since 1871, attempts have been made to overcome the evil results of the system. In the spring of that year Congress passed what it termed a Civil Service Reform Act. This law gave to the President the power of selecting a commission which should devise a better plan for the appoint- ment of men to all offices under his control. Grant was anxious to enforce this law and better the civil AMERICAN HISTORY 97 service, but the members of Congress, desiring the offices for political purposes, refused to vote money to carry out the reform. As a result, it proved of little value. In 1883, Congress passed what is known as the " Pendleton Civil Service Act." This law gave the President the power of making appointments to office by means of examination, and officers thus appointed could not be removed so long as they did their work well. President Arthur placed a large number of offices under this civil service regulation, and President Cleveland increased the number. Many of the best statesmen of the United States hope that this law marks the beginning of the down- fall of the Spoils System. S.S. 361; E. III. 277, 293-294. IV The Treaty of Washington The Treaty of Washington provided for the set- tlement by arbitration of the questions in dispute between the United States and Great Britain. These questions were: The disputed boundary line between British Columbia and the state of Wash- ington, the rights of American fishermen in Cana- dian waters, and the destruction of American com- merce during the Civil War by vessels fitted out in British ports. This last-mentioned is known as the "Alabama Claims." This treaty is important, be- cause it is the first notable example of the voluntary arbitration by two great nations of questions in dis- pute. S.S. 344-345; E. III. 278-279. 98 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF V Financial Legislation 1. National Bank System During the Civil War the national bank sys- tem of the United States was established. This system is entirely different from the United States Bank destroyed by Jackson. It was established for the purpose of creating a market for the sale of United States bonds, in order that money might be secured to carry on the war. The law which established this system provides that not less than five persons, with a combined capital of not less than one hundred thousand dollars, may estab- lish a national bank. They must invest a sum amounting to at least one third of their capital in United States bonds, and the government will then give them bank notes not exceeding ninety per cent of the par value of these bonds. The national bank system is now an important feature of the financial system of the United States. S.S. 335; M. 421; E. III. 232-233. 2. Resumption of Specie Payments In order to secure money during the Civil War nearly five hundred million dollars' worth of paper money was issued by the national govern- ment. This paper money was made a legal cur- rency for all kinds of business, but no one could require the government to exchange gold or silver for it. In 1864, Congress passed a law which provided that the Treasury Department should pay out gold and silver in return for paper money, and all of the paper money thus secured was to be destroyed, the object being to bring the finances of the country back to a gold and silver basis. AMERICAN HISTORY 99 This redeeming of paper money with gold and silver is known as the Resumption of Specie Pay- ment. The amount of paper money in circulation was reduced from four hundred and forty-nine million dollars in 1864 to three hundred and fifty-six million dollars in 1868, when the resumption of specie payments was discontinued. In 1879 specie payments were resumed and have continued down to the present time. S.S. 355; M. 437-438, 445; E. III. 280-281. 3. Gold and Silver Standards Standard money must be good in payment for all debts, and the material out of which this money is made must be coined by the United States mints practically free of charge for any one who takes the material to the mint and complies with the regulations. Until 1873 both gold and silver were standard moneys in the United States, — that is, any one possessing either gold or silver metal could have it coined into money. In 1873 the coinage of silver as a standard circulating medium was partially discontinued, and in 1876 the coinage of silver as a standard money was abolished. In 1878 it was again made a standard money, but the amount which the government could coin during each year was limited. The law pro- viding for this is called the Bland Silver Bill. In 1890, Congress passed what is known as the Sherman Act. This law directed the Secretary of the Treasury to buy about fifteen million dollars' worth of silver each year. After 1891 it 100 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF was provided that the silver bought need not be coined, but silver certificates for four million five hundred thousand ounces of silver must be issued each month and these must be redeemed in gold and silver. In order to protect the gold reserve in the United States treasury, the Sherman Act was repealed in Cleveland's second administra- tion. In the spring of 1900, Congress passed a law which declared, in substance, that the gold standard would be maintained in the United States. S.S. 354; M. 448-449, 467, 472; E. III. 291-292. VI Tariff Legislation Tariff, as used in national legislation, is a tax levied on goods brought into the United States from another country. One of the main objects of a tariff