THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR 
 
 THE FERNS AND FERN ALLIES OF NEW 
 ZEALAND. MELBOURNE, 1882 OUT OF PRINT 
 
 INTRODUCTORY CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY. 
 WELLINGTON, 1891; SECOND EDITION, 
 WELLINGTON, 1906 
 
 A NEW ZEALAND NATURALISTS' CALEN- 
 DAR. DUNEDIN, 1909 
 
 WILD LIFE IN NEW ZEALAND : MAMMALIA. 
 BOARD OF SCIENCE AND ART, MANUAL 
 No. 2. WELLINGTON, 1921 
 
 HISTORY OF THE PORTOBELLO MARINE 
 FISH-HATCHERY AND BIOLOGICAL STA- 
 TION. BOARD OF SCIENCE AND ART, 
 BULLETIN No. 2. WELLINGTON, 1921
 
 THE 
 
 NATURALISATION 
 
 OF 
 
 ANIMALS & PLANTS 
 IN NEW ZEALAND
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 C. F. CLAY, MANAGER 
 LONDON : FETTER LANE, E.C. 4 
 
 LONDON : H. K. LEWIS & CO., LTD., 
 
 136, Gower Street, W.C. i 
 LONDON : WHELDON & WESLEY, LTD., 
 
 28, Essex Street, Strand, W.C. 2 
 NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN CO. 
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 TORONTO : THE MACMILLAN CO. 
 
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 TOKYO : MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
 
 THE 
 
 NATURALISATION 
 
 OF 
 
 ANIMALS & PLANTS 
 
 IN NEW ZEALAND 
 
 BY 
 
 HON. GEO. M. THOMSON 
 
 M.L.C., F.L.S., F.N.Z.INST. 
 
 
 CAMBRIDGE 
 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 1922
 
 IN MEMORY 
 
 OF 
 
 MY YOUNGEST SON 
 JOHN HENRY THOMSON 
 
 WHO GAVE HIS LIFE IN THE SERVICE 
 OF THE EMPIRE, AND AFTER THREE 
 AND A HALF YEARS OF ACTIVE SERVICE 
 IN GALLIPOLI AND FRANCE, DIED ON 
 5 APRIL, 1918 
 
 HIS BODY WAS LAID NEAR DOULLENS 
 IN FRANCE 
 
 HIS SOUL IS WITH HIS GOD
 
 PREFACE 
 
 A HISTORICAL account of the introduced animals and plants of New 
 Zealand has long been a felt want in this country. Changes 
 had been going on for the last century and a half, but records and 
 references to these changes were much scattered, and it was very 
 difficult for many persons interested in the natural history of the 
 country to acquire any exact knowledge of the subject. This has been 
 one of the reasons which induced me to accumulate the facts recorded 
 here. The work has led me into a very large correspondence, but I 
 have been gratified by the interest manifested by those appealed to, 
 and by their readiness to assist me. The whole question of naturalisa- 
 tion appeals to most intelligent persons, and my efforts to elicit in- 
 formation have been most pleasantly received, and readily seconded 
 on all sides. 
 
 To secure accuracy as far as possible, especially in connection 
 with those groups of animals and plants with which my acquaintance 
 was very imperfect, I sought and most ungrudgingly received the 
 cooperation of local specialists, and I desire here to acknowledge my 
 deep debt of gratitude to these gentlemen, who have checked my 
 lists and supplied me with many of the facts recorded. They include 
 the late Major Broun of Auckland who went over the Coleoptera ; 
 Messrs G. V. Hudson of Wellington, A. Philpott of Invercargill, 
 G. Howes of Dunedin, and D. Miller, Government Entomologist, who 
 dealt with Insecta generally, and the last-named especially with the 
 Diptera ; Mr G. Brittin, late of Christchurch, the Coccidae ; Dr Reakes, 
 Director of Agriculture, the Trematode, Cestode and Nematode 
 parasites of our imported animals; and Professor Benham, F.R.S., 
 of Otago University, the Oligochaetes. These gentlemen have also 
 given me much valuable general information. 
 
 Invaluable assistance has been afforded me in regard both to 
 introduced animals and plants by Mr T. F. Cheeseman of Auckland ; 
 by Mr W. W. Smith of New Plymouth, whose experience as a field 
 naturalist is second to none in the Dominion; by Mr B. C. Aston, 
 chemist of the Agricultural Department, who also is a most observant 
 naturalist; by Dr F. Hilgendorf, of Lincoln Agricultural College; by 
 Dr C. Chilton, Rector of Canterbury College, Christchurch; and by 
 Mr A. Cockayne, Biologist of the Agricultural Department. My old 
 Otago friends and fellow- workers, Dr D. Petrie, now of Auckland,
 
 viii PREFACE 
 
 and Dr L. Cockayne, F.R.S., now of Wellington, have contributed 
 much valuable information in regard to plant life. Mr F. L. Ayson, 
 Chief Inspector of Fisheries, has assisted me very materially in 
 bringing the knowledge of introduced fishes up to date. 
 
 In addition to all these I take this opportunity of expressing my 
 indebtedness for facts and suggestions to Messrs Edgar F. Stead, 
 Elsdon Best, Chas. Hedley (of the Australian Museum, Sydney), 
 James Drummond, T. W. Kirk, the late Henry Suter, my sons 
 Dr W. M. Thomson, Dr J. Allan Thomson and Mr G. Stuart 
 Thomson, and to a large number of valued correspondents whose 
 names are recorded in the following pages. 
 
 This work has given me a great amount of pleasure in the prepara- 
 tion, and I trust it will prove both interesting and useful to its readers. 
 
 G.M.T. 
 
 DUNEDIN. 
 
 August, 1 92 1.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PART I 
 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL RECORDS 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION i 
 
 II. HISTORICAL RECORD 6 
 
 PART II 
 NATURALISATION OF ANIMALS 
 
 III. MAMMALIA 25 
 
 IV. BIRDS 98 
 
 V. REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA 178 
 
 VI. FISHES 185 
 
 VII. MOLLUSCA 258 
 
 VIII. INSECTS WITH MYRIAPODA 265 
 
 IX. CRUSTACEA AND ARACHNIDA 340 
 
 X. PENTASTOMIDjE, PLATYHELMINTHES, NEMATHEL- 
 
 MINTHES, OLIGOCtLETA 350 
 
 PART III 
 NATURALISATION OF PLANTS 
 
 XI. DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS . . . .363 
 
 XII. MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 478
 
 x CONTENTS 
 
 PART IV 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 XIII. INTERACTION OF ENDEMIC AND INTRODUCED 
 FAUNAS 503 
 
 XIV. ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE EUROPEAN OCCU- 
 PATION OF NEW ZEALAND 517 
 
 XV. ACCLIMATISATION WORK; GENERAL CONSIDERA- 
 TIONS 536 
 
 XVI. LEGISLATION 541 
 
 APPENDIX A; OPOSSUMS IN NEW ZEALAND . . .556 
 
 B; LATER RECORDS 557 
 
 C; THE TUTIRA DISTRICT 563 
 
 RAINFALL MAP 568 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 569 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 585 
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 589
 
 Part I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 AND HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 Chapter I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 I HE naturalisation of animals and plants in any country is a most 
 interesting and fascinating subject, as well as being one of very great 
 and far-reaching importance. In the present work I have endeavoured 
 to state what is known of the subject, as far as it relates to New Zealand. 
 I have stated the facts regarding the first introduction of every species 
 into the country, as far as these can be ascertained, and its subsequent 
 success or failure in establishing itself. 
 
 In gathering the information required and working out the material, 
 it was soon evident to me that the subject was unique. It had never 
 been attempted before as far as I am aware for any country. 
 Indeed it was seen that New Zealand was the only country in which 
 such a bit of history could be attempted with any prospect of success. 
 The islands forming the group lie isolated at a great distance (over 
 a thousand miles) from any other extensive land area. We possess 
 a fairly accurate record of what was here when Europeans first visited 
 these shores, and we have been able to follow the later introductions 
 of new species with a certain measure of success. The missing records 
 and the blank pages are very numerous, but they do not vitiate the 
 general accuracy of these statements. 
 
 I first approached this subject from the point of view of natural 
 selection and (in Chap, xm) have given an outline of the reasons 
 which led me to investigate this question. But while the biological 
 question of the origin of species was the raison d'etre of this work, 
 there are other aspects of the study which are of importance. 
 
 Thus the generation of people now growing up in this country 
 is living under conditions which are largely different from those 
 which prevailed when the first settlers colonised the islands. The 
 surroundings at present are partly determined by the primitive condi- 
 tions, and partly by the introduction of many new animals and
 
 2 INTRODUCTION 
 
 plants. Both the face of the country and its inhabitants have been 
 largely changed, but hitherto no connected account has been available 
 of the agencies which have brought about these profound changes. 
 It is important then that such an account should be prepared, because 
 every year as it passes makes it increasingly difficult to gather the 
 materials. Then the educational value of the knowledge is considerable. 
 The first generations of settlers have already passed away, leaving 
 only isolated records behind them. The generation now passing 
 witnessed the great outburst of acclimatisation zeal in the sixties, 
 but it also failed to keep good records. The acclimatisation societies 
 themselves were very careless in the matter. The Auckland Society 
 has a lapse apparently of some 20 years in its history; the record 
 is somewhere, but it is not available. Nelson has entirely lost its 
 early records ; it was one of the earliest societies to enter on the work 
 of introducing new forms of animal life, yet no one seems to have 
 thought it worth while to preserve a complete report of its doings. 
 If such exists it has not been forthcoming. Otago has kept a complete 
 record, but neither the society itself, nor any of its members can 
 show a full set, and some annual reports are missing. And so on 
 with many other societies. The information, therefore, which has 
 been accumulated in this work has been gathered piecemeal. But by 
 so putting it together, it will be possible to make a fresh start in 
 regard to the present position, and any further additions to the fauna 
 or flora can be noted and added to the lists now prepared. 
 
 An important consideration is the practical value of such a state- 
 ment as is presented in this work, in shaping the future policy of 
 acclimatisation. It has hitherto been carried on in the most haphazard 
 and irresponsible manner, districts, societies and individuals acting 
 quite independently of, and often in direct opposition to, one another. 
 One district protects hawks because they destroy rabbits and small 
 birds; another destroys them because they attack game. One district 
 imported stoats and weasels in order to cope with the rabbit pest ; 
 another destroyed them wherever found because they threatened the 
 total destruction of the native bird life. There has been no settled 
 policy. This has largely been due to the total failure of the com- 
 munity to grasp the scientific aspect of the question, or even to realise 
 that it has a scientific side. This consistently British attitude towards 
 things scientific (which it is to be hoped the war will largely modify, 
 and in part dispel) has led to neglect of ordinary precautions in 
 nearly all past acclimatisation experiments. Even as late as 1916 
 several of the societies were contemplating the contribution of a 
 jointly raised sum for the purpose of introducing Australian swallows 
 into the country, presumably to cope with some aspect of the insect
 
 INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 trouble. Apparently no biologist was consulted in connection with 
 the proposal. No one seemed to think it worth while to ascertain 
 what was known as to the life-histories of the Australian swallows, 
 for instance as to what insects they fed upon, or whether the birds 
 were migratory and would stay in the country, if introduced. No 
 particular species was pointed out as the desirable one, indeed it 
 is doubtful whether any one of those who were responsible for recom- 
 mending the step knew one species from another. Further, no one 
 seemed to know that specimens of at least two species of Australian 
 swallows (the Australian Tree Swallow (Pterochelidon nigricans) and 
 the Australian Swift (Cypselus padficus)) visit our shores nearly every 
 summer, and that natural agencies have been trying to achieve on a 
 very large scale what some of our acclimatisation experts proposed 
 to do on a small scale with very little prospect of success. 
 
 Still more recently (1916-17) an animated discussion has been 
 going on in Auckland as to the desirability of introducing the " stubble 
 quail or partridge " (Coturnix pectoralis), as a sporting bird, some 
 persons being keenly in favour of, others just as keenly opposed to, 
 the step, on account of the harm the bird might do to the farmers. 
 Apparently the species has been already introduced three times into 
 the country, nearly fifty years ago, at Christchurch, Auckland and 
 Hokianga, but it did not become established. 
 
 The whole history of acclimatisation efforts in New Zealand 
 abounds in similar bungles and blunders, and while a certain measure 
 of good has been achieved notably in stocking our nearly empty 
 rivers and lakes with fine food- and sport-fishes, yet the record of 
 harm done is enormously greater. So-called acclimatisation societies 
 to-day are only angling and sporting clubs, and it is a question whether 
 the whole control should not be taken up by the Government. At 
 any rate the public wants education on the question, and this work is 
 a contribution towards this aspect of it. 
 
 On entering on this task I did not realise how vast it was, and how 
 fragmentary was the sum of the existing knowledge, but having com- 
 menced it, I had no thought of turning back, or of abandoning the 
 project. Even if the record be imperfect, it will be of some use to 
 future workers to have pieced together the available material. 
 
 In writing some account of the introduced animals I at first 
 thought of confining my attention to mammals, birds and fishes, 
 but this seemed so inadequate that I went on from group to group 
 until I found that my list included over 600 species, commencing 
 with the Marsupials and ending with the Medicinal Leech. The line 
 had, however, to be drawn somewhere, so I have left the microscopic 
 forms for some specialist to deal with. Having launched out on the
 
 4 INTRODUCTION 
 
 subject, it seemed inadvisable to stop at the animals, and therefore, 
 having some bowing acquaintance with the floras of Britain, North 
 America and Australia, in addition to that of New Zealand, in due 
 course I added the introduced plants to my previous lists. The two 
 groups can hardly be separated in this connection, and on account of 
 their inter-relations it is best to study them together. 
 
 This work does not purport to be merely a list of naturalised 
 animals and plants. I have recorded the introduction of a great 
 number of species which have not succeeded in establishing them- 
 selves, though in some cases repeated attempts were made to naturalise 
 them. The reasons for these failures are often so obscure that no 
 plausible explanation has yet been given. For example the greenfinch 
 and the chaffinch have thriven remarkably, the allied linnet has quite 
 failed. Among fishes, the Pacific-coast Salmon (Onchorhynchus 
 Quinnat) has become strongly established on the east coast of the 
 South Island; while all attempts to naturalise the Atlantic Salmon 
 (Salmo solar), though carried on unceasingly for half a century and 
 in half a hundred different streams, have absolutely failed. The dif- 
 ferent attempts made are recorded under the various species, and 
 such reasons as can be suggested for failure are also recorded. It 
 seems to me that the failure of a species to become established in 
 a new country into which it has been introduced, under what appear 
 to be most favourable conditions, is as important a biological problem 
 as the success of another species, and that the causes of the failure 
 are worthy of examination. 
 
 In order that the various species referred to in this work might 
 be recognised with a minimum possibility of mistake, I found it 
 necessary to adopt some authoritative and readily-accessible scheme 
 of classification and nomenclature. It was impossible to go into all 
 the niceties (or obscurities) of zoological and botanical nomenclature ; 
 all that appeared to be essential was that the species referred to should 
 be readily recognisable. Accordingly for the introduced animals I 
 adopted, as far as possible, the schemes used by the various authors 
 of the Cambridge Natural History (Macmillan & Co., London, 1895- 
 1909); and for the plants the Manual of the New Zealand Flora by 
 Mr T. F. Cheeseman (Wellington, 1906). 
 
 A considerable, indeed the major portion of this work is necessarily 
 a compilation, but the information has been secured only by a laborious 
 examination of all the available literature on the subject, and by 
 very extensive correspondence. There is no doubt a great deal of 
 information buried in the columns of the daily press of old days, 
 which I have not been able to consult except in isolated instances. 
 An immense amount of sifting of the wheat from the chaff has also
 
 INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 been necessary, for a vast deal of the information communicated 
 to me in all good faith was manifestly unreliable and had to be received 
 with caution. I have endeavoured to secure scientific accuracy, so 
 that the record may be of use to succeeding naturalists ; at the same 
 time I trust it may not be of the dry-as-dust type. The work has 
 been a labour of love, and will, I hope, be found of use and interest 
 to many who do not profess to be naturalists, but who are interested 
 in natural phenomena. 
 
 An important aspect of the question is the legal one. A study of 
 all the legislation which has been passed, first by the various pro- 
 vincial legislatures, and later by the Government and Parliament of 
 New Zealand is extremely interesting from many points of view, and 
 I have added this at the end of this work.
 
 Chapter II 
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 THE history of the naturalisation of animals and plants in large 
 island areas has never, to my knowledge, been fully studied anywhere. 
 Isolated introductions have frequently been dealt with, especially 
 in recent cases, but apparently no one has sought to work out the 
 history of the whole of the introduced fauna and flora of any country. 
 The reason almost certainly is that, with one notable exception, the 
 beginnings of the introductions could never be ascertained. The one 
 exception is New Zealand. Here we have an area of land of very con- 
 siderable extent lying far away from any other large areas, in which the 
 first introduction of a majority of the species which now occur and are 
 not indigenous to the country, can be traced. We can tell when and 
 how many of the species which are now so abundantly represented 
 first came into the country. We can learn of numerous attempts to 
 introduce species which have, however, failed to establish themselves. 
 
 On the other hand we find that a vast number of species, both of 
 animals and plants, have found their way into the country, 'as it were, 
 by chance. We do not always know with certainty where they came 
 from, though we have a knowledge of their geographical distribution 
 which enables us to form a fairly correct impression. We often cannot 
 tell the time of their introduction, nor the means by which this was 
 accomplished. The most we can do and even this is not always 
 possible is to record the first notice of their appearance in the 
 country and their subsequent history. 
 
 The first date which we can fix upon as that at which a definite 
 introduction of new species commenced is that of the arrival of 
 Captain Cook in New Zealand on his second voyage, in 1773, when 
 he landed at Dusky Sound, and later at Queen Charlotte Sound. On 
 these occasions besides leaving various animals, he sowed several 
 kinds of European seeds, mostly garden vegetables. Some of these 
 are known to have survived. 
 
 Previous to that date the native inhabitants had brought with 
 them from Polynesia, and perhaps from Melanesia, certain species 
 of plants which they cultivated, and apparently also they had carried 
 with them a species or rather a variety of dog. Unintentionally also 
 they probably introduced the Polynesian rat (Mvs exulans), as well 
 as at least one species of flea probably Pidex irritans (some think
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD 7 
 
 two species). Mr Best considers the Europeans are responsible for 
 the introduction of the fleas. According to Maori tradition two 
 species of louse (Pediculus) were also introduced by Polynesian 
 immigrants. Mr Cheeseman has pointed out that the Polynesians 
 were great cultivators, and carried their cultivated plants from one 
 part of the Pacific Ocean to another. He considers that they knew 
 of the existence of New Zealand, of the occurrence of greenstone 
 and of the moa, and that their migrations were not accidental, but 
 were conducted on definite principles. 
 
 While it is not possible to fix even approximately the date of 
 introduction of any of the species of animals and plants which 
 occurred wild in New Zealand in 1773, and which were common to 
 this country, and any other land areas, it is advisable to take a brief 
 survey of these common species and see from what region the most 
 recent introductions before that date appear to have come. 
 
 To begin with, it must be borne in mind that the introduction 
 of living organisms has been going on continuously throughout all 
 the ages during which New Zealand has existed as a distinct land- 
 area, and that the process still continues naturally. It is impossible 
 to arrive at any accurate testimony of the results of this process, but 
 certain considerations point to its existence. 
 
 Of the two bats which occur in New Zealand the Long-tailed Bat 
 (Chalinolobus mono) is also found in South-eastern Australia; the 
 other belongs to an endemic genus, Mystacops. 
 
 The bird-fauna contains a number of endemic genera and species, 
 the affinities of many being obscure. Of those which belong to 
 readily recognised types of land birds, the majority have affinities 
 with the Australian avifauna, but as Hutton has pointed out, only 
 with that section of it which is allied to that of Malaysia. 
 
 The lizards do not help us here, for, excluding the Tuatara, which 
 is a survival from archaic times, they belong to genera of very wide 
 distribution, and are probably of very considerable antiquity. As 
 regards the relationships of the land and fresh-water mollusca, Hutton, 
 as far back as 1883, stated that "our closest connection appears to 
 be with North Australia, but there is a considerable generic affinity 
 with the faunas of New Caledonia, Polynesia and South America." 
 
 Taking Suter's Manual as our guide, we find that there are 34 
 genera of land and fresh-water mollusca in New Zealand. Of these 
 13 are confined to these islands; three range into Tasmania and 
 Australia, but no further; 13 are found in Australasia, but are more 
 or less widely distributed outside the region ; while five range into the 
 Pacific, but are not Australian. Closer analysis bears out the general 
 accuracy of Hutton's generalisation.
 
 8 HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 These 34 genera are represented by 236 species, all but one of 
 them being endemic, viz., Ophicardelus australis, which is also found 
 in Tasmania, Australia and New Caledonia. Planorbis corinna which 
 is world- wide in its distribution is precinctive to New Zealand, but 
 the genus Planorbis has a universal distribution. 
 
 Mr Suter informs me that "the genera of land mollusca which 
 we have in common with Tasmania and Australia are far better 
 represented in the former country, but disappear gradually as the 
 north-east is reached. The affinities of our land and fresh- water 
 molluscs are strongly marked on the line extending over Lord Howe 
 Island to New Caledonia." 
 
 The relationship of New Zealand insects to those of other regions 
 is dealt with in a number of papers scattered through many publica- 
 tions, but the knowledge of the subject is still very fragmentary. 
 Meyrick, in his papers on Lepidoptera, favours the theory of introduc- 
 tion of several groups (e.g. Caradrinina) from South America via 
 Antarctica. But leaving the general question and confining myself 
 to species derived from the nearest present land surface, the following 
 summary of the distribution of the Lepidoptera, for which I am 
 indebted to Mr A. Philpott, is of interest : 
 
 Total number of species hitherto recorded in New Zealand . . . 1040 
 
 Common to Australia and New Zealand 63 
 
 Cosmopolitan species ? 24 
 
 Introduced from Australia to N.Z., by shipping (say) ... 6 
 Introduced to Australia from N.Z., by shipping (say) ... 3 
 
 33 
 
 Leaving for the question of origin, only 30 species, or say, 3 per cent, 
 common to both countries. 
 
 These figures are not very conclusive one way or another. 
 
 The nearest land-surface of any extent is the continent of Australia 
 and, as might be expected, immigrants from thence are by no means 
 uncommon. Within the last score or so of years a great many species 
 of Australian birds have been recorded as occasional visitants to New 
 Zealand. The same remark applies to some of the stronger flying 
 insects. This shows that though the fauna recognised as indigenous 
 has originally been introduced from several directions in former 
 ages, there has been and still is a constant stream of immigrants 
 from Eastern Australia into these islands. The remarkable thing then 
 is that there should be so comparatively little direct connection 
 between the two countries so far as the fauna is concerned. The fact 
 is that it is very difficult for a species of animal to establish itself 
 in a new country, even assuming that many individuals arrive at
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD 9 
 
 the same time. The immigrants on arrival are certainly in an exhausted 
 state and physically incapable of defending themselves from the 
 assaults of enemies. The shores of the new land are patrolled by 
 great numbers of gulls and similar predaceous birds, which would 
 make short work of any travel-worn immigrants that landed and did 
 not immediately find cover. The chances of getting food are also 
 problematical. But even assuming that the individuals survived and 
 throve, the chances of their finding mates are very remote; so that 
 altogether the probabilities are against the establishment of the species. 
 As a matter of fact they do not succeed. The only bird which appears 
 to have come into New Zealand since the days of European settlement 
 and to have established itself, is the Wax-eye or Blight-bird (Zosterops 
 coerulescens). 
 
 In taking a survey of the existing Flora of New Zealand in con- 
 nection with its relationship to other plant-associations, and taking 
 Cheeseman's Manual as my authority for the following figures, I 
 desire to state at the outset that I do not attach too much importance 
 to numerical comparisons, because I realise the enormously different 
 values attached by systematists to different species. These values 
 depend largely upon the personal equation, and further on the amount 
 of detailed study given to any specified groups of organisms. There 
 are certain genera of New Zealand plants which are apparently in 
 a state of flux even at the present time. These have been submitted 
 to close examination, a vast amount of material has been gone through, 
 and in consequence innumerable differences have been recognised, 
 and a large number of species defined. Such, for example, are 
 Ranunculus with 37 New Zealand species, Epilobium 28, Coprosma 
 39, Olearia 35, Celmisia 43, Senecio 30, Veronica 84, and Car ex 53. 
 Many of these are sharply defined, easily recognised species, but for 
 others the specific diagnosis is only the central rallying point for a 
 large group of individuals showing considerable divergencies in many 
 directions. I am safe in asserting that if similar detail were gone 
 into with all the plants grouped under such common names as, for 
 example, Accenamicrophylla, Gaultheriaantipoda, orPimelea leevigata, 
 and many others which might be named, it would be found that each 
 deserves to be separated into a group of distinct species. Keeping 
 this reservation in mind, we can still form an approximate estimate 
 of the relationships shown by any given aggregation of species. Thus 
 of the total number of 1396 species of New Zealand flowering plants 
 recorded by Cheeseman, no fewer than 263 (or almost 19 per cent.) 
 are also found to occur in Australia. Of these 134 occur both in 
 Australia and Tasmania (eight in Tasmania alone), while the remaining 
 129 have a wider range, some being common tropical or sub-tropical
 
 io HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 weeds, while others are found throughout the temperate zone in both 
 hemispheres. The endemic species, which do not range outside of 
 New Zealand, number no less than 1069, or 76-6 per cent, of the whole 
 (viz. 860 dicotyledons and 209 monocotyledons). This brings out 
 the affinities of the remaining elements more strongly than ever, for 
 it shows that of 327 species which are common to New Zealand and 
 other countries, no less than 80 per cent, are also found in Australia. 
 The remaining elements Antarctic and Polynesian are few as com- 
 pared with the Australian. 
 
 It would appear from the above analysis that immigration of 
 flowering plants from Australia into New Zealand has been going 
 on steadily, and an examination of many of the individual species 
 leads to the conclusion that much of it is quite recent. Thus of 
 pappus-bearing composites, ten species are confined to New Zealand 
 and Australia 1 ; six more are found in New Zealand and Australia, 
 but have a wider range outside 2 . 
 
 No plant of South American, Polynesian or Antarctic affinity is 
 furnished with a pappus. The list of Australian plants includes four 
 species of Epilobium, furnished with pappus-like hairs on the seed; 
 and 14 species of Orchids (out of a total of 53 species, the remainder 
 being endemic) furnished with very minute light seeds which are 
 easily carried by wind. These facts tend to show that species 
 whose seeds can be distributed by wind are fairly abundant among 
 those plants which are common to New Zealand and Australia, and 
 the probability is that many were thus introduced into these 
 islands 3 . 
 
 I regret that I cannot give the date for the following interesting 
 occurrence (I think it was about 1877), but it was so striking a 
 phenomenon that it fixed itself in my memory at the time. It 
 occurred in Dunedin in the autumn (February or March). One 
 bright forenoon the sky became strangely overcast from the west, 
 and the sun at midday assumed a coppery appearance. Some 
 persons attributed the phenomenon to bush fires in the western 
 districts, but no such fires were recorded anywhere in New Zealand. 
 Others more accurately thought it was due to a smoke-cloud from 
 Australia. This proved to be the case. Vessels voyaging between 
 
 1 Celmisia longifolia, Vittadinia australis, Gnaphalium traversii, G. collinum, 
 Craspedia uniflora, Erechtites prenanthoides , E. arguta, E. quadridentata, Senecio 
 lautus and Microseris forsteri. 
 
 2 Gnaphalium japonicum, G. luteo-album, Picris hieracioides , Taraxacum qfficinale, 
 Sonchus asper and S. oleraceus. 
 
 8 Linnean Soc. 3Oth Nov. 1916 (London). Using a wind-dispersal apparatus 
 Mr Jas. Small, M.Sc., found that in a light air the fruit of Senecio vulgaris travelled 
 at the rate of 1-6 miles per hour through the air, and of Taraxacum officinale 1-5 
 miles per hour.
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD n 
 
 Australia and New Zealand, and others passing up the east coast 
 of Australia at the time, reported dense smoke-clouds from Gippsland 
 and North-west Victoria, and also the falling of considerable quantities 
 of ash and charred vegetable matter. The westerly winds drove the 
 smoke right across the Tasman Sea, and at a distance of about 1200 
 miles it still exerted such an influence on the upper atmosphere as 
 to make the whole sky lurid for a period of three or four hours. 
 A wind which could carry such a body of smoke such a distance could 
 probably easily transport seeds and spores, and though the usual 
 course of the wind-currents is not so directly from west to east, 
 yet such high winds apparently do occur, and that not unfrequently. 
 
 Another agency by which seeds are carried to oceanic islands is 
 by means of birds, which bear them attached to their feet or plumage, 
 and in some cases carry them in their crops. Darwin, Wallace and 
 others have given numerous instances of this fact in plant distribution 1 . 
 Apart from regular migrants which come to New Zealand every year 
 from Australia, Polynesia and the Northern Hemisphere, a con- 
 siderable number of stragglers are blown or stray over from Australia 
 each year. The wonder, therefore, is not that Australian species of 
 plants are met with in considerable numbers in New Zealand, but 
 rather that they are not more common than is found to be the case. 
 
 As far as all truly indigenous species of animals and plants are 
 concerned it is quite impossible to give dates for any which may have 
 been introduced in long past ages, as for example those which are 
 common, say, to New Zealand and Australia. But when we come 
 down to recent times and reach the period of human immigration, 
 it becomes possible to give some approximation to definite dates. 
 
 According to Maori tradition, New Zealand was discovered by 
 two Polynesian voyagers named Kupe and Ngahue, but authorities 
 are not yet agreed as to the period of this discovery. 
 
 The first Polynesian settlement in the time of Toi took place 30 
 to 32 generations, that is approximately 800 years, ago. On the 
 arrival of these immigrants, they found the east coast, north and 
 Taranaki districts occupied by the Mouriuri, Moriori or Maruiwi 
 folk in considerable numbers, descendants of crews of three drift 
 canoes, which had apparently come from the north-west. Whether 
 these people had brought any animals or plants with them it is now 
 impossible to say. According to east coast traditions, the Toi tribes 
 had the Hue Gourd (Lagenaria vulgaris) in cultivation at an early 
 
 1 Darwin in a letter to Dr J. D. Hooker in January, 1860, says: "Birds do not 
 migrate from Australia to New Zealand," a curious error for such a good observer 
 to make, and showing the danger of generalising from imperfect data. Many 
 species regularly cross, notably the Shining Cuckoo and the Dotterel.
 
 12 HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 period, so that this plant was probably introduced from 24 to 30 
 generations ago, that is between 1150 and 1300 A.D. Communica- 
 tion was kept up with Polynesia for about 200 years more, new 
 settlers coming over from time to time. The last batch of vessels, 
 including the Arawa, Tainui and other canoes, arrived about 20 
 generations or 500 years ago, say about 1400 A.D. Reference has 
 already been made to the introduction by some of these early voyagers, 
 of the dog, the native rat, one or more species of flea, and two species 
 of lice. 
 
 The Kumara (Ipomcea batatas) appears to have been introduced 
 first about 1300 A.D. , tradition saying that certain voyagers left Whaka- 
 tane for Polynesia about that time, for the express purpose of bringing 
 over that plant. Subsequent immigrants by the Aotea, Arawa, Tainui, 
 and other canoes, also brought the plant. Indeed it is probable that 
 it was continuously introduced by many of the new arrivals. 
 
 Mr Cheeseman in the Manual (p. 100) states in regard to Poma- 
 derris apetala: "The Maoris assert that it sprang from the rollers 
 or skids that were brought in the canoe 'Tainui' when they first 
 colonised New Zealand." Mr Elsdon Best, to whom I referred this 
 point, tells me that about 1879 he saw a grove of these trees 
 
 on a terrace near the mouth of the Mohakatina river. Local natives told 
 him that the tree was called Te Neke o Tainui (the skid of Tainui), and that 
 the grove had originated from the skids of the canoe Tainui, used in hauling 
 the vessel ashore on her arrival here twenty generations ago, the skids 
 having been brought from oversea. On my return to New Plymouth I 
 met Mr Wilson Hursthouse, who, I found, was acquainted with the 
 Maori name of the tree and the myth connected with it. 
 
 Pomaderris apetala is an Australian as well as a New Zealand species, 
 but is not found in any part of Polynesia. It is difficult to con- 
 jecture, therefore, how such a myth could have arisen. 
 
 Perhaps about the same time, that is about 1400 A.D., the introduc- 
 tion of the Taro (Calocasia antiquorum) and the Ti (Cordyline termi- 
 nalis) took place. One tradition says that they arrived in the Nukutere 
 canoe, brought by one Roua, that is about 500 years ago. The same 
 tradition narrates that the Karaka (Corynocarpus leevigata) was intro- 
 duced at the same time, by the same individual. If so, it may have 
 been brought from Western Polynesia by way of the Kermadecs, 
 where it is a common tree. At the same time the genus is quite 
 peculiar, and is endemic to New Zealand. If it did not originate in 
 this country, then the home whence it came has lost it, for its botanical 
 position and relationships are by no means clear. 
 
 After the arrival of the main migrations about 20 generations ago, 
 there are no definite traditions of further Polynesian immigration,
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD 13 
 
 but voyagers left the shores of New Zealand for Polynesia as late 
 as ten generations or 250 years ago, and presumably others arrived 
 from time to time. 
 
 With the arrival of Captain James Cook in New Zealand we can 
 begin to assign definite dates to many of the introductions. 
 
 In October, 1769, Captain Cook landed at Poverty Bay, and later 
 at Anaura Bay, and at both places Messrs Banks and Solander made 
 collections of native plants. He next stayed a week at Tolaga Bay, 
 and ii days at Mercury Bay. On 2ist November a landing was 
 made some miles up the Thames River, and then six days were spent 
 at the Bay of Islands. On i6th January, 1770, he anchored in Queen 
 Charlotte Sound, and made a stay of three weeks. Again on 27th 
 March he was four days in Admiralty Bay to the west of Queen 
 Charlotte Sound. There is no word in all these landings of his intro- 
 ducing any animals or any seeds, yet it is more than probable that 
 Black Rats (Mus rattus), the common ship's rat, were on board the 
 ' Endeavour,' and that some got ashore. It is also possible that some 
 European seeds may have been accidentally introduced. The voyage 
 was one for exploration only, as far as New Zealand was concerned, 
 and the ships were quite differently equipped on later visits. 
 
 In December, 1769, only two months after Cook's arrival, De 
 Surville spent three weeks in the ' Saint Jean Baptiste ' in Mongonui 
 Harbour. 
 
 In 1772 the French expedition under Marion du Fresne which 
 had such a fatal ending as far as New Zealand was concerned, spent 
 over two months in the Bay of Islands ; and it is stated by both Taylor 
 and Polack, I do not know on what authority, that Crow Garlic 
 (Allium vineale), which is so abundant in that district, was introduced 
 by him. No collections of plants were made during either of these 
 French expeditions, but it is quite possible that some animals or 
 plants found their way into the country. 
 
 Crozet, who took up the command of the expedition on Captain 
 Marion's death, writes (in 1772): 
 
 I formed a garden on Moutouaro Island, in which I sowed the seed of all 
 sorts of vegetables, stones and the pips of our fruits, wheat, millet, maize, 
 and in fact every variety of grain which I had brought from the Cape of 
 Good Hope ; everything succeeded admirably, several of the grains sprouted 
 and appeared above ground, and the wheat especially grew with surprising 
 vigour. The garden on Moutouaro Island alone was not sufficient to satisfy 
 my desires. I planted stones and pips wherever I went, in the plains, 
 in the glens, on the slopes, and even on the mountains; I also sowed 
 everywhere a few of the different varieties of grain, and most of the 
 officers did the same. 
 
 Captain Cook in his second voyage in the 'Resolution/ spent
 
 i 4 HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 five weeks from the 26th March to ist May, 1773 in Dusky Sound, 
 and while there cleared a piece of ground of about an acre in extent 
 to make a garden, and sowed "a quantity of European seeds of the 
 best kinds." No list of these seeds is given, though cabbages, onions, 
 and leeks are mentioned, but they were in all probability the same 
 sorts as were sown later at Queen Charlotte Sound. Apparently not 
 one of them was able to establish itself in the moist climate of 
 the Sound, and as predicted by George Forster in his Journal, the 
 native vegetation quickly re-asserted itself, and obliterated all trace 
 of the introduced plants 1 . 
 
 That Cook hoped to introduce useful plants and animals into a 
 country which he knew by his previous experience did not furnish 
 much food for voyagers, is shown by his leaving geese at Dusky 
 Sound, and these were the first animals which were introduced of set 
 purpose. He had five geese on board his ship, and these were liberated 
 at a spot which he called Goose Cove. This first experiment in 
 acclimatisation, like hundreds of others made in later years, was quite 
 unsuccessful, and nothing was ever seen or heard of the birds again. 
 
 Lieut. Menzies, the botanist of Vancouver's expedition in 1791, 
 says: 
 
 As Captain Cook had left five geese in this cove, we were in hopes of 
 meeting with some of their offspring, and thereby partaking of the fruits 
 of his benevolence, but as they were left in the autumn, I am apprehensive 
 they did not survive the first winter, for not the least traces of any could 
 be seen at this time about the cove, and though there was a scarcity of 
 other birds on account of this being the season of incubation, yet it appears 
 to be the most eligible place in the whole Sound for Game at a proper time 
 of the year. 
 
 Meanwhile his colleague Captain Furneaux, in the 'Adventure,' 
 had put into Queen Charlotte Sound on 7th April, 1773, and was 
 joined there by Cook on i8th May. They stayed till 7th June, and 
 then went southward in search of an antarctic continent. At the 
 Sound, Cook liberated a ram and ewe he had brought with him from 
 the Cape of Good Hope, but they were in a very bad state of health, 
 and died very shortly after being landed. They were supposed to 
 have eaten some poisonous plant. 
 
 Captain Furneaux landed a boar and two breeding sows, and 
 turned them into the woods. They were not to be seen, nor were 
 there any traces of them found the following year, but the members 
 of the expedition thought that the animals had taken themselves off 
 into the denser forest. When Cook came back in 1777 he could learn 
 
 1 In & Journal of the voyage of the 'Endeavour' printed anonymously in 1771, 
 it is stated at p. 58: "At Otaheite we had likewise planted many European seeds, 
 of which none, except mustard, cresses and melons were found to vegetate."
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD 15 
 
 nothing about them, so he gave the natives another boar and sow, 
 with instructions not to kill them. It is probable that these original 
 pigs were the ancestors of the long-nosed wild pigs which afterwards 
 became so common in the South Island. 
 
 Cook also landed two goats, a male and a female, on the east 
 side of the Sound, but there is reason to believe that the natives 
 killed them. He' gave them another pair in 1777, and it is popularly 
 believed that most of the wild goats found in the South Island in the 
 early days of settlement are descended from these. 
 
 In West Bay, Cook liberated some fowls, and though he could 
 not find any trace of them when he visited the spot in October, 1774, 
 yet in his later visit in February, 1777, he stated that "all the natives 
 whom I conversed with agreed that poultry are now to be met with 
 wild in the woods behind Ship Cove ; and I was afterwards informed 
 by the two youths who went with us, that Tuitou, a popular chief 
 amongst them, had a great many cocks and hens in his separate 
 possession." 
 
 During this stay of two months, ground was cleared at more than 
 one spot, and numerous kinds of vegetable seeds were sown, including 
 turnip, cabbage, white mustard, radish, purslane, peas, beans, kidney 
 beans, parsley, carrot, parsnip, onion and leek: potatoes also were 
 planted. Of these, cabbage, and apparently also turnip, onion and 
 leek succeeded in establishing themselves ; radishes seeded freely, but 
 the peas, beans and kidney beans were eaten by rats. It is more than 
 probable that some European weeds of cultivation were introduced 
 at the same time. 
 
 On 2nd November when near Cape Kidnappers, Cook gave some 
 pigs and fowls to natives who came off in a canoe, the first intro- 
 duction of these two kinds to the North Island. On the following 
 day he once more entered Queen Charlotte Sound, and waited till 
 the 25th for his consort, but as she had not arrived by that time, 
 he left for a cruise in the Antarctic Ocean. The 'Adventure' arrived 
 in the Sound five days later, and remained over three weeks, during 
 which time the unfortunate massacre of ten of her crew took place. 
 After a long cruise in the Antarctic and Pacific Oceans, Cook returned 
 to Queen Charlotte Sound on igth October, 1774, and finally left 
 for England on loth November. 
 
 The important thing about this voyage, from our present point 
 of view, is that Cook brought with him various animals and plants 
 for the express purpose of introducing them, having experienced on 
 his first voyage the lack of fresh food in the country, beyond that 
 which the natives were able to supply them with. To this voyage we 
 can assign the introduction and subsequent naturalisation of the pig
 
 16 HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 and the goat and perhaps of fowls ; and among plants, of the cabbage, 
 turnip and potato. Other attempts to naturalise plants mostly failed. 
 
 Cook visited Queen Charlotte Sound again on his third and last 
 voyage to the Pacific, entering it on i2th February, 1777, and leaving 
 it on the 25th. There is no record of any attempts to introduce 
 further species, except the pigs and goats previously referred to. 
 
 In 1791, Vancouver visited Dusky Sound, and Lieut. Menzies 
 reported that in the garden (made by Cook eight years previously) 
 there had grown up a dense covering of brushwood and fern, which 
 completely obliterated all sign of the old clearing, and only the fact 
 that its position was recorded and described enabled the spot to be 
 identified. 
 
 In view of the struggle between indigenous and introduced plants 
 which exercised the minds of many eminent naturalists, and to which 
 reference is made in the writings of Hooker, Darwin, Wallace and 
 others, the record of further visits to Dusky Sound is interesting. 
 
 The value of the seal and whale fisheries of Southern New- 
 Zealand soon drew enterprising sailors to these waters, and a whole- 
 sale destruction of these animals took place. Dusky Sound had been 
 charted by Cook, its harbour was not only safe, but it provided 
 abundance of fish, wood and water, hence it made a good rendezvous, 
 and the base of a good hunting ground. 
 
 On 3rd November, 1792, the 'Britannia' from Sydney anchored 
 in Facile Harbour, Dusky Sound, and landed a party of twelve sealers, 
 with store of provisions, etc. These men were not relieved till 
 September, 1793, when the 'Britannia' revisited the spot, and took 
 them off. During the early part of the same year the Sound was 
 visited by the Spanish corvettes ' Descuvierta ' (commanded by Don 
 Alexandro Malaspina), and 'Atrevida' (Don Jose Bustamente). I do 
 not know how long they stayed. 
 
 Captain Raven of the ' Britannia ' in reporting from Norfolk Island 
 on 2nd November, 1793, says : " The animals I left had fed themselves 
 on what they found in the woods, and were exceedingly fat and 
 prolific" It would be interesting to know what animals these were, 
 and whether any had gone wild, or had been left, or if they were all 
 carried away again. Unfortunately we have no information on the 
 subject. 
 
 On i9th September, 1795, the 'Endeavour,' Captain Bampton, 
 of 800 tons, and the brig 'Fancy' of 150 tons, sailed from Sydney 
 for India, and called in at Dusky Sound perhaps to load some spars. 
 They had no less than 244 people on board the two ships. There 
 they found a small vessel, which the twelve men left by the ' Britannia ' 
 had built during their ten months' stay in the Sound, but which they
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD 17 
 
 had not taken off the stocks. Captain Bampton completed this little 
 vessel, and called it the 'Providence.' On i9th January, 1796, the 
 ' Fancy ' and the ' Providence ' arrived at Norfolk Island, and reported 
 that the 'Endeavour' had been wrecked at Dusky Sound. She had 
 been found utterly unseaworthy, and had been emptied, abandoned 
 and sunk there. An enormous amount of stuff must have been carried 
 ashore. Owing to the small size of the two remaining vessels, no less 
 than 35 men had to be left behind, no doubt with abundance of 
 stores. These derelicts were not rescued till May, 1797, when the 
 'Mercury' left Sydney for Dusky, picked them up, and landed them 
 at Norfolk Island, after twenty months' detention in the Sound. 
 
 Sealing and whaling vessels continued to visit the Sound at 
 intervals, and parties of men were certainly there in 1803, 1804 and 
 1805. I have myself gone down in much more recent years with 
 sealing parties to the south, and have some notion of the equipment 
 they used to carry. In addition to bags of flour, meal, sugar, etc., 
 they nearly always carried considerable quantities of potatoes. During 
 these fifteen or sixteen years referred to (between 1791 and 1805) 
 many men lived on shore, often for lengthened periods, and almost 
 certainly took with them large quantities of stores, which must have 
 frequently contained seeds of many European weeds of cultivation. 
 An example of this is shown in the case of four men (members of 
 a sealing party) who were left on the Solanders for four and a half 
 years, and were rescued in 1813. They had attempted to raise potatoes 
 and cabbages, of which plants one of them happened to have some 
 seed wherx they were unhappily driven upon the island, but the 
 sea-spray rendered cultivation impracticable. In the same year ten 
 men were rescued from Secretary Island, in Thompson Sound, who 
 had been left there in 1809. 
 
 Yet it is an interesting fact that in the West Coast Sounds region 
 practically no European plants are to be found, except on the Milford 
 track, which has been much frequented by tourists in recent years. 
 
 A Sydney paper of 4th September, 1813, reports an interview 
 with Captain Williams, who stated that "the natives of the coast of 
 Foveaux Strait attend to the cultivation of the potato with as much 
 diligence as he ever witnessed. He saw one field of considerably 
 more than one hundred acres, which presented the appearance of one 
 well cultivated bed." In 1824, De Blosseville of the 'Coquille,' 
 writing from Captain Edwardson's report says: "Potatoes, cabbages 
 and other vegetables introduced by the Europeans are grown." These 
 southern natives had not seen pigs up to the time of Edwardson's 
 visit; so he gave them some. 
 
 In 1826 the schooner ' Sally,' with a large number of immigrants,
 
 i8 HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 together with many cattle, sheep and other stock from England, 
 called in at Stewart Island presumably at Port Pegasus and stayed 
 for a period of three weeks. Apparently the 'Rosanna' also called 
 with immigrants. She then went on to Hokianga, where a settlement 
 was made, but Captain Herd and most of the settlers took fright 
 and sailed for Sydney, only four men remaining. 
 
 In 1820 Major Cruise, who spent ten months in the north of 
 New Zealand, says: "The excellent plants left by Captain Cook" (in 
 Queen Charlotte Sound?) "viz., Cabbages, turnips, parsnips, carrots, 
 etc., etc., are still numerous, but very much degenerated; and a great 
 part of the country is over-run with cow-itch which the natives gave 
 Marion the credit of having left among them." (I do not know what 
 plant he refers to here.) "Water melons and peas were raised while 
 we were in the country, with great success, and the people promised 
 to save the seeds and sow them again. The missionaries have got 
 some peach trees that bear very well, and an acorn and a seed of an 
 orange were sown by a gentleman of the ship near Pomarrees village, 
 and the place rigidly tabooed by the inhabitants." Cruise also reports 
 that the natives (at Wy-ow Bay) brought a cat for them to cook and 
 eat, which he remarks must have come from the shipping at the Bay 
 of Islands or from the Coromandel. 
 
 In 1832, d'Urville who spent four months on the coast of the 
 South Island found a gang of six men sealers working at Mason 
 Bay, Stewart Island. In his visit in 1840, he entered Port Pegasus 
 and learned that 20 English sailors had settled on the shores 
 of Foveaux Strait, where they had married native women. They 
 grew potatoes and various other vegetables, and reared fowls. They 
 told d'Urville that as many as 20 vessels anchored in Port Pegasus 
 annually. 
 
 In this same year (1840) Major Bunbury in his report on the 
 proclamation of Stewart Island as Her Majesty's possession, says of 
 Paterson Inlet, "the Europeans there employ themselves at boat 
 building and in the culture of wheat and potatoes, with which they 
 supply the whalers, as also with pigs and poultry." 
 
 Previous to this, Waikouaiti was one of the best known whaling 
 stations on the Otago coast. In 1838 this was purchased from its 
 Sydney owners by Mr John Jones, who two years later sent down 
 several families to engage in farming and cattle raising, and at the 
 end of 1840 the population of the settlement numbered about 100 
 persons. They had enclosed some 6000 acres of land, and had about 
 100 acres in crop; while the live stock numbered about 100 horses, 
 200 cattle, and 2000 sheep. 
 
 In 1840 also a small settlement was made where Christchurch
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD 19 
 
 now stands, for the cultivation of wheat for certain Sydney mills. 
 About 30 acres were grown, but the place was abandoned soon after 
 on account of rats, difficulties of shipment, and fires. 
 
 In 1842 Captain Wm Mein Smith, chief surveyor of the Wellington 
 Land Company, visited the south-east of Otago, and writes of one 
 settlement there as follows: 
 
 At Tautuku Bay (30 miles from Molyneux River) is a good deal of land 
 cultivated by a number of industrious men who are, through the winter, 
 engaged in the whale fishery. In the summer they are occupied in their 
 gardens. They produce abundance of fine potatoes, and as much wheat 
 and barley as they can consume. They have many pigs, goats, and a rapidly 
 increasing stock of poultry. 
 
 It is quite probable that several of the European weeds of cultiva- 
 tion which are now so common in the south end of New Zealand 
 were introduced in these days of early and casual settlement. But 
 few animals would be thus brought in, except perhaps certain flies 
 and other domestic insects, and perhaps some worms, wood-lice and 
 such familiar accompaniments of human settlement. 
 
 Turning to the north of New Zealand, though the visitation was 
 greater, the record has not been worked out so thoroughly as for the 
 south. But from the end of the i8th century greater numbers of 
 vessels visited northern ports for the whale fishery. Captain King, 
 Governor of New South Wales, had landed in the Bay of Islands in 
 1793, and gave the natives some pigs, as well as wheat, maize, and 
 no doubt other things not mentioned. The Rev. Samuel Marsden 
 sent them wheat in 1810, and a further lot in 1811. When he visited 
 the island in 1814, he brought with him the mission party, which 
 was established at Kerikeri and Waimate near the Bay of Islands, 
 and the live stock accompanying the party included one entire horse, 
 two mares, one bull and two cows, with a few sheep and poultry. 
 From this date onwards there is no doubt numerous introductions 
 of plants and animals were made. In 1822 the Wesleyan Mission 
 station at Kaeo-Wangaroa was established, but the party were driven 
 out of there and shifted their ground to Hokianga. The occurrence 
 of exotic historic trees of great size at the present day in these regions 
 testifies to the activity of the missionaries as pioneers in this work 
 of introducing new forms of life in the country. Then too, the 
 quantity of flax, potatoes and other produce, exported from New 
 Zealand and supplied to ships in these pre-settlement days, was very 
 great, and this shows that there must have been much trade and inter- 
 communication between the natives and the Europeans. Numbers 
 of weeds and of animals must have been introduced into the north 
 in this way. About 1826 the ' Rosanna ' (already mentioned) with some
 
 20 HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 60 settlers on board, came intoHokianga with the intention of founding 
 a settlement, but as a tribal war was being waged among the natives 
 at the time, the party did not remain, but went off and landed at 
 Sydney. 
 
 As I am not writing a history of New Zealand except in so far as 
 it relates to the facilities which existed for the introduction of new 
 forms of animal and plant life into the country, I must hurriedly 
 pass over these pre-settlement days, merely pointing out that a great 
 deal of communication must have been going on with outside ports 
 from many parts of the country. The township of Russell or Korora- 
 reka in the Bay of Islands, was founded in 1830 by Benjamin Turner, 
 an ex-Sydney convict, who built the first grog-shop there. Two years 
 later the population numbered about 100, and in 1838 about 1000. 
 "As many as thirty-six whalers were anchored there at one time, and 
 in one year 120 vessels sailed in and out." 
 
 The first regular settlement scheme commenced in 1839 when 
 the 'Tory' with Captain Wakefield, Dr Dieffenbach, and others, 
 arrived in Port Nicolson, and after trying a site for a town near 
 Petone, founded what is now Wellington. Early in the following 
 year the immigrant ships began to arrive, and by the end of 1840 
 the population of Wellington numbered about noo persons. 
 
 The first official capital of New Zealand was Kororareka or Russell, 
 but the seat of government was shifted to the Waitemata, and Captain 
 Hobson selected the site of the future town there, which he called 
 "Auckland," in September, 1840. The same year saw the commence- 
 ment of the Taranaki settlement, and by the end of 1841, the popula- 
 tion of New Plymouth numbered some 500 persons. In 1841 Nelson 
 was founded, and in January and October of 1842, four vessels with 
 some 850 passengers arrived in Nelson harbour. In 1848 the Otago 
 settlement was founded and 278 immigrants were landed on the site 
 of Dunedin. In 1843 the Deans brothers settled near the present site 
 of Christchurch, but it was not till the close of 1850 that the pioneers 
 of the Canterbury settlement, numbering 800 souls, landed in Port 
 Cooper. 
 
 In the First Annual Report (for 1843) of the Agricultural and 
 Horticultural Society of Auckland it is stated that the following trees 
 were then in cultivation: peaches, nectarines, apricots, almonds, figs, 
 lemons, oranges, olives, vines, plums, cherries, mulberries, pears, 
 apples, quinces, walnuts, filberts, loquats, gooseberries, red and black 
 currants, raspberries and strawberries; the Cape gooseberry (Phy salts 
 edulis) is said to be "almost indigenous; it grows wild in every part 
 of the country." 
 
 In those early days of settlement voyages between Great Britain
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD 21 
 
 and the colony were long, extending from three to five months, and 
 it must have been difficult to convey many animals on board the 
 small ships which were the only carriers. But the immigrants occa- 
 sionally brought out pets, especially cats and dogs, with probably 
 fowls, pigeons, rabbits, canaries and other song birds. Certainly also 
 they introduced most of the common weeds, such as chickweeds, 
 thistles, groundsel, and others. I have more than once observed the 
 plants which have grown up round a heap of ashes and rubbish where 
 immigrants' old bedding and refuse were burned, and only regret now 
 that I did not keep a record of the species at the time. 
 
 For several years the settlers were too busy founding homes and 
 bringing their land into cultivation to attend much to any but the 
 most essential things; but after about a score of years had passed, 
 and there was time for leisure and reminiscence, new ideas came to 
 them, or perhaps it is more correct to say, original ideas re-asserted 
 themselves as they seemed to be capable of realisation. 
 
 The beginning of the rush of immigration dates from between 
 1840 and 1850, and the process has been continued with more or less 
 intermission ever since. But in a general sketch of the subject of 
 animal and plant introduction, we need not concern ourselves further 
 as to dates ; these will be given as far as possible in the case of each 
 individual species. Here we are concerned only with the general result 
 and its causes. 
 
 The early settlers of New Zealand found themselves in a land 
 which, as far as regards climate and natural conditions, seemed to 
 them to reproduce many of the best features of the homeland from 
 which they came. They thought with affection and with the glamour 
 of youthful remembrance of the lakes and rivers, the woods and the 
 fields, the hills and the dells of that homeland. They recalled the sport 
 which was forbidden to all but a favoured few, but which they had 
 often longed to share in the game preserves, the deer on the 
 mountains or in the parks, the grouse on the heather-clad hills, the 
 pheasants in the copses and plantations, the hares and partridges in 
 the stubbles and turnip fields, the rabbits in the hedgerows and 
 sandy warrens, and the salmon of forbidden price in their rivers and 
 there rose up before their vision a land where all these desirable 
 things might be found and enjoyed. Their thoughts went back to the 
 days when they guddled the spotted trout from under the stones of 
 the burns and brooks, to the song birds which charmed their youthful 
 ears, to the flowers and trees which delighted the eye. They recalled 
 the pleasant memories of hours passed on the hills and in the woods 
 of their beloved native land. Here, in a land of plenty, with few wild 
 animals, few flowers apparently, and no associations, with streams
 
 22 HISTORICAL RECORD 
 
 almost destitute of fish, with shy song birds and few game birds, and 
 certainly no quadrupeds but lizards, it seemed to them that it only 
 wanted the best of the plants and animals associated with these 
 earlier memories to make it a terrestrial paradise. So with zeal un- 
 fettered by scientific knowledge, they proceeded to endeavour to re- 
 produce as far as possible the best-remembered and most cherished 
 features of the country from which they came. No doubt some 
 utilitarian ideas were mingled with those of romance and early associa- 
 tions, but the latter were in the ascendant. They recked not of new 
 conditions, they knew nothing of the possibilities of development 
 possessed by species of plants and animals which, in the severe 
 struggle for existence of their northern home had reached a more or 
 less stable position. 
 
 This wonderful wave of sentiment manifested itself especially in the 
 sixties. From Auckland to the Bluff the people founded acclimatisa- 
 tion societies for the purpose of introducing what seemed to them 
 desirable animals, and they allowed their fancy free play. In their 
 private capacities they got their friends at home to send them seeds 
 of the wild flowers they had loved, and they sowed these in all sorts 
 of localities, wherever it seemed to them that they would grow. No 
 biological considerations ever disturbed their dreams, nor indeed 
 did they ever enter into their calculations. I have been on the council 
 of an acclimatisation society, and I know the enthusiasm, unalloyed 
 by scientific considerations, which animates the members. As far 
 as flowering plants were concerned disappointment followed many 
 of their efforts; the primroses and bluebells, the heather and the 
 wood violets, refused to grow either in the bush or in the open 
 country, and the sowers were frankly disappointed. Even when the 
 seed was sown in the garden or the greenhouse and the plants were 
 put out in the open, they would not reproduce their kind. Most of 
 these early colonists recked not of such things as cross- and self- 
 fertilisation, and those who did know were not prepared to recom- 
 mend an insect invasion to secure the fertilisation of their favourite 
 wild flowers. 
 
 In time some of the plants and animals which had been introduced 
 not only established themselves securely, but increased at a rate 
 which upset all calculations. Conditions were produced which had 
 never been anticipated and the introductions became dangerous and 
 expensive pests. Then public measures had to be taken to check the 
 newcomers, and in some cases their natural enemies had to be 
 introduced. This has led to further complication and unexpected 
 results. These natural enemies, like the things they were meant to 
 check, did not always do what was expected of them ; they frequently
 
 HISTORICAL RECORD 23 
 
 failed to achieve the purpose for which they were introduced, and 
 took to destroying things which it was desirable should be preserved. 
 Legislation had to be resorted to in order to destroy some introduced 
 things and to protect others. Noxious Weeds Act, Animal Protection 
 Acts, Injurious Birds Acts, and so on, have been passed into law, 
 together with countless Regulations and Orders in Council dealing 
 with the same subject in its multifarious aspects. By way of com- 
 mentary and satire on the whole business, the Government in 
 many cases is itself the chief offender against the laws of its own 
 making. 
 
 At the close of nearly 150 years since Cook first visited these 
 shores, the country has not yet realised the necessity of a scientific 
 treatment of the whole question of naturalisation. Species are still 
 being introduced. In nearly every case now it is claimed that this 
 is done for beneficent purposes, but the same argument justified the 
 early settlers who introduced insectivorous birds to eat up the cater- 
 pillars which were destroying their grain crops, no doubt also the 
 sheep farmers who helped to bring in stoats and weasels to enable 
 them to grow wool and mutton, instead of rabbits. There is still no 
 general principle underlying the work, and not sufficient knowledge 
 of the possibilities of each problem.
 
 Part II 
 NATURALISATION OF ANIMALS 
 
 In Chapters III to VI species which have become thoroughly 
 established are distinguished by an asterisk. 
 
 Chapter III 
 
 MAMMALIA 
 
 OF the 48 species of Mammalia which have been introduced into 
 New Zealand, 44 have been brought in purposely by human agency, 
 and four accidentally. The latter are the mouse and three species 
 of rats, but one of the latter, the Maori rat (Mus exulans), has been 
 exterminated since European settlement began. 
 
 The following 25 species are truly feral at the present time in 
 certain districts, some in limited areas, others very widely distributed: 
 wallaby, common opossum, sooty opossum, pig, horse, red deer, fallow 
 deer, Sambur deer, wapiti, white-tailed deer, moose, cattle, sheep, 
 goats, chamois, cat, ferret, stoat, weasel, black rat, brown rat, mouse, 
 rabbit, hare and hedgehog. The following three have been some- 
 what recently introduced, but cannot be said to have been naturalised 
 yet: Japanese deer, black-tailed deer and thar. 
 
 The classification adopted in the succeeding list is that used by 
 Frank E. Beddard in the Cambridge Natural History, 1902. 
 
 Order MARSUPIALIA 
 Family MACROPODID^ 
 
 Apparently about 12 species of marsupials have been introduced 
 into New Zealand at various times, but only three species have 
 established themselves and become feral. These are a wallaby and 
 two species of phalangers, which are popularly known as opossums. 
 Those who introduced them knew little or nothing about the exact 
 relationships or the systematic position of these animals and no one 
 seemed to have thought it worth while to identify them. The informa- 
 tion about them is, and always has been, very vague; they were 
 introduced by acclimatisation societies, private individuals and dealers, 
 under various popular names, as kangaroos, bush kangaroos, wallabies, 
 rock wallabies, etc., but the importance of knowing and recognising
 
 26 MAMMALIA 
 
 their specific distinctness with all that this involves in difference of 
 habits, never troubled the introducers. 
 
 "Common Scrub or Black-tailed Wallaby (Macropus ualabatus) 
 In 1867 the Auckland Society had three wallabies in their gardens, 
 and a fourth was added in 1874; but there is no possibility of identi- 
 fying the species, and there is no record of what came of them. 
 
 In the same year A. M. Johnson brought over some from Tasmania 
 for the Canterbury Society. A Christchurch newspaper dated April, 
 1870, says: 
 
 The merit of the introduction into Canterbury province of the brush- 
 kangaroo of Tasmania is due to Captain Thomson, and from the thriving 
 condition of those in the Society's gardens, their adaptability to the pro- 
 vince has been proved, whilst their increase has been such as to now 
 render their liberation desirable in suitable localities. 
 
 I cannot help thinking that this is the species which Mr Michael 
 Studholme either imported direct from Tasmania, or bought from 
 the Canterbury Society, and liberated at Waimate, South Canterbury. 
 There they have increased to an extraordinary extent. Mr E. C. 
 Studholme writing to me in February, 1916, says: 
 
 I can just remember seeing them turned loose here, two does and one 
 buck being the number liberated. For a week or two they hung about 
 the homestead, after which they were not seen for about two years, when 
 some one sighted them on the hill near Waimate Gorge. They gradually 
 spread along the adjoining hills, and are now to be found as far north as 
 Bluecliffs. It is very hard to estimate the number there are at the present 
 time, but it is quite safe to say there are thousands of them. Parties which 
 go out shooting have killed as many as seventy in a day or two. They live 
 chiefly in the bush, scrub, and fern about the gullies and gorges, coming out 
 in the evenings to feed in the open ground. Their food chiefly consists 
 of grass, but they are very hard on certain trees, barking many of them, 
 particularly the Ohaus or five-leaf (Panax arbor ewri). There are well-defined 
 tracks through all the bushes and scrub they frequent, much on the lines 
 of pig tracks. I understand they are quite easy to snare, a good many being 
 caught in that manner. If not kept in check they would, no doubt, become 
 a great nuisance to farmers. Some years ago I sent the late F. C. Tabart 
 of Christchurch (who was a Tasmanian) one for eating, and he wrote me 
 saying it was a delicacy. Personally I have never eaten the meat, but the 
 tails make very good soup. The skins of those taken in Winter make splendid 
 rugs, being very heavy in fur, and they are much sought after. I believe 
 they are not a wallaby, but scrub-kangaroo, as they are quite large, some 
 of the old bucks weighing over 60 Ibs. 
 
 About 1870, Sir George Grey introduced a number of species 
 of marsupials into the island of Kawau, and among these was a 
 wallaby (there is no record of where it came from) which increased 
 in an almost incredible manner. Colonel Boscawen informs me that
 
 MARSUPIALIA 27 
 
 these animals have all been killed off, "except the small brown rock- 
 wallaby, of which very few are now left." This latter species (Macropus 
 ualabatus) was also imported to Auckland by Mr John Reed, who 
 liberated them on Motutapu Island, where they are still common. 
 They also crossed the narrow neck of land to Rangitoto Island, where 
 they found a haven of rest, and where they are now abundant. 
 Colonel Boscawen says: "The Wallaby furnishes great sport in 
 shooting, and it is harder to hit than a rabbit, as when driven the 
 animal does not hop, but goes on all fours and dodges from side to 
 side, running at a great rate." Mr Cheeseman tells me that when 
 the Island of Kawau was sold, the new owners encouraged shooting 
 parties to go down indeed contracts were let to kill the marsupials 
 off the island and the slaughter was great. One informant, whose 
 name I have lost, told me that even in Sir George Grey's time, as 
 many as two hundred wallabies would be killed in a battue. This 
 gentleman considered them to be useless creatures, fit neither for 
 food nor fur. The consensus of opinion is that the flesh is not par- 
 ticularly attractive, but that the tails make excellent soup. This same 
 informant told me that at Kawau they ate out most of the vegetation, 
 and starved out most of the other animals, being assisted in this by 
 the hordes of opossums. They came out at nights in the fields, 
 grazing like sheep, and in the summer went into the garden, stripping 
 it of fruit and vegetables. 
 
 There are still a few left about Kawau, not more than a dozen 
 or two, according to Colonel Boscawen. 
 
 Pademelon Wallaby (Macropus thetidis) 
 
 The Auckland Society had some specimens of this species in 
 1869, but the number is not specified, nor what came of them. 
 
 Kangaroo (Macropus species) 
 
 Under this name various animals were introduced and liberated, 
 but it is quite impossible to identify the species. 
 
 Note, du Petit-Thouars, who visited New Zealand in 1838, says 
 in the account of his voyage (p. 115): " Kangaroos have multiplied 
 very well, but it is much to be regretted that there, as in New Holland, 
 the colonists have not taken the trouble to look after them and increase 
 their numbers, instead of leaving them to perish." I have no idea 
 what animals he is referring to. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received a pair of kangaroos from the 
 Rev. R. R. Bradley in 1866, and in 1868 a single large specimen 
 from Sir George Grey. The Society's Report for 1872 states that 
 there were "about 15 " in the gardens, but no further information 
 is vouchsafed.
 
 28 MAMMALIA 
 
 The Otago Society introduced one specimen in 1867, and 
 apparently others were privately introduced but not recorded, for the 
 late Mr F. Deans (Curator of the Society) wrote me in 1890: 
 
 I do not know when these were liberated, but in 1869 I saw one on 
 several occasions where the Northern Cemetery (Dunedin) now is ; he went 
 bounding out of that gully while I was passing down to my work. I heard 
 of one or two having been killed by dogs in the gully above the rifle range. 
 
 In 1868 Mr Christopher Basstian liberated three specimens on 
 the Dunrobin Station, but nothing was heard of them afterwards. 
 In the same year the captain of a vessel brought three kangaroos to 
 the Bluff, one male and two females. These were purchased by the 
 Southland Acclimatisation Society and liberated on the range of hills 
 there. Nothing further was ever heard of them. 
 
 Wallaroo or Euro (Macropus robustus) 
 
 Some of these kangaroos were introduced into Kawau by Sir 
 George Grey in the sixties, but there is no subsequent record of 
 their occurrence there. 
 
 Rock Wallaby (Petrogale xanthopus ?) 
 
 In 1873 tne Auckland Society received a rock wallaby from Sir 
 James Fergusson, which was quite distinct from any previously 
 recorded, and which it is surmised belonged to the above species. 
 There is no later report of it. 
 
 Kangaroo Rat (Potorous tridactylus) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced this species in 1867, but no 
 later report of the Society mentions them. 
 
 Family PHALANGERIDJE 
 * Common Opossum, Grey Opossum, Brush-tailed Opossum, or 
 
 Vulpine Phalanger (Trichosurus vulpecula; Phalangista vulpina) 
 *Sooty Opossum (Trichosurus fuliginosus) 
 
 The Australian and Tasmanian phalangers, or, as they are popularly 
 called "opossums," which are now so common in many forest- 
 covered parts of New Zealand were first introduced into Southland 
 by private individuals, and a few later on into other districts by some 
 of the societies. Details of these early introductions are somewhat 
 inexact and difficult to obtain. One report (Wellington Acclimatisa- 
 tion Society, 1892) says: 
 
 These animals were first liberated in the bush behind South Riverton in 
 1858 by Mr Basstian. Some years after, one or two opossums (presumably 
 Australian Grey Opossums) escaped from confinement in the same neigh- 
 bourhood. In 1889 they were found to have increased enormously.
 
 MARSUPIALIA 29 
 
 Mr T. D. Pearce of Invercargill writes (and August, 1915): "The 
 opossums in Southland owe their origin, not to the Council, but to 
 private enterprise. They were liberated between 1865 and 1868 in 
 the Longwoods by Mr Christopher Basstian, who brought them 
 from Victoria or Tasmania." Mr J. L. Watson of Invercargill writes 
 (October, 1890) : " One pair were liberated by the late Captain Hankin- 
 son atWaldeck,Riverton,in 1875 or J 876. They have increased marvel- 
 lously and are plentiful in the South Longwoods." This, no doubt, 
 refers to a later introduction, and Mr C. Basstian was evidently 
 the first person to liberate them in New Zealand. The Auckland 
 Society imported some (number not stated) in 1869; five more in 
 1874-75; and four more in 1876. There is no record as to where 
 they were liberated. Most of these came through Sir George Grey; 
 who liberated several grey opossums on Kawau. 
 
 In 1892 the Wellington Society obtained 19 black Tasmanian 
 opossums (T. fuliginosus), and liberated them on the ranges behind 
 Paraparaumu. 
 
 In 1895 the Otago Society obtained 12 silver-grey opossums ( T. 
 vulpeculd) from Gippsland, and liberated them in the Catlins district. 
 
 This appears to complete the record of introductions. 
 
 By 1890 these animals had increased to a great extent in the forest 
 covering the Southern Longwood Range, and the Southland Society 
 caught and distributed in that year some 236 to " the Auckland Islands, 
 Stewart Island, various districts of Otago (including the Te Anau 
 and West Coast Sounds region), North and South Canterbury, West 
 Coast of South Island, Nelson, Wellington and Gisborne." In suc- 
 ceeding years more were obtained and distributed throughout other 
 parts of New Zealand, e.g. to Kapiti and Wainui-o-mata in 1893, and 
 to Taranaki in 1896. For the last 30 or 40 years grey opossums have 
 been very abundant on Kawau. In 1893, Captain Bollons, in N.Z.G.S. 
 ' Hinemoa,' liberated 72 opossums in the West Coast Sounds. They 
 are now abundant from far north of Auckland to Stewart Island. In 
 all localities they appear to have increased to a great extent, becoming 
 so abundant in some parts that people began to destroy them for 
 their skins, while others especially the Acclimatisation Societies 
 claimed protection for them and demanded the introduction of restric- 
 tive legislation. Some idea of their increase may be gathered from 
 the statement made by the President of the Otago Society that in 
 1912 no less than 60,000 skins were taken in the Catlins district 
 alone. Mr R. S. Black of Dunedin, a well-known exporter of rabbit 
 and other skins, tells me this number is not an over-estimate. 
 
 W. W. Smith (3ist July, 1918) reports opossums as common about 
 New Plymouth. They feed on the leaves of the hou-hou (Panax
 
 3 o MAMMALIA 
 
 arboreum) and come to the shed where horsefeed is kept, and help 
 themselves to the oats. 
 
 Protection and Legislation. In 1891, protection of the opos- 
 sums was urged on the Government by an Invercargill merchant who 
 stated (in Southland Times of 2Oth January) that some New Zealand 
 skins were worth los. each, and he noted that the supply of skins 
 from Australia and Tasmania was diminishing. 
 
 At the same time complaints began to be made by settlers in bush 
 districts that the opossums were robbing their fields and orchards, 
 and destroying plantations apparently an attempt to justify the 
 destruction of the animals which was then commencing. Such a 
 charge was not supported by evidence. On the other hand Mr T. C. 
 Plante of Melbourne, writing to the Premier of New Zealand on 
 the subject (in 1891) says: 
 
 Tasmania is the orchard of Australia, yet so little harm is caused by this 
 animal and so well is its commercial value appreciated, that a close season 
 is prescribed for it, and indeed for all marsupials. Although the species 
 of Victoria yield a fur of little value, except such as live in the cold and 
 mountainous parts, the case is different with the Tasmanian species, which 
 are of much greater value ; the animal is larger, producing fur denser and 
 of much better quality, and the colour is black or reddish-black. Now 
 this is the kind that has been introduced into New Zealand, and from 
 specimens caught in Riverton bush that have been shown to me, I can 
 vouch that in New Zealand they grow even larger and produce fur of better 
 quality. At the October (1890) fur sales Tasmanian skins realised up to 
 8*. 6d. each. 
 
 Mr Plante recommended trapping from June to September when 
 the fur is fully grown, with a close season during the summer months. 
 
 Owing to the increasing destruction which went on in succeeding 
 years in all districts where opossums were found, the societies interested 
 brought pressure to bear on the Government, and in 1911 an Order 
 in Council was issued (Gazette, i6th November), declaring these 
 animals to be "Imported Game within the meaning of the Animals 
 Protection Act, 1908." Thus it became illegal to catch or destroy 
 them. By this time, however, the settlers in bush districts at least 
 in Otago had found the trapping of opossums a very profitable 
 business, and though they do not appear in published returns of 
 exports, the probability is that their skins were classed and counted 
 with rabbit-skins. Accordingly they set to work through their repre- 
 sentatives in Parliament and got the restrictions removed. By Gazette 
 notices of 22nd August, 1912, it was stated that "opossums of every 
 variety shall cease to be deemed to be imported game," and "all 
 protection of opossums has consequently been removed, and they 
 may be taken or killed without restriction, and their skins sold." This
 
 MARSUPIALIA 31 
 
 see-sawing legislation immediately produced an outcry from all the 
 societies in the country, and so much feeling was expressed that the 
 Government reconsidered their decision and another Order was issued 
 on yth August, 1913, declaring opossums to be absolutely protected 
 in certain specified counties practically in all the bush-covered 
 districts in New Zealand. A further warrant was issued in 1916 
 absolutely protecting opossums in the Wellington Acclimatisation 
 District. 
 
 The position therefore in I9I9 1 briefly was as follows: 
 
 Opossums have ceased to be imported game and they have been abso- 
 lutely protected in certain areas. There is therefore no existing law in force 
 giving power to declare an open season for these animals unless they were 
 again declared to be either imported or native game, and this is not prac- 
 ticable as they would then automatically be protected in parts of the 
 Dominion where protection is not desired ; there being no existing power 
 to enable them to be declared imported game in part only of the Dominion. 
 
 In spite of these regulations it is the opinion of some at least of 
 the societies that the law is habitually broken and that the protection 
 is very imperfect, and the Wellington Society in its report for 1915 
 says that "opossums are being slaughtered wholesale." I learn also 
 from the Comptroller of Customs that the number and value of 
 opossum skins exported during the year ended 3ist December, 1915, 
 was as follows: 
 
 Wellington 173 skins valued at 43 
 
 Nelson 191 48 
 
 Dunedin 2115 361 
 
 It is known that thousands more go out of the country, nominally 
 as rabbit-skins. 
 
 Food, Habits, etc. Mr F. Hart of Round Hill, who had a 
 long experience in catching opossums for the Southland Society, wrote 
 a report on the habits of these animals to Mr Eustace Russell of 
 Invercargill, from which I extract the following. The technical names 
 of the plants given are added by myself: 
 
 The food the opossum lives on is chiefly seeds of Broadleaf (Grtselinia), 
 Kamai (Weinmannia), Broad -gum (Panax), Maple (Pittosporum), Rata blos- 
 soms (Metrosideros), Supplejack berries (Rhipogonum), Fuchsia, Mako-mako 
 (Aristotelia), and practically all the seeds and blossoms that grow in this 
 part of the bush. The opossum is not a grass-eating animal. They will 
 eat white, or red clover, sweetbriar shoots, and seeds, but if an opossum 
 is caged up and fed on grass, he will die of starvation. Also, if he were 
 fed on turnips, it would take as much to feed one sheep, in quantity, as 
 would feed twelve opossums. When I and my brother were catching 
 1 For recent regulations (May, 1921) see Appendix A, p. 556.
 
 32 MAMMALIA 
 
 opossums for the Society, we fed them on carrots, boiled wheat, bread, 
 boiled tea-leaves with sugar, and anything sweet. 
 
 The damage the opossums would do running at large would be very 
 little, seeing that they never come on to open country. The animal is blamed 
 for barking apple-trees, but the opossum does not bark a tree. He might 
 scratch the bark with his teeth, but he does not strip it off. The opossum 
 has one young one once a year. The young one is from five to six months 
 old before it leaves its mother, and is very nearly half-grown. The first 
 four months it is carried in its mother's pouch, and after it leaves the 
 pouch it rides on the mother's back, until it is able to look after itself. The 
 proper season for catching opossums would be from April to the end of 
 July; that would save destroying so many young ones. 
 
 Mr Hurrell of Ararata (Hawera) tells me they are destructive to 
 fruit trees in his district, eating the shoots in spring-time and the fruit 
 in autumn. This applies to apples and plums. At Kawau, they were 
 reported as very destructive to the shoots of young plants, and to 
 fruit. 
 
 Colonel Boscawen of Auckland, who is a most reliable authority, 
 states that as long as there is plenty of green stuff available, opossums 
 do not interfere with fruit, but that the damage they are often credited 
 with is the work of rats. 
 
 On Kapiti Island they feed extensively on Kohekohe (Dysoxylum 
 spectabile), Mahoe (Melicytus ramiflortis), Passiflora tetrandra and 
 Fuchsia excorticata, trees of the latter species being sometimes com- 
 pletely destroyed by them. 
 
 In " Nature Notes" in the Lyttelton Times of i9th October, 1912, 
 by Mr Jas. Drummond this passage occurs:. 
 
 Mr A. J. Blakiston, Manager Orari Gorge Estate, South Canterbury, 
 where opossums are very plentiful, says: "My experience here is that they 
 do very little damage. The garden adjoins the native bush and in the fruit 
 season they eat and knock down some fruit, but do us no great harm." 
 
 Mr Dudley le Souef, Director of the Zoological Gardens, Mel- 
 bourne, writes : 
 
 Opossums are protected in Tasmania for half the year, in Victoria all 
 the year round, and in South Australia and New South Wales for half 
 the year during the breeding season. We find them only occasionally 
 troublesome in apple, pear and peach orchards; but as they are easily 
 snared and shot, one seldom hears of any complaints even from the large 
 orchard districts 1 . 
 
 1 All orchardists are not of this opinion as the following extract from an Auckland 
 letter shows : 
 
 " If you want to see how opossums and fruit trees thrive together, take a run 
 down to Motutapu. Opossums you will see, but it will need a guide to show you 
 where the fruit trees were planted. I have several acres in orchard, which today 
 is free from Opossums, and needs only the regular care to combat moth, scale, 
 scab, mildew, blight, dieback, fungus, leech, collar rot, birds, rabbits, picnickers
 
 MARSUPIALIA 33 
 
 Professor Flynn of Hobart states that even with the protection 
 given to the opossum in Tasmania their position in the State is 
 seriously endangered. It is estimated that 100,000 were killed in 191 1 
 for their skins. 
 
 Ring-tailed Opossum (Pseudochirus peregrimis) 
 The Canterbury Society introduced two of these animals in 1867, 
 but do not seem to have liberated them. 
 
 Family DASYURID^: 
 Australian Native Cat (Dasyurus viverrirmis) 
 
 In 1868 the Canterbury Society received two of these animals from 
 a Captain Thomson. Presumably they were not liberated, as there 
 is no further record of them. The introduction of hurtful carnivorous 
 animals, except under Government sanction, has always been forbidden 
 
 in New Zealand. 
 
 Family DIDELPHYIDJE 
 
 Bandicoot (Perameles obesuld) 
 
 The Auckland Society obtained some bandicoots, how many is 
 not specified, from a Mr E. Perkins in 1873, DUt there is no record as 
 to what was done with them. These were probably the short-nosed 
 bandicoot (Perameles obesuld) which is common in Australia and 
 Tasmania. 
 
 Order UNGULATA 
 
 Family 
 *Pigs; Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) 
 
 The first pigs landed in New Zealand were two little ones which 
 De Surville presented to the Chief of the natives at Doubtless Bay 
 in December, 1769. It is not known what happened to these early 
 juvenile immigrants. 
 
 Captain Cook introduced pigs on his second voyage to New 
 Zealand as he states that while in Queen Charlotte Sound in June, 
 1773, "Captain Furneaux put on shore, in Cannibal Cove, a boar 
 and two breeding sows, so that we have reason to hope this country 
 will, in time, be stocked with these animals, if they are not destroyed 
 by the natives before they become wild, for, afterwards, they will 
 be in no danger." 
 
 and small boys. These I can manage to fix during the daylight, but cannot see why 
 a set of cranks, who have nothing of their own to destroy, should compel me to 
 sit up at night to shoot further vermin. If I am counted out in the assumption, 
 will some ' boobs ' join me in bringing pressure on the Government, for the intro- 
 duction of rattlesnakes, tigers and other interesting subjects, because the rattle 
 and claws are beautiful, and the meat would compete with local grown bully?"
 
 34 MAMMALIA 
 
 Forster, in his Journal (vol. I, p. 221), says "they were turned into 
 the woods to range at their own pleasure." In the following year, 
 October, 1774, he says (vol. n, p. 467): 
 
 We took the opportunity to visit the innermost recesses of West Bay, 
 in order to be convinced, if possible, whether there was any probability 
 that the hogs, brought thither about a year before, would ever stock those 
 wild woods with numerous breeds. We came to the spot where we had left 
 them, but saw not the least vestiges of their having been on the beach, 
 nor did it appear that any of the natives had visited this remote place; 
 from whence we had room to hope, that the animals had retreated into 
 the thickest part of the woods. 
 
 On 2nd November when off Cape Kidnappers Cook gave some pigs 
 to natives who came in their canoe. 
 
 On his third voyage, he gave a boar and sow to a native 
 chief (?) in February, 1777, and they made him a promise not to 
 kill them. He adds: "The animals which Captain Furneaux sent on 
 shore here, and which soon after fell into the hands of the natives, 
 I was now told were all dead." I think, however, that this refers 
 chiefly to the goats, for he says: "I was afterwards informed by the 
 two youths who went away with us, that Tiratou, a popular chief 
 amongst them, had one of the sows in his possession." There is little 
 doubt that the wild pigs of the South Island, "Captain Cooks" as 
 they came to be called, were the progeny of those originally left at 
 Cannibal Cove, though Cook himself says in 1777: "I could get no 
 intelligence about the fate of those I had left in West Bay and in 
 Cannibal Cove, when I was here in the course of my last voyage." 
 They have in later years had their numbers added to, and their breed 
 modified by pigs which escaped from settlers, but the type remained 
 dominant, and is still found in most wild parts of the country in 
 great abundance. 
 
 Dieffenbach (in 1839) states that "the natives had come from 
 Cannibal Cove to catch pigs, which overrun the island" of Motuaru. 
 
 The North Island wild pigs, which are also abundant in nearly 
 all wild country from Cook Strait to North Cape, are largely the 
 progeny of animals given to the natives in later years. Governor 
 King (of New South Wales), during his visit to New Zealand, 
 in 1793, gave the natives at the Bay of Islands, ten young 
 sows and two boars. Dieffenbach states that these animals were 
 mistaken by them for horses, they having some vague recollection 
 of those which they had seen on board Captain Cook's vessels. They 
 forthwith rode two of them to death; and a third was killed for 
 having entered a burying-ground. A very old man, who had known 
 Captain King, related this singular story to me. The introduction
 
 UNGULATA 35 
 
 of the pigs may have been correctly reported, only Dieffenbach is 
 not very trustworthy, and his credulity seems to have been played 
 on as regards the horses ; it is most improbable that any horses were 
 on board either the ' Resolution ' or the 'Adventure.' 
 
 There is no doubt that the abundance of wild pigs in the country 
 was of great value to explorers, particularly to prospectors, and also 
 to shepherds, miners and back-block settlers. Dieffenbach says: 
 "the natives have great quantities of pigs, which have run wild, but 
 are easily caught by dogs" (this was in the Piako). 
 
 Dr Monro, who accompanied Mr Tuckett on his trip through 
 Otago in 1844, speaking of the hill country south-west of Saddle Hill, 
 says: "There is a famous cover for pigs, too, between the upper 
 part of the Teiari (Taieri) Valley and the sea .... The whalers come 
 up the river in their boats and kill great numbers of pigs here; as 
 the Maoris told us." 
 
 As to the breeds of these wild pigs, it is evident that they were 
 quite distinct in the two islands, due, of course, to their different 
 origin. Mr Robert Scott, M.P. for Central Otago, writing me in 
 January, 1916, says: 
 
 They were originally a variety of the Tamworth breed, long snout, 
 razor-backed, built for speed rather than for fattening, quick and agile 
 in movement, as I have often seen when watching two boars fighting, 
 and as many a dog found to his cost. The predominating colour was red, 
 or sandy red, with some black, and a few black and white, but these may 
 have come from an occasional tame boar which strayed and became wild. 
 At the time when they were most numerous (in Otago) they were 
 decidedly gregarious, usually three or four generations running together 
 in mobs numbering from half a dozen up to forty or even fifty. When 
 attacked by dogs, if cover, such as flax, scrub or high grass was handy, 
 they made for it and would form a circle, with the older pigs on the outside 
 ring, and the younger ones in the centre for greater protection. The boars, 
 particularly old ones, lived alone and roamed far and wide. The habits 
 of the wild pig were clean, and in the case of those tamed exceptionally so. 
 
 Angas in Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand , 
 vol. n, p. 37 (published in 1847), says: "The New Zealand pigs are 
 generally black ; and on the approach of a European they erect their 
 bristles, and, grunting, gallop off like wild boars." 
 Dieffenbach says : 
 
 Pigs have only of late been generally introduced into many parts of 
 the country, and in some places where tribes have been broken up they 
 are found wild in large numbers .... The New Zealand pigs are a peculiar 
 breed, with short heads and legs and compact bodies. 
 
 They were evidently quite distinct from the "Captain Cooks" of 
 the South Island. 
 
 32
 
 36 MAMMALIA 
 
 The Rev. Richard Taylor (in The Past and Present of New 
 Zealand, in 1868) states that: 
 
 there are three kinds of pigs which have been naturalised, whether the 
 produce of the original pair left by Captain Cook, or from later importa- 
 tions it is impossible to say. The ordinary one, which has stocked the 
 forest, is black, with a very long snout, almost resembling that of a Tapir ; 
 this pig was probably the original one. The next is a grey one, commonly 
 known by the name of Tonga tapu, and may therefore be supposed to have 
 been thence derived. The third variety is generally of a reddish brown, 
 marked with lateral black or dark stripes, running the whole length of 
 the body. 
 
 Taylor was neither a good observer, nor much of a naturalist, and 
 accepted a great deal of information without sifting its accuracy ; still 
 the above may be quite correct for the part of New Zealand which 
 he knew. 
 
 Mr Robert Gillies, writing in 1877, says: "In 1848 (the year of 
 the settlement of Otago) wild pigs were very common on the site of 
 Dunedin." In 1854, he and a party killed 70 pigs at the back of 
 Flagstaff in two days. 
 
 The long-pointed snout, long legs and non-descript colours of the true 
 wild pig showed them to be quite a different breed from the settlers' 
 imported pig. Their flesh tasted quite different from pork, being more 
 like venison than anything else. 
 
 Mr Jas. D. Drummond quotes Mr E. Hardcastle of Christchurch 
 on this subject: 
 
 In most parts of the Dominion black is the commonest colour of wild 
 pigs, and he believes that the Berkshire probably was the dominant type 
 in the pigs of our early days. The red coat of the Tarn worth type has 
 defied time. It has lost most of its lustre but he thinks that nobody can 
 doubt that the sandy, long-snouted wild pig has Tamworth blood in its 
 veins. 
 
 Black pigs with a white stripe over the back or the shoulder were 
 plentiful in Canterbury. The markings still may be found in that 
 province and in other parts of the Dominion. 
 
 " These pigs," Mr Hardcastle writes, " were ascribed to an original cross 
 between black pigs and white pigs, but there are in England at least two 
 breeds with those markings, and probably some of these were introduced 
 with other ancestors of our wild pigs. The Hampshire has a white belt 
 round its body, including the shoulder and the front-legs; the saddle- 
 back, or white-shouldered pig, which now is being brought under notice 
 in England, does not seem to have as much white as the Hampshire has." 
 
 Mr E. C. d'Auvergne, formerly of Rangiora, and now of Waihoa 
 Forks, Waimate, South Canterbury, states that the late Captain 
 Forster, of Oxford, imported some white-shouldered pigs from England
 
 UNGULATA 37 
 
 many years ago and gave one to Mr d'Auvergne's father. From these 
 facts, Mr Hardcastle builds up the theory that the white-shouldered 
 pig amongst the wild New Zealand pigs is the descendant of a distinct 
 breed. 
 
 "Perhaps the most interesting specimen of the wild pig in this Do- 
 minion," he adds, "is the blue pig found in the Mount Grey and Karetu 
 districts, North Canterbury. The blue colour is produced by a blend of 
 apparently equal numbers of white and black hairs. So fixed is the type 
 that blue pigs may be found in a litter with blacks or black and whites. 
 The blue pig, evidently, is the result of a cross between a black pig and a 
 white pig, and the progeny crossed and inbred until the two breeds are 
 absolutely blended as far as colour is concerned." 
 
 Mr J. Drummond (1907) says: 
 
 They multiplied astonishingly, and enormous numbers assembled in 
 uninhabited valleys far from the settlements. At Wangapeka Valley, in 
 the Nelson Province, Dr Hochstetter in 1860, saw several miles ploughed 
 up by pigs. Their extermination was sometimes contracted for by experi- 
 enced hunters, and Dr Hochstetter states that three men in twenty months, 
 on an area of 250,000 acres, killed no fewer than 25,000 pigs, and pledged 
 themselves to kill 15,000 more. 
 
 Even much earlier they must have been very abundant, both 
 tame and wild, for nearly every sealing and whaling vessel which 
 visited these islands between 1800 and 1830 took away quantities 
 of pork as part of the cargo to Sydney. 
 
 Aston (1916) speaks of the wild pigs in the high country of 
 Marlborough as being remarkably tame, apparently from never seeing 
 human beings. 
 
 Two sows, in response to our grunts, came out of the bush on to the 
 ridge, and as we remained perfectly still, they came up close and smelt us. 
 My companion made a grab at one leg, and pig and man went rolling down 
 the hill together. 
 
 At the present time they are still common in nearly all bush 
 country which is not too near settlement, and to those who like the 
 element of danger in their hunting they afford good sport. They are 
 usually pursued by dogs, often especially trained for the purpose, 
 which after a time succeed in bailing up their quarry. They prefer 
 to take their stand in the hollow of a tree or some such locality, and 
 an old boar will often do considerable damage to the dogs before he 
 is despatched. The orthodox manner of attack is to run in and stab 
 them, but a man without a gun has little chance if he ventures to 
 close quarters with a bailed-up boar. 
 
 As regards the Southern Islands, pigs were landed on the Auckland 
 Islands in 1807 by Captain A. Bristow, and were reported as numerous 
 by Hooker in 1840, and by Enderby in 1850. Captain Musgrave, who
 
 38 MAMMALIA 
 
 was wrecked on the Auckland Islands in 1865, found no traces of wild 
 pigs, however. More recently Captain Bollons of the 'Hinemoa,' 
 and others have landed and liberated pigs. Hooker reported them 
 as feeding chiefly on Pleurophyllum criniferum y while McCormick, who 
 was surgeon on the ' Erebus,' states they fed on Stilbocarpa polaris. 
 Waite, writing in 1909, says : 
 
 There can be small doubt that the introduction of pigs to the Auckland 
 Islands has already resulted in considerable havoc among the ground- 
 nesting birds, by destroying both eggs and young. Traces of pigs were 
 very plentiful, not only their spoor but their rootings also being abundantly 
 apparent. Native plants are also suffering, for we found whole patches 
 turned over, Bulbinella and Pleurophyllum evidently being favourites. On 
 several occasions we came across the pigs themselves, but they were very 
 wild and were approached with difficulty. Of four seen on one occasion, 
 one was black, two white, and one pied. One of them was shot, and proved 
 to be a lean, long-legged, and long-snouted animal, apparently reverting 
 to the characteristics of a wild type. 
 
 In 1865 Captain Norman liberated three pigs on Campbell Island, 
 but they appear to have died off. 
 
 Dr Cockayne informs me that in the Chatham Islands, the 
 magnificent forget-me-not, known as the Chatham Island lily (Myoso- 
 tidium nobile), formerly grew commonly as a coastal plant, forming a 
 fringe of vegetation round the islands, but that it has been nearly 
 exterminated by wild pigs aided in part by wild cattle so that 
 it is now found only in inaccessible spots. They have also helped to 
 reduce the number of plants and nearly exterminate Aciphytta 
 Traversii, one of the most characteristic plants of the Chatham 
 Islands, by digging it up and eating the succulent tap-root. Formerly 
 two species of spear-grass Aciphytta squarrosa and A. Colensoi were 
 extremely abundant, especially in the South Island. Vast quanti- 
 ties of these plants were grubbed out by the wild pigs, which are 
 particularly fond of their succulent and aromatic root-stocks and 
 roots. 
 
 Aston states that they eat down Gaya Lyattii. They root up the 
 ground wherever the bracken fern (Pteris aquilina, var. esculentd) is 
 found, the starchy rhizomes furnishing abundant food. They are also 
 especially fond of the thick root-stocks of spear-grasses (Aciphytta) and 
 other umbelliferous plants, such as Ligusticum and Angelica. 
 
 In some parts of New Zealand wild pigs are destructive to sheep. 
 I am informed that in North Canterbury an old boar has been seen 
 to come down from his hill fastness into a paddock in which were a 
 number of ewes, charge into the midst of them, and kill two of them, 
 "seemingly," said my informant, "more out of mischief than for
 
 UNGULATA 39 
 
 want of food." Mr W. R. Bullen of Kaikoura writes me in August, 
 1916: 
 
 It is a well-known fact that wild pigs are very destructive among newly 
 born lambs. I myself have watched a wild boar working a lamb like a dog 
 so as to get straight above him on a hillside, and catch the lamb with a 
 downhill rush, as the latter was too nimble for the boar to catch him other- 
 wise. I think, however, that an old sow with a litter of young ones does 
 more damage, as they follow up the ewes when lambing. We always en- 
 deavour to reduce their number before lambing commences both by 
 hunting and laying poison. Phosphorus is usually employed in the latter 
 case. 
 
 Mr Kennedy of Greentown, Kaikoura, supplements this informa- 
 tion, and informs me that when boars once begin to eat lambs, they 
 will travel long distances to get them; fortunately the habit is not 
 common. He thinks the habit is learned by their finding hoggetts 
 which have got caught and hung up in lawyers (Rubus), and dying 
 there. Sows that have a litter of young ones also attack and destroy 
 lambs, but they do not travel any distance to do so. He adds that 
 pigs are very destructive to rabbits, eating the young ones when they 
 take refuge in shallow burrows; and states that where pigs are 
 abundant, very few rabbits are to be found. 
 
 The following species of native plants, in addition to those named, 
 are eaten by wild pigs: Gastrodia Cunnunghamii and G. sesamoides 
 and Marattia fraxinea. 
 
 Family CAMELID^; 
 Alpaca (Lama huanacos) 
 
 Two of these animals were imported by the Otago Society in 1878, 
 and were liberated on the property of Mr John Reid of Elderslie, 
 Oamaru. They never increased. 
 
 Family EQUIDJE 
 * Horse (Equus caballus) 
 
 It seems rather strange that in such a small country as New 
 Zealand there should be any wild horses, but there are several areas 
 very inaccessible and rarely visited, where escapes appear to have 
 congregated and bred. The natives frequently have very imperfect 
 fences, and stallions have from time to time got away and run free. 
 Mr E. Phillips Turner of the Forestry Department and in charge of 
 Scenic Reserves, informed me (January, 1916) that "wild horses occur 
 on Mt Tarawera, round the base of Ruapehu, and in many places on 
 the volcanic plateau." Mr Yarborough of Kohu Kohu states that at 
 one time wild horses were numerous in the bush country of Hokianga
 
 4 o MAMMALIA 
 
 and the west coast of the Auckland peninsula. The natives used to 
 snare them, but they were mostly so inbred as to be valueless for 
 any purpose. They are now (1916) very scarce. 
 
 Horses were first imported into the Chatham Islands in the 
 forties, and were commonly wild in the unsettled districts in 1868. 
 There are probably still a few of them on the table land. 
 
 Zebra. (Equus zebra) 
 
 Sir Geo. Grey, among his numerous other introductions, imported 
 a pair of zebras into Kawau about 1870, apparently in the hope that 
 they would breed. But one got killed, and the other had to be shot. 
 
 Family CERVIDJE 
 
 The desire to stock the mountain country of New Zealand with 
 large game, so that the Briton's delight in going out and killing 
 something might be satisfied, has led to the introduction of no fewer 
 than ten kinds of deer, in addition to other large animals. Of these, 
 four species red deer, fallow deer, white-tailed deer and Sambur 
 deer have established themselves in different parts of the country 
 and are included among the animals for which licences to shoot are 
 now issued. By law they are strictly preserved, but much poaching 
 has always been and still is done. At the same time it must be 
 remembered that the poaching is chiefly done by two classes of 
 people, viz. residents in the neighbourhood of the districts where 
 the game abound, and mere pot-hunters. For the first class it may 
 be said that many farmers, who take no interest in acclimatisation 
 work or in so-called sport, and who were not consulted in any way 
 on the subject, object to the incursions of animals which ignore or 
 break down their fences, harass their stock, and eat their hay and 
 turnips. Therefore some of this destruction of imported game takes 
 the form of reprisals for injury done to crops, fences and stock. There 
 is practically no poaching on the property of private individuals such 
 as is characterised by the name in the mother country, and con- 
 sequently destruction of game in New Zealand is not looked upon as 
 a heinous offence, as are breaches of the iniquitous game-laws of 
 Britain. The game in New Zealand are either the property of the 
 State or of the acclimatisation societies, and public opinion on the 
 subject of their destruction is lax in comparison with what it is in 
 countries where game is looked upon as something reserved for and 
 sacred to the sporting instincts of a small class. Still a very fair 
 measure of protection is ensured to the animals, and they have 
 increased in most districts where they have been liberated. It is 
 recognised, too, that a wealthy class of tourists can be induced to
 
 UNGULATA 41 
 
 visit the country, if, in addition to scenic attractions, there can be 
 added those things which appeal to the sporting instincts of humanity. 
 This has led the Government of the Dominion in recent years to 
 devote some attention to the subject of introducing various additional 
 kinds of big game to those already brought in by the acclimatisation 
 societies. Several experiments have been made in this direction, and 
 most of them seem likely to be successful. 
 
 * Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) 
 
 (a) According to Mr Huddleston, whose father was curator of 
 the Nelson Acclimatisation Society, a red deer stag and doe were 
 landed in that district in the fifties. The doe was killed, but the 
 stag remained near Motueka, and ultimately joined those which were 
 introduced in 1861. In Judge Broad's account of Nelson, he states 
 that Felix Wakefield landed one stag in 1851. He further states that 
 in September, 1854, the first stag was turned out on the hills near 
 the mouth of the Waimea, brought in the ship 'Eagle.' Two hinds 
 were sent for to England. 
 
 (b) The next importation of red deer into New Zealand was in 
 February, 1861, when a stag and two hinds, presented by Lord 
 Petre from his park in Essex, England, were landed in Nelson. The 
 progeny of these animals increased and rapidly spread themselves 
 over a great part of the high country in the provincial districts of 
 Nelson and Marlborough of late years they have further spread 
 into North Canterbury, and over towards the west coast. Mr Hard- 
 castle, who in 1906 wrote a report on the red deer herds in the 
 country, says: 
 
 The heads obtained in Nelson are of a good dark colour and fairly 
 massive, but compared with those of Wairarapa and Hawea, they have 
 not the same average of span or spread. . . .Lord Petre 's herd had had no 
 new blood introduced into it for many years, so that a particular type of 
 antler had been fixed from which there is no throwing back. 
 
 According to Mr Hardcastle the type of head of the first imported 
 stag continues to persist, and dominates all the deer of the Nelson 
 herd. In 1900 a herd, descended from Nelson deer, was started in 
 the Lillburn Valley, west of the Waiau River, in Southland. 
 
 (c) In 1862 a stag and two hinds presented by the Prince Consort 
 to Governor Weld were handed over by him to Dr Featherstone, 
 then Superintendent of Wellington Province. The deer (six in number) 
 were captured in Windsor Park, and housed there for some time as 
 preparation for their long sea voyage. One stag and two hinds were 
 shipped by the 'Triton,' for Wellington, and after a passage of 127 
 days, during which one hind succumbed, arrived on 6th June, 1862.
 
 42 MAMMALIA 
 
 About the same time the remaining three were shipped for Canterbury, 
 but as one only arrived it was forwarded to Wellington to join the 
 other two. For some months these animals were kept in a stable 
 close to "Noah's Ark," Lambton quay, and subsequently Mr C. R. 
 Carter (then M.P. for Wairarapa) arranged to have them conveyed 
 to Wairarapa. Owing to there being no trains in those days, the 
 animals were placed in the crate in which they came from England, 
 and were carted over the Rimutaka Ranges to the Taratahi Plains, 
 where they were handed to Mr J. Robieson. This gentleman, being 
 an Englishman, took a special interest in the animals, and kept them 
 for some considerable time. Early in the year 1863 he liberated the 
 deer on the Taratahi Plains, and for some time they were constant 
 visitors to the farmers, accepting all kinds of food. Later, however, 
 they crossed the Ruamahanga River, and took up their abode on the 
 Maungaraki Ranges, where they rapidly increased. Mr Hardcastle 
 reported in 1906: 
 
 The Wairarapa Forest is "probably the best stocked red deer ground 
 on the globe. On Te Awaite run bordering on the East Coast, the deer may 
 now be seen in bunches of up to a hundred head. At the beginning of 
 last year it was estimated that there were fully 10,000 head on the station. 
 According to information given in The Field of September i5th, 1906, the 
 Windsor Park herd" (from which the original stock came), "has been re- 
 plenished from English, Scottish, German and probably Danish stock. The 
 result has produced in the Wairarapa herd, stags that are remarkable for 
 their massive antlers, some of which are of the German type, and others 
 again more resembling the Scottish form. The antlers do not grow to 
 great length, but some are very wide in spread, and there is a great propor- 
 tion of Imperials, the most number of points recorded being 22. The stags 
 
 mature their antlers early A number of heads have been shot on Te 
 
 Awaite station, showing the abnormal development of the back tines on 
 one antler, such as is seen to be the case of the great Warnham Park stags 
 in England, and is probably due to the highly favourable conditions of 
 climate, food and shelter." 
 
 From these ranges some of the finest heads in New Zealand have been 
 secured. There is no doubt whatever that the exceptionally rich lime- 
 stone formation and the English grasses were responsible for the 
 large growth of horn. 
 
 (d) In 1871 the Otago Society imported 15 red deer, some of 
 which were sent to the care of Mr Rich of Bushy Park, Palmerston, 
 while seven were liberated on the Morven Hills run east of Lake 
 Hawea. Those at Bushy Park spread over into the Horse Range, but 
 they did not succeed, and no definite explanation of the failure has 
 been given. Probably the country was not high and wild enough; 
 on one side they were encroaching all the time on well-stocked sheep 
 country, and on the other on old-settled farm land, besides which
 
 UNGULATA 43 
 
 there were many old diggers still about the neighbourhood. From 
 one cause or another they did not succeed well. Mr Hardcastle states 
 that they are still to be met with on the Horse Range, but they have 
 always been heavily shot by settlers. 
 
 The seven which were liberated on the Morven Hills were part 
 of a shipment received from the estates of the Earl of Dalhousie in 
 Forfarshire, Scotland. They are the only lot of pure Scottish red 
 deer in the country. They multiplied at a great rate and have spread 
 over the country between Lakes Wanaka, Hawea and Ohau. They 
 have worked their way up the Hunter and Makarora rivers, across 
 the Haast Pass into South Westland, and right up to the neighbour- 
 hood of Mount Cook. Most of this country runs from 3000 to 
 7000 feet in height, and much of it is very steep and rugged. But it 
 contains much bush in the valleys and gullies, and the open country 
 is well grassed in summer. Hardcastle says : 
 
 The North Otago Stags maintain the true Scottish type of antler, but 
 they grow to much greater length than the antlers of any stags that have 
 been shot in the British Isles. The antlers are also remarkable for their 
 symmetry and perfection in the development of the tines, and particularly 
 the lower tines .... Some magnificent heads have been got, including a 
 17- and i8-pointer, and two Royals each 46 inches in length of antlers. 
 The coats of the stags are generally shaggy, owing, no doubt, to the severe 
 climate in winter. 
 
 Recently (1918) Mr Hardcastle informs me that the record length for 
 an Otago red deer head is 49 inches (J. Forbes, Christchurch) ; 
 record spread 50^ inches (J. Faulks, Makarora); and record points 20 
 (J. Fraser, Mount Aspiring); "and I think a 2O-pointer was got in 
 the Makarora." In 1895 the Otago Society obtained two fine stags 
 from the Hunt Club, Melbourne, to add to the North Otago herd. 
 I do not know what special strain these belonged to. Again in 1913 
 the Society imported a stag and six hinds from Warnham Park, 
 England, the object being to introduce new blood into the herds. 
 
 (e) One stag was brought over from Hobart to Christchurch in 
 1867 by Mr A. M. Johnson, and was kept in the Acclimatisation 
 Gardens for a time. In 1897 the Canterbury Society imported nine 
 red deer, but it is not recorded from whence, and liberated them in 
 the gorge of the Rakaia River. They have increased rapidly since, 
 herds of 40 and more having been seen from time to time. Some 
 of the heaviest heads secured in New Zealand have been got from 
 this herd. According to Mr Hardcastle the record length of a head 
 from the Rakaia Gorge is 48^ inches (Williams, England); the 
 record spread 465 inches (G. Sutherland, Christchurch), and the 
 record points 24, from the same head. But in 1918-19 Mr Barrer 
 of Wellington secured one with a length of 50 inches.
 
 44 MAMMALIA 
 
 More recent importations have been as follows: 
 
 In 1900 the Southland Society received one stag and two hinds 
 from Sir Rupert Clark, Victoria; and in 1901 two stags and eight 
 hinds from the same source. From these, herds were started at Lake 
 Manapouri, and at the Hump, to the west of the Waiau. 
 
 In 1903 either seven or eight fawns were obtained from Victoria, 
 presented by Miss Audrey Chirnside of Werribee Park, and were 
 liberated at Mount Tuhua in Westland. In 1906 four more from the 
 same source were added to this herd, and eight were liberated at Lake 
 Kanieri. 
 
 In 1903 the Tourist Department obtained eight deer from the 
 Duke of Bedford, and liberated them at Lake Wakatipu. In 1908 four 
 were obtained from Warnham Park, Sussex, England, and were liber- 
 ated at Paraparaumu. In 1909 three were liberated at Dusky Sound. 
 
 The five original importations of red deer account for the vast 
 numbers of these animals which are now to be met with in so many 
 mountainous parts of both islands, for many of the societies as well 
 as the Tourist Department have obtained deer from one or other 
 of the original herds and have started new herds in other districts, e.g. 
 the country round Taupo and Rotorua, the West Coast Sounds of the 
 South Island, and Stewart Island, and these are all increasing. In re- 
 gard to the last named locality, six fawns taken from the Wairarapa 
 herd were liberated on the banks of the Fresh Water River at the 
 head of Paterson Inlet in April, 1901. In the following year twelve 
 more from the Werribee Park herd were liberated in the same locality. 
 From a report made for the Southland Acclimatisation Society by 
 Mr Moorhouse, who inspected the Stewart Island herds in 1918, it 
 is evident that the deer are now very numerous in the wooded 
 northern and western parts of the island. Stewart Island is a sanctuary 
 for native birds, and this stocking of the island with deer means the 
 opening up of it to stalkers. Mr Woodhouse says : 
 
 Indications to be seen in this big belt of bush clearly go to prove that 
 the deer must be very numerous. Well-beaten tracks lead from the bush 
 to the various clearings, on which grow flax and a coarse tussock. In the 
 bush can be seen their various camping grounds, and the trees and shrubs 
 show where they have been feeding on the barks and leaves. 
 
 To the naturalist it is deplorable that an animal should have been 
 introduced into this sanctuary, which compels men with guns and 
 probably with dogs to go in, in order to keep them in check to 
 some extent. Writing to me in August, 1918, Mr Hardcastle says: 
 
 Deer increase more rapidly in New Zealand than in the northern 
 hemisphere. Whether there is a larger percentage of calves born, I cannot 
 say, probably there is, considering the conditions here. But the large
 
 UNGULATA 45 
 
 increase is mainly due to the hinds calving a year earlier. In Europe 
 hinds do not calve until they are three years old ; here they calve at two 
 years. I am speaking of Otago, and the conditions there are not as favourable 
 as further north. At sixteen months (April ist) a young hind is as large 
 as her mother ; and these young animals can only be distinguished by their 
 rounder and neater bodies, and the darker rufous colour of their hair. 
 They are quite big enough therefore to be served by a stag. Further there 
 are not more of these young hinds in a herd than would represent the female 
 progeny of one year. If they did not take the stag till they were twenty-eight 
 months old there would be so many more of them. 
 
 The great want of a deer herd is either proper culling by human agency 
 or the presence of carnivora to weed out the old and weakly, but above all 
 to break up the family life and prevent inbreeding. Left alone, deer adopt 
 the family life, and where a hind has once bred she will stay, unless forced 
 away by one means or another. The pioneers of the herd in search of new 
 ground, where there is scope as in Otago, are the big stags, after they have 
 reached their third or fourth year, and are living for ten months away 
 from the hinds. They are followed by young hinds. An old hind on the 
 outskirts of the herd in the line of migration is a rarity. A young stag at 
 twenty-eight months will get a few hinds if he can; a forty months stag 
 will frequently have a good herd, and so will a fifty-two months (four 
 years old) stag. A strong three-year old, that is likely to grow into a good 
 shootable head, will, say in 1918, serve a number of hinds; in 1920 when 
 he is five, he will be serving his own daughters (a stag always makes back 
 to his previous year's rutting ground, if he is not driven off it). In 1922, 
 when he is seven and a quarter years of age, he will be serving his own 
 daughters and grand-daughters! As he only got his royal head at six 
 years, and it may take a few more years to grow it to its maximum weight, 
 he has escaped the stalker until he has done a considerable amount of 
 inbreeding. The opinion of those who have had much experience in Otago 
 is that most of the big heads are of deer that are between eight and twelve 
 years of age. Many of them show signs of their teeth going, and as stags 
 are said to live well over twenty years, one would not expect to see the teeth 
 much worn in the first half of its life. Of course, only a certain percentage 
 of stags get good heads, and, of course, the inferior are left. 
 
 In the case of the largest herds attempts are continually being made 
 to thin out the weeds and deer with malformed antlers. Some mal- 
 forms arise from injury to the horns during the velvet stage of growth, 
 but this injury is often due to the fact of the deer being a weedy 
 specimen in the first instance and in poor condition. Polled stags, 
 that is those without antlers at all, are occasionally met with, but these 
 have apparently suffered from lack of food in the early stages of their 
 growth , for there is no doubt that in some parts the country is already 
 greatly overstocked and severe winters reduce the deer to a poor 
 condition. Mr Hardcastle says: 
 
 the great majority of malforms are malformed in the skull itself, and not 
 merely in the bones. A common form is for the pedicle to be misplaced,
 
 46 MAMMALIA 
 
 nearly always being in front of its proper position, and sometimes as low 
 as just above the brow. The horn of the misplaced pedicle is sometimes a 
 switch, and grows either up or down over the face. Sometimes the pedicle 
 is bent outwards, I have never seen it bent in or back. Sometimes mal- 
 forms have three distinct pedicles and horns, and four have been found; 
 unicorns are also not uncommon. In nearly all these cases there is no 
 apparent sign of injury, nor would it be possible to misplace the pedicle 
 without killing the animal. The country where malforms appear most in 
 Otago, is open tussock and open birch (Nothofagus) bush. Malforms, 
 except an odd one or two that have probably migrated from more over- 
 stocked country, are not to be found in the rugged gorges of the Hunter 
 or the Makarora. They did not appear in the rough and dense bush country 
 in the Wairarapa until a few years ago, when the bush was more cleared, 
 and sheep competed more strongly with the deer for food. We do not 
 know whether the defects of the skull are hereditary or not, but from the 
 fact that there are so many to be found in different types, one would think 
 they are. Another question is whether the calf is born with the defect, or 
 at what time it begins to manifest itself. Want of nourishment either in 
 quantity or quality of food rapidly leads to degeneration in stags' heads, 
 and in deer generally, but why it should affect the bone of the head in the 
 way it does is remarkable. 
 
 It is clear that there are several distinct strains of red deer in the 
 country, recognised chiefly by the form and growth of the antlers, 
 which are chiefly what sportsmen look to. This mixing of breeds 
 probably tends to the production of a strong race, and the efforts 
 of the main societies are directed, often, it must be admitted, rather 
 blindly, to the elimination of defective deer. In the 1918-19 season 
 the Otago Society had 1000 head shot in the Hunter Valley Makarora 
 herd and 667 head in 1919-20. The problem is an interesting one 
 from the eugenic standpoint. 
 
 The vast number of red deer found in New Zealand enables the 
 various leading societies to offer shooting privileges to sportsmen, who 
 come from all parts to enjoy this form of sport. The attraction of 
 red deer shooting is now to be reckoned as one of the assets of the 
 country from a tourist's point of view. 
 
 Effect of deer on the native vegetation. In the North Island 
 it is stated that Fuchsia is the principal food of the deer in spring and 
 summer, but that in winter they take to Koromiko (Veronica salici- 
 folia) and other shrubs. Probably they eat the majority of the native 
 shrubs in the bush, but how far they destroy the vegetation of the 
 higher country is not recorded. They are reported as not caring very 
 much for grass. In the North Otago forest the following are mainly 
 eaten: broadleaf (Griselinia), native gum (species of Panax), ribbon- 
 wood (Gay a Lyallii), various species of Coprosma, pepper tree (Drimys 
 color ata), milk tree (Paratrophis heterophylla) and Tutu (Coriaria).
 
 UNGULATA 47 
 
 But when these are scarce they will eat almost any shrub. They will 
 not eat birch or beech (Nothofagus sp.) nor celery- leaved pine 
 (Phyllocladus), till other food is exhausted. In the thickly-stocked 
 districts all the undergrowth of the bush, as high as the deer can 
 reach, is eaten out by them, and this is mostly done in the winter, 
 when the high open country is covered with snow and they take to 
 the forest for food and shelter. For the rest of the year the grass 
 country is in the undisturbed possession of the deer, as they have 
 no sheep to compete with them for the food. Mr B. C. Aston in an 
 account of the crossing of the Ruahine Range in January, 1914, says: 
 
 After getting up about 3200 feet in Fagus fusca and Fagus cliffortioides 
 forest, where there was a sprinkling of Phyllocladus alpinus saplings, we 
 found many with the bark rubbed off, which R. A. Wilson (an experienced 
 deer-stalker) informed me was done by the deer, which always select this 
 tree to rub their horns on. Mr Wilson was surprised that the deer in this 
 district had left bunches of Loranthus flavidus and L. tetrapetalus hanging 
 within reach, whereas in the South Island they are so fond of Loranthus, 
 that they are frequently found hanging by the feet, caught in the Fagus 
 trees in an endeavour to jump higher. . . .On an open clearing at a height 
 of 4000 feet, where there was an abundance of Aciphylla squarrosa and 
 Hierochloe redolens growing together, we found the deer had eaten the 
 grass back into the Aciphylla, until the spinous leaves of the latter had 
 pricked their noses. 
 
 Mr Hansen, lighthouse keeper at Cape Palliser, reports (April, 1911) 
 on the Waitutumai Creek, the gully of which is here eight miles 
 long, three miles broad, and surrounded by hills from 2000 to 3000 
 feet high and completely bush-clad: 
 
 The terraces have been made passable by the Red Deer, which have 
 
 eaten away all the lower branches and foliage There are no pines, ratas, 
 
 fuchsias, native currants or other berry-bearing trees, on which many 
 native birds make a living. There are no native birds seen, except a few 
 bush-wrens, and one tui was heard. Silence reigned. The deer, mostly 
 stags, come out of the forest from the middle of September to the end of 
 January, when they are in the 'velvet,' and are very tame. 
 
 W. G. Morrison of Hamner Springs in giving evidence before the 
 Royal Commission on Forestry in 1913, said the red deer were very 
 destructive to forests both of indigenous and planted trees. They 
 were particularly fond of Nothopanax Colensoi, and stripped them 
 to a height of 9 ft. the trees mostly dying. He had counted as many 
 as 15 trees damaged in a space of 20 yards square. They also destroyed 
 larch and Pinus laricio. 
 
 * Fallow Deer (Cervus damd) 
 
 Hon. S. Thorne George, who lived on Kawau from 1869 to 1884, 
 says that the first fallow deer in the colony were introduced there
 
 48 MAMMALIA 
 
 by his uncle Sir Geo. Grey; but he cannot give the exact date of 
 their introduction. In 1864 the Nelson Society received three fallow 
 deer from England, and from these there has descended a well-known 
 herd, but I cannot find any record of the increase and disposal of 
 the original importation. In 1867 the Otago Society introduced two 
 deer, in 1869 twelve, and in 1871 one. All these were liberated on the 
 Blue Mountains, Tapanui, where they have increased to a vast extent, 
 and now form one of the most important herds in New Zealand. 
 Licences to shoot them have been issued for over 25 years. The most 
 recent report (1921) from this district is that so many deer are being 
 shot by the settlers that the herd is threatened with extinction. In 
 1871 the Canterbury Society had four fallow deer in their gardens, 
 but there is no record now obtainable as to where they came from, 
 nor definitely as to what was done with them. But in later years some 
 were running on the Culverden Estate and two more deer obtained 
 from Tasmania were added to them. This herd did not increase, 
 and apparently has been gradually destroyed since. In 1876 the 
 Auckland Society received 28 deer (out of 33 shipped from London), 
 and liberated 18 on the Maungakawa Range, Waikato; while 10 were 
 sent down to Wanganui. The former herd has increased very largely, 
 and is noted for the fine heads of the stags, due, no doubt, to the 
 abundance of food and the favourable climatic conditions. The Wan- 
 ganui herd is now also a large one. On Motutapu in the Hauraki Gulf, 
 there is a very large herd numbering a thousand or more, and these 
 were probably obtained in the first instance from the Waikato herd. 
 Smaller, more recently established herds occur near Timaru, Hokitika 
 and Lake Wakatipu. It is thus seen that the species is widely spread. 
 Mr Hardcastle informs me that the rutting season for fallow deer is 
 about April i3th to i5th, depending upon the weather. Frosty nights 
 and clear days bring both fallow deer and red deer into season a 
 little earlier, while warm weather delays the rut. 
 
 Axis Deer or " Chital " (Cervus axis) 
 
 In 1867 the Otago Society imported seven of these deer, which 
 were liberated in the Goodwood Bush near Palmerston S. In 1871 
 another stag was landed and added to the herd, which at that time 
 numbered about 30. In 1881 the inspector reported that he had 
 seen over 40. Then complaints began to come in from the settlers 
 that the deer were a nuisance, and their numbers gradually diminished. 
 Gradually they disappeared, apparently destroyed by the settlers in 
 the district, and none has been seen for the last 20 years. In 1898 
 the Wellington Society received a pair from the Zoological Society
 
 UNGULATA 49 
 
 of Calcutta, and placed them on Kapiti Island in Cook Strait. They 
 had not increased by 1902. In 1907 the Tourist Department liberated 
 five deer at Mount Tongariro in the North Island; and in 1909 five 
 at Dusky Sound in the South Island. No reports have as yet been 
 received regarding either of these experiments. 
 
 * Sambur Deer or Sambar (Cervus unicolor) 
 In 1875 tne Auckland Society received a buck from a Mr Lark- 
 worthy, and in the following year a doe. There is no further record 
 of these deer in the Society's reports 1 . But in the annual report of 
 the Wellington Society for 1894 it is stated: 
 
 The Ceylon Elk (Sambur Deer) imported into the Carnarvon district, 
 Manawatu, by Mr Larkworthy, have been brought under the provisions 
 of the Animals Protection Act, and are at present under the control of 
 the Society. It has been reported that the herd now numbers about thirty. 
 
 There is no word of these deer in any previous report of the Wellington 
 Society. Then in 1900 the herd is reported to number about 100, 
 " but there is good reason to think that they are really more numerous. 
 . . .A pair of antlers were found on the hills near Cambridge, and 
 two deer were shot there," some 200 miles from Carnarvon. 
 
 In 1906 the Wellington Society (Marton Branch) reported that 
 "Stag-shooting (Sambur) was opened for the first time this season 
 in this district,. . .but we fear that numbers of stags have been shot 
 by persons unauthorised to do so." This poaching has gone on 
 regularly for many years past, and though the herd seems now a 
 fairly large one, the local rangers complain of indiscriminate destruc- 
 tion in season and out of season. In 1907 the Tourist Department 
 imported two deer (from Noumea) and liberated them in the Rotorua 
 district, adding to them some others secured in the Manawatu, so 
 as to form the nucleus of a new herd. 
 
 * Wapiti or Elk (Cervus canadensis) 
 
 Sir George Grey introduced a pair of these deer into Kawau 
 Island some time in the seventies. The doe died, and the buck had 
 
 1 The difficulty of getting accurate and authoritative information on this subject 
 is characteristic of the manner in which many of the reports of the acclimatisation 
 societies have been kept. The governing bodies of these societies frequently included 
 enthusiasts who took an interest in the work of introducing what they considered 
 desirable forms of animals ; but the secretaries in many cases were selected for their 
 capacity in keeping the business of the society in order and in conducting corre- 
 spondence. The secretaries and the personnel of the committees were also frequently 
 changed. The result has been a great want of continuity in many cases, so that 
 there is now no consecutive record of the work done. Thus in the case of the Sambur 
 deer referred to, the only record of introduction is that of the two specimens 
 received by the Auckland Society in 1875-76; yet it is almost certain there were 
 others. If not, then all the Sambur in New Zealand up to 1907 were the progeny 
 of one pair, and of course are very closely interbred.
 
 50 MAMMALIA 
 
 to be shot as he became dangerous. In 1905 the Tourist Department 
 obtained 10 of these deer, three bucks and seven does (presented 
 by President Roosevelt), and liberated them at the head of George 
 Sound on the S.W. coast of the South Island. The country, which 
 is eminently suitable for all kinds of deer, is very seldom visited. 
 But Mr Moorhouse, Conservator of Fish and Game (Rotorua), who 
 was sent down by the Government in February, 1921, reports that 
 these deer are now well established in the neighbourhood of the 
 Sound. In April, 1921, they are reported to have crossed over into 
 the Lake Te Anau district. 
 
 Japanese Deer (Cervus mkd) 
 
 In 1885 the Otago Society received three of these deer from Mr J 
 Bathgate, and they were liberated on the Otekaike estate near Oamaru 
 Five years later they were reported as "doing well and growing into 
 a nice little herd." In the report for 1892 it is stated that "little or 
 nothing has been heard about these deer on the Otekaike estate." 
 Apparently they have all been destroyed as there is no further record 
 of them. In 1905 Government obtained six Japanese deer and liberated 
 them on the Kaimanawa Ranges, near Taupo. 
 
 Black-tailed Deer ; Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) 
 In 1905, five of these deer, purchased in America, were imported 
 by the Tourist Department and liberated at Tarawera, Hawke's Bay. 
 The Hawke's Bay Society reports them as increasing in March, 1915. 
 
 * Virginian Deer; White-tailed Deer (Cariacus virginianus; 
 
 Odocoileus virginianus) 
 
 The Tourist Department imported 18 of these deer in 1905. Of 
 these nine (two stags and seven hinds) were sent to Port Pegasus 
 on Stewart Island, and nine to the Rees Valley, Lake Wakatipu. There 
 is no further record regarding those in the last named locality; but 
 the herd in Stewart Island has increased greatly, and threatens to 
 destroy much of the vegetation, besides opening up the country 
 which is a reserve for native birds to deer-stalkers. 
 
 South American Deer (Cariacus chilensis) 
 
 In 1870 the Auckland Society received three South American 
 deer, probably of this species, from Mr W. A. Hunt. Beyond the 
 mention of their receipt, there is no further record of them. 
 
 * Moose; Elk (Alches machlis) 
 
 The first attempt to introduce these animals was made by the 
 Government in 1900, when 14 young ones were shipped on board 
 the 'Aorangi' at Vancouver. Owing, however, to the rough voyage
 
 UNGULATA 51 
 
 only four two bulls and two cows, nine months old arrived in 
 New Zealand. They were liberated in 1901 near Hokitika, but appear 
 soon to have separated, as in 1903, 'one cow was in one district, 
 another at the gorge of the Hokitika River, while nothing was known 
 of the bulls. In 1913 the cow at the junction of the Hokitika and 
 Trews rivers was "in splendid condition, and as tame as a kitten." 
 The others seem to have disappeared. In 1910 the Government 
 obtained ten more, and these were liberated on the shores of Dusky 
 Sound. Mr Moorhouse found (in February, 1921) that these deer 
 were in considerable numbers round the Sound. Their food seems to 
 consist of certain mosses, and the tops and ends of punga ferns 
 (Cyathea dealbatd). 
 
 Family BOVIDJE 
 Gnu (Connocheetes gnu) 
 
 Sir George Grey introduced one or more of these quaint animals 
 into Kawau about 1870, but there is apparently no record of what 
 happened to them. 
 
 * Ox (Bos taurus) 
 
 From the earliest days of settlement, cattle were run in large 
 numbers on the open country, seldom seeing men, and running 
 practically wild. They were gathered together by stockmen at certain 
 times of the year in order to brand the calves, castrate the young 
 bulls, and separate marketable animals. Otherwise they ran wild, 
 each herd or mob occupying its own particular area of country, and 
 this they kept to, except in winter, when they roamed into the forest 
 and fed on Panax, Melicytus, and other trees, of which they are very 
 fond. It was inevitable that numbers of them should become truly 
 wild, escaping altogether from the musterers, and getting right away 
 into the back country. Consequently wild cattle have been very 
 abundant in all the back country for the last seventy years. 
 
 Apparently the first recorded introduction of cattle into New 
 Zealand took place at the Bay of Islands, for the Rev. R. Taylor says 
 that Marsden brought them over from New South Wales. This must 
 have been in the twenties of last century. Dr McNab states that on 
 30th March, 1833, John Bell set out from Sydney for Mana Island 
 with ten head of cattle. He adds: 
 
 With the exception of the domestic animals which accompanied the 
 expeditions of Cook and Vancouver, this is the first record of any such 
 having been taken to New Zealand, though it is incredible that sheep, 
 cattle, goats and rabbits were unknown at the shore whaling stations of 
 Preservation, Otago, Cloudy Bay, Queen Charlotte Sound and Kapiti. 
 
 42
 
 52 MAMMALIA 
 
 E. J. Wakefield saw wild cattle in 1839 on tne hills at the entrance 
 of Pelorus Sound. In 1840 he states that they were abundant on 
 Kapiti, and that they were the descendants of some given to the 
 natives there in exchange for flax. I recall in 1868 how they used 
 to come out of the Southland bushes during the winter season to 
 feed on the paddocks of English grass. They raided these during the 
 night, and when disturbed in the morning used to jump the fences and 
 ditches just like deer. The Hon. S. Thorne George, M.L.C., writes 
 (February, 1916): "When I first went to Kawau (1869) there was a 
 large number of wild cattle. The island was originally occupied as a 
 cattle station, but owing to the rough country and heavy bush, very 
 many were lost and became quite wild." Mr A. C. Yarborough of 
 Kohu Kohu informs me (August, 1916) that 40 years ago wild cattle 
 were very numerous in all thebush country, and in those days Hokianga 
 and the West Coast were nearly all covered with bush. The natives 
 used to kill them in large quantities for the sake of their hides, which 
 were valued at from 6s. to 125. each. In later years these wild cattle 
 have been driven further and further back, until they are now found 
 only in the ranges distant from settlement. These cattle are merely 
 the descendants of tame ones which have wandered the Maoris' 
 fences being usually of a defective character and are not of any 
 distinct character. Wild cattle are found in the high country between 
 Lake Wakatipu and the West Coast. Their tracks were numerous 
 in the Valley of the Rockburn. 
 
 Cattle were first introduced into Chatham Island in 1841, and 
 soon became wild; and they used to be trapped by the natives in 
 the early sixties. Wild cattle are now very numerous on the table land. 
 
 In regard to the Southern Islands, cattle were landed on the 
 Auckland Islands in 1850 by Captain Enderby, but they were all 
 killed off by sealers. In 1894, cattle were landed from the ' Hinemoa ' 
 on Enderby Island and Rose Island, where (according to Cockayne) 
 these were about 10 and 15 head respectively in 1903. Aston says 
 that on Enderby Island they have exterminated the tussocks of Poa 
 littorosa. Cattle were landed on Antipodes Island at various times 
 between 1886 and 1900, but they either died or were killed off by cast- 
 aways. Three more were landed in 1903 ; these have disappeared also. 
 
 Effect of Cattle on Native Vegetation. Aston, who was over 
 the country in 1914 and 1915, says: 
 
 Wild cattle are abundant in unfrequented valleys and gorges of the 
 Tararua Range. They are apparently Hereford cattle gone wild. They eat 
 out many species of native plants, and have destroyed great numbers of 
 Ligusticum dissectum, which is one of the most abundant and characteristic 
 plants of the higher ground.
 
 UNGULATA 53 
 
 He adds: 
 
 Cattle are particularly fond of certain native trees and shrubs, e.g., 
 Tahoe or Hina hina, Melicytus ramiflorus; Karamu, Coprosma grandifolia 
 and C. tenuifolia\ Broadleaf, Griselinia littoralis, Mangrove, Avicennia 
 officinalis; Tawa, Beilschmiedia tazva; and Karaka, Corynocarpus leevigata. 
 
 According to Mr Maxwell, caretaker of the Waipoua Kauri Forest 
 Reserve, cattle eat out the following plants from the undergrowth 
 of the forest: Melicytus ramiflorus, Pittosporum tenuifolium, Hoheria 
 populnea, Coriaria ruscifolia, Corynocarpus leevigata, Panax (Notho- 
 panax) arboreum, Schefflera digitata, Coprosma robusta, Myrsine 
 (Rapanea) Urvillei, Olea lanceolata, Geniostoma ligustrifolia, Solanum 
 aviculare, Veronica salicifolia, Vitex lucens, Freycinetia Banksii, and 
 Cyathea medullaris. In addition to these, cattle chew the leaves of 
 bracken fern (Pteris aquilina), of the flax (Phormium tenax)and cabbage 
 tree (Cordyline australis)\ and occasionally eat Ngaio (Myoporum 
 Icetum) and anise (Angelica gingidium). 
 
 * Common Sheep (Ovis sp.) 
 
 The first attempt to introduce sheep into New Zealand was made 
 by Captain Cook on his second voyage, and was unsuccessful. He 
 brought away two rams and four ewes from the Cape of Good Hope, 
 but by the time the 'Resolution' entered Dusky Sound in March, 
 1773, only a ram and an ewe survived, and they were in such a bad 
 state, "suffering from an inveterate sea-scurvy," that their teeth were 
 loose, and they could not eat the green food which was given to them. 
 Forster in his Journalstates that they "were in so wretched a condition, 
 that their further preservation was very doubtful." However, they 
 must have improved, for considering the country about Dusky Sound 
 too rough and forest-clad for them, Cook took them on to Queen 
 Charlotte Sound, which was entered on i8th May. In his Journal 
 he says : 
 
 On the 22nd in the morning, the ewe and ram, I had with so much 
 care and trouble brought to this place, were both found dead, occasioned, 
 as was supposed, by eating some poisonous plant. Thus my hopes of 
 stocking this country with a breed of sheep were blasted in a moment. 
 
 According to the Rev. R. Taylor, Marsden brought over a merino 
 ram and four ewes from Sydney in the twenties. These animals, 
 which were a present from the King, were the originals of the first 
 flock of sheep in New Zealand. I cannot find when sheep were next 
 brought into the Colony, but as soon as settlement began they were 
 imported freely from New South Wales. In those early days fences 
 were very rough, and little or no attempt was made to keep the sheep
 
 54 MAMMALIA 
 
 within enclosures. They were therefore allowed to roam freely over 
 the open country, and were only mustered at rare intervals for shearing, 
 tailing the lambs, etc. It was inevitable, therefore, that numbers 
 escaped the musterers, especially on high and inaccessible country, 
 and that thus wild sheep became very common, especially in the 
 mountain districts of the South Island. 
 
 Twenty or thirty years ago when the minds of naturalists were 
 saturated with Darwinian views, it was somewhat confidently antici- 
 pated that isolation would lead to the rapid development of new 
 varieties and species, and that such changes might well be looked 
 for in New Zealand. At the meeting of the Australasian Association 
 in Christchurch in 1891, 1 read a paper " on some Aspects of Acclima- 
 tisation in New Zealand " from which I take the following extract : 
 
 In the district of Strath-Taieri, in Otago, some years ago, certain sheep 
 on one of the runs probably the progeny of a single ram were found 
 to be evidently short-winded. Apparently the action of the heart was 
 defective, for, when these sheep were driven, they would run with the rest 
 of the flock for a short distance, and then lie down panting. The result of 
 this peculiar affection was that, at nearly every mustering, these short- 
 winded sheep used to be left behind, being unable to be driven with the 
 rest. Sometimes they were brought on more slowly afterwards; but, if it 
 happened to be shearing-time, they were simply caught and shorn where 
 they lay. As a result of this peculiar condition, a form of artificial selection 
 was set up, the vigorous, active sheep being constantly drafted away for 
 sale, etc., while this defective strain increased with great rapidity through- 
 out the district; for, whenever the mobs were mustered for the market, 
 shearing, or drafting, these "cranky" sheep (as they came to be called) 
 were left behind. This defective character appeared in every succeeding 
 generation, and seemed to increase in force, reminding one of the Ancon 
 sheep referred to by Darwin. At first, of course, the character was not 
 recognized as hereditary; but, as the numbers of this "cranky" breed 
 increased to a very serious extent and spread over the district, it came at 
 last to be recognized as a local variety. When the runs on which these 
 sheep were abundant were cut up and sold, or re-leased in smaller areas, 
 the purchasers found it necessary, for the protection of their own interests, 
 to exterminate the variety, of which hundreds were found straggling over 
 the country. This was easily and effectually done in the following manner. 
 As soon as a sheep was observed it was pursued ; but, after running for a 
 couple of hundred yards at a great rate of speed, it would drop down panting 
 behind a big stone or other shelter, and seemed incapable for a time of 
 rising and renewing its flight. It was immediately destroyed ; and, in this 
 manner a useless but, to the naturalist, a very interesting variety was 
 eliminated. 
 
 Wild sheep are still abundant in some of the wilder parts of the 
 country, and are especially numerous in the high limestone country 
 of Marlborough. Mr Aston says:
 
 UNGULATA 55 
 
 On the North-west side of Isolated Hill is a gently-sloping tussock land 
 stretching down towards the Ure river, on which are hundreds of wild 
 sheep in small flocks of about half-a-dozen in each. All, rams, ewes, and 
 particularly the lambs, are, as far as we could see, in excellent condition. 
 Some were curiously marked and coloured. One had a brown body, black 
 legs and face, and white forehead. The rams had large horns, and all were 
 tamer than ordinary domestic sheep. Their food appears to consist of the 
 Silver Tussock, Poa ccespitosa, which was well eaten down; a Poa like P. 
 colensoi; the Spear Grass, Aciphylla Colensoi; and several other native plants 
 and shrubs. 
 
 In another place he says: "these sheep destroy the Gaya trees" 
 (the mountain ribbon-wood, Gaya Lyallii), " by eating the bark, which 
 we watched one stripping off in large sheets." 
 
 Sheep have been liberated on the Auckland Islands at various 
 times since 1890, and on the Antipodes between 1886 and 1900, but 
 they either died off or were killed by castaways. They were also 
 liberated on Campbell Island between 1888 and 1890. In 1896 the 
 island was taken up as a sheep run (a piece of vandalism on the part 
 of the man who did it, and the Government which granted it), and 
 in 1903 there were about 4500 sheep on it. The changes produced in 
 the vegetation have been described and discussed at length by Dr 
 Cockayne. In 1907, according to Laing, there were some 8000 sheep 
 on the island, and the transformation and destruction of the native 
 flora was going on at a great rate. 
 
 They were introduced into Chatham Island in the early forties, 
 but as late as 1855 there were only about 200 of them. When sheep 
 stations were organised in 1866 there were about 2000 on the island, 
 and by 1900 they had increased to about 60,000, and a number of them 
 were wild. They have profoundly altered the native vegetation by 
 eating 'out many species, such as Myosotidium nobile, Aciphylla 
 Traversii, Veronica Dieffenbachii and allied species, all of which they 
 eat greedily. 
 
 At the present time (1919) several hundred wild sheep are running on 
 the island of Kapiti which is now a plant and animal sanctuary. Steps are 
 being taken to destroy these animals. Nearly all of them carry long, 
 filthy dags ; very many of them have the wool torn more or less completely 
 from the back by the bushes. Not only do they prevent to a very large 
 extent the growth of young trees, but they open up the forest to the sweep 
 of the wind. They prepare it for invasion by grass, tauhinu (Pomaderris 
 phyliccefolia), manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), and other hardy plants. 
 Although the manuka is one of the least objectionable of these invaders, 
 yet in dry situations, such as some of the spurs, where it harbours no moss 
 or liverworts, ve'ry little humus is formed, and that little is quickly washed 
 away by rain. On some spurs for example, on one just south of Waterfall 
 where manuka has replaced the forest, much soil has been removed,
 
 56 MAMMALIA 
 
 and in no great time the manuka itself will be unable to retain its footing. 
 In such cases the manuka marks a phase in the passage to utter barrenness. 
 
 I quote this from the report on Kapiti Island recently made by 
 Professor H. B. Kirk and Mr W. E. Bendall, as showing the far- 
 reaching effects of introduced animal life on the physiography of the 
 country. 
 
 In connection with the introduction of sheep into New Zealand, 
 it is of interest to note the remarkable development of the carnivorous 
 habit in the kea or mountain parrot (Nestor), a bird which originally 
 fed, chiefly, if not exclusively, on a vegetable diet. In 1867 it was 
 observed in regard to certain sheep in the Wanaka district of Otago 
 that they were wounded or badly scarred on the loins. It was found 
 that this was done by keas, which lighted on the backs of the sheep, 
 and attacked them with their powerful beaks. Many shepherds in 
 the district saw the birds attack the sheep, especially when the latter 
 were in snow or were in poor condition. The keas lighted down on 
 the wool, and bit into the loin generally above the kidneys. Numbers 
 of sheep succumbed to the injuries received, the loss in the Lake 
 Hawea region being estimated at 5 per cent, annually over the whole 
 of the flocks. In the Amuri highlands in North Canterbury the annual 
 loss of *j\ to 8 per cent, was estimated to have risen to 15 per cent, 
 in 1906. All keas do not attack sheep. The habit was originally 
 acquired in the Wanaka district, and spread from there; but it has 
 now been recorded from the Takitimos in the south to Amuri in 
 the north. The origin of the habit is not very clear, but it is probable 
 that it was first learned by keas picking the fat off sheep-skins which 
 were hung on stockyards or on the wire fences, that then they 
 attacked dead sheep which are common enough in the high country, 
 especially, after heavy snowfalls and that from these they learned 
 to attack living sheep. Keas shot on mountain country have often 
 beenfound to have a good deal of both flesh and wool in their stomachs, 
 but it is quite possible that this has been taken from carcasses lying 
 in the snow drifts, where they are often preserved for a long time. 
 
 Bharal ; Himalayan Bhurrel Sheep ; Blue Sheep (Ovis nayaur} 
 
 In 1909 the Tourist Department liberated three of these animals 
 in the Mount Cook district. Mr J. R. Murrell, guide at the Hermitage, 
 writing in October, 1915, says : " Three were liberated, one of which was 
 in poor health. Another was caught disturbing ewes on a neighbouring 
 station, and was perhaps destroyed. The third has not been seen since 
 being liberated."
 
 UNGULATA 57 
 
 * Goat (Capra esgagrus) 
 
 The introduction of goats dates from Captain Cook's second 
 voyage. He says in his Journal: 
 
 On 2nd June, 1773, I sent on shore, on the East side of the Sound, 
 (Queen Charlotte), two goats male and female. The former was something 
 more than a year old, but the latter was much older. She had two fine 
 kids some time before we arrived in Dusky Bay, which were killed by 
 cold. 
 
 Forster in his Journal says they were left by Captain Furneaux in 
 an unfrequented part of East Bay, " this place being fixed on in hopes 
 that they would there remain unmolested by the natives, who indeed 
 were the only enemies they had to fear." 
 
 On the third voyage, the 'Resolution' was in Queen Charlotte 
 Sound from the i2th to 25th February, 1777, and Captain Cook says: 
 
 I gave Matahouah two goats, a male and a female with kid, (and to 
 Tomatongeauooranuc two pigs, a boar and a sow). They made me a 
 promise not to kill them; though I must own I put no great faith in this. 
 The animals which Captain Furneaux sent on shore here, and which soon 
 after fell into the hands of the natives, I was now told were all dead. 
 
 It is popularly believed that all the wild goats of New Zealand 
 are descended from those introduced by Captain Cook, but while 
 this may be partly true of those in the South Island, especially at 
 its northern end, it can hardly explain those found in the North 
 Island. It is more likely that they are descended from escaped 
 animals; they are now abundant in many parts of New Zealand. 
 Mr F. G. Gibbs tells me that goats were imported into Nelson some 
 time in the forties. "In the fifties a large number were kept 
 tethered on some hills in the Maitai Valley, still called the Goat 
 Hills. Some of these goats escaped into the back country, and were 
 the progenitors of the wild goats." 
 
 In the high country of Marlborough they are mainly of three 
 colours, black -which is perhaps the commonest khaki and white. 
 In a trip through the canon of the Ure River, Mr B. C. Aston says: 
 "the fusillades of stones showered down on us by the goats which 
 we had disturbed were a source of ever present danger." 
 
 Great numbers of them are to be met with in the rocky and 
 precipitous country at Palliser Bay, near Wellington. Except when 
 they move they are difficult to see, as their colours blend almost 
 undistinguishably with that of their natural surroundings. They are 
 abundant on Kapiti Island and unfortunately are also common in 
 the Mt Egmont reserve, where they are doing much damage. 
 
 They also occur, though not commonly, on the sparsely scrub-
 
 58 MAMMALIA 
 
 clad faces of the west coast, north and south of Hokianga, as well as 
 on the outskirts of bush land. They are not therefore considered to 
 be of any commercial value. 
 
 Writing of those in the Lake Wakatipu district, Mr L. Hotop of 
 Queenstown says (April, 1916): 
 
 There is an immense number spread all over the Lakes district, a 
 
 moderate estimate gives them as many as 30,000 They are principally 
 
 at Moonlight, Skippers, Sandhills, and at the lower end of the Lake, 
 seriously interfering with the pasturage in these localities; one runholder 
 has paid year after year for as many as a thousand during the season. 
 At Moonlight, a digger, during the past nine months, has shot 550. My 
 informant tells me he was offered 2s. ^d. a skin for as many as he could send. 
 
 Mr W. H. Gates of Skippers writes (April, 1916): 
 
 there are a lot of wild goats here, almost within rifle-range of my cabin .... 
 One sheep-farmer gave a shilling per pair of ears, and a shilling for each 
 pelt. The male is a rough-looking customer; some have horns 15 inches 
 in length, and 2\ inches by if inches at the root; and they grow in a slightly 
 spiral form .... I think there is a strain of many breeds running through 
 them all. Some have long hair, but are not the Angora breed. Some are 
 almost white, but the chief colours are black and white, or black and tan. 
 I have noticed here (and also on the West Coast) that the female has her 
 young in winter, when food is not plentiful. Why this is I never could 
 understand. 
 
 Goats are still found wild on the Galloway Station, Central Otago, 
 though not so abundant as in former years. They live in the high 
 country, and do not come down to the settlements. Mr A. Gunn, 
 who managed this large run for many year-s, tells me: 
 
 they are of great use to sheep farmers, as they keep down the "lawyers" 
 (Rubus australis), and thus save the sheep from being entangled. In shooting 
 them, if the wind is coming from them, you can smell them before you 
 see them; and while they are feeding a billy-goat is always standing on 
 guard. While they are of all colours, black and white is the commonest, 
 though brownish- red, grey and even occasionally a white one are found. 
 They live in the roughest places they can find. 
 
 They are also found in considerable numbers round the south- 
 west corner of the South Island, but whether they have escaped from 
 the settlements about Preservation Inlet, or have worked overland 
 from Southland it is not possible to say with certainty. Probably the 
 former is the explanation of their occurrence from Puysegur Point 
 inland. 
 
 Mr W. R. Bullen of Kaikoura informs me (August, 1916) that they 
 are numerous on his run, but while they eat very much the same food 
 as the sheep do, they keep the scrub and bush open, so that the sheep 
 can move through it.
 
 UNGULATA 59 
 
 The attempts made from time to time to acclimatise goats on 
 the out-lying Southern Islands are of interest. Captain Enderby 
 landed some on Enderby Island in 1850, and Captain Norman landed 
 them both on the Auckland and Enderby Islands in 1865, but none 
 appears to have survived. Cockayne says : " Two or three were landed 
 on Ewing Island in 1895, but none have been seen recently. On 
 Ocean Island, a very small island in the Auckland Group, goats are 
 numerous at the present time, but I have no details as to how they 
 got there." Captain Bollons writing me in February, 1916, speaks 
 also of the last-named island, and adds: 
 
 Goats have been sent down from time to time to the Auckland Islands 
 since 1890, most of which have either died or been killed off for food 
 by castaways. At the Snares they were liberated about 1889, but soon 
 died off. At Campbell Island some were landed in 1888 and 1890, and 
 several were alive when the main island was taken up for a sheep run in 
 1896. At the Antipodes several were liberated between 1886 and 1900, 
 but were either used for food by the castaways or died off. 
 
 Special breeds of Goats. In 1867 the Canterbury Society intro- 
 duced three Cashmere goats, but it is not stated what was done with 
 them. In the same year they introduced a pair of Angora goats, 
 and these commenced to breed at once. From a newspaper cutting 
 dated 1876, I find that "a flock of 120 Angora Goats on the Port 
 Hills (Lyttelton), chiefly descended from two pairs introduced into 
 New Zealand by the Melbourne Acclimatisation Society, has recently 
 been dispersed and sold." The Otago Society imported four in 1867, 
 and liberated them, but it is not stated where. The Auckland Society 
 in 1869 also imported a number, and sold them to a Mr Howick. 
 In addition to these, Angora goats were frequently introduced by 
 private individuals, and in some cases became wild. Mr Aston writes 
 (1916): "I hear that the Angora is hybridizing with the common 
 goat in some parts of Maryborough." In the report of the Agricultural 
 Department for 1903 it is stated: 
 
 The original flock (of Angora Goats) imported from Victoria and South 
 Australia has now assumed considerable proportions, partly through the 
 natural increase and the purchase of nineteen grade nannies from Mr 
 Taylor White, of Wimbledon, Hawke's Bay. . . .The mob has been running 
 
 at the Weraroa Experimental Station up till now The usual wire fence 
 
 will not keep them in, consequently wire netting must be resorted to. . . . A 
 few of the ordinary goats, with a pure Angora billy, have been sent to the 
 natives in the Urewera Country, Bay of Plenty. If not allowed to run mid 
 they should in a few years become of some commercial value. 
 
 No native fence will keep a goat in. The Angora goat is now being 
 bred in fairly large numbers especially in the Auckland province in
 
 60 MAMMALIA 
 
 order to keep the blackberry pest in check. They are usually 
 tethered close to the bushes, and shifted frequently as they eat them 
 down. The total number of these animals registered in the Dominion 
 in 1917 was only 6836. 
 
 *Thar; Himalayan Goat (Capra jemlaicd) 
 
 In 1904 six of these animals were received from the Duke of 
 Bedford, and were liberated near the Hermitage, Mt Cook. In 1913 
 three more were liberated near the Franz Joseph Glacier. Mr J. R. 
 Murrell, guide at the Hermitage, writing in October, 1915, says: 
 
 Other guides and I saw a few days ago a nice "mob" of 13 Thar on 
 the Sealey Range ; these were in the pink of condition and doubtless will 
 become plentiful. Previously a much larger number were seen, but doubt- 
 less there are a number of mobs on this range. 
 
 By the end of 1920 these herds had increased very considerably. 
 
 * Chamois (Rupicapra rupicaprd) 
 
 In 1888 enquiries were set on foot by the late Sir Julius von Haast 
 and the author with the object of obtaining chamois for New Zealand. 
 Dr von Hochstetter of Vienna who was communicated with was 
 hopeful of obtaining some partially-tame animals from the King of 
 Bavaria's park near Munich, and arrangements were made with 
 Hagenbeck of Hamburg for their transmission to the Colony. To 
 meet the expenses of shipment a vote of 150 was placed on the 
 estimates by the Government, and the passage of this vote through 
 the House of Representatives led to a scene of historic interest, and 
 one of the most amusing incidents in the history of the House. The 
 vote was objected to by Mr Kerr, member for Motueka, a goldfield's 
 representative more remarkable for his vigour than for his knowledge 
 or the accuracy of his information. The following is an extract from 
 the New Zealand Times of 28th June, 1889 : 
 
 MR KERR ON THE CHAMOIS 
 
 The vote of 150 appearing on the estimates for the importation of 
 Chamois afforded Mr Kerr an opportunity last night of protesting vigorously 
 against the introduction of more pests into the Colony. Amidst consider- 
 able merriment the honourable member said he was reliably informed that 
 this animal was a cross between a pig and a sheep, and that it bred scab ; 
 and, in case it might be a goat he reminded the Government that there 
 were already plenty of these animals running wild. The climax was reached 
 when Mr Kerr unsuspectingly quoted from the book handed to him by 
 Mr Turnbull (and which proved to be Mark Twain's Tramp Abroad) a 
 remarkable history of the habits of "small deer," under which name the 
 celebrated American humourist concealed the identity of the flea. "Was 
 it reasonable," Mr Kerr asked, "to spend money on the importation of
 
 UNGULATA 61 
 
 animals no bigger than a mustard seed ? " The House, however, was quite 
 resolved, and deliberately passed the vote, in spite of the earnest protests 
 of the member for Motueka 1 . 
 
 I cannot recall now, nor find any record, as to why the introduc- 
 tion of chamois was not carried out in 1889, but I think the cause 
 was that the animals could not be procured. No further attempt was 
 made till recently. In 1907, the Government received eight chamois, 
 a present from the Emperor of Austria, and these were liberated on 
 Mt Cook. In 1913, two more, from the same source, were received 
 and were set free in the same locality. Unfortunately one of the latter, 
 a buck, attacked a party of tourists near the Mueller Hut, and was 
 killed by the guide. It is most unusual for chamois to attack persons, 
 but this particular animal is believed to have been in captivity for 
 some years prior to importation. By latest reports (August, 1920) the 
 flock is increasing fast and the animals are in very fine condition, 
 herds of 30, 40 and 70 being noticed at one time. There is, therefore, 
 no doubt that this species will be shortly strongly established in the 
 Southern Alps. 
 
 Order CARNIVORA 
 Family FELID^E 
 * Cat (Felts catus) 
 
 Wild cats have been found in New Zealand from the early days 
 of settlement, though for long they never strayed very far from the 
 abodes of men. But after rabbits began to increase in many parts 
 at such a rate as to reduce the sheep-carrying capacity of the country, 
 sheep farmers began to purchase cats in the towns. These were taken 
 
 1 The passage which Mr Kerr quoted, in which he spoke of the animals he 
 objected to as "shammies," is as follows: 
 
 "Within a day or two I made another discovery. This was that the lauded 
 chamois is not a wild goat; that it is not a horned animal; that it is not shy; that it 
 does not avoid human society ; and that there is no peril in hunting it. The chamois 
 is a black or brown creature no bigger than a mustard seed ; you do not have to go 
 after it, it comes after you ; it arrives in vast herds and skips and scampers all over 
 your body inside your clothes ; thus it is not shy ; but extremely sociable ; it is not 
 afraid of man, on the contrary, it will attack him; its bite is not dangerous, but 
 neither is it pleasant ; its activity has not been overstated, if you try to put your 
 finger on it, it will skip a thousand times its own length at one jump, and no eye 
 is sharp enough to see where it lights. A great deal of romantic nonsense has been 
 written about the Swiss chamois and the perils of hunting it, whereas the truth 
 is that even women and children hunt it, and fearlessly; indeed, everybody hunts 
 it ; the hunting is going on all the time, day and night, in bed and out of it. It is 
 poetic foolishness to hunt it with a gun ; very few people do that ; there is not one 
 man in a million can hit it with a gun. It is much easier to catch it than it is to shoot 
 it, etc., etc., etc." 
 
 The same gentleman is credited with another amusing "acclimatisation" 
 blunder. When the Nelson Borough Council proposed to import half a dozen 
 Venetian Gondolas to be placed on the lake in the Public Gardens, he protested 
 against such extravagance " Why not import a pair, and then let Nature take its 
 course ? "
 
 62 MAMMALIA 
 
 out to the back country, turned out and fed for a time, till they were 
 established. No doubt some died, but most became more or less 
 wild and learned to subsist on the smaller animals of the neighbour- 
 hood. They certainly destroyed many young rabbits. They cleared 
 off the rats which were formerly so common, they also largely 
 exterminated native lizards, and did much to destroy many native 
 and introduced birds. Mr Chas. J. Peters, of Mount Somers, considers 
 that wild cats are far more effective in keeping down rabbits than 
 stoats and weasels, and estimates that a cat will kill more rabbits 
 in a month than one of the others will in six months. Dieffenbach, 
 writing of the Piako district (Auckland) in 1839, says: "the cats 
 which, on becoming wild, have assumed the streaky grey colour of 
 the original animal while in a state of nature, form a great obstacle 
 to the propagation of any new kinds of birds, and also tend to the 
 destruction of many indigenous species." This statement about the 
 colour of wild cats has been made much of. It is only true to a limited 
 extent, and I have always felt that such statements coming from a 
 traveller who had only limited means of observing the facts, and who 
 apparently founded his conclusions on a few isolated observations 
 of the settlers, are not always safe to generalise from. In this instance 
 they led Darwin (in The Variation of Plants and Animals under 
 Domestication) to quote him, and to use the statement as a proof of 
 the strong tendency to reversion shown by the cat when it escaped 
 from domestication. At the time Dieffenbach wrote, settlement was 
 quite in its infancy, and cats had not long been introduced. It is 
 probable, therefore, that his statement, whether the result of his own 
 or other people's observations, referred to cats which were themselves 
 the progeny of grey animals. It certainly is the case that in Central 
 Otago, where cats were freely liberated to cope with the rabbit pest, 
 animals of many colours are now found wild 1 . 
 
 Mr Robert Scott, M.P. for Otago Central, who had exceptional 
 opportunities for observing the facts, has recently given me most 
 interesting information regarding this question. He says : 
 the wild cat was no doubt the descendant of the shepherds' and miners' 
 tame cat. The predominating colour was grey-striped, or tiger-striped as 
 some people called them, occasionally yellow, and rarely black or black 
 and white. The time I write of was the seventies, say from 1870 on to 
 the time when poisoning the rabbits with phosphorized grain came in. 
 The cats, though not numerous, were fairly common especially in districts 
 where cover, such as fern and scrub, was plentiful. They grew to an 
 
 1 In a paper entitled "Red Cats and Disease" (Trans. N.Z. Inst. xxxi, p. 680), 
 Mr Richard Henry refers to the occurrence of distemper among wild cats at Mana- 
 pouri Station in 1881, and states that red cats which were always males seemed 
 to survive, when those of other colours succumbed to the disease. He also states 
 that cats which live wholly on rabbits are very liable to disease.
 