is to obtain the money required for meeting the ex- penses of government and the payment of the national debt. Another object is to protect home industries. The Republican party believes that tariff duties should be so levied as to protect the manufacturing and agricultural interests of the country. This means that all goods which can be produced in the United States should be required to pay an import duty so as to secure a better market for home pro- ducts, and thus to increase home production. The Democratic party believes that the tariff should be placed almost exclusively on such articles as are used by the wealthier classes, and that American industries should be compelled to compete with for- eign industries without the assistance of tariff duties. The ideas of the Republicans in regard to the AMERICAN HISTORY: /, t ',',-,>, 101, tariff have prevailed since 1860, except during Cleve- land's second administration. The Wilson Bill, passed during that administration, modified the tariff in many respects, though it retained a large number of protective features. During the McKin- ley administration the protective tariff was restored. As the Southern States are rapidly becoming manu- facturing states, it is quite probable that both parties will hereafter support the protective system. S.S. 380; M. 419-420, 466, 473, 476. VII Industrial Legislation The great industrial development of the United States since 1865 has called forth special legis- lation concerning industrial matters. Among the important laws passed by the national govern- ment are the laws regulating commerce between the states, known as the Interstate Commerce Act; the Contract Labor Law, which prevents any person in the United States from importing labor- ers under contract; the law restricting Chinese immigration; a number of laws to prevent the adulteration of foods; and a law which makes eight hours a full day's work in certain kinds of government employment. Many states have also passed laws regulating railway fares, restricting the powers and defining the duties of corporations, and other laws having for their object the welfare of the laboring classes and the regulation of trusts. M. 464-465. VIII Cleveland and the Monroe Doctrine Great Britain and Venezuela could not agree upon the boundary between their territory in 1Q2 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF South America, and the United States asked Great Britain to arbitrate the question in accordance with the Monroe doctrine. Great Britain claimed that the world had outgrown that doctrine. On receiving through the British Minister at Wash- ington a note from the British government con- taining these views, Cleveland at once obtained permission from Congress to appoint a commission whose duty it should be to determine the boundary in dispute. In a proclamation to Congress he stated that when the line had once been determined by the commission, the United States should fight if necessary in order to maintain it. England then consented to have the matter submitted to arbitration. The firm stand of Cleveland served as a notice to the world that the United States would strictly enforce the Monroe Doctrine. M. 474. IX The Spanish- American War 1. Causes The remote cause of this war was Spanish mis- government of her West Indian possessions. The immediate cause was the destruction of the Ameri- can battle-ship Maine, in the harbor of Havana, with the loss of more than two hundred and fifty sailors. It has not been proven whether the destruction of this vessel was accidental or not, but the important fact is that the feeling which its destruction created in the United States led directly to war. 2. Campaigns The war was decided in favor of the United AMERICAN HISTORY 103 States by the American navy. Two naval battles were fought, — one in the Philippine Islands and one off the southern coast of Cuba. In these two battles the Spanish navy was practically destroyed, without the loss to the American forces of a single ship, and with the loss of but one man. These two battles showed the Americans to have lost none of their ability as sea fighters since the War of 1812. With her navy destroyed, Spain could not hope to make any effective resistance on the land, either in the Philippines or in the West Indies. The war ended after some severe fighting on the island of Cuba around the city of Santiago. 3. Results The war itself was of little importance, but its results may be of vast importance to the United States. The territorial result was the acquisition by the United States of the Philippine Islands, the Spanish West India Islands, and the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian Islands would very likely have been acquired in any event, but the war hastened their annexation. These new posses- sions may vitally affect the future policy of the United States, and in this way the war may have far-reaching results. If these possessions are treated as colonies, the United States may be com- pelled to mix in Asiatic and European affairs, thus abandoning the principle of neutrality established by Washington, to which the United States has strictly adhered. Previous to the acquisition of this territory all of the country acquired by the United States had been practically uninhabited, leaving for the American people the development of its 104 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF resources and its preparation for becoming an integral part of the Union. Most of the territory acquired from Spain during the recent