 CARNIVORA 63 
 
 immense size and were game to the last if attacked ; in fact no dog would 
 tackle one single-handed. They were always in the pink of condition, 
 which may be accounted for by the abundance of feed available in the shape 
 of wekas, ducks and rats, with perhaps a dead sheep or bullock occasionally. 
 When the rabbit poisoning came in that class or variety of cat disappeared 
 along with the wild pig and the weka. The reason for the extermination 
 of the cat is because it prefers the entrails to the flesh. Since that time up 
 to the present cats have been turned out in considerable numbers, but the 
 rabbit-trapping has effectually prevented their increase, and the survivors 
 still retain their original colours, that is black, black and white, grey, grey 
 and white, etc., but they are much smaller than the wild cat of forty years 
 ago. My opinion is that had the original cat survived till to-day the colour 
 would have invariably been grey, or rather grey-striped. 
 
 Mr H. C. Weir of Ida Valley Station, Otago, states that on high 
 country where rabbit-traps are seldom if ever used, they grow to a 
 very considerable size, and are most commonly of a grey colour, but 
 yellow, grey and white, and black are also to be met with. He adds: 
 " I cannot say I ever saw any approaching the tiger- like stripe of the 
 home country Wild Cat, and I have seen a good few of them in the 
 wilds of Sutherlandshire, Scotland." 
 
 Some people consider that wild cats are responsible for much of 
 the failure which has followed the constantly-renewed attempts to 
 naturalise game birds. At the annual meeting of the Wellington 
 Society in 1898, a member said: "cats are more destructive to game 
 than all the hawks, weasels and stoats in the colony. Most of the bush 
 coverts are full of these cats, a fact which he himself proved near 
 Fielding where, with the assistance of traps baited with smoked fish, 
 he caught many. " I think they may have contributed to some extent 
 to this failure, but only in a few parts of the country, and then chiefly 
 in the neighbourhood of settlements. I do not think wild cats have 
 had much to do with the extermination of game. 
 
 Mr B. C. Aston, in a paper on the Kaikoura Mountains, speaks 
 of the half-wild cats which are found about deserted fencers' and 
 musterers' camps, as retaining 
 
 all their love for man's comradeship if encouraged, but they invariably 
 refuse to eat anything that they have not killed themselves. They probably 
 exist on rabbits, birds and mice. As a result of their hunting habits their 
 chest and foreleg muscles are largely developed, and they have a different 
 look to the ordinary domestic cat, being leaner, and quicker in action. 
 
 When the Russian Commander Bellingshausen visited the Mac- 
 quaries in 1820 he found numbers of wild cats, which hid among the 
 foliage. There were at the time, however, two parties of traders (seal 
 hunters ?) on the island, one of 13 and the other of 27 men, and these 
 probably accounted for the cats.
 
 64 MAMMALIA 
 
 Captain Musgrave, who was a castaway from the schooner 
 'Grafton' when she was wrecked on the Auckland Islands in 1864, 
 found a cat in a trap, more than a year after the date of the wreck. 
 " She soon cleared the hut of mice, which were dreadfully common.'* 
 
 In 1868, H. H. Travers in his account of a visit to the Chatham 
 Islands states that wild cats were very abundant, and that they had 
 destroyed a great number of the indigenous birds. Mr F. A. D. Cox, 
 writing to Mr Jas. Drummond in 1911, from the Chatham Islands, 
 reports that on Mangare, a small island of the group, there is a colony 
 of tortoise-shell cats ; the progeny of some liberated on the island in 
 order to destroy the rabbits which were present in large numbers. 
 He adds: "I do not know whether they have succeeded in killing 
 out the rabbits, but they certainly have exterminated the small native 
 birds." Presumably the Chatham Island Fern-bird (Sphenaeacus rufes- 
 cens), which was only found on Mangare, has now ceased to exist. 
 Mr J. Grant of Wanganui informs me that cats frequently catch 
 eels; he has four or five direct observations of the fact (1918). Cats 
 are also responsible for the destruction of birds and tuataras on 
 Stephen's Island in Cook Strait, where they have exterminated the 
 little wren Trover sia Lyalli, peculiar to this island. 
 
 * Dog (Cants familiaris) 
 
 When Captain Cook arrived in New Zealand in 1769, he found 
 that the dog and a species of rat were the only mammals in these 
 islands. The dog had been brought with them by the Maoris, and 
 was similar to the form which was commpn in Polynesia. Most of 
 the histories of the migrations of the Maori refer to the fact of their 
 bringing dogs with them, so that they had probably been in the country 
 for some centuries before the advent of Europeans. 
 
 Crozet saw them in 1772 and described them as follows: 
 
 The dogs are a sort of domesticated fox, quite black or white, very low 
 on the legs, straight ears, thick tail, long body, full jaws, but more pointed 
 than that of the fox, and uttering the same cry ; they do not bark like our 
 dogs. These animals are only fed on fish, and it appears that the savages 
 only raise them for food. Some were taken on board our vessels; but it 
 was impossible to domesticate them like our dogs; they were always 
 treacherous, and bit us frequently. They would have been dangerous to 
 keep where poultry was raised or had to be protected ; they would destroy 
 them just like true foxes. 
 
 Forster, in his account of the second voyage, 1773, writing of 
 Queen Charlotte Sound natives, says: 
 
 "A good many dogs were observed in their canoes, which they seemed 
 very fond of, and kept tied with a string round their middle ; they were of 
 a rough, long-haired sort, with pricked ears, and much resembled the
 
 CARNIVORA 65 
 
 Common Shepherds' Cur, or Count Buffon's chien de berger. They were of 
 different colours, some quite black, and others perfectly white. The food 
 which these dogs receive is fish, or the same as their masters live on, who 
 afterwards eat their flesh and employ the fur in various ornaments and 
 dresses." Later on in the same journal he says: "The officers had ordered 
 their black dog to be killed, and sent to the captain one half of it; this 
 day (Qth June) therefore we dined for the first time on a leg of it roasted, 
 which tasted so exactly like mutton that it was absolutely undistinguish- 
 
 able In New Zealand, and in the tropical isles of the South Sea, the 
 
 dogs are the most stupid, dull animals imaginable, and do not seem to 
 have the least advantage in point of sagacity over our sheep. In the former 
 country they are fed upon fish, in the latter on vegetables." 
 
 Bellingshausen, who visited New Zealand in 1820, says: "We saw 
 no quadrupeds except dogs of a small species. Captain Lazarew 
 bought a couple. They are rather small, have a woolly tail, erect ears, 
 a large mouth and short legs." 
 
 Dieffenbach, writing nearly seventy years after Cook's visit, re- 
 marks that : 
 
 the native dog was formerly considered a dainty, and great numbers of 
 them were eaten; but the breed having undergone an almost complete 
 mixture with the European, their use as an article of food has been dis- 
 continued, as the European dogs are said by the natives to be perfectly 
 unpalatable. The New Zealand dog is different from the Australian dingo; 
 the latter resembles in size and shape the wolf while the former rather 
 resembles the jackal; its colour is reddish-brown, its ears long and straight. 
 
 The Rev. R. Taylor says: "The New Zealand dog was small 
 and long-haired, of a dirty white or yellow colour, with a bushy 
 tail; this the natives state they brought with them when they first 
 came to these islands." Then he adds : " it is not improbable, however, 
 that they found another kind already in the country, brought by the 
 older Melanesian race, with long white hair and black tail; it is said 
 to have been very quiet and docile." 
 
 S. Percy Smith saw several Maori dogs in a native village at 
 Warea, near Cape Egmont, in 1852. They were long-bodied, fox- 
 eared, sharp-nosed, long-haired, bushy-tailed, yellowish-brown, and 
 dark almost to black in colour. They stood about 18 inches high. 
 He branded them as curs. They were evidently lazy, stupid brutes, 
 which never became wild. 
 
 Mr Elsdon Best writes to Mr Drummond (Lyttelton Times, nth 
 January, 1913): 
 
 Some old Maoris of the East Coast district assert that before Captain 
 Cook's visit there were two distinct breeds of dogs in New Zealand. One 
 was a large dog, with long hair, and lop ears; the other a small dog with 
 erect ears. The first was brought, they say, from Raiatea. This variety was
 
 66 MAMMALIA 
 
 bred solely for food and clothing; it was useless for hunting. The long hair 
 covered the body as low as its knees, and there was a natural parting along 
 the top of the back. The small dog was also introduced from Polynesia, 
 and was useful for hunting the kiwi, weka and parera (grey duck). 
 
 The so-called "Maori" dogs seen in the fifties and sixties he be- 
 lieves were crosses. As to the word "pero-pero,"he says that whether 
 it was Spanish in origin, or not, it is not improbable that Spanish 
 vessels reached these shores before Cook's visit. 
 
 For centuries the Spaniards concealed the results of their voyages very 
 carefully. In the short accounts of their early voyages, the positions of 
 the islands discovered by them were vague and unsatisfactory. The voyage 
 made by Juan Fernandez westward from Chili, and then southward to a 
 land inhabited by white people who made "good woven cloth," may point 
 to a visit to New Zealand's shores. The natives of the more northern 
 islands, unlike the Maoris, did not wear woven material, but used bark 
 cloth, and "white people" might refer to the Maoris, as the Spanish 
 voyagers called all true Polynesians white. 
 
 H. J. Fletcher in a late issue of the Journal of the Polynesian 
 Society states that the Maori dog was known at the Matapihi Station, 
 Taupo, as late as 1896. The shepherds employed on the station shot a 
 number of dogs, long-haired, bushy-tailed, and of a dirty white colour. 
 
 Elsdon Best (April, 1913) gives some statements about the Maori 
 dog as follows: 
 
 (1) Captain Mair says that in his youth he saw these dogs trained 
 to hunt by themselves through the kumara plantations for the large 
 caterpillars of the Sphinx convolvuli. They were trained to put their 
 noses under the trailing shoots of the vines and to turn the shoots 
 over, in order to expose any caterpillars that might be present. If 
 they succeeded in finding any they devoured them. If the dogs were 
 not watched they ate pieces out of the pumpkins. 
 
 (2) Savage, in Some Account of New Zealand, published in 1807, 
 says: 
 
 as far as I can learn, the natives have no larger animal than the dog, which 
 is a native here, usually black and white, with sharp, pricked-up ears, the 
 hair rather long, and in figure resembling the animal we call a foxhound. 
 
 (3) Shortland (in 1856) says: 
 
 The natives wore cloaks made from the skins of dogs before Captain 
 Cook's time, and their manner of fabricating such cloaks is particularly 
 ingenious. Moreover, the native breed of dogs still exists in New Zealand, 
 though, perhaps, seldom in its original purity, and is preserved in some 
 places for the sake of its skin. In appearance it is very unlike the European 
 breeds. Its body is long, legs short, head sharp, tail long, straight and 
 bushy. The hair is thick, straight, and tolerably long, varying in colour 
 from white to brown, but it is not spotted.
 
 CARNIVORA 67 
 
 In a paper written by Dr Hector in 1876 on the "Remains of 
 a Dog found near White Cliffs, Taranaki," he says: "The remains 
 of a dog were found in a hollow tree which was imbedded in a cliff 
 (at a depth of 19 ft.) near the Urenui River." Captain Rowan, the 
 discoverer, and Dr Hector both seem to think that the dog must have 
 crept into the tree, at a comparatively recent date, for though the 
 lignite which occurred in one of the layers above the remains is of 
 great antiquity, the state of preservation of the bones, as compared 
 with the thorough alteration that the vegetable matter of the lignite 
 has undergone, inclines me to believe that the dog remains are of 
 modern origin. But even in that case, the circumstances under which 
 they have been found, and the decayed state of the dentine layer of 
 the teeth tend to refer them to a period further back than any pre- 
 viously obtained. 
 
 Dr Hector states (1876) that a bitch and full grown pup were 
 known for several years in the densely wooded country between 
 Waikawa and the Mataura plains, and did great damage among the 
 flocks of sheep, but exhibited such cunning and daring that it was 
 not till after hunting them for two years that they were shot by Mr 
 Anderson, who presented them to the Colonial Museum. Of the 
 smaller specimen both skin and skeleton were taken to the British 
 Museum by Sir Geo. Grey, and the skin of the mother was pre- 
 served here, and has been recognised by many old Maoris as a genuine 
 Kurt or ancient Maori dog. 
 
 In general appearance it resembles a poodle, but it presents 
 characters unlike any other of the many breeds of dogs which we 
 are familiar with. It is a large bodied dog with slender limbs, large 
 ears, and a straight half-bushed tail, wide head, and small pointed 
 nose. Its colour is white, with a black spot on the loins, and a brown 
 spot on the crown of the head, and a few faint spots on the ears. Its 
 nose is black, and its claws are white. The back is covered with hair. 
 The total length is 3 ft., and the height of the shoulder 17 inches. 
 
 Taylor White writing in 1889, says: 
 
 I consider these dogs entirely distinct from the European dog. For the 
 wild dogs met with on the Waimakariri River in the Alpine ranges of 
 Canterbury during the year 1856, were in colour and markings identical 
 with those found in the Alpine region of the Lake Wakatipu, Otago, in 
 1860, a distance of several hundred miles apart. There seems little room 
 to doubt that they were an original Maori dog. The fact of their wanting 
 the two tan spots over the eyes mostly seen in European dogs of approxi- 
 mate colour, is a very strong evidence also in favour of this opinion. 
 
 The Maori dog has totally disappeared. Mr S. Percy Smith tells 
 me that the last one he heard of was about 1896. 
 
 52
 
 68 MAMMALIA 
 
 When settlement began European dogs must have crossed freely 
 with the native animal, and many both of the introduced and crossed 
 dogs became truly wild, especially as there were sheep and goats to 
 worry and pigs to chase and kill. 
 
 Dr Lyall, who was surgeon on H.M.S. 'Acheron* during the 
 survey of the coast of New Zealand in 1844, in a paper read in 1852 
 before the Zoological Society of London says of the Kakapo, that : 
 
 at a very recent period it was common all over the west coast of the Middle 
 Island ; but there is now a race of wild dogs said to have overrun all the 
 northern part of this shore, and to have almost extirpated the Kakapo 
 wherever they have reached. 
 
 The same thing was practically said by Brunner (1846-1848), who 
 was nearly starved in S.W. Nelson owing to the destruction of the 
 ground birds. 
 
 The early settlers could not distinguish between Maori dogs and 
 these half-wild curs. Thus R. Gillies, who arrived in Otago at the 
 beginning of the settlement in 1848, writing in later years says: 
 
 For some years after the settlers arrived here, the wild dog was the 
 
 terror of the flock-master and the object of his inveterate hostility They 
 
 ran from any tame dogs, and tame dogs, as a rule, would follow and attack 
 them with all their master's antipathy .... The bulk of the wild dogs 
 were not domestic animals gone wild, but the true old Maori wild dog. 
 
 W. D. Murison, formerly editor of the Otago Daily Times, writing 
 at the same period (1877), tells how in 1858, he and his brother took 
 up country in the Maniototo Plains, which they reached by the Shag 
 Valley. The wild dogs were very troublesome. The first was caught 
 by a kangaroo dog (apparently imported from Australia for the pur- 
 pose of hunting them). 
 
 This particular wild dog was yellow in colour, and so was the second 
 tilled, but the bulk of those ultimately destroyed by us were black and 
 white, showing a marked mixture of the collie. The yellow dogs looked 
 like a distinct breed. They were low set, with short pricked ears, broad 
 forehead, sharp snout, and bushy tail. Indeed those acquainted with the 
 dingo professed to see little difference between that animal and the New 
 Zealand yellow wild dog. It may be remarked, however, that most of 
 the other dogs we killed, although variously coloured, possessed nearly 
 
 all the other characteristics of the yellow dog The wild dogs were 
 
 generally to be met with in twos and threes; they fed chiefly on quail, 
 ground larks, young ducks, and occasionally on pigs. On one occasion, 
 when riding through the Ida-burn valley, we came across four wild dogs 
 baiting a sow and her litter of young ones in a dry tussock lagoon. To our 
 annoyance, our own dogs joined in the attack upon the sow, and the wild 
 
 dogs got away without our getting one of them In all, we destroyed 
 
 52 dogs between September, 1859, an< ^ December, 1860.
 
 CARNIVORA 69 
 
 Tancred writing of Canterbury in 1856 says: "A few dogs have 
 escaped and become wild in unfrequented parts, where they have 
 become dangerous to the flocks." 
 
 The following paragraph appeared in the Auckland Herald on 
 i8th November, 1866: 
 
 It is not generally known that about Otamatea and the Wairoa the bush 
 is infested with packs of wild dogs, as ferocious, but more daring, than 
 wolves. These dogs hunt in packs of from three to six or eight. They are 
 strong, gaunt large animals, and dangerous when met by a man alone. 
 Not long since a Maori, when travelling from one settlement to another 
 through the forest, was attacked by three of these animals at dusk, and 
 only saved himself by climbing into a tree, where he was kept prisoner 
 until late the next day. The extensive district over which these packs 
 roam was once well stocked with wild pigs, but most of these have fallen 
 victims to the dogs, and since this supply of food has failed the dogs have 
 ventured after dark to the neighbourhood of native settlements and the 
 homesteads of European settlers, in quest of prey. 
 
 G. M. Massing, writing from Feldwick, Otago (March, 1913), 
 states that wild dogs infested the country about Lake Wanaka in 1860. 
 They were exceptionally plentiful on the western ranges and in the 
 country near the Matukituki River. They became so troublesome that 
 the settlers found it necessary to keep packs of kangaroo dogs to 
 hunt and destroy them. Mr Massing describes them as of no particular 
 breed, but just coarse inbred mongrels, shy, cautious and cowardly. 
 He adds: 
 
 In 1865, when exploring the Clark and Landsborough Rivers, tribu- 
 taries of the Haast, I observed numerous tracks of wild dogs, but saw only 
 one of the animals which came out of the bush across the river one evening. 
 It was a large, rough-looking animal like a wolf, and when it caught sight 
 of us it set up a most dismal howl, and plunged into the forest again. 
 
 Mr Andrew Wilson, a veteran surveyor, writing (February, 1913) 
 from Hangatiki, about 120 miles south of Auckland, says that the wild 
 dogs which lived in the North Island forests a few years ago had a 
 strain of the original Maori dog in them. He describes two he saw 
 as of a reddish-fawn colour, about the size of an ordinary cattle-dog. 
 As far as his experience went, the wild dogs never barked, but only 
 howled. 
 
 Mr J. Hall (May, 1913) says that on the Kaingaroa Plains he found 
 wild dogs, red in colour, with pointed ears, and, when full grown, as 
 large as a small collie. They were usually five or six in a pack. When 
 a person approached they retired to a safe distance, and gave a kind 
 of howl. He never heard them bark, nor did he hear that they ever 
 attacked anyone. On one occasion, however, when the late Mr R.
 
 70 MAMMALIA 
 
 Mayer, of Otiamuri, was driving along the edge of the plains with his 
 wife, a mob of five or six wild dogs rushed them and jumped at the 
 horses' heads. On another occasion, a young Maori came from a 
 neighbouring pa to see him. In a short time he returned with a 
 terrified look on his face, and stated that a pack of wild dogs were 
 attacking a large calf. Mr Hall, taking his gun, went to the scene, 
 and was just in time to drive the dogs off and save the calf. When 
 travelling over the plains with domestic dogs, Mr Hall noticed that 
 the latter can scent the wild dogs miles off. As soon as they receive 
 the scent, they stand and watch, and their hair becomes bristly 
 almost at once. 
 
 My son, G. Stuart Thomson, informs me that wild dogs were at 
 one time so common in Marlborough, and did so much damage on 
 the sheep runs, that packs of hunting dogs were kept and bred for 
 the special purpose of running them down. ,5 per head used to be 
 paid for wild dogs. 
 
 Mr Elsdon Best wrote that in 1877, the Rev. W. Colenso said in 
 regard to Maori dog-skin garments: "Many a dog-skin mat has he 
 made within the past fifty years of the skins of dogs of the small 
 mongrel breed, before European clothing became common among 
 the Natives." 
 
 As settlement proceeded and the country became opened up, 
 wild dogs were gradually exterminated. The only ones which are 
 now met with are curs which have managed to escape from their 
 owners and have taken to rabbit- or to sheep-killing. 
 
 Bellingshausen reported wild dogs on the Macquaries in 1820, but 
 it is improbable that they long survived the sealers, who probably 
 originally brought them. As soon as the killing of seals and sea- 
 birds stopped, the dogs probably died out. Captain Musgrave, who 
 was wrecked on the Auckland Island in 1864, discovered wild dogs 
 like sheep dogs on the island. 
 
 Family MUSTELID^E 
 
 *Ferret ; Polecat (Putorius foetidus) . * Stoat ; Ermine (Putorius erminea) . 
 *Weasel (Putorius vulgaris) 
 
 Nothing in connection with the naturalisation of wild animals into 
 New Zealand has caused so much heart-burning and controversy as 
 the introduction of these bloodthirsty creatures. 
 
 The Canterbury Society introduced five ferrets in 1867, and an 
 additional one in 1868. They were apparently not liberated, though 
 the progeny was probably sold to private individuals. In 1873 the
 
 CARNIVORA 71 
 
 Society had six in Christchurch Gardens. Probably private individuals 
 (dealers) introduced them at all the chief centres, but there is no record. 
 
 As rabbits began to increase to an alarming extent, various sugges- 
 tions were made as to importing what was called "the natural enemy." 
 One authority actually proposed to introduce Arctic foxes, because 
 their fur would be so valuable. When it was pointed out to him that 
 they would probably prefer lamb to rabbit, he replied that as they 
 did not know anything about lambs in their native haunts it was 
 improbable that they would take to eating them in New Zealand. 
 Fortunately his proposal was not given effect to. Meanwhile sheep 
 farmers brought pressure to bear on the Government, and as a result 
 steps were taken to obtain ferrets. Numbers of these were introduced 
 in 1882, and in the following year, Mr Bailey, Chief Rabbit Inspector, 
 recommended the introduction of stoats and weasels. To show the 
 scale on which these recommendations were carried out, I summarise 
 from Mr Bailey's reports for four years as follows : 
 
 (a) In July, 1883, it is stated that since March, 1882 (15 months), 
 the Agent-General had made 32 shipments of ferrets from London, 
 numbering altogether 1217 animals. Of these only 178 were landed, 
 at a cost of 953. Of 241 purchased in Melbourne, 198 were landed 
 at a cost of 224. Thus the total number landed was 376, and the 
 cost 1177, or 3. 2.s. jd. per head. The natural increase was 122, 
 but 157 died of distemper. At this period it would seem as if the 
 Government kept a perfect menagerie of these animals. In the same 
 year a substantial bonus was offered to any one who would introduce 
 a certain number of stoats and weasels in a healthy condition. 
 
 (6) In 1884 he reports: "nearly 4000 ferrets were turned out; 
 3041 in Marlborough alone, and about 400 on crown lands in Otago." 
 The rest appear to have been sold to private individuals. He also 
 states that "an agent has been sent home to procure stoats and 
 weasels." Mr Rich of Palmerston imported some of these latter in 
 a sailing vessel, but how many I cannot learn. 
 
 (c) In 1885 two lots of stoats and weasels were received from 
 London, viz. 183 weasels (out of 202 shipped), and 55 stoats (out 
 of 60). Of these, 67 weasels were released on a peninsula on Lake 
 Wanaka of 8000 acres, on which they reduced the rabbits, but by 
 no means exterminated them ; 28 weasels and 6 stoats were liberated 
 at Lake Wakatipu; 15 weasels near the Waiau River, Southland; and 
 8 stoats at Ashburton. The rest were sold at Wellington, Christchurch, 
 and Dunedin. 
 
 (d) In 1886 the Government introduced two lots, viz. 82 stoats 
 and 126 weasels, which were distributed in about equal lots to the 
 Wilkin River, the Makarora, at the head of Lake Ohau, and on the
 
 72 MAMMALIA 
 
 Waitaki; and 32 stoats and 116 weasels distributed between Marl- 
 borough and West Wairarapa. A private shipment of 55 stoats and 167 
 weasels was also received for Riddiford's station in West Wairarapa. 
 The localities selected for these animals were those in which rabbits 
 were most abundant. Mr Bailey also reported that "ferrets were 
 turned out by thousands," but the success was only partial. 
 
 In this same year a meeting was held at Masterton to consider 
 the administration of the Rabbit Act, and the best means of dealing 
 with the pest. One of the resolutions carried was : 
 
 that the introduction of ferrets, stoats and weasels in large numbers is, in 
 the opinion of this meeting, the only means by which the rabbit pest can 
 be successfully put an end to, and that every owner of land infested with 
 rabbits should either turn out ferrets in proportion to his acreage, or contri- 
 bute to a fund for the breeding and purchase of ferrets, stoats and weasels 
 to be turned out in the district. That the land-owners present form them- 
 selves into an association for the purpose of providing the natural enemies. 
 
 An Association for the purpose was accordingly formed with this 
 object in view, large sums of money were subscribed and hundreds 
 of stoats and weasels were introduced into the district. Several of 
 the acclimatisation societies took strong exception to the action of the 
 Government and of the sheep owners directly concerned, but as the 
 societies were themselves directly responsible for the rabbits, their 
 protests were ineffective. 
 
 However much the introduction of the Mustelidae is to be deplored, 
 the mischief has been done. Stoats and weasels are common in nearly 
 every part of New Zealand and in some parts are enormously abundant. 
 Ferrets (or the wild form, the polecats) are also met with. The latter 
 do not thrive to any extent in the South Island; it may be that the 
 winters are too severe for them. Probably most of the ferrets originally 
 turned out were white or yellowish ; but some shot in the neighbour- 
 hood of Dunedin seem to have reverted nearly to the original colour 
 of the polecat. 
 
 These animals have not exterminated the rabbit, they do not even 
 seem able in most parts to keep them in check. There is, however, 
 great difference of opinion on the subject. Mr Chas. J. Peters, of 
 Mount Somers, writes about these animals (August, 1916): 
 
 Since the stoats and weasels become fairly numerous the rabbits have 
 increased a hundred per cent, and more. I have found weasels' nests both 
 in heaps of fencing material, and also in rabbit burrows. These nests have 
 always been made out of skvlarks' feathers. I have also found parts of young 
 hares at weasels' camps, but never a sign of a rabbit. 
 
 Against this we can place the evidence of an old settler like 
 Mr H. B. Flett of Table Hill, Otago, who states most definitely that
 
 CARNIVORA 73 
 
 he used formerly to keep as many as 16 dogs on his place, and also 
 employed ferrets, phosphorised oats and pollard, and in spite of most 
 strenuous efforts he was only able to hold the rabbits in check. 
 Since the introduction of stoats and weasels the rabbits have become 
 fewer and fewer in number, and now, on his property of 7000 acres, 
 the pest has practically disappeared, except in one corner where 
 trapping is carried on. Where trappers are allowed to work, rabbits 
 increase, for numbers of stoats and weasels are thus destroyed. 
 Mr Flett's experience and opinions are those of many large land- 
 holders throughout New Zealand. 
 
 My son, G. Stuart Thomson, has given me this note on the 
 destructive action of the stoat. He says : 
 
 At Lee Stream, in the Taieri district I saw a rabbit paralysed with 
 fright and uttering squeals of terror, and on looking round for the cause 
 observed a stoat fully ten feet away walking deliberately towards the victim. 
 The rabbit was killed by one bite on the neck. A few weeks ago a lady 
 informed me that she had seen a somewhat similar occurrence at Brighton, 
 but in this case the rabbit struggled to the lady for protection, and fell 
 trembling at her feet, while the stoat disappeared. 
 
 In regard to any natural enemy it is, of course, absolutely certain 
 that it cannot exterminate, but can only keep in check, the animal 
 it is intended to cope with. If it does more, then its own means of 
 livelihood are imperilled, or it has to find other victims 1 . Thus one 
 direct benefit which stoats and weasels confer is the wholesale de- 
 struction of rats and mice which they cause. Indirectly this may explain 
 why certain birds, such as wekas among native species, and Calif ornian 
 quail among introduced forms, have increased of late years in districts 
 where both stoats and weasels abound. It may be that rats are more 
 destructive to eggs and to young birds than even stoats and weasels. 
 The latter certainly will not touch birds if they can get rats. Mr Flett, 
 whom I have referred to above, tells me that 20 years ago rats were 
 a perfect curse about the homesteads, destroying harness, sheep-skins, 
 grain and food, but that since the weasels appeared the rats have 
 absolutely gone. He states he has not seen one about his place for 
 i 6 years. 
 
 The evidence regarding the destruction of the native avifauna by 
 stoats and weasels is very inconclusive. Imported to destroy rabbits, 
 they have penetrated into regions where rabbits are unknown, and 
 where their food must have consisted exclusively of birds and bush 
 rats (Mus rattus). Yet even in such districts there is evidence that 
 native birds still survive in abundance, and there are also cases where 
 birds like wekas, etc. have re-established themselves. 
 
 1 In Taranaki, in March 1917, a litter of nine sucking-pigs was found destroyed 
 one night, apparently either by stoats or weasels.
 
 74 MAMMALIA 
 
 Mr Richard Norman, Albertown, writes in the Otago Witness of 
 2nd October, 1890: 
 
 I think that Mr E. H. Wilmot's experience in the Hollyford Valley, as 
 recorded in the Witness a year or two ago, conclusively proves that the 
 imported vermin kill the native wingless birds. He encountered there a 
 ferret warren, and the weka, kiwi, and kakapo were almost exterminated. 
 In the Makarora Valley these used to be plentiful, but since the advent 
 of the stoats and weasels they are very rare, and rabbiting tallies have not 
 depreciated. 
 
 Mr Geo. Mueller, Chief Surveyor of Westland, in his report on 
 the "Reconnaissance Survey of the Head- waters of the Okuru, Actor 
 and Burke Rivers" (Rept. N.Z. Survey Dept., for 1889-90, p. 50), 
 says: 
 
 Several weasels and ferrets were caught and killed at the Okuru and 
 
 Waiatoto settlements, within about a mile from the sea-coast No rabbits 
 
 were met with until near the Actor, 19 miles from the coast; and they were 
 only seen in numbers at the very head- waters of the Okuru .... Meanwhile 
 the Kakapos,Kiwis, and Blue Ducks have nearly disappeared from the district. 
 
 Mr Richard Henry, writing from Lake Te Anau in September, 
 1890, says: 
 
 I have known the ferrets to take seven young paradise ducks out of a 
 clutch of ten in 1888, and last year the same pair of ducks only reared two 
 young ones, but away from the lake I have seen larger families. I found 
 two black teal ducks killed by a ferret, though it is seldom any of their 
 work is seen, for they always drag their prey under cover. The black teal 
 are getting scarce. 
 
 Mr Henry adds : 
 
 I think very few ferrets at liberty survive the winter for want of food. 
 
 Sir Thos. Mackenzie has recorded a case in which a weasel 
 killed a black swan ; and another which he saw in the Catlins district 
 where a weasel brought down two tuis (Prosthemadera) from a tree. 
 
 The reverse of this tale is interesting. Mr H. Drummond has 
 accumulated some evidence as to the killing of weasels by wekas 
 (Ocydromus sp.). In 1909 Mr Murrell, junr., and Mr Harry Birley 
 described how the wekas had been seen attacking and killing weasels. 
 Mr Murrell witnessed a most interesting fight between them on a 
 path. The weka circled round the weasel, watching a chance to spring 
 in and strike it, which it did, always on the head, finally stretching 
 its opponent out. They both note that native birds were beginning 
 to increase again. In 1916 Mr A. T. G. Symons of Christchurch 
 recorded the fact that wekas were killing weasels. 
 
 In regard to the occurrence and distribution of these species at 
 the present time in New Zealand, I have no record of the introduction 
 of the true polecat (Putorius foatidus) into the country ; but some eight
 
 CARNIVORA 75 
 
 or nine years ago Mr Thomas Anderton, curator of the Portobello 
 Marine Fish Hatchery, shot two animals, which were too large for 
 stoats, being about eighteen inches long. They were not ferrets, for 
 they were brown coloured. Unfortunately he did not realise the 
 importance at the time of preserving the skin, their smell for one 
 thing being so offensive, and so their specific character was not 
 determined. It may be, of course, that they were stoats of unusually 
 large size. 
 
 Ferrets are fairly common throughout the country. I was formerly 
 of opinion that this species, which does not in Northern Europe 
 survive the winter unless carefully housed, could not stand the winter 
 in Otago, or indeed in any of the inland parts of New Zealand where 
 the winter is severe. I am informed, however, by trappers of ex- 
 perience, that they survive the Otago winter quite easily. Apparently 
 wet cold is their enemy; and where burrows are warm, they can 
 stand the dry cold quite easily. 
 
 Stoats are common from end to end of both islands. Mr Yar- 
 borough of Kohu Kohu states that stoats and weasels do not seem 
 to be so numerous now (1916) as they were some few years ago. At 
 that time a great number of these intrepid little animals appeared on 
 the eastern side of Hokianga estuary, and were occasionally observed 
 swimming across the river, which is about a mile wide. For the last 
 year or more they have neither been seen nor heard of. 
 
 In the parts of New Zealand where the winter cold is severe, 
 stoats retain their habit of changing their coat in the late autumn. 
 According to Seebohm (Siberia in Asia, p. 41), the ermine in Scotland 
 regularly assumes its winter dress in cold winters, and in England 
 as far south as the Derbyshire moors. In New Zealand I have records 
 of white stoats in winter from Burke 's Pass, the Mackenzie Country, 
 from the Taieri district, and from Lake Wakatipu, and these not as 
 single instances, but as a fairly common occurrence. Thus Drummond 
 (June, 1913) records the occurrence of a stoat from West Oxford. 
 It was 17 inches long, and pure white in colour, except for the tip 
 of the tail, which is jet black. The stuffed specimen is in the Canterbury 
 
 Museum 1 . 
 
 Family SCIURIDJE. 
 
 Chipmunk; Californian Grey Squirrel (Tamias striatus) 
 
 Brown Californian Squirrel (sp. ?) 
 
 About 1906, Mr P. R. Sargood, of Dunedin, liberated two of the 
 former (all that remained out of 12 shipped from San Francisco) 
 
 1 The late Dr Giinther of the British Museum was not usually credited with 
 a great sense of humour, but when discussing with Dr Chilton of Christchurch the 
 introduction of stoats and weasels into New Zealand, he remarked: "Ach! why did 
 they not send out males only?"
 
 76 MAMMALIA 
 
 and two of the latter species. They were seen about the Dunedin 
 Town Belt and neighbourhood for two or three years but were not 
 known to increase 1 . 
 
 Family MURIDJE. 
 
 Maori Rat ; Kiore (Mus exulans) 
 
 A species of rat was one of the four land mammals found in these 
 islands when Captain Cook first visited New Zealand, the others 
 being a dog, and two species of bats. Sir Joseph Banks says in his 
 Journal (p. 224) : 
 
 On every occasion when we landed in this country, we have seen, I 
 had almost said, no quadrupeds originally natives of it. Dogs and rats, 
 indeed, there are, the former as in other countries companions of the 
 men, and the latter probably brought hither by the men; especially as 
 they are so scarce, that I myself have not had an opportunity of seeing 
 even one. 
 
 This was not Forster's experience, for in his account of the second 
 voyage of Cook, he says (vol. I, p. 201): 
 
 "Our fellow voyagers" (Furneaux in the 'Adventure') "found immense 
 numbers of rats upon the Hippah rock (Queen Charlotte Sound), so that 
 they were obliged to put some large jars in the ground, level with the sur- 
 face, into which these vermin fell during the night, by running backwards 
 and forwards, and great numbers of them were caught in this manner." 
 
 Always in reading this account, and considering the facts, I think 
 it highly probable that these rats, spoken of by Forster, were not 
 Maori rats at all, but were black rats (Mus rattus). Both Cook and 
 Banks considered the native rat to be rare. The ' Endeavour ' was in 
 Queen Charlotte Sound for some days in January and February, 1770, 
 and some of the rats on board were almost certain to find their way 
 ashore. Furneaux arrived in Queen Charlotte Sound in April, 1773, 
 Cook, in the ' Resolution ' reaching it in May. Over three years had 
 elapsed between the two visits, and on the second occasion the rats 
 were found to be extraordinarily abundant. The rate of increase of 
 
 1 In Nature of 8th March, 1917, the following paragraph appeared: "Sir 
 Frederick Treves, in the Observer of 25th Feb., directs attention to the grave results 
 likely to follow from the introduction of the American Grey Squirrel into Richmond 
 Park. Not only has it driven out our own native red squirrel, but it has also spread 
 beyond the confines of the Park into adjoining gardens, working serious damage 
 there. ' They eat everything that can be eaten, and destroy twenty times more than 
 they eat.' ' The buds and shoots of young trees, apples, pears and stone fruits, peas 
 and strawberries are all laid under a heavy contribution. Already it seems the 
 Office of Works has given orders for the destruction of these pests. The order, how- 
 ever, has come somewhat late, for they have already made their way into the open 
 country of Surrey with a steady persistence and in good force. When it has reached 
 the fruit gardens and young plantations of Surrey and Kent, we shall hear more.' 
 
 We are evidently in grave danger of having another very practical lesson in the 
 folly of 'acclimatisation,' of which the rabbit in Australia forms a familiar and 
 awful example."
 
 CARNIVORA 77 
 
 rats is known to be very great, and it seems to me that the animals 
 met with on the second voyage were the progeny of some which got 
 ashore in ijjo 1 . 
 
 The Rev. R. Taylor says that this animal, the Maori rat, was in 
 general size about one-third that of the Norway rat. The Maoris used 
 to make elaborate preparations to catch them, and hundreds would be 
 caught at one hunting. Taylor says the animal is reported to run only 
 in a straight line, and that the Maoris made special lines of roads in 
 order to lead them into their traps, which were baited with miro and 
 other berries; if these roads were crooked, they said the rats ran into 
 the forest at the bends. They fed entirely on vegetable matter and 
 were greatly prized as food by the natives, who also extracted much 
 oil from them. The native rat quickly disappeared before other rats, 
 and imported cats. It was extremely rare 30 or 40 years ago, and 
 it is probably quite extinct now. As, however, the species is common 
 in Polynesia, occasional immigrants may arrive in New Zealand from 
 time to time. 
 
 Tancred writing of Canterbury in 1856, says: "the native rat 
 forms numerous burrows, rendering the soil unsafe for a horse." He 
 also says "the rat is being exterminated by the formidable invader 
 the Norway rat." 
 
 W. T. L. Travers, writing in 1869, says: 
 
 It has been the fashion to assume that before the arrival of Europeans in 
 this Colony, this creature was common, and to attribute its destruction to 
 the European rat, and, indeed, the natives have been credited with a 
 proverb in relation to this point. It is not in effect impossible that the 
 
 1 In Rats and Mice as Enemies of Mankind by M. A. C. Hinton (British Museum, 
 Economic Series, No. 8), published in 1918, the following statement occurs : " There 
 have been many attempts to calculate the reproductive potential of rats. For instance, 
 F. von Fischer, in 1872, concluded that the progeny of a single pair might in ten 
 years amount to no less than 48,319,698,843,030,334,720 individuals; Riicker, more 
 recently, has computed the increase of a pair in five years at 940,369,969,152 rats. 
 
 Lantz was not so ambitious ; for the purposes of his calculations he assumed the 
 rats to breed only three times a year, and to have average litters of ten. Breeding 
 at this rate uninterruptedly for three years, producing sexes in equal numbers, 
 and with no deaths, the progeny of a single pair at the ninth generation would be 
 20,155,392 rats. 
 
 Zuschlag assumed a pair to have six litters of eight in a year; that the young 
 would breed when three and a half months old, then with equal sexes and no deaths 
 the progeny at the end of the first year would be 880 rats. 
 
 Although such calculations are purely theoretical, and although their results, 
 in ordinary circumstances, will never be approached in Nature, they are not 
 extravagant, qua the power to reproduce, but are based upon moderate and con- 
 servative estimates. In proof we may cite Kolazy's record that two females kept by 
 him had twenty-six litters in a space of thirteen months, and produced 180 young 
 almost double the number assumed by Zuschlag. We can, therefore, readily under- 
 stand how the progeny of a few rats introduced to a new country by a ship may, in 
 favourable circumstances, succeed in overrunning the whole country in the space of a 
 few years."
 
 78 MAMMALIA 
 
 ultimate destruction of those which still existed when trade was first 
 opened between Europeans and the natives, long after the Colonization of 
 New South Wales, may have been hastened by the introduction of the 
 European rat; but I am satisfied that before that time they had become 
 very scarce, and indeed I have been told by gentlemen who have lived in 
 the Northern part of this island for upwards of forty years, that they never 
 saw a specimen. 
 
 My son, G. Stuart Thomson, says: "that the Maori rat was once 
 very abundant seems to be proved by the fact that the Maoris always 
 erected their store houses for food of various kinds on piles, as a 
 protection against the depredations of rats. (I think this was the 
 custom before Europeans landed cf. Maning's Old New Zealand.)" 
 I think, however, that it may have been protection against the black 
 rat which was sought, and that they may have got the idea from 
 early European settlers. 
 
 It has been suggested that the disappearance of the Kiore Maori or 
 native rat has led to the diminution, and almost to the extinction of the 
 Laughing Ow\(Sceloglaux albifacies). Sir Walter Buller says : " The fact 
 that the extinction of the native rat has been followed by the almost 
 total disappearance of this singular bird appears to warrant the con- 
 clusion that the one constituted the principal support of the other." 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith, writing in the N. Z. Journal of Science, says : 
 
 The suggestion of Dr Buller. . .is an important one; and my researches 
 among the rocks at Albury, and experiments with the living birds in 
 captivity, are greatly in support of this. In several of the crevices where I 
 captured them, I found an ancient conglomerate of exuvia? ranging from 
 three to twelve inches thick. From the under surface and through the 
 mass to nearly the upper surface, this conglomerate is thickly studded 
 with Owl's castings, composed entirely of light brown hair (which is un- 
 questionably that of the Kiore Maori) and small bones. The castings more 
 recently deposited among the rocks are composed of elytra and legs of 
 beetles. 
 
 * Black Rat (Mus rattus; Epimys rattus) 
 
 It is impossible to say when the black rat first came to New 
 Zealand, but it probably arrived with some of the first ships which 
 came to the country. I have already suggested that Captain Cook's 
 ships introduced them. Yates in 1835 savs: "The natives tell us that 
 rats were introduced in the first ship, by Tasman." Oldfield Thomas 
 (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1897, p. 857) states that "the rats normally inhabit- 
 ing ships are not, as is commonly supposed, Mus decumanus, but Mus 
 rattus, and in most cases are the grey variety of that animal, with 
 white belly, though the black form may often be caught in the same 
 ship as the grey." For a long time great confusion existed in the 
 minds of most of those who observed and wrote of rats in this
 
 CARNIVORA 79 
 
 country, between the native or Maori rat (Mus exulans) and the 
 black rat. For instance Buller in 1870 in a paper "On the New 
 Zealand Rat," gives figures and descriptions of Mus rattus. 
 
 The black rat became enormously abundant in the early days of 
 settlement, and used to move about the country in vast armies. The 
 settlers, bush fellers and saw-mill hands of fifty to seventy years 
 ago, have recorded how invasions of them in countless swarms used 
 to move through their district, climbing everywhere, and eating every- 
 thing that was of a vegetable nature. Oldfield Thomas, in the article 
 already quoted, says: "All the world over Mus rattus takes to roofs 
 and trees on meeting its formidable rival Mus decumanus, to which 
 it leaves the gutters and cellars 1 ." 
 
 In 1840 Messrs Dodds and Davis of Sydney established a farming 
 settlement at Riccarton, close to where Christchurch now stands, and 
 
 sent down James Heriot (or Hariot), as manager, two farm hands, and two 
 teams of bullocks. They ploughed and cultivated about thirty acres of land 
 and secured their crops. But in less than a year they decided to abandon 
 all further efforts. Numberless rats attacked the garnered stores, and the 
 bar at the mouth of the river or estuary proved a sad obstacle to shipping 
 whatever grain had been spared by the scourge of rats. 
 
 1 In his presidential address to the Royal Society of New South Wales on ist 
 May, 1918, Dr J. Burton Cleland gives some very interesting information on "the 
 Rats that Travel by Sea." I think his remarks on the subject are worthy of quotation 
 in full. "As the old English black rat (Epimys rattus), including the Alexandrine 
 variety (E. rattus alexandrinus) , the Norway rat (Epimys norvegicus (decumanus)), and 
 the common house mouse (Mus musculus), are all subject to plague, it is of consider- 
 able interest to see which of these species is most prone to travel by sea. The most 
 frequent traveller of the three would naturally be looked on, other factors being 
 equal, as the most likely introducer of the plague bacillus into unaffected parts. 
 For the purpose of putting this matter beyond dispute, I have had a list prepared 
 of all the rats and mice submitted for examination to the Microbiological Laboratory 
 under my charge, from vessels berthing in the cosmopolitan port of Sydney between 
 April 1 6th, 1913, and April I4th, 1917. During the period rats or mice were found 
 in fumigation by the Commonwealth Department of Quarantine on 189 vessels, 
 
 after the accomplishment of 325 voyages The ships belonged to all nationalities, 
 
 though naturally British vessels much predominated, whilst the voyages they made 
 included coastal, interstate and overseas in all directions. On the 325 voyages made 
 by the 189 vessels, 
 
 Epimys rattus was present in 293. 
 
 2968 individuals were found and submitted, an average per voyage of 9. 
 Epimys norvegicus was present in 3. 
 
 7 individuals were found, an average of -02 (of these vessels one came 
 
 from Vancouver, and one from Noumea). 
 
 Mus musculus was present in 53. 
 
 487 individuals were found, an average of 1-5. 
 
 The largest numbers of mice were found on vessels trading with the North Coast 
 of New South Wales, and an undue proportion of such vessels yielded mice, 
 probably as a result of the frequent carriage of fodder, mice were only occasionally 
 found on vessels from overseas."
 
 80 MAMMALIA 
 
 So writes Dr Hocken in his interesting Early History of New Zealand. 
 
 Taylor White states that on the west coast (of the South Island) 
 they came in vast crowds, climbing trees, tent poles and ropes, and 
 ate everything. On the shores of Lake Wakatipu they lived under 
 the dead leaves of the Wild Spaniard. 
 
 Rutland records how: 
 
 in 1856 the district of Collingwood on the western side of Blind Bay was 
 visited by a swarm, and, in 1863, 1 am informed of a swarm on the Shotover, 
 Otago. Repeated swarms occurred in Picton, in 1872, 1878, 1880, 1884, 
 
 and 1888 These rat-swarms invariably take place in spring A few 
 
 of the animals appear in August ; they increase in numbers till November, 
 when all disappear again gradually, as they came. While in a locality dead 
 rats are seen lying about in all directions, on roads, in gardens, and else- 
 where, very few have any marks of violence on their bodies; nor have 
 they died of hunger, since on examination they are generally found fat. 
 In 1884 in Picton, 47 dead rats were found lying together under the floor 
 of the sitting-room (in one house). In another 37 were found dead under 
 the kitchen. The whole town was pervaded with the odour of dead rats. 
 The average weight of full grown specimens is about two ounces. The fur 
 on the upper portion of the body is dark-brown, inclining to black; on 
 the lower portion white or greyish- white. They run awkwardly and slowly 
 on the ground, but run very quickly on the trees. When suddenly startled 
 or pursued they cry out with fear. 
 
 "The extremely few females that occur amongst the countless hordes is 
 a fact that shows that if breeding does take place at all during these periods 
 (of travel), it must be on a very limited scale." They do little damage, their 
 food being green vegetable. . . . Though they enter dwelling-houses and 
 barns, it is evidently not in quest of food, as shown by corn and other 
 eatables being left untouched by them." (Rutland adds) "Among English 
 country people, who have the best opportunity of observing them, it is 
 commonly asserted that in litters of young rats" (? Mus decumanus), the 
 males produced outnumbered the females by about seven to one. 
 
 Meeson describes a plague of these rats in 1884: 
 
 Nelson and Marlborough, in other words the whole of the extreme 
 northern portion of the South Island of New Zealand, is enduring a perfect 
 invasion. Living rats are sneaking in every corner, scuttling across every 
 path ; their dead bodies in various stages of decay, and in many cases more 
 or less mutilated, strew the roads, fields, and gardens, pollute the wells 
 and streams in all directions. Whatever kills the animals does not succeed 
 in materially diminishing their numbers. Young and succulent crops, as 
 of wheat and peas, are so ravaged as to be unfit for and not worth the 
 trouble of cutting and harvesting. A young farmer the other day killed 
 with a stout stick two hundred in a couple of hours in his wheat field. 
 
 Among reasons suggested for the visitation he suggests the pressure 
 of famine: "last summer was very wet, and last winter very cold, 
 the amount of snow lying on the high lands in the interior was very
 
 CARNIVORA 81 
 
 great." Another is the excessive increase in numbers producing an 
 intense struggle for existence. (His conclusions are somewhat at 
 variance with Rutland's who did not think that hunger was an 
 impelling cause.) 
 
 " I have examined many of these animals, and have not found a single 
 female. One of my neighbours has examined two hundred of them ; and 
 a Maori, at the pa beyond Wakapuaka, one hundred, with the same negative 
 result. Some females have, however, been taken; and in one case they 
 were found breeding." "He is more like a big field-mouse than a Norway 
 rat, and besides being considerably smaller, he is slightly darker in colour, 
 and less malodorous. He climbs trees and flax plants, and is phytophagous 
 rather than carnivorous." 
 
 Hutton in 1887 says: 
 
 The rat appears to have invaded Picton at the end of March, and to 
 have suddenly disappeared by the 2Oth April. Old Maoris recognized it 
 as the rat they used to eat in former times, and said that swarming on the 
 
 low lands periodically was always characteristic of it These rats were 
 
 often noticed climbing trees. In the Pelorus, where they stopped longer, 
 they built nests, like birds, in trees. 
 
 Hutton at that time thought the Picton rat was a new species, and 
 he named it Mus maorium. He says: "This rat is certainly different 
 from Mus huegeli, Thomas, from Fiji; and I should think from Mus 
 exulans, Peale, also, but I have seen no full description of that species." 
 Kingsley in 1894 records it as nesting on the branches of small trees, 
 four to five feet from the ground, near Totaranui, and gives examples 
 from Motueka, Riwaka, Collingwood, Nelson and Taranaki. I have 
 myself seen tall thorn hedges at Whangarei full of their nests, large 
 shapeless structures, which at first I thought must be house-sparrows 
 taken to hedge-building. 
 
 Marriner reports that he met with grey rats at North West Bay, 
 Campbell Island, which Waite thinks were probably Mus rattus. The 
 black rat is at the present time (1916) extraordinarily common about 
 Christchurch ; Mr Speight the curator informs me that Canterbury 
 Museum is infested with these animals. A good deal of damage said 
 to be done to orchards by opossums is almost certainly the work of 
 the black rat. In some districts they destroy the native vegetation; 
 and have been found to eat the roots of the larger Umbelliferae, as 
 Ligusticum, Angelica and Aciphylla\ the tubers of Gastrodia Cunning- 
 hamii; the inflorescence of the kie-kie (Freycinetia Banksit) and of the 
 Nikau palm; and the fruit of the native passion-flower (Passiflora 
 tetrandrd).
 
 82 MAMMALIA 
 
 * Brown Rat; Norway Rat (Mus decumanus; Epimys norvegictis) 
 
 This ubiquitous animal very early made its appearance in New 
 Zealand, but there is no record of its arrival. Perhaps every vessel 
 which came to the colony brought some immigrants. In the early 
 days of last century Russell or Kororareka in the Bay of Islands was 
 the chief port of the colony, and rats must have become very abundant 
 there. But, as already pointed out, they were probably mostly black 
 rats. Darwin, who visited the Bay of Islands in the ' Beagle' in 1835, 
 says (p. 428): "It is said that the common Norway rat, in the short 
 space of two years, annihilated in this north end of the island the 
 New Zealand species." Dieffenbach states (vol. n, p. 185) that he 
 never could obtain a native rat, owing to the extermination carried 
 on against it by the European rat. 
 
 A. R. Wallace in Darwinism says : 
 
 This invading rat (M. decumanus) has now been carried by commerce 
 all over the world, and in New Zealand has completely extirpated a native 
 rat, which the Maoris allege they brought with them from their home in 
 the Pacific; and in the same country a native fly is being supplanted by 
 the European house-fly. 
 
 The latter statement is quite erroneous. Native flies have been 
 reduced by introduced birds; certainly not by any other insect. 
 During visits to Stewart Island and the West Coast Sounds between 
 1874 and 1880, I was struck by the abundance of these animals in 
 regions uninhabited and almost unvisite.d by man. One day the late 
 Mr R. Paulin and I emerged from the bush on the south side of Thule 
 in Paterson Inlet when the tide was low, exposing a wide stretch of 
 beach nearly a mile long. We were very much surprised to find 
 the whole beach alive with rats which were feeding on the shell- 
 fish and stranded animals which the tide had left and exposed. As 
 soon as they saw us they immediately ran for the shelter of the bush. 
 They were literally in hundreds. Rats are also very numerous round 
 the homestead on Campbell Island (Bollons). In 1868 H. H. 
 Travers reported them as very abundant in the Chatham Islands. 
 
 A few years ago when a scare arose about the bubonic plague, a 
 feeble and intermittent crusade against rats was inaugurated, but it 
 was, as might have been expected, absolutely futile. While rats are 
 still very abundant, especially about the towns, there is no doubt 
 that the spread of weasels throughout the country has vastly 
 diminished their numbers, especially in the open. 
 
 Rats have had a great share in the destruction of the native avi- 
 fauna, and are also responsible for much of the difficulty experienced
 
 CARNIVORA 83 
 
 by acclimatisation societies and private individuals in their attempts 
 to establish game and other birds. But it is impossible to say which 
 species is responsible, or whether both are equally so. It is clear in 
 the preceding references that it has not always been possible to be 
 sure which species of rat was referred to. I have therefore thought 
 it advisable to add in a note some general facts on rats culled from 
 recent sources. 
 
 NOTE. In 1869-70 there occurred a great visitation of rats (apparently 
 Epimys norvegicus) in the north and north-western plain country of Queens- 
 land. The numbers were said to be incredible, and one writer stated that 
 "one rat to every ten square yards in each mile would not represent any- 
 thing like the numbers." H. E. Longman says that "in Australia, judging 
 from available statistics, the black rat is quite as common as the brown, 
 and is, of course, the species most frequently found in buildings, whereas 
 E. norvegicus is characteristically a ground rat." In Mr Hinton's pamphlet 
 already referred to he says, in regard to general habits of rats: "Rattus 
 rattus is essentially an arboreal or climbing animal, and it rarely burrows; 
 hence, where infesting buildings or huts, it is found usually in the walls, 
 ceilings, or roof, not in cellars or drains. Although cautious, it does not 
 shun mankind, and it enters into far closer relations with its unwilling 
 host than does the Brown Rat. For this reason it is often the species 
 principally concerned in the transmission of plague. It drinks little, and 
 seldom, if at all, enters water voluntarily. As already mentioned, this is 
 the common rat on ships. In most cases it reaches or leaves the ships by 
 climbing their cables while they are in dock; sometimes it is introduced 
 with grain and other merchandise. Its diet is of a most varied description, 
 but, probably in consequence of its more salubrious station, it is a cleaner 
 feeder than R. norvegicus. 
 
 R. norvegicus is essentially a water loving and burrowing animal; 
 although far less agile than R. rattus, it is a good climber. As compared 
 with the last named species, it is far more voracious and cunning; its 
 greater size and strength, and its much greater fecundity, render it, as far 
 as material prosperity is concerned, a much more formidable enemy of 
 mankind. On the other hand, although it spreads many serious or fatal 
 diseases, it usually exhibits a certain shyness of man, so that, in normal 
 conditions, it is probably slightly less important than R. rattus as a carrier 
 of plague." 
 
 Prof. P. Chavigny in articles in the Revue Gentrale des Sciences of July 
 15-30, 1918, on "The Invasion of Trenches by Rats" (condensed in 
 Nature, of igth September, 1918), gives certain interesting facts regarding 
 these animals, viz. both brown and black rats: 
 
 (a) Starvation kills a rat in about 48 hours. 
 
 (b) The period of gestation is 21 days, and the minimum time between 
 two litters is 62 days. The female rat may have five litters in a year, and a 
 litter consists of about ten young. A female is capable of producing a 
 litter at the age of 2| to 3 months. A simple calculation shows that a pair 
 
 62
 
 84 MAMMALIA 
 
 of rats is capable of producing 20,000,000 descendants in three years. In 
 temperate climates reproduction is at a standstill during winter 1 . 
 
 * The Mouse (Mus musculus) 
 
 The first notice of the appearance of the mouse in the North 
 Island is in Dieffenbach (vol. II, p. 185), but no doubt it was introduced 
 early last century. When Wilkes visited the Auckland Islands in 
 1840 the only living creature seen besides the birds was a small 
 mouse. According to R. Gillies, who wrote in 1872: 
 
 " it is quite certain that there were no mice in Otago in 1852 " (he arrived in 
 1848), " but a year or perhaps two years after they were noticed in Dunedin 
 first. As soon as the mice appeared, the Rats disappeared. . . .The Moly- 
 neux stopped their southern migration for a time, and it was considerably 
 later before Molyneaux Island (Inchclutha) was touched by them." 
 
 Taylor White speaks of mice appearing in the Canterbury Plains in 
 the early days of settlement (1855) onwards " suddenly in Thousands." 
 Pastor Wohlers, long a missionary working among the natives on 
 Ruapuke in Foveaux Straits, states that mice were first brought to the 
 island in the 'Elizabeth Henrietta,' which was wrecked there in 
 1824, and that even as late as 1873 they continued to be known as 
 " Henriettas." Mr Philpott writing on 2nd January, 1918, said: 
 
 There is a plague of mice in the district west of the Waiau. From 
 Bluecliff to the Knife and Steel near the Big River, and beyond, each hut 
 (the Government huts on the now abandoned telephone track to Puysegur 
 Point) was overrun with them. And not only at the huts, but on the beach 
 and in the dense bush, wherever we went, they were plentiful. At the 
 Hump, near Lake Hauroto, they were as numerous as elsewhere. This 
 prevalence of mice is certainly not usual ; I have been on the Hump four 
 or five times since 1911, and last year tramped along the Knife and Steel, 
 and apart from an odd one or two, no mice were in evidence on former 
 trips. One noticeable thing about the mice was their boldness ; they were 
 evidently very hungry. The wekas caught many of them, swallowing them 
 whole, head first. 
 
 1 In a letter written from Sydney, N.S. Wales, dated 28th April, 1919, which 
 appeared in Nature of 3rd July (p. 345), Mr Thomas Steel states that: "under a 
 creeper in my garden near Sydney, the common snail (Helix aspera) was very 
 abundant, and Mus decumanus used to devour large quantities; the apex of the 
 shell was always bitten off so that the mollusc could be readily extracted. On the 
 Upper Waikato River, New Zealand, the same rat dives into the water and gathers 
 the fresh -water Unio. On the river-banks the shells are gnawed open and the animal 
 eaten. The shells are always bitten through at the same spot of one valve, but I 
 forget now whether that was the right or left one." 
 
 "In Australia at certain seasons a 'cutworm' moth, known as the 'bogong' or 
 'bugong' (Agrotis infusa), swarms in myriads in many places, and is, after the 
 wings have been singed in a charcoal fire, used as an article of food by the aboriginals. 
 These moths sometimes invade the cities and crowd into houses and stores for the 
 sake of darkness. At Melbourne, in a large sugar store, I have noticed Mus decu- 
 manus collect the moths and eat the bodies, rejecting the wings."
 
 CARNIVORA 85 
 
 The mouse has never been found very far from the haunts of 
 men in New Zealand. In 1866, during a discussion which arose at 
 a meeting of the Canterbury Acclimatisation Society as to the reported 
 destruction of small birds by hawks, W. T. L. Travers reported " that 
 he had opened a large number of hawks, and in all cases found their 
 food to consist entirely of Mice and grasshoppers." At present the 
 mouse is abundant in all settled parts of New Zealand, and is also 
 common on the Auckland, Antipodes and Campbell Islands. 
 
 Family 
 Guinea-pig (Cavia porcellus) 
 
 The only record I have of the introduction of the guinea-pig is 
 by the Auckland Society in 1869, but they have repeatedly been 
 brought in by private individuals and dealers for the last 50 or 60 
 years. Though they have been frequently liberated, they have never 
 succeeded in establishing themselves anywhere, as the young are 
 mercilessly preyed upon by cats. I had them running nearly wild in 
 my garden in Dunedin for some time, and noticed that violets (Viola 
 adorata) growing among grass increased remarkably all the time they 
 were about. The guinea-pigs nibbled the grass very closely, but would 
 not touch the violets. 
 
 Family LEPORIDJE 
 * Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) 
 
 The introduction of the rabbit into New Zealand has produced 
 such far-reaching effects and wrought such changes throughout the 
 country, that it requires more than the sober language of a naturalist 
 to describe them. One thing is quite certain, namely, that it was 
 deliberately introduced into the country. The first definite notice I 
 have found as to the introduction of these animals is in du Petit- 
 Thouars' voyage of the ' Venus' (1838), in which he says (p. 115): 
 " There are still to be found some rabbits imported from New South 
 Wales." The next is in Mr T. Tuckett's diary of his expedition to 
 the South Island, which is printed as an appendix to Dr Hocken's 
 Contributions to the Early History of New Zealand. Speaking of 
 the country between the mouths of the Clutha and Mataura Rivers, 
 he writes under date loth May, 1844: "Palmer has grown wheat 
 and barley as well as potatoes, and has plenty of fine fowls and ducks 
 and some goats ____ Returning from Tapuke (Taukupu) we landed on 
 the island, and with the assistance of a capital beagle caught six rabbits 
 alive and uninjured" He does not say whether any were liberated
 
 86 MAMMALIA 
 
 on the mainland, nor whether it was possible for them to get ashore. 
 Mr H. Travers (February, 1919) says: 
 
 From what I can recollect about the introduction into New Zealand 
 of the black rabbit, or silver greys as they were then called, these were 
 imported by a Captain Ruck Keene, R.N., who had a run, I think, at 
 Kaikoura, as I knew him when he lived in Nelson in the late fifties and 
 saw the rabbits. Other rabbits were imported into Nelson, and were kept 
 as pets the "French rabbits" as we boys knew them; they were white 
 and foxy coloured. Some of these were turned out at Taradale and 
 increased enormously, but being in a district in which only cattle were 
 run, did no damage. Some years afterwards, these were practically ex- 
 terminated by a tremendous rainstorm and flood which pretty well destroyed 
 the lot, as it was followed by a snowstorm and the rabbits were smothered 
 in their burrows. 
 
 According to Mr Huddlestone, silver-grey rabbits were first intro- 
 duced into Nelson in or about 1865, but there is no record as to what 
 came of this importation. 
 
 Mr James Begg, of Mosgiel, has given me some very valuable 
 information as to the earliest attempts to introduce these animals, 
 and I quote him freely in the following pages. He says: "When 
 Willsher and party settled at Port Molyneux in the early forties 
 they sent to Sydney for rabbits, but whether they obtained them or 
 not, I am unable to say." Perhaps these were the rabbits which 
 Mr Tuckett saw. From early days there was at least one colony of 
 rabbits on the Upper Waitaki. These remained quite local in their 
 habits, and did not increase to any great extent. They were finally 
 overwhelmed by the invasion of the grey rabbit from the south. 
 
 Mr Thomas Walsh of Shag Point tells me that these rabbits 
 were turned out by Messrs Julius Bros., on their run at the Rugged 
 Ridges on the Waitaki River, but they never seemed to increase. He 
 also states that the Rev. Mr Fenton, who came down to Dunedin 
 shortly after the commencement of the Otago Settlement about 
 1849 brought with him both black and grey rabbits. Some of these 
 were handed over to Mr Geo. Crawford in whose care they increased, 
 and they were distributed from there to various other centres. One 
 lot were liberated on the sand-hills between Invercargill and Riverton ; 
 and another lot at Queenstown, the price paid being 1 per pair. 
 These rabbits do not seem to have increased to any extent. At a 
 somewhat later date (1870) when Mr Walsh was at Palmerston he 
 kept long-haired lop-eared rabbits, and turned out a good many of 
 them. He states that the lop-ears quickly disappeared in succeeding 
 generations, though occasionally long-haired ones were seen. They 
 never increased to any extent, however, and only an odd one was 
 afterwards seen. They also were swamped by the southern invasion.
 
 CARNIVORA 87 
 
 In 1857, Mr John Sutherland (now of Te Kiuti, Auckland provincial 
 district), then a shepherd on the Greenfield Estate, saw some black 
 and white long-eared rabbits between the Tokomairiro and Waitahuna 
 Rivers. These also disappeared in later years. This country was quite 
 uninhabited at the time, though sheep were running on it. Mr H. B. 
 Flett states that a good many rabbits, which had escaped from 
 captivity at Waitahuna, found their way to the open country, and 
 increased to a slight extent, but eventually died out completely. He 
 attributes their extermination to the weka or Maori hen (Ocydromus), 
 "which were very plentiful at that time and for some years subsequent. 
 They used to go into the holes and eat the young rabbits. I have 
 seen a weka killing a half-grown rabbit." 
 
 The late Mr Telford of Clifton introduced some rabbits, and bred 
 them in hutches till they numbered about fifty. They were then 
 liberated on Clifton, near the banks of the Molyneux, but died out 
 in a short time. This was about the year 1864. Mr Clapcott also 
 liberated some at the old homestead at Popotunoa Station, but they 
 also failed to thrive, and disappeared. It is probable that there were 
 other attempts to acclimatise rabbits, all more or less unsuccessful. 
 Dr Menzies of Mataura also introduced rabbits, and he is usually 
 credited with having been the successful introducer of them to the 
 south, an achievement the credit of which has not been very eagerly 
 sought after. They were liberated on the sand-hills somewhere near 
 the Bluff. 
 
 Sir Geo. Grey also appears to have introduced them at about 
 the same date, for in the annual report of the Canterbury Society 
 in 1866 it is said that " an enclosure has been set apart for the Silver- 
 grey Rabbits presented by Sir G. Grey, which have thriven well and 
 increased to a great extent, and have been distributed to members far 
 and near" Later in the same year the Society passed this minute: 
 "The suggestion of giving as a reward, for the destruction of hawks 
 and wild cats, some silver-grey rabbits, was approved of." In 1866 
 the Otago Society liberated 60 rabbits, 23 in 1867, and 18 in 1868, 
 but I do not know whether these came from Britain or from Australia. 
 These are the only records I have been able to secure so far as to 
 the introduction of rabbits into the colony, and they would account 
 for the presence of these animals in Southland, Otago, Canterbury 
 and Auckland. There can be no doubt, I think, that what happened 
 in the south, happened elsewhere at every port where settlement took 
 place, and that private individuals at Nelson, Wellington, New Ply- 
 mouth and Napier also imported rabbits. But when the animals 
 became a pest, and their increase was recognised to be a calamity 
 to the country, every one was desirous of repudiating the responsi-
 
 88 MAMMALIA 
 
 bility of their introduction. Thus the framer of the annual report 
 of the Canterbury Society for 1889, not having read the statement 
 in the report for 1866, says concerning "the rabbit, that great scourge 
 to our large runholders, that the introduction of these cannot be 
 laid to the charge of this society." Similarly Mr Bathgate of Dunedin, 
 in 1897, writes : " It is to them " (the Provincial Government of South- 
 land) "that we are indebted for the presence of the rabbit." Dr 
 Menzies was in these early days Superintendent of the Province of 
 Southland. From 1866 onwards the spread of the rabbits was phe- 
 nomenal. I quote Mr Begg's account at length : 
 
 About the year 1874 tne Y began to make their presence felt in an un- 
 pleasant manner. By 1878 they had reached Lake Wakatipu, leaving a 
 devastated country behind them. At the same time they had reached as 
 far east as the Clutha River, and in a few years later had overrun the 
 greater part of Otago as well as the whole of Southland. Those were evil 
 days for farmers, especially for the squatters who occupied large areas of 
 grazing country. The fine natural grasses on which sheep and cattle gra2ed 
 were almost totally destroyed. Sheep perished from starvation by hundreds 
 of thousands, and it is no exaggeration to say that the majority of the 
 squatters were ruined. In the old Burwood Station the number of sheep 
 fell in one year from 110,000 to about 30,000. This was partly due to heavy 
 snow, but the rabbits prevented any recovery. It is doubtful if the same 
 country to-day carries more than 40,000 sheep. From the year 1878 onwards 
 immense areas of grazing land were abandoned, as the owners gave up the 
 unequal struggle with the rabbits. At first no efforts seemed to have the 
 slightest effect in stemming the invasion, or in reducing the numbers of 
 the rabbits. The wet country in the South suffered equally with the dry 
 lands of the interior, but the former is now showing a power of recovery 
 from the damage done, while in much of the latter the damage appears to 
 be almost irreparable. 
 
 In the early days, hunting with dogs, shooting, digging out the warrens, 
 poisoning with various baits, and trapping, were the methods by which 
 farmers tried to rid themselves of the pest. Later, wire-netting fencing, 
 the introduction of stoats, weasels and ferrets, fumigating the burrows with 
 poisonous gases (such as Carbon disulphide and Hydrocyanic Acid) and the 
 stimulus given to trapping by the export trade in frozen rabbits, have been 
 relied upon to reduce their numbers. In the writer's experience, practically 
 no progress was made in reducing the numbers of rabbits till about the 
 year 1895. From that year there has been a steady diminution. For twenty 
 years the rabbit had the upper hand, and though many millions were 
 killed annually, no reduction in their abundance was noticeable. In the 
 last twenty years there has been a steady decrease. Large areas of hill 
 country in the wetter districts are now completely clear of rabbits, though 
 they still persist in favourable situations. In the dry country in Central 
 Otago they are still very troublesome and very vigorous, and their evil 
 effects are there seen on hundreds of square miles of country, once the 
 finest grazing land in New Zealand, now little better than a desert.
 
 CARNIVORA 89 
 
 Hardly two men will agree as to the cause of the decline in the numbers 
 of rabbits, and I will just state my theory for what it is worth. The grey 
 rabbit, when first introduced, found himself in very congenial surroundings. 
 There was abundance of food and shelter, and the ground was absolutely 
 clean, never having been grazed by rabbits previously. These favourable 
 conditions gave a tremendous filip to the vitality of the rabbits and stimu- 
 lated their powers of reproduction. They increased at a rate that I believe 
 is not even approached in the worst infested parts of Otago to-day. No 
 efforts at checking them had the slightest effect, and they passed over the 
 country like a prairie fire. After a time the original conditions no longer 
 existed. Food became scarce, the land was foul with rabbits, disease 
 appeared among them, and their fertility decreased. No doubt improved 
 methods of dealing with them hastened their reduction, but I firmly 
 believe that the principal factor in their decrease was lessened fertility, 
 due to the first great spurt to their vitality having spent itself. The decrease 
 first became apparent in the colder and wetter parts of the country. The 
 rabbits abandoned large areas and became concentrated in warm sunny 
 spots. Even in these spots their numbers declined, and from many of 
 them disappeared altogether. In the dry country which is more congenial 
 to rabbits, fertility is still maintained, and may possibly be permanent. 
 The rocky hills round Alexandra may be taken as ideal country for rabbits, 
 and probably this area has suffered more from them than any other part 
 of New Zealand. All known methods of rabbit destruction have had an 
 exhaustive trial there, and have not succeeded. It would seem that in this 
 favourable spot the vitality of the rabbit is not greatly impaired. It would 
 be interesting to try if rabbits could be re-introduced into country where 
 they once swarmed, but which they have subsequently abandoned. I believe 
 that such an attempt would fail. 
 
 Opinions different to mine are very widely held. Most men claim the 
 credit of having themselves cleared their ground of rabbits, and the official 
 Rabbit Department staff possibly take the credit to themselves. I should 
 like to believe that to me belonged the credit of having cleared my own 
 place, but my experience leads me to believe that my efforts had little to 
 do with it. 
 
 It must not be assumed that every one regards the rabbit as a nuisance. 
 Many a successful farmer of to-day got a start as a rabbiter. The killing 
 of rabbits actually became one of the principal industries of the province. 
 Their presence directly led to the subdivision of large estates, and may have 
 been quite as effective in this direction as all the legislation on the subject. 
 
 The introduction of rabbits had a lasting effect on acclimatisation 
 generally. Before their advent partridges and pheasants had become 
 numerous, but they have entirely disappeared in Otago. In the effort 
 to cope with the rabbits, the country was annually sown with poisoned 
 grain. This had a disastrous effect both on native and imported game. 
 Had rabbits not become a nuisance, it is unlikely that weasels and 
 other vermin would have been introduced. These animals are largely 
 responsible for the decrease in the numbers of native birds, and also 
 make the successful introduction of new varieties more difficult.
 
 9 o MAMMALIA 
 
 The initial difficulties in getting rabbits introduced, the terrific 
 success that at last crowned the efforts made, the unexpected ruin 
 and destruction which they caused, and the gradual return to normal 
 conditions, makes the history of their introduction one of the most 
 interesting in the annals of acclimatisation. 
 
 Mr H. B. Martin in 1884 states that in various parts of the 
 Auckland district the rabbits have become almost or quite extinct 
 from natural causes ; tuberculosis was also believed to be present in 
 the Wairau Valley, where the rabbits were beginning to decrease 
 before the present Act was in force. 
 
 In a discussion which took place in the Legislative Council on 
 4th July, 1883, the Hon. Mr Chamberlain said that rabbits were 
 formerly numerous on Motuihi and Motutapu, and on Flagstaff Hill, 
 but they had now become extinct. 
 
 Mr Edgar T. Stead, writing me as late as 25th July, 1919, informs 
 me that: 
 
 in the Wills Valley and the Upper Haast, to the north of Lake Wanaka, 
 the rabbits were at one time, say ten or twelve years ago, absolutely 
 swarming. When I was there six years ago I was told that the rabbits were 
 completely gone from the Wills Valley, and I personally observed that they 
 were leaving the Haast. On the flat below the Burke hut there was still 
 a fair number, but above that on the open stretches of river flat there was 
 not one, though there were deserted warrens in all suitable localities. There 
 are many places in Canterbury where rabbits have become scarce in the 
 last ten or fifteen years, more places still where the case is vice-versa, but, 
 as you remarked in your paper, there were only some races of rabbits 
 that spread badly, and we do not know that the above-mentioned places 
 were inhabited by the virulent races. In the Haast River case we do, for 
 the rabbits had spread over the range from the famous Central Otago 
 stock. It is quite possible that the country going "rabbit-sick" is only 
 part of a cycle, but the subject is well worth investigating. 
 
 In the House of Representatives on ist August, 1883, Captain 
 Mackenzie said that a competent authority assessed the actual loss 
 to the Colony through the Rabbit Plague at 1,700,000 a year. 
 Mr W. C. Buchanan said that the loss for the past ten years was 
 assessed at ten millions sterling. The question of importing a 
 disease from the Falkland Islands was discussed at the same time. 
 
 I was at one time under the impression that in this new country, 
 where the causes which kept them in check in their original home 
 were wanting and there seemed to be nothing to arrest their develop- 
 ment in any direction, there might arise new varieties of rabbits with 
 modified habits. Particularly did it seem likely that colour variations 
 would thrive unchecked, and the traveller passing through certain 
 districts in Central Otago is certainly surprised at the number of
 
 CARNIVORA 91 
 
 conspicuously coloured animals to be seen. Mr W. H. Gates of 
 Skippers writes me (April, 1916): "As for colour they are of all 
 colours; grey and white; tan and white; grey, with a black ridge 
 down the backbone; and buff." Other observers speak of the preva- 
 lence of black, black and white, and yellow rabbits. But Mr R. S. 
 Black of Dunedin, the largest exporter of rabbit-skins in the Dominion, 
 informs me that while they are of all colours, 95 per cent, of the 
 skins exported are grey. The other colours appeal more to the eye, 
 but they are not so abundant after all. That the rabbits of aberrant 
 colours should survive is not to be wondered at, seeing that in this 
 country there are no foxes, and neither hawks nor owls large enough 
 to tackle a full-grown rabbit. The common harrier-hawk takes a 
 considerable toll of young rabbits, but it is quite unable to keep them 
 in check. In many districts wild cats live mainly on rabbits. 
 
 Mr Yarborough of Kohu Kohu tells me (August, 1916) that rabbits 
 became quite common in a district near Kawa Kawa (at the head of 
 the Bay of Islands) many years ago. Recently they have reached the 
 eastern side of the Hokianga River, and it is not unusual to see them 
 occasionally. Then he adds this interesting statement: 
 
 / have never heard of any rabbit burrows, as they appear to breed among 
 the rocks and roots of trees. They do not seem to have crossed yet to the 
 west side of the Hokianga River. No complaints have been heard of 
 devastation done by them, and it seems to be doubtful if they would thrive 
 in either our clay lands, or in volcanic areas. 
 
 The comparatively heavy rainfall of Hokianga, amounting to some 
 60 to 70 inches per annum, has no doubt a good deal to do with the 
 comparative scarcity of the rabbit in this part of New Zealand. They 
 are, however, not uncommon near Kaikohe, and do make small 
 burrows 1 . 
 
 Effect of Rabbits on the Country and Native Vegetation. 
 The economic waste caused by the vast increase of rabbits in New 
 Zealand is incalculable, and certainly represents a loss in the stock- 
 carrying capacity of the country which probably runs every year into 
 millions of pounds. It is not only that they eat up food which would 
 support some millions more sheep than are at present reared, but they 
 destroy large areas of country, and yield very little return for the 
 
 1 One curious effect of the recent great war has been a phenomenal increase 
 in the price of rabbit-skins. I have not been able to ascertain yet what effect this 
 is having on the rabbit question in Otago, but by the end of 1919 it has become 
 quite impossible to get rabbits for the table. At a sale held in Dunedin in December, 
 1919, the prices received for skins of winter growth ranged from issd. to 274^. 
 for six skins; that is to say, that the highest quality of super-does, as they are 
 termed, brought 3$. lod. per skin! 
 
 Since this was written prices have altered greatly. In June 1921 the best skins 
 were fetching about 74^. per lb., or from 8d. to i/- per skin.
 
 92 MAMMALIA 
 
 damage they do. The annual export of approximately 3,000,000 rabbits 
 valued at about 70,000 and of some 8,000,000 skins valued at about 
 115,000 is all the return they give, but it only represents a small 
 proportion of the dimensions of the pest. In all parts where rabbits 
 abound, their destruction entails a heavy expense on the occupiers 
 of the land. There are no data available anywhere to enable one to 
 estimate how many rabbits are destroyed every year, but far more 
 are killed by phosphorus than by trapping. The latter method alone 
 furnishes any statistical data, the former is an unknown quantity, 
 but it represents a very large figure. 
 
 Probably the most ghastly exhibition of the work of rabbits is to 
 be found in the grass-denuded districts of Central Otago, parts of 
 which have been reduced to the condition of a desert. It is improbable 
 that this state of affairs could have been brought about by rabbits 
 alone. Before their advent, the runholders who had possession of 
 the arid regions in which the rainfall probably averages 10 to 12 
 inches annually, and certainly never exceeds 15 inches were doing 
 their best to denude the surface of the ground by overstocking with 
 sheep and frequent burning. The latter was resorted to because many 
 of the large tussock-forming grasses especially such as the silver- 
 tussock, Poa ccespitosa yielded coarse and rather unpalatable fodder, 
 but after burning the tufts, a crop of tender green leaves sprung up, 
 which were very readily eaten. Unfortunately the burning not only 
 got rid of most of the coarse growth of the tussocks, but it also swept 
 off the numerous bottom grasses which occupied the intervening 
 spaces, such as Agropyrum scabrum, Danthonia Buchanani, Danthonia 
 semiannularis, Triodia Thomsoni and Festuca ovina, which were the 
 mainstay of the depasturing flocks. Even before the rabbits arrived 
 the work of denudation of the grass-covering had been proceeding 
 apace through the causes mentioned. Thus Buchanan, writing in 
 1865, said: "it is no wonder that many of the runs require eight 
 acres to feed one sheep, according to an official estimate." Mr Petrie 
 thought this an unduly severe estimate, "as in the mid-seventies 
 the sheep-runs of Central Otago were reputed to carry at least one 
 sheep to four acres, and the majority of them carried one sheep to 
 three acres or somewhat less." 
 
 Mr Petrie, who reported to the Department of Agriculture on 
 the grass-denuded lands of Central Otago, knows more about this 
 subject than anyone else, and I quote him at some length : 
 
 Before the rabbit-invasion began the hill-slopes carried a fairly rich 
 and varied covering of tussock and other grasses, and, except on the steeper 
 rock sun-baked faces, had not been very seriously depleted even in the 
 early nineties. The earlier stages of this depletion may now be seen in
 
 CARNIVORA 93 
 
 several of the Central Otago ranges, as on the spurs of the Rough Ridge 
 and the Morven Hills districts. The northern slopes of the spurs are almost, 
 in many instances entirely, bare of grass, while the southern shaded slopes 
 still carry a fair amount of pasture. The grass covering generally stops 
 abruptly at the bottoms of the valleys, even when these are not worn into 
 water-channels. The vastly greater depletion of the pasture on the northern 
 slopes is easy enough to understand. They are more exposed to the sun 
 and to the frequent violent parching north-west winds; they lose their 
 covering of snow earlier in spring than the southern slopes, and are thus 
 more closely grazed at a critical season for the pasture; and sheep at all 
 times show a preference for feeding on the warmer sunny slopes. When 
 the pasture on the exposed slopes fails, that on the shaded slopes has to 
 feed all the stock that is about, and unless the stocking is reduced to meet 
 the new conditions the remaining grasses are sooner or later eaten out. 
 The desert, with all its problems, is then established. 
 
 In this account of how the desert conditions have arisen, Mr Petrie 
 refers only to sheep, because it is the loss in sheep-carrying capacity 
 which is so serious, but later on, after describing a typical specimen 
 of the country, and showing that in inaccessible situations a con- 
 siderable variety of fairly vigorous grasses live on, he adds : 
 
 " This is one of the facts that go to indicate that the extermination of the 
 grasses in this desert country is mainly due to eating out by overstocking, 
 rabbits as well as sheep being included among the stock carried." "The 
 desert and the greatly denuded lands are not wholly destitute of vegetation. 
 In most of their lower areas greyish, flattened, firm, nearly circular patches 
 of scab- weed (Raoulia australis and R. lutescens) are thickly dotted about the 
 bare ground. Though otherwise useless, these moss-like composite plants 
 help to keep the soil from being blown or washed away, and when old 
 supply, in the decayed centres of the patches, spots with some amount 
 of humus where grass-seeds can more readily settle and grow." 
 
 These plants are never eaten either by sheep or rabbits. 
 
 In regard to their effect on other native species of plants Mr 
 Petrie writes to me in a letter of ist May, 1916: 
 
 I know that rabbits have done much to reduce the abundance of the 
 Otago Spear-grasses (Adphylla squarrosa and A. Colensoi chiefly), probably 
 during times when the ground was covered by snow. When I first visited 
 inland Otago (1874) Adphylla Colensoi was most abundant. In riding about 
 it was almost impossible to deviate from well beaten tracks or roads, because 
 the spines pricked the horses' legs and feet. I know of no evidence that 
 sheep would eat fairly full-grown Adphylla leaves, but young plants must 
 be more or less eaten both by sheep and cattle (as well as by rabbits). 
 Several species of Celmisia, notably C. densiflora, have been greatly checked, 
 and C. densiflora almost exterminated. 
 
 Dr Cockayne is now (1921) engaged on an exhaustive investigation. 
 Captain F. W. Hutton writing me on 23rd March, 1892, said: 
 As to the extermination of the Wild Spaniards (Adphylla} , I believe
 
 94 MAMMALIA 
 
 it to be due to rabbits. When I was in the Nelson district in 1872-3 there 
 were no rabbits on the eastern side of the Upper Wairau near Tarndale, 
 but they were abundant on the western side. Spaniards were abundant 
 on the eastern side, but almost destroyed on the western. The rabbits 
 seemed to burrow under the plant and then eat the root. 
 
 Mr B. C. Aston, in ascending the highest point of the Kaimanawas 
 (5700 feet) on 3ist December, 1914, found the physiognomy of the 
 sub-alpine scrub, which begins above the beech forest at an elevation 
 of 4200 feet, and consists of Senecio Bidwillii, Veronica buxifolia, 
 Olearia nummularifolia, Coprosma cuneata and Phyllocladus alpinus, 
 mottled with the brown leaves of a dead shrub. On close investigation 
 this was found to be Panax Colensoi, and on still closer inspection 
 with a view to determining the cause of death, we found every bush 
 ring-barked. I have no doubt this was done by rabbits, which after 
 a heavy fall of snow would be driven down from the tussock land to 
 the scrub and forest zone. The scrub only occurs in the gullies, and 
 the beech forest usually has a bare floor with a few Panax trees 
 scattered through it. On examination of these we found the same 
 fate had overtaken them. Trees 10-20 feet high of Panax Colensoi 
 and P. Edgerleyi were found to be dead and ring-barked. 
 
 A certain part of the destructive and exterminating work of rabbits 
 on the vegetation in mountain districts is particularly wrought at the 
 beginning of winter. In spring and early summer as the snows melt, 
 the rabbits follow up the mountain side, and are found during the 
 summer at all elevations. I saw them in abundance on the top of 
 Mt Tyndall nearly 8000 feet among the snow-beds. When the first 
 heavy snows come on about April, they are driven down in hordes 
 to the lower country, and, as has been told me by more than one 
 resident in the Wanaka district, "they are as thick as locusts, and 
 they eat the ground just as bare as those insects do." 
 
 In a good many rabbit-infested districts, particularly in the North 
 Island, these animals have aided very materially in producing a certain 
 amount of erosion and washing down of alluvium, by burrowing 
 extensively in the banks of rivers and small streams. When floods 
 came down these undermined portions were commonly swept away 
 where the firmer banks resisted the impact of the water. Professor 
 Cotton of Wellington considers that some importance can be attached 
 to this agency as affecting the physiography of certain districts and 
 river systems. Cattle, sheep and goats no doubt assist in breaking 
 down such alluvial banks, but rabbits are probably the most active 
 agents in the work. Rev. A. Don writing me in 1901 said: 
 
 the rabbits, by so stripping the ground of vegetation and burrowing into 
 the faces of the slopes are converting what were once nice green hill-sides
 
 CARNIVORA 95 
 
 into shingle slopes, because when once the face is so bared and its surface 
 broken, it begins to slip. 
 
 Mr Petrie also refers to this process in his report as follows : 
 
 The soil on the grass-denuded slopes, which is by no means infertile, 
 being no longer held together by the roots of plants, is being rapidly 
 removed by wind and rain, and pebbles and angular stones are now closely 
 dotted over great stretches of hillside that not many years ago were covered 
 with soil. On the steeper slopes, indeed, the soil is being rapidly sluiced 
 down into the gullies and thence into the river, and deep, narrow, chasm- 
 like watercourses are being dug out. 
 
 * Hare (Lepus europceus) 
 
 The Otago Society liberated three in 1867, which they obtained 
 from Geelong, Victoria; one in 1869, and three in 1875. 
 
 The Canterbury Society got one from Dr Macdonald of the ' Blue 
 Jacket,' and one from Captain Rose of the 'Mermaid' in 1868; and 
 four in 1873 fr m Messrs Wood Bros. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1868, and five in 1871. 
 The Nelson Society introduced some hares in 1872, and these in- 
 creased so rapidly as to become a nuisance in the district. The 
 Southland Society obtained some from the Victorian Society in 1869, 
 liberated two in 1871, and two in 1874, an< ^ 4 m J 887. These are 
 all the records I can find of importations from abroad, and considering 
 the casual manner and the small numbers in which they were intro- 
 duced, the subsequent increase is most remarkable. 
 
 The first three introduced by the Otago Society were liberated 
 at Waihola, where two years later they were reported to be plentiful. 
 In Southland coursing was commenced in 1878. Hares soon spread 
 over all the flatter parts of the South Island, mostly about cultivations, 
 and in districts where rabbits were not abundant. They are common 
 from Cook Strait to Foveaux Strait. In the North Island they 
 spread south from Auckland, and the smaller acclimatisation societies 
 assisted to distribute them far and wide. Wellington li berated two 
 in 1874, *4 m 1875, and four in 1876, and in 1885 reported them 
 as "numerous in the vicinity of Wellington and the lower end 
 of the Wairarapa Valley." In more recent years they are reported 
 as in large numbers about Marton; increasing about Pahiatua, and 
 as seen in almost every part of the Eketahuna district. The Tara- 
 naki Society introduced them in 1876, and they were reported as 
 thriving in 1884. On Mount Egmont at the present time they 
 are common above the bush line and up to 6000 feet in the summer 
 months. 
 
 In 1905 the Waimarino Society purchased and liberated a number,
 
 96 MAMMALIA 
 
 and protected them for two years. Later on they became so numerous 
 that they were declared to be no longer game, and all restrictions 
 about shooting them were removed. Mr E. P. Turner tells me 
 (January, 1916) that they are found all through the volcanic plateau 
 of the North Island from Rotorua to Waiouru. 
 
 In no part of New Zealand have they increased to such an extent 
 as in South Canterbury, where they became so abundant that a con- 
 siderable export trade sprang up, mostly from the port of Timaru. 
 Thus the total number of frozen hares exported from New Zealand 
 in 1910 was declared at 10,744; m I 9 11 ^ was II >4 1 ^; and in 1912, 
 7240. I have been told, and it is highly probable, that many more 
 were exported as rabbits. 
 
 I am informed that in New Zealand hares usually produce three 
 or four young at once; whereas in England they seldom have more 
 than two. It is also stated that the animals are considerably larger 
 than in Britain. In both cases the statements require verification, 
 but if correct, the superabundance of the food supply is the principal 
 factor. It is probably only true of those districts where rabbits are 
 almost unknown. 
 
 In some parts of New Zealand hares tend to become white in 
 the winter season, just as in parts of the old country, following the 
 same seasonal variation as occurs in ferrets, stoats and some other 
 sub-arctic animals. Mr Stead informs me that this is a familiar phe- 
 nomenon in Canterbury; and Mr E. H. Burn states that they are not 
 uncommon in the Mackenzie Country. My son, G. Stuart Thomson, 
 considers that hares are much more abundant than rabbits in the 
 North Auckland Peninsula. 
 
 Order INSECTIVORA 
 
 Family ERINACEID;E 
 * Hedgehog (Erinaceus europceus) 
 
 In 1870 the Canterbury Society received a pair of hedgehogs 
 from Mr D. Robb, purser of the 'Hydaspes,' and in 1871 received 
 one from Mr Nottidge. 
 
 In 1885 a shipment of one hundred was made to the Otago Society, 
 but only three survived. These were liberated in a suburban garden, 
 but were very sluggish though the weather was warm. I attributed 
 this to the fact that they had lost their usual season of hibernation. 
 The female died a month or two after arrival, and the two males 
 were allowed to go free. Other hedgehogs must have been imported, 
 for they were found at Sawyer's Bay about 1890.
 
 1NSECTIVORA 97 
 
 In 1894 the late Mr Peter Cunningham of Merivale, Christchurch, 
 sent a consignment of wekas home and got 12 hedgehogs out in 
 exchange. They were placed in a pigeon-house, but got out under 
 the wire-netting and escaped. For years nothing was heard of them, 
 but they gradually increased, and are now extraordinarily abundant. 
 Mr Edgar F. Stead of Riccarton says (March, 1916): 
 
 If I hunted through my garden with my dog I could get a dozen now, 
 and I frequently kill them .... They are extraordinarily destructive to 
 chickens, their depredations being readily identified by the fact that they 
 eat their victim's stomach first, whereas a cat eats the breast first, and rats 
 and weasels go for the head and neck. Once a hedgehog starts eating 
 chickens, he will go on until caught or the supply runs out. I know of 
 many cases when a trap set and baited with the remains of a chicken has 
 caught the marauding hedgehog. 
 
 An informant at New Brighton tells me (February, 1916) that they are 
 very abundant, and are a pest in the gardens, as they eat the vegetables 
 and dig up the potatoes. They are now (1916) very abundant about 
 Dunedin, and apparently everywhere between Dunedin and Christ- 
 church they are to be found. Mr W. W. Smith introduced two pairs 
 into the Public Park, New Plymouth, in 1913, and they are increasing 
 rapidly. 
 
 Among my correspondents, one who hails (40 years ago) from 
 Surrey, England, is a firm believer in the milk-sucking habit of 
 hedgehogs, and warns me that the milking qualities of cows are 
 frequently destroyed by them. 
 
 Mr C. Hutchins of Omokoroa, Tauranga, states (April, 1913) 
 that many years ago he found a hedgehog thickly infested with a 
 large blue tick, about the size of a small pea. The hedgehog seemed 
 to be more than half dead, but the ticks were apparently thriving. 
 
 T. N, Z.
 
 Chapter IV 
 BIRDS 
 
 The classification adopted for this class is that used by Dr A. H. EVANS, 
 in the Cambridge Natural History, 1899. 
 
 SOMEWHERE about 130 species of birds have been introduced into 
 New Zealand since the date of Captain Cook's landing, but it is 
 difficult in many cases to distinguish between mere aviary and cage 
 species, and those which it was seriously attempted to naturalise. 
 Besides, of those introduced it is impossible to identify quite a number, 
 and their names may be synonyms of others already recognised. Thus 
 when a society reports that it has introduced so many Indian doves 
 or Indian pigeons, it is manifestly impossible to identify them. 
 
 Excluding the common wax-eye, blight-bird or twinkie (Zosterops 
 later alls), which apparently has come in from Australia within the 
 last 60 years and has become extremely abundant, and birds like 
 the Australian swallow (Hirundo neoxend), which is an occasional 
 visitor and a migrant, all the species which have been introduced 
 have been purposely brought in. 
 
 The following are the only immigrants which have become truly 
 wild: mallard, Canadian goose, black swan, common pheasant, 
 Chinese pheasant, Australian swamp quail, Calif ornian quail, common 
 pigeon, little brown owl, skylark, thrush, blackbird, hedge sparrow, 
 Australian magpie, rook, starling, Indian minah, house sparrow, chaf- 
 finch, redpole, goldfinch, greenfinch, cirl bunting and yellow-hammer, 
 a total of 24 species. The record of failures is much greater than that 
 of successes. 
 
 Order RATIT^) 
 
 Family STRUTHIONID^ 
 
 Solomon Island Cassowary ; Mooruk (Casuarius Bennetti) 
 
 Sir Geo. Grey imported some of these birds in 1868, and handed 
 them over to the Auckland Society ; but there is no record as to what 
 came of them 1 . 
 
 1 Major Bunbury in his report on the proclamation of Stewart Island as Her 
 Majesty's possession in 1840, says: "The cassiowary has also been seen in different 
 parts of the island." The reference is no doubt to the large kiwi, Apteryx australis.
 
 RATIT^E 99 
 
 Emu (Dromaius novcs-hollandice) 
 
 The Canterbury Society received one from Mr E. Flood of Sydney 
 in 1864; the Otago Society had several in their garden in 1867; the 
 Auckland Society received one from Sir Charles C. Bowen in 1868, 
 and two from Mr F. E. Drissenden in 1871. There is no further 
 record of any of these birds. There are always Emus in the Wellington 
 Zoological Gardens. 
 
 The only serious attempt at naturalisation was that made by Sir 
 Geo. Grey who introduced a number into Kawau in 1868, but they 
 all died. 
 
 Order ANSERIFORMES 
 
 Family ANA.TIDJE 
 
 No fewer than 25 species of this family have been introduced into 
 New Zealand, but only one the Australian black swan has com- 
 pletely established itself, while the mallard and the Canadian goose 
 have been partially naturalised. Domestic ducks appear to have been 
 first introduced by the missionaries, either at the time of Marsden's 
 first visit in 1814 to the Bay of Islands, or very shortly afterwards. 
 
 Muscovy Duck (Cairina moschatd) 
 
 In 1865 Captain Norman liberated six of these birds on Adam's 
 Island, one of the Auckland Islands lying to the south of New 
 Zealand. They failed to establish themselves. 
 
 English Pochard Duck (<?), Dunbird (?) ( Nyroca ferina) 
 
 The Wellington Society imported six in 1894, and three more in 
 1895. Two years later, in conjunction with the Canterbury, Nelson, 
 Taranaki, and other societies, a number more were imported. Private 
 individuals and dealers apparently also brought in several. 
 
 The only report of these is a negative one, the Taranaki Society 
 stating in 1902 that " we have not seen anything of the pochard ducks 
 which were liberated in 1898." 
 
 Canvas-back Duck (Nyroca vallisneria) 
 
 In 1905 the Government imported some of these birds, but only 
 two appear to have arrived, and these were handed over to the 
 Wellington Society. There is no further information obtainable about 
 them. 
 
 Pintail Duck (Dafila acuta) 
 
 In 1885 the Canterbury Society received some from the Royal 
 Zoological Society of London, and in 1896 the Otago Society imported 
 some, but in neither case is any information obtainable as to how many 
 
 72
 
 ioo BIRDS 
 
 were introduced, or what was done with them, and there is no further 
 record. 
 
 In 1905 the Government imported a number of birds. Four of 
 these were sent to the Otago Society and were kept for breeding 
 purposes at the Clinton hatchery, but did not increase. Six were 
 handed over to the Wellington Society, and went to their game farm 
 in the Wairarapa. Again there is no further record. 
 
 The species is almost exclusively a migrant in Britain, which it 
 visits only in winter. It breeds in the Arctic regions of both hemi- 
 spheres, and winters in various parts of Europe and North America, 
 India, China, Japan, and Central America. It occasionally breeds in 
 Britain. It is no wonder therefore that it did not settle in New 
 Zealand. 
 
 English Teal Duck (Nettion crecca) 
 
 In 1897 an effort was made by the Wellington, Canterbury, Nelson 
 and other societies to introduce this bird, and several were imported 
 and distributed. But there is no record in any of the societies' 
 reports as to what came of them afterwards. 
 
 The teal is a palaearctic species, breeding chiefly in Northern 
 Europe and Siberia, but occasionally in several other countries of 
 Europe. It is a resident of the British Isles, though its numbers are 
 largely increased during the winter season. It has been found as far 
 south in winter as Abyssinia, and abundantly in India, China, Formosa 
 and Japan 1 . 
 
 Widgeon, Wigeon (Mareca penelope) 
 
 In 1868 the Canterbury Society received eight young birds from 
 Messrs Nairn and Crawford, who had apparently imported a number. 
 In 1885 some more were received from the Royal Zoological Society 
 of London. 
 
 In 1896 the Otago Society received eight birds from London, 
 and these were sent down to the Clinton establishment for breeding 
 purposes. The following year another lot from London were handed 
 over to Mr W. Telford of Clifton, who liberated them in his ponds. 
 
 In 1904 the Government imported a number of these ducks. Of 
 these four were handed over to the Wellington Society, and a dozen 
 
 1 It is one of the remarkable facts of the attempts made to naturalise foreign 
 animals in New Zealand that the country formerly possessed a native quail (Coturnix 
 novee zealandite) which has been allowed to become extinct; and also that it still 
 possesses a grey duck (Anas superciliosa) , a small brown duck (Anas chlorotis), and 
 a shelldrake or paradise duck (Casarca variegata), all fine game birds, and that not 
 one of the societies ever put forth any effort to preserve or protect these birds, 
 except in the way of limiting the seasons for shooting them. In recent years bird 
 sanctuaries have been set aside in many parts of the country, but very little else 
 has been done to increase the supply of native game. Yet the little brown duck 
 is quite as good a bird as the English teal, and well worthy of conservation.
 
 ANSERIFORMES 101 
 
 (six pairs) to the Westland Society, which liberated them at Lake 
 Kanieri. 
 
 It is very doubtful whether the species will establish itself in this 
 country. It breeds in the northern portion of temperate Europe, 
 extending northwards beyond the limit of forest growth, and occasion- 
 ally in the British Isles. It winters in Southern Europe, India, South 
 China, Formosa, and Japan ; it is only a partial resident in Britain. 
 
 Gadwell's Duck, Gadwall (Chaulelasmus streperus) 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced some in 1894 and 1895; but 
 have kept no record of them. 
 
 The species is only a partial resident in Britain, where it mostly 
 winters; breeding in Iceland, North Russia and Central Europe. 
 
 Korean Duck (Eunetta falcata) 
 
 The Wellington Society received some (? date) from Sir F. Sargood, 
 and since 1905 have reared a considerable number. They have ap- 
 parently no later record of having turned them out. 
 
 * Mallard, English Wild Duck (Anas boscas) 
 
 In spite of the fact that the native wild duck of New Zealand 
 (Anas superciliosa] is as fine a bird both for sport and table purposes 
 as any species of the family that can be introduced, the various 
 acclimatisation societies have for many years made continuous efforts 
 to naturalise other species, and notably the mallard. 
 
 The Otago Society got a pair in 1867 from the Melbourne Society, 
 and later from London introduced five in 1869, four in 1870, three 
 in 1876, and nine in 1881. Apparently none of these early introduc- 
 tions throve, for there is no record of their increase or distribution, 
 except that some were sent north to Kakanui, and others down to 
 Riverton. In 1896 21 birds were received from London. Of these 
 ten were forwarded to the Southland Society, and the rest were kept 
 at Clinton for breeding purposes. In 1897 another lot was imported 
 and these were handed over to Mr Telford of Clifton to be bred from. 
 In more recent years numbers have been reared in different localities 
 and have been liberated in such quantity that shooting was allowed 
 in 1915. Between 1910 and 1918 the Southland Society have also 
 liberated nearly 1350 birds in their district. They may, now, there- 
 fore, be considered to be established in the southern portion of the 
 South Island. 
 
 The Auckland Society imported two in 1870, and four in 1886, 
 and kept them in the Domain for breeding purposes. But there is 
 no record of their further progress.
 
 102 BIRDS 
 
 In 1873 tne Canterbury Society had 12 in their gardens kept 
 for breeding purposes, but there is no record of any results achieved. 
 In 1897 this society joined with some others in importing a number 
 from London. 
 
 In 1893 the Wellington Society imported 19, which they kept 
 in their Masterton enclosures for breeding from; and they also 
 distributed eggs. But stoats and weasels destroyed nearly the whole 
 stock. Some placed in a reserve on Mr Martin's run, Wairarapa, 
 increased rapidly however. In 1904 the Society received four pairs 
 imported by the Government; and in more recent years they have 
 reared and distributed several hundred birds. The species may there- 
 fore be considered as established in the Wairarapa, but without careful 
 protection it is not likely that it will increase to any great extent. 
 
 In 1898 the Taranaki Society received a number from one of the 
 other societies, but in four years all the birds had disappeared. 
 
 Mr Dansey of Rotorua tells me that subsequently to 1906, Mr 
 McBean liberated a number of mallard on Lake Okareka, and that 
 they increased to a flock of about 200. Some of these were presented 
 to the Tourist Department, but there is no information as to the 
 disposal of the birds on Mr McBean's death a few years ago. 
 
 In 1911 the Southland Society inaugurated an identification test. 
 They liberated 100 mallards, which were numbered i to 100 on leg 
 bands. I have not heard that any of these birds have since been 
 identified. 
 
 In 1917 ducks were shot in South Canterbury which were believed 
 to be hybrids between the native grey duck and the mallard. 
 
 At Temuka in the Acclimatisation Reserve a pair of hybrids 
 between the mallard and the paradise duck have been reared. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith states that the native grey duck hybridises 
 readily with the domestic duck, and that the hybrids are fertile. 
 
 The mallard is a partial resident in Britain, but in many cases is 
 only a winter visitant, nesting in Southern Greenland, Iceland and 
 in Northern Europe. Some of the introduced birds and their progeny 
 may have inherited the migratory instinct. 
 
 American Black Duck (Anas obscurd) 
 
 The Government introduced a number of these birds in 1905, 
 giving six to the Southland Society, and four to the Wellington 
 Society. The latter body reared a number of young. They also reared 
 a number of hybrids between this species and the mallard. Whether 
 such hybrids are fertile or not is not stated. As an experiment in 
 acclimatisation it may be interesting, but it is doubtful if it has any 
 scientific value, especially if the results are not collected and published.
 
 ANSERIFORMES 103 
 
 I have not heard that the species has been liberated, or if so that 
 the birds have been seen. 
 
 American Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1867; the Canterbury 
 Society one in 1871 ; the Wellington Society two in 1894 and four 
 in 1899; and the Otago Society one in 1906. Probably others have 
 been brought in since. 
 
 They appear to have been kept as aviary birds in each locality, 
 except in Wellington, where the last four received were liberated. 
 There is no record of increase, except in Christchurch, where they 
 were reported to be thriving in 1908. 
 
 Mr Dansey of Rotorua informs me that in 1906, Mr McBean 
 introduced and liberated some Canadian wood ducks (presumably 
 this species) on Lake Okareka, which lies in a basin between Rotorua 
 and Tarawera Lakes. They were seen there for some years, but no 
 young were ever observed. 
 
 Mandarin Duck (Aix galericulatd) 
 
 The Auckland Society received one in 1868; the Canterbury 
 Society two in 1871, and a number in 1885 from the Royal Zoological 
 Society of London; and the Otago Society four in 1907. Private 
 dealers also frequently introduced this bird. There is no record of 
 their increase, or of their liberation. 
 
 Black Indian Duck 
 
 I do not know what species is referred to, but it is probably the 
 tufted duck (Fuligula cristata), known to Indian sportsmen as the 
 "Golden-Eye." 
 
 In 1870 the Auckland Society received five from the Acclimatisa- 
 tion Society of Victoria. 
 
 Mr Dansey informs me that along with the Canadian wood ducks, 
 Mr McBean in 1906 introduced some Indian ducks, which were also 
 liberated on Lake Okareka, but they never increased. 
 
 Probably most of the species of geese referred to in this list are 
 more or less migratory species, breeding near or within the Arctic 
 Circle, and wintering in temperate or warm temperate regions. 
 
 Egyptian Goose ; Cape Goose (Chenalopex cegyptiacd) 
 
 Sir Geo. Grey brought eight or ten of these birds from the Cape 
 with him in 1860. They bred freely at the Kawau, and many of them 
 crossed over to the mainland. They were not long in spreading through
 
 104 BIRDS 
 
 the country, and were found from Te Aute in Hawke's Bay to the 
 Kaipara. Apparently, however, all were destroyed in later years. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced some of these birds in 1869, 
 and kept them in their aviaries for several years, but there is no 
 record as to whether they increased or were liberated. 
 
 Sandwich Island Goose (Nesochen sandvicensis) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced a pair in 1871, but the record 
 is the same as that of the preceding species. 
 
 Brent Goose ; Black Brant Goose (Branta nigricans) 
 
 In 1871 the Canterbury Society received a pair from the Zoological 
 Society of London, but there is no further record of them. 
 
 In 1905 the Government imported some from America, and the 
 Wellington Society got a pair, but there is no further record. 
 
 * Canadian Goose; Maine Goose (Branta canadensis) 
 
 The Wellington Society imported three in 1876, and 15 in 1879. 
 These were liberated and were seen for some months afterwards, 
 but ultimately disappeared. It was reported that some of them were 
 killed by paradise ducks. 
 
 In 1905 the Government imported a considerable number of these 
 birds and distributed them widely, 1 1 going to the Southland Society, 
 ten to Otago, a number (unspecified) to Canterbury, and six to 
 Wellington. 
 
 The Southland Society liberated their birds at Lake Manapouri, 
 and sent three more there in 1909. Others were sent up to Lake Te 
 Anau, where they were reported to be thriving in 1918. 
 
 The Otago Society lost two in the first few years, but after a time 
 sent some to the poultry farm at Milton where young were reared. 
 Ultimately in 1912 some were liberated on Mr Telford's lagoon at 
 Waiwera; and in 1915, 12 were sent to the head of Lake Hawea. 
 These are doing well. 
 
 The Canterbury Society liberated a number at Glenmark in 
 1907-8, and these increased; in 1912 some were sent to Lake Sumner 
 and others to Mount White. Mr E. F. Stead (April. 1916) reports 
 that "they are thriving." At Glenmark they breed freely every year. 
 Those at Lake Sumner are doing well. 
 
 Mr Ayson reports in 1915 that "they are doing well in several 
 parts of the dominion." 
 
 I am told this species is a migrant in its original habitat, in which 
 case its establishment in New Zealand is rather interesting.
 
 ANSERIFORMES 105 
 
 Chinese Goose (Cycnopsis cycnoides) 
 
 The Canterbury Society imported some of these birds about 1874, 
 when there were eleven in their enclosures; but in 1877 there were 
 only four, and there is no further record. 
 
 Common Goose ; Grey-Lay Goose (Anser cinereus) 
 
 The common goose is particularly interesting as the first species 
 of bird which it was attempted to naturalise in New Zealand. When 
 Captain Cook was at Dusky Sound in March-May, 1773, during his 
 second voyage to New Zealand, he liberated some geese. In his 
 Journal he says: 
 
 Having 5 geese out of those we brought from the Cape of Good Hope, 
 I went with them next morning to Goose Cove (named so on this account), 
 where I left them. I chose this place for two reasons ; first, because, here 
 are no inhabitants to disturb them ; and secondly, here being the most food. 
 I make no doubt that they will breed, and may in time spread over the 
 whole country, and fully answer my intention in leaving them. 
 
 Dr McNab, commenting on this in "Murihiku," says: 
 
 The non-success of the importation of geese was doubtless due to the 
 depredations of the weka. To show how deadly the weka could be to the 
 harmless goose, the author instances a case which came under his own 
 notice in Dusky Sound. The party disturbed a swan (black swan?) sitting 
 on her nest, and although less than one minute elapsed before they reached 
 the spot, the solitary egg, which proved to be quite fresh, had in that short 
 time been tapped by a weka, and the contents partially extracted. No 
 imported geese could successfully contend with such an ever-present foe. 
 
 The weka is no doubt responsible for the failure of many attempts 
 to establish introduced birds, but it is only one of the agents. 
 
 The next recorded attempt at naturalisation was made by the 
 Southland Society in 1867, when seven geese were liberated on the 
 banks of the Mataura River. They were duly advertised as protected, 
 but evidently that did not protect them from pot-hunters, for they 
 disappeared. 
 
 A more successful attempt was made by the Otago Society, which 
 in 1892 placed a number of goose-eggs in black swans' nests on Lakes 
 Kaitangata and Waihola, Lake Onslow near Roxburgh, and in the 
 Upper Taieri. At first these half- wild geese were shot, but later on 
 they were allowed to increase, till in 1905, permission to shoot them 
 was granted, when they were nearly or quite exterminated. The 
 average (so-called) sportsman is a man out to kill something, and he 
 does not concern himself as to the amount of trouble and expense 
 which has been gone to in order to provide him with the thing to 
 be killed.
 
 io6 BIRDS 
 
 Except where strictly preserved the goose has no chance of sur- 
 viving, for it never becomes truly wild in New Zealand. 
 
 In 1887 a flock of about 20 geese frequented the east lagoon 
 on Ruapuke in Foveaux Straits ; they were very wild and after being 
 shot at with rifles (though none were obtained) they appear to have 
 shifted their quarters. Mr W. Traill, of Ulva, to whom I am indebted 
 for this information, says that some years later a flock used to be seen 
 about Bench Island, but when persons went to shoot them, they 
 made off to the extensive swamps at the head of Lord's River. These 
 were grey geese, probably belonging to the common species, but 
 specimens have never been secured for identification. 
 
 White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons) 
 
 In 1905 the Wellington Society received two of these birds, which 
 were imported by the Government. There is no further record. The 
 species is only a winter visitor in Britain; it breeds in the North, 
 mostly within the Arctic Circle. 
 
 Oregon Wild Goose ; Snow Goose (Chen hyperboreus) 
 
 In 1877 the Auckland Society received ten from Mr T. Russell, 
 and ultimately liberated them at Matamata. They failed however to 
 establish themselves. 
 
 Cape Barren Goose ; Australian Wild Goose 
 (Cereopsis novce-hollandice) 
 
 The Auckland Society liberated two -of these at Riverhead, some 
 time before 1869, but they disappeared. 
 
 In 1871 the Canterbury Society received two from Mr G. Gould, 
 but no further record of them was kept. 
 
 In 1912 the Otago Society received two, and sent them to the 
 Government Poultry Farm at Milton, where several young were 
 reared. From these, four were placed at the head of Lake Hawera 
 in 1915, and others sent down to the Society's hatchery at Clinton. 
 They appear to be doing well by latest reports. 
 
 Adelaide Goose 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two birds in 1867, under this 
 name. I do not know what species this is unless it is the maned goose, 
 Chlamydocen jubata. 
 
 * Australian Black Swan (Chenopsis atratus) 
 
 This is one of the pronounced successes of naturalisation in New 
 Zealand.
 
 ANSERIFORMES 107 
 
 Some time previous to 1864 the Nelson Society introduced seven 
 birds into that district. 
 
 In 1864 the Canterbury Society received four birds from Sir Geo. 
 Grey, and liberated them on the Avon; and later two more from 
 Mr Wilkin. In 1866 the same society received one from Mr Mueller, 
 and four more from Sir Geo. Grey. 
 
 But the big effort came from the Otago Society, which liberated 
 one in 1866, 42 in 1867, four in 1868, six in 1869, and eight 
 in 1870. 
 
 The Southland Society also liberated six in 1869. 
 
 The birds quickly established themselves, spreading into all parts 
 of the island from Stewart Island and the West Coast Sounds to 
 Cook's Strait. Their whistling flight is a common sound at night. 
 
 Sir W. L. Buller says "the first were introduced into the North 
 Island in 1864." The Auckland Society liberated four in 1867. 
 They were plentiful in the Kaipara district ten years ago. They 
 were also reported to be abundant in the Chatham Islands a few 
 years ago. 
 
 Sir W. L. Buller states, and Mr Drummond repeats the statement, 
 that wherever the black swan is found the wild duck (Anas superciliosa) 
 disappears. 
 
 Sir Thos. Mackenzie records a case of a black swan being killed 
 by a weasel. 
 
 White Swan (Cygnus olor) 
 
 This bird has never gone wild in New Zealand, but is still, as in 
 Britain, always associated with preserved ponds and streams. The 
 Canterbury Society received two in 1866; the Otago Society three in 
 1868, and one in 1869; the Auckland Society two in 1869 (from Sir 
 Geo. Grey), and 12 in 1871 (from Captain Hutton). Several were also 
 introduced by private individuals and by dealers. It is nowhere 
 common. 
 
 Family MEGAPODIIDJE 
 Scrub Turkey ; Brush Turkey (Catheturus lathami) 
 
 The Auckland Society received two from New South Wales, from 
 Sir Geo. Bowen before 1869, and liberated them at Kaipara, but they 
 failed to establish themselves. 
 
 Family CRACIDJE 
 Curassow (probably the Crested Curassow) (Crax alector) 
 
 The Canterbury Society received two in 1873, and one in 1874; 
 but there is no further record.
 
 io8 BIRDS 
 
 Family PHASIANID.^E 
 Guinea-Fowl ; Pintado (Numida meleagris) 
 
 The Rev. R. Taylor states that guinea-fowls were first introduced 
 by the early missionaries, who brought them to the Bay of Islands. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received a number of these birds from 
 India in the early sixties, from Messrs Guise Brittain and Cracroft 
 Wilson. They presented six to Mr H. Redwood of Nelson in 1864. 
 
 The Otago Society introduced 23 in 1867, and distributed them 
 to various private individuals. But they failed to reproduce them- 
 selves, and are still extremely rare in Otago, even as poultry. Ap- 
 parently the winter climate is too severe for them in most parts. 
 
 In the North Island private individuals liberated them at several 
 points, but they do not seem to have established themselves commonly 
 as wild birds. I am informed, however, that in the Aberfeldy district, 
 about 40 miles inland from Wanganui, they are not uncommon. 
 
 Mr Holman, curator of the Whangarei Acclimatisation Society, 
 tells me that guinea-fowls attack and drive away harrier hawks. 
 
 Turkey (Meleagris gallipavo) 
 
 Turkeys have apparently gone wild in various districts from time 
 to time. Mr B. C. Aston informs me that on crossing the Kaimanawa 
 Range, he came upon wild turkeys on the Erewhon Estate. There are 
 also abundance of wild turkeys on the ranges behind Kaikoura in 
 Marlborough, but they are never far from the homesteads from 
 which they have strayed. Mr T. Hallett states that they were common 
 in Hawke's Bay 30 years ago, but disappeared rapidly after that. 
 Mr Lowe considers that the disappearance of this species from districts 
 where it was formerly common in the North Island was due to the 
 same causes as that of the pheasants. The starlings and other intro- 
 duced birds ate out their food, especially the insect-life on which the 
 young were chiefly feared. The poults were lost in their efforts to 
 struggle after their parents for food. It was noticed that the young 
 broods became smaller and smaller, until at last they failed to be 
 reared. 
 
 An interesting record is that given by Dr Cockayne concerning a 
 flock of turkeys kept by Mr Jas. O'Malley of the Glacier Hotel, 
 Bealey, 20 or 30 years ago. The birds lived in the bed of the 
 Waimakariri River, among the tussocks which covered the land, and 
 harboured immense numbers of grasshoppers. They became absolutely 
 wild and increased to a great extent. The area over which they spread 
 was at an elevation of 2000 feet and over, and was just on the edge 
 of the wet belt, having an annual rainfall of 120 inches or over, and
 
 ANSERIFORMES 109 
 
 experiencing very severe frosts in winter. Apparently when Mr 
 O'Malley left (or died) the whole flock was destroyed. 
 Mr H. T. Travers writes me in February, 1919: 
 
 At Pakawau, not far from Collingwood in the Nelson district, a settler 
 used to raise a large number of turkeys. I often have, when visiting 
 Collingwood, taken back with me two or three fine young "gobblers," 
 paying zs. 6d. each only for them. After a time I was unable to obtain 
 any more, and was informed that in consequence of the great increase in 
 introduced birds, destroying the grasshoppers on which the young turkeys 
 lived, no more could be raised. 
 
 They are still common in some localities inland from Wanganui, 
 but it is stated that in these localities, while minahs and Australian 
 magpies are common, starlings are scarcely ever seen. 
 
 Pea-Fowl (Pavo cristatus) 
 
 According to E. Jerningham Wakefield the first peacocks intro- 
 duced into New Zealand were brought to Wellington in 1843, by 
 Mr Petre, who imported a large assortment of stock and materials in 
 a ship of his own chartering. 
 
 The Otago Society introduced two in 1867, and handed them 
 over to some private individual, but no further record was kept of 
 them. In other districts private individuals and dealers introduced 
 them, and, especially in the North Island, they occasionally got into 
 the bush and became wild. Mr Thos. Hallett tells me that they 
 were formerly wild in several places in Hawke's Bay, but disappeared 
 probably from the same causes as the last species. They are still wild 
 in bush districts inland from Wanganui. 
 
 Mr W. W. Fulton states similarly that they were formerly numerous 
 in the valleys of the Turakina and Wangahu Rivers. 
 
 Common Fowl ; Jungle Cock (Gallus bankiva) 
 Captain Cook in 1773 liberated fowls in West Bay, Queen Char- 
 lotte Sound, but on visiting the spot on October, 1774, he could not 
 observe any trace of them. But in the account of his third voyage 
 (February, 1777) he says: 
 
 All the natives whom I conversed with agreed that poultry are now 
 to be met with wild in the woods behind the Ship Cove ; and I was after- 
 wards informed by the two youths who went away with us, that Tiratou, 
 a popular chief amongst them, had a great many cocks and hens in his 
 separate possession. 
 
 On 2nd November, 1778, Captain Cook anchored the ' Resolution ' 
 at the mouth of Port Nicholson, and gave the natives who came off 
 in their canoes "fowls to take home and domesticate."
 
 no BIRDS 
 
 I cannot find that these birds established themselves anywhere as 
 a wild species till much later, though it is quite possible that the 
 natives got them from whaling vessels in later years. In 1814, when 
 Marsden came to the Bay of Islands, fowls were brought over from 
 Sydney, and from that date onwards the natives acquired birds and 
 carried them throughout the country. Numbers became wild in 
 the bush. Mr Thos. Hallett informs me that 30 or 40 years ago 
 common fowls, the progeny of birds escaped from the Maoris, were 
 found in many inland parts of the North Island, from Hawke's Bay 
 to Lake Taupo. No doubt they were equally common in other parts, 
 but in recent years these wild fowls have been exterminated. 
 
 Mr Jas. Hay says: "there were in the early days many wild 
 fowls in the bush in Pigeon Bay, but whether or not descended from 
 Captain Cook's stock I cannot say." It is much more likely that they 
 were introduced either by whalers or by the early settlers at Akaroa and 
 Lyttelton, as they were not recorded from other parts of Canterbury. 
 
 In 1840, during the Ross Expedition, some poultry were landed 
 on the Auckland Islands. Again in 1865, Captain Norman liberated 
 some on Campbell Island. In both cases they failed to establish 
 themselves, though domesticated fowls thrive on the latter island at 
 the present time. 
 
 Golden Pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) 
 
 The Auckland Society received one from Mr R. Claude in 1867, 
 and imported four more in 1868. 
 
 In 1871 several were imported by the Canterbury Society, but 
 there is no record as to what they did with them. 
 
 The Wellington Society obtained three in 1891 from England. 
 
 The Otago Society received a pair in 1906, which they kept in 
 their Opoho grounds, Dunedin. In 1907 they had 12 birds; in 
 1908 only five; in 1909 15 and in 1910 30. In the following year 
 they had 35, and then their stock diminished till in 1913 they had 
 only some half-a-dozen, but whether from death or by distribution 
 is not stated. In 1912 a number of hybrids between golden and 
 diamond pheasants were reared, but whether these crosses were fertile 
 or not I cannot find out. 
 
 I do not think these birds were liberated at any time; they have, 
 apparently, only been kept as aviary specimens. 
 
 Diamond Pheasant (probably Lady Amherst's Pheasant) 
 {Chrysolophus amherstiee) 
 
 The Otago Society had two of these birds at Opoho in 1907, but 
 there is no record as to where they came from. They had increased
 
 ANSERIFORMES in 
 
 to four in 1910, after which date there is no further mention of 
 them. 
 
 * Common Pheasant ; English Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) 
 * Chinese Pheasant ; Ringed Pheasant (P. torquatus) 
 
 These two species must be treated together, because, though 
 separately introduced at several centres, they have apparently inter- 
 bred to some extent. The first-named species has never established 
 itself so readily as did Phasianus torquatus. 
 
 The first pheasants introduced into New Zealand were brought 
 from England to Wellington in 1842 by Mrs Wills, a passenger in 
 the ' London,' who landed a cock and three hen birds. In the following 
 year Mr Petre landed some more. I cannot, however, trace the 
 subsequent history of these birds. 
 
 In 1845 some English pheasants were liberated at Mongonui by 
 Mr Walter Brodie. These birds, though multiplying round the spot 
 where they were liberated, did not spread much. In later years, up 
 to 1869, they were distributed and turned out at Tauranga, Tolago 
 Bay, Raglan, Kawau, Bay of Islands and Napier. 
 
 Mr James Hay states that English pheasants were first imported 
 into Banks' Peninsula by Messrs Smith and C. H. Robinson in the 
 'Monarch' in 1850. "Mr Robinson gave Mrs Sinclair one pair. She 
 kept them in a wire-house, but one having escaped, the other was 
 let out. Instead of remaining in Pigeon Bay, the birds went straight 
 over the hill to Port Levy in the early spring of 1851." There they 
 increased rapidly, but it was six years before they re-appeared in 
 Pigeon Bay. 
 
 In 1853 Sir Edwin Dashwood brought out some English pheasants 
 to Nelson. These birds increased greatly and soon found their way 
 to the Waimea Plains, and in other directions. Two unsuccessful 
 attempts were made later by Mr Henry Redwood, but on each occasion 
 only one bird arrived. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated four English pheasants in 1865, 
 36 in 1866, six in 1867, 12 in 1868, 100 in 1869, 13 in 
 1870, ten in 1874, anc ^ I2 m ^77 There was no mistake as 
 to their intention to establish them thoroughly. In 1871 they are 
 reported as increasing rapidly in Otago; and in 1877 as "abundant 
 from Oamaru to Invercargill ; many shooting licences have been 
 .granted." 
 
 Sir Frederick Weld brought out a number of birds from England 
 to Christchurch in 1865. The Canterbury Society imported four 
 in 1867, and 30 in 1868. In 1871 it was stated that they are 
 "thoroughly established, and needing no further importations."
 
 ii2 BIRDS 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced seven English pheasants in 
 1867, and two in 1868. 
 
 In 1869 Mr Wentworth liberated a number of English pheasants 
 on the Hokonuis, but I do not know from whence he obtained them. 
 
 These are all the introductions of English pheasants (Phasianus 
 colchicus) which I have been able to trace. 
 
 Turning now to the Chinese species (P. torquatus), Captain Hutton 
 states that in 1851 Mr Thomas Henderson imported some direct 
 from China in the barque ' Glencoe.' Two dozen were shipped, but 
 only seven reached Auckland alive, five cocks and two hens. These 
 were turned out at Waitakere. In 1856 Mr Henderson imported 
 some more Chinese pheasants in the schooner ' Gazelle/ of which 
 only six arrived alive. They were also turned out at Waitakere. These 
 thirteen birds, mostly cocks, appear to have been the whole of the 
 Chinese pheasants imported into the province of Auckland. They 
 were lost sight of for several years, then they re-appeared and 
 gradually became more and more abundant in the neighbourhood of 
 Auckland, and were shot in considerable numbers in 1865. They first 
 appeared in the Waikato in 1864-65. In 1869 they were extremely 
 abundant from Auckland through the Waikato and Thames to near 
 Taupo. In the same year they reached Whangarei, but were rather 
 rare further north. In the Auckland Society's Report for 1874-75 
 it is stated that the "Chinese pheasant is the common bird of this 
 Province." 
 
 The Wellington Society imported 20 Chinese pheasants in 1874, 
 and four in 1875. 
 
 The above seem to be all the direct importations of this species 
 into New Zealand. But in the early years of acclimatisation a very 
 wide distribution of birds by the various societies was undertaken, 
 and they were spread far and wide. The kind was not always specified ; 
 some were Chinese, some were English, and very probably many 
 were hybrids, if it is the case, as commonly believed, that the two 
 species have crossed freely. Thus in 1864 the Otago Society obtained 
 three Chinese pheasants from Auckland, and in 1877, 15 more; 
 seven of these were sent to Oamaru, and five to Tapanui. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received three Chinese pheasants in 1867, 
 and in the report for 1871 it is stated that they consider them "to 
 be thoroughly established and needing no further importations." This 
 statement appears to apply, however, both to the Chinese and English 
 species, for in 1869 it was stated that the pheasants were in thousands 
 on the Cheviot Hills Station. 
 
 The Southland Society got a large number of both species from 
 other societies in 1869-70, and liberated them in various parts of
 
 ANSERIFORMES 113 
 
 the provincial district; and in 1874 tnev liberated four Chinese 
 pheasants at Wallacetown. 
 
 Mr T. F. Cheeseman writing to me in August, 1915, says: 
 
 Our pheasant is certainly the Chinese pheasant (P. torquatus) with a 
 slight admixture of the English pheasant (P. cokhicus) in the extreme 
 north of the provincial district. Such enormous numbers of the Chinese 
 pheasants were distributed from Auckland to other parts of the Colony 
 that I am inclined to doubt the existence of the pure English pheasant 
 in the wild state in New Zealand. 
 
 There is no doubt that in 1871 pheasants of both species were 
 abundant all over New Zealand, but soon after their numbers began 
 to decrease. Many causes contributed to bring about this decrease, 
 which has continued ever since. The vast increase of the rabbit led 
 to the introduction of phosphorus poisoning, and the grain used 
 was freely eaten by the ground birds. The small birds introduced in 
 1867 and 1868 and subsequent years, soon increased to an extra- 
 ordinary extent and ate out the food supply, and lastly, about 1882, 
 the importation of stoats and weasels commenced. 
 
 The Otago Society report in 1881 that pheasants are plentiful, 
 but much scattered, and "believed to have suffered greatly from 
 hawks and poisoned grain." In 1882 they " have become very scarce." 
 Poaching was considered to be the principal cause of decrease. In 
 1885 the "numbers are sadly reduced." In 1890 "pheasants are few 
 and far between"; and in 1892 "pheasants are few and far between, 
 it is very rare to see one." In the same report it is stated that there 
 is no prospect of being able to establish a supply of game, while the 
 present system of liberating stoats and weasels, and of rabbit poisoning 
 is being carried on. 
 
 In the Wellington Society's report for 1885 we read: "The 
 number of these birds in this district has greatly decreased of late 
 years." In the Wairarapa district they are nearly extinct, "due to 
 poisoned grain, and the introduction of stoats, weasels and ferrets." 
 In 1888 "they do not seem to be increasing as they should." This 
 is attributed to vermin, poaching, wet weather during the nesting 
 season, and rabbit poisoning. 
 
 Captain F. W. Hutton, writing me in 1890, said: "the pheasants 
 are dying off about Christchurch. This is probably due to failure of 
 food; they have killed off nearly all the grasshoppers." The failure 
 of food was the probable cause, but I think it was the starlings and 
 sparrows which mainly decimated the grasshoppers. 
 
 Mr J. L. Watson, writing from Invercargill the same year, re- 
 marks : " the pheasants became pretty numerous "(in Southland), " but 
 through poaching and poisoned grain, they are now exterminated."
 
 ii4 BIRDS 
 
 Thus in the South Island, and in those parts of the North Island 
 where rabbits abounded, the history of the naturalisation of the 
 pheasant seemed to be that at first the birds increased rapidly and 
 became very common, then their increase stopped, their numbers 
 decreased and finally in 25 years they were all but exterminated. 
 
 In the North Island, in those parts where there were no rabbits, 
 pheasants still continued to be fairly common, but were not nearly 
 so abundant as in the earlier years. For example in Taranaki the 
 report of the local society for 1874 * s "pheasants plentiful in the 
 Province." In succeeding years they were largely destroyed, and then 
 breeding and liberating of young birds was resorted to. In 1908 the 
 Chairman (Mr W. L. Newman) at the annual meeting said "he did 
 not think they had a pheasant left." 
 
 After a time, most of the societies, undeterred by past failures, 
 and without any proper examination into the causes of the failures, 
 renewed their efforts to stock the country with these birds. 
 
 In 1895 the Otago Society obtained seven hens and two cocks 
 from Auckland, and liberated them between Lake Waihola and the 
 coast. Shortly after one was picked up dead, and its crop was found 
 to be full of phosphorised oats. In 1897, 22 birds (out of 32 shipped) 
 were received from London, and appear to have been kept for breed- 
 ing purposes either at the Milton poultry farm or at the Clinton 
 hatchery. The Society was led to recommence stocking with these 
 birds because "it seems that the trapping of rabbits for export is 
 now carried on to such an extent that much less poison will be laid in 
 future, and if the hawks were reduced in numbers, game birds may 
 increase in our district." It was also recommended that a bonus be 
 offered for the rearing of young pheasants, and in this way "45 strong 
 young birds were secured and liberated." In 1899 another lot of 21 
 birds was received from England, and was kept for breeding pur- 
 poses, while over 80 were bred locally and turned out. Yet in 1904 
 the report is : "An odd old bird is to be seen at times, but no young." 
 Still more recently the attempt is again being carried on, and in the 
 report for 1914-15 we read "the birds liberated during the past two 
 seasons have been seen occasionally and are apparently thriving." 
 In the report for 1919 it is stated that "Pheasants liberated four years 
 ago have not been reported about for some time." 
 
 The Southland Society has made very strenuous efforts to stock 
 Stewart Island, where the rabbits have died out, there is no poisoning 
 done, and neither ferrets, stoats nor weasels occur. Five pheasants 
 were liberated in 1869, 16 in 1895, 48 in 1901, 37 in 1902, 36 in 1904, 
 16 in 1907, 105 in 1909 and 47 in 1910. No doubt some of these 
 survived and may have bred, but Mr Walter Traill a skilled observer
 
 ANSERIFORMES 115 
 
 and resident writing in March, 1916, says "the pheasants did not 
 thrive." 
 
 The Canterbury Society began rearing pheasants in 1868, and 
 continued the work for many years, also importing fresh birds from 
 Britain from time to time. Mr Drummond writes as follows: 
 
 In 1868 the Acclimatisation Society bred forty birds and sold them to 
 members for 2 a pair. In the tussock-covered land of Canterbury they 
 throve specially well, and the large Cheviot Estate, then held by the Hon. W. 
 Robinson, was soon stocked with them. Mr Robinson spared no expense 
 in preparing for their reception when he arranged for a consignment 
 supplied by the Society. He erected commodious aviaries, ordered that 
 all the cats on the estate should be killed, nearly extirpated the wekas, 
 and had the hawks destroyed at the rate of six a day. The society continued 
 to import pheasants for a considerable time. It bred about a hundred 
 birds in a year, and obtained a fairly good income by selling them to the 
 owners of large estates. It seemed as if pheasants would in a few years 
 spread throughout both Islands and become thoroughly naturalised. After 
 this had gone on for some time the birds received a decided check. Their 
 numbers neither increased nor decreased. They then began to decrease 
 rapidly, and apparently almost simultaneously in many districts. Their 
 complete failure, taking the colony as a whole, is now beyond doubt. 
 In Canterbury and other provinces where they were once exceedingly 
 plentiful they are never seen at all. 
 
 The Nelson Society re-introduced pheasants in 1912, and suc- 
 ceeding years, and in 1915 reported them as thriving. 
 
 The Wellington Society continued for years to raise broods through 
 private individuals, but the birds did not increase, ferrets occasionally 
 destroying all the birds in an enclosure. In 1897, in conjunction 
 with other societies they introduced 40 from England. In 1905 they 
 received four pairs from the Government. In 1907 they reared 430 
 at the Game Farm; 347 (English and Chinese cross) in 1908; some 
 230 in 1910; over 300 in 1912; and no doubt large numbers (not 
 specified) in 1909, 1911 and 1913 ; and most of these were liberated. 
 But the curator says they are unable to hold their own against stoats 
 and ferrets. 
 
 The Taranaki Society were still (1913) "buying pheasants' eggs 
 (which hatched poorly), and rearing them at a game farm." In 1915 
 the efforts of the Society to rear birds are referred to, but it is stated 
 that these efforts had been unsuccessful. Mr W. W. Smith, one of 
 the best observers and naturalists in New Zealand says, in February, 
 1916: "they are still fairly plentiful in Taranaki, but formerly were 
 much more abundant." 
 
 Mr Peacock in 1913 states that pheasants were very plentiful 
 formerly in the Bay of Plenty district, but are now rare ; while black- 
 
 82
 
 n6 BIRDS 
 
 birds, thrushes, starlings, goldfinches, green-linnets and Calif ornian 
 quail are now common. 
 
 I have given the facts regarding the introduction, spread and 
 subsequent disappearance of the pheasants at very considerable length, 
 because they show what a complex problem the naturalisation of a 
 species in a new country may be. In spite of all the efforts which have 
 been put forth during the last half-century, pheasants are not very 
 common anywhere in the North Island, and are extremely rare in 
 the South. Poisoned grain, ferrets, stoats, weasels, wild cats, hawks, 
 wekas and poachers have all been blamed for this failure, and no 
 doubt all have borne a share in bringing about the present position. 
 But I think Mr Cheeseman's explanation is probably the correct one, 
 namely that the diminution of their food supplies caused by the vast 
 increase of all kinds of small birds has been the chief agent. " These," 
 he says, "have literally starved out the pheasants, which scarcely 
 manage to keep themselves alive during the winter months, and, when 
 the breeding season arrives, they are not in a fit state to reproduce 
 their species." Mr Bell, of Hawera, who strongly endorses this theory, 
 states also that " young pheasants cannot travel far for food, and that 
 they are attacked and destroyed by Californian Quails." Mr J. Grant 
 of Wanganui informs me (1918) that Australian magpies have been 
 seen to attack and kill a hen-pheasant. 
 
 What is true about pheasants is also true for all the larger game 
 birds. It is not so much the hawks, ferrets, wekas and owls, as the 
 smaller birds which are the real cause of the diminution and dis- 
 appearance of the larger species. It is the eating out of the food 
 supply, and chiefly of the insect life which is the main food supply 
 of the young birds. 
 
 Pheasants do much damage to crops; they destroy young grass; 
 pull up sprouting maize, attack potatoes, carrots, beans, peas, barley, 
 wheat, and many kinds of fruit. 
 
 On the other hand they eat great quantities of insects, as many 
 as 150 crickets having been taken from the crop of one bird. In the 
 Auckland district, when the berries of the ink-weed (Phytolacca) are 
 ripe, the pheasants feed largely on them, and their flesh becomes very 
 dark-coloured at that season of the year 1 . 
 
 1 The way in which incorrect statements get abroad and are quoted later as 
 facts is illustrated by some remarks in Animals of To-day; their Life and Conservation, 
 by C. J. Cornish. This author says: "In Australia, and still more noticeably in 
 New Zealand, the new comers, the most vigorous representatives of the later types 
 of animal, had a clear advantage over the ancient marsupial forms and the wingless 
 birds. The pheasant, which can both run and fly, displaces the New Zealand 
 Apteryx, and the rabbit gets the better of the wallaby and smaller kangaroos." The 
 statement about the pheasants is absolutely wrong.
 
 ANSERIFORMES 117 
 
 Elliot's Pheasant (Phasianus ellioti) 
 
 The Wellington Society received three birds in 1895, and sent 
 them to Mr Knowlton of Grey town. In 1897 four more were im- 
 ported, but there is no further record of them. 
 
 Reeves 's Pheasant (Phasianus reevesii) 
 
 In 1 897 the Wellington Society, in conjunction with other societies, 
 introduced nine birds, but it is not stated what was done with them. 
 About 1899 the Wanganui Society imported several specimens of 
 this species (this may indeed be the same as the previous record), and 
 all but two, which had broken wings, were liberated up the Wanganui 
 River. Apparently they disappeared without being recorded again. 
 Of the pair kept in confinement by Mr S. H. Drew of the Wanganui 
 Museum, the male moped after a time and died. Dr Connolly, who 
 examined the body, stated the death was due to tuberculosis. The 
 bird was then sent to Dr J. A. Gilruth, Chief Government Veteri- 
 narian, who reported : " the disease affecting this animal is tuberculosis 
 in a most advanced stage, almost every organ being implicated. The 
 nodules in the liver and lungs, when examined microscopically, are 
 found to be filled with masses of the characteristic bacillus." 
 
 Silver Pheasant (Gennceus nycthemerus) 
 
 According to Taylor, 1868, silver pheasants were liberated by the 
 Hon. Henry Walton in the neighbourhood of Whangarei. 
 
 The Auckland Society received two from Mr D. B. Cruickshank 
 in 1870, and they were reported as breeding well in 1874. 
 
 The Otago Society had four shipped from Hongkong in 1871, 
 but only one cock arrived in Dunedin. In 1905 there were two in 
 the Society's aviary at Opoho. 
 
 The Canterbury Society introduced some in 1871 and had four 
 in their gardens in 1880. 
 
 Like the golden pheasant, this species has only been treated as a 
 bird for the aviary, and there is no record of their liberation. 
 
 Jungle Pheasant (species ?) 
 
 I do not know what bird is referred to under this name. The 
 Otago Society had four at Opoho in 1907, with no record as to where 
 they came from. In 1910 there was one at Opoho, and one at Clinton. 
 They are not mentioned in any later reports. 
 
 Temminck's Tragopan (Ceriornis temmincki) 
 The Auckland Society received a pair from the Zoological Society 
 of London in 1871. One poult was produced in 1874, and there the 
 record ends.
 
 n8 BIRDS 
 
 Chinese Quail (Excalphatoria sinensis) 
 
 The Otago Society received ten of these birds from Mr Winton 
 of North East Valley, Dunedin, whose daughter brought them from 
 China in 1897. They were sent to the aviary at the Camp, Otago 
 Peninsula, for breeding purposes. There is no further record of these 
 birds. 
 
 * Australian Quail ; Swamp Quail; Brown Quail (Syncecus australis) 
 (called Tasmanian Quail (Coturnix australis) by Hutton in 1871) 
 
 The Canterbury Society received a pair from Lieut.-Colonel White 
 in 1866; they imported five in 1868, and a number in 1871. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced four in 1867, and no fewer than 
 510 birds in 1871. 
 
 The Otago Society imported three in 1868, and nine in 1870. 
 These were liberated at Green Island, south of Dunedin, and were 
 never heard of again. 
 
 The Southland Society imported four in 1872; these were 
 liberated at Wallacetown. Of their progeny 25 were liberated on the 
 Awarua Plains in 1911, and in the following year the remaining stock 
 were taken to Mason Bay, Stewart Island. Regarding this last lot, 
 Mr Traill tells me (in 1916) that they did not succeed. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced five in 1875, an< ^ 39 m J 876. 
 
 The bird is almost unknown in the South Island, but is fairly 
 common in many parts of the North Island. I have frequently been 
 told in certain districts that "Native Quail" occur, and have always 
 found that it is the Australian swamp quail that is referred to. 
 
 The Wellington Society report in 1885 that they "are rapidly 
 increasing on the West Coast between Waikanae and Manawatu, and 
 on the East Coast of the Wairarapa." In 1889 it is stated that "they 
 are spreading slowly, but owing to their keeping close on the ground 
 are kept down very much by cats, hawks, and other vermin." 
 
 In the 1890 report it is said: "they fall an easy prey to cats, rats, 
 etc. They almost disappeared in some of the clearings in the Forty 
 Mile Bush, where formerly there were large bevies." 
 
 On the other hand the Waimarino Society in 1915 report these 
 birds as coming into the district from round about and being protected 
 till 1912. They are now increasing. 
 
 Colonel Boscawen informs me that they are now (1916-17) very 
 common in the Auckland district. Mr R. Kemp got four of them in 
 1907 in the Hokianga district, and on comparing them with skins in 
 the British Museum found that they were slightly different from the 
 typical Australian form. I flushed two near Whangarei in April, 1919.
 
 ANSERIFORMES 119 
 
 Mr M. Makai of Paremarema, Auckland, says they are most active 
 agents in the spread of blackberries and gorse in the district. 
 
 Mr Peacock reported them as common in the Bay of Plenty in 1913. 
 
 Tasmanian Swamp Quail (Syncecus diemenensis) 
 
 The Auckland Society reported a few in 1869. There is no indica- 
 tion in subsequent reports as to where the birds were liberated, or 
 whether they were ever seen again. Singularly enough, in June, 1916, 
 nearly half a century after the date of their introduction, a specimen, 
 caught at Pirongia in the south of the Auckland provincial district, 
 was brought to the Dominion Museum, Wellington. Evidently then, 
 some examples of the species still exist in the wild state, and are 
 probably mistaken for S. anstralis, though it is fully a third larger 
 than the Australian species. 
 
 Californian Mountain Quail ; Mountain Partridge 
 (Oreortyx pictus) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced three (out of 29 shipped) in 
 1876. They received nine from Mr T. Russell in 1877, and these were 
 turned out at Matamata. In 1881 a large number was imported, of 
 which 40 were liberated near Lake Omapere, 40 in the Upper 
 Thames district, and about 120 were kept in the gardens. In 1882 
 a further large number was introduced, and they were distributed all 
 over the provincial district. They never appear to have established 
 themselves, and Mr Cheeseman, writing in August, 1915, says: "it 
 is now many years since they have been observed." 
 
 The Otago Society introduced 122 in 1881, and liberated half of 
 them at Gladbrook, Strath-Taieri, and the other half at Mataura 
 Bridge and on Venlaw Station. In 1882 another lot of 64 was im- 
 ported, and these were liberated at the foot of the Rock Pillar Range. 
 Nothing was ever seen or heard of them afterwards. 
 
 Stubble Quail of Tasmania ; Australian Quail ; Stubble Partridge 
 (Coturnix pectoralis) 
 
 According to Hutton (1871) this species was introduced into both 
 Auckland and Canterbury. 
 
 Robert Kemp says "that they were introduced into the Hokianga 
 district in the seventies, but failed to establish themselves." 
 
 Recently (1918) several acclimatisation societies have been desirous 
 of re-introducing this bird, being unaware of the previous unsuccessful 
 attempts, and have obtained permission from the Department of
 
 120 BIRDS 
 
 Agriculture to do so. Reports of its feeding habits have been received 
 from Australia, and are favourable 1 . 
 
 Indian Quail (Coturnix coromandelica) 
 
 The Otago Society had four of these birds at their Opoho hatchery 
 in 1907, but there is no record of where they came from, or what was 
 done with them. 
 
 Little Australian Quail; New Holland Partridge (Turnix varid) 
 According to Hutton (1871) this species was introduced into 
 Auckland and Canterbury, but there is no other record of them. 
 
 Egyptian Quail (species?) 
 
 The Canterbury Society Report of 1883 states that: "the Egyptian 
 Quail, which were turned out on the Kinloch Estate, have likewise 
 been seen," but there is no previous reference to these birds. Colonel 
 Boscawen informs me (December, 1916) that his boys bought some 
 tiny Egyptian quail at 3^. a pair from a steamer at the wharf (Auck- 
 land). They were marked like guinea-fowl. "They got out, and may 
 have lived." This was before the war (1914). I do not know what 
 species is referred to. 
 
 Black-breasted Quail (species ?) 
 
 The Otago Society had two at Opoho in 1909, but again there is 
 no record of whence they came, and what happened to them. Again 
 I do not know what species this is. 
 
 Common Partridge (Perdix cinered) 
 
 The history of the numerous attempts to naturalise this bird in 
 New Zealand is almost pathetic. 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced eight some time prior to September, 
 1864, but there is no record of what happened to them. 
 
 1 In New South Wales this species eats seeds of grass and weeds, and occasionally 
 wheat; also occasionally seeds of Solatium nigrum, Phytolacca, buttercups and chick- 
 weed. Its animal diet consists of army-worms, beetles and plant bugs. 
 
 The acting Chief Inspector of Fisheries and Game in Victoria says: "Their 
 food consists of weed-seeds and insects. One of their favourite foods in Southern 
 Victoria is the black seed of the spear grass, but dock-seeds, crickets and a species 
 of weevil have been found in them." The Superintendent of Experimental Work, 
 Department of Agriculture, Adelaide, says: "The Stubble Quail is common here 
 and is becoming increasingly so, but I have neither seen nor heard of damage being 
 done by them. They certainly eat grain, but do not appear to do so unless it falls 
 to the ground, and on the other hand they eat an enormous quantity of seeds of 
 the weeds that accompany the cereals. For instance a rather bad weed with us 
 some years is the rough poppy (Papaver hybridwri), and when this weed is bad in 
 any district the quail are plentiful, and I have seen young quail raised successfully 
 on the seed of this poppy alone."
 
 ANSERIFORMES 121 
 
 The Auckland Society liberated seventeen in 1867 (and a covey was 
 seen at Mangere the following season), twenty at Howick in 1868, 
 and nine in 1871. Three years later it is reported that "the birds do 
 not seem to have multiplied." In 1875, 8 birds were shipped in 
 London, but only 40 arrived, and these were mostly cocks. They 
 were liberated near Lake Takapuna. The report for that year adds: 
 "The failure of all previous attempts, both in this colony and in 
 Australia, is by no means encouraging." 
 
 The Canterbury Society received ten birds in 1867, and one in 
 1868, the latter being the sole survivor of 45 which were shipped. 
 In 1871 they imported 32 brace, and in 1880 a shipment on a 
 large scale was attempted. No fewer than 240 birds were shipped from 
 London, but only 19 arrived in Christchurch, and were liberated. I 
 do not know if any others were imported by private individuals or 
 not, but it was stated in February, 1869, that "partridges may be 
 counted by the hundred at the Cheviot Hills Station." In 1875 
 Mr R. Bills brought out a number of partridges to the Canterbury 
 Society, and these appear to have been sold and distributed through- 
 out the provincial district. In 1879 another shipment of 25 brace 
 was made, but only a few survived, and these were liberated on the 
 Hororata. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated 31 birds in 1869, and 130 in 1871, 
 They commenced at once to multiply and in the country south 
 and west of Dunedin coveys were frequently flushed. In 1877 
 they were not uncommon from Oamaru to Invercargill. But the 
 introduction of phosphorus poisoning seemed to arrest the pro- 
 gress. 
 
 The Society's report for 1881 says they are "much scattered, but 
 suffering from hawks and poisoned grain." In 1882 they "have 
 become very scarce," and poaching is believed to be the principal 
 cause. In 1885 the "numbers are sadly reduced"; in 1890 "the 
 partridges have almost entirely disappeared"; and in the report for 
 1892 occurs this passage: "Your Council regret that there is every 
 reason to believe that these birds have become extinct." 
 
 Another attempt was made in 1896, when the Society received 
 20 birds from London, and liberated them on the property of 
 Mr R. Charters on the Taieri Plain. They were reported as being 
 seen very often, and doing as well as could be desired. In 1897 
 23 were received from London (out of 24 shipped); nine of these 
 were sent to Mr Charter's property, and the rest to Mr T. Telford 
 of Otanomomo " (to be liberated after the poisoning season is over). " 
 In 1898 the report states: "The partridges turned out on the Taieri 
 do not seem to have increased in numbers." In 1899, "a few are
 
 122 BIRDS 
 
 to be seen at times on the Taieri, but no young broods have been 
 seen." 
 
 In 1900 a shipment of 44 (out of 48 shipped) arrived from 
 England, and the birds were liberated in two lots in suitable 
 localities (which were not specified publicly). In the following year 
 we read: "An odd old bird is to be seen at times, but no young 
 ones." 
 
 In 1909 still another attempt was made, and several birds (the 
 number not specified) were liberated near Milton, for the report for 
 1911 says "the partridges liberated in the Milton district two years 
 ago are seen at times by the settlers." In 1912, "no recent reports 
 have been received in connection with those liberated near Milton 
 last year." In 1913 we read: "Those liberated near Milton in 1911 
 have not been seen for a long time, and have probably all been killed 
 by the obnoxious stoat or weasel." 
 
 The Southland Society imported 48 partridges in 1899-1900, and 
 liberated them on Stewart Island. Mr W. Traill, writing in March, 
 1916, says the experiment failed. 
 
 In connection with the Southland Society's proposal to introduce 
 these birds, Mr F. Sutton wrote (iyth April, 1899): 
 
 My brother and myself brought from England 19 partridges: 12 of 
 them were let go on my farm, and seven on Mr G. Button's farm near 
 Winton. This is about twenty years ago, before poison was used to destroy 
 rabbits. They had a few young ones, but soon died out. In (say) five years 
 not one was to be seen. The hawks and cats were supposed to be the 
 cause of their extermination. 
 
 In 1889 a private attempt was made in Wellington to introduce 
 partridges, but it was not successful. In 1890 the Society received 
 two cocks and a hen, but the latter died. In 1891 the Society received 
 15 birds from Lord Onslow, and imported two from England. 
 Unfortunately ten of these birds died suddenly in the following year, 
 and the remaining seven were liberated at the Upper Hutt, but were 
 not seen again. In 1897, with Mr Stuckey, the Society introduced 
 32, and liberated them near Masterton ; and in conjunction with the 
 Canterbury, Nelson and other societies, an additional 16. But there 
 is no record of what came of these. The report for 1900 says: "The 
 partridges liberated at Rangitumau seemed to do well for a time, but 
 have now disappeared." Evidently the Society got some more birds, 
 for the report in 1904 says: "Out of some 35 " at the Game Farm 
 "only seven remain 1 ." 
 
 1 It is characteristic of the careless way in which acclimatisation society records 
 were often kept, that there is no record of the importation of partridges into Otago 
 in 1909 or 1911, nor of their being liberated near Milton, except the statements 
 quoted above, which were made in later years.
 
 ANSERIFORMES 123 
 
 The Taranaki Society in 1894 procured four pairs from some other 
 society, and liberated them in four different localities. In 1902 it 
 was stated that nothing had been seen of them. But in 1904: "it 
 is reported from the Koru district that during the latter part of 
 November or early in December, a covey of partridges had been 
 seen, and indeed one had been killed by a mowing machine passing 
 over a nest." 
 
 Mr J. Glessing of Thames stated in 1913 that partridges would 
 have been a success in the Waikato district, but for the abundance 
 of harrier hawks (Circus gouldi). 
 
 I am not aware of any district in New Zealand where partridges 
 have survived. The causes of their total disappearance are probably 
 the same as in the case of the pheasant, viz. poison, wekas, stoats 
 and weasels, and the great abundance of insect-eating birds 1 . 
 
 French Partridge ; Red-legged Partridge (Caccabis rufa) 
 
 These birds have been introduced from time to time, but the 
 records of the acclimatisation societies are so hazy with regard to 
 various species, that it is almost impossible to speak with certainty 
 on the subject. 
 
 In the Wellington Society's annual report for 1897, we read: 
 " It is reported from the Rangitikei district that red-legged partridges 
 are increasing, and a few are working north into the bush-country." 
 Yet there is no previous record of the introduction of these birds. 
 
 The Canterbury Society imported two in 1867, but lost one of 
 them. They also imported 25 brace of "partridges" in 1897, and these 
 are referred to as "Common Partridges"; it is not clear from the 
 reports to which species they belonged. 
 
 Mr Ayson writing in 1915 says : " They took a hold well in several 
 parts of the Dominion until rabbit-poisoning commenced, and vermin 
 was introduced to destroy rabbits." 
 
 In 1899 1 8 birds were received from London (out of 20 shipped) 
 and were liberated on Stewart Island. According to Mr Traill, these 
 did not succeed in establishing themselves. 
 
 In 1913 the Auckland Society obtained a considerable number in 
 London, but they all died before they could be shipped. 
 
 1 At a meeting of the Tauranga Society (held in 1915) Mr Macmillan suggested 
 that partridge eggs could be brought out to New Zealand (frozen?) and might be 
 successfully hatched out here. "A gentleman residing in Derby had informed him 
 that he had frequently bought New Zealand eggs, which had gone to London and 
 been sold there as fresh-laid Derby eggs. Out of curiosity he had frequently set 
 New Zealand eggs, and from the preserved variety had secured a fair percentage 
 of chicks." It certainly sounds improbable.
 
 124 BIRDS 
 
 Barbary Partridge ; Teneriffe Partridge (Caccabis petrosd] 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1868, but there is no 
 
 further record of them. 
 
 The Wellington Society in 1892 received 19 of these birds from 
 
 Mr Hamilton of Teneriffe. Six of them died soon after arrival, and 
 
 the rest were at once liberated on Kapiti Island. In 1894 a covey of 
 
 two old and seven young birds was seen. 
 
 Hungarian Partridge (Caccabis saxatihs ?) 
 
 The Wellington Society, in conjunction with the Canterbury, 
 Nelson and other societies, introduced 20 of these birds in 1897; 
 but no record is obtainable as to what was done with them except 
 that the Hawera Society obtained three brace in February, 1898, and 
 liberated them. 
 
 The Auckland Society in 1912 imported 39, and kept them for 
 breeding, but 20 of them died, and the remainder were liberated, 
 15 at Kaipara, and four in the Waikato. No report was received 
 of these, and in the annual report for 1914 it is stated: "it begins 
 to be apparent that they are not satisfactory birds to import, there 
 being no perceptible increase." 
 
 *Californian Quail (Lophortyx calif ornicus, Cattipepla californica) 
 
 This is one of the few species of game birds which have succeeded 
 in establishing themselves in New Zealand. 
 