war is thickly populated, and if it be held as colonial possessions, and the Constitution of the United States be not permitted to extend over it, a new principle will have entered into the American government. These questions belong to the future, but their solution will make up some of the most important work of American statesmen. THE PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1865 The progress of the United States since the Civil Wai in 1865 has not been equaled by that of any other period of the world's history. This is especially true in all lines of industrial and educational development. I The Development of the New West The discovery of gold and silver mines in Cali- fornia and in the Rocky Mountains caused a great stream of emigration to start westward. At first the covered wagon was the principal means of transportation. This was followed by the overland stage-coach, and finally by the Union Pacific and other railroads. There are now six transconti- nental railroad lines, which, together with their branches, penetrate into every section of the West. This has had more influence on the development of the West than any other single factor. In truth, the present development would have been impos- AMERICAN HISTORY 105 sible without their assistance. The government has done much to encourage the building of rail- roads. For this purpose it has given to railroad companies more than two hundred million acres of land and sixty millions of dollars. S.S. 346; M. 433-436; E. III. 221. II The New South The abolition of slavery produced a revolution in the labor system of the South. Before the War slavery had been the corner-stone of Southern society. With the emancipation of the slaves this society passed away, and on its ruins arose the " New South," having free labor as its foundation. The South has gained greatly by this change. The production of cotton has doubled since 1860. At that time the capital invested in Southern manu- facturing industries was so small as to scarcely require mentioning. There is now invested in machine-shops, mills, and workshops more than fifty million dollars of capital. Thousands of miles of railroads have been built. Atlanta, Chattanooga, New Orleans, Augusta, Birmingham, and other Southern cities now have manufacturing establish- ments which rival those of the North and those of the West. S.S. 358; M. 454; E. III. 298. III The Progress of Manufactures In 1860 the manufactured products of the United States were valued at four billions of dollars. The estimated annual value of the present output from its factories is ten billions of dollars, being greater than that of any other country in the world. In 106 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 1860, England led the world in the manufacture of iron and steel. Now the United States is far in advance of that country. This is but a single illus- tration of the rapid growth of the manufacturing industries of the United States. Nearly all of her large cities are hives of industrial enterprise, and the products of her factories are carried to the markets of every country in the world. S.S. 365; M. 459-461. IV Practical Application of Electricity Within recent years a new force had been ap- plied to the uses of man. The first practical appli- cation of electricity was in the field of telegraphy. Now its uses are almost unlimited. Nearly every form of machinery may be run by its energy. Cities are lighted, street-cars are moved, search- lights are operated, metals are welded, and hun- dreds of other useful things are done by this mar- velous power, — electricity. S.S. 269; M. 459; E. III. 162. V Corporations and Trusts A corporation is an organization recognized by law, and empowered to transact a certain kind of business, as though it were one person. The won- derful industrial progress of the United States has made it possible for men to amass large fortunes. These fortunes, singly or in combinations, have been used for the purpose of building long railroad lines, developing large mining interests, and under- taking other enterprises. They have often taken advantage of the great power which they possess in order to crush out smaller enterprises having less AMERICAN HISTORY 107 financial backing. A vast corporation often takes the place of countless individual business concerns. For example, the Western Union Telegraph Com- pany was organized in 1886 out of forty small telegraph companies. Many lines of railroads have been combined into a few trunk lines. The Stan- dard Oil Company has taken the place of any num- ber of smaller oil companies. When great corpora- tions were first organized they were brought into sharp competition with other business firms, and prices were kept at a low mark. The people re- ceived the benefit of this competition. The cor- porations soon learned that it was to their advan- tage to form combinations, thus avoiding competi- tion with each other. Vast combines and trusts have now been formed in almost every line of busi- ness. With their immense wealth and aggressive methods they constitute one of the great dangers of the country. No law has yet been devised which can control powerful combinations of capital. The solution of this question is one of the great prob- lems of the future. M. 459-461; E. III. 290. VI Labor Unions In order to protect themselves against the com- binations of capital mentioned in the preceding discussion the laboring people of the country have combined at different times and under various names. The most famous of these