 Mr Huddlestone informs me that they were first brought to 
 Nelson in 1865, but it is not clear where they came from. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced 113 in 1867; of these, ten 
 were sent to the Waikato, and 42 to Nelson in the following year. 
 Fourteen more were received from Mr D. B. Cruickshank in 1870. 
 Sir George Grey also introduced these birds into Kawau, and they 
 increased to such an extent that in later years the Auckland Society 
 was permitted to net hundreds of them for liberation in the provincial 
 district. 
 
 The Canterbury Society introduced two in 1867, four in 1868, 
 and a large number (unspecified) in 1871. Later on they purchased 
 520 birds from Nelson (where they had increased enormously), and 
 turned them out in various localities. In 1883 they introduced 122 
 more; in 1885 they are reported as being very numerous at Little 
 River. But in 1906 "the Quail seem to be steadily decreasing in 
 most places." 
 
 The Otago Society introduced 18 in 1868, and liberated them 
 at Inch Clutha, where they increased, and three years later were 
 reported to be plentiful. In 1871 120 were imported, one half of
 
 ANSERIFORMES 125 
 
 them being liberated at Waikouaiti, and the other half at Popotunoa 
 (Clinton). The following is the record of the Society in regard to 
 this bird in the years succeeding its introduction: (1881) "they are 
 numerous about Queenstown, also seen in the Clutha district and in 
 the Upper Clutha Valley ; numerous about Palmerston "5(1882)" doing 
 well at Queenstown, Goodwood," etc.; (1885) "their numbers sadly 
 reduced"; (1892) "these birds are in considerable numbers in some 
 localities, principally along the coast, where little poisoned grain is 
 used"; (1896) "reported as being on the increase in places where 
 they were not exterminated by the poisoned grain laid for the rabbits, 
 and it is known that the poisoned pollard, which is largely used now 
 for the destruction of rabbits, is less injurious to game birds than 
 poisoned grain"; (1897) "numbers to be seen in the lower parts of 
 the Otago Peninsula, and on the ridges in the neighbourhood of 
 Clyde." They gradually disappeared from the neighbourhood of 
 Dunedin and from both shores of Otago Harbour, and this certainly 
 was not due to poisoned grain. It was more probably caused by 
 the great increase in stoats and weasels. The birds always held their 
 own more or less in Central Otago, and they are reported from 1912 
 to 1920 as common and increasing in numbers. 
 
 The Southland Society liberated two at Wallacetown in 1873, 
 and 29 in 1874, an( * up to 1890, they increased and were to be 
 seen in considerable numbers; but they have become rarer in later 
 years, and Mr Philpott tells me have completely disappeared from 
 Southland for many years. 
 
 The Wellington Society liberated 266 in 1874, and 118 in 1875, 
 but their subsequent reports are very contradictory. In 1885 the 
 statement is made that "the number of these birds in this district 
 has greatly decreased of late years. In the Wairarapa they are nearly 
 extinct, owing to poisoned grain, and the introduction of stoats, 
 weasels and ferrets." In 1886 they are said to be fairly numerous ; and 
 in 1889: "they are increasing fast and have taken such a hold, that 
 there is little danger of their extermination by any fair means." In 
 1904 the Marton sub-committee report that " The Californian Quails, 
 which used to be so plentiful, are disappearing fast, as every succeeding 
 season they seem to be less; even in parts where they were thick, 
 now very few are to be found." In the same season the Masterton 
 sub-committee, writing from a rabbit-infested country, report that 
 "Quail are showing a marked increase." In 1910 they are said " to 
 hold their own fairly against stoats and ferrets. The birds are so 
 numerous in some districts as to be a nuisance. They came into the 
 Waimarina district from outside, and were protected till 1912, they 
 are still increasing (1915)."
 
 126 BIRDS 
 
 In Taranaki they were spreading in some districts in 1874 having 
 apparently worked their way down from Auckland. Then in 1880 
 the local society imported 60 birds, presumably from Nelson, and 
 they steadily increased, and were reported in 1904 plentiful in all 
 parts. In 1913 they are reported as having become "very numerous 
 in various parts of the district, and farmers complained of the damage 
 done by these birds." 
 
 It is, however, in the Nelson provincial district that this species 
 has increased and thriven to the greatest extent. The only record 
 I can find of their introduction into Nelson is the isolated one of 
 42 birds received from the Auckland Society in 1868. (I may 
 remark that the early records of the Nelson Society are unobtainable.) 
 But there is no doubt that in about ten or a dozen years they became 
 a considerable article of export at one time. At a meeting of the 
 Southland Society in 1897, Mr Whitcombe stated that in Nelson, 
 quails were formerly so numerous that they were tinned by thousands ; 
 and Mr Ellis mentioned that when he was at home, a shipment of 
 20,000 arrived in London in the frozen state from Wellington. 
 
 I wrote to Mr John Pollock, President of the Nelson Society, on 
 the subject, and in his reply, dated i3th December, 1915, he says: 
 
 With regard to your enquiry re Quail, I have interviewed Mr Kirk- 
 patrick, and he informs me that he started tinning these birds about 
 twenty-five years ago, and from my own recollection that is about the time 
 they were most numerous in this district. Mr Kirkpatrick informs me that 
 the year he started the industry he was paying as low as 3^. per brace for 
 the birds which were, of course, trapped, the price rising each successive 
 year until lod. was reached. At this price it did not pay him to continue, 
 and he accordingly closed down this line of goods. At the same time that 
 tinning was being carried on, large quantities of quail were shipped to 
 the Wellington and West Coast markets. I have myself seen ten or twelve 
 4-bushel sacks full of birds on the Nelson wharf awaiting shipment. This 
 state of things, however, did not last long. Stoats and weasels made their 
 appearance in the district, having been liberated in the Marlborough 
 district adjoining, and I think there is little doubt that the gradual diminu- 
 tion of the quail ever since may be chiefly ascribed to these pests, assisted 
 by the countless numbers of starlings which now scour the country in 
 search of food. 
 
 The Nelson Society report them as quite common in recent years, 
 1911-15. 
 
 Californian quail are regarded by most farmers as somewhat of 
 a nuisance. Mr Drummond states that "At Te Puke, in the Maketu 
 district, quail live largely on clover, taking both seed and the young 
 plants in the bush-clearings." Mr D. Petrie states that in the 
 Waikato they are a nuisance, as they pick up the newly-sown and 
 germinating turnip seed; "one bird was found to have about 130
 
 ANSERIFORMES 127 
 
 seeds of gorse in its crop. On being sown, every one of these seeds 
 germinated." This is interesting, as showing the food on which they 
 live, but these birds do not pass seeds ; they are ground up before 
 reaching the stomach. Reports from north of Auckland, from Rotorua 
 and from the Bay of Plenty all tell the same tale ; the birds are most 
 destructive to young grass and clover seedlings, and in many parts 
 farmers sow poisoned grain with the seed in the hope of checking the 
 nuisance. They are also accused of spreading the blackberry. 
 
 At the present time (1916-19) Calif ornian quail are very abundant 
 in the Taranaki district, and are met with on Mt Egmont in summer 
 time up to 6000 feet. 
 
 Virginian Quail; Colin; "Bob-White" (Ortyx virginiana) 
 
 The Wellington Society in 1898 introduced about 400 birds, which 
 were distributed as follows : 80 went to Otago, 40 to Canterbury, 20 to 
 Stratford, 20 to New Plymouth, and the rest were liberated in the 
 Wellington district. In 1899 another large lot was introduced and 
 distributed: 22 to Southland, 46 to Otago, 90 to Canterbury, 70 to 
 Blenheim, 100 to Wellington, 60 to Wanganui, 44 to Stratford, 32 
 to New Plymouth, 30 to Napier, 56 to Waikaremoana, 6 to Gisborne, 
 and 200 to Auckland. 
 
 In 1900 the Otago Society reported that "they were still to be 
 seen in the neighbourhood of where they were liberated, but no young 
 birds have been seen." There is no further record of them. 
 
 In 1902 the Wellington Society report: "These birds have so far 
 been a disappointment; reliable information as to their having been 
 seen during the past year is difficult to obtain." The Pahiatua sub- 
 committee report says : "they seem to have disappeared." The Marton 
 sub-committee report them as "doing well, and that they have been 
 seen with young broods." 
 
 In the same year the Taranaki Society report: "Virginian Quail 
 are steadily increasing and will, in a year or two, afford good sport." 
 In the 1904 report we read: "Virginian Quail seem to have dis- 
 appeared." 
 
 In 1909 the Auckland Society report "the Virginian Quail have 
 almost disappeared." 
 
 Prairie Hen (Tympanuchus americanus) 
 
 The Canterbury Society imported 17 (out of 28 captured) in 
 1879 fr m Topeka, Kansas, and turned them out near Mount 
 Thomas. In 1880 it was reported that "the prairie chickens which 
 were obtained from Nebraska (?) last year, have not been seen
 
 i 2 8 BIRDS 
 
 or heard of for some time." But in 1885 we read: "About a dozen 
 of the prairie hens, imported about four years ago, have been seen 
 on a farm at North Loburn, in fine plumage and apparently good 
 Condition." This is the last record of them. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced 20 of the birds in 1881. 
 In the following year, out of a very large number shipped at San 
 Francisco, about 40 more were received. Half of these were sent 
 to Otago, and (it is said) the remainder were stolen. I cannot find 
 any report of their liberation in Otago. But neither in the north nor 
 the south did the species succeed in establishing itself. 
 
 Common Grouse (Lagopus scoticus) 
 
 The history of the attempts to introduce grouse into New Zealand 
 is nearly exclusively a record of failure to carry the species over the 
 sea. Only two societies appear to have tried to introduce it. 
 
 In 1870 five were shipped in London by Mr Larkworthy for the 
 Auckland Society; one survived the voyage, then pined and died. 
 In 1872 he shipped 33 birds; two pairs were landed, but one pair 
 died soon after landing. The other pair, a cock and a hen, were 
 liberated at Matamata. In 1873 Mr Larkworthy shipped another 
 lot (the number is not recorded in the Society's reports), of which 
 one pair arrived. These also were liberated at Matamata, and were 
 heard of for some time afterwards. 
 
 In 1871 the Otago Society got Mr R. Bills to attempt to bring 
 some out, and eight brace were shipped in London. When eight days 
 out they all died in the course of a single night. Mr Bills reported 
 that "their legs became suddenly paralysed, immediately after which 
 they drooped away." 
 
 Black Grouse ; Black Game (Lyrurus tetrix) 
 
 The Auckland Society in 1873 made an attempt to obtain these 
 birds through Mr Larkworthy, but they all died before they reached 
 the docks in London. 
 
 The Otago Society in 1879 through Mr Bills, obtained 80 birds in 
 Scotland, but only 20 reached the ship. " It was found very difficult 
 to take the black cock at all from proprietors' lands in Scotland." 
 Ten survived the voyage and were liberated. In 1882 one was 
 seen near Tuapeka Mouth ; and a cock and a hen up the Waitahuna 
 River. There is no further record. 
 
 In 1900, 26 were shipped in London, but only a cock and 
 two hens arrived and reached Dunedin. These were liberated in the 
 reserve at the junction of the Leithan and Pomahaka runs ; they were
 
 ANSERIFORMES 129 
 
 seen the following year, but with no young ones, and there the 
 record ceases 1 . 
 
 Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) 
 
 The only attempt to introduce this species was made in 1897, 
 when the Wellington Society, in conjunction with the Canterbury, 
 Nelson and other societies, had a shipment made in London; but 
 all died on the way out. 
 
 Pointed-tailed Grouse (Pedicecetus columbianus) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced 22 from Utah in 1876, and 
 they were liberated at Piako. There is no further record concerning 
 them. 
 
 Family RALLID;E 
 
 Australian Coot ; Murray Coot (Fulica australis) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1869, but it is not stated 
 what was done with them. 
 
 Sir Walter Buller in the Supplement to The Birds of New Zealand 
 (p. 75), describes this as an addition to the fauna, as follows: 
 
 I have to add to the list of New Zealand birds the Australian Coot, a 
 specimen of which was killed in July, 1889, at Lake Waihoia in Otago. 
 There is no record of this species having been brought alive from Australia, 
 and, even if it had been, it is difficult to see how it could have reached 
 that remote district. 
 
 The species is evidently an occasional visitant from Australia. A 
 second specimen was taken at Kaitangata in May, 1919, and a third 
 at Mataura Island in July, 1919. 
 
 1 In a book of newspaper cuttings belonging to the late Mr A. M. Johnson of 
 Opawa, I found a paragraph taken probably from some Christchurch paper. It is 
 without date, but from the date of some of the adjoining paragraphs, it was probably 
 about 1 87 1 . I reproduce the paragraph, as it is interesting in this connection : " In 
 a recent issue we republished from the Argus a paragraph stating that some grouse 
 had been successfully brought out from Norway by a Mr Graff, who purposes 
 bringing them on to Otago. A correspondent of the Hobart Town Mercury writes 
 on the subject as follows : ' Mr Jalmar Graff, a young engineer, who has arrived by 
 the emigrant ship ' Eugine,' has brought with him from his native place, Frederick- 
 shald, in Norway, two pairs of black grouse, a game bird better known to Englishmen 
 as the black cock or moorfowl of the Highlands of Scotland. Because of this bird's 
 peculiar and solitary habits of life, and the fact that it feeds almost entirely on 
 heather, berries and such like food, no attempt had hitherto been made to remove 
 them alive to any distance from their mountain home, much less across the ocean. 
 The grouse were taken as eggs in the wood, and hatched by a common hen. After- 
 wards they were brought into a cage without a bottom, and every day this was moved 
 on the grass. At first they were fed on ants' eggs, bilberries and red whortleberries, 
 latterly or barley, herbage and birchen-nobs. On the voyage (5 months) they had 
 barley, peas, maize and cabbage. No one else has, to my knowledge, succeeded 
 in hatching and rearing grouse in Norway, and I believe this is the first successful 
 experiment."' I may add that these birds never came to Otago.
 
 130 BIRDS 
 
 Australian Land Rail (Hypottenidia philippinensis) 
 The Otago Society introduced a pair of them in 1867; but there 
 is no further record of them. 
 
 Order CHARADRIIFORMES 
 
 Family CHARADRIIDJE 
 Golden Plover (Charadrius pluvialis) 
 
 In 1875 R. Bills brought out some of these birds for the Canterbury 
 Society, and they were apparently among the birds sold and dis- 
 tributed. There is no further mention of them. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced four in 1877, Dut there is no 
 further record of them. 
 
 The Otago Society made an attempt to introduce the species in 
 1897. Out of 22 birds originally caught, only five reached the ship's 
 side at London. Two were landed at Dunedin and were liberated 
 at Clifton, but at once disappeared. 
 Seebohm says of this species that 
 
 it breeds in the north temperate and Arctic regions, including the British 
 Islands. Some remain in South Europe to winter, but the majority appear 
 to pass on to North Africa, a few migrating during the winter season as 
 far as South Africa. The Asiatic birds winter in Beloochistan, some of them 
 probably crossing Arabia into Africa. 
 
 Lapwing ; Green Plover ; Peewit ( Vanellus cristatus) 
 
 The Auckland Society in 1872 liberated 36, but nothing more 
 was ever heard of them. Another attempt was made in 1875, when 
 36 more were shipped for Auckland; only four were landed and 
 three of them died soon after. 
 
 The Canterbury Society obtained nine (imported by Mr C. Bills) 
 in 1873, an d liberated them, but they were not seen again. 
 
 The Otago Society purchased 36 birds in 1897, managed to ship 
 22, and only landed five in Dunedin. These were liberated at 
 Clifton, and were seen flying about the fields for some time; then 
 they disappeared. 
 
 In 1900, 50 birds were purchased, only 14 were shipped in 
 London, and eight arrived in Dunedin. In the following year it is 
 reported that "no young birds have been seen. Those liberated on 
 Goodwood Estate did not survive many days, and some of their 
 skeletons were picked up soon after they were liberated, the birds 
 having been killed either by weasels or by hawks." 
 
 The Government introduced a lot in 1904. Of these 35 were 
 handed over to the Wellington Society, and were liberated, but 
 nothing more was heard of them. The Westland Society received
 
 CHARADRIIFORMES 131 
 
 30, which " were liberated on the Upper Kohatahi. They all took 
 wing and landed on the opposite side of Doctor's Creek." Apparently 
 that was the last seen of them. 
 
 Apparently also a number were liberated in the Auckland district, 
 for Mr Drummond, writing in the Lyttelton Times of 4th January, 
 1913, states that 
 
 a few lapwings were liberated in the Auckland district in 1870, and informa- 
 tion supplied to me in 1907 shows that the effort was successful in several 
 northern districts. The experiment has given great satisfaction to the 
 settlers. The birds are credited with killing large numbers of wireworms 
 and grubs in the spring. 
 
 I think Mr Drummond was misinformed by his correspondents, 
 who were probably writing about some other bird, for on 2nd October, 
 1915, he asks: "has anybody seen a lapwing in New Zealand during 
 the past ten years ? " 
 
 The Auckland Society reported in 1909, that "the Green Plover 
 has disappeared." 
 
 This species is a partial migrant in Britain; some nesting there, 
 others only wintering there, and spending their nesting season in 
 Northern Continental and Central Europe. 
 
 Grey Plover ; Australian Plover (Squatarola helvetica) 
 
 The Otago Society liberated two in 1867, which were not seen 
 again. In 1881 they obtained eight more, which were liberated on 
 the Lauder Station, Manuherikia. They were observed for some 
 time afterwards, and one was shot by mistake. Then they disappeared 
 altogether. 
 
 The grey plover is only a spring and autumn migrant in the 
 British Islands ; it breeds within the Arctic Circle, and passes through 
 Central and Southern Europe on migration, wintering in South 
 Africa, India, South China, the islands of the Malay Archipelago, and 
 Australia. In the western hemisphere it is known to winter in Cuba 
 and some parts of South America. 
 
 Australian Curlew (Numenius cyanopus) 
 
 The Canterbury Society received two of these birds from Australia 
 in 1868, but there is no record of what was done with them. 
 
 Family PTEROCLID^S 
 Sand Grouse (Pterocles bicinctus) 
 
 The Wellington Society received two from Mr Hamilton (of 
 Teneriffe) in 1892, but there is no other record. 
 
 92
 
 132 BIRDS 
 
 Pintail Sand Grouse (probably Pterochlurus alchatus) 
 
 The Otago Society in 1882 liberated eight at the foot of the Rock 
 and Pillar Range; they were not seen again. 
 
 Family COLUMBID^E 
 Crested Bronze-wing Pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes) 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced four of these birds in 1876, 
 and eight more in 1877. They were seen for some months afterwards, 
 and then disappeared. 
 
 The Canterbury Society in 1883 received six from the Melbourne 
 Zoological Gardens ; but there is no further record of them. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced ten in 1887, of which five were 
 liberated, one died, and four were retained for breeding purposes. 
 
 Bronze-wing Pigeon (Phaps chakoptera) 
 
 The Canterbury Society received two pairs from Mr Wilkin in 
 1864, and introduced four more in 1867. They appear to have bred 
 and increased in the Gardens (there were six in the aviary in 1880), 
 for in 1882 it is reported that "the Murrumbidgee pigeons turned 
 out by the Society have been seen, and are apparently doing well." 
 Again in 1883: "the bronze-wing pigeons from the Murrumbidgee 
 Mountains have been seen lately in one of the numerous patches 
 of bush on the Peninsula, at a considerable distance from where 
 they were liberated." In 1884 the Society received 20 birds from the 
 Melbourne Zoological Society. I can find no further record after 
 this date; they seem to have been exterminated. 
 
 The Otago Society introduced six in 1867. Mr F. Deans says: 
 "they were liberated about the Gardens (Dunedin) and probably got 
 killed by cats." 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced some in 1867, but there is no 
 further record of them. 
 
 The Auckland Society received six from Mr Jas. Williamson in 
 1867; these were liberated at Kaipara. Some more were introduced 
 in 1869, but none of them was ever heard of again. 
 
 The Wellington Society received two Tasmanian birds from Mr 
 Meredith, but the date is not given. There were two reared at the 
 Game Farm in the Wairarapa in 1907 ; but there is no further record. 
 
 Harlequin Bronze-wing Pigeon (Phaps histrionica) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two of these birds from Ade- 
 laide in 1869. There is no further record.
 
 CHARADRIIFORMES 133 
 
 Wonga-Wonga Pigeon (Leucosarcia picata) 
 
 The Canterbury Society received two pairs from Mr Wilkin in 
 1864, and four more in 1871, from Mr R. B. Johnstone. These were 
 apparently kept for breeding in the aviaries, for in 1872 they had 
 still eight birds. In 1883 seven more were received. There is no 
 record as to whether they were liberated or not, and no further men- 
 tion of them. 
 
 Mr E. F. Stead writes me (April, 1916): 
 
 In the early go's Mr Peter Cunningham introduced some from 
 Australia to Rockwood, his station near Whitecliffs. I can remember three 
 or four pairs running about the garden there; they rarely flew. But they 
 have all gone. The presence of the weasels would preclude the possibility 
 of establishing them here. 
 
 Some were introduced into Nelson in 1867, but I cannot learn 
 what came of them. 
 
 The Auckland Society received two pairs in 1868 from Mr Dacre, 
 and in 1870 two more pairs from Sir Julius Vogel. There is no record 
 of what was done with them. 
 
 The Otago Society introduced 12 in 1869, but they were kept 
 too long in the aviaries, where many died. The remainder were 
 liberated in the upper part of the Gardens, but were apparently too 
 tame, and were killed by cats. 
 
 The Wellington Society imported 12 in 1875, and 22 in 1876. It 
 is not stated where they were liberated, but they were seen for 
 some considerable time afterwards, and some were reported from 
 Wainuiomata. They were not reported again, and apparently 
 completely disappeared. 
 
 Ring Dove (Turtur risorius) 
 
 These birds have been commonly imported by dealers at all the 
 chief ports for the last 40 or 50 years, and passing into the hands 
 of private individuals, were in many cases liberated round home- 
 steads and dwellings. The Canterbury Society kept them for years in 
 their aviaries. The first pair were imported about 1866. In some 
 reports they are called "Ring-doves," in others, "Turtle-doves." 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced some of these birds in 1867. 
 
 The Auckland Society received five "doves" from Mr Jas. 
 Williamson in 1867; probably this bird. 
 
 Mr E. F. Stead writes: "there is a fairly large number of ring- 
 doves in the (Christchurch) domain. People have turned them out 
 in their gardens in various parts of the city, and they stop about and 
 do fairly well, but do not seem to increase." The same is true of 
 suburban gardens about Dunedin.
 
 i 3 4 BIRDS 
 
 Turtle Dove (Turtur turtur) 
 
 According to Hutton (1871) these birds were imported into Auck- 
 land and Nelson. They have been confused with the preceding species. 
 
 * Common Pigeon ; Rock Dove (Columba livid) 
 Pigeons have gone wild in many parts of New Zealand, and I have 
 accumulated a good deal of information in regard to them, especially 
 in connection with reversion to the wild rock-dove type. Mr W. H. 
 Gates of Skippers, near Lake Wakatipu, informs me (April, 1916): 
 
 Fifteen miles down stream from here there are a lot of wild pigeons 
 inhabiting the gorges in all sorts of inaccessible sheltered places. They have 
 a strain of nearly every pigeon tribe. Some make an attempt to "tumble." 
 Some are nearly white with small heads ; some biscuit-colour ; slate ; dark- 
 brown, white breast, with bronze neck and shoulders; and others with 
 many colours mixed. 
 
 In Strath-Taieri, wild pigeons occur in thousands along the rocky 
 faces of the Rock and Pillar Range from Middlemarch to Waipiata. 
 Mr W. Sainsbury (April, 1916) says they are of all colours, and 
 apparently of all breeds, and several of them have the "tumbling" 
 habit. One which he brought me was slaty-blue in colour, with the 
 black bars on the wings, but not well denned; black bar at the 
 extremity of the tail, and the outer tail feathers edged with white. 
 The majority of the wing pinions were tinged with red on the inner 
 web. The abdomen and leg feathers were pale slaty-grey. The crop 
 of this bird was quite full of wheat; but I am informed that the 
 sharp winter of Central Otago when the hills are covered with 
 snow, and the ground is frozen hard for weeks at a time is most 
 severe upon the pigeons, which fall into very poor condition before 
 the advent of each spring. 
 
 In the Galloway Station, Central Otago, where they have gone 
 wild in numbers, they live both in the rocks and in holes in clay 
 banks in the wilder districts. 
 
 Forty years ago wild pigeons in thousands occupied the rocks in 
 the Duntroon district, inland from Oamaru, finding shelter in the 
 numerous holes which occur in this limestone region. But shooting 
 in season and out of season, and the eating of poisoned grain, have 
 reduced their numbers to such an extent that they are now only 
 found in hundreds. Mr Alfred Labes of Duntroon, who has looked 
 into this question for me, states that they are now (1916) very timid 
 and most difficult to shoot, and if their nests are disturbed they do 
 not build again in the same locality. It is evident that from time to 
 time tame pigeons join the wild ones, for a tumbler was observed 
 among the latter, and a carrier, with a ring on its leg, was shot 
 among them. In regard to colour, Mr Labes states that most of the
 
 CHARADRIIFORMES 135 
 
 birds are of a dark slaty colour, as seen on the wing, but some of 
 lighter hue are occasionally seen. One specimen which was secured 
 showed all the characteristic markings of the wild rock pigeon. 
 Another was nearly black, tinged with slaty-grey on the neck, black 
 tinged with brown on the wings, one distinct black bar on the wings, 
 and a black bar on the tail; underneath the wings the feathers were 
 pure white. 
 
 Mr A. Warburton, Teacher, of Cromwell wrote me as follows on 
 5th March, 1892: 
 
 I have found out rather a strange thing since I came here, viz. that 
 among the rocky mounds of the mountains, which are extremely bare and 
 arid, are growing Kowhai trees (Sophora tetraptera), stunted of course, 
 which were unknown in this district until a few years ago. I have noticed 
 that the trees are only found among the loose and disjointed rocky masses. 
 The seeds are evidently bird-carried, the nearest place where Kowhai trees 
 abound being Lake Wanaka, some forty miles distant. The transportation 
 is not the work of a native bird as the trees would have been planted before ; 
 consequently some introduced bird must carry the seed. I am inclined 
 to think it is the common domestic pigeon, many of which are living in 
 a wild state among the cliffs and rocks of the Dunstan Range. Of course 
 these birds have not been inhabitants of the district for many years, and 
 I dare say further enquiries will connect their advent pretty closely with 
 the appearance of the Kowhai. 
 
 Mr R. D.Dansey informs me that wild pigeons were numerous on 
 the cliffs between Napier and the breakwater; but Mr H. Hill states 
 that they have mostly been driven away, he thinks by harrier hawks. 
 
 I have no doubt that these birds occur wild in many other parts 
 of New Zealand, but I have not received reports from any other 
 localities than those referred to. 
 
 New Caledonia Green Doves 
 
 The Auckland Society received two from Mr Martin of Noumea in 
 1 867, and later four from Captain Stuckey. There is no further record. 
 I do not know what species of bird is here referred to. 
 
 Solomon Island Pigeon 
 
 The Auckland Society received a pair from Captain Jacobs in 
 1870; and another from Mr E. Perkins in 1872. I have no idea of 
 the specific name. 
 
 Indian Dove ( ? Turtur f err ago) 
 The Otago Society had two in their aviary in Dunedin in 1907. 
 
 Queensland Doves 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced some of these about 1868 
 Hutton suggests (1871) that they were the little turtle dove or grey-
 
 136 BIRDS 
 
 necked pigeon of Australia (Geopelia cuneata). They evidently did 
 not establish themselves. 
 
 Indian Pigeon 
 
 The Otago Society had five in their Dunedin aviary in 1907; but 
 only two in 1908. No one seems to know what species they belonged 
 to, or where they came from. 
 
 Java Dove 
 
 The Otago Society introduced five in 1867, and after being kept 
 for a considerable time, they were given to the late Mr Fred Jones, 
 and liberated at Green Island. They soon were lost sight of, 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced some the same year; but the 
 record is lost. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced eight in 1875, and bred them 
 in the Gardens; but there is no further record. 
 
 Again I have no idea what species is referred to. 
 
 Moreton Bay Dove 
 
 The Canterbury Society introduced four in 1867, and liberated 
 them. But, as usual, no further notice of them is obtainable, nor do 
 I know what bird is intended, though quite probably it is one of the 
 commoner Australian species. 
 
 Cape Dove ; Harlequin Dove (Oena capensis) 
 Sir George Grey introduced these "into Kawau in the early 
 sixties, and according to the Hon. S. T. George, they became very 
 numerous. But it is many years since any were seen. 
 
 Squatter Pigeon ; Partridge Bronze-wing Pigeon 
 
 (Geophaps scriptd) 
 
 The Canterbury Society received two pairs in 1866 from Mr R. 
 Wilkin. I do not know what came of them. 
 
 Order CUCULIFORMES 
 
 Family PSITTACIDJE 
 Shell Parroquet ; Warbling Grass Parakeet ; Long- tailed Grass 
 
 Parakeet ; Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) 
 According to Hutton this species was introduced at an early date 
 into Canterbury, and was liberated, but failed to established itself. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced and liberated either two or four 
 in 1871, and every bird-dealer has brought numbers into the country 
 for sale.
 
 CUCULIFORMES 137 
 
 Mr Holman, Curator of the Whangarei Acclimatisation Society, 
 tells me that Australian Parakeets are abundant at Waitakerei ; but I 
 have not been able to find out whether it is this species, or the next 1 . 
 
 Rose-hill Parroquet ; Roselle Parroquet ; Rosella (Platycercus eximius) 
 Colonel Boscawen informs me that this species is to be seen 
 occasionally in the neighbourhood of Auckland. It is frequently 
 introduced by bird-dealers, and has evidently escaped or been liberated 
 by private individuals. 
 
 The rosella is considered to be a pest in the apple orchards in 
 parts of New South Wales. On the other hand it has been found to 
 feed on the larvae of blow-flies, which are a much worse pest. 
 
 Cockatoo Parroquet (Calopsitta novce-hollandice) 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1871 from Adelaide. It 
 is frequently to be found in hands of dealers and private fanciers. 
 
 Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galeritd) 
 Colonel Boscawen informs me that this species is frequently to 
 be seen on the Waitakerei Ranges, where it appears to have established 
 itself. This species was also reported from Nelson, but Mr F. G. Gibbs 
 informs me that the report arose from one tame bird which frequently 
 flew over the town screeching. 
 
 Order CORACIIFORMES 
 
 Family ALCEDINIWE 
 Laughing Jackass (Dacelo gigas) 
 
 The Canterbury Society got two pairs of these birds from Mr 
 Wilkin in 1864, but there is no record of their being liberated. 
 However, in Lady Barker's Station Life in New Zealand (p. 16) it 
 is stated that on her voyage from Melbourne to New Zealand in the 
 'Albion' in 1865 one of her fellow-passengers had a number of birds 
 on board chiefly laughing jackasses. 
 
 The Otago Society introduced four in 1866, and two in 1869, and 
 liberated them near the Silverstream. They were seen for some time 
 there, but ultimately disappeared. 
 
 Sir George Grey introduced a number into Kawau in the early 
 sixties, but they all died. 
 
 1 In the Report of the Canterbury Acclimatisation Society for 1868 it is stated 
 that a large number of the pretty little Australian love-parrots has been received, 
 which the curator is desirous of disposing of, or exchanging. I do not know what 
 species is referred to.
 
 138 BIRDS 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced some in 1867, but there is no 
 record as to what came of them. 
 
 The Auckland Society received one from Dr Stratford in 1868. 
 
 The Wellington Society liberated 14 in 1876, and one in 1879. 
 One was seen as late as 1885, but that is the last record. 
 
 Colonel Boscawen tells me (December, 1916) that a few laughing 
 jackasses are to be found wild on the east coast of the Auckland 
 district. 
 
 This bird in Australia has been found to feed mostly on insects 
 (beetles, grasshoppers, etc.), centipedes and spiders. 
 
 Family STRIGIDJE 
 
 Many of the species of small birds introduced by the acclimatisa- 
 tion societies to cope with insects, increased themselves to such an 
 extent as to become a serious pest to the farmers, and steps were 
 taken in some of the districts to introduce a natural enemy in the 
 shape of owls. The following species have been introduced already. 
 
 Barn Owl (Strix flammed) 
 
 The Annual Report of the Otago Society for 1900 contains the 
 following statement: 
 
 Seven barn owls received from London in December (1899) were 
 liberated at West Taieri, Mr Fulton of Ravenscliff supplying them with 
 food at the homestead until they finally left their cages. Some of them 
 returned to their cages for over two weeks. They are now to be seen of an 
 evening flying about the straw stacks at West Taieri, and as they live almost 
 entirely on rats and mice, we feel sure the public will protect them. 
 
 The italics are mine. The birds were introduced to keep down 
 the small bird nuisance. They do not appear to have established 
 themselves, for they have not been heard of since 1900. 
 
 * Small Brown Owl (Athene noctud) 
 
 The Otago Society in 1906 imported 28 birds from Germany, 
 liberating 14 at Ashley Downs, Waiwera, and 14 at Alexandra; in 
 1907 39 were introduced and liberated at Alexandra; and in 1908 a 
 third shipment of 80 was received and these were distributed in 
 various parts. In this year also it was reported that several of those 
 introduced in 1906 had reared young broods. In 1909 several fruit 
 growers in Central Otago reported them as having proved already a 
 great boon to their orchards. In 1910 72 birds were received, of which 
 14 were liberated, and the remainder sold to farmers and orchardists. 
 In 1916 they are reported as multiplying about Wendon in an 
 old quarry, from which they have displaced a colony of starlings.
 
 CORACIIFORMES 139 
 
 At Pyramid Hill they live in rabbit burrows in inaccessible places, 
 and come out freely in the daytime to catch lizards and beetles. It 
 is stated that they do not shun the daylight, but may often be seen 
 sitting at the entrance to their burrows enjoying the sun. Mr W. H. 
 Gates also reports them (April, 1916) as heard occasionally at Skippers. 
 Mr Henry Warden (May, 1916) states that since their appearance in 
 the Wyndham district, the moreporks (native owls) are no longer heard. 
 
 Mr A. J. lies liberated a pair at Rotorua in 1908 (?) and for some 
 time dead sparrows with their heads eaten off were found. After a 
 while the birds disappeared. 
 
 Mr A. Gunn of Galloway Station, Central Otago, tells me they 
 are common there in rocks, clay banks, and deserted rabbit holes. 
 They are also reported from the Taieri Plain, and from Kaitangata. 
 
 Mr A. Philpott sends me (August, 1916) the following note on 
 this species: 
 
 The little owl (Carine noctua) made its appearance near Invercargill 
 in the autumn of 1915. I frequently heard its call, but did not see the 
 bird till September 2ist, when I discovered a pair perched in a hole in 
 a dead Kamahi (Wrinmannia racemosa). The hole was about 25 feet from 
 the ground and faced north, so that the sun (it was 2 p.m.) shone almost 
 directly in. When I approached within about a dozen yards one of the 
 birds flew out, seeming to find no difficulty in guiding its flight in the 
 daylight. After some time the other bird also flew out and perched on a 
 branch overhead. Then it took a long flight to another dead tree and 
 selected a place, not at all in the shade, where it seemed to settle itself to 
 sleep. The trees referred to were on the edge of a bush, and subsequent 
 observations have shown that the little owl does not enter the bush, but 
 keeps on the outskirts or about isolated trees. For this reason I do not 
 anticipate that our native bush birds stand in much danger from this owl. 
 The little owl is much more difficult to approach than the morepork; 
 it evidently sees much better in daylight ; but apart from this, it seems to 
 be a more wary bird. Unlike the morepork, the little owl hoots vigorously 
 in the middle of the day, at least, in the spring. It is now pretty common 
 in this district ; a few evenings ago I heard four or five calling in different 
 directions. 
 
 Writing in 1918 he adds: 
 
 There can be no doubt that such introduced birds as the sparrow and 
 others which roost about hedges, plantations, and buildings will pay a 
 heavy toll ; indeed, I have reason to think that the thrush, the sparrow, and 
 the starling are already diminishing in numbers near Invercargill. Where 
 a pair of owls have established themselves, the evensong of the thrushes 
 and blackbirds gives place to an incessant chorus of terrified alarm-notes. 
 
 At Hawera they are also found, according to my son, Dr W. 
 Malcolm Thomson, but there they have not displaced the morepork, 
 which is still to be heard in the neighbourhood (1916).
 
 140 BIRDS 
 
 According to Mr Drummond, some of these owls were liberated 
 in North Canterbury in 1910. 
 
 It is evident that these birds have become firmly established in 
 the south portion of the South Island ; they are now quite common 
 round Dunedin. 
 
 Wood Owl (Smyrnium aluco) 
 
 Sir Walter Buller says : 
 
 In 1873 I sent out from England a pair of Wood-owls (Smyrnium aluco). 
 They arrived safely at Napier, and after recruiting their strength were 
 turned out loose in a distant part of the province. They were protected 
 under the Act, but notwithstanding all these precautions, the unfortunate 
 immigrants fell victims to popular prejudice. 
 
 Australian Owl, probably the Boobook Owl (Ninox boobook) 
 
 The Otago Society introduced two in 1866, and liberated them in 
 the bush at Waikouaiti. They were not seen again. 
 
 Order PASSERIFORMES 
 
 Family ALAUDIDJE 
 * Skylark (Alauda arvensis) 
 
 The introduction of this bird was general throughout New 
 Zealand. 
 
 The Nelson Society, sometime before September, 1864, imported 
 20 larks into the district. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated four in 1867, 35 in 1868, and 61 in 
 1869. Private dealers brought in others. 
 
 The Canterbury Society introduced 13 in 1867, and 1 8 in 1871. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced ten in 1867, and 52 in 1868. 
 By 1873 tne y wei> e considered to be thoroughly established in the 
 provincial district. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced 52 in 1874, an ^ 5 6 in 1875. 
 
 In 1879 7 were liberated on Stewart Island, and were seen 
 for a time at the head of Paterson Inlet; but Mr Traill informs me 
 (March, 1916) that "none have been reported for years." 
 
 In every part of New Zealand they increased rapidly, and spread 
 throughout the whole country, but they confine themselves to cul- 
 tivated districts, and are not found in the bush or on open mountain 
 country, though Dr Hilgendorfs statement on the following page 
 modifies the last paragraph. 
 
 Next to the sparrow, the skylark is considered by farmers to be 
 the most destructive of the small birds which have been introduced
 
 PASSERIFORMES 141 
 
 into New Zealand. They are particularly destructive in spring, when 
 they pull wheat and other grains out of the ground just as they are 
 springing. They also uproot seedling cabbage, turnip, and other farm 
 plants. In the Foxton district pea-growing is quite impossible, owing 
 to their depredations. 
 
 Several observers note that skylarks sing from a perch. Potts, 
 writing in Canterbury in 1884, says: 
 
 In the old country I never observed a Skylark in full song when 
 perched. This habit is not very infrequent here. Taking up a position on 
 a post or rail, gently turning from side to side, now and then with a slight 
 movement of the wings, it indulges in song as joyous and powerful as when 
 ascending in spiral circles skyward. At Sumner it has been observed 
 singing whilst on the ground. 
 
 He also records great variation in the coloration of the eggs : 
 
 whitish or grey-yellow, profusely speckled with brown of various shades ; 
 dull greyish with a green tinge, freckled or mottled with an ashen-brown ; 
 rich brown, abundantly marked with darker shades highly varnished ; pale 
 dull pink, profusely speckled with reddish brown. 
 
 Mr H. Watts, of Maungatua, Otago, states that the skylark has 
 mated freely with the native pipit (Anthus novee-zealandite), and he 
 considers that the hybrid is the mischievous bird. He states that the 
 hybrid bird rarely rises to any height when singing, and that when 
 on the wing he only utters a few expressionless notes ; then he makes 
 a horizontal flight to some distance, or alights upon a post and con- 
 tinues his song. Mr Watts is a good observer and keen student of 
 nature, but I cannot obtain any corroboration of his views, and am 
 doubtful whether the two species are able to hybridise. 
 
 Mr Drummond (July, 1916) climbed Mt Leadhill, south of 
 Collingwood, and notes in his diary: 
 
 It is surprising to see so many larks in this desolate misty region, 
 amongst rocks and boulders, where the food supplies must be poor. On 
 all sides below us there are valleys throbbing with life, and further on 
 are plains and meadows, yet these birds are spending their time here. 
 With the exception of a few small but beautiful sub-alpine flowers, such 
 as Celmisias and Sundews, they afford the only relief to the dreariness 
 of this frowning mountain side. 
 
 The presence of the lark is, of course, proof that the food they are 
 dependent on, viz. seeds and insects, was not poor. Hilgendorf found 
 the nest of the skylark with eggs among rocks at an elevation of 
 5000 feet in the Canterbury Mountains. He says of larks : " Skylarks 
 in this district are almost purely insectivorous ; in agricultural districts,
 
 142 BIRDS 
 
 poisoned grain scattered over a field of sprouting wheat kills more 
 larks than sparrows 1 ." 
 
 Wood Lark (Lullula arbored) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced five in 1872. There is no record 
 as to what came of them. 
 
 Family TURDIDJE 
 *Song Thrush (Turdus musicus) 
 
 Somewhere about 1872, the Nelson Society introduced five of 
 these birds. They disappeared for many years, and then reappeared 
 later. The probability is that the earlier lot failed to establish them- 
 selves, and that later the district became stocked by an immigration 
 from some other part. 
 
 The Otago Society introduced two in 1865, four in 1867, 49 in 
 1868, 48 in 1869, and 42 in 1871. There was no mistake as to the 
 determination of the Otago settlers to have their favourite song- 
 bird the "Mavis" established in New Zealand. It shows, too, the 
 hardiness of this bird in confinement, that Mr J. A. Ewen shipped 
 the above 48 in London, in 1869, in charge of Mr R. Bills, and 
 
 1 The skylark is a resident in the temperate regions, but the Arctic birds migrate 
 in autumn to South Europe, North Africa, North-west India, and North China. 
 Seebohm (Siberia in Europe, p . 257) gives a most interesting account of this migration, 
 as observed by him in Heligoland: " In the afternoon it was a calm, with a rising 
 barometer; in the evening a breeze was already springing up from the south-east. 
 I called upon Gatke, who advised me to go to bed, and be up before sunrise in 
 the morning, as in all probability I should find the island swarming with birds. 
 Accordingly I turned in soon after ten. At half-past twelve I was awoke with the 
 news that the migration had already begun. Hastily dressing myself, I at once 
 made for the lighthouse. The night was almost pitch dark, but the town was all 
 astir. In every street men with large lanterns and a sort of angler's landing-net 
 were making for the lighthouse. As I crossed the potato-fields birds were continually 
 getting up at my feet. Arrived at the lighthouse, an intensely interesting sight 
 presented itself. The whole of the zone of light within range of the mirrors was 
 alive with birds coming and going. Nothing else was visible in the darkness of 
 the night but the lantern of the lighthouse vignetted in a drifting sea of birds. 
 From the darkness in the east, clouds of birds were continually emerging in an 
 uninterrupted stream; a few swerved from their course, fluttered for a moment 
 as if dazzled by the light, and then gradually vanished with the rest in the western 
 gloom. Occasionally a bird wheeled round the lighthouse and then passed on, and 
 occasionally one fluttered against the glass like a moth against a lamp, tried to perch 
 on the wire netting and was caught by the lighthouse men. I should be afraid to 
 hazard a guess as to the hundreds of thousands that must have passed in a couple 
 of hours; but the stray birds which the lighthouse men succeeded in securing 
 amounted to nearly three hundred. The scene from the balcony of the lighthouse 
 was equally interesting; in every direction birds were flying like a swarm of bees, 
 and every few seconds one flew against the glass. All the birds seemed to be flying 
 up wind, and it was only on the lee side of the light that any were caught. They 
 were nearly all skylarks. About three o'clock a.m. the migration came to an end 
 or continued above the range of our vision." The date was the i2th of October. I 
 am not aware of any migratory tendency in the skylarks which are now naturalised 
 in New Zealand.
 
 PASSERIFORMES 143 
 
 that every one was landed alive in Dunedin. They established them- 
 selves at once. 
 
 The Canterbury Society landed 36 in 1867, 24 in 1868, and a 
 third lot in 1871 The Society's Report for the latter year states that 
 "they have not increased so well as expected, and it is much to be 
 feared have been killed by cats." The large amount of native bush 
 in the neighbourhood of Dunedin was, no doubt, more favourable 
 for their protection and increase than the comparatively open country 
 of North Canterbury. 
 
 In 1875 a further lot was brought in by Mr Bills, some of which 
 were sold, and others liberated in the Christchurch Gardens. It 
 was, however, more than 20 years before thrushes were thoroughly 
 established there. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced 30 in 1867, and 95 in 1868. 
 They established themselves at once. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced eight in 1878. 
 
 In the Otago Society's Report for 1881, it is stated that "thrushes, 
 we are glad to find, are becoming more plentiful in the neighbourhood ; 
 they are blamed for destroying fruit." Apparently this was thought by 
 the writer to be a habit specially acquired in its new habitant. At 
 the present day thrushes are found from one end of New Zealand to 
 the other in enormous abundance. They are responsible, along with 
 blackbirds, for continual and serious depredations in orchards. Before 
 their introduction fruit of all kinds could be grown in the open, but 
 as they began to increase it became impossible to grow small fruit, 
 especially, without protection. Netting has had to be resorted to by 
 all small growers, while in large orchards, guns, supplemented by 
 owls, cats, crippled hawks and gulls, have to be employed to keep 
 the depredators at a distance. 
 
 Against this must be placed the fact that they eat a great quantity 
 of insect life, and of land mollusca (snails especially). The latter they 
 destroy in the orthodox manner by dropping them on to rocks, stones 
 and hard roads ; and on the sea-coast they also eat periwinkles, leaving 
 heaps of broken shells at the spots where they drop their victims. 
 In New Zealand, as in Europe, earth-worms are their favourite food, 
 but these all belong to introduced species. Mr Drummond quotes 
 a Hawke's Bay correspondent as follows: 
 
 For about 130 days in the year, until well into January, a thrush has 
 come to my farm morning after morning. Over an area of about 300 square 
 yards he collects worms and takes them to his mate, sometimes carrying 
 two or three at a time. I have watched him frequently, and from 7.30 a.m. 
 to 8 a.m. he takes about fifty worms. I think I underestimate it in putting 
 it at two hundred worms a day.
 
 144 
 
 BIRDS 
 
 Philpott writes (1918): 
 
 The song- thrush does not appear to penetrate far into the big forests, 
 nor to spread into unsettled areas. In the coastal forest of Fiord County 
 they are seldom to be heard, though plentiful enough about the settlements 
 of Tuatapere and Papatotara. Nor does the bird favour the mountains ; 
 I do not think I have ever heard one above the bush-line (about 3,000 feet). 
 They are certainly absent along the upper limit of the Titiroa Forest 
 (Hunter Mountains), and I have no record of meeting with them on the 
 Longwood tops or the Hump. 
 
 The effects produced on the native and introduced vegetation of 
 New Zealand by the introduction of thrushes and blackbirds have 
 been very marked in at least one respect. The indigenous flora of 
 New Zealand contains an exceptionally high proportion of plants with 
 succulent fruit, amounting to approximately 16-55 P er cent. 
 
 In Britain about 5 per cent., and in Australia 9 per cent, of 
 the whole flora have succulent fruits. The introduction of fruit- 
 eating birds such as thrushes and blackbirds, which in the case of 
 small fruits swallow them whole and so distribute the seeds, and in 
 the case of large ones like plums and apricots, carry them off to some 
 distance where they can pick off the flesh and leave the stone, has 
 led to a considerable increase in succulent-fruited plants. A con- 
 siderable proportion of the indigenous birds of New Zealand are 
 frugivorous, and it is their prevalence which, no doubt, accounts for 
 the abundance of indigenous succulent-fruited plants. But the advent 
 of the thrush and blackbird has increased this feature, though the 
 former does not penetrate far into undisturbed forest. For example, 
 in the Town Belt of Dunedin, a wooded area in which the vegetation 
 is protected from all grazing animals, there has been a marked increase 
 in the numbers of individual plants of Fuchsia, Coprosma, Melicytus, 
 Muhlenbeckia and other berry- and drupe-bearing genera. Along 
 with this, certain introduced plants, such as gooseberries, currants, 
 brambles, raspberries, cape fuchsia (Leycesterta), but above all the 
 elderberry (Sambucus) have spread through the native vegetation. The 
 last-named plant in particular threatens to crowd out everything else, 
 and a considerable sum of money is spent each year in eradicating it. 
 
 In great parts of New Zealand, the Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) 
 and the sweetbriar rose are most obnoxious pests, and thrushes and 
 blackbirds are to some extent responsible for their spread. This 
 question of the distribution of succulent-fruited plants by thrushes 
 and similar birds is of especial interest to naturalists in New Zealand, 
 and I have summarised a good deal of the evidence which Kerner 
 has given on the subject, especially that relating to plants which are 
 now found in these islands. Thus Kerner in Flowers and their Unbidden
 
 PASSERIFORMES 145 
 
 Guests (p. 29) states that thrushes "are made ill by the Phytolacca 
 berries, which many other birds feed on without injury." Apparently 
 the statement was based on the case of one individual bird which 
 was unwell after eating some of the fruit, for it is repeated again in 
 his larger work on the Natural History of Plants, where he says: 
 "a song-thrush sickened after eating berries of Phytolacca" Now 
 this plant, the common ink-weed or poke-weed, is very common in 
 the warmer parts of New Zealand, and Mr Cheeseman informs me 
 that thrushes eat the fruit freely. 
 
 Kerner also states that when the fleshy fruits ofBerberis (Barberry), 
 Ligustrum (privet), Opuntia (prickly pear) and Viburnum (Laurustinus, 
 etc.), all of which have seeds exceeding 5 mm. in diameter, were 
 introduced into the crop of thrushes, along with other food, the pulp 
 passed into the gizzard, but all the seeds were thrown up. "The 
 seeds of fleshy fruits which were greedily devoured were thrown out 
 of the crop if the stones which they inclosed measured as much as 
 3 mm." Now barberry is certainly spreading in the bush reserves 
 near Dunedin, and is distributed either by thrushes or blackbirds. 
 
 He also found that of the fruits and seeds which passed the 
 intestines of the thrush, no less than 85 per cent, germinated. In 
 most cases the germination was retarded in comparison with seeds 
 not so treated. But in the case of a few berries, e.g. Berberis and Ribes 
 (currants and gooseberries), it was hastened. The seeds of such 
 plants as grow on richly-manured soil (e.g. Amaranthus, Polygonum 
 and Urtica) after passing uninjured through a bird's intestine, pro- 
 duced stronger seedlings than did those which were cultivated without 
 such advantages. The time taken by seeds to pass through the ali- 
 mentary canal of a thrush was very short, half an hour in the case 
 of the elderberry (Sambucus), and three-quarters of an hour with 
 seeds of Ribes. The majority of seeds took from one and a half to 
 three hours to perform the journey. Small smooth fruits of Myosotis 
 sylvatica (forget-me-not), and Panicum diffusum (a grass) were retained 
 for the longest period. 
 
 The habits of thrushes have not altered appreciably in their new 
 country. Their nests are of similar construction to those found in 
 Britain, and they are lined with mud or cowdung. They breed in 
 September and October, and I have seen the fledgelings in the end 
 of the latter month, and the beginning of November. They usually 
 breed again later in the season. 
 
 They commence to sing, in the South Island at least, in the month 
 of May, that is at the commencement of winter. The earliest date I 
 have noted is a record from Dr Brittin of Papanui, who heard one 
 in Christchurch on 24th April. 
 
 T.N.Z. 10
 
 146 BIRDS 
 
 At one time I thought, with Sir Walter Duller, that albinism was 
 on the increase among thrushes in New Zealand, but as the result 
 of long observation I am compelled to think this is not the case. Any 
 thrush showing a tendency to develop white feathers seems to be a 
 marked bird, not only by man, but by other birds, and even by other 
 thrushes, and they do not appear to have a happy time. 
 
 Thrushes have found their way to the Chatham Islands, a distance 
 of 450 miles east-south-east of Cape Palliser. 
 
 * Blackbird (Turdus merula) 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced 26 blackbirds about 1862, but 
 there is no record as to their success at the time. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated two in 1865, six in 1867, 39 in 1868, 
 21 in 1869, and 70 in 1871. Ten years later we read they "are now 
 exceedingly numerous and we regret to say are found to be rather 
 partial to cherries and other garden fruits." 
 
 In Station Life in New Zealand, p. 16, Lady Barker, writing of 
 her voyage from Melbourne to New Zealand in 1865, says: 
 
 111 as I was, I remember being roused to something like a flicker of 
 animation, when I was shown an exceedingly seedy and shabby-looking 
 blackbird with a broken leg in splints, which its master assured me he 
 had bought in Melbourne as a great bargain for only 2. los. od. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received two in 1865 from Captain Rose 
 of the 'Mermaid' who also sold "a number of songbirds" to the 
 Society for 18. I regret to say there is no record of these "song- 
 birds," to enable us to identify them. In 1867 the Society introduced 
 46, and in 1868, 152 blackbirds. In 1871 the Report states of 
 them, as of the thrushes, that "they have not increased as well as 
 expected, and it is much to be feared have been killed by cats." 
 In 1871 Mr R. Bills brought a further consignment of 62 to the 
 Society, and many more were introduced in 1875. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced eight birds in 1865; about 30 
 in 1867, and 132 in the following year, when they were "considered 
 to be thoroughly acclimatized." In 1869 a further large consignment 
 was liberated. It is rather singular that in the far north, Whangarei 
 and further north, blackbirds are rare or altogether wanting, while 
 thrushes are common. 
 
 They were liberated on Stewart Island in 1879, and are seen every 
 breeding season near settlements. 
 
 This is now one of the commonest of our introduced birds in 
 very many parts of New Zealand. 
 
 Mr Philpott (1918) says that: 
 unlike the thrush the blackbird is to be found in the heart of the big
 
 PASSERIFORMES 147 
 
 bushes. I have met with the bird wherever I have gone, and found it as 
 common on the Hunter Mountains at 3000 feet elevation, as in the bush 
 near Invercargill. I have no records of the thrush occurring in Alpine 
 forests. The spread of succulent-fruited plants is probably accomplished 
 to a greater extent by blackbirds than by any other species. 
 
 They can evidently hold their own very well among the native 
 avifauna, for Mr L. J. Phillips of Kaitoke states that on several occa- 
 sions he has seen two or three blackbirds set on and kill a tui 
 (Prosthemaderd) . 
 
 Kerner states that the blackbird is much less fastidious in regard 
 to its food than the thrush. When fed in confinement, it swallowed 
 even poisonous fruits like those of the yew, and never rejected a single 
 fruit that was mixed with its food. Of the fruits and seeds which 
 passed through the intestines, 75 per cent, germinated. 
 
 The blackbird has found its way to the Chatham Islands, which 
 are distant 450 miles from the nearest point of New Zealand, and 
 are increasing there, and scattering seeds of such noxious weeds as 
 the blackberry. 
 
 Mr Drummond also is responsible for the statement (in 1907) that 
 they " have taken up their residence on the lonely Auckland Islands." 
 They are about 290 miles south of the Bluff, but only 230 miles from 
 the south end of Stewart Island. The prevalent winds, however, would 
 sadly impede the passage of a bird bound southwards. 
 
 In Europe there are migratory races both of thrushes and black- 
 birds, and it is quite possible that some of the birds introduced into 
 New Zealand may have belonged to such races. 
 
 Robin Redbreast (Erithacus rubecula) 
 
 The Nelson Society attempted to introduce robins in or about 
 1862, but only one bird arrived. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced three in 1868, three in 1871, 
 and three in 1872. 
 
 The Canterbury Society introduced a number (not specified) in 
 1879, an d the report for that year states that "the old familiar 
 shrill note may be heard in the Society's grounds morning and 
 evening." 
 
 The Wellington Society liberated ten in 1883, and three years 
 later one was reported to have been seen in Happy Valley. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated 40 in 1885 at Fulton's Bush, West 
 Taieri; and R. Bills, who brought them out, sold another 40 to 
 private individuals. In 1886 some 20 more were imported and 
 liberated at the same spot. They were scarcely ever seen again, but 
 in 1891, Mr A. C. Begg reported one in a Dunedin suburban garden.
 
 148 BIRDS 
 
 The cause of failure was never understood by the Society, but 
 Mr A. Binnie, who was Mr Bills' assistant at the time, assures me that 
 all the birds which were imported were cocks which is a possible 
 explanation, seeing that Mr Bills brought them out to sell. In 1879 
 the Otago Society received two (out of ten shipped from London) 
 and in 1900, one (out of eight shipped); these were liberated on 
 Otago Peninsula, but were not seen again. 
 
 In explanation of the failure of these birds to establish themselves, 
 I am more inclined to favour the idea that birds of migratory races 
 were brought out, for bird-catchers frequently make their best catches 
 of birds which are gathering preparatory to starting on their journeys. 
 
 Nightingale (Daulias luscinia) 
 
 An attempt was made by the Otago Society in 1871 to introduce 
 these birds, and a number of them were shipped from London, but 
 they all died when a few days out. 
 
 The Auckland Society had exactly the same experience in 1875, 
 none of those shipped surviving the passage. 
 
 The Canterbury Society repeated the experiment in 1879, wnen 
 one was landed in Christchurch, and died soon after. 
 
 The nightingale is purely a migratory species in Britain, and any 
 attempt to naturalise them in New Zealand was foredoomed to fail. 
 
 * Hedge-Sparrow (Accentor modularis} 
 
 In Dr Arthur Thomson's Story of New Zealand published in 
 London in 1859, it is stated that "Mr Brodie, the settler who intro- 
 duced pheasants, sent out, in 1859, 3 sparrows, for the purpose 
 of keeping the caterpillars in check." I cannot verify the statement; 
 Mr Brodie lived at Mongonui, and there have never been hedge- 
 sparrows in North Auckland. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced one in 1867, two in 1868, seven 
 in 1872, 19 (out of 80 shipped) in 1874, anc ^ l % m ^75- The nests 
 were first observed in 1873, and the bird soon established itself. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated 18 in 1868, and 80 in 1871. 
 
 The Canterbury Society liberated nine in 1868, and 41 in 1871. 
 Mr Drummond says (1907): 
 
 It was Captain Stevens who brought the first hedge-sparrow to the 
 colony, and it is claimed to the Southern Hemisphere. It came in the 
 ' Matoaka ' together with the first house-sparrows. It was the only survivor 
 of a consignment. For a long time it was an object of interest in the 
 Society's grounds in Christchurch, many people journeying to the gardens 
 to see the stranger.
 
 PASSER1FORMES 149 
 
 I do not know where Mr Drummond got his information, certainly 
 not from the annual reports of the Canterbury Society. Nor does 
 the pretty story tally with those told of the introduction of the house- 
 sparrow (q.v.}. The fact is that a number of those who were concerned 
 with the introduction of the small birds in the early days of acclimatisa- 
 tion activity did not know a hedge-sparrow from a common sparrow, 
 and while in later years it was quite creditable to have been concerned 
 with the introduction of the former bird, no one is inclined to claim 
 any credit for the latter. 
 
 A number of hedge-sparrows were brought to Christchurch in 
 1875, some f which were sold, and the remainder liberated in the 
 Gardens. 
 
 A number were liberated in Hawke's Bay in 1876 by Mr Walter 
 Shrimpton, but Mr Guthrie Smith says they are not known at Tutira. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced four in 1880; 26 in 1881; 
 and 20 in 1882. This species has now become very widely spread 
 throughout New Zealand. It is the one bird against which no word 
 of complaint has ever been raised. It is not met with in undisturbed 
 bush country, but, according to Philpott (1918), is equally at home 
 in the smaller areas of bush, in the suburban garden, and in the 
 shrubby groves at 3000 feet on the mountains. The majority of nests 
 are built quite low down, often practically on the ground, so that 
 the prevalence of stoats or cats is probably a controlling factor in the 
 increase of the species. On the other hand it is extremely common 
 in suburban areas near Dunedin, where cats also abound. 
 
 The value of the bird was demonstrated to orchardists in 
 Central Otago at the beginning of 1919. In February, very heavy 
 rain caused an extraordinary outburst of vegetation in the gardens, 
 and this was followed by an invasion of the green fly (Aphis). The 
 outlook for some crops was very serious, till a great number of hedge- 
 sparrows appeared in the orchards, and in a very short time cleared 
 off the whole of the pest in the most perfect manner. 
 
 In Otago the note of this bird is occasionally heard in winter, 
 but it begins to sing regularly in August, and nests are found from 
 September onwards. Some County Councils rather foolishly pay for 
 the eggs of hedge-sparrows. There is no excuse for this, for every 
 boy knows the eggs, and would not take them at all unless a price 
 was offered for them. 
 
 Whitethroat Warbler (Sylvia cinered) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1868, but they were not 
 heard of after liberation. In 1874 another attempt was made to
 
 150 BIRDS 
 
 introduce them to the colony , and a considerable number were shipped , 
 but all died on the voyage out. 
 
 Black-cap Warbler (Sylvia atricapilld) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced five in 1872. 
 Both of the above-named species are summer visitants in Britain, 
 and it was folly to attempt to naturalise them in New Zealand. 
 
 Family HIRUNDINIDJE 
 Australian Swallow (Hirundo neoxena) 
 
 This species is an occasional visitant to New Zealand. Sir Walter 
 Buller, in his introduction to his History of the Birds of New Zealand, 
 says: 
 
 In March, 1851, a flight of the Australian Tree-Swallow appeared at 
 Taupata, near Cape Farewell; ten years later they were observed again 
 at Wakapuaka, near Nelson, and a specimen obtained ; and after a further 
 lapse of fully twenty years another flight, from which a specimen is now 
 in my possession, appeared for several days in succession in the outskirts 
 of Blenheim. 
 
 In 1888 Mr W. W. Smith observed and recorded them from the 
 neighbourhood of Timaru. In 1901 numbers of them appeared at 
 New Brighton near Christchurch. I have been told of their occurrence 
 since at Whangarei and in the neighbourhood of Auckland, but have 
 no authentic information on the subject. 
 
 I would not mention the species among introduced birds, were it 
 not for the action of various acclimatisation societies in regard to 
 them. In 1874 tne Auckland Society made the futile experiment of 
 obtaining some eggs and placing them in two nests, of a sparrow and a 
 chaffinch respectively. Needless to say the attempt failed. Even had 
 the foster-parents succeeded in hatching out the young, they would 
 not have supplied them with the right kind of food. 
 
 About 1915 several of the acclimatisation societies proposed to 
 subscribe 5 each for the introduction of this migratory species; 
 fortunately for them the project was not carried out. 
 
 Family LANIIDJE 
 Australian Shrike 
 
 I do not know what bird this is, for there are many species of 
 Australian shrikes. The Wellington Society liberated 14 in 1877, and 
 15 in 1878; but there is no further record of them.
 
 PASSERIFORMES 151 
 
 Australian Magpie-lark ; Mud-lark ; Pee-wee ; Pied Grallina 
 (Grallina australis) 
 
 The Agricultural Department introduced a number of these birds 
 from Sydney, and liberated them on the west coast on the North 
 Island, where they promptly took to building nests. I do not know 
 the date of this attempt, but apparently it did not succeed, for no on 
 seems to know anything about the birds since. 
 
 Dr Cleland says that in Australia "this bird occasionally feeds on 
 maize and wheat obtained near fowl-yards, etc., but it is doubtful 
 whether it touches crops. It is also found to eat plague-locusts, 
 grasshoppers, cockchafer larvae, etc. It is one of our foremost useful 
 birds." In their stomachs, in addition, there have been found moth 
 larvae, mole crickets, ants, small flies, and occasionally grass-seeds. 
 
 * Australian Magpie; White-backed Crow-Shrike 
 (Gymnorhina leuconota) 
 
 The Canterbury Society liberated eight birds in 1864; four in 
 1866, and 32 in 1867, all from Victoria. They also received some 18 
 from Tasmania. In 1870 Mr E. Dowling imported a large number 
 from Tasmania, and these were liberated on Mr Moore's station at 
 Glenmark. The Society liberated 24 more in 1871. The birds soon 
 established themselves in the provincial district, and are now fairly 
 common. Of late years they have spread south of the Waitaki and as 
 far south as the Horse Ranges. 
 
 The Otago Society introduced three in 1865; 20 in 1866; 32 
 in 1867; 20 in 1868; and six in 1869. At first it seemed as if they 
 were doing well, for they began to build nests at Inch-Clutha, and 
 in the vicinity of Dunedin. But from some unexplained reason 
 (Mr Deans thought they were shot or taken by boys) they entirely 
 disappeared, though now coming in again from the north. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced ten in 1867, and one in 1870. 
 But Sir George Grey introduced a number into Kawau probably at 
 an earlier date; they very quickly became numerous, and spread to 
 the mainland. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced 260 in 1874. 
 
 These birds are fairly common in many parts of the North Island, 
 from Wellington to north of Whangarei, but their numbers vary a 
 good deal. Mr W. W. Smith tells me that they are not so abundant 
 in Taranaki now (1916) as they were some years ago. Inland from 
 Wanganui, on the edges of the unbroken forest, they are very common. 
 T. H. Potts records (in 1873) how this bird defends itself successfully 
 against the native quail-hawk (Falco novce-zealandice) by throwing
 
 i 5 2 BIRDS 
 
 itself on its back, striking out with beak and claws and shrieking 
 most wildly. Mr J. Grant of Wanganui informs me (1918) that the 
 Magpie has been seen to kill a fantail by a direct blow on the body, 
 then it stuck its bill into the little victim and carried it away. This 
 bird has a wonderfully fine flute-like song; both the male and the 
 female sing, and they begin their concert even before sunrise. They 
 are readily tamed and are very sociable in confinement ; but they are 
 apt to drop their beautiful song, and take to imitate all sorts of 
 domestic sounds. I knew of one in Dunedin which could bark like 
 the dog, and mew like the cat ;. but its favourite amusement was to 
 sit on the fence and call the fowls together. 
 
 During the mouse-plague in Victoria in 1905, in some districts, 
 crowds of magpies were seen to follow the plough, and catch and 
 swallow every mouse that was unearthed. In one case 150 to 200 
 magpies were seen following one plough and no mice got away. 
 
 Family 
 Titmouse ; Blue Tit ; Tom-Tit (Parus cceruleus) 
 
 The Canterbury Society in their report for 1874 state tnat "these 
 have been imported in considerable numbers." There is no previous 
 record of these birds unless they are included in the unspecified 
 birds introduced in 1871 in the 'Charlotte Gladstone.' They must 
 have died out, for there is no further record. 
 
 Family CORVIDJE 
 *Rook (Corvus frugilegus) 
 
 In 1862 three rooks were introduced into Nelson, and stayed 
 about there for a few years, when they disappeared. The popular 
 belief was that they left for Canterbury, when others were introduced 
 there. 
 
 It would appear that rooks were introduced about the same time 
 into Canterbury, for in a press cutting dated April, 1870, recording 
 the presentation of a single specimen to the Acclimatisation Society, 
 it is added : " The rooks first imported into the province by Mr Watts 
 Russell, some years ago, were all killed by cats." 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1869, and 64 in 1870. 
 At first it seemed as if these birds would not succeed in establishing 
 themselves, for the Society's report for 1872 states that: 
 
 eight nests were built in the Gardens, but unhappily a night review of 
 the volunteers took place just as incubation commenced, when the firing 
 caused the majority of the rooks to forsake their nests, so that only three 
 small broods were hatched. In January a severe epidemic broke out
 
 PASSERIFORMES 153 
 
 amongst them which destroyed several. Dr Wright, who examined two 
 of the dead birds, stated that the disease was identical with the epidemic 
 then prevalent amongst domestic poultry. The dead birds were unusually 
 fat, and the survivors refused the food placed for them on the outbreak 
 of the disease. 
 
 In 1873 several pairs built and nested; but in the following year's 
 report we read: "they are not doing so well. The young have died," 
 and it is suggested that the climate is too hot for them. 
 
 The increase of these birds has been slow in the North Island ; 
 they spread to Hick's Bay, Hawke's Bay and Lake Taupo. Mr H. 
 Guthrie reports : " A colony of rooks has for long existed in Puketapu. 
 In favourable years colonies start one, for instance, in Petane, but 
 the rook does not do well in this part." 
 
 The rook seems to have a bad time in Hawke's Bay, and pastoralists 
 and fruit-growers alike blame it for many evil things it is supposed 
 to do. They conveniently ignore the good. In 1917, at a meeting of 
 the Fruit-growers' Association at Hastings, a member stated that the 
 rooks "were doing considerable damage to walnuts, amounting to 
 some hundreds of pounds." Later on, farmers complained that 
 
 the rooks have acquired the habit of attacking lambs and full-grown sheep, 
 and the losses in some parts of the district are becoming serious. The birds 
 not only attack flocks in the daytime, but also during moonlight nights, 
 and one farmer near Farndon has lost scores nightly. The rooks attack the 
 throats of the sheep, and wethers can be seen in paddocks with open wounds. 
 One was seen with the head completely severed, with the exception of 
 the spinal column. The birds also eat the flesh right down the middle of 
 the back, rendering the skin quite useless. 
 
 This is the sort of newspaper paragraph that gains credence in the 
 country, but is absolutely incorrect. One farmer states that he had 
 30 acres of sprouting oats completely uprooted by rooks. Against 
 this unvouched-for evidence I have information from several well- 
 known men in Hawke's Bay, who certify that the birds are at no time 
 a nuisance. One gentleman, connected with the Tomoana Freezing 
 Works, suggests that several hoggets were dying or dead, and the 
 crows seeing them with ticks on them, picked the latter away. He 
 ridicules the idea that they could hurt sheep. Mr H. Hill, lately 
 Mayor of Napier, and formerly Senior Inspector under the Education 
 Board, sums up the case as follows: 
 
 Rooks may pull up wheat now and then, but only to discover a worm, 
 and the question is whether the balance is not in favour of the rook under 
 the circumstances. Surely a bird cannot be expected to live and benefit 
 man without obtaining a part of his maintenance from what it helps to 
 preserve. The fact is, the farmer expects his crops to be protected from 
 all insect pests without cost or responsibility on his own part.
 
 The Canterbury Society got a large number (36) shipped from 
 London in 1871, but only five survived the voyage, and these 
 were liberated in the Gardens at Christchurch. In March, 1873, 
 35 more were liberated in the Gardens. Writing me in 1890, 
 Captain Hutton said: "these birds are well naturalised about Christ- 
 church, but do not now increase much; possibly owing to poisoned 
 grain." They are fairly common now (1916) south of Christchurch, 
 but are strictly localised, and have hardly spread from the spot where 
 they were originally liberated. They are very destructive to the grass- 
 grub (Odontria striata) in Canterbury. 
 
 Mr A. H. Cockayne (April, 1919) says that they used to be most 
 abundant in Dean's Bush at Riccarton, Christchurch, but are now 
 rare. Also that two years ago there was a large rookery near Hastings, 
 Hawke's Bay, which has since been abandoned. Mr Graham, Manager 
 of Weraroa Government Farm, informs me, however, that Rooks are 
 very common in Hawke's Bay. 
 
 Jackdaw (Corvus moneduld) 
 
 The Otago Society had some of these birds (the number not 
 specified) in their depot in 1867; but there is no further record of 
 them. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received one from Mr McQuade of the 
 'Mermaid' in 1868. But they evidently obtained some more, for in 
 the Report for 1872 it is stated that "three of the jackdaws have 
 remained about the Society's Gardens since they were liberated." In 
 a newspaper cutting of 1871, received from the late Mr A. M. 
 Johnston, it is stated that two jackdaws are at Prebbleton, and two 
 at Kaiapoi. Mr E. F. Stead, writing in April, 1916, says: "there are 
 certainly no jackdaws wild in Canterbury at present." 
 
 Family STURNIDJE 
 * Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced 17 starlings about 1862, but have 
 lost their record. 
 
 The Otago Society imported and liberated three in 1867, 81 in 
 1868, and 85 in 1869. 
 
 The Canterbury Society introduced 20 in 1867, and 40 in 
 1871. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced 12 in 1865; 15 in 1867, and 
 82 in 1868; while the Wellington Society's record was 60 in 1877; 
 90 in 1878; I4ini88i; 100 in 1882; and 34 in 1883. 
 
 Besides all these, great numbers were introduced by private enter-
 
 PASSERIFORMES 155 
 
 prise. The increase of this species was phenomenal. Mr C. Hutchins 
 writes (November, 1913): 
 
 when I arrived in Napier from England in 1875, there were only four 
 starlings in the town. They increased rapidly and took possession of the 
 limestone bluff that looks out over the bay, boring into the softer veins 
 of limestone. After eleven years they were there in hundreds of thousands. 
 The bird has few, if any natural enemies. 
 
 Mr H. Hill (of Napier) considers that the comparative disappear- 
 ance of the bird from the cliffs about Napier, where it and the wild 
 pigeon (Columba livia, i.e. tame pigeons gone wild) used to be extra- 
 ordinarily abundant, is due to their being driven away by the harrier 
 hawks. If Mr Hill's view is correct, it is probably due to the fact 
 that the hawks were after the pigeons, and the starlings suffered 
 through association with them. In open country I don't think hawks 
 are a serious enemy to the starlings. 
 
 These birds are abundant in most parts of the country, and in 
 favourite spots, where they congregate in numbers, the noise they 
 make when roosting can be heard, literally for miles. Mr W. W. 
 Smith of New Plymouth writes me : 
 
 Every evening tens of thousands of starlings perform their cloudlike 
 gyrations around and above the island of Moturoa which is clearly seen 
 from this hill. Every person who sees them compares them to rapidly 
 moving clouds. It is truly magnificent to see them; they form densely 
 black cloud-like masses. 
 
 Mr W. Best of Otaki reports (April, 1912): "that the starlings in 
 that district make long daily flights (of 30 miles ?) to and from their 
 roosting place to their food." These only occur in the summer and 
 autumn, after the breeding season, and the birds fly at sunset and 
 before sunrise. Mr Mahoney of Tuparoa describes how they come 
 in thousands from some feeding ground near the coast to roost on 
 the trees behind the house. Mr Johannes Anderen says they roost 
 on Kapiti and fly to the mainland daily for food. 
 
 Mr H. J. Fowler of Marton writes (June, 1912): "The daily 
 evening migrations began about seven or eight years ago. At first 
 the flocks were small and infrequent, now they pass in battalions. 
 On calm evenings the air is filled with the rushing sound of their 
 wings." He has seen flocks a mile long, all the birds flying in line, 
 like soldiers marching in ranks. These appear to be made up of 
 flocks rising at intervals across the country and uniting in the air. 
 He estimated the numbers at hundreds of thousands. In Marton 
 the birds fly south-west, and it is stated that they go to the Manuka 
 scrub on the coast. At one place a piece of native bush, about four 
 or five acres in area, was used as a roosting place by the birds, and so
 
 156 . BIRDS 
 
 great were their numbers that they were killing the bush with their 
 droppings. They had to be driven away by firing guns at roosting 
 time. Another roosting place was at Martinborough, where they 
 occupied an avenue of bluegums : 
 
 In going to those places they seemed to converge from all parts of the 
 compass, and their cries made a great roar as they settled themselves for 
 the night. With regard to their returning, they seem to go back soon after 
 daylight, and in twos and threes flying low. It seems that they work up 
 country from field to field during the day, until the time for making 
 homeward arrives, when they rise and fly straight for their roosting place, 
 the flocks gradually increasing, as they draw nearer home by the addition 
 of other flocks. As a rule, when once in full flight, nothing in the shape 
 of a ploughed field will tempt them down, and any stragglers that may 
 stop, seem to be uneasy and soon rise and follow the others. Starlings 
 follow the binders in clouds for the caterpillars, but they are not observed 
 on the ploughed fields to any great extent. 
 
 This last statement may be correct for Rangitikei, but is not so for 
 Otago and Southland, where they may be seen following the plough 
 in considerable numbers. Mr A. Philpott, writing me in April, 1892, 
 says: 
 
 The Rev. J. G. Wood states that "when a flock of starlings begin to 
 settle for the night they wheel round the place selected with great accuracy. 
 Suddenly, as if by word of command, the whole flock turn their sides to 
 the spectator and with great whirring of wings the whole front and shape 
 of the flock is altered. No body of soldiers could be better wheeled or 
 countermarched than are these flocks of starlings, except an unfortunate 
 few who are usually thrown out at each change." I have watched flocks 
 of starlings arriving at their roosting-places very often, and in one case 
 only have I seen anything resembling the company evolutions referred to 
 by Mr J. G. Wood. They appear to arrive in flocks of large and small 
 numbers, and immediately on arriving drop down wherever they can find 
 a perch. Perhaps this is an instance of an altered habit. It is also possible 
 that only the first flock to arrive wheels and circles in the manner described. 
 
 Soames' Island in Wellington Harbour in pre-war days was a 
 night retreat for starlings, which used to resort to it in immense 
 flocks. Since it became a place for interned German prisoners the 
 birds have largely abandoned it, on account of the number of people 
 about. 
 
 The effects produced on the insect-life of the country by starlings, 
 and through that on the vegetable and other animal life, is incalculable. 
 They have nearly destroyed the grasshoppers which used formerly 
 to be so abundant, and many other groups of insects must have 
 suffered equally. They also remove great quantities of ticks from 
 sheep, and cattle, and help to keep insect pests from them. 
 
 Indirectly they are credited by many observers with having exter-
 
 PASSERIFORMES 157 
 
 minated pheasants, partridges, introduced quail, wild turkeys, wild 
 fowls, etc., from many districts, by having so eaten out the insect 
 food, that these larger birds are now unable to rear their young 
 broods. They have driven the Indian Minah out of all the southern 
 towns where formerly they were established. 
 
 In many places they are accused of being fruit-stealers, attacking 
 not only small fruits, but also pears, plums, and peaches, and some 
 of my correspondents have thought this was a new trait developed 
 in their new surroundings. But it is familiar enough in the northern 
 countries from which the starlings came. There is a well-known 
 passage in Rabelais' Gargantua in which it is stated that "at this 
 season the shepherds were withdrawn from the hills in order to 
 keep the starlings off the grapes." I have frequently seen them in 
 this country feeding on the rather hard white berries of the cabbage 
 tree (Cor dy line australis). 
 
 In the Otago Witness of 2nd October, 1890, J. H. E. of Anderson's 
 Bay, Dunedin, writes: "Last season my jargonelle pears were alive 
 with starlings, the pears eaten by scores, and the leaves and fruit in a 
 disgusting state from their droppings." 
 
 Mr Philpott several times found their gizzards full of the berries 
 of the broadleaf (Griselinia lucidd). 
 
 Mr J. Drummond states that Mr D. L. Smart of Napier, who 
 formerly lived at Tuakau, on the banks of the Waikato, found that 
 great flocks of starlings in the late autumn visited a large kahikatea 
 (Podocarpus dacrydioides) forest in order to feed on the berries. 
 
 It may be noted here that in many parts of New South Wales, 
 cherry-growing has become an impossibility, owing to the persistent 
 attacks of starlings. 
 
 Mr P. J. O'Regan considers that starlings (as well as blackbirds 
 and thrushes) are responsible for the diminution in the number of 
 native pigeons, as they eat the berries of pine trees, Fuchsia and 
 Aristotelia, which form part of their food. (This may be partially true, 
 but pigeons subsist on other materials, and in summer their crops will 
 be found quite full of the leaves of the kowhai Sophora tetraptera.) 
 
 On i8th August, 1890, 1 wrote to the Otago Witness asking certain 
 questions on acclimatisation matters, among others as to whether 
 starlings were eating poisoned grain, as was stated to be the case in 
 Southland. Mr Richard Henry, writing from Lake Te Anau, was 
 inclined to think they did, but his opinion was based on the fact 
 that he found three dead starlings in the first week of rabbit-poisoning, 
 and none before or since. Mr Richard Norman, Alberton, replied: 
 
 In this district the starlings roost in thousands in the blue-gum trees 
 in winter time, and are fighting, scratching, and screeching for positions
 
 158 BIRDS 
 
 all night long, and if they are disturbed, the rustling of their wings as they 
 rise sounds like distant thunder. Frequently some are found dead on the 
 ground, and it is generally concluded that they have perished from the 
 cold, and not through the effects of phosphorised grain. The cats eat their 
 bodies without harm. 
 
 Mr George Green, Broad Bay, wrote: "The only poisoning done 
 here is intended for the sparrows, and I have never heard of starlings 
 taking the grain ; but they have developed a taste for the elder-berries." 
 
 Mr H. Watts of Maungatua stated that the starlings do not touch 
 poisoned grain, though they had developed a strong predilection for 
 red currants. They were commonly found among the bushes, and 
 one which was shot contained a large number of berries in the crop. 
 
 Mr Thomas M'Latchie, Owaka, wrote: "Poisoned grain has been 
 laid for rabbits for two or three months in my paddocks. Flocks of 
 starlings have been busy amongst the grass, but I have never seen 
 one of them touch an oat." 
 
 Mr A. Philpott writing to me in July, 1916, says: 
 
 This bird is certainly less plentiful than it was twenty-five or thirty 
 years ago. Possibly the want of suitable nesting-places may have something 
 to do with it. So much bush has been cleared away since the starlings' 
 greatest abundance, that it must be somewhat difficult now to find suitable 
 hollow trees, for the bird does not appear to penetrate deeply into the 
 bush. In 1914 I found it building in a mass of ivy on a cabbage tree 
 (Cordyline) in the centre of Invercargill, and last year at Wyndham I found 
 several broods in masses of Muhlenbeckia. The bush tree there is chiefly 
 matai (Podocarpus spicatus), a tree that does not provide many holes suitable 
 for nests. 
 
 Two years later he states that the bird is not nearly so plentiful 
 as it used to be, and attributes the change to the decrease in the 
 number of suitable nesting places, on account of the disappearance 
 of old forest trees. A North Canterbury farmer writing to Mr Jas. 
 Drummond in August, 1910, states that starlings are very destructive 
 to humble bees, and he has repeatedly seen them catching these 
 insects and taking them to their nests. 
 
 Mr B. C. Aston tells me that starlings frequently imitate other 
 birds, which are new to them. He has noticed them in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Wellington imitating both the Californian quail and 
 Australian magpies. 
 
 Hilgendorf says that in the Cass district they leave the houses to 
 the sparrows, and build among the rocks and tussocks 1 . 
 
 1 In connection with the blow-fly pest in sheep, in Australia, Dr Cleland says 
 of the starling (and sparrow): "Though useful to a slight extent, they do much 
 more harm than good. Neither apparently plays any definite part in controlling 
 the blow-fly pest." "The stomachs of seventy-three of the introduced birds were 
 examined. As regards the vegetable food, wheat grains were found in a few and
 
 PASSERIFORMES 
 
 159 
 
 * Indian Minah or Myna; House Myna (Acridotheres tristis) 
 
 This species appears to have been introduced in the first instance 
 in all centres by private individuals, and by a few of the societies in 
 the early seventies. One of the most remarkable things about them 
 is their increase after their first introduction, and then their subsequent 
 diminution, and in some districts their ultimate disappearance. The 
 latter appears to have been due, either directly or indirectly, to the 
 starlings, the increase of the latter coinciding with the decrease of the 
 farmer. 
 
 In 1870 Mr F. Banks introduced 18 of these birds, which he 
 termed Indian Minaul birds, from Melbourne, where they had been 
 acclimatised for some time, and presented them to the Canterbury 
 Society. Writing in 1890, Captain F. W. Hutton said: "A few 
 used to be about Christchurch, but they have disappeared before the 
 starlings." Mr Stead, writing in 1916, says: "In the early nineties 
 there were a few minahs nesting in some houses on the North Belt 
 (Christchurch), but there are now none left, and there have not been 
 any for fifteen years at least." 
 
 Some were imported into Dunedin in the early seventies by Mr 
 Thomas Brown. They used to build in the First Church Steeple and 
 on one or two houses in the neighbourhood, but they had all died 
 out or were driven away before (1890). 
 
 Mr F. G. Gibbs of Nelson says (July, 1916): 
 
 Minahs were imported in the seventies. I remember that they were 
 very plentiful in the streets when I arrived in 1877, but a few years later 
 
 fruit in one. This result, however, does not by any means indicate clearly the 
 destructive tendencies in the direction of vegetable food, as the accessibility of 
 such food must be considered at the time the bird was shot. Unquestionably 
 starlings feed greatly on cultivated fruits and on cultivated grains during the season 
 when these are available." "As regards the insect food of these seventy- three birds, 
 we found that locusts or grasshoppers were present in five, wireworms in two, 
 cutworms in thirty-four, flies in four, psyllids in one, and scale (?) in one. The 
 cutworms were found in most of the starlings obtained in the Wagga district, these 
 having been shot while this pest was present." " Flies were found in four. These 
 could not be identified as blow-flies. It is, however, likely, though not proved as 
 yet, that the starling does destroy a few of these insects. As indicated by the list 
 of insect foods, the starling can unquestionably play a useful purpose in the direction 
 of destroying insect pests. 
 
 Summed up, it may be stated that the starling does marked harm to fruit 
 gardens and that it does some harm to crops, but that it does some good in destroy- 
 ing certain insect pests, such as cutworms, when these are present in abundance and 
 perhaps other food is scarce. The starling has spread very extensively over Australia, 
 and it is a prolific breeder. Moreover, it interferes with the breeding-places of 
 many of our useful insectivorous birds. It is also so wily and so hard to approach 
 that it will never be possible to eliminate it from Australia, or even to diminish 
 materially its numbers, whatever human means are adopted to attempt this. Its 
 virtues are unquestionably less than its defects, and no encouragement whatever 
 should be given to its appearance in any part of the country. On the other hand, 
 any discouragement offered is likely to have little effect."
 
 160 BIRDS 
 
 they disappeared. As they were very tame, they were shot down by boys 
 in large numbers, and may have been exterminated in this way. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced 30 birds in 1875; ant * 4 
 in 1876; they are not now common about Wellington, but are to 
 be found up the coast to Wanganui and throughout Taranaki, where 
 they are fairly common; also at Wairarapa. In and about Napier 
 they are in thousands. Mr W. W. Smith says (1916): "though now 
 common in Taranaki, it is said to be less numerous than it was 
 twenty years ago." The Agricultural Inspector for New Plymouth 
 in 1903 blamed this species as the chief cause of the spread of the 
 blackberry. This is a manifest error, for riot only is the bird mainly 
 insectivorous, and not to any great extent a fruit-eater, but it is also 
 almost confined to towns, and builds mostly on houses. On the other 
 hand Mr Drummond (May, 1910) says "they are very destructive 
 to apricots, apples, pears, strawberries and gooseberries." 
 
 Mr Mahoney of Tuparoa (May, 1912) says they are quite common 
 in the neighbourhood of buildings, and are very destructive to fruit 
 and to grass-seed, quite as much so as yellow-hammers and sparrows. 
 In April they attacked and cleared off most of the late peaches. He 
 also describes how starlings dispossessed a pair of minahs from the 
 ventilator of the school, where they had built their nest for many 
 years. The minahs took themselves off to a willow-tree. Mr F. P. 
 Corkill of New Plymouth also reports how starlings have displaced 
 minahs in the town. Mr H. J. Fowler of Marton states (June, 1912) 
 that minahs follow the plough, as many as a dozen or more together, 
 all day unweariedly, and pick up abundance of grubs. 
 
 Australian Minah (Myzantha garrula) 
 
 In Hutton's Catalogue of the Birds of New Zealand, published in 
 1871, it is stated that this species was introduced into Canterbury 
 and Nelson from Victoria. The early records of the Canterbury 
 Society do not mention them, and those of Nelson are lost. This is 
 the Australian bird known as the noisy minah or miner. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated 80 in the neighbourhood of 
 Palmerston in 1880, and they were occasionally seen for two years, 
 and then disappeared. The late Mr Deans, curator of the Society, 
 said these birds were quite different from Acridotheres tristis, the 
 Indian minah. 
 
 Mr Huddlestone states that Australian minahs were introduced 
 into Nelson in the seventies, that they flourished for a time, but 
 have now (1916) disappeared. I think he is referring to the same 
 species as Mr F. G. Gibbs describes as plentiful in Nelson, and that 
 they were Indian minahs obtained from Australia, in many parts of
 
 PASSERIFORMES 161 
 
 which they are very common. The Wellington Society liberated 
 184 birds in 1874; eight in 1876; 12 in 1877, and 20 in 1878. 
 A colony was seen for a time at Taita. The Canterbury Society 
 purchased 200 pairs from Mr Bills in 1879, anc ^ liberated them in 
 various localities. I have a very strong suspicion that these two lots 
 also were Indian minahs, caught in Australia where they are now 
 very common and brought over to New Zealand by Mr Bills. 
 Unfortunately those who knew the facts are all gone, and it is now 
 impossible to verify my suspicions. But there are no Australian 
 minahs now in New Zealand, whereas there are great numbers 
 of the Indian species in certain districts. 
 
 Family ZOSTEROPID^E 
 
 Wax-eye ; White-eye ; Gold-eye ; Blight Bird ; Silver-eye ; Twinkie 
 (Zosterops ccerulescens) 
 
 If this bird is truly indigenous in New Zealand, then it is a southern 
 form which has recently increased and migrated northwards, but it 
 is more likely to be a comparatively modern natural introduction 
 from Australia. Buller considers it is an indigenous species, but it 
 seems to me the record he gives is against this hypothesis. Captain 
 Howell states that he first noticed the birds at Milford Sound in 1832. 
 In the fifties they were recorded by I. N. Watt, then Resident 
 Magistrate at the Bluif, as coming apparently from Stewart Island, 
 and all migrating northwards. 
 
 They did not appear north of Cook Straits till 1856, when they 
 were suddenly abundant, and were called "blight-birds," because 
 they destroyed quantities of the "American blight" (Schizoneura 
 lanigera). They only remained for about three months, from June 
 to August, and then disappeared completely. They appeared again 
 in Wellington in 1858, and after that became permanent residents. 
 They were recorded from Nelson in 1859. In 1861 they were first 
 observed by the natives in Hawke's Bay, when the name given to 
 the bird by the Maoris was Tau-hou or the Stranger. They were 
 recorded by Colenso in Napier in 1862, and by the natives on the 
 Upper Wanganui in 1863. In 1865 they were observed at Auckland, 
 and by 1868 they had penetrated to the most northerly part of the 
 North Island. 
 
 They are stated by Mr A. Shand to have appeared in the Chatham 
 Islands about 1856 and 1857. 
 
 They are extremely abundant now, and come right into the very 
 heart of the towns in winter, but in the early summer months they 
 move away out into the country for the breeding season.
 
 162 BIRDS 
 
 At their first appearance in settled districts, their visits were made 
 in the winter months, and they were hailed as valuable insectivorous 
 birds by orchardists and gardeners. When they became permanent 
 residents they discovered the potentialities of fruit, especially plums 
 and pears, and now they are looked upon as great robbers in the 
 fruit season. The good they do for ten months of the year probably 
 far outweighs the toll they exact during the remaining two. 
 
 In 1913 large flocks of them visited Akaroa in the autumn and 
 punished the orchards. In 1914 very few were to be seen. 
 
 In July, 1910, Mr H. Boscawen reported finding seven white-eyes 
 caught on the sticky seeds of Pisonia Brunoniana. 
 
 Mr B. E. Collins of Takapou, Hawke's Bay, reported them (1914) 
 as visiting flowering currants and tritomas when in flower. 
 
 These little birds are more mercilessly attacked and destroyed 
 by larger predatory birds than any other species, perhaps because 
 they seem less suspicious of enemies than introduced finches, and 
 even the small indigenous birds. They are frequently found killed 
 by hawks, kingfishers, long- tailed cuckoos and shining cuckoos, as 
 also occasionally by others 1 . 
 
 Family MELIPHAGIDJE 
 Australian Bell-bird (Manorhina melanophrys) 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced two in 1874, but have no 
 further record of them. 
 
 Family TANAGRID./E 
 Scarlet Tanager ; Cape Cardinal (Pyrangra rubra) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1868. They immediately 
 commenced to breed, and in 1869 it was stated that they were not 
 rare in the vicinity of the Gardens. They did not, however, succeed 
 in establishing themselves. 
 
 1 Dr Cleland says of this species in Australia : " The stomach contents of fifty- five 
 Silver-eyes have been examined. Forty-five of these contained vegetable food, 
 chiefly fruits of various kinds. Thirty-two contained insect food. Amongst the 
 insects occasionally eaten were cabbage-moths, froghoppers, psyllids, thrips, 
 aphids, black scale, and plant bug. During the fruit season there is not the slightest 
 question that the Silver-eye does a very considerable amount of damage to orchards. 
 By feeding on the fruits of such pests as blackberries and lantana, and passing the 
 seeds in their droppings, Silver-eyes act as potent disseminators of these and other 
 plants. However, during the season when fruit is not ripe they apparently serve a 
 definitely usetul purpose in destroying certain insect pests. As energetic measures 
 adopted for the destruction of Silver-eyes have never yet been successful in materially 
 reducing their number in any locality, there is little likelihood, whatever action be 
 taken, of eliminating this bird from any particular part."
 
 PASSERIFORMES 163 
 
 Family PLOCEIDJE 
 
 Australian Wax-bill ; Sydney Wax-bill ; Red-browed Finch 
 
 (JEgintha temporalis) 
 
 The Otago Society introduced four in 1867, and the Auckland 
 Society four in 1871 ; in neither case is there any further record. 
 
 Java Sparrow; Rice-bird; Paddy-bird (Munia oryzivord) 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced a number in 1862, but they are 
 not mentioned again. 
 
 The Auckland Society obtained six from Captain Forsyth in 1867, 
 but there is no report as to what came of them. 
 
 Nutmeg Sparrow; Cowry Bird (Munia punctulatd) 
 The Auckland Society received eight from Queensland from Miss 
 
 Wright in 1868; but there is no further record of them. 
 
 (Captain Hutton in 1871 referred this species to Gould's Estrelda 
 
 temporalis (= JEginiha temporalis), which is the red-eyebrowed finch; 
 
 the temporal finch, or red-bill of the Australian colonists.) 
 
 Chestnut Sparrow ; Rockhampton Sparrow ; Chestnut-breasted Finch 
 (Munia castaneithorax) 
 
 In Judge Broad's Jubilee History of Nelson (published in 1892) 
 in a list of birds imported and liberated up to September, 1864, are 
 included six Australian sparrows, which are most probably this species. 
 
 The Auckland Society liberated 25 of these birds in 1867, 
 and state in the report of the following year that the "Australian 
 sparrows are considered to be thoroughly acclimatized." Two more 
 were liberated in 1871. Then they disappeared. 
 
 The Canterbury Society obtained 12 from Mr Wilkin from 
 Sydney in 1864. Nothing more was recorded of them. 
 
 Diamond Sparrow ; White-headed Finch ; Spotted-sided Finch 
 (Steganopleura guttatd) 
 
 The Canterbury Society introduced a number, apparently in 
 1864, for the report for 1866 says: "the greatest success has been 
 attained by the little Australian diamond sparrow, which may now 
 be seen in flocks." They have never been heard of since. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced 12 in 1874, but there is no 
 further report. The Nelson Society also introduced them. 
 
 (According to Hutton (1871) this was the diamond bird of Australia 
 (Pardalotus punctatus).) 
 
 Sir George Grey told Sir Walter Buller that out of nearly a 
 hundred diamond sparrows which he liberated on Kawau, very few
 
 164 BIRDS 
 
 survived the ravages of the morepork (the small native owl Ninox 
 novce-zealandite) . 
 
 Family ICTERIDJE 
 
 Califbrnian Starling ; Red-winged Starling (Agelaius phoeniceus) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1869. They did not 
 increase. 
 
 Meadow Lark (Sturnella neglecta) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two from California in 1869; 
 but they did not increase. (This species in Hutton's 1871 catalogue 
 is called Sturnula ludoviciana.) 
 
 Family FRINGILLID^: 
 Firetail Finch (Zonceginthus bellus) 
 
 The Auckland Society received two from Captain Coppin in 1870. 
 The Wellington Society introduced eight some time before 1885, but 
 there is no further report concerning any of them. 
 
 Zebra Finch; Chestnut-eared Finch (Tceniopygia castanotis) 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced 12 some time before 1885, 
 but again there is no report about them. 
 
 Numbers of ornamental finches and small cage birds of many 
 species have been introduced from time to time for private aviaries, 
 and have been bred in confinement. Mr F. L. Hunt of Ravensbourne, 
 Dunedin, has been a particularly successful rearer of these beautiful 
 species, but when liberated they never succeed in establishing them- 
 selves. Apart from climatic reasons, they readily fall a prey to cats 
 and other enemies. 
 
 * House-Sparrow (Passer domesticus) 
 
 The responsibility for the introduction of the common sparrow 
 is very generally shared by the men who were so active in acclimatisa- 
 tion work 50 years ago, as the following record shows. They 
 introduced it in all good faith, and congratulated themselves on their 
 success. But it is amusing to observe how averse the implicated 
 societies are to-day to accept this responsibility. There has grown up, 
 too, by way of explanation, a certain amount of myth about the busi- 
 ness ; but the facts are incontrovertible. For example, Mr Drummond 
 in 1907 writes: 
 
 The story is that the (Canterbury) Acclimatisation Society ordered 
 twelve dozen hedge-sparrows from England. The order was placed with 
 Captain Stevens of the 'Matoaka,' who submitted it to a bird-fancier at 
 Knightsbridge. Either the fancier or the Captain blundered, and the latter 

 
 PASSERIFORMES 165 
 
 took on board thirteen dozen house-sparrows, which are generally known 
 by the common name of " Sparrow." He was very attentive to them on 
 the voyage out, believing that they were the valuable hedge-sparrows which 
 the colonists were anxious to secure. Most of them died, however, and 
 when he reached Lyttelton in February, 1867, only five were left. The 
 officers of the Society, realising that a mistake had been made, refused to 
 accept the strangers. The Captain then took them out of their cage, and, 
 remarking that the poor little beggars had had a bad time, set them at 
 liberty. They flew up into the rigging and remained twittering there for 
 some time. The members of the Society went below to look at other birds. 
 When they reached the deck again the sparrows had flown. The birds 
 stayed about Lyttelton for three weeks. Then they disappeared, and when 
 next heard of they were at Kaiapoi, about twenty miles distant, where, at 
 the end of 1869, they were reported as being "particularly numerous." 
 
 This story was evidently current in Canterbury, for at the annual 
 meeting of the Society in Christchurch in 1885, the Chairman, the 
 Hon. J. T. Peacock, said: "The Society used to give bonuses to 
 captains of ships for bringing out small birds. One captain brought 
 five sparrows, which the Society refused to purchase, and which 
 that captain let go himself. From those five, the whole of the sparrows 
 in the Province had, he believed, sprung." 
 
 In the report for 1889, under the heading "The Sparrow," the 
 same Society are responsible for this statement : " we most deliberately 
 deny ordering or introducing this questionable bird, but we well 
 remember the devastations made by the caterpillars and grubs previous 
 to their advent." 
 
 In 1895 Mr A. Bathgate of Dunedin wrote : " I believe our (Otago) 
 Society turned out one or two, but the sparrows came to us from 
 Christchurch." 
 
 Now for the actual facts. 
 
 According to Sir Walter Buller the Wanganui Society introduced 
 sparrows in 1866, and these were therefore the first brought into the 
 country. But the Nelson Society forestalled Wanganui, for they suc- 
 ceeded in bringing in one sparrow in 1862. 
 
 The Canterbury Society in 1864 printed a list of prices which 
 they offered to immigrants for each pair (cock and hen) of birds, viz. : 
 
 *.".. * 
 
 Black Cock or Grouse ... 10 10 Robins i 10 
 
 English Partridges ... 5 o Wrens i 10 
 
 Common Thrushes ... 2 o Grey Linnets ... 15 
 
 Blackbirds 2 o Green Linnets ... 15 
 
 Skylarks 2 o House- Sparrows ... 15 
 
 Rooks 2 o Hedge-Sparrows ... 15 
 
 The same Society liberated forty sparrows in 1867, and the annual
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 166 BIRDS 
 
 report for 1871 states that they are "thoroughly established and 
 need no further importations 1 ." 
 
 The Auckland Society in 1864 also gave a list of the prices offered 
 by the Auckland Provincial Government to immigrants bringing out 
 various birds, per pair, cock and hen. 
 
 s- *. 
 
 Black Cock or Grouse ... 5 o Blackbirds 
 
 (Hares) (5) o Robins 
 
 English Partridges ... 3 o Wrens 
 
 Rooks 3 o Wheatears 
 
 Nightingales 3 o House-Sparrows 
 
 Song Thrushes i 10 Hedge- Sparrows 
 
 This Society liberated 47 sparrows in 1867, and in the annual report 
 for 1868, "consider them thoroughly acclimatised." 
 
 I am indebted to Mr E. D'Esterre, Editor of the Auckland Weekly 
 News, for unravelling some ancient history regarding the introduction 
 of the sparrow into Auckland. In reply to a representative of the 
 Auckland Star, Mr T. F. Cheeseman is reported to have said: 
 
 Sparrows were not introduced by the Acclimatisation Society, although 
 that body is credited with having brought them here. I can speak with 
 certainty on that point, because I was here before the small birds were 
 introduced. It was the late Mr S. Morrin and Mr T. B. Hill who introduced 
 the first lot of sparrows and distributed them. 
 
 Mr D'Esterre saw Mr Cheeseman later (June, 1916) and was informed 
 that Mr T. B. Hill, who came out in the 'Morning Star' in 1861, 
 resided at Auckland, and that he brought out the sparrows either for 
 or in conjunction with Mr Sam Morrin. He then wrote to a corre- 
 spondent of his, a Mr P. T. Hill, also resident at Raglan, to find out 
 his namesake if possible. This gentleman, who disapproves very 
 strongly of the sparrow, sent a cutting from the Raglan County 
 Chronicle of 8th July, 1915, with a report of a Farmers' Union 
 Meeting at which the question of poisoning small birds came up. 
 "Mr Taylor said by getting rid of the small birds insect pests would 
 be increased, and would probably be a far worse trouble than the birds. 
 The President thought it was an unwise thing to disturb the balance 
 of Nature. Mr T. B. Hill agreed that it was best to leave the birds 
 alone. He had introduced sparrows and sold them at IQS. each in 
 Auckland." Eventually Mr D'Esterre got into communication with 
 
 1 The late Mr Bills used to narrate how he trapped the sparrows for the Canter- 
 bury Society with large folding nets in the streets of London in the early mornings, 
 and how the Londoners were surprised that any country should want such birds. 
 He explained that the caterpillars in New Zealand were so numerous and large, 
 that the farmers had to dig trenches round their houses to trap and bury the voracious 
 creatures, lest after eating up all the crops, they should turn to and eat up the 
 farmers themselves. Mr Bills' statement can be taken cum grano salts. 

 
 PASSERIFORMES 167 
 
 Mr T. B. Hill himself and received a letter dated ist July, 1916, in 
 which he says: 
 
 As I see it is going the round of the papers that I and the late Mr 
 Morrin introduced the sparrows I shall be glad if you will contradict this. 
 I don't think for a moment my friend Mr Cheeseman made the statements 
 intentionally, but as I believe he was Secretary of the Auckland Acclimatisa- 
 tion Society at the time, of which Council I was an individual member, 
 I think if he refers back he will see it was the Auckland Society that intro- 
 duced them. With many other birds they were sold by auction by Mr S. 
 Jones at his Auction Mart, and the House-sparrow was the favourite. 
 I was, I think, the largest purchaser at One pound per pair ; and I successfully 
 acclimatised them to my building, with Mr Soppet's Flour Mill adjoining, 
 in Freeman's Bay, and soon had all the sparrows others had brought down 
 in my yard and flying in and out of the window of my room, where I 
 kept several confined. I had people come to me for birds to replace what 
 they had lost at the price I paid for mine. The first breeding season they 
 proved a great nuisance in filling the spouting and other places in the Bay 
 with their nests. So many of us then were not yet acclimatised ourselves 
 that when we woke in the morning hearing the little " cheer-up, cheer-up," 
 it made us fancy we were back in the old country again. I certainly sent 
 them to friends in the country who were anxious to get them. There now 
 you have the whole history as far as I am concerned. 
 
 In 1865 the ship 'Viola' from Glasgow arrived at Auckland, and 
 landed two sparrows out of six dozen which were shipped. 
 
 In 1864 the Nelson Society imported a number of Sparrows, 
 but only one was landed alive. In 1871 six were introduced, and were 
 liberated at Stoke, where they soon increased. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated three in 1868, and n in 1869. 
 
 The sparrows very quickly increased in all parts of New Zealand 
 until they became a very serious pest. But while farmers rail at them 
 to-day, it has to be remembered that at the time of their introduction 
 crops of grain and grass were threatened with absolute destruction 
 by the hordes of grubs and pigeons. Mr Drummond in his very able 
 pamphlet on "our feathered immigrants" (1907) has summarised the 
 case for and against the sparrow, as far as New Zealand is concerned, 
 with the balance very much against. Nearly every county council and 
 agricultural association in the country wages war on him, by selling 
 poisoned grain to the farmers, and offering bonuses for eggs. Yet 
 he continues to thrive and flourish. 
 
 Mr R. E. Clouston writing (July, 1916) of the Gouland Downs 
 in the Nelson district, which is noted for the abundance of its native 
 bird life, and where thrushes, blackbirds, skylarks, and particularly 
 redpolls are common, says that in all the years he was there he only 
 saw about two sparrows. Mr Philpott observes that while the sparrow 
 is abundant in cultivated country it does not penetrate far into the
 
 168 BIRDS 
 
 bush. Sparrows are found and are increasing in the Chatham Islands, 
 which are distant 450 miles from the nearest point of New Zealand, 
 and where they are self-introduced. 
 
 Mr T. W. Kirk gives much important information as to its rate 
 of increase in his note on the breeding habits of the sparrow in New 
 Zealand. The following is a summary of his facts: 
 
 The breeding season begins in spring, the first brood appearing 
 in September, and the last in April. There are never less than five 
 eggs in a nest, but usually six or seven. Incubation lasts 13 days. 
 The young are fed in the nest for eight or nine days, then return to it 
 for two or three nights and afterwards shift for themselves. In five 
 instances fresh eggs were found in the nest along with young birds, 
 and the author thinks that the young birds do the chief work of 
 incubation of succeeding broods. In at least one instance, marked 
 birds reared in September were themselves breeding at the end of 
 March. 
 
 Calculating from nests which were watched, the author thinks that 
 the average annual increase is five broods of six each, and this is a 
 low estimate. Allowing for deaths at the rate of one-third of the 
 whole annual increase, then one pair will produce n pairs at 
 the end of the first year; 121 pairs at the end of the second year; 
 1131 pairs at the end of the third ; 14,641 pairs at the end of the fourth ; 
 and 161,051 pairs, or an actual increase of 322,100 birds in five years, 
 without taking into account : (i) the early broods which are themselves 
 breeding ; (2) the fact that more than five broods are probably hatched 
 in a year; and (3) that often more than six eggs are hatched at a 
 time 1 . 
 
 Food of the Sparrow. The average farmer's opinion on this 
 subject is valueless ; he only sees the harm that is done at sowing time 
 and in harvest, and concludes on very imperfect evidence that 
 the bird is only a grain-feeder. Mr T. W. Kirk says: " I have myself 
 dissected fifty-three birds, taken at all seasons of the year, and am 
 forced to admit that the remains of insects found in them constituted 
 but a very small portion of the total food." Unfortunately Mr Kirk 
 does not say where he took the birds which he examined. He himself 
 dwells in or near a large town, and the chances are that a considerable 
 amount of the food of the sparrows would be from households, grain 
 from horsedroppings, etc. Mr Kirk's communication was made to 
 
 1 Some idea of the abundance of small birds in the farming districts of New 
 Zealand may be gathered from such facts as the following. One trapper in the 
 Rakaia district received a cheque for 54. gs. -^d. for the month of July, 1918, 
 which represented 17,429 heads. The Ashburton County Council commenced 
 buying birds' heads on iyth June, 1918, and by the middle of August had paid away 
 495- I 7*- 8rf., representing 158,681 small birds, chiefly sparrows and skylarks.
 
 PASSERIFORMES 169 
 
 the Wellington Philosophical Institute in 1878. In the discussion 
 which followed, Mr W. T. L. Travers said that "His experience led 
 him to believe that their principal food was insects. The cicadae 
 especially are caught in hundreds by them " Sir Walter Buller 
 says: 
 
 If the sparrow is fond of ripe grain it is still fonder of the ripe seeds of 
 the variegated Scotch Thistle. This formidable weed threatened at one time 
 to overrun the whole colony. Where it had once fairly established itself 
 it seemed well nigh impossible to eradicate it, and it was spreading with 
 alarming rapidity, forming a dense growth which nothing could face. In 
 this state of affairs the sparrows took to eating the ripe seeds. In tens of 
 thousands they lived on the thistle, always giving it the preference to wheat 
 or barley. They have succeeded in conquering the weed. In all directions 
 it is dying out. 
 
 I have myself watched sparrows hawking for moths and crickets, and 
 have observed them feeding on the fruits of meadow plantain 
 (Plantago major) and of dandelion (Taraxacum densleonis). 
 
 Dr Hilgendorf points out that "so purely a grain-eating bird as 
 the sparrow feeds its nestlings for about six weeks on nothing but 
 insects." 
 
 During the Farmers' Union Conference in May, 1918, one delegate 
 stated that during the preceding season his grain crop of 40 acres 
 was black with caterpillars, as many as three or four being on each 
 head. Then sparrows attacked them, and in a short time not a cater- 
 pillar was to be seen. 
 
 Sparrows are often very destructive to flowers in gardens, picking 
 them to pieces for no ostensible cause. Primroses, violets, crocuses 
 are the most commonly attacked, and these are all spring-flowering. 
 The habit is recorded from several parts of New Zealand. 
 
 The native hawk (Circus gouldi), kingfisher (Halcyon vagans), long- 
 tailed cuckoo (Urodynamis taitensis) and shining cuckoo (Chalco- 
 coccyx lucidus) are all credited with catching and destroying sparrows 1 . 
 
 1 Dr Cleland, writing of the food of the sparrow in New South Wales, says : 
 "One hundred and twenty-seven sparrows were examined, the majority of them 
 coming from Richmond, New South Wales. Sixty-four were found to feed on 
 wheat and maize. Various grass seeds were found in others. Occasionally they have 
 been found to feed on white ants, cabbagemoth larvae, cutworms, locust, blow- 
 flies and aphids. The large amount of grain eaten far outweighs any value that the 
 sparrow may have as an insectivorous bird during the period when such grain is 
 available, but during other seasons of the year it probably plays a mildly useful 
 part." (It is to be noted that the 127 birds referred to by Dr Cleland were shot in 
 May. Had sparrows been examined in September to November, the results would 
 almost certainly have been different.) One of the birds examined contained 400 
 millet seeds, besides maize and other grasses. It is due very largely to sparrows 
 about Sydney, that several species of Cicadas are almost extinct.
 
 170 BIRDS 
 
 Mountain Sparrow ; Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) 
 
 The Otago Society liberated two in 1868. The Auckland Society 
 also liberated three in 1868, and nine in 1871. None of these was 
 heard of again. 
 
 * Chaffinch (Fringilla ccelebs) 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced 23 of these birds between 1862 and 
 1864, but kept no record of them afterwards. 
 
 The Canterbury Society liberated n in 1867, and five in 
 1868; and three years later reported that they are considered to be 
 "thoroughly established and to need no further importations." In 
 1871 a further lot were introduced. 
 
 The Auckland Society liberated several in 1864, 45 in 1867, 
 and stated the following year that they were thoroughly acclimatised. 
 But they introduced 68 more in 1868, and a considerable number 
 in 1869. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated 27 in 1868, six in 1869, and 66 in 
 1871. 
 
 The Wellington Society liberated 70 in 1874, 36 in 1876, 20 in 
 1877, and a few more in subsequent years. 
 
 Private individuals and dealers introduced them also at all the 
 principal centres. 
 
 This bird is common throughout both the islands, and very 
 abundant in some parts, especially from .Taupo northwards. Even 
 up to the present time, some county councils in grain-growing 
 districts (e.g. South Canterbury) are giving bonuses for their des- 
 truction. 
 
 Their occurrence in Otago has been rather curious, and has 
 puzzled observers a good deal. For example, about Dunedin they 
 became fairly common a few years after their introduction, and then 
 nearly altogether disappeared . I attributed this to their eating poisoned 
 grain, for their scarcity dated from the time that this method of des- 
 troying rabbits came into use. But since this method was abandoned 
 in favour of pollard-poisoning, and poisoning generally was substituted 
 for trapping, other small birds have increased very considerably, but 
 the chaffinch is still a comparatively rare bird. 
 
 Mr A. Philpott states that while the species is not common near 
 Invercargill, where it began to appear in 1910, it is abundant at 
 Queenstown, and common in the Longwood, Waiau and Titiroa 
 (Hunter Mountains) forests. It is especially abundant in these 
 localities on the upper limit of the bush (about 3000 feet). 
 
 An attempt was made in 1879 to establish them in Stewart Island, 
 when 70 were liberated. They were seen for a time at the head
 
 PASSERIFORMES 
 
 171 
 
 of Paterson Inlet, but Mr Traill tells me (1916) that " none have been 
 reported for years." 
 
 Mr T. H. Potts states that where lichens are scarce, chaffinches 
 frequently used fragments of paper in nest-building. 
 
 Bramble Finch ; Brambling (Fringilla montifringilld) 
 
 The Canterbury Society liberated two in 1868, and six (?) in 1871. 
 But the annual report for 1873 speaks of them as having been im- 
 ported in considerable numbers. 
 
 The Wellington Society liberated three in 1874, an ^ one m I ^77, 
 and reported them in 1885 as having been seen. 
 
 Seebohm (Siberia in Europe, p. 120) describes this as a migratory 
 species, which winters in the British Isles but mostly in Central and 
 Southern Europe, occasionally crossing the Mediterranean. It breeds 
 throughout the northern portions of the palaearctic region, at or near 
 the limit of forest growth. 
 
 Linnet (Linota cannabind) 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced seven linnets in 1862, but have 
 lost all record of them. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated two in 1867, and 18 in 1868. 
 
 The Canterbury Society liberated 20 in 1867, three in 1868, 
 and a number (not specified) in 1869. In 1875 another consignment 
 was introduced by Mr R. Bills, and these were either sold and dis- 
 tributed, or liberated in the Christchurch Gardens. 
 
 The Auckland Society liberated eight in 1865, 14 in 1867, 
 20 in 1868, and a number (not specified) in 1869. Five years 
 later the annual report states that "they are thoroughly established 
 in Auckland Province." I cannot understand this statement, unless 
 the report refers to the greenfinch, a bird which is sometimes called 
 the green linnet. 
 
 The Wellington Society liberated 22 birds some time before 
 1882, for it was reported in that year that two were seen in the 
 Porirua district. 
 
 The failure of this species to establish itself in New Zealand is 
 one of the most inexplicable problems in animal naturalisation. Some 
 allied species have become very common, but the linnet disappeared 
 soon after liberation. 
 
 The bird is a partial migrant in Britain, and I have suggested 
 that this may be one explanation. This, however, is discounted by 
 the fact that those .introduced were brought to the country at so 
 many different times, and were probably obtained from very different 
 localities.
 
 172 BIRDS 
 
 Mr Edgar F. Stead, writing me in April, 1915, says : " It is possible 
 that the birds imported were all, or nearly all of one sex. If they 
 were caught during certain seasons of the year, nesting, and perhaps 
 migratory, they may have been nearly all cockbirds." 
 
 Twite ; Mountain Linnet (Linota flavirostris) 
 The Nelson Society imported some of these birds in 1862, but 
 only two reached the colony. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated 38 in the Dunedin Botanical 
 Gardens in 1871. Mr F. Deans, the curator, informed me in 1890 
 that he "never saw or heard of them again." This species is a partial 
 migrant in Britain, and I have little doubt that the birds once set 
 free started on a voyage of discovery. 
 
 * Red Pole ; Redpoll (Linota rufescens) 
 
 The Nelson Society were the first to attempt the introduction of 
 this species, but only two arrived of those shipped in 1862. 
 
 The Otago Society introduced ten in 1868, and 71 in 1871. 
 Mr F. Deans reported in 1890 that "some of these were seen, 
 but I do not think they increased." The fact is they migrated from 
 the immediate neighbourhood of Dunedin to the high open ground 
 a few miles away. 
 
 The Canterbury Society liberated 14 in 1868, which, according 
 to their report, migrated in a body and settled at Timaru. In 1871 
 they liberated 120 more. In 1875 Mr R. Bills brought out a number, 
 some of which were sold and distributed, and the rest were liberated 
 in the Christchurch Gardens. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced one in 1871, and 209 in 1872, 
 and these were liberated in various districts south of Auckland. 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced two in 1875. 
 
 This species is not commonly seen about the towns or in thickly 
 settled districts, but is abundant in both islands, especially in open 
 upland country at moderate elevations. It is common in the back 
 country near Dunedin. 
 
 Mr A. Philpott says: " I first saw this bird in Invercargill in 1909. 
 Since then it has become very common, but it appears to leave this 
 locality during the winter. I have noticed it in numbers, feeding on 
 the seed of the Toe-toe (Arunda conspicua) and resorting to the coastal 
 sandhills, where flocks may always be found feeding on the seeds of 
 Juncus and other plants. It occurs commonly about the upper edge 
 of mountain forests," that is at an elevation of about 3000 feet. 
 
 The abundance of redpolls is shown from the following : 
 
 In March, 1911, Mr T. H. Jones of Christchurch caught 70
 
 PASSERIFORMES 173 
 
 in one pull of the net near New Brighton ; Mr C. Bills of Dunedin 
 said he could complete an order for a thousand of them within a 
 fortnight ; while in Southland as many as 500 were taken in a day. 
 
 During the summer these birds eat quantities of the green fly 
 (Aphis) ; while during grass-seed harvest they subsist mostly on seeds 
 of grasses. 
 
 * Goldfinch (Carduelis elegant) 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced ten goldfinches in 1862. 
 
 The Otago Society liberated three in 1867, 30 in 1868, 54 in 
 1869, and 31 in 1871. 
 
 The Auckland Society liberated n in 1867, an ^ 44 in 1871. 
 
 The Canterbury Society liberated 95 in 1871, and a number 
 in 1875. 
 
 The Wellington Society liberated one in 1877, 52 in 1880, 
 22 in 1 88 1, and 103 in 1883. The birds appear to have at once 
 established themselves at all the centres, and to have quickly 
 spread. 
 
 They are now extraordinarily abundant in all parts of New 
 Zealand. They occasionally eat grain and seeds of other cultivated 
 plants, but chiefly confine themselves to seeds of thistles and small 
 seeds. Mr W. W. Smith records them from Ashburton as assisting 
 to spread throughout the district such plants as knapweed (Centaurea 
 nigrd) and Scotch thistle (?) (Onopordon acanthium). 
 
 Mr A. Philpott (1918) says these birds are never found far from 
 settlement. Yet it is interesting to note that they have found their 
 way to the Auckland Islands, 230 miles to the south, and the Chatham 
 Islands, 470 miles to the east, and are now established in both these 
 outlying regions. 
 
 The goldfinch is a bird with a good reputation, and I have heard 
 few complaints of any harm it does, either to farmers, orchardists, 
 or gardeners. But in the Otago Witness of 3ist October, 1892, one 
 strawberry grower complained bitterly that this species committed 
 great ravages on the growing fruit by picking out the seeds, and thus 
 completely destroying the berries. I do not know whether other 
 growers suffered in the same way. 
 
 Young goldfinches are not unfrequently killed and eaten by the 
 long-tailed cuckoo and the native kingfisher. 
 
 Siskin (Carduelis spinus) 
 
 The Wellington Society introduced two in 1876. The Canterbury 
 Society report that several were liberated in 1879, "and they have 
 taken up their quarters in the plantations around Hagley Park."
 
 i 7 4 BIRDS 
 
 Mr Edgar Stead (1916) says: " I have never seen a Siskin in Canter- 
 bury." 
 
 On the other hand Mr W. W. Smith informed me in April, 1919, 
 that these birds are wild about New Plymouth. Mr Smith is one of 
 the most careful and observant naturalists in New Zealand, and it is 
 most unlikely that he has made any mistake about this. These birds 
 may be the progeny of those already referred to, or they may be 
 descended from other introduced birds, for dealers in all the centres 
 continually import siskins, along with canaries. 
 
 The species occasionally nests in Britain, but is mostly a winter 
 visitor, usually nesting in Norway, Mid-Sweden and Russia. 
 
 * Greenfinch (Ligurinus Moris) 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced five greenfinches in 1862, but 
 kept no further record of them. 
 Mr J. Drummond (1907) says: 
 
 the first greenfinches about which I have been able to secure any informa- 
 tion, were liberated in Christchurch in 1863, where a pair were purchased 
 at auction for five guineas. They soon nested, but the only occupant at 
 first was one little greenfinch. Before the warm summer days had passed, 
 however, a second family of five was reared, and in the following winter 
 a flock of eight was seen daily. In the next year, late in the autumn, more 
 than twenty were flushed from a little patch of chickweed, and it was not 
 long before the birds had spread so widely that their note became a well- 
 known sound in Canterbury. 
 
 In another paper he gives the date of the introduction into Canterbury 
 as 1866, but there is no record in the Society's reports. 
 
 The Auckland Society liberated several in 1865; 18 in 1867, and 
 33 in 1868, and in that year "considered them to be thoroughly 
 acclimatized." 
 
 The Otago Society liberated eight in 1868. 
 
 The bird is now particularly abundant in all the settled parts of 
 the country, and is most destructive to the ripening grain crops. It 
 is also most destructive to fruit in certain fruit-growing districts, 
 especially in Central Otago. Mr G. Howes in a note on "Fruit 
 Destruction by small Birds in Central Otago" (Trans. N.Z. Inst. 
 vol. xxxvui, p. 604) says that green linnets attacked the apricots when 
 the fruit was forming, the cherries while in flower,, and later in the 
 season the peaches and plums. It was to combat the serious pest to 
 orchards which these and other small birds had become, that the 
 small brown owl (Athene noctua) was introduced, and the result has 
 been a great diminution in the numbers of fruit-eating birds. 
 
 The late Mr T. H. Potts recorded that in winter it feeds largely
 
 PASSERIFORMES 
 
 175 
 
 on the seeds of pine-trees (Pinus pinaster), which it picks out of the 
 fir-cones. It certainly also feeds on the seeds of many weeds, and 
 probably spreads some of these. 
 
 Mr T. A. Philpott states that the species is much less common in 
 Southland now (1918) than it was 25 years ago. He attributes this as 
 probably due to the wide adoption of dairy-farming and stock-raising 
 in preference to grain growing. 
 
 This species has found its way to the Chatham Islands. 
 
 Bullfinch (Pyrrhula europced) 
 
 According to Captain Hutton six bullfinches were introduced into 
 Nelson. But Mr F. G. Gibbs says: "Bullfinches have never been 
 acclimatised in Nelson." 
 
 In 1875 Mr R. Bills presented the Canterbury Society with a 
 pair of these birds. 
 
 Mr H. Guthrie- Smith also, as quoted by Mr J. Drummond, says: 
 " I saw a pair of bullfinches on one occasion in manuka country. Two 
 friends on whom I can rely have seen bullfinches." This was in 
 Hawke's Bay. While there is no record of any of the societies having 
 introduced them, there is no doubt they have been frequently brought 
 in by dealers. 
 
 Mr H. Hill (1916) speaks of it as a regular visitant to Napier and 
 says it attacks the birds and flowers of the peach, nectarine and 
 apricot, sometimes disappearing altogether. It has also been doubt- 
 fully reported from Taranaki. 
 
 In many of the recorded cases of bullfinches being seen, the birds 
 when sent to experts proved to be chaffinches. There should be no 
 possibility of mistaking such a conspicuous bird. 
 
 Reed Sparrow ; Reed Bunting (Emberiza schceniclus) 
 
 The Otago Society liberated four in 1871, but there is no further 
 record of them. 
 
 * Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus) 
 
 The Otago Society liberated seven in 1871. They seem at once 
 to have increased and spread, and Mr W. W. Smith in 1916 reports 
 them as common in Taranaki. They occur in flocks along the coast, 
 at Hawera, etc. I have noticed that some dealers and bird-catchers 
 do not know the difference between these and yellow-hammers. In 
 October, 1915, 1 saw a large cage of so-called yellow-hammers which 
 had been taken in the neighbourhood of Dunedin ; several were cirl 
 buntings. It is difficult to distinguish between the young of the two 
 species. In 1879 18 were liberated in Stewart Island, but they
 
 176 BIRDS 
 
 failed to establish themselves. Their occurrence is very erratic. At 
 one time they increased to a very considerable extent in Otago ; then 
 they seemed to become quite rare. Now they are more common 
 again. Mr Drummond reports something of the same kind as occur- 
 ring near Christchurch. 
 
 If all the cirl buntings now in New Zealand are descended from 
 the seven originally liberated in Otago, the case is certainly a very 
 interesting one. 
 
 * Yellow-hammer (Emberiza citrinelld) 
 
 The Nelson Society introduced three of these birds in 1862, but 
 kept no further record. 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced eight in 1865, four in 1867, 
 five in 1868, a number (unspecified) in 1869, 16 (out of 148 shipped) 
 in 1870, and 312 in 1871. 
 
 The Canterbury Society introduced one in 1867, and 34 in 
 1871. 
 
 The Otago Society introduced eight in 1 868 , and 3 1 in 1 87 1 . 
 
 They quickly spread all over New Zealand, and to day are common 
 from Foveaux Straits to the extreme north of the North Island. In 
 1879, 32 were liberated in Stewart Island, but they have not been 
 seen there for years. 
 
 They are destroyed wholesale as noxious pests in all grain-growing 
 districts, a price being put on their heads, and their eggs being 
 purchased by thousands by the county councils. Mr W. W. Smith, 
 writing from Taranaki, where they are very numerous, in February, 
 1916, says : "When at Rangiotu Camp on August 2nd, last, I observed 
 these birds there in hundreds, quite tame, subsisting on bread, etc., 
 thrown out from the soldiers' mess." Mr Philpott states (August, 
 1916) that they were not uncommon in Southland 30 years ago, 
 but are now very rarely met with. Within the last few years (1918) 
 it has become rather more plentiful. Lieut. Cox in 1910, recorded 
 yellow-hammers as occurring in the Chatham Islands, to which they 
 had found their own way across 470 miles of ocean. 
 
 Ortolan ; Ortolan Bunting (Emberiza hortulana) 
 The Wellington Society imported three pairs in 1885, and they 
 were liberated near Otaki. They bred in the following year, and the 
 report says "there is now a small flock." That is, however, the last 
 that has been heard of them. 
 
 Canary (Serinus canarius) 
 
 No serious attempt has ever been made to naturalise this species, 
 but I have heard of several private efforts in this direction. Several
 
 PASSERIFORMES 177 
 
 bird-fanciers have bred canaries in their aviaries, and have given the 
 birds freedom to come and go as soon as the eggs were hatched. 
 Apparently, however, the domestic cat is an insuperable obstacle to 
 their establishment. The canary is such an artificial, domesticated 
 and closely-inbred species, that it would apparently take some genera- 
 tions of birds to acquire habits tending to its self-preservation. 
 
 In concluding this list of birds, it may be mentioned that the 
 Otago Society many years ago introduced and liberated what were 
 termed diamond-eared finches and jager birds. The former may 
 have been the diamond sparrow (Steganopleura guttatd) referred to 
 previously. But I have not the slightest idea what the last named 
 bird is. Neither species was heard of again.
 
 Chapter V 
 
 REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA 
 
 Class REPTILIA 
 Order LACERTILIA 
 
 Family LACERTID^E 
 
 English Scaly Lizard (Lacerta vivipara) 
 
 Mr T. W. Kirk (in 1886) reports the occurrence of several speci- 
 mens on the Tinakori Hills, Wellington, probably introduced with 
 some cases of plants for the Botanical Gardens. I am not aware that 
 they increased, or were seen again after the first year. 
 
 Sub-Class CHELONIA 
 
 Family CHELYDID^; 
 
 Australian Fresh-water Turtle (Chelodina longicollis) 
 Representatives of this species popularly known as Australian 
 tortoises have been frequently imported into New Zealand by dealers 
 and private individuals. In 1889 a large number were brought to 
 Dunedin for the Fisheries Court of the "South Seas Exhibition, and 
 at the close of the Exhibition were sold and distributed. Two of these 
 were given to Mr A. M. Johnson in October 1890, and he had them 
 for some years. 
 
 None of these animals at the Dunedin Exhibition was ever seen 
 to eat, though they were offered all kinds of food. 
 
 Mr G. Howes states that one or more fresh- water turtles were 
 seen about the Waihopai River in North Invercargill about 1903. 
 
 Japanese Tortoise 
 
 Mr Cheeseman informs me that " a number of these small tortoises 
 were procured from Japan for the Auckland Exhibition in 1913, and 
 at its close about ten remained. These were placed in one of the 
 greenhouses in the Auckland Domain Gardens to be kept there 
 through the winter, but when spring arrived none of them could be 
 found. They had evidently escaped through some unknown opening." 
 I have not seen them at all, and do not know what species they 
 belonged to, though possibly it was either Clemmys japonica or 
 Damonica reevesii.
 
 LACERTILIA 179 
 
 One or more turtles or tortoises were seen about Hawera in 
 Taranaki in 1915. 
 
 Class AMPHIBIA 
 Order ANURA 
 
 Family HYLID;E 
 * Australian Green Frog (Hyla aurea) 
 
 The Auckland Society introduced two in 1867, and in the following 
 year received several small lots from Sydney. They increased quickly 
 and are now abundant all over the North Island. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received some frogs in 1867 from the 
 Hobart Acclimatisation Society, and some tadpoles in 1868 from 
 Mr Alport of Hobart and from Mr W. L. Hawkins. 
 
 The Southland Society received some spawn (from Hobart?) in 
 1868, which was hatched out at the Wallacetown Ponds. Frogs soon 
 were carried to various places on the Southland Plains, but they did 
 not thrive and had all disappeared by 1890. 
 
 A similar experience was met with in Otago. About 60 frogs 
 and tadpoles were obtained from Napier in 1888, and were liberated 
 in a marsh. They were seen about for a few days, and then all dis- 
 appeared. It is possible that in both cases wild ducks of some kind 
 or other accounted for them all. Later on others were brought down 
 from the north and liberated in Otago and Southland. 
 
 Green frogs are now common throughout the South Island. In 
 Westland, where they were introduced from Nelson about 1896, they 
 have largely displaced the small brown frog (H, ezvingii), which was 
 established on the west coast some 20 years previously. Marriner 
 says: "From what I have seen of the Hyla aurea, it would find the 
 small brown frog very eatable, and if it does not stop at eating its 
 own kind, there is very little chance of it sparing the small strangers." 
 
 Mr Dansey informs me that frogs were introduced into Rotorua 
 by Captain Gilbert Mair about 1878, and that now (1916) they are 
 numerous everywhere in the district. 
 
 I well remember the uneasiness and consternation in the native village, 
 upon some native excitedly reporting his having seen a peculiar ngarara 
 (reptile) in a pond near the lake, and describing that it had fingers and 
 toes and swam like a human being. Dread was expressed at the idea of 
 swallowing young ones while drinking water, that they might grow inside 
 to gnaw away at their stomachs. Others ascribed the bringing into the 
 district of such reptiles, as the doing of some evil-minded European to 
 wipe out the natives and secure their lands. 
 
 Mr A. C. Yarborough of Kohu-Kohu states that frogs were 
 abundant in 1884 on the east side of the Hokianga, and appeared on
 
 i8o REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA 
 
 the Kohu-Kohu side in the following year. They are not very 
 numerous in the district at the present time (1916), but at Kaikohe 
 they are extremely common. 
 
 The remarkable power of vitality possessed by the green frog 
 Hyla aurea is shown by the following. In December, 1884, my 
 wife and I left Dunedin for a tour in the North Island, our house 
 being in charge of a housekeeper during our absence. In the front 
 hall there stood a large ornamental fern-case, filled with local ferns 
 (Asplenium, Hymenophyllum, Trichomanes, etc.), and in this case lived 
 a full-grown green frog, which, however, seldom showed itself. We 
 were absent about six weeks, returning at the end of January, 1885. 
 The ferns had not been watered in our absence, with the result that 
 all the filmy and more delicate ones were dead. My wife was too 
 disappointed to start re-filling the case, and it was carried out to a 
 lumber room in an outside shed, and left there for over a year. In 
 March, 1886, Mrs Thomson thought she would like the case re- 
 stocked with ferns, so I personally set to work to empty out the old, 
 perfectly dry material, and incidentally said that I would search for 
 the skeleton of the frog. I could not find it anywhere, but in the 
 bottom of the case, under one of the largest dead ferns, was a lump 
 of clayey soil about four inches in diameter, quite dry externally. On 
 breaking this up I was intensely surprised to find the frog, looking 
 very much as it was when we last saw it 15 months before and 
 perfectly cool and moist. I at once put jt into a glass vessel, shut a 
 common house-fly in, when the frog immediately came to attention, 
 and caught and ate the fly. It fed quite freely afterwards and lived 
 for some months, when it perished by a singular accident. Its little 
 glass-house was left standing on my microscope table in a window 
 facing the midday sun. A large bull's eye condenser stood on the 
 table near the window, and this unfortunately focussed the sun's rays 
 on to the glass-case, and when discovered half an hour after the 
 unfortunate frog was dead. The ball of clay in which the frog was 
 found after its 15 months' imprisonment was not, as far as either 
 of us could remember, in the case originally. We both thought that 
 the animal had in some way or other gathered it together as a protec- 
 tion, but how it managed to get inside the ball and apparently leave 
 no external aperture, I cannot explain. It seems to me that the 
 incident throws some light on the stories which one occasionally reads 
 in newspapers about frogs being found inside of rocks and stones. 
 Our frog was not in a rock, but it was inside a remarkably hard piece 
 of clay, and yet it managed to breathe and retain its moisture for 
 that long period of time.
 
 ANURA 181 
 
 Australian Brown Frog ; Whistling Frog 
 (Hyla ewingii, var. calliscelis) 
 
 This little frog was introduced into New Zealand in a curious 
 manner. A Mr W. Perkins brought some over from Tasmania in a 
 bottle in 1875, an( * liberated them in a drain in Alexandra Street, 
 Grey mouth. From there they spread up the Grey River to Ahura 
 (24 miles) on the south bank, but do not seem to have got to the 
 north side. They also spread south for a few miles. 
 
 In 1878 Mr F. E. Clarke read a paper before the Westland 
 Institute on "Notice of a Tadpole found in a Drain in Hokitika." 
 He says: "No frogs or frogs' spawn having been introduced 
 nearer to the West Coast of New Zealand than Nelson and Christ- 
 church, it is puzzling to conjecture in what manner the little stranger 
 arrived." He was evidently unaware that about three years before 
 he wrote his paper Hyla ewingii had been introduced into Greymouth. 
 But the frog was probably introduced into Hokitika by some person 
 who carried the spawn or the tadpoles ; as it is scarcely or not at all 
 found between the two centres. About 1900 Mr James King, of 
 Hokitika, brought some of the frogs from Greymouth to Hokitika, 
 and they increased for a time. But Mr King informs me that they 
 are now very rare, if not extinct, at Hokitika, being apparently dis- 
 placed by the larger Hyla aurea. 
 
 The little whistling frog is one of the commonest frogs of Eastern 
 Australia and Tasmania. Mr J. J. Fletcher of Sydney says that though 
 a true climbing frog it has, at least in Australia, altogether or nearly 
 lost the arboreal habit. Mr A. P. Harper of Greymouth, however, 
 informed Mr Marriner that he had "personally seen these frogs 
 climbing over blackberry bushes at a height of from six to eight 
 feet above the ground." 
 
 Australian Climbing Frog (Hyla ccerulea ?) 
 
 In 1897 a consignment of six dozen climbing frogs was obtained 
 by the Agricultural Department from Mr J. Stein of Sydney, and 
 71 arrived alive. Mr T. W. Kirk said of them in his report in 1898 : 
 
 this frog is similar to the ordinary common frog, so common in many 
 parts of New Zealand, except that it has a very considerable advantage 
 over that species in that its toes are provided with suckers, which enable 
 the animal to climb trees and houses in search of insects. In Sydney I 
 have seen these frogs at the top of a wall four stories high. 
 
 Neither Mr Kirk nor Mr Stein can identify the species, but Mr 
 McCulloch of the Australian Museum thinks it was probably Hyla 
 ccerulea, from the above account of it.
 
 1 82 REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA 
 
 Mr Kirk informs me that some of these frogs were liberated in 
 Hawke's Bay: 
 
 at Greenmeadow Vineyard and Orchards, some on the Frimley Estate, 
 and a few at the Hastings Racecourse. In the Wellington district a portion 
 of both this and a subsequent consignment (imported in 1899) was released 
 in the Wellington Botanical Gardens and in the orchard of Mr G. A. 
 Grapes, Paraparaumu. At Auckland, the Island of Motuihi was chosen. 
 Some were also released in Queen's Gardens, Nelson, by Mr Kingsley, 
 who liberated them on my behalf. Both attempts to establish these frogs 
 proved failures, for neither the liberators nor myself have ever seen them 
 since, although I personally have carefully searched each locality several 
 times since. In addition to the localities already mentioned, some were 
 liberated on the Government Experimental Station at Moumahaki; the 
 result was exactly the same as in the other places, total disappearance. 
 
 It seems possible, however, that some of them have survived, and 
 may yet turn up in unexpected localities. Mr J. Killen of Whangarei, 
 when at Kaikohe about 1913 or 1914, saw and held in his hand a 
 small green frog which was quite different from the common Hyla 
 aurea. Unfortunately the specimen was not preserved, and so cannot 
 be identified 1 . 
 
 Family RANID.S: 
 
 European Brown Frog; Grass Frog (Rana temporaria) 
 
 In 1864 Mr A. M. Johnson imported 30 frogs to Canterbury 
 from Great Britain, presumably of this species. He kept, however, 
 no record of them, and it may be that" they were lost soon after 
 arrival 2 . 
 
 In the report of the Canterbury Society for 1868 the following 
 paragraph appears: 
 
 The old original frog which was imported into the colony by Mr Murray- 
 Aynsley, and which at one time drew a concourse of 300 visitors to the 
 Acclimatisation Gardens in one day, is supposed to have been swallowed 
 by a stray swan. 
 
 Family BUFONIDJE 
 Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris) 
 
 The Canterbury Society received 12 toads from the Hobart 
 Acclimatisation Society in 1867. There is no record whatever of their 
 success or failure. 
 
 1 Mr Huddlestone of Nelson states that tree frogs were introduced there in a 
 warden case in 1856. It is, of course, impossible to say what species they belonged 
 to, and there is no record of the survival and increase of the animals. 
 
 2 Mr Huddlestone states that large edible frogs were introduced into Nelson 
 in 1867, with the idea of providing food for wild ducks. Probably the common 
 water- frog (Rana esculenta) was the species experimented upon. They do not appear 
 to have been seen again after liberation.
 
 ANURA 183 
 
 In 1893 toads were introduced into Gisborne. Mr W. Chambers 
 writing to the Poverty Bay Herald says: 
 
 On the ist March thirty-nine toads were shipped by the Kaikoura, and 
 when the boxes were opened here on 23rd April thirty-four were found 
 in first-rate order. The five that died were most probably hurt before 
 shipment. The plan adopted was to put the torpid toads in boxes filled 
 with wet moss, which were put in the cool chamber and kept at a tempera- 
 ture of about 35 F. on the voyage. 
 
 Mr Chambers has since supplied the following information to me 
 (i7th June, 1918): 
 
 To allow them to recuperate before turning them out, I placed them on 
 the lawn under a large wire-netted cage, and fed them with worms, etc., 
 for a few days. This ended in disaster, as one night the rats got in and killed 
 half of them. I then turned the survivors out near an old tunnel on the 
 edge of a swamp. We saw one occasionally for a year or two after, when 
 they disappeared completely. I don't think they bred, as I kept a good 
 look-out for tadpoles and young toads. Two of them, a male and a female, 
 I kept in a glass cage for about two years, and when I judged the breeding 
 season had arrived (from their behaviour), I gave them access to a large 
 pan of water, but without result. These also came to an untimely end, 
 both dying on the same day from a surfeit of crickets. 
 
 Mr Chambers was under the impression that these toads were 
 natterjacks (Bufo calamita), but Mr H. N. Watson of Horowhitu, 
 Palmerston North, who was with Mr Chambers at the time of their 
 arrival, has given me some further information on this interesting 
 importation. Writing to me in February, 1919, he says: 
 
 The Toads were sent out by Mr Ralph Arthur, a brother of the late 
 Mrs W. Chambers, who lived, so far as I remember, near Newton Abbot in 
 Devonshire. They were collected by the boys of the neighbourhood, and 
 I think twopence each was given for them. They were the common English 
 Toad and not the Natterjack. They were packed in damp moss in tin boxes 
 with some perforations in the lids, and were kept in the cool chamber 
 of the steamer. There were about one hundred, and only three were dead 
 on arrival; their death was probably caused by rough handling when 
 captured. On arrival they had all paired and were spawning. It was 
 impossible to separate the males from the females ; there were a few more 
 of the former than of the latter. The females were all large and reddish ; 
 the males were much smaller and greenish. There were masses of spawn 
 in the boxes, and this we collected and put into a basin, but I think it 
 had not been fertilised, for none of it ever showed any signs of germination. 
 We changed the water at intervals and kept it in the sun, but as the month 
 was about April, we should not have been able to rear the tadpoles if any 
 had hatched. We selected five (three females and two males), and the rest 
 of the consignment (about ninety), so far as I remember, were liberated 
 in a swamp at Repongaere Station near Gisborne. They swam away and 
 that was the last seen of them. There were a great many moreporks there,
 
 184 REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA 
 
 and lots of rats at the station buildings not far away, and I think that these 
 were probably the cause of the disappearance of the Toads, especially as 
 the land surrounding the swamp was eaten bare by horses, so that the 
 toads would find very little cover when they were travelling hi search 
 of food at night. 
 
 I got a couple of glass-cases made, and in one of these I put a male 
 and a female, which I kept for a couple of years, while Mrs Chambers 
 had the remaining three in the other. They were fed on flies, which were 
 eaten in great numbers. On one occasion we gave a "Maori bug" to one 
 of them, and its disgust after swallowing it was very amusing. Being well 
 fed they frequently changed their skins. Also being kept in the house, 
 they never became torpid, but fed freely all the winter. But they never 
 showed any signs of breeding. Ultimately Mrs Chambers turned her 
 specimens out in the same place as the others ; while my pair were allowed 
 to escape during my absence for a short time in 1895. 
 
 The discrepancy in numbers between these two accounts is due 
 to the fact that both gentlemen were writing from memory, more 
 than 25 years after the events narrated, and that apparently neither 
 of them noted these events at the time. 
 
 Considering the ease with which these animals were carried, and 
 their hardiness in confinement, it is rather remarkable that no other 
 attempts have been made to introduce them into New Zealand.
 
 Chapter VI 
 FISHES 
 
 The classification adopted for the fishes which have been introduced into 
 New Zealand is that of Professor G. A. Boulenger in the Cambridge 
 Natural History. 
 
 Class PISCES 
 Order TELEOSTEI 
 
 Family CLUPEID;E 
 Herring (Clupea harengus) 
 
 1 o the popular mind the introduction of the herring into New 
 Zealand waters is the most desirable form of acclimatisation work 
 which could be undertaken, as it is considered that its commercial 
 value to this country would be so great. The success which has 
 attended the introduction of certain species of Salmonidae has led 
 unthinking persons into the belief that it should be quite easy 
 to introduce other species of desirable fish, and as the majority 
 of people are unthinking, even if they do not come under Carlyle's 
 famous dictum, it is not to be wondered at that the introduction 
 of the herring has been frequently urged. A fairly full report 
 of the efforts which have been made, and of the difficulties which 
 have to be overcome has recently been, or is about to be, published 
 in a Bulletin of the New Zealand Science and Art Board on "The 
 History of the Portobello Marine Fish Hatchery and Biological 
 Station." 
 
 It is therefore only necessary here to state the facts and summarise 
 the history of the attempts as briefly as possible. Herring and other 
 soft-scaled fishes cannot be transported alive at any stage of their 
 existence. Handling is generally fatal to them. Therefore the only 
 plan left open is to convey the ova. The eggs are adhesive, and under 
 normal conditions are deposited on stones, gravel and other objects 
 at the bottom of the sea in comparatively shallow water. The eggs 
 hatch in about 16 days, the time being shortened or lengthened 
 according to the temperature of the water; cooling causing retarda- 
 tion. The problem then was in the first place to retard development 
 for a period of at least 50 days. If this difficulty can be satisfactorily 
 overcome, there are several others which have to be met. 
 
 The first attempt was made in March, 1886, and was an ill- 
 considered experiment, for no provision whatever existed for dealing
 
 1 86 FISHES 
 
 with the ova had they arrived at the Colony. The obtaining and 
 shipping of the ova was entrusted to Professor Cossar Ewart of 
 Edinburgh, who obtained between two and three million eggs from 
 the Ballantrae beds off the coast of Ayrshire, Scotland, where the 
 famous Loch Fyne herrings spawn. The ova were placed in large 
 carboys and in wooden boxes with glass slides, which were fixed 
 in stoutly made barrels filled with sea-water, and in this way were 
 conveyed to Plymouth and placed on board the ' Ruapehu.' Professor 
 Ewart had designed a special apparatus so constructed as to preserve 
 through the entire voyage a steady quiet flow of pure sea-water over 
 the eggs at an equable temperture of 33 Fahr. So far the experiment 
 succeeded admirably, but owing to lack of foresight in the cooling 
 apparatus, the pipes which were to supply the chilled water, instead 
 of being surrounded with ice, were led directly through the re- 
 frigerating chamber. The result was that the water froze in them, 
 none reached the ova, and by the time Madeira was sighted, all were 
 dead. 
 
 The second experiment, also unsuccessful, was made by the 
 Government in 1912. The Portobello (Dunedin) Marine Fish 
 Hatchery was opened in 1904, and early in its history I had looked 
 into the question of the introduction of the herring. The question 
 of the retardation of the hatching of the ova again appeared to be the 
 principal difficulty, and I entered into communication with Dr Fulton, 
 Scientific Superintendent of the Scotch Fishery Board, with the object 
 of getting experiments conducted at the Dunbar Hatchery to test 
 this. Owing to the change from Dunbar to the Bay of Nigg, Aberdeen, 
 and to pressure of other work, the matter was allowed to lapse, and 
 it was not till 1908, this time at the instance of the New Zealand 
 Government, that a series of experiments was commenced by Dr H. C. 
 Williamson. The outcome of these experiments was that retardation 
 of hatching of the ova for a period of 50 days, which we considered 
 was the time required, was only successful to the extent of a small 
 fraction of one per cent. Less than one in ten thousand survived 
 such a long chilling. Both Mr Anderton, Curator of the Portobello 
 Hatchery, and I considered that under the circumstances it would 
 be a waste of public money to proceed further with the attempt to 
 introduce the herring by this means. However the Government 
 decided to make the attempt, and Mr Anderton was sent to the Old 
 Country in 1912, to carry it out, while at the same time he took 
 charge of a large shipment of turbot, lobsters and crabs. An ingenious 
 apparatus for the conveyance of the eggs, and for the cooling and 
 aeration of the water, was placed on board the Shaw, Savill & Albion 
 Co.'s S.S. 'Waimana,' and was thoroughly tested beforehand. The
 
 TELEOSTEI 187 
 
 vessel called in at Plymouth, where Dr Williamson had secured about 
 60,000 ova adhering to glass plates. These were duly placed in the 
 apparatus, and the voyage was commenced on i2th January. A fairly 
 uniform temperature of 35'5 Fahr. was maintained. On 24th January 
 when the equator was crossed the ova were fairly clean, and the 
 outline of the embryo could be easily distinguished. Some dirty 
 water got into the boxes at Cape Town, and the sediment was removed 
 from the eggs by means of a camel hair brush. By this time the chord 
 and eyes were visible in all the live eggs. On the 6th February the plates 
 were still in very fair condition, and then a mass of rust and sediment 
 was forced through the pipes, and the eggs were thickly coated with 
 sediment. The experiment was abandoned on i4th February when all 
 the ova were dead owing to the state of the water. The ova were 
 fertilised on loth January. The majority contained live embryos on 
 6th February, 27 days after fertilisation, and some still contained 
 live embryos on i2th February, 33 days after being fertilised. None 
 of the ova hatched out. 
 
 The full report is worth studying, and it conveys a good idea of 
 some of the difficulties encountered in this department of acclimatisa- 
 tion work. 
 
 Family SALMONID^ 
 
 The rivers and lakes of New Zealand contained originally a poor 
 and rather sparse fish-fauna. It consisted of the grayling (Prototroctes 
 oxyrhynchus), found mostly in clear rapid rivers, and a fine sporting 
 fish ; the smelt (Reptropinna richardsoni), common in rivers and lakes; 
 several species of Galaxias, a mud-fish (Neochanna apoda), only found 
 in the west coast rivers of both islands, two species of eel (Anguilld) 
 and a lamprey (Geotria chilensis). 
 
 The kokopu, a name corrupted in the south of the South Island 
 to cock-a-bully (Galaxias kokopu), was sometimes popularly called 
 trout; it is a fat, sluggish fish which lurks under logs and stones, 
 furnishes no sport, and is not particularly good to eat. The fish known 
 as the minnow (Galaxias attenuates) is, as its name implies, a small 
 fish. According to the late Professor Powell, "White-bait is the fry 
 of this species," but the facts want working out 1 . 
 
 The common eel (Anguilla aucklandii) is always with us, and is a 
 very valuable food-fish, if people only knew it. The lamprey makes 
 an annual visitation up the rivers in the spring months, usually about 
 October. 
 
 1 In an interesting article on "Some Trout Fishing in New Zealand," which 
 appeared in Blackwood's Magazine for March, 1918, pp. 365-77, Mr A. R. Chaytor 
 states that New Zealand white-bait is the larval stage of the common eel. Anyone 
 who has looked into the question of the development of the Anguillida; knows that 
 this is a quite mistaken idea.
 
 188 FISHES 
 
 Though there are altogether about a dozen species of indigenous 
 fresh-water fish, yet to the early settlers of the colony, the rivers and 
 streams seemed singularly empty. There was no sport for the angler, 
 unless he happened to live near a stream where the grayling abounded, 
 and except eels which were abundant there was practically nothing 
 of an edible character to be found. It is not to be wondered at, 
 therefore, that the minds of the colonists early turned to the idea of 
 importing such fish as they knew would provide both sport and food. 
 The success of attempts to introduce species of Salmonidae into 
 Tasmania and Victoria encouraged the hope that it would be possible 
 to do the same in this colony, and in the sixties and seventies a 
 systematic importation was commenced, not only by the Government, 
 but by all the principal acclimatisation societies. Over a dozen species, 
 or, counting varieties, about 17 kinds of Salmonidae have been 
 introduced into this country. The success of several of these has been 
 phenomenal, but the failure of others to establish themselves has 
 been inexplicable. The majority of the streams and lakes of both 
 islands are now stocked with species of Salmonidae, and an interesting 
 problem has arisen, namely, are the species remaining distinct, or is 
 there a tendency among the allied forms to hybridise and produce 
 a generalised type ? Another interesting problem faces both the angler 
 and the naturalist. In a number of streams which are now heavily 
 stocked with trout, the native aquatic fauna has been nearly ex- 
 terminated, and the question of future food supply has been raised. 
 Are new species of animals to be introduced, or can any method of 
 renewing the indigenous fauna be devised ? 
 
 I have dealt with the particulars of the introduction of the various 
 species in some detail, but here I propose first to give some facts 
 regarding the general question, and the early attempts to bring 
 Salmonidae into Australia and New Zealand. These show the diffi- 
 culties which had to be faced in the early days, when transport was 
 by sailing ships, and refrigeration was unknown. Mr J. Murdoch 
 contributed an article, I think to The Field, but I have failed to find 
 the date, on "The Introduction of Trout into Australia and New 
 Zealand," from which the following facts are gleaned: 
 
 The first attempt to introduce ova into Australia was made in 1852 
 by Mr Borcius, who however failed, and lost 300 in the experiment. 
 
 In 1854 Mr Youl began to study the subject, and made many 
 experiments. No hope of success was held out by the most experienced 
 pisciculturists, and Mr Youl was told that he might as well try to 
 fetch England to Australia as to carry spawn to it in moss. Mr Edward 
 Wilson, President of the Victorian Acclimatisation Society, associated 
 with Mr Youl and some influential colonists in obtaining 600 by
 
 TELEOSTEI 189 
 
 subscription. Thirty thousand ova were shipped in the ' Sarah Curling ' 
 on 25th February, 1860. The ice-house consisted of two rooms, one 
 within the other, lined with lead ; the space between was filled with 
 powdered charcoal ; a filled water-tank over the ice-house with a pipe 
 leading into it allowed a gentle and continuous stream of water to 
 pass over the ova as they lay in swing trays. The passage was long, 
 the 15 tons of ice gave out, and the last of the ova was found to be 
 dead when the ship was 68 days out. 
 
 Mr Youl then visited the fish-breeding establishments of Scotland 
 and Ireland. He also made a series of experiments to test the vitality 
 of ova at a low temperature. The experiments proved three, hereto- 
 fore, unknown facts. First, that a continuous stream of water is not 
 essential to the preservation of vitality ; secondly, that partial depriva- 
 tion of air is not fatal ; and thirdly, that light is not essential. After 
 these experiments he felt assured of success if a sufficient supply of 
 ice could be preserved throughout the voyage. 
 
 In January, 1864, he again tried. Boxes were made (of inch pine) 
 measuring twelve inches by eight inches by five inches, with per- 
 forated top, bottom and sides. At the bottom was first spread a layer 
 of charcoal, next a layer of ice, then a nest of carefully washed moss, 
 and on this spring cushion were deposited the ova. Over them was 
 laid a covering of moss, then a double handful of broken ice, and 
 the whole was saturated with iced water and screwed down. One 
 hundred and eighty-nine boxes, containing 100,000 salmon and 3000 
 trout ova, were packed closely on the floor of the ice-house, and upon 
 them were piled blocks of ice to the height of nine feet. The ' Norfolk ' 
 sailed on 2ist January, 1864, and arrived in Melbourne on i5th April. 
 The State of Victoria retained 4000 salmon ova, of which it is said 
 400 were hatched. The remainder were sent to Tasmania by a 
 Government steamer. They were taken to the Derwent River, and 
 placed in the hatchery provided. Mr Ramsbottom estimated that 
 there were 30,000 salmon and 500 trout ova living. On 4th May 
 the first trout was hatched, on the next day the first salmon, and 
 by 25th May there were 300 trout and 700 salmon. At the end of 1865 
 the surviving salmon were allowed to enter the sea. 
 
 Of the 300 trout many died; about 30 were liberated in the 
 River Plenty, while only six pairs reached maturity and spawned in 
 the ponds. Their progeny have been liberated in many rivers and 
 streams of Tasmania, Victoria, and New Zealand. 
 
 In 1866 Mr Youl brought out 87,000 salmon, 15,000 salmon- 
 trout, and 500 brown-trout ova. The result of this shipment was 6000 
 salmon and 900 salmon-trout being hatched from the 30,000 living 
 ova which arrived. Other shipments followed, including brook-trout.
 
 igo FISHES 
 
 These early Australian experiments are interesting as showing the 
 difficulties encountered, and, in the case of brown-trout, the remark- 
 able success which ultimately attended the first introduction into 
 Tasmania. 
 
 The question of the probable merging of various species into one 
 generalised form is an interesting one. Those who have discussed it in 
 the colonies have not perhaps very clear ideas as to what constitute 
 specific distinctions. Indeed one might go further and say that very 
 few biologists have yet attained to clear views on this subject. Most 
 species are founded on structural characters, some of which appear 
 to be very mobile, while physiological characters which may be and 
 often are the dominant factors in differentiation are extremely 
 difficult to estimate. Thus Salmo solar may be considered to be a 
 distinct species, structurally and physiologically, and though healthy 
 hybrids are readily produced with S. trutta and S. fario, there is no 
 proof that these hybrids are fertile. Indeed the question does not 
 seem to have been tested. On the other hand it seems to me doubtful 
 whether S. trutta and S. fario are distinct species or only varieties 
 of one somewhat variable species. They cross freely, and it is only 
 in reference to this crossing that there has arisen the question of a 
 generalised type occurring in New Zealand. There is no question of 
 the probable crossing of species of Salmo with those of Salvelinus or 
 Onchorhynchus, these latter genera belonging to totally distinct types ; 
 and while their species may be fertile within generic limits, they are 
 not likely to hybridise at any time with species of Salmo. 
 
 Mr A. J. Rutherford considers that the commingling of so many 
 species and varieties of the genus Salmo in our streams will result 
 in the establishment of one generalised type, which, with some dis- 
 regard of the laws of scientific nomenclature and publication, he 
 calls Salmo trutta novee-zealandice. I quote the following passages 
 from a Memorandum (undated) which he furnished to the Otago 
 Society. 
 
 Though these islands lie in the latitude of the Levant, Italy and 
 Switzerland, with widely different ocean surroundings, we introduced 
 various forms of Salmonidae from higher latitudes in the Northern Hemi- 
 sphere, such as the Loch Leven Trout, Scotch Burn Trout, Sea Trout, etc., 
 and fondly imagined that these varieties would retain their characteristics 
 in their altered environment. The fallacy of this idea has been abundantly 
 proved, and after making some slight study of the forms of trout found 
 in the North Italian Lakes, such as Como and Maggiore, I came to the 
 conclusion that they are almost identical with the form of S. trutta novee- 
 zealandies found in Wakatipu, Wanaka and in South Alpine New Zealand 
 Lakes. The trout in our rivers are also much more akin to the Italian and 
 Swiss varieties than to the British types, and in my opinion it matters little
 
 TELEOSTEI 
 
 191 
 
 whether you liberate a Loch Leven trout, a Scotch burn trout, or an Italian 
 trout. He soon loses his identity and becomes a distinctive type (novce- 
 zealandice), a quasi-Italian-antipodean variety. I think there is inherent 
 in most of the forms of Salmonidae a wandering habit, and that in search 
 of a wider range, health and better food, they soon learn the advantages 
 of sea-going habits, some varieties more readily than other. The border 
 line between sea trout and brown trout is very fine in this country and 
 depends really on environment. 
 
 In several hatcheries in this country hybridising various forms of 
 Salmonidae has been purposely carried out, and the fry seem just as 
 healthy as those of pure-bred varieties. For example, at the Opoho 
 hatchery (Dunedin) some 700 hybrids, produced by fertilising brown- 
 trout ova with milt from a male salmon (S. salar), were reared, of 
 which 650 were placed in the Waitati, a small stream a few miles 
 to the north of Dunedin, and 50 were retained in the ponds. The 
 former disappeared, the latter which were strong and lively fish 
 were watched for a few months, and then their identity apparently 
 was lost. There was no further record of them. This sort of experi- 
 ment is futile, unless carried out with the definite object of finding 
 out whether such fish grow to maturity, and are able to perpetuate 
 their hybrid characters, or whether naturally reared fish taken in our 
 streams resemble them. No systematic experiments, such as have 
 been carried out at the Howietown (Scotland) fish hatchery, have 
 ever been conducted in New Zealand. Until careful and exhaustive 
 work in this direction has been undertaken, it is impossible to speak 
 with certainty as to the natural crossing of all the imported varieties 
 in this country, and the emergence of a generalised type. 
 
 Fish have been repeatedly taken in our streams which have 
 puzzled all parties in the colony, and they have been submitted in 
 many cases to expert opinion in the Old Country. I give a few 
 examples to show how difficult the question is. Regarding a fish 
 which was taken in Nelson Harbour in 1881, Sir James (then Dr) 
 Hector said : 
 
 a careful examination shows that it must be classed as a true sea- or salmon- 
 trout, although, as has been found invariably to be the case in Otago 
 specimens, it presents a certain admixture of the characters of the many 
 species into which the sea-trouts from the various rivers in Europe have 
 been subdivided. 
 
 In 1889 the Canterbury Society forwarded a fish to Dr A. Giinther, 
 who reported on it as follows: 
 
 (i) The fish is most decidedly not a salmon. You can always distinguish 
 a salmon by the large scales on the tail; this is an invariable characteristic. 
 Your specimen has thirteen to fourteen scales between the adipose fin and 
 the lateral line; a salmon has eleven, very rarely twelve. The maxillary
 
 i 9 2 FISHES 
 
 is much too long for a salmon of this age. (2) Your specimen is a migratory 
 trout. If it had been caught in England or Scotland, I should not have 
 hesitated to call it a Salmo trutta, a sea-trout. (3) Your specimen is not a 
 common trout (Salmo fario), not having the vomerine teeth in a double 
 row, and differing from it in usual minor points. (4) There is one other 
 probability, that it is a cross between a salmon parr and S. fario. You, 
 knowing the history of the introduction of the salmonoids into the Selwyn 
 River as you do, will be able to judge whether such an assumption is possible . 
 I am unable to distinguish between these crosses and the migratory trout ; 
 I have seen some bred in captivity. Whatever the fish may be, one thing 
 you may rely upon, that it is not a young salmon. Also recollect that 
 sometimes the common Salmo fario wanders into salt water, and then 
 assumes a silvery and very deciduous coat. 
 
 In 1891 Mr Tanner, Hon. Secretary of the Southland Society, 
 sent home three fish from the Aparima River, which were supposed 
 to be from the salmon fry liberated in that stream in February-March 
 of 1890. They were from one and a half to two pounds in weight. 
 They were submitted to Dr Gunther, who reported on them as 
 follows : 
 
 These specimens are most assuredly not salmon (Salmo salar), neither 
 are they the brook trout (S. fario). They are a kind of sea-trout (S. trutta), 
 looking extremely like the Irish White trout. But the different kinds of 
 migratory sea-trout are so closely allied to each other, that it is almost a 
 matter of impossibility to give an opinion on artificially reared fish, or 
 their offspring. 
 
 The Field of gth January, 1892, commenting on this statement says: 
 " This leaves the question precisely where it was, and will confirm the 
 opinion of those who insist that the acclimatised trout in Tasmanian 
 and New Zealand waters acquire a distinct character of their own." 
 On 1 2th August, 1893, The Field published a letter from Mr Tanner 
 in which he says : 
 
 It is remarkable how the trout in New Zealand assume the habits and 
 aspects of sea-trout, whenever they are found towards the mouths of rivers 
 near the sea. They first make for the estuaries, then for the open sea, and 
 have been traced for more than twenty miles along the coast. Our trout 
 ova were obtained from Tasmania, which, we believe, was supplied from 
 the tributaries of the Thames in England. Is the explanation possibly that 
 the Thames trout was originally a migratory fish, but, being prevented 
 from going to sea, lost its migratory instinct, which has been recovered 
 in this country by the descendants under new and favourable conditions ? 
 If this is so, it is a very interesting fact. Generally the trout in the Oreti 
 resemble most the white trout of Ireland. 
 
 Sir James Hector made the same suggestion at a meeting of the 
 "Wellington Society held in 1896, when he said: 
 
 From enquiries he had made, he had satisfied himself that these fish
 
 TELEOSTEI 193 
 
 were descendants of sea-going trout which had once been in the habit of 
 issuing out of the mouth of the Thames, but which were prevented, by 
 the state of that river of late years, from doing so. 
 
 The problem is very interesting from the point of view of the 
 naturalist. All that I can do in the way of elucidating it is to give as 
 full details as I have been able to obtain of the various species and 
 varieties which have been introduced into the country, and of the 
 dates and amounts of these introductions, so that any future investi- 
 gators may be furnished with a record of facts. 
 
 Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) 
 
 For nearly half a century attempts have been made to naturalise 
 this fish in New Zealand waters, and untold sums of money have been 
 expended in the undertakings, as the following record shows, indirectly. 
 Fish have been hatched by the million, and liberated in a great 
 number of the rivers both of the South and North Islands. Glacial 
 streams, rivers from the great lakes, rivers from the Canterbury 
 mountains, rapid streams, sluggish streams all have been tried. In 
 several cases the same river has been stocked with young fish for 
 many years in succession. In many cases salmon have been reared 
 from the egg, have been kept in confinement till they spawned, and 
 their fry have been liberated always in the same stream for a 
 succession of years, by the hundred thousand. The fish have grown 
 well to a certain age in our waters and have then gone to sea in a 
 normal manner, just as they do in European streams, but from that 
 point they are lost. With the exception of two identifications recorded 
 below, not a single authentic instance has been recorded of their 
 return from the sea to the rivers. The fish has absolutely failed to 
 establish itself. Our record is the same as that of Tasmania. As 
 W. Saville Kent, the Queensland Commissioner of Fisheries, said 
 in 1872: 
 
 the attempts to stock Tasmanian streams with the true salmon have utterly 
 failed. The young fish have thriven magnificently until their departure for 
 the sea as smolts, at which stage they have simply vanished from human 
 sight, the warm seas of the South being too enervating for them. 
 
 It is extremely difficult to suggest any explanation of the facts. 
 Mr Kent's explanation is almost certainly wrong. It does not apply at 
 all to the south and east coast of the South Island of New Zealand, 
 the region where most of the salmon have been liberated. A southerly 
 current sets up this coast to the east of Stewart Island and Otago, 
 and the temperature of the sea at all seasons of the year is lower than 
 that of the seas round Britain and Ireland, or on the west coast of 
 Norway. 
 
 T. N. Z. 13
 
 i 9 4 FISHES 
 
 It is almost inconceivable that they have perished at sea. Other 
 species of Salmonidae thrive in the sea and grow to a great size, 
 periodically returning to the rivers to spawn. It has been suggested 
 that the fish has changed its habits and that it spawns at sea, but there 
 is not a trace of evidence in favour of such an improbable theory. 
 It has also been suggested that the fish migrate to other shores, but 
 if so where ? 
 
 What has been wanted all along in this work of acclimatisation 
 of new species in New Zealand has been some sort of scientific 
 supervision and co-operation. Every centre and society went on its 
 own way, independent, as a rule, of every other. There never has 
 been in the country an organised fishery department. The result has 
 been waste of money and effort right along the line. Had experiments 
 in fish-marking been carried out systematically from the commence- 
 ment of operations, it is probable that ere this we would have been 
 in possession of information as to our missing salmon. Until some 
 such regular work is undertaken the subject will remain a mystery. 
 It may not be solved even after fish-marking has been undertaken 
 for years, but the strong probabilities are that light would be thrown 
 on the problem. Up to the present nothing has been done to trace 
 the fish when they go to sea. 
 
 The following extract from a letter written by Mr Youl to the 
 Superintendent of Otago before any salmon were introduced, is not 
 only very interesting, but it may be in, part the explanation of the 
 problem. Unfortunately I cannot find the exact date: 
 
 May I beg of you on no account to permit the Brown Trout to be intro- 
 duced into the Molyneux or any of its tributaries, until you have got the 
 salmon fairly established in them. They are the greatest enemies the Salmon 
 can have. I can compare them to nothing, but wolves in a flock of sheep. 
 Again and again I have warned Dr Officer, of Tasmania, of the danger of 
 admitting these voracious fish into any stream suitable for Salmon before 
 the Salmon are established therein. I am sorry to observe that so many 
 of the Provinces of New Zealand have introduced these Brown Trout before 
 they have got the salmon. Depend upon it, for every 10 spent by these 
 Provinces in this way, they will, in those rivers where they have placed 
 them, have to spend 100 to successfully introduce the king of fishes. 
 
 Introduction. The first attempt at the acclimatisation of the 
 salmon in New Zealand was made by Mr A. M. Johnson, who put 
 600 young fish on board the ' British Empire ' bound from London 
 to Canterbury in 1864. Snails, water-lilies and weeds of various 
 kinds were placed in the tanks; contrivances for aerating the water 
 were provided ; the tanks were provided with a frame- work case, with 
 double cane matting, which was kept constantly wet throughout the 
 tropics in order to keep up evaporation and lower the temperature.
 
 TELEOSTEI 195 
 
 In spite of all the care exercised, however, the experiment was 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 The next attempt was made by the Provincial Government of 
 Otago which took action in 1867, with the result that 100,000 ova 
 were placed on board the 'Celestial Queen' in January, 1868. Most 
 of these were from the River Tay, but some came from the Severn. 
 The ship reached Port Chalmers on 4th May, and the 300 boxes of 
 eggs were at once sent down to the Waiwera Ponds at Kaihiku, which 
 had been specially prepared for them. The Waiwera is a tributary 
 of the Clutha. In 77 of the boxes all the eggs were dead, but out of 
 the remaining 223 boxes about 8000 healthy eggs were taken. On 
 2Oth May a flood filled the boxes with mud covering the eggs just 
 as hatching seemed about to begin. On 28th May some began to hatch 
 out, and in a few days, Mr Dawbin, the curator, had between 500 and 
 600 young fish. In his report he says: 
 
 " In about ten or twelve weeks all of the fish had made their way into the 
 tank at the end of the shed and thence dropped into the feeding pond. 
 It was some time before they began to show again, and although I supplied 
 them with plenty of food I am inclined to believe that they mostly lived 
 on the natural food in the water. It was not very long before two or three 
 began to appear round the edge of the pond, grown wonderfully ; and after 
 a time, by regular feeding, I could collect little mobs of them at every 
 corner of the pond. I have now fish five, six, and, I believe, one or two 
 seven or eight inches long, and thick in proportion, which in a few months 
 will^be ready to go to sea" (this was written on 3ist May, 1869), "and if 
 they return safely it might be possible to get ova from them and hatch 
 fish enough to stock a river well. I have only seen three dead since they 
 went into the ponds, which, however, are so large and deep, that I am not 
 able to keep so accurate an account of them as I should like. The size and 
 depth of the ponds, however, is advantageous in this respect, that the 
 fish are kept supplied with abundance of natural food. The water of the 
 Waiwera, like, I have no doubt, that of all the New Zealand rivers, seems 
 to be admirably adapted for salmon, but the river itself I do not consider 
 good for breeding. The bottom is rocky, and although there are said to be 
 gravel banks high up, I should be afraid of the floods, which here occur 
 in the winter and spring. The supply of food in the river is most abundant." 
 
 A small lot of these ova (ten boxes) were hatched out in Mr 
 Duncan's ponds on the Leith, just about the mill, but I can find 
 no record of what was done with the fry. They probably escaped into 
 the Otago Harbour 1 . 
 
 1 " In an article in the Field of Jan. 26, 1878, we are told that there were 500 
 young salmon fry in the ponds out of the ' Celestial Queen ' shipment. When they 
 were fifteen months old, and ranged from 12 to 15 in. long, the services of Mr 
 Dawbin were dispensed with by the commissioners, they having appointed a gentle- 
 man who seems to have had some influence with the Government, and on whose 
 land the ponds were situated, but who was totally ignorant of the treatment the 
 
 
 132
 
 196 FISHES 
 
 The second shipment came to Port Chalmers in April, 1869, in 
 the * Mindora.' (In the Southland Society's pamphlet, Acclimatisation 
 in Southland, published in 1915, this vessel is called the 'Minerva.') 
 The passage occupied 133 days, and the ova never hatched out. 
 Canterbury received 700 ova, Southland 7000, while 100,000 were 
 retained in Otago. There was some hope of them at first, for Mr 
 Dawbin in the letter just quoted from stated that he had about 2000 
 good eggs on 3ist May, but nothing came of them. 
 
 In 1871 the Southland Society obtained about 3000 ova from 
 Mr Frank Buckland in furtherance of an experiment. The eggs were 
 packed in bottles surrounded by saw-dust and presumably by ice, 
 and were despatched by sailing ship to Melbourne ; they were delayed 
 in transit to Southland, and none hatched out. 
 
 In 1871 the Auckland Society made an attempt to introduce 
 salmon from England via San Francisco. The experiment failed in 
 consequence of the long detention on the Pacific Railway, and from 
 lack of attention to the ova. The transit occupied 100 days, instead 
 of less than 50, as was anticipated. The ova were presented by the 
 Duke of Northumberland. 
 
 In 1873 tne 'Oberon' brought 120,000 salmon ova to Port 
 Chalmers, of which 95,000 were sent down to the Makarewa ponds, 
 Southland, and the remaining 25,000 went to Canterbury. Between 
 the packing of the ova and the unpacking at the Southland ponds, 
 114 days elapsed, and 85,000 were dead.. The remainder were placed 
 in the hatching boxes, but only 300 fry hatched out. Most of these 
 died, and the remaining 96 were removed when one year old to a pond 
 near the Aparima River. In April, 1875, t nev were about seven inches 
 long and healthy; in June they were carried by a flood into the river. 
 
 fish would need. Mr Dawbin 's offer to continue his services gratuitously for a 
 term of six months was refused, and he was instructed to hand over his charge 
 to the new-comer. This was too much for one who had devoted his time day and 
 night for fifteen months to the care of the fish. The new-comer's incapacity would 
 almost inevitably have resulted in their destruction; or, if this had not happened, 
 he would have claimed whatever success might accrue. Impressed with the con- 
 conviction that he was doing the best thing possible in the circumstances for the 
 colony, Mr Dawbin chose a night when a slight fresh was coming down, opened 
 the gratings, and allowed the prisoners to escape into the river. It is not our 
 province to defend Mr Dawbin, but we would ask the commissioners why the 
 circumstances which led up to this are suppressed in their reports, and the colonists 
 whether they approve of the arbitrary substitution of an inexperienced manager for 
 one who had abundantly proved his ability and deserved public confidence ? Since 
 the above events the magnificent breeding ponds on the Waiwera have gone to 
 ruin, as we are informed." (Arthur Nicols, Acclimatisation of the Salmomdee at 
 the Antipodes, p. 49.) 
 
 At p. 87 of the same work, Mr Nicols states: "About the middle of 1874 a 
 salmon grilse weighing more than three pounds, was taken in the river Molyneux, 
 no doubt the offspring of a pair of the 500 smolts liberated in that river in 1869 
 by Mr Dawbin."
 
 TELEOSTE1 197 
 
 Of those which went to Canterbury, only 38 fish were obtained. 
 Some were kept in the ponds and appear to have been lost. With 
 others an experiment was tried. 
 
 A large cage was made, which was anchored in the River Avon a little 
 below Victoria Bridge; in the cage were placed on 3rd Nov. eleven of the 
 largest salmon. They remained there sixteen days, during which time they 
 throve well. On igth Nov. the cage was raised and floated down to a 
 spot in the Avon below New Brighton, where at high tide the water is 
 brackish. The Garden Committee have three times visited the spot. On 
 the last occasion (24th Dec.) the cage was raised and the eleven fish 
 examined ; they were in good health and had increased in size considerably. 
 It was calculated that one of them was a foot in length. 
 
 The reports of the Society do not contain another word about 
 this experiment, and this is characteristic of the isolated and dis- 
 continuous manner in which most of the societies work. Lack of 
 continuity of effort has nullified many of their experiments. In 1875 
 the 'Timaru' brought 300,000 ova to the Bluff, after a passage of 
 105 days, but many of the ova had been collected 30 days before 
 the vessel sailed. No fish hatched out. According to the report of 
 the Otago Society, Mr Howard of the Wallacetown Ponds liberated 
 (on their behalf?) 1400 young fish in the Aparima River, but I cannot 
 find a definite record of this, nor is it quite clear what lot of eggs they 
 came from. 
 
 In 1876 the 'City of Durham' brought to Melbourne 90,000 
 salmon ova, which were transhipped, mostly to the Bluff, a few boxes 
 going to Canterbury. The Southland ova were placed in the hatching 
 boxes 69 days after sailing, and about 87 days after having been 
 taken from the parent fish. From 25,000 to 30,000 were apparently 
 healthy, but of those it appeared that about two-thirds were not 
 fecundated. In October about 1500 fry were liberated in the Aparima 
 River. It is quite possible that this is the lot referred to in the 
 preceding paragraph. 
 
 The Canterbury Society state that only 175 fry hatched out of 
 the boxes which went to Christchurch, but in the following year 
 they placed 181 fish in the Ashley River; and in 1878, 240 were 
 placed in the Heathcote River. These were seen afterwards, and were 
 from 12 to 14 inches in length. There is no record as to where these 
 fish came from. 
 
 In 1878 the 'Chimborazo' brought 45,000 ova to Melbourne. 
 These were transhipped and reached Invercargill on igth March, 
 commencing to hatch out on 4th April. Altogether about 2500 fry 
 hatched out, of which 1700 were placed in the Aparima. Again the 
 Otago Society report that 2500 fry were placed in the Aparima
 
 198 FISHES 
 
 River in 1878; the Southland figure is 1700; the one reports the total 
 number hatched, the other the number liberated. 
 
 Regarding these shipments Mr W. Arthur, then Hon. Sec. of the 
 Otago Society, wrote in 1880: 
 
 Mr Howard has informed me that the ova of the salmon turned out in 
 the Aparima in 1874, 1876 and 1878, came originally from the Tweed, 
 Tyne, Kibble, Hodder, Lune, Avon and Dart Rivers. Yet who can say 
 from which of these rivers the ova were taken which eventually hatched 
 at the Wallacetown ponds? 
 
 In 1 88 1 Mr C. C. Capel of Footscray, Kent, sent out 100,000 
 ova to the joint order of the Otago and Marlborough Societies ; but 
 all the eggs were dead on arrival. 
 
 In 1883-84 Sir F. D. Bell, the Agent-General for New Zealand, 
 and Sir James Maitland, the eminent pisciculturist, were working 
 together to send out salmon ova to the colony, and a shipment, of 
 which I cannot find particulars, was forwarded in 1884. Sir Francis 
 writing to the Colonial Secretary on 3oth October, 1885, says: 
 
 I had taken the greatest pains all through 1883 and 1884 to interest many 
 people in this country, eminent for skill and experience in pisciculture, 
 about sending ova to the colony on the supposition that the spasmodic 
 experiments which had been going on for so many years were to be super- 
 seded at last by a systematic and persistent action on the part of the 
 Government itself, extending over some seasons at any rate. The first 
 experiment of sending out ova in a " moist- air chamber " and at a regulated 
 temperature was made in the steamship 'Ionic' in January, 1884; and it 
 is hardly open to doubt that this method was not only in itself a right one, 
 but, in fact, the best that had till then been devised. Further experience, 
 however, had shown that the first expense of that method would not have 
 to be repeated. A shipment of trout ova privately made by Sir James 
 Maitland had brought out most valuable information, showing how cheaply 
 as well as safely ova could be got out under certain conditions; and when 
 the reports came home of our shipment by the ' Ionic,' Sir James Maitland 
 wrote to me that he had no doubt whatever of" perfect success next season, 
 as we had now the key to the whole problem, namely, the period which 
 ought to lapse between spawning and packing, and could insure the success 
 of every egg we sent." 
 
 Unfortunately neither the Government of New Zealand nor those 
 interested in the subject in the colony were informed of the exertions 
 which Sir F. D. Bell and Sir James Maitland were making in Britain. 
 
 Meanwhile there was a good deal of dissatisfaction felt at the 
 poor results of all the attempts hitherto made to introduce salmon, 
 and at the request of several societies, Mr S. C. Farr, Hon. Sec. of 
 the North Canterbury Society, went to Britain in December, 1884, and 
 succeeded in getting 198,000 from the Tweed. Mr Farr had previously 
 complained that not ten per cent, of the eggs hitherto received had
 
 TELEOSTEI 199 
 
 been fertilised, so he took care to see that this lot was fully fecundated. 
 Forty-four days after sailing, and 90 days after being taken from 
 the parent fish, the ova were landed at Lyttelton, when 117,000 eggs 
 were found to be alive. 
 
 Two cases went to the Napier and Wellington Societies, one each 
 to Otago and Waitaki, and two to Canterbury. I have failed to find 
 what results were achieved by the Napier and Waitaki Societies. The 
 Wellington Society liberated 4600 fry in the Hutt River; the Otago 
 Society liberated 3900, presumably in the Waiwera; while in the 
 Canterbury Society's ponds about 21,000 fry were hatched out. Of 
 this number, more than 3000 were born with curved spines, and 
 about 6000 more were sickly and attenuated ; these soon died. Owing 
 to the long drought and the high temperature of the water during 
 the season the number was reduced to about 7000. Of these, 1000 
 were liberated on 23rd December, 1885, in the Temuka River; and on 
 3Oth December 1000 in the Opihi. They varied in length from three to 
 five inches. On 6th January Mr Farr started with 1000 parr for the 
 Clarence River, about 105 miles from Christchurch, but owing to 
 the excessive heat in the carriage (96 F.), 178 died en route and others 
 sickened. So on arrival at the Perceval River, the sickly ones were 
 picked out and put in there, where they soon revived and went into 
 a deep pool. The remaining 725 were turned into the Clarence River. 
 On 25th January 500 were liberated in the Ashburton River; on 
 2nd February 1000 in the Rangitata; on 23rd February 1000 in the 
 Hurunui ; and on 7th May 200 into the Selwyn. The Society evidently 
 were under the impression that by scattering the fry over so many 
 streams the chance of survival in one or more of these was increased. 
 
 It was claimed that between 1868 and 1878 no less than 824,000 
 (I think the correct number is 772,000) ova were shipped from Britain 
 and that only 3996 fry survived to be turned out; while of Mr Farr's 
 shipment of 198,000 nearly 120,000 arrived, and about one-half of 
 that number were liberated. It is interesting to note at this point 
 that Mr Farr also tried to bring live fish out to the colony. He 
 brought 50 parr in a tank of fresh-water, and these were carried 
 safely till near the Cape, when some one tampered with the water- 
 supply, and all the fish perished. Up to this date, as was stated in a 
 letter addressed by the Waitaki County Society (Dr H. A. de Lautour, 
 President) to Sir Julius Vogel, the Commissioner of Trade and 
 Customs, the efforts at acclimatisation were running in at least four 
 different channels, viz.: (i) efforts by Government, conjointly with 
 the societies; (2) efforts by the Government independent of the 
 societies; (3) efforts by the societies themselves, conjointly and inde- 
 pendently ; (4) efforts by the Agent- General independent alike of the
 
 200 FISHES 
 
 societies or the Government. The Government now took the matter 
 in hand themselves as far as importation was concerned, and prepared 
 for shipments on a larger scale, utilising the societies for the hatching 
 of the ova and the distribution with the colony. In January, 1886, 
 the Agent-General shipped over 200,000 ova (most of which came 
 from the River Tay) by the ' Ionic,' which arrived in Wellington on 
 2ist March, and they were distributed to the various societies on 
 the following day. I have been able to follow up those sent to the 
 Wellington, Nelson, North Canterbury, Otago, Southland, and Lakes 
 Societies. The Wellington Society received one box, from which 
 about 8000 fry hatched out. These were liberated in the Hutt and 
 Manawatu Rivers, and a small lot in the Ruamahanga. The Nelson 
 Society hatched out approximately 12,000 fry, but I do not know 
 the subsequent history of this lot. The Canterbury Society received 
 four boxes with approximately 22,000 eggs in each. In one box 
 which was outside the cold chamber, all the eggs were dead. From 
 the others about 41,000 fry, many of them rather small, were hatched 
 out. At the end of the first month there were 37,000, but at the end 
 of the second only 11,000 were left alive. Of these 4000 were sent 
 to the Waitaki Society, 1500 to South Canterbury, 1500 to Geraldine, 
 1000 to the Taranaki Society, 1000 to the Hawera Society, and 300 
 were placed in the Selwyn River. 
 
 During this year reliable reports were received of young salmon 
 having been repeatedly seen in the Opihi, and some that had been 
 accidently taken measured from 9 to 12 inches in length. The 
 Society kept a considerable number in their ponds, but in May a 
 flood washed 400 parr into the Avon, where they appeared to be doing 
 well. 
 
 The Otago Society got 12,000 fry from their consignment, of 
 which number they liberated 9000, presumably in the Waiwera. 
 
 The Southland Society hatched out over 12,600 fry, of which a 
 little over 9000 were alive in June. In July 5500 were turned into 
 the Aparima, while owing to a sudden melting of snow over 3000 
 more escaped into the river. 
 
 The Lakes Society hatched out about 14,000 fry which were 
 liberated in Lake Wakatipu. 
 
 In 1887 three large shipments of ova arrived in Wellington. The 
 'Kaikoura' with 160,000 from the Tay, Forth and Tweed, and the 
 'Doric* with 330,000 from the same rivers arrived in January, and 
 the 'Tongariro' in February with 120,000 ova from the Tweed, and 
 100,000 from the Rhine. 
 
 (a) Of the 'Kaikoura' shipment, 120,000 went to the Clinton 
 Hatchery (Otago), and 40,000 to Southland. Of the six boxes which
 
 TELEOSTEI 201 
 
 went to Clinton, one contained "Forth" ova, and the others "Tay" 
 ova; they averaged about 50 per cent, good eggs, and hatched 
 splendidly. The Southland lot hatched out well and yielded nearly 
 15,000 fry. 
 
 (b) Of the ' Doric ' shipment, ten boxes were handed over to 
 the Otago Society for the Clinton Hatchery, and about 70 per 
 cent, of the eggs were good. Five boxes went to Southland, containing 
 nearly 66,000 good eggs, and from them nearly 52,000 fry were 
 hatched. One box went to Oamaru and from it between 4000 and 
 5000 fry were hatched out. 
 
 (c) The ' Tongariro ' shipment did not turn out so well. Five 
 and a half boxes went to Opoho (Dunedin) and yielded about 65 
 per cent, of good eggs. One box with 9000 ova went to Oamaru, 
 and yielded between 3000 and 4000 fry. The Canterbury Society 
 received nominally 50,000 Rhine salmon, but only 3620 good eggs 
 were found, from which 3250 fry were hatched out. The Wellington 
 Society also received the same quantity of Rhine salmon ova, and 
 about 5000 fry were hatched out. Some of these were sent down later 
 to the Opoho ponds. 
 
 Out of the 430,000 eggs received by the Otago Society, Mr Deans, 
 the curator, calculated that 270,000 fry were hatched out, but the 
 Society's report for 1888 states that only 270,000 eggs were good on 
 arrival. 
 
 They hatched out about the beginning of April. During September, 
 October and November, 98,000 young fry were liberated in the upper 
 waters of the Aparima. As the Southland Society have turned out about 
 60,000 in the same neighbourhood, we trust that at last the acclimatisation 
 of the salmon may prove to have been accomplished. 
 
 Faith was still strong in the minds of all interested in this work 
 that acclimatisation of salmon would soon be accomplished. 
 The Canterbury Society report of 1887 states: 
 
 250 fish of the 1886 hatching were liberated in the Lower Selwyn in 
 February, and in September 1000 parr. These have been turned into that 
 river with a view of establishing what are termed in America " land-locked " 
 salmon ; and having the advantage of this river flowing into Lake Ellesmere, 
 the water of which is brackish, we have great hopes of success. It is two 
 and a half years since the first Salmon was turned into the Lower Selwyn by 
 your secretary, and that they have bred there is verified by Dr Anderson 
 of Sydenham, capturing two when netting for live bait. They were returned 
 to the water, and the doctor reported the fact to your secretary. Now, 
 as none of these fish when liberated were less than three inches in length, 
 and those taken by the doctor were less than two inches, this is, we think, 
 sufficient proof that they have been hatched in that river. This evidence 
 is matter for congratulation; and the desire of your council is that the
 
 202 FISHES 
 
 Government should next session bring in a bill to prevent the wholesale 
 netting in that lake for a few years in order that this noble fish may be 
 thoroughly established. In three years the fish will not only be fully 
 developed, but established in such numbers as to remove all doubts about 
 the experiment. 
 
 This paragraph is worth reproducing, because it shows the readi- 
 ness with which enthusiasts jumped to conclusions on very meagre 
 evidence, and also advocated a course of action which would deprive 
 the public of a plentiful supply of flounders for some years, and cut 
 off several fishermen from their means of livelihood. 
 
 In this same year (1887) the Taranaki Society received 810 salmon 
 fry from Christchurch, and liberated them in three streams in the 
 Mt Egmont district. 
 
 In the following year the Waitaki Society liberated 150 smolts, 
 and between 4000 and 5000 (Tay) fry in the Ferry Creek, a tributary 
 of the Waitaki ; and 200 (Tweed) smolts in the Kakanui River. 
 
 In January, 1889, the 'Arawa' left London with 150,000 ova 
 from the River Forth, and reached Wellington early in March. Three 
 boxes with (nominally) 53,300 ova went to Southland, and yielded 
 38,000 good ova. Presumably the fry were liberated in the Aparima, 
 but there is no record. Five boxes with 97,000 ova went to the Clinton 
 Hatchery, and contained about 95 per cent, of good eggs, which 
 hatched out very well. 
 
 In February, 1889, the 'Aorangi' left with 483,000 ova, and 
 reached Wellington on 24th March and Port Chalmers on the 29th. 
 These were taken from Tweed salmon. Ten boxes with 170,000 ova 
 went to the Opoho Hatchery, ten with 182,000 to Clinton, and seven 
 with 128,000 to Invercargill. Mr Deans estimated that from the 
 two Otago lots about 320,000 young fry were hatched out. Of this 
 number some 250,000 were liberated in the Aparima. 
 
 In January of this same year, Mr J. B. Basstian of Dunrobin 
 reported having seen young salmon in the Aparima. On ist March 
 Ranger Burt saw a number in the same river both in the smolt and 
 parr stage, evidently waiting for the first fresh in the river to go down 
 to the sea. Two good specimens were obtained, and the prohibition 
 of netting in the Riverton estuary, which had been enforced when 
 fry were first put into the river, was renewed. 
 
 In 1891 the Otago Society report that "nothing has been seen of 
 these fish after their return from the sea. The estuary of the Aparima 
 has been netted several times, but without success." 
 
 In 1892 it is stated that: 
 
 periodical trials with the seine-net have been made in the estuary of the 
 Aparima to ascertain whether the salmon liberated in 1887 and 1889 were
 
 TELEOSTEI 203 
 
 preparing to ascend the river for spawning. Numbers of small fish ranging 
 from one-half to two pounds were caught. Some were sent to Dr Giinther, 
 who pronounced them to be Sea Trout. 
 
 In an article on the Aparima experiment in the Southland News 
 of 2Oth January, 1891, it is stated: "The first lot of Salmon was put 
 into the Aparima in 1873, an< ^ the last in March, 1890, the total being 
 494,000." It was pointed out to the Marine Department that the 
 people in the district wanted the river made available for anglers. 
 The reply received was that "the Government were determined to 
 keep the river closed, until it had been definitely ascertained that the 
 salmon experiment was a failure." 
 
 From time to time reports of salmon being met with were received. 
 Thus in TheField of i9th December, 1896^ letter appeared regarding a 
 fish which was caught near Oamaru Harbour and was sent to the editor 
 by the Waitaki Acclimatisation Society. In this he says: "This was 
 submitted to Mr A. Boulenger of the Natural History Museum, and 
 stated by him to be a true Salmo salar. It was between 8 Ibs. and 
 9 Ibs. in weight." The angling editor of The Field commenting on 
 the fish said: 
 
 I have examined dozens and scores of frozen fish sent from New Zealand 
 as Salmon, which, in spite of their size and appearance, were trout of some 
 kind. This is the first of these forwarded specimens which has been to 
 my mind thoroughly satisfactory, and which, from a superficial inspection, 
 would lead me to say with confidence, "This is a salmon." 
 
 Somewhat later in date is the following statement from the report 
 of the Otago Society in 1900-1 : 
 
 We have assurance of an old experienced salmon fisher, Baron Bultzings- 
 lowens, who visited our shores during the last fishing season, that he caught 
 a true grilse in the Waiau last February. He says: "The main object of 
 these lines is to tell you that one of the 4 Ib. fish was a true grilse, and not 
 a trout. I am too old a salmon fisherman, and have landed too many 
 hundreds of grilse and salmon, not to know the difference between a grilse 
 and any kind of trout. There is to me not a shadow of doubt about that 
 fish being a true grilse. Had it been possible to send you the fish I should 
 have done so. 
 
 To resume the record of introduction. In 1895 t^ 6 Wellington 
 Society received 200,000 ova from the Government ex 'Kaikoura.' 
 These were in bad condition and only about 20,000 hatched out, of 
 which 3000 were weakly. Of these 500 fry were retained in the ponds, 
 but did not grow well. Apparently a lot more arrived, but it is most 
 difficult to trace them. The only record I can find is that 10,000 ova 
 were sent to the Southland Society, 1500 to Westport, 1500 to Grey- 
 mouth, 1500 to Hokitika, 1000 to Buller, and 1000 to Marlborough;
 
 204 FISHES 
 
 but I can find no report as to their success or failure. In 1901-2 
 two lots of ova arrived from Great Britain, 150,000 by the 'Gothic,' 
 and 50,000 by the ' Paparoa.' The numbers of fry hatched out from 
 these were respectively 51,200 and 25,500, but amongst them was a 
 considerable proportion of deformed fish. There must have been 
 very considerable loss among these, for in the following year, only 
 42,806 one-and-a-half-year-old fish were liberated in the Hakataramea 
 River, and 4200 were retained in the ponds. Whether the latter were 
 allowed to escape or whether they died in the ponds is not stated, 
 but in 1904 there were only 230 two-year-old fish left. The report 
 of the Marine Department for 1904-5 states that: 
 
 Several fish, believed to be salmon, have been caught at the mouth of the 
 Waitaki River. A gentleman, recently from Scotland, states that he caught 
 one of the fish, which weighed 4^ Ibs. and that it was undoubtedly a salmon 
 in appearance and taste. Although the taste was not so pronounced as 
 that of Scotch salmon, still the flavour was fine and quite different from 
 that of trout. 
 
 This, of course, is not very convincing evidence. 
 
 In the following year (1905) 55 three-year-old fish were liberated, 
 and 131 retained in the ponds. In 1906 seven four-year-old fish were 
 liberated, and 50 retained ; and in 1907 1 1 five-year-old were liberated, 
 and 43 retained in the ponds. 
 
 In this same year the Canterbury Society obtained 50,000 ova 
 from the Canadian Government, and these hatched out well, some 
 47,000 fry being found in the boxes. In the Society's report for 
 1908 it is stated that there are 20,000 yearlings in the races; and in 
 the following year, 11,500 fish were liberated in the Selwyn, but 
 nothing more was ever heard of them. 
 
 It is noteworthy in this, and indeed in most of the reports, how 
 the numbers of fish in the ponds dwindled year by year. None of the 
 societies offers any explanation of the fact. The losses were probably 
 due to eels and the kingfishers, and in a less degree to shags. The 
 latter birds are most destructive in rivers and lakes, but are always 
 somewhat shy of coming too near human dwellings, and the ponds 
 were nearly always placed in proximity to the latter. 
 
 At the beginning of 1908, Mr C. L. Ayson went to Canada for 
 ova, and returned with 150,000 eggs. They were scarcely "eyed" 
 when packed, and a heavy loss was anticipated. They reached 
 Wellington on ist April and were at once sent to Lake Anau, which was 
 reached on the 5th, when it was found that 140,000 eggs were in 
 good condition. This attempt was a new departure on the part of 
 the Marine Department, which determined to select the Waiau River 
 as a suitable spot to hatch out salmon ova for several successive years.
 
 TELEOSTEI 205 
 
 The small stream flowing into the Upokororo River was selected as 
 the best place in which to liberate the young fry. At the end of 1908 
 Mr L. F. Ay son, Chief Inspector of Fisheries, was sent to England 
 for more ova, and shipped 500,000 by the ' Turakina.' Of these about 
 400,000 came from the Tay, and the rest from Irish rivers. This lot 
 arrived early in 1909, and was at once despatched to Te Anau, where 
 447,000 fry hatched out, which were placed in the Upokororo River. 
 Mr Ayson followed in the 'Rakaia' with another 500,000, made up 
 of 55,000 from the River Test in Hampshire, 120,000 from the Dee 
 in Wales, and about 340,000 from the Rhine, near Trier. The last 
 lot were rather too far advanced when shipped. Seven cases of ova 
 (approximately 350,000 eggs) were taken to Lake Te Anau, and the 
 fry liberated in the Upokororo, and three cases (150,000 eggs) to 
 Hakataramea. From this last lot, 103,440 Rhine salmon and 6900 
 English salmon fry were liberated into the Hakataramea River. 
 
 In 1910-11 another shipment of ova came out in the 'Ruahine' 
 in charge of Mr C. L. Ayson, 400,000 eggs being obtained from the 
 River Wye, and 600,000 from the Rhine. These were all taken up to 
 Lake Te Anau, where over 930,000 good eggs were unpacked, the 
 Rhine ova again showing much the heavier loss. As the young fry 
 hatched out, they were liberated in the lake. During this year also 
 10,274 one-and-a-half-y ear-old fish were liberated in the Hakataramea. 
 In 191 1-12, only 181 three-year-old Rhine salmon, and 49 three-year- 
 old Atlantic (English ?) salmon were liberated in the same river. 
 
 Pond-bred Salmon. Various attempts have been made to retain 
 salmon in the ponds and to rear fry from them, in the hope that even 
 if the fry from imported ova would not return in due time to the 
 rivers into which they were originally turned, those from locally 
 reared fish would do so. This expectation has not, however, been 
 realised in a single instance. I have collected a good deal of the avail- 
 able information on the subject. In 1887 Mr A. J. Rutherford stated 
 that from each shipment received by the Wellington Society, a few 
 young salmon had been retained in the ponds, so as to test the 
 possibility of rearing in our waters a land-locked variety. Unfortunately 
 the Society does not seem to have kept a separate record of the fish 
 in the ponds, the number of ova taken, or of fry reared from them. 
 In 1888 the Canterbury Society obtained 5240 eggs from some of the 
 fish imported by Mr Farr in 1885, and from these 5000 fry were 
 hatched out. It was claimed for them that they were the first ova 
 taken from imported salmon in the Southern Hemisphere. Unfor- 
 tunately the whole lot were subsequently lost by disease or accident. 
 About the same time the Otago Society commenced to rear fry from 
 pond-bred salmon, and continued the experiment for some years. In
 
 206 FISHES 
 
 1889 there were some 116 four-year-old fish at the Clinton ponds, 
 and from these some ova were obtained, from which 300 fry were 
 hatched. These were ultimately liberated in the Waiwera. In 1890 
 some 14,000 eggs, hatching out about 10,000 fry, were produced, 
 and of these 8000 were placed in the Upper Mataura, and 2000 in 
 Lake Ada, Milford Sound. In 1891 over 20,000 ova were produced, 
 of which 1000 were sent to the Wellington Society, and the remainder 
 were hatched at the ponds. Of the resulting fry 7000 were liberated 
 in the Waiwera, 7000 in the Owaka, while 3000 were sent to Milford 
 Sound, and were liberated in Lake Ada. About 800 were retained 
 in the ponds. The Society's report says: "Those in the Waiwera 
 have done well, and have been seen in large numbers up to ten inches 
 long." They disappeared during a fresh in the river in the beginning 
 of November. In 1892 it is noted that the fish continue healthy 
 in their confinement, although they do not grow to a large size. Some 
 20,000 ova were got from them, about 17,000 of which were hatched 
 and liberated in the Waiwera. The report for 1895 says: 
 
 The last of the stock of Salmon which had been kept in the Society's 
 ponds for the last nine years were liberated early in the Spring, as they were 
 attacked with a fungus disease. These fish for the last five years produced 
 over 20,000 ova annually, from which 15,000 to 20,000 fry have been 
 liberated every year, which did well in our streams, and could be observed 
 going down to the sea in the smolt stage ; but it cannot be said that a real 
 salmon has been got after its return from the sea. 
 
 In succeeding years some fish were always retained in the ponds. 
 Thus we read in the report for 1900: 
 
 There are 176, fish, six to eight years old; and 260 three-year fish (from 
 imported ova) in the ponds. The old stock fish are not doing well with us. 
 They were reared from pond-reared salmon got from imported ova, and do 
 not seem to have the same vitality as those reared from imported ova. 
 
 Some doubt has been expressed as to whether the fish in the 
 Clinton ponds were salmon at all. This would tend to throw suspicion 
 on some of those who were concerned in sending out the original ova, 
 or on those who were in charge of the Otago Society's ponds an 
 utterly unworthy suggestion. The following statement is, therefore, 
 of interest. The London correspondent of the Dunedin Evening Star, 
 writing in November, 1892, of this suggestion, that by some blunder 
 the ova sent out to the Otago Acclimatisation Society were not salmon 
 eggs at all, but those of trout, says: 
 
 Fortunately the fish which resulted from these eggs were not all liberated. 
 Some were kept in ponds, and in consequence, have degenerated until 
 they have certainly become not unlike trout. To settle the question finally, 
 some of these pond fish were sent home from Otago to Mr Tegetmeier,
 
 TELEOSTEI 207 
 
 of the Field, who promptly forwarded them to the British Museum. Here 
 they were carefully examined and declared to be undoubted salmon, though 
 degenerated. 
 
 A summary of the attempts to introduce this species of fish into 
 New Zealand waters is here given to show the continuous nature of 
 the effort. The total number of ova introduced during the last half- 
 century, beginning in 1868, was 4,813,000 or close on 5,000,000. In 
 addition, some 120,000 eggs were obtained from pond-reared fish. 
 
 The total number of fry li berated, at various stages of growth, 
 including those obtained from pond-reared fish, is approximately 
 2,620,000. These have been turned out into the following rivers or 
 their tributary lakes and rivers : 
 
 South Island 
 
 Waiau 1,767,000 Selwyn 13,250 
 
 Aparima 494,000 Heathcote 240 
 
 Mataura 8,000 Avon 50 (?) 
 
 Owaka 7,000 Ashley 180 
 
 Clutha 146,900 Perceval 200 
 
 Leith 500 Clarence 725 
 
 Kakanui 200 Hurunui 1,000 
 
 Waitaki 162,000 Nelson, Maryborough, Grey, \ 
 
 Opihi 1,500 Buller and Hokitika Rivers j I5 ' OO< 
 
 Temuka 1,500 Lake Ada, Milford Sound 5,200 
 
 Rangitata ... 1,000 
 
 North Island 
 
 Ruamahanga 400 Streams in Taranaki ... 2,800 
 
 Hutt ... 8,400 Hawke's Bay ? 
 
 Manawatu ... 3, 800 
 
 Salmon Trout ; Sea Trout (Salmo truttd) 
 
 In 1868 the 'Celestial Queen' brought 1500 ova of sea trout to 
 Port Chalmers (on 2nd May), but I cannot trace what came of them, 
 as to whether they went to the Society's ponds at Opoho, or to 
 Mr Duncan's ponds, which were on the Leith just above the mill. 
 If they were hatched it is probable that the fry got into Otago Harbour. 
 
 In 1870 the Otago Society received some ova of this species from 
 Tasmania, and from it obtained 140 fry. These were liberated in a 
 pond communicating with the Shag River, except 20 which were 
 liberated in the Water of Leith. 
 
 The early reports of the Southland Society are not obtainable, 
 but in a history of the Society recently (1916) compiled by Mr A. H. 
 Stock, it is stated that in 1870, " 154 ova were received from Tasmania 
 and hatched out well." These fry were retained in the ponds for
 
 208 FISHES 
 
 breeding purposes, and in September, 1874, noo ova were obtained 
 from them : 
 
 The resultant fry were turned out into the New River. Of the 50 fish 
 retained at the ponds (probably adults), nothing further is recorded, but 
 probably they were included amongst "the old fish to be turned out into 
 the Makarewa" in June, 1875. 
 
 Mr W. Arthur the Hon. Secretary of the Otago Society, writing 
 in 1881, says: 
 
 I have tried to find from what river in England the original ova sent to 
 Tasmania came, but the Secretary of the Salmon Commissioners there 
 assures me that he cannot possibly find any record of this fact. 
 
 In 1871 the following appears in the annual report of the Otago 
 Society: 
 
 Sea trout have been many times caught in fishermen's nets on the coast, 
 particularly within Otago Harbour, but no reliable instance has been 
 established of the capture of this fish in any stream or river. 
 
 If these fish were the progeny of those brought over from Tasmania 
 in 1870, they must have been very small and few in number. The first 
 record of trout in Otago was in 1868, but no sea trout were included. 
 In those early days there was no doubt expressed, such as arose later 
 in regard to fish caught in sea-water, as to the difference between 
 sea trout and brown trout. 
 
 In 1873 the Canterbury Society obtained 300 ova from the 
 Tasmanian Society, from which several fry were hatched out. Writing 
 of this shipment (1895) Mr A. M. Johnson said: 
 
 On opening the box at the Christchurch Gardens a large portion were 
 found to have hatched and died in the moss during transit by small steamer. 
 The remaining good eggs, a few hundred, were hatched by myself as then 
 Curator of the Society. The young fish were longer, thinner and more active, 
 but appeared much more delicate than the common trout. A pond with 
 spawning race through which the whole of the water in the Gardens flowed 
 was especially prepared for their reception, and into which about 50, all 
 that were reared were liberated. These, at about four years old, made some 
 nests and deposited their eggs. 
 
 In 1874 Captain Hutton exhibited at a meeting of the Otago 
 Institute a sea trout caught in Otago Harbour, and stated that another 
 capture had been recently made. I was myself dredging a good deal 
 in Otago Harbour then and in subsequent years, and the fishermen 
 at that period always distinguished between two kinds of trout, which 
 were not unfrequently taken with the seine-nets and which they 
 distinguished as "Salmon" and "Trout." The former were almost 
 certainly sea trout, and the latter brown trout. 
 
 In 1 88 1 the Otago Society report says: "The Council has been
 
 TELEOSTEI 209 
 
 made aware of the capture of many Sea Trout in Otago Harbour by 
 fishermen during the year." And again in 1885, it is stated: " Salmon 
 trout have not been found during the past year in any river, and their 
 occurrence in salt-water is not so common as in former years. It is 
 to be feared, therefore, it has been netted out, as a species" (a very 
 improbable suggestion it seems to me). 
 
 In 1 88 1 a trout was taken in Nelson Harbour, and was submitted 
 to Dr Hector, who identified it as a true salmon trout (S. truttd). 
 This fish was taken near the mouth of the Maitai River, and proved 
 to be a female, 25 inches in length, which had just spawned. 
 
 In 1884 the Wairarapa Society received three trays of ova from 
 the Government, and from these they obtained 2300 fry. Of these 
 500 were put in the Ruamahanga, and 700 into tributary streams, 
 500 in the Hutt River, and 350 in the Makakahi at Eketahuna. The 
 remainder were retained in the ponds. I do not know where these 
 ova came from, or whether any other ova were imported at the same 
 time. 
 
 In the same year the Wellington Society received 900 ova, which 
 were imported from Scotland for the Otago Society, and placed 750 
 fry in the Makora River. In 1888 there is a statement in the annual 
 report as follows: "Our young Salmon trout have yielded us 2500 
 fine healthy fry, and these are, we believe, the first taken from the 
 fish and hatched out artificially" If this means the first salmon trout 
 reared in New Zealand from imported fish, then it only emphasises 
 the want of knowledge and co-operation which existed between the 
 different societies, for the Southland Society claimed to have done 
 this 14 years earlier. 
 
 A very sharp correspondence took place in Canterbury in 1895 
 as to whether there were any sea trout in New Zealand. I mention it 
 here, because many people still claim that there are none and never 
 have been any, and consider that the question was settled in the 
 negative by this controversy. It was initiated by a Mr W. H. Spack- 
 man who wrote to the Christchurch Press on 22nd June, as follows : 
 
 I find it stated that 7000 salmon trout were liberated in the Waimakariri, 
 and 1000 sold. Can the Garden Committee tell me whence these were 
 obtained ? Are they from ova direct from England, or were they from fish 
 in the Gardens ; and if so, had these so-called Salmon trout ever been to 
 sea before spawning? I think this matter should be cleared, as I was not 
 aware there were any real salmon trout in the colony. 
 
 This drew forth a letter from Mr S. C. Farr on ist July: 
 
 Salmon trout were brought here by me from Dunedin, as a gift from the 
 Otago to the Canterbury Acclimatisation Society, about thirteen years 
 since (? 1882), and they bred in the Society's Gardens for several seasons 
 
 T. N.Z. 14
 
 2io FISHES 
 
 under my own notice, the stock always being kept in one pond, without 
 the slightest sign of degeneration. 
 
 Mr Spackman thereupon wrote to the Otago Society, and Mr Deans, 
 the curator, replied from Clinton, 24th July, 1895: 
 
 The only salmon or sea-trout that this Society has ever had were brought 
 from Tasmania by Mr Clifford in 1870. The ova numbered about 140. 
 They were hatched at Opoho, and subsequently in the fry stage were 
 removed to a pond on the bank of the Shag River. Some years ago, 
 probably ten or twelve, the Government were getting out some ova from 
 Sir Jas. Maitland, and it was reported that they were salmon trout, but Sir 
 Jas. contradicted that and said that he was not aware of ever having sent 
 salmon-trout ova. 
 
 This produced another strong letter from Mr Farr who stated (Aug. 
 2nd) that he attented a meeting of the Otago Council when a resolu- 
 tion was agreed to that a certain number of " Salmon Trout "fry should 
 be delivered by Deans to him at the railway station : 
 
 I brought them without loss (to Christchurch), and delivered them at the 
 Society's Gardens. They were put into a small race, and were subsequently 
 transferred to a pond, kept as a distinct fish, and from them ova were taken 
 for some years previous to my removal from the office of Secretary. 
 
 Mr Farr then quotes from the Otago Society's reports, and also the 
 statements of Captain Hutton and Dr Hector already given, and then 
 from the reports of the Canterbury Society as follows : 
 
 " In 1888 there were 580 salmon trout in the ponds." "In 1889 there 
 were nine boxes of Salmon trout in the fish house." "In 1890, 8000 salmon 
 trout were distributed." "In 1891, 9200 salmon trout distributed." "In 
 1892, 6000 distributed." " In 1894, 8000 sold and distributed." " During 
 the years mentioned Mr Spackman was a continuous member of the 
 Council, and I believe took part in the distribution of the young fry on 
 more than one occasion, as Salmon trout, without once raising the question 
 as to their species." 
 
 This shrewd thrust at Mr Spackman did not, of course, affect the 
 question, and that gentleman again wrote to Mr Deans and drew 
 from him another letter in which he expressed his opinion that we 
 have no salmon or sea trout. It also brought Mr A. M. Johnson into 
 the fray, who concluded his letter by saying: "it appears, however, 
 we are all misled by mistakes about the identity of these fish." The 
 outcome of all the discussion was only to show that the fish which 
 the Canterbury Society had been keeping and distributing as salmon 
 trout were probably brown trout. It did not affect the facts that the 
 Otago, Southland and Canterbury Societies all imported salmon 
 trout ova from Tasmania in 1871 and 1873, that mature trout were 
 taken in the coastal waters and identified in 1874 and 1881, and that
 
 TELEOSTEI 211 
 
 two further importations of ova were received from the home country 
 in 1884. 
 
 In 1895 Mr A. P. O'Calloghan of Timaru caught a fish in the 
 Opihi, which was sent to Dr Giinther, who stated in a letter of 2nd 
 April to Mr H. A. Bruce: 
 
 The fish mentioned in your letter of Jan. 23rd reached me to-day. It is 
 without question a genuine Sea-trout. It is a great beauty and fatter than I 
 have ever seen a Sea-trout or Salmon, showing it must have had abundance 
 of food, and grown up under the most favourable conditions. It has been 
 stated (erroneously in my opinion) that Salmonoids change their specific 
 characteristics when transplanted from the Northern to the Southern 
 Hemisphere. The specimen sent by you is strong evidence that no such 
 change has taken place in your New Zealand Salmonoids. 
 
 In my opinion it is only evidence that the fish was derived from 
 the egg of a pure salmon trout. 
 
 Carp Trout (Great Lake Trout ?) (Salmo trutta, 
 var. lacustris carpione) 
 
 In 1887 the 'Tongariro' brought to Wellington for the New 
 Zealand Government, a large shipment of salmon ova, and along 
 with it 25,000 Rhine brook-trout ova, 25,000 alpine-char ova, and 
 25,000 carpione-trout ova. "The latter is said only to be found in 
 the Lago di Garda." Unfortunately the boxes arrived in very bad 
 order, and no marks were placed on the trays to indicate to which 
 particular kind the ova belonged, and there was nothing to indicate 
 which was which. The societies to which this lot of eggs were given 
 were asked to keep each tray apart, in order that the various kinds 
 of fish might not be mixed. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received 12,000 ova supposed to be of 
 this variety. Only 23 hatched out and all died. 
 
 The Wellington Society received the larger portion of the ship- 
 ment but the eggs were in a very bad condition, and only about 550 
 fry were hatched out. Fifty of these were sent to the Auckland 
 Society for use as a parent stock, but there is no record as to what 
 was done with them. 
 
 About 30 were received by the Otago Society, and were placed 
 in a pond at Opoho. The report for 1892 says: 
 
 These fish are growing, but they produced no ova this year. They do not 
 appear to have settled down to a proper spawning season, as some of them 
 are found to be ripe during the whole year. Some were stripped, but the 
 ova were found to be in a very bad state, and only survived a few minutes. 
 The report for 1893 states that thirteen fish, six years old, and 105, one 
 to two years old, are in the ponds at Opoho. It is not stated where these 
 last came from, and there is no further record. 
 
 142
 
 212 FISHES 
 
 The Wellington Society kept a number of the fry, and in 1889 
 they spawned, and about a thousand fry were obtained. I do not 
 know what came of them, but Mr A. J. Rutherford, the Hon. Sec. 
 of the Society, stated that " Unfortunately, owing to a want of know- 
 ledge of its habits, we have lost the breed." 
 
 * Brown Trout (Salmo fario) 
 
 The naturalisation of this species of trout in New Zealand waters 
 is the most successful piece of acclimatisation work undertaken in 
 this colony. It has exceeded all expectations. It has not only stocked 
 the streams and rivers with the finest of sporting and edible fishes, 
 a reputation which it shares with the rainbow trout, but it has 
 brought numerous sportsmen to the country, and made it known 
 far and wide as a paradise for anglers. It has also given to the coastal 
 waters of the dominion the finest of food-fishes. It is true that the 
 restrictive laws passed in the interests of the acclimatisation societies, 
 and which are still in force, prevent the trout in the sea from becoming 
 available, as they ought to be, as a food supply for the people. But 
 it is quite possible to safeguard the trout in the streams, and yet 
 enable those in the sea to be taken like other free-swimming fish, 
 and then the public will get the benefit. 
 
 The first attempt to introduce brown trout into New Zealand was 
 made by the late Mr A. M. Johnson of Opawa, Christchurch, who 
 did actually ship 600 young trout in London in 1864 by the 'British 
 Empire,' but a careless deck-hand dropped a lump of white-lead 
 putty into the tank (this was afterwards found at the bottom) and 
 killed all the fish. 
 
 In 1868 and the following year, Mr Huddlestone, on behalf of 
 the Nelson Society, introduced trout ova from Tasmania, but the 
 record of this work has been lost. 
 
 Mr Johnson claims that he was the first introducer of this fish 
 into the country. In a letter written by him to the Minister 
 of Public Works on 6th February, 1878, he says: "I may also 
 add that the English brown trout was first introduced into New 
 Zealand at my expense." This shipment was one of 800 ova from 
 Tasmania, and it appears from the reports that they were brought 
 out for the Canterbury Society in 1867. Mr Johnson brought them 
 across from Hobart, but unfortunately there was so much friction 
 existing for years between him and Mr Farr, the Hon. Sec. of the 
 Society, that it is difficult to get at the facts. Of these 800 ova, only 
 three hatched out. The report states that "it was not long before 
 one of them was lost (escaped into the Avon). The two remaining 
 proved to be male and female, so we concluded that even from
 
 TELEOSTEI 213 
 
 these our rivers would in a few years be stocked." The faith of the 
 pioneers was charming, and in this instance was justified. The fol- 
 lowing is Mr Johnson's own account of this incident. 
 
 A tremendous flood, the highest ever known in Canterbury, submerged 
 the Gardens, and although most of the stock was saved, the three Trout 
 were washed out into a swamp leading to the river, and appeared hopelessly 
 lost. With a faint hope of their recapture, a spawning race was prepared 
 near their rearing home, and at the season two of the lost trout were seen 
 and secured. They proved to be male and female, and from these a supply 
 of ova was obtained annually. By 1876, the Society had received about 
 100 from the sale of young trout, and many thousands had been liberated 
 in Canterbury Rivers; all the progeny of those two fish. 
 
 In September, 1868, Mr G. P. Clifford brought over to Dunedin 
 from Tasmania about 800 brown trout ova. They were packed thinly 
 in well-washed moss in four boxes, which were kept cool with frozen 
 snow. The voyage lasted nine days. Forty-nine dead ova were re- 
 moved on arrival, and the rest were placed in covered boxes on a bed 
 of small gravel, over which ran a small stream of filtered water about 
 an inch and a half deep. During the time the fish were hatching the 
 temperature varied from 40 to 55 Fahr., averaging 46. The first fish 
 hatched out on a8th September and the last on 29th October. The total 
 number hatched was 729. The ova were not artificially impregnated, 
 because the spawning was nearly over in Tasmania, but were obtained 
 from the ridds made by the fish in the race at the Plenty ponds. The 
 pond accommodation consisted of an oval pond 12 by 8 feet, and 
 from a few inches to about 2 feet deep. The fry were liberated in 
 various streams in the provincial district. 
 
 In distributing the young fish they were carried in an ordinary 
 fish-kettle, 15 by 9 inches, and 9 inches deep, and they were mostly 
 carried by hand. 
 
 Our last attempt to take trout from Dunedin to Queenstown a distance 
 of 208 miles, over rough bush roads, with at times a bad supply of water 
 proved a failure. The time occupied was four days. Out of 55, the number 
 that left Dunedin, 25 were carried successfully a distance of 170 miles. 
 
 The Southland Society received a small lot of ova, and liberated 
 about 200 fry. The Canterbury Society also received a lot from the 
 same source, and 545 fry were hatched out and distributed in various 
 streams. In the report written at the close of 1869 it is stated: 
 " Trout may now be considered as established in the Province." 
 
 In 1869 Mr Clifford brought another lot of ova from Tasmania, 
 from which 1000 fry were obtained and mostly distributed; and in 
 1870 a third lot yielding 1084 fry. 
 
 From these three shipments most of the trout of this species now 
 found in New Zealand have come, for they not only throve in every
 
 214 FISHES 
 
 stream into which they were placed, but quickly came to maturity 
 and spawned so freely, that it became easy to distribute them 
 
 As to the origin of these fish, Mr W. Arthur, who investigated 
 the subject more carefully than anyone who has written on it, states 
 that the brown trout in Tasmania were descended from three lots 
 from England. "Of these, Mr Francis Francis sent one from the 
 Weycombe, Bucks, and another from the Wey at Alton, Hants, and 
 Mr Buckland sent one lot from Arlesford on the Itchen, Hants." 
 
 These appear to be the only shipments made to the South Island 
 
 In 1870 the Auckland Society received 1000 ova from Tasmania, 
 but only 60 fry hatched out. In 1872 a large quantity was brought 
 over from which many were hatched and were sold for distribution 
 throughout the district. Again, in 1873 and in 1874, further lots were 
 introduced, all from Tasmania, and all hatched out well, but the 
 reports give no record either of the number of eggs or of fry. 
 
 The northern streams are apparently too warm for brown trout, 
 for Mr Cheeseman writing in May, 1880, says : " I am sorry to say that 
 we have no evidence to prove that trout exist in any of our streams 
 at the present time." Mr W. Arthur in 1881 says : "The acclimatisa- 
 tion of Trout does not seem as yet to be a success in the province of 
 Auckland." Evidently he thought the summer temperature too high 
 for this species, for he adds : " A gentleman just arrived from Victoria 
 has assured me that the trout in that colony are fat, sluggish and give 
 no sport when caught with rod and line.". No other society appears 
 to have got eggs or fry from outside the colony ; the others got their 
 stocks from the south. 
 
 Thus in 1874 trout were liberated by the Wellington Society in 
 the Kaiwarrawarra Creek, the Hutt River and the Wainui-o-mata. 
 From the first they disappeared, and in the latter they keep to the 
 higher waters. The reason assigned at the time for this was that they 
 got more congenial food higher up, but I am inclined to think that 
 it was the cooler water in summer which they preferred. 
 
 Probably all the Hawke's Bay brown trout with the exception 
 of 300 which were imported from Christchurch were originally 
 brought from Otago in 1876. 
 
 In 1877 the Wanganui Society received their first consignment of 
 fry, 300, from Mr A. M. Johnson of Opawa. 
 
 In 1878 Nelson received 200 young trout from Christchurch, and 
 the Marlborough Society reared 700 fry from ova obtained from 
 Otago. 
 
 In 1878, 1879 an d 1880 the Grey Society received trout from 
 Otago. 
 
 Since 1880 there has been a constant interchange of ova and fry
 
 TELEOSTEI 215 
 
 going on throughout both islands, and enormous quantities of both 
 have been sent out, especially from the hatcheries of the Otago, 
 Southland, Canterbury, Westland and Wellington Societies. It is 
 impossible to estimate the numbers which have been dealt with, but 
 it is safe to affirm that the various hatcheries throughout the dominion 
 have handled over 50,000,000 young fish. This was up to the end of 
 1916 only. The Southland Society are responsible for about 8, 000,000, 
 Otago 24,000,000, Canterbury between 3 and 4,000,000, Westland 
 over 4,000,000, and Wellington nearly 7,000,000. But there are 
 altogether 28 societies in the country, and all, or nearly all, have 
 hatcheries in operation, and have been distributing trout for many 
 years past. In addition to these, several million ova have been collected 
 at the Hakataramea Hatchery for distribution, some thousands 
 going as far as the Transvaal. Between 1916 and 1921 another 
 14,000,000 ova and fry have been distributed. 
 
 An experiment in the carriage of frozen ova was made in 1886. 
 A box of ova was placed in the freezing-chamber at the Victoria 
 Docks, London, and kept at a temperature of 18 Fahr. At the end of 
 a month it was found that, although most of the eggs had been killed, 
 a large proportion were alive apparently uninjured. To test this matter 
 further a box of ova was placed on the 'Ionic' which arrived in 
 Wellington in March, 1886. The following is Mr A. J. Rutherford's 
 report on it: 
 
 The extremely interesting experiment of sending a box of trout ova in 
 the refrigerator is, I regret, a total failure. The sawdust round the inside 
 box was dry, and the box exceptionally well packed. Within, the moss was 
 frozen into a solid mass, the trays all being stuck together ; and on opening 
 a layer it was evident that the ova had been frozen to death. There was no 
 sign of life, and the appearance presented was like layers of light-yellow 
 transparent unfertilized ova, with one side of each egg slightly fallen in. 
 A coating of hoar-frost surrounded each egg. The animal matter was in 
 good condition, and what looked like traces of yellow dead fish could be 
 seen in many of the ova. 
 
 I tried several experiments, such as thawing very slowly in iced water, 
 thawing in the air, i.e., but could detect no sign of vitality with a glass. 
 The ova turned opaque at once on being placed in water, but the indenta- 
 tion in the side swelled out and each egg resumed its proper shape. There 
 are about a dozen ova that have not turned opaque, and I have left them 
 in a hatching-box to see if there is any possibility of vitality. 
 
 I think that this experiment has demonstrated plainly that the intense 
 cold evolved in the freezing chamber is fatal to life in ova, even when 
 well insulated and protected, as in the case of the box I received. 
 
 Rate of Growth and Food Supply. When brown trout were 
 first liberated, the rate of growth was phenomenal, and this, according 
 to Mr W. Arthur, was " due entirely to new and abundant food, and it
 
 216 FISHES 
 
 may to some extent be to new water, also to the constitution or stock 
 of trout." I think it most probable that the food-supply was the most 
 important factor. The streams originally abounded with insects and 
 insect larvas (including various flies, as ephemerids, gnats, caddis-flies, 
 etc., grasshoppers and beetles), mollusca, crayfish and other Crustacea. 
 In many streams, and these are the streams which have lasted out 
 best as fishing streams, there were also countless shoals of minnows, 
 smelts and other fish. At first the growth was enormously fast, then 
 after a time the food supply gave out, and the big fish began to eat 
 the smaller ones, and gradually the lakes and streams became more 
 or less depleted. 
 
 The extraordinary increase of imported birds which dates from 
 their first importation about 1868, and which was synchronous with 
 the increase of the trout, has also made a very great difference in 
 the food supply of the imported fishes. Grasshoppers, which were 
 remarkably abundant in 1868, are now comparatively rare, and this 
 is chiefly due, no doubt, to the increase of the starling; but smaller 
 insects, not so conspicuous to the ordinary observer, have suffered 
 equally. In this way it is certain that the insect-life of the streams 
 has been greatly reduced; while the trout ate the larvae, the birds fed 
 largely on the mature insects. In 1870 crayfish (Paranephrops) 
 abounded in nearly every stream; and I could collect quantities of 
 shrimps (Xiphocaris curvirostris) and amphiphods (Paracalliope fluvia- 
 tilis). The crayfish are now rare, and the other Crustacea are scarcely 
 to be found in any stream into which trout have been placed. One 
 of the problems which now faces those interested in keeping the 
 lakes and streams stocked with well-grown trout is that of finding and 
 maintaining a suitable food supply. The cultivation of suitable aquatic 
 plants (Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, etc.), and of insects, mollusca 
 and Crustacea, will be as much the work of a hatchery as the hatching 
 and rearing of the fish themselves. 
 
 Mottram states that in New Zealand, on one occasion, the stomach 
 of a fish (Salmo fario) was filled with Spirogyra, Link; subsequently 
 it was proved that the fish took the weed in order at the same time 
 to capture a small Trichopterous larva. The yellow bloom of the 
 furze, Ulex europeetis. Linn., was also taken on account of a small 
 grub, probably one of the Tineina. 
 
 On March 30, 1911, on Lake Okeraka, New Zealand, the stomach 
 contents of a trout were four grasshoppers, two cicadas, and three short 
 pieces of stick of about the same length and thickness as the grass- 
 hoppers. 
 
 This is stated to show that the fish mistakes these things for the insects 
 on which it is feeding at the time.
 
 TELEOSTEI 217 
 
 In the appendix to his work on New Zealand Neuroptera (pub- 
 lished in 1904), Mr G. V. Hudson gives several tables showing the 
 contents of the stomachs of trout. Their principal food appears to 
 be caddis- worms. 
 
 Another interesting fact he brings out is that the larvae of the 
 larger species of dragon-flies destroy considerable numbers of very 
 young trout-fry. 
 
 Mr W. Arthur has investigated the rate of growth more fully 
 and carefully than any other New Zealand writer on the brown trout. 
 He states that the average growth in all Otago streams between 1878 
 and 1883 was 1-53 Ib. per annum. The lowest recorded was in the 
 Otaria 0-751 Ib., and the highest is Lake Hayes, 3-5 Ib. 
 
 The first fish in the Shag River were liberated in 1868, and the first taken 
 were in 1874; a male weighed 14 Ibs., and a female i6| Ibs., representing 
 an average annual growth of 2^ and 2 Ibs. respectively. In the Leith the 
 average increase at first was i| Ibs. per annum; in the Lee Stream i Ib.; 
 in Deep Stream i| Ibs.; and in the Upper Taieri i Ib. These were not marked 
 fish, and the average is based on the assumption that they were among 
 the first fish liberated. In the Shag and the Leith there were great numbers 
 of smelts found in addition to what occurred in the other streams. 
 
 The other three are inland streams, mostly running in rocky gorges. 
 
 In the Avon and Cust Rivers in Canterbury the average yearly 
 growth at first was if Ib. 
 
 Apparently in the large lakes of both islands the growth was much 
 more rapid, but the records were not carefully enough kept to be 
 quite trustworthy. Thus Mr A. J. lies states that the largest brown 
 trout taken out of Lake Rotorua weighed 27^ Ib., "and was netted 
 about eighteen years ago, some four or five years after the brown 
 trout were first liberated." There is good reason to believe that the 
 rate of growth in the early years of stocking was phenomenal, but 
 the record is not definite enough to be accepted. 
 
 Mr W. Arthur points out, however, that similar rapid growths 
 have been recorded elsewhere, and gives this example : 
 
 Mr J. V. Harvie-Brown, of Dunipace, stocked a loch in the north of 
 Scotland, which had no trout in it at all. In two years they multiplied and 
 attained a weight of 4! Ibs. So soon, however, as the number exceeded the 
 food supply, or in two years, they fell off in condition, colour, etc., and 
 latterly were not worth catching. Like cases have occurred elsewhere at 
 home. 
 
 Size of Brown Trout. Anglers are notorious for the extent to 
 which their scales and yard measures stretch when they are recording 
 their catches. But acclimatisation societies and anglers' clubs usually 
 keep pretty accurate records. It is therefore surprising and amusing
 
 218 FISHES 
 
 to read the following paragraph from the i8th Annual Report (1883) 
 of the Otago Society, where certain fish are reported (the italics are 
 mine) : 
 
 One taken at Lake Hayes, said to have been 60 Ibs. in weight ; two seen in 
 the Clutha River, below the mouth of the Lindis, estimated at 80 Ibs. each 
 by Sergeant McLeod; and one from the Mararoa, which weighed 42 Ibs. 
 As no Salmo fario over 30 Ibs. seems ever to have been taken in English 
 waters, the above weights must be received with caution. 
 
 As one friend suggests, apparently fish grow much faster out of 
 water than in it. 
 
 The biggest trout are found in the lakes and in the sea; Lakes 
 Wakatipu, Wanaka and Hawea have yielded many fish up to 25 Ib. 
 in weight, and trout of 20 Ib. weight and upwards are abundant in 
 the sea, but are very difficult to catch. They are, however, occasionally 
 taken in moki nets. The prohibition against taking, having in posses- 
 sion, or selling trout without a special licence, prevents any accurate 
 record from being kept of these big sea-fish. It does not pay fishermen 
 to take out a licence, because the catch is too erratic, but the fish 
 are constantly taken both in set nets and seines, and they are nearly 
 always so injured about the gills that if thrown back into the sea, 
 as the law demands, they are almost certain to perish. Therefore a 
 great number of them are taken, hidden, and sold surreptitiously, 
 not as trout, however, but as "canaries." I do not know how this 
 popular term has arisen, but it is in common use. A law which 
 tempts men to do illegal actions is a bad law, and should be swept out 
 of existence. Other means must be devised to protect the streams 
 from being depleted of fish, such, for instance, as prohibiting seining 
 altogether in certain areas. 
 
 The following records of actual catches of brown trout are taken 
 from the lists annually published by the Otago Society. 
 
 Waipahi River 
 
 J. P. Maitland 
 
 9 fish 
 
 34 
 
 Ib. 
 
 Nov. nth 
 
 ,1885 
 
 W. Carlton 
 Geo. Steel 
 
 17 > 
 6 , 
 
 t ...- 
 
 28 
 
 " I 
 
 Nov. 8th, 
 
 1889 
 
 D. A. Purvis 
 J. Nelson 
 
 17 , 
 
 17 , 
 
 ; 
 
 38 
 35 
 
 ::} 
 
 1896 
 
 
 Many fine baskets got up 
 
 to 
 
 40 
 
 ,, 
 
 1896 
 
 
 These were nearly all got with bare fly. The reports for 1890-92 
 state that : 
 
 The Waipahi still holds the premier position as a fly stream. It is now 
 yearly attracting the attention of tourists from England, Victoria and the 
 North Island.
 
 TELEOSTEI 219 
 
 Pomahaka River 
 
 C. Williams on five trips took 139^ Ib. | 
 Wm. Fraser one day (18 fish) 53 } 1890 
 T. E. Brown 6 hrs (12 fish) 52 j 
 
 The Pomahaka gives, perhaps, a better day's sport with the minnow 
 than any other river in our district, baskets of 50 to 60 Ibs. have been taken 
 in one day by Dunedin anglers. 
 
 Records for 1890-91 
 
 Clutha River (above Cromwell) : one rod took 90 Ibs. in one evening. 
 
 Mimihau and Otaria Rivers: baskets from 30 to 40 Ibs. frequently. 
 
 M. Lowriethis season in the Mimihau took 241 fish averaging 3 Ibs. each. 
 
 The Upper Mataura is now splendidly stocked, and baskets of 30 to 
 40 Ibs. can easily be obtained on a good day, fishing with the natural cricket 
 and grasshopper as a lure. 
 
 H. Schluter, fishing at the mouth of the Waitaki, in Oct., 1888, took 
 three fish weighing 69! Ibs. 
 
 The Waitaki Society reported in 1890 that at Waitaki North (in 
 one day?) 169 fish were taken weighing 1123 Ib. or 6f Ib. each; the 
 heaviest were, one of 14 Ib., one of 13 Ib., two of 12 Ib., four of 1 1 Ib., 
 and eight of 10 Ib. The smallest fish taken weighed 3 Ib. The best 
 baskets were two of eight fish weighing 60 Ib. and one of six fish 
 weighing 50 Ib. 
 
 These records only apply to Otago rivers, but similar records are 
 available for other streams all over the areas stocked with brown 
 trout. Thus the largest brown trout taken from Rotorua Lake, ac- 
 cording to Mr A. J. lies, was 27! Ib. ; the largest from Lake Taupo was 
 25! Ib.; but Mr C. P. M. Butterworth states that fish of 29 Ib. have 
 been taken from Lake Taupo. Mr W. P. Cotter tells me (July, 1916) 
 that in Lake Hawea specimens weighing 26 Ib. have been taken, and 
 that though the fish have been in the lake for 25 years, there is no 
 sign of deterioration. 
 
 Mr W. Arthur gives the following interesting facts about this 
 species in New Zealand. The trout spawn (in Otago) from 2Oth June 
 to 4th August, a half-pound fish giving about 400 ova; a seven pound 
 fish about 6000. The eggs hatched out in 78 days. At Opoho during 
 the winter the temperature of the water averaged 42 F.; and in 
 the hatchery from 42 F. to 52 F. The best temperature for 
 hatching is 48 F. The young fry average i| inches long in six 
 weeks, and 3 inches in a hundred days. They carry best when 
 from i to i J inches long. The only variations which he considers 
 the brown trout to have developed in the new country is that the 
 spawning season is about two months later (relatively) than in 
 England, and the duration of hatching about 14 days longer.
 
 220 FISHES 
 
 Mr Dansey tells me that brown trout fry obtained from the 
 Tauranga Society were liberated in Lake Rotorua in 1889, where 
 they multiplied and throve wonderfully in spite of the huge flocks of 
 shags that then infested the Lake, and which were quite capable of 
 swallowing with ease a J-lb. trout, and of the immense numbers 
 caught by the natives in nets at the mouths of streams ; specimens up 
 to 22 Ib. were not at all uncommon. Those caught in the Lake had 
 a muddy flavour ; their principal food appeared to be young cray- 
 fish. 
 
 The shags soon learned how to catch them. From Kawaha Point, on 
 a calm sunny morning, I have watched a mob of over 200 shags away out 
 on the lake, suddenly take wing, light again on the water near the western 
 shore where it is shallow for a considerable distance out. They would 
 spread themselves out in a long line at apparently correct intervals apart 
 and all swim quietly towards the shore, the ends of the line gradually 
 bending inwards. Suddenly, as if by some given signal, the whole line 
 would dive, and every shag reappear with a trout in its beak. These 
 tactics were only undertaken when the sun was at a certain altitude to, 
 I suppose, cast the shadow of the birds at a certain angle on the sandy 
 bottom, and thus drive the fish towards the shore into shallower water. 
 The sight impressed me very much at the time. 
 
 Mr Dansey states that brown trout afford little sport to anglers 
 except in unpleasant weather. He further adds that : 
 
 Brown trout are now only occasionally seen or caught in the Rotorua 
 Lake. They commenced to disappear after the introduction of the Rainbow. 
 Some ascribe this disappearance to the fact that the two species spawn at a 
 different time; for the Rainbow, being a much stronger and more active 
 fish, disturbed the Brown when thus engaged, and the ova failed to be 
 fertilised. I have never seen a cross between a Brown and a Rainbow 
 Trout ; but I have between a Brown and a Fontinalis, with the red spots 
 enlarged to the size of a threepenny piece 1 . 
 
 1 The relative merits of different kinds of trout for inland waters are thus 
 recorded by Ernest Phillips in Trout in Lakes and Reservoirs (p. 36). " I have a 
 record of a reservoir in which 6000 fish were put down, all two years old. There 
 were 2000 brown, 2000 Levens, and 2000 rainbows. The next season we started 
 fishing, knowing there were 6000 trout to go at. The season's catch was 450 brown 
 trout, 301 Loch Levens, and only 85 rainbows. The brown trout and the Levens 
 were much alike, many of them up to r Ib. each, and a few over, but all the rainbows 
 were i Ib., several reached 2 Ibs., and a few were actually z\ Ibs. It will be seen, 
 therefore, that the brown trout provided the best and the most consistent sport. 
 Rainbows gave the heaviest fish, but they were erratic and disappointing. They 
 would be on the feed for a day or two and then vanish from view, and it was no 
 uncommon experience for a whole week to elapse and not a single rainbow be 
 returned to the keeper's list, though fifty or more of the other two varieties were 
 caught in the same length of time. As for Loch Levens, I believe it is a fact that 
 they do not grow to as great a weight as brown trout or rainbows, and that a fish 
 of 4 to 5 Ibs. is a monster. At any rate, searching through another keeper's book 
 and taking a period of five years to allow for good and bad seasons, I find that only 
 60 Levens were killed over 2 Ibs. as against 225 brown trout, and 74 rainbows."
 
 TELEOSTEI 221 
 
 *Lochleven Trout (Salmo fario, var. levenensis) 
 
 It is perhaps owing to its isolation, and consequent in-breeding 
 in a small Scotch lake, that this variety of Salmo fario is a more 
 delicate fish, and more difficult to transport than the common and 
 dominant variety. This characteristic seems in some respects to have 
 been overcome in fish reared in New Zealand, but it was apparently 
 in evidence in the case of ova brought from Scotland. 
 
 In 1882 a shipment of ova was made by Sir James Maitland on 
 behalf of the Otago Society, but they were all dead on arrival in 
 Melbourne. A second shipment in the following year from the same 
 source shared the same fate. A third attempt made in December, 
 1883, was more successful, and the ova were divided between the 
 Otago and Wellington Societies, 1700 fry being hatched out at Opoho 
 Ponds, and about 800 at Masterton. Both societies distributed a 
 portion of their stock, and kept a portion in their ponds for breeding. 
 From these, great numbers of fry have been distributed right 
 throughout the South Island, and in the North Island from Wel- 
 lington to Mt Egmont. 
 
 In 1887 the 'Tongariro' brought 40,000 ova, half of which went 
 to the Wellington Society and the rest to Canterbury. The former lot 
 hatched out about 15,000 fry, and the latter less than 10,000. In 1889 
 a further lot of 27,000 ova arrived by the 'Aorangi' in Wellington. 
 
 Altogether nearly 700,000 fry of this species have been distributed 
 throughout New Zealand, of which over 470,000 came from the 
 Otago Society. 
 
 * Scotch Burn Trout (Salmo fario, var. samardit) 
 
 In 1885 the Otago Society received 15,000 ova from Scotland, 
 from which only 1700 fry were hatched out. The mortality among 
 these was so great that there were only 490 survivors at the end of 
 the year. Fifty of these were sent to Mr Pillans of the Lower Clutha, 
 and 40 to A. M. Johnson of Opawa. The rest were retained in the 
 ponds. Fifty more were distributed in 1886, and the balance were 
 kept for breeding purposes; 700 fry being liberated in 1887, and 
 14,300 in 1888-89. The number annually distributed rose to 154,000 
 in 1897-98, but has varied from 50,000 to 120,000 in subsequent 
 years. The total number of fish distributed from the Otago Ponds 
 to the end of season 1919 Qist March) has been over 2,000,000. The 
 Southland and Canterbury Societies have reared and liberated a few 
 thousand; as did the Wellington Society till about 1898, since when 
 they seem to have devoted all their attention to rainbow and brown 
 trout.
 
 222 FISHES 
 
 *Lake Blagdon Trout (Salmo fario, var.) 
 
 This fish is only a brown trout, and it is questionable even if 
 it is varietally different from the common form of Salmo fario. Lake 
 Blagdon is an artificial reservoir in the heart of Somersetshire, 
 England, which supplies Bristol with water. It was stocked originally 
 with brown, Lochleven and rainbow trout, and more of the latter 
 have been taken in the lake than any of the others. The fish grew 
 at a phenomenal rate, and in 1904 the reservoir sprung into celebrity 
 among trout fishers in Britain owing to the size of the fish which were 
 taken, the average weight for that year being 5 Ib. 6 ozs. each. 
 Individual fish were taken up to 8 and 9 Ib. each. (Though not stated, 
 it is probable that the great average weight was raised by the rainbows, 
 which grew more rapidly than the others.) The reputation of these 
 fish drew anglers to the lake from all parts of the kingdom, so that 
 the waters were very heavily fished, and the average weight fell. 
 But the record still remains unbeaten by any other water in Britain. 
 The Otago Society introduced ova of the brown trout from Lake 
 Blagdon some years ago, and began to liberate fry and yearlings in 
 1908. Since then up to 1920 they have liberated altogether some 
 950,000 fish in Otago waters. 
 
 Alpine Char (Salmo (Salvelinus) alpinus) 
 
 Among the many kinds of fish which Mr A.M. Johnson of Opawa 
 attempted to bring out to New Zealand in 1864, were a number of 
 char. He does not indicate the species," except that the fish were 
 European, and not the American Salmo fontinalis. They therefore 
 almost certainly were alpine char, which were obtainable at various 
 ponds in England at the time of shipment. Mr Johnson lost nearly 
 all his fish from lead-poisoning, due to the carelessness of one of the 
 sailors. 
 
 In 1887 a shipment of 25,000 ova was brought to Wellington by 
 the 'Tongariro,' but (as is stated at p. 211) it was mixed up with two 
 other lots of ova, and none of the trays was labelled. The shipment 
 was also in very bad condition, smelling offensively, and with a 
 large number of the ova dead. All the eggs supposed to be of this 
 species were handed over to the Wellington Society. Rutherford 
 wrote on 3ist May, 1887: "the small white ova, supposed to be 
 Alpine Char, were in a very bad condition, and only about twenty 
 sickly fish hatched out, three of which are still alive." Mr Ayson, 
 Inspector of Fisheries, who was then in charge of the Wellington 
 Society's ponds, says: "The few fish which were hatched at the 
 Masterton Hatchery were put into one of the deepest, coldest ponds, 
 but they did not thrive well and died off within twelve months."
 
 TELEOSTEI 223 
 
 German Lake Trout (Salmo (Salvelinus) umbld) 
 In 1868 the Otago Society received 6000 eggs of this species by 
 the ' Celestial Queen.' These were taken to the ponds at Opoho and 
 hatched out there, but I cannot trace their subsequent history. This 
 is the "Ombre chevalier" of the Swiss lakes. 
 
 * American Brook Trout or Char (Salmo (Salvelinus) fontinalis) 
 
 Mr A. M. Johnson of Opawa, who came out to Christchurch 
 in 1864, claimed that the first Salmo fontinalis were brought out at 
 his expense. I have no means of verifying the accuracy of this state- 
 ment, but he certainly received a considerable stock of eggs from 
 New York (via San Francisco) in March, 1877. From these a large 
 stock of fish was obtained, and they were sold to many parts of the 
 colony. Thus, in 1883, the Canterbury Society purchased 100 fry 
 from him. In 1884 the Auckland Society obtained a small lot from 
 him, and liberated them at Western Springs; and in 1885 the Otago 
 Society got 50 fry, which were kept in their ponds and were reported 
 to be doing well. 
 
 In 1877 the Auckland Society received 5000 ova from Mr T. 
 Russell of San Francisco. From these 400 fry were hatched out, of 
 which half were liberated in a tributary of the Waikato near 
 Cambridge ; and half in the Kaukapakapa stream, Kaipara. 
 
 In 1880 the Wellington Society placed 250 fry in a tributary of 
 the Hutt River, but there is no record as to where they came from. 
 In 1 88 1 they liberated a further lot of 220 in the same stream and these 
 were obtained from Christchurch presumably from Mr Johnson. In 
 the same year they placed 900 fry in the Makara and Ohariu streams. 
 
 In 1883 the Canterbury Society received 25,000 ova in January 
 from Mr R. J. Creighton of San Francisco, and in February a second 
 lot of 10,000. Unfortunately all the eggs in both shipments were dead. 
 
 In 1884 the Auckland Society received 30,000 ova from San 
 Francisco, but again all were dead. 
 
 In 1887 the 'Kaikoura' brought 30,000 ova from the Solway 
 Fisheries to Wellington, but only about 4000 arrived in good con- 
 dition, for they travelled in the cool chamber and not in one of the 
 insulated cases. About 2500 healthy fry resulted, of which between 
 500 and 600 were retained at the hatchery at Masterton, and the rest 
 were distributed in various streams. 
 
 These appear to be all the direct shipments received from home 
 or America; the other societies obtained their supplies from Christ- 
 church chiefly. 
 
 Thus in 1885 the Otago Society received 400 young fry from the 
 Canterbury Society. These were placed in the boxes at Opoho, but
 
 224 FISHES 
 
 serious mortality set in, and at the end of two days only 20 
 survived. The stock in the ponds increased however and spawned, 
 for in 1886 1400 fry were turned out, in 1887 over 18,000, and the 
 numbers went on increasing. The Society still liberate several 
 thousand each year, and from the date of their first introduction till 
 3ist March, 1915, have sent out to many streams in Otago about 
 800,000 fish. In the Otago Daily Times of loth June, 1891, the fol- 
 lowing statement appeared : 
 
 The fish at Opoho and Clinton are attacked by a disease, which Dr Scott 
 (Professor of Anatomy in Otago University) considered closely corresponded 
 with cancer in mammals. Mr Deans stated that while confined to Salmo 
 fontinalis in the Otago Society's ponds, it was similar to one which attacked 
 the Rhine trout in the Wairarapa ponds. Dr Scott said it was a fatal 
 and malignant spreading tumour in the throat. 
 
 In 1887 the Southland Society received ova or fry, presumably 
 from Christchurch, and for a few years turned out a few thousand 
 in the Oreti and various tributary streams. Altogether only some 
 33,000 fry have been liberated in Southland. 
 
 The Taranaki Society also got ova from Canterbury in 1887 and 
 liberated 600 young fish in one or two streams. 
 
 The Canterbury Society up to 1915 had liberated about 175,000 
 young fish. The Wellington Society up to 1899 had liberated about 
 700,000. 
 
 Salmo fontinalis has not thriven as was expected by those who 
 introduced it, for it is a smaller species than most of the others and is 
 not able to compete against them. 
 
 Mr Stevens of the Clinton Hatchery tells me that there are a 
 number of small streams in Central Otago in which this species 
 thrives, but there are no brown trout among them. He says: 
 
 I have liberated thousands of these fish both fry and yearlings but 
 seldom hear of any being caught by anglers. I have no hesitation in saying 
 the tendency is for these fish to disappear from streams already stocked 
 with Brown Trout. 
 
 In the upper waters of the Hedgehope stream which rises in Bushy 
 Park Station in Southland this species is found in abundance, but 
 it is in sole possession. It is also found in a small stream called the 
 Back Creek on the east side of the Blue Mountains in Otago. 
 
 The Hawera Society liberated 5000 fish in their district in 1890, 
 but resolved in the following year to get no more, but to devote 
 their attention to brown and rainbow trout. 
 
 A small number were liberated in the Rotorua district in 1890. 
 In the Horohoro stream, a small tributary of the Waikato, they did 
 so well that in about five years they afforded capital sport, many
 
 TELEOSTEI 225 
 
 fish of 4 Ib. and even 5 Ib. in weight being secured with the minnow. 
 Unfortunately some years later a flood of exceptional severity swept 
 everything before it down the valley of the Horohoro, including nearly 
 all the trout, and so few were subsequently caught or seen, that in 
 1899 the stream was restocked with rainbow trout by Mr Dansey. 
 Mr Wilfred Howell of Cave, near Timaru, sends me the following 
 interesting facts about S.fontinalis in South Canterbury (Aug. 1916). 
 
 This fish was turned out in the Pareora a good many years ago. In this 
 river there is a dam for the Timaru water-works, which it is impossible 
 for fish to climb, as there is no fish-ladder. Fontinalis were, as far as I 
 know, turned in both above and below this dam. Below the dam, with 
 the exception of three holes just above the falls, there is no sign of these 
 fish. The habit of the fish is apparently to go up stream as far as they can 
 go. At the head waters, up the hills, all the bush creeks are full of them. 
 In fact all streams running into the Pareora have them after they reach 
 the bush. I have caught them up to 3 Ibs. weight, but they mostly run 
 about 8 or 9 inches. They also occur in the Hinds river about thirty 
 or forty miles above Ashburton, but also only in the head-water creeks, 
 and only when there is plenty of cover. In my opinion these fish will not 
 spread on account of their habit of always climbing up stream. 
 
 I am of opinion that they occasionally cross with the Brown Trout; 
 I have caught fish that gave me the impression that they were certainly 
 hybrids. 
 
 As far as sport is concerned I think that Fontinalis are a failure; they 
 are too easily caught. They will take almost anything from a red leaf 
 pulled through the water to a minnow. They will take meat, part of 
 another fish's gill, and any fly with much red hackle on it. When hooked 
 they have only one good run in them, and then you can pull them wherever 
 you want them. 
 
 1 In the Bulletin of the U.S. Fish Commission for 1887 (vol. vn), in a paper 
 on "American Fish cultivated by the National Fish Culture Association of England," 
 by W. Oldham Chambers, the following statement is made regarding this species: 
 " It is with reluctance that we omit from this list the American brook trout, Salmo 
 Jontinalis, which has had an excellent chance of asserting its qualifications for 
 introduction into our group of Salmonidce, but has failed to do so, except in confined 
 waters. Its first appearance in this country was heralded with jubilant anticipations ; 
 its capacities for rapid growth were hailed as a good omen, and its gorgeous dress 
 and graceful form won golden opinions from all piscatorial classes, who willingly 
 paid large sums of money for what was then considered the coming trout. Gradually, 
 however, its true character appeared, and now it is universally regarded as a fish 
 not to be depended upon. No authority rebuts the evidence forthcoming as to 
 its suitability to British waters, if inclosed, nor as to its value as an addition to our 
 fresh-water fish. The sole cause, and a very grave cause it is, for its denunciation 
 is that it escapes from those places where it is turned in. Before finally discarding 
 this unique char it behoves us to question more closely than we have yet done its 
 habits, instincts, and the nature of its native home, in order to render it full justice. 
 Probably the waters in which it has been placed have not been suitable, and this 
 assumption certainly seems justified by the fact of the fish wandering as it does. 
 The question naturally arises as to where it goes. Does it find suitable places in 
 its wanderings ? Does it descend to the sea, or does it pine and perish for lack of 
 natural conditions ? If death explains the mystery, which is hardly likely, we have 
 at once a solution ; but if not, it is difficult to say what has become of the thousands
 
 226 FISHES 
 
 Mr C. J. Peters also states that this species was liberated in streams 
 in the Mount Somers district about 1880, where they throve remark- 
 ably, and all the creeks are at the present time well stocked with them. 
 
 * Rainbow Trout (Salmo (Salvelinus) irideus) 
 
 In 1883 the Auckland Society introduced a quantity of ova from 
 which about 4000 fry were hatched out. These were distributed in 
 four streams in the neighbourhood of Auckland. 
 
 In 1884 another and larger importation was made. According to 
 Mr Cheeseman this shipment was referred to as American brook 
 trout, and the name was kept up in the two subsequent reports. It 
 was not till 1886-87 that it received its proper name. Mr Cheeseman 
 states (Aug. 1915) "I believe that the whole of the wild stock of 
 Rainbow Trout in New Zealand has been derived from the Auckland 
 Society's introductions." 
 
 The Auckland Society have liberated many millions of fish but 
 their annual reports do not enable one to ascertain with any approxima- 
 tion to accuracy the total number. It probably exceeds 10,000,000. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received ova from Auckland in 1 885 , and of 
 the fry reared, distributed some and retained others as breeding stock. 
 Up to 1915 they had liberated in various streams about i ,200,000 fish. 
 
 The Wellington Society got a number of young fish from Auckland 
 in 1891 ; many of these were deformed. Some 900 of them were 
 placed in a rearing-box into which a large eel managed to find its 
 way, and only left 12 alive when it was discovered. In the following 
 year a number more were obtained, and distribution of the fish 
 throughout the provincial district was commenced, and carried on 
 vigorously for nearly 12 years, rearing in the ponds being discon- 
 tinued in 1905. This was owing to a disease 1 of the gills which 
 attacked the breeding stock in 1903, and increased to such an extent 
 as to discourage the authorities from breeding any more. Mean- 
 while the Society had liberated nearly 2,800,000 fish. 
 
 In 1895 tne Otego Society received from the Wellington Society 
 5000 ova which hatched out only moderately well on account of being 
 obtained from immature fish. Ultimately 1500 were liberated in the 
 Waipahi, and 400 retained for breeding purposes. During the last 
 20 years they have liberated over 500,000 fish. Among other localities 
 Lake Hawea is particularly well stocked with them. 
 
 turned out into our English streams. In America the brook trout is regarded as 
 a home-loving species therefore it seems somewhat likely that we have not yet 
 provided the domestic comforts to which it is habituated. The suggestion, at least, 
 is worth studying, and the Association still has these fish under culture, not being 
 convinced of their unsuitability for inclosed waters." 
 
 1 Mr Deans of the Opoho Hatchery, Dunedin, considered that this was similar 
 to the cancer which attacked Salmo fontinalis in the Otago Society's ponds.
 
 TELEOSTEI 227 
 
 The Southland Society began to liberate fry in 1900, but appear 
 to have discontinued in 1904, after some 40,000 fish had been liberated, 
 mostly in the Makarewa. 
 
 The Hawke's Bay Society began distributing fry in 1900, and 
 liberated up to 1915 about 750,000 fish. 
 
 The Westland Society, which liberated altogether over 500,000 
 fish, in 1907 declined an offer of eggs from the Tourist Department 
 " on account of rainbow trout failing to do well in this district." 
 
 Some of my informants have stated that this species cannot hold 
 its own against the brown trout, for A. J. Rutherford who knows the 
 North Island trout streams very well, says (in 1901): "the only 
 stream I know which is well-stocked is the Tahuna-atara stream 
 between Rotorua and Taupo, which is full of them, and contains 
 no brown trout." 
 
 The President of the Southland Society states : 
 
 there is only one authenticated case of a rainbow trout having been found 
 (in Southland), and that was in a poor starved condition. Fishermen 
 attribute the destruction of these fish to the brown trout. 
 
 Mr A. C. Henderson, Hon. Sec. of the Waimarino Society, reports 
 (1915) that about 1900, two settlers, Messrs Nathan and Robertson, 
 turned out a number of brown trout in the Makotuku stream but 
 reported them as all dead. In 1903, however, some fairly large fish 
 were found to be in the stream, and they have increased steadily since : 
 
 At first this increase of brown trout was viewed with satisfaction and the 
 Society went on liberating both rainbow and brown trout until 1908, 
 when it became evident that in the streams thus stocked, the rainbow 
 trout gradually disappeared and the brown trout increased. Profiting by 
 this experience the Society does not now liberate rainbows in the same 
 stream where there are brown trout. The southern streams of the district, 
 with one exception, have been given over to brown trout. 
 
 The opposite opinion is held by Mr Bell of Hawera, who informs 
 me that rainbow trout dominate and are too strong for brown trout. 
 The former go up the streams and occupy the head waters, while 
 at the river mouths, brown trout chiefly are found. 
 
 Mr C. P. M. Butterworth states that in the Tongariro River which 
 runs into Lake Taupo, he has caught only brown trout in a certain 
 pool, when the river was in flood and muddy, and the very next 
 day in the same pool, when the water was clear, has taken only rain- 
 bows. He is of opinion that the rainbow prefer the lake and only 
 move up stream on the approach of the spawning season. They give 
 very much better sport than the brown trout. 
 
 In many Otago streams both brown and rainbow trout will be 
 taken in the same stream in the same day. In Lake Hawea the same 
 
 152
 
 228 FISHES 
 
 thing happens. This is the evidence of Mr Mclntosh, President of 
 the Otago Society (in 1916); but against this Mr Steven, Curator of 
 the Clinton Hatchery, states (i 2th June, 1916) : " I know of no stream in 
 the South Island in which brown and rainbow Trout thrive together." 
 
 On the other hand Mr W. P. Cotter informs me that in Lake 
 Hawea both brown and rainbow trout have been taken in the same 
 net and are known to favour the same creeks and spawning grounds. 
 
 In netting for trout in Lake Hawea in July (1916) only brown trout 
 were taken in the lake itself, 150 fish in one haul. But in a trap set 
 in Timaru Creekwhich runs into the lake, ten rainbowswere captured. 
 
 Mr J. King of Hokitika says that rainbows are difficult to keep in 
 confinement after two years of age, as they are exceptionally liable 
 to gill-disease. 
 
 Mr Dansey, who was largely responsible for stocking Lake Rotorua 
 with this species, distributed most of the fry as soon as they were 
 free of the yolk sac, as they carried better and stood more knocking 
 about and in greater numbers at that stage than at any other. 
 
 Size of fish and rate of growth. Mr lies states that the largest 
 fish taken out of Lake Taupo weighed 21 Ib. and that they are 
 frequently netted up to 20 Ib. 
 
 Mr W. P. Cotter informs me that in Lake Hawea, fry were first 
 liberated about November, 1911, and that in less than two years 
 later rainbow trout of 10 Ib. weight were taken in nets set along the 
 shallow beaches. He adds: 
 
 The fact of trout of this weight having been secured caused a discussion 
 as to whether they had entered the lake from the sea, as it was not considered 
 possible that such growth could be attained in the time mentioned. Against 
 this theory it is merely necessary to state that, roughly speaking the lake 
 is nearly 200 miles away from the sea, the winding Molyneux the only 
 connecting link, that no rainbow trout had been netted in previous years, 
 and that in practically virgin waters for one particular species trout might 
 thrive for a brief space beyond the expectations of the most sanguine. 
 
 The following appeared in the Dunedin Evening Star in Aug. 1913 : 
 A 13 Ib. male rainbow trout, suicidally trapped at Lake Hawea during 
 ova-stripping, has been sent to the Otago Acclimatisation Society and will 
 be stuffed and placed among the office trophies. The rainbow trout, as 
 fry an inch long, were put into Hawea five years ago, and the finding 
 of such a well-grown and healthy specimen is proof that the fish are getting 
 good food and thriving in this lake. Up North the rainbow is reckoned a 
 splendid sporting fish, and the flesh is excellent eating. 
 
 Mr A. C. Henderson states that "in one virgin stream (in the 
 Waimarino district) we liberated 200 fry, and two years afterwards 
 the average fish taken was 3 Ibs. in weight." Mr C. P. M. 
 Butterworth informs me that fry hatched in 1914 were liberated in
 
 TELEOSTEI 229 
 
 Lake Onslow, a large artificial lake or dam near Roxburgh, in the 
 following year. In 1916 one was caught which weighed 3 Ib. 14 oz. 
 There is reason to believe that the growth in the larger lakes at the 
 beginning of stocking was much more rapid. Mr Dansey states that 
 some caught in the Waikato River weighed from 7 to 8 Ib. within four 
 years from the liberation of the fry 1 . 
 
 Speaking of rainbow trout in South Canterbury, Mr Wilfred 
 Howell says: 
 
 In the rivers they are not doing much good, as they seem to go down to 
 the sea soon after being turned in, and no big fish ever come into the rivers 
 from the sea. In the lakes, however, especially Lake Alexandrina in the 
 MacKenzie country, they are doing very well indeed. Some were put 
 in there five years ago as yearlings, and last month (July, 1916) three were 
 caught, the largest 17 Ibs., the smallest 14 Ibs. 
 
 The increase of these fish in the inland lakes of the North Island 
 was so great that in 1913 the Government decided to take over the 
 administration of the inland fisheries, and, in co-operation with the 
 acclimatisation societies throughout the dominion, to endeavour to 
 improve the condition of affairs. In Rotorua and Taupo the fish had 
 deteriorated greatly, and measures were at once taken to reduce the 
 number in the lakes. This was done in Rotorua by means of barriers 
 in two of the largest rivers, and by netting traps and drag-nets in 
 other streams. In Taupo all were taken by means of traps and nets. 
 
 For the three years ending 3ist May, 1916, the total number of 
 ill-conditioned fish taken and destroyed was as follows: 
 
 1913-14 1914-15 191516 Totals 
 
 Number Tons Number Tons Number Tons Number Tons 
 Rotorua 18,271 19-3 14,941 20-7 25,243 22-5 58,455 62-5 
 Taupo 2,830 4-6 12,779 2 7' 15.674 27-9 31,283 59-6 
 
 The total number of good fish taken out and sold for the same 
 period amounts to the following: 
 
 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 Totals 
 
 Number Tons Number Tons Number Tons Number Tons 
 Rotorua 25,851 15-9 28,460 18-2 35,464 20-5 89,775 54-6 
 Taupo 6,243 "-o n,574 22'3 l6 ,i37 22-5 33,954 55-8 
 
 1 Ernest Phillips, author of Trout in Lakes and Reservoirs, says (p. 37) : " Rainbows 
 are no use at all for rivers. They disappear down to the sea very soon after they 
 have been liberated. It might be thought that the Rainbow would find it hard to 
 exercise this faculty for getting away from lakes and reservoirs and ponds, but it 
 is apparently just as easy for a stock of Rainbows to disappear from a fenced and 
 walled-in reservoir as it is from an open river. Until this was discovered there 
 had been a great run on Rainbow trout, and thousands upon thousands had been 
 turned down in municipal reservoirs. But when reservoirs had been stocked with 
 countless numbers, and, after two or three years they were drained and found to 
 be empty, a reaction set in." 

 
 230 FISHES 
 
 The marketable value of these fish for the three years named was 
 1865, 1513, 1217. 
 
 So that out of those two lakes there have been taken in these 
 three years 213,467 fish weighing 23 2| tons. 
 
 To still further keep up the fisheries and to renew the stock 
 already in the lakes the Rotorua Hatchery has sold or distributed 
 within recent years, 3,330,000 ova and 1,896,000 fry. 
 
 With the object of improving the condition of the fish some 250,000 
 native shrimps (Xiphocaris curvirostris) were caught in the Waikato 
 River in 1908, and were liberated at suitable places in the lakes. In 
 1909 another 185,000 were liberated, and another large quantity in 
 1912. Since the Department of Internal Affairs took charge of the 
 fisheries, 280,000 shrimps have been brought from the Waikato and 
 placed in Lake Rotorua, and a further 110,000 in Lake Taupo; all 
 in sheltered places. I question very much whether this expensive 
 mode of feeding the trout has any permanent value. If the shrimps 
 are placed in waters to which trout have no access, but from which 
 they can escape into the trout-frequented areas, then they might form 
 a permanent food supply. Otherwise they will simply be eaten up as 
 quickly as they are liberated. Some more scientific method of feeding 
 and of conserving the food supply should be adopted. 
 
 Mr C. Chitty of Cambridge (according to Mr Jas. Drummond, 
 Aug. 1914) says that in the Waikato, the native grayling used to ascend 
 the river in thousands every spring. They were not seen after 1875, 
 though the mullet continued to ascend. He blames the rainbow trout, 
 but as a matter of fact these fish were not introduced into the Auckland 
 district before 1883. 
 
 * Mackinaw Trout; Great American Lake Trout 
 (Salmo (Cristivomer) Namaycush) 
 
 In 1906 Mr L. F. Ayson at the request of the Tourist Depart- 
 ment brought a case of eggs of this species from America. They 
 were hatched out at the Christchurch Society's Hatchery, and 4000 
 fry were liberated in Lakes Pearson and Grassmere. Another lot of 
 4000 were taken over to the west coast, with the intention of placing 
 them in Lake Kanieri, but Mr Jas. King of Hokitika reports (July, 
 1916), that owing to the carelessness of the curator then in charge 
 of the hatchery they were all lost. Those in the Canterbury lakes have 
 been caught by anglers during the last two or three years. Mr E. F. 
 Stead, writing in April, 1916, says: 
 
 The Mackinaw Trout are apparently thriving in Lake Pearson, as several 
 have been caught weighing about 10 Ibs. As the lake is but little fished, 
 this would indicate that there must be a fair number of these fish there.
 
 TELEOSTEI 231 
 
 Lake Tahoe Trout (Salmo clarkii Tahoensis) 
 
 The Auckland Society received 30,000 ova from Mr T. Russell 
 in 1878. About 3000 fry hatched out, but only 1000 survived. Of 
 these, part were placed in Lake Omapere, part in Lake Waikare, 
 and a few in the Onehunga Springs. No one has any knowledge 
 about them to-day ; they do not appear to have established themselves. 
 
 There is some confusion about the identification of this fish and 
 the succeeding species. The name I have given above is that furnished 
 by Mr Ayson, Chief Inspector of Fisheries, who says that it is a 
 species which runs up to 20 or 30 Ib. weight in Lake Tahoe and other 
 lakes in the Sierra Nevada. He adds: "No other result could be 
 expected from these fish when turned out in water like Lakes Omapere 
 and Waikare, and the Onehunga Springs." 
 
 Black-spotted Trout (Salmo henshawii) 
 
 The report of the Auckland Society for 1885-86 states that ova 
 of this species were received from San Francisco, "which were reared 
 to maturity in the Society's ponds, producing fry, some quantity of 
 which was liberated. They either disappeared, or merged with the 
 Rainbow Trout." 
 
 No one seems to have taken the trouble to look after the fish, 
 once it had been successfully introduced. 
 
 * Californian Salmon ; Quinnat Salmon ; King Salmon ; Chinook 
 (Salmo quinnat; Onchorhynchus tschawytscha) 
 
 The quinnat, like the brown trout, has been a great success in 
 acclimatisation work. The species is now thoroughly established on 
 the east coast of the South Island, and its range is being very steadily 
 increased. 
 
 The Hawke's Bay Society was the first to take steps to introduce 
 this fish into New Zealand, and through Dr Spencer F. Baird, Chair- 
 man of the United States Fishery Commission, a shipment was 
 despatched to Napier in 1875. Unfortunately it never reached its 
 destination. The steamship having it on board went direct to Sydney, 
 and failing to obtain a fresh supply of ice there, it was found on the 
 trip to Auckland that the ova had begun to hatch out. To save them 
 from total loss, Mr J. C. Firth took a portion of the eggs and placed 
 them in the Auckland Society's ponds; the result was that out of 
 20,000 ova which arrived, about 10,000 were placed in the Waikato 
 and the upper tributaries of the River Thames. The remainder were 
 placed in the hatching-boxes; about 1450 fry were forwarded to the 
 Thames, Wairoa and Tauranga districts, though the loss, due to the
 
 232 FISHES 
 
 heat of the season, was very great. About 1000 fry were retained in 
 Auckland. 
 
 In 1876 a very large shipment arrived, which included 84,000 
 eggs for the Government, a large parcel (the number not specified) 
 for Auckland, 60,000 for Napier, and a quantity for the Canterbury 
 Society. 
 
 The Government supply was sent to Southland, where Mr Howard 
 reported loth March, 1877: 
 
 The salmon were a most unqualified success; very nearly 18,000 have 
 now been turned out, and about 200 kept for observation. All those turned 
 out have been taken as far as possible up the Oreti, and placed chiefly 
 in the five rivers at Lowther. 
 
 I do not know what was done with the 60,000 ova for Napier, 
 the records appear to have been lost. 
 
 The Auckland Society hatched out about 20,000 fry, of which 
 10,000 were placed in the Waikato, 3000 in the Tuakau, 2000 in the 
 Mahurangi River, and 600 in the Southern Wairoa. A thousand 
 sent to the Whakatane River were lost in transit. Apparently the 
 Wellington Society received 400 fry from this lot (or from Napier), 
 and these were liberated in the Hutt River, seven miles from the mouth. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received 100,000 ova, which it was stated 
 hatched out about 90 per cent. ; but they only distributed some 20,000, 
 which were liberated in the Waimakariri, Hurunui, Rangitata, Little 
 River, Rakaia, Avon and Ashley. 
 
 In 1877 a big order for ova was sent to America, but owing to 
 some bungling between the societies (which were always trying to 
 act independently) and the Government, only n boxes arrived at 
 Auckland, instead of 20 which were expected. Some were retained, 
 and the others distributed to Nelson, Greymouth, Canterbury, 
 Otago and Southland. 
 
 The Auckland Society received 100,000 ova, and distributed them 
 as follows : 40,000 in the Punui River in the King Country, 8000 in 
 the Thames, 7000 in a small stream near Wairoa North, and 43,000 
 in the Mangakahia River. About 95 per cent, were said to have hatched 
 out. But this placing of ova in the rivers was rather a stupid procedure 
 in face of the constant menace from eels and shags. Presumably 
 the Auckland Society did not have proper ponds for dealing with 
 large quantities of eggs. 
 
 The Wellington Society again received some fry, about 1700, in 
 this year, though it is not stated where they came from, and liberated 
 them in the Hutt, in the Manawatu River in the gorge, 35 miles 
 from the sea, in the Wairau, 15 miles up, and in the Wanganui, 
 ten miles from the mouth.
 
 TELEOSTEI 233 
 
 The Nelson Society received 25,000 and placed them in the 
 Motueka and Wairoa Rivers. The Marlborough Society appear to 
 have received 500 fry, but where from, I cannot find. Probably they 
 are the same as are referred to in the preceding paragraph as having 
 been liberated in the Wairau. 
 
 The Grey Society received a box of ova, presumably 25,000 eggs, 
 and these were placed in the Grey River. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received 50,000 ova, and hatched out 
 between 30,000 and 40,000 fry. Of these 10,000 were placed in the 
 Waimakariri, 10,000 in the Rangitata, and smaller lots in the Shag, 
 Hurunui and Heathcote. In 1880 three years later three fish were 
 caught in the Waimakariri, weighing 8 lb., 5^ lb., and 4^ Ib. respec- 
 tively. These were considered by many to be true quinnat salmon, 
 but to make sure it was resolved to get a true quinnat from America 
 either in spirits or in ice. However, with the lack of continuity which 
 characterised so much of the work of the acclimatisation societies, 
 this was never done, and the identification was not made. 
 
 The Otago Society shipment appears to have numbered 50,000, 
 and it hatched out pretty well, for 13,000 fry were liberated in the 
 Kakanui River, and 18,000 in the Waipahi. 
 
 The Southland Society received 100,000 ova, and placed 35,000 
 fry in the Oreti, 18,000 in the Makarewa (a tributary), and 10,000 
 in the Waipahi. Howard stated that the young fish were exceedingly 
 healthy and strong. 
 
 On ist February, 1878, the Colonial Secretary writing to the 
 Governor states: 
 
 the half million salmon ova which arrived in November last have been 
 successfully hatched and distributed to the different rivers of the colony ; 
 and that, owing to the extreme care with which the ova were packed, about 
 95 per cent, hatched out. In addition to the half-million sent at the request 
 of the Government, an equal quantity has been sent to the various 
 Acclimatisation Societies without charge. 
 
 In 1878 the Auckland Society imported 100,000 ova, and these 
 were deposited in the tributaries of the Upper Thames, where numbers 
 of young fry were seen. Those placed in the Thames and in the 
 Waikato in 1876 and 1877 had also been seen, and the report con- 
 cludes that "the full stocking of both these streams is now little more 
 than a question of time." As a matter of fact the fish were never heard 
 of or seen again. 
 
 In 1880 the Wellington Society liberated some 4600 fry in the 
 Hutt River, probably from Auckland ova. 
 
 Nothing further in the way of introducing ova was done for many 
 years. All these early experiments failed, and though an occasional
 
 234 FISHES 
 
 doubtful fish was taken, as recorded below, the species did not succeed 
 anywhere in establishing itself. 
 
 The Canterbury Society's report of 1885 states that a fish found 
 dead in the Avon in February, 1884, was "identified by Dr Bean, 
 Ichthyologist of the Washington Museum, as a Californian Salmon.'* 
 
 In its issue of 2ist August, 1895, the North Otago Times con- 
 gratulates Mr George Dennison of Hilderthorpe, on being the first 
 angler to capture a properly identified true salmon in New Zealand 
 waters. The salmon was taken in the Waitaki River. This paragraph 
 was evidently based on the following correspondence. The Field of 
 20th July contained an account of four fish sent from the Waitaki 
 Acclimatisation Society to the Editor, who passed them on to Dr 
 Giinther and Mr Boulenger Nos. i, 2, and 3 were identified as 
 belonging to Salmofario. Of No. 4 from the Waitaki River they say : 
 "The specimen (length 29 in.; girth 15 in.; weight 9! Ibs.) was a 
 female with well-developed ova; it was not the English Salmo salar, 
 but undoubtedly an American species, but which one has not yet 
 been decided." In The Field of 27th July, Dr Giinther further writes : 
 
 In the editorial note (to previous letter) you assume that one of the 
 specimens sent to you and examined by myself is Salmo quinnat, commonly 
 called " California Salmon." This specimen differs so much from the others 
 of the same consignment, in the form of the head and its component parts, 
 in the shape of the body and tail, as well as in coloration, that I must 
 consider it to have a different origin than the other specimens, which, in 
 fact, I regard as beautifully grown specimens 'of Salmofario. It is certainly 
 not a Salmo salar (as I think I demonstrated to Mr Tegetmeier), neither 
 is it Salmo quinnat, which has a many-rayed anal fin, and is readily recog- 
 nised. Being told that Californian Salmonoids had been introduced into 
 the Waitaki waters, I consider it probable that that specimen might 
 represent one of the numerous species of Salmo of the west coast of America, 
 with which I am very imperfectly acquainted. 
 
 After a lapse of several years, during which no importations were 
 made, the Government took up the matter seriously and a continuous 
 policy was entered on. 
 
 Early in January, 1901 , a shipment of 500,000 quinnat-salmon ova 
 was received from California, a gift from the United States Fish 
 Commission, and of this a portion was sent up to Hakataramea, and 
 the balance to Lake Ohau. In the following year 23,600 yearlings 
 were liberated in tributaries of the Waitaki, and 20,000 retained in 
 the ponds. In 1903 12,000 twenty-months old, and 20,000 twenty- 
 six-months old, were liberated in the Hakataramea River. 
 
 In January, 1904, 300,000 ova were received from the United States 
 as a gift, and 98 per cent, hatched out. But evidently there were 
 far more received, for during the year, 5000 three-and-a-half-year-old
 
 TELEOSTEI 235 
 
 quinnatwere liberated in the Hakataramea, while in 1905 the numbers 
 set free were 448 four-year old, 12,000 one-year old, 224,252 eight- 
 months old, and 162,613 three-months old. In December, 1905, a 
 fish believed to be a salmon was caught in the Waitaki and submitted 
 to Sir James Hector, who said it was a true salmon grilse, probably 
 belonging to Onchorhynchus quinnat, but he was unable to determine 
 the species with certainty at that early stage. 
 
 In 1906 another shipment of 500,000 ova was procured from the 
 United States, Mr L. F. Ayson going to San Francisco for them. 
 Half of these were taken to Lake Ohau, and 245,000 fry hatched out, 
 which were liberated as soon as they absorbed the yolk sac. The other 
 half were equally successful at Hakataramea, 224,833 fry hatching 
 out. In addition to the foregoing there were liberated in the Hakata- 
 ramea River 73 five-year-old, 12,587 two-year-old, and 53,378 one- 
 year-old fish. 
 
 On 6th June, 1906, Sir James Hector received a fish from Haka- 
 taramea of which he wrote: "The fish sent is a true Pacific Salmon 
 (Onchorhynchus quinnai), being a female of about 16 Ibs. weight." On 
 29th June he reported on three more fish from the same river. One 
 was a male, 25 in. long, weighing 6 lb., the second a female 22 in. 
 long, and 5^ lb. in weight; and the third (probably only a three- 
 year-old fish) was 17 in. long, and only i| lb. in weight. He thought 
 it probable that all these fish, which were all in bad condition when 
 received, belonged to O. quinnat. Both the Secretary of the Waitaki 
 Society and the Collector of Customs at Oamaru stated that fish, 
 supposed to be salmon, had been taken in the Waitaki and in Oamaru 
 harbour by fishermen; those identified by Sir James Hector being 
 of the number. These captures seemed to establish the fact that the 
 fish were now returning to the river to spawn, and that the naturalisa- 
 tion of the species was secured. 
 
 In 1907 Mr Ayson again went over to San Francisco and brought 
 back 500,000 ova, which reached Hakataramea on 8th April; and 
 from these 482,000 fry hatched out. During the year 62 three-year-old, 
 21,282 two-year-old, and 224,647 one-year-old fish were liberated 
 in the Hakataramea River; and later in the year 290,000 fry. 
 
 The report of the Marine Department for 1906-7 states that: 
 
 this year, fish which are undoubtedly Quinnat salmon have been caught 
 in the Hakataramea River, up which they are going to spawn; and the 
 Manager of the Salmon Station reports that he has seen large numbers of 
 them in the river. 
 
 During May and June the manager obtained 30,000 ova, the first 
 taken in New Zealand from these fish, from which about 25,000 fry 
 were obtained; of these 17,000 were liberated in the river. In
 
 236 FISHES 
 
 addition to the few fish which were stripped, numbers of salmon 
 were seen spawning in the side streams of the Waitaki from Station 
 Peak to some distance above Kurow ; also in the Ahuriri River higher 
 up, in the Ohau, Haldane and Gray's Hill Creeks, and in the Mary 
 Burn. 
 
 In 1908 103 four-year-old, 173 three-year-old, 18,937 two-year- 
 old, and 166,851 one-year-old fish were liberated in the Hakataramea 
 River ; while 2000 were placed in the Selwyn River by the Canterbury 
 Society. In this year more and larger fish ran into the Hakataramea, 
 and 78,400 eggs were obtained. 
 
 In 1909 43 four-year, 199 three-year, 611 two-year, and 14,624 
 one-year-old fish from imported ova were liberated, together with 
 8000 one-year-old and 51,000 three-months-old fish from ova pro- 
 cured from river fish. The number of ova collected during the 
 spawning season from running fish was 238,000. 
 
 During the year a 5 Ib. quinnat salmon was caught near the 
 mouth of the Rakaia River. This may either have come from the 
 Waitaki, or have been one of the 200 fish which the Canterbury 
 Society liberated in the Selwyn River in 1907. 
 
 In 1910 only 210,000 fry were liberated from the Waitaki, owing 
 to the very dry summer which preceded the spawning season, and 
 the low state of the rivers. Of these, 32,000 were reared at the station 
 for liberation in the Hakataramea; 25,000 ova were sent to Tasmania, 
 and 150,000 to the hatchery at Kokotahi,.Westland. From this last 
 lot of ova about 145,000 fry hatched out and were liberated in streams 
 flowing into the Hokitika River, the stream which the Department 
 decided should be stocked with this fish: 70,000 being put into the 
 Harris Creek, 50,000 into Murray's Creek, and 25,000 into Duck 
 Creek. 
 
 There were liberated into the Hakataramea River, 126 three-year- 
 old, 821 two-year-old, 23,854 one-year-old, and 22,700 fry from the 
 season's ova, and into the Seaforth-MacKenzie River 3000 fry. 
 
 The record for 1911-12 is taken from the Marine Department's 
 report : 
 
 The largest run of Quinnat salmon which has yet taken place, came up 
 the Waitaki River last spawning season. They were found spawning in the 
 main river itself, from a few miles up from the sea to where it branches 
 off at the junction of the Ahuriri, Ohau, Pukaki, and Tekapo Rivers. 
 Large numbers were seen spawning in these four large tributaries, and in 
 the case of the Ohau and Pukaki they had run right through the lakes at 
 the heads of these rivers, and were found spawning in the rivers beyond. 
 These fish spawn in much deeper and heavier water than trout, and are 
 therefore very difficult to capture for spawning purposes, as only a very 
 small percentage of the fish which come in from the sea run up the smaller
 
 TELEOSTEI 237 
 
 streams, such as the Hakataramea and Gray's Hills Creek, to spawn. The 
 number of eggs collected last season was 240,000. These were disposed of as 
 follows: 25,000 were sent to Tasmania, 157,500 to the Hokitika River, 
 3000 salmon fry to the Seaforth-MacKenzie River, and the balance were 
 retained at the Hakataramea Hatchery. This season the Manager reports a 
 good run of salmon spawning in the Tekapo, and the collection of eggs 
 for this season is now proceeded with. During the year there were liberated 
 from the Hakataramea ponds: 137 three-years old, ion two-years old, 
 8317 one-year old, and 12,426 four-months old fish. 
 
 Mr Ayson's report for 1912 says: 
 
 In point of numbers the run of salmon which spawned in the Waitaki 
 River and its tributaries last season was quite equal to any of the previous 
 years. The average size of the fish was, however, larger, and a peculiarity of 
 the run was the very large percentage of male salmon which were captured. 
 In other seasons the fish taken were about equal sexes, but last season 
 nearly twice as many male fish were taken as females. Had the percentage 
 of females been equal to other seasons nearly double the quantity of eggs 
 would have been collected. The total quantity of eggs taken was 237,000, 
 and these were disposed of as follows : 27,500 were supplied to the Tas- 
 manian Government; 190,000 sent to the West Coast; 7500 retained at the 
 Hakataramea Hatchery: 12,000, the loss during incubation. The salmon- 
 eggs sent to the West Coast hatched out very well, and the young fish were 
 planted in tributaries of the Hokitika River. It is interesting to note that 
 a number of the young fish were taken in whitebait-nets in the tideway 
 of the river during the early summer, showing that they maintain in this 
 country the same characteristics of going to sea at an early stage of their 
 existence as they do in their native country. 
 
 The following fish were liberated from the station in October, 
 1912, 503 three-years-old, and 567 two-years-old. 
 
 In 1913 251,000 ova were collected in the tributaries of the 
 Waitaki River, of which 150,000 were hatched at the Department's 
 hatchery at Kokatahi and liberated in the tributaries of the Hokitika 
 River, 25,000 were sent to Tasmania, 45,000 were liberated at Haka- 
 taramea, and the fry of 20,000 were kept in the ponds at Hakataramea. 
 Several thousand were hatched at Taupapa for the fresh-water 
 aquarium at the Auckland Exhibition. 
 
 The following is from Mr Ayson's report for 1914-16: 
 
 A succession of floods in the Hakataramea River during the month 
 of May, 1914, interfered seriously with the collection of salmon-eggs. The 
 nets were washed out several times, and most of the salmon escaped up- 
 stream and spawned in reaches of the river in the gorges. The manager 
 at Hakataramea reports a heavier run of fish than the previous season, but 
 owing to the unfavourable river-conditions the number of eggs collected 
 was less. On account of the large number of salmon which escaped up 
 the Hakataramea during the floods, the river was heavily stocked with 
 the salmon-fry hatched from the natural spawning. In the late summer
 
 238 FISHES 
 
 and autumn thousands of fine strong healthy fish were to be seen in every 
 pool. The total number of eggs collected for the season was 243,000, which 
 were disposed of as follows: 25,000 were supplied to the Tasmanian 
 Government, 145,000 were sent to the West Coast for stocking the Hokitika 
 River; 53,000 were hatched out at Hakataramea. 
 
 During the year 41 ,000 three-months-old fry, 19,254 yearling salmon, 
 580 two-year-old and 36 three-year-old fish were liberated. 
 
 During the angling season it was reported that salmon were caught 
 with rod and line at the mouth of the Waitaki and Rangitata Rivers, and 
 also that they were frequently taken with hook and line off Timaru and 
 Oamaru by persons fishing for sea-fish. 
 
 The run of spawning salmon during the present season (1915) in the 
 head-waters of some of the main tributaries of the Waitaki is undoubtedly 
 the heaviest since the fish first commenced to run up from the sea. When 
 recently in the Upper Waitaki district I was told by men who have lived 
 for a number of years near the lakes and rivers in that region, and who are 
 in the habit of observing the spawning every season, that there are more 
 salmon and larger fish than any previous season. Mr Macdonald, manager 
 of Ben Ohau Station, said that for some years he had watched the salmon 
 spawning in the Ohau River, and this year from its outflow from the lake 
 to its junction with the Waitaki River (a distance of about eighteen miles) 
 he had never seen so many fish. 
 
 When I arrived at Benmore Station after leaving the Ben Ohau Camp, 
 Mr Sutherland (manager) told me his head shepherd and musterers 
 had returned a few days before from the head of the lake and reported 
 hundreds of large salmon spawning in the Dobson River, so I went on to 
 the head of the lake the same afternoon to see for myself, and ascertain 
 whether it would be possible to get any eggs. Mr Fraser, the shepherd 
 in charge there, provided me with a riding-horse and accompanied me 
 to the Dobson the following morning. We examined the river from its 
 junction with the Hopkins to where the camp joins it, a distance of about 
 eight miles. The statement of the Benmore shepherds with regard to the 
 fish I found to be practically correct. We saw a number of large fish in 
 every pool we counted as many as fifteen in one and large spawning 
 beds every chain or so as far as we went. From the appearance of the fish, 
 the number of spawning beds, and the number of dead fish on the shingle 
 beaches, it was evident that the spawning was about finished for this 
 season. We saw some very large fish: two spent dead fish measured 42 in. 
 and 42! in., and I estimate the average size of the fish we saw at from 
 20 Ib. to 25 Ib. I may say that I inspected the Dobson at the end of the 
 spawning season of 191 1 ; then I saw from thirty to fifty fish and a number 
 of spawning beds. This season I estimate there are well on to ten times 
 as many, and much larger fish. 
 
 The Marine Department's (Mr Ayson's) report for 1915-16 
 states : 
 
 Last spawning season 25 1 ,000 eggs were collected ; the most of these 
 were taken at the Hakataramea Salmon Station. Two up-country collecting
 
 TELEOSTEI 239 
 
 stations were worked, viz., Gray's Creek, on the Tekapo branch of the 
 Waitaki River, and the Twizel River, a tributary of the Ohau branch. 
 A large number of male fish were netted at Gray's Creek station, but all 
 the females were spent fish and we were not successful in getting a fair 
 quantity. Owing to the very low state of the Hakataramea River throughout 
 the spawning season comparatively few fish ran up, and the quantity of 
 eggs collected did not come up to expectations. The rack across the river, 
 built on the American principle, was effective in stopping salmon from 
 getting past, and all which came up were caught. 
 
 This season we decided to work the Dobson River, one of the rivers 
 which flow into the head of Lake Ohau, and the men commenced operations 
 there about the aoth April, and notwithstanding the difficulties experienced 
 in working such a heavy river they have to date been very successful in 
 getting eggs. The run of salmon on the Hakataramea is by far the heaviest 
 that has been experienced. The river this season is carrying a good body 
 of water, and as it is discharging directly into the main branch of the 
 Waitaki, all the salmon which come up from the sea have to pass its 
 mouth, and as the condition of the Hakataramea is so favourable, a good 
 many fish enter its mouth and find their way up through the nets. The 
 first run of fish this season was fully two weeks earlier than in any previous 
 season, and another unusual feature is the large number of unripe fish 
 which have been taken. If the salmon continue running for another ten 
 days at the rate they have been doing, the collection of eggs taken from 
 fish netted in the Hakataramea alone will exceed half a million. From 
 my own observations and from reports from the Tekapo and Pukaki Rivers 
 it would seem that there is an exceptionally heavy run of fish in the Waitaki 
 and all the tributaries this season. 
 
 Salmon have been caught freely by anglers at the mouths of the Waitaki, 
 Rangitata, and Rakaia Rivers this season, and information is to hand to 
 the effect that large numbers have been caught by hook and line off the 
 Timaru Breakwater. Last spawning season a large number spawned in 
 the Rangitata River and its tributaries. All this goes to show that the 
 salmon are fast making their way into the large snow-fed rivers north of 
 the Waitaki. One of the reasons why the Waitaki River was chosen in the 
 first instance for the salmon was because of the northerly set of the ocean 
 current along the east coast, so that by stocking the Waitaki all the rivers 
 north of that would in time be stocked by the fish being carried northward. 
 
 The success of the efforts to establish quinnat salmon in New 
 Zealand is mainly due to the zeal and continuous energy of Mr L. F. 
 Ayson, Chief Inspector of Fisheries. 
 
 The fish has spread south as well as north along the coasts of the 
 South Island, and in 1917 was reported as being commonly taken by 
 line fishermen off Otago Heads, and as moving down to Foveaux Strait. 
 
 The early attempts to introduce this fish apparently all failed, and 
 it is interesting to summarise the dates of these attempts, and the 
 rivers or districts which were stocked. They were: (1875) Thames, 
 Waikato, Wairoa district, and Tauranga district; (1876) Tuakau,
 
 240 FISHES 
 
 Mahurangi, Mangakahia, Punui and Hutt, Napier district, Southern 
 Wairoa,Manawatu, Wanganui ; Grey, Wairau, Hurunui, Waimakariri, 
 Rangitata, Heathcote, Shag and Oreti; (1877) Northern Wairoa, 
 Mangakahia, Punui and Hutt; Wairau, Motueka, Hurunui, Waima- 
 kariri, Heathcote, Rangitata, Shag, Kakanui, Waipahi and Makarewa; 
 (1878) Upper Thames; (1880) Hutt. Since 1901 they have been 
 placed almost exclusively in the Waitaki and its tributaries, though 
 a few were put in the Selwyn and the Seaforth-Mackenzie ; and (in 
 1913) some hundreds were liberated in the Leith and Waikouaiti 
 streams. More recently the Hokitika River has been chosen as the 
 west coast stream to be stocked. 
 
 In a letter written some years ago asking for information as to 
 the failure to establish the quinnat salmon in the rivers of New 
 Zealand, Marshall McDonald, Commissioner U.S. Department of 
 Fish and Fisheries, said: 
 
 We have experienced the same difficulty in attempting the acclimatisation 
 of this species upon our eastern coasts; all experiments having failed 
 completely after expending a large amount of money, and being tried on a 
 scale of magnitude and under a variety of conditions sufficient to test fully 
 the capabilities of our eastern streams in this direction. We have attributed 
 the failure to the different temperature conditions prevailing in the rivers 
 of the east and west coasts at the spawning season, which is from July to 
 September. The streams of the west coast at this period, fed as they are 
 by the melting snows in the mountains at the head of the large rivers, 
 present a relatively low temperature which invites the ascent of the salmon 
 in obedience to the natural instinct which pervades the entire family to 
 move from warmer to colder waters in seeking their spawning grounds. 
 On the east coast at this season of the year our rivers are warmer than the 
 adjacent seas, and we have concluded therefore that the failure to enter 
 our streams is due to the higher temperature conditions prevailing in 
 them. This is probably true in regard to your own waters. The summer 
 temperature of the Pacific Coast streams in which the salmon enter at 
 the season of spawning rarely reaches 60 F. During the season on our 
 eastern coast the temperature rises to at least 70 F., and sometimes reaches 
 a maximum of 80 to 85 F. 
 
 Mr Ayson writes me (August i7th, 1915) in regard to this com- 
 munication : 
 
 Quinnat salmon begin spawning about ist April, and are finished by the 
 end of May. In America there are two distinct runs, which are called the 
 summer and winter runs. Marshall McDonald in the report you quote 
 evidently referred to the summer run. The winter run commences well 
 on in October, and finishes in December. The Quinnat eggs with which 
 we stocked the Waitaki were all from the winter-run fish, and it is interesting 
 to note that we have only a winter run of spawning salmon, so far, in the 
 Waitaki; which would go far to show that eggs taken from winter-run 
 fish in America only develop winter-run fish in this country.
 
 
 TELEOSTEI 241 
 
 The time of running in Southern Alaska, according to Dr Bean, 
 is from May till August; at North Sound, the northern limit of its 
 known migration, it is early in June. There can be no winter run in 
 the far north of America, when the rivers are blocked with ice. From 
 Mr Ayson's statement it would seem probable that all the ova 
 received in New Zealand were from rivers which were open in the 
 winter months. I have no record of size of the quinnat salmon 
 captured in New Zealand. In Alaska rivers (Yukon, etc.) they average 
 about 20 lb., but have been recorded up to 100 Ib. and more. 
 
 I am told by some anglers who have caught the quinnat salmon 
 in New Zealand waters, that the fish is a very inferior one for the 
 table, being coarse and dry. It would be unfortunate, but a quite 
 possible occurrence, that an inferior race has been introduced. Though 
 so many separate shipments of ova have been received and hatched, 
 it is possible that all those now running in the rivers of the east 
 coast of the South Island are derived from one lot. 
 
 (See Appendix B, p. 557.) 
 
 * Sock-eye Salmon; Blue-back Salmon 
 (Salmo (Onchorhynchns) nerka) 
 
 In 1901-2 a shipment of 500,000 ova of this species was sent 
 from Canada to New Zealand via San Francisco. It arrived in the 
 colony in bad condition, only 160,000 being good when unpacked, 
 and there was a large percentage of deformed fish among those 
 hatched out. Of these, 5000 fry were liberated in tributaries of the 
 Waitaki, 91,200 in the streams flowing into Lake Ohau, while 20,000 
 were retained (on 3Oth June) in the hatchery at Hakataramea. In the 
 following year 10,000 fry eleven months old, and 1500 sixteen months 
 old were liberated from the ponds into the Hakataramea River. In 
 1903-4, 5981 fish two-and-a-half years old were liberated in the 
 river, and at the end of the year fast March) there were estimated 
 to be about 2000 three-year-old fish left in the ponds. Of these, 
 1273 were liberated the following year, and by the 3ist March, 1905, 
 there were still left about 216 four-year-old fish. There must have 
 been some loss in the ponds, for 34 were liberated next season, and 
 only 1 8 remained in confinement. 
 
 On 22nd May, 1906, Mr Chas. L. Ayson, Manager of the Haka- 
 taramea Hatchery, wrote as follows: 
 
 While cleaning the pond-net which I have set at the mouth of the Haka- 
 taramea River to-day I caught on the top side of the net a fish about 16 in. 
 in length, and which would, if in proper condition, weigh about five 
 pounds. This fish is undoubtedly a sock-eyed salmon (O. nerka), which 
 has been up the river for the purpose of spawning and was returning down 
 
 T. N. z. 16
 
 242 FISHES 
 
 stream. The fish was in a dying condition, being greatly covered with 
 fungus. I now have it in formalin at the station. This, I think, should 
 now set at rest all doubts as to them returning from the sea to spawn. 
 
 In the following year some fish believed to be sock-eye salmon 
 were caught in Lake Ohau and sent to Sir James Hector, who reported 
 as follows (4th May, 1907): 
 
 These fish are without doubt young sea-run specimens of the blue-back 
 salmon, sock-eye (properly "Saw-qui") or red fish of Fraser River, and 
 the krasnaia ryba of Japan two males and two females. These particular 
 fish are so much out of condition that they are not fit either for food or 
 sport ; yet, had they been allowed to mature, in the course of a few weeks 
 they might have produced about 2000 fertile eggs, which would have been 
 quite sufficient to stock Ohau Lake. 
 
 The sizes of these fish were respectively: males, 19 in. and 42 oz.; 
 18 in. and 36 oz.; females, 28 in. and 28 oz.; and 23 in. and 23 oz. 
 Mr L. F. Ayson, Inspector of Fisheries, writing to me in 
 September, 1916, says: 
 
 An occasional sea- run Sock-eye has been taken in the spawning seasons. 
 The last was a pair which I caught in the Twizel River (a tributary of the 
 Ohau) in May, 1915, when collecting Quinnat salmon eggs. A number 
 of them, however, have remained in Lake Ohau, and have run into the 
 creeks at the head of the lake every season in the months of March and 
 April to spawn. These lake salmon are not plentiful and are dwarfed in 
 size, the average weight being under 2 Ibs. This lake habit of some of the 
 Sock-eye is not peculiar to New Zealand, as in their native home in British 
 Columbia, a number remain in the lakes in the same way. 
 
 Dr Bean says of this fish in the Alaska Rivers that they average 
 from 7 to 8 Ib. in weight, though individuals are occasionally seen 
 up to 15 Ib. They run up the American rivers from April to June or 
 July. 
 
 Canadian land-locked Salmon (Salmo Sebago) 
 
 In 1905 Mr L. F. Ayson, Chief Inspector of Fisheries, who wen 
 to America for eggs of quinnat salmon, brought over to New Zealam 
 a case of eggs of the land-locked salmon for the Southland Acclimatisa 
 tion Society. About 10,000 ova were received at the Wallacetown 
 Hatchery, and these hatched out well. Owing to some accident, al 
 of the fry with the exception of about 100, escaped into a race 
 leading into the Makarewa. The remainder were probably placed in 
 Lake Te Anau, which was the destination originally intended fo 
 all, but the Society's statement closes with the words "No furthe 
 record." 
 
 The species is incorrectly named Salmo ovanniche in the Southlanc 
 Society's report.
 
 TELEOSTEI 243 
 
 White-fish (Coregonus albus) 
 
 In December, 1876, a case with 125,000 ova was despatched from 
 San Francisco (from U.S. Fish Commission) for the Government 
 of New Zealand, and arrived in Auckland on 2Qth January, 1877. 
 Owing to there being no ponds at Wellington, the eggs were sent 
 on to care of the Christchurch Society, where they were delivered 
 on 3rd February. They began to hatch at once, for Dr Hector writing 
 to the Hon. Spencer F. Baird on Qth February says: "The Secretary 
 reports that over 200 young fish have come out, and says they are 
 three-quarters of an inch long (five days old), very transparent, with 
 bright yellow eyes, are very lively, and appear to be doing well." On 
 22nd March, Mr Farr writes that owing to water overflowing the 
 boxes, all but six or seven of the fry were lost. It was hoped that as 
 they were washed out into the race, some of them would turn up 
 again, a hope that was not realised. 
 
 The Auckland Society received a box of ova in 1876, presumably 
 from the same shipment, but only nine fry hatched out. It is very 
 difficult to tell whether the Society got a supply on their own account 
 previous to the Government's shipment. There was such a stupid 
 want of co-operation on the part of many of the Societies, and the 
 Auckland one especially seems to have been a sinner in this respect. 
 It is in reference to this lot that Mr Dansey writes me on 28th June, 
 1916, as follows: 
 
 While I was in charge of the telegraph station at Te Ngae in the East 
 shore of Lake Rotorua in 1876, some white fish, brought over from America 
 by the late Joshua Firth of Matamata, were turned out into Te Awahua 
 stream on the North West shore of Lake Rotorua, an exceptionally cold 
 stream. I never heard of anything having been seen of them afterwards. 
 Had they survived they would not have escaped notice, as there was at that 
 time, and for some years afterwards, nothing in the lake but inanga (min- 
 now), bull-heads and fresh- water crayfish. 
 
 A box of the Government shipment was sent down to the South- 
 land Society's ponds at Wallacetown, but the eggs were dead and 
 quite undistinguishable on arrival. 
 
 On i4th February, 1878, another shipment of 500,000 ova arrived 
 in Auckland, and was distributed. One box with 50,000 ova was 
 retained and hatched in Auckland; they turned out very badly, and 
 were practically all lost. A second box with 50,000 ova was kept 
 in Auckland (presumably in ice) till iQth April, when it was sent on 
 to Mr A. M. Johnson of Opawa, Christchurch. Mr Johnson received 
 them on the 23rd, and reported them "as all hopelessly bad, with 
 the exception of three." 
 
 The Canterbury Society received 100,000 ova, but only acknow- 
 
 16 2 

 
 244 FISHES 
 
 ledged 20,000. From these only 12 fish hatched out and eight sur- 
 vived. These were placed in a stream running into Lake Coleridge. 
 
 The Waitaki (Oamaru) Society received a box of 50,000 ova, but 
 there is no report as to what was done with them. 
 
 The Otago Society also received one box, and were more suc- 
 cessful than any of the others, about 1000 young fish hatching out 
 "which throve very well at the breeding ponds." Mr Arthur, writing 
 on loth July to Dr Hector, says: 
 
 The last I know of them is, that Deans started with the whole lot for the 
 Wanaka, before they had reached that age and size which we all agreed 
 to be most prudent before turning them out. He got as far as the Teviot, 
 but they had nearly all died, except one or two which were liberated in 
 a lagoon communicating with the Clutha. 
 
 The remaining four boxes with 200,000 ova were taken by Dr 
 Hector himself to the Bluff by steamer, and conveyed as rapidly as 
 possible to Lake Te Anau. By special train to Lumsden, and travelling 
 all night in an American wagon, Te Anau was reached by 3 p.m. 
 on 23rd March, and the boxes were unpacked. 
 
 Out of the four boxes of ova three were almost completely destroyed by 
 the growth of white fungus, and the young fish, which had evidently been 
 hatched out for some time were reduced to a pulpy jelly. In the fourth 
 box in which there was only a slight growth of fungus, a considerable 
 number of the ova were found in sound condition, and hatched out rapidly 
 as they were transferred to the trough. 
 
 Mr S. Herbert Cox reported from Te Anau to Dr Hector on 2Oth 
 February: "The whitefish are doing very well. They are all hatched 
 out, and are feeding well, they will, I presume, be let loose in the lake 
 about Saturday, if it is calm enough." There is no further record. 
 
 The Nelson Society received an earlier consignment of ova which 
 was brought over at the expense of Mr John Kerr of the Lake Run, 
 but I cannot learn the date of this importation. " The ova were placed 
 in a creek running into Lake Rotoiti, and hatched out well." None 
 have ever been caught, but Judge Broad in his jubilee history of Nelson 
 says : " it is believed that they exist in the lake in considerable numbers." 
 Mr F. G. Gibbs, Chairman of the Rotoiti Domain Board, writing 
 on 3rd February, 1917, says: 
 
 I have frequently made inquiries about the whitefish, but I cannot find 
 any one who has seen any trace of them. I well remember the ova being 
 taken up to the lake, and I also remember that the local newspapers shortly 
 afterwards reported that the young fish had been seen. If they really 
 were seen, which many doubt, they have since completely disappeared, 
 probably exterminated by eels, which are very abundant in the lake. 
 
 In 1879 the Auckland Society imported 500,000 ova. Most of 

 
 TELEOSTEI 245 
 
 these were placed in Lake Taupe, but small lots were distributed 
 to Lakes Okataina, Titikapu and Tarawera, and to the Awahou Basin 
 discharging into Lake Rotorua. About 50,000 were placed in the 
 hatching-boxes in the Domain, but failed to hatch out. 
 
 In 1880 another shipment of 1,000,000 ova was made by the 
 Government, and distributed to various societies. 
 
 The Auckland Society received 50,000 ova. "The fish hatched 
 out very well indeed, but the temperature being 65 F., they died 
 day by day, and in a few days all but two had died." 
 
 The Napier Society also received 50,000 ova on iQth January. The 
 hatching commenced the same day, and about 200 were hatched out, 
 but by 3Oth January all were dead but 12. 
 
 The Nelson Society received 250,000 ova, but they were kept 
 too long in Auckland before being forwarded, and reached their 
 destination in a bad and stinking condition, many of them apparently 
 already hatched out and dead. Only about 40 or 50 fish hatched 
 out alive, and "with the exception of some eight or ten, these young 
 fish quickly died off; those that were alive were put into one of the 
 ponds, where they appeared to thrive." The Secretary adds : " I regret 
 to say they suddenly disappeared. I do not think they died, as they 
 were constantly looked after; and they were large enough to be seen 
 in the pond, as the water was quite clear." 
 
 The Christchurch lot amounted to 300,000. Hatching commenced 
 on 2Oth January, and the whole of the young fish estimated at 
 50,000 were hatched out by the 29th. 
 
 Fungoid disease, however, made its appearance among them, although 
 every precaution was taken to insure success, and daily the numbers were 
 rapidly diminishing. On 24th Feb. the whole of the fish numbering about 
 25,000 were liberated in Lake Coleridge. After watching them for a few 
 seconds we noticed that they took a spiral course to the depth of about 
 eight inches, then dived suddenly downwards and were lost to sight in the 
 deep azure water. 
 
 They were liberated from a boat at a distance of about half a mile 
 from the shore. " The temperature of the water in the lake was taken, 
 and to our astonishment was found to be 59 at a depth of fifty feet, 
 and 60 at the surface." 
 
 Mr A. M. Johnson of Opawa received two boxes (100,000 ova?), 
 from one of which only 28 young fish were obtained, and from 
 the other many thousands hatched out. This was on 29th January. 
 On 4th May Mr Johnson writes to the Colonial Secretary stating 
 that 
 
 after seven weeks of the time of hatching, the numbers continued to visibly 
 diminish daily, in spite of every care and precaution, till the total number
 
 246 FISHES 
 
 left cannot now be as many hundreds as there were thousands; those fish 
 liberated in ponds full of Crustacea and insect life appearing to share the 
 same fate as the ones in deep and protected races. 
 
 I can find no further report of this experiment. 
 
 The final lot of 250,000 was sent down to the Bluff, which was 
 reached on igth January, met by Mr Deans, curator of the Otago 
 Society, and conveyed to Queenstown the same day. "They com- 
 menced to hatch at once, but died shortly after. As there seemed no 
 chance of saving them, it was decided to turn them out at Beach 
 Bay, about eight miles from Queenstown, the latter place being 
 infested with trout and perch. All, with the exception of from 
 1200 to 1300 (ova), were hatching out in the cans while going 
 up the lake, and seemed quite lively when turned out. I regret 
 to say I believe quite one-half of the ova have gone bad." By 
 28th January the remaining ova were reduced to about 800 or 
 900, and about 40 live fish, and these were liberated at Halfway 
 Bay, between Queenstown and Kingstown. The temperature of the 
 water was 56. 
 
 The only subsequent reports of this 1880 shipment come from 
 the Canterbury Society. The annual report for 1885 states that "we 
 are credibly informed that shoals of the White Fish, placed by us in 
 Lake Coleridge, have been recently seen there." In 1886 it is said 
 "we have received several reports of the White Fish having been seen 
 in Lake Coleridge, some of large size, and that they are multiplying 
 has been proved by some young ones being washed ashore in a gale." 
 In a letter received from Mr Edgar F. Stead in April, 1916, he says: 
 "No whitefish have ever been caught in Lake Coleridge, nor have 
 any skeletons of them been found." 
 
 In 1884 the Nelson Society received about 1,000,000, of which 
 300,000 were placed in the hatching-boxes, and the remainder were 
 put in Lake Rotoiti. There is no report of any of these, for the Nelson 
 Society have lost their records; but in 1901, Mr A. Rutherford was 
 of opinion that the fish were then in Lake Rotoiti. 
 
 Though all previous attempts had so far failed, it was determined 
 to try again to introduce this desirable species, and two shipments 
 were made to the Government from San Francisco in 1886-87. 
 
 On I3th February, 1886, 1,000,000 eggs from the U.S. Hatchery 
 at Northville, Michigan, were shipped by the ' Alameda ' which arrived 
 at Wellington on I2th March. On opening the boxes the contents 
 were found to be putrid, and this appeared to be due to carelessness 
 on board the steamer, as the ova had been "packed with the greatest 
 care and in the most approved method." 
 
 On 1 5th January, 1887, the 'Alameda' again took a shipment of
 
 TELEOSTEI 247 
 
 1,500,000 white-fish eggs, and arrived in Auckland on 5th February. 
 They arrived in excellent condition, but according to the letter of 
 the Minister of Marine on 26th February to the U.S. Commissioner 
 of Fish and Fisheries, though "the percentage of bad eggs on being 
 unpacked was less than one per cent.," yet "on being placed in the 
 water the ova did not separate freely, and on the second day nearly 
 fifty per cent, was dead." 
 
 Ten trays were handed over to the Nelson Society on the 6th, 
 but again I can find no record of what was done with them. This 
 lot represented 500,000 ova. One tray (50,000 eggs) was sent to 
 Clinton. About two-thirds of the eggs were bad, but a considerable 
 number of fry were hatched out. The mortality, however, was so 
 great that the rest, about 1000 in number, were turned into a large 
 pond. One or two were seen later, but the rest disappeared. On 
 February 25th, 1889, the pond was emptied and one specimen was 
 found, which died the following day. It was 12 inches long, 3 in. 
 deep and weighed close on u oz. 
 
 A small lot from this tray was taken to Opoho, Dunedin, where 
 over 200 fry were hatched out, but some died and the rest disappeared. 
 
 The remaining 19 trays, containing 950,000 ova, reached Queens- 
 town on 8th February. The following report by Mr Davidson, curator 
 of the Lakes District Society is given in full : 
 
 The ova were placed in the boxes on the 9th, the temperature of the water 
 being 47, lowered from 50 by ice. I was able to keep the temperature 
 at 47 for two days with ice; after this, when the ice was finished, the 
 temperature remained at 50, and never rose higher. Some of the fry 
 were moving in the boxes on the loth, but the greater portion died in the 
 egg, not more than 50,000 hatching out. When unpacking the ova it was 
 found that too much pressure had been used, making the ova stick together 
 in one mass ; the ova, however, looked perfectly healthy, and were all alive, 
 but it was impossible to separate them. If the ova had not been so far 
 advanced there would have been a much greater chance of success. When 
 the fry were fifteen days old, I observed the sac absorbed on most of them. 
 
 I liberated about six thousand in Lake Wakatipu on a8th February. On 
 5th March about twenty thousand were liberated in Lakes Wanaka and 
 Hawea. I then began to feed those remaining on bullock's blood. They 
 appeared to thrive well on it for a time say for about a month; after 
 that they appeared to be not thriving so well. I therefore liberated the 
 whole of them in Lake Wakatipu about 3ist March. The fry have been 
 seen on several occasions, and are doing very well apparently, being 
 
 I 1 in. long. I consider they are established without a doubt this time. 
 I have liberated quite fifty thousand in healthy condition. 
 
 This was written on ist June, 1887; there is no further record. 
 
 Nothing further was done in the way of attempting to introduce 
 
 white-fish till 1904, when Mr L. F. Ayson, Chief Inspectorof Fisheries,
 
 248 FISHES 
 
 went to San Francisco and brought back with him 2,000,000 ova; 
 half of these were taken to Lake Kanieri and half to Lake Tekapo. 
 Mr L. F. Ayson, writing in September, 1916, says: 
 
 In 1 904, on my recommendation, the Marine Department decided to make 
 a systematic effort to introduce this fish, and hatcheries were established 
 on Lake Tekapo, in the Mackenzie country, and Lake Kanieri, on the 
 West Coast, and these hatcheries were equipped with the proper hatching 
 jars. The eggs of whitefish cannot be successfully hatched in the ordinary 
 trout boxes. In the American and Canadian hatcheries a special jar is 
 used, and in the attempts to hatch out the earlier shipments of eggs im- 
 ported, in the ordinary trout boxes, I am afraid very few of the young 
 fish came to maturity. Two million eggs were imported each year from 
 1904 to 1907. Each shipment of eggs arrived in first-rate condition, was 
 successfully hatched out, and the fry liberated in the lakes mentioned. 
 
 Writing on 22nd May, 1906, Mr Chas. Ayson, manager of the 
 Hakataramea Hatchery, says: 
 
 While at Lake Tekapo in January last I was informed by two different 
 persons that they saw on different occasions at the bridge where the 
 Tekapo River flows out of the lake, a strange fish, and from the 
 description given me I am inclined to think that the fish seen were 
 whitefish. 
 
 And Mr L. F. Ayson on 25th May states: 
 
 I may say that reports are current at Lake Kanieri similar to those 
 mentioned by the manager about Tekapo, viz. that strange fish have been 
 seen, and from the description given resembling whitefish. At Kanieri 
 Lake these fish are reported as having been seen in the shallow water near 
 the foot of the lake. 
 