organizations is the " Noble Order of the Knights of Labor," founded in 1869. These labor organizations exist in almost every locality where large numbers of laborers are employed. Most of them have combined into one 108 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF union, known as the " Federation of Labor Unions." By their combined efforts they have shortened the hours of labor, raised wages, secured the passage of laws restricting foreign immigration, stopped the importation of foreign contract labor, and accom- plished many other things, which, taken together, have raised the condition of the American laborer above that of any other in the world. M. 460-461. VII Education 1. The Common- School System In the constitutions of nearly all the states of the American Union ample provision is made for the maintenance of free public schools. Although each state has its own system, and there is wide difference as to length of school terms, qualifications and salaries of teachers, courses of study, and similar matters, there are many forces at work which are tending to make the schools uniform throughout the United States. Some of these forces are, — The National Bureau of Education, The National Educational Association, and the various edu- cational journals. Nearly all the states at the time of their organization set aside certain lands in each township for the support of pub- lic schools. In most cases these lands have been sold and the money obtained therefrom constitutes a school fund, the interest of which is used for school purposes. Whatever addi- tional money is needed is obtained by direct taxation. Prior to 1860 the Northern States were far in advance of those of the South in all AMERICAN HISTORY 109 lines of educational work. Before 1870, every Southern state except Delaware had made con- stitutional provision for a free school system. S.S. 368-369, 372. 2. High Schools Since their establishment in 1821, high schools have been steadily growing in impor- tance and popularity with the people. The high schools have been aptly called the " Colleges of the Common People." It may assist us in realizing the great progress which has been made in edu- cation in this country if we remember that the course of study given by the present average high school is equivalent to the course main- tained by Harvard and Yale in 1750. The service of the high school in stimulating the work of the grammar school, and in giving the young people of all classes an opportunity for higher training can scarcely be overestimated. 3. Normal Schools As one of the prominent factors in the present educational system, the normal schools should not be overlooked. They have been established throughout the country, and have been making a valuable contribution to education through the many boys and girls whom they have trained and fitted for the profession of teaching. 4. Universities and Colleges At the top of our educational system are the many colleges and universities of the land. Some date their origin back to colonial days, 110 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION others have been established during the national period as public or private institutions. Some of the most important institutions, such as the Leland Stanford Junior University and the University of Chicago, have been established in very recent years, and owe their foundation to the munificence of private individuals. The collective influence of the colleges and univer- sities upon American life can hardly be accu- rately determined. They are becoming a more and more important factor in raising the stan- dard of American life and education. University and college graduates are not only engaging in private pursuits, they are also stepping into hundreds of positions in the primary and sec- ondary schools of the land and raising the standard of education. FOUR QRE/IT BOOKS By Western Authors PUBLISHED BY THE WHITAKER & RAY CO. 723 Market St., San Francisco JOAQUIN MILLER'S COMPLETE POEMS Eight Volumes in One Including— "Songs of the Sierras" "Songs of Sunland" "Songs of Italy" "Songs of the Soul" ♦Songs of the Mexican Seas" "Classic Shades" "Olive Leaves" "Joaquin" et al. Price, library Edition, postpaid. $2.50 Price, Gift Kdition, Leather 4.50 BY DAVID STARR JORDAN President Iceland Stanford, Jr. University "CARE AND CULTURE OF MEN" Price, Cloth , postpaid $1.50 Price, Half Levant, postpaid 3.50 "MATKA AND KOTIK" An Allegory of the Fur Seal. Profusely Illustrated Special School Edition, net $0.75 Price, Cloth, postpaid 1.50 Price, Half Levant postpaid 3.50 "The Story of the Innumerable Company And Other Sketches. 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JORDAN and others Fop Fourth and Fifth Grades A companion volume to the above. It contains some eighteen most interesting and instructive sketches of our Western animal and vegetable life, all told in a delightfully flowing style and written by the greatest educators of the West. As a reading book in nature study it cannot be excelled. VOL. Ill NATURE STORIES OF THE NORTHWEST By HERBERT BASHFORD State librarian of Washington Fop Sixth and Seventh Grades This book covers a more extended field than Volume II, and is not strictly confined to the Northwest. Among the interesting stories will be found those of The Black Bear, The Kingfisher, The Clam, The Meadowlark, The Seals, etc., all of which are of interest to any pupil in the West. The illustrations are works of art and true to nature. VOL. 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