 Early in 1907 Mr Ayson brought the last shipment of 2,000,000 
 ova from San Francisco. Half of these went to Lake Tekapo, arriving 
 at the head of the lake where the hatchery was situated on 9th March. 
 The other half went to Lake Kanieri on the i ith ; the eggs were in the 
 latter case just 43 days from hatchery to hatchery. 
 
 In his letter already referred to Mr Ayson says : 
 
 These fish are not easily seen, and the only way to prove whether they 
 have taken a hold or not is by having the lakes tested with deep set nets. 
 So far this has not been done. 
 
 Reports have reached me several times of late of schools of fish being 
 seen in both these lakes fish, which, from the description given, do not 
 resemble trout. When I was on Lake Kanieri in the beginning of August 
 last (1916) I saw fish shewing on the surface of the lake several times 
 which were quite different in their movements from trout.
 
 TELEOSTEI 249 
 
 Lake Herring; Cisco Herring; or Lesser White-fish 
 (Coregonus artedi) 
 
 In 1907 a small shipment of the eggs of this species was brought 
 over from America by Mr L. F. Ayson, Chief Inspector of Fisheries. 
 They were brought partly because of their value as a food-fish, and 
 partly to increase the food supply for trout in Lake Rotorua and 
 other lakes in the Thermal district. About 40 per cent, of the eggs 
 died en route. The remainder were taken to Rotorua to be hatched 
 and liberated. Apparently nothing further has been heard of them 
 since. 
 
 Family CYPRINID^ 
 * Carp (Cyprinus carpio) 
 
 In 1864 Mr A. M. Johnson shipped 200 carp in London in the 
 ' British Queen ' bound to Lyttelton. The experiment was, however, 
 unsuccessful, all the fish dying during the voyage. In 1870 Mr E. 
 Dowling imported a number of Chinese and Prussian carp into 
 Canterbury. 
 
 In 1867 the Auckland Society introduced 114 Prussian carp. Of 
 these 12 were placed in Takapuna Lake. 
 
 In 1868 a number of fish were shipped by the 'Celestial Queen' 
 for Otago, but none survived the voyage. 
 
 In 1 88 1 the Otago Society obtained six fish, but I do not know 
 where from. These were placed in a dam at Waihemo, but this burst, 
 and the fish were washed away. 
 
 In February, 1911, Mr E. T. Frost reported that carp were very 
 common in the Waikato district. They are red, golden, white and 
 black, red and black, and white. The Maoris eat them in great 
 numbers but find them too bony. 
 
 Carp were liberated at Lake Mahinapua on the west coast 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith tells me that they are common and of large 
 size in Taranaki. 
 
 Mr R. D. Dansey of Rotorua, who has given me a great deal of 
 most interesting information regarding introduced animals in that 
 part of New Zealand, tells me that carp are very plentiful in Rotorua, 
 and are called "Morihana" by the Maoris. He gives the origin of 
 this name as follows: 
 
 I was present when in 1873 a small number of carp were first liberated 
 in Lake Taupo by Sub-Inspector H. Morrison of the Armed Constabulary, 
 then stationed at Tapuaeharuru. They had been brought up from Napier 
 in a billy. Members of the Constabulary had been purposely stationed 
 at intervals of several miles along the track from Napier to Taupo, a dis- 
 tance of 90 miles, and the billy and its precious contents was passed on
 
 250 FISHES 
 
 from man to man till it reached Tapuaeharuru, where the fish were 
 liberated near the outlet of the lake. All hands and the cook from the re- 
 doubt proceeded to the spot to see the liberation, and many natives came 
 across the Waikato River to see the new pakeha fish. There was great 
 cheering as the little carp swam out from the bank. The natives called them 
 then and there "Morihana" after Captain Morrison, and they are still 
 only known by the natives in the Taupo and Rotorua districts by this 
 name. 
 
 In 1880 five of us subscribed 1 each and commissioned "Jack 
 LofBey " to bring a billy of young carp down from Taupo, where by that 
 time they had become exceedingly numerous. They were duly liberated 
 at the mouth of the Utuhina Creek and in a small lagoon emptying into 
 the Lake, where they multiplied at an enormous rate. The Maoris did 
 not like them, considering them too full of bones and dangerous for their 
 children. Ere long a lucrative trade in gold-fish sprang up between the 
 Ohinemutu Maori children and visitors. Carp frequenting the thermal 
 waters along the southern shores of Lake Rotorua soon turned a bright 
 red or white, some partly red and partly silver. The children became 
 adepts at catching them with their hands among the reeds and rushes, 
 up to a quarter of a pound weight or more. 
 
 In June, 1916, at a meeting of the Arawa tribe in Rotorua, it 
 was decided to send a telegram to the Hon. W. H. Herries, Minister 
 for Native Affairs, protesting against a recent Government notifica- 
 tion forbidding the catching of carp in Lake Rotorua, and pointing 
 out that the Maoris were thereby deprived of a food supply which 
 they had enjoyed for the last 30 years. 
 
 The Canterbury Society received a number of silver carp from 
 Sydney in 1868; I do not know what was done with them. 
 
 Golden Carp ; Gold Fish (Cyprinus carassius) 
 
 The first attempt to introduce goldfish into New Zealand was 
 made by Mr A. M. Johnson, who succeeded in bringing a few alive 
 (the only survivors out of a large and varied assortment of fish) in 
 the 'British Empire* in 1864. These were landed at Lyttelton. 
 
 In 1868 the Canterbury Society received a number from the 
 Acclimatisation Society of Melbourne. 
 
 I do not think these fish are specifically distinct from the ordinary 
 carp 1 . 
 
 1 The following paper on the "Rapid Growth of Carp due to Abundance of 
 Food," by J. H. Brakeley, is taken from vol. vn, Bulletin of U.S. Fish Commission, 
 1889: 
 
 "The European carp in becoming naturalised in this country has changed 
 its habits in several important particulars. Instead of hibernating for several 
 months with its nose in the mud, as in Europe, here it does this for a very short 
 time, if at all, even as far north as the Middle States. The eggs hatch here in from 
 four to seven days, according to the temperature of the atmosphere, while in Europe 
 it requires from twelve to twenty. Here it readily takes the bait when skilfully
 
 TELEOSTEI 251 
 
 Japanese Minnow (Pseudorasbora parva ?) 
 
 A number of minnows from the rice-fields of Japan were imported 
 to the ponds at Opawa by the late Mr A. M. Johnson. These probably 
 belonged to the species named above. Several were distributed, but 
 I have no word of their subsequent history. 
 
 Gudgeon (Gobio fluviatilis) 
 
 In 1864 Mr A. M. Johnson shipped a number of gudgeon on 
 board the ' British Empire ' for Canterbury, but none of them survived 
 the voyage. 
 
 In 1868 another attempt was made by Mr Frank Buckland, a 
 number of fish from the Thames, presented by Mr S. Ponder, being 
 shipped to the Otago Society by the ' Celestial Queen.' 
 
 This shipment was also unsuccessful. 
 
 Barbel (Barbus vulgaris) 
 
 Several specimens of barbel were included in Mr Johnson's un- 
 fortunately unsuccessful experiment, made in 1864. 
 
 Bleak (Alburnus lucidus) 
 
 Mr Johnson also shipped some bleak by the * British Empire ' in 
 1864, but all died on the way out. The tank in which these and several 
 other species of fish were carried was lined with slate, and so divided 
 by perforated partitions that fresh water flowed freely through it; 
 there were also contrivances for aerating the water. The whole was 
 surrounded with a framework case, with double cane-matting, which 
 
 presented, while it is said not to bite at the hook in its native land. So, in becoming 
 Americanised, it has become quite a different fish in habit, if not in form. 
 
 The rapidity of growth, too, which characterised many of those distributed by 
 the U.S. Fish Commission during the first four or five years, seemed to foreshadow 
 another important change of habit. It was supposed that the waters of this country 
 were more favourable for its development than those of its native land. But in 
 this, I fear, we are doomed to disappointment. Further experience has shown that 
 this remarkable growth of which we hear so much, and of which there are many 
 examples on record, was due to the abundance of food with which the carp were 
 supplied, rather than to other causes. The small number furnished by the Govern- 
 ment to each applicant usually not over twenty were frequently placed in large 
 ponds, and often at the close of the first summer the fish had reached a weight of 
 from one to two pounds apiece, and by the end of the second summer from four 
 to five pounds, and in some instances their growth far exceeded this. But now, since 
 they have multiplied so that we can fully stock our ponds, their growth is much less 
 rapid. In the autumn of 1884 the writer placed a little over 2500 carp, then one 
 summer old and much larger than their parents when received from the Fish 
 Commission, in a five-acre pond. In the following autumn they were found to 
 average about eleven ounces each ; and last autumn, being the close of their third 
 summer, they fell a little short of a pound apiece, and this, too, with the number 
 in the pond reduced about one-fourth. In another pond of about half the size the 
 growth was no more rapid."
 
 252 FISHES 
 
 was kept constantly wet in the tropics. Troops of snails, water-lilies 
 and weeds of various kinds were also introduced, partly for food and 
 partly to assist in aeration. A lump of white lead in one of the tanks 
 to have poisoned nearly all the fish before it was discovered. 
 
 * Tench (Tinea vulgaris) 
 
 Among the fish shipped from London for Lyttelton by Mr A. M. 
 Johnson in the 'British Empire' were several tench. This was in 
 1864. Unfortunately all the fish died on the voyage out. 
 
 In 1867 the Canterbury Society received some live fish from the 
 Hobart Acclimatisation Society, and in a report issued in 1871 it 
 is said "they have successfully multiplied." 
 
 In the following year the Southland Society received some from 
 Mr Morton Allport of Tasmania. 
 
 In 1868 Mr Frank Buckland shipped a number for Otago by the 
 'Celestial Queen,' but none reached their destination. They got on 
 well for some weeks till one day one of the ship's boys 
 
 who was changing the water for the fish, got them into a bucket of fresh- 
 water and emptied it over the ship's side, instead of so doing with a bucket 
 containing the stale water that had been drawn off. 
 
 In 1869 the Otago Society liberated 18 in the Ross Creek 
 Reservoir, Dunedin, but the report does not state where they came 
 from. In 1880 the Society sent 30 to Otekaike and 30 to Elderslie, 
 both in the Oamaru district. In 1887 the Elderslie ponds were 
 overhauled and cleaned, when great numbers of tench were distributed 
 throughout the district. 
 
 They are to be found in a few localities throughout South Canter- 
 bury in ponds and dams, as at Cave and near Timaru. But they do 
 not seem to occur in any waters south of the Oamaru district. A good 
 many are to be met with near Hokitika and other localities on the 
 west coast. 
 
 They were formerly introduced into the Rotorua district as food 
 for trout, but Mr Dansey tells me there are certainly none there now. 
 
 Rudd ; Red-eye (Leuciscus erythrocephalus) 
 
 This was another of the species which Mr Johnson endeavoured 
 to introduce in 1864, but unsuccessfully. 
 
 Dace (Leuciscus leuciscus) 
 
 Mr Johnson had a number of dace in the shipment of 1864, but 
 none survived the voyage.
 
 TELEOSTEI 253 
 
 Roach (Leuciscus rutilus) 
 
 Shipped by Mr Johnson by the ' British Empire' in 1864, but all 
 died on the voyage. 
 
 Minnow (Leuciscus phoxinus) 
 
 A number were shipped by Mr Johnson in 1864, but all died on 
 the voyage out. 
 
 Family SILURID^E 
 
 * American Cat-fish (Pimelodus cattus) 
 
 In 1877 the Auckland Society received 140 fish from Mr T. 
 Russell, and placed them in St John's Lake. They were lost sight of 
 for a time, but reappeared in considerable numbers in 1884, and it 
 was stated that they were evidently increasing fast. In 1885 they were 
 caught in hundreds, and were sent to many parts of the provincial 
 district. At the present time (1916) they are plentiful in Lakes St 
 John and Takapuna. 
 
 In 1885 some 30 fish were sent down to Wellington and placed 
 in a Mr Perry's pond at Petone, but no one to-day seems to know 
 anything about them. Probably about the same time Mr A. M. 
 Johnson of Opawa obtained some from Auckland, and had a few 
 there till recently (1916). 
 
 Mr Jas. King of Hokitika informs me that some were liberated 
 in Lake Mahinapua on the west coast, but he does not know when. 
 In the annual report of the Westland Society for 1904, the secretary 
 states that "Mr T. Green, of the South Spit, showed me two nice 
 American Catfish, weighing 3^ Ibs., caught accidently while fishing for 
 eels in Mahinapua Creek. Mr Green considers the lake and creek 
 to be full of them." Mr Ayson tells me that at the present time 
 (1916) they are plentiful in Lake Mahinapua. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith informs me (April, 1919) that they are abundant 
 in ponds about Ashburton, probably obtained from Mr Johnson in 
 the eighties. 
 
 Family GASTEROSTEID^: 
 
 Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) 
 
 In 1885 Mr S. C. Farr obtained 36 sticklebacks from the Brighton 
 (England) aquarium, and shipped them by the 'Kaikoura' to the 
 Canterbury Society, but they all died in the tropics. 
 
 In 1892 Mr Clifford brought a number of these little fish out 
 to Dunedin for the Otago Society. Some of them were kept for years 
 at theOpoho Hatchery, and some were transferred to Clinton; but both 
 lots seem to have disappeared, which perhaps was not to be regretted.
 
 254 FISHES 
 
 Some were sent to Mr Johnson of Opawa, who kept them close 
 in his aquaria, and wrote stating what an undesirable importation 
 they would prove if liberated in our rivers. I do not know what came 
 of any of these, but I am not aware of any sticklebacks being in any 
 of the New Zealand waters at the present time. 
 
 Family PERCIDJE 
 * Perch (Perca fluviatilis) 
 
 The late Mr A. M. Johnson claimed that he first introduced 
 perch into New Zealand; he arrived in Christchurch in 1864 from 
 the Old Country. His first shipment of 200 fish per * British Empire ' 
 in that year was, however, unsuccessful. 
 
 In 1868 three perch were received by the Otago Society from the 
 Hobart Society, arriving in July in the ' Swordfish,' and these were 
 turned into the Ross Creek Reservoir, which supplies Dunedin 
 with water. In September of the same year Mr Clifford landed 19 
 more from Hobart, and these were placed in the same reservoir. 
 In 1870, 1 8 more were landed. These fish increased and were 
 spread far and wide through Otago, viz. to Lawrence, Gore, Clyde- 
 vale, Kaitangata, Otekaike, Elderslie, Tapanui, Waikouaiti, Waihemo, 
 etc. They were also sent to Ashburton, to the Canterbury Society, 
 and to Nelson. The Otago Society's report for 1891 says: "These 
 fish are becoming very numerous; Kaitangata Lake and Lovell's 
 Creek are simply swarming with them." In 1892 the report is: 
 "Perch are still on the increase. Some have been caught weighing 
 as much as 5 Ibs." 
 
 Also in 1868 the Southland and Canterbury Societies received 
 perch the number not specified from Mr Morton Allport of Hobart. 
 The annual report of the latter society for 1871 says: "they have 
 successfully multiplied and no further importations are needed." 
 
 In 1883 Mr Shury of Ashburton reported to the Canterbury 
 Society that "perch in large numbers could be seen in some streams 
 on the Wakanui road," and the report of the following year shows 
 that they were extremely abundant in the district. 
 
 In 1877 the Wanganui Society imported about 50 dozen perch 
 from Ballarat, Victoria: "They were put into canvas bags filled with 
 water and slung on frames on board ship. They arrived in capital 
 order." A second consignment was not so successful, about half dying. 
 
 In 1878 the Wellington Society got about two dozen from the 
 preceding Wanganui shipment and placed them in the Wellington 
 Reservoir. In 1886 they were very numerous, and several lots were 
 placed in lagoons in the Wairarapa, and in lakes near Otaki.
 
 TELEOSTEI 255 
 
 In 1885 the Hamilton Domain Board obtained 100,000 ova from 
 the Canterbury Board, and liberated the fry in the Waikato district. 
 
 In 1887 tne Taranaki Society obtained a number from Mr Johnson 
 of Opawa, and Mr W. W. Smith, writing from New Plymouth in 
 February, 1916, says: "They are common in the district; though 
 introduced many years ago, I have not seen any large specimens." 
 
 Mr Jas. King informs me that they were also liberated in Lake 
 Mahinapua, on the west coast. 
 
 Family SERRANID^E 
 Gippsland Perch (Percolates colonorum) 
 
 In 1868 Mr A. M. Johnson imported a number of these fish, and 
 kept them in his ponds in Opawa, Christchurch. 
 
 Family OSPHROMENIDJE 
 Paradise Fish (Polyacanthus opercularis) 
 
 In 1908 Mr A. M. Johnson imported some of these aquarium 
 fish from Japan for his tanks at Opawa. 
 
 Gourami (Osphromenus olfax) 
 
 In 1869 Captain Tobin of the 'Sea-Shell' attempted to bring a 
 number of these fish from Mauritius (where they have been acclima- 
 tised) for the Canterbury Society. They did not survive the voyage, 
 however. 
 
 Family PLEURONECTID^: 
 
 Turbot (Psetta (Rhombus) maxima) 
 
 A successful attempt to introduce this species into New Zealand 
 was made in 1913. The shipment was made on behalf of the Govern- 
 ment and was under the care of the late Mr T. Anderton, curator 
 of the Portobello Marine Fish Hatchery, Dunedin 1 . 
 
 1 The only previous attempt to carry live sea-fish across the equator to 
 southern waters appears to have been that of the New South Wales Fishery Depart- 
 ment in 1902, under the superintendency of the late Mr H. C. Dannevig. On that 
 occasion 722 plaice, 28 black soles, four large turbot and four large brill were 
 shipped at Plymouth on the 'Oroya' on 2ist June. The turbot and the brill died 
 before the voyage was half accomplished, the last being taken out on nth July. 
 On arrival at Fremantle on 24th July, 581 plaice and 23 soles were alive. 
 The 'Oroya' reached Sydney on 2nd August, and the surviving fish (560 plaice 
 and 23 soles) were liberated in an enclosure at the Maianbar fish-farm in 
 Port Hocking, situated about one and a half miles inside the Heads. Owing to 
 inadequate preparation no suitable permanent enclosure for the fish was secured; 
 the result was that during the intense heat of summer the whole stock of plaice 
 died. Had the attendant in charge of the station opened the sluices and allowed 
 the fish to escape into deeper and cooler water, they might have kept together 
 and spawned at a later date, instead of being lost altogether. The soles appear to 
 have survived the first summer.
 
 256 FISHES 
 
 Seven hundred young turbot, varying from one to a little over 
 two inches in length, were caught in the surf at Whitsand Bay, some 
 20 miles from Plymouth, in September, October and November, 
 1912. Of these, 400 died while being retained for shipment in the 
 tanks at the Plymouth Marine Biological Station. The remainder, 
 298 in number, were placed in a tank on board the 'Waimana' on 
 1 2th January, 1913, and Otago Harbour was reached in March. 
 
 The survivors, 195, were placed at once in the tanks of the 
 Portobello Marine Hatchery, and by scrupulous attention to cleanli- 
 ness and feeding, their growth and healthy condition have been 
 phenomenal. On i9th May, 1916, more than three years later, the 
 fish numbered 182, only five having died and eight having been 
 liberated in the harbour. Before leaving Plymouth, Dr Allen strongly 
 recommended that at least 75 per cent, of the fish should be 
 liberated immediately on arrival in New Zealand. However, local 
 knowledge of the ground-feeding habits of so many of our indigenous 
 fishes, and of the possibility of the majority if not all, of these small 
 fishes being devoured by such species as the red cod, ling and groper, 
 led to the decision to retain the whole lot, if possible, in the tanks 
 until they had attained to such a size as to guard them against much 
 risk of capture. Owing to the low temperature sometimes experienced 
 in the winter months, care was taken to slightly heat all the water 
 passing through the tanks, and it was accordingly not allowed to fall 
 below 42 F. 
 
 As the fish had increased so much in size many of them measuring 
 as much as eighteen inches in length and were crowded in the tanks, 
 and on account of the time, labour and expense in feeding them, it 
 was resolved to liberate a large proportion of them. 
 
 Accordingly on i9th May, 128 fish were placed on board the 
 S.S. ' Invercargill ' by Mr Anderton, and were liberated during the 
 night in a previously selected bay (Tautuku Bay), where it was con- 
 sidered they would be safe from trawlers, and from most of their 
 natural enemies. The fish were liberated as rapidly as possible at one 
 spot, in about ten fathoms of water on a clean sandy bottom, and from 
 their schooling instinct which was very marked during their con- 
 finement it was anticipated that they would tend to keep together. 
 
 The remaining fish still showed no signs of spawning, and as 
 some of them were 22 inches long, another large batch was turned 
 out in the same locality as the previous lot on ist September, 1917. 
 The temperature of the water at the time of capture of the young 
 fish in the English Channel averaged 56 F., and this was the tem- 
 perature of the water in Tautuku Bay at the time of liberation of 
 the fish in May, 1916.
 
 TELEOSTEI 257 
 
 There are now 14 fish left in the Portobello Hatchery Tanks, 
 some of them just 24 inches in length, but they show no signs 
 of spawning. I am inclined to think that the difficulty of getting 
 most kinds of sea-fish to spawn in confinement is due to the shallow- 
 ness and consequent lack of pressure of the water in which they are 
 kept. At the spawning season all the large flat-fishes of indigenous 
 species move out of shallow bays and estuaries, and it may be that 
 a pressure of 30 to 40 fathoms of water assists the fish in the 
 extrusion of the ova. We have noticed at the Portobello Hatchery 
 that native flounders (Rhombosolea plebeid) taken at spawning time 
 and placed in our ponds can hold up their ova for weeks. 
 
 It is impossible to say whether the turbot has or has not become 
 established in New Zealand waters. Even if any succeed in spawning 
 their progeny are not likely to be in evidence for some years. 
 
 T.N. Z. I 7
 
 Chapter VII 
 MOLLUSCA 
 
 Class GASTROPODA 
 
 Order PECTINIBRANCHIA 
 
 (Family MURICID&, see Appendix B, p. 558.) 
 
 Family VOLUTIDJE 
 Ericusa sowerbyt, Kiener 
 
 AN example of this Australian mollusc was picked up in Evans* 
 Bay, Wellington, by Miss M. K. Mestayer some years ago. She 
 suggests that "it may have come to New Zealand adhering to the 
 bottom of some ship, and may possibly have been knocked off by 
 the vessel being put on the Patent Slip." I have not found or heard 
 of any other examples being found in New Zealand waters, but there 
 s no doubt that, from time to time, marine organisms are so intro- 
 duced. 
 
 Family CONIDJE 
 
 Conus mannoreus, Linn. 
 
 Early in 1917 the lighthouse-keeper at Farewell Spit picked up 
 a living specimen of this species, which he gave to Captain Bollons 
 of the S.S. 'Hinemoa.' 
 
 Miss Mestayer says of this genus : 
 
 In his Catalogue of the Marine Mollusca, 1873, p. 23, the late Captain 
 F. W. Hutton recorded two species of Conus as belonging to New Zealand, 
 Conus zealandicus sp. nov. and Conus distans Hwass, N.Z. (Gumming). 
 The type of Conus zealandicus is in the Dominion Museum. 
 
 This species was founded upon a single specimen from the Bay of 
 Islands. It has since been identified as Conus anemone, Lamarck, 
 from Australia, by Suter, while in Tryon and Pilsbury's Manual of 
 Conchology it is placed as a synonym of Conus aplustre, Reeve. In 
 1882 Mr Justice Gillies stated that he had a single specimen of 
 C. aplustre from the Bay of Islands, but suggests that this and other 
 shells picked up in the same locality were perhaps dropped from some 
 South Sea whaler. 
 
 Order PULMONATA 
 
 With one exception all the mollusca introduced into New Zealand 
 belong to the Pulmonates, known popularly as slugs and snails. With
 
 PULMONATA 259 
 
 the exception of the first named on the list, they have been un- 
 wittingly introduced, with plants, garden stuff, etc. In spite of 
 introduced enemies (birds, hedgehogs, etc.) they are extraordinarily 
 abundant now in many parts, and are a great pest in gardens. 
 
 The following list is compiled by the eminent New Zealand 
 malacologist, the late Mr Henry Suter, and is practically the same as 
 is given in his Manual of New Zealand Mollusca, published in Wel- 
 lington in 1913 (p. 1071). 
 
 The classification of Families is that adopted by the Rev. A. H. 
 Cooke in the Cambridge Natural History. 
 
 Family LiMN.asiD.flE 
 Lymncea stagnalis, Linn. 
 
 Onehunga Springs, Christchurch, introduced as food for trout 
 in the River Avon (Suter). These were originally introduced from 
 England in 1864 by Mr A. M. Johnson, late of Opawa, who 
 brought them out as food for the fish he was endeavouring to intro- 
 duce. 
 
 Suter thinks that the Tasmanian water-snails introduced by John- 
 son in 1868 were most likely the same species. It is very abundant 
 about Hobart and was described by the Rev. J. E. Tenison Woods 
 as Limncea tasmanica in Proc. Roy. Soc. of Tasmania. 
 
 Hutton stated in 1881 that this species was abundant in the River 
 Avon, below the Christchurch Botanical Gardens. It was also recorded 
 before 1890 from springs at Onehunga, near Auckland, and is now 
 known from streams in Taranaki. - 
 
 Lymncea auricularia, Linn. 
 
 An empty shell was found near Wanganui (Suter). According to 
 Kew, eggs of this species have passed unharmed through the digestive 
 system of swans. 
 
 Family TESTACELLIDJE 
 Testacella maugei, Ferussac 
 
 Originally described as T. vagans by Hutton who thought it was 
 an indigenous species. 
 
 Found in gardens in the vicinity of Auckland (Suter). 
 
 The first specimens obtained were got by Mr W. W. Smith at 
 Ashburton. 
 
 This "snail-slug" is a native of South-west Europe, and it was 
 first noticed between 1812 and 1816, in Britain.
 
 2 6o MOLLUSCA 
 
 Family 
 Agriolimax Icevis, Miiller 
 
 A cosmopolitan slug (Suter). In 1867 Mr Fereday stated that 
 he had seen ten common English slugs on one cabbage in his garden 
 near Christchurch, and he used this as an argument for the intro- 
 duction of birds, such as thrushes. 
 
 This was probably the species he referred to. It appears to be 
 common in New Zealand. 
 
 Agriolimax agrestis, Linn. 
 
 Common in meadows, fields and gardens (Suter) ; Auckland, Wel- 
 lington, Taranaki, Nelson, Grey mouth, Christchurch, Dunedin, etc. 
 Suter writing in 1917 says: 
 
 In 1887 I was living on a ten-acre clearing in the Forty-Mile Bush, sur- 
 rounded by native bush. This clearing had been laid down in grass about 
 ten years earlier, and was used for feeding horses. Everywhere Agriolimax 
 agrestis was common, but these slugs never penetrated the native bush. 
 They evidently must have been brought to that place with the grass-seed, 
 and no doubt in the egg-stage. In a similar way introduced slugs were 
 brought to Campbell Island. They were, if I am not mistaken, a variety 
 of the common A. agrestis or A. Icevis. 
 
 Musson and Hedley were both of opinion in 1890 that A. leevis 
 was indigenous in Australia; but the latter in 1892 considered that 
 all the species of Limax described as native to Australasia are referable 
 either to L. maximus, flavus, gagates, or agrestis, all believed to be 
 introduced by man from Europe. 
 
 Limax maximus, Linn. 
 
 Reported from Dunedin by Captain Hutton, and from Taranaki 
 by Mr W. W. Smith. 
 
 (In Tasmania this slug is found to be infested with a mite, possibly 
 the same as is found in England under similar circumstances. Mr 
 Hedley says of it: "should it prove to be identical with the parasite 
 attendant on the European mollusc, this fact would argue that the 
 animals migrated in the adult stage, and not in the eggs." He further 
 states that the species of Limax (all introduced) in Australia, have far 
 outstripped their shell-bearing relatives.) 
 
 Limax flavus, Linn. 
 
 This species is rather common now, and has been reported from 
 Dunedin, Greymouth and Taranaki. Mr Suter says it is especially 
 injurious to garden vegetables.
 
 PULMONATA 261 
 
 (Mr Musson thinks it possible that L. megalodontes, described by 
 MM. Quoy and Gaimard in 1824, from Port Jackson, was this 
 species.) 
 
 Amalia gagates, Draparnaud 
 
 Reported from Ohaupo and Auckland by Mr Musson, and in 
 Hawke's Bay by Mr Colenso. Mr Suter states that this is a very 
 variable slug and quite a number of varieties can be distinguished. 
 
 (Mr Musson thinks that Limax maurus, described by MM. Quoy 
 and Gaimard in 1824, from Port Jackson, was this species.) 
 
 Amalia antipoda, Pfeiffer 
 
 Amalia fuliginosa, Gould 
 
 Amalia emarginata, Hutton 
 
 All these three species, according to Mr Suter, have to be included 
 in the gagates group, and are found in New Zealand, but he gives 
 no localities for them. 
 
 Hyalina crystallina, Miiller 
 Mr Suter records this species as occurring in Auckland. 
 
 Hyalina alliaria, Miller 
 
 In conservatories and hot-houses ; Mr Suter does not record any 
 particular locality. 
 
 Hyalina cellaria, Miiller 
 
 Mr Suter records it as occurring in gardens, meadows, etc., mostly 
 hiding under stones, at the Bay of Islands, Auckland, Napier, and 
 Wanganui. Mr Musson reports it from Auckland "under stones, 
 especially about the various volcanic mounts." 
 
 Family HELICIDJE 
 Helix aspersa, Miiller 
 
 According to Mr Suter this species is common at most of the 
 sea-coast towns in New Zealand, where it is a great nuisance in 
 gardens. Writing to me in 1917, he informed me that it was much 
 more abundant in the north than it was at Christchurch, or farther 
 south. Mr Hutchison states that "this common garden snail is 
 greedily devoured by rats at Napier, while the next mentioned 
 species (H. hortensis ?), which is also in the gardens, is not appreciated 
 by rats for some reason." A reference to this will be found at p. 83. 
 
 Thrushes are very fond of this snail, which they carry to some 
 hard surface, where they break the shell with the bill and eat the 
 animal. Mr Musson, writing in 1890, says that examples from Opua 
 in the Bay of Islands are exceptionally thin-shelled, whilst shells
 
 262 MOLLUSCA 
 
 from Auckland are of the variety conoidea, thin, small and conical. 
 He also describes this as a most voracious snail, which has been known 
 to perforate birds' eggs for food 1 . 
 
 In the Agricultural Department's report for 1897 this species is 
 stated (in conjunction with different species of slugs) to be very 
 destructive to orange- and lemon- trees in the Hokianga district. 
 Captain Broun records that in another district near Auckland he 
 examined a lemon-tree about three years old that had been nearly 
 killed by snails; large pieces of the bark had been eaten away, and 
 even the green wood had been injured. 
 
 Mr Huddlestone of Nelson states that English snails, introduced 
 along with the plants from Britain, were first seen in the Nelson 
 district in numbers in 1861. These were in all probability either 
 Helix aspersa or H. caper ata. 
 
 Helix hortensis, Miiller 
 
 This snail is apparently widely spread in the North Island. It 
 was recorded from Auckland by Captain Hutton, and from Taranaki 
 by Mr W. W. Smith. I am told that it is abundant at Napier. 
 
 Snails of the genus Helix seem to be very tenacious of life, a 
 fact which favours their distribution in hay, straw, etc. Kew records 
 cases of H. hortensis which lived for 14 months without food, and 
 of H. aspersa, which survived after being in a closed pot of earth 
 for about ten and a half months, and subsequently produced fertile 
 
 Helicetta caper ata, Montagu 
 
 Mr Suter recorded this snail from Nelson in the South Island, 
 and Paekakariki in the North Island. It is probably much more 
 widely spread than these two isolated localities indicated. As showing 
 how readily snails are distributed, it may be mentioned that Kew 
 (p. 161) records a case in England where "thirteen wrinkled-snails 
 (H. caper ata}, together with a quantity of tares were taken from the 
 stomach of a wood-pigeon which had been shot three days previously. 
 Most of the snails were alive, and began creeping about on being 
 placed in a dish containing a little water." 
 
 Helicostyla tricolor, Pfeiffer 
 
 Mr Suter reports this from a garden in the Bay of Islands. 
 
 1 Dr Binney in Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks (1851) states that the larger 
 European snails, and particularly Helix aspersa, are sometimes imported into the 
 United States, for use as food by foreign residents. 
 
 2 Mr A. Nicols in Acclimatisation of the Salmonidce at the Antipodes says (p. 46) 
 that in the 'Mindora' shipment of salmon ova in 1869 "a living snail was found 
 among the moss " in which the eggs were packed, and was " acclimated." By which 
 I suppose he means that it was set free.
 
 PULMONATA 263 
 
 Helicostyla daphnis, Broderip 
 Found at Picton by Mr Kinsey. 
 
 Helicostyla fulgetrum, Broderip 
 
 Mr Suter states that "the specimen which was collected by Dr 
 Dieffenbach, and was in the British Museum, is lost." 
 
 Vallonia excentrica, Sterki 
 
 Mr Suter gives this species as from Auckland, Mr W. W. Smith 
 reports it from Taranaki. In Mr Musson's list of introduced Mollusca 
 (1890) this species was referred to as Helix pulchella, Miiller. His 
 specimens were collected by Mr Cheeseman in Albert Park, Auckland. 
 
 Family ARIONID.S 
 Arion empiricorum, Ferussac 
 
 Mr Suter reports this as found near Auckland, and at Dunedin. 
 In the former locality Mr Musson states that they were found 
 crawling over the roads after rain. 
 
 Arion subfuscus, Draparnaud 
 
 Found at Dunedin by Captain Hutton, who described it as a 
 new species, which he named A. incommodus, but a specimen in the 
 British Museum (also) from Dunedin, showed it to be the cinereo- 
 fuscus form of A. subfuscus. 
 
 Arion hortensis, Ferussac 
 
 Reported as plentiful about Auckland (1890) by Mr Musson, who 
 found it crawling about the roads after rain, along with A. empiri- 
 corum. Mr W. W. Smith informs me that it also occurs in Taranaki. 
 
 Arion minimus, Simroth 
 
 Mr Suter records this snail from Rangitoto Island. It was also 
 found by Mrs Longstaff at Matihiwi, near Masterton. 
 
 Family STENOGYRID^ 
 Cionella lubrica, Miiller 
 Mr Suter reports this species from Auckland. 
 
 Ccecilianella acicula, Miiller 
 This is also recorded from Auckland by Mr Suter.
 
 264 MOLLUSCA 
 
 Family ATHORACOPHORIDJE 
 Aneitea grteffet, Humbert 
 
 "This slug, a native of Queensland and New South Wales, was 
 found at Port Chalmers by Dr C. Chilton, and near Collingwood 
 by Mr J. Dall 1 ." 
 
 Order PSEUDOLAMELLIBRANCHIATA 
 
 Family OSTREID^ 
 Ostrea edulis, Linn. 
 
 In 1868 Mr W. C. Young shipped a quantity of oysters by the 
 'Celestial Queen' from London to the Otago Society. Only two 
 arrived alive in Dunedin : " These have been deposited on an artificial 
 oyster bed at Portobello, where it is to be hoped they will do well." 
 Great was the faith of these early pioneers in acclimatisation work. 
 According to a letter from Mr Frank Buckland these oysters were 
 from the River Roach in Essex, and were presented by Mr F. Wiseman 
 of Paglesham. Mr Buckland evidently had not sampled the oysters 
 of Foveaux Strait for he adds: " Oysters are found naturally in New 
 Zealand, but if the culture of a better class could be instituted there 
 is a chance of an additional source of food being supplied to the 
 colony." 
 
 1 In Mr Musson's list of introduced Mollusca (1890) he gives Zanites nitidus, 
 Miiller, as found by himself at " Lake St John, Auckland ; a dozen specimens under 
 logs." Mr Suter informs me that the species was the indigenous Fretum novaree, 
 Pfeiffer. 
 
 Neritina fluviatilis, Linn., was reported from the Waikare River by Mr T. Kirk, 
 and identified by Mr Musson in 1890. Mr Suter doubts the accuracy of the locality, 
 and seems to think the specimens were taken by mistake from the collections 
 in the Dominion Museum.
 
 Chapter VIII 
 INSECTS WITH MYRIAPODA 
 
 MYRIAPODA 
 
 (Order CHILOPODA, see Appendix B, p. 558.) 
 Order SCHIZOTARSIA 
 
 Family CERMATIID^E 
 Cermatia smithii, Newport 
 
 ONE example of this species was received recently (1919) at the 
 Dominion Museum, Wellington. It was taken at Wanganui. 
 
 INSECTA 
 
 (The scheme of classification generally adopted is that used by Dr D. 
 Sharp in the Cambridge Natural History, but I have been obliged to depart 
 from it in regard to several groups, especially those of parasitic insects, 
 regarding which the classification is still in a condition of flux.) 
 
 Order I. APTERA 
 Sub-order THYSANURA 
 
 Family LEPISMIDJE 
 Lepisma saccharina, Linn. (Silver-fish), Bristle-tail or Fish-moth 
 
 This species is very common throughout the North Island, but 
 not so widespread in the South. (Dr Hilgendorf reports it as only 
 found in heated linen cupboards about Christchurch.) I have found 
 it by no means uncommon in Dunedin. Mr Philpott has only found 
 it in one locality in Southland. Hudson considers it was introduced 
 at a very early date. 
 
 Mr Howes reports it from houses in Wellington, Christchurch 
 and Invercargill. "It is undoubtedly throughout N.Z. but cannot be 
 said to be common." 
 
 This insect is essentially a vegetable feeder, but its favourite 
 food is starch. Hence the damage it does to books and papers, 
 muslin curtains, starched articles of clothing, and silk garments and 
 tapestry which have been stiffened with starch. They are great pests 
 in libraries, where they eat the glaze, paste of the labels and the 
 surface of the paper. 
 
 A number of insects sent to Mr Jas. Drummond in May, 1913,
 
 266 INSECTS 
 
 from Lake Brunner, where they were said to have recently appeared, 
 proved to be this species. 
 
 Miller says this species only lives in damp places. 
 
 Thermobia furnorum, Rovelli. (Fire-brat) 
 
 Common about bakehouses, fireplaces, ovens or any warm dry 
 places, especially in the North Island. 
 
 Sub-order COLLEMBOLA 
 
 Family ENTOMOBRYIDJE 
 
 Entomobrya multifasciata, Tulb. 
 
 Two specimens of this cosmopolitan species were found in an 
 ants' nest at Ashburton by Mr W. W. Smith and recorded in (or 
 before) 1895. Its presence there may have been accidental. It is 
 difficult to say whether this is an introduced or an indigenous species. 
 
 Family ACHORUTIDJE 
 Achorutes armatus, Nic., Tulb. 
 
 Three specimens were found in an ants' nest at Ashburton by 
 Mr W. W. Smith, and recorded at the same time as the preceding 
 species. It is a very widely spread form, being found in all European 
 countries, Sumatra, California, Brazil, etc. The same remarks apply 
 to it as to the preceding. 
 
 Order II. ORTHOPTERA 
 
 Family FORFICULID^E 
 Forficula auricularia, Linn. (Earwig) 
 
 This common European insect was first reported from Ashburton 
 by Mr W. W. Smith in 1900. It was recorded from North Canterbury 
 in 1908, and it was stated then that it had been known for some 
 years in the Wairarapa district in the North Island. Since then it 
 has been steadily increasing its range, and its abundance. Mr Howes 
 first met with it commonly under fish crates in the railway station 
 at Palmerston (S.) ; from such a position it would be spread broadcast. 
 It is extremely abundant in the north end of Dunedin, in Christ- 
 church, at Waikari in North Canterbury, and on the railway station 
 at Cass. 
 
 These insects are most destructive to vegetables, flowers and 
 fruits, and they even penetrate into houses, and devour all starchy 
 and saccharine food materials. They are voracious feeders, and are 
 especially fond of the corollas of flowers, so that they are a great
 
 ORTHOPTERA 267 
 
 annoyance to gardeners. Occasionally they visit flowers for the nectar, 
 and Knuth reports them as going into the flowers of Tropeeolum 
 majus for this purpose. They have also been taken on the flowers 
 of ivy (Hedera Helix), poppy (Papaver Rhceas) and Millfoil (Achillcea 
 millefolium), perhaps on the same quest. But they eat the flowers 
 of species of Brassica, and of the thistle (Cnicus arvensis) very freely. 
 Their destruction of fruit is chiefly that which has fallen on the 
 ground, or which grows near the ground, like strawberries. 
 
 Kerner suggests that: . 
 
 "it is very probable that the species of Forficula, which we frequently 
 find working for days together in tubular flowers, so far interfere with 
 the floral functions as that by their presence other insects, whose visits 
 would be of use, are prevented from sucking the nectar." He adds: "I 
 possess, however, no definite observations on this point." 
 
 A rove-beetle, Philonthus ceneus, also introduced into New Zealand, 
 is very generally mistaken for an earwig. 
 
 Mr G. Howes informs me that he has three unidentified species 
 of earwigs in his collection, which were introduced from the South 
 Sea Islands in fruit. 
 
 Chelisoches morio, Fabr. 
 
 This species, originally belonging to the Malay Archipelago, was 
 first observed by Mr Hudson, as landed from a home steamer in 
 Wellington in 1890. He found another specimen amongst some 
 bananas in 1898. Mr W. W. Smith reported it as occurring round 
 about Christchurch in 1906. 
 
 Family BLATTID^E 
 
 Blatta latipennisy Brunn. (Phyllodromia opima). (India?) 
 ( ? Blatta orientalis, the Black Beetle) 
 
 This species was recorded as taken at Auckland by the ' Novara ' 
 Expedition (1859). 
 
 Blatta germanica. Linn. (Phyllodromia germanica, Linn.). 
 
 (Cosmopolitan.) Cockroach 
 
 This species, which has spread very widely from Europe, is 
 known in America, where it is very common, as the "Croton Bug." 
 Mr Howes reports it as generally distributed by merchandise, and 
 common on all New Zealand coastal boats. It has been found in 
 parts of Dunedin and Invercargill. 
 
 Polyzosteria truncata, Brunn. 
 
 This Australian species is recorded among introduced insects in 
 Hutton's list in the Fauna Novce-Zealandiee.
 
 268 INSECTS 
 
 Periplaneta americana, Linn. Cockroach, Yellow Roach 
 
 This species, which is now cosmopolitan in its distribution, is a 
 native of tropical America. It is a common cockroach on board 
 ships. Mr Howes says it is occasionally taken in seaport towns, 
 where it comes off boats, amongst goods, etc. He has picked it up 
 in fruit auction rooms in various parts of New Zealand. 
 
 Family 
 
 Orthodera ministralis, Fabr. Mantis 
 
 Some time prior to 1860, Dr Sinclair took egg-cases of this 
 Australian insect to England ; they were found apparently in Auckland. 
 In 1873-74, Captain Hutton observed it at Clyde in Central Otago; 
 Mr W. Colenso recorded it from Napier in 1878; Mr Potts found it 
 in Canterbury in 1880; Mr Hudson found it in Nelson in 1886, and 
 in Wellington in 1891 ; Dr Hilgendorf in 1916 says that it is common, 
 but overlooked on account of its protective colouring; and in 1919 
 Mr W. W. Smith says it is common in Taranaki, while Mr Howes 
 reports it from Oamaru. It seems, therefore, to be pretty generally 
 distributed. Captain Hutton writing in 1896 said: " I think that the 
 species has been unintentionally introduced into Auckland from 
 Sydney, and into Otago from Tasmania or Victoria, when large 
 quantities of hay were brought to Otago from Australia." 
 
 Family LOCUSTID/E 
 Ccedicia olivacea, Brunner 
 
 This Australian locust was found very commonly amongst sweet- 
 briars in Nelson in 1886, by Mr Hudson, and was also recorded 
 from Auckland by Captain Hutton in 1897. The latter authority 
 states that "probably it was introduced into Nelson in the early 
 days of the gold-diggings, and taken from there to Auckland." 
 Mr W. W. Smith tells me that it is common in Taranaki in 1919. 
 
 Family GRYLLID^E 
 
 Gryllus servillei, Saussure. Field Cricket or Whistling Cricket 
 Also recorded as Acheta fuliginosa. Mr Hudson thinks that the 
 introduction of this cricket from Australia occurred at a very early 
 period. He first recorded it from the Nelson district in 1875, when 
 it was extremely destructive. In 1896-97 the Agricultural Depart- 
 ment reported it as very destructive in Auckland and Hawke's Bay, 
 in the latter district eating the paddocks quite bare. It also entered 
 houses, destroying wall-papers, boots, clothing, harness, provisions, 
 etc.; and did much damage in orchards and gardens. In 1907 it was
 
 ORTHOPTERA 269 
 
 extremely abundant in the neighbourhood of Auckland. Mr Howes 
 states that "the cheerful chirping of the Black Cricket can be heard 
 every evening (in summer) about the North Island towns. I have also 
 heard it in the Port Hills above Christchurch." 
 
 Gryllotalpa vulgaris, Linn. Mole Cricket 
 
 In 1888 this species was noted by Mr T. W. Kirk in a bank on 
 the Tinakori Road, Wellington. Also found by Mr Robinson of 
 Makara, west of Wellington. Dr Hilgendorf (1916) says: "the first 
 specimen from near Wanganui was noted there some ten years ago; 
 it is now common in sand-hills there." 
 
 Mr Howes states that it is common as far south as Nelson. 
 
 Order III. NEUROPTERA 
 Sub-order MALLOPHAGA 
 
 (In Neumann's classification the Mallophaga or Ricinidae are 
 treated as a family of the sub-order Rhyncota or Pediculinae.) 
 
 Trichodectes scalaris, Nitzsch. Ox-louse 
 This ecto-parasite of cattle is not uncommon in New Zealand. 
 
 Trichodectes sphcerocephalus, Nitzsch. Sheep-louse 
 This species appears to be very common. The report of the 
 Agricultural Department for 1916 states that it is a very abundant 
 parasite among sheep. Mr Miller recorded it from Weraroa in 1917. 
 
 Trichodectes lotus, Nitzsch. Dog-louse 
 This species is found on dogs in New Zealand. 
 
 Trichodectes climax, Nitzsch. Goat-louse 
 
 Col. H. A. Reid informs me that this species occurs on goats in 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Goniodes dissimilis, Nitzsch. Brown Chicken-louse 
 Col. H. A. Reid states that this parasite is found on poultry in 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Menopon pallidum, Nitzsch 
 
 This most troublesome ecto-parasite of poultry is termed in 
 American publications the shaft-louse or small body-louse of chickens. 
 It is a species which moves with great nimbleness among feathers, 
 and can be kept alive for months on fresh feathers, of which it par- 
 ticularly consumes the quill epidermis. Col. H. A. Reid states that 
 it occurs among poultry in New Zealand.
 
 270 INSECTS 
 
 Menopon biseriatim, Nitzsch. Body-louse of Chickens 
 
 This species also occurs in New Zealand, and has been identified 
 by Col. Reid. 
 
 Sub-order PSEUDO-NEUROPTERA 
 
 Family ATROPID^E 
 
 Atropos pulsatoria, Linn. Book-louse; Lesser Death Watch; 
 Book-tick 
 
 This is a very generally distributed insect, which feeds on the 
 paste of books, wall-papers, etc. It has been long known, and was 
 probably introduced over a century ago, with the first papers and 
 books. 
 
 (See Appendix B, p. 558.) 
 
 Order IV. HYMENOPTERA 
 
 Family TENTHREDINE^:. (Sawflies) 
 
 Eriocampa limacina, De Geer (Eriocampa adumbrata, Klug; Selandria 
 cerasi, Curtis). Slug- worm, Leech. (Europe) 
 
 Osten-Sacken appears to have been the first to record the occur- 
 rence of this insect in New Zealand between 1870 and 1888. It is 
 now very abundant all over New Zealand ; the larvae feeding on pear, 
 cherry, hawthorn, plum, peach, and other trees of the Rosaceae. In 
 the North Island it is particularly destructive, and practically prevents 
 the use of the hawthorn as a hedge-plant. In the south it seems to 
 appear too late in the season to do much harm. Howes has found it 
 on the native tutu (Coriaria ruscifolia) at Queenstown. 
 
 It is attacked and destroyed by two indigenous bugs, Cermatulus 
 nasalis, Westwood, and Nezara amoyti, White ; also by the introduced 
 Australian wasp, Polistes tasmaniensis. Mr Holman of Whangarei 
 informs me that the native cuckoo (Eudynamis taitiensis) eats a con- 
 siderable number of these slugs when they are in the larval condition 1 . 
 
 Family SIRICIDJE 
 
 Sir ex juvencus , Linn. Steel-blue Sawfly 
 
 This European species has been found at the Government planta- 
 tions at Whakarewarewa; the larvae attack Pinus radiata, boring into 
 the timber. 
 
 1 In the British Board of Agriculture's Leaflet No. 62 (March, 1900), it is stated 
 that the Eriocampa limacina does much harm to pear and cherry trees in America. 
 Harris, writing as early as 1797, says: "Small trees were covered with them, and 
 their foliage entirely destroyed, and even the air, by passing through the trees, 
 became charged with a disagreeable and sickening odour given out by these slimy 
 creatures." The same thing has been noticed in England.
 
 HYMENOPTERA 271 
 
 Family ICHNEUMONID;E 
 
 Ryssa semipunctata, Kirby (Lissopimpla semipunctatd). 
 Dark-winged Ichneumon 
 
 In 1883 Mr P. Cameron obtained this species from specimens 
 received from Greymouth. Writing in 1899 ne savs: 
 
 Captain Hutton informs me that his belief is that the species has been 
 introduced into New Zealand from Australia. The evidence undoubtedly 
 is that it was rare in New Zealand thirty years ago, while now it is not at 
 all rare. At Greymouth the late Mr Richard Helms took it commonly. 
 In 1882 it was taken by Mr Hudson in Nelson, where it was fairly 
 common. Mr Howes reports it from Wanganui and New Plymouth, 
 and Mr D. Miller (1919) states that it is common in the Auckland 
 provincial district. The wasp is parasitic on the subterranean grass- 
 caterpillars (Porina umbraculata and P. cervinatd), and upon the army- 
 worm (Cyrphus unipunctatd). It also attacks the N.Z. Flax grub 
 (Xanthorce prcefectata), as well as native locusts. 
 
 Bassus lactatorius, Fabr. (B. generosus, Cameron) 
 Introduced from Australia. This is not a useful species, for it 
 is parasitic in the larvae of the syrphidae or hover flies, which them- 
 selves destroy great quantities of aphides. It was first reported by 
 Hudson in 1883. 
 
 Dacnusa sonchivorus, Cameron 
 
 This ichneumon was identified from N.Z. in 1902 by Cameron. 
 It is parasitic on Phytomyza albiceps, the caterpillar which bores in 
 the leaves of sowthistle, cineraria and other composites. It appears 
 to be a common species. (Cameron does not record this as an intro- 
 duced form.) 
 
 Eulophus albitarsis, Ashmead 
 
 A European and North American species which was recorded 
 from Chatham Island by Mr P. Cameron in 1902. I am not aware 
 of its having been met with in either the North or the South Island. 
 
 Pleurotropus (Entodon) epigonus, Walker 
 
 Sir James Hector (in 1894) recorded this parasitic wasp as occur- 
 ring at Marton in 1888. It was introduced from England by the 
 Agricultural Department in 1893, as the natural enemy of the Hessian 
 fly. Mr T. W. Kirk reported in (1895) 2& follows on this introduction: 
 In last year's report I mentioned having succeeded in rearing from the 
 parasitized "puparia" of Hessian flies, received from England, a large 
 number of the ichneumon fly, known as Semiotellus nigripes, which were 
 liberated in the various districts where the crops had suffered from the 
 attacks of the Hessian fly. One place selected as a depot was the farm of 
 Mr J. Hessey, of Masterton. This gentleman took a great interest in the
 
 272 INSECTS 
 
 experiment, fencing in a portion of his wheat as a sanctuary for the parasites. 
 Here they must have made good use of their time, for during the past 
 season, in company with Mr Hessey, I captured over a dozen of this 
 particular species in a very short time, and this, too, in a paddock fully 
 a hundred yards away from the nursery or depot. 
 
 Mr Howes informs me (1919) that in a sample of oats sent from 
 Balfour, Southland, more of these parasites emerged than Hessian 
 flies. This is probably the species found on the Hessian fly at Lincoln, 
 of which from two to five per cent, of the pupae hatch out parasites. 
 (See Appendix B, p. 558.) 
 
 Ichneumon sp. 
 
 Kirk writing in 1894 says that in Britain a parasite is found on 
 Phytomysa nigricornis, the cineraria fly, "but this does not seem to 
 have yet reached Wellington." 
 
 The species has certainly been detected since, for in 1906 Captain 
 Broun reported its discovery in Auckland. 
 
 Ichneumon sp. 
 
 This species, which is parasitic on the diamond-back moth (Plutella 
 maculipennis or P. cruciferarum), appears to be fairly common. Hilgen- 
 dorf states that at Lincoln, about five per cent, of the caterpillar 
 pupae hatch out ichneumons. 
 
 Ichneumon sp. 
 
 A species which is parasitic on Aphis brassicce, the green fly of 
 the turnip. Hilgendorf states that in February and March, aphides 
 on cabbage leaves are commonly found with holes in them, which 
 have been made by the escaping parasite. 
 
 Trichogramma pretiosa, Riley 
 
 In 1900 a parasitic ichneumon was found in the pupae of the 
 codlin moth in Mr Parr's orchard, at Waikumete, near Auckland, and 
 Mr T. W. Kirk hatched out a number of them. Specimens sent to 
 Professor L. O. Howard, of Washington, were identified as above. 
 Mr W. A. Boucher reported on this parasite in 1902, that "while 
 the percentage of moth-infected fruit of early and mid-season varieties 
 remains much the same, a percentage of the fruit of the later varieties 
 will apparently be saved from the moth." 
 
 Zele sp. 
 
 During 1908, Mr Simms, one of the Inspectors of Orchards in 
 the Department of Agriculture, found this species under "some 
 bandages " placed there to prevent the codlin moth from getting up 
 the stems of apple trees. The investigation of this species was never 
 carried out by the Department.
 
 HYMENOPTERA 273 
 
 Calliephaltes messer, Gravenhorst 
 
 This insect had been introduced into California from Spain as 
 a natural enemy of the codlin moth. In 1906 Mr Boucher was sent 
 to California, where he obtained a supply of these parasites. These, 
 and other parasites, were reared in an insectary specially built at 
 Auckland, and were spread far and wide to over 50 localities where 
 the moth was prevalent. In the Journal of Agriculture for 1911 it 
 is stated that the codlin moth parasitical flies which were liberated 
 in Whangarei five years previous "are increasing in appreciable 
 numbers in the orchards. One firm of orchardists state they have 
 this season found the larvae of the parasites in three out of five moth- 
 cocoons examined." 
 
 Platygaster minutus, Lindemann 
 
 This small hymenopterous insect, parasitic on the Hessian fly, 
 was introduced from Britain by the Agricultural Department in 1893. 
 
 (Family CHALCIDID^E, see Appendix B, p. 558.) 
 
 Family APIDJE 
 Bombus terrestris, Linn. 
 
 Bombus lucorum. Linn. TT , , 
 
 r, , , T^ , Humble-bees 
 
 Bombus ruder atus, Fab. ,p, , 
 
 Bombus hortorum, Linn. 
 Bombus lupidarius, Linn. 
 
 The naturalisation of humble-bees in New Zealand is due to the 
 action of the Canterbury Acclimatisation Society, the object of intro- 
 ducing them being to bring about the fertilisation of the red clover 
 (Trifolium pratense), which is very extensively cultivated, but which 
 previous to the advent of these insects did not produce seed, except 
 to a very limited extent. 
 
 In a notice of the humble-bee in New Zealand in the N.Z. Journal 
 of Science (January, 1891), I stated in regard to the fertilisation of 
 red clover that 
 
 the pollen and stigma of this flower are accessible to all insects which are 
 heavy enough to press down the keel, and if bees visit the flowers for pollen 
 only they will no doubt bring about cross-fertilisation. This may account 
 for an interesting example given me by Mr Wm. Martin, of Fail-field, 
 near Dunedin, who informs me that as far back as 1858 he obtained a 
 large quantity of very fine seed off a small patch of red clover which he 
 had under cultivation. 
 
 The first attempt to introduce these insects was made by Dr Frank 
 Buckland in 1873, but he failed to get the bees in time. In January, 
 1876, a consignment from Dr Buckland was brought out in the 
 'Otari,' by the Hon. John Hall, but all were found to be dead. 
 
 T. N. Z. IS
 
 274 INSECTS 
 
 In the Society's report for 1880 it is stated: "Your Council has 
 received intimation from Mrs Belfield of Timaru, of a shipment of 
 humble-bees from Messrs Neighbour & Sons, England." 
 
 Mr I. Hopkins, formerly Chief Government Apiarist, and author 
 of a bulletin on the "History of the Humble-bee in New Zealand," 
 refers evidently to this attempt as follows: 
 
 " Until a few years ago " (he was writing in 1914) " I was under the im- 
 pression that I had liberated the first humble-bees in this country, but 
 was corrected by a resident in Timaru, who stated he liberated in 1883, 
 some which came to the order of a lady, I think." 
 
 These apparently failed to establish themselves, for when bees were 
 liberated subsequently by the Society, the rapidity of increase and 
 of spread was phenomenal. 
 
 In 1882 Mr Hopkins sent an order for 100 queens to Messrs 
 Neighbour & Sons, London. 
 
 After stating the object of importing the bees I left the selection of them 
 to the firm, but gave instructions how they were to be packed, and to be 
 brought out in the ship's cool room, at a temperature of about 40 F. 
 
 These arrived in May, 1883, but were all dead. Another lot of 145 
 arrived in February, 1884, but only two were alive. After feeding 
 them, these were liberated, but there was no indication afterwards 
 of their having established themselves. 
 
 Other consignments arrived by post, and in the steamships ' Ionic ' and 
 'Doric,' in January and February, 1885. A total of nearly five hundred 
 bees came in the several consignments, but all were dead except the two 
 mentioned. From the difference in their size, markings, and colours we 
 concluded at the time that queens of three or four species had been sent, 
 but what they were we had no knowledge. 
 
 These lots came to Auckland. 
 
 The second consignment of bees to the order of the Canterbury Society 
 arrived in the S.S. 'Doric' at Lyttelton in February, 1884, and the third, 
 of 200 bees, in the 'Ruapeha' in April, 1884. Both lots were dead. 
 
 In January, 1885, the 'Tongariro' brought a fourth consignment 
 of 282 bees, of which 45 were alive ; and in February of the same 
 year, the ' Aorangi ' landed 48 out of 260 shipped. The first lot were 
 liberated at Riccarton, and the next at the foot of the Port Hills. 
 "Both lots of bees were strong and healthy when liberated, and 
 doubtless the majority, if not all, of them succeeded in establishing 
 themselves." 
 
 It is interesting to learn from the report issued by the Canterbury 
 Society in February, 1886, that the cost of collecting and shipping 
 the bees in England, was is. jd. each; the cost of those landed in 
 New Zealand was 95. $d. each. 

 
 HYMENOPTERA 275 
 
 Another interesting and noteworthy fact is that in their original 
 instructions for shipment of bees the Society particularly asked that 
 Bombus terrestris be sent out, a species in which, according to Miiller, 
 the trunk is too short to reach the bottom of the tube of the flowers 
 of Trifolium pratense. It is certain that this species was among those 
 sent out, and it is still the commonest species in New Zealand. But 
 apparently also specimens of B. ruder atus (variously referred to also 
 as B. subterraneus and B. harrisellus), and B. hortorum were introduced 
 at the same time. For as soon as the insects began to increase, 
 fertilisation of the clover ensued and abundance of seed began to be 
 obtained. I noticed also that previous to 1889 all my species of 
 Primula (primroses, cowslips, etc.), which were growing freely in my 
 garden, failed to produce seed naturally. After humble-bees began 
 to come about, they seeded quite freely. This, too, in spite of the fact 
 that the smaller bees learned to bite the corolla-tubes, and so make 
 holes half-way down, through which they could suck the nectar with- 
 out disturbing either anthers or stigmas. Mr Hopkins refers to the 
 perforation of the tubes of red-clover flowers as being done by both 
 B. terrestris and B. lucorum in Europe, but could find no evidence 
 of its being done in New Zealand. However, in April, 1892, the late 
 Mr John Allan of Taurima (in the Taieri Plain) informed me that 
 he had repeatedly seen small humble-bees, biting the tubes of the 
 red clover; these were, no doubt, small bees produced late in the 
 season, and not full-grown. I have frequently observed humble-bees 
 biting holes in the tubes of Primula, Arbutus, Antirrhinum, Eccremo- 
 carpus, Salvia, Narcissus and Hyacinth. It would seem also that they 
 learn the trick from one another. Thus bulb-growers in one district 
 have told me that all their hyacinth blossoms were destroyed by 
 humble-bees, while in another district at a few miles distance the 
 hyacinths were quite untouched. 
 
 After the bees became thoroughly established in the country, 
 some doubt began to be expressed that the wrong species had been 
 introduced, and the Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Association 
 resolved to import more. On the advice of Lord Avebury, they 
 obtained three shipments from London through the agency of Mr 
 Sladen. Mr Hopkins in his pamphlet says: 
 
 Mr O. B. Pemberton, the secretary of the association, writes in January, 
 1913: "We got out in all three shipments, arriving as follows: 
 
 Arrival Number sent Live Queens 
 
 (1) 24th February, 1906 ... 15 10 
 
 (2) 29th November, 1906 ... 165 71 
 
 (3) 27th December, 1906 ... 145 62 
 
 The Queens we got out were B. lapidarius and B. hortorum. These 
 
 1 8 2
 
 276 INSECTS 
 
 were all liberated by me in different localities. I have not heard of any of 
 the B. lapidarius being seen, so I presume they did not live." 
 
 The increase of the bees in the first few years after their introduc- 
 tion was phenomenally rapid. The first were liberated at Christchurch 
 in January, 1885. In January, 1886, two were seen by Mr J. D. Enys 
 on Castle Hill on the West Coast Road (64 miles), and others 
 at Mount Peel 90 miles in another direction. Early in 1887 they 
 were reported from Kaikoura, 100 miles to the north, and from 
 Timaru, 100 miles to the south. At the end of the year they had made 
 their way from Oamaru up the Waitaki Valley, through the Lindis 
 Pass and on to the Hawea flats. In February, 1888, they appeared 
 at Dunedin, and at the same time at Waihola 30 miles south-west. 
 In November, 1889, they were first recorded from the head of Lake 
 Wakatipu, and in the beginning of 1890 were observed in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Invercargill. No doubt their spread to the west coast, 
 and to Cook Strait was equally rapid, but there is no record. Both 
 whole nests and queens were sent from time to time to the North 
 Island from Canterbury from 1888 onwards, in which year they were 
 first observed in Wellington, while the first record from Auckland 
 was in May, 1890. They became thus fully established throughout 
 New Zealand in less than ten years. 
 
 So rapid was the first increase of the humble-bees that apiarists 
 began to take fright, and it was very commonly feared that soon the 
 hive-bees would be crowded out from the flowers and that no nectar 
 would be left for them. In some districts, as in thistle-infested areas, 
 the bees swarmed to such an extent when the plants were in flower, 
 as to deter timid persons from going through. This extraordinary 
 rate of increase was not maintained. After a time the numbers 
 became reduced, till in some districts where they were formerly 
 abundant, they became almost rare. In most parts of the country 
 now, though humble-bees are fairly common, they are nowhere so 
 abundant as to constitute a pest or even a menace. 
 
 The causes of this diminution in numbers have never been in- 
 vestigated, though a few observers have sought to give some explana- 
 tion of the facts. Hopkins considers that the rainfall is the chief 
 factor, and that those portions of Marlborough, Canterbury and 
 Otago where the annual rainfall is under 30 inches, are best 
 suited for the growth and increase of the bees. Portions of Otago 
 and Southland, a small part of Canterbury, Nelson, and a very small 
 portion of the North Island have less than 40 inches but more than 
 30 inches of rain per annum; while most of the North Island 
 ranges between 40 and 70 inches. Speaking of the diminution in 
 numbers Hopkins says :
 
 HYMENOPTERA 277 
 
 There seemed to be no plausible reason for the decline. I am inclined to 
 think that the falling-off was due to a series of unfavourable seasons closely 
 following each other, unusually heavy rainfalls will cause great destruc- 
 tion by flooding their nests. 
 
 This, however, is only a surmise, and I do not think any exact 
 observations have been made in support of the statement. I have 
 elsewhere shown that in many parts of New Zealand humble-bees 
 do not hibernate at all, and it is just possible owing to this that they 
 frequently succumb to the rapid falls of temperature which are so 
 common in our insular climate. Even in Otago where the winters 
 are often fairly severe the mean winter temperature being 41 F., 
 and the mean winter minimum for the same months being 35 F. 
 I have seen and recorded the bees in every month of the year. In 
 Taranaki, W. W. Smith says : " Queens of the three forms naturalised 
 in the North Island may be seen on the wing almost every day of 
 warm sunshine in the public park at New Plymouth throughout 
 winter months." 
 
 The males appear in Otago about November, which is somewhat 
 earlier than occurs in the corresponding season in Britain. 
 
 Mr J. Attwood of Northern Wairoa stated in 1914 that all the 
 varieties of humble-bees were common in the district, and that ten 
 years ago he noticed the large jet-black bees (either B. terrestris or 
 B. ruder atus). 
 
 Mr W. Hone of Waverley (1914) says that more than 40 years 
 ago, Mr J. Dickie, Senr., sowed red clover on a part of his land near 
 Waverley, from which he obtained a large crop of very fertile seed. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith states that hive-bees occasionally fertilise red 
 clover in the shorter flowers of the heads. 
 
 Mr Philpott informed me in 1917 that the most common species 
 in Southland is B. terrestris, var. virginalis. B. ruderatus also occurs, 
 but the other introduced species are not found in the south. 
 
 I have not found the humble-bees visiting many of the indigenous 
 flowers either for nectar or pollen. They are very fond of the flowers 
 of Fuchsia excorticata, and frequently suck out the nectar left by 
 honey-birds or tuis, through the portions of the tube torn open by 
 the birds. They have also been recorded on Veronica ettiptica, many 
 large hybrid veronicas, Myoporum Icetum and Muehlenbeckia australis. 
 
 Mr A. Philpott informs me (February, 1917) that he found humble- 
 bees not uncommon on the Celmisia blossoms on the Hunter Moun- 
 tains, at a height of 4500 ft. To get to the upland open country from 
 the Monowai flats the insects would have to traverse or pass through 
 about six miles of Nothofagus forest. 
 
 The following species of plants which have been introduced into
 
 2 7 8 
 
 INSECTS 
 
 New Zealand, and have become more or less wild, are visited by 
 humble-bees in Europe : 
 
 Bombus terrestris 
 
 Ranunculus aquatilis, R. acris, R. repens, 
 Nigella damascena. 
 
 Berber is vulgaris. 
 
 Papaver Rhaeas, P. somniferum. 
 
 Cheiranthus Cheiri, Brassica oleracea, 
 Sinapis arvensis, Cakile maritima. 
 
 Viola tricolor, V. arvensis, V. odorata. 
 
 Malva sylvestris. 
 
 Hypericum perforatum. 
 
 Geranium Robertianum. 
 
 Cytisus scoparius, Ulex europeeus, Lupinus 
 luteus, Medicago saliva, M. lupulina, 
 Trifolium repens, T. hybridum, T.fragi- 
 ferum, T. pratense, T. medium, T. ar- 
 vense, Lotus corniculatus , Vicia sativa, 
 Faba vulgaris, Phaseolus vulgaris. 
 
 Persica vulgaris, Prunus domesticus, P. 
 avium, P. cerasus, Rosa rubiginosa, Ru- 
 bus fruticosus , R. idcRus, Crateegus oxy- 
 acantha, Pyrus malus, P. communis, 
 P. aucuparia. 
 
 (Enothera biennis. 
 
 Ribes nigrum, R. rubrum, JR. grossularia. 
 
 Daucus Car ota. 
 
 Knautia arvensis. 
 
 Petasites officinale (vulgaris), Tanacetum 
 vulgare, Bellisperennis, Cnicus arvensis, 
 C. lanceolatus, Chrysanthemum leucan- 
 themum, Carduus crispus, C. nutans, 
 Onopordon acanthium, Centaurea nigra, 
 Taraxacum officinale, Sonchus arvensis, 
 Crepis virens. 
 
 Calluna vulgaris. 
 
 Vinca major. 
 
 Echium vulgare. 
 
 Verbascum thapsus, Linaria vulgaris, 
 Digitalis purpurea. 
 
 Mentha arvensis, Nepeta cataria, N. gle- 
 choma, Lamium purpureum, L. album, 
 Marrubium vulgare. 
 
 Primula elatior. 
 
 Plantago lanceolata, P. media. 
 
 Salix alba, S.fragilis. 
 
 Allium Cepa. 
 
 Bombus hortorum 
 
 Daucus Car ota. 
 
 Senecio jacobcea, Cnicus arvensis, C. lan- 
 
 ceolatus, C. nutans, Onopordon acan- 
 
 thium, Centaurea nigra, Taraxacum 
 
 officinale. 
 Calluna vulgaris. 
 Echium vulgare. 
 Verbascum Thapsus, Linaria vulgaris, 
 
 Digitalis purpurea. 
 Mentha aquatica, Prunella vulgaris. 
 Primula elatior, P. vulgaris, P. verts. 
 Polygonum Persicaria. 
 Salix caprea. 
 
 Brassica oleracea, Sinapis arvensis. 
 
 Viola odorata, V. tricolor, V. arvense. 
 
 Malva sylvestris. 
 
 Hypericum perforatum. 
 
 Geranium Robertianum. 
 
 Tropeeolum majus. 
 
 Cytisus scoparius, C. laburnum, Medicago 
 
 sativa, M. lupulina, Melilotus officinalis, 
 
 Trifolium repens, T. pratense, Anthyllis 
 
 vulneraria, Lotus corniculatus, Vicia 
 
 sativa, Faba vulgaris, Phaseolus vul- 
 garis. 
 Prunus domesticus, P. avium, P. cerasus, 
 
 Rubus fruticosus, R. idceus, Crateegus 
 
 oxyacantha, Pyrus malus. 
 
 Bombus 
 
 Cakile maritima. 
 
 Cytisus Laburnum. 
 
 Trifolium pratense, Faba vulgaris. 
 
 Cnicus arvensis, Taraxacum officinale. 
 
 Bombus lucorum 
 
 Cakile maritima. 
 
 Viola odorata. 
 
 Trifolium repens, T. pratense, T. arvense. 
 
 Rubus fruticosus, R. idceus, Pyrus com- 
 
 munis. 
 Ribes grossularia. 
 
 Enemies. Mice are probably the most serious enemies the 
 humble-bees have in New Zealand. They are very common, especially 
 
 ruderatus 
 
 Carduus nutans. 
 Echium vulgare. 
 Linaria vulgaris. 
 
 Petasites vulgaris , Cnicus arvensis, Tarax- 
 acum officinale. 
 Calluna vulgaris. 
 
 Thymus Serpyllum, Lamium album. 
 Salix alba.
 
 HYMENOPTERA 279 
 
 in districts and neighbourhoods where cultivation is carried on, and 
 no doubt they destroy numbers of nests and larvae. But I have no 
 direct evidence of this. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith states that during the drought in 1891-93 in 
 Canterbury, starlings attacked and ate humble-bees during the spring 
 seasons, when food generally was scarce. Again in 1896 he recorded 
 that " last nesting season we noticed starlings several times capturing 
 and carrying the bees to their nests to feed their young." A North 
 Canterbury farmer states (in 1910) that he has repeatedly seen 
 starlings catching the humble-bees and carrying them off to their nests. 
 
 In the following year the Akaroa Mail reported that tuis were 
 observed catching humble-bees and taking their honey-bags from 
 them. 
 
 Mr Smith also reported in 1896 that numbers of dead humble- 
 bees were found during two previous seasons with a small puncture 
 either in their thorax or abdomen. On one occasion he saw a specimen 
 of Bombus subterraneus seized by a large native fly Asilus varius 
 which pulled it to the ground, pierced the forepart of the thorax, 
 and killed it in a few seconds by sucking out the viscera. 
 
 In September, 1890, I found large numbers of dead humble-bees 
 about Dunedin, and these were always thickly infested with mites, 
 some parts of the body especially the bare posterior upper surface 
 of the thorax being covered with them to such an extent as to have 
 the integument completely hidden. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith (April, 1919) states that the red mites were 
 extraordinarily common on the humble-bees, and he thinks are or 
 were largely responsible for their remarkable diminution in numbers. 
 He adds, " I have not seen a humble-bee in the N. Island this month." 
 
 The importance and value of the humble-bee to New Zealand 
 has been very considerable. Mr Smith states that within nine years 
 of the liberation of 90 queen bees in Christchurch in 1885, "the 
 sum of about 200,000 has been realized on red clover seed alone." 
 
 Humble-bees were carried over to the Chatham Islands in October, 
 1890. 
 
 They were also introduced into New South Wales from New 
 Zealand many years ago. 
 
 Hive-Bees (Apis mellifica, Linn, and A. ligustica, Spin.). (Europe) 
 
 The history of the first introduction of hive-bees into New Zealand 
 has been investigated by Mr Isaac Hopkins, late Chief Government 
 Apiarist, and from his report the following facts are gleaned. 
 
 On 1 3th March, 1839, the Rev. J. H. Burnby and his sister 
 arrived in the ' James ' at the Mission station of Mungunga, Hokianga.
 
 2 8o INSECTS 
 
 Miss Burnby brought with her the first bees introduced in two straw 
 hives. These came from New South Wales. In 1840 Lady Hobson, 
 wife of the first Governor of New Zealand, brought bees with her 
 from New South Wales. In 1842 Mrs Allum arrived at Nelson in 
 the ' Clifford ' with the first shipment of bees from England ; and in 
 the same year the Rev. W. Cotton arrived in the Bay of Islands with 
 another lot of bees from England. 
 
 It is probable that the bees referred to by Dieffenbach (in 1839) 
 had swarmed from those brought over in the autumn by Miss Burnby, 
 unless, indeed, they were an independent importation. He says: 
 "Bees have been introduced into New Zealand from New South 
 Wales; my excellent friend, the Rev. Richard Taylor at Waimate, 
 had a hive, and they were thriving remarkably well." 
 
 As settlement proceeded throughout the country most of it on 
 the skirt of bushland great numbers of swarms were lost in the 
 forests, where they quickly established themselves in hollow trees. 
 Lady Barker in Station Life in New Zealand says she ate bush-honey 
 in Canterbury in 1866. Wild bees were very common in Southland 
 in 1868. 
 
 The Hon. Herbert Meade writing in 1871 says: 
 
 New Zealand is par excellence the land of honey, and although the bees 
 have only been introduced for, I believe, about twenty-five years, the woods 
 are already full of wild honey. A friend assured me that he had taken as 
 much as 70 Ibs. from a single tree, and known others to get 200 and 300 Ibs. 
 at one haul; another man collected a ton and a half in a few weeks. 
 
 The greatest enemies to the bees here are the dragon-flies, which grow 
 to an enormous size. They waylay the luckless bees when homeward 
 bound and laden with honey, and after nipping off the part containing 
 the sting, devour the remainder with the honey, at leisure. 
 
 Dragon-flies do occasionally eat bees, but they are not really for- 
 midable enemies ; their numbers are too few. 
 
 Honey-bees were sent over to the Chatham Islands in October, 
 1890. They had been imported previously, though I have not got a 
 date for their introduction, but were supposed to have been destroyed 
 by spiders, which were particularly abundant. 
 
 Numbers of various kinds of bees have been introduced into the 
 country from time to time, such as Italian, Syrian, Cyprian, Holy- 
 land, Carniolian and Swiss-alpine; but only the first-named is 
 cultivated. 
 
 The first Italian bees introduced were landed in 1879 by Mr J. H. 
 Harrison of Coromandel (one hive) and the Canterbury Acclimatisa- 
 tion (one hive). 
 
 Then the Canterbury Society imported four hives of Ligurians
 
 HYMENOPTERA 281 
 
 in 1880, and the Otago Society ten hives in 1883 ; but most of those 
 introduced were brought in by private individuals and bee-keepers' 
 associations. Mr Isaac Hopkins of Auckland, formerly Chief Govern- 
 ment Apiarist, tells me: 
 
 There have not been sufficient foreign bees other than Italians cultivated 
 and escaped in New Zealand to make any difference in our wild or vagrant 
 bees. It might be possible to find a pure Italian vagrant colony that had 
 just escaped from some apiary, but not one of the second generation. There 
 are too many "black bees" about, and in a state of nature they breed a 
 tremendous number of drones, while we restrict their breeding. Therefore 
 there is a large preponderance of black drones flying, and in most districts 
 the chances are fifty to one that an Italian queen will meet a black drone. 
 There are plenty of crosses, Black-Italians, about. 
 
 According to Sir Walter Duller, the native kingfisher (Halcyon 
 vagans) is destructive to bees. A farmer at Paraekaretu found that 
 his bees were disappearing, and on killing a kingfisher found its 
 crop full of bees. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith states that hive-bees occasionally fertilise red 
 \ clover in the shorter flowers of its heads. 
 
 Indigenous plants visited by hive-bees for nectar or pollen 
 
 The following list is compiled partly from data supplied to me 
 by various bee-keepers and partly from my own observation and is 
 probably far from complete. 
 
 Clematis indivisa (Puawhananga), pollen only, and Clematis faetida. 
 
 Ranunculus rivularis, the honey from this flower is more or less poisonous. 
 
 Melicytus ramiflorus (mahoe), Pittospomm tenuifolium (kohuhu or black mapau) 
 and P. eugeniaides (tarata or white mapau), Gay a Lyallii (lace-bark), Aristotelia 
 racemosa (mako-mako), Discaria Toumatou (tumatukuru), Sophora tetraptera (ko- 
 whai), Rubus australis (bush-lawyer or tataramoa), Accena Sanguisorbee (piri-piri), 
 Carpodetus serratus (piripiriwhata or putaputawheta), Leptospermum scoparium 
 (manuka or tea-tree) and L. ericaides : the former is a particular favourite with bees, 
 and produces highly aromatic honey of a rich pinky-brown colour. Metrosideros 
 lucida (rata) ; probably all the species are visited by bees, for all are nectar-producing, 
 but this is the only one I have received a record of. Myrtus bullata (ramarama), 
 M. pedunculata, M. obcordata (rohutu), Fuchsia excorticata (kotukutuku) ; all bee- 
 keepers who live near the bush report this species. Aciphylla squarrosa (spear-grass, 
 taramea or kurikuri), Panax arbor eum (whauwhaupaku), especially on the male 
 flowers, Griselinia lucida (puka) and G. littorahs (broad-leaf, kapuka or papaumu). 
 Celmisia coriacea, and on many other species bees have been recorded ; also several 
 species of Raoulia, which have not, however, been strictly identified. 
 
 Senecio lagopus, S. bellidioides and probably most of the shrubby species. 
 
 Brachyglottis repanda (pukapuka or wharangitawhito) and B. Rangiora (rangiora). 
 Both these species are especially blamed for producing poisonous honey. In October, 
 1906, six Maoris at Rewiti, near Helensville, were poisoned (though all ultimately 
 recovered) by eating honey which contained large quantities of pollen grains of 
 two species, viz., manuka and pukapuka. There was no doubt whatever in the minds 
 of those who investigated it that the poison was due to the Brachyglottis. The plants 
 are known to be poisonous. A settler near Rotorua died from eating this honey 
 in 1917. 
 
 Parsonsia heterophylla (kaiku or kaiwhiria) and P. capsularis (aka-kiore), Con- 
 volvulus tuguriorum, probably for pollen; Veronica salicifolia, V. Traversii, V. soli-
 
 282 INSECTS 
 
 cormoides and probably all the shrubby species; Muehlenbeckia australis, Knightia 
 excelsa (rewarewa or native honeysuckle), Nothofagus sp. (native birches or beeches), 
 probably all the species are visited but whether for nectar or pollen is not recorded ; 
 Podocarpus (miro and black and white pines) several species, all for pollen ; Rkipo- 
 gonum scandens (supple-jack, kareao or pirita) ; Cordyline australis (cabbage-tree or 
 ti). This species is blamed by some apiarists for producing very thick honey, which 
 is difficult to extract. Astelia nervosa, Phormium tenax (New Zealand flax or hara- 
 keke), and Bulbinella Hookeri. 
 
 Of introduced plants probably the best honey producer is the white clover 
 (Trifolium repens) which gives a beautiful pale honey. In districts where it abounds 
 the ragwort (Senecio jacobced) produces somewhat late in the season a dark, strongly- 
 flavoured honey which is not always saleable. 
 
 In April, 1919, I noticed bees in great numbers feeding on fallen 
 (rotten) pears, at Whangarei. 
 
 In Europe, Apis mellifica fertilises the following flowering plants 
 which have been introduced into New Zealand : 
 
 Ranunculus aquatilis, R. acris, R. repens, R. bulbosus, Nigella damascena. 
 
 Herberts vulgaris. 
 
 Papaver Rhoeas, P. somniferum, Chelidonium majus. 
 
 Fumaria officinalis. 
 
 Nasturtium officinale, Sisymbrium officinale, Brassica Rapa, B. oleracea, Cheiran- 
 thus Cheiri, Sinapis arvensis, S. alba, Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Cakile 
 maritima, Crambe maritima, Raphanus Raphanistrum, R. sativus. 
 
 Reseda luteola, R. lutea. 
 
 Spergula arvensis, Stellaria media. 
 
 Hypericum perforatum. 
 
 Malva sylvestris. 
 
 Geranium molle, Erodium cicutarium, Tropceolum majus. 
 
 Cytisus scoparius (for pollen only), Medicago saliva, Trifolium repens, T. fragi- 
 ferum, T.pratense (after the flowers have been punctured by short-trunked 
 humble-bees), Lotus corniculatus , Robinia pseudo-acacia, Vicia tetrasperma. 
 
 Rosa canina, R. rubiginosa, Rubus fruticosus, R. idceus, Fragaria vesca, Crateegus 
 oxyacantha, Pyrus communis, Pyrus malus. 
 
 Ribes nigrum, R. rubrum, R. Grossularia. 
 
 CEnothera biennis. 
 
 Daucus car ota. 
 
 Petasites vulgaris, Centaurea cyanus, Cnicus arvensis, C. lanceolatus, Cichorium 
 Intybus, Hypochceris radicata, Tanacetum vulgare, Senecio jacobeea, Tarax- 
 acum officinale. 
 
 (See Appendix B, p. 559.) 
 
 Family VESPID^E 
 Polistes tasmaniensis , Sauss. Australian Wasp 
 
 This wasp has been established about Hokianga and Whangarei, 
 probably, indeed, all over North Auckland Peninsula for a great 
 number of years, and was first recorded from Rawene in 1893. It 
 was then common over the Hokianga district. In 1911 Colonel 
 Boscawen reported of an orchard in Opitonui, that it was full of 
 their nests. It is extremely common in the north, but has spread 
 very slowly to the south of Auckland. In 1918 Mr Howes met with 
 it both at Dunedin and Waipori 1 . 
 
 1 In Nicol's book, Acclimatisation of Salmonidce at the Antipodes, we are told 
 (p. 46): "a living wasp was found among the moss" in which the eggs were packed, 
 in the shipment of salmon ova sent to Otago in 1869, in the ' Mindora.'
 
 HYMENOPTERA 283 
 
 It attacks many species of insects, and is especially destructive to 
 the pear-leech or sawfly (Eriocampa limacind). 
 
 Family FORMICIDJE 
 Prenolepis longicornis, Fabr. (Europe and Asia) 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith states that this so-called " Sugar- Ant" is a great 
 nuisance in some houses in Nelson and New Plymouth, and is com- 
 mon in both localities. It is also common in the Auckland Province, 
 and is probably very widespread, especially in the North Island 1 . 
 
 Order V. COLEOPTERA 
 
 LAMELLICORNIA 
 
 Family SCARAB/EID/E 
 
 In the Index Fauna Nov<e-Zealandiee y pp. 349-54, a list of intro- 
 duced species of insects is given. Among those named, especially 
 among the Coleoptera, are many regarding which no information is 
 now available, for Captain Hutton, who compiled the list, died several 
 years ago, and Major Broun, who made a great number of the identi- 
 fications, died recently (1919). He was unable, during the last few 
 years of his life, to supply me with the information which I sought. 
 Hence several species are recorded, regarding which no details can 
 now be given. Mr W. W. Smith informs me that he used to send 
 up numerous specimens of introduced insects to Major Broun, but 
 it is not possible to say whether any records of these were kept, 
 or if so, where they are now. 
 
 Aphodius granarius, Linn. 
 
 Mr Wakefield found this European beetle in Canterbury in 1872. 
 He then stated it to be scarce, but it was plentiful in the following 
 year. In 1887 Mr G. V. Hudson reported it as taken in horse-dung 
 in Wellington. Mr W. W. Smith informed me (in April, 1919) that 
 the species was common in Taranaki. A favourite location for it is 
 on the stems of tree-ferns, among the scales and hairs 2 . 
 
 Trox sp. 
 In the Index it is stated: "Reported by Dr Swale." 
 
 1 Mr G. Howes collected an Australian (?) ant at Titahi Bay near Wellington. 
 In connection with the introduction of a lace-wing fly from the Cook Island to 
 
 help to suppress aphides in New Zealand (date?), it was stated that one breeding- 
 cage was found to contain a number of ants, which had got in and destroyed all 
 the flies. I have no means of ascertaining what species of ant was thus introduced. 
 
 2 Pascoe in 1875 recorded an Aphodius "like A. pusillus," and an Onthophagus 
 "apparently identical with the Australian O.fulvolineatus, Bl." from New Zealand, 
 but, he adds, "there could have been no pabulum for such insects formerly."
 
 284 INSECTS 
 
 Onthophagus granulatus, Boh. Dung Beetle 
 In 1872 Mr C. M. Wakefield stated that specimens of this beetle 
 had been taken by Mr Fereday in Nelson provincial district and he 
 considered that they had been introduced with cattle from Australia. 
 Mr Hudson met with it at Wakapuaka in Nelson, in 1882. Mr W. W. 
 Smith reported it as common in Taranaki in 1919. He thought it 
 was probably common throughout New Zealand, but that there were 
 no collectors of introduced species. 
 
 Onthophagus posticus, Erichson 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith reports this Australian species as common in 
 Taranaki, where it usually occurs under the dry bark of species of 
 Eucalyptus. 
 
 Proctophanes sculptus, Hope 
 
 Taken by Hudson at Palmerston North in September, 1883, in 
 debris. 
 
 Calathus sealandicus, Redtenbacher 
 
 Hudson found this species under stones at Karori, Wellington, 
 in November, 1882; and later at Nelson and Palmerston North. 
 Writing in 1917 he says : " I doubt if this insect is imported as other 
 European Carabidae have not arrived here." Miller thinks the species 
 is indigenous. 
 
 ADEPHAGA 
 
 Family CARABIDAE 
 Rhytisternus puella, Chaudoir 
 
 Taken by Mr Hudson at Karori, Wellington, in 1882, under 
 stones. 
 
 Hypharpax australasiee, Dejean 
 
 This Australian beetle was considered by Captain Hutton, on the 
 authority of Mr W. Bates, to be an introduced species. It was 
 recorded in 1874. 
 
 Hypharpax australis, Dejean 
 
 Common among grass, in vegetation, etc., in Taranaki, according 
 to Mr W. W. Smith (in 1919). An Australian species first recorded 
 in 1874. 
 
 Agonochila binotata, White 
 
 Mr Hudson reports this Australian species as occurring under bark, 
 in the Tinakori Range, Wellington, in September and October, 1887; 
 also as occurring at French Pass. Mr Philpott states that it was 
 common near Invercargill in 1892, and adds (1917): "It is not so
 
 COLEOPTERA 285 
 
 commonly met with now, owing probably to so much bush-land 
 having been brought under cultivation. I do not remember having 
 seen it far from the coast." 
 
 Leemosthenes complanatus, Dejean 
 
 Mr Hudson recorded this South European species in March, 1888, 
 as occurring under packing-cases. This insect was identified by Com- 
 mander J. J. Walker as Pristonychus terricola, Herbst. 
 
 POLYMORPHA 
 
 Family HYDROPHILID;E 
 Hydrobius assimilis, Hope 
 
 Taken by Mr Hudson in a brackish pool at Ocean Beach, Happy 
 Valley, Wellington, in November, 1886. Mr Smith states that it is 
 not uncommon near the sea at New Plymouth and elsewhere, in 1919. 
 
 Paracymus nitidiusculus, Broun 
 
 Mr Hudson says: "Not known to me; but it seems hardly likely 
 that Broun would describe an introduced species, unless he made a 
 synonym ! " It is given in the Index Fauna Novce-Zealandice as an 
 Australian beetle. 
 
 Cyclonotum marginale, Sharp 
 
 This Australian beetle is common in New Plymouth according 
 to Mr W. W. Smith (1919). It was recorded in the Index in 1903. 
 
 Cercyonflavipes, Fabr. 
 
 Mr Philpott reports (1917): "I knew this species at least twenty 
 years ago, finding it both near the coast and fifty or sixty miles inland 
 (in Southland). It is not abundant." As far back as 1872, Mr C. M. 
 Wakefield sent specimens of this beetle to Britain from Canterbury, 
 and stated that it was abundant. 
 
 Family STAPHYLINIDJE 
 Homalota sordida, Marsham 
 Taken by Mr W. W. Smith at Ashburton, about 1884. 
 
 Oxytelus rugosus, Fabr. 
 
 This Australian species is recorded in the Index in 1903. Taken 
 at New Plymouth by Mr W. W. Smith. 
 
 Quedius fulgidus, Fabr. 
 
 Introduced from Europe, and recorded in the Index in 1903. 
 Mr W. W. Smith informed me in 1919 that it is common about New 
 Plymouth.
 
 286 INSECTS 
 
 Philonthus ceneus, Rossi. Rove Beetle 
 
 Taken by Hudson among decaying vegetable refuse in a garden 
 at Karori, Wellington, in February, 1883. This insect is commonly 
 taken for an earwig. Found about the same time at Ashburton; 
 especially under the bark of Eucalyptus trees. 
 
 Philonthus scybalarius, Nordmann 
 The only record I can find is in the Index (1903). 
 
 Philonthus affinis, Roth. 
 Originally taken by Mr W. W. Smith at Ashburton about 1884. 
 
 Philonthus nigritulus, Gravenhorst 
 Only recorded in the Index (1903). 
 
 Xantholinus punctulatus, Paykull 
 
 Mr Wakefield recorded this species from Canterbury in 1872. 
 I have no record of its occurrence since. 
 
 Family HISTERID^ 
 Platysama bakewelli, Marseul 
 
 An Australian species, recorded in the Index (1903). Mr W. W. 
 Smith informs me (1919) that it occurs at New Plymouth, on trees, 
 especially under bark. 
 
 Carcinops i^-striata, Stephens 
 Recorded in Index (1903). 
 
 Family NITIDULIDJE 
 Carpophilus hemipteris, Linn. 
 This cosmopolitan species is recorded in the Index (1903). 
 
 Carpophilus mutilatus, Erichson 
 Like the last, a cosmopolitan species, first recorded in the Index 
 
 Osmosita colon, Linn. , 
 
 Found by Hudson in September, 1888, at Karori, Wellington, 
 amongst the skin and bones of a dead cow. Philpott writes (1917) 
 "I used to meet with this species occasionally about twenty years 
 ago. It was never common, and I have not seen it for many years."
 
 COLEOPTERA 287 
 
 Family TROGOSITID^E 
 Tenebrioides mauritanicus, Linn. 
 
 Captain Hutton records this species under the name of Trogosita 
 mauritanica, as occurring in New Zealand before 1870. Mr W. W. 
 Smith (1919) reports it as common about New Plymouth. A sunshine- 
 loving beetle, found on dry walls, etc. 
 
 Family CUCUJIDJE 
 Silvanus surinamensis, Linn. 
 
 This cosmopolitan beetle is recorded in the Index (1903). It is 
 being continuously introduced into New Zealand. It is common in 
 all large dry-goods stores. It has recently been found in Quaker 
 Oats, and other grain preparations, especially those from the United 
 States. 
 
 Silvanus unidentatus, Fabr. 
 
 An European species, recorded in the Index (1903). 
 
 Family COCCINELLIDJE 
 Coccinella n-punctata, Linn. Common Ladybird 
 
 Taken by Mr Hudson on top of the Tinakori Range, Wellington, 
 in February, 1889; also recorded by him as swarming about the cairn 
 on the top of Mount Enys (Castle Hill, West Coast road) at an 
 elevation of 7200 ft. above sea-level on gth January, 1893. Writing 
 in 1896 Captain Broun stated that in previous years he had dis- 
 tributed colonies of this insect throughout the Waikato district. It 
 is common now in Taranaki (April, 1919) and appears to be pretty 
 universally distributed throughout New Zealand. 
 
 This species is a valuable help to the farmer and gardener, as 
 it devours the aphides which attack turnips, cabbage, grain, garden 
 plants and fruit trees. It does not confine itself to any one species, 
 but eats most species of aphides. Hilgendorf states that as a rule it 
 is not sufficiently numerous to do much good, but that occasionally 
 it is abundant. 
 
 Coccinella calif ornica, Mannh. 
 
 According to the report of the Agricultural Department for 
 1899 thi s species of ladybird was introduced from America by A. 
 Koebele. 
 
 Philpott says (1917): " Neither this nor any of the succeeding six 
 species seem to have spread to Southland, or at least to the neigh- 
 bourhood of Invercargill."
 
 288 INSECTS 
 
 Coccinella sanguinea, Linn. 
 
 Introduced from America, along with the preceding species, in, 
 or before, 1899. 
 
 Rhizobius ventralis, Erichson. Blue Ladybird 
 In 1900 the Agricultural Department introduced this insect from 
 Australia, and liberated small colonies at Auckland, Whangarei and 
 Hawke's Bay, for the purpose of combating the scale-insects which 
 attack the various species of Citrus (oranges, lemons, etc.). About 
 this same year an imported scale-insect (Eriococcus coriaceus) was 
 noticed in S. Canterbury attacking the various gum trees (Eucalyptus 
 sp.) which had been extensively planted there. The pest soon rose 
 to dangerous proportions and threatened the existence of the gum 
 trees, numbers of them dying. Quantities of Rhizobius were then 
 obtained from North Auckland, and other lots from New South 
 Wales and were widely distributed in the district. By the winter 
 of 1907 the plantations were well stocked all through the South 
 Island, and the following year the scale-insect was well under control. 
 The Rhizobius is now very common, especially in the South Island. 
 
 Novius cardinalis, Mulsart (Vedalia cardinalis). 
 Australian Ladybird 
 
 In 1894 leery a appeared at two places in the Wellington district, 
 and a number of ladybirds were reared anjd liberated on the properties 
 attacked. They appeared to have exterminated the blight in the 
 Wairarapa. 
 
 In 1899 the Agricultural Department introduced a large number 
 of these ladybirds in order to destroy the cottony-cushion scale (leery a 
 purchasi), and continued to rear and distribute them for several years. 
 
 Dr Hilgendorf in 1917, says of the shrub-land in the Cass district: 
 "the yellow-spotted black ladybird, V. cardinalis, occurs rarely." 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith (April, 1919) reports it as common in Taranaki. 
 
 Hippodamia convergeus, Guer. 
 
 In 1899 the Agricultural Department introduced this species from 
 America. I have no further record, and do not know whether it 
 increased or died out. 
 
 Leis conformis, Boisd. The common Spotted Ladybird of Australia 
 In 1896 this species was introduced from New South Wales by 
 the Agricultural Department, as a destroyer of aphides. Two years 
 later it was reported from Auckland, where they were originally 
 liberated, that they were breeding.
 
 COLEOPTERA 289 
 
 Cryptolcemus montrouzeri, Mulsart. Red-headed Ladybird 
 
 In 1899 the Agricultural Department introduced this insect from 
 Australia (it had previously been introduced into Hawaii from 
 Australia, with good results) and liberated it in the district north 
 of Auckland and about Whangarei. It proved itself a very valuable 
 introduction, attacking and destroying the mealy-bug (Dactylopius 
 adonidum), the orange-scale (Lecanium hesperidum) and the scale (Erio- 
 coccus araucarice) which infested the Norfolk Island and other pines. 
 Considerable numbers were reared and distributed in succeeding 
 years. The species does not appear to breed south of Auckland. 
 Colonies were taken down to Timaru in 1906, and liberated in the 
 gum-tree plantations to combat the scale (Eriococcus coriaceus), but 
 the winter of South Canterbury proved too severe, and the field was 
 abandoned to Rhizobius ventralis which soon almost cleared the pest 
 away. 
 
 Orchus chalybeus, Boisd. The Steely-blue Ladybird 
 
 This species was also introduced from Australia by the Agricul- 
 tural Department (in 1899?) and liberated north of Auckland; and 
 in 1906 a large consignment from New South Wales was liberated 
 near Timaru to assist in the destruction of Eriococcus. The winter 
 climate of Canterbury is, however, too severe for it. It is now very 
 abundant, north of Cambridge, Waikato, on oakscale. 
 
 Orcus australasia, Boisd. The Six-spot Blue Ladybird 
 
 A single specimen of this Australian insect was taken by Mr 
 Hudson among some apples, in April, 1887, in Wellington. It is 
 probable the apples were imported. 
 
 Family LATRIDIIDJE 
 Monotoma picipes, Herbst. 
 Recorded in the Index (1903). 
 
 Monotoma sub-^-faveolata, Watson 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith met with this beetle in the eighties, among 
 rotten grain sacks, at Albury, S. Canterbury. This is probably the 
 cause of its appearing in the Index. 
 
 Monotoma sptnicollis, Aube. 
 Another European species recorded in the Index (1903). 
 
 Coniuomus nodifer, Westwood 
 Recorded in the Index (1903). 
 T. N. z. 19
 
 2 9 o INSECTS 
 
 Family DERMESTIDJE 
 Dermestes vulpinus, Fabr. Bacon Beetle 
 
 This most destructive beetle was first recorded by A. Purdie, who 
 found specimens among some paper, wrapping a collection of geo- 
 logical specimens received in Dunedin from Australia in 1884. It 
 appears to be very common in many parts, and Captain Broun 
 reported to the Agricultural Department in 1895, tna * ne na< ^ s P ent 
 "three days in the Government Buildings, Auckland, destroying this 
 pest, which threatened injury to official documents and other property 
 stored in the cellars." Mr A. M. Wright, Chemist to the Christchurch 
 Meat Co., records an experience they had with this insect at the 
 works at Picton, when it caused a good deal of damage to the wood- 
 work of the manure building, and invaded the adjoining fellmongery 
 building. I give his own account of the trouble : 
 
 At the time we were storing in the manure-shed a quantity of partly- 
 dried shank-bones with wool adhering, and this at one time became almost 
 a heaving mass of larvae which spread about the whole building, boring 
 into bones, wood, and even the lead covering of some concrete, where 
 they buried themselves until they appeared as the insect. 
 
 The remedy lay in the removal of the partly-dried shank-bones outside, 
 and with this precaution, as well as a general care to prevent none but 
 dried offal manure within the building, the hatching ground of the pest 
 was removed, and little or no trouble has been found since. For one year 
 we specially treated all our manure in a dryer at the close of the season, 
 in order to kill all eggs and larvae before sending any out to clients. The 
 danger at one time seemed so acute that plans were actually prepared to 
 pull down the wooden block and replace it with a brick building, but 
 fortunately the pest was practically eliminated. We were not able to trace 
 definitely the point of origin of this insect, but its presence first became 
 evident after the arrival of some material from Dunedin, and also from 
 Australia. 
 
 I find that this beetle is in pretty well every manure factory in 
 the country, and is considered a very serious pest, on account of its 
 destructive attacks on the woodwork. It also occurs in many places 
 where fur, hair, skin, etc., are stored, as it eats these materials. 
 Mr Hudson reports (on the authority of Mr Creagh O'Connor) that 
 this bettle is very destructive to sheep -skins. 
 
 Mr A. T. Potter found this beetle in a building in Whangarei 
 in December, 1895, it having been probably imported from Sydney, 
 and observed its habits. He says: 
 
 the beetle propagates only in very hot weather. When about to change 
 from the larva into the pupa state, it will burrow into sound woodwork 
 of a building, which in some cases is reduced to a honeycomb. The eggs 
 hatch (at 70) in from four to seven days. The mature larva after moulting
 
 COLEOPTERA 291 
 
 several times. . .formed a chamber in its food material, or in any other 
 convenient locality at hand, when it curled itself up, loosely covered with 
 some of its own food, and the refuse round it. There it lay for five days, 
 then moulted again for the last time, and turned to the pupa from which 
 the beetle developed in thirteen days. 
 
 Butler says of the species : 
 
 they are the jackals of the flesh-flies, coming round when the maggots of 
 the latter have finished up all the soft and juicy parts of a fresh carcase, 
 and clearing off the hard and dry remnants of the skin, tendons, ligaments, 
 etc., which their predecessors have left untouched. 
 
 Dried meats, skins, horns, hoofs and feathers are attacked; they 
 destroy every form of preserved animal, such as beasts, birds, fishes, 
 crabs, insects and spiders in museum cases, and are especially fond 
 of cork. "An account has been placed on record of the destruction 
 of a whole ship's cargo of cork by vast numbers of them." 
 
 Mr A. H. Cockayne says it is very destructive to sheep-skins in 
 freezing works, stores, etc. In 1918 a great deal of damage was done 
 to rabbit- and sheep-skins in the Dunedin stores. 
 
 Dermestes lardarius, Linn. European Bacon Beetle 
 
 The first record I find of this insect was in February, 1873, when 
 Dr van Haast found a live specimen in a box of insects received at 
 the Christchurch Museum from Australia. 
 
 It is occasionally introduced in American bacon, but does not 
 establish itself. 
 
 Anthrenus musceorum, Linn. Museum Beetle 
 This species feeds upon skins, hair, feathers, and other remains 
 
 of animals, and is not deterred even by such strong odours as camphor. 
 Mr W. W. Smith reports it as common and very destructive in 
 
 houses in Taranaki (April, 1919). 
 
 Family BOSTRICHIDJE 
 Lyctus brunneus, Stephens. The Ship-borer 
 
 In the Agricultural Department's report for 1903, Captain Broun 
 stated that this beetle had only been found by him at Auckland three 
 times, all isolated captures. 
 
 (See Appendix B, p 559.) 
 
 Family PTINID/E 
 Ptinusfur, Linn, 
 
 First recorded from Canterbury by Mr C. M. Wakefield in 1872. 
 Mr Hudson reports that this species was found amongst chicory 
 
 192
 
 292 INSECTS 
 
 plants about 1909 by Mr A. H. Cockayne. Mr Philpott writing in 
 1917 says: 
 
 This beetle is common about houses wherever dry dead animal matter 
 is to be found. For this reason it is often met with in disused bee-hives 
 and comb-frames. It is the worst enemy the entomological collection has 
 to be guarded against. Houses badly infested with the White Pine borer 
 (Anobium domesticum) are often found to be infested with Ptinus fur also. 
 They probably feed on such of the borers as fail to emerge from the timber. 
 P, fur does not bore into the wood, though it often scoops out a little 
 depression for the purpose of pupating in. It is not confined to buildings, 
 but is found in the depths of the bush and high up on the mountains. 
 I do not know anything of its first appearance in New Zealand, but its 
 acquaintance was forced on me as soon as I began to make a collection 
 of Lepidoptera, about 27 years ago. 
 
 It is probable that this was one of the species, referred to by Sir 
 Joseph Banks in his Journal (see p. 341), as making their bread on 
 board ship almost uneatable. It readily attacks grain. "At one time 
 it was considered to be so largely an animal feeder as to have been 
 called by De Geer vrillette carnassiere, the 'carnivorous borer.'" 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith informed me (April, 1919) that this very quick 
 and active beetle is common among plants growing in warm borders, 
 where it shelters under fleshy leaves and in similar situations. It 
 is abundant in New Plymouth. 
 
 Anobium sp. (probably tesselatuni) 
 
 This species is recorded by Dr Hilgendorf from North Canterbury, 
 where it was found to be very destructive in the English Church, 
 Ashley, in December, 1916. The mature beetle emerges from the 
 wood during several months of the year. It is larger than the preceding 
 species, and has a circular gold spot on its back. 
 
 This is the insect popularly known in Britain as the Death Watch, 
 on account of the ticking noise made by striking the walls of their 
 burrows with its head or jaws. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith (April, 1919) says it is very common in Taranaki. 
 
 Anobium domesticum, Linn. Wood-borer; White-pine-borer 
 
 This destructive beetle was first observed by Captain Broun in 
 1875 at Tairua. Its ravages are extended to many kinds of wood, 
 but white-pine or kahikatea is the timber most readily attacked. 
 "Entire buildings have been reduced to a substance resembling saw- 
 dust." Professor Kirk, writing in 1904, after an examination of white- 
 pine and other timbers, found that all specimens attacked by the 
 borer contained considerable quantities of starch in the wood-cells. 
 He recommended that the timber be felled in early spring, when the
 
 COLEOPTERA 293 
 
 starch is turned to glucose, and then rafted to dissolve out the glucose. 
 Timber without starch or glucose was not found by him to be attacked 
 by the borer. 
 
 Dr Hilgendorf states that this species emerges in the mature state 
 from the timber in which it lives only in the second and third week in 
 December of each year. Mr Philpott states that the perfect beetles 
 begin to emerge about the middle of November, and by the middle 
 of December are in their greatest numbers. By the end of January 
 they have become scarce. The species is very abundant in Southland. 
 At Weraroa the beetles are found to emerge during October and for 
 a period of four months. 
 
 W. Riddell of Invercargill, with some 35 years' experience in the 
 timber trade, considers that 
 
 the white-pine beetle undoubtedly shows preference for timber grown in 
 certain localities. For instance, White pine from a lowland forest is readily 
 attacked, while that from a more elevated and drier locality is safe for a 
 much longer period. He further stated that on an average about ten years 
 elapse before the grub makes its appearance in a new house, and that 
 there are very few houses more than ten years old in Invercargill in which 
 the grub is not found. There are very few kinds of timber exempt from 
 attack. 
 
 He considers it mainly a question of age and dryness, and that certain 
 substances in the wood must evaporate or change before the insect 
 will attack it. 
 
 E. A. Butler states that "formerly their ravages were more con- 
 siderable" (in Britain) "than at the present day, owing to the then 
 more extensive use of timber and especially unpainted timber in 
 building construction." 
 
 This species makes ticking sounds similar to those of A. tesselatum. 
 
 The larae are destroyed to a certain extent by a minute wingless 
 ant-like hymenopteron, which goes into the tunnels and attacks its 
 victims. 
 
 Anobium paniceum, Linn. Biscuit- Weevil ; Drug-store Beetle 
 
 This omnivorous insect eats anything of a vegetable substance 
 that it meets with. Its first name is given on account of the attacks 
 it not unfrequently makes on ship's biscuits ; its second for its pen- 
 chant for such things as rhubarb root, ginger and even Cayenne 
 pepper. It is also very destructive to books, drawings and paintings. 
 Westwood records it as perforating tinfoil for the comestible below it. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith states that it is as common as the preceding 
 species in any timber, especially in white-pine. It works nearer the 
 surface than A. domesticum (April, 1919).
 
 294 INSECTS 
 
 In Europe it has been found to visit the flowers of Hawthorn 
 (Cratagus oxyacantha). 
 
 Family MALACODERMID/E 
 Metriorhynchus rufipennis, Fabr. 
 
 Mr Hudson considers that this is probably M. erraticus, which 
 was found in August, 1895, by Major- General Schaw, at Auckland; 
 and which he himself found abundant on dead trees at Ohakune, in 
 January, 1912. This is probably the species which Mr Smith records 
 as so destructive to the foliage of young blue-gum trees (Eucalyptus 
 globulus) in Taranaki. 
 
 It occurs very commonly there under the bark of trees. Mr 
 Smith says this is the commonest location for Australian and Tas- 
 manian beetles. 
 
 Family CLERID^E 
 
 Necrobia ruficollis, Fabr. (Burying Beetle) 
 
 Mr Hudson recorded this beetle in 1890, as occurring commonly 
 in decaying animal matter. It was found by him first at Karori, 
 Wellington, in September, 1888, amongst the dried skin and bones 
 of a dead cow. 
 
 Mr Smith (April, 1919) reports it as very common in Taranaki, 
 occurring under dry boards, among rotten sacks, etc. Also under 
 dead birds and dead sheep. Very abundajnt in stores in Wellington, 
 associated with Dermestes vulpinus, in 1918. 
 
 Necrobia rufipes, De Geer. Red-legged Ham Beetle 
 First recorded from Auckland in 1875 ^Y Captain Broun. Taken 
 by Mr Hudson at the Dee River, Kekerangu, in February, 1890. Mr 
 Philpott says (1917): 
 
 I first met with this species in 1890, when I found it to be very abundant 
 in a fertiliser (bone-dust) works near Invercargill. I have never found it 
 except in, or about, sacks of bone-dust. 
 
 Family ELATERID^E 
 
 Lacon variabilis, Candeze. Australian Click Beetle 
 Recorded by Mr Hudson as taken on the hills around Nelson 
 by Mr A. S. Atkinson in June, 1886 ; and by Commander J. J. Walker 
 at Picton in the autumn of 1902. Very common in Taranaki (April, 
 1919). 
 
 Monocrepidius exsul, Sharp. The Potato Elater 
 
 Stated by Mr Hudson (1917) to be very common at Karori, 
 Wellington. It flies freely in the dusk of the evening. Mr W. W.
 
 COLEOPTERA 295 
 
 Smith states that the beetle is very destructive to the foliage of the 
 Virginian creeper (Ampelopsis virginica or Veitchit). The report of 
 the Agricultural Department for 1898 states that it often cuts the 
 stems of growing potatoes. Quite common in Wellington Province. 
 
 Agriotes sp. 
 
 The report of the Agricultural Department for 1906 states that 
 a species of Agriotes, probably A. lineatus, Linn., the striped click 
 beetle, or wire worm, was very common, and had done much damage, 
 especially in potato crops, at Mangaweka. Mr W. W. Smith says 
 (1919) that this species attacks the roots of gooseberry bushes, 
 frequently killing the plants. Mr A. H. Cockayne informs me that 
 it is very generally distributed. 
 
 Family BUPRESTID./E 
 Buprestis lauta, Leconte 
 
 Common in Taranaki, especially in sunny weather (April, 1919). 
 It was recorded in the Index (1903). 
 
 Stigmodera gulielmi, White 
 Recorded in the Index (1903). 
 
 HETEROMERA 
 
 Family TENEBRIONIDJE 
 
 Tenebrio obscurans, Fabr. Meal Worm 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks in his Journal says, when nearing New Zealand 
 (23rd September, 1769): 
 
 Our bread is but indifferent, occasioned by the quantity of vermin that 
 are in it. I have often seen hundreds nay, thousands, shaken out of a single 
 biscuit. We in the cabin have, however, an easy remedy for this, by baking 
 it in an oven, not too hot, which makes them all walk off; but this cannot 
 be allowed to the ship's people, who must find the taste of these animals 
 very disagreeable, as they everyone taste as strong as mustard, or rather 
 spirits of hartshorn. They are of five kinds, three Tenebrio, one Ptinus, and 
 the Phalangium canchroides ; this last, however, is scarce in the common 
 bread, but vastly plentiful in white meal biscuits, as long as we had any left. 
 
 Mr C. Bills informs me (1918) that bird-dealers formerly im- 
 ported considerable numbers of meal worms into New Zealand for 
 feeding introduced birds, but that they had discontinued doing so 
 for some years. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith informs me that they are very common in 
 Taranaki. The probability is that they are widely spread.
 
 296 INSECTS 
 
 Tenebrio molitor, Linn. Meal Worm 
 
 This cosmopolitan species has long been in New Zealand. It 
 was recorded in the Index in 1903. Mr W. W. Smith reports it as 
 very common in Taranaki (1919); while Mr A. H. Cockayne says it 
 is very abundant in imported meals and artificial foods, and is 
 constantly being introduced. 
 
 Gnathocerus cornutus, Fabr. 
 Recorded in the Index (1903). 
 
 Tribolium ferrugineum, Fabr. 
 A cosmopolitan beetle, also recorded in the Index (1903) 
 
 Family ANTHICID;E 
 Anthicus floralis > Linn. 
 
 Recorded in the Index in (1903). 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith reports this as common in Taranaki, on flower 
 stalks, etc. (April, 1919). 
 
 Family (EDEMERID/E 
 
 Nacerdes melanura, Schmidt. Wharf-borer 
 In the report of the Agricultural Department for 1902, Captain 
 Broun recorded this species as occurring in hardwood, imported into 
 Auckland from Australia and Tasmania.* 
 
 Family BRUCHIDJE 
 Bruchus rufimanus, Boh. Pea Weevil 
 
 This beetle is commonly imported into the country from Britain 
 with peas and beans. A bag of specially selected peas imported from 
 a London seedsman was submitted to me in 1906 ; every pea contained 
 a weevil. Dr Hilgendorf says that in Canterbury it lays eggs in beans 
 as they develop in the field, but fortunately they are not very common. 
 
 In Britain it is frequently found in springtime on the blossoms 
 of gorse and broom. 
 
 Very common in Taranaki (April, 1919). 
 
 Family CHRYSOMELIDJE 
 
 Paropsis sp. 
 
 Mr Drummond reports (November, 1916) that an Australian 
 species was found in the bright sunshine on granite (?) rocks on 
 Cooper's Knob near Lyttelton at a height of 1800 ft. This beetle 
 feeds on Eucalyptus.
 
 COLEOPTERA 297 
 
 Family CERAMBYCIDJE 
 Hylotrupes bajalus, Linn. Borer 
 
 The first record I have found of this beetle is of two specimens 
 taken at Auckland in 1874, an d identified in London by Mr H. W. 
 Bates. 
 
 It perforates wood, and 
 
 Kirby states that Sir Joseph Banks once gave him a specimen of sheet-lead, 
 which, though only measuring eight inches by four, was pierced with 
 twelve oval holes, some of which were as much as one-fourth inch in 
 longest diameter. 
 
 The lead had covered rafters which had been bored by the insects. 
 
 Phoracantha recurva, Newman 
 
 One specimen of this beetle was captured near Christchurch in 
 1873. Mr W. W. Smith says this active beetle is not uncommon in 
 Taranaki (April, 1919). 
 
 Callirhce allaspa, Newman 
 Recorded in the Index (1903). 
 
 Tessaromma sulcatum 
 
 Mr Hudson reports this Australian species as captured at Auckland 
 in May, 1902, by Commander J. J. Walker. 
 
 RHYNCHOPHORA 
 
 Family ANTHRIBID^E 
 
 Doticus pestilens, Oliff . Dried-apple Beetle ; Jumping Anthribid 
 
 This apple weevil imported from Australia was recorded by 
 Mr T. W. Kirk in 1895 as abundant in orchards about Wellington, 
 where it was still common in 1899. 
 
 Very common in Taranaki (April, 1919). 
 
 Family CURCULIONID^E 
 Otiorhynchus sulcatus, Fabr. Black Vine-Weevil 
 
 Captain Broun found this among sorrel (Rumex acetoselld) and 
 grass-roots on Mount Eden in 1866. Mr Pascoe received numerous 
 specimens from Captain F. W. Hutton from Wellington in 1875. 
 Later on it was found abundantly in a vinery at Nelson. Mr Hudson 
 found it under stones on the Tinakori Range, Wellington, in August, 
 1889 and 1890, and under boards at Kaitoke in 1902. 
 
 Mr Philpott (1917) says "I find this species commonly about the 
 base of tufts of grass when gardening in the spring."
 
 298 INSECTS 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith reports it as very common in Taranaki (April, 
 1919). It is apparently widespread, among sorrel roots especially. 
 
 Gonipterus reticulatus, Boisduval 
 
 Mr Hudson informed me in 1890 that this Australian beetle had 
 been found by Mr W. W. Maskell amongst species of Eucalyptus, 
 Sydney Street, Wellington. It was very abundant there in February, 
 1892. It is very fond of sunshine. 
 
 Mr Smith reports it as occurring on several species of plants in 
 Taranaki, and says that in captivity the perfect insect (imago) is a 
 voracious feeder. It is very common among eucalypts. 
 
 Calandra granaria, Linn. Grain-weevil ; Corn-weevil 
 I do not know how early this beetle was introduced, but it has 
 been known for a very long time, and is very troublesome in stored 
 grain, especially in wheat. In 1894 and 1895 the grain sheds in 
 Timaru were very badly infested, and it did a great deal of damage. 
 Dr Hilgendorf informs me that about 1900 a rejected consignment 
 of wheat was emptied on Timaru beach, and the weevils were seen 
 crawling towards the town in thousands. They were destroyed by 
 fumigation with carbon disulphide. Again in 1916 it was imported 
 in vast numbers in a consignment of barley from South Australia. 
 Dr Hilgendorf adds that as about 40 days elapse between the 
 laying of the egg, and the emergence of the mature beetle, the pest is 
 never very bad, except in grain at least one season old. 
 
 Calandra oryztz, Linn. Rice-Weevil 
 
 This cosmopolitan beetle was recorded in the Index (1903), it is 
 probably common in New Zealand. Mr W. W. Smith records it as 
 common at Ashburton and New Plymouth (April, 1919). 
 
 Anthonomus pomorum, Linn. Apple-blossom Weevil 
 This beetle has been a long time in the country, but is not very 
 common. In 1890 it did a great deal of harm in orchards in Canter- 
 bury. It is common at Ashburton and at New Plymouth. 
 
 Sitones lineatus, Linn. Striped Pea-Weevil 
 This little beetle, which attacks peas, beans and species of Tri- 
 
 folium, is a European species. The adults are found in numbers on 
 
 the flowers of gorse and broom in Britain. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith reports it as common at Ashburton and at New 
 
 Plymouth (April, 1919). 
 
 Mr A. H. Cockayne says it is common in Wellington Province.
 
 COLEOPTERA 299 
 
 Oxyops concreta, Pascoe 
 
 This is an Australian species, the larva of which attacks the leaves 
 of species of Eucalyptus. It is found about the Manawatu district, 
 and is probably of general distribution where gum-trees have been 
 planted in New Zealand. Mr A. H. Cockayne states that at the 
 Government plantations at Rotorua and Waiotapu the cultivation of 
 blue-gums (Eucalyptus globulus) has had to be abandoned, on account 
 of the ravages of this weevil. 
 
 (See Appendix B, p. 559.) 
 
 Order LEPIDOPTERA 
 Sub-order RHOPALOCERA 
 
 Family NYMPHALIDJE 
 Danaida plexippus, Linn, (erippus, Cr.) 
 
 Mr Hudson says of this butterfly that it is " a comparatively recent 
 natural immigrant which probably reached New Zealand during the 
 first half of the last century, independent of human agency." 
 
 It appears to have been first observed in 1840-41, when Mr F. W. 
 Sturm took a specimen at Reinga, on the Wairoa River in Hawke's 
 Bay. In 1848 the same gentleman took a number at the Waiau, a 
 tributary of the Wairoa. It has been frequently taken in Hawke's Bay 
 since then (in 1861, 1873, 1874, etc -)- Mr Sturm says that it kept 
 about the Lombardy poplars and Hoheria populnea in his garden. He 
 thought it was an indigenous species. 
 
 Mr Colenso recorded the same species apparently in 1877 from 
 the same district, and stated that he had known it for some years. 
 Dr Hector found it in great abundance in Hokitika during the summer 
 of 1873. Mr Fereday discussed the question of its introduction in 
 1874 (Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. vi, p. 183). 
 
 In 1879 Mr Kingsley took a specimen in Nelson, and in 1890 
 he got several from the same district. In 1906 Mr Hudson got speci- 
 mens from Makara Beach near Wellington, and saw one in the city 
 itself. Mr Howes tells me (1919) that it has been taken at Auckland 
 and Wanganui; it is also reported to have been seen in Dunedin, 
 and he himself obtained one in a dying condition at Halfmoon Bay, 
 
 Stewart Island. 
 
 Danaida chrysippus, Linn. 
 
 Mr Hudson states that two specimens of this species were taken 
 at the Thames in March, 1904. Mr Howes, writing in 1919, says: 
 " One flew into an Auckland school a few years back. Two specimens 
 were recently taken at Wanganui."
 
 300 INSECTS 
 
 Vanessa atalanta, Linn. English Red Admiral Butterfly 
 Mr T. W. Kirk captured specimens of this species in the Wellington 
 Botanical Gardens, during the summer of 1881, and saw others on 
 several subsequent occasions. Mr A. Philpott saw a specimen in a 
 collection of Lepidoptera made by Mr Dunlop of the Orepuki Shale 
 Works, who informed him that this was the only one secured out of 
 several seen. Mr Howes, however, is of opinion that the specimen 
 was brought out from Britain by Mr Dunlop, as he saw it shortly 
 after his arrival here. There is evidently some doubt about its occur- 
 rence in Southland. 
 
 Vanessa urticce, Linn. Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly 
 Found by Mr T. W. Kirk at the same time and in the same locality 
 as the preceding species. No later record of its occurrence is known. 
 
 Junonia vellida, Fabr. 
 
 Mr Hudson states that this butterfly was common in the Cook 
 Strait region in 1886-87, but that only one or two specimens had 
 been seen since then. He considered it to be a natural immigrant 
 from Australia, where it is common. 
 
 Miss Castles informs me that it was taken at New Plymouth in 
 1893 (where Mr W. W. Smith also reports it as taken occasionally), 
 and at Motueka in 1898. In March, 1910, it was taken at Mt Greenland 
 in Westland by Mr H. Hamilton. Lastly Mr Howes saw (but could 
 not capture) a specimen in Dunedin in 1918. 
 
 Sub-order HETEROCERA 
 
 Family BOMBYCIDJE 
 Bombyx mori. Linn. Silkworm 
 
 I cannot find out the earliest date at which silkworms were intro- 
 duced into New Zealand, but about 1863, Mr T. C. Batchelor, of 
 Nelson, was rearing Tuscan worms with considerable success. 
 
 (Further information on the subject will be found in Appendix B, 
 p. 560.) 
 
 Family CARADRINIDJE 
 Heliothis armigera y Hubner. Tomato Caterpillar 
 
 This cosmopolitan moth, which is known in America as the 
 cotton-ball worm and the corn worm, and in Australia as the maize 
 moth, was reported to the Agricultural Department in 1907 from 
 several localities. Several consignments of tomatoes from Sydney 
 were found to be infested with this pest. Mr Howes says it is some-
 
 LEPIDOPTERA 30! 
 
 what rarely seen in the south of the South Island, though he has 
 taken occasional specimens in Dunedin, and has seen it in fair numbers 
 at Oamaru and Queenstown. Mr W. W. Smith informs me that it is 
 common at New Plymouth, where it is very destructive to tomatoes, 
 the larvae eating the fruit. It is probably common throughout the 
 North Island. The larva is fond of burying itself in the flowers of 
 asters, etc. ; indeed its wide range of food plants makes it troublesome. 
 
 Family SPHINGID^E 
 
 Sphinx convolvuli, Linn. Convolvulus Hawk Moth 
 Captain Hutton, and probably several other entomologists, con- 
 sider this cosmopolitan species to be indigenous. It was found in 
 Hawke's Bay, and recorded by Mr A. G. Butler in 1877. Sir w - Buller 
 reported it as common in Ohinemutu in 1879, an( J it was taken in 
 Auckland in 1882. Since then it has been taken in many parts of 
 New Zealand. Mr Howes suggests that, as it is commonly found 
 feeding on the Kumara (Ipomoea batatas), it was probably introduced 
 either along with that plant, or that it is a comparatively recent arrival 
 from Australia. 
 
 Sphinx ligustriy Linn. Privet Hawk Moth 
 
 Mr Howes reports this species as having been taken at Titahi 
 Bay near Wellington. 
 
 Chcerocampa celerio, Linn. Silver-stripe Moth 
 Mr Hudson recorded this first in 1904, where four specimens 
 were taken by different collectors in Nelson. It is a species of very 
 wide distribution, and Mr Hudson considered it a natural immigrant 
 frofn Australia, where it is common. Mr A. P. Buller recorded it 
 the same season from Titahi Bay, Wellington, where several specimens 
 were found at dusk by Mr C. O'Connor, feeding on the sweet-scented 
 Christmas lily (Lilium longifloruml). He considers it probable that 
 it was brought over to New Zealand by westerly winds, in view of the fact 
 that the Hawk-moth family are possessed of sustained powers of flight ; 
 indeed, I might mention that I have in my collection a fine Sphinx that 
 flew on board the R.M.S. 'Ruahine' when the vessel was some five 
 hundred miles off the coast of South America. 
 
 Family SESIIDJE 
 Trochilium tipuliforme, Clerck (Mgeria tipultformis, 
 
 Sesia tipuliformis). Currant Clear- wing Moth 
 Introduced with the garden currant (Ribes rubrum) from Europe, 
 and first bred from larvae so obtained by Mr Fereday in Christchurch 
 in the early seventies. It has since then become very generally
 
 302 INSECTS 
 
 distributed. Though so common, it does not seem to do a great deal 
 of harm, or to very seriously affect the fruiting powers of the currant 
 bushes. 
 
 Family ARCTIIDJE 
 
 Utetheisa pulchella, Linn. 
 
 This moth was first observed by Mr Hudson in 1877, in the 
 Wainuiomata Valley near Wellington, and subsequently at Petone; 
 it was recorded as Deopeia pulchella. Meyrick considered it as probably 
 only an occasional immigrant. Later it was taken in considerable 
 numbers on the flowers of the white rata, and others in the tussock- 
 grass, by Mr O'Connor, at Titahi Bay. Mr Howes informs me that 
 Mr Hamilton took it at Dunedin, and that Mr Morris recorded a 
 swarm on the river bed of the Waitaki, near Oamaru. The moth 
 usually appears in February. 
 
 Family GEOMETRIDJE 
 Phrissogonus laticostatus, Walk. 
 
 This species was first taken by Mr Hudson in 1905 at Nelson and 
 again at Wangamii. In 1914 it was collected at Otaki, by my son 
 Dr J. A. Thomson. Mr Howes informs me that he collected it 
 amongst seaside scrub at Auckland. Mr Meyrick states that it is 
 "very common in Australia, whence it has been recently introduced 
 by artificial means." 
 
 Paragyrtis inostentata, Walk. (Adeixts inostentatd) 
 Mr A. Philpott records this moth as common (in 1915-16) on 
 Seaward moss and other coastal swamps near Invercargill, and adds : 
 "The restricted distribution in New Zealand of this common Aus- 
 tralian species would seem to point to its recent introduction through 
 the medium of shipping at the port of Bluff." 
 
 Mr Howes met with this species commonly in a swamp at Wai- 
 marino in the North Island. 
 
 Ophideres maturna, Linn. Banana Moth 
 
 Probably introduced from Australia with bananas. Mr Hudson 
 reports them as first seen in 1906 when a specimen was taken at Makara 
 Bay, near Wellington. Another was captured by Mr Howes in Dunedin 
 in 1907. 
 
 Ophideres fullonica, Hubn. 
 
 Mr Meyrick reports one doubtful specimen of this Australian 
 species, which was taken at Christchurch. "In any case," he adds, 
 "it is probably only a stray immigrant."
 
 LEPIDOPTERA 303 
 
 Ophiusa pulcherritna, Lucas 
 
 Mr Hudson states one specimen of this Queensland species was 
 obtained in 1904, at Titahi Bay near Wellington. 
 
 Ophiusa melicerte, Drury 
 
 A single specimen of this moth was taken in Mr Travers's green- 
 house in Wellington in 1870, and was described by Mr Fereday as 
 Catocala traversii. Since then it has been taken at Titahi Bay, 
 Wellington, at Waitomo, at Motueka and at Orepuki 1 . 
 
 It is a common moth in Australia. 
 
 Plusia oxygramma, Hubn. 
 
 Mr Hudson calls this a well-established natural immigrant. 
 Several specimens were taken in the Thames district in 1906. Miss 
 Castles records it as occurring at the Waitakere in 1909, and at 
 Fielding in 1911. Mr Howes states that it is common throughout 
 the North Island, but that south of Christchurch only occasional 
 specimens are seen. 
 
 Agrotis segetum, Schiff. Turnip Moth 
 
 First recorded from Wanganui in the Agricultural Department 
 report for 1904. Mr W. W. Smith (April, 1919) says it is common 
 at New Plymouth. The caterpillars attack especially mangolds, turnips 
 and potatoes. They hide beneath the surface of the soil, and usually 
 attack the plants they infest at or just below the surface, and nearly 
 always at night. They also attack wheat and grass crops, and several 
 garden vegetables and flowers. The moth is now common everywhere. 
 
 Family PYRALIDJE 
 Meliphora grisella, Fabr. Bee Moth 
 
 Apparently introduced along with honey-bees, as the larva lives 
 in bee-hives. Mr W. W. Smith reports it as common in Taranaki. 
 He further states that when he arrived in South Canterbury in 1877, 
 this moth was common in the hives on the Upper Rangitata. Mr 
 Meyrick recorded a specimen from Nelson in 1877. 
 
 Plodia inter punctella. Hub. Indian Meal Moth 
 First observed in 1912 by Mr Hudson; probably introduced in 
 figs, maize, etc. It feeds on raisins, currants, prunes and other dried 
 food-products. It was recorded again in 1914. Mr A. H. Cockayne 
 says it is common in the Gisborne district. 
 
 1 In his paper on some rare species of Lepidoptera (Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. xxxvn, 
 P- 333 ). Mr A. P. Duller mixes up two papers by Mr Fereday in vol. ix of the Trans. 
 NJZ. Inst. in a remarkable manner.
 
 304 INSECTS 
 
 Pyralis farinalis, Linn. Meal Moth 
 
 Mr G. Howes reported this species as common in Dimedin in 
 1903-4. Mr W. W. Smith also recorded it as common in Taranaki, 
 and later as common everywhere. It attacks all kinds of cereals 
 "whether as corn, flour, meal, bran, and even straw." The moth 
 appears during the summer months, wherever grain or farinaceous 
 materials are stored. 
 
 Hymeniafascialis, Cram. 
 
 Larva found on melons, etc. It has probably been introduced 
 with fruit from tropical or sub-tropical Australia. Hitherto it has 
 only been recorded by Meyrick in 1912. 
 
 Diplopseustis perieralis> Walk. 
 
 Found near towns, and probably introduced from Australia or 
 Fiji, where it is not uncommon. Mr Philpott is inclined to think the 
 species is indigenous, as it occurs throughout both islands. 
 
 Galleria melonella, Linn. Bee Moth ; Wax Moth 
 
 According to the reports of the Agricultural Department, this 
 moth was first observed at Okaiawa near Mount Egmont, in three dif- 
 ferent apiaries, in 1904. It was probably introduced from Australia, 
 where it is said to have been brought from Europe in 1880. There 
 was very considerable doubt thrown for some time on the identifica- 
 tion, but the fact of this species being established in the North Island 
 is now well known, alike to lepidopterists and to apiarists. Mr W. W. 
 Smith informs me (1919) that the species is common in hives in 
 Taranaki. It also occurs at Ruakura. 
 
 In the Apiaries Act 1907, this moth is included among the diseases 
 of bees, which come under the powers of the Act. 
 
 Family PHYCITID^E 
 Ephestia kuehniella, Zell. Mediterranean Flour Moth 
 
 Mr A. Philpott writes (August, 1916): "This species has become 
 established in the flour-mills in Invercargill within the last two or 
 three years, and I also have had examples sent to me from Dunedin." 
 In 1905 it was reported from the Waikato. Mr A. H. Cockayne says 
 it has been found in pretty well every flour- mill in New Zealand. 
 
 Crocydopora cinigerella, Walk. 
 
 Mr Meyrick reported this moth as occurring at Whangarei and 
 Nelson in 1885-86, and says if this is " a recent accidental introduction 
 (from Australia) it will probably be found soon to become more
 
 LEPIDOPTERA 305 
 
 common and generally distributed." Mr Philpott says (1916) : " I have 
 not met with it myself and do not think it is in any South Island 
 collection." 
 
 Mr Howes states that "the only locality I have met with this 
 species was on the shores of Lake Taupo on shingle; apparently it 
 was attached to a creeping convolvulus." 
 
 Family TORTRICID^: 
 Tortrix postvittana, Walk. 
 Mr Hudson says: 
 
 It is undoubtedly introduced from Australia where it is abundant. The 
 larva feeds on Geranium ( ? Pelargonium). It was first observed at Wellington 
 in 1891, and though not abundant, is steadily becoming commoner. 
 
 Mr Howes records it from Auckland and Wanganui ; and Mr Meyrick 
 from Christchurch. 
 
 Tortrix indigestana, Meyr. 
 
 Mr A. Philpott says: "Meyrick suggests that this species may be 
 an introduction from Australia. I have seen only one specimen 
 from Flagstaff, Dunedin." Mr Meyrick recorded it from two speci- 
 mens reared from larvae feeding on Pimelea Icevigata, from Makara 
 Beach. Mr Howes states that it is very common on hills above 
 Waitati near Dunedin, wh'ere it was attached to Dracophyllum, and 
 is found apparently right through New Zealand. 
 
 Laspeyresia pomonella, Linn. (Carpocapsa pomonella). 
 Codlin Moth 
 
 This moth is one of the most dreaded orchard pests in all countries 
 where it is now found. It probably was introduced into New Zealand 
 from various sources, from Britain and America, or from Australia, 
 where it first appeared about 1855. Mr T. Kirk recorded having 
 seen grub-eaten apples some years previous to 1874, at which date 
 it was first noticed in Auckland, the fruit having come from Tasmania. 
 In 1882 it was recorded by Mr Meyrick as having been taken at 
 Wellington, and he added "probably widely spread, though hitherto 
 little noticed." There is no doubt that it was very common, for in 
 1894 tne Agricultural Department reported it as occurring in very 
 many parts of New Zealand, and it took drastic steps to combat the 
 pest. In addition to publishing literature with instructions to fruit- 
 growers, it instituted close inspection of orchards and of all fruit 
 (apples, etc.) imported into the country. It also sought for and intro- 
 duced various natural enemies, especially parasitic wasps, such as 
 Calliephaltes messer and Zele sp. belonging to the Ichneumonidae.
 
 3 o6 INSECTS 
 
 In 1886 the moth was reported from Christchurch, next year 
 from Te Awamutu; in 1891 from Paraparaumu, 1892 from Auckland, 
 and 1897 from New Plymouth. In 1899 it was stated to be spreading 
 to some extent about Hawera, and was also reported from Waikouaiti, 
 Timaru, Palmerston North, Wanganui and Hawke's Bay. It was 
 almost certainly in all those districts some time before its presence 
 was recorded. 
 
 Mr Philpott informs me that it does not occur much further 
 south than the lower end of Lake Wakatipu. In all cases where the 
 pest has been reported from Southland, the species has turned out 
 to be one of the native moths Tortrix excessana, Walk., or Ctenopseustes 
 obliquana, Walk. The latter moth has frequently been mistaken in 
 other parts of New Zealand for the codlin moth, for it attacks apples 
 in much the same manner, but the damage it does is infinitesimal 
 when compared with that of the imported pest. 
 
 The codlin moth has numerous enemies, both native and intro- 
 duced. The tiger beetle (Cidndela tuber culatd) destroys the grubs on 
 the ground, and also climbs up trees in search of them. The common 
 red ant (Aphcenogaster (Monomoriurn) antarcticus) and the larger Am- 
 blyopone cephalotes also climb trees and destroy the grubs. 
 
 The indigenous Ichneumon insidiator, or an allied variety, attacks 
 the grubs. 
 
 At least one fungus (Isaria farinosa) which is allied to Cordiceps, 
 the vegetable-caterpillar fungus, also attacks and destroys the codlin- 
 moth grub 
 
 Family TINEIDJE 
 
 Phthorinuea operculella, Zell. (Lita solanella, Boisduval.) 
 Potato Moth 
 
 This species has been known for the last 25 or 30 years, and 
 is fairly common and destructive in the North Island, and as far 
 south as Canterbury ; but in the south its occurrence is only periodic. 
 A few years ago it caused some loss in the neighbourhood of 
 Dunedin. Mr A. Philpott says it does not trouble Southland. It is 
 reported every year in the reports of the Agricultural Department, 
 and the larva is found on stored potatoes or those exposed before 
 being dug. Potatoes introduced from New South Wales and Victoria 
 are frequently infested with the caterpillar. Mr Meyrick says this 
 species has certainly been introduced with the potato, and is probably 
 a native of Algeria. It feeds on all species of Solatium, and also attacks 
 tomatoes. 
 
 Mr T. Kirk states that the larva can be reared on poro-poro 
 (Solanum aviculare)\ and Mr Allan Wright records it as feeding on
 
 LEPIDOPTERA 307 
 
 bulrush or raupo (Typha angustifolid). Mr Howes says that when 
 potatoes are cultivated, the destruction of all small tubers and waste 
 by turning pigs on to the ground after the crops are dug, together 
 with the burning of the haulms, will easily keep the pest in check. 
 
 The larvae of this species are attacked and destroyed by the larvae 
 of two common indigenous hover flies Syrphus nova-zealandics and 
 Melanostoma fasciatum . 
 
 Endrosis lacteella, Schiff. (E.fenestrella). Window Moth 
 
 This moth seems to have been introduced in the very early days 
 of colonisation. The moth itself is common throughout the year, but 
 particularly from October to March, and is very generally distributed, 
 being reported as a household moth from Whangarei to Invercargill. 
 The larva feeds on seeds, dried fruits, flour, pollard, honeycomb and 
 many other farinaceous or saccharine materials. This species appears 
 to have got both its technical name, and its popular designation of 
 " Milk-moth," in consequence of its being so frequently found drowned 
 in milk jugs. It is not a clothes moth, but is commonly destroyed 
 as such. 
 
 Borkhausenia pseudospretella, Staint. ((Ecophora pseudo- 
 spretella, Staint.) A Clothes Moth 
 
 This is probably one of the first moths which was introduced 
 into New Zealand, and it is now generally distributed, probably in 
 every house. The moth occurs between November and March. The 
 larva feeds on all sorts of dry refuse, and on cloth (woollen, cotton 
 and linen), paper, cork, etc. It is very destructive in museums. 
 Mr W. W. Smith says it occurs, but not commonly, in Taranaki. 
 Mr Meyrick (1883) recorded it from Hamilton, Napier, Wanganui, 
 Wellington, Christchurch, Castle Hill and Dunedin. 
 
 It was reported by Mr Butler in 1877 in collections received 
 from N.Z. from Dr Hector and Mr J. D. Enys. Dr Hilgendorf (1917) 
 states that it is very common at Lincoln, and is destructive to stored 
 wheat. It is also met with in the Chatham Islands. 
 
 Mr Butler calls this species "a detestable pest," and adds: 
 
 This is one of the most destructive insects imaginable, and is apparently 
 a perfectly general feeder; nothing that is in the smallest degree edible 
 comes amiss to it. The moth is fond of concealment, and often hides amongst 
 the substances that have suffered from its depredations. When disturbed, 
 it runs rather than flies, and that very rapidly, at once seeking shelter again. 
 To pursue it with one's fingers is no easy task; it is so rapid in its move- 
 ments and so slippery when touched, in consequence of the glossiness of 
 its scales. The caterpillar is of an active habit, but conceals itself most
 
 308 INSECTS 
 
 effectually by spinning together quantities of the material it happens to 
 be feeding upon. 
 
 It has been found to destroy tons of rice in a warehouse, and one 
 of the Local Government Boards in Liverpool lost a great number 
 of sweeping brooms, made of heather or ling, which were kept 
 amongst their stores. Mr W. W. Smith (April, 1919) states that it is 
 now very common, especially among grass and other seeds. 
 
 Ocystola acroxantha, Meyr. 
 
 Mr Hudson says: "First observed in 1886, and no doubt intro- 
 duced from Australia along with Eucalyptus, to which it is attached.'* 
 
 Barea confusella, Walk. 
 
 Mr Hudson says: "First observed in 1908, when it was taken 
 both at Nelson and Wellington. Also introduced from Australia 
 where it is common, attached to Eucalyptus." 
 
 Mr Philpott says : " Examples were sent to me from New Plymouth 
 in 1909. It is now common near Dunedin, but does not occur in 
 Southland. I have also seen specimens from the Humboldt Range." 
 
 Symmoca quadripuncta, Haw. 
 
 First observed in Nelson in 1908, where, according to Mr Hudson, 
 it was taken by Mr Sunley. It is a British species, which is not known 
 from Australia. 
 
 Choreutis bjerkandrella, Thunb. 
 
 This cosmopolitan moth is a well-established natural immigrant, 
 according to Mr Hudson. It has been collected at many points in 
 both islands: Kaeo, Whangarei, Hamilton, Taranaki, Palmerston, 
 Napier and Nelson. Mr W. W. Smith says it is very common in 
 Taranaki. Mr Howes reports it as very common among tussocks 
 above the bush line on Flagstaff and other hills near Dunedin. Mr A. 
 Philpott, writing in July, 1916, says: "If this is an introduced species 
 it has thriven wonderfully. It is found in all open situations up to 
 about 3000 feet." 
 
 The larvae feed on the thistles (Carduus, Cnicus, etc.), and other 
 composites. 
 
 Plutella maculipennis, Curt. (P. cruciferarum, Zeller). 
 Diamond-back Moth ; Shot-hole Moth ; Cabbage Moth 
 
 This species is abundant all over New Zealand, especially (ac- 
 cording to Dr Hilgendorf) in all regions where the rainfall is not 
 much over 30 inches per annum. He estimates the damage done 

 
 LEPIDOPTERA 309 
 
 to turnips, rape and cabbages as amounting annually to hundreds 
 of thousands of pounds, and in some seasons as exceeding 250,000. 
 Rape is, however, the least damaged. The species was introduced 
 certainly more than 30 years ago. 
 
 According to Mr T. W. Kirk the moth occurs from August to 
 May ; he states that it first came into notice in the Wellington district 
 in 1879. 
 
 Hilgendorf gives the average cycle of the life of the insect as 
 53 days: the adult moth lives from 10 to 15 days; the eggs, which 
 average 18 in number, are laid on the third to the seventh day, and 
 they hatch out in nine days; the life of the caterpillar is 22 days; 
 and the pupation period 17 days. From January to March, in 
 badly infested districts, the moths are seen on the turnip fields in 
 clouds ; and they destroy about 75 per cent, of the crop. Smith says 
 they attack and destroy all species of Brassica. 
 
 The caterpillars are attacked and destroyed by the larvae of the 
 common hover flies Syrphus novce-zealandiee and Melanostoma fas- 
 datum. 
 
 The eastern districts of Britain were ravaged by the caterpillars 
 of Plutella maculipennis in 1891, when it was noticed that various 
 kinds of birds were very effective enemies, especially rooks, starlings, 
 and sea-gulls; and it was stated that where small birds had been 
 exterminated the damage was worse. 
 
 Bedellia somnulentella, Zeller 
 
 This moth has been known for the last 20 years or more; its 
 larva mines large blotches on the leaves of species of Convolvulus, 
 Calystegia and Ipomata, The late Mr A. Purdie of Dunedin bred it 
 freely from its larva some 20 years ago. The moth occurs usually 
 from September to November. Mr W. W. Smith reports it as occur- 
 ring in Taranaki commonly. 
 
 Opogona comptella, Walk. 
 
 This moth was taken at Nelson by Mr Sunley in 1910, and is 
 considered by Mr Meyrick to be an accidental introduction from 
 South-east Australia, where the species is common. Mr Howes 
 obtained a specimen more recently on the Raurimu Spiral. 
 
 Tricophaga tapetiella, Linn. (T.palcestricd). 
 Clothes Moth ; Tapestry Moth 
 
 I do not know when this moth was first introduced. Its larva 
 feeds chiefly on furs and woollen stuffs. Mr Philpott states that it
 
 3 io INSECTS 
 
 is not at all common in the south, but Mr W. W. Smith reports it 
 as very destructive in Taranaki. It was reported from N.Z. in 1877 
 by Mr G. Butler in collections received from Dr Hector and Mr J. D. 
 Enys. It is fairly abundant in all parts of New Zealand north of 
 Southland, not only in houses, but in the bush. 
 
 Monopis ethelella, Newman 
 
 Mr Hudson informs me that this moth was introduced from 
 Australia, where it is common. The larva feeds on skins. Mr Philpott 
 says it is very common and generally distributed ; it occurs through- 
 out the whole year; but he is doubtful as to its being an intro- 
 duction. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith reports it as common in Taranaki. It has been 
 taken up to 4000 ft. 
 
 Monopis crocicapitella, Clem. 
 
 This is a rather common species, whose larva feeds on refuse. 
 It was originally recorded by Mr Meyrick in 1887 as M.ferruginella. 
 It has been collected in all parts of New Zealand, and more or less 
 all the year round. In Nelson it has been taken at 4000 ft. elevation. 
 
 Tinea fuscipunctella, Hawthorn 
 
 Widely distributed in New Zealand, feeding on all kinds of dry 
 refuse, both animal and vegetable; a domestic species. According to 
 Mr A. Philpott it is rare in Southland. 
 
 Tinea terranea, Hawthorn 
 Mr W. W. Smith informs me that this species occurs in Taranaki. 
 
 Tineola biselliella, Humboldt. Clothes Moth 
 
 Another common and very destructive domestic species, feeding 
 especially on woollen goods and hair. It is occasionally found in 
 the linings of sofas and chairs, and in mattresses. The larvae are 
 found in the houses in Britain from February to September inclu- 
 sive, and the moths from April to November. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith says these moths were common at Oamaru in 
 1884, an d are now (1919) very common everywhere. 
 
 Sitotroga cerealella, Oliv. Angoumois Grain Moth 
 
 Originally reported by Mr A. H. Cockayne about 1910, in im- 
 ported maize from the United States. Probably frequently introduced, 
 but not established.
 
 LEPIDOPTERA 311 
 
 Lampronia rubiella, Bjerk. Raspberry-bud Caterpillar 
 Introduced from Britain. The report of the Agricultural Depart- 
 ment for 1904 states that the caterpillar was found on raspberry 
 plants at Wellington and Hastings ; and in the following year it was 
 observed at Kaiapoi. 
 
 Family HEPIALIDM 
 
 (?) Perissectes australasice, Donovan 
 This Australian moth was found at Woodville in the spring of 1918. 
 
 Order DIPTERA 
 
 Family CECIDOMYIID/E 
 
 Cecidomyia destructor, Say. Hessian Fly 
 
 This much-dreaded pest has been present in all wheat- and 
 barley-growing districts in New Zealand for the last 30 or 40 years, 
 but has generally been kept well under observation and reduced 
 by stubble burning. The fly was first detected in wheat at Marton 
 in 1888, and at the same time Mr Hudson stated that large numbers 
 of a hymenopterous parasite were observed. Mr Maskell thought 
 these latter insects belonged to the family Proctotrupidae, and that 
 they were indigenous to New Zealand. This first attack involved 
 some 200 acres of wheat. In 1892 about 1300 acres in the Marton 
 district were attacked, and the fly appeared in the beginning of 1893 
 at Balclutha. During that year over 7000 acres in Bruce County were 
 in wheat, and half of it was badly damaged by the fly; also about 
 200 acres were attacked in Clutha County. It appeared also in 
 Tuapeka County, and in Nelson and Blenheim. The Government 
 then arranged for some thousands of infected puparia of the Hessian 
 fly to be sent from England, and in this way two parasites Pleurotropus 
 epigonus and Platygaster minutus were introduced into the colony. 
 
 In 1894 the fly was severely felt in Masterton and Bruce, and in 
 the former district many farmers abandoned the cultivation of wheat. 
 In 1896 Semiotellus was found somewhat freely in the Bruce district, 
 but no Hessian fly was recorded. In the following year the fly was 
 thinly distributed about Waimate, Timaru, Oamaru and in Bruce. 
 
 In more recent years the fly has been recorded from time to time, 
 but it is now negligible as a pest. 
 
 Hessian fly attacks rye, and it has been stated that it never attacks 
 oats. This, however, is incorrect, for Mr Howes informs me that 
 badly affected oats have been sent from Balfour in Southland, in 
 which "the introduced control insects were more numerous than the 
 Cecidomyids." The fly also has been found on the following grasses:
 
 3 i2 INSECTS 
 
 Yorkshire fog, Holcus lanatus; Timothy, Phleum pratense, Triticum 
 repens, Agropyrum repens, Elymus americanus and Bromus ciliatus 1 . 
 
 Family PSYCHODIDJE 
 Psychoda phaleenoides, Latr. 
 
 This fly, introduced from Europe, was first recorded by Hutton 
 as being common in Christchurch in 1901 ; and was also found by 
 Suter in Auckland. Mr W. W. Smith (April, 1919) says it is common 
 in Taranaki. 
 
 Family BIBIONID/E 
 
 Scatopse notata, Meig 
 
 Hutton records in 1901 that : " In a letter to Mr Skuse, Baron von 
 Osten-Sacken says that he has received numerous specimens from 
 New Zealand. No doubt it has been introduced from Europe." 
 
 Oligotropus alopecuri, Reuter. Meadow-foxtail Midge 
 
 This species, which is found generally amongst meadow-foxtail 
 pastures, originated in Scandinavia, and is also found in Great Britain. 
 It appeared first in N.Z.-grown seed during 1910, but by 1914 had 
 so increased as to become dangerous. In 1915 ten per cent, of the 
 Manawatu crop of meadow- foxtail was infested, and in the following 
 year the precentage was higher, so that the local production of this 
 seed had to be abandoned. Meadow-foxtail seed was harvested only 
 in two districts Manawatu and Tauranga. Up till 1917 the Tauranga 
 crop was not seriously infected. The larvae are frequently found in 
 seed imported from Europe. 
 
 Contarinia tritici, Kirby. Wheat Midge 
 
 Mr A. H. Cockayne states that this species occurs at Timaru 
 and at Gore. 
 
 Dasyneura pyri, Bouche (Perrisia pyri). Pear Midge 
 This midge was first recorded from Avondale, Auckland, in 1918. 
 The larvae attack the young shoots of pear trees. It spread over the 
 whole of Auckland Province within a year of its discovery; it was 
 probably established for some years previously. It only attacks pear 
 trees under (about) eight years of age. 
 It is very destructive to young trees. 
 
 1 Mr A. Philpott, writing on 23rd April, 1917, says: "A few years ago some 
 pods of Phonnium tenax, attacked by the larva of a Cecidomyia, were sent to me. 
 The pods were distorted and small, and the seeds less than the usual size. I do not 
 think that the fly was C. destructor, but I was not successful in rearing the mature 
 insect. Probably it was an undescribed native species." 

 
 DIPTERA 313 
 
 Family STRATIOMYID^E 
 Exaireta spimger, Schiner 
 
 Introduced from Australia, and first recorded in 1859 from Auck- 
 land (Reise der ' Novara'). Since recorded from Auckland (where it is 
 abundant), Whangarei and Wellington (Hutton). Abundant in summer. 
 Mr Hudson says it was captured fairly commonly in the Welling- 
 ton Botanical Gardens in 1882, and adds " I have always assumed this 
 to be a native." Mr A. Philpott has not met with it in the south, and 
 considers that so conspicuous an insect could not escape detection. 
 
 Family MYDAIDJE 
 Mydas macquarti, Schiner 
 
 First recorded from Auckland in 1859 (Reise der' Novara'). Later 
 (1901) it was omitted from Hutton's list of introduced Diptera. 
 
 Family ASILID/E 
 Lampria cenea, Fabr. 
 
 First recorded in New Zealand by Nowicki (1875 ?) Later (1901) 
 it was omitted from Hutton's list. 
 
 Family PHORID/E 
 Phora omnivora, Hudson 
 
 This fly, which is now abundant all the year round, was originally 
 recorded from Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin by Captain 
 Hutton in 1900. It is a common meat fly, but its larva is parasitic 
 on several moths, as Melanchra composita, the New Zealand army- 
 worm or grass-caterpillar, M. mutans, M. ustistriga, Erana graminosa, 
 and other species of Noctuae. It also occurs on some Coleoptera, e.g. 
 Uloma tenebrionides. Mr Hudson was under the impression that it 
 was very destructive in bee-hives, but both Mr D. Miller and Mr 
 Philpott think this is an erroneous idea. The former suggests that 
 the larva is only a scavenger in bee-hives. The latter ventures to think 
 that the hive is not "finally ruined by the wholesale destruction of 
 the honey when the flies emerge," but by the reduction in the strength 
 of the colony caused by the parasitic larvae, the hive being at last so 
 weakened that the necessary temperatures cannot be kept up and the 
 activities of the colony cease. 
 
 Family SYRPHIDJE 
 
 Syrphus viridiceps, Weid. (Syrphus obesus, Hutton) 
 An Australian fly, well established in the far north of Auckland, 
 at Parengarenga Harbour. The larvae destroy large numbers of cater-
 
 3H INSECTS 
 
 pillars and aphides. All authorities state that the larvae of Syrphus 
 destroy great quantities of aphides. Recently (April, 1919) Mr Miller 
 has obtained it from Otira Gorge. 
 
 Syrphus novee-zealandice, Macq. 
 
 First recorded in New Zealand by Mr Bigot. The species is very 
 common throughout New Zealand. It is perhaps a native species, 
 but may have been introduced from Polynesia. Very abundant during 
 the summer in Otago; but in Nelson, where the climate is more 
 equable, it occurs practically all the year round. 
 
 Eristalis tenax, Fabr. Common Drone Fly 
 
 Capt. Hutton thought this species came from Britain, but Mr W. W. 
 Smith believes that California was the region from which it was 
 introduced. 
 
 Mr G. V. Hudson first noticed it in Wellington in 1888, and 
 Mr Smith took it later in the same year at Ashburton, on the flowers 
 of Veronica Andersoni. It soon became very abundant. It usually 
 appears late in autumn (Mr Howes records it as flying in August), 
 and lasts till the end of July. Its rat-tailed larva is abundant in 
 ditches and dirty water. 
 
 Dr Hilgendorf reports it as occurring in cess-pools and earth 
 closets, and even found alive floating in sheep-dip, where probably 
 the poisonous matters had sunk to the bottom, and the upper layers 
 were purified by addition of rain-water. 
 
 Eristalis tenax fertilises (in Europe) the following flowers of species 
 which have been introduced into New Zealand : 
 
 Ranunculus aquatilis, R. acris, R. repens, Sambucus nigra. 
 
 R. bulbosus. Sherardia arvensis. 
 
 Berberis vulgaris. Bellisperennis, Achillcea millefolium, Cni- 
 
 Papaver somniferum. cus arvensis, C. lanceolatus, Cichorium 
 
 Brassica Rapa, B. nigra, Sinapis arvensis, intybus, Leontodon hirtus, Hypocheeris 
 
 S. alba, Cakile maritima, Crambe mari- radicata, Taraxacum officinale, Crepis 
 
 tima. virens, Anthemis arvensis, Matricaria 
 
 Spergula arvensis, Stellaria graminea. inodora, Senecio jacobeea, Calendula 
 
 Hypericum perforatum. officinalis, Carduus crispus, C. nutans, 
 
 Lotus comiculatus, Trifolium arvense. Centaurea nigra. 
 
 Rubus idceus, R. fruticosus, Crateegus Solanum tuberosum. 
 
 oxyacantha, Pyrus cammunis, P. mains, Mentha aquatica. 
 
 P. aucuparia, Prunus domesticus, P. Fagopyrum esculentum, Polygonum Persi- 
 
 avium, P. cerasus. caria. 
 
 Ribes Grossularia. Euphorbia helioscopia, E. cyperissias, E. 
 
 (Enothera bienrds. Peplus. 
 
 Carum Petroselinuni, Daucus Carota, Salix caprea. 
 
 Scandix pecten-Veneris. Allium cepa. 
 Hedera Helix. 
 
 Syritta oceanica, Macq. 
 First recorded in New Zealand by M. Bigot (date?).
 
 DIPTERA 315 
 
 Merodon equestris, Meig. Narcissus Fly 
 
 In 1906 narcissus bulbs imported from Britain were found to be 
 infested with this fly. Originally found in Invercargill, it has since 
 been met with in Auckland, and is probably occasionally introduced. 
 Recently (1918) some bulbs were received from Japan which were 
 infested by the larvae of this or an allied species, but as they did not 
 develop beyond the pupal stage the species could not be determined. 
 
 Family MUSCIDJE ACALYPTRATVE 
 Drosophila ampelophila, Loew. Fruit Fly ; Pomace Fly 
 
 This European species was first noticed by Captain Broun in 
 1904. It has become very common, especially at seaports where fruit 
 is introduced, and is particularly partial to bananas, oranges, and 
 pineapples, which it attacks whether they are bruised or not. Some 
 idea of the frequency of this and other allied species of flies may be 
 gathered from the following statement. 
 
 In 1910-1 1 the following cases of fruit imported into New Zealand 
 were condemned and destroyed for fruit-fly maggot: 
 
 Total imported Destroyed 
 
 Auckland 299,249 cases 848 cases 
 
 Wellington 305,050 987 
 
 Christchurch 62,332 255 
 
 Dunedin 58,633 273 
 
 Bluff 10,338 9 
 
 Mr Howes considers that the term " fruit-fly " should be confined 
 to those flies which attack growing fruits. The Drosophilidae are 
 usually known as "Vinegar-flies," and attack rotting vegetable matter 
 and over-ripe fruit. He adds: 
 
 Fruit-flies have been bred from apparently perfectly sound fruit. On 
 the other hand many fruits with accidental bruises and perforations prove, 
 on examination, not to be infected. I have seen fruit- flies inside a Chinese 
 fruit-shop in Lambton Quay, Wellington, crawling up the glass. It might 
 be possible to establish these flies in the North Island, but not in the colder 
 parts of the south. 
 
 Dacus psidii, Froggatt. Guava Fruit Fly 
 
 According to the Agricultural Department's report for 1908, this 
 species is frequently found in fruit imported from Northern New 
 South Wales. It has apparently not become established in New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Tephrites xanthodes, Broun 
 
 Introduced from Suva on pineapples ; and from Tonga and Raro- 
 tonga on oranges, grenadillas and mummy apples. First observed
 
 3 i6 INSECTS 
 
 by Capt. Broun in 1903. Constantly met with on imported fruit 
 from all those localities. Not established. 
 
 Tephrites tryoni, Froggatt. Queensland Fruit Fly 
 
 Introduced from Australia in pineapples ; first observed by Capt. 
 
 Broun in 1904. For many years it was very commonly met with, 
 
 but was not nearly so common in 1907 and 1908. Mr W. W. Smith 
 
 (April, 1919) states that it is very common in orchards in Taranaki. 
 
 Trypeta musce, Froggatt. New Hebrides Fruit Fly 
 The Agricultural Department report for 1918 states that this 
 fly was very prevalent in Mandarin oranges imported from Sydney, 
 and that large numbers had been bred out. It has not succeeded, 
 however, in establishing itself. 
 
 Lonchtea splendida, Loew. Tomato Fruit Fly 
 First observed in 1903 in tomatoes brought from Sydney, from 
 which large numbers were reared. In the Agricultural Department's 
 report for 1908 it is said to be on the increase in tomatoes and 
 oranges. It is found, but not commonly, in Wellington, and probably 
 in other centres. 
 
 Consignments of the following fruits containing maggots have 
 been burned on the wharves apples, apricots, bananas, cherries, 
 figs, grenadillas, loquats, mangoes, mummy apples, mandarins, maupi 
 fruit, nectarines, oranges, peaches, persimmons, plums, pineapples, 
 pears, shaddocks and tomatoes. Several regulations were enforced 
 to check the introduction of this pest, but owing to efforts of importers 
 these regulations were temporarily relaxed, and in October, 1907, a 
 very large consignment of fruit containing maggots was distributed 
 from Auckland, and reached various parts of the colony. Efforts 
 were immediately made to trace this fruit and destroy it where 
 possible. But later in the season the flies were found breeding in 
 peaches in several gardens in Napier, and in both peaches and 
 tomatoes near Blenheim. In 1908 it was found in peaches both in 
 Napier and Auckland gardens, and in many consignments of imported 
 fruits. 
 
 Since 1908 no specimens, other than those from imported fruit, 
 have been found. 
 
 Halter ophor a capitata, Broun. Mediterranean Fruit Fly 
 First detected in peaches on Wellington Wharf in 1898, when 
 flies were reared from maggots in the condemned fruit by Mr T. W. 
 Kirk. Later they were discovered by Capt. Broun in soil accom-
 
 DIPTERA 317 
 
 panying imported plants. The flies deposit eggs in two days after 
 emerging from the pupa, and 29 days later, new flies emerge. 
 
 The report of the Department of Agriculture for 1908 records 
 a new species of fruit fly introduced with Citrus fruit from Rarotonga 
 and Tonga. Apparently it has not been described. 
 
 Phytomyza albtceps, Meig. 
 
 This fly is common throughout New Zealand, and the larva 
 burrows in the foliage of many plants, especially composites. The 
 sowthistles (Sonchus oleraceus, S. asper and S. arvensis) are most 
 commonly attacked, but the following have also been noted as fur- 
 nishing food plants for this species. Dahlia, dandelion (Taraxacum 
 officinale), common groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), cape weed (Crypto- 
 stemma calendulacea), and nettle (Urtica ferox). 
 
 Dr Hilgendorf informs me that the larvae are attacked and des- 
 troyed by the larva of an introduced parasitic hymenopterous insect 
 (Dacnusa sp.). Messrs Watt and Miller report two other hymen- 
 opterous parasites, minute species of the genus Chrysocarts, which 
 destroy this fly. 
 
 Phytomyza nigricornis, Macquart. Cineraria Fly ; Marguerite Fly 
 
 This species was first recorded in Wellington in 1893. In 1897 
 it was said to be widely dispersed and to have become a serious pest, 
 and it has been reported every year since as abundant. It mines the 
 leaves of Cineraria, globe artichoke, sowthistle, dandelion, chrysan- 
 themum, peas and poro-poro (Solatium aviculare). 
 
 Phytomyza chrysanthemi, Kowarz. Chrysanthemum Fly 
 
 This species was reported as occurring abundantly on chrysan- 
 themums in 1907-9. 
 
 Family ANTHOMYIIDJE 
 
 Fannia camcularis, Linn. (Homalomyia canicularis, Linn.). 
 The Little House Fly 
 
 Seems to be common throughout New Zealand, though not so 
 abundant as Musca domestica. It delights to hover and sport about 
 in rooms, and is easily recognisable on window panes by its small 
 size, and the semi-transparent patches on its body. 
 
 Abundant in early spring, and is displaced by the common house 
 fly in summer. Its larvae are occasionally the cause of intestinal 
 myiasis.
 
 318 INSECTS 
 
 Family TACHINID/E 
 Comptosia bicolor, Macq. 
 
 First recorded from Auckland in 1859 (Reise der ' Novara ') ; intro- 
 duced from Australia. 
 
 Capt. Hutton omits this from his list in 1903, as having been 
 included in error in the ' Novara ' list. 
 
 Comptosia fasciata, Fabr. 
 
 First recorded from Auckland in 1859 (Reise der 'Novara')', 
 probably introduced from Polynesia. 
 
 This species is also omitted by Capt. Hutton. 
 
 Micropalpus brevigaster, Macq. 
 
 First recorded from Auckland in 1859 (Reise der 'Novara')', 
 probably introduced from Australia or Tasmania. 
 Omitted by Capt. Hutton. 
 
 Lamprogaster strigipennis, Macq. 
 
 First recorded from Auckland in 1859 (Reise der 'Novara')', an 
 Australian species. 
 
 Omitted by Capt. Hutton. 
 
 Lamprogaster coerulea, Macq. 
 
 First recorded from Auckland in 1859 (Reise der ' Novara ') ; prob- 
 ably introduced from Australia. 
 
 Omitted by Capt. Hutton. 
 
 Captain Hutton was of opinion that the five above-named species 
 got into the ' Novara V lists in error. 
 
 Phorocera feredayi, Hutton 
 
 First recorded from Dunedin by Capt. Hutton in 1881. Parasitic 
 in the larvae of the basket moth (Liothula omnivord). 
 
 Phorocera marginata, Hutton 
 
 Recorded from Dunedin (1881), Christchurch and Wellington. 
 Parasitic in the larva of Liothula omnivora, (Eceticus omnivorus, 
 Melanchra composita, M. ustistriga, and M. mutans. 
 
 Phorocera nyctemeriana, Hudson 
 
 Wellington (1883) recorded by Mr Hudson; Christchurch and 
 Queenstown (Capt. Hutton), and Dunedin by Mr Howes. Parasitic 
 on the caterpillars of Nyctemera annulata and of Leucania purdiei 1 . 
 
 1 Philpott recorded this as reared from Porina, but is not sure that his identifica- 
 tion is correct.
 
 DIPTERA 319 
 
 Family DEXIID^E 
 Dexia rubricarinata, Macq. 
 
 First observed in Auckland, 1859 (Reise der ' Novara'). Collected 
 on the Kermadecs by Mr W. L. Wallace in 1908, where it was 
 taken from the carcase of a goat. Also at Astrolabe, Nelson, on the 
 sea-beach in 1911 by Mr D. Miller. 
 
 This species was omitted by Capt. Hutton, but these later dis- 
 coveries show the accuracy of the ' Novara ' list, as far as this species 
 is concerned 
 
 Rutilia pelluceus, Macq. 
 
 Recorded from Auckland in 1859 (Reise der 'Novara'). 
 Omitted by Capt. Hutton from his list in 1903. 
 
 Aminia leonina, Fabr. 
 
 First recorded from Auckland in 1859 (Reise der 'Novara') prob- 
 ably introduced from Australia. 
 Omitted by Capt. Hutton. 
 
 Family SARCOPHAGIDJE 
 Sarcophaga impatiens, Walker. Flesh Fly 
 
 This is one of the commonest flies in New Zealand, particularly 
 in the South Island. Capt. Hutton considered that it was probably 
 introduced from Australia. He met with it in great abundance in 
 Whangarei in 1901 . Dr Hilgendorf also reported it from Christchurch 
 and Banks' Peninsula. Mr Philpott took it at Ashburton in the month 
 of April. 
 
 Mr D. Miller in 1909 says: 
 
 This common fly is found in most situations. During December 1907 at 
 Taieri Mouth, I captured a specimen near a swamp. About the middle 
 of June 1908, I picked up another individual which was lying on the 
 Tomahawk (Dunedin) sea-beach; and several were obtained from the 
 swamp behind Murdering Beach during January 1909, as well as from 
 Long Beach during the two following months of the same year. 
 
 Ten years later, in 1919, he informed me that he had obtained the 
 larvae in large numbers infesting the intestine of a sheep. 
 
 Family MUSCIDJE 
 Musca domestica, Linn. Common House Fly 
 
 Very abundant throughout New Zealand; and probably intro- 
 duced at a very early date.
 
 320 INSECTS 
 
 In 1870 A. Bathgate stated that it is driving out to a great extent 
 the native blow-fly. Hutton in 1901 says: 
 
 The statement that the introduced house-fly has displaced the native 
 blow-flies, which have practically disappeared, is quite erroneous. I doubt 
 whether they compete in any way. 
 
 The female lays about 120 eggs. 
 
 In Europe Musca domestica has been found to visit and pollinate 
 the flowers of the following plants which have been introduced into 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Herberts vulgaris. Contum maculatum, Carum Petroselinum. 
 
 Cakile maritima, Bellis perennis. 
 
 Stellaria media. Digitalis purpurea. 
 
 Pyrus malus, P. commums and P. aucu- Fagopyrum esculentum. 
 paria. 
 
 Musca taitensis, Macq. 
 
 This was reported by Captain Hutton in 1881, as having been 
 found by Dr Sinclair. He thought, however, that probably it did 
 not belong to the genus Musca. 
 
 Musca corvina, Fabr. 
 
 This was recorded in the Index in 1903 by Captain Hutton as 
 occurring in New Zealand, on the authority of Dr Hilgendorf. 
 
 Muscina stabulans, Desv. The Stable Fly 
 
 First recorded from Auckland in i8$g f (Reise der ' Novara'). Now 
 abundant throughout New Zealand; more common in the North 
 than in the South Island. 
 
 The larvae probably eat all kinds of decaying vegetable matter, 
 and have frequently been found on rotten fungi. They occasionally 
 attack growing plants, and have been found destroying shallots. 
 
 Calliphora erythrocephala, Desv. Common European Blow-Fly 
 First noticed by Mr Hudson in June, 1889, at Wellington, and 
 by Capt. Hutton 1893 m Christchurch. It is now common through- 
 out New Zealand. The fly is particularly fond of the flowers of indi- 
 genous species of Veronica. 
 
 In Europe this species fertilises the following plants which have 
 been introduced into New Zealand: 
 
 Ranunculus repens. Cnicus arvensis, Senecio jacobcea, Tarax- 
 
 Brassica nigra. acum offictnale, Calendula officinalis, 
 
 Hypericum perforatum. Achilleea millefolium, Onopordon acan- 
 
 Pyrus communis. thium, Calluna vulgaris, Linaria vul- 
 
 Ribes grossularia. garis, Veronica serpyllifolia, Mentha 
 
 Daucus Carota. aquatica, Salix caprea. 
 Hedera Helix.
 
 DIPTERA 321 
 
 This species lays from 300 to 600 eggs, but is not viviparous like 
 some of the indigenous blow-flies 1 . 
 
 Pollenia villosa, Robineau-Desvoidy (Calliphora Icemica, Walker). 
 
 The Golden-haired Blow-Fly 
 
 Probably introduced from Australia into the North Island, where 
 it became common before 1874. In that year it was first observed 
 in Christchurch. In 1900 it was first observed at Lake Wakatipu. 
 It is now abundant throughout New Zealand. Mr Hudson observed 
 it in Wellington in 1881. One of the most common meat flies in 
 houses. It deposits both eggs and maggots. In Australia it does 
 incalculable damage by blowing the wool of sheep, the maggots 
 burrowing into the skin of the animal, causing the wool to rot off. 
 
 Although well-established throughout New Zealand, it has not 
 hitherto caused any appreciable damage among sheep. The cases of 
 sheep-blowing which occur in New Zealand are generally attributed 
 to Lucilia sericata, which is an erroneous idea, as any damage done 
 is caused by Pollenia villosa, 
 
 Lucilia casar, Linn. Green-bottle Fly ; Sheep-maggot Fly 
 First observed by Capt. Hutton in Christchurch in 1872; but it 
 was some years before it spread. It is particularly common in the 
 North Island and in Marlborough, where it causes fly-blow in sheep. 
 Dr Hilgendorf states that the eggs are laid on dogs, and the maggots 
 bore into the ham-muscles of living sheep. The species is not so 
 common in the South Island. Mr Philpott says : " during the summer, 
 odd specimens are often met with, and I once saw about a dozen 
 on a dead rabbit in March." 
 
 1 Mr Philpott writes me as follows: "There is something peculiar about ovi- 
 depositing habits of the large blow-flies. In some localities it is quite unsafe to leave 
 blankets or any woollen fabrics uncovered, but in others they may be left exposed 
 from one year's end to another without being fly-blown. On the Tuatapere- 
 Preservation Inlet track a stock of blankets has been placed in each of the Govern- 
 ment huts, but it has been found necessary to provide zinc cases to keep them in. 
 These huts are all practically at sea-level, but the same trouble occurs at higher 
 elevations. The hut on the Hump is situated at about 3000 ft., but in hot weather 
 the flies are just as great a nuisance as down on the coast. In various parts of the 
 Wakatipu district campers are subjected to the same annoyance. On the other 
 hand, in a hut on the Hunter Mountains (at 3000 ft.) blankets have been left for 
 eight or nine years. They are never covered in any way, simply lie on the bunks, 
 or hang on the rafters, and no trouble from fly-blow has ever been experienced. 
 I have camped in this hut for four successive seasons, always in mid-summer; 
 the blue-bottles come into the hut freely and alight on the blankets, but do no 
 harm. Last year I found that the furniture of the hut had been supplemented by 
 an uncured long-woolled sheepskin, but even this failed to induce the flies to ovi- 
 posit. Also, I camped for a fortnight one year on Ben Lomond, at about 2000 ft. 
 This was late in November, and although the weather was hot, my blankets were 
 not interfered with. Unfortunately, I cannot speak with decision as to the species 
 of fly. It may be that the Hunter Mountain fly is Calliphora quadrimaculata." 

 
 322 INSECTS 
 
 Mr Howes says (1919): "From a mass of wool swarming with 
 maggots, I bred out three different flies, none of which were Lucilia 
 ceesar" Mr Miller writes me: "This fly is abundant everywhere, 
 living often on decaying vegetable matter. It is, however, particularly 
 a carrion fly, though it also feeds on excrement." It is a fly which 
 increases rapidly, the female laying from 3000 to 6000 eggs. 
 
 This species is a familiar flower-visitant, and in Europe fertilises 
 the flowers of the following species of plants introduced into New 
 Zealand : 
 
 Ranunculus sceleratus, R. acris, R. repens, Bellis perennis, Achillcea millefolium, 
 
 R. bulbosus. Cnicus arvensis, Matricaria inodora, 
 
 Brassica nigra. Anthemis arvensis, Chrysanthemum 
 
 Stellaria media, Cerastium triviale. Leucanthemum, Senecio jacobcea, Ta- 
 
 Geranium molle. nacetum vulgare, Cnicus lanceolatus, 
 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha? Taraxacum officinale. 
 
 Rubus idceus, Pyrus mains, Pyrus aucu- Solanum tuberosum. 
 
 paria. Mentha piperita, M. aquatica. 
 
 Carum Petroselinum, C. carui, Conium Euphorbia helioscopia, E. Peplus. 
 maculatum, Daucus Carota. 
 
 Lucilia sericata, Macq. Sheep-maggot Fly 
 
 Mr Hudson took this species at Karori in 1883. It appeared in 
 North Otago in 1906, when attention was drawn to its occurrence, 
 and steps taken to arrest its progress. Also found in Mackenzie 
 country. It reappeared again in 1907-8, in Palmerston South. In 
 1909 it was abundant everywhere. It is chiefly found in South Island. 
 Lucilia sericata (in Europe) visits -flowers of Medicago saliva, 
 Achillcea millefolium, Cnicus arvensis, and Senecio jacobcea. 
 
 Stomoxys calcitrans, Fabr. The Biting House Fly ; Stable Fly 
 
 Common in both islands. I noted it near Dunedin in 1893, and 
 Capt. Hutton found it later near Christchurch. Mr Hudson found 
 it in Wellington in May, 1889. Dr Hilgendorf says: 
 
 An observation in 1917 showed that the inhabitants of a stable were 
 50 per cent. Stomoxys, and 50 per cent, of Musca domestica ; of a pig-sty, 
 95 per cent, of Musca and 5 per cent. Stomoxys; and of a house near by 
 100 per cent. Musca. 
 
 This fly is about the size of the common house-fly (Musca domes- 
 tica), but is at once distinguished by its needle-like proboscis, with 
 which it gives a fierce puncture of the skin. It is much quicker in 
 its movements also, due, no doubt, to its inherited need of escaping 
 rapidly from the animal it has pierced. It easily punctures through 
 one's clothes. 
 
 The species is probably common throughout New Zealand. In 
 Europe it visits the flowers of: 
 
 Hypericum perforatum. 
 
 Achillcea millefolium and Cnicus arvensis ; and Mentha aquatica. 

 
 DIPTERA 323 
 
 Stomoxys nigra, Macq. 
 
 Found in 1916 at St John's Lake, Auckland, by Mr D. Miller. 
 This is a South African species. 
 
 Family CEsTRiDjE 
 
 (Estrus ovis, Linn. Sheep Nasal Bot-Fly 
 
 Capt. Hutton recorded this first in Canterbury in 1 873 . Dr Hilgen- 
 dorf states that these flies are very common; and that in the back 
 country of Canterbury they trouble the merinos very much: 
 
 "At the Cass on hot days," he says, "the sheep may be seen stamping 
 their feet, tossing their heads, or standing huddled together, with noses 
 to the ground; this is because the bot-flies have laid their eggs in their 
 nostrils." 
 
 Dr Gilruth, reporting on the subject in 1899, stated that: 
 
 flocks in New Zealand become affected without any previous agitation of 
 the animals having been noticed. In older countries the sheep become 
 very excited if even only one fly be in their vicinity. They suffer mostly in 
 autumn, the larvae lodging in the nasal passages and the bony sinuses of 
 the skull. 
 
 The larvae have been known to cause rhinal myiasis (i.e. in human 
 beings). 
 
 This fly is found in all parts of New Zealand. Dr Hilgendorf 
 considers that nearly every sheep harbours them. 
 
 Gastrophilus equi, Meigen. Horse Bot-Fly 
 
 Captain Hutton saw this species first in 1892, and for two or three 
 years they were very abundant and caused quite a scare. Dr Hilgendorf 
 considers that the damage they do to horses' stomachs is probably 
 insignificant, though the annoyance to horses when the flies are 
 laying their eggs is very great. He says: "Every horse we kill has 
 abundance of bots in its stomach." 
 
 Mr Philpott says (1917): 
 
 The horse hot is very common now. Some horses are extremely restless 
 when the flies are about, but others take little notice. A few weeks ago I 
 saw a bay mare so covered with eggs about the legs and abdomen that at 
 a little distance she appeared to be tinged with grey. Her owner told me 
 that she never took the least notice of the flies. In the same paddock was 
 another horse which was continually walking to and fro, whisking its tail 
 and snapping vigorously at the insects. 
 
 Gastrophilus hcemorrhoidalis, Meigen. Horse Bot-Fly 
 
 Supposed to have been introduced by some Mexican circus-horses 
 from San Francisco; first noticed in the North Island in 1889, and
 
 324 INSECTS 
 
 in the South Island in 1891 . Now common throughout New Zealand, 
 but according to Dr Hilgendorf not nearly as abundant as G. equi. 
 Mr D. Miller says : 
 
 During February 1909, I observed a large swarm hovering about a 
 young horse, attacking the animal at the knees and sides, and, as they flew 
 about the place upon which they wished to alight, they suddenly darted in 
 and out, each time coming into contact with the horse's flesh. 
 
 Gastrophilus nasalis, Meig. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith records this bot-fly as first attacking horses in 
 South Canterbury in 1890, and then spreading rapidly over the South 
 Island. It was fairly common in New Zealand in 1894. 
 
 Hypoderma bovis, De Geer. Ox-warble Fly 
 
 According to Dr Hilgendorf hardly an ox reaches New Zealand 
 without carrying the larvae of this fly, but none has yet got past the 
 Quarantine Stations, which so far have successfully resisted the estab- 
 lishment of this dangerous pest. 
 
 In Europe the larvae have occasionally been found in human beings ; 
 but the parasite is more common among herdsmen in America. 
 
 Mr D. Miller (April, 1919) says these larvae were found on cows 
 at Lea Flat Station, about 20 years ago; and at Owaka about 30 
 years ago. 
 
 The larvae of this species have been known to occur in man. 
 
 Family HIPPOBOSCID^E 
 Melophagus ovinus, Latr. European Sheep Tick ; Ked 
 
 Dr Reakes informs me that this insect pest is common through- 
 out New Zealand; and Dr Hilgendorf states that it is universal. 
 
 Sub-order APHANIPTERA 
 
 Family PULICID^ 
 Pulex irritanSy Linn. Common Flea 
 
 In his narrative of Captain Cook's second voyage, when in Queen 
 Charlotte Sound in 1773, Forster states: "We were told that the 
 people from the 'Adventure ' had found the native huts exceedingly 
 full of vermin and particularly fleas." It is rather singular that neither 
 Cook nor Banks in the first voyage to New Zealand makes any mention 
 of the fleas, which were associated with the natives. In his second 
 voyage, when the 'Adventure ' came into Ship Cove in Queen Charlotte 
 Sound in April, 1773, the old Maori pa was found to be deserted, 
 but "the presence of immense quantities of vermin was taken by the 

 
 DIPTERA 325 
 
 sailors as a rough and ready indication that the huts had not been 
 long abandoned by the Maoris." 
 
 It is quite probable that there were no fleas in this country at the 
 date of Cook's first voyage (1769), but that they were then introduced, 
 and very rapidly increased. It would seem indeed that this is the case 
 from the following facts. 
 
 In the vocabulary at the end of Nicholas's Narrative of a Voyage 
 to NewZealand, vol. ii, p. 338 (published in 1817), occurs the following : 
 
 A White Man = Packaha. 
 
 The flea is also called by this name, as the Maoris assert it to have been 
 first introduced into their country by Europeans. 
 
 Angas in Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand, 
 vol. n, p. 20 (published in 1847), says: 
 
 Here we pitched our tent, overlooking the broad surface of the Waikato, 
 at about half a dozen yards from its brink. The fear of too many visita- 
 tions from that active parasite, the flea (cleverly styled e pakea nohinohi, 
 or "the little stranger," by the natives, who say it was first introduced by 
 the Europeans), prevented our encamping within the enclosure of the pah. 
 
 Mr Elsdon Best says: "I cannot remember any mention of the 
 flea in old Maori traditions, as the waeroa, Kutu and namu are men- 
 tioned, which seems to support the above statements." 
 
 After their introduction fleas increased at an astounding rate, and 
 spread from end to end of the country. The Maori pas and villages 
 were full of them, especially in the North Island ; but they are found 
 also in vast numbers in warm dry quarters, such as abandoned settle- 
 ments, old sheds and sheepyards, where the ground often literally 
 moves with them. 
 
 Ctenocephalus canis, Curtis. Dog and Cat Flea 
 This is a common species in New Zealand, and "is probably the 
 most widely distributed member of the order." It has been recorded 
 as Pulex serraticeps, Gervais. Mr Rothschild considers that there are 
 two distinct species, one C. canis occurring on dogs, and C. felis on 
 cats, but he states that it is impossible to separate them. 
 
 Ceratophyllus fasciatus, Curtis. Rat Flea 
 
 This flea is probably common on rats throughout the country, 
 but no one has worked out the occurrence of this important group, 
 except Dr Russell-Ritchie, who informs me that it is common in 
 rats which have been examined in Wellington Hospital. This is one 
 of the species which conveys bubonic plague, but before investiga- 
 tions into the possible introduction of this disease can be properly 
 undertaken, a complete study of the fleas present in the country must 
 be made.
 
 326 INSECTS 
 
 This species is found on Mm decumanus (the brown rat), and on 
 M. musculus (the mouse) 1 . 
 
 Ceratophyllus gallince, Wagner. Bird Flea 
 
 This species occurs in dirty fowl-runs, where it causes harm and 
 irritation to the birds. It has usually been referred to as Pulex avium, 
 Tasch. The report of the Agricultural Department for 1900 states 
 that this insect is common in New Zealand. 
 
 Ctenopsyllus musculi, Wagner. Rat Flea 
 
 This species is also probably found throughout New Zealand, as 
 it occurs on mice, brown rats and black rats (Mus rattus). Dr Russell- 
 Ritchie tells me that it is found on rats in Wellington, but not so 
 commonly as Ceratophyllus fasciatus. 
 
 1 The connection between rats (or mice) and bubonic plague was evidently 
 known to Asiatic peoples in very far- distant ages. Like many other facts of historic 
 and scientific interest, this knowledge was lost with the wholesale destruction of 
 peoples and libraries which has taken place from time to time in the past. But there 
 is an interesting record of it in the early history of the Jewish people. Somewhere 
 about the nth century B.C., as narrated in the First Book of Samuel (Chap, iv-vi), 
 during the ever-recurring wars between the Philistines and the Israelites, the latter 
 were defeated with great slaughter in a battle fought near Aphek, and the Ark of 
 God was taken, and was conveyed to the house of Dagon in Ashdod. There is a 
 mixture of history and of priest-lore in the succeeding narrative, but we are told 
 "the hand of the Lord was heavy upon them of Ashdod, and he destroyed them, 
 and smote them with emerods " ( = haemorrhoids or bubonic glands ?). In other words 
 they were attacked by some very deadly and infectious plague. The lords of the 
 Philistines sent the ark to Gath, " and it was so, that, after they had carried it about, 
 the hand of the Lord was against the city with a very great destruction : and he 
 smote the men of the city, both small and great, and they had emerods in their 
 secret parts." Then they sent it to Ekron, and the plague broke out there. In their 
 desperation, thinking it was a visitation of vengeance of the God of Israel, they 
 resolved to return it to the people from whom it was originally taken, and to accom- 
 pany it with a trespass offering. This offering consisted of five golden emerods and 
 five golden mice, which probably may be more correctly translated rats, though 
 mice and rats are equally transmitters of bubonic plague. The further mixture of 
 history and priestly superstition is recorded at the end of Chap. vi. The ark was 
 placed on a cart to which two cows were attached, and they were set towards the 
 land of Israel and allowed to go wherever they liked. They took the road to Bethshe- 
 mesh, and the arrival of the ark was hailed by the people with joy. But they carried 
 the plague with them, for the priestly record says: "He smote the men of Beth- 
 shemesh, because they had looked into the ark of the Lord, even he smote of the people 
 fifty thousand and threescore and ten men. And the people lamented, because the 
 Lord had smitten many of the people with a great slaughter." It is a most interesting 
 narrative, and shows that at that early date the rulers knew that there was some 
 relation between the plague and the rats or mice, even though they did not know 
 that fleas were the carriers of the infection.
 
 THYSANOPTERA 327 
 
 Order THYSANOPTERA 
 Family THRIPID^E 
 
 Thrips sp. 
 
 Several species of Thrips and allied genera occur in New Zealand, 
 most of which are apparently introduced, but, as far as I am aware, 
 none have been worked out or identified. They are found in numbers 
 in most cultivated flowers, as well as a great many indigenous species; 
 but here again no record has been made of them. In some cases they 
 are found in such abundance on vegetation as to amount to a des- 
 tructive pest. Mr W. W. Smith has sent me foliage of Pittosporum, 
 etc., from New Plymouth, which shows the effects they produce. 
 The undersides of many of the leaves were covered with a rust- 
 coloured dust, others were similarly affected on the upper surface. 
 The cuticle was punctured, and the epidermal cells largely destroyed, 
 while in most of them the chlorophyll was wanting. Whether this had 
 been removed by the insects puncturing the upper layers of tissue, 
 or was due to the destruction of the epidermis, I could not say. 
 Many of the leaves were covered with white patches, which proved 
 to be formed of thousands of minute eggs, apparently of Thrips. 
 The effect on many leaves of the loss of chlorophyll and of the damage 
 to the epidermal tissues was to give them a silvery appearance, and 
 to cause them to present a very sickly aspect. 
 
 Order HEMIPTERA 
 (See Appendix B, p. 560.) 
 Sub-order HETEROPTERA 
 
 Family REDUVIID^ 
 Nabis HneatuSy Dahlbom 
 
 This European species is recorded by Captain Hutton in the Index 
 (1903) as occurring in New Zealand. In a note on those introduced 
 Hemiptera, Mr G. W. Kirkcaldy states that this species is probably 
 included in error. 
 
 Family CIMICID/E 
 Cimex lactularius, Linn. Bed Bug 
 
 This most objectionable insect has been in New Zealand from 
 early days of settlement, as many of the vessels which visited the 
 country were infested with bugs. I first met with them on a coasting 
 steamer in 1884; and Mr Hudson reported them in 1890. They are 
 not particularly common in the South Island, but in the warmer 
 parts of the North Island, many houses are infested with them.
 
 328 INSECTS 
 
 Family SCIOCORID^E 
 Sciocoris helferi, Fieb. 
 
 In a note written in 1896 Captain Hutton says of this species 
 "A South European species, said to have been collected in Auckland 
 by the 'Novara' Expedition." In 1905 Mr Kirkcaldy stated that the 
 species ought to be expunged from New Zealand lists till further 
 confirmation. It has not been recorded since. 
 
 Family PENTATOMIDJE 
 Nezara prasina, Linn. 
 
 Captain Hutton stated in 1897 that "specimens of this species 
 are in the British Museum from New Zealand." It is a cosmopolitan 
 species, but I have not heard of any collector who has found it in 
 these islands. 
 
 Sub-order HOMOPTERA 
 
 Family PSYLLID^E 
 Psylla acacice-baileyance, Froggatt 
 
 In the report on State Afforestation in New Zealand for 1910-11, 
 this species is stated by Mr A. H. Cockayne to occur on the planta- 
 tions of black wattle (Acacia decurrens), "but so far it has done little 
 harm." It has evidently been introduced from Australia. 
 
 Rhinocola eucalypti, Maskell. Yellow Aphis 
 This species, which is a native of Australia, is a small dark brown 
 psyllid, the larvae of which cluster at the tips of the foliage of young 
 blue gums (Eucalyptus globulus), and cover themselves with threads of 
 white flocculent matter, hence apparently the popular name. Mr Mas- 
 kell thought it was introduced from Tasmania. The species is common 
 in the Manawatu district, and is probably of very general distribution. 
 
 Family FULGORID^: 
 Scolypopa (Pochasia) australis. Walk. Vine Hopper ; Tree Hopper 
 
 Captain Broun reported this (in 1896) as common on native 
 shrubs in the forest about 20 years ago. Later on it began to 
 attack passion-vines, figs, etc. ; preventing the formation or maturing 
 of the fruit. In 1898 it is recorded as occasionally attacking grape- 
 vines. 
 
 The species was probably introduced from Australia. Mr Howes 
 found it in Auckland in immense numbers on fig trees, and on many 
 garden plants. He also obtained it in Nelson.
 
 HEMIPTERA 329 
 
 Family APHID^E 
 
 Aphis brassicce, Linn. Cabbage Aphis 
 
 This pest seems to have appeared at an early date after settlement. 
 It was very abundant 50 years ago, and is particularly common in 
 those districts of New Zealand where the annual rainfall does not 
 exceed 35 inches. It attacks every species of Brassica (cabbage, 
 turnip, swede, rape, etc.), and is found on many other crucifers 
 (Capsella, Sisymbrium, Cakile, etc.). Dr Hilgendorf considers that 
 it is the most destructive insect that has been introduced into the 
 country, and estimates that the annual loss due to its presence 
 cannot be put down at less than 250,000 ; and this not so much by 
 the direct damage it does, as the restriction it entails in the selection 
 of varieties which while more or less blight-proof, are not nearly as 
 productive as others 1 . 
 
 Aphis persicce niger, Smith. Black Peach Aphis 
 Mr D. Miller informed me that this insect, which appears to be 
 common in parts of Australia, has recently (1917) been recorded 
 from New Zealand (locality?). 
 
 Chermes corticate, Kaltenbach 
 
 This species is recorded by Captain Hutton in the Index (1903). 
 None of my correspondents know it. 
 
 Chermes pint, Koch 
 
 In 1884 Mr Maskell recorded that pine trees were badly attacked 
 by a "blight" some four or five years previously. The species which 
 suffered were Pinus halepensis, P. radiata (P. insignis), and P. sylvestris. 
 The latter species was especially damaged in Nelson, while the former 
 about Wellington were greatly infested. It was also destructive in 
 plantations at Wanganui, Christchurch, Ashburton and Peel Forest. 
 The pest seems to be fairly common, and though it does not kill 
 pine trees, it disfigures them and greatly interferes with their vigorous 
 growth. Mr Maskell suggested that perhaps C. pint and C. corticalis 
 were the same species. 
 
 Chermes laricis, Hartig. The Pine White Aphis 
 In the report on State Afforestation for 1901-11, this species is 
 stated by Mr A. H. Cockayne to be fairly abundant on some of the 
 pines, "but it appears to select trees that are of weak constitution, 
 
 1 In the report of the Agricultural Department for 1905, two species are 
 recorded which, in the absence of certain literature, I cannot identify. They are: 
 (i) the turnip fly (Aphis rosce), which is recorded from Kohinui, and (2) the green fly 
 (Rophalosiphon dianthi), which is said to have been found on diseased tomatoes from 
 Wellington.
 
 330 INSECTS 
 
 and will probably more or less disappear when the trees are older." 
 Though only reported from Rotorua and Waiotapu, the insect is 
 probably widespread. 
 
 Lachnus strobi, Fitch 
 
 Recorded by Mr D. Miller as occurring on Douglas Spruce (Abies 
 Douglasii) at Palmerston North in 1919. 
 
 Phylloxera vastatrix, Planchon. Vine Louse 
 
 This insect appeared in one locality in Auckland in 1885, and 
 efforts were made to exterminate it. In 1889 and 1890 it was found 
 in several places near Auckland, and at Whangarei. In 1895 it was 
 reported from three localities near Masterton, and in 1 898 at Carterton. 
 In the Agricultural report for 1898-99 it is also stated to have been 
 found in Eden, Waitemata, Whakatane, Tauranga, Piako and Manukau 
 counties, and to be common from Auckland North. In 1902 it was 
 rediscovered at Mt Eden, Auckland, and in the following year was 
 reported from Opotiki, and was said to be bad at Whangarei. 
 
 In 1920 it was still present in a number of localities in the Auck- 
 land district. 
 
 Schizoneura lanigera, Haus. (Eriosoma lanigera, Haus.). 
 Woolly Aphis ; American Blight 
 
 This species has been known for a very long time in New Zealand, 
 and is universally distributed throughout the country. It is very 
 abundant still in old and neglected orchards, but has been greatly 
 reduced in recent years by the use of "Northern Spy" stocks on 
 which to graft the different varieties of apples. Dr Hilgendorf con- 
 siders that it is more common in the northern half of the North 
 Island than elsewhere. 
 
 In 1861 the Otago Provincial Council passed the "American Blight 
 Protection Ordinance," the preamble of which reads: 
 
 Whereas considerable injury has been done to Fruit Trees within the 
 Province of Otago by the Blight, or Insect called the American Blight; 
 and whereas it is expedient to prevent as much as possible the increase 
 thereof: Be it therefore enacted, etc. 
 
 This is interesting as showing how early this insect was recognised 
 as a dangerous and common pest in New Zealand, and also how 
 unscientific is the definition of the pest itself. 
 
 The majority of apples in New Zealand are now grafted on Northern 
 Spy stocks, an American apple which has a hard bark and very firm 
 wood, thus enabling it to withstand the attacks of the woolly aphis.
 
 HEMIPTERA 331 
 
 Siphonophora rosce, Reaum. &ose Fly 
 
 This pest has long been known in the country, and apparently 
 is common everywhere. 
 
 Siphonophora granaria, Kirby 
 This species is also widespread throughout New Zealand. 
 
 Mysus cerasi y Fabr. Black Aphis ; Black Fly 
 This pest has been known in New Zealand since the early fifties, 
 and appears to be common throughout the Dominion. It particularly 
 attacks peach, cherry and plum trees, making its appearance in the 
 early spring, and doing most damage when the trees are in bloom, 
 and the foliage and fruit are young. 
 
 Family COCCIDJE 
 
 The nomenclature of this family has recently undergone a com- 
 plete revision, and I am indebted to Mr Guy Brittin of Christchurch 
 for a correct list of the species. As, however, most fruit growers only 
 know the names which appear in Maskell's papers, and in the publica- 
 tions of the Agricultural Department, I have retained these in paren- 
 theses for the sake of reference. 
 
 Aulacaspis rosce, Sandberg (Diaspis rosce) 
 
 This species, which attacks rosaceous plants roses, blackberries, 
 raspberries, etc. has been reported from Canterbury and Hawke's 
 Bay. It was first recorded by Maskell in 1878. 
 
 Diaspis boisduvalii, Signoret 
 
 This scale has been found on various species of wattles (Acacia), 
 and on some hot-house plants. It was also recorded by Maskell in 1878. 
 
 Chionaspis citri, Comstock 
 
 Originally imported from America, this destructive insect is found 
 on species of Citrus in the north of New Zealand ; it is also commonly 
 introduced on oranges from Sydney. 
 
 Chionaspis dubia, Maskell 
 
 Originally described by Mr Maskell in 1881, who stated that it 
 was common on many plants, Coprosma, Rubus, Asplenium, etc. In 
 re-describing it in 1887, he added Pellcea to the plants on which it 
 feeds, and gave Canterbury and Auckland as habitats. In 1891 a 
 small form of it was taken at Reef ton on leaves of Leptospermum, and 
 at Wellington on Asplenium and Cyathodes. In 1915 it was reported
 
 332 INSECTS 
 
 by Mr E. E. Green as occurring on a species of Adiantum introduced 
 from Fiji. Mr Brittin states: "I am rather doubtful as to whether 
 this is imported or not." 
 
 Lepidosaphes pinncsformis, Bouche (Mytilaspis citricola, Packard). 
 Lemon Scale ; Purple Scale 
 
 In 1889 this scale insect was found on the rind of some oranges 
 forwarded to Mr Maskell from Inangahua ; the oranges came originally 
 from Fiji. In 1895-96 it was found on lemons imported from Portugal. 
 In the report of the Department of Agriculture for 1909 the species 
 is reported as occurring among lemon trees in New Zealand. 
 
 Lepidosaphes ulmi, Linn. (Mytilaspis pomorum, Bouche). 
 Apple Scale 
 
 Probably introduced very much earlier, but first recorded by 
 Mr Maskell in 1878, when it was quite common in New Zealand. 
 It is a most abundant, and extremely destructive species. While 
 chiefly attacking apple trees, it is stated by Mr Maskell to occur on 
 pears, hawthorn, walnut, plum, peach, apricot, lilac, Cotoneaster, 
 sycamore, ash, and many other plants. According to Dr Hilgendorf 
 this pest has been tending to disappear during the last ten years 
 in North Canterbury, but from natural (unknown) causes. A very 
 minute white acarid (mite) has been observed among the eggs of 
 this scale insect. 
 
 Lepidosaphes nullipora, Froggart 
 
 Mr Brittin informs me that he has found this species very plenti- 
 fully in North Otago, on Eucalyptus, wattle and walnut. It has 
 probably been introduced from Australia. It may be easily mistaken 
 for L. ulmi. 
 
 Aspidiotus aurantii, Maskell (A. coccineus, Gennadius). 
 Red Scale of Orange 
 
 In 1878 Mr Maskell reported this species as occurring on orange 
 and lemon trees, growing at Governor's Bay, near Lyttelton. It 
 occurs, he says, in immense numbers on the oranges and lemons sold 
 in our shops, and which are imported from Sydney. It was also 
 reported from Auckland. 
 
 The Agricultural Department report for 1909 speaks of "the 
 immense quantities of scale-infested Citrus fruits which both Australia 
 and Italy have for years poured into the Dominion." Energetic 
 measures are taken, however, to arrest the introduction and spread 
 of the pest.
 
 HEMIPTERA 333 
 
 The following table gives the amount of fruit, which was fumigated 
 at the principal ports of arrival in order to combat the introduction of 
 scale insects, mealy bug, etc. 
 
 Fruit imported Fumigated 
 
 cases cases 
 
 Auckland 299,249 7751 
 
 Wellington ... 305,050 2922 
 
 Christchurch ... 62,332 280 
 
 Dunedin 58,633 97 
 
 Bluff 10,338 
 
 Aspidiotus buddleice, Signoret 
 
 Found by Mr Maskell in 1877 on tne silver wattle (Acacia dealbata) 
 in Nelson; also in Christchurch on the same kind of tree. 
 
 Aspidiotus camellite, Signoret 
 
 Originally noted by Mr Maskell in 1878 on camellias in Christ- 
 church. In 1885 he reported it as common about Wellington on 
 Euonymus, weeping willow, and other garden trees and shrubs, to 
 which it often did much damage. 
 
 Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comstock. San Jose Scale 
 First reported by Mr Maskell in 1895, but his specimens were 
 Australian, and the insect was probably not in New Zealand at that 
 date. 
 
 In the Agricultural Department's report for 1909 it is stated to 
 be firmly established in portions of the Nelson district and to be 
 found in isolated localities in other parts of both islands. It has been 
 noticed on apples, pears, plums, peaches, nectarines, apricots, currants 
 and gooseberries. 
 
 Aspidiotus hederce, Bouche (A. nerii) 
 
 Originally recorded by Mr Maskell in 1881, as occurring in the 
 North Island (Wellington) on Coprosma, and later on Carpodetus 
 serratus and Vitex littoralis. The favourite food-plant in Europe, from 
 whence it was introduced, is Nerium oleander. In 1877 he also found 
 it on karaka (Corynocarpus Icevigata). It has also been met with on 
 palms and orchids in hot-houses, on grape-vines, and, in Christchurch 
 on wattles. In 1895 it was found on the skins of a shipment of lemons 
 imported from Portugal, and some of this fruit was sent up to Whan- 
 garei, where lemons are somewhat extensively grown. 
 
 Chrysomphalus rossi (Crawford), Maskell (Aspidiotus rossi) 
 This species was recorded by Mr Maskell in May, 1890, as having 
 been received by him from Australia, where it was very common in
 
 334 INSECTS 
 
 Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney, on almost every kind of plant; but 
 the first announcement of its appearance in New Zealand was in 1895, 
 when Captain Broun found it on olive trees at Whangarei. Later the 
 Agricultural Department reported it as occurring on various species 
 of Citrus, and on Camellia. The species, which is cosmopolitan in 
 its distribution, is now common and very troublesome in the northern 
 parts of New Zealand. 
 
 Coccus maculatus, Signoret (Lecanium maculatum} 
 
 This European species was reported by Mr Maskell in 1878, as 
 occurring on Bouvardia in a greenhouse in Christchurch. I do not 
 know that it has been recorded since. 
 
 Coccus mori, Signoret (Lecanium mori) 
 
 Taken by Mr Maskell onAlsophila and other plants in the Botanical 
 Gardens, Wellington, in 1884; and in 1893 on Asplenium and other 
 ferns. In 1895 it was found to be plentiful on gorse (Ulex europceus) 
 and broom (Spartium or Genista) at Fairlie in South Canterbury. 
 (The latter is probably Cytisus scoparius.) 
 
 Coccus longulus, Douglas (Lecanium longulum, Douglas ; 
 L. chirimolice, Maskell) 
 
 In 1889 Mr Maskell recorded this species from Fiji, where it 
 was found on the bark and leaves of the Peruvian Cherimoyer (Anona 
 tripetala). In 1896 he states: 
 
 This insect has come to New Zealand. Captain Broun sent me specimens 
 on Laurus, from Northcote, near Auckland. It has evidently been imported 
 from Fiji, between which place and New Zealand there is a rapidly-growing 
 trade in fruit, etc. 
 
 Coccus hesperidus, Linn. (Lecanium hesperidum, Blanch). 
 Broad Scale ; Holly Scale ; Ivy Scale 
 
 In 1878 Mr Maskell wrote: "This insect is becoming a veritable 
 pest in this country. Hollies, ivies, Portugal laurels, and many other 
 trees in our gardens are every year becoming more and more infested 
 with it." In 1887 he added Camellia, orange, myrtle, box, etc., and 
 stated : " this is the commonest of the Lecanidae in this country." It 
 is also found on oranges, gooseberries, and occasionally on grape- 
 vines. 
 
 In 1888-89 Dr Jas. Hudson recorded this species (under the name 
 of Lecanium hispidum) as occurring on orange and lemon trees in 
 Nelson, and badly infesting the trees. In February, 1890, he observed 
 Rhizobius ventralis preying on the Coccid; and in January, 1891, he
 
 HEMIPTERA 335 
 
 stated that both the blight and the ladybird had completely dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 It is kept in check to some extent by a parasitic fly, and by an 
 undetermined species of fungus. 
 
 Coccus persicce, Geoffroy 
 
 In 1891 Mr Maskell recorded this species, or a variety of it, as 
 occurring on grape-vines at Ashburton, under the name of Lecanium 
 rosarum, Snell. 
 
 Coccus persicce, var. coryli, Linn. (Lecanium ribis, Fitch) 
 
 This species was recorded in 1890 by Mr Maskell, who received 
 specimens from Ashburton, from Mr W. W. Smith. At that date it 
 was common in gardens on gooseberries, black and red currants. In 
 the following year he noted its occurrence from various places in 
 Canterbury, and from Oamaru, and added: "the pest is a new arrival 
 in the colony within the last three or four years, and seems to be 
 spreading rapidly." 
 
 Saissetia nigra, Neitner (Lecanium nigrum, L. depressum) 
 
 This was recorded in 1878 by Mr Maskell, as occurring on green- 
 house plants in Christchurch and Wellington. 
 
 Saissetia olece, Bernard (Lecanium oleee). 
 "Black Scale" of California 
 
 Reported in 1884 by Mr Maskell as becoming very common 
 throughout New Zealand, especially in the North Island. It occurs 
 on many plants in gardens and orchards. He found it abundant on 
 Cassinia leptophylla, a native composite shrub which covers the hills 
 near Wellington ; and it was reported also to be spreading on native 
 trees near Whangarei. A very widespread species. 
 
 Saissetia hemispherica, Targioni-Tozzetti (Lecanium 
 hemisphericum, L. hibernaculorum, Boisd.) 
 
 This European species was stated by Mr Maskell in 1878, to be 
 common in greenhouses in Christchurch. In 1884 he found it on 
 Camellia in the Hutt Valley, Wellington. 
 
 Pulvinaria floccifera, Westwood (P. camellicola, Signoret) 
 
 In 1878 Mr Maskell recorded this species as occurring on Camellia 
 in Christchurch and Wellington, and in greenhouses in the south.
 
 336 INSECTS 
 
 Asterolecanium variolosum, Ratzeburg (Planchonia 
 quercicola, Bouche 
 
 In 1895 Mr R. I. Kingsley sent to Mr Maskell from Nelson twigs 
 of oak thickly covered with this coccid, and he stated that "the owner 
 first noticed the blight about fourteen years ago." 
 
 Pseudococcus longispinus, Targioni-Tozzetti (Dactylopius 
 adonidum, Signoret). Mealy Bug 
 
 What I think was certainly this species was abundant in a vinery 
 in Auckland in 1884; it was also reported from Whangarei. It was 
 not recorded, however, until 1889, when Mr Maskell stated that it 
 occurred in the hot-houses and stoves of Government House, Wel- 
 lington. In 1895 Mr Maskell mentioned an outbreak of this pest in 
 the Hutt Valley, near Wellington. In the following year Captain 
 Broun reported that it had proved a terrible nuisance in some of the 
 northern vineries; at Tauranga it was most abundant on passion- 
 vines (Passiflora sp.). It was also found commonly on many fruit 
 trees. 
 
 The Agricultural Department introduced the black ladybird (Rhi- 
 zobius ventralis), the steely-blue ladybird (Orchus chalybeus), and the 
 red-headed ladybird (Cryptolcemus montrouzeri), specially to combat 
 this dangerous pest. 
 
 Pseudococcus coriaceus, Maskell (Eriococcus coriaceus). 
 Blue-Gum Scale 
 
 First noticed about Timaru in 1900, having been introduced from 
 Australia, partly among young gum trees, and partly by hardwood 
 logs. It has been detected within recent years as being brought in 
 in both ways. It was originally described by Mr Maskell in 1892 
 from specimens sent to him from New South Wales. About 1900 
 plantations of gums (Eucalyptus globulus and E. stuartiana chiefly) 
 were attacked by this scale insect, and trees 40 to 80 feet in 
 height were completely killed. It soon spread over S. Canterbury 
 and North Otago, and threatened to destroy all the gum trees in the 
 country (including E. gunnii, E. amygdalina, E. regnans, and E. cocci- 
 ferd). Later on it was found infesting European myrtle (Myrtus com- 
 munis). 
 
 A number of black ladybirds (Rhizobius ventralis), red-headed 
 ladybirds (Cryptolesmus montrouzeri), and steely-blue ladybirds (Or- 
 chus chalybeus) were brought from North of Auckland, where they 
 had been introduced some years previously, and were liberated near 
 Timaru. The two last-named species could not stand the winter of 
 S. Canterbury, but the Rhizobius increased rapidly and very soon
 
 HEMIPTERA 337 
 
 cleared the trees of scale. By the winter of 1907 nearly all the affected 
 plantations were stocked with ladybirds. Mr T. W. Kirk said in 
 1908: 
 
 In January of this year my assistant collected at Rolleston over 1300 on 
 ten gum trees in a little over three hours .... Three years ago the planta- 
 tions were swarming with the pest and to all appearances were doomed to 
 utter destruction. It is not too much to say that within another twelve 
 months there will scarcely be a single living scale to be found on the 
 southern plantations. 
 
 Eriococcus araucariee, Maskell 
 
 Mr Maskell described this species from specimens found on Nor- 
 folk Island pines (Araucaria excelsd) at Governor's Bay, near Lyttelton, 
 in 1878. It is found on the same tree and on the Moreton Bay pine 
 (A. Bidwillii) in the North of Auckland district. The species has been 
 found both in Spain and in America, and is almost certainly an 
 introduction. It is apparently held in check in New Zealand by the 
 introduced ladybirds. 
 
 Dactylopius coccus, Costa (Coccus cacti). Cochineal Insect 
 
 Apparently two attempts, both unsuccessful, have been made to 
 naturalise the cochineal insect in New Zealand. Mr Jas. Drummond 
 states that it was introduced by Mr Walter Brodie into Mangonui 
 about 1847. The Canterbury Society received a number of these 
 insects in a case of food-plants, from Sir Geo. Grey, in 1868. The 
 climate of New Zealand is too cold for this species. 
 
 leery a purchast, Maskell. Cottony-cushion Scale 
 
 This species was described by Mr Maskell in 1878 from specimens 
 sent to him by the Rev. Dr Purchas, who first found it, in Auckland, 
 where it had nearly destroyed a hedge of the Kangaroo Acacia 
 (A. armatd). Writing in 1883, Mr Maskell said: 
 
 leery a purchasi has spread greatly in the last two years . It had just reached 
 Napier at the date of my last paper ; it has now established itself in that 
 district, not only in gardens but in the native forests. In Auckland it is 
 attacking all sorts of plants, from apple trees and roses to pines, cypresses 
 and gorse, and it is spreading over a large district. It has reached Nelson 
 . . .where it is devouring wattles, cypresses, gorse, and many other plants. 
 
 Mr Maskell made every effort to rouse public attention to the danger 
 arising from this dreaded pest. Fortunately the Agricultural Depart- 
 ment awoke to the importance of meeting the problem, and by the 
 introduction of the Australian ladybird (Vedalia cardinalis), this scale 
 is now kept in check and rapidly destroyed wherever it is met with.
 
 338 INSECTS 
 
 Chtetococcus parvus, Maskell (Cryptococcus nudata, Brittin) 
 This species was found on Hoheria at Cashmere Hills, Christ- 
 church, by Mr G. Brittin, and described as a new species, in 1914. 
 It was later found to be a species which Mr Maskell had described 
 in 1897, as feeding on wild plums in China. In 1914 it was reported 
 by Mr Green as occurring at St Albans, Herts, England, on cherry 
 trees which had been imported from Japan. 
 
 Sub-order ANOPLURA 
 
 Family PEDICULID^E 
 Pediculus capitis, Nitzsch. Common Louse 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks, describing the Maoris shortly after he first met 
 them in 1769, says: "In their hair was much oil, which had very 
 little smell, but more lice than ever I saw before 1 ." 
 
 Very common in New Zealand. 
 
 Pediculus corporis, De Geer (P. vestimenti, Nitzsch). Body Louse 
 
 Equally common with the preceding species. Mr Howes says, 
 what is perfectly correct, that both species are becoming scarcer. The 
 segregation of children in schools formerly tended to spread these 
 offensive insects, but closer inspection in later years has very much 
 reduced the pest. 
 
 Phthirius inguinalis (Pediculus pubis). Crab Louse 
 
 Mr Elsdon Best writing in June, says: "The Maori carried two 
 forms of louse, the body louse (Kutu), and a form called the Werau 
 that, he says, infests the aroaro (private parts) only. Both are said 
 to have been pre-European." 
 
 I think it more probable that this parasite was introduced by 
 Europeans from the earliest days when they had connection with 
 Maori women. Banks says: 
 
 Though we were in several of their towns, where young and old crowded 
 to see us, actuated by the same curiosity as made us desirous of seeing them, 
 I do not remember a single instance of a person distempered in any degree 
 that came under my inspection, and among the numbers of them that 
 I have seen naked, I have never seen an eruption on the skin or any 
 signs of one, scars or otherwise. Their skins, when they came off to us in 
 their canoes, were often marked in patches with a little floury appearance, 
 which at first deceived us, but we afterwards found that it was owing to 
 
 1 In another passage Banks says: "the disgustful thing about them is the oil 
 with which they daub their hair, smelling something like a Greenland dock when 
 they are 'trying' whale blubber. This is melted from the fat either of fish or birds. 
 The better sort indeed have it fresh, and then it is entirely void of smell."
 
 HEMIPTERA 339 
 
 their having been in their passage wetted with the spray of the sea, which, 
 when it was dry, left the salt behind it in a fine white powder. 
 
 During the period of the war a considerable increase in the preva- 
 lence of this pest has been noted. It is no doubt due in part to the 
 use of the public lavatories in trains and railway stations by infected 
 
 men. 
 
 Hcematopinus ventricosus, Denny. Rabbit Louse 
 
 This louse has probably been here since rabbits were first intro- 
 duced. In 1889 Mr Coleman Phillips attributed the decrease of the 
 rabbits in South Wairarapa in 1885-86 largely to the prevalence of 
 this insect-pest, in association with Sarcoptes cuniculi. 
 
 Hcematopinus eurysternus, Nitzsch. Ox Louse 
 This parasite has been reported by the Agricultural Department 
 for many years past, as being common both on cattle, and pigs. The 
 latter occurrence is not given by Colonel Reid, and I think, therefore, 
 that it is doubtful. 
 
 Hcematopinus macrocephalus, Burm. (H. asini). Horse Louse 
 This species is commonly found on horses all over the Dominion. 
 
 Hcematopinus vituli, Linn. (H. tenuirostris). 
 
 Long-nosed Ox Louse 
 
 Colonel Reid informs me that this species occurs on cattle in 
 New Zealand ; and Mr Miller states that it was met with at Weraroa 
 
 in 1917. 
 
 Hcematopinus ovillus, Neumann 
 
 In 1906 this louse was found among sheep in the South Island, 
 but was not identified with any described species. Specimens were 
 sent to Dr Neumann who described it (Agricultural Report for 1908, 
 p. 194) under the above name. This species is found among sheep 
 in Scotland, from whence, no doubt, the parasite was introduced, 
 but where it was not previously identified. 
 
 Hcematopinus pedalis, Osborn 
 
 Colonel Reid states that this species occurs among sheep in New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Hcematopinus urius, Nitzsch (H. suis, Linn.). Pig Louse 
 All the authorities are agreed that this louse is very common among 
 pigs in New Zealand. 
 
 Hcematopinus pilferus, Burm. Dog Louse 
 
 Dr Reakes and Colonel Reid inform me that this species is com- 
 mon on dogs.
 
 Chapter IX 
 CRUSTACEA AND ARACHNIDA 
 
 CRUSTACEA 
 
 (Order ANASPIDACEA, see Appendix B, p. 561.) 
 
 Order ISOPODA 
 
 Family ONISCOIDA 
 
 Porcellio scaber, Latreille. Wood Louse 
 
 THIS species, which originally belonged to the more temperate 
 regions of Europe, but has been introduced accidentally by man to 
 nearly all the temperate regions of the world, must have reached 
 New Zealand at an early date, for it was recorded in White's list of 
 New Zealand Crustacea in the British Museum in 1847 as P. graniger. 
 It is now common all over the Dominion, especially in greenhouses 
 and other places near dwellings, but also further from habitations, 
 though not (according to Dr Chilton) in the untouched native bush. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith states that the wood lice have largely displaced 
 native ants. He says (1901): 
 
 In several parts of this district (Ashburton) the wood-lice have almost 
 displaced the native ants. Instead of finding great numbers of ants' nests, 
 as formerly, under the half-embedded stones, we found their old homes 
 tenanted by swarms of wood-lice. 
 
 Armadillidium vulgare, Latreille 
 
 Another European species that has been dispersed by artificial 
 means to all temperate regions. In New Zealand it is known from 
 Nelson, where it appears to be common in the town gardens ; from 
 Mount Egmont (exact locality not known) ; and from Sumner, where 
 it is common in some gardens. The date of its introduction into New 
 Zealand is unknown, but it was established in Nelson before 1890. 
 
 Metoponorthus pruinosus, Brandt 
 
 Dr Chilton says "a species common in Europe and neighbouring 
 countries in rather warmer climates than the two preceding. Also 
 widely dispersed into the warmer portions of the world. Specimens 
 from Tasmania in the British Museum were named Porcellio zea- 
 landicus by White in his list, published in 1847, and a similar speci- 
 men from New Zealand was obtained in 1854 (^ ut not described till 
 1876, in Miers' Catalogue of New Zealand Crustacea), so that it must 
 have been introduced before that date, perhaps by whaling ships. It
 
 ISOPODA 341 
 
 does not appear to have established itself, and I have specimens from 
 one locality in Hawke's Bay only." 
 
 The species is abundant in Norfolk Island, the Kermadecs, 
 Australia, etc. 
 
 Order DECAPODA 
 
 Sub-order MACRURA 
 
 Family NEPHROPSID^E 
 
 Homarus vulgaris, Linn. European Lobster 
 
 The first attempt to introduce the lobster into New Zealand 
 waters was made by the late Mr A. M. Johnson, who left London 
 in 1864 by the ship 'British Empire' with 26 lobsters on board 
 which he obtained from the "Mumbles" in Wales. In a letter 
 to me dated i5th September, 1915, he says: "they developed so 
 pugnacious a disposition that they killed each other; the remaining 
 one I sold to one of the first-class passengers." Mr Johnson evidently 
 kept them altogether in one tank. 
 
 In 1885 Mr S. C. Farr, on behalf of the Canterbury Society, put 
 12 lobsters on board the 'Kaikoura,' but they all died in the tropics. 
 
 In 1892 Mr Clifford shipped a number from London for the 
 Otago Acclimatisation Society, but "although the experiment was 
 gone into on a somewhat extensive scale, it nevertheless failed." 
 
 In 1891 and again in 1892, Mr Purvis, chief engineer of the 
 'Ionic,' attempted to bring lobsters out to Otago, on both occasions 
 without success. But in 1893 he was successful in landing nine (out 
 of 12 shipped) at Dunedin. These were liberated at the Mole at 
 the entrance to Otago Harbour, a very unsuitable place, but nothing 
 more was ever heard of them. 
 
 The next attempt was made on behalf of the Board of the Porto- 
 bello Marine Fish Hatchery, when arrangements were made with the 
 Marine Biological Laboratory to procure lobsters at Plymouth, and 
 ship them to New Zealand. Four shipments were made on successive 
 trips of the S.S. 'Karamea' in 1906-8, as follows: 
 
 Date of arrival Number shipped Number arrived 
 
 at Port Chalmers - 11 . , 
 
 1906, June agth ... 13 males 12 females 2 females 
 
 1907, Feb. 26th ... 13 12 3 males 4 
 Aug. 25th ... 13 12 3 4 
 
 1908, March 6th ... 17 16 17 14 
 
 In 1908 some 36,000 larvae were hatched in the tanks; and in the 
 following year about 100,000 were hatched out. In 1910 only 33,000 
 larvae were secured in the tanks; but the majority were allowed to 
 hatch naturally in the ponds and the larvae to escape into the open
 
 342 CRUSTACEA AND ARACHNIDA 
 
 sea. This plan has been followed in succeeding years, as it has been 
 found impossible with the other work to be done at the station, to con- 
 trol the rearing of young lobsters. On ist March, 1913 , Mr Anderton, 
 curator of the Station, arrived from Britain in the 'Waimana' with 
 14 male and 28 female lobsters (out of 43 shipped). 
 
 In the following year, to relieve the congestion in the ponds, 12 of 
 the old stock of lobsters (four males and eight females) were liberated 
 at the end of the spawning season, in what was considered to be the 
 most suitable locality in the neighbourhood of Otago Harbour. 
 
 In 1914 and succeeding years the female lobsters, numbering 
 about 20, have borne full crops of eggs. It is considered therefore 
 on a moderate estimate, that during the 15 years since lobsters 
 were first introduced at Portobello, more than 1,000,000 fry have 
 been liberated from Otago Harbour. As the young lobsters are 
 free-swimming for the first few weeks of their existence, and as a 
 southerly current averaging a knot and a half per hour flows past 
 the entrance of Otago Harbour, the probabilities are that numbers 
 of them have been carried northwards before they reached the stage 
 at which they sink to the bottom of the sea. 
 
 No young lobsters have yet been taken on the coast, but as they 
 take probably seven years or more to reach sexual maturity, and during 
 that time live mostly concealed among rocks and seaweed, the chances 
 of their being captured are few. Any day therefore specimens may 
 be met with. 
 
 Family 
 
 Penceus canaliculatus , W. A. Haswell. Australian Prawn 
 
 In 1892 the Wellington Society received some prawns from Captain 
 Wheeler, which he had brought over from Sydney. They probably 
 belonged to this species, which is commonly caught and marketed 
 in Sydney. They were liberated at Nelson, and were never heard 
 of again. 
 
 In 1894 Mr Clifford brought over a number (which I identified 
 as belonging to this species) from Sydney for the Otago Society. They 
 were liberated from the mole at the entrance to Otago Harbour, and 
 were not heard of again. The water of the southerly current which 
 washes the south-east coast of Otago is too cold for this species 
 
 In July, 1921, the Otago Acclimatisation Society obtained from 
 the Fisheries Department, Melbourne, a number of fresh-water 
 shrimps from some inland waters in Victoria. All were dead on 
 arrival. I do not know what species this was.
 
 DECAPODA 343 
 
 Sub-order BRACHYURA 
 
 Family CANCRID^ 
 Cancer pagurus, Linn. British Edible Crab 
 
 In 1885 Mr S. C. Farr, on behalf of the Canterbury Society, 
 shipped 12 crabs by the 'Kaikoura,' but they all died in the tropics. 
 
 No further attempt seems to have been made till the Portobello 
 Fish Hatchery Board decided to introduce them. In August, 1907, 
 there were landed from the 'Karamea,' three male and five female 
 crabs; and on her next voyage in 1908, seven males and one female. 
 The females all bore ova, but no attempt was made to deal with the 
 larvae as they hatched. They were liberated from the station with 
 the outgoing tide, and considerable numbers were carried outside the 
 Otago Heads and set free at a distance off shore. In this way it was 
 estimated that up to 1912, over 20,000,000 fry had been liberated. 
 
 In 1913 there were shipped on the 'Karamea' at Plymouth, 
 50 crabs (17 males and 33 females), and of these 43 were landed 
 at the hatchery. They did not thrive, however, and no fewer than 
 1 6 died at the approach of the cold season. It was therefore 
 thought advisable to liberate most of the remainder, so 19 were 
 set free in a suitable locality, and eight were retained in the 
 ponds. Of these two died the following season. The number of 
 larvae liberated in 1914-15 was estimated to be 12,000,000. It is 
 probable therefore that some 40,000,000 larvae have been distributed 
 since the first experimental introduction in 1907. As the larvae remain 
 in a pelagic condition for a long time, and pass through several 
 metamorphoses, the death-rate must be very high; but making allow- 
 ance for this the chances are that ere long specimens of this crab will 
 be found on the New Zealand coast. 
 
 It has been found very difficult to keep these crabs under observa- 
 tion at the Portobello Hatchery, as they burrow in the mud, get under 
 stones and even under the foundations of the walls of the ponds. 
 It is probable also that the winter temperature of the ponds in Otago 
 Harbour is too low for them, and this may account for the high death- 
 rate. In British seas it is known that they move into deep water at the 
 approach of winter. While the temperature of the open sea outside 
 Otago Heads seldom falls to 50 F. in the middle of winter, that of 
 the Harbour itself often touches 40 F., and in the ponds has been 
 found as low as 32 F. Lobsters can stand these low temperatures, 
 but they appear to be very detrimental, if not always fatal to this 
 species of crab.
 
 344 CRUSTACEA AND ARACHNIDA 
 
 ARACHNIDA 
 Order SCORPIONID^ 
 
 Family BUTHIDJE 
 Isometrus thorellii. Australian Scorpion 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith has obtained specimens of this Australian scor- 
 pion among imported hardwood timber at New Plymouth. It may 
 have been introduced at other ports also, but, fortunately it does 
 not appear, so far, to have succeeded in establishing itself anywhere 
 in New Zealand. 
 
 Order 
 
 Family PHOLCID^; 
 Pholcus phalangioides, Fuesslin 
 
 This cosmopolitan spider was collected by Comte de Dalmas in 
 the interior both of the North and South Islands. Mr Miller records 
 it from Nelson and Wanganui. 
 
 Family THERIDIID^ 
 
 Theridion tepidariorum, Koch. House Spider 
 This species was taken in the collections made by the 'Novara' 
 Expedition in Auckland in 1859, but whether in houses or in the 
 open is not stated. Comte de Dalmas says : 
 
 This ubiquitous species is found commonly in the open air, despite the 
 very temperate climate, and has also been collected in the Chatham Islands, 
 while in Europe it is not found outside (buildings) even in Central France. 
 
 Theridion rufipes, Lucas 
 
 This species was recorded by Mons. E. Simon, in 1899, from 
 D'Urville Island. It is also a species of very wide distribution. 
 
 Family ARGIOPIDJE 
 
 Diplocephalus cristatus, Blackwall (Walckencera cristata) 
 Mr A. T. Urquhart reported in 1891 that specimens of this 
 European spider were taken at Nelson by Mr A. S. Atkinson and 
 were identified by the Rev. O. P. Cambridge. It has not been reported 
 by any other collectors since that date 1 . 
 
 1 In 1879 the Rev. O. P. Cambridge described a spider from an imperfect male 
 example in Mr A. S. Atkinson's collection, probably from Nelson, as Linyphia 
 melanopygia. In 1886 Mr Urquhart described the female from specimens taken 
 at Te Karaka, Auckland. Le Comte de Dalmas makes the following interesting 
 remark on this species, under the genus Ostearius, belong to the Argiopidas : 
 
 "The genus Ostearius was proposed by Hull (in 1910) for the form found in 
 England and described by O. P. Cambridge (in 1907) under the name of Tmeticus 
 nigricauda, the diagnosis and figures of which resemble so closely those given twenty-
 
 ARANE^E 345 
 
 Lephthyphantes tennis, Blackwall 
 
 This species was taken by Comte de Dalmas (in 1912-13) in the 
 interior of the Canterbury and Nelson districts, and also in the interior 
 of the North Island (" dans la seule region encore uniquement peuplee 
 d'indigenes Maori"). 
 
 Lycosa piratica, Clerck 
 
 This species was recorded by Mons. E. Simon in 1899 from the 
 shores of Cook Strait. 
 
 Order ACARINA 
 Sub-order VERMIFORMIA 
 
 Family DEMODICID^E 
 
 Demodex folliculorum, Owen. Hair-follicle Mite 
 Abundant from the earliest days, but whether the mite was found 
 among the Maoris, or was introduced by Europeans it is quite im- 
 possible to ascertain. 
 
 Demodex folliculorum, Owen, var. cants 
 
 This cosmopolitan mite is common among dogs in New Zealand 
 and sometimes causes follicular mange. 
 
 Demodex folliculorum, Owen, var. suis (D. phylloides. Cooker) 
 Occurs among pigs; occasionally producing a pustular affection. 
 
 Sub-order ASTIGMATA 
 
 Family SARCOPTID^E 
 
 Sarcoptes scabiei, De Geer. The Itch Mite 
 This mite has long been known in New Zealand, and was probably 
 introduced in the earliest days of settlement. 
 
 The following, communicated to me by Mr Elsdon Best (June, 
 1918) may refer to this parasite: 
 
 The hakihaki, a form of itch, which developed into a distressing skin- 
 disease, was pre-European. In many parts one now hears little of it among 
 the natives, but it was among the Urewera in the nineties. 
 
 eight years previously by the same author for Linyphia melanopygia of the Antipodes, 
 that they seem to apply to a single species; more especially as L. melanopygia, 
 founded on a single incomplete male, has been rediscovered in abundance by 
 Urquhart, who rectifies the difference of the ocular group, figured by Cambridge 
 with the median anterior eyes contiguous, instead of being separated almost by 
 the width of their diameter. The two species belong in any case to one genus, 
 which seems to be close to Microneta ; if they are indeed a single species, then this 
 one, common in New Zealand, but very rare and discovered only recently in England, 
 would appear to be, in contradistinction to the others, accidentally imported into 
 Europe."
 
 346 CRUSTACEA AND ARACHNIDA 
 
 Sar copies scabiei, var. cants 
 
 I am informed that this mite occurs in New Zealand, particularly 
 on house dogs. It is not included in Colonel Reid's list (furnished to 
 me) of ecto-parasites found in this country. 
 
 Sar copies minor, Fiirst, var. cuniculi 
 
 This mite, which particularly attacks the head of the rabbit, pro- 
 duces a kind of scabies which is fatal to severe cases. Colonel Reid 
 does not include it in his list, but Mr Coleman Phillips, in 1889, 
 attributed the disappearance of rabbits in the South Wairarapa district 
 largely to its attacks, conjointly with those of the rabbit louse (Hcema- 
 topinus ventricosus). 
 
 Sar copies mutatis, Robin. Scaly-leg Mite (of fowls) 
 In the report of the Agricultural Department for 1900 it is stated 
 that the mite which causes this disease is not uncommon in New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Psoroptes communis, Fiirst, var. ovis 
 
 This mite produces the disease known as scab in sheep. At one 
 time it was universally spread throughout the flocks in New Zealand, 
 where it had been introduced from Australia, and originally from 
 Europe. Before the days of Colonial administration in New Zealand, 
 the various Provincial legislatures attempted to cope with it. Active 
 measures were adopted wherever it occurred, and a tax of 2s. per 
 annum per 100 sheep used to be levied on sheep-owners for the 
 inspection and control of the pest. This tax at one period realised 
 over 20,000 per annum. About 1880 the country was declared free 
 of the pest, but the tax was not remitted till 1906, on account of 
 the necessity for maintaining a close inspection of the flocks. There 
 has been no reappearance of the pest in New Zealand for over 40 
 years. 
 
 Psoroptes communis, Fiirst, var. cuniculi. Rabbit Mite 
 
 This ecto-parasite occurs among rabbits in New Zealand. It 
 produces scabies in the ear, and has been found in the pulmonary 
 organs. 
 
 Chorioptes auricularum, Bendz. 
 
 Colonel Reid states that this mite occurs in cats in New Zealand. 
 It produces intense irritation in the ear of its victim. 
 
 Tyroglyphus siro, Linn. Cheese Mite 
 
 This cosmopolitan species was probably introduced with the 
 earliest importations of cheese into the country. It, however, only 
 occurs on old dry cheeses, occasionally in flour, on dried fruits, etc.,
 
 ACARINA 347 
 
 and is usually rigidly excluded from all dairy factories and all good 
 cheese stores. 
 
 Tyroglyphus farinte, Koch. Wheat Mite 
 
 In 1893 at a meeting of the Entomological Society of London, 
 Mr R. W. Lloyd exhibited specimens of this "wheat mite" which 
 was found in wheat imported from New Zealand. The species was 
 probably introduced into New Zealand from Europe at an early date. 
 Mr W. W. Smith informed me some years ago that it was very 
 common in grain sheds at Ashburton, and it is probably widespread. 
 It is occasionally found on dry cheese, and is recorded as T. siro\ 
 but it is considerably smaller than that species. 
 
 Tyroglyphus longior, Gervais 
 Recorded from Wellington; probably widespread. 
 
 Cylolichus nudus, Viz. Internal mite of Fowls 
 Mr D. Miller reports this as first recorded in 1920. 
 
 Glyciphagus prunorum, Hermann (Glyciphagus domesticus, 
 De Geer). Common mite 
 
 This cosmopolitan species has been known in New Zealand from 
 the earliest days of European settlement. This is the cause of" Grocer's 
 Itch." 
 
 Rhizoglyphus sp. 
 
 Mr Howes informs me that an undetermined mite, belonging to 
 this genus, is commonly found attacking bulbs of various species (of 
 Narcissus ?) in New Zealand. 
 
 Sub-order METASTIGMATA 
 
 Family IXODID^E 
 Hcemaphysalis bispinosa, Neumann 
 
 Some years ago ticks found in the north of Auckland were classified 
 as Ixodes ricinus. Later on, further specimens from the same locality 
 were sent to Prof. Nuttall of Cambridge, who advised the Agricultural 
 Department that they belonged to the genus Hcemaphysalis. More 
 recently, other specimens submitted to Cooper, a co-worker with 
 Nuttall, were classified as H. bispinosa. 
 
 Dr Reakes thinks that as Ixodes ricinus is commonly found in 
 most temperate climates and is normally found in Britain, it is quite
 
 348 CRUSTACEA AND ARACHNIDA 
 
 possible that it occurs also in New Zealand, but it has not yet been 
 actually recorded. 
 
 H. bispinosa, previously recorded as H. punctata, Koch, has been 
 found in New Zealand on horses, cattle, and casually on sheep and 
 dogs. It only sucks the blood of its host, and is not credited with 
 being the carrier of any disease. 
 
 Family GAMASID^ 
 Derma ny ssus gallin<K, De Geer 
 
 This is a common and very injurious mite which is present in all 
 but exceptionally clean poultry houses. It lives in concealment during 
 the daytime, in the straw of the nests, and the cracks and crevices 
 of the roosts, and comes out at night to attack the fowls. It is wide- 
 spread in New Zealand. 
 
 Family TETRANYCHIDJE 
 Bryobia pratensis, Garm. Red Mite of Fruit growers 
 
 In the report of the Agricultural Department for 1901 Blackmore 
 reports a Bryobia as found under the leaves of fruit trees, to which 
 it was causing great damage. In the report for 1909 it is stated to 
 be doing great damage to apple trees, especially in the North Island. 
 In the South Island it was found to be causing the death of various 
 species of Abies. 
 
 In 1905 it was reported from such widely-separated localities as 
 Ormond, Palmerston North and the Lillburn Valley. It is generally 
 distributed throughout New Zealand. 
 
 Family ERIOPHYID^E 
 
 Eriophyes (Phytopus) pyri, Paget. Pear Mite 
 Reported in 1896 and 1897 as very common in the colony. It 
 appears in spring and early summer, and attacks foliage. In 1909 
 the Agricultural Department reported it as very prevalent, and doing 
 considerable damage on unsprayed trees. 
 
 Generally distributed throughout New Zealand on pear trees. 
 
 Family UROPODIDJE 
 Uropoda vegetans t De Geer 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith stated in 1901 that this parasitic mite had been 
 found on the following Lepidoptera, viz., Xanthorrhoe beata and 
 X. rosearia at Invercargill ; and on the following beetles Tricho- 
 sternus antarcticus, and a large carnivorous ground beetle at Ash- 
 burton ; Uloma tenebrionoides, Lissotes reticulatus, Thoramus wakefieldi,
 
 ACARINA 349 
 
 (Emona hirta, Pterostichus prcecox, Coptomma variegata and Xyloteles 
 griseus, at Ophir, in Central Otago. It was also taken on a fly in the 
 Wellington district, and on an introduced wood louse (Porcellio scaber). 
 
 As far back as 1892 Mr Maskell reported this mite on a species 
 ofElater (?) from Wellington; and on Oniscus (Porcellio ?) from Christ- 
 church. 
 
 The carabid found infested with this mite at Ashburton was in a 
 cucumber-frame which was crowded with wood lice. Mr Smith says 
 this species has only been detected in certain districts within recent 
 years, and he considers it to be an introduced form which is 
 spreading rapidly. 
 
 Sub-order PROSTIGMATA 
 
 Family TROMBIDIIDJE 
 Tetranychus tellarius, Linn. Red Spider 
 
 This mite has probably been in New Zealand from early days 
 of settlement. It was reported in 1873 as occurring commonly on 
 apple trees, but probably this was a mistaken identification, and 
 Bryobia pratensis was intended. It is a common greenhouse and 
 vinery pest, but numerous reported cases refer, to the other species. 
 As far as I know, it is not found on apple trees at all, but I have 
 heard of its attacking violets. The Agricultural Department reported 
 it in 1911 as common on Cape gooseberries, violets and primroses. 
 
 Tetranychus bimaculatus, Harvey. Red Spider 
 
 Mr A. H. Cockayne states, in the Afforestation report for 1910-1 1 , 
 that this species threatens to become a serious menace to the suc- 
 cessful growing of certain species of Abies in the Canterbury district.
 
 Chapter X 
 
 PENTASTOMID^, PLATYHELMINTHES, 
 NEMATHELMINTHES, OLIGOCfLETA 
 
 PLATYHELMINTHES 
 
 TURBELLARIA 
 
 Family BIPALIIMS 
 
 Bipalium kezoense, Moseley 
 
 PROFESSOR DENDY, writing in 1894, says: 
 
 This species, which has been so widely distributed by the unintentional 
 agency of man, and whose natural habitat is still unknown, was obtained 
 by Mr T. Steel in Albert Park, Auckland, in 1892. 
 
 Family RHYNCHODEMID^E 
 Rhynchodemus moseleyi, Fletcher and Hamilton 
 
 Four specimens of this Australian species were collected by 
 Mr Steel in Albert Park, Auckland, in 1892. 
 
 Family GEOPLANIDJE 
 Geoplana sanguined, Moseley 
 
 In 1879 Captain Hutton described this Australian planarian as 
 Rhynchodemus testaceus, from specimens obtained by him at Dunedin 
 and Wellington. It has since been collected at Napier, Auckland and 
 Tarawera township, and is probably widespread throughout New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Geoplana coerulea, Moseley, var. 
 
 Three specimens of this common Australian species were reported 
 in 1892, from Albert Park, Auckland. 
 
 It is quite probable that all four species of these introduced Land 
 Planarians are widely spread in New Zealand, but very few persons 
 notice, and fewer collect them. 
 
 TREMATODA 
 
 Family AMPHISTOMATIDJE 
 Amphistomum conicum, Zeder 
 
 Found in the rumen and reticulum of cattle, but apparently does 
 little harm. It has been reported from time to time both by Drs Gilruth 
 and Reakes.
 
 TREMATODA 351 
 
 Family DISTOMATIDJE 
 
 (Distomum hepaticum, Retz.) Fasciola hepatica, Linn. 
 Liver Fluke 
 
 This parasite was undoubtedly introduced with living sheep, and 
 is not common, nor does it appear to cause loss of stock. It occurs 
 in the livers and bile-ducts of sheep in the Hawke's Bay, Fielding 
 and Nelson districts. Cases were found at Te Hauke in Hawke's 
 Bay in 1897, and again in Waipawa and Te Aute in 1907. The Euro- 
 pean host is a small snail, Lymncea tmnculata. This species does not 
 occur in New Zealand, but there are half-a-dozen native species of 
 the genus, and probably one of these is the intermediary host. The 
 presence of fluke was recognised when sheep came to be examined 
 in the freezing works after the passing of the Slaughtering and 
 Inspection Act in 1900. It occasionally occurs in cattle. 
 
 CESTODA 
 
 Family TJENIIDJE 
 
 Moniezia expansa, Rud. 
 
 In 1902 Dr Gilruth stated that this species was the common 
 tape-worm of the sheep in New Zealand. In 1903 it was stated to 
 be very common, and it was reported that calves were infected with 
 it in several districts. In 1916 Dr Reakes informed me that it was 
 occasionally found in cattle, but was rare and did no harm economic- 
 ally. It was also found in sheep, but he adds "it is not common and 
 probably does little harm. No serious mortality has been traced to 
 it." It is impossible to say when it was first introduced into the 
 country. Colonel Reid states that it occurs also in goats in New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Moniezia alba, Rud. 
 
 Dr Reakes states that this is occasionally found in cattle on post- 
 mortem examination, but that it is far from common. 
 
 Moniezia planissima, Rud. 
 
 According to Dr Reakes this parasite is occasionally found in 
 cattle and sheep, but is far from common. 
 
 Moniezia filicollis, Rud. 
 
 Colonel Reid states that this species occurs in sheep in New 
 Zealand.
 
 352 PENTASTOMID^ 
 
 Teenia echinococcus , V. Sieb. (Larval form: Echinococcus 
 polymorphic, Dies.; E. veterinorum, Rud.) 
 
 This is the most common tape-worm in dogs, and Dr Reakes 
 thinks was probably introduced with the first European dogs brought 
 into the country. It is widely distributed all over the Dominion, 
 and Dr Gilruth considers "that it is almost impossible to find an 
 ox or sheep perfectly free from them." They are also found in horses 
 and in pigs. In stock they are not so dangerous as in man, where 
 their hydatid cysts form a destructive and offensive form of disease. 
 The following figures, showing the extent to which hydatids in 
 human beings occur in New Zealand, during the years 1914 to 1917, 
 have been kindly furnished to me by Mr Malcolm Eraser, Govern- 
 ment Statistician: 
 
 1914 1915 1916 1917 
 
 Total cases recorded ... 68 90 78 80 
 
 Deaths due to hydatids ... 12 n 17 12 
 
 Teenia marginata, Batsch. (larva = Cysticercus tenuicottis, Rud.) 
 
 This tape-worm is also common in dogs, and the larval form in 
 cattle, sheep, and, occasionally, in pigs. It has been a very long time 
 in New Zealand, but it does comparatively little harm; the cysts are 
 usually found in the serous membranes, particularly those covering 
 the intestines. The slender neck enables it to be easily removed. The 
 larvae frequently die when encysted in oxen or sheep, become calcified, 
 and are then occasionally taken for tubercular growths. 
 
 The parasite does not attack human beings. 
 
 Teenia solium, Rud. (larva = Cysticercus celluloses, Rud.). 
 The Pork Tape-worm 
 
 This cestode, which produces " pig- measles," has never to my 
 knowledge been recorded in its tape-worm form in man in New 
 Zealand, but Colonel Reid reports the cystic form as occurring in pigs. 
 
 Teenia cosnurus, Kiirch. (larva = Coenurus cerebralis, Rud.) 
 
 This tape-worm occurs in the dog, but its cystic stage develops 
 in the brain-cavity of the sheep, producing the disease known as 
 " Gid " in England, and " sturdy " in Scotland. It is not very common, 
 but some cases were recorded from Christchurch and Wellington 
 in 1897, and again in 1901-12. It also occurs in cattle. 
 
 Teenia serialis, Baillet (larva = Coenurus seriate, Gervais) 
 
 Colonel Reid reports this tape-worm as occurring in dogs. It is 
 closely related to the preceding species. The cystic form occurs in
 
 CESTODA 353 
 
 rabbits and hares, but it has not been recorded from those animals 
 in New Zealand. 
 
 Tcenia crassicollis, Rud. (larva = Cysticercus fasciolaris, Rud.) 
 Colonel Reid records this tape-worm as occurring in cats in New 
 Zealand. The cyst-stage occurs in rats and mice. 
 
 Tcenia serrata, Goeze (larva = Cysticercus pisiformis, Zed.) 
 In 1888 Professor Thomas reported the larva or bladder- worm 
 as fairly common among rabbits in the Waikato, but as rare in the 
 Wairarapa. The tape- worm occurs in dogs, and the cyst-stage in hares 
 and rabbits. 
 
 The parasite does not attack man. 
 
 Tcenia saginata, Goeze (larva = Cysticercus mediocanellatce, 
 Davaine ; Cysticercus bovis, Cobbold) 
 
 A case of this was reported from Invercargill in 1908 ; the parasite 
 affecting the muscular tissue of the heart of a bullock. In its adult 
 condition this tape- worm lives exclusively in the intestinal canal of man, 
 while the corresponding Cysticercus is found almost exclusively in the 
 ox. The popular name is the unarmed beef-worm, or the fat tape-worm. 
 
 It is a cosmopolitan species, found especially in the tropics. An 
 individual of this species has been estimated to give off in a year, 
 550 grammes weight of proglottids. 
 
 Tcenia (Anoplocephald) perfoliata, Goeze 
 
 This tape-worm is sometimes met with in horses in New Zealand ; 
 it is usually found in the caecum. 
 
 NEMA THELMINTHES 
 NEMATODA 
 
 Family AscARiD^E 1 
 
 Ascaris megalocephala, Cloq. Common White Worm 
 Dr Reakes states that this worm, which is found in the intestines 
 of the horse, is widely distributed throughout the Dominion. It 
 apparently does little harm. It was probably introduced with the 
 first horses which came into the country. 
 
 Ascaris suis, Goeze. Large White Worm of Pig 
 This worm, which is not uncommon in the small intestines of the 
 pig, is not uncommon in New Zealand. Dr Reakes states that it 
 does little harm. 
 
 1 In the N.Z. Journal of Agriculture, Vol. xxii, No. 2 (Feb. 1921), at p. 123, it 
 is stated that pigs at Roa were infested with worms probably Ascaris lumbricoides. 
 
 T. N. z. 23
 
 354 PENTASTOMID.E 
 
 Ascaris mystax, Zeder. Stomach-worm of Cat 
 Has been noted in several parts of New Zealand, and is probably 
 not uncommon. It is found inhabiting the stomach and small intes- 
 tines of the cat. The form of this worm found in the dog, and which 
 Colonel Reid states occurs among these animals in New Zealand, 
 has been recorded as A. marginata, Rud., but it is not specifically 
 distinct. 
 
 Heterakis papillosa, Bloch. White Intestinal Worm of Fowls 
 This parasite is found among domestic fowls in New Zealand, 
 especially where they are crowded together. It occurs chiefly in the 
 caecum. 
 
 Heterakis perspicillum, Rudolphi 
 
 Colonel Reid informs me that this worm also occurs among fowls 
 in which it chiefly infests the small intestine. 
 
 Family OXYURIDJE 
 Oxyuris curvula, Rud. Whip worm; Maw- worm 
 
 This worm occurs in the large intestines of the horse. It is com- 
 mon in New Zealand, and Dr Reakes states must have been in the 
 country for a long time. 
 
 Family STRONGYLID^ 
 Sclerostomum equinum, Miiller (Sclerostomum armatum, Dujardin; 
 
 Strongylus armatus, Rud.). Palisade Worm 
 Dr Reakes informs me that he first met with this species on the 
 lowlands about Kaiapoi, but that it was no doubt in New Zealand 
 at an early date. It is fortunately not very common at present. It is 
 the most dangerous worm which infests horses. The parasite is able 
 to bore its way from the intestines into the blood stream, causing 
 aneurisms of the larger arteries, especially the anterior mesenteric. 
 
 Sclerostomum tetracanthum, Dies. (Strongylus tetracanthus, Mehlis). 
 
 Round Worm of the Horse 
 
 In the report of the Agricultural Department for 1900 this 
 parasite is recorded as occurring among horses on the west coast of 
 the South Island. 
 
 Sclerostomum hypostomum, Dujardin 
 
 Dr Reakes informs me that this parasite occurs among sheep in 
 New Zealand, but that it is not common. It is found in the small 
 intestines of sheep, and often causes haemorrhages through punc- 
 turing the mucous membrane.
 
 NEMATODA 355 
 
 Strongylus contortus, Rud. 
 
 Dr Reakes thinks this parasite has been introduced within the 
 last 20 years. It occurs in most parts of the Dominion, especially 
 in damp, recently-fallen bushlands. He is of opinion that in con- 
 junction with S. cervicornis and S. gracilis, it causes more loss among 
 stock than all the other diseases of sheep put together. It is found 
 chiefly in the fourth stomach of sheep and lambs. Colonel Reid 
 states that it also occurs as an endo-parasite of cattle. 
 
 It is found in the true stomach of young calves, and in some 
 countries causes heavy mortality among them, especially when they 
 are not properly fed. 
 
 Strongylus micrurus, Mehlis. Lung Worm, causing Husk or Hoose 
 
 Dr Reakes states that this worm causes great loss among calves, 
 but it is thought that it is not so serious a plague now as it used to 
 be, as farmers rear and feed their stock better. 
 
 Strongylus ovis-pulmonalis, Ercolani 
 
 This parasite was apparently first reported as occurring in 1897 
 among sheep at Okoroire. 
 
 In 1902 Dr Gilruth found it encysted in the lungs of sheep. 
 
 Strongylus pulmonaris, Ercolani 
 
 Colonel Reid reports this species as occurring in cattle. It inhabits 
 the bronchi of calves. 
 
 Strongylus cervicornis, McFadyean 
 
 This species was first reported in 1897 as occurring in young 
 sheep at Okoroire. In 1899 Dr Gilruth reported parasitic gastritis in 
 calves at Orepuki, Southland, as due to this worm. Mr McFadyean 
 also found it in old cattle on the west coast of the North Island. He 
 also met with it in sheep, but in their case not burrowing into the 
 gastric glands. In the Agricultural Department's report for 1906 it 
 is recorded as having been met with in the fourth stomach of an 
 Angora goat. 
 
 Strongylus convolutus, Ostertag 
 
 Dr Reakes (writing in 1916) states that this parasite has " probably 
 been introduced within the last fifteen years." It is very destructive 
 to young cattle, causing heavy mortality, especially among those 
 which have not been properly fed. The worm encysts itself in the 
 walls of the stomach. 
 
 232
 
 356 PENTASTOMID^: 
 
 Strongylus strigosus, Dujardin 
 
 In the report of the Agricultural Department for 1906 it is stated 
 that this parasite has been found in the stomachs of a large number 
 of rabbits in the neighbourhood of Roxburgh, Otago. 
 
 Strongylus gracilis, McFadyean 
 
 This destructive worm has been found in the stomachs of New 
 Zealand cattle. Colonel Reid also reports it as occurring in sheep. 
 
 Strongylus filicollis, Rud. Thread -worm of Sheep 
 Dr Gilruth reported this species in 1902. Dr Reakes states that 
 when found in the small intestines of sheep it probably does little 
 harm; but when it occurs in the abomasum its presence is serious, 
 and it does considerable damage. Colonel Reid reports it as infesting 
 goats in New Zealand. 
 
 Strongylus paradoxus, Mehlis. Lung-worm of Pig 
 This parasite occurs among pigs in New Zealand, but Dr Reakes 
 states that it is not very common, and that it does little harm. It was 
 first noted in the report of the Agricultural Department in 1895. 
 
 Strongylus strigosus, Dujardin 
 
 This species infests rabbits, and Colonel Reid records it as occur- 
 ring in rabbits in New Zealand. 
 
 Strongylus rufescens, Leuchart 
 
 Dr Reakes informs me that this species causes pneumonia and 
 nodules in the lung substance of sheep 1 . 
 
 (Esophagostomum inflatum, Sch. 
 
 Dr Reakes reports this parasite as occurring in the large intestines 
 of New Zealand cattle, but that it is not common. It apparently 
 does little harm. 
 
 (Esophagostomum venulosum, Rud. 
 
 Colonel Reid states that this is an ecto-parasite of the sheep in 
 New Zealand. 
 
 (Esophagostomum columbianum, Curtice 
 
 Dr Gilruth reported this small round worm in 1902. Dr Reakes 
 states that it is found in the large intestine of sheep, but apparently 
 causes little trouble. Colonel Reid also records it as an endo-parasite 
 of cattle. 
 
 1 In October, 1906, the Agricultural Department reported Strongylus capillaris, 
 as occurring in a sheep in the Southland district. I cannot place this species.
 
 NEMATODA 357 
 
 (Esophagostomum dentatum, Rud. 
 
 Colonel Reid reports this species as occurring among pigs in 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Family TRICHOTRACHELIDJE 
 
 Tricocephalus affinis, Rud. Whip-worm 
 
 This worm was first reported from Wanganui in 1896, as occurring 
 in the large intestines of lambs. In 1902 Dr Gilruth stated that it 
 was to be found in the caecum of nearly every sheep examined. In 
 1906 it was met with in the caecum of an Angora goat. In 1916 
 Dr Reakes informed me that it was sometimes found in the large 
 intestines of cattle. He did not consider that it did much harm. 
 
 Tricocephalus crenatus, Rud. 
 
 Colonel Reid reports this species as occurring in pigs in New 
 Zealand. It lives in the intestines of the animal. 
 
 Family FILARIID/E 
 Filaria immitts, Leidy 
 
 The larvae and nematode of this parasitic worm have been found 
 in imported dogs while in quarantine. 
 
 Family ANGUILLULIDJE 
 Tylenchus devastatrix, Kiihn. Potato Eelworm ; Stem Eelworm 
 
 I do not know when this pest was first reported in New Zealand, 
 but it was referred to in the report of the Agricultural Department 
 for 1903, as being present, but not very common. In 1905 it caused 
 considerable damage at Tauranga and elsewhere, especially in heavily 
 manured fields; and was again troublesome in 1907 and 1908. In 
 1906 it was only reported from one locality, but several shipments 
 of potatoes from Tasmania were found to be attacked by it. 
 
 It attacks many kinds of plants, e.g. wheat, oats, hops, clover, 
 and onions, but it is often associated with fungi (Sclerotinid) and 
 it is not easy to determine whether the insect or the fungus is the 
 cause of the disease. 
 
 Either this, or a closely allied species, is found on Holcus lanatus, 
 Anthoxanthum odoratum, Poa annua, Bellis perennis, Capsella Bursa- 
 pastoris, Spergula arvensis, Ranunculus repens, Sonchus oleraceus, Plan- 
 tago lanceolata and Centaurea cyanus. 
 
 Tylenchus tritici (T. scandens), Basstian. Ear-cockle; Peppercorns; 
 
 Purplers 
 
 This eelworm has been known in New Zealand for many years, 
 Mr T. W. Kirk having met with it first about 1893, but it has never
 
 358 PENTASTOMID^) 
 
 so far assumed dangerous proportions. The larvae are very tenacious 
 of life, and will hatch out worms after two years' drying. 
 
 Heterodera radicicola, Greef. Cucumber and Tomato Eelworm 
 This pest has been known for a number of years in this country, 
 and is especially troublesome to tomatoes grown under glass. 
 
 Heterodera schachtii, Schmidt. Beet Eelworm 
 This species has been in the country for a long time, but it is 
 the sort of pest that is very seldom noted or recorded. Mr T. W. 
 Kirk informs me recently (1919) that no specimens have been sent 
 to the Agricultural Department for some years past, which probably 
 only shows that it has not been giving trouble to cultivators. 
 
 ACANTHOCEPHALA 
 Family ECHINORHYNCHID^ 
 Echinorhynchus gigas, Goeze 
 
 Colonel Reid reports this parasitic worm as occurring in New 
 Zealand pigs. It is usually met with in the small intestine. 
 
 Family LINGUATULID;E 
 Linguatula denticulatum, Leuckart 
 Colonel Reid reports this worm as occurring in sheep. 
 
 Linguatula lanceolatum, Frohlich 
 This species is recorded by Colonel Reid from dogs. 
 
 CHJETOPODA 
 
 OLIGOCH^ETA 
 
 Family MEGASCOLEcm^ 1 
 
 Dichogaster modigliani, Rosa 
 
 This species has been reported to me, but I have failed to record 
 by whom, as occurring in New Zealand. Dr Benham informs me 
 that the only record of a Dichogaster in this country, rests on a state- 
 ment by Ude (1905), that an unnamed species, allied both to D. modi- 
 gliani, and to D. malayana, Horst, was gathered "at Oripi Bush, 
 Tauranga," by a German traveller. He records it merely as Dicho- 
 
 1 A. Nichols, in Acclimatisation of Salmonidf? at the Antipodes at p. 46, says of 
 the shipment of salmon ova made to Port Chalmers in the 'Mindora' in 1869: 
 "a living worm was found among the moss in which the eggs were packed, and 
 was 'acclimated.'" Dr Benham suggests that this was probably an Euchytroeid.
 
 CH/ETOPODA 359 
 
 gaster sp. As these worms come from Sumatra and the Malay Archi- 
 pelago, he considers it likely that the tickets of localities got mixed up. 
 
 Dichogaster sylvatica, Hebdier (?) 
 
 Dr Benham states that the occurrence of this Australian species 
 is incidentally referred to by Ude (1893), where he mentions that in 
 a letter to him from Dr Rosa, the latter refers to a "variety from New 
 Zealand." The specimens Ude was examining were from Australia. 
 
 Family EUDRILIDJE 
 Eudrilus eugeniee, Kinberg 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith reports this species as occurring in Taranaki. 
 Dr Benham, however, who is extremely doubtful of its occurrence, 
 says: 
 
 I cannot find any statement in any writer that this occurs in New Zealand, 
 except in a list of New Zealand worms given by Beddard (1891), which 
 includes "Eudrilus sp. (fide Benham)." I have no recollection or record of 
 how I came to make that statement to him. 
 
 He adds that it is not unlikely that the worm does occur here, as 
 although it is a native of Africa, it has been found widely distributed, 
 apparently by man. 
 
 It was probably on Beddard 's authority that the species was 
 included in the list of introduced worms in the Index Fauna Novce- 
 Zealandice. 
 
 Family GEOSCOLECIM: 
 
 Pontoscolex corethrurus, Fr. Miiller 
 Recorded in the Index Faunce N.Z. in 1903. Dr Benham says: 
 
 A native of Central America and the West Indies, it has been found in 
 several of the Pacific Islands, such as Samoa, Tonga, Fiji and the Sandwich 
 Islands, but I cannot find any definite statement by any writer that it has 
 occurred here, though Michaelsen in his Monograph (1900) gives New 
 Zealand as one of the localities, but gives no authority for its occurrence. 
 
 Family LUMBRICID^E 
 Eiseniella tetrcedra, Savigny 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith recorded this in 1892, under the name Allurus 
 tetrcedrus, as occurring in still pools in the Ashburton River. Com- 
 monly met with in cultivated land. Mr W. W. Smith states that it 
 occurs in red masses in sluggish overgrown gutters in New Plymouth.
 
 360 PENTASTOMID^: 
 
 Helodrilus (Eisenid) fcetidus (Sav.) (Allobophora foetida). 
 British Brandling Worm 
 
 Originally recorded from Dunedin in 1876, by Captain Hutton, 
 who described it as a new species, under the name Lumbricus annulatus. 
 Dr Benham informs me that British worms of the Fam. Lumbricidce 
 are all commonly met with in cultivated land. This was reported by 
 him in 1898 as common in Dunedin. Mr W. W. Smith reports it 
 as occurring in great numbers in Taranaki, in heaps of rotten manure 
 and putrid matter. It occurs in Sunday Island, Kermadec Group, 
 "under leaves." 
 
 Helodrilus (Eisenid) roseus, Sav. 
 
 Recorded by Captain Hutton in the Index Fauna Novce-Zealandite 
 in 1903. Mr W. W. Smith records it as common in Taranaki. Also 
 found in the Chatham Islands. 
 
 Helodrilus constrictus, Rosa. 
 
 Dr Benham has no doubt this species occurs in New Zealand, 
 although it has not been recorded. It is found in Campbell Island 
 where he states: "its occurrence is clearly related to the habitation 
 and cultivation of a patch of garden by the shepherds." It is also 
 common everywhere in Sunday Island in forest on damp ground, and 
 under nikau palm leaves and tree-fern fronds. 
 
 Helodrilus (Allobophora) caliginosus (Sav.) 
 
 In 1898 Dr Benham reported this as a very common worm about 
 Dunedin. Specimens labelled Lumbricus levis by Captain Hutton, 
 belonged to this species. It is also found in Chatham Island ; and in 
 Sunday Island in soil, and under nikau palm leaves. 
 
 (A European species of Allobophora was found in 1916 by Mr D. 
 Miller in flax swamps in the Manawatu district.) 
 
 Helodrilus (Dendroboma) rubidus, Sav. 
 
 This European worm is recorded in the Index in 1903. Mr Smith 
 states that it is common in Taranaki. 
 
 Otoclasium cyaneum, Sav. 
 
 Another European species recorded in the Index in 1903 ; and also 
 by Mr W. W. Smith from Taranaki. 
 
 Lumbricus rubellus, Hoffmeister 
 
 This was described as an indigenous species by Captain Hutton 
 in 1876, under the name L. campestris. He recorded it as common 
 in Dunedin and Wellington. In 1892 Mr W. W. Smith reported
 
 CH^ETOPODA 361 
 
 it as common in moist soil on swampy flats, and under moist cakes 
 of cow-manure. Later he records it from Taranaki. It is no doubt 
 a common form. 
 
 Lumbricus castaneus, Sav. 
 
 A European species recorded in the Index Faunee Novee-Zea- 
 landice in 1903. Mr W. W. Smith reports it from Taranaki, as occur- 
 ring commonly in newly cleared forest. 
 
 Lumbricus terrestris, Linn. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith recorded this species in 1892 as "common 
 everywhere." His specimens were identified by Mr Beddard and 
 Mr J. J. Fletcher. He further states that it is common in Taranaki, 
 where it attains to a large size in rich soils. There is evidently some 
 confusion as to nomenclature, for Dr Benham informs me that he 
 has never come across the species in New Zealand. 
 
 HIRUDINEA 
 Hirudo medicinalis, Linn. var. officinalis. Medicinal Leech 
 
 The Otago Society introduced 200 leeches in 1867, and handed 
 them over to the care of Mr F. D. Rich of Palmerston, who appears 
 to have placed them in one of the backwaters of the Shag River, 
 from whence they were probably washed out in the first big flood. 
 The Canterbury Society introduced 12 in 1867, apparently through 
 the agency of Mr A. M. Johnson, but there is no record of them. 
 In 1868 Mr Howard of the Southland Society obtained some and 
 placed them in the ponds at Wallacetown, but they were never seen 
 again. 
 
 In addition to these efforts, chemists imported them at all the 
 main centres, but no further attempts seem to have been made to 
 rear them in the country. 
 
 Professor H. B. Kirk informs me that in Auckland, about 1875 
 leeches were found in a small pool at the foot of a clay bank on the 
 west side of Grafton Road ; and that boys used to catch them to sell 
 to the chemists. 
 
 Of late years, probably due to the use of other remedies, the 
 employment of leeches for medicinal purposes has greatly diminished. 
 The great war has also contributed to their disuse as their im- 
 portation has practically stopped. In 1918 it was impossible to obtain 
 leeches from any chemists in Dunedin.
 
 Part III 
 NATURALISATION OF PLANTS 
 
 Chapter XI 
 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 OF the plants referred to in the following pages, over six hundred 
 species have become more or less truly wild, i.e., they reproduce 
 themselves by seed, and appear at the present time to be more or 
 less permanent denizens of the country. The great majority of them 
 have been brought in accidentally as seeds among other seeds, or in 
 hay, straw, and other packing materials. Some of them have been 
 introduced purposely as food or fodder plants, timber or ornamental 
 trees and shrubs, or ornamental flowers. Some have been introduced 
 for sentimental reasons, as very probably the briar rose was. In 
 addition to these I have referred to several species of plants which 
 have resisted all efforts often long continued and numerous to 
 naturalise them. 
 
 It is seldom possible to assign definite dates for the first intro- 
 duction of plants into a foreign country, as can often be done with 
 animals. In the majority of cases the most that I can do is to give the 
 date of the first definite mention of their occurrence. 
 
 Though isolated references to many introduced plants occur in 
 various publications ranging from Banks's Journal to more recent 
 times, the first list of such introductions appears to be in Sir J. D. 
 Hooker's Handbook to the New Zealand Flora, which was written in 
 1864, though not published till 1867. This contains the names of 
 165 species of plants, and includes most of the commonest weeds 
 and grass of cultivated land. A very large number of these were 
 recorded by Mr Thos. Kirk from the Auckland provincial district, 
 and were marked by an 'A' in Sir Joseph Hooker's list. Most of the 
 cereal and the commoner cultivated grasses were introduced in early 
 whaling days and by the first missionaries, that is between 1800 and 
 1820. Succeeding lists by Messrs Colenso, T. Kirk, Buchanan, 
 Petrie, Cockayne and many other observers have added to our know- 
 ledge of the alien flora, and to its spread in these islands. The most
 
 364 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 complete list is that given by Mr T. F. Cheeseman in the Manual of 
 the New Zealand Flora (pp. 1062-93), published in 1906. But in none 
 of these lists is any attempt made to give dates of introduction. 
 
 In the classification adopted by me in this work, I have mainly 
 followed Mr Cheeseman , who based his on the system used by Sir J . D . 
 Hooker in his various British and Colonial Floras. I am not here 
 concerned with any discussion on the principles of classification 
 adopted or favoured by various systematists and authors. My object 
 is to use names by which the plants referred to can be readily recog- 
 nised and distinguished, and I have seen no good reason to follow 
 any other scheme than that adopted by the most eminent of British 
 systematists. 
 
 No work has been done in New Zealand in recording the insects 
 which visit and pollinate the flowering plants, either indigenous or 
 introduced, except in a few isolated cases. 
 
 I have therefore appended to many of the introduced species of 
 plants referred to here, the names of those insects which have also 
 been introduced into New Zealand, and which in Europe are found 
 to pollinate their flowers, or at least to visit them for nectar or pollen. 
 
 DICOTYLEDONS 
 
 Division POLYPETAL^: 
 
 Sub-division THALAMIFLOIUE 
 
 RANUNCULACE^) 
 
 Some authors are of opinion that the curved or hooked beaks of 
 the achenes of the genus Ranunculus are a means of attaching the 
 fruits to the plumage of birds, and in this way of distributing the 
 species. I should think this is a rare, or at best a doubtful method of 
 distribution. Guppy says : " I have found the achenes of Ranunculus 
 frequently in the stomachs of birds in England, in partridges fre- 
 quently and in wild ducks at times." 
 
 Ranunculus aquatilis, Linn. Water Crowfoot ; Water Buttercup 
 First recorded as occurring in various parts of South Canterbury 
 by Dr Cockayne. In 1906 I reported to Mr Cheeseman that it 
 appeared in Otago first in the Waikouaiti River; then in the upper 
 portions of the Waipahi, and more recently in the Pomahaka, these 
 two latter being tributaries of the Clutha River. In 1908 Cockayne 
 recorded it as being plentiful in a lake near the mouth of the Rangitikei 
 River. It has since then increased very rapidly, and has in parts 
 nearly choked some of these streams. Almost certainly introduced 
 from Britain. Flowers in December.
 
 RANUNCULACE^E 365 
 
 This species may be spread by means of its achenes, but it is 
 more likely that fragments of the stems are carried on the feathers 
 and feet of aquatic birds. 
 
 It is visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus terrestris and Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Ranunculus Flammula, Linn. Lesser Spear-wort 
 Recorded by Cheeseman in 1906 as occurring in the Waiharakeke 
 Stream, Piako; and again in 1912 from the vicinity of Kaitaia, col- 
 lected by H. B. Matthews, in wet Kahikatea forest. This species is 
 likely to increase rapidly on account of its long creeping runners, 
 which will grow from 20 to 24 inches in a year. 
 
 Ranunculus sceleratus, Linn. Celery-leaved Buttercup 
 First recorded from the Otago Goldfields in 1876 by Dr Petrie. 
 In the Manual of the Flora, Cheeseman records it as occurring in 
 "damp pastures and waste places from Mongonui to Southland, 
 local." It is, however, very abundant in many localities, and in times 
 of drought has proved fatal to cattle. (Fl., Nov. to March.) 
 Visited by Lucilia ccesar and Musca corvina. 
 
 Ranunculus acris, Linn. Field Buttercup 
 
 Probably introduced at an early date in the settlement of the 
 country; first recorded by Kirk in 1867, among the plants of the 
 Great Barrier Island. 
 
 Cheeseman in 1906 records it as occurring in "pastures and waste 
 places in both islands, but not common." It is extraordinarily com- 
 mon in some parts, for instance near Dunedin. (FL, Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Ranunculus repens, Linn. Creeping Buttercup 
 Probably introduced as early as R. acris, but recorded along with 
 it in 1867. One of the most abundant weeds in New Zealand, 
 spreading in all directions, both by its seeds and its creeping stolons. 
 (FL, Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Ranunculus bulbosus, Linn. Bulbous Buttercup 
 First recorded in 1871 by Armstrong from the Canterbury district. 
 Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) states that it is abundant in pastures 
 and waste places in both islands. It is not, however, at all common 
 in Otago and Southland. (FL, Oct. to Dec.) 
 
 These three species of buttercup, R. acris, R. repens and R. bul- 
 bosus are in Europe visited by Apis mellifica, Eristalis tenax and 
 Calliphora erythrocephala. 
 
 Ranunculus sardous, Crantz. Hairy Buttercup 
 First recorded from the North Cape by Cheeseman in 1896. In 
 his Manual he states that it is common in pastures and waste places
 
 366 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 in both islands. Kerner states that this species is mainly dependent 
 for dispersion by sticking to the feet of birds in hardened soil and 
 clay. (Fl., Nov. to Dec.) 
 
 Ranunculus parviflorus, Linn. Small-flowered Buttercup 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. According to Cheeseman's 
 Manual (1906) it is said to be abundant in pastures and waste places 
 in both islands. It is not common in Otago and Southland. (Fl., 
 Oct. to Dec.) 
 
 Ranunculus arvensis, Linn. Corn Buttercup 
 
 First recorded by Armstrong as occurring in Canterbury in 1879 
 Cheeseman states (1906) that it occurs "in cultivated fields in both 
 islands not common." I do not think it occurs in Otago. (FL, Jan. 
 
 Ranunculus muricatus. Linn. 
 
 In 1877 Kirk states that "specimens supposed to have been col- 
 lected near Wellington are in the herbarium of the Colonial Museum." 
 
 First recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman from the Bay of Islands and 
 waste places about Auckland and Onehunga. In the Manual (1906) 
 it is said to occur in "waste places in both islands local." (FL, Nov. 
 to Dec.) 
 
 Ranunculus falcatus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Petrie as occurring in dry localities in Northern 
 and Central Otago. Found on bare ground in the hill-country of 
 Maniototo and Vincent Counties 1 . 
 
 Nigella damascena, Linn. Love-in-a-Mist ; Devil-in-a-Bush 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as a garden escape in light 
 soils near Auckland. The Manual (1906) gives the same distribution. 
 The species has not established itself to any extent. 
 It is visited by Bombus terrestris and B. lapidarius. 
 
 Delphinium Ajacis, Reich. Larkspur 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 Aquilegia vulgaris, Linn. Columbine 
 
 First recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman as a garden escape, about 
 Auckland. It only occurs as a garden escape in several parts of New 
 Zealand, though it is fairly common in many suburban areas. 
 
 1 Kirk in 1877 reported Ranunculus philonotis, Retz. as occurring in Evans' Bay 
 (Wellington), Hutt Valley and Otaki.
 
 RANUNCULACE^E 367 
 
 Acanitum napellus, Linn. Monkshood 
 
 First recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903, as a garden escape at 
 Ashburton. There is no report of it from any other locality. It does 
 not seem to spread readily. 
 
 BERBERIDEjE 
 
 Berberis vulgaris, Linn. Barberry 
 
 First recorded by the author in 1873, as occurring on the site of 
 abandoned gardens in the Taieri Plain, and near Dunedin. Since 
 the vast increase of blackbirds and thrushes the barberry has been 
 spread a great deal, and is to be found in many districts at a short 
 distance from settlement. It is becoming common near Dunedin. 
 Kerner records that when seeds of the barberry have passed through 
 the alimentary canal of a thrush the period of germination is hastened. 
 
 PAPAVERACE.E 
 
 Papaver hybridum, Linn. Rough Poppy 
 
 First recorded as a garden escape at Ashburton by W. W. Smith 
 in 1903. It has not been reported from any other locality. 
 
 Papaver Argemone, Linn. Pale Poppy 
 
 First recorded by the author in 1870 from Southland among 
 freshly sown pastures. Also reported from Ashburton by W. W. 
 Smith. Has not spread. 
 
 Papaver horridum, DC. 
 
 Appeared in a fowl run at Maheno in North Otago in 1917; 
 supposed to have been introduced with Canadian Wheat. The species 
 is S. African and Australian. 
 
 Papaver dubium, Linn. Long-headed Poppy 
 First noted by the author in 1885 on heaps of tailings at Coal 
 Creek, Clutha Valley. Petrie has also reported it from cultivated 
 fields in various parts of Otago. 
 
 Papaver Rhceas, Linn. Field Poppy 
 
 First recorded in 1869 by Kirk among naturalised plants of Auck- 
 land; and from Southland by the author in 1870. In Cheeseman's 
 Manual it is stated to be found in both islands in "cornfields and 
 waste places, not common." (Fl., Dec. to Feb.) It has not spread 
 to any extent, however, though all the conditions for its increase 
 seem favourable.
 
 368 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Papaver somniferum, Linn. Opium Poppy 
 
 First recorded in 1882 as a garden escape near Auckland by 
 Cheeseman. Noted by the author as fairly common in 1885 in the 
 Clutha Valley in the neighbourhood of gardens. It has not established 
 itself anywhere as a wild species. (Fl., Jan. to Feb.) 
 
 Argemone mexicana, Linn. 
 Mexican Poppy ; Yellow Poppy ; Prickly Poppy 
 
 First reported from Taranaki in 1888; and again in Hawke's Bay 
 and Marlborough in 1894 by T. W. Kirk. 
 
 Glancium flavum, Crantz. Horned Poppy 
 
 Firstrecorded asG.luteum as widely diffused on shingly beaches 
 near Wellington by Kirk in 1877; it is supposed to have been intro- 
 duced in the packing material of the patent slip machinery at Wel- 
 lington. Also recorded by W. W. Smith from Ashburton in 1903. 
 Cheeseman in the Manual of the N.Z. Flora (1906) states that it 
 occurs from East Cape and Wanganui to Cook Strait. Dr Cockayne 
 has collected it at the mouth of R. Awatere, Marlborough. It has 
 more recently appeared at Puketeraki in Otago, where perhaps it was 
 purposely sown. 
 
 Guppy says that the mode of dispersal is problematical : 
 
 " Its seeds have no proper buoyancy even after prolonged drying. On 
 account of their oiliness they will float at first on still water ; but they can 
 be made to sink at once, or in a day, by dropping water on them." (Fl., 
 Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Chelidonium majus, Linn. Celandine 
 
 First recorded from Ashburton in 1903 by W. W. Smith. It also 
 occurs somewhat rarely in the neighbourhood of Dunedin. 
 
 Eschscholtzia calif ornica, Chamb. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1877, from Castle Point in Wellington 
 provincial district. In 1879 Cheeseman reported it as covering the 
 greater part of a field at Panmure, Auckland. In 1882 it was common 
 in the neighbourhood of Auckland in light dry soils. Cheeseman 
 recorded it in 1906 as a garden escape in light dry soil in both islands. 
 It is thoroughly established as a noxious weed in dry parts of Marl- 
 borough, Otago and South Canterbury, for nothing will eat it. The 
 fruits are jerked off the receptacle when they are ripe. Hence it 
 spreads along made ground, such as railway embankments, but does 
 not progress over pastures to any great extent. The seeds apparently 
 require loose soil to germinate in. (Fl., Dec. to Feb.)
 
 FUMARIACE^E 369 
 
 FUMARIACE^ 
 
 Fumaria muralis, Sond. Fumitory 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1877 as common in cultivated land about 
 Wellington, Wairarapa, and Wanganui; and again in 1895 as found 
 on a ballast-heap in Wellington, among refuse from Buenos Ayres. 
 It is now an extremely common weed in many parts of New Zealand, 
 and is a familiar garden pest. In many districts it flowers all the 
 year round, but in the south mostly from October to April. 
 
 Fumaria officinalis, Linn. Fumitory 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 among naturalised plants of Auck- 
 land. In the Manual it is stated to occur rarely in cultivated fields 
 in both islands. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are fertilised by the honey-bee (Apis mel- 
 lifica). 
 
 Corydalis lutea, DC. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 CRUCIFER^) 
 Matthiola incana y R. Br. Common Stock 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1877 as occurring on clifTs at Castle 
 Point, Wellington. (Fl., Nov. to Dec. 1 ) 
 
 Cheiranthus Cheiri, Linn. Wallflower 
 
 Polack speaks of this species as cultivated by Europeans in the 
 north of the North Island in 1838, and as being "acclimated." 
 
 First recorded as a garden escape naturalised in a few rocky 
 places near Dunedin in 1873 by the author. Though widely spread it 
 has never established itself to any extent. (Fl., Oct. to Jan.) 
 
 Nasturtium officinale, R. Br. Water-cress 
 
 Canterbury was settled in 1850, and this plant was probably 
 introduced very soon after, for in a few years it blocked the Avon 
 and other streams in the vicinity of Christchurch. It is given in 
 Hooker's list of introduced plants in 1864, and in Kirk's list 
 of Great Barrier plants in 1867. By that time it was widely spread 
 and strongly established. In 1872 it was abundant on the margin 
 of the Waikato River. At the present time it is one of the com- 
 monest of introduced plants in streams and wet places. (FL, Oct. 
 to March.) 
 
 1 Kirk reported Matthiola sinuata, Br. as growing at Castle Rock in 1887. 
 T.N. z. 24
 
 370 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 It is frequently found to be very much infested with the common 
 cabbage blight Aphis brassicce. 
 
 In A. R. Wallace's Darwinism he mentions the fact, communicated 
 to him by Mr John Enys, that: 
 
 a natural remedy to the water-cress has been found by planting willows on 
 the banks. The roots of these trees penetrate the bed of the stream in every 
 direction, and the water-cress, unable to obtain the requisite amount of 
 nourishment, gradually disappears. 
 
 This is no doubt quite true for narrow streams, with a good flow 
 of water. In such situations also Elodea Canadensis tends to displace 
 it; and I have noticed in some parts of the Avon at Christchurch, 
 and in tributary streams, that a species of Nitella can strangle both 
 of them. But watching shallow ponds near Dunedin, I have noticed 
 that unless kept severely in check, the water-cress can put Elodea, 
 Aponogeton and species of Nymphcea right out of competition in a 
 year or two. 
 
 A few years after their introduction into the streams in the Canter- 
 bury district, water-cress plants grew to gigantic proportions, being 
 as much as 14 feet in length, and stout in proportion. The size is 
 now quite normal. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are fertilised by the honey-bee (Apis mel- 
 lifica). 
 
 Barbarea prcecox, R. Br. American Cress 
 
 First recorded in Kirk's list of introduced plants on the Great 
 Barrier Island in 1867; and in Wellington in 1877. In the Manual 
 (1906) Cheeseman reports it as not uncommon in waste places and 
 roadsides in both islands. (Fl., Oct. to Dec.) 
 
 Barbarea vulgaris, R. Br. Winter Cress 
 
 Said to be common on Otago Peninsula; I am not sure of the 
 identification. 
 
 Arabis hirsuta, Scop. Rock-cress 
 
 Reported as occurring near Ashburton by W. W. Smith. 
 
 Alyssum calycinum. Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Armstrong in 1879 as occurring in Canterbury. 
 Cheeseman reports it from both islands as not uncommon on road- 
 sides and in waste places. Petrie states that he has found it in Central 
 Otago, growing up to 3000 ft. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Alyssum maritimum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Armstrong in 1871 re- 
 corded it among plants from Canterbury. Kirk in 1877 reports it 
 from two points near Wellington. In 1906 Cheeseman states that it
 
 CRUCIFEILE 371 
 
 is found in waste places and dry sandy soils near the sea, often 
 abundantly in both islands. (FL, Nov. to Feb.) 
 
 Alyssum orientale, Ard. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 Erophila vulgaris, DC. Whitlow-grass 
 
 First reported by Petrie from Eastern and Central Otago, and on 
 ridges near Balclutha. (Fl., Oct. to Nov.) 
 
 Erophila verna, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 (as Draba verna) as occurring 
 in Ashburton County. 
 
 Cochlearia Armoracia y Linn. Horse-radish 
 Probably introduced at an early date in settlement ; first recorded 
 in Hooker's list in 1864. Stated in the Manual to occur in deserted 
 gardens and waste places, but uncommon. It is chiefly, as Kirk puts 
 it, an outcast from gardens. 
 
 Hesperis matronalis, Linn. Dame's Rocket 
 
 Reported as a garden escape in both islands; from Poverty Bay 
 by Bishop Williams; near Wellington by Kirk; and in cornfields at 
 Oamaru by Petrie. (Fl., Nov. to Dec.) 
 
 Malcolmia maritima, R. Br. Virginian Cress 
 First reported from waste places near Wellington by Kirk, it 
 occurs as a garden escape in several localities. (FL, Sept. to June.) 
 
 Cardamine hirsuta, Linn. Bitter Cress 1 
 
 The introduced form of this species (which is also indigenous to 
 New Zealand) is one of the most troublesome weeds of cultivation 
 in gardens and greenhouses. The explosive fruits scatter the seeds, 
 and the plants produce cleistogamic flowers all through the winter 
 months. It flowers most of the year. 
 
 Sisymbrium Sophia, Linn. Flix-weed 
 
 First reported by Petrie from Central Otago, growing near Alex- 
 andra and Naseby. (FL, Dec. to Jan.) (According to Kerner, an 
 average plant of this species produced 730,000 seeds in a year.) 
 
 Sisymbrium officinale, Scop. Hedge-mustard 
 Must have been common in the early days of settlement, but first 
 recorded from the Auckland district in 1882 by Cheeseman as being 
 
 1 The indigenous form is now recognised as a distinct species C. heterophylla 
 ( = Sisymbrium heterophyllum, Forst. f.). 
 
 242
 
 372 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 generally distributed. However, Mr Cheeseman informs me that the 
 plant recorded in Hooker's list of 1864, and in Kirk's list of Great 
 Barrier plants in 1867, as Erysimum officinale, is this species. 
 
 (FL, Nov. to Jan.; but in cultivated land flowers all the year 
 round.) 
 
 In Europe the honey-bee (Apis mellificd) occasionally visits this 
 flower; I have not noticed it in New Zealand. 
 
 Sisymbrium pannonicum, Jacquin 
 
 According to Kirk 1869 this species was introduced into the 
 Auckland district along with European flax. If so, it failed to establish 
 itself. 
 
 Camelina sativa, Crantz. Gold of Pleasure 
 
 Recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman as occurring in one or two 
 places near Auckland. Also by Petrie from Oamaru. In the Manual 
 it is said to occur rarely in cultivated fields in both islands. The seeds 
 become mucilaginous on the surface when wet. (Fl., Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Erassica oleracea, Linn. Wild Cabbage 
 
 Captain Cook, on arriving in Dusky Sound in the 'Resolution' 
 early in 1773, during his second voyage to New Zealand, cleared a 
 piece of garden ground and "sowed a quantity of European garden 
 seeds of the best kinds." Cabbage was almost certainly among them 
 but probably none of the plants established themselves. Later in 
 the year Captain Furneaux arrived in the 'Adventure' in Queen 
 Charlotte Sound, and made a garden on Motuaro, in which, among 
 other seeds, cabbage was sown. Captain Cook followed in May, 1773, 
 and made other gardens on Long Island. On returning in November 
 he says: "I crossed to Ship Cove next day and visited the gardens. 
 I found cabbages, carrots, onions and parsley in excellent condition." 
 The Sound was visited in October, 1774, when he says : "We likewise 
 visited the cabbage-garden on Motu-Aro, and found the plants shot 
 into seed, which had been for the greatest part consumed by the birds." 
 These were probably the parakeets. 
 
 On the third voyage, Captain Cook again visited Queen Charlotte 
 Sound, and though the gardens were "over-run with the weeds of 
 the country, we found cabbages," etc. 
 
 From this centre the cabbage has spread round the coasts of 
 New Zealand, but there is no doubt the Maoris helped to distribute it. 
 
 Commander Bellingshausen, who visited Motuaro in 1820, says: 
 "we gathered such a quantity of wild cabbage that we had sufficient 
 for one meal of cabbage soup for all the servants and the officers."
 
 CRUCIFER^S 373 
 
 A. R. Cruise, writing in 1820, says: "the excellent plants left by 
 Captain Cook, viz., Cabbages, turnips, parsnips, carrots, etc., are still 
 numerous but very degenerated." Captain Edwardson, speaking of 
 the natives of Foveaux Straits in 1823, sa y s: "Potatoes, cabbages and 
 other kitchen vegetables introduced by the Europeans are cultivated." 
 The mate of the brig 'Hawes' in 1828 found near Tauranga many 
 cultivations with cabbages, etc. 
 
 Polack in 1831 recorded cabbages as extensively cultivated by the 
 natives in the Kaipara district. 
 
 Dieffenbach, who visited East Bay near Tory Channel in 1839, says : 
 "the cabbage, which now abounds in Queen Charlotte Sound, and 
 which grows wild, was in blossom, and covered the sides of the hills 
 with a yellow carpet." Later on, speaking of Captain Cook, he says: 
 "the cabbage, which he sowed, has spread over all the open places 
 in Cook's Straits, and early in spring the sides of the hills are covered 
 with its yellow flowers." In the island of Kapiti he found plantations 
 of cabbages thriving well. Bidwill, who travelled in 1839 from 
 Tauranga to the summit of Tongariro, found that the natives used 
 wild cabbages, which they boiled freely. 
 
 When Wilkes visited the Auckland Islands in 1840, he found 
 cabbages growing finely on one of the points of Sarah's Bosom. 
 
 At the present time the wild cabbage is common on sea-cliffs in 
 both islands, but especially in the neighbourhood of former Maori 
 settlements. (FL, Nov. to Dec.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by two of our humble-bees 
 Bombus terrestris and B. lapidarius. I have seen hive-bees on them. 
 
 Brassica campestris, Linn. Swede-turnip 
 
 I cannot find when swede-turnips were first introduced into New 
 Zealand, but it is quite probable that they were among the seeds 
 sown by Cook in 1773. The first notice I have come across is by 
 Bidwill when travelling in 1839; a * a sma ^ native settlement between 
 Waikato and Taupo "they roasted some Swedish turnips." He clearly 
 distinguishes between them and common turnips, of which the natives 
 used the leaves, and which were abundant in the wild condition. At 
 present this species only occurs as an escape from cultivation. 
 
 There is, however, a remarkable form of wild turnip found 
 growing in Taranaki, which W.W. Smith considers to be the " Korau " 
 of the Maori. It is a gigantic form, growing five and six feet high, 
 with heavy branching stems, and leaves from two to three feet long. 
 It never forms any bulb, but has a thick stem as much as three inches 
 or more in diameter at the base. Both Cheeseman and Williams say 
 that the " Korau " is Brassica campestris, Linn., but Smith thinks this
 
 374 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 form does not belong to this species. At the same time it is not Bras- 
 sica Rapa, which is a very different plant. I suggest that it may be a 
 hybrid between these allied species ; it certainly is an interesting form. 
 In the Noxious Weeds Act, 1900, wild turnip (Brassica campestris) 
 is included among noxious seeds. As no farmers and probably very 
 few botanists can distinguish the seeds of the species of Brassica, 
 probably the identification does not matter much. 
 
 Brassica Rapa, Linn. Turnip 
 
 Cook and Furneaux sowed seeds of turnip in their various clearings 
 in Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773, and showed them to the natives. 
 In November of the same year they found that they had seeded. 
 The natives spread the seed throughout both islands in all probability. 
 Marsden found them in cultivation when he landed at the Bay of 
 Islands in 1814; but the Maoris in Queen Charlotte Sound appear 
 to have lost the plant, for Bellingshausen gave them seeds in 1820 
 and showed them how to sow them. 
 
 Nicholas (1817) says that the natives "had mussels and turnips 
 at this feast, but the latter had very much degenerated, and become 
 long and fibrous." He says also: "the turnip is called packahd from 
 its whiteness." 
 
 The mate of the brig 'Hawes,' in 1828, found many cultivations, 
 in which was a small sort of turnip, near Tauranga. 
 
 Polack, who was in New Zealand from 1831 to 1837, says: "the 
 turnip is found in a wild state over the entire country," but he only 
 saw a small portion of the North Island, mostly in the Kaipara and 
 Wairoa districts. Dieffenbach, in 1839, f un d that the natives in 
 Kapiti were cultivating turnips. 
 
 E. J. Wakefield found wild turnips on the site of Cook's old 
 garden at the entrance of Queen Charlotte Sound in 1839. D'Urville 
 in 1840 visited Otago Harbour and found turnips in all the native 
 and the whalers' cultivations. Wilkes found wild turnips on the 
 Auckland Islands in 1840. Wohlers met with them growing wild near 
 Lake Ellesmere in 1844. 
 
 At the present time it is still found near old Maori settlements 
 but is most commonly found as an escape from cultivation. (Fl., Dec. 
 and Jan.) 
 
 Brassica Napus, Linn. Rape 
 
 No doubt introduced at an early date, but first recorded as a 
 naturalised plant by Kirk in 1870 in the vicinity of Auckland. It 
 only seems to occur as an escape from cultivation. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by the honey-bee (Apis mellifica) 
 and the drone-fly (Eristalis tenax).
 
 CRUCIFEFUE 375 
 
 Brassica nigra, Koch. Black Mustard 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1870 from the neighbourhood of Auck- 
 land. Cheeseman (1906) reports it as not uncommon in cultivated 
 fields and waste places in both islands. (Fl., Nov. to Dec.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Calliphora erythrocephala, 
 C. vomitoria, Lucilia ccesar and Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Brassica adpressa, Boiss. 
 
 The record of this species in Cheeseman's Manual (1906) is the 
 first I have noted; it is reported as occurring not uncommonly in 
 fields and waste places in both islands. 
 
 Brassica Sinapistrum, Boiss. (Sinapis arvensis, L.) 
 Charlock; Skillock; Wild Mustard 
 
 No doubt introduced at an early date. First recorded in Hooker's 
 list in 1864. Cheeseman reports it as occurring, but not common, 
 in cultivated fields and waste places in both islands. It is, however, 
 very common in cornfields in Otago and Southland, where it seriously 
 reduces the yield of grain in many parts. The seed retains its vitality 
 for a long time, especially when buried. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Visited in Europe by Calliphora vomitoria, Eristalis tenax and 
 Bombus lapidarius. 
 
 Brassica alba, Boiss. White Mustard 
 
 Sown in Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773 by Furneaux and Cook, 
 and noted again by Cook in 1777. It does not seem to have become 
 established. Polack records it as cultivated by Europeans in 1831 
 in the North Auckland district. It is now stated by Cheeseman 
 (1906) to be found in cultivated fields and waste places in both 
 islands, but not common. It is only found as an escape, or a weed 
 of cultivation. (FL, Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Diplotaxis muralis, DC. Rocket; Wall Mustard 
 First recorded as occurring near Ashburton in 1899 by W. W. 
 Smith, and as spreading in 1903. Cheeseman (1906) reports it as 
 occurring in waste places in both islands, but local. (Fl., Dec. to Feb.) 
 
 Eruca sativa, Lam. 
 
 Reported by Kirk from Port Fitzroy in the Great Barrier Island. 
 (Fl., Nov. to Dec.) 
 
 Capsella Bursa-pastoris, DC. Shepherd's Purse 
 No doubt an early introduction, but first recorded in Hooker's 
 list in 1864. This is a most abundant weed of cultivation, and is
 
 376 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 found in every part of New Zealand. It is very liable to be attacked 
 by a fungoid parasite, Cystopus Candidas, the so-called white rust 
 which spreads to cabbages and other cultivated crucifers. It is also 
 a carrier of club-root. (FL, Sept. to April.) 
 
 (Kerner states that an average-sized plant produces 64,000 seeds 
 in a year.) The seeds emit mucus when moistened, and so may adhere 
 to feathers of birds, etc. 
 
 Dr Cockayne says of this species that it is very variable in its 
 natural habitat, and has already given rise to certain mutants. In 
 New Zealand it varies to an astonishing degree, especially in highly 
 manured ground. 
 
 Senebiera didyma, Pers. Wart- cress 
 
 An early introduction, first recorded by Hooker (as S. pinnatifida) 
 in 1864. A most abundant weed in all parts of New Zealand, especi- 
 ally common in waste ground near the sea. (FL, Dec. to Feb.) 
 
 Coronopus procumbens, Gilib (Senebiera Coronopus, Poir.). 
 
 Wart-cress, Hog's-cress 
 
 Another early introduction; also recorded in 1864 for the first 
 time. Very common in waste places in both islands. (Fl., Nov. to 
 
 April.) 
 
 Lepidium Draba, Linn. Hoary-cress 
 
 First noted by the author in 1895, as occurring abundantly on 
 Morven Hills Station, Otago. Also recorded from Ashburton by 
 W. W. Smith. I have received specimens from J. B. Armstrong 
 (1919), who informs me that it occurs in cultivated land near Christ- 
 church, where it is a troublesome weed on account of its underground 
 running stems. 
 
 Lepidium campestre, R. Br. Field- cress ; Pepperwort 
 First recorded from the Taieri Plain, Otago, in 1873, by the 
 author. Cheeseman (1906) reports it as occurring in cultivated fields 
 and waste places in both islands, but not common. 
 
 Lepidium hirtum, Sm. 
 
 First recorded in 1882 as L. Smithit, Hook., by Cheeseman, as 
 occurring in pastures near Alexandra, in the Waikato. It was very 
 common in Southland in 1900; and in the Manual (1906) is stated 
 to occur in both islands in cultivated fields, roadsides, etc., but local. 
 (Fl., Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Lepidium ruderale, Linn. Narrow-leaved Cress; Sheep's Cress 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Stated by Kirk to be very 
 common in the vicinity of every township in the Waikato in 1870.
 
 CRUCIFEM; 377 
 
 In 1877 ne states that it is abundant near Wellington, and is widely 
 diffused by sheep. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) states that it 
 is plentiful in waste places and roadsides, especially near the sea. 
 It is very abundant in Otago. 
 
 Lepidium sativum, Linn. Garden-cress 
 Polack (1831-37) mentions this species as common in a wild state 
 
 all over the country, but he is not a safe guide. It is recorded in 
 
 Hooker's list in 1864. It occurs in several parts but only as a garden 
 
 escape. 
 
 The seeds become mucilaginous when wet, and possibly adhere 
 
 to the feathers of birds. I do not know whether this is common to all 
 
 species of the genus Lepidium. 
 
 Thlaspi arvense, Linn. Penny Cress ; Mithridate Mustard ; 
 Canadian Stinkweed 
 
 The Agricultural Department reported this species in 1910, as 
 recently introduced into New Zealand. It was promptly declared a 
 noxious weed in the Third (Optional) Schedule of the Act of 1908, 
 by Special Gazette Notice of i6th June, 1910. 
 
 Iberis amara, Linn. Candytuft 
 
 First recorded as a garden escape at Ashburton in 1903 by W. W. 
 Smith. Cheeseman reports it from both islands, but "far from com- 
 mon." Like many a garden escape, I do not think it can hold its own 
 away from cultivated ground. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Rapistrum rugosum, All. 
 Cheeseman (1882) says: 
 
 In the summer of 1876 this plant appeared in great abundance on the 
 Barrack Hill, Auckland, now known as the Albert Park. The grading and 
 laying out of the park during the past year has nearly destroyed it, but a 
 few specimens still linger in the adjoining streets and unoccupied allotments. 
 
 He has not recorded it in his Manual (1906), so presumably it has 
 disappeared. 
 
 Cakile maritima, Linn. Sea Rocket 
 
 Recorded by Cockayne in 1908 as occurring near New Brighton, 
 Christchurch. 
 
 Raphanus sativus, Linn. Radish 
 
 First introduced by Furneaux and Cook in 1773, and sown in 
 clearings in Queen Charlotte Sound, where it was found by them 
 again in 1777. It was probably re-introduced by the early missionaries, 
 1814-20, for Polack records it as wild in many parts of the country
 
 378 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 20 years later. In 1882 Cheeseman says it is thoroughly estab- 
 lished in littoral situations, on sand-hills, etc., from Mongonui down 
 to Thames and Raglan. It does not persist, however, and in the 
 Manual (1906) is only recorded as a " garden escape, but uncommon." 
 (Fl., Dec. to Feb.) Cockayne says of it that it "is abundantly 
 naturalised near Wellington, but the roots are no longer swollen to 
 any extent." 
 
 RESEDACEjE 
 
 Reseda Luteola, Linn. Dyer's Weed ; Weld 
 First recorded from "sand-hills below the block-house, Wan- 
 ganui" by Bark in 1877, and later from the Taieri Plain, Otago, in 
 1880, by the author. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) states that it 
 is not uncommon in fields and waste places in both islands. In Marl- 
 borough it is common on roadsides, in company with Madia saliva. 
 Cockayne records it as common in Central Otago, and in the Waitaki 
 Basin from Omarama to Kurow. (Fl., Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Reseda lutea, Linn. Cut-leaved Mignonette 
 
 Petrie gathered this about 30 years ago at the Sowburn in Central 
 
 Otago. In the Manual (1906) Cheeseman records this as occurring 
 
 in fields at Pukeroro, on the authority of J. P. D. Morgan. In 1912 
 
 it was found on the slopes of Mount Eden, Auckland, by F. Neve. 
 
 Reseda alba, Linn. White Mignonette 
 
 First recorded in 1873 from Otago by the author as R. suffruti- 
 culosa ; later found by Bishop Williams at Poverty Bay, and by Kirk 
 in Canterbury. I have met with it as a garden weed in Otago. 
 
 CISTINE^E 
 
 Cistus sp. 
 
 This species is now (1918) growing wild at Puketeraki in Otago, 
 and is found in some gardens in Dunedin. The seed was brought 
 from Gallipoli by returned soldiers. 
 
 VIOLACE^: 
 
 Viola tricolor, Linn. Pansy ; Heartsease 
 
 Probably introduced early last century. First recorded as a natural- 
 ised escape in 1871 by Armstrong from Canterbury, and by Kirk in 
 1 877 as an occasional outcast from gardens. Cheeseman in the Manual 
 (1906) says it occurs in both islands in cultivated fields and waste 
 places, local. Guppy records that the seeds of this species, after 
 lying a little time in water, were thickly covered with mucus, and 
 that they adhered to a feather, on drying, as firmly as if gummed.
 
 379 
 
 Viola arvensisy Murray 
 
 First recorded in 1873 fr m cultivated land in Otago by the author 
 and again from Wellington by Kirk in 1877. It is not common and 
 appears only as a weed in cultivated fields. 
 
 Viola odorata, Linn. Sweet Violet 
 
 I record this species, because innumerable attempts have been 
 made to naturalise it in the open, but they have never succeeded. 
 The probable explanation is that neither among the indigenous nor 
 introduced insects is there found one which can fertilise its flowers. 
 At the same time in my own garden in Dunedin it used to seed some- 
 what freely from cleistogamic flowers, but only in rather dry situa- 
 tions. Kirk reported it in 1877 from Ohariu, but added "possibly 
 planted." 
 
 I have recorded, in connection with guinea-pigs, how these animals 
 running wild in a garden, and on lawns in which violets were growing, 
 enabled the latter to increase to a great extent. The guinea-pigs ate 
 the grass very close, but would not touch the violets. Kerner has 
 already pointed out that cattle, when grazing among grass which 
 contains violets, will not eat the flowers of the latter. 
 
 lonidium filiforme, F. Muell. 
 
 Recorded by Kirk, in the Student's Flora (1899), as found in 
 grassy places near Lake Takapuna, Auckland, by Miss Rolleston. 
 
 POLYGALE^) 
 
 Polygala myrtiflora, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk from Auckland district in 1869. Cheeseman 
 (1906) reports it as a garden escape in several localities near Auckland ; 
 and from near Napier, on the authority of Colenso. Carse records it 
 (1915) as found sparsely among sand-dunes on the west coast of 
 Mongonui County. 
 
 Polygala virgata, Thunb. 
 
 Recorded in 1912 by Cheeseman from several parts of the North 
 Island: "among fern and low tea-tree scrub at Mangatete, near 
 Awanui (H. Carse); edge of forest near Kaitaia (Mrs Foley); in 
 several places near Kihikiki, Waikato (N. M. Lethbridge)." Mr 
 Cheeseman adds, "it is probably a garden escape, although I cannot 
 learn that the species has been in cultivation in any of the localities 
 quoted above."
 
 380 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Polygala vulgaris, Linn. Milkwort 
 
 Collected on the open ground above Waitati, near Dunedin, by 
 Miss Eileen Woodhead, in November, 1917. Presumably introduced 
 from Britain. 
 
 CARYOPHYLLE^) 
 
 Dianthus prolifer, Linn. (Tunica prolifera, Cheeseman) 
 First recorded as a garden escape at Ashburton by W. W. Smith 
 in 1903. 
 
 Dianthus Armeria, Linn. Deptford Pink 
 
 First recorded in 1882 from the Waikato district by Cheeseman. 
 Perhaps Silene Armeria recorded by Armstrong from Canterbury in 
 1879, * s tne same species. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur 
 in both islands in pastures and waste places, but not commonly. 
 Cockayne reports it as fairly common in montane tussock-land in 
 Marlborough and Canterbury. (Fl., Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Dianthus barbatus, Linn. Sweet-william 
 
 First recorded in 1871 by Armstrong from Canterbury. It is 
 occasionally found as a garden escape in many districts. (FL, Nov. 
 to Jan.) 
 
 Saponaria Vaccaria, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1870 by Kirk as occurring in the Auckland 
 district. Later reported in the Manual (1906) on Kirk's authority 
 from "Cultivated fields near Auckland and Wellington." (FL, Dec. 
 to Jan.) 
 
 Silene inflata, Sm. Bladder-campion 
 
 First recorded from the neighbourhood of Auckland by Kirk in 
 1870. In Cheeseman's Manual (1906) it is stated to occur, but not 
 commonly, in both islands in cultivated fields, roadsides, etc. I have 
 met with it from Whangarei to Dunedin. 
 
 Silene conica, Linn. 
 Reported by Petrie to occur in Otago. 
 
 Silene gallica, Linn. Catchfly 
 
 First recorded from Otago in 1873 by the author. It is now 
 common in every part of New Zealand in roadsides and waste places. 
 (FL, Oct. to Jan.) 
 
 Silene quinquevulnera. Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, but no doubt introduced 
 much earlier. It is one of the commonest weeds in the country. One 
 of Drummond's Wellington correspondents stated that he had known 
 it since 1855. (FL, Oct. to Jan.)
 
 CARYOPHYLLE^: 381 
 
 Dr Cockayne remarks of Silene anglica, Linn, (which includes 
 both S. gallica and S. quinquevulnera) that it develops more succu- 
 lent leaves when growing near the sea than inland 1 
 
 Silene noctiflora, Linn. 
 
 Armstrong reported this species from Canterbury in 1871, Kirk 
 from Wellington in 1877, and Cheeseman in fields at Matamata in 
 1880. 
 
 The Manual (1906) omits all notice of the species. 
 
 Silene nocturna, Linn. 
 
 Reported by Kirk as occurring at Karori, near Wellington. (Fl., 
 Dec.) 
 
 Silene nutans, Linn. Nodding Catchfly 
 
 First recorded in 1879 by Armstrong from Canterbury. Later by 
 Cheeseman from pastures at Matamata in the Thames Valley 2 . 
 
 Lychnis Flos-cuculi, Linn. Ragged Robin 
 
 First recorded in 1870 by Kirk from the Auckland district. Cheese- 
 man reports it from Whangarei, and W. W. Smith from Ashburton. 
 In Britain it is usually found in moist ground. (Fl., Oct. to Nov.) 
 
 Lychnis vespertina, Sibth. White Campion 
 
 First recorded in 1875 from Dunedin by the author, and later by 
 Petrie from the same locality. Also from Ashburton by W. W. Smith. 
 It is found in hedgerows and by waysides. (Fl., Nov. to Dec.) 
 
 Lychnis diurna, Sibth. Red Campion 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. I have also noted it as a garden escape near Dunedin, but 
 it does not establish itself. 
 
 Lychnis coronaria, Descr. Rose Campion 
 
 Reported to be common near Wellington in 1 877 by Kirk. Recorded 
 by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) as an occasional outcast from 
 gardens, in both islands. (FL, Nov. to Dec.) 
 
 1 In C. J. Cornish's charming little work Wild England of to-day and the Wild 
 Life in it (London, 1895), there is an extract from an article which appeared in the 
 Journal of Horticulture on Brading Harbour in the Isle of Wight, written by Mr C. 
 Orchard. The writer says: "On two distinct places I have found the very rare 
 Silene quinquevulnera, which I believe has been found only in two or three places in 
 England." In New Zealand it is a common weed. 
 
 2 Armstrong in 1879 recorded Silene italica, Pers., and S. orientalis, Linn., as 
 occurring in Canterbury.
 
 382 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Lychnis Githago, Scop. Corn-cockle 
 
 First recorded in 1869 by Kirk from Auckland district; and in 
 1871 by Armstrong in Canterbury. It is not uncommon in cultivated 
 fields in many parts of New Zealand, but nowhere seems to have 
 become a pest. (FL, Nov. to Dec.) 
 
 Cerastium glomeratum, Thuill. Mouse-ear Chickweed 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864 as C. vulgatum. An abundant 
 weed in every part of New Zealand. (FL, Sept. to April.) 
 
 Cerastium triviale, Link. Larger Mouse-ear 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list as C. viscosum. Equally 
 abundant with the preceding species throughout the country. Both 
 these species (as also Stellaria media) are characterised by a develop- 
 ment of strong tissue in the stem immediately above the root-attach- 
 ment, which often enables them to hold on to the soil, when all the 
 branches have been torn off. They then spring up again from the 
 root-stock. Visited (in Europe) by Lucilia ccesar. (FL, Oct. to April.) 
 
 Stellaria media, Linn. Chickweed 
 
 Introduced at a very early date. First mentioned by Dieffenbach 
 in 1839. Most abundant weed of cultivation. (FL, nearly all the year 
 round.) 
 
 Stellaria Holostea, Linn. Greater Stitchwort 
 First recorded in 1871 by Armstrong from Canterbury Province. 
 
 Stellaria graminea, Linn. Lesser Stitchwort 
 First recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman as occurring near Auckland. 
 In the Manual (1906) it is said to occur in fields and on roadsides 
 in both islands, but not commonly. It is extraordinarily abundant 
 on Pine Hill near Dunedin, where, when in flower, it gives the fields 
 a greyish-white hue ; it has also spread into many other districts near 
 Dunedin. Visited (in Europe) by Eristalis tenax. (FL, Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Stellaria uliginosa, Murr. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) this is reported from bogs near Westport 
 by Townson; and from Ruapuke Island in Foveaux Strait by Chas. 
 Traill. It only grows in moist ground in Britain. 
 
 Arenaria serpyllifolia, Linn. Sand wort 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Stated in the Manual 
 (1906) to be "abundant in light dry soils." (FL, Nov. to Jan.)
 
 CARYOPHYLLE^) 383 
 
 Sagina procumbens, Linn. Pearlwort 
 
 First recorded from the neighbourhood of Dunedin in 1879 by 
 the author. Now extremely abundant in damp ground. Either this 
 or the following species are used as the basis of bowling greens in 
 some parts of the country, Invercargill, Gore, etc. It forms a very 
 close fine sward. (Fl., Oct. to March.) 
 
 Sagina apetala, Linn. Pearlwort 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Abundant in most parts 
 of New Zealand. (FL, Oct. to Jan.) 
 
 Spergula arvensis, Linn. Spurrey ; Yar 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. A most abundant weed 
 of cultivation, especially in the south. In damp seasons it is a serious 
 menace to turnip crops, as it is most difficult to destroy. It thrives 
 especially well, too, in ground which has been treated with phosphatic 
 manures, which are the principal artificial stimulants used in New 
 Zealand farming. (Fl., Oct. to Jan.) Visited in Europe by hive-bee 
 (Apis mellificd) and drone-fly (Eristalis tenax). 
 
 Spergula pentandra, Linn. 
 Stated by Kirk to be naturalised near Wellington. 
 
 Spergularia rubra, St Hilaire. Sandwort Spurrey 
 First recorded from the neighbourhood of Wellington by Kirk in 
 1877, and from Ashburton in 1903 by W. W. Smith. Cheeseman in 
 the Manual (1906) reports it as abundant on roadsides and waste 
 places in both islands. While the indigenous species S. media is found 
 near the sea, this introduced one is usually found in inland localities, 
 according to Cheeseman. (FL, Nov. to Feb.) 
 
 Polycarpon tetraphyllum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Very abundant on road- 
 sides and waste places in both islands. In 1877 Kirk recorded a 
 varietal form which produced "hemispherical masses of deep green 
 foliage" as abundant on the sands near Cape Palliser. (FL, Sept. to 
 June.) 
 
 PORTULACEjE 
 
 Portulaca oleracea, Linn. Purslane 
 
 Apparently introduced by Cook in 1773 in the gardens made in 
 Queen Charlotte Sound. It is not included in Hooker's list of intro- 
 duced plants in 1864, but Kirk records it from the Great Barrier 
 Island in 1867. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) reports it as
 
 384 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 "abundant in warm dry soils as far south as the East Cape, rare and 
 local from thence to Cook Strait." There is no reason to believe 
 that it is a survival from Cook's time ; it has been re-introduced much 
 more recently. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Claytonia perfoliata, Donn. 
 
 Found by myself as a garden escape near Dunedin in 1886, and 
 still occasionally met with; also recorded from Cheviot by von Haast, 
 and as a garden weed in Invercargill by Cockayne. It is a North 
 American species, but I have reason to believe that it was introduced 
 with seed or bulbs from Britain, where it is not infrequently natural- 
 ised. It does not spread, nor does it seem to thrive away from culti- 
 vated ground. In 1912 Cheeseman reports it from Karori, Wellington, 
 collected by J. S. Tennant. 
 
 Calandrinia caulescens, H. B. K. 
 
 Cheeseman states that this species appeared in 1881 in a freshly- 
 sown grass field at Otahuhu (Auckland). In the Manual (1906) he 
 reports it as growing in "cultivated fields, rare and local" in both 
 islands. It formerly was common in one locality near Dunedin, but 
 has since disappeared. Kirk reported it from "near Christchurch." 
 In 1882 he stated that "a white-flowered species has become plentiful 
 in stony places near Penrose and thence to Onehunga." 
 
 HYPERICINE^) 
 Hypericum Androscemum, Linn. Tutsan 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 from Auckland district. In the 
 Manual Cheeseman (1906) reports it as not uncommon on roadsides 
 and waste places. But it is particularly a plant found about meadows, 
 in the shelter of hedges, thickets, etc. 
 
 Now especially abundant by sides of water-courses and on the 
 outskirts of forest land, where it often forms a dense undergrowth. 
 Birds feed on the fruit and thus tend to spread it over wide areas. 
 
 Included in the Second Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act by 
 Special Gazette Notice of ist October, 1903 ; and in Third (noxious 
 seeds) Schedule by Gazette Notice of loth November, 1904. 
 
 Hypericum perforatum, Linn. St John's Wort 
 First recorded in T. Kirk's list of Great Barrier plants in 1867. 
 Cheeseman states that in 1882 it is common round Pirongia and 
 threatens to become a dangerous weed. At Matamata "some old 
 pastures have been completely over-run with it." It was first noticed 
 in Otago by the author in 1894 in the neighbourhood of Dunedin. 
 It is stated in the Manual (1906) to be abundant in both islands.
 
 HYPERICINE^: 385 
 
 Cockayne (1920) records it as spreading greatly in the vicinity of 
 Arrowtown, and as invading the bracken heath near Lake Wanaka. 
 (Fl., Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 In Europe its flowers are visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus terrestris, 
 B. hortorum, Eristalis tenax and Calliphora erythrocephala. 
 
 Hypericum humifusum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, and in many subsequent 
 catalogues since. In the Manual (1906) it is said to be common, 
 especially on clay soils, in both islands. (Fl., Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Both of the above species were included (with H. Androscemum) 
 in the Second Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act by Special Gazette 
 Notice of ist October, 1903; and in the Third (noxious seeds) 
 Schedule by Gazette Notice of loth November, 1904. 
 
 Hypericum montanum, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 MALVACEAE 
 
 Althaea officinalis, Linn. Marsh-mallow ; Guimauve 
 First recorded from Ashburton in 1903 by W. W. Smith. 
 
 Lavatera arbor ea y Linn. Tree-mallow 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 in list of plants from Auckland 
 district, and again by him in 1877 as an occasional garden escape in 
 Wellington district. It does not appear to spread, though it frequently 
 persists for a long time on the site of old gardens. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Malva sylvestris, Linn. Common Mallow 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 from Auckland district. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is reported as occurring on "roadsides and in waste 
 places" but not commonly, in both islands. (Fl., Nov. to Dec.) 
 
 Flowers visited (in Europe) by Apis mellifica, Bombus hortorum , 
 and B. lapidarius. 
 
 Malva rotundifolia. Linn. Dwarf Mallow 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Reported by Cheeseman 
 (1906) to be not uncommon on roadsides and in waste places in both 
 islands. (FL, Nov. to Jan.) A very common weed. 
 
 Malva parviflora, Linn. 
 
 Recorded in 1 882 by Cheeseman as occurring in waste places near 
 Auckland, but not common. It is now an abundant weed in road- 
 sides and waste places throughout the country. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 T.N. z. 25
 
 386 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Malva verticillata, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman, as in immense abundance 
 near Auckland; also at Thames and on the Coromandel Peninsula. 
 It is now found abundantly in many parts, particularly in waste 
 ground. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Malva crispa, Linn. 
 
 Reported by Kirk as a garden escape at Port Waikato. (Fl., Nov. 
 to Dec. 1 ) 
 
 Modiola multifida, Moench. 
 
 First recorded in 1860 by Kirk from the Auckland district as 
 Malva caroliniana. In 1882 Cheeseman writes that it "must have 
 been an early introduction, as it was nearly as abundant and as widely 
 distributed in 1863 as it is now." In the Manual (1906) he reports it 
 as abundant in pastures and on roadsides in both islands. 
 
 Sub-division DISCIFLOIUE 
 
 LINE^E 
 
 Linum marginale, A. Cunn 
 
 Dieffenbach, in 1839, says: "The vegetation" (of Motu Narara) 
 "is scanty and confined to a species of Linum with blue flowers." This 
 was almost certainly L. marginale. I have met with it about Dunedin 
 sparingly during the past forty years. Cheeseman in the Manual 
 (1906) says it is generally distributed in both islands, but most 
 plentifully in the north. It is very abundant to the north of Auckland, 
 Whangarei, etc. (FL, Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 The seeds of most, if not all, species of Linum become mucilaginous 
 when wet. This may be to enable them to adhere to the soil, but it 
 is probable also that they adhere to the feathers of birds, just as those 
 of Plantago do. 
 
 Linum usitatissimum, Linn. Common Flax 
 
 In 1814 Marsden gave "Shunghee" (? Hongi) some English flax 
 seed. This was at the Bay of Islands. There is no record, however, 
 as to whether it was grown and utilised by the natives or by the 
 missionaries. It was next recorded in 1869 by Kirk from Auckland 
 Province. In 1877 ne reports it as plentiful near an old ford of the 
 Ruamahunga (Wellington), and in the Wairarapa. Cheeseman in 
 1906 records it as only occasionally seen as an escape from culti- 
 vation. It has not apparently established itself anywhere. (Fl., Dec. 
 to Jan.) 
 
 1 In 1879 Armstrong reported Malva campestris, Linn, from Canterbury.
 
 LINE/E 387 
 
 Linum galltcum, Linn. 
 
 Cheeseman says this species was first seen in localities near Auck- 
 land in 1876. In the Manual (1906) he reports it as occurring in 
 "fields and waste places as far south as the East Cape." (Fl., Nov. 
 to Feb.) 
 
 Linum catharttcum, Linn. Purging Flax; Heath Flax 
 
 First noted about 1895 by the author in Dunedin; then at Ash- 
 burton in 1903 by W. W. Smith. In the Manual (1906) it is reported 
 as occurring in fields and waste places in both islands, but not com- 
 monly. (FL, Nov. to Dec. 1 ) 
 
 ZYGOPHYLLE^E 
 Tribulus terrestris, Linn. 
 
 In 1912 Cheeseman records the occurrence of a specimen of this 
 plant collected by Mr F. Hutchinson in pure shingle at Port Ahuriri, 
 Hawke's Bay. 
 
 GERANIACE^: 
 Geranium Robertianum, Linn. Herb Robert 
 
 First reported from near Wellington by Kirk in 1877. Cheeseman 
 says in 1882 that a few plants were seen at Devonport (Auckland) in 
 1879, but it has apparently died out. However, in 1910 he records 
 it again from near Whangarei, and also from Auckland. In the West 
 Taieri bush (Otago) it has been wild for quite 40 years, and is 
 to be found in several localities round Dunedin ; also near Wellington. 
 In the Manual (1906) Cheeseman reports it from fields and waste 
 places in both islands, not common. Introduced from Britain. (Fl., 
 Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Visited in Europe by Bombus terrestris, B. hortorum and B. lapi- 
 darius. 
 
 Geranium pratense, Linn. Meadow Crane's-bill 
 
 Buchanan recorded this species as growing at Kawau in 1876. It 
 is a common enough garden plant in some districts, and may very 
 occasionally occur as a garden escape, but it has never spread. 
 
 Geranium lucidum. Linn. Shining Crane's-bill 
 
 Recorded in 1903 by W. W. Smith as occurring in Ashburton 
 County, but it has not been observed since. 
 
 1 Armstrong records Linum angustifolium, Sin. (? Linn.), from Canterbury in 
 1879. 
 
 252
 
 388 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Geranium molle, Linn. 
 
 This species was first collected in New Zealand by Dr Lyall, who 
 visited these islands in 1847-49 in H.M.S. 'Acheron,' and Sir J. D. 
 Hooker in including it in the Handbook of the New Zealand Flora 
 admitted that he was much puzzled with the plant. It was also 
 found in Hawke's Bay by Colenso. Kirk in the Student's Flora of 
 New Zealand treated it purely as a naturalised species. Cheeseman 
 in including it among the indigenous plants in his Manual of New 
 Zealand Flora says : 
 
 There can be little doubt that this is introduced, but as it has had a place 
 given to it in previous works on New Zealand plants, and as it is now found 
 in all soils and situations, and would certainly be considered indigenous 
 by a stranger unacquainted with its history, it appears best to retain it 
 in the Flora. 
 
 1 think it should have been relegated to the list of naturalised plants 
 in the Appendix, where, unfortunately, it does not appear. It is very 
 common in pastures at the present time. 
 
 This species is visited in Europe by Apis mellifica, Bombus terrestris 
 and Lucilia ccesar. 
 
 Erodium cicutarium, L'Herit. Stork's- bill 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, var. chcerophyllum, DC. 
 reported by Kirk from Auckland district in 1869. It is abundant in 
 waste places and cultivated ground throughout New Zealand. In the 
 desiccated regions of Central Otago it is especially abundant, and, 
 according to Petrie, is readily eaten by stock 1 . It dies off by mid- 
 summer, but seldom fails to mature plenty of seed. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica and Calliphora 
 erythrocephala. (Fl., Sept. to March.) 
 
 Erodium moschatum, L'Herit. Musky Stork's-bill 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 from Auckland district; and in 
 1871 in Canterbury by Armstrong. In 1882 Cheeseman says "an 
 abundant weed, especially in light soils." In the Manual (1906) he 
 reports it as abundant by roadsides and in waste places in both 
 islands. (Fl., Oct. to Feb.) 
 
 Erodium malachoides, Willd. 
 
 Originally recorded by Cheeseman, 1882, as E. maritimum, 
 Linn., from Mongonui, Bay of Islands and Waiwera. Kirk states that 
 this was naturalised at the Bay of Islands in 1867, but was not 
 observed elsewhere, till he found it on a ballast heap in Wellington 
 
 1 Dr Cockayne tells me that it is sown for sheep feed in denuded areas of the 
 United States of America.
 
 GERANIACE^: 389 
 
 in 1892. The latter lot was introduced from Buenos Ayres. It does 
 not seem to have established itself. In the Manual (1906) Cheeseman 
 states that it occurs in sandy places near the sea at Mongonui and the 
 Bay of Islands. (Fl., Oct. to April.) 
 
 Pelargonium zonale, L'Herit. Scarlet Geranium 
 
 Cheeseman records this in the Manual of the New Zealand Flora 
 (1906) as occurring in the North Island, "often persisting for some 
 years in deserted gardens." But I think it must be classed as a true 
 garden escape, which has taken possession of considerable areas of 
 waste ground in the neighbourhood of gardens, and which is therefore 
 particularly common in the suburban districts of many northern 
 towns. (FL, Oct. to April.) 
 
 Pelargonium quercifolium, L'Herit. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk from Auckland district in 1869, and again 
 from Wellington in 1877. It is, like the preceding species, a garden 
 escape in the North Island, but not nearly so common. 
 
 Tropceolum majus, Linn. Indian Cress ; Garden Nasturtium 
 
 Polack (1831-37) speaks of it as cultivated in European gardens 
 in the north of the North Island. First recorded as a wild plant by 
 Cheeseman in 1882 and as common near Auckland. It has become a 
 most abundant weed in many suburban areas, especially in the North 
 Island; and in Auckland, Wellington and other towns frequently fills 
 waste sections of land with its attractive foliage and bright blossoms. 
 I have measured gigantic wild specimens at New Plymouth in which 
 the leaves were as much as eight inches across. (Fl., Jan. to April.) 
 
 It is visited in Europe by Apis mellifica, Bombus hortorum, and 
 earwigs (Forficula auricularia), the latter after nectar. 
 
 Oxalis cernua, Thunb. 
 
 First recorded in 1882 from Auckland by Cheeseman as a trouble- 
 some weed in gardens. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to be "an 
 occasional weed in gardens and orchards in the North Island." 
 Cheeseman says (1917) that it "is still far too plentiful." 
 
 Oxalis compressa, Thunb. 
 
 This species was recorded by Cheeseman in 1882, as "a common 
 garden escape, especially near Auckland." But in later years it was 
 not observed, and so was expunged from the list published in the 
 Manual in 1906.
 
 390 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Oxalis variabilis, Jacq. 
 
 First recorded in 1882 from Auckland as a garden escape by 
 Cheeseman. Characterised in the Manual as "a garden escape, not 
 common" in the North Island. (FL, Aug. to Oct.) 
 
 Oxalis hirta, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by Kirk from Auckland in 1899; and by Cheeseman 
 in 1906 in the Manual as " a garden escape in the vicinity of Auckland, 
 
 rare." (FL, Sept.) . 
 
 Oxalu rosea, Jacquin 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 LIMNANTHE^: 
 
 Limnanthes Douglasii, R. Br.(own) 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in South Canter- 
 bury as a garden escape. It does not spread. 
 
 AURANTIACE^E 
 Citrus aurantium, Risso. The Orange 
 
 An officer of the brig ' Hawes ' travelling near Tauranga in Decem- 
 ber, 1828, remarks : " I met with a few orange trees which have been 
 introduced with success." Probably he was referring to native planta- 
 tions, either under cultivation or abandoned. Oranges do not appear 
 to become naturalised in any part of New Zealand. 
 
 AMPELIDE^E 
 
 Vitis vinifera, Linn. Grape-vine 
 
 Grapes were introduced by the missionaries early last century. 
 In 1838 Polack says that "they are largely cultivated to the north-ward 
 of the River Thames." Kirk reported in 1877, and Cheeseman in 
 1882, that they were to be found in deserted gardens and old Maori 
 cultivations, but apparently they were not spreading and the latter 
 author practically repeats this in the Manual (1906). 
 
 SAPINDACEjE 
 Melianthus major, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1877 as a garden escape near Wellington, but 
 able to maintain its position when not disturbed by man. Also by 
 Cheeseman from Auckland and Thames. Cheeseman states in the 
 Manual (1906) that it is not uncommon in the North Island as a 
 garden escape. (FL, Aug. to Oct.)
 
 ANACARDIACE^: 391 
 
 ANACARDIACE^E 
 Corynocarpus Icevigata, Forst. Karaka 
 
 Though this plant is treated both by Hooker and Cheeseman as 
 an indigenous species, it seems highly probable that it was introduced 
 into New Zealand by some of the early Polynesian immigrants. If 
 so, it was most likely brought from Western Polynesia by way of 
 the Kermadecs. There are three species of the genus Corynocarpus 
 all closely allied, one in New Zealand, one in New Caledonia, and 
 one in the New Hebrides. 
 
 "Tradition says that one Roau came in the Nukutere canoe, 
 landing at Waiaua, near Opotiki, and brought with him the Karaka, 
 the ti and the taro." The date of this introduction was about twenty 
 generations ago, or five hundred years. Cheeseman says of its occur- 
 rence: "Abundant (in the North Island) chiefly in lowland situations 
 not far from the sea ; (in the South Island) Marlborough and Nelson 
 to Banks' Peninsula and Westland, but very rare and local." Once 
 introduced into the country it would readily be spread by fruit-eating 
 birds. The Maoris used the fruit for food. 
 
 Similarly the plant was almost certainly conveyed from New 
 Zealand to the Chatham Islands. W. T. L. Travers in letters from 
 his son H. H. Travers (1871) learned that the natives stated that their 
 Maori (not Moriori) ancestors brought the tree with them. It is 
 found "growing abundantly in the immediate neighbourhood of the 
 various old settlements, but not in the general bush of the islands 1 ." 
 
 Sub-division CALYCIFLOR^E 
 
 LEGUMINOS^) 
 
 PAPILIONACEJE 
 
 Lupinus arboreus, Sims. Tree Lupin 
 
 Freely sown as a plant for sand-binding in many parts of New 
 Zealand, but first recorded from Ashburton in 1903 as a garden escape. 
 Cheeseman in 1906 reports it as increasing in some localities. It has 
 got very commonly into many river beds in Canterbury and elsewhere, 
 and has spread very considerably away from sandy areas where it has 
 been sown. Indeed in many localities it assumes all the characters 
 of a "pure formation." 
 
 It was included under the name of Lupinus luteus, among noxious 
 seeds in the Act of 1900; and in the Second Schedule of the Act by 
 Special Gazette Notice of aoth June, 1901 . It is difficult to understand 
 why this was done. The plant is a nitrogen-fixer, and where it has taken 
 possession of great areas of sand-hills, it produces valuable surface 
 soil on which other plants afterwards grow freely. (Fl., Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 1 Dr Cockayne says this statement is incorrect, and that Karaka is the dominant 
 tree of the lowland forest in all parts of Chatham Island.
 
 392 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Dr Cockayne states that this species, normally yellow, and varying 
 but little in its native land, has undergone many changes on the dunes 
 near New Brighton, Canterbury, in the colour of its flowers. There 
 are, e.g., a pure white, yellows of various tints, and a great variety of 
 purples combined, or not, with whites and yellows. These abnormally 
 coloured plants occur in patches here and there as a general rule, 
 and appear to get more abundant year by year. Such variations have 
 not been noticed by him in the North Island, nor in Central Otago. 
 
 Ulex europceus, Linn. Gorse ; Whin ; Furze 
 
 No doubt an early introduction. When Darwin was at the Bay 
 of Islands in 1835 ne savs: "At Waimate I saw gorse for fences; five 
 years ago nothing but the fern flourished here." 
 
 Some of the early settlers in New Zealand sowed Gorse for sheep- 
 feed. About 1890 a Mr Williams sowed a pretty large area of it in 
 drills, and the sheep managed to keep it down for a few years, but 
 ultimately, of course, it got ahead of them, and so filled the ground. 
 At the time of his sowing gorse was well established over the country. 
 This was at Pakaraka in the Bay of Islands district. 
 
 The plant spreads by means of its elastic seed vessels which throw 
 the seeds to a considerable distance. It seeds very freely in New 
 Zealand, but in spite of its brilliancy and attractiveness of colour I do 
 not think its flowers are often cross-fertiliaed. I have examined long 
 stretches of gorse hedges in full bloom ; on one occasion a hive-bee 
 was seen on the flowers, apparently gathering pollen ; and a few blow- 
 flies (Calliphora) visited them, but I never saw a humble-bee on them. 
 In 1893 it was a very common weed in many parts of New Zealand, 
 and to-day is most abundant. Petrie informs me that the seeds are 
 freely eaten and distributed by Calif ornian quail. It would be inter- 
 esting, however, to ascertain whether the seeds are ground up by the 
 birds in the process of digestion, or whether they escape trituration 
 and are passed undigested. 
 
 This species was declared a noxious weed in the Second Schedule 
 of the Act of 1900. 
 
 In damp seasons in Auckland and the districts to the north of it, 
 gorse is a much more leafy and less spinous plant than it is, for 
 instance, in Otago; it flowers from August to April in the north; 
 but in the south it is found to bloom right through the winter. 
 
 Dr Cockayne points out that some remarkable more or less here- 
 ditary variations have come about in this species, such as colour 
 changes from normal yellow to white, differences in shape and size 
 of flowers, and variation in the time of blooming. He also notes that 
 it does not spread at above 2000 ft. altitude.
 
 LEGUMINOS^: 393 
 
 In 1901 W. W. Smith stated that "the larvae of several species 
 of Elater have destroyed enormous areas of gorse fences in New 
 Zealand during the last ten years by consuming the roots of the plants." 
 
 Drummond (Jan. 1916) records that gorse is decreasing in the 
 Upper Waitemata. He later states that on Gouland Downs, south 
 of Collingwood, an early settler sowed four sacks of gorse seeds. It 
 has not thriven, the soil being perhaps too moist and swampy, and 
 only a few stunted plants are now to be seen. 
 
 In a letter in Nature of 26th September, 1918 (p. 65), it is stated 
 that gorse seed, buried for 25 years, has sprung up freely on land 
 in Cumberland which was cleared of gorse and heather in 1893. For 
 the preceding ten years or more, the land was in permanent pasture, 
 but was ploughed and recultivated in 1918. I had the same experience 
 in the neighbourhood of Dunedin. A gorse hedge was rooted out 
 in 1876, and the ground has since been in continuous cultivation as 
 a garden. Whenever extra deep digging was done, as late as 1908, 
 gorse seedlings used to appear occasionally. 
 
 As early as 1859 gorse and broom began to give trouble to farmers 
 and others, and the Provincial Legislatures of Taranaki and Nelson 
 passed restrictive ordinances, compelling private individuals to keep 
 their hedges pruned, to stop planting new hedges, and fining them 
 for any plants growing on the public roads. 
 
 Cytisus scoparius, Link. Broom 
 
 No doubt an early introduction, but first recorded specifically by 
 Armstrong in 1 87 1 from Canterbury. It is now widely spread through- 
 out the country, and in some districts covers wide areas of land to 
 the exclusion of everything else. It also forms along with gorse 
 immense shelter for rabbits. (Fl., Oct. to Jan., but sporadically 
 throughout the year.) 
 
 In the Act of 1900, it is declared to be a noxious weed in the 
 Second Schedule. 
 
 The flowers are visited, for pollen only, by Apis mellifica, Bombus 
 terrestris, B. hortorum and B. lapidarius. 
 
 This species, like the last, exhibits numerous variations from type, 
 and these appear to be more or less hereditary in character. 
 
 Cytisus capensis 
 Recorded from Canterbury in 1871 by Armstrong. 
 
 Cytisus albus, Link. White Broom 
 
 First recorded from Ashburton (as C. albidus), where it was 
 common as undergrowth to the belts of trees skirting the railway
 
 394 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 lines, in 1903 by W. W. Smith. It was also growing freely on the 
 flats on the Ashburton River. It is now common on some Canter- 
 bury river beds. In the Manual (1906) it is reported as occurring 
 in both islands as "an occasional escape from gardens." (Fl., Sept. 
 to Oct.) 
 
 Cytisus candicans. Lam. 
 
 Apparently first recorded by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906). 
 It is abundant in both islands. (Fl., Sept. to Nov.) 
 
 Ononis arvensis, Linn. Rest-harrow; Wild Liquorice 
 
 Introduced into Southland in 1870 among grass-seed, but did not 
 succeed in establishing itself. 
 
 Medicago sativa, Linn. Lucerne ; Alfalfa ; Purple Medick 
 
 Probably introduced very much earlier, but first recorded in 1882 
 by Cheeseman as occurring in cultivated fields near Auckland, but 
 not common. Abundantly cultivated in many parts of the country 
 but only occurs naturalised as an escape. (Fl., Sept. to Jan.) 
 
 The flowers (in Europe) are visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus 
 terrestris, B. hortorum and B. lapidarius. 
 
 Medicago lupulina, Linn. Black Medick 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, but certainly introduced 
 at a much earlier date. Now very abundant in fields and waste places. 
 (FL, Sept. to Feb.) 
 
 Medicago denticulata, Willd. Toothed Medick 
 
 Also first recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Abundant throughout 
 all cultivated districts. (FL, Sept. to Jan.) 
 
 This and the next species are included among the noxious seeds 
 in Schedule 3 of the Noxious Weeds Act, 1900. 
 
 Medicago maculata, Willd. Spotted Medick 
 First recorded by Hooker in 1864. Cheeseman in the Manual 
 (1906) says: "Abundant in the Auckland Provincial District, local 
 elsewhere." It is a most abundant weed in many parts of Otago, 
 especially in the coastal districts. (FL, Sept. to Dec.) 
 
 Melilotus officinalis, Lam. Melilot 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864; no doubt introduced very 
 many years earlier. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) reports it as
 
 LEGUMINOS^: 395 
 
 sparingly naturalised in fields and waste places in both islands. (Fl., 
 Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Melilotus arvensis, Wallr. Field Melilot 
 
 First recorded by Hooker in 1864. Now occurs commonly in 
 waste places and on roadsides throughout New Zealand. Cockayne 
 says it is extremely common in sand-dunes in many parts of the 
 North Island. (Fl., Dec. to Feb.) 
 
 Melilotus alba, Desr. White Melilot 
 
 First recorded in 1871 by Armstrong as M. leucantha in plants 
 naturalised in Canterbury. Reported from Napier by Kirk and Cheese- 
 man; and from the Canterbury Plains by W. W. Smith. (Fl., Jan. 
 to March.) 
 
 Trifolium subterraneum, Linn. 
 
 Reported by Cheeseman in 1906 as occurring in the Auckland 
 district, and increasing rapidly. I found it common in the Whangarei 
 district in 1916. 
 
 Trifolium arvense, Linn. Hare's-foot Trefoil 
 First recorded in 1879 fr m Canterbury by Armstrong. Cheese- 
 man in 1882 says it was observed in a field at Otahuhu in 1876, but 
 has not been seen since. In the Manual (1906) he reports it as found 
 on roadsides and in waste places in both islands, and increasing, 
 especially in light soils. (FL, Jan. to March.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Bombus lapidarius. 
 
 Trifolium incarnatum, Linn. Crimson Clover 
 First recorded in 1877 from Porirua by H. B. Kirk; then in 1882 
 by Cheeseman as occurring occasionally in pastures, especially in the 
 Waikato. It is found in pastures in both islands, but not commonly. 
 In the Journal of the Department of Agriculture for 1910 it is said 
 to be largely used for ploughing into the ground for green manuring. 
 (Fl., Dec. to Feb.) 
 
 Trifolium ochroleucum, Linn. Sulphur Clover 
 First recorded in 1879 by Armstrong from Canterbury ; and stated 
 by Smith to occur about Ashburton in 1903. 
 
 Trifolium pratense, Linn. Red Clover 
 
 No doubt an early introduction into New Zealand, but first re- 
 corded by Hooker in 1864. It is a most abundant plant in all parts 
 of New Zealand to-day, but before 1885 when humble-bees were
 
 396 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 successfully imported into the country, it was only found where it had 
 been sown, and was not spreading to any great extent, except where 
 carried in hay and straw, and by horses. 
 
 In 1883 J. B. Armstrong stated that a certain proportion of the 
 flowers were self- fertile. There are certainly cases on record of small 
 yields of red clover seed before 1885, but probably the explanation 
 is to be found in another statement made in 1883, also in Canterbury, 
 when R. W. Fereday recorded the fact that the flowers were often 
 fertilised by moths of the Family Noctuidse. Since humble-bees 
 became common, red clover has not only become permanent in 
 pastures, but has spread far and wide throughout the country. (Fl., 
 Nov. to Feb.) 
 
 Mr W. Hone of Waverley (Aug. 1914) says that more than 40 
 years ago, Mr J. Dickie, sen., sowed red clover on a part of his land 
 near Waverley from which he obtained a large crop of very fertile seed. 
 
 Mr W. W. Smith states that hive-bees occasionally fertilise red 
 clover in the shorter flowers of its heads. 
 
 Darwin in a paper printed in the Ann. and Mag. of Nat. History 
 for December, 1858, says: 
 
 In an old number of the Gardener 's Chronicle, an extract is given from a 
 New Zealand newspaper, in which much surprise is expressed that the 
 introduced clover never seeded freely until the hive-bee was introduced. 
 
 I wrote to Mr Swale of Christchurch, in New Zealand, and asked him 
 whether leguminous plants seeded there before the hive-bee was intro- 
 duced ; and he, in the most obliging manner, has sent me a list of 24 plants 
 of this order which seeded abundantly before bees were introduced. And 
 as he states that there is no indigenous bee (perhaps this statement applies 
 to bees resembling hive-, or humble-bees, for some other genera are known 
 to inhabit New Zealand) the fact that these plants seeded freely at first 
 appears quite fatal to my doctrine. But Mr Swale adds that he believes 
 that three species of a wasp-like insect performed the part of bees, before 
 the introduction of the latter; unfortunately he does not expressly state 
 that he has seen them sucking the flower. He further adds a remarkable 
 statement, that there are two or three kinds of grasshoppers which frequent 
 flowers; and he says he has repeatedly watched them "release the stamens 
 from the keel-petal," so that, extraordinary as the fact is, it would appear 
 the grasshoppers, though having a mouth so differently constructed, in 
 New Zealand have to a certain extent the habits of bees. Mr Swale further 
 adds that the garden varieties of the Lupine seed less freely than any other 
 leguminous plants in New Zealand; and he says, "I have for amusement 
 during the summer months released the stamens with a pin ; and a pod of 
 seed has always rewarded me for my trouble, and the adjoining flowers 
 not so served have all proved blind." The case of the lupine in New 
 Zealand not seeding freely now that bees have been introduced may be 
 accounted for by the fact, if I dare trust my memory, that in England this 
 plant is visited by humble-bees, and not by hive-bees.
 
 LEGUMINOS^: 397 
 
 It is impossible, at the interval of over half a century, to verify 
 or refute the accuracy of Mr Swale's statements, but hive-bees were 
 introduced into the country in 1839 an< ^ I 84O, and probably earlier, 
 and they were certainly very abundant in many parts of the South 
 Island early in the fifties. I am not aware, either, of any other ob- 
 server who has recorded the fertilisation of flowers in New Zealand 
 by grasshoppers. 
 
 This statement about lupines seeding is re-quoted by Herman 
 Miiller in The Fertilisation of Flowers, and by Henslow in The Origin 
 of Floral Structures. 
 
 My wife informed me that long before humble-bees were intro- 
 duced into the country, garden lupines used to seed freely in the 
 Taieri district near Dunedin. 
 
 Guppy quotes the following from Darwin (More Letters of Charles 
 Darwin, I, p. 436), regarding the distribution of clover seed: "Out 
 of a number of seeds left in the stomach of an eagle for eighteen 
 hours, the majority were killed ; but amongst the few that germinated 
 afterwards was a seed of clover (Trifolium)" 
 
 In Europe, Trifolium pratense is visited by Bombus terrestris, 
 B. hortorum, B. lapidarius and B. ruder atus, the short-trunked humble- 
 bees perforating the tubes of the flowers, and stealing the nectar; after 
 which the flowers are visited by hive-bees which suck the remaining 
 nectar through the holes made by the humble-bees. 
 
 Dr Cockayne has recently pointed out that red clover and cow- 
 grass (the perennial form of T. pratense) vary to an astonishing extent. 
 Many of the forms are most distinct, and the new characters are 
 diverse, affecting colour of flowers, stems, and foliage, form of in- 
 florescence, degree and kind of hairiness, and general habit. 
 
 Trifolium medium, Linn. Meadow Clover; Zigzag Clover 
 First recorded in 1870 by Kirk from the Auckland district; then 
 from Wellington in 1877. In the Manual (1906) it is reported as 
 not uncommon in pastures and meadows in both islands. (Fl., Dec. 
 to Feb.) 
 
 Trifolium scabrum, Linn. Rough Clover 
 
 Reported as abundant on the beach at Devonport, Auckland, in 
 1880, by Cheeseman. In the Manual (1906) it is reported as occurring 
 locally in the North Island in pastures and waste places. (Fl., Nov. 
 to Jan.) 
 
 Trifolium glomeratum, Linn. Clustered Clover 
 
 First recorded in 1870 from the Auckland district by Kirk, then 
 from Wellington in 1877. Cheeseman reports it (1906) as plentiful 
 in pastures and waste places in both islands. (Fl., Nov. to Dec.)
 
 398 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Trifolium repens, Linn. White Clover ; Dutch Clover 
 
 No doubt introduced at an early date last century, but first re- 
 corded in Hooker's list in 1864. It spread through Otago and South- 
 land very rapidly after the opening of the goldfields, being scattered 
 far and wide by the teams supplying the diggings in the early sixties. 
 (FL, Oct. to March.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus lapi- 
 darius, B. terrestris and B. hortorum. 
 
 A. R. Wallace in Darwinism states the "White Clover in New 
 Zealand is sometimes displacing native species, including even the 
 native flax (phormium tenax)." This story has been repeated many 
 times since, but, as most botanists now know, the statement made by 
 Wallace was based on defective information. Flax has been destroyed 
 by fire and by cattle, and clover has taken its place, but in the absence 
 of agencies introduced by man, the latter never does and apparently 
 never can displace the former. 
 
 Clover seeds appear to pass undigested through the stomachs of 
 cattle, for it is not uncommon to find them germinating on old patches 
 of cow dung. 
 
 Trifolium hybridum, Linn. Alsike Clover 
 
 Must have been introduced much earlier, but first recorded by 
 Cheeseman in 1882 as occurring in clover fields in the Waikato. It 
 is now common in pastures and meadows throughout the country, 
 but it is questionable whether it has spread to any extent naturally. 
 (Fl., Jan. to March.) 
 
 Trifolium fragiferum, Linn. Strawberry Clover 
 The first reference to this species appears to be in Cheeseman's 
 
 Manual in 1906, where it is recorded as occurring in "fields and 
 
 waste places in the Auckland district, rare." H. Carse records it 
 
 from Mongonui in 1910. 
 
 In Europe the flowers of this species are fertilised by Apis mel- 
 
 lifica, Bombus lapidarius and B. terrestris. 
 
 Trifolium resupinatum, Linn. Reversed Clover 
 
 First recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman from Mongonui, Doubtless 
 
 Bay, and Helensville. In the Manual (1906) he reports it as occurring 
 
 in "fields and waste places in the North Island; very plentiful in 
 
 the North Cape district, and increasing elsewhere." (FL, Oct. to Jan.) 
 
 Trifolium agrarium, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list of 1864 as T. procumbens. Also 
 reported from Broken River Basin in Canterbury, by Kirk. (FL, 
 Dec. to Jan.)
 
 LEGUMINOS^E 399 
 
 Trifolium procumbens, Linn. Hop Trefoil 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Probably introduced into 
 the country in the early days of settlement, now abundant in all parts 
 of the Dominion. (Fl., Nov. to Feb.) 
 
 Trifolium dubium, Sibth. Yellow Suckling 
 
 This has mostly been recorded as T. minus. It is abundant 
 throughout the whole of the cultivated parts of New Zealand. (FL, 
 Oct. to March.) 
 
 Trifolium filiforme, Linn. Lesser Trefoil 
 
 First recorded in 1867 as T. minus in Kirk's list of Great Barrier 
 plants. According to Cheeseman (1906) this species occurs, but not 
 commonly, in "various localities in Otago and Southland." (FL, Dec. 
 to Jan. 1 ) 
 
 Anthyllis vulneraria, Linn. Kidney Vetch 
 
 ' First recorded as occurring in Southland in 1869 by the author. 
 According to Kirk, it is "sparingly naturalised near Nelson and Dune- 
 din." (FL, Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Lotus corniculatus, Linn. Bird's-foot Trefoil 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list. Certainly introduced 
 among grass and clover seeds at an early date. It occurs not un- 
 commonly in fields and on roadsides in all parts of the country. 
 Flowers freely in December to January in Otago. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are fertilised by Apis mellifica, Bombus 
 lapidarius, B. terrestris, B. hortorum and Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Lotus uliginosus, Schkuhr. Greater Bird's-foot Trefoil 
 First recorded in Cheeseman's Manual (1906) as occurring abun- 
 dantly in fields and waste places in both islands, especially in the 
 Auckland district. It is probable that this is the species recorded in 
 1864 in his list of introduced plants in the Auckland district as L. 
 major. (FL, Jan. to Feb.) 
 
 Lotus angustissimus, Linn. Slender Bird's-foot Trefoil 
 Cheeseman records this as first seen at Remuera in 1881. In the 
 Manual (1906) he reports it as occurring in several localities near 
 Auckland, but rare. (FL, Jan. to Feb.) 
 
 Psoralea pinnata, Willd. 
 
 Recorded in 1870 by Kirk as occurring in the Takapuna district, 
 Auckland. He adds: "as it seeds freely, small specimens are not 
 
 1 Armstrong in 1879 recorded Trifolium maritimum, Hudson, and T. ntacu- 
 latum (?), from Canterbury. Both identifications are doubtful.
 
 400 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 uncommon in the neighbourhood of gardens, deserted homesteads, 
 etc., where it can scarcely expect to become fully naturalised." In 
 1912 Cheeseman records it (on the authority of H. Oakley) as occur- 
 ring wild at Waipu, and threatening to become a nuisance. 
 
 Indigofera vtscosa, Lam. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk as occurring in the Auckland district in 
 1870. Cheeseman says (1906), "has been noticed as a garden escape 
 near Auckland, but is scarcely naturalised." 
 
 Galega officinalis, Linn. Goat's Rue 
 
 According to Cheeseman this was found in the Manawatu river 
 bed by H. J. Matthews about 1900. It occurs on the silt in the river, 
 from whence it has spread considerably, down stream and into the 
 adjacent county. 
 
 Robinia Pseud-acacia, Linn. Locust tree, False Acacia 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 as going wild in the Auckland 
 district. In 1870 he states that "it is abundantly naturalised at 
 Taupiri, Rangiriri, and other places" (in the Waikato), "it already 
 forms coppices in many localities." In the Wellington district in 1877, 
 he calls it "a mere garden or plantation escape, increasing rapidly 
 by suckers where undisturbed." In the Manual (1906) it is stated to 
 be naturalised in various localities between Auckland and the Upper 
 Waikato. The hive-bee fertilises this flow'er in Europe. 
 
 Coronilla varia, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in the Manual (in 1906) as a garden 
 escape in the vicinity of Nelson. 
 
 Onobrychis sativa, Lam. (O. vici&folia, Scop.) Sainfoin 
 
 First recorded in 1871 by Armstrong as naturalised in Canterbury. 
 In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur in both islands as an 
 occasional escape from cultivation, but scarcely naturalised. (Fl., 
 Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Ornithopus perpusillus y Linn. Bird's-foot 
 
 First recorded in 1906 by Cheeseman as occurring in newly-sown 
 grass paddocks at Brookby, Auckland. 
 
 Vicia tetrasperma, Mcench. (Onobrychis gemella, Crantz). 
 
 Slender Tare 
 
 First mentioned in Hooker's list in 1864. In the Manual (1906) 
 it is said to be not uncommon in roadsides, hedges, etc., in both
 
 LEGUMINOS^ 401 
 
 islands. It is very abundant in many parts of Otago. (Fl., Nov. to 
 Jan.) 
 
 In Euro-pe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica. 
 
 Vicia gracilis, Loisel 
 
 Found by me in the Taieri Plain, Otago, in 1874, anc ^ identified 
 by Kirk. The species does not seem to have established itself, and 
 has not been found since. 
 
 Vicia hirsuta, S. F. Gray. Common Tare; Hairy Tare 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. In the Manual (1906) it 
 is stated to be not uncommon on roadsides and in waste places in 
 both islands. (Fl., Nov. to Feb.) 
 
 Vicia Cracca, Linn. Tufted Vetch 
 
 Originally recorded by Kirk as occurring near the Opawa River, 
 Marlborough. I have specimens received from Mr J. B. Armstrong 
 (1919) gathered on roadsides near Christchurch, where, however, it 
 is not very common. (Fl., Jan. to Feb.) 
 
 Vicia sativa, Linn. Common Vetch 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, but probably introduced 
 at an early date into the country. It is now a very abundant plant 
 in cultivated fields, waste places and roadsides. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.) 
 In Europe the flowers are fertilised by B. terrestris, B. hortorum and 
 B. lapidarius. 
 
 Vicia gemella, Crantz (see V. tetrasperma) 
 Recorded by Carse in 1910 as occurring in Mongonui County. 
 
 Vicia lutea, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 Vicia narbonensis, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1867 as occurring at Port Fitzroy in the 
 Great Barrier Island, in considerable quantity. (Fl., Dec.) 
 
 Pisum sativum. Common Pea. 
 
 Cook sowed peas in the gardens in Queen Charlotte Sound in 
 1773, but on returning in November of the same year, it was found 
 that the rats had apparently eaten the plants up. Governor King gave 
 the natives at the Bay of Islands two bushels of peas in 1793. They 
 were probably next introduced by the missionaries (1814 onwards); 
 and Bellingshausen in 1820 once more gave them to the Maoris of 
 
 T. N. Z. 26
 
 402 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Queen Charlotte Sound, and showed them how to sow and grow 
 them. 
 
 The garden pea has never gone wild in New Zealand. 
 
 A. R. Cruise, writing in 1820, says: 
 
 at one place we found a number of people collected round an object, which 
 seemed to attract great attention, and which they told us when we entered 
 the circle was tabooed. It proved to be a plant of the common English 
 pea, and had been growing about two months. The seed that produced it 
 had been found in the Coromandel ; it was fenced round with little sticks, 
 and the greatest care appeared to be taken of it. 
 
 Elsewhere he says "peas were raised while we were in the country 
 with great success, and the people promised to save the seeds and 
 grow them again." 
 
 Faba vulgaris. Linn. Broad-Bean 
 
 The history of the introduction of the bean into New Zealand is 
 practically the same as that of the pea; the species is nowhere wild, 
 and it does not even occur as a garden escape. 
 
 An interesting fact regarding this species is recorded by W. O. 
 Focke (quoted by Guppy) : 
 
 A pigeon killed by some beast of prey was found in his garden in the early 
 winter. In the following spring he noticed numerous seedlings of Vicia 
 faba sprouting up from amongst the feathers that alone remained of the 
 bird. 
 
 Guppy considers this to be the normal -method of the dispersal of 
 the Leguminosae by birds. 
 
 Phaseolus vulgaris, Linn. Kidney-Bean 
 
 First sown in Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773, but it was not 
 perpetuated. Occasionally runner-beans are found near gardens, but 
 the species never spreads. 
 
 Dolichos lignosus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1870 as forming thickets in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Auckland. 
 
 Dolichos Lablab, Linn. 
 
 Kirk recorded this species in 1899 as occurring on the sites of 
 deserted homesteads from Auckland to Wellington. (Fl., Oct. to 
 Feb.) 
 
 Lens esculenta, Moench. Common Lentil 
 
 First recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman as a garden escape, abun- 
 dantly naturalised in Auckland Domain. In 1906 it is recorded again 
 from the same spot, but it "does not spread."
 
 LEGUMINOS^) 403 
 
 Lathyrus odoratus, Linn. Sweet-pea 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 as an escape in the Auckland 
 district ; no doubt introduced at a very much earlier date ; and again 
 in 1877 as a garden escape, near the Hutt. I do not think it has 
 become permanently naturalised anywhere. Cheeseman in 1906 says : 
 "an occasional garden escape in rich warm soils in the North Island, 
 but soon disappears." 
 
 Lathyrus latifolius, Linn. Everlasting Pea 
 
 First recorded in 1871 in Canterbury by Armstrong. According 
 to Cheeseman (1906) it occurs in the North Island as "an occasional 
 garden escape." (Fl., Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Lathyrus Nissolia, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 Lathyrus pratensis, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County 1 . 
 
 Sub-order MIMOSE^: 
 
 Acacia decurrens, Willd. Black Wattle 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 as growing wild in some parts 
 of the Auckland district. It is the species now chiefly grown for 
 bark in the North Island. In 1897 there were some 4500 acres 
 planted for this purpose. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) says it 
 has established itself in several localities. (Fl., Nov.) 
 
 According to E. Maxwell (of Opunake) the typical N. S. Wales 
 form of this species spreads somewhat freely by seed, both in Auck- 
 land and in Taranaki ; it is common in the poor land of the centre of 
 the North Island, and in the Waihi district. The cultivated form is 
 A. decurrens, var. mollis, of Tasmania and Victoria. 
 
 Acacia dealbata, Link. Silver Wattle 
 
 The early plantations of wattles planted for bark were of this 
 species, which, however, is comparatively valueless for this purpose. 
 First recorded as a naturalised species in various parts of Auckland 
 by Cheeseman in 1882, where he says (1906) it is now established in 
 several localities. (Fl., July to Sept.) 
 
 Acacia pycnantha, Benth. Golden Wattle 
 
 This species has been commonly planted in some wattle planta- 
 tions, but though its bark yields more tannin than many other species, 
 
 1 A fine red Lathyrus sp. is common in several parts of the Wellington-Taranaki 
 railway line. 
 
 262
 
 404 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 the plant is too bushy in habit and hence costs more to strip. It 
 does not seem to spread to any great extent. 
 
 Acacia melanoxylon, R. Br. Blackwood 
 
 This species spreads to some extent by means of its seeds, as 
 well as its suckers, e.g. in Taranaki. 
 
 Acacia longifolia, Willd. 
 
 Recorded by Cheeseman in 1896 as occurring in the North Cape 
 district. 
 
 Acacia armata y R. Br. Kangaroo Acacia 
 
 Mostly grown as a hedge plant, but in some districts has spread 
 and become a nuisance. Consequently it has been included in the 
 Second Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act 1900, by Special Gazette 
 Notice of 23rd March, 1905. In 1910 H. Carse records it from 
 Mongonui. 
 
 Albizzia lophantha, Benth. Brush Wattle 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 among plants from the Thames 
 Goldfields. It is naturalised in many localities, especially in the 
 Auckland and Taranaki districts, and is common in many parts of 
 the North Island. In the South it is only a cultivated plant. Urquhart 
 says that it "competes successfully against, and in time destroys, 
 almost the strongest vegetation met with in the open country." (Fl., 
 Aug. to Sept.) 
 
 ROSACES 
 Amygdalus Persica, Linn. Peach ; Nectarine 
 
 Apparently peach trees were first introduced into the Bay of 
 Islands by Marsden in December, 1814. Cruise, writing in 1820, 
 says: "The missionaries have got some peach trees that bear very 
 well." 
 
 The Maoris soon scattered the seed far and wide, so that it early 
 established itself as a wild species, for they shifted their cultivations 
 frequently. The mate of the brig 'Hawes' in 1828 found peaches in 
 the native cultivations near Tauranga. Polack somewhat later writes 
 as follows : 
 
 On a small farm I possess in the Kororarika Bay, two peach trees had 
 been planted on the place by an early missionary. These had been allowed 
 to grow wild for many years, but yet produced, in 1839, thousands of fruit, 
 almost unequalled in size and flavour. This farm contained at one period 
 nearly one hundred small trees, growing spontaneously from seed carelessly 
 strewed about without having been planted. 
 
 He also refers to nectarines as in European gardens at the same 
 period.
 
 ROSACES 405 
 
 In 1869 Kirk records it as common in the Auckland district. On 
 the introduction of the peach curl and other fungoid pests, the wild 
 trees became badly infected in many districts, and almost ceased 
 to bear fruit. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) says: "Copiously 
 naturalised in the Auckland Provincial District in the early period 
 of settlement, but at the present time rarely spreads out of cultiva- 
 tion." (Fl., Aug. to Sept.) 
 
 Prunus Cerasus, Linn. Cherry 
 
 Probably introduced early last century by the missionaries and 
 early settlers. Recorded as a common wild plant in Auckland in 1869 
 by Kirk, and in Canterbury in 1871 by Armstrong. Cheeseman in 
 the Manual (1906) says: "Maintains itself in old Maori plantations 
 and deserted orchards, sometimes forming small groves." It tends to 
 spread in bush districts through the agency of birds. 
 
 Prunus avium, Linn. Gean 
 
 In 1871 Armstrong recorded this plant as naturalised in Canter- 
 bury, where it was probably only an occasional garden escape. In 
 1903 W. W. Smith reported it as dispersing freely in old bush 
 districts. It is being scattered here and there by birds. 
 
 Prunus communis, Hudson, var. spinosa, Linn. Sloe ; Blackthorn 
 
 Found rarely as a garden escape in one or two localities near 
 Dunedin, where it is distributed by birds. 
 
 Rubus ideeus, Linn. Raspberry 
 
 No doubt introduced at the beginning of last century at the dawn 
 of settlement. Polack in 1838 speaks of it as overrunning the 
 districts where it was planted in the North Island. But Polack 
 is not a very trustworthy guide, for Cheeseman as late as 1906 in 
 the Manual records it as an occasional escape from cultivation in 
 both islands, not common. Like all succulent fruited plants, it be- 
 comes more widely spread in districts where fruit-eating birds are 
 abundant. (Fl., Oct. to Nov.) 
 
 Rubus fruticosus, Linn. Bramble; Blackberry 
 Some forms of the blackberry were no doubt introduced at an 
 early date by the first settlers. The first definite record appears to 
 be in 1864, when Hooker's list was drawn up, which includes two 
 sub-species R. discolor, Weihe, and R. rudis, Weihe. According to 
 Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) other sub-species which occur are 
 R. leucostachys, Smith, R. rusticanus, Weihe, and R. macrophyllus, 
 Weihe. Kirk adds R. laciniatus, Willd. The last-named the Italian 
 blackberry is the common form about Greymouth.
 
 406 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 In many parts, especially of the North Island though it is 
 abundant enough in the South also this is considered to be the 
 most deleterious weed in New Zealand. All sorts of methods of 
 coping with it have been suggested, and in Taranaki especially, herds 
 of goats have been established to eat it down. But it continues to 
 spread everywhere, and the increase of fruit-eating birds is every- 
 where accompanied by an increase of this pest. 
 
 Quail are reported from several localities in the North Island to 
 be very active agents in disseminating it. (FL, Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Blackberry was one of the three plants declared a noxious weed 
 without any reservation in the original Act of 1900. 
 
 Fragaria vesca, Linn. Wild Strawberry 
 
 Probably introduced by very early settlers. Polack in 1838 says: 
 "they over-run the soil on which they are planted." Dieffenbach, 
 in 1839, speaks of it as spreading over the country (at Matamata). 
 Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) says "an occasional garden escape, 
 not common." But I think it is rather more than that. Smith speaks 
 of it (1903) as "abundant in masses in many parts of the Ashburton 
 district, and I know that near Dunedin it is somewhat freely dis- 
 tributed by blackbirds and thrushes. Cockayne says it is common 
 amongst manuka near Taumaranui. (FL, Oct. to Dec.) 
 
 Fragaria elatior, Ehr. Hautbois Strawberry 
 
 Kirk reports this species as wild in the Auckland district in 1869. 
 Cheeseman in his Manual (1906) says : " Has been noticed as a garden 
 escape, in both islands, but is much rarer than the preceding." One 
 reason of this I believe is that the species is often physiologically 
 (though not structurally) dioecious. (FL, Nov. to Jan.) 
 
 Herman Muller states that in the United States cultivated species 
 of Fragaria incline to dicecism. The same thing is certainly true here, 
 and I have seen beds of fine healthy strawberry plants which were 
 covered with bloom in the spring, but which did not set a single fruit. 
 
 A writer in the Otago Witness on 3ist October, 1892, complained 
 bitterly that strawberry growing was handicapped by the ravages of 
 the goldfinches. He stated that the birds picked the seeds out of the 
 growing fruit, and thus completely destroyed the berries. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica and Musca 
 corvina. 
 
 Potentilla reptans, Linn. Cinquefoil 
 
 First recorded from Wellington in 1877 by Kirk, then from Canter- 
 bury in 1879 ky Armstrong, and by Cheeseman as occurring near 
 Hamilton in the Waikato. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur 
 by roadsides and in pastures, but to be local. (Fl., Nov. to Jan.)
 
 ROSACES 407 
 
 (Kerner states that it is mainly distributed by the seeds adhering 
 along with earth to the feet of birds.) 
 
 Alchemilla arvensis, Scop. Parsley Piert 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Kirk also records it from 
 Wellington in 1877. In the Manual (1906) Cheeseman reports it as 
 occurring in waste places and fields in both islands, "often abundant 
 in light dry soils." (Fl., Oct. to Feb.) 
 
 Agrimonia Eupatoria, Linn. Agrimony 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 Accena ovina, A. Cunn 
 
 First observed by H. B. Kirk, and by Buchanan in 1877 in the 
 neighbourhood of Wellington. Observed by the author on the hills 
 above the Taieri Plain in 1890; the Agricultural Department reported 
 it as spreading freely in 1897, and six years later W. W. Smith 
 recorded it as very abundant in the hills of S. Canterbury, and be- 
 coming a great nuisance to sheep-owners owing to the manner in 
 which the seed-heads adhere to wool. In the Manual (1906) Cheese- 
 man says it is not uncommon in fields and waste places in both 
 islands. Cockayne reports it as one of the common roadside weeds 
 of lowland Marlborough. (Fl., Dec. to Feb.) 
 
 Poterium Sanguisorba, Linn. Salad Burnet 
 First recorded in 1876 from Kawau by Buchanan, then by Kirk 
 in 1877 from hills near Castle Point. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) 
 reports it as occurring in dry pastures in both islands, but not com- 
 monly. (FL, Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Poterium polygamum, Waldst. and Kit. Burnet 
 Reported by Kirk as occurring near Lake Ellesmere and elsewhere 
 on the Canterbury Plains. 
 
 Poterium officinale, Hook. f. Great Burnet 
 Buchanan reported this from Kawau in 1876. It has not been 
 recorded again from there. It is now growing abundantly on the 
 sand-dunes at (North) Otago Heads. 
 
 Rosa canina, Linn. Dog Rose 
 
 Introduced much earlier, but first recorded as a naturalised plant 
 in Hooker's list in 1864. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) reports 
 it as not uncommon on roadsides and in waste places. 
 
 The flowers are fertilised in Europe by Apis mellifica. (Fl., Nov. 
 to Jan.)
 
 4 o8 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Rosa rubiginosa, Linn. Sweet-briar 
 
 Darwin, writing of the Bay of Islands in 1835, says "At Pahia, 
 it was quite pleasing to behold the English flowers in the gardens 
 before the houses; there were roses of several kinds, honeysuckle, 
 jasmine, stocks, and whole hedges of sweet-briar." Polack, writing 
 in 1838, says it is "acclimated" in New Zealand, i.e. in the far north, 
 which was the only part he saw. The early settlers everywhere planted 
 this favourite shrub, as a hedge plant, and everywhere, at least in 
 the North Island, it got away from cultivation and quickly established 
 itself, as a plant most difficult to eradicate. As fruit-eating birds in- 
 creased it increased more rapidly, but there is little doubt that it 
 was largely spread by horses, which will eat the hips, but are unable 
 to digest the hard -walled achenes. Hooker mentioned it in his list 
 of introduced plants in 1864, and it occurs in every subsequent col- 
 lector's lists. It was early recognised as a great pest, and is now most 
 abundant in all parts of the country, though it is a worse pest in the 
 North Island than in the South Island. Cockayne says it is generally 
 absent from wet areas, where the blackberry is the prevailing weed. 
 In the Noxious Weeds Act of 1900, this was one of the three plants 
 which was declared a noxious weed without any reservation; the 
 others being the blackberry and the Canadian (or Calif ornian) thistle. 
 It is fertilised in Europe by Apis mellifica and Bombus terrestris. 
 
 Rosa multiflora, Thunb. 
 
 First recorded as a wild species in 1869 in the Auckland district 
 by Kirk. In the Manual it is stated to be found " often lingering for 
 years in deserted gardens, etc." 
 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha, Linn. Hawthorn ; Whitethorn 
 Probably introduced at an early date, but began to be scattered 
 as soon as thrushes and blackbirds increased. First recorded as a 
 naturalised plant by W. W. Smith in 1903. Cheeseman (1906) says 
 that it is "scarcely naturalised, but seedlings sometimes appear in 
 the vicinity of planted hedges." In the West Taieri (Otago) I have 
 seen the scarlet mistletoe (Loranthus colensoi) growing freely on this 
 plant. It is being spread by blackbirds. (Fl., Oct. to Nov.) 
 
 Visited in Europe by Apis mellifica, Bombus terrestris, Eristalis tenax, 
 Lucilia ccesar and Anobium paniceum ; the latter perhaps for pollen. 
 (See Appendix B, p. 562.) 
 
 Pyrus communis, Linn. Pear Tree 
 
 Probably introduced by the missionaries into the Bay of Islands 
 and Hokianga districts. It has not gone wild anywhere in New 
 Zealand. In Europe the flowers are pollinated by Apis mellifica,
 
 ROSACES 409 
 
 Bombus terrestris, B. lucorum, Calliphora erythrocephala, Musca do- 
 mestica, M. corvina and Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Pyrus malus, Linn. Apple 
 
 Introduced, no doubt, along with the pear. Polack( 183 1-3 7) speaks 
 of it as cultivated in European gardens. It is, however, nowhere 
 naturalised . In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus 
 terrestris, B, hortorum, B. lapidarius, Calliphora vomitoria, Musca do- 
 mestica, Lucilia ccesar and Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Cydonia vulgaris, Quince 
 
 Polack records it as in cultivation in European gardens (1831-37) 
 to the northward of the Thames River. My son, G. Stuart Thomson, 
 tells me that it grows wild on the river banks in some parts of the 
 Hokianga district. 
 
 SAXIFRAGES 
 
 Ribes Grossularia, Linn. Gooseberry 
 
 Probably introduced early last century by the missionaries. First 
 recorded as an escape in Canterbury in 1871 by Armstrong. In 1877 
 Kirk recorded it as not unfrequent in forests in the Wellington dis- 
 trict, and added: "probably originating from seeds carried by birds." 
 
 It is particularly common in the South Island, where it is carried 
 about by birds. In 1899 the bush about Moeraki contained a great 
 deal of it, and it has been since found abundantly and increasingly 
 about Dunedin and Otago Harbour, and wherever there are black- 
 birds and thrushes in the neighbourhood of settlement. The period 
 of germination of the seeds of Ribes is found to be hastened by passing 
 through the alimentary canal of a thrush. It is well known also that 
 seeds of a gooseberry are not digested by passing through the human 
 alimentary canal, but germinate freely from the faeces. 
 
 W. W. Smith tells me that in Taranaki the roots of gooseberry 
 plants are very greatly damaged by the larvae (wireworms) of an 
 indigenous beetle (Ochosternus zealandicus). 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus ter- 
 restris, B. lapidarius, B. lucorum, Eristalis tenax and Calliphora ery- 
 throcephala. 
 
 Red and white currants (R. rubrum) and black currants (R.nigrum), 
 though introduced at as early a date probably as the gooseberry, 
 do not seem ever to have occurred even as garden escapes. Cockayne 
 reports it from Kennedy's Bush, Port Hills, Canterbury. 
 
 Ribes sanguinea, Purch 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as naturalised in Ashburton 
 County.
 
 410 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 CRASSULACE^; 
 Tillcea trichotoma, Walp. 
 
 First recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman as "growing on the sides 
 of the road near Penrose (Auckland), and spreading rapidly on the 
 lava-fields around Mount Stuart." Also reported from Wanganui by 
 E. W. Andrews. In 1915 Carse reports it as found near Kaitaia 
 by H. B. Matthews. (Fl., Sept. to Oct.) 
 
 Sedum acre, Linn. Biting Stonecrop ; Wall-pepper 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in the Ashburton 
 County; apparently introduced in unclean seed, and spreading on 
 farms. A. H. Cockayne states that there are miles of it in some of 
 the Canterbury river beds., Dr Cockayne says it is increasing in dry 
 parts of the South Island. 
 
 MYRTACE^E 
 
 Eucalyptus amygdalina, Labill. " Stringy-bark' of New South Wales ; 
 "Peppermint-tree" of Victoria and Tasmania 
 
 Maxwell reports this as spreading in Taranaki. 
 
 It is one of the species which suffered from Eriococcus in South 
 Canterbury in 1900. 
 
 Eucalyptus regnans, F. v. M. 
 
 Simmonds reports this as spreading in the North Island. Also 
 suffered from scale in 1900. 
 
 Eucalyptus cocci/era, Hook. 
 
 Badly attacked by Eriococcus in 1900. I do not know whether or 
 not this species has spread naturally. 
 
 Eucalyptus radtata, Sieb. (E. numerosa, Maiden) 
 At Waitati, near Dunedin, this species seeded into ground which 
 had been covered with manuka and burned. Numerous self-sown 
 trees sprung up, which in 1913 were 28 to 29 inches in diameter. 
 
 Eucalyptus obliqua, Lher. "Stringy-bark" of Victoria, 
 
 South Australia and Tasmania 
 
 This species spreads from plantations about Auckland (Simmonds), 
 and Taranaki (Maxwell). 
 
 Eucalyptus piperita, Sm. Peppermint Gum ; Stringy-bark 
 Urquhart reports this as spreading from plantations in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Auckland.
 
 MYRTACE^E 411 
 
 Eucalyptus htemastoma, Sm. Black-butt ; Spotted Gum 
 Urquhart reports this as spreading from plantations in the Auck- 
 land province. 
 
 Eucalyptus globulus, Lab. Blue Gum 
 
 Seedlings of this species frequently spread from plantations in 
 both islands. It is recorded by Simmonds from Auckland. I have 
 noted it frequently in Otago and Canterbury. In Taranaki the foliage 
 of young plants is very much destroyed by a beetle, a Tasmanian 
 (introduced) species of Metriorhynchus, probably M . rufipennis. 
 
 This species suffered very badly from Eriococcus coriaceus in 
 Canterbury and North Otago in 1900-3, numbers of trees from 
 40 to 80 feet in height being completely destroyed. 
 
 Eucalyptus Gunnii, Hook. f. 
 
 One of the species which suffered much from scale in 1900-3. 
 Spreading to a limited extent from plantations in the South Island. 
 
 Eucalyptus Stuartiana, F. Muell. 
 
 One of the species which suffered badly from scale in South 
 Canterbury about 1900. I have not heard of it spreading. 
 
 Eucalyptus Macarthuri, Dean and Maiden 
 Simmonds reports this as spreading in the North Island. 
 
 Eucalyptus viminalis, Labill 
 
 According to Simmonds this species spreads from plantations in 
 the North Island. 
 
 Eucalyptus rostrata, Schlecht. White Gum ; Red Gum 
 Seedlings of this species spread from plantations in the North 
 Island. 
 
 LYTHRARIE^ 
 
 Peplis Portula, Linn. Water-purslane 
 
 Petrie found this species in various localities in the east of Otago ; 
 at Clarke's Flat, etc. (Fl., Dec. to Feb.) 
 
 Ly thrum hyssopifolia, Linn. Loosestrife 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. In 1870 Kirk speaks of 
 it as abundant in every moist place in the neighbourhood of Auckland. 
 In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur in moist places, ditches, etc., 
 in both islands, abundantly naturalised. (FL, Dec. to Feb.) 
 
 Lythrum Grceferi, Tenore 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 from the Auckland district. In 
 1882 Cheeseman states that it occurs at Remuera, Ngaruawahia and
 
 4 i2 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Thames. It has also been reported from Greymouth by Helms. In 
 1915 Carse reports it from Mongonui County. 
 
 GRANATE^) 
 
 Punica Granatum. Pomegranate 
 
 Polack (183 1-37) recorded pomegranates as cultivated in European 
 gardens to the north of the Thames River. 
 
 ONAGRARIE^E 
 
 (Enothera biennis, Linn. Evening Primrose 
 First recorded in 1879 m Canterbury by Armstrong. In 1882 
 Cheeseman reports it as occurring, but not commonly, near Auckland 
 and Hamilton, and in abandoned Maori cultivations near Matamata. 
 In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur, but not commonly, by 
 roadsides and in waste places in both islands. (Fl., Jan. to Feb.) 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus terrestris, 
 B. lucorum and B. hortorum. 
 
 (Enothera odorata, Jacq. Evening Primrose 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864 as CE. stricta. In 1868 
 Kirk reports it as forming a compact turf on the sands at Matauri 
 Bay, North of Auckland; and in 1870 as chiefly confined to volcanic 
 hills where it is abundant. In 1877 he recorded the species from 
 Wairarapa and Wanganui. In 1882 Cheeseman reports it as common 
 throughout Auckland Province in light soils, especially on sandy flats 
 near the sea. Common on some of the river beds in the Canterbury 
 Plains. (Fl., Jan. to March.) 
 
 (Enothera tetraptera, Cav. 
 
 Cheeseman records this as first seen as a garden escape near 
 Auckland in 1878. It does not seem to have been met with anywhere 
 else 1 . 
 
 CUCURBITACE^) 
 Lagenaria vulgaris, Ser. Gourd ; Hue 
 
 Banks, in his Journal of Cook's first voyage (1773), records in the 
 native plantations "a plant of the cucumber kind, as we judged from 
 the seed-leaves which just appeared above ground " ; and later on he 
 adds: "they also cultivate gourds, the fruits of which serve to make 
 bottles, jugs, etc." 
 
 According to the traditions of the east coast natives the hue was 
 
 1 In 1879 Armstrong recorded (Enothera grandiflora from Canterbury.
 
 CUCURBITACE^: 413 
 
 introduced before the Kumara, and was said to have been cultivated 
 by the Toi tribes prior to the arrival of the Arawa and other 
 canoes. This would place its introduction at a distance of from 24 
 to 30 generations, that is from 600 to 750 years ago. The species 
 is cultivated everywhere throughout Polynesia at the present time, 
 and though it is being displaced by many European varieties of 
 pumpkins, marrows and gourds it is still found in numerous native 
 cultivations. Several varieties of it were grown. 
 
 According to Taylor the natives used to wrap the seeds in wet 
 rags and suspend them near the fire to hasten their germination. 
 
 Citrullus vulgaris, Schrad. Water-melon 
 
 The first mention of this plant which I can find is by R. A. Cruise 
 in 1820, who says that "they were raised with great success while 
 we were in the country, and the people promised to save the seeds, 
 and sow them." They were probably introduced by the missionaries 
 shortly before that date. In 1828 the mate of the brig 'Hawes' 
 found water-melons in native cultivations at Tauranga. Polack reports 
 it as occurring in gardens in 1831-37. It was recorded as a garden 
 escape by Kirk in 1869 in the Auckland Province, but he adds: "it 
 can hardly be said to hold its ground." In 1882 Cheeseman says: 
 "often of spontaneous (?) origin about Maori cultivations, but has 
 never permanently established itself." And again in the Manual (1906) 
 he states that it "occasionally lingers in old Maori cultivations, but 
 scarcely naturalised." 
 
 Cucurbita Pepo, Linn. Pumpkin 
 
 In 1820 Bellingshausen gave the natives of Motuara seeds of this 
 species. Polack in the far north in 1 837 ; and Dieffenbach when visiting 
 New Plymouth in 1839, found pumpkins in native cultivations. 
 
 Cucurbita ovifera. Vegetable Marrow 
 This was recorded by Polack as cultivated in gardens in 1837. 
 
 Cucumis sativus, Linn. Cucumber 
 
 Also recorded by Polack (1831-37) as cultivated in gardens in 
 the far north. 
 
 None of these three species appear to have even survived as garden 
 escapes. All were probably introduced by the missionaries.
 
 414 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 FICOIDE^E 
 
 Mesembryanthemum edule, Linn. Pig-face ; Hottentot Fig 
 First recorded in 1822 by Cheeseman, as naturalised on sandy 
 beaches near Auckland. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to be " often 
 planted to check the advance of drifting sands, and spreading in 
 several localities, especially near New Plymouth." It is very widely 
 spread over the country, but is only naturalised in the South Island 
 in a few localities, e.g. in the Canterbury sand-dunes. 
 
 CACTE^) 
 
 Opuntia vulgaris. Prickly Pear ; Indian Fig 
 E. Jerningham Wakefield in 1840 found prickly pears in gardens 
 at Hokianga; they had, no doubt, been planted there by the mis- 
 sionaries. Drummond states that it was introduced into Mongonui 
 in 1847, by Mr Walter Brodie. It has, fortunately, shown no tendency 
 to run wild in New Zealand, as it has done in parts of warm temperate 
 and sub-tropical Australia. 
 
 UMBELLIFEILE 
 
 Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Linn. Penny-wort ; White-rot 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. It has not been collected since. 
 
 Conium maculatum, Linn. Hemlock 
 
 According to Armstrong this species was sown by a herbalist in 
 Christchurch in 1865. The next record is from Wellington where 
 T. Kirk found it in 1877. Cheeseman states a few plants were observed 
 in some waste ground at the Thames in 1880, but were not to be 
 found by him two years later. In 1895 the Agricultural Department 
 reported three patches of the plant in Wellington. W. W. Smith 
 reported it from Ashburton in 1903, "but not common." It was 
 common in places near Dunedin in 1914, but was apparently not so 
 abundant in 1919. Its occurrence, then, seems to be somewhat erratic. 
 
 It flowers in Oct. and Nov. In Europe it is visited by Musca 
 domestica and M. corvina. 
 
 This species was included in the Second Schedule of the Noxious 
 Weeds Act by Special Gazette Notice of 27th March, 1902 ; and in the 
 Third Schedule by Special Gazette Notice of loth November, 1904. 
 
 Bupleurum rotundifolium, Linn. Hare's-ear ; Thorough- wax 
 Stated in the Manual (1906) to occur in cultivated fields and waste 
 places in the North Island ; Cheeseman reporting it from near Auck-
 
 UMBELLIFER^: 415 
 
 land, and Kirk from Wellington. I have also a specimen from Christ- 
 church, where it is very rare, sent me by J. B. Armstrong (1919). 
 (FL, Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Bowlesia tenera, Spreng. 
 
 Recorded by Kirk as occurring on a ballast heap in Wellington 
 in 1895. Does not seem to have increased or re-appeared. 
 
 Apium graveolens, Linn. Celery 
 
 Celery was probably introduced by the early missionaries about 
 1820 or earlier. Polack (1831-37) speaks of it as found in a wild state 
 over the entire country, but he is not a very trustworthy authority. 
 Kirk in 1877 reported it from Wellington as "an occasional garden 
 escape; soon dying out." In the Manual (1906) Cheeseman states 
 that "it has established itself in several districts in marshy places 
 near the sea," in both islands. (FL, Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Apium leptophyllum, F. Muell. 
 
 First recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman as occurring in several 
 localities in the Auckland district. In the Manual (1906) said to 
 occur in waste places from Mongonui to Wellington, but not com- 
 monly. (FL, Nov. to March.) 
 
 Apium Lessonii 
 Recorded by Carse in 1910 as occurring in Mongonui County. 
 
 Ammi majus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1822 by Cheeseman as occurring rarely near 
 Auckland, but likely to spread. Evidently this prediction was not 
 realised, for in the Manual (1906) he states it occurs in "waste 
 places near Auckland, rare." 
 
 Carum Carui, Linn. Caraway 
 
 Though introduced long ago, this plant has not spread out of 
 cultivation. It is only recorded by A. Hamilton as occurring "near 
 Dunedin, rare." 
 
 In Europe the fly Lucilia ccesar has been observed on the flowers. 
 
 Carum Petroselinum, Benth. Parsley 
 
 First introduced into Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773 by Captain 
 Cook, but it did not establish itself then. It was probably re-intro- 
 duced early last century, and has spread to a slight extent. Cheeseman 
 in the Manual (1906) reports it as occurring not uncommonly on road- 
 sides and in waste places in both islands. (FL, Dec. to May.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Eristalis tenax, Musca 
 domestica, and Lucilia ccesar.
 
 4 i6 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Pimpinella saxifraga, Linn. Burnet-saxifrage 
 Reported by Kirk in 1869 as occurring in the Auckland district. 
 It has failed to establish itself, and has not been recorded again. 
 
 Scandix Pecten-Veneris, Linn. Shepherd's Needle; Venus 's Comb 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, and frequently recorded 
 as occurring in various parts of New Zealand. W. W. Smith stated 
 that it was very abundant about Ashburton in the eighties, but had 
 become rare by 1903. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) records it 
 as occurring in waste places in both islands, but far from common. 
 (FL, Dec. to Feb.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Anthriscus cerefolium, Hoffm. Chervil 
 
 Recorded in Hooker's list in 1864 as Chcerophyllum cerefolium. 
 Has not been observed since. 
 
 Anthriscus vulgaris, Pers. Beaked Parsley 
 
 This species is found at Wyndham, Otago, and has been forwarded 
 to me by Mr Warden (1917). 
 
 Chcerophyllum temulum y Linn. Chervil 
 
 First recorded in 1908 by me in the neighbourhood of Dunedin, 
 where it occurred as an escape from cultivation. It does not seem 
 to increase. 
 
 Fceniculum vulgare. Mill: Fennel 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, and frequently since then. 
 It is one of the commonest weeds of waste ground in New Zealand, 
 especially in the neighbourhood of towns, but is much more abundant 
 in the North Island than in the South. (Fl., Jan. to April.) 
 
 Included in the Second Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act of 
 1900, by Special Gazette Notice of 26th May, 1904; and in the Third 
 Schedule (Noxious Seeds) by Gazette Notice of loth November, 1904. 
 
 Ligusticum scoticum, Linn. Lovage 
 
 Found as a garden escape by the author in Dunedin in 1905 ; still 
 occurs about the Town Belt, but is not spreading. 
 
 Peucedanum sativum, Bentham. Parsnip 
 
 In 1773 Captain Cook sowed parsnips in his garden clearings in 
 Queen Charlotte Sound. They were probably re-introduced at the 
 Bay of Islands by the missionaries about 1820 or earlier, and were 
 given by them to the Maoris, for an officer of the brig 'Hawes,' 
 walking towards Tauranga in 1828, noticed them growing in the 
 native cultivations. Cheeseman speaks of it in 1906 as "an occasional
 
 UMBELLIFEILE 417 
 
 escape from cultivation, but not common." I think where it does 
 occur in the wild state it is fairly abundant. It is found in all cultivated 
 districts of New Zealand. (Fl., Jan. to March.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mettifica, Bombus ter- 
 restris, B. hortorum, Eristalis tenax, Calliphora erythrocephala, C. vomi- 
 toria and Lucilia ccesar. 
 
 Cockayne writes : 
 
 The parsnip, probably the celebrated " student," which is supposed by 
 writers on evolution to be a fixed race (Romanes writes, "that is to say, 
 it has come true to seed for the last forty years"), came up year by year 
 in a neglected part of my garden, but in a much deteriorated form. 
 
 Daucus Car ota, Linn. Carrot 
 
 Carrots were first introduced by Cook in 1773, in Queen Charlotte 
 Sound. The plant apparently disappeared there, for Bellingshausen 
 gave the natives of Motuara more seeds of it in 1820. But in 1839, 
 E. Jerningham Wakefield found carrots growing wild in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Cook's old gardens at the entrance of Queen Charlotte 
 Sound. They were probably introduced about the same time at the 
 Bay of Islands by the missionaries, for they were found in 1828 in 
 native cultivations by the same narrator as is mentioned in the pre- 
 ceding note. Wohlers mentions the plant as growing wild near Lake 
 Ellesmere in 1844 on the site of former Maori cultivations. W. W. 
 Smith reported it as covering acres of waste land about Ashburton 
 in 1903. As Cheeseman stated in 1906, it is not uncommon in 
 fields and roadsides, but it has not spread to any great extent, and is 
 never far from cultivated land. It is, however, very abundant in parts 
 of South Taranaki. (Fl., Dec. to March.) 
 
 Caucalis nodosa, Scop. Hedge-parsley 
 
 First recorded by T. Kirk in introduced plants of Great Barrier 
 Island in 1867, as Torilis nodosa, and from other parts of the Auckland 
 Province in 1870. I found it common at Moeraki in 1899. It occurs 
 in many parts of both islands. (Fl., Sept. to Nov.) 
 
 ARALIACE.E 
 Hedera Helix, Linn. Ivy 
 
 I have no record of the first introduction into New Zealand, but 
 it is first mentioned by Cheeseman in 1882 as spreading in plantations 
 and gardens, but hardly considered by him as naturalised. It flowers 
 very freely in the south in May, June and July, rather later than 
 the corresponding flowering season in Britain, which is Oct. to Nov. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Eristalis tenax, Calliphora 
 erythrocephala and C. vomitoria. 
 
 T. N. z. 27
 
 418 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 CORNER 
 Benthamia fragifera, Lindl. Strawberry tree 
 
 W. W. Smith informs me (1916) that this species is becoming 
 freely naturalised in Taranaki ; the fruit being carried about by birds. 
 
 Division GAMOPETAL^ 
 Sub-division EPIGYN^: 
 
 CAPRIFOLIACE.E 
 Sambucus nigra, Linn. Elderberry 
 
 First recorded by Hooker in 1864. In 1882 Cheeseman speaks 
 of it as "often planted for hedges, etc., and sometimes spreads." 
 Blackbirds and thrushes had been introduced more than a dozen 
 years previously, but had not had time to make much change in the 
 existing flora. At the present time it is a serious menace in some bush 
 districts. The Town Belt of Dunedin is full of it, and it is getting 
 into many of the scenic reserves of the country, and is crowding out 
 all other undergrowth. On rocky ground in Central Otago it is a 
 useful plant. Kerner records that the seeds of this species passed 
 through the alimentary canal of a thrush which was fed on the 
 fruit germinated in half an hour. It flowers in Oct. and Nov. In 
 Europe it is visited by Eristalis tenax and Lucilia ctesar. The elder- 
 berry was included in the Second Schedule" of the Noxious Weeds Act 
 of 1900 by Special Gazette Notice of 26th May, 1904. 
 
 Sambucus racemosus, Linn. Red-berried Elder 
 
 This species is growing abundantly and spreading in a wooded 
 gully at the back of the schoolhouse at Romahapa, south of the Clutha 
 River. The locality is close to the site of the old Puerua Manse, 
 founded about 1848 by the Rev. Wm. Bannermen, and apparently 
 the plant is an escape from cultivation. At present the species is being 
 spread freely in the neighbourhood by blackbirds and thrushes. 
 
 Viburnum vulgare, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 Leycesteria formosa, Wall. Cape Fuchsia; Spiderwort 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1877 from several districts near Wel- 
 lington, where he says, " if left undisturbed, it would increase rapidly." 
 Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) speaks of it as an occasional garden 
 escape. But it has been known in cultivation in New Zealand for
 
 CAPRI FOLIAGES 419 
 
 over 60 years, and since blackbirds and thrushes have become 
 common, has been spread very widely. 
 
 It was declared a noxious weed in the Third (optional) Schedule 
 of the Act of 1908, by Special Gazette Notice of 23rd July, 1914. 
 
 RUBIACE^) 
 Galium verum, Linn. Bed-straw 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1907 as occurring at Mahurangi. 
 It does not seem to have spread. 
 
 Galium palustre, Linn. 
 
 Reported from swamps near Mauku, Manukau Harbour, by H. 
 Carse (in Manual, 1906). 
 
 Galium Mollugo, Linn. 
 
 Reported as occurring between the Manukau Harbour and the 
 Waikato River, by H. Carse (in Manual, 1906). 
 
 Galium Aparine, Linn. Goose-grass; Cleavers 
 First recorded from the Auckland district in 1870 by Kirk, and 
 again in 1877 from Wellington. Now a very abundant weed in waste 
 ground, hedges, etc., in most parts of both islands. (Fl., Jan. to March.) 
 
 Galium parisiense, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as occurring in fields at 
 Remuera, Auckland, but rare. In the Manual (1906) it is reported 
 from Whangarei by Kirk, and Motueka by Kingsley. Also again 
 from the vicinity of Auckland by Cheeseman. 
 
 Sherardia arvensis, Linn. Field Madder 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. A very abundant weed in 
 all cultivated land throughout New Zealand, especially common in 
 pastures and waste land. (FL, Dec. to Feb.) In Europe the flowers 
 are visited by Eristalis tenax. 
 
 VALERIANEjE 
 
 Centranthus ruber, DC. Spur-valerian 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1877 from several parts in the Wel- 
 lington district, and by Cheeseman in 1822 as an occasional garden 
 escape at Mongonui, Auckland and Thames. It is fairly common in 
 many suburban areas. (Fl., Nov. to April.) 
 
 272
 
 420 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Valerianella olitoria, Pollich. Lamb's Lettuce ; Corn Salad 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864 as Fedia olitoria. In 1882 
 reported by Cheeseman as occurring in waste places and roadsides at 
 Orakei, Auckland and Hamilton. It does not seem to have spread, 
 and has not been recorded from the South Island. In 1915 it is 
 recorded by Carse from Mongonui County, as "not common." (Fl., 
 Sept. to Oct.) 
 
 CALYCERE^) 
 Acicarpha tribuloides, Juss. 
 
 Recorded by Kirk as occurring on a ballast heap in Wellington 
 in 1895. Does not seem to have spread or re-appeared. 
 
 DIPSACE^: 
 
 Dipsacus sylvestris, Mill. Wild Teasel 
 
 Kirk, in 1877, states that it occurs in great abundance in the 
 Porirua Valley near Wellington, while Cheeseman records it as not 
 uncommon in Tauranga in 1880 ; also at Pakari. In the Manual (1906) 
 it is stated to occur in waste places in the North Island, but not com- 
 monly. I found it common about Marton in 1920. (Fl., Feb. to 
 March.) 
 
 Dipsacus Fullonum, Linn. Fuller's Teasel 
 
 This plant was introduced into the Taieri Plain, and cultivated 
 for a time for the sake of the woollen mills. It spread somewhat 
 from its original habitant, but failed to establish itself, and soon 
 died out. 
 
 Scabiosa arvensis, Linn. Field Scabious 
 
 First recorded in 1870 from Southland by the author. It did not 
 spread in the south. In 1882 Cheeseman writes : " a few years ago this 
 appeared in abundance in a cultivated field at Remuera but has since 
 nearly died out." In the Manual (1906) it is stated that it occurs 
 (but rarely) in fields near Auckland. 
 
 Scabiosa maritima, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1868 from Mongonui as S. atro-purpurea. 
 In 1877 reported by Kirk as a garden escape from Wellington and 
 Wairarapa; and in 1882 stated by Cheeseman to be a common garden 
 escape in light soils in Auckland Province. In the Manual (1906) 
 Cheeseman adds Mongonui, Bay of Islands and Tauranga to the list 
 of localities. (Fl., Jan. to April.)
 
 COMPOSITE 421 
 
 COMPOSITE 
 Arctium Lappa, Linn. Burdock; Burr-thistle 
 
 First reported by Colenso in Hawke's Bay in 1882. It rapidly 
 spread across the North Island from Hawke's Bay to the Foxton 
 district. In 1894 it was very common about Hunterville, and was 
 also reported from localities in Canterbury and Otago. Kingsley 
 reported it as common in Nelson and Marlborough. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) it is said to be not uncommon in waste 
 places from the East Cape, southwards, in both islands. (Fl., Feb. 
 to April.) 
 
 It was declared a noxious weed in the Second Schedule of the 
 Act of 1900, and burdock (of any species) was included among 
 noxious seeds, and honoured with a second declaration of its un- 
 desirable character by special Gazette Notice of 2Oth June, 1901 1 . 
 
 Centaur ea nigra, Linn. Knapweed 
 
 First recorded in 1869 by Kirk as occurring in Auckland. Reported 
 in 1903 by W. W. Smith as being spread freely through the Ashburton 
 district by goldfinches, which are very fond of the seed. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is stated to occur in fields and waste places, but not 
 commonly. (Fl., Feb. to March.) 
 
 Centaurea cyanus, Linn. Cornflower 
 
 First recorded by Armstrong in 1879 from Canterbury. Also 
 reported from Ashburton by W. W. Smith in 1903. Elsewhere it is 
 scarcely even a garden escape. Goldfinches are also very fond of the 
 seeds of this species. 
 
 In Europe this flower is visited by Apis mellifica and Bombus 
 lapidarius. 
 
 Centaurea Calcitrapa, Linn. Star-thistle 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. In 1895 it was reported 
 by the Agricultural Department as occurring in Canterbury, Wel- 
 lington, Hawke's Bay and Auckland. Cheeseman records it in the 
 Manual (1906) as not uncommon in fields and waste places in both 
 islands. It flowers from Dec. to Feb. In Europe the flowers are 
 fertilised by Bombus lapidarius. 
 
 1 No species of carline-thistle has been recorded, as far as I can find out, by 
 any botanist in New Zealand, as a naturalised plant, but in the list of thistles in 
 the Second Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act, ipoo, " Carlina (Stemless thistle), 
 any species" is declared a noxious seed, and is also included in the Second Schedule 
 by Special Gazette Notice of aoth June, 1901.
 
 422 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Centaurea melitensis, Linn. Cockspur Thistle ; Malta Thistle 
 In 1895 T. W. Kirk reported this species from Canterbury. It 
 has not been recorded since. 
 
 Centaurea Solstitialis , Linn. Yellow Star-thistle 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list, and frequently in sub- 
 sequent lists for the North Island. Cheeseman reports it in 1822 
 as spreading fast, especially in the Waikato. The author noted it in 
 1885 in the Clutha Valley. In 1895 the Agricultural Department 
 noted it as occurring in many parts of the colony, as on the increase 
 in pasture lands, and sometimes occurring in cornfields. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is reported as occurring in fields and waste places, 
 not uncommonly, in both islands. (Fl., Feb. to April.) 
 
 In the Act (Noxious Weeds) of 1900, Centaurea (any species) is 
 included among noxious seeds ; and it is placed in the Second Schedule 
 of the Act by Special Gazette Notice of 2Oth June, 1901. 
 
 Onopordon Acanthium, Linn. Cotton Thistle ; Scotch Thistle 
 Early introduced into the country, but first recorded from Ash- 
 burton in 1903 by W. W. Smith, who stated that it was very widely 
 spread, and its seeds were scattered chiefly by goldfinches. 
 
 Petasites vulgaris, Desf. Butter-bur 
 
 Noted as a garden escape by the author-in 1882 in the neighbour- 
 hood of Dunedin. An auctioneer about that date advertised a plant 
 sale, and as a special attraction notified a number of clumps of 
 Chatham Island Lily. The author went to examine the plants before 
 the sale, and found that they were bunches of Petasites. The 
 auctioneer withdrew them from sale, and later reported that the 
 owner had thrown them out. The species had nowhere established 
 itself as a wild plant, but wherever it has been thrown out from a 
 garden , it is apt to increase rapidly by its underground stems . Reported 
 from Ashburton in 1903 by W. W. Smith. This species is fertilised 
 in Europe by Apis mettifica> Bombus terrestris and B. lucorum. 
 
 Cynara Cardunculus, Linn. Cardoon 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1896 from the North Cape dis- 
 trict. In 1906 reported as occurring in waste places in the North 
 Island, not common. In the South Island it is only known in 
 cultivation. 
 
 Carduus nutans, Linn. Musk-thistle 
 
 Reported from Eastern Otago (Pomahaka) by Kirk in 1899. (Fl., 
 Dec. to Jan.)
 
 COMPOSITE 423 
 
 Carduus pycnocephalus, Linn. Slender Thistle 
 First noted by the author in 1894 as abundant near Oamaru, and 
 also in the West Taieri district. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) 
 records it as not uncommon in fields and waste places in both islands. 
 (FL, Jan. to Feb.) 
 
 Its seeds are a common impurity in certain farm seeds, especially 
 oats. This species was included in the Second Schedule of the Noxious 
 Weeds Act by Special Gazette Notice of I2th October, 1905. 
 
 Speaking of the grass-denuded districts of Central Otago, Mr D. 
 Petrie says of this species : 
 
 Wherever it is plentiful it affords a very considerable bulk of highly 
 nutritious feed. There are experienced runholders who reckon it little 
 inferior to rape. The young plants that shoot up after the earliest autumn 
 rains form the main and almost the sole winter feed in the desert lowlands. 
 The old dry and withered stems are also completely eaten out at this season 
 of scarcity. A second growth from more dormant seeds usually starts up 
 in early spring, so that its utility is not restricted to the hardest time of 
 the year. Though the earlier plants are so closely eaten back that they 
 would hardly be expected to flower, they later on send out secondary 
 shoots from the axils of the stem-leaves, and then these produce enough 
 seed to renew the crop. In other circumstances the winged thistle might 
 be ranked as a "noxious weed," but it is the runholders' sheet-anchor in 
 extensive areas of Central Otago and elsewhere. 
 
 Carduus crispus, Linn. Curled Thistle 
 
 Recorded by the Agricultural Department as growing near Christ- 
 church in 1911. 
 
 All species of Carduus were included in the list of noxious seeds 
 in the Noxious Weeds Act of 1900; and they were also included in 
 the Second Schedule by Special Gazette Notice of 2Oth June, 1901. 
 
 Cnicus lanceolatus, Willd. Common Thistle ; Spear Thistle 
 
 This species was no doubt introduced into the country at a very 
 early date, but is first recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. It is abundant 
 everywhere. In the earliest days of cultivation, especially in such 
 districts as Canterbury and Otago, when large areas were cleared of 
 native vegetation and brought under the plough, the thistle was 
 extraordinarily abundant, and took absolute possession of the soil at 
 first. It assumed, temporarily, all the characteristics of a "pure 
 formation." I passed through hundreds of acres of newly ploughed 
 land in the Oamaru district in 1873, when the thistles covered the 
 ground to a height of 6 ft. and it was only possible to get through 
 where cart-tracks had been made, and the growth was not more 
 than 3 ft. high. Sometimes this dense growth prevailed for a second
 
 424 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 season, but usually it was possible to burn off the dead thistles, de- 
 stroying enormous quantities of seeds at the same time, when it was 
 found that the roots had penetrated a considerable depth into the 
 sub-soil, opening it up and leaving a large quantity of vegetable 
 matter in it. On reploughing and sowing wheat on such land it was 
 quite common to take 60 bushels or more per acre in the first season. 
 On i4th April, 1864, Mr Macandrew asked the Provincial Secre- 
 tary of Otago (in the Provincial Council) : 
 
 whether or not the Government is aware of the fact that part of the Maori 
 Reserve at the Heads, as well as some of the public lands reserved from 
 sale adjoining thereto, are totally overrun with thistles, and if so, whether 
 the Government purposes to take any steps towards their eradication? 
 
 In reply it was stated that the Government Gardener would make a 
 report. This was brought up at the Council on i3th December, 1865. 
 (It would appear that this report was made by a special committee.) 
 
 After stating that thistles were spreading, the report says: 
 
 In the northern part of the Province, it appears that it (the thistle plague) 
 commenced about six years ago, at the Otepopo Bush and has spread towards 
 Moeraki and along the sea coast northwards; and is now making its way 
 to a distance of more than nine miles inland, generally avoiding the high 
 lands, and following the course of the rivers and all the lowlands. 
 
 To the south it is fast coming down to Waikouaiti from Mt Charles, 
 which is at the bank of the Otepopo, and from the Peninsula it will be in 
 the Taieri in two years if not immediately checked. 
 
 The growth of the Thistle is in some places 5 or 6 ft. high, and as much 
 as ten feet wide, being quite impervious to animals, and densely covering 
 large patches of ground varying from ten to thirty acres in extent. When it 
 is considered that in one patch of ground it commenced with three thistles, 
 and in the short space of three years ten acres have been densely covered, 
 the magnitude of the evil cannot easily be exaggerated 1 . 
 
 The seeds of this thistle are a constant impurity among farm 
 seeds, especially in oats, and all species of Cnicus are included among 
 noxious seeds in the Noxious Weeds Act of 1900. They are also 
 included in the Second Schedule of the Act by Special Gazette Notice 
 of zoth June, 1901. 
 
 The species is abundant in all parts from North Cape to Stewart 
 Island, and ranges up to the snow line. Any bush land that is recently 
 felled and burned is liable to be immediately overrun by this thistle. 
 
 Jas. Drummond states (Jan. 1916) that the plant has died out in 
 the Upper Waitemata. 
 
 1 There is an amusing story current in the far north of the first appearance of 
 this species. A Mr Mclnnes, an old Scotch settler at Kauri hohore, near Whangarei, 
 found one on his farm, and he was so pleased at seeing it, that he took great care 
 of the plant, and prevented it from being injured by either man or beast. No doubt, 
 this was done in many other parts of the country in the very early days of settlement, 
 but few of the instances of such care are recorded.
 
 COMPOSITE 425 
 
 (Fl., Jan. to March.) In Europe the flowers are fertilised by Apis 
 mellifica, Bombus lapidarius, B. terrestris, B. hortorum, Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Cnicus eriophorus, Roth. Woolly Thistle 
 
 Reported from the Upper Wairarapa by Kirk in 1899. (FL, Jan. 
 to Feb.) Has not been recorded since. 
 
 Cnicus palustris, Linn. March Thistle 
 
 Recorded in 1 9 1 1 from Westland and Southland by the Agricultural 
 Department. 
 
 Cnicus arvensis, Hoffm. Creeping Thistle ; Calif ornian Thistle ; 
 Canadian Thistle 
 
 The first record of this weed is in 1893 by R. I. Kingsley, who 
 reported it from the neighbourhood of Nelson, but it must have 
 been introduced much earlier. It came sporadically all over the 
 country in cultivated fields, creating great alarm in the minds of 
 farmers. Some tried to grub it out and so spread its rhizomes all 
 over their cultivations. Others built straw-stacks over the patches 
 of weed, while others sowed the ground with salt, thus temporarily 
 arresting its progress. But it rapidly spread throughout the whole 
 country, becoming particularly abundant and aggressive in half- 
 cleared bush areas. Though still looked on as a dangerous weed, 
 it is readily eaten by sheep at certain stages of its growth, and can 
 thus be kept to some extent in check. It is a dioecious species, but 
 farmers are slow to recognise the fact. 
 
 The seeds are constantly found among agricultural seeds. 
 
 The creeping thistle (but under the name of Californian thistle) 
 was one of the three plants declared a Noxious Weed by the Act of 
 1900, without any reservation. 
 
 It flowers from Feb. to April. In Europe, the flowers are fertilised 
 by Apis mellifica, Bombus lapidarius, B. terrestris, B. hortorum, B. ru- 
 deratus, B. lucorum, Eristalis tenax, Lucilia ccesar, L. sericata, Calli- 
 phora erythrocephala, C. vomitoria and Stomoxys calcitrans. 
 
 Silybum Marianum, Gaertn. Milk Thistle; or Blessed Thistle; 
 
 sometimes called Scotch Thistle 
 
 First reported in 1871 from Canterbury by Armstrong. 
 In 1877 Kirk described the "blessed thistle" as "perhaps the 
 most characteristic of the naturalised plants of Wellington." 
 
 "In Auckland," he says, "single specimens of this plant have been 
 known for the past fifteen years ; but, although they seeded freely, the seeds 
 had no opportunity of germinating," owing to the dense sward of grass, " so 
 that the thistle did not spread. A remarkable exception to this rule occurred
 
 426 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 during the formation of the Onehunga railway, where a few seeds fell 
 on disturbed soil, grew up and flowered. The railway works being suspended, 
 that plant increased rapidly, and spread wherever it could find disturbed 
 soil." 
 
 Buller in his Introduction to the and edition of his History of the 
 Birds of New Zealand, pp. xliv to xlvi, says: 
 
 If the sparrow is fond of ripe grain it is still fonder of the ripe seeds of 
 the variegated Scotch thistle. This formidable weed threatened at one 
 time to overrun the whole colony. Where it had once fairly established 
 itself it seemed wellnigh impossible to eradicate it, and it was spreading 
 with alarming rapidity, forming a dense growth which nothing could face. 
 In this state of affairs the sparrows took to eating the ripe seed. In tens of 
 thousands they lived on the thistle, always giving it the preference to wheat 
 or barley. They have succeeded in conquering the weed. In all directions 
 it is dying out. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) Cheeseman records this species as abundant 
 in fields and waste places in both islands, especially to the north of 
 the East Cape, rarer southwards. (Fl., Jan. to March.) 
 
 The plant makes excellent ensilage, and has been used for the 
 purpose in many parts of Australia ; it contains a relatively large pro- 
 portion of salt. Sheep eat the plant readily in the young state, and 
 its seeds are very fattening for fowls. 
 
 In the Noxious Weeds Act of 1900 Silybum (any species) is 
 included in the list of Noxious Seeds, and is also included in the 
 Second Schedule of the Act by Special Gazette Notice of 2Oth June, 
 I90I 1 . 
 
 Vittadinia australis, A. Rich., var. dissecta, Benth. 
 
 In 1873 this plant was observed in abundance by roadsides and in 
 rocky and waste places about Nelson, but later the plant died out 
 there. In 1877 Cheeseman found it in great profusion in a new 
 locality on the coast of Nelson, extending towards D'Urville Island. 
 In 1878 it was found at the shingly mouths of small streams dis- 
 charging into Palliser Bay near Wellington. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) Cheeseman states that it is naturalised in 
 
 1 It has been found in New South Wales that this species is occasionally 
 dangerous to stock. In 1912 Max Henry, Government Veterinary Surgeon, drew 
 attention to losses of stock (cattle) from eating this plant. Again in 1914 S. T. D. 
 Symons, Chief Inspector of Stock, recorded that numbers of cattle were killed 
 through eating the plant, in several districts. This is due, apparently, to the presence 
 in the plant of considerable quantities of hydrocyanic acid. Horses are not affected 
 by this plant and it only hurts cattle when they are placed on it in a hungry condition, 
 when the plants are young or stunted. 
 
 On the other hand it is recorded that in 1916 near Inverell, New South Wales, 
 2700 sheep, suffering from drought, got into 300 acres of land covered with this 
 weed, and after three months were trucked to Sydney as fat sheep.
 
 COMPOSITE 427 
 
 several localities, especially about Nelson; but it does not seem to 
 have spread beyond that district. Cockayne thinks this is the plant 
 which is forming large colonies in parts of Central Otago. 
 
 Aster imbricatus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895 from a ballast heap in Wellington. 
 Introduced from Buenos Ayres in 1892. It increased to a small 
 extent, but I do not think it has established itself. It has not been 
 noticed in any other locality. 
 
 Aster subulatus, Michx. 
 Cheeseman (1919) says: 
 
 This plant was first noticed in the vicinity of Auckland about twelve 
 years ago, and soon became plentiful, especially in moist places on harbour 
 reclamations, by roadsides and ditches, etc. It is a native of the United 
 States, where it is principally found in brackish-water marshes, ranging 
 from New Hampshire to Florida. 
 
 Reported by Carse in 1915 from Mongonui County, as "spreading 
 rapidly in all soils and situations." 
 
 Calotis lappulacea, Benth. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) this is reported to have been found in three 
 localities, viz., in Poverty Bay by Bishop Williams, Nelson by Kingsley, 
 and Banks Peninsula by Brown and Kirk. (Fl., Feb. to April.) 
 
 Erigeron canadensis. Linn. Canadian Flea-bane 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Cheeseman considers it 
 one of the earliest introductions into New Zealand, and records it 
 as common in 1882 throughout the Auckland district. Kirk had 
 already noted it in 1877, from several places in Wellington Province, 
 but stated it was not nearly so abundant as in Auckland. (Fl., Feb. 
 to April.) 
 
 In the Manual (1906) Cheeseman states that it is abundant through- 
 out both islands; which is only partially correct, however, as it is 
 not found (e.g.) near Dunedin, nor in most parts of Otago. 
 
 Erigeron lintfolius, Willd. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list of 1864 as Conyza ambigua. In 
 1882 it was found in several localities in the Auckland Province, 
 Northern Wairoa, Whangarei, Matamata, etc. In the Manual (1906) 
 it is stated to be abundant in the Auckland provincial district, rarer 
 southwards to Marlborough and Westport. W. W. Smith recorded 
 it from Ashburton in 1903. (FL, Feb. to April.)
 
 428 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Erigeron annuus, Linn. 
 
 H. Carse found this species in some quantity in freshly sown 
 grass at Otukai, Mongonui in January, 1917. 
 
 Siegesbeckia orientalis, Linn. 
 
 Recorded in 1896 by Cheeseman as occurring in the North Cape 
 district. 
 
 Bellis perennisy Linn. Daisy ; Gowan 
 
 Probably introduced at an early date, but first recorded by Hooker 
 in 1864. It is abundant in lawns and meadows in all parts of New 
 Zealand. (Fl., Sept. to June.) In Europe this species is fertilised 
 by Bombus terrestris, Eristalis tenax, Musca corvina, M. domestica, and 
 Lucilia c<zsar l . 
 
 Xanthium strumarium, Linn. Burweed; Small Burdock 
 In a leaflet (No. 5) issued by the Agricultural Department in 1893, 
 it is stated that " on a quantity of ballast brought from Buenos Ayres 
 by the ' Silverstream,' and discharged in heaps at Wellington Railway 
 Station, grew a quantity of this species." The plant died out later. 
 
 Xanthium spinosum, Linn. Bathurst Burr 
 
 First reported in Hooker's list of 1864, then by Kirk in 1877 at 
 Wellington. In 1882 Cheeseman records it as occurring in waste 
 places about Auckland and the Waikato, l?ut adds : " it nowhere shows 
 signs of becoming as abundant and troublesome as in certain parts 
 of Australia." In 1893 the Agricultural Department report it as 
 spreading in many parts of New Zealand, in 1896 in Gisborne and 
 other parts of the Auckland district, and in 1895 as well established 
 in Poverty Bay, especially in native lands. (Fl., Feb. to April.) 
 
 Declared a noxious weed in the Second Schedule of the Act 
 of 1900. 
 
 Ambrosia artemisicefolia. American Ragweed 
 
 Recorded in 191 1 from Waverley by the Agricultural Department ; 
 introduced in American red-clover seed. 
 
 Pascalia glauca, Orteg. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring on a ballast heap in 
 Wellington. Introduced from Buenos Ayres. 
 
 1 In 1871 Armstrong reported Helianthus tuberosus, the Jerusalem artichoke, 
 as naturalised in Canterbury. The species may occur temporarily as a garden escape, 
 and is often thrown out with garden refuse. But as it seldom flowers and does not 
 seed to my knowledge in New Zealand, its increase is most improbable. 
 
 In 1879 Armstrong also reported Helianthus annuus, Linn., the common sun- 
 flower from Canterbury. This plant does occasionally occur as a garden escape, but 
 it never establishes itself.
 
 COMPOSITE 429 
 
 Gallinsoga parviflora, Cav. 
 
 First recorded, along with the preceding, by Kirk in 1895, as 
 occurring on a ballast heap in Wellington. Introduced from Buenos 
 Ay res. 
 
 Bidens tripartita, Linn. Bur-marigold 
 
 In 1906 Cheeseman records the first appearance of this species 
 from near Ohaupo, Middle Waikato district. 
 
 Madia sativa y Molina 
 
 This species was first introduced about 1871 with railway material 
 from Chili, being brought by Messrs Brogden and Co., and it 
 appeared on more than one line of railway under construction in 
 Otago. It has also been found in Marlborough, but I do not think it 
 has succeeded in establishing itself. It has certainly not been met with 
 in Otago for many years, and I do not think it seeds so far south. Kirk 
 found it between Balclutha and Catlins, and Petrie recorded it from 
 Bannockburn in Central Otago. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) 
 states that it occurs in waste places and roadsides in the South Island ; 
 and particularly refers to Renwicktown in Marlborough, on the 
 authority of Reader. In regard to this last reference, A. H. Cockayne 
 states that a farmer in Marlborough imported seed of this species 
 with the idea of establishing an oil industry, but abandoned the 
 scheme after the first crop. I have not, so far, been able to find the 
 date of this introduction. (FL, Feb. to March.) 
 
 Eclipta alba, Hassk. 
 
 Recorded in Hooker's list of 1864 as E. erecta, Linn. It has 
 apparently not been seen since. 
 
 Wedelia biflora, DC. 
 
 Also recorded in Hooker's list in 1864 as Wollastonia biflora, DC., 
 but not seen since. 
 
 Helenium quadridentatum, Labill. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1869 from the North Cape dis- 
 trict. Again in the Manual (1906) as occurring in waste places at 
 Tapotopoto Bay, North Cape district. It is evidently well established 
 there, as Carse, in 1915, speaks of it as common, chiefly on the coast. 
 
 Anthemis arvensis. Linn. Corn Chamomile 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 in the Auckland district, and in 
 1877 from the east coast of Wellington Province. In the Manual 
 (1906) Cheeseman reports it as not uncommon on roadsides and 
 margins of fields in both islands. (FL, Feb. to March.)
 
 430 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Anthemis Cotula, Linn. Stinking May-weed 
 
 First recorded by Kirk from Wellington in 1877, and later by 
 Cheeseman in 1882 as occurring in waste places in Auckland district. 
 In 1906 Cheeseman reports it in the Manual as occurring not un- 
 commonly by roadsides and in waste places in both islands. (Fl., Feb. 
 to March.) 
 
 Achillea millefolium. Linn. Yarrow; Milfoil 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1 864. In most cultivated localities 
 in Auckland Province in 1882, "but nowhere abundant." In the 
 Manual (1906) it is said to be not uncommon in fields and on road- 
 sides in both islands. It is very common in many parts of Otago. 
 It spreads in part by underground stems. It is readily eaten by sheep. 
 (Fl., Feb. to March.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are fertilised by the following flies : Eristalis 
 tenax, Lucilia ccesar, L. sericata, Musca corvina, Calliphora erythro- 
 cephala, Stomoxys calcitrans 1 . 
 
 Achillea tanacetifolia, All. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) it is reported to occur, but not commonly, 
 in waste places and on roadsides in both islands. The only localities 
 specified are in the vicinity of Auckland by Cheeseman, and Lincoln, 
 Canterbury, by Kirk. (Fl., Feb. to June.) 
 
 Matricaria discoidea, DC. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as "in immense abundance 
 in waste places about Auckland, and along most lines of road into 
 the interior." Practically the same distribution is given in the Manual 
 in 1906. (FL, Feb. to March.) 
 
 Matricaria Chamomilla, Linn. Wild Chamomile 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1867 in list of naturalised plants in 
 Great Barrier Island. In the Manual (1906) it is said to be not un- 
 common in waste places and cultivated fields in both islands. 
 
 The fruit develops an adhesive mucilage on the surface when 
 moistened, and this may aid in its dispersion by birds. 
 
 Matricaria inodora. Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1869 by Kirk from the Auckland district, and 
 in 1877 from Wellington. In the Manual (1906) it is said to be not 
 uncommon in fields and waste places in both islands. It is a very 
 
 1 Kerner has pointed out that " along roads where cattle have gone to pasture, 
 one may notice how the leaves of yarrow, scabious, mullein, and similar plants, 
 have been eaten off, while the greater part of their blossoms have been left intact."
 
 COMPOSITE 431 
 
 abundant weed, especially in many parts of Otago. (Fl., Feb. to 
 March.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are fertilised by Bombus lapidarius, Eristalis 
 tenax and Lucilia ccesar. 
 
 Chrysanthemum segetum, Linn. Corn Marigold 
 First recorded by Kirk from the Auckland district in 1869, and 
 in 1877 from Wellington. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur 
 in cultivated fields in both islands, but not commonly. It is rather 
 singular that this weed, which is so abundant in cultivation in Britain, 
 has not established itself at all freely here. (Fl., Feb. to March.) 
 
 Chrysanthemum Parthenium, Bernh. Feverfew 
 First recorded in 1873 from the neighbourhood of Dunedin by 
 the author, as Matricaria Parthenium ; again from Wellington in 1877 
 by Kirk. In the Manual (1906) it is noted as occurring in waste 
 places and on roadsides in both islands. (Fl., Feb.) 
 
 Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, Linn. Ox-eye Daisy; 
 misnamed Marguerite 
 
 No doubt an early introduction into New Zealand, but first 
 recorded by Hooker in 1864. Nearly every later list from all parts 
 of the colony contained its name . It is now (1916) abundant in pastures 
 throughout New Zealand. It is particularly a weed of poor land, and 
 is readily overcome by pasture grasses where the land is freely 
 manured. It is easily controlled by sheep, though cattle will not 
 eat it. (FL, Feb. to May.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are fertilised by Musca corvina and 
 Lucilia ccesar. 
 
 The ox-eye daisy was included in the Second Schedule of the 
 Noxious Weeds Act of 1900 by Special Gazette Notice of 24th April, 
 
 1902. 
 
 Cenia turbinata, Pers. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring on a ballast heap in 
 Wellington. Introduced from Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Soliva anthemifolia, R. Br. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as occurring on alluvial 
 flats by the Northern Wairoa River, and later by H. Carse from the 
 neighbourhood of Mongonui. (Fl., Jan.) 
 
 Soliva sessilis, Ruiz and Pav. 
 
 First seen in the neighbourhood of Ngaruawahia and Rangiriri 
 in 1879. Recorded by Cheeseman as S. pterosperma, Less.? In 1910
 
 432 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 he states that this "has increased of late years in light warm soils in 
 the Auckland district, and has become a troublesome weed in some 
 localities, particularly in certain market gardens at Onehunga." (FL, 
 Jan. to March.) 
 
 Lagenophora emphysopus, Hook. f. 
 
 Recorded from hills near Wellington by Buchanan and Kirk, and 
 from Banks Peninsula by Kirk. It is now abundant on Mount 
 Victoria, Wellington. (Fl., Jan. to April.) 
 
 Tanacetum vulgar e. Linn.' Tansy 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 from the neighbourhood of 
 Auckland. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to be found in waste 
 places in both islands, not common. I have found it in Otago mostly 
 on roadsides in the neighbourhood of gardens and farm steadings. 
 (FL, Jan. to March.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Vanessa atalanta, Apis mel- 
 lifaa, and Bombus terrestris. 
 
 Artemisia Absinthium, Linn. Wormwood 
 
 First recorded in 1871 by Armstrong from Canterbury, and from 
 Wellington in 1877 by Kirk. In 1882 noted as an occasional garden 
 escape by Cheeseman from Northern Wairoa, vicinity of Auckland 
 and Matamata. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to be not uncommon 
 in waste places and on roadsides in both islands. Its real abundance, 
 however, is in sheep pens and yards, wherever sheep are gathered 
 together for mustering, shearing, etc. The scarious margins of the 
 bracts cause the heads to adhere loosely to the wool, and the seeds 
 are thus dropped when the animals are crowded together. (FL, Feb. 
 to April.) 
 
 The fruit of wormwood when wetted becomes mucilaginous and 
 viscous. Kerner records an instance from his own observation of a 
 small owl (Athene noctud) which, in catching mice, brushed against 
 wormwood bushes, and when it flew away was all besmeared with 
 the fruits, which had been rendered sticky by a previous shower of 
 rain. 
 
 Helichrysum cymosum, Less. 
 
 First recorded from railway embankments near Westport, by 
 Townson, in 1906. 
 
 Gnaphalium purpureum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1906 by Cheeseman in the Manual of N.Z. 
 Flora, as "not uncommon in drained swamps, freshly cleared lands, 
 etc., from the North Cape to the Upper Waikato, rarer southwards 
 to Wellington."
 
 COMPOSITE 433 
 
 Gnaphalium germanicum y Willdenow 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. I do not know the species. 
 
 Stuartina Melleri, Sond. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) reported on the authority of J. H. Macmahon 
 as occurring in sandy places near the mouth of the Awatere River, 
 Marlborough. 
 
 Senecio vulgaris, Linn. Groundsel 
 
 This weed must have been introduced at a very early date of 
 settlement, but is first recorded by the author from Otago in 1874, 
 and then by Cheeseman in 1882 from the Auckland district. It is 
 one of the most abundant weeds of cultivation in every part of New 
 Zealand. Like most other herbaceous species of Senecio its foliage 
 is frequently attacked by the larvae ofNyctemera annulata, the common 
 magpie moth. (Fl., all the year round.) 
 
 When the fruit is moistened, special hairs on the outside excrete 
 an adhesive mucilage. This is, probably, to cement them to the soil, 
 but it may also aid in distribution by causing them to adhere to the 
 feathers of birds. 
 
 Senecio sylvaticus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded from Wellington in 1877 by Kirk, then by Cheese- 
 man in 1882 from the Auckland district. In 1890 the author found 
 it in one locality near Dunedin. In the Manual (1906) it is said to 
 be abundant throughout both islands, which is hardly correct, for 
 it is certainly rare in Otago and Southland. (FL, Jan. to April.) 
 
 Senecio jacobcea, Linn. Ragwort 
 
 I cannot find any earlier record of this weed than 1874, wnen I 
 found it growing near Dunedin, but it rapidly increased, especially 
 in Southland, and in parts of Auckland, Wellington and Taranaki. 
 Where sheep are regularly grazed it is unable to make headway, but 
 it is particularly troublesome in pastures only fed on by cattle and 
 horses. It is now to be found more or less in every provincial district 
 in New Zealand. 
 
 It was declared a noxious weed in the Second (optional) Schedule 
 of the Act of 1900, but was placed in the First Schedule in the Act 
 of 1908. 
 
 Since about 1880 a disease, which began in the neighbourhood 
 of Winton in the Oreti Valley (and consequently came to be known 
 as "Winton disease") has proved fatal to horses, and has caused very 
 considerable mortality. It also occasionally affects cattle and sheep. 
 
 T. N. Z. 28
 
 434 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 After a time the popular belief grew that the disease was due to the 
 affected animals being fed on ragwort which was very abundant in 
 the district. On investigation by the officers of the Veterinary Depart- 
 ment this was found to be the case. The disease, which is cirrhosis 
 of the liver, is by no means confined to New Zealand, but has been 
 known under other names in other countries, notably in parts of 
 North America, wherever Senecio jacobcea abounds. Thus in Canada 
 it is known as the Picton cattle disease. 
 
 Since the vast increase of this weed, there has been a corre- 
 spondingly enormous increase in numbers of the New Zealand magpie 
 moth Nyctemera annulata the larva of which feeds mainly on this 
 plant. In summer the moths are frequently to be seen almost in 
 clouds in the infested districts. The larva is hairy and distasteful to 
 birds, and there is apparently nothing to check its increase, but it is 
 quite unable to cope with the vast increase of the weed. 
 
 In June, 1913, ragwort was reported as common on the Volcanic 
 Plateau, an area of 5,000 acres lying to the south of Mangatautari 
 and west of the Waikato River, and coincidently with its spread has 
 been an enormous increase of Nyctemera annulata. 
 
 In the weed-infested districts bee-keepers complain that their 
 summer honey is dark-coloured, and so strongly flavoured with the 
 nectar of the ragwort, which is developed in great profusion, that it 
 is almost unsaleable. 
 
 The plant flowers from Feb. to April. In Europe it is visited by 
 Apis mellifica, Bombus lapidarius, B. terrestris, B. hortorum, Eristalis 
 tenax, Lucilia ctesar, L. sericata and Calliphora erythrocephala. 
 
 Senecio erucifolius, Linn. 
 
 According to the report of the Agricultural Department for 1897 
 this species of giant groundsel occurs along with the preceding in 
 Southland. 
 
 Senecio aquaticus, Hill 
 
 Recorded in the Manual (1906) as collected by the Rev. F. H 
 Spencer in the Buller Valley. (Fl., Feb. to March.) 
 
 Senecio mikanioides, Otto. Climbing Groundsel 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 from the Auckland district anc 
 in 1877 from Wellington, as S. scandens, DC. Originally a garden 
 escape, it soon became established in the district. It has also spreac 
 in many parts of the North Island, and is occasionally met with in 
 the south, e.g. in the neighbourhood of Dunedin. It does not stanc 
 frost, but will grow in any sheltered locality at the edge of the bush 
 In Taranaki it grows on the banks of many of the streams, and climbs
 
 COMPOSITE 435 
 
 the trees and shrubs, festooning them densely to a great height. 
 (Fl., June to Oct.) 
 
 It is a favourite food plant of the larva of Nyctemera annulata, the 
 New Zealand magpie moth. 
 
 Erechtites valerian&folia, DC. 
 
 Recorded by Carse in 1915 as occurring at Otukai in Mongonui 
 County; not common. 
 
 Erechtites Atkinsoniee, F. v. Muell. 
 
 Recorded by Carse in 1915 as a troublesome weed, spreading in 
 Mongonui County. 
 
 Cryptostemma calendulacea, R. Br. Cape-w.eed 
 
 First recorded in 1869 by Kirk from the Auckland district and 
 in 1877 from Wanganui. In 1900 the Agricultural Department stated 
 that it was plentiful in Auckland, and becoming common in Taranaki 
 and Hawke's Bay. Cheeseman records it in the Manual (1906) as 
 abundant in pastures and waste places in the North Island. (Fl., Nov. 
 to March.) 
 
 This plant was declared a noxious weed in the Third (optional) 
 Section of the Act, by Special Gazette Notice of i6th June, 1910. 
 
 Calendula officinalis, Linn. Marigold 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as a garden escape in the 
 Auckland district. It is only as such that it occurs now in many 
 parts of New Zealand. (FL, Feb. to April.) 
 
 Osteospermum moniliferum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1869 by Kirk from the Auckland district, from 
 Titirangi to the East Cape. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) speaks 
 of it as "an occasional garden escape in the vicinity of Auckland, 
 rare." (Fl., Oct. to Feb.) 
 
 Lapsana communis, Linn. Nipplewort 
 
 Probably introduced at an early date, but recorded for the first 
 time by Hooker in 1864, as Lapsana pusilla, Willd. (Arnoseris pusilla, 
 Gsrtn.) Kirk next recorded it from the Great Barrier Island in 1867, 
 and later from Wellington in 1877. Then in 1882 Cheeseman reported 
 it as a common weed in all cultivated districts. It is now found abun- 
 dantly by roadsides and in waste places throughout New Zealand. 
 (Fl., Jan. to April.) 
 
 282
 
 436 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Tolpis umbellata, Bertol. 
 
 Cheeseman states that this species was first observed in 1868, and 
 that in 1882 it was in abundance between Penrose and Panmure in 
 the Auckland district, but was not observed elsewhere. In 1910 he 
 records it as occurring in "sandy soil near Helensville, Kaipara, and 
 apparently increasing." 
 
 Cichorium Intybus, Linn. Chicory 
 
 First recorded by Hooker in 1864. Again in 1877 from Wellington 
 by Kirk. In the Manual (1906) it is said to occur in waste places and 
 on roadsides. It is by no means uncommon, but frequently dies out 
 of districts, as e.g. near Balclutha, where it used to be cultivated, 
 but is now rare ; and near Dunedin. In 1909 the Agricultural Depart- 
 ment reported it as increasing very much and likely to become a 
 troublesome weed. The seed is a frequent impurity in clover seed 
 (red clover and cow grass). 
 
 It flowers from Jan. to March. In Europe it is fertilised by Apis 
 mellifica and Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Cichorium endivium, Willd. 
 
 Kirk recorded this species as occurring on a ballast heap in Wel- 
 lington in 1895. It does not seem to have spread or re-appeared. 
 
 Hypochoeris glabra, Linn. Smooth Cat's-ear 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in plants of Great Barrier Island in 1867, 
 and from Wellington where it was common in 1877. Throughout the 
 Auckland district in 1882, but not plentiful. In the Manual (1906) 
 Cheeseman states that it is abundant in fields, etc., throughout New 
 Zealand. (FL, Jan. to March.) 
 
 Hypochoeris radicata, Linn. Cat's-ear; 
 Cape-weed of South Island settlers 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. This is one of the 
 most widely spread and abundant weeds in all New Zealand; some 
 authorities think it the most abundant. Yet it disappears before 
 sheep, and in this respect is much more easily disposed of than many 
 other introduced plants. Hilgendorf states that even on the longest 
 and most sunshiny days of the year the flowers are open from 8.30 a.m. 
 to 3.30 p.m. (FL, Nov. to June.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are fertilised by Apis mellifica, Bombus 
 lapidarius and Eristalis tenax.
 
 COMPOSITE 437 
 
 Tragopogon pratensis. Linn. Goat's-beard 
 
 Recorded in Hooker's list of 1864 as T. minus, and by Kirk in 
 1869 as occurring in the Auckland district (as T. minor). The species 
 has not been observed since. 
 
 Tragopogon porrifolius, Linn. Salsafy 
 
 No doubt introduced as a vegetable much earlier, but first recorded 
 from the Auckland district as growing wild in 1869 by Kirk. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is stated to occur in fields and waste places, but 
 not commonly, throughout both islands. (Fl., Dec. to Jan.) 
 
 Picris (Helminthia) echioides, Linn. Ox- tongue 
 First recorded in T. Kirk's list of naturalised plants in Great 
 Barrier Island in 1867; and later from Wellington in 1877. In 1903 
 T. W. Kirk reports it as spreading rapidly from the Bay of Islands 
 to Otago. The Manual (1906) reports it as generally distributed in 
 fields and waste places throughout New Zealand. (Fl., Jan. to April.) 
 
 Leontodon hirtus, Linn. Lesser Hawkbit 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list of 1864 as Thrincia hirta, and from 
 Wellington by Kirk in 1877. In 1882 Cheeseman stated that it 
 occurred in the vicinity of Auckland, but not plentifully. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is stated to occur, but not commonly, in fields and 
 waste places in both islands. It is, however, very abundant in Otago. 
 (Fl., Nov. to March.) 
 
 In Europe the flowers are fertilised by Bombus lapidarius and 
 Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Leontodon hispidus. Linn. Common Hawkbit 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 from pastures at Remuera 
 and Epsom, near Auckland; but rare. In the Manual (1906) it is 
 reported as occurring in fields and waste places and to be plentiful 
 in many localities. (Fl., Dec. to March.) 
 
 Leontodon autumnalis, Linn. Autumnal Hawkbit 
 First recorded in Hooker's list of 1864 as Apargia autumnalis, and 
 by Kirk from Wellington in 1877. I* 1 T ^ 2 found at Panmure, 
 Otahuhu and near Alexandra in the Auckland Provincial district. In 
 the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur in fields and waste places from 
 Auckland to Wellington, but not commonly. (FL, Feb. to April.) 
 
 Lactuca saligna, Linn. Willow Lettuce 
 
 Only reported from Petane in Hawke's Bay, by A. Hamilton 
 (Manual, 1906). (Fl., Jan. to Feb.)
 
 438 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Lactuca scariola, Linn. 
 
 Reported by Cheeseman, on the authority of J. P. Kalaugher, 
 as occurring in Onehunga Railway Station yard in 1912. 
 
 Lactuca muralis, E. Mey. Wall Lettuce 
 
 Only recorded from Marlborough by Macmahon, and by Kirk, 
 as abundantly naturalised in the Kaikoura Mountains. (Fl., Dec. to 
 Jan.) 
 
 Lactuca saliva. Garden Lettuce 
 
 This species was no doubt introduced at an early date into the 
 county. The first reference I have come across is in D'Urville's 
 voyage. When he visited Otago Harbour in 1840, he met with it in 
 the native cultivations "in the forest," along with other vegetables. 
 
 It has not become naturalised anywhere. 
 
 Crepis virens. Linn. Hawk's-beard 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. An extremely abundant 
 weed in fields, waste places and roadsides throughout New Zealand. 
 (FL, Nov. to June.) 
 
 In Europe this species is visited by Bombus terrestris and Eristalis 
 tenax. 
 
 Crepis faetida, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk, as Barkhausia fcetida, as occurring in the 
 Auckland district in 1869. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur 
 in fields on the Auckland Isthmus, but not commonly. (FL, Nov. to 
 Feb.) 
 
 Crepis taraxacifolia, Thuill. 
 
 First recorded from Auckland district in 1869 by Kirk as Bark- 
 hausia taraxacifolia. Recorded from the same locality in the Manual 
 (1906). (FL, Nov. to Feb.) 
 
 Crepis setosa, Hall. f. 
 
 Stated by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) to occur, but not 
 commonly, on waste places on the Auckland Isthmus. (FL, Jan. to 
 Feb.) 
 
 Sonchus arvensis y Linn. Corn Sowthistle 
 
 First recorded by Hooker in 1864. In the Manual (1906) it is 
 stated that it occurs in "cultivated fields near Auckland, rare." 
 
 Two species of sowthistle are perhaps indigenous to New Zealand ; 
 of these S. littoralts, Kirk, was collected by Banks and Solander. 
 S. oleraceus, Linn., is a doubtful native. Kirk says (1893): "It is 
 certain that seeds of two forms (S. asper and S. oleraceus) must have 
 been repeatedly introduced since that period" (1773) "and that
 
 COMPOSITE 439 
 
 cross-fertilisation has taken place." Both species are extremely abun- 
 dant in waste ground in all parts of the country at the present day. 
 They were largely used by the natives as a food plant. (FL, all the 
 year round.) 
 
 Hieraceum aurantiacum, Linn. Orange Hawkweed 
 Reported in 1911 by the Agricultural Department as occurring 
 at -the Waiau 1 . 
 
 Stylidium graminifolium, Swartz. 
 
 A solitary specimen of this species was picked up on clay hills 
 near Auckland by Colonel Bolton in 1861, and accordingly it was 
 placed among indigenous species in Hooker's Handbook to the New 
 Zealand Flora. But the plant has not been collected since. 
 
 CAMPANULACE^) 
 Campanula Trachelium y Linn. Nettle-leaved Campanula 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1877 as a garden escape from Ohariu, 
 Wellington district. 
 
 Campanula hybrida, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 Jasione montana, Linn. Sheep's-bit 
 
 Recorded by Cheeseman in 1912, on the authority of H. Guthrie 
 Smith, from Tutira Run, near the source of the Mohaka River, 
 Hawke's Bay. 
 
 Specularia hybrida, A.DC. 
 
 Recorded as occurring in cultivated fields at Ashburton by W. W. 
 Smith. 
 
 Sub-division HYPOGYN^E 
 
 EPACRIDEvE 
 Epacris purpurascens, R. Br. 
 
 First discovered in the fifties by Dr Sinclair and General Bolton 
 at Manurewa near Manukau Harbour; again recorded in 1869 by 
 Kirk, and in 1881 by A. T. Urquhart. According to Cheeseman 
 (1906) it occurs in the open country at the head of the Manukau 
 Harbour, near Papakura and Drury. 
 
 1 In 1879 Armstrong reported Lobelia erinus from Canterbury. This common 
 garden species does not seem to occur even as an escape.
 
 440 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Epacris microphylla, R. Br. 
 
 In 1875 A. T. Urquhart discovered three plants on the southern 
 side of Manukau Harbour. Six years later a dense mass of plants 
 60 yards in circumference occupied the ground. Its present occur- 
 rence is almost the same as the preceding species. 
 
 Epacris pulchella, Cav. 
 
 Found by Urquhart in the same locality as the two preceding 
 species. Urquhart thought it probable that the seeds of all three 
 species were carried over from Australia by high winds. 
 
 ERICACEAE 
 
 Calluna vulgaris, Salisb. Ling; Heather 
 
 In 1909 D. Petrie reported that some two or three acres of land 
 near Opepe Bush in the Taupo district was covered with this plant. 
 He was informed that the seed was sown by Major Roberts (formerly 
 Stipendiary Magistrate at Tauranga, during the latter part of the 
 war with the natives in Te Kooti's time (about 1869). Another 
 version of the introduction of Calluna vulgaris into the Taupo district 
 is given in a letter from Captain Gilbert Mair to Mr J. D. Macfarlane 
 of Napier. He says : 
 
 In 1870 I received a case used for Portland Cement, full of heather 
 sprays. Whenever I rode about the country, I sowed this seed from the 
 saddle, but it must have fallen on stony ground, or bush fires may have 
 destroyed it, for there were no results in this district. 
 
 I then sent a native orderly named Hammond to Major Scannell at 
 Opepe, with the bulk of the seed, and in July 1871, he told me he had 
 entrusted Sergeant McCarthy with the sowing of it. 
 
 In later years, Mr Cullen, Head of the Department of Police, has 
 planted large numbers of plants in Tongariro National Park, in antici- 
 pation of the grouse which he hoped to see liberated there. A very 
 strong protest against this action has been made by Captain Ellis, the 
 recently appointed Director of Forestry in New Zealand. The plant 
 is establishing itself in more than one locality. 
 
 In Europe the species is fertilised by Apis mellifica, Bombus 
 hortorum, B. lucorum, B. lapidarius, B. terrestris, Eristalis tenax and 
 Calliphora erythrocephala 1 . 
 
 1 In 1 882 the Canterbury Acclimatisation Society imported seeds of the American 
 cranberry (Oxycoccos macrocarpus, Pers.) and distributed them. I am not aware 
 that they ever grew or increased.
 
 PRIMULACE^) 441 
 
 PRIMULACE^: 
 
 Repeated attempts have been made to naturalise various species 
 of Primula, especially the primrose (P. vulgaris), the cowslip (P. veris), 
 and numerous hybrid polyanthus primroses, but none of these have 
 succeeded anywhere. Before humble-bees were introduced, the plants 
 would not even seed naturally in gardens ; but since they were brought 
 in they seed freely. Yet where planted and sown in the bush or in 
 the open, they have failed utterly to become established. The reason 
 is difficult to explain. Cockayne attributes it chiefly to the rank 
 growth of grasses and other plants. 
 
 In Europe, Primula vulgaris, P. elatior and P. veris are chiefly pol- 
 linated by long-tongued Hymenoptera (Bombus hortorum and B. lapi- 
 darius), less commonly by Apis mellifica, while Bombus terrestris bites 
 a hole in the corolla-tube and steals the nectar. These insects are 
 very common now in New Zealand. 
 
 Lysimachia Nummularia, Linn. Creeping Jenny ; 
 Money-wort 
 
 Recorded by Townson in 1906 as occurring in the Westport 
 district. 
 
 Anagallis arvensis, Linn. Pimpernel ; 
 Poor Man's Weather-glass 
 
 Probably introduced at a very early date in the settlement of New 
 Zealand; first mentioned by Dieffenbach in 1839. It was stated to 
 Drummond by a Wellington resident that he knew it since 1855. 
 Nearly every succeeding list of introduced plants from 1864 mentions 
 it. At the present time it is a most abundant weed in fields and waste 
 places throughout both islands. 
 
 In the Agricultural Department's report for 1910 there is a report 
 of mortality among sheep in Hawke's Bay, and it was suspected to 
 be due to poisoning by this species. I do not know that the matter 
 was ever thoroughly investigated, or the suspicion refuted. 
 
 OLEINE^) 
 
 Olea europcea, Linn. Olive 
 
 The oldest olive tree in Auckland was planted about 1848 by 
 Col. Matson at Brookside, Parnell 1 . 
 
 1 In 1 87 1 Armstrong recorded the privet (Ligustrum vulgar e, Linn.) as naturalised 
 in Canterbury. The plant is common in hedges, but can hardly be characterised 
 even as an escape. The succulent fruit is no doubt eaten by birds, and the seeds 
 so distributed, but I have never heard of a self-sown specimen of the plant being 
 found away from a hedge.
 
 442 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 APOCYNE^E 
 Vinca major, Linn. Periwinkle 
 
 Probably introduced at a much earlier date but first recorded by 
 Kirk in 1877 from several localities in the Wellington district. Then 
 as a garden escape but plentifully established in waste ground about 
 Auckland, and increasing, by Cheeseman in 1882. In the Manual 
 (1906) it is stated to occur as a plentiful garden escape by roadsides 
 and waste places in both islands. It was included in the Second 
 Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act of 1900, by Special Gazette 
 Notice of 26th May, 1904. 
 
 In Europe this species is visited by the two humble-bees, Bombus 
 hortorum and B. terrestris. 
 
 Vinca minor, Lmn. Lesser Periwinkle 
 
 Recorded bv W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 ASCLEPIADE^) 
 
 Gomphocarpus fruticosus, R. Br. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 from the Auckland district as 
 Asclepias nivea, Linn. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur, 
 but rarely, as " an occasional garden escape near Auckland and Napier." 
 
 GENTIANE^E 
 
 Erythreea Centaurium, Pers-. Centaury 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Later by Kirk in 1877, 
 as found in various localities near Wellington. By 1 882 it was generally 
 distributed in the north. It is now found abundantly in pastures 
 throughout the whole of New Zealand, especially where cattle are 
 pastured, as they will not eat it on account of its bitter taste. 
 
 Erythreea australis, R. Br. 
 
 Colenso reported this species in 1894 as having been found by 
 H. Hill in woods and highlands near East Cape. I am not aware of 
 its having been collected since. 
 
 Chlora perfoliata, Linn. 
 
 In 1919 Cheeseman reports this as found among Manuka scrub 
 at Parengarenga, North Cape district. 
 
 POLEMONIACE^E 
 Collomia coccinea, Lehm. 
 
 Recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as a garden escape in one or 
 two localities near Auckland. Later reported from Ashburton by
 
 POLEMONIACE^E 443 
 
 W. W. Smith; and from localities in Central Otago, Roxburgh and 
 Cardrona, by Petrie and Kirk. 
 
 Gilia squarrosa, Hook, and Arn. Californian 
 
 Stink-weed ; Digger's Weed 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1 870 (as Navarettia squarrosd) as abun- 
 dant at Ngaruawahia in the Waikato. In 1885 it was abundant in 
 the valley of the Clutha River up to Lake Wanaka; and was also 
 reported as common in Marlborough. It is- borne about by carriers, 
 and by sheep all over the country, especially in dry districts, and 
 neither stock nor rabbits will eat it. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) 
 reports it as occurring not uncommonly in dry pastures. The seeds 
 of species of Gilia become mucilaginous when wetted. 
 
 Gilia ccerulea (Auct. ?) 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 from Ashburton County. 
 
 BORAGINE^) 
 
 Amsinckia angustifolia, Lehm. 
 Recorded from Alexandra and Black's in Central Otago, by Petrie. 
 
 Symphytum officinale, Linn. Comfrey 
 
 J. B. Armstrong sent me a specimen from Mairehau near Christ- 
 church, where it is growing wild (1918). The species appears to have 
 been introduced somewhat recently into the country for fodder pur- 
 poses. L. D. Ay son of Rotorua, who has investigated the distribution 
 of this species, informs me (in 1919) that it was introduced into the 
 Rotorua district over 40 years ago as a fodder plant. It now grows 
 abundantly throughout all that district, and is now met with in 
 Wanganui and throughout Taranaki, at Opotiki, Matamata, Te Aroha 
 and in many parts round Auckland and up to Northern Wairoa. It 
 does not seem to be known in the South Island except near Christ- 
 church. 
 
 Borago officinalis, Linn. Borage 
 
 First recorded in 1877 from Otago Peninsula by the author. Kirk 
 reported it in the same year from Johnsonville, near Wellington. In 
 1882 Cheeseman reported it as occurring in waste places on the 
 Auckland Isthmus, "but rare." In 1896 the Agricultural Department 
 reported it as spreading in Marlborough. In the Manual (1906), 
 Cheeseman only reports it as "not uncommon in waste places from 
 Auckland to Wellington," but it also occurs locally in the South 
 Island.
 
 444 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 In Europe this species is visited by Apis mellifica and Bombus 
 terrestris. 
 
 Anchusa italica, Linn. 
 
 This species was recorded in 1879 from Canterbury, but it is not 
 known there outside of gardens. 
 
 Anchusa officinalis, Linn. Alkanet 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 from Ashburton County. 
 
 Anchusa arvensis, Bieb. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as Lycopsis arvensis, Linn., 
 from Ashburton County. 
 
 Lithospermum arvense, Linn. Corn Gromwell 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Stated by Cheeseman in 
 1882 to occur at various places in the Auckland district. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is stated to be plentiful in roadsides and waste 
 places in both islands. 
 
 This species is fertilised in Europe by Apis mellifica and Bombus 
 lapidarius. 
 
 Myosotis palustris, Linn. Forget-me-not 
 
 First recorded by Kirk from several parts of Wellington Province 
 in 1877 as M. strigulosa, Rehf.; then by Cheeseman in 1882 from 
 the vicinity of Auckland, and Motuihi Island. Cheeseman in the 
 Manual (1906) states that it is not uncommon in wet places in both 
 islands. 
 
 Myosotis ccespitosa, Schultz. 
 
 Stated by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) to be not uncommon 
 in wet places in both islands. 
 
 Myosotis sylvatica, HofFm. 
 
 First recorded from Ashburton in 1903 by W. W. Smith. In the 
 Manual (1906) stated to be found in waste places in both islands, but 
 not commonly. It is common (1919) in Dean's Bush, Christchurch. 
 
 This species in Europe is fertilised by Apis mellifica, Musca 
 domestica and M. corvina. 
 
 Myosotis arvensis, Lam. 
 
 First recorded by the author in 1875 as occurring in the Leith 
 Valley, Dunedin, and by Cheeseman in 1882 in one locality at 
 Whangarei. In the Manual (1906) it is said to occur locally in fields 
 and waste places in both islands.
 
 BORAGINE^: 445 
 
 Myosotis collina, Hoffm. 
 
 First reported by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) as occurring 
 in fields and waste places in both islands, not common. 
 
 Echium vulgare, Linn. Viper's Bugloss 
 
 First recorded in 1869 by Kirk as occurring on the west side of 
 the Firth of Thames; and in 1882 by Cheeseman at Matamata, and 
 near Hamilton. In 1896 it was reported by the Agricultural Depart- 
 ment to be spreading in Marlborough. W. W. Smith reported it as 
 spreading greatly in the Ashburton district, and as being fertilised 
 by humble-bees. In the Manual (1906) said to occur locally on 
 roadsides and waste places in both islands. 
 
 Included in the Second Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act of 
 1900 by Special Gazette Notice of 23rd March, 1905. 
 
 Echium plantagineum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Armstrong in Canterbury in 1879 (as E. viola- 
 ceum). In 1882 Cheeseman stated: "it has recently appeared in one 
 or two localities near Auckland." In the Manual (1906) it is said to 
 occur only in the North Island somewhat rarely, Cheeseman reporting 
 it from the vicinity of Auckland, and Kirk from a ballast heap in 
 Wellington. Yet in a Special Gazette Notice of 23rd March, 1905, 
 wild borage (Echium violaceum] is included in the Second Schedule 
 of the Noxious Weeds Act. This species is not a borage, but a bugloss. 
 It is a serious pest in some parts of Australia, where it is known as 
 "Paterson's Curse." But it has not assumed dangerous proportions 
 in New Zealand. 
 
 In more recent years the plant has become quite abundant in 
 some localities. Dr Colquhoun sent me specimens in 1919 from the 
 bed of the Otaio River in South Canterbury, which he informed me 
 was full of it, and was quite blue with its flowers in January. My son, 
 Dr J. Allan Thomson, also collected it about the same time from 
 Awapiri in Marlborough, where he makes the same statement, viz., 
 that the country is blue with it in January. 
 
 Cynoglossum micranthum, Desf. 
 
 This species was recorded by Hooker in 1864 from the Auckland 
 district. It has not been collected since. 
 
 Cynoglossum furcatum, Willd. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. I do not know the species.
 
 446 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 CONVOLVULACE^) 
 
 Ipomcea batatas, Poir. Kumara ; Sweet Potato 
 When Captain Cook first came to New Zealand the natives were 
 found to have excellent plantations of at least four kinds of plants. 
 Banks in his Journal says : 
 
 Their plantations were now hardly finished, but so well was the ground 
 tilled that I have seldom seen land better broken up. In them were 
 planted sweet potatoes ; cocos, and a plant of the cucumber kind. 
 
 Later on he says : 
 
 nor does their cultivated ground produce many species of esculent plants, 
 
 three only have I seen, yams, sweet potatoes and cocos. They also cultivate 
 
 gourds. 
 
 It is difficult to assign a date for the introduction of the kumara 
 into New Zealand. The plant was certainly not introduced by the 
 first immigrants, who appear to have come from Western Polynesia, 
 and who had a strong mixture of Melanesian blood in their veins. 
 At a later date a purer Polynesian invasion took place from Eastern 
 Polynesia, and it was these people who brought in the plant. 
 
 Mr S. Percy Smith tells me: 
 
 There are several accounts of the introduction of the kumara, in fact 
 most tribes have their own account and they differ a good deal. It was 
 such a very important article of food, and everything connected with its 
 growth and harvesting so sacred, and accompanied with so many cere- 
 monies, that each tribe sought to accredit its own ancestors with the 
 honour of its introduction. As a matter of very strong probability, most, 
 if not all of the canoes of the last migration, which took place in the 
 middle of the i4th century, brought the kumara with them. 
 
 The first migration of the pure Polynesians that came from Tahiti, 
 under the celebrated ancestor Toi-te-huatahi, arrived here long before 
 the 1 4th century; indeed it has been long settled that the period of that 
 celebrated chief was about the year 1150. He did not come direct, but 
 first made the Chathams, after calling at various islands of the mid- 
 Pacific, and that is the reason probably that he did not introduce the 
 kumara, viz., that the sea-stores were all exhausted on the voyage; for 
 it is quite certain that the kumara was in cultivation in Tahiti when 
 Toi left his home, and doubtless he would have provisioned his vessel 
 with the usual class of stores. 
 
 The fact of Toi not having introduced the kumara is generally con- 
 sidered to be proved by the well-known story of Taukata and Hoake, 
 who arrived at Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty some seven or eight 
 generations after him. On their arrival they gave Toi the name of Toi- 
 kai-rakau, or the wood-eater, because he or rather his descendants had 
 only the native plants of New Zealand to live on. 
 
 Another account of the introduction of the kumara by a very well- 
 known Maori accredits the 'Horouta' canoe with introducing it. And 

 
 CONVOLVULACE^E 447 
 
 probably this is also true, for most of the later migrations brought the 
 kumara with them. ' Horouta ' came here at the time of the great migra- 
 tion; i.e. about 1350 A.D. 
 
 Mr Elsdon Best writes me : 
 
 The Kumara was introduced by Aotea, Arawa, Tainui and other immi- 
 grants twenty generations ago, but traditions say that the first to reach New 
 Zealand were fetched from Polynesia by voyagers who left Whakatane for 
 that purpose in a vessel called ' Te Aratawhao.' This was about twenty-four 
 generations ago, or say six hundred years. (1300 A.D.) 
 
 The kumara is still largely cultivated by the Maoris, and they 
 have a good many varieties. It is not a wild species anywhere. 
 
 Convolvulus arvensis, Linn. Small Bindweed 
 First recorded by Armstrong in Canterbury in 1879. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is stated to occur, not uncommonly, in fields and 
 waste places in both islands. 
 
 Cuscuta racemosa, Mart. 
 
 Kirk reported this species as C. Hassiaca, Pfeiff., in 1884, as 
 occurring in Canterbury, parasitic on lucerne, knot-grass, etc. It 
 does not appear to have been reported from anywhere else, nor has 
 it been found recently. This is a Chilian species, but was introduced 
 from California. 
 
 Cuscuta Epilinum, Weihe. Flax Dodder 
 Apparently only recorded from Canterbury. 
 
 Cuscuta Epithymum, Murr. Lesser Dodder; 
 Clover Dodder 
 
 First recorded in 1870 in Southland by the author on clover; and 
 by Kirk the same year in the Waikato district. When the cultivation 
 of red clover was greatly extended in the Canterbury Plains after the 
 introduction of humble-bees, dodder overran many parts. In 1901 
 A. Wilson reported it as common at the head of Lake Wakatipu, 
 parasitic on piri-piri (Accena). T. W. Kirk reports it in 1909 as 
 found on the following introduced species: red clover (Trifolium 
 pratense), Alsike clover ( T. hybridum), white clover (T. repens), Lucerne 
 (Medicago sativa), broom (Cytisus scoparius), gorse (Ulex europceus), 
 knotweed (Polygonum aviculare), dandelion (Taraxacum dens-leonis), 
 Canadian flea-bane (Erigeron canadensis), and ox-eye daisy (Chrysan- 
 themum leucanthemum). 
 
 Clover dodder (Cuscuta Epithymum, var. trifolii) is included among 
 noxious seeds in the Third Schedule of the Noxious Weeds Act of 1900.
 
 448 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 SOLANACE^ 
 Lycopersicum esculentum, Mill. Tomato 
 
 I do not know how early this was first introduced, but it is 
 recorded as a naturalised species by Hooker in 1864, and again in 
 Auckland Province by Kirk in 1869. The latter speaks of it in 1870 
 as abundantly naturalised in many localities in the Waikato. Cheese- 
 man (1882) calls it a garden escape of short duration. 
 
 Solanum marginatum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 who writes: "A garden out- 
 cast near Auckland. A large clump existed for many years in Alten 
 Road, but is now nearly destroyed." Apparently it has not spread. 
 
 Solanum sodomceum, Linn. Dead-sea Apple 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as common on the volcanic 
 hills of the Auckland Isthmus, etc., and also noticed at Mongonui, 
 Bay of Islands, and in the Waikato. In the Manual (1906) it is 
 reported to occur from the North Cape to the Waikato, as not un- 
 common on warm dry soils and on sand-dunes. 
 
 Solanum auriculatum, Ait. 
 
 First recorded in 1882 by Cheeseman from the neighbourhood 
 of Auckland, and from Mahurangi. In the Manual (1906) he states 
 that it is increasing in waste places in the vicinity of Auckland. Carse 
 in 1915 reports it from near Kaitaia in Mongonui County. 
 
 Solanum tuberosum, Linn. Potato 
 
 It is probable that potatoes were first planted at Dusky Sound 
 when Captain Cook anchored there early in 1773, for a piece of 
 ground was cleared and left as a garden. Geo. Forster, in his Journal 
 of the voyage of the ' Resolution,' says: 
 
 We re-embarked all our instruments and utensils, and left no other 
 vestiges of our residence than a piece of ground, from whence we had 
 cleared the weeds. We sowed indeed a quantity of European garden seeds 
 of the best kinds ; but it is obvious that the shoots of the surrounding weeds 
 will shortly stifle every salutary and useful plant, and that in a few years 
 our abode, no longer discernible, must return to its original chaotic state. 
 
 When the 'Adventure' arrived in Queen Charlotte Sound early 
 in the same year, Captain Furneaux cleared a spot at the pah 
 (or "Hippah," as he calls it), at the S.W. point of Motuara and 
 made a garden, planting potatoes among other things. The natives
 
 SOLANACEjE 449 
 
 appreciated this attempt at cultivation, for writing in his Journal on 
 29th May, Captain Cook says: 
 
 One of these people I took over to Motuara, and showed him some pota- 
 toes planted there by Mr Fanner, Master of the 'Adventure.' There seemed 
 to be no doubt of their succeeding; and the man was so well pleased with 
 them, that he, of his own accord, began to hoe the earth about the plants. 
 We next took him to the other gardens and showed him the turnips, carrots 
 and parsnips; roots which, together with the potatoes, will be of more real 
 use to them than all the other articles we had planted. 
 
 These other gardens referred to -here, included those made early in 
 May, 1773. Forster writes : 
 
 On May 22nd we went over to an island in the Sound to which Captain 
 Cook had given the name of Long Island. Captain Cook, who was deter- 
 mined to omit nothing which might tend to the preservation of European 
 garden plants in this country, prepared the soil, sowed seeds, and trans- 
 planted the young plants in four or five different parts of this island. He 
 had cultivated a spot of ground on the beach of Long Island, another on 
 the Hippah rock, two more on the Motu-Aro, and one of considerable 
 extent at the bottom of Ship's Cove, where our vessels lay at anchor. 
 He chiefly desired to raise such vegetables as have useful and nutritive 
 roots, and among them particularly potatoes, of which we had been able 
 to preserve but few in a state of preservation. 
 
 On his third voyage Captain Cook visited these gardens and in 
 his Journal, under date I5th February, 1777, he says: 
 
 When the 'Adventure' arrived first at Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773, 
 Mr Bayly fixed upon this place (the Hippah or fortified village at the S.W. 
 point of Motuara) for making his observations; and he and the people 
 with him, at their leisure hours, planted several spots with English garden 
 seeds. Not the least vestige of these now remained. It is probable that 
 they had been all rooted out to make room for buildings, when the village 
 was re-inhabited, for, at all the other gardens then planted by Captain 
 Furneaux, although now wholly over-run with the weeds of the country, 
 we found cabbages, onions, leeks, purslain, radishes, mustard, etc., and 
 a few potatoes. These potatoes, which were first brought from the Cape 
 of Good Hope, had been greatly improved by change of soil; and, with 
 proper cultivation would be superior to those produced in most other 
 countries. Though the New Zealanders are fond of this root, it was evident 
 that they had not taken the trouble to plant a single one (much less any 
 other of the articles which we had introduced) ; and if it were not for the 
 difficulty of clearing ground where potatoes had once been planted, there 
 would not have been any now remaining. 
 
 Though Captain Cook did not look hopefully on the cultivation 
 of the potato by the Maoris those natives he met with at Queen 
 Charlotte Sound being rather a poor lot there is no doubt that the 
 tubers were carried about by them and scattered throughout the 
 various tribes north and south. In 1813 Captain Williams reported
 
 450 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 that the natives at the Bluff had a field of considerably more than 
 one hundred acres 
 
 of potatoes which presented one well-cultivated bed, filled with rising crops 
 of various ages, some of which were ready for digging, while others had 
 been but newly planted. Captain Fowler of the 'Matilda* was for eleven 
 days in Otago Harbour in 1813, and got potatoes from the natives. 
 
 The Rev. Samuel Marsden who landed in the Bay of Islands in 1814 
 says of the native cultivations : 
 
 Their potato plantations are all very neatly fenced in, and were in as high 
 condition as the gardens in and near London, as they do not suffer a single 
 weed to remain that would injure the growing crops. The flat where the 
 natives were encamped might contain somewhat about a hundred acres 
 or more, part of which was enclosed and planted with potatoes. We were 
 furnished with a good supply of potatoes and pork. 
 
 A. Hamilton, writing of a massacre which took place at Otago 
 Heads in 1817, says: 
 
 De Surville was, with Cook, supposed to have been the introducer of the 
 potato to the Maoris of the North Island and the northern part of the 
 South Island. Many old Maoris contend that tiwas were known and largely 
 cultivated before the advent of Europeans. The Maoris certainly had a 
 number of named varieties as early as 1820, and here we find them in 
 Otago in 1817 able to supply large quantities to whalers as a recognised 
 article of trade. 
 
 Commander Bellingshausen, who visited New Zealand in 1820, 
 says: 
 
 At present the New Zealander also grows potatoes which are as good as 
 the English species. They learned to grow this vegetable from Captain 
 Cook, and although after forty-seven years they grow sufficient quantities, 
 they only use the potatoes for themselves and do not part with any. 
 
 Captain Edwardson found the natives about Foveaux Straits in 
 1823 cultivated potatoes, which he says they preserved during the 
 winter "by the same process as that employed by the Irish." 
 
 The mate of the brig ' Hawes ' found potatoes in the native cultiva- 
 tions near Tauranga in 1828. 
 
 The records of the various whaling stations, which were so in- 
 dustriously collected by the late Dr R. McNab, show that cultivation 
 of the potato had become so common, that considerable quantities 
 were exported to Sydney. The vessels trading between New South 
 Wales and New Zealand very frequently took potatoes back with them, 
 and their cargoes contained potatoes from Kapiti, from Chatham 
 Island, " eight tons from Otago," " four tons from Preservation Inlet," 
 and so on. Most of the cultivation was carried on by native women. 
 This was between 1813 and 1820, and later the whaling settlements
 
 SOLANACE^E 451 
 
 at Port Pegasus (in Stewart Island), Tautuku Bay in S.E. Otago, 
 Waikouaiti and elsewhere on the east coast, supplied large quantities 
 of potatoes. 
 
 Darwin who travelled from the Bay of Islands to Waimate in 
 1835 says: 
 
 After travelling some miles we came to a little country village, where a few 
 hovels were collected, and some patches of ground cultivated with potatoes. 
 The introduction of the potato has been the most essential benefit to the 
 island; it is now much more used than any native vegetable. 
 
 Bidwill travelling in 1839 between Tauranga and Tongariro says: 
 
 the potato might be taken for an indigenous plant, as it is impossible to 
 go anywhere without finding it growing wild. Maoris only grow potatoes 
 in land which is just cleared, and after about three crops abandon it, and 
 clear another portion of forest. 
 
 This mode of cultivation was also noticed by Dieffenbach in the same 
 year in the island of Ararapa. He remarks: "Half-burned stems of 
 trees were lying in confusion over each other, and in the places 
 between were patches of potatoes." He says in one place in his account 
 of this trip : 
 
 as we passed through the woods we found two plantations of potatoes. 
 As my natives never seemed to consider that these kind of plantations 
 belonged to anybody, we always used to help ourselves when we came to 
 any of them, without compunction. In fact I suppose that these patches 
 must have been planted by some of the mission-natives, on purpose to 
 save trouble when they went their journeys between the two stations. 
 
 Wilkes, who visited the Auckland Islands in 1840, says: "Some 
 attempts at forming a garden were observed at one of the points of 
 Sarah's Bosom, and turnips, cabbages and potatoes were growing 
 finely, which if left undisturbed, will soon cover this portion of the 
 island." 
 
 The "Maori potato," as it used to be called, has been largely 
 displaced by modern varieties, but it still persists in the neighbour- 
 hood of old Maori cultivations. Thus it was found comparatively 
 recently in waste ground near the sea on Otago Peninsula and on 
 the southern side of Blueskin Bay. The Maoris have practically dis- 
 appeared from there, and only a few half-castes remain in the neigh- 
 bourhood, where formerly there was a large native population, but 
 the wild cabbage and the wild potato still persist. The latter had a 
 very firm tuber, rather bluish in colour, and very solid when cooked. 
 
 Mr Elsdon Best tells me that some varieties of potatoes still linger 
 in scrub and fern in the North Island. In the Uriwera country he 
 has found them growing in land now covered by blackberries, but 
 which were Maori clearings 50 years ago. The potato haulms grew 
 
 292
 
 452 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 up through the tangle of blackberries to a height of five or six feet, 
 but bore abundance of excellent firm tubers. 
 
 In Europe the flowers of this species are visited by Apis mellifica, 
 Bombus hortorum, B. lapidarius, B. terrestris and Eristalis tenax 1 . 
 
 Atropa belladonna, Linn. Deadly Nightshade 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as naturalised in the County 
 of Ashburton, but as dying out. 
 
 Capsicum annuum, Chili 
 
 Recorded by Kirk in 1869 in his naturalised plants of the Auckland 
 district, but it practically never spreads out of cultivation in New 
 Zealand. Polack records it as cultivated by the Europeans in 1831. 
 
 Physalis alkekengi, Linn. Winter-cherry 
 
 Also recorded by Kirk in 1869 from the Auckland district. Only 
 occurs as a rare garden escape, and does not appear to have established 
 itself anywhere as a naturalised plant. 
 
 Physalis peruviana, Linn. Cape Gooseberry ; Tipari 
 Probably introduced very much earlier, but recorded first as a 
 naturalised plant by Hooker in 1864; again by Kirk in the Auckland 
 district in 1869 and from Wellington in 1877. Cheeseman says in 
 1882: "warm sheltered localities throughout the district, but not so 
 common now as fifteen or twenty years back." In the Manual (1906) 
 it is recorded as an escape from cultivation in the North Island only, 
 but it occurs as far south as Moeraki in Otago, where it grew in 
 sheltered localities quite freely a few years ago. 
 
 Polack (1831-37) mentions it as in cultivation in European gardens 
 in the north of the North Island. 
 
 Nicandra physaloides, Gsertn. 
 
 First recorded from Ashburton district in 1903 by W. W. Smith. 
 In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur very rarely in waste places 
 in the vicinity of Auckland. 
 
 Lycium chinense, Mill. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, and again by Kirk in 
 1869 as occurring in the Auckland provincial district; both as L. bar- 
 
 1 In 1868 Kirk recorded the occurrence of Solatium virginianum at Mongonui. 
 I do not know what species he refers to. On submitting my doubt to Mr Cheeseman 
 he writes (Sept. 1916): "I have no idea what plant Kirk had in mind, but it was 
 not 5. virginianum." 
 
 In 1869 he recorded S. indicum, Linn., from Auckland, and in 1877 the same 
 species from Wellington. Cheeseman writes : " I think this was a mistake of Kirk's 
 for S. mammosum of later lists."
 
 SOLANACE^: 453 
 
 barum. Kirk also reported it from Wellington in 1877. In the Manual 
 (1906) it is stated to be not uncommon in waste places and roadsides 
 in both islands. 
 
 Lycium horridum, Thunb. Box-thorn 
 
 Introduced 40 or 50 years ago as a hedge-plant. Mr Cheeseman 
 states that in the Auckland district it does not maintain itself 
 outside of cultivation. But in many parts it has spread very con- 
 siderably, and has become a serious nuisance. It was declared a 
 noxious weed in the Third (optional) Schedule of the Act of 1908, 
 by Special Gazette Notice of loth September, 1908. 
 
 Datura Stramonium , Linn. Thorn-apple 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Stated by Kirk in 1870 
 to be occasionally met with in the Auckland Province. In 1895 the 
 Agricultural Department reported it from Auckland, Rangitikei, Wai- 
 rarapa and Picton. W. W. Smith states that it was very abundant 
 in the Ashburton district in 1895-97, but after the long drought of 
 later years it became rare. In the Manual (1906) Cheeseman reports 
 it as not uncommon in waste places in rich warm soils as far south 
 as Canterbury. 
 
 Hyoscyamus ntger. Linn. Henbane 
 
 Reported by Kirk as occurring among ballast at Wellington. 
 Cheeseman records it in 1912 from near Pakuranga, Auckland, 
 collected by R. Green 1 . 
 
 In Europe Bombus terrestris and B. lapidarius visit the flowers. 
 
 Nicotiana Tabacum, Linn. Tobacco 
 
 I have no record of when the tobacco plant was first introduced 
 into New Zealand, but it must have been in the very early days of 
 settlement, the seed being brought by the missionaries and by whalers 
 in the earlier years of the I9th century. The natives were very desirous 
 of obtaining the plant, and numerous tales were current of the sale 
 of dockseed to them by unscrupulous traders (see pp. 466-467). 
 
 The first record of its occurrence as a naturalised plant is in 
 Bidwill's account of his visit to Rotorua in 1839, where he says : "there 
 was plenty of very find tobacco growing near, although I never at 
 any other place met with any that was worth gathering." The natives 
 had an extraordinary fondness for tobacco, but they took little trouble 
 either to cultivate the plant or cure the leaf. Kirk in 1869, in his list 
 of plants of the Auckland Province, notes its occurrence; and again 
 in 1877 from Wellington. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) says it 
 occurs as "an occasional escape from cultivation in rich warm soils." 
 1 Kerner records that an average-sized plant produces 10,000 seeds in a year.
 
 454 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Nicotiana acutiflora, A. St Hil. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring on a ballast heap in 
 Wellington. Introduced from Buenos Ay res. 
 
 Nicotiana suaveolens, Lehm. Native 
 
 Tobacco of Australia 
 
 The Agricultural Department's report for 1899 states that a single 
 specimen of this plant was collected in (Napier ?) Hawke's Bay, evi- 
 dently introduced in ballast. 
 
 Petunia parviflora, Juss. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring along with the 
 preceding species on a ballast heap in Wellington. Introduced from 
 Buenos Ayres in 1892. I do not think it has succeeded in establishing 
 itself. 
 
 OLEINE/E 
 Syringa vulgaris. Lilac 
 
 This species only occurs in New Zealand as a cultivated shrub, 
 but I refer to it here because a common native longicorn beetle 
 (Prionoplus reticularis) has taken to it as a convenient dwelling place. 
 W. W. Smith of New Plymouth finds that the larvae bore extensively 
 into the stems of old plants, and he has reared the mature insect 
 from them. 
 
 SCROPHULARINEjE 
 Verbascum Thapsus, Linn. Mullein 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, and then by Kirk in 1877 
 from Wellington. Cheeseman records it from volcanic hills near 
 Auckland; and as plentiful at Matamata in 1879. I* 1 tne Manual 
 (1906) it is said to be "abundantly naturalised in dry places." It is 
 particularly in evidence in rabbit-infested areas such as Central Otago, 
 as it is one of the few plants rabbits will not eat, on account of its 
 densely woolly character. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus hor- 
 torum and B. terrestris. 
 
 Verbascum Blattaria, Linn. Moth Mullein 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1870 as occurring at Mt Eden, Auckland 
 and on the North Head, Waitemata; and again from Wellington in 
 1877. Cheeseman in 1882 states that it occurs in waste places and 
 pastures, from Auckland to Waikato. It is not uncommon in many 
 parts of both islands at the present time.
 
 SCROPHULARINEjE 455 
 
 Verbascum phaeniceum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, and again in Kirk's list 
 of Great Barrier plants in 1867, but has not proved permanent. 
 Mr Cheeseman, who knows the flora of the country, and especially 
 of the Auckland district thoroughly, has never met with it. 
 
 Celsia cretica, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) as occurring not 
 uncommonly in fields in the Auckland district. 
 
 Linaria vulgaris, Mill. Toad-flax 
 
 First recorded as a garden escape from Ashburton in 1903 by 
 W. W. Smith. Also recorded from near Lake Brunner by J. W. Brame. 
 It occurs near Dunedin in several localities as a garden escape, and 
 is reported by Cockayne from the Taieri Plain, and from Kinloch, 
 Lake Wakatipu. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus hor- 
 torum, B. lapidarius, B. terrestris and Calliphora erythrocephala. 
 
 Linaria purpurea, Mill. 
 
 First recorded in 1873 fr m tne neighbourhood of Dunedin by 
 the author. In the Manual (1906) said to be a garden escape in some 
 parts of Otago and Canterbury. 
 
 Visited by Apis mellifica in Europe. 
 
 Linaria latifolia, Desf. 
 Reported by Kirk as a garden escape in the vicinity of Wellington. 
 
 Linaria Elatine, Mill. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Cheeseman reports it 
 from the vicinity of Auckland, Otahuhu, Ngaruawahia, etc. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is stated to be not uncommon on roadsides and in 
 waste places in both islands. 
 
 Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill. Ivy-leaved Toad-flax 
 First recorded as a garden escape from Ashburton in 1903 by 
 W. W. Smith. In the Manual (1906) reported as an occasional garden 
 escape throughout both islands. 
 
 Antirrhinum Orontium, Linn. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) reported from waste places near Auckland 
 by Cheeseman and from Napier by A. Hamilton. 
 
 Scrophularia aquatica, Linn. 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 from Ashburton County.
 
 456 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Mimulus luteus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1876 by the author as common on streams 
 near Dunedin. In 1877 Kirk reported it as abundant in swampy or 
 moist places in several parts of Wellington Province. In the Manual 
 (1906) it is stated to occur in damp places, sides of streams, etc., 
 from Wellington southwards. Mr J. Belton tells me that about 
 Lake Ellesmere it fills the ditches for miles. 
 
 Mimulus moschatus, Dougl. Musk 
 
 First recorded by the author as a naturalised weed in Otago in 
 1875, and again in 1877 by Kirk from two points in the Wellington 
 provincial district. It does not appear to have established itself 
 further north, as Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) reports it as 
 occurring in damp places, sides of streams, etc., from Wellington 
 southwards. It is abundant in Otago. 
 
 This species tends in many localities, especially in the southern 
 parts of New Zealand, to monopolise the ground where it grows, 
 and thus to appear as a " pure formation." 
 
 Digitalis purpurea, Linn. Foxglove 
 
 First recorded by Hooker in 1864, then in 1877 in Wellington 
 by Kirk. Cheeseman in recording it in 1882 from Auckland Isthmus, 
 Thames and Whangarei, states that it is by no means common. Even 
 in the Manual (1906) it is said to be "an occasional garden escape, 
 not common," in both islands. It is, however, very common in certain 
 localities, and in the far north, e.g. near Hokianga, has taken complete 
 possession of many old lava flows. 
 
 A northern correspondent writes : 
 
 at the present time purple and white foxgloves, growing in profusion on 
 the Wangamoa hills (north-east of Nelson), present a glorious blaze of 
 colour. This noxious pest has apparently got completely out of hand, and 
 threatens to ruin the countryside. 
 
 At Tokaanu at the south end of Lake Taupo, in 1906, it formed a 
 "pure formation" over very large areas of country, having nearly 
 crowded out all other vegetation. 
 
 It used to be very common in places near Dunedin, but its com- 
 parative disappearance is explained by this peculiarity, that it tends to 
 die out of pasture land when it is not pulled out of the ground. 
 Wherever it is pulled out of the ground and the surface soil is thus dis- 
 turbed , fresh seedlings spring up . I am informed that in the Wairarapa 
 district some farmers have expended as much as 150 a year in their 
 endeavours to clear the land of foxglove, by pulling it out. Others 
 who have elected to leave it, have been fined fifty shillings for a breach
 
 SCROPHULARINE^ 457 
 
 of the Noxious Weeds Act, and their land has become nearly clean 
 by the plants dying out of the pastures. It is abundant in the Taieri 
 gorge. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Bombus hortorum and B. ter- 
 restris. 
 
 This species was included in the Second Schedule of the Noxious 
 Weeds Act of 1900 by Special Gazette Notice of 2ist December, 1905. 
 
 Veronica agrestis, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, then by Kirk in 1877 as 
 "not unfrequently in cultivated land" in Wellington Province; com- 
 mon in the Auckland district in 1882. In the Manual (1906) it is 
 stated to be abundant in fields and waste places in both islands. 
 
 In Europe it is visited by Apis mellifica. 
 
 Veronica Buxbaumii, Ten. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, and in most subsequent 
 lists of introduced plants, as plentiful in cultivated districts. First 
 noted in Otago by the author at Port Chalmers in 1885. In this 
 instance the plant came up where a quantity of immigrants' bedding 
 had been condemned and burned. Now found abundantly in culti- 
 vated land throughout all parts of New Zealand. It is a remarkably 
 strongly-rooted species. 
 
 Veronica Anagallis, Linn. 
 
 When crossing the Ruahine Ranges in 1845, Colenso gathered 
 specimens of this species. In writing the account of it later he states 
 that: 
 
 I noticed a Veronica with blue flowers which grew in the water and was 
 not unlike our English V. beccabunga or V. anagallis. (I mention this 
 particularly, as I fear it has of late years quite disappeared from this district, 
 not having seen a plant anywhere for more than twenty years.) 
 
 Kirk (in 1869) doubted the accuracy of the identification, but 
 Cheeseman saw the specimens, which undoubtedly belong to V. Ana- 
 gallis, and he has included the species in his Flora as doubtfully 
 indigenous. I think there can be little doubt that it is an introduction. 
 It is remarkable, as Cheeseman states in his Flora, that the plant 
 should have apparently disappeared. But I may record a somewhat 
 similar instance. In 1870 in a field of newly broken up land in South- 
 land, sown with grass-seed imported from Lawson and Sons, of Edin- 
 burgh, there came up and flowered several plants of Veronica Chamee- 
 drys, Linn. The field was not grazed the first year, but a light crop 
 of hay was cut off it. The plant never re-appeared. I am inclined to 
 think that no insects capable of fertilising the flowers being available
 
 458 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 in those days when hive-bees were rare and humble-bees had not 
 been introduced many flowering plants failed to reproduce them- 
 selves by seed. 
 
 Veronica arvensis, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Now found abundantly 
 in fields and waste places in all parts of New Zealand. 
 
 Veronica saxatilis, Linn. 
 
 In 1871 Armstrong recorded this species as occurring in Canter- 
 bury. It has not been observed since, and I think the identification 
 is doubtful. 
 
 Veronica serpyllifolia, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. One of the most widely 
 spread and common weeds in all parts of the country. 
 
 Hermann Miiller records Calliphora erythrocephala as sucking the 
 flowers of these plants, which were kept in a room. 
 
 Veronica officinalis, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Kirk, in 1869, expressed 
 the opinion that this was an error in identification, and that perhaps 
 V. serpyllifolia had been mistaken for it. It was later recorded from 
 the Canterbury district by both Armstrong and W. W. Smith. Cheese- 
 man states that the species has not been seen in the North Island, in 
 the locality where it was originally supposed to have been found. 
 
 Veronica Chamtedrys, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1870, then in 1917. Found growing among 
 lawn grass in Dunedin by Mrs G. S. Thomson. (The previous occur- 
 rence is referred to under V. Anagallis.) 
 
 Bartsia viscosa, Linn. Tar-weed 
 
 First recorded in 1869 as Rhinanthus crista-galli in Southland by 
 the author; common in Otago in 1875. Reported by Cheeseman in 
 1882 from Helensville; neighbourhood of Auckland, and in great 
 abundance between Pukekohe and Tuakau. 
 
 OROBANCHE^E 
 
 Orobanche minor, Sutt. Broom-rape 
 
 According to the late Mr T. Kirk, var. picridis, F. Schultz., was 
 first observed at Whangarei in 1867, growing on the roots of cat's-ear 
 (Hypochasris radicata). The typical form was first observed on red 
 clover in the Waikato near Cambridge in 1885. It is now well estab-
 
 OROBANCHE^E 459 
 
 lished in both islands as far south as Canterbury (but not in Otago 
 and Southland so far), growing on Trifolium, Medicago, Lotus, Crepis, 
 Lathyrus, Hypochceris, etc. It is particularly abundant in the Auckland 
 district, where it does considerable damage. Grazing animals never 
 eat parasitic or saprophytic plants like Orobanche. 
 
 LABIATE 
 
 Mentha viridis, Linn. (Mentha spicata, L.) Spear-mint 
 No doubt introduced at a very early date after settlement began. 
 First recorded as an escape from cultivation by Hooker in the Auck- 
 land district in 1864. Found occurring abundantly in the extreme 
 south of Stewart Island in Wilson Bay by the author in 1874. In 1877 
 Kirk reported it from several places in the Wellington district. By 
 1880 it was common in ditches and waste ground in most districts 
 of the colony. In the wetter parts of the Canterbury Plains it chokes 
 many ditches and drainage channels. Recorded by Poppelwell in 
 1911 as occurring in old clearings in Codfish Island and Rugged 
 Island. This species spreads freely by means of its underground 
 stems. 
 
 Mentha piperita, Linn. Pepper-mint 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 from the Auckland district, where 
 it was reported as spreading in 1882 by Cheeseman. Noted by the 
 author in several localities in the valley of the Clutha in 1885. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is stated to be an occasional garden escape in damp 
 places in both islands. The flowers are visited in Europe by Lucilia 
 ccesar. 
 
 Mentha aquatica, Linn. Water-mint 
 
 First recorded by Hooker in his list of 1864. Reported as spreading 
 in Auckland district in 1882. Cheeseman reports it in the Manual 
 (1906) as occurring, but not commonly, in wet places in the Auckland 
 district. 
 
 In Europe this species is visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus hortorum, 
 Lucilia ccesar ', Musca corvina, Eristalis tenax and Calliphora erythro- 
 cephala. 
 
 Mentha arvensis, Linn. Corn or Field Mint 
 
 First recorded by Armstrong in Canterbury in 1879, an< ^ by 
 Cheeseman from Auckland in 1882. In the Manual (1906) said to 
 be not uncommon in fields and waste places in the North Island. 
 This is one of the worst weeds of arable land in Britain, but fortunately 
 it has not spread much in New Zealand. In Europe it is visited by 
 Apis mellifica, Bombus terrestris and Lucilia ccesar.
 
 460 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Mentha Pulegium, Linn. Penny-royal 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 from Whangarei, and several 
 places about Auckland. Its subsequent history in the North Island is 
 one of continued and rapid increase and aggression. The Agricultural 
 Department reported on it continually. In 1896 it was spreading about 
 Gisborne in the river beds and in old Maori plantations. In 1899 it 
 was proving a very troublesome weed in grassland ; very abundant in 
 the Auckland district, less frequent in Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, Nelson 
 and as far south as Canterbury. I found in April, 1919, that in the 
 north of Auckland the flowers were visited by immense numbers of 
 the common butterfly Lyccena labradus (formerly known as L.phcebe). 
 In 1901 it was included in the Second Schedule of the Noxious Weeds 
 Act by Special Gazette Notice of 2Oth June, and in 1904 in the Third 
 (Noxious Seeds) Section by Gazette Notice of loth November. 
 
 Mentha australis, R. Br. 
 
 Reported by Cheeseman to be plentiful in 1877 on roadsides 
 between Raglan and Ruapuke, Auckland district. Imported from 
 Australia. It was also recorded from the Wairarapa by Kirk 1 . 
 
 Thymus serpyllum, Linn. Thyme 
 
 Recorded by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) as an occasional 
 garden escape, in both islands ; not common. 
 
 Calamintha Acinos, Clairv. Basil Thyme 
 
 This species was recorded by Kirk in 1869 as occurring in the 
 Auckland provincial district, but Cheeseman in 1882 stated that it 
 did not appear to have been noticed of late years. It had not apparently 
 been observed again. 
 
 Satureia hortensis, Linn. Summer Savory 
 
 In 1876 Buchanan recorded this species from Kawau. It is not 
 uncommon as a garden pot-herb, but I do not think it is naturalised 
 anywhere in New Zealand. 
 
 Melissa offitinalis, Linn. Balm 
 
 First recorded from Ashburtpn as a garden escape in 1903 by 
 W. W. Smith. In the Manual (1906) it is reported as a garden escape 
 in a few localities throughout New Zealand. 
 
 1 In 1870 Kirk recorded Mentha dentata from the neighbourhood of Auckland; 
 and in 1877 he named it in his list of the introduced plants of Wellington. The name 
 is of doubtful application. It is possible that Kirk saw one of the forms of M . sativa 
 or M. gentilis, which has not perpetuated itself in New Zealand. I do not know 
 the species.
 
 LABIATE 461 
 
 Salvia Verbenaca, Linn. Wild Sage 
 
 Cheeseman reports of this species in 1882 that it "appeared by 
 a roadside in the suburbs of Auckland some years ago, but seems to 
 have become extinct." In the Manual (1906) he reports it from 
 "waste places near Auckland," on the authority of Kirk. 
 
 Nepeta Cataria, Linn. Cat-mint 
 
 First recorded by T. Kirk in his list of Great Barrier Island plants 
 in 1867. Reported from vicinity of Auckland and the Waikato by 
 Cheeseman in 1882. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur, but 
 not commonly, in waste places and on roadsides in the Auckland 
 provincial district. Specimens have also been received from Nydia 
 Bay, Marlborough, from Mr E. F. Paton. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Bombus terrestris. 
 
 Nepeta Glechoma, Benth. Ground Ivy 
 
 Recorded from the vicinity of Wanganui by Kirk. The seeds of 
 this species become mucilaginous when wet, according to Guppy. 
 
 Cedronella triphylla, Moench. 
 
 Reported by Cheeseman in 1882 as a garden escape: "This has 
 become very abundant on the lava streams around Mount Eden 
 (Auckland), forming dense clumps many feet in diameter and 
 3-4 feet high." In the Manual (1906) it is reported by Cheeseman 
 as occurring in waste places near Auckland, and by Kirk from near 
 Wellington. Cockayne says it is fairly common in damaged semi- 
 coastal forest near Wellington. 
 
 Prunella vulgaris, Linn. Self-heal 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. One of the most abundant 
 and widespread naturalised plants in New Zealand. It is particularly 
 common on poor, rather sterile land, and is best coped with by 
 manuring the ground, and so improving the herbage. 
 
 Guppy states that the nutlets of this species emit mucus when 
 wetted, and adhere firmly to feathers on drying. Darwin also found 
 that the seeds were often found in hardened earth taken from the 
 feet of birds, and he thinks the plant depends mainly on this mode 
 of dispersion. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica, Bombus lapi- 
 darius, B. terrestris, B. hortorum and B. subterraneus . 
 
 Marrubium vulgare, Linn. Horehound 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, and by Kirk in 1877 from 
 Foxton, Wairarapa, etc. In the Auckland district reported as not
 
 462 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 uncommon on roadsides and waste places from Auckland to the 
 Waikato in 1882. In the Manual (1906) it is reported abundant 
 throughout both islands. It is extremely common where sheep camp. 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica and Bombus 
 terrestris. 
 
 Stachys germanica, Linn. Woundwort 
 
 First recorded from Ashburton by W. W. Smith in 1903. Not 
 found since. 
 
 Stachys palustris, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk from Wanganui in 1877. There is no later 
 report. 
 
 Stachys arvensis, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. In 1877 Kirk reported 
 it as common in cultivated ground at Wellington. Reported by 
 Cheeseman in 1882 as a troublesome weed in the Auckland district 
 in cultivated ground. It appears to be confined to the North Island 
 where it is abundant in cultivations. 
 
 Stachys annua, Linn 
 
 First recorded from Ashburton in 1903 by W. W. Smith. Not 
 collected since. 
 
 Teucrium Scorod&nia, Linn. , Wood Sage 
 
 Recorded by Armstrong in 1879 as occurring in South Canterbury 
 and by W. W. Smith in 1903 from Ashburton County. 
 
 Galeopsis Tetrahit, Linn. Hemp- nettle 
 
 Reported by Cheeseman as occurring in waste places near Otahuhu, 
 Auckland, in 1881. 
 
 Lamium purpureum, Linn. Purple Dead-nettle 
 First recorded by Kirk as occurring in cultivated ground at Wan- 
 ganui in 1877; then by Armstrong in Canterbury in 1879. W. W. 
 Smith also records it from Ashburton. 
 
 Lamium album, Linn. White Dead-nettle 
 
 First recorded by Armstrong in 1871 from Canterbury. In 1906 
 the Agricultural Department report it from Tarata, Taranaki, and 
 wrongly call it cat-mint. It grows somewhat freely in Dean's Bush, 
 Christchurch 1 . 
 
 1 In 1879 Armstrong records two Labiates as occurring among the naturalised 
 plants of Canterbury, viz., Lamium amplexicaule, Linn., the Henbit dead-nettle; 
 and Lamium maculatum, Linn. They have not been reported by any later collector.
 
 VERBENACE^E 463 
 
 VERBENACE-ft) 
 Verbena officinalis, Linn. Vervain 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Then from several districts 
 in the Wellington provincial district in 1877 by Kirk. In the Manual 
 (1906) it is stated to be not uncommon in fields and on roadsides in 
 both islands. In many districts, especially in Taranaki, it has become 
 a troublesome pest. In Britain it is an erect, usually slender plant 
 from one to two feet in height. In Taranaki it is gigantic, and 
 Mr W. W. Smith has sent me specimens over 10 ft. high and with 
 stout straight stems. It covers acres of ground, and is harsh and 
 almost scabrid. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Apis mellifica. 
 
 Verbena bonariensis, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1870 as occurring in the Auckland 
 district. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) says it occurs rarely in 
 waste places in the Auckland district. In 1912 it was reported by 
 Carse as occurring near Kaitaia. 
 
 Verbena hastata, Linn. 
 
 Recorded from Waverley in 1911 by the Agricultural Department ; 
 introduced in American red-clover seed. 
 
 Lantana Camara, Linn. 
 
 This weed, which is one of the commonest and most troublesome 
 pests in North-eastern Australia, is found wild in the neighbourhood 
 of Kohu-Kohu on the Hokianga River where it was first recorded 
 about 1895. It probably occurs in other parts in the far north as a 
 garden escape. Mr Maiden, Government Botanist for New South 
 Wales, informs me that in Queensland, where all attempts to check 
 the pest have proved unsuccessful, it has been found that land which 
 has been completely overrun by it has become permanently enriched. 
 In Hawaii special insects have been introduced to combat the increase 
 of the plant. 
 
 PLANTAGINE^E 
 
 Plantago major, Linn. Greater Plantain 
 
 No doubt introduced by the earlier settlers; first recorded by 
 DierTenbach in 1839. Bidwill in his journey from Tauranga to 
 Rotorua and Taupo in 1839 says: "the common plantain is every- 
 where quite as general as in England ; not being an article of food, the 
 natives can tell nothing about how or when it came." He found the 
 species very abundant at Rotoiti, and he was the first European to 
 visit that locality. Hooker recorded it in his list in 1864, and in all
 
 464 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 succeeding lists of introduced plants it has appeared. At the present 
 time it is most abundant in fields and waste places throughout the 
 country. 
 
 Guppy (and others) have pointed out that the seeds of Plantago 
 major, P. lanceolata, etc., become coated with a mucilaginous material 
 when wetted. He says: 
 
 In 1892, when experimenting on these plants, I found that the wetted 
 seeds adhere firmly to a feather, so that it could be blown about without 
 their becoming detached. My readers can readily ascertain by a simple 
 experiment that a bird pecking the fruit-spikes in wet weather would 
 often carry away some of the sticky seeds in its plumage. Several years 
 ago, when I was endeavouring to examine the condition of these seeds in 
 the droppings of a canary, my efforts were defeated by the bird itself, 
 since, in spite of all my care, some seeds and capsules were always carried 
 by the bird on its feathers into the clean cage reserved for the experiment. 
 
 For some reason or other which is not understood Plantago major 
 is not eaten by cattle or other grazing animals, and hence it spreads 
 more or less undisturbed. Kerner suggests that it is probable that to 
 eat them would be injurious to grazing animals, because though it 
 contains no alkaloids, and is not poisonous to men, yet they carefully 
 avoid it. 
 
 Kerner states that an average-sized plant of this species produces 
 14,000 seeds in a year. 
 
 Plantago media, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 in his list of Auckland plants. 
 In 1877 Kirk, on the authority of J. Buchanan, reports a single 
 specimen from Wellington. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur 
 in fields and waste places in both islands, but not commonly. 
 
 Plantago lanceolata, Linn. Ribwort ; Rib-grass 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. It has appeared in every 
 succeeding list of naturalised plants, and at the present time is one 
 of the commonest introduced plants in the country. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by hive-bees (Apis mellifica) for 
 pollen ; and less commonly by Bombus terrestris. 
 
 Plantago varia, R. Br. 
 
 Kirk in 1877 states: "this plant has for several years maintained 
 a struggling existence in Boulcott Street, Wellington, but appears 
 doomed to speedy extinction from the progress of street improve- 
 ments." Recorded by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) as "sparingly 
 naturalised in several localities between the East Cape and Banks 
 Peninsula." Introduced from Australia.
 
 PLANTAGINEE 465 
 
 Plantago hirtella, H. B. and K. 
 
 Recorded by Cheeseman as P. virginica, L. (?) in 1882, from 
 Rangiriri, Ngaruawahia and other places in the Waikato. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is said to occur in " moist shaded places in the North 
 Island; not uncommon." Apparently introduced from America. 
 
 Plantago Coronopus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk from Wellington in 1877, then by Cheese- 
 man in 1882 as occurring in waste places and sandy soil near the 
 sea from a number of localities in the Auckland Province, from Bay 
 of Islands down to Tauranga and Poverty Bay. In the Manual it is 
 reported as not uncommon in sandy and gravelly places in both 
 islands. Cockayne says it is so common in many salt-meadows that 
 it might easily be mistaken for an indigenous species. 
 
 Division INCOMPLETE 
 
 POLYGONEyE 
 Polygonum lapathifolium, Linn. 
 
 First recorded from Ashburton in 1899 by W. W. Smith, and 
 stated in 1903 to have spread up the bed of the Ashburton River. 
 He also reports it (in 1919) as having gone wild at Whangamomona, 
 Taranaki Province, in great abundance along the roadsides and in 
 waste ground. 
 
 Polygonum Persicaria, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk, on the authority of J. Buchanan, from 
 Wellington in 1877, then by Cheeseman in 1882 in fields near Pan- 
 mure, Auckland. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur, but 
 not commonly, in ditches and on roadsides in both islands. It is 
 extremely common in flax-areas after draining. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Polygonum Hydropiper, Linn. Water-pepper 
 
 Recorded from East Cape district in the North Island by Bishop 
 Williams. 
 
 Polygonum aviculare, Linn. Knot-grass 
 
 First recorded by Hooker in 1864. Cheeseman in the Manual 
 (1906) states that this species, which is a most abundant weed in 
 roadsides, waste places and edges of fields, is most probably an 
 immigrant. The late Mr Kirk always considered it to be indigenous, 
 and its position was the subject of much dispute between him and 
 Mr W. T. L. Travers (see N.Z. Inst. Trans, vols. iv and v). The 
 
 T. N. Z. 30
 
 466 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 consensus of opinion is, however, strongly in favour of its being an 
 introduced plant. 
 
 Guppy says: 
 
 In England I have found the nutlets ofPolygonum convolvulus, P.persi- 
 caria and P. avicularee in the stomachs of a wild duck, and a curlew, and 
 they came frequently under my notice in the crops and intestines of 
 different kinds of partridges and of wood-pigeons. Though most of the 
 fruits were generally injured, a few of them were not uncommonly obtained 
 in a sound condition. 
 
 Polygonum Convolvulus, Linn. Black Bindweed 
 
 Armstrong reported this species from Canterbury in 1871. It 
 was common in gardens in Dunedin in 1874. Kirk found it in 
 cultivated land in Wellington Province in 1877. Cheeseman recorded 
 it in 1882 from roadsides and waste places, but not common. It is 
 now a common weed of cultivation in many parts of both islands. 
 In New Plymouth I saw it (April, 1919) climbing 15 to 20 ft. high, 
 and bearing bunches of fruit over six inches in diameter. 
 
 In Europe this species is visited by Apis mellifical. 
 
 Fagopyrum esculentum, Moench. Buckwheat 
 
 I do not know when or where this was first introduced, but 
 Kirk first records it in 1869 from Auckland district, and remarks: 
 "This may become a weed of cultivated land, but at present can 
 scarcely be called naturalised." W. W. Smith reported in 1903 that 
 it used to be common on railways and cuttings near Ashburton, but 
 disappeared after drought seasons. The Manual (1906) considers it 
 only an escape from cultivation in both islands. My own opinion 
 is that it is nowhere naturalised. It is largely grown by bee-keepers. 
 
 In Europe it is visited by Apis mellifica (most abundantly), Bombus 
 lapidarius, Musca corvina and Eristalis tenax. 
 
 Rumex obtusifolius, Linn. Common Dock 
 
 This obnoxious weed was no doubt introduced into the country 
 at an early period of settlement, as few samples of grass or other 
 agricultural seeds brought from Britain were quite free from it. Earl 
 mentions that the dock was a great nuisance in Maori plantations at 
 Hokianga in 1834. But ft increased so freely that legends of its 
 introduction sprung up, which may or may not be true. Thus Darwin, 
 who visited the Bay of Islands in 1835, savs: "The common dock is 
 also widely disseminated, and will, I fear, for ever remain a proof 
 
 1 In 1879 Armstrong reported Polygonum Dryandri as occurring in Canterbury; 
 the identification is doubtful.
 
 POLYGONE.E 467 
 
 of the rascality of an Englishman, who sold the seeds for those of 
 the tobacco plant." 
 
 Colenso crossed the Ruahine Range in 1845, and speaking later 
 of the village of Te Awarua on the east side of the Rangitikei River, 
 which was then the centre of a great potato cultivation, says : 
 
 In visiting these localities in after years, I was surprised to find such an 
 extensive and formidable growth of English docks (Rumex obtusifolius) 
 4-5 feet high and densely thick, so that in some places I could scarcely 
 make my way through them. On enquiry I found, when some of 
 these people had visited Whanganui to sell their pigs they had purchased 
 from a white man there some seed, which they were told was tobacco seed. 
 In their ignorance they took their treasure back with them, and carefully 
 sowed it in some of their soil, which they also had prepared by digging; 
 and lo, the crop proved to be this horrid Dock; which, seeding largely, 
 was carried down the rivers and filled the country. 
 
 The same iniquitous trick had also been played with the natives of 
 Poverty Bay, as early as 1837, when, at their request, I visited some young 
 plants they had raised from seed, fenced in and tabooed, believing them 
 to be tobacco. 
 
 This is the commonest of all the docks, and is much the most 
 abundant species in the South Island. 
 
 Dock (Rumex, any species) was included among noxious seeds in 
 the Act of 1900, and was declared a noxious weed and included in 
 the Second Schedule of the Act by Special Gazette Notice of 2Oth 
 June, 1901. 
 
 Rumex palustris, Smith 
 
 First recorded by Kirk, on the authority of J. Buchanan, as having 
 been found at Wellington in 1872, but it was extinct in 1877. Then 
 it was reported by Armstrong in Canterbury in 1879. There are no 
 other records of its occurrence in New Zealand. 
 
 Rumex crispus, Linn. Curled Dock 
 
 No doubt introduced by the settlers at a very early date, but first 
 recorded by Dieffenbach in 1839. His identification, however, is 
 doubtful. It is recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, and was generally 
 distributed in the north in 1880. Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) 
 reports it as abundant in fields and waste places in all parts of New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Rumex sanguineus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by T. Kirk in his list of naturalised plants in Great 
 Barrier Island in 1867, as R. viridis, Sibth., and again from Wellington 
 in 1877. Cheeseman in 1882 reports it as generally distributed in 
 the Auckland district. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) it is stated to occur in fields and waste 
 
 302
 
 468 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 places and to be abundant throughout both islands. "The form with 
 the veins of the leaves green, not red (R. viridis, Sibthorp), is the one 
 most abundant in New Zealand." I have not met with it in Otago. 
 
 Rumex conglomerate, Murr. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1839. In 1877 Kirk says it 
 is reported from Wellington anonymously in the Education Gazette 
 of 1874, and adds : " It is probable that starved specimens of R. viridis 
 have been mistaken for this." Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) says 
 it occurs, but not commonly, on roadsides and in waste places near 
 Auckland and Wellington. 
 
 Rumex acetosa, Linn. Sorrel 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. In the Manual it is stated 
 to be not uncommon in fields and waste places in both islands. 
 
 In Europe the honey-bee (Apis mellificd) visits the flowers for 
 nectar. 
 
 Rumex acetosella, Linn. Sheep's Sorrel 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. No doubt an early intro- 
 duction into New Zealand, and at the present time one of the most 
 abundant weeds in the country. It occurs particularly in cultivated 
 ground, but is mostly kept down by sheep wherever they graze 
 freely. It has a certain food-value too in many parts. Liming the 
 land reduces the weed. 
 
 Speaking of the grass-denuded areas of Central Otago, Mr D. 
 Petrie, says: 
 
 Sheep's sorrel (Rumex acetosella), widely spread over all the dry denuded 
 flats and many of the barren hill-slopes, is another important food-plant. 
 It grows fairly well all through the dry season, and being perennial and 
 spreading freely by long creeping rootstocks, it is in little danger of being 
 eaten out 1 . 
 
 Emex australis, Steinh. Three-cornered Jack; 
 
 Spiny Dock ; Cat's Head 
 
 Cheeseman reports that "this has appeared twice in Auckland, 
 but does not seem to increase." This was in 1882. In 1892 it appeared 
 on a heap of ballast in Wellington taken out of the ship ' Silverstream ' 
 from Buenos Ayres; but it did not come up again the second year. 
 Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) reports it from near Auckland and 
 in the Bay of Plenty ; and from Westport on the authority of Townson. 
 
 1 "The Golden Dock (Rumex maritimus, Linn.) is stated, on anonymous autho- 
 rity in the Educational Gazette, vol. I, p. 46 (1874), to occur at Pipitea Point, I 
 cannot but think erroneously, as so conspicuous a plant would, of necessity, have 
 attracted the attention of local botanists." (T. Kirk.)
 
 POLYGONE^: 469 
 
 In 1919 he records it from Kaipara, and adds: "this species appears 
 to be of uncertain occurrence in New Zealand, and never lingers long 
 in any one locality." 
 
 NYCTAGINE^) 
 
 Mirabilis Jalapa, Linn. Marvel of Peru 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as a garden escape near 
 Auckland. It does not seem to spread. 
 
 ILLECEBRACE^) 
 
 Herniaria hirsuta, Linn. Rupture- wort 
 
 Reported by Cheeseman as occurring on sandy flats north of the 
 Manukau Heads. 
 
 AMARANTACE^: 
 
 Amarantus caudatus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 in the Auckland district. Cheese- 
 man in 1882 states that it is occasionally seen about gardens, but is 
 hardly naturalised. 
 
 Amarantus retroflexus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 in the Auckland district. Cheese- 
 man in 1882 reports it from the streets of Auckland, and waste places 
 and gardens in the suburbs, not common. In the Manual (1906) it 
 is said to be not uncommon in waste places and gardens in the North 
 Island, and also to occur in Nelson. 
 
 The only flower visitor in Europe was Musca domestica. 
 
 Amarantus hybridus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as abundant in waste places 
 about Auckland; also at the Thames and in most of the country 
 townships in the Auckland district, and as becoming a troublesome 
 weed in gardens in rich or highly-manured soils. In the Manual 
 (1906) it is stated to be "common to the north of the East Cape." 
 
 Amarantus Blitum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1869 by Kirk as occurring in the Auckland 
 district, in 1877, as a rare fugitive weed in Wellington gardens, and 
 again by Cheeseman in 1882 from waste places and streets of Auck- 
 land, but not nearly so common as the preceding. In the Manual 
 (1906) it is reported as not uncommon on roadsides and in waste 
 places as far south as Nelson and Westport. 
 
 Amarantus viridis, Linn. 
 
 Recorded in Hooker's list of 1864 as occurring at the Thames. 
 In 1869 Kirk found it in a solitary locality at the Thames. Later
 
 470 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 recorded by Kirk as occurring in the Auckland district as Euxolus 
 viridis, Moq. In 1882 Cheeseman reports it as in waste places and 
 streets of Auckland, and adds that it was "gathered many years ago 
 at the Bay of Islands, by Allan Cunningham." In the Manual (1906) 
 it is reported to be not uncommon as far south as Wellington. 
 
 Amarantus lividus, Linn. 
 Recorded by Kirk in 1869 from the Auckland district. 
 
 Amarantus oleraceus, Linn. 
 
 Also recorded by Kirk in 1869 in Auckland, and stated (in 1870) 
 to be common on volcanic hills, roadsides, etc. 
 
 As neither of these species has been found since, it looks like a 
 case of mistaken identification. 
 
 Amarantus deflexus, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by Kirk as occurring on a ballast heap in Wellington 
 in 1895. Does not seem to have re-appeared. 
 
 Teleanthera sp. 
 
 Cheeseman records a species of this genus found on "ballast 
 at Aratapu, by the Northern Wairoa River," and adds " I have failed 
 to precisely identify this, which is probably an introduction from 
 South America." 
 
 CHENOPODIACE^) 
 Chenopodium album, Linn. Fat-hen ; Goose-foot 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, again by Kirk in the 
 Auckland district in 1869 as C. viride, L., and in Wellington in 1877. 
 A most abundant weed in cultivated land throughout New Zealand. 
 Horses refuse to eat chaff which contains much of this plant. 
 
 Included among noxious seeds in Schedule 3 of the Noxious 
 Weeds Act of 1900. 
 
 Chenopodium murale, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 in plants from the Thames Gold- 
 fields, and in 1877 from Wellington. Cheeseman in 1882 reports 
 it as plentiful in Auckland district in waste places, roadsides, etc. 
 The Manual (1906) states that it is abundant in similar localities in 
 the North Island. 
 
 Chenopodium Bonus-henricus, Linn. 
 
 Good King Henry ; All- good 
 
 First recorded in 1871 from Canterbury by Armstrong. Cheeseman 
 states that it was "noticed at Onehunga in 1878, but perhaps only
 
 CHENOPODIACE^: 471 
 
 an escape from cultivation." This is repeated in the Manual 1906. 
 It does not appear to have spread. 
 
 Chenopodium urbicum y Linn. 
 
 Though this species appears both in Hooker's Handbook and in 
 Cheeseman's Manual of the New Zealand Flora as an indigenous 
 plant, it is most certainly an introduction, as indeed both recognised. 
 It is first recorded by Kirk in 1869 as a naturalised plant in Auckland. 
 It occurs in a few localities in the North Island, but is fairly common 
 in the South Island, especially in Canterbury and Otago. 
 
 Roubieva multifida, Moq. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring on a ballast heap 
 in Wellington, introduced from Buenos Ayres three years previously. 
 It did not ripen seeds, and did not appear the second year. I am not 
 aware that it has been found elsewhere. 
 
 Beta vulgaris, Linn. Beet 
 
 This species was no doubt introduced in the early days of settle- 
 ment, but it does not seem to have become wild anywhere in the 
 South Island. Polack, who visited the Kaipara district in 1831, 
 records it as cultivated by the Maoris. In the North Island Cheese- 
 man records it in the Manual (1906) as "an occasional escape from 
 cultivation 1 ." 
 
 PHYTOLACCACE^) 
 
 Phytolacca octandra, Linn. Ink-weed ; Poke-weed 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864 as P. decandra, but as 
 Kirk points out this is evidently a mere clerical error. In 1870 Kirk 
 speaks of it as common on roadsides or wherever the soil is disturbed 
 on volcanic hills. In 1882 becoming increasingly abundant, especially 
 on lava streams, and by sides of bush tracks. Cheeseman in the 
 Manual (1906) records it as abundant in the Auckland district. Its 
 seeds are freely distributed by fruit-eating birds. My son, G. Stuart 
 Thomson, writing from Whangarei in 1916, tells me that the fruit 
 is largely eaten by pheasants, and in consequence their flesh becomes 
 very dark-coloured. 
 
 A. Kerner states that thrushes are made ill by the berries of 
 Phytolacca, but this seems to have been an individual case with a 
 cage-bird. In New Zealand thrushes feed freely on the fruit 
 
 1 In 1877, among introduced plants of Wellington, Kirk records Beta cycla, as 
 occurring at Hutton Road. I have no idea what species this is.
 
 472 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 PROTEACEjE 
 Hakea acicularis, R. Br. 
 
 First reported by Cheeseman in 1882, who says of it that it "has 
 established itself over several miles of open Manuka country at the 
 foot of the Waitakerei Range, and is increasing fast. Its origin can be 
 easily traced to a planted hedge in the neighbourhood." In 1893 
 the Agricultural Department recorded it as not uncommon in most 
 of the gumfields, Bay of Islands district. In the Manual (1906) 
 Cheeseman records it as "often planted for hedges in the Auckland 
 District, and frequently spreads." 
 
 This species was declared a noxious weed in the Second Schedule 
 of the Act of 1900. 
 
 Hakea saligna, Knight 
 
 Occasionally planted for garden hedges. In 1907 Cheeseman 
 reports it as having established itself near Waihi, and as spreading 
 rapidly. 
 
 EUPHORBIACE^E 
 Euphorbia Helioscopia, Linn. Sun Spurge 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864 from Auckland Province. 
 In 1877 Kirk reported it from Wellington. In 1882 Cheeseman 
 stated it to be plentiful in light rich soils in the Bay of Islands 
 and Whangarei, but scarcer to the south. The author found it in 
 the neighbourhood of Dunedin in one locality in 1889. Cheeseman 
 in the Manual (1906) says it is not uncommon on roadsides and in 
 waste places as far south as Canterbury. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Eristalis tenax and Lucilia 
 
 Euphorbia Peplus, Linn. Milk-weed 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Nearly every succeeding 
 list contained it ; and at present it is one of the most abundant weeds 
 especially in gardens in New Zealand. 
 
 In Europe the flowers are visited by Eristalis tenax and Lucilia 
 ccesar. 
 
 Euphorbia Lathyris, Linn. Caper Spurge 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1869 in the Auckland district and from 
 Wellington in 1877. In 1882 reported from several localities in the 
 Auckland district, but not common. At present it is found in waste 
 places and gardens in most parts of New Zealand, but is very local 
 in its distribution.
 
 EUPHORBIACE.E 473 
 
 Euphorbia hypericifolia^ Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 from the streets of Auckland. 
 In the Manual (1906) he adds: "once well established, now nearly 
 
 extinct." 
 
 Euphorbia ovalifolia, Engelm. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring on a heap of ballast 
 (from Buenos Ay res) in Wellington. It apparently did not spread. 
 
 Euphorbia segetalis, Linn. 
 
 In 1912 Cheeseman reports this as found on sand-dunes at Tauroa, 
 near Ahipara, by R. H. Matthews and H. Carse. 
 
 Euphorbia cyparissias, Linn. 
 
 Also recorded in 1912 by Cheeseman; collected by J. W. Murphy 
 near Culverden, North Canterbury. 
 
 Mercurialis annua, Linn. Dog's Mercury 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. Has apparently not been collected since. 
 
 Jatropha Curcas, Linn. Physic-nut 
 
 Recorded in Hooker's list in 1864 as occurring in the Auckland 
 provincial district. Cheeseman writes me in 1916: "I believe an 
 attempt to cultivate this at the Bay of Islands was made in the whaling 
 days, when it was probably seen by Hooker." It has certainly not 
 been met with since. 
 
 For anther a ericcefolia, Rudge 
 
 Also recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Said to have been col- 
 lected near Auckland by Dr Sinclair. Has not been seen since. It 
 is a New South Wales species. 
 
 Ricinus communis, Linn. Castor-oil Plant 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list of 1864 as R. Palma-Christi. 
 Cheeseman reports it as not uncommon in warm and dry localities 
 near Auckland. In the Manual (1906) he reports it from "waste 
 places on warm rich soils from Mongonui to the Waikato River, 
 not common." 
 
 URTICE^E 
 Humulus Lupulus, Linn. Hop 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1877 from various spots in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Wellington, and then by Cheeseman in 1882 as an 
 occasional escape from cultivation in the Auckland district. In the
 
 474 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Manual (1906) it is stated to occur in "waste places, hedges, etc." in 
 both islands; an occasional escape from cultivation. I have seen it 
 growing wild, but as an escape only, about New Plymouth. 
 
 Ficus Carica, Linn. Fig 
 
 Probably introduced early last century by the missionaries. Polack 
 found it in cultivation in European gardens in the north of the North 
 Island in 1 83 1 . Recorded by Jerningham Wakefield in 1 840 as growing 
 in Hokianga; and by Kirk in 1870 as abundantly naturalised in many 
 localities in the Waikato district. In 1877 he reported it as occasionally 
 found on the sites of abandoned gardens in Wellington Province. 
 Cheeseman in 1882 reported it "as wonderfully tenacious of life, 
 and not easily killed when once planted. It is thus frequently seen 
 in abandoned gardens, etc., but can hardly be considered naturalised." 
 That is practically the position to-day. 
 
 Urtica wrens, Linn. Small Nettle 
 
 First recorded by Hooker in 1864 in his list of introduced plants, 
 and by Kirk in 1877 from Paikakariki, Wellington. Cheeseman in 
 1882 says this species has made its appearance in waste places about 
 Auckland, but it does not seem to spread. In the Manual (1906) it 
 is stated to occur in waste places in both islands, but not commonly. 
 It occurs occasionally, mixed with horehound, in and around sheep- 
 pens and sheep camping ground. I am not aware of any device by 
 which the fruit can adhere to wool or hair. 
 
 Urtica dioica, Linn. Common Nettle 
 
 First recorded by Dieffenbach in 1839, but his identifications are 
 often doubtful, as Hooker does not record it in 1864. However in 
 1877 Kirk reported it from Wellington, and in 1882 Cheeseman 
 records it as occurring in a few places about Auckland, but not 
 spreading. This species occurs sparingly in waste places in both 
 islands. 
 
 Broussonetia papyrifera, Lam. (?) 
 
 Paper-mulberry ; Aute 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks, who accompanied Captain Cook on his first 
 voyage to New Zealand, records the occurrence of this species: 
 
 " After this," he says in his Journal, " they showed us a great rarity, six 
 plants of what they called aouta, from whence they make cloth like that of 
 Otahite. The plant proved exactly the same, as the name is the same, Morus 
 papyri/era, Linn, (the Paper Mulberry). The same plant is used by the 
 Chinese to make paper. Whether the climate does not agree well with it,
 
 475 
 
 I do not know, but they seemed to value it very much ; that it was very 
 scarce among them I am inclined to believe, as we have not yet seen 
 among them species large enough for any use, but only bits sticking into 
 the holes of their ears." 
 
 According to a Maori tradition the aute shrub was brought to 
 New Zealand by the Oturereao canoe which made the land at 
 Ohiwa, where her crew settled. This was at the time of the great 
 emigration, about twenty generations or five centuries ago. 
 
 The plant is quite extinct in New Zealand now, nor do the Maoris 
 know it; but aute sails and awnings are mentioned in Maori lore. It 
 is still abundant in many tropical and subtropical regions. 
 
 JUGLANDE,E 
 Juglans regia, Linn. Walnut 
 
 Walnuts were probably introduced early last century by mis- 
 sionaries, but the first of which I can find any record, was a tree 
 planted in Newmarket (Manukau Road), Auckland, about 1842. The 
 species has nowhere become naturalised. 
 
 SALICINE^ 
 
 Salix fragilts, Linn. Crack Willow; Withy 
 First reported as a naturalised plant by Armstrong in Canterbury 
 in 1 879 . In the Manual ( 1 906) it is stated to be " abundantly naturalised 
 on the banks of the larger rivers of both islands." It would perhaps 
 be more correct to say that it has been freely planted on the banks 
 of many rivers, and has been spread widely by floods, etc. 
 
 Visited in Europe by Bombus lapidarius, B. terrestris and B. lucorum. 
 
 Salix babylonica, Linn. Weeping Willow 
 First reported by Cheeseman in 1882 as follows: 
 
 The "weeping- willow" was planted many years ago at the Mission 
 Station, at Tangiterora on the Northern Wairoa River, and from branches 
 and twigs floated down the river has established itself in profusion on the 
 banks, often fringing them for miles and in some places impeding the 
 navigation. It is also naturalised on the banks of the Waikato, but not 
 nearly to the same extent. 
 
 Quite recently (1916) five weeping- willows were cut down in Eden 
 Crescent, Auckland, which were brought out by Major Mavis, of 
 the Commissariat Department, about 1861. The vessels coming out 
 touched at St Helena, and the cuttings were taken from the trees 
 growing at Napoleon's grave; they were planted in a box and so 
 transferred to Auckland. The species has been very extensively planted 
 in all parts of New Zealand.
 
 476 DICOTYLEDONS AND CONIFERS 
 
 Salix alba, Linn. White Willow 
 
 Cheeseman reports in 1882 that this species is naturalised on the 
 banks of the Northern Wairoa and the Waikato. Writing in 1912 he 
 suggests that the willows (of various species) which now form a 
 continuous fringe along the banks of the Waikato, doubtless originated 
 from seeds, etc., floated from Taupiri, where they were planted by 
 missionaries prior to 1850. 
 
 In Europe the catkins are visited by Bombus lapidarius, B. lucorum 
 and B. terrestris. 
 
 CUPULIFER/E 
 Quercus Robur, Linn. Oak 
 
 Apparently the first oak trees planted in New Zealand were those 
 at Hokianga and the Bay of Islands, introduced nearly a century ago. 
 
 The first planted in Auckland grew from acorns sent from 
 Sydney; Mr Cleghorn, Superintendent of Public Works, sowed them 
 in 1841 or 1842 in the Government Gardens. The young trees were 
 planted at Government House in 1844 or 1845. Those in the Domain 
 were planted by Mr Chalmers in 1863. 
 
 They come up freely in plantations (Whangarei, Katikati, etc.) 
 and are spreading over fairly wide areas. Both varieties, sessiliflora 
 and pedunculata, are common. 
 
 The larva of the native longicorn beetle (Prionoplus reticularis) 
 attacks oaks in northern districts of New Zealand. W. W. Smith says 
 it is more severe on Q. pedunculata than on Q. sessiliflora. 
 
 BETULACE^) 
 
 Alnus glutinosa, Linn. Alder 
 Cheeseman in 1912 reports that: 
 
 old trees of the alder have spontaneously appeared in not a few stations 
 along the banks of the lower Waikato, from Huntly to within a few miles 
 of the mouth of the river. Probably they have originated from seeds 
 floated from Taupiri, where I understand it was planted bv the mis- 
 sionaries prior to 1850. 
 
 CONIFERS 
 
 Pinus Pinaster, Sol. (P. maritima, Lamarck) 
 This species spreads very freely and to a great distance. Maxwell 
 thinks "the seeds are carried by imported birds, which are very 
 fond of most of the pine seeds." It is said to be growing wild at 
 Hokianga, in many parts of the Auckland Province, and in Taranaki. 
 An interesting occurrence of it is on the Balmoral estate in stony 
 sour clay land, lying between the Balmoral Hills and the Hurunui
 
 CONIFERS 477 
 
 River in Canterbury. There, some twenty trees are growing quite 
 irregularly in the poorer parts of the land where it is covered with 
 manuka scrub, and they were certainly not planted. Mr T. H. Foote 
 of Christchurch tells me that similar trees grow at the glens of 
 Tekoa homestead ten or twelve miles to the north-west, and while 
 he thinks the seeds are too heavy to be wind-blown, yet the prevalent 
 wind is from the north-west, and it occasionally blows with great 
 violence. 
 
 W. W. Smith reported it in 1903 as spreading in the Ashburton 
 County. 
 
 T. W. Adams of Greendale, Canterbury, a leading authority on 
 arboriculture, says: 
 
 Pinus pinaster has so well established itself in some parts of the country 
 as to have been considered by some enthusiast or other as a native, and 
 many years ago seeds were sent to Europe as such, and named Pinus 
 Nova-Zealandica. I have seen it myself growing quite in a natural manner 
 in all sorts of unlikely places but I look upon it as a very useless pine to 
 cultivate. 
 
 Mr J. Attwood (March, 1916) says this species is plentiful at Riverhead 
 in the Waitemata district. A few miles out of Silverdale on the Auck- 
 land Road, hundreds of acres of scrub-covered land are sprinkled with 
 this tree. 
 
 Pinus radiatd) Don. (P. insignis) 
 
 Cockayne says of this species that it is spreading naturally in 
 pumice country about Taupo, and is becoming common. He con- 
 siders that it is distributed by wind, as is the case on the Hurunui 
 Plains, and at Glyn Wye. Similar evidence is given in the report 
 of the Royal Commission on Forestry in 1913 (probably from the 
 same source), where it is stated to be seeding freely and to be 
 spreading, especially on manuka country. Maxwell also reports 
 it as spreading to a distance from plantations, but attributes its 
 dispersal to birds. He states that the seedlings occur mostly on clay 
 banks or bare clay places. 
 
 A correspondent of Mr Jas. Drummond's says it grows strongly 
 at Manganuiteao, west of Ruapehu, and reproduces itself among the 
 scrub. 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens, Endl. Californian Red- wood 
 
 Self-sown seedlings of this species were found in the plantations 
 at Hora Hora (Whangarei) in April, 1919.
 
 Chapter XII 
 
 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 MONOCOTYLEDONS 
 
 HYDROCHARIDE^E 
 
 Elodea canadensis (Anacharis canadensis), Planch. 
 
 Canadian Water-thyme 
 
 According to Armstrong (who wrote in 1871) this species was 
 introduced in 1868 by the Canterbury Society, and put into their 
 ponds, from whence it escaped into the Avon. It was brought over 
 from Tasmania at various times in the water containing perch, tench 
 and goldfish, and was also sent over to the Society by Mr Morton 
 Allport of Hobart "as a valuable pond-weed for fish." Only female 
 plants were introduced, but it spreads by portions of the stem, and 
 is now abundant throughout New Zealand. In the Avon at the present 
 time (1916) it is being strangled in many parts by a species of Nitella. 
 
 Vallisneria spiralis, Linn. 
 
 This was first introduced into Canterbury by Mr A. M. Johnson 
 in 1864. In 1885, Mr E. Bartley introduced it from Melbourne to 
 Auckland, and placed some in Lake Takapuna, where it soon in- 
 creased, and became a very serious pest. Fortunately it does not 
 seed, as only one sex the female was introduced. This is the case 
 also in Australia. 
 
 Ottelia ovalifolia, L. Rich. 
 
 This species was first observed by Cheeseman in 1897 in ponds 
 near Manakau Harbour, but whether brought purposely from Australia 
 or introduced by accident, is not known. It is now found in lakes, 
 ponds and streams in the Auckland district, and I have met with 
 it at Hawera. It is becoming a very serious pest in the Waikato. 
 
 SCITAMINE^) 
 
 Canna indica, Linn. Indian Shot 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as a garden escape of 
 moderately frequent occurrence in Auckland Province. The same 
 report appears in the Manual, 1906.
 
 479 
 
 IRIDE^E 
 Iris germanica, Linn. Flag-lily 
 
 First recorded in 1869 by Kirk as occurring in the Thames 
 Goldfield, and in Wellington in 1877. Cheeseman in 1882 reports 
 that "this species, originally a garden escape, has now firmly estab- 
 lished itself in most districts." It is abundant in many parts of the 
 North Island, but has scarcely spread in the south, where it never 
 ripens seeds. 
 
 Visited in Europe by Bombus hortorum. 
 
 Iris susiana, Linn. 
 
 In 1877 Kirk recorded this species among introduced plants of 
 Wellington, as "not unfrequent on the sites of abandoned home- 
 steads, etc." It has probably died out. 
 
 Iris pseud-acorus, Linn. Yellow Flag 
 
 First recorded in 1877 by Kirk as occurring in the Hutt Valley 
 near Wellington. Kirk also recorded it later from near Nelson, and 
 S. Percy Smith from Mount Egmont Ranges. It occurs in many 
 localities in water holes, ponds and lagoons, but has in most places 
 been purposely introduced. 
 
 It is visited in Europe by Apis mellifica and Bombus hortorum. 
 
 Sisyrinchium chilense, Hook. 
 
 Probably this was the species collected at Matamata and recorded 
 by Kirk in 1869 as S. anceps, Linn. It was reported again by him 
 in 1877 from the hills about Wellington. In 1906 Cheeseman records 
 it as occurring in "fields and waste places from Auckland to Otago, 
 but often local." Cockayne records it from the neighbourhood of 
 Queenstown in 1908. Not uncommon about Wellington in 1918. 
 
 In November, 1918, I saw sparrows working among wild plants 
 of this species, near the Botanical Gardens, Wellington. They jumped 
 on the plants so as to bend the flowering stems, and appeared to be 
 sucking the nectar. I could not see or find anything else they could get. 
 
 Sisyrinchium Bermudianum, Linn. Blue-eyed Grass 
 Buchanan recorded this from Kawau in 1876, and Cheeseman 
 from fields in Auckland Isthmus in 1882. As he does not refer to 
 it in the Manual, it may be that it is a synonym of the preceding 
 
 species. 
 
 Sisyrinchium striatum, Cavan. 
 
 Recorded in 1903 by W. W. Smith as occurring in Ashburton 
 County.
 
 480 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 Sisyrinchium micranthum, Cav. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1896 from the North Cape 
 district. In the Manual (1906) he defines the locality more exactly 
 as "sandy shores of Spirits Bay, North Cape district." 
 
 Gladiolus byzantinus, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by Kirk in 1869 from the Auckland district, but ap- 
 parently only a fugitive garden escape, which does not succeed in 
 naturalising itself. In 1882 Cheeseman records Gladiolus, sp. as a 
 frequent garden escape. 
 
 Aniholyza tethiopica, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in the Auckland district in 1869 by T. Kirk. 
 Cheeseman in 1882 states that it "has established itself in several 
 localities near Auckland." In the Manual (1906) it is reported as 
 occurring in "fields and waste places from Auckland to Otago, but 
 often local." 
 
 Spar axis tricolor, Ker. 
 
 Cheeseman records this in 1882 as a garden escape near Auckland, 
 not common. Apparently it has not established itself. 
 
 AMARYLLIDE^E 
 Agave americanajLiinn. American Aloe 
 
 First recorded as a garden escape in the Auckland district by 
 Kirk, and in 1877 near deserted homesteads in Wellington. Cheese- 
 man in 1882 states that old plants throw up a multitude of suckers. 
 The author noticed it in great profusion at Russell in the Bay of 
 Islands in 1884. 
 
 Narcissus biflorus, Curt. 
 
 Recorded among introduced plants on Kapiti in 1906 by 
 L. Cockayne. 
 
 DIOSCORIDE,E 
 Dioscorea alata. Yam 
 
 This species was cultivated for a short time at the Bay of Islands, 
 but by whom introduced, I am not sure, and was recorded by Hooker 
 in 1864. Kirk could find no wild specimens in 1869. Polack says 
 the Kaipara natives cultivated the yam, which he calls Kaipakeha, 
 in the Kaipara district (1831); but his identifications are doubtful.
 
 BUTOMEjE 481 
 
 NUDIFLOR^) 
 
 BUTOMEtf) 
 Hydrocleis nymphceoides, Buchen. 
 
 Reported by Cheeseman in 1898 as occurring in the Thames 
 Valley at Te Aroha. In 1912 he records the history of its introduction 
 as follows: 
 
 I am indebted to Mr Neve for numerous specimens of this handsome 
 water-plant, which he informs me is now plentiful in several lagoons or 
 backwaters near the Thames River, at Te Aroha, and is apparently rapidly 
 increasing. According to inquiries kindly made for me by Mr Neve, it 
 was planted nearly twenty years ago by a Mr Wood in a lagoon on his 
 property about a mile and a half from Te Aroha. In this locality it now 
 covers an area of more than an acre in extent, and has become a con- 
 siderable nuisance, blocking up drains and water-channels. The beauty 
 of the flowers has induced several settlers to transfer it to other localities 
 near Te Aroha. In all of these it is rapidly increasing, and there is every 
 probability of its spread in suitable places in the Thames Valley. 
 
 ALISMACE^E 
 
 Alisma Plantago, Linn. Water Plantain 
 
 First recorded by Colenso as collected by H. Hill in water- 
 courses in Hawke's Bay (R. Tukituki) in 1892. Later from the in- 
 terior of Otago, Tokomairiro River, E. of Milton, by Petrie, and by 
 Cheeseman from near Marton in 1906. 
 
 NAIADES 
 
 Aponogeton distachyon, Thunb. Cape Water-lily 
 Kirk first records this in the Auckland district in 1869 as abundant 
 in streams and ponds in the Bay of Islands and Whangarei, but says 
 he was informed by Hutton that it was introduced by the missionaries 
 at Waimate. Cheeseman says (1921) that it is common in shallow 
 water throughout the North Island. 
 
 CORONARIEjE 
 
 LILIACE^ 
 
 Asparagus officinalis, Linn. Asparagus 
 
 Introduced early last century. First recorded as a garden escape 
 by Kirk in 1869 in the Auckland district. He also reports it from 
 near Wellington in 1877, and adds: "Solitary plants are sometimes 
 found originating from seed carried by birds. It can scarcely expect 
 to maintain its position, except perchance in maritime localities." 
 Cheeseman in 1882 states that solitary plants are frequently seen, 
 doubtless originating from seeds conveyed by birds from gardens. 
 T. N. z. 31
 
 482 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 Aloe latifolia, Haw. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as an escape from gardens 
 near Auckland. Same record in 1906. 
 
 Asphodelus fistulosus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1868 by Kirk as growing at Mongonui; where 
 it was also reported as plentiful by Cheeseman in 1882. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is reported as not uncommon on roadsides and in 
 waste places from Mongonui to Napier. Townson also reports it 
 from Westport. 
 
 Allium vineale, Linn. Crow Garlic ; Wild Onion 
 
 Both Taylor (in Te Ika a Maui) and Polack state that "Marion 
 sowed garlick, which has taken possession of the Bay of Islands." 
 Captain Marion visited New Zealand in 1772. Darwin in 1835 says 
 of the Bay of Islands district: "a leek has overrun whole districts, 
 and will prove very troublesome; but it was imported as a favour 
 by a French vessel." Cheeseman reports it in 1882 as "not un- 
 common, especially in abandoned Maori cultivations, and sandy flats 
 near the sea." It seems to be confined to the Auckland provincial 
 district. Polack states that the natives cultivated the garlic in the 
 Kaipara district in 1831, but his identification is doubtful. 
 
 In Europe the species is visited by Bombus lapidarius. 
 
 Allium Cepa, Linn. Onion 
 
 Captain Cook sowed onions in his newly-cleared gardens in Queen 
 Charlotte Sound in 1773, and they were found again when the spot 
 was revisited in 1777. 
 
 Dieffenbach found them in native cultivations in New Plymouth 
 in 1839. 
 
 Polack in 1831 speaks of shallots as cultivated in the Kaipara 
 districts, and he distinguishes them from onions, which he also 
 specifically names. 
 
 Allium Porrum, Linn. Leek 
 
 This species also was among the seeds sown by Furneaux in 
 Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773. According to Buick: "it is said 
 that to-day in remote parts of the Sound, leeks are still to be seen 
 growing wild, the perpetuated progeny of those sown by Captain 
 Furneaux in 1773." Dieffenbach found them cultivated in native 
 gardens in New Plymouth in 1839. 
 
 Polack found them cultivated by Maoris in Kaipara in 1831.
 
 LILIACE^E 483 
 
 Alliumfragrans, Linn. Wild Onion; Sweet-scented Garlic 
 The Agricultural Department reported this in 1899 as "spreading 
 in warmer portions of the Colony." The identification is doubtful; 
 Cheeseman does not mention the species. 
 
 Cor dy line terminalis, Kunth. Ti pore 
 
 In 1895 Mr T. Kirk described a species of palm lily which was 
 found at Ahipara in a garden there, as Cordyline Cheesemanii. Two 
 specimens were growing which had been found in different localities 
 in the same neighbourhood. In 1900 Archdeacon Walsh described 
 two specimens which were in the garden of a Miss M. A. Clarke in 
 Waimate North, and which that lady found in a long-deserted native 
 village in the neighbourhood. Mr J. B. Clarke told Canon Walsh 
 that in the fifties the same plant was to be found in many native 
 settlements in the north, and that he had seen it about Lake Omapere. 
 The natives formerly used to eat the root, which was very large, 
 long and succulent; they called the plant " Ti pore" Cheeseman 
 identified this with Cordyline terminalis, a species found very abun- 
 dantly in Polynesia and westwards to India. The Ahipara specimens 
 were found to belong to the same. In the Manual of the New Zealand 
 Flora, Cheeseman says this species was 
 
 " formerly cultivated by the Maoris in the Bay of Islands and other northern 
 districts; now nearly extinct." "Walsh mentions other instances of C.termi- 
 nalis having been found in old Maori cultivations, and argues with much 
 probability that the plant was originally introduced by the Maoris on 
 their first colonisation of New Zealand." 
 
 A tradition, mentioned by Mr Best, and already referred to here 
 (p. 12) states that the ti was brought by the Nukutere canoe which 
 landed at Waiaua near Opitiki; that is about five hundred years ago. 
 
 In a recent letter Mr Elsdon Best writes (Aug. 1916) as follows 
 regarding Cordyline terminalis: 
 
 I do not know and have not seen this. Walsh calls it Tipore. But the 
 ti para, which T. F. Cheeseman says is quite distinct from C, terminalis, 
 was a cultivated species or variety on both coasts. The ti tawhiti of Taranaki 
 seems to be the same thing. I have never seen the ti para growing wild, 
 that is away from places where natives have lived. This is curious. 
 Apparently it has no specific name. I am told that it is still found up the 
 Whanganui River, where it is known as ti Kowhiti. It was cultivated for 
 food purposes. The leaves of one I grew were an inch and a half wide; 
 this came from the last (I think) surviving plant in the Bay of Plenty. The 
 natives do not seem to have preserved traditions of the introduction of 
 Cordyline; it was possibly brought, with the Karaka, from Sunday Island. 
 
 In the list of Maori names of plants in the Appendix to Cheese- 
 man's Flora the name ti para is given on the authority of Williams 
 as "Cordyline sp. cultivated for the sugary root." 
 
 312
 
 484 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 COMMELYNE^) 
 Tradescantia fluminensis, Veil. 
 
 Reported by Carse in 1915 from Mongonui County as growing 
 on creek-banks and in lowland woods, spreading rapidly. In 1919 
 Mr Cheeseman states that it is a garden escape in many localities 
 in the vicinity of Auckland, where it has received the local name of 
 "wandering jew." It has become specially abundant on portions of 
 the Mount Eden lava-fields. Mr Aston states that it is spreading 
 fast in the vicinity of Wellington. 
 
 PONTEDERIACE^E 
 
 Eichhornia crassipes, Solms. The Water-hyacinth 
 Introduced as an ornamental water-plant. Has become naturalised 
 at Te Aroha in the Thames Valley; first recorded by Cheeseman in 
 1898. It is commonly cultivated in ponds and tanks, and tends to 
 spread where not subjected to frost. In 1912 he reports it again on 
 the authority of F. Neve, as established in a lagoon at Te Aroha, and 
 issues a warning against its being allowed to spread. This is a most 
 dangerous pest in many Australian rivers, causing floods by its com- 
 pletely blocking their channels. Fortunately most New Zealand 
 streams are too cold for it. 
 
 JUNCE^) 
 
 Juncus glaucus, Sibth. 
 Recorded by Kirk as occurring between Hokitika and Ross. 
 
 Juncus Gerhardi, Loisel 
 
 Reported from near Dunedin by Petrie, near Anderson's Bay, 
 Otago Harbour. It has not been met with for over twenty years. 
 
 Juncus obtusiflorus, Ehr. 
 
 Found at the southern end of Lake Waihola in Otago, by Petrie. 
 Not collected since its first discovery. 
 
 ARACE^ 
 Richardia africana, Kunth (Calla cethiopica) 
 
 White Arum ; Arum-lily 
 
 Probably introduced at an early date last century. First recorded 
 as a garden escape in 1869 in the Auckland district by Kirk, and in 
 1877 fr m tne Hutt, Wellington, "probably planted." Stated by 
 Cheeseman in 1882 to be plentiful about Auckland and many country 
 townships, in ditches and waste places. The author noticed it in
 
 ARACE/E 485 
 
 abundance in 1884 in the Bay of Islands. It is truly naturalised in 
 many places in Taranaki and Wellington as far south as Cook Strait ; 
 in the South Island it is mostly a garden escape. 
 
 Colocasia antiquorum, Schott. Taro 
 
 This plant was cultivated by the Maoris at the time of Captain 
 Cook's visit to New Zealand, and Banks refers to it under the name 
 of Cocos. According to Cheeseman it still lingers in many deserted 
 plantations. It is extensively cultivated in several tropical regions, and 
 there is no doubt the Maoris brought it with them from Polynesia. 
 
 Mr Elsdon Best informs me that "tradition says that one Roau 
 came in the Nukutere canoe, landing at Waiaua near Opotiki; and 
 brought with him the Karaka, the Ti and the Taro. The two latter 
 are known as Te Huri a Roau." This was about twenty generations 
 or five hundred years ago. 
 
 Mr S. Percy Smith says: "the strong probability is that it was 
 introduced after the times of Toi" (circa 1150 A.D.) "and probably 
 by most of the canoes subsequent to his time." 
 
 Polack, writing of 1831-37, says: 
 
 Various species of Taro are planted in the island, especially southward. 
 The taro oia or soldier taro has a blue cast, within a thin atramentous skin. 
 Another species (espece) has a remarkable, lotus-like leaf, and thrives 
 best in a swampy soil. 
 
 Canon Walsh states that Maori whalers in the early part of the 
 1 9th century introduced the taro hoia, a large coarse variety ; evidently 
 the one referred to by Polack. 
 
 According to Mr Best, the taro is now (1917) found growing 
 in water courses in the Bay of Islands district, near old native cultiva- 
 tions. 
 
 Mr A. E. Pickmere of Te Aroha describes the flowering of the 
 Taro, as does Miss Coutts of Onehunga, in June, 1910. The former 
 thinks the plant seldom flowers in New Zealand. Mr Cheeseman 
 says it occasionally flowers, but the natives regularly multiplied it by 
 root-division 1 . 
 
 1 In Hooker's list of introduced plants in the Auckland district published in 
 1864, he gives Alocasia indica ((?) A. macrorhiza, Schott, and (?) Colocasia 
 macrorhiza, Schott) as recently introduced by the natives. Kirk in 1869 reported 
 that he had not seen specimens. 
 
 In Buchanan's list of naturalised plants occurring on Kawau in 1876, he gives 
 Caladium esculentum, Willd., but, apparently by a slip records it under Cucurbitaceae.
 
 486 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 GLUMIFLO&E 
 CYPERACE^) 
 
 Cyperus rotundus, Linn. Nut-grass 
 
 Cheeseman writes in 1882 : "the well-known ' nut-grass ' has found 
 its way into several gardens in the vicinity of Auckland, and is likely 
 to prove a serious pest, as its numerous tubers make it difficult to 
 eradicate." In 1906 he states that it is a troublesome weed in these 
 localities. 
 
 Cyperus lucidus, R. Br. 
 
 First recorded (but not named) by Cheeseman in 1882, from 
 Mongonui. Later R. H. Matthews and H. Carse report it from 
 Rangaunu Harbour and Kaitaia, and Cheeseman records it from 
 Nelson. 
 
 Cyperus vegetus, Willd. 
 
 Recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring on a ballast heap in 
 Wellington. Since found in several localities in the Auckland and 
 Wellington districts. 
 
 Car ex divisa, Huds. 
 
 Stated in the Manual (1906) to occur rarely in waste places near 
 Auckland. 
 
 Car ex muricata, Linn. 
 
 Reported from Pelorus Valley, Marlborough, by J. Rutland. 
 
 Carex flacca, Schreb. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) this is recorded as occurring in fields and 
 waste places in various localities in the North Island ; found at Whan- 
 garei by H. Carse, in the vicinity of Auckland by Cheeseman, and 
 near Wellington by Kirk. 
 
 Carex panicea, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882, from the vicinity of Auck- 
 land, and Mahurangi. 
 
 Carex longifolia, R. Br. 
 
 Recorded in the Manual (1906) as occurring in fields near Auck- 
 land, rare 1 . 
 
 1 In 1903 W. W. Smith recorded Sclavia verticillata, Palisot, from Ashburton 
 County. There does not appear to be any grass with this generic name, and the 
 nearest approaches to it appear to be Sclaria, a labiate allied to Salvia, and Scleria 
 a genus belonging to the Cyperaceae.
 
 GRAMINE^E 487 
 
 GRAMINE^) 
 
 Andropogon annulatus, Forsk. 
 
 Cheeseman reports this in the Manual in 1906 as occurring at 
 Mongonui, where Carse also found it in 1910. 
 
 Anthistiria imberbis, Retz. Kangaroo-grass 
 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list as A. australis. Again 
 referred to in Kirk's list of Auckland plants in 1869 as having been 
 found by Dr Sinclair, and there named A. ciliata, Linn. 
 
 Apparently this is the species recorded by Kirk as A. australis, Br., 
 in 1877, which was collected on the Lower Rangitata. In the Manual 
 (1906) it is reported to occur in fields and waste places at the Bay of 
 Islands, Whangaparaoa near Auckland, and in the vicinity of Wel- 
 lington. 
 
 Paspalum dilatatum, Poir 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring on a heap of ballast 
 (from Buenos Ayres) in Wellington. In 1896 recorded by Cheeseman 
 from the North Cape district. Messrs Yates and Co. (of Auckland 
 and Sydney) claim that they introduced it as a fodder plant from 
 Australia in 1895, but it is a South American species. Cheeseman 
 speaks of it in 1906 as "increasing in several localities." My son, 
 G. Stuart Thomson, writing from Whangarei in 1916, says: 
 it is now one of the most aggressive plants we have in the north, and is 
 looked on by some farmers as a pest, as bad as tall fescue. When it gets 
 a hold in cultivated land, ploughing is almost an impossibility. 
 It is now used as a pasture grass in Westland. 
 
 Panicum miliaceum, Linn. Millet 
 
 In 1772 Crozet sowed seeds of this grain in the garden he formed 
 on Moutouaro Island, and apparently, it sprouted and appeared above 
 ground before the expedition sailed from New Zealand. It has not, 
 however, been cultivated to any extent in this country, and has never 
 been found in the wild state. 
 
 Panicum sanguinale, Linn. Crab-grass 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Kirk reports it from near 
 Castle Point in 1877, as Digitaria sanguinalis, Scop. Recorded in 1882 
 by Cheeseman as a common and troublesome weed in light rich soils 
 throughout the Auckland district. In the Manual (1906) it is char- 
 acterised as a common weed in waste places and cultivated ground. 
 
 Panicum glabrum, Gaud. 
 
 First recorded from the Auckland district by Kirk in 1869 as 
 Digitaria humifusa, Pers. In 1882 Cheeseman recorded it from the
 
 488 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 vicinity of Auckland, but not common. In the Manual (1906) it is 
 stated to be an occasional weed in cultivated ground. 
 
 Panicum Crus-galli y Linn. Cockspur-grass 
 
 First recorded from Auckland district by Kirk in 1870 as Echino- 
 chloa crus-galli. Stated by Cheeseman in 1882 to be not common. 
 In the Manual (1906) it is reported as not uncommon in waste places 
 as far south as Canterbury and Westport. 
 
 Panicum colonum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Cheeseman reports it 
 in 1882 only at Onehunga. In the Manual (1906) it is said to occur 
 rarely in waste places from Auckland to Wellington. 
 
 Panicum Linderheimeri, Nash 
 
 Recorded from near Kaitaia, Mongonui County, in 1915, as rare; 
 found by H. B. Matthews. Cheeseman states (1919) that it was 
 originally found on the summit of a hill by Kerikeri Pa, near Kaitaia ; 
 but it has since been observed in several localities in the district. 
 
 Setaria glauca, Beauv. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864 as Panicum glaucum. 
 Reported in 1882 by Cheeseman as a weed in a few gardens at One- 
 hunga. In the Manual (1906) it is reported as not uncommon in 
 waste places and cultivated fields. 
 
 Setaria verticillata, Beauv. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) stated to occur at Napier, collected by 
 Colenso, and at Ashburton by W. W. Smith. 
 
 Setaria viridis, Beauv. 
 
 First recorded from the Auckland district by Kirk in 1869. 
 Cheeseman reports it in 1882 from the vicinity of Auckland, rare. 
 Kirk refers to S. italica, P. de Beauv., as having been first observed 
 by W. T. Bassett at Papatoitoi in 1863, and " now (1869) being found 
 for miles by the roadsides." Cheeseman thinks (1916) that Kirk's 
 plant is S. viridis. In the Manual (1906) it is stated to be not un- 
 common in waste places and cultivated fields in the North Island. 
 
 Setaria imberbis, Roem. and Schult. 
 
 Collected by Kirk on a ballast heap at Wellington in 1895. It did 
 not increase, and has not been found since. 
 
 Stenotaphrum glabrum, Trin. Buffalo-grass 
 First recorded in 1871 by Kirk among introduced grasses in 
 Auckland Province. Cheeseman says of it in 1882 : "Has been planted
 
 GRAMINE^E 489 
 
 in many localities, and in some is spreading; but, as it seldom ripens 
 perfect seed, its increase is necessarily slow." In the Manual (1906) 
 it is said to be a common escape from cultivation in the North Island. 
 It is now (1921) abundant in some of the Auckland sand-dunes. 
 
 Zizania aguatica, Linn. Canadian Wild Rice 
 
 Recorded by Cheesemanin the Manual ( 1906) as being "naturalised 
 by the Northern Wairoa River, near Aratapu." Various acclimatisa- 
 tion societies are constantly trying to introduce this and other allied 
 grasses as food for wild ducks. 
 
 Phalaris canariensis, Linn. Canary-grass 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864; then by Kirk from Wel- 
 lington in 1877. It is now (1917) an abundant weed in fields and 
 waste places in both islands. 
 
 Phalaris arundinacea, Linn. Reed-grass 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1877 as occurring "by a tributary of 
 the Waiwetu; probably planted." It does not seem to have been 
 found anywhere else, or recorded since. 
 
 Zea Mays, Linn. Maize ; Indian Corn 
 
 In 1793 Governor King gave the natives of the Bay of Islands 
 district two bushels of Maize, and they appear to have made good 
 use of the seed. Nicholas, who accompanied Marsden to New Zealand, 
 recorded Indian corn as being cultivated freely in 1914; and Earle 
 reports it as very abundant in and about Russell in 1827. 
 
 The first recorded introduction of maize is in 1772, when Crozet 
 formed a garden on Moutouaro Island, and sowed seeds of this 
 among other grains. He says: "everything succeeded admirably, 
 several of the grains sprouted and appeared above ground," before 
 the expedition sailed away from New Zealand. 
 
 I am not aware of its occurrence anywhere in the country as a 
 naturalised form. 
 
 Anthoxanthum odoratum, Linn. Sweet Vernal-grass 
 Probably introduced early last century ; first recorded in Hooker's 
 list in 1864. It occurs in every subsequent list of introduced grasses, 
 and is remarkably abundant in all parts of the country. It flowers 
 from September to November. 
 
 Stipa verticillata, Nees 
 
 In the Manual (1906) reported by Kirk from near Wellington, 
 and by Travers from Nelson.
 
 490 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 Phleum pratense, Linn. Timothy 
 
 Certainly an early introduction ; first recorded in Hooker's list in 
 1864. Cheeseman remarks (1882) that it is not nearly so abundant 
 as it should be, considering the extent to which it is sown. The 
 author's experience is that it dies out of most pastures in two or 
 three years. It is, however, abundant in grass lands throughout New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Phleum arenarium, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 from Ashburton County. Not 
 observed since. 
 
 Alopecurus pratensis, Linn. Meadow Foxtail 
 Introduced at an early date into New Zealand ; first recorded by 
 the author as occurring in Southland in 1870. Cheeseman reported 
 it in 1882 in fields from Auckland to Waikato, but not common, and 
 in the Manual (1906) as not uncommon in meadows and pastures 
 in both islands. One of our best introduced grasses. 
 
 Alopecurus agrestts, Linn. Slender Foxtail ; 
 
 Field Foxtail 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Cheeseman reported it in 
 1882 as occurring in most districts of the north in fields and by road- 
 sides, but nowhere common. In 1906 the same comment holds good. 
 
 Milium effusum, Linn. Millet-grass 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County. Not collected since. 
 
 Polypogon littoralis, Sm. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 from Ashburton County, but 
 not collected since. 
 
 Polypogon monspeliensis, Desf. Beard-grass 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1877 from Wellington, then by the 
 author in 1878, as occurring on heaps of tailings, etc., in Strath - 
 Taieri. Cheeseman in 1882 reported it from muddy places on the 
 shores of the Manukau and Waitemata harbours, increasing rapidly. 
 In the Manual (1906) it is reported as abundant on roadsides and 
 in waste places in both islands. 
 
 Polypogon fugax, Nees. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as occurring and increasing 
 rapidly in waste places and ditches on the Auckland Isthmus, and
 
 491 
 
 at Thames. In 1912 he states: "this has spread very rapidly in the 
 Auckland Provincial District, and is now common in most districts 
 in brackish-water swamps." 
 
 Agrostis vulgaris, With. Red-top; 
 
 Fine Bent-grass ; Black Couch 
 
 First mentioned in Hooker's list in 1864. Now (1917) very 
 abundant in fields and waste places throughout both islands. A useless 
 weed, very troublesome in arable land. 
 
 Agrostis alba, Linn. Fiorin 
 
 No doubt introduced at an early date, but recorded for the first 
 time by Kirk in 1877 from Wellington and then by Cheeseman in 
 1882, as generally distributed in the Auckland district, but affecting 
 somewhat stiff and damp soils. An abundant grass in pastures 
 and waste ground in 1917, in all cultivated parts of New Zealand. 
 Frequently crowds out other and better grasses. 
 
 Gastridium australe, Beauv. Nit-grass 
 
 First recorded by T. Kirk in 1867, in introduced plants of Great 
 Barrier Island, as G. lendigerum, Gaud., and in 1869 in list of Auck- 
 land plants as G. lanigerum. In 1877 it was reported from Wellington 
 on the authority of Buchanan. Cheeseman in 1882 reported it from 
 Auckland Isthmus, Waitakerei and Otahuhu, and in the Manual 
 (1906) stated that it was not uncommon in waste places and on road- 
 sides in the North Island. 
 
 Ammophila arundinacea, Host. Marram-grass 
 First recorded in 1872 by Buchanan, from Miramar, Wellington. 
 In 1882 Cheeseman stated that it had been planted on the west 
 coast of the Auckland Province to check the progress of sand-dunes 
 and that "it may be expected to increase, as it has done at Taranaki 
 and Nelson." It was planted freely about Dunedin before 1894, and 
 at New Brighton near Christchurch in 1899; and has since been 
 distributed somewhat freely wherever efforts are made to bind drifting 
 sand. I do not think it has spread to any very great extent naturally. 
 
 Lagurus ovatus, Linn. Hare's-tail Grass 
 
 First recorded in 1872 by Buchanan from Miramar, Wellington. 
 According to Cheeseman, extremely plentiful on Motuihi Island in 
 1882, but rare in Auckland. It is not uncommon in waste places, 
 especially near the sea, in both islands and is common on wet ground 
 in parts of Central Otago.
 
 492 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 Holcus lanatus, Linn. Yorkshire-fog ; Soft-grass 
 Probably introduced very early; first recorded by Hooker in 1864. 
 A most abundant grass in fields and on roadsides, in both islands. 
 In damp land this is readily eaten by cattle, but as a general rule it 
 is a poor grass, and takes the place of better pasture grasses. According 
 to Cheeseman sheep eat this more readily than any of the indigenous 
 grasses on runs. 
 
 Holcus mollis, Linn. Fog ; Soft-grass 
 
 With the last an early introduction; first recorded by Hooker in 
 1864. Also a common grass in similar localities to those occupied 
 by the preceding species, but by no means so abundant. 
 
 Air a Caryophyllea, Linn. Hair-grass 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1870 from the neighbourhood of Auck- 
 land, where it was common in most localities in 1882. Also in 1877 
 from Wellington. In 1917 an abundant grass in meadows, waste 
 places and sides of roads. 
 
 Airaprcecox, Linn. Hair-grass 
 
 Cheeseman reports that a few plants of this species were observed 
 near Waiuku (Auckland) in 1877. In the Manual (1906) it is reported 
 as not uncommon in fields and waste places in both islands. 
 
 Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin. Wavy Hair-grass 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as occurring in fields on 
 the Auckland Isthmus. In the Manual (1906) said to occur locally 
 in heathy places in both islands. 
 
 Eleusine indica, Gaertn. 
 
 This species is indigenous in the Kermadec Islands, but has been 
 introduced into New Zealand, and was first recorded in 1864, in 
 Hooker's list, as occurring near Auckland. It has also been met with 
 at Westport. 
 
 Eleusine coracana, Gaeftn. 
 
 Recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring on a ballast heap at 
 Wellington. It evidently did not become established. 
 
 Avena sativa, Linn. Common Oat 
 
 Apparently first introduced by Captain Cook in 1773. Forster 
 tells us that in the various gardens made in Queen Charlotte Sound 
 "he had likewise sown corn of several sorts." In 1882 Cheeseman 
 made the interesting statement that this species "has become exten- 
 sively naturalised on sea-cliffs in the northern and central portions
 
 GRAMINE^E 493 
 
 of the Auckland district, in addition to frequently occurring in fields 
 as an escape from cultivation." It is chiefly as an escape that it is 
 met with now (1921) in all parts of New Zealand. 
 
 Avena fatua, Linn. Wild Oat Grass; Havers 
 First recorded in 1871 by Armstrong, from the Canterbury dis- 
 trict. In the Manual (1906) stated to be abundant in waste places 
 and cultivated fields throughout New Zealand. 
 
 Avena strigosa, Schreb. Hairy Oat; 
 
 Bristle-pointed Oat 
 
 I do not find this recorded earlier than 1906, in Cheeseman's 
 Manual, where it is reported to occur in cultivated fields in both 
 islands, not common. It has probably been mostly overlooked. 
 
 Avena pubescens, Huds. Downy Oat-grass 
 
 Recorded by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) as occurring not 
 uncommonly in fields in Canterbury and Otago. 
 
 Avena flavescens , Linn. Yellow Oat-grass 
 
 Introduced as a pasture grass into Southland in 1870 by the 
 author's father, but does not seem to have established itself. 
 
 Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. Tall Oat Grass 
 First recorded in 1870 by Kirk from the Auckland district, and 
 in the following year by Armstrong from the Canterbury district as 
 A. bulbosum. Again by Kirk in 1877 from near Wellington. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is stated to occur, but not commonly, in fields and 
 waste places in both islands. 
 
 Cynodon dactylon, Pers. Doab-grass 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. In 1877 Kirk stated that 
 it occurred at Castle Point, and also formerly at Te Aro Beach, 
 Wellington. Stated by Cheeseman in 1882 to be plentiful throughout 
 the Auckland district. In the Manual (1906) reported as abundant 
 in fields and waste places in both islands. It is, however, chiefly a 
 tropical or sub-tropical species, and is not common in the southern 
 half of the South Island. 
 
 Triodia decumbent, Beauv. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 from Kaipara. In the 
 Manual (1906) he records it as not uncommon in fields and waste 
 places in the North Island. 
 
 Eragrostis major, Host. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) this is reported, on the authority of S. J. 
 Vining, to occur at Mangatangi, near Mercer.
 
 494 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 Eragrostis minor, Host. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895, as occurring on a heap of ballast 
 (from Buenos Ayres) in Wellington. Apparently not seen since. 
 
 Eragrostis Brownii, Nees 
 
 According to Kirk (1869) this grass was abundant over a large 
 district at Keri Keri in the Bay of Islands, where it was first observed 
 by H. T. Kemp in 1865. It was then spreading rapidly. In 1882 
 Cheeseman further reported it from Northern Wairoa, Whangarei, 
 and near Auckland. In the Manual (1906) it is recorded as abundant 
 in fields and waste places in the North Island. 
 
 Briza maxima, Linn. Trembling-grass 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. Plentiful about Wel- 
 lington in 1877 according to Kirk. Cheeseman in 1882 reports it 
 from two or three localities in the neighbourhood of Auckland. In 
 the Manual (1906) reported as an occasional garden escape. 
 
 Briza minor, Linn. Lesser Trembling-grass 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864, then by Kirk in 1877 
 from Wellington. Very generally distributed in the north by 1882. 
 In the Manual (1906) stated to be not uncommon in fields and waste 
 places in both islands. 
 
 Dactylis glomerata, Linn. Cock's-foot Grass 
 Probably introduced early last century ; first recorded in Hooker's 
 list of 1864. Now (1917) one of the most abundant grasses in pastures 
 and waste places throughout both islands. In many districts (e.g. in 
 Banks' Peninsula), the harvesting of cock's-foot for seed, is one of the 
 important events of the year. In New Zealand this grass has become 
 a most agressive plant, and in light bush tends to crowd out all other 
 undergrowth. 
 
 Cynosurus cristatus, Linn. Dog's-tail Grass 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list. In 1877 Kirk states that 
 it is more generally naturalised in the Wellington district than any 
 other grass. In 1882 Cheeseman reported it from the Auckland 
 district as not uncommon in various parts on stiff soils. Now (1921) 
 one of the most abundant grasses in the Dominion, especially in 
 parts of the South Island. 
 
 Cynosurus echinatus, Linn. 
 
 In the Manual (1906) recorded, on the authority of Bishop 
 Williams, as occurring in waste places near Gisborne. In 1919 
 Cheeseman recorded it from roadsides at Waihi.
 
 495 
 
 Arundinaria macrosperma, Michx. 
 
 Reported by Cheeseman in 1882 as lingering in several old Maori 
 cultivations, but cannot be looked upon as truly naturalised. In 1917 
 he states it still lingers on in one or two abandoned cultivations, 
 but no instance has been observed of its reproducing itself. 
 
 Brachypodium pinnatum, Beauv. 
 
 I collected this grass in 1897 near the Ross Creek Reservoir, 
 Dunedin, but have not found it since. It has not succeeded in 
 establishing itself. 
 
 Poa annua, Linn. Annual Meadow-grass 
 
 Probably one of the earliest introduced grasses ; first recorded in 
 1864 in Hooker's list. The commonest of all grasses on roadsides 
 and in waste places, especially where regularly trodden on. 
 
 Poa compressa, Linn. 
 
 First recorded by Cheeseman in 1882 as occurring on the Auckland 
 Isthmus, but not commonly. In the Manual (1906) reported as 
 occurring, somewhat sparsely, in fields and waste places in the North 
 
 Island. 
 
 Poa pratensts, Linn. Meadow-grass 
 
 No doubt a very early introduction; first recorded in Kirk's list 
 of introduced plants in Great Barrier Island in 1867. One of the 
 most abundant grasses in fields and waste places in all parts of New 
 Zealand. In some districts, it takes exclusive possession of the pastures, 
 and is most difficult to eradicate. It is in such parts looked on as a 
 dangerous "couch" grass, and is a pest in cultivation. 
 
 Poa trivialis, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in Hooker's list in 1864. In 1877 stated by Kirk 
 to be frequent about Wellington and other places in the district. 
 Reported by Cheeseman in 1882 from waste places about Auckland, 
 and occasionally in pastures. In the Manual (1906) said to be not 
 uncommon in fields and waste places throughout both islands. 
 
 Poa nemoralis, Linn. 
 
 First recorded from Southland in 1870 by the author; then by 
 Cheeseman in 1882 as occurring in the Auckland Domain. In the 
 Manual (1906) reported as occurring sparsely in shaded places in 
 both islands. 
 
 Glyceria aquattca, Wahlenb. Reed-grass 
 
 First recorded from the Ashburton district in 1903 by W. W. 
 Smith. Later by Petrie from the Taieri Plains and Catlins River. 
 It is not uncommon in Otago and Southland.
 
 496 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 Glyceria fluitans , R. Br. 
 
 First recorded by Buchanan in 1876 as occurring in Kawau. In 
 1877 Kirk reported it as common in many localities in Wellington 
 district. In 1882 Cheeseman wrote that this grass "made its appear- 
 ance in some wet places on the Auckland harbour reclamations, about 
 two years ago, but has lately been destroyed." Reported by the 
 author from the Taieri Plain in 1894. In the Manual (1906) reported 
 to be not uncommon in wet places in both islands. 
 
 Atropis distans, Griseb. 
 
 Recorded by Cheeseman in the Manual (1906) as occurring not 
 uncommonly in salt marshes in both islands. 
 
 Festuca elatior, Linn. Meadow Fescue 
 
 First recorded from Southland in 1870 by the author. In the 
 Manual (1906) reported as not uncommon in meadows and pastures 
 in both islands. A bad weed in wet pastures and flax areas of the 
 Wellington district. 
 
 Festuca ovina, Linn. Sheep's Fescue 
 
 First recorded from Southland in 1870 by the author. In the 
 Manual (1906) reported as not uncommon in pastures and waste 
 places in both islands. This species is also indigenous in New Zealand, 
 but there is no doubt that much, if not most, of the sheep's fescue 
 is the introduced species. It ranges up to 4500 feet on the southern 
 
 mountains. 
 
 Festuca rubra, Linn. 
 
 First recorded from Southland in 1870 by the author. The dis- 
 tribution is the same as that of the preceding species, and like it, 
 the introduced form is probably more abundant than the indigenous. 
 (See Appendix B, p. 563.) 
 
 Festuca Myurus, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1870 by Kirk from the Auckland district as 
 F. sciuroides, and from Wellington in 1877. Writing of Auckland 
 plants in 1882, Cheeseman stated: "the true plant is by no means 
 abundant, but is increasing. The variety sciuroides = F. bromoides, Sm., 
 is plentiful through the district." In the Manual (1906) it is stated 
 to occur, not uncommonly in dry places, in both islands. 
 
 Festuca bromoides, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list. In the Manual (1906) 
 stated to be abundant in waste places and pastures in both islands. 
 
 Festuca pratensis, Hudson 
 
 First recorded from Southland in 1870 by the author. Does not 
 seem to have established itself, and has not been met with since.
 
 GRAMINE^E 497 
 
 Sclerochloa rigida, Griseb. = (Glyceria rigida, Sm.) 
 First recorded by Kirk in 1895, as occurring on a heap of ballast 
 (from Buenos Ayres), but stated by him to occur in Hawke's Bay, 
 Otago, etc. In the Manual (1906) reported as occurring, but not 
 commonly, in roadsides and waste places in both islands. 
 
 Bromus erectus, Huds. 
 
 First recorded from the Auckland district by Kirk in 1869. In 
 the Manual (1906) reported as occurring, not uncommonly, in fields 
 and waste places in both islands. 
 
 Bromus sterilis, Linn. Sterile Brome-grass 
 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list, and in 1877 by Kirk 
 from Wellington. In 1882 Cheeseman reported it from Auckland 
 as plentiful, especially in waste or sandy places near the sea. In the 
 Manual (1906) reported as abundant in fields and waste places in 
 
 both islands. 
 
 Bromus madritensis, Linn. 
 
 First recorded in 1870 by Kirk from the Auckland district. In 
 the Manual (1906) stated to occur in "waste places and roadsides, 
 apparently not common," in both islands. 
 
 Bromus tectorum, Linn. 
 
 First recorded from the Auckland district by Kirk in 1869. 
 Cheeseman in 1906 states : " I have not seen New Zealand specimens." 
 
 Bromus mollis, Linn. Soft Brome-grass 
 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list. An abundant weed in 
 fields and waste places in most parts of New Zealand; useless for 
 
 stock. 
 
 Bromus racemosus, Linn. Smooth Brome-grass 
 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list. Equally abundant as a 
 weed, along with the preceding species, in fields and waste places. 
 
 Bromus commutatus, Schrad. 
 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list. Fairly abundant in most 
 parts of New Zealand in fields and waste places. 
 
 Bromus patulus, Mert. and Koch. 
 
 First recorded from the Auckland district in 1869 by Kirk. 
 Cheeseman, in the Manual (1906), has apparently overlooked this 
 occurrence, and reports it as found on a ballast heap in Wellington 
 by Kirk in 1895. 
 
 T. N. z. 32
 
 498 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 Bromus arvensis, Linn. Field Brome-grass 
 
 First recorded from the Auckland district by Kirk in 1869, and 
 by Buchanan from Wellington in 1877. Stated by Cheeseman to 
 occur in waste places near Auckland, but not commonly. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is reported to occur in waste places in both islands. 
 
 Bromus vestitus, Thunb. 
 
 Recorded by Kirk in 1895 as occurring on a ballast heap in 
 Wellington. Not observed again. 
 
 Bromus secalinus, Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 from Ashburton County; not 
 collected since. 
 
 Bromus unioloides, H. B. K. 
 
 First recorded in Kirk's list of Great Barrier plants in 1867 as 
 B. Schrcederi, and again from the Auckland district in 1869 as 
 Ceratochloa unioloides. It was also collected in Wellington in 1877. 
 'In 1882 it was stated by Cheeseman to be the prevailing grass in 
 many of the streets and waste places about Auckland, but as not so 
 common in the country districts, as it will not bear close cropping. 
 In the Manual (1906) it is stated to be abundant in fields and waste 
 places in both islands. This does not hold for Otago and Southland, 
 where it is uncommon. 
 
 Lolium perenne, Linn. Rye-grass 
 
 Probably introduced early last century. John Balleny, who visited 
 Chalky Inlet in 1838, found it growing there "admirably." Recorded 
 later by Hooker in 1864. The most generally used pasture grass in 
 New Zealand, abundant throughout the country. Carse has an inter- 
 esting note on this species in his notes on the flora of Mongonui 
 County (1915). He says: 
 
 As a rule, this grass is not very enduring, being subject to "rust," but 
 near Kaitaia is a large area of river-flat, sown with this grass more than 
 sixty years ago, where it has held its place without deterioration. 
 
 Lolium italicum, A. Br. Italian Rye-grass 
 
 First recorded in 1870 by Kirk from the Auckland district. In 
 the Manual (1906) stated to be not uncommon in fields and pastures 
 in both islands. It is, however, less permanent than the preceding 
 species, except in the far north, where it seems to be the dominant 
 form.
 
 GRAMINE^: 499 
 
 Lolium temulentum, Linn. Darnel 
 
 First recorded in 1864 in Hooker's list. In the Manual (1906) 
 it is reported as not uncommon in cultivated fields and waste places 
 in both islands. 
 
 Lepturus incurvatus, Trin. 
 
 First recorded by Kirk as occurring on the sands at Waitemata, 
 in 1864 in Hooker's list. He also reports it as "common on shingly 
 beaches " in many parts round Wellington Harbour, in 1877. Cheese- 
 man in 1882 stated that it was common in brackish- water swamps 
 in the Auckland district. It had apparently not greatly extended its 
 range in 1906. It is a grass specially of salt meadows. 
 
 Agropyrum repens, Beauv. Couch-grass ; Twitch 
 Probably introduced long previously, but first recorded by W. W. 
 Smith from Ashburton in 1903, as Triticum repens. In the Manual 
 (1906) reported as not uncommon in fields and waste places in both 
 islands. This grass, considered one of the worst weeds of arable land 
 in Britain, has fortunately shown very little tendency to become a 
 pest in New Zealand. This is somewhat remarkable, as the plant in 
 ordinary soil puts out underground stems from 25 to 30 cm. (10-12 
 inches) in length. 
 
 Agropyrum pectinatum, Beauv. 
 
 First recorded from Central Otago by Petrie in 1899. Later from 
 Hawke's Bay by A. Hamilton. 
 
 Br achy podium sylvaticum, R. and S. 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith from Ashburton County in 1903. 
 
 Triticum sativum, Lam. Wheat 
 
 Apparently wheat was first introduced by Crozet in 1772, who 
 formed a garden on Moutouaru Island, in which he sowed, among 
 other seeds, grains of wheat from the Cape of Good Hope. He writes : 
 "everything succeeded admirably, and the wheat especially grew with 
 surpassing vigour." In the following year Captain Cook sowed wheat 
 in the gardens made by him on Long Island in Queen Charlotte 
 Sound. It did not, however, become established. In 1793 Governor 
 King gave the natives of the Bay of Islands a bushel of wheat. It is 
 doubtful, however, whether they succeeded in retaining it in cultiva- 
 tion, for Marsden re-introduced it in the same locality in 1810, and 
 sent some more over from Sydney in 1911. Nicholas, who accom- 
 panied Marsden to the Bay of Islands on his first visit there, saw it 
 growing well in native cultivations in January, 1815. Bidwill, when 
 
 322
 
 500 MONOCOTYLEDONS AND FERNS 
 
 travelling on the shores of Lake Taupo in 1839, "found a fine plant 
 of wheat. The natives could not say how it got there, and Mr Chapman, 
 the Missionary, was the only European who had ever been there, and 
 that only three weeks before." 
 
 At the present time wheat only occurs wild as a very occasional 
 escape from cultivation. 
 
 Triticum caninum, Huds. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 as occurring in Ashburton 
 County; not found since. 
 
 Triticum junceum. Linn. 
 
 Recorded by W. W. Smith in 1903 from Ashburton County; not 
 gathered since. 
 
 Elymus arenarius, Linn. Sea-lyme Grass 
 
 The Agricultural Department reports this as well distributed in 
 New Zealand, but it is everywhere a planted species, which has been 
 utilised in several parts for binding sand-dunes. It does not appear 
 to have spread anywhere. 
 
 Hordeum vulgar e, Linn. Barley 
 
 Probably included in the corn sown by Captain Cook in 1773 in 
 the gardens in Queen Charlotte Sound. -Only occurs as an escape 
 from cultivation, and nowhere grows as a wild species. 
 
 Nicholas, who accompanied Marsden to New Zealand in 1814-15, 
 speaks of a plantation of Siberian barley at the Bay of Islands in 
 February of the latter year. 
 
 A correspondent of the Farmers' Union Advocate gives the fol- 
 lowing interesting extract from the diary of the late Rev. J. G. Butler : 
 
 On the morning of Wednesday, May 3, 1820, the agricultural plough was 
 for the first time put into the land of New Zealand at Kiddikiddi (Kerikeri), 
 and I felt much pleasure in holding it after a team of six bullocks, brought 
 down by the " Dromedary." I trust that this auspicious day will be remem- 
 bered with gratitude and its anniversary kept by ages yet unborn. Every 
 heart seemed to rejoice on the occasion. I hope it will still continue to 
 increase, and in a short time produce an abundant harvest. 
 
 The results of the ploughing were reaped from i2th December, 1820, 
 to 8th January, 1821 , regarding which Mr Butler wrote : "While I am 
 writing down these lines, I have seven natives in sight reaping down 
 a field of barley on land which 12 months ago was overrun with 
 ferns." The Rev. Mr Butler left New Zealand in 1823 and returned 
 about 1840, and settled at Petone, where he died.
 
 501 
 
 Hordeum murinum, Linn. Barley Grass; Way-bent 
 First recorded from Auckland Province in 1869 by Kirk. It is 
 a most abundant weed now (1917) in waste ground, especially near 
 the sea. The seed gets into the wool of sheep, and frequently causes 
 a certain amount of deterioration. 
 
 Hordeum marttimum, With. Squirrel-tail Grass 
 First recorded in 1871 from Canterbury by Armstrong. In the 
 Manual (1906) it is reported from Akaroa, on the authority of Kirk 1 . 
 
 Order FILICES 
 Tribe POLYPODIES 
 
 Pteris cretica, Linn. 
 
 This species was collected near Tapuacharuru, Taupo, and de- 
 scribed by Colenso as P. lomarioides y Col., in 1880. A specimen was 
 also found in Oxford Forest, Canterbury, by Mr Vincent Pyke in 
 1 883 , and sent down to the author for identification. This was gathered 
 in the bush, away from the immediate vicinity of settlement, and 
 Mr Pyke was certain that it was indigenous. 
 
 Pteris longifolia, Linn. 
 
 Stated by Buchanan (1882) to have been gathered at Tarawera, 
 between Napier and Taupo, by Mr Lascelles of Napier. Buchanan 
 says it was collected "under circumstances which preclude the possi- 
 bility of its having been introduced." No one has yet recorded how 
 far fern-spores have travelled on air-currents. 
 
 Tribe OSMUNDES 
 Osmunda regalis, Linn. Fern-royal 
 
 This fern was found by Dr Curll at one spot in Rangitikei, from 
 whence it disappeared, and was rediscovered at the same place by 
 H. C. Field of Wanganui in 1885. It does not seem to have spread.. 
 The introduction of all three species of foreign ferns was probably 
 quite accidental in each case. 
 
 Order LYCOPODIACE^ 
 
 Selaginella denticulata, Link. 
 
 Cheeseman (1919) reports, on the authority of T. H. Trevor, that 
 this species has been known for many years as a garden escape at Paka- 
 raka, Bay of Islands, and has lately appeared in great abundance on 
 the banks of several swampy creeks in the neighbourhood. B.C. Aston 
 also reports it as not uncommon in several localities near Wellington. 
 
 1 In 1871 Armstrong recorded Hordeum distichum, from Canterbury. The species 
 has not been observed since.
 
 Part IV 
 
 Chapter XIII 
 
 INTERACTION OF ENDEMIC AND 
 INTRODUCED FAUNAS 
 
 THE enormous impetus given to Natural History by the publication 
 of Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859 led many of those who were 
 interested in biological studies in New Zealand to give much con- 
 sideration to the relation of his theoretical views to the problems 
 which faced them here. I was among those who came early under 
 the spell. I read with care and avidity every work of Darwin's which 
 bore on the subject of evolution and natural selection, and followed 
 this up by a careful study of contemporary writers, Hooker, Lyell, 
 Huxley, Wallace, Asa Grey, Haeckel and numerous others. As a lad 
 I had some slight knowledge of the British fauna, and had begun to 
 collect the flora under my old teacher of botany, Professor John 
 Hutton Balfour of Edinburgh. I made extensive botanical and zoo- 
 logical collections in many parts of New Zealand from the Bay of 
 Islands to the south of Stewart Island between 1868 and 1892, col- 
 laborating first with that prince of field naturalists, Captain F. W. 
 Hutton, and later with Mr D. Petrie and Professor C. Chilton. At 
 the end of 1882, an injury which effectually lamed me, prevented 
 the prosecution of further field work, but I continued to collect and 
 work on the invertebrate fauna, especially the Crustacea. 
 
 The conviction early grew upon me that here in New Zealand 
 was a field in which the accuracy of Darwin's views in certain direc- 
 tions could be put to the test. The way in which certain species of 
 introduced animals and plants seemed to "run away," as it were, 
 from their recognised specific characters, led to the expectation that 
 new forms would spring up in this country under the altered con- 
 ditions, and that we should here observe the "origin " of new species. 
 I certainly was not alone in this half-expectation. It was somewhat 
 generally, though vaguely, held. Examples were apparently numerous . 
 Rabbits increased at an appalling rate, and appeared to be developing 
 many coloured breeds; small birds especially common sparrows, 
 greenfinches, skylarks, etc. multiplied prodigiously, and we were
 
 504 INTERACTION OF ENDEMIC 
 
 on the lookout for all sorts of changes in colour, food, nesting habits, 
 colours of eggs, and so on; trout grew so rapidly in the streams and 
 lakes into which they were introduced as to belie all previously 
 recorded experience. The same thing occurred among plants. Water- 
 cress a plant of two to four feet in length in European waters grew 
 in some streams to a length of from twelve to fourteen feet, and with 
 stems as thick as one's wrist; the common spear- thistle, which is 
 from two to five feet high in Britain, formed in some districts vast 
 impenetrable thickets six to seven feet in height; brambles, briars and 
 other weeds took possession of whole districts, and threatened to 
 choke out all other vegetation. It seemed indeed as if the laws of 
 natural selection and the principle of the survival of the fittest had 
 been temporarily suspended, and nature was running riot. 
 
 It is no wonder that all the younger naturalists in the country 
 were almost inclined to think that perhaps we would here see the 
 rise of new varieties, which would become "fixed," and would soon 
 rank as "species," distinct from those from which they were de- 
 scended. It may be that our ideas as to what constituted varietal and 
 specific distinction were somewhat vague in that respect we were 
 not very different from the majority of those who used these terms 
 in a somewhat loose manner but there they were. Some such feeling 
 was still in my mind as late as 1891, when I read a short paper 
 before the Biological Section of the Australasian Association for the 
 Advancement of Science at its Christchurch meeting, "On Some 
 Aspects of Acclimatisation in New Zealand." The following sentences 
 show the trend of my views at the time : 
 
 One of the most interesting points connected with the successful 
 naturalisation of foreign species is the observation of the changes which 
 they undergo in their altered conditions. Nearly all our introduced animals 
 have been brought from lands where the struggle for existence is very 
 keen, and where natural enemies abound. In their new home they have 
 been set free from these old trammels, and the enemies have been left 
 behind. Under such circumstances it is not surprising to find that sports 
 in colour, which in Europe would be strictly eliminated as soon as they 
 appeared, owing to their rendering their possessors too conspicuous to 
 their enemies, are here preserved and tend to be reproduced. 
 I then went on to instance what occurs among hares, rabbits, sparrows 
 and other birds, humble-bees, etc., both with regard to change of 
 colour and of habits. My mind was evidently quite prepared to find 
 such changes, though I had to admit that the evidence sought for 
 was not forthcoming to any extent. 
 
 The subject continued to occupy my thoughts from time to time, 
 but I was not able to devote much consecutive attention to it until 
 1915, when it seemed advisable to me to resume the thread of my
 
 AND INTRODUCED FAUNAS 505 
 
 ideas as propounded twenty years previously, and see how far these 
 views were correct. It soon, however, became apparent to me that 
 it would be a much more important work, and one preliminary to 
 any exhaustive examination of the subject, to ascertain as far as 
 possible what species of animals and plants had become naturalised 
 in the country; what species had failed to establish themselves; to 
 seek for the reasons of their success or failure ; and to ascertain what 
 effects had been produced on the native fauna and flora. 
 
 Changes in Indigenous Fauna due to Naturalisation of Foreign Species 
 
 The question is sometimes asked: "What effects have been pro- 
 duced on the native fauna by the introduction of foreign animals 
 and plants into the islands of the New Zealand group ? " Any answer 
 which can be given can only at best suggest some of the changes 
 which have taken place. The effects have been so far-reaching and 
 so complex that it is impossible to present any summary of them, 
 and all that can be done is to show various aspects of the problem, 
 and to consider facts in detail. 
 
 When knowledge of the native fauna first began to be acquired 
 considerable changes had already commenced to take place, and 
 others were in progress. It was, however, long before any systematic 
 knowledge of the indigenous animals was accumulated and published, 
 and it must be borne in mind that as far as the terrestrial invertebrates 
 are concerned, this knowledge is still very fragmentary. Indeed for 
 many groups, as for example, that of the Insects, it is probably the 
 case that the fullest catalogue which could be made to-day would 
 not include many species which were in existence at the time of 
 Cook's first visit to these islands. Probably very many species have 
 either ceased to exist, or have become very rare. There is no actual 
 knowledge of the fact, it is only inferred from what we know to have 
 taken place with regard to native birds and lizards. But that profound 
 changes have taken place is familiar to all who have observed the 
 development of the last fifty years. The changes have, necessarily, 
 been most rapid during the latter half of last century and since, and 
 especially from the time that the various acclimatisation societies 
 sprang into activity. 
 
 An examination of the published papers and books on the zoology 
 of New Zealand shows that very much of the present knowledge of 
 the subject is quite recent. Since the days of Captain Cook isolated 
 papers on the zoology appeared in many and various publications, 
 especially during last century, and a good deal of general information 
 was accumulated. A good summary of this is to be found in Hutton's 
 Introduction to the Index Faunce Novee Zealandice. Apparently the
 
 5o6 INTERACTION OF ENDEMIC 
 
 first full lists, as far as they go, are contained in the appendix to 
 Dieffenbach's Travels, published in 1843. In this work, J. E. Gray 
 gives a catalogue of 84 species of birds and six species of lizards. 
 
 In 1862 Gray in The Ibis gave a synopsis of the birds collected 
 in the "Voyage of M.M.S.S. Erebus and Terror," and enumerated 
 122 species as occurring in New Zealand and the Chatham Islands. 
 Buller's Birds of New Zealand, published in 1873, contained de- 
 scriptions of 147 species; his Manual in 1882, gave 176 species; and 
 the second edition of the Birds of New Zealand in 1888, recorded 
 195 species. The Index Faunte Novee Zealandice (1904) gives 194 
 species of permanent birds, 222 of wandering species, and 15 species 
 of lizards. 
 
 Fishes are first recorded in 1843 in Richardson's list (Dieffenbach), 
 where 92 species are named. In Hector and Mutton's Catalogue in 
 1872, 141 species are recorded; the Index (1903) gives 254 names. 
 Yet the fishes are very imperfectly known even yet. 
 
 J. E. Gray in 1843 gives a list of 222 species of Mollusca and 
 3 species of Brachiopoda; Hutton's Manual of Mollusca, published 
 in 1880, gives 598 species of Mollusca, 8 of Brachiopoda, and 191 of 
 Polyzoa ; while Suter's Manual in 1913 gives 1 187 species of Mollusca. 
 
 White and Doubleday wrote the account of Insecta for Dieffen- 
 bach's work in 1843, and referred to the following numbers of insects, 
 namely : Orthoptera, 4 species ; Hymenoptera, 5 ; Coleoptera, 50 ; 
 Lepidoptera, 23; Diptera, 6; Neuroptera-, 2; Homoptera, 4; and 
 Hemiptera, 3; a total of 97 species. In 1873 Hutton published a list 
 of New Zealand insects of the above eight orders containing 742 
 species, of which 265 were Coleoptera. Captain Broun brought out 
 his first Manual of Coleoptera in 1880, and it contained 1321 species. 
 In 1 88 1 Hutton's Catalogue of Diptera, Orthoptera and Hymenoptera 
 brought up the number of species in these three orders from 151 
 (1873) to 227. In 1898 Hudson's Moths and Butterflies described 238 
 species of Macro-lepidoptera alone. Finally, the following numbers 
 are given in the Index Faunae Novce Zealandice (1903) : Hymenoptera, 
 155; Lepidoptera, 608; Diptera, 343; Coleoptera, 2787; Hemiptera, 
 1 66; Neuroptera, 60; Orthoptera, 17; and Aptera, 3; making a total 
 of 4139 species, a number which has been considerably added to 
 since. Many of these orders of insects are still very imperfectly known. 
 
 White and Doubleday in 1843 recorded u spiders and 2 Myria- 
 pods; the Index (1903) gives 251 species of Arachnida and 30 of 
 Myriapods. Similarly the same authors name 30 species of Crustacea ; 
 Miers' Catalogue of Stalk- and Sessile-eyed Crustacea (1876) de- 
 scribes 140 species; while the Index records 532 species a number 
 which has since been increased to over 600 species. 

 
 AND INTRODUCED FAUNAS 507 
 
 I quote this rather formidable list of figures to show how greatly 
 our systematic knowledge of the fauna has been extended within 
 the last seventy years. 
 
 Mr Hedley suggests that as the European or cosmopolitan weed- 
 florula is able, with human assistance, to oust the indigenous flora, 
 so there may be a weed-faunula (mouse, sparrow, snail, etc.) which 
 may act similarly on the indigenous fauna. 
 
 At the date of my arrival in the country (1868) the following nine 
 species of birds, which have either altogether or to a great extent 
 disappeared since, were to be met with, in some cases fairly commonly : 
 native crows (Glaucopis zvilsom and G. cinered), huia (Heteralocha 
 acuttrostris), native thrushes (Turnagra tanagri and T. crassirostris), 
 stitch-bird (Pogonornis cincta), kakapo (Stringops habroptilus), native 
 quail (Coturnix novce-sealandice), and the white heron (Herodias timo- 
 riensis). In addition, several species of originally very limited dis- 
 tribution (e.g. Stephens Island Wren and Chatham Island Fern-Bird) 
 are now quite extinct. 
 
 Others which were abundant have been driven back into areas 
 where settlement has not yet penetrated to any great extent 1 . 
 
 It must not be supposed that it is the introduced animals alone 
 which have produced this effect, even though rats, cats, rabbits, 
 pigs, cattle, stoats and weasels, as well perhaps as some kinds of 
 introduced birds, have penetrated beyond the settled districts. It is 
 largely the direct disturbance of their haunts and breeding places, 
 and the interference with their food supply, which has caused this 
 destruction and diminution of the native fauna. 
 
 What is true of birds is equally true of other groups of animals, 
 though it is more difficult to arrive at the facts. Many insects which 
 were common in the bush fifty years ago must have been displaced 
 and have largely disappeared. I cannot appeal to figures, but the 
 surface burning of open land which prevailed, especially in the South 
 Island, and the wanton destruction and burning of forest which has 
 marked so much of the North Island clearing, must have destroyed 
 an astonishing amount of native insect life, and made room for intro- 
 duced forms. The clearing of the surface for cultivation and grazing, the 
 draining of swamps, and the sowing down of wide areas in European 
 
 1 They include the following sixteen species : native robins (Miro albifrons and 
 M. australis), saddle-back (Creadion carunculatus) , fern-bird or grass-bird (Sphenae- 
 acus punctatus), native canary (Mohua ochrocephala), tui (Prosthemadera novee- 
 zealandice), kaka (Nestor meridionalis), parakeets (Cyanorhamphus noves-zealandiee 
 and C. auriceps), kiwis (Apteryx mantelli, A. australis, A. owerd and A. haastii), 
 laughing owl (Sceloglaux albifacies), Mo-pork (Ninox novee-zealandiee), and native 
 pigeon (Hemiphaga novfe-zealandies). In some settled localities, such as the neigh- 
 bourhood of Wellington, Mo-porks are still met with.
 
 508 INTERACTION OF ENDEMIC 
 
 pasture plants, have all contributed to this wholesale destruction 
 and displacement of indigenous species. The disappearance of mos- 
 quitoes and sand-flies in settled districts where they were formerly 
 very common is a case in point; where they disappeared, it is 
 tolerably certain other species not so well known became scarce at 
 the same time. Unfortunately accurate data are not obtainable, for 
 at the time that settlement began, very little was known of the insect 
 fauna as I have shown, and even now, as already stated, whole groups 
 are imperfectly known. 
 
 The introduction of many insectivorous birds, including pheasants, 
 quail, starlings, minahs, species of Fringillidae, and others, must also 
 have accounted for the destruction of immense numbers of insects. 
 At one time the wide tussock-covered hills and plains of both islands 
 were just alive with grasshoppers, and in the summer months they 
 sprang up before the pedestrian literally in thousands. To-day they 
 are rare over wide areas where formerly they abounded. Fereday 
 wrote in 1872: 
 
 In the early days of the Canterbury Settlement quails, larks and other 
 birds that fed upon insects and their larvae abounded on the plains, but 
 the quails have been exterminated, the larks have become comparatively 
 scarce, and the other birds have almost disappeared. So long as the 
 plains remained open and uncultivated, extensive grass fires, sweeping 
 over the land consumed an enormous amount of insect life, and took the 
 place of the counter-check which was being removed by the decrease 
 of the birds ; but within the last few years inclosures and cultivation have 
 been rapidly extending around Christchurch, and forming a nursery for 
 the preservation and increase of the insect race. A luxuriant and abundant 
 vegetation has sprung up for its food and shelter, and it is comparatively 
 freed from the ravages of fire and the attacks of its feathered foes. 
 
 Lizards (especially Naultinus elegans, N. grayi and Lygosoma 
 moco) were also extremely common in the open country fifty years 
 ago, but are now comparatively rare. Burning the surface growth 
 is largely responsible for their destruction, but the abundance of wild 
 cats, which in some parts are encouraged as counteracting to some 
 extent the rabbit pest, is also accountable for many. 
 
 The introduction of species of Salmonidas, of perch, carp, etc., 
 into the lakes and rivers of most parts of the country has produced 
 equally important changes. Some species of fish have been exter- 
 minated wherever the introduced forms have established themselves, 
 e.g. native grayling (Prototroctes oxyrhynchus), kokopuru, minnow, 
 etc. (species of Galaxias), and smelt (Retropinna richardsoni). Similarly 
 the native species of crayfish (Paranephrops planifrons, P. zealandicus 
 and P. setosus), shrimp (Xiphocaris curvirostris), and species of fresh- 
 water Amphipoda, have been eaten out in streams stocked with trout.
 
 AND INTRODUCED FAUNAS 509 
 
 Immense reduction has also taken place among aquatic species of 
 Diptera, Neuroptera, etc. 1 
 
 Among naturalists of the last half century there has been a strong 
 belief that the introduced fauna and flora have been directly responsible 
 for the diminution of many, and the disappearance of some indigenous 
 animals and plants 2 . 
 
 Thus Darwin in the Origin of Species says : 
 
 From the extraordinary manner in which European productions have 
 recently spread over New Zealand, and have seized on places which must 
 have been previously occupied, we may believe, if all the animals and plants 
 of Great Britain were set free in New Zealand, that in the course of time 
 a multitude of British forms would become thoroughly naturalised there, 
 and would exterminate many of the natives. On the other hand, from what 
 we see now occurring in New Zealand, and from hardly a single inhabitant 
 of the southern hemisphere having become wild in any part of Europe, 
 we may doubt, if all the productions of New Zealand were set free in 
 Great Britain, whether any considerable number would be enabled to 
 seize on places now occupied by our native plants and animals. (The 
 italics are mine.) 
 
 In examining this subject in connection with the introduced plant 
 life I think it will be shown that where man does not interfere with 
 the vegetation, the indigenous species can hold their own against the 
 imported forms. It is human intervention either direct or indirect 
 which completely alters the conditions. The same probably holds 
 good to some extent of the animal life, only the problem is more 
 difficult to follow out. 
 
 Against the wholesale destruction of native animals which has 
 taken place within the last half century, there have to be recorded 
 some cases of increase in the native fauna, apparently due to some 
 adaptation to the altered conditions. 
 
 One of the most interesting cases is that of the bell-bird or mako- 
 mako (Anthornis melanura). This species has very largely disappeared 
 from the North Island, though I cannot learn from any one why it 
 
 1 Mr Elsdon Best reports the disappearance of the grayling from the rivers on 
 the east coast of the North Island. Mr O'Regan also records the same for the rivers 
 on the west coast of the South Island. The latter says the popular belief is that the 
 trout have exterminated them, but he says these fish disappeared from the Inangahua 
 before trout were introduced, and he never heard of trout eating graylings. Though 
 formerly they were very common on the west coast, he does not now know of any 
 river where they may be found. 
 
 Mr Murray Campbell says the graylings come up the Cascade River in South 
 Westland in great shoals for the greater part of the year. (April, 1910.) 
 
 2 A. R. Wallace (in Darwinism, 3rd edition, p. 34) says: "A native fly is being 
 supplanted by the European house-fly." This kind of statement is the sort of terse 
 sentence which is apt to be quoted by writers, but it is both utterly indefinite 
 and quite misleading. No one can say what native fly is meant, nor is it certain 
 what European house-fly is referred. It may however be stated definitely that no 
 species of European fly has supplanted a native fly.
 
 5 io INTERACTION OF ENDEMIC 
 
 should have done so. It was common in Whangarei in 1860, and then 
 began to get scarce. It was, however, common about the watershed 
 of the Wanganui and Mangawhero rivers in 1909, and is also very 
 abundant on some outlying islands, e.g. Mayor Island. But in the 
 South Island it has certainly become more abundant in recent years, 
 even though there has been very wholesale destruction of bush. It is 
 many years since Mr W. W. Smith reported its increase in the forest 
 belt of South Canterbury. I have myself noted it year by year in the 
 neighbourhood of Dunedin, where it is found in the Town Belt and 
 in suburban gardens during many months of the year, especially 
 when certain trees are in flower. In Southland, Mr J. Crosby Smith 
 and Mr Philpott also report the species as increasing. The case is 
 certainly peculiar, for the tui (Prosthemaderd) persists in the North 
 Island, but has become comparatively rare in the settled districts in 
 the South Island. The habits and food of the two birds are somewhat 
 similar, only the tui is a much more conspicuous bird. 
 
 The harrier (Circus gouldii) is another bird which has certainly 
 increased to a great extent. 
 
 Mr Richard Reynolds of Cambridge, Waikato, an enthusiastic 
 sportsman and naturalist, writes me as follows (June 23rd, 1916): 
 
 The morning after 50 worth of partridges had been liberated here, my 
 son found eight of them killed, with a hawk on each; he shot a rabbit, 
 poisoned it with strychnine and secured eighteen hawks with it. In 
 driving from here to Tepapa (24 miles) a few days ago I passed (within 
 sight) 162 hawks, 17 of them in one bunch. 
 
 This gives some idea of the enormous abundance of this bird in the 
 North Island. These hawks visit Stephens Island in Cook Strait 
 apparently in pursuit of young petrels. But as the Island is a preserve 
 for the Tuatara lizard, the lighthouse keepers are instructed to destroy 
 all hawks met with. I am informed by Mr Newton of the Public 
 Works Department that between 23rd January, 1917, and 28th 
 February, 1919, no fewer than 1582 hawks were killed. They all 
 seemed to come from the North Island via Kapiti. I have no cor- 
 responding figures for the South, but in open country the hawk is 
 the bird most in evidence everywhere. They are protected birds on 
 account of the damage they are supposed to do to rabbits, but even 
 where they are very abundant the rabbit thrives without much 
 hindrance from the hawk. In the North they are more destructive 
 to hares than to rabbits. 
 
 Some of the introduced small birds attack the harrier, as their 
 ancestors in Britain attacked kites and sparrow-hawks. Some larger 
 birds also "go for" this hawk. Mr Holman of Whangarei tells me 
 he has often seen guinea-fowls attacking and beating off the hawks 
 from the chickens.
 
 AND INTRODUCED FAUNAS 511 
 
 The increase of this bird has no doubt been due to the vast 
 increase of rabbits, whose young are often caught by it, and of small 
 birds ; and also to the protection accorded to the species. A humourist 
 could find excellent material on which to exercise his talents were 
 he to summarise the literature and the oratory which has been ex- 
 pended on this hawk in New Zealand. The sheep-farmer protects 
 it because it is more or less destructive to rabbits which are his great 
 pest, though it is really too slow in its movements to keep down such 
 an active and wary creature as the rabbit. Formerly it lived mainly 
 on lizards and insects, but it has now a much larger menu. Wherever 
 game fanciers prevailed, the bird was mercilessly destroyed, and 
 rewards were offered for heads, as it certainly is a most active agent 
 in keeping down pheasants, quail, wild ducks and other imported 
 game. Where farmers grew grain crops the hawk was protected as 
 an antidote to the small bird pest; but where poultry were largely 
 kept, it was ruthlessly trapped and destroyed on account of its 
 predilection for chickens. Altogether the record is a very mixed 
 one, but on the whole the bird seems to have more than held its own, 
 and is very common throughout New Zealand. 
 
 The grey warbler (Pseudogerygone igatd), yellow-breasted tit 
 (Petroeca macrocephala), the fan- tailed flycatchers (Rhipidura flabel- 
 lifera and R.fuliginosa), and the pipit or ground lark (Anthus novee- 
 zealandiee) appear to have more than held their own. This may be 
 due to a certain measure of protection accorded them by settlers, 
 but they have been mostly left alone, and their most active enemy is 
 the cat. Yet it is quite surprising how common the ground larks 
 are in all open country, and especially in country districts, and how 
 the others named penetrate into gardens, even in the larger towns. 
 Their food supply consists mostly of small insects and other in- 
 vertebrates, many of them introduced species, and these are very 
 abundant. 
 
 The wax-eye or blight-bird (Zosterops ccerulescens) has apparently 
 increased very much since it was first recorded in 1832; the facts 
 which are known as to its spread and increase are recorded at p. 161. 
 These little birds are very fond of meat, and especially of fat, and 
 come about houses and stock -yards for the sake of the animal food 
 to be obtained. Dr Fulton says that many of his correspondents 
 consider that the long- tailed cuckoo (Urodynamis taitensis) has become 
 increasingly numerous during the past thirty years, and they attribute 
 this to the increase of small European birds, on whose eggs and young 
 they feed. In and about trout-hatcheries they do a great deal of 
 mischief. They also destroy numbers of young birds, such as sparrows, 
 wax-eyes (Zosterops), goldfinches, etc.
 
 512 INTERACTION OF ENDEMIC 
 
 Recorded cases of increase among other groups of indigenous 
 animals other than birds, are very few. 
 
 The two moths, whose larvae are known as "flax-grubs" Xan- 
 thorhoe prcefectata and Melanchra steropastis are both considered to 
 be much more abundant now than they were formerly. It may be 
 that by the clearing away of other native vegetation on which they 
 formerly fed, their attacks are now made more persistently on flax- 
 covered areas, but the pest has assumed such serious proportions in 
 recent years, as to lead to combined efforts to cope with it. 
 
 Another native moth (Eceticus omnivorus appears to have in- 
 creased also to a considerable extent. Within the last few years also 
 very many complaints have been received of the steady increase of 
 a moth Venusia verriculata, whose larva feeds on and occasionally 
 nearly destroys the cabbage- tree (Cordyline australis). 
 
 The common magpie-moth (Nyctemera annulatd) has certainly 
 become extremely abundant wherever the introduced ragwort (Senecio 
 jacobcea) has become a common pest. Formerly Nyctemera appears 
 to have fed chiefly on the indigenous Senecio bellidioides, S. Lautus 
 and glabrous species of Erechtites, but it has transferred its atten- 
 tion now chiefly to the introduced species of Senecio (including 
 S. vulgaris and S. mikanoides). Wherever ragwort has spread and 
 become an abundant weed the Nyctemera has also increased enor- 
 mously, and may be seen rising in vast swarms from the plants during 
 the adult moth stage. I have never seen a. bird catching the moths, 
 and the hairy caterpillars appear to be very distasteful to them. I know 
 chickens will not touch them. Hence they seem to increase almost 
 without check from enemies. The only bird I have heard of as eating 
 them is the shining cuckoo (Chalcococcyx lucidtis); my informant is 
 Mr Holman, Curator of the Whangarei Acclimatisation Society, who 
 is a careful observer. 
 
 It is difficult to get any information as to changes in the abundance 
 of native insects due to the introduction of foreign species of plants. 
 One species of beetle, Odontria zealandica, the common "grass- 
 grub," has apparently greatly increased with the introduction and 
 increase of European grasses. It is extraordinarily abundant in some 
 pastures, and is most destructive to lawns. Two allied species, O. punc- 
 ticollis and O. striata, have been found to be very destructive to seed- 
 ling trees in the State nurseries. The former is most active in the 
 North Island, destroying sometimes as much as 30 to 40 per cent, 
 of the seedling larch (Larix Europced). O. striata is most in evidence 
 in the South Island, where it destroys both larch and Pinus laricio. 
 The common longicorn beetle Prionoplus reticularis cannot be at all 
 so common as it was before the wholesale destruction of forest trees
 
 AND INTRODUCED FAUNAS 513 
 
 in which its larva used to bore. But it has now learned to bore into 
 certain introduced plants, and I have received from Mr W. W. Smith 
 of New Plymouth, specimens of oak trees (Quercus robur var. pedun- 
 culata), and of lilac (Syringa vulgaris) very freely tunnelled by these 
 large grubs. 
 
 Changes in introduced Fauna since Naturalisation 
 
 In the introduction to this chapter I stated that the observations 
 of naturalists thirty or forty years ago led to the prevalent belief 
 that in this new country variation would proceed very rapidly among 
 introduced species of animals and plants owing to the removal or 
 rather absence of those checks which acted upon the species in their 
 native habitats. After nearly fifty years of fairly close observation I 
 have to state very definitely that such a belief has been absolutely 
 dissipated. / am aware of no definite permanent change in any intro- 
 duced species. 
 
 For a long time I collected all the information I could lay my 
 hands on as to albinism in birds, expecting to find that it was greatly 
 on the increase. Buller referring to this matter says : 
 
 A remarkable feature in the New Zealand avifauna is the inherent ten- 
 dency to albinism. The condition itself is no doubt due to the absence of 
 colouring pigment in the feathers; but the difficulty is to find any suffi- 
 cient cause for this in a temperate climate like that of New Zealand. In 
 India, as is well known, the tendency is in the opposite direction, melanism 
 being of very frequent occurrence. Strange to say, there is the same 
 tendency to albinism in the imported birds. Albino sparrows are/ar more 
 common than they are in their native country, and even the skylark not 
 unfrequently changes its sober dress for a yellowish- white one. 
 
 The italics are mine, but the statement shows that Buller writing 
 nearly fifty years ago was of opinion that colour changes were 
 rapidly taking place. 
 
 Writing in 1891 I said: 
 
 Among house sparrows in particular, variation in colour and especially 
 development of white feathers is extremely common, and is certainly on 
 the increase. From evidence I have collected in Otago, I find that the 
 development of white plumage, usually in the wings and tail, is a very 
 common feature, and by no means confined to sparrows. I have numerous 
 recorded cases of the occurrence of more or less complete albinism, as 
 well as of the development of bright colours in thrushes, blackbirds, 
 linnets, skylarks and starlings. Such variations are, of course, not un- 
 common in the original habitats of all these birds, but it never tends to 
 increase. Here, on the other hand, it is of frequent occurrence, and seems 
 to me to be very decidedly on the increase. My own observations lead 
 me to think that birds with any bizarre or distinctly abnormal colouring 
 are wilder and more shy than their normally coloured fellows; but as 
 
 T. N. z. 33
 
 5 i4 INTERACTION OF ENDEMIC 
 
 I have only watched them in the neighbourhood of towns, where they 
 become objects of interest to passers-by, and especially to those great 
 enemies of birds the small boys, they are in such localities subjected 
 to an amount of attention and persecution which they do not receive in 
 more sequestered parts. 
 
 I have attempted to find whether the colour changes recorded are 
 permanent, or merely transient, but have not been able to obtain 
 evidence on the subject. I think it will be found on examination 
 that very frequently abnormal colouring at one period of the bird's 
 life may disappear at succeeding moults. Mr A. Binnie tells me that 
 a dealer got a pure white goldfinch in a catch near Dunedin one day. 
 He refused los. for it. At next moult it reverted to the natural colour. 
 He also stated that another bird was nearly black, but it retained its 
 colour at successive moults. 
 
 Writing now (1917), nearly thirty years later, I consider that the 
 inferences I drew from my own observations were wrong. I was so 
 busy looking for anomalous characters that I met with a good many, 
 and so came to the conclusion that they were on the increase, but 
 I cannot find now any more white, coloured, or white-feathered 
 birds than were to be found in 1876. There are different varieties of 
 birds in different parts, but no variation seems to be now taking place 
 more than occurred before. The race of house-sparrows common in 
 Wellington appears to be of a darker brown colour than those common 
 in Canterbury and Otago, but this would merely show that a darker 
 strain was originally imported into the Wellington district. 
 
 Similarly my observations on rabbits do not show that there is 
 any tendency to the production and perpetuation of multi-coloured 
 varieties. I thought differently in 1891, when I wrote: 
 
 In the neighbourhood of towns and villages, where cats and dogs, and 
 sportsmen abound, the sober greys and browns of the wild rabbit are the 
 colours commonly seen ; but in the country districts, away from all enemies 
 except professional rabbiters and phosphorised oats, neither of which are 
 likely to exert much selective action on their colour, it is as common 
 to see black, white, yellow, and piebald rabbits as the ordinary greys. 
 
 It is clear that I did not attach much importance to the native harrier 
 as an agency for keeping down the rabbit pest, nor do I now. The 
 subject could almost be treated numerically, for skins are exported 
 by the million every year, but I have been unable to obtain exact 
 figures. However, rabbit-skin dealers and exporters tell me that 
 black, white, buff, yellow and piebald skins do not tend to increase at 
 all in numbers. One large exporter informed me that greys amount to 
 about 97 per cent, of all the skins which come into the market. 
 Mr B. C. Aston, in an account of a trip to Marlborough makes
 
 AND INTRODUCED FAUNAS 515 
 
 an interesting remark on the colour changes in introduced animals, 
 to this effect : 
 
 The strong insolation of the area, is, I think, affecting the colour of the 
 wild animals, goats, pigs and rabbits. Where the normal colour is khaki, 
 as in rabbits, melanism is very frequent, but in the Clarence valley, 
 bicoloration is common. This in a pig makes for better concealment. 
 I noticed this particularly. A huge spotted boar running on a hillside 
 about a mile away was conspicuous owing to his movement, but he dis- 
 appeared as soon as he stopped. 
 
 Seasonal changes common to certain species in the Northern 
 Hemisphere tend to be reproduced in New Zealand, wherever the 
 climatal changes correspond. Thus in the colder parts of Canterbury 
 and Otago, where severe winter frosts are often experienced, hares, 
 stoats and weasels tend to grow white winter coats. But I have no 
 record of such changes occurring in the warmer districts. 
 
 The introduction of stoats and weasels, which was undertaken 
 primarily as an antidote to the rabbit pest, has had other far-reaching 
 consequences on the introduced fauna. It has certainly helped to 
 prevent the establishment of such species of birds as partridges, 
 ducks and other game birds ; and it has probably also greatly reduced 
 the reproduction and spread of well-established birds like pheasants. 
 On the other hand it has enormously reduced the numbers of rats and 
 mice in the country, and in this way may have indirectly helped in 
 the preservation of the native weka (Ocydromus), and the Californian 
 quail, both of which appear to have increased of late years, in districts 
 where stoats and weasels are quite common. Probably also the humble- 
 bees have benefited by the destruction of mice. 
 
 It might be thought that the reversal of the breeding season 
 between the northern and southern hemispheres might affect intro- 
 duced species, but no such changes have been recorded. With intro- 
 duced individuals it might be noticeable. I am informed by bird 
 fanciers and dealers that some introduced birds suffer very seriously 
 at the moulting season. This is particularly the case with imported 
 canaries; but these are highly artificial and domesticated birds. 
 
 Scarcely any attention has been paid to the relations between 
 introduced animals and plants and indigenous species. It is, however, 
 probable that native ichneumon flies have found suitable hosts in 
 several species of introduced insects, but no one seems to have kept 
 any definite record of the facts, if they have occurred. 
 
 One definite example has been frequently reported. A native lady- 
 bird Coccinella tasmanii, White which is common in both islands, 
 has been found to be very destructive to melons, cucumbers, etc., 
 and also to Schizoneura iangtgera, Haus., the woolly aphis. 
 
 332
 
 5 i6 ENDEMIC AND INTRODUCED FAUNAS 
 
 The larva of a native moth Caccetia excessana, Walker forms a 
 tough netting and covers it mimetically with dead leaves, under which 
 it lives. Mr W. W. Smith has noted it as common on the surface 
 of the leaves of the laurel (Prunus lauro-cerasus), and on many of 
 the cultivated fruit trees. Other examples of interaction between 
 native insects and introduced plants are given in the next chapter.
 
 Chapter XIV 
 
 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE EUROPEAN 
 OCCUPATION OF NEW ZEALAND 
 
 1 HE changes produced on the indigenous vegetation by the intro- 
 duction of new types of animal life have long been under observation 
 by many competent naturalists, and are more easily followed than 
 those which have affected the native fauna. The subject has been 
 dealt with by many writers. I have dealt with it in some detail when 
 referring to individual species of animals, so I will only give a general 
 summary here. 
 
 Cattle, sheep, goats, horses, deer, pigs, rats, and especially rabbits, 
 have done a great deal of damage in many localities by eating down, 
 and in some cases by eating out the native vegetation. Some mammals 
 and several kinds of birds have actually brought about an increase 
 of the indigenous flora by distributing the seeds of a few species of 
 plants. Introduced insects have produced very considerable changes, 
 but they are somewhat difficult to follow, and have only been partially 
 recorded. 
 
 No instance can be recorded of any species of native plant which 
 has been exterminated owing to this or any other cause dependent 
 on European occupation of the islands. But local extermination has 
 taken place, and the following cases can be cited. 
 
 Lepidium oleraceum, Forst., was formerly abundant round the 
 coasts of all parts of New Zealand, but is now becoming very scarce. 
 Cheeseman says of it : 
 
 It was originally discovered by Banks and Solander during Cook's first 
 voyage, and at that time must have been abundant, for Dr Solander 
 speaks of it as "copiose in littoribus marinis" and Cook states that boat- 
 loads of it were collected and used as an antiscorbutic by his crew. It is 
 now quite extinct in several of the localities he visited, and is fast becoming 
 rare in others. Its disappearance is due to cattle and sheep, which greedily 
 eat it down in any locality they can reach. 
 
 Aston remarks that it "has been eaten out along the Wellington 
 coast, and is now generally only to be found growing on inaccessible 
 rock-faces." The same is to be said of it in Otago, where it is now 
 extremely rare, though abundant forty years ago. 
 
 Speaking of Hibiscus Trionum, Linn., and H. diversifolius, Jacq., 
 Cheeseman says: "Both are being rapidly destroyed by cattle, fires,
 
 5 i8 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE 
 
 etc., and are now rare or almost extinct in localities where they were 
 plentiful twenty or thirty years ago." 
 
 Entelea arbor escens, R. Br., is "greedily eaten by cattle and horses , 
 and consequently is fast becoming rare on the mainland, except in 
 comparatively inaccessible situations. It is still plentiful on most of the 
 small outlying islands on the north-east coast of the Auckland district." 
 
 Pomaderris apetala, Lab. This species was formerly abundant at 
 Kawhia, but is now extinct there, having been completely exterminated 
 apparently by goats according to Kirk. It is now restricted to 
 the South Head of the Mokau River, and to the Chatham Islands. 
 It is clear, however, that it must formerly have had a wider distribu- 
 tion over New Zealand, for it is a common Australian species, and 
 therefore it would seem probable that its extinction in this country 
 was proceeding apace even before goats were introduced. 
 
 Clianthus puniceus, Banks and Sol. This plant, according to 
 Cheeseman, is "exceedingly rare and local in the wild state, and is 
 fast becoming extinct. It was formerly cultivated by the Maoris 
 in many localities on the shores of the North Island." I mention this 
 species here, not as an example of a plant undergoing extermination 
 owing to the direct action of man or of the animals introduced by 
 him, but as one which was evidently dying out when Captain Cook 
 first landed in the country. Why it should have been in this decadent 
 state I cannot suggest, but it must have been widely spread in former 
 times, for it and an Australian species C.-Dampieri, A. Cunn., are 
 the only two species known. It is now common as a cultivated shrub, 
 but does not seem able to re-establish itself naturally. 
 
 There is a popular idea that Clianthus puniceus was introduced by 
 the Maoris. This is expressed by Taylor in Te Ika a Maui as follows : 
 
 A better gift, was, I believe, the Kowai-ngutu-kaka (Clianthus 
 puniceus), which was most probably introduced by his ship. The Taranaki 
 slaves, when released by the Ngapuhi on their embracing Christianity, 
 took the seed with them as a remembrance of the land of their captivity. 
 
 The botanist would naturally ask, from whence did they bring the 
 plant ? There is no trace of a Clianthus in any Melanesian or Poly- 
 nesian island, as far as is known. 
 
 Angelica Gingidium, Hook. f. This plant was formerly extremely 
 common throughout both islands, but "as it is everywhere greedily 
 eaten by stock, it has become scarce in many districts." 
 
 Myostidium nobile, Hook., is now found in many gardens in both 
 islands, especially near the sea, where it thrives. But in its native 
 habitat in the Chatham Islands it is now quite rare as a wild plant, 
 though formerly it was very abundant. Cattle and pigs have eaten it 
 out. This is another species which was on the verge of extinction
 
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 519 
 
 when discovered. It must formerly have occurred over a considerable 
 portion of the New Zealand area, for its relationships are more with 
 those of the Australian species of Cynoglossum than with Myosotis, 
 which is still well represented in this country. 
 
 Gastrodia Cunninghamii, Hook. f. This orchid has large thick 
 tuberous roots which contain erythro-dextrin in place of starch. These 
 are eaten greedily by pigs and by both common species of rats 
 (M. rattus and M. decumanus). Kirk remarks that it 
 
 has become very rare in districts where the black rat is plentiful. On one 
 occasion, in 1874, I found three remarkably fine specimens, quite two 
 feet in height, with tubers 6 in. or 7 in. in length, and placed them in 
 what seemed a safe place in a hut at Omaha, but during the night they were 
 carried off by the rodents. 
 
 I have noticed this disappearance of this species from the neigh- 
 bourhood of Dunedin, where it used to be common during the last 
 thirty years, but am more inclined to put it down to another cause 
 than the fondness of rats for its roots. It is commonly given as a 
 character of this genus that its roots are usually parasitic on the roots 
 of other plants. My own observations would tend to make me ques- 
 tion the accuracy of this statement, at least I have never been able 
 to verify it. A great number of bush plants appear to be dependent 
 on symbiotic fungi for their nourishment, and this, I am inclined to 
 think is one of them. It certainly will not grow on any garden soil, 
 but the same difficulty is experienced with other bush plants which 
 are not root parasites. I should term it a saprophyte. 
 
 Marattia fraxinea, Smith. This fine fern is also fast disappearing. 
 Cheeseman says: "The large starchy rhizome was formerly eaten by 
 the Maoris, and hence the plant was occasionally cultivated near 
 their villages." Aston blames the pigs for eating it out, as they are 
 also very fond of the rhizomes. 
 
 Local destruction of the native flora is quite a different matter 
 from extermination, and frequently is not due so much to introduced 
 animals as to the direct action of man. Thus by bush clearing, surface 
 burning, draining, and breaking up the surface for cultivation, im- 
 mense areas have had their native vegetation nearly quite destroyed, 
 and introduced animals have assisted in this work. 
 
 A remarkable example of this is to be seen in Central Otago where 
 an area of many thousands of acres of what was once good grazing 
 land, covered with heavy tussock grasses, has had its surface nearly 
 denuded of vegetation and has been reduced to the condition of a 
 desert. In this area the three active agencies in desiccating the country 
 have been fire, overstocking with sheep, and rabbits. By enclosing 
 areas with rabbit-proof fences, and keeping grass-feeding animals
 
 520 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE 
 
 completely off it, it has been found possible to re-grass certain areas 
 and if this policy is persisted in, the country will be again redeemed 
 and vegetation will largely reassert itself. 
 
 The Town Belt of Dunedin is an interesting tract of ground, 
 of limited extent, on which it has been possible to study the changes 
 in vegetation which have taken place during the last half century. 
 I have had it under close observation since 1871. The Belt is a strip 
 of land only a few chains wide which surrounds the city, and is of 
 very diversified character. Its total area is about 500 acres. In 1871 
 considerable changes from its primitive condition had already taken 
 place, for settlement began in 1848, the gold rushes to Otago began 
 after 1863, and the heavy bush was everywhere cut out, not only 
 outside the limits of the town, but even within the Belt itself. Most 
 of the timber that would burn had likewise been destroyed. But 
 there gradually sprang up a feeling that the Belt must in future be 
 preserved intact as much as possible, and it is now many years since 
 anything in the way of plants or timber has been carried out of the 
 area. It has also been strictly preserved from cattle, sheep, etc., and 
 the few rabbits which have occasionally managed to exist, have been 
 too few to do any damage. Thus it comes about that the changes 
 which have more recently taken place have been largely due to other 
 causes than fire and animals. One of these is no doubt the firming 
 of the ground in many parts by people moving about on it, the 
 opening up of the undergrowth and consequent drying of the surface, 
 and the consequent disappearance of the masses of symbiotic fungi 
 which are so characteristic of unbroken forest. Another cause has 
 been the great increase of introduced fruit-eating birds, which have 
 spread plants with succulent fruits very extensively. 
 
 The following native species which were not uncommon in various 
 parts of the Belt in 1871, have not been found for some years past: 
 
 Plagianthus divaricatus, Forst. Corysanthes macrantha, Hook. f. 
 
 Elceocarpus dentatus, Vahl. Gastrodia Cunninghamii, Hook. f. 
 
 ,, Hookerianus, Raoul. Arthropodium candidum, Raoul. 
 
 Pennantia corymbosa, Forst. Echinopogon ovatus, Beauv. 
 
 Nertera setulosa, Hook. f. Poa imbecilla, Forst. 
 
 Galium tenuicaule, A. Cunn. Hymenophyllum dilatatum, Swartz. 
 ,, umbrosum, Sol. ,, scabrum, A. Rich. 
 
 Aspenda perpusilla, Hook. f. flabellatum, Lab. 
 
 Senecio sciadophilus, Raoul. Tunbridgense, Smith. 
 
 Microseris For s ten, Hook. f. unilateral, Willd. 
 
 Teucridium parvifolium, Hook. f. multifidum, Swartz. 
 
 Mentha Cunninghamii, Benth. ,, bivalve, Swartz. 
 
 Korthalsella (Viscurn) Lindsayi, Engl. Trichomanes venosum, R. Br. 
 
 Podocarpus ferrugineus , D. Don.(?) Asplenium flabellifolium, Cav. 
 
 spicatus, R. Br. Todea hymenophylloides, A. Rich. 
 
 Dacrydium cupressinum, Soland. Ophioglossum vulgatum, Linn. 
 
 Bulbophyllum pygmeeum, Lindl. Botrychium ternatum, Swartz. 
 
 Corysanthes rotundifolia, Hook. f. Tmesipteris tannensis, Bernh.
 
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 521 
 
 The following notes regarding the partial extermination of certain 
 species are taken from Dr Petrie's paper "On the Flowering Plants 
 of Otago" (1895): 
 
 Aciphylla squarrosa, Forst. Seedlings are readily cropped by sheep 
 and cattle, so that when the old plants die off there are few young ones 
 to take their place. 
 
 Celmisia densiflora, Hook, f., will soon be all but exterminated through 
 burning and the attacks of stock and rabbits. 
 
 C. coriacea 1 , Hook, f ., rapidly disappearing before the attacks of rabbits 
 and stock. 
 
 C. discolor, Hook. f. Once abundant in Central and Western Otago, 
 but now getting rare. 
 
 Raoulia Hectori, Hook. f. Formerly common on all high mountains 
 of Central Otago, now rapidly dying off from the drying of the ground 
 through burning and close cropping. 
 
 Further examples are furnished by B. C. Aston in his paper on 
 " Some effects of Imported Animals on the Indigenous Vegetation." 
 
 Senecio Greyti, Hook, f., at Mukumuku, Palliser Bay, is restricted 
 possibly chiefly owing to goats to the cliffs, where it is with great difficulty 
 that specimens can be secured. 
 
 Lepidium tenuicaule, T. Kirk. It is feared that this species, common 
 in Titahi Bay in 1907, has been entirely eaten out. 
 
 Ligusticum aromaticum, Hook, f., is being exterminated high up on 
 Ngauruhoe by rabbits. 
 
 Gymnogramme leptophylla, Desv. This fern, once abundant on Wel- 
 lington coasts, is believed to have been exterminated by sheep and rabbits. 
 Being an annual it would be eaten before the spores were shed. 
 
 Stilbocarpa polaris, A. Gray. At Campbell Island, which is inhabited 
 and farmed as a sheep-run, this plant is being eaten out by sheep. 
 
 Pleurophyllum spectosum, Hook. f. At Port Ross, Auckland Island, in 
 January, 1909, at nooft., numerous pig-tracks were observed, and this 
 plant appeared to have been eaten out on all stations but inaccessible 
 rock-faces. 
 
 Pleurophyllum Hookeri, Buch. On Auckland Island, in November, 
 1907, at Flat-topped Mountain, Carnley Harbour, and above the scrub 
 line, pigs had eaten freely of this species, having grubbed up the plants 
 to get at the root-stock. 
 
 Poa littorosa, Cheesm. This grass was evidently being exterminated 
 at Enderby Island by the cattle. 
 
 One effect of the introduction of animals has been to cause an 
 increase in the abundance of certain indigenous species of plants. 
 
 Very few native plants are so adapted as to have their seeds 
 spread by passing animals. There being apparently no animals in 
 
 1 Cheeseman states that in presence of rabbits C. coriacea has increased enor- 
 mously, e.g. on the Takitimo Mts., and in the Hanmer Plains area. I have observed 
 the same on Maungatua in Otago. It has succumbed to fire in many parts.
 
 522 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE 
 
 New Zealand which could do this in the past except, perhaps, a few 
 ground birds, it was not to be expected that the flora would contain 
 plants which were so distributed. There are only two genera which 
 are well provided in this respect, viz., Accena and Uncinia. 
 
 In the piri-piri (Accena sp.) the lobes of the calyx are produced 
 into spines, and in several species these are barbed, and hook on to 
 hair, wool and feathers very effectively. The plants grow not only 
 out in the open, but also especially along the edges of scrub and bush, 
 so that animals living in the shelter are almost certain to catch the 
 dry fruit as they pass out and in. Sheep and dogs have spread these 
 plants far and wide, and they have thus increased greatly. 
 
 The sedges of the genus Uncinia are also provided with a very 
 efficient hook whereby they catch on to passing animals. From the 
 inside of the base of the utricle a long bristle, which is evidently 
 the produced axis of the spikelet, projects to the length of an inch 
 or more, and this is very strongly hooked at the tip. I cannot say 
 whether the species of Uncinia have spread as those of Accena have 
 done, though it is highly probable that they have. The latter are very 
 abundant and appeal to every one, for they not only get into wool 
 to a very serious extent, but they catch on to dogs, and also very 
 freely hook on to clothing. Uncinia is not nearly so abundant in 
 individuals, not being so efficiently provided with grappling appliances, 
 and it has not been observed to any great extent. 
 
 It is very noteworthy that in both genera the species with the 
 best apparatus for distributing the seeds have a very wide range 
 outside of New Zealand, and almost certainly have developed this 
 character in regions where mammalia are to be found. Thus the 
 species (or group of species) known as Accena sanguisorbce, Vahl, is 
 found in Australia, Tasmania and Tristan d'Acunha and the plants 
 are all strongly barbed. On the other hand A. Buchanani, Hook, f., 
 has the barbs frequently reduced to hairs ; in A. microphylla, Hook, f., 
 the spines themselves are frequently wanting; while in A. glabra y 
 Buch., the fruiting calyx is quite unarmed. These three species are 
 confined to New Zealand, and probably originated in these islands. 
 
 The evidence is not so clear in the genus Uncinia. U. tenella, 
 R. Br., U. compacta, R. Br., and U. riparia, R. Br., occur in the 
 Australian region; U. Sinclairii, Boott, in Fuegia; and U. australis, 
 Pers., is said to occur in the Sandwich Islands. The other seven 
 species are endemic, but are in most cases very nearly allied to some 
 of the first-named species. In U. filiformis, Bott., which is endemic, 
 and is the same as or closely allied to U. debilior, F. v. Muell., of 
 Lord Howe Island, the bristle is very feeble and the hook has nearly 
 lost its catching power.
 
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 523 
 
 Daucus brachiatus, Sieb., the native carrot, has hooked bristles on 
 its fruit, and is no doubt spread by hairy and woolly animals. On 
 the other hand, the plant is so readily eaten by sheep and rabbits . 
 that it is nearly exterminated in those districts where it used to be 
 common. 
 
 Fruit-eating birds, especially blackbirds and thrushes, have in- 
 creased to an enormous extent, and while spreading introduced suc- 
 culent fruit plants very freely (e.g. blackberry, briar-rose, elderberry, 
 etc.) have also caused a very great increase in certain indigenous 
 species. For instance in the Town Belt of Dunedin, to which re- 
 ference has just been made, there has been a great increase within 
 the last thirteen years of the following species : Melicytus ramiflorus, 
 Forst.; Rubus australis, Forst.; Fuchsia excorticata. Linn, f., species 
 of Coprosma ; Loranthus micranthus, Hook. f. ; Tupeia antarctica, Cam. 
 and Schl.; and Muehlenbeckia australis, Meissn. In other districts 
 other succulent fruit plants have been spread. No doubt the Parapara, 
 Pisonia Brunoniana, Endl., which has a large viscid and succulent 
 perianth, is also distributed by birds, but the species has a considerable 
 range through Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands into North-Eastern 
 Australia, and I cannot say by what birds it was distributed. But it 
 is remarkable that certain small birds, e.g. the (recently introduced?) 
 wax-eye, Zosterops carulescens, which is a great eater of fruit such as 
 pears, peaches, etc., frequently get caught on the fruit of Pisonia y 
 and are unable to liberate themselves. 
 
 It is difficult to obtain any information upon or evidence of effects 
 produced on the native vegetation by introduced insects. At least 
 two species of Thrips attack many native trees, as recorded by W. W. 
 Smith of New Plymouth, and as I have seen from the specimens 
 submitted to me. It is probable also that several Coccidae and Aphides 
 have taken to living on indigenous trees and plants, but there is 
 practically no evidence on the subject. 
 
 On the other hand certain indigenous insects have found intro- 
 duced plants to their liking. 
 
 Among Lepidoptera the fine green Hepialus virescens, Doubleday, 
 does a great deal of damage to introduced trees. Large ash trees 
 (Fraxinus excelsior) in Taranaki have been killed by the larvae boring 
 and tunnelling into the solid wood. Similarly, large oaks (Quercus 
 robur) and elms (Ulmus europceus) are destroyed by these larvae. 
 Whereas in Puriri (Vitex lucens) the tunnels remain open, those in 
 oak, which are generally very moist, are closed. In Puriri the opening 
 is covered by the larva with a tough leathery screen, but in oak the 
 bark and woody tissue form a thick callus, which effectually closes 
 up the larva in an air-tight chamber. Benthamia fragifera is also
 
 524 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE 
 
 attacked by this larva, as are occasionally walnut (Juglans regia) and 
 a species of Eucalyptus. The larva of Melanchra (Mamestrd) mutans, 
 Walk., frequently does very serious damage to the leaves of young 
 wheat, and considerable portions of the crops have been destroyed 
 at various times, particularly in the Canterbury district. M. composita, 
 Guenee, known as the "grass-moth" or "grass-caterpillar," does 
 great damage and causes heavy losses to bush farmers especially. 
 Fortunately these animals are kept in check to a considerable extent 
 by certain ichneumons as Probolus sollicitoritis, Fabr., Mesostenus 
 albopictus , Smith, as well as the introduced (?) Ryssa semipunctata. 
 
 Liothula ((Eceticus) omnivora y Fereday, has occasionally done much 
 damage among raspberry plantations. 
 
 The caterpillar of Ctenopseustes obliquana, Walk., which usually 
 feeds on manuka and other native shrubs, has developed a fondness 
 for the ripe fruit of plums and apricots. 
 
 The larvae of Caccecia excessana, Walk., attacks the outsides of 
 apples, and these have frequently been sent in to the Agricultural 
 Department under the impression that they were attacked by the 
 larvae of the introduced codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). The 
 latter, however, attacks the core of the fruit, while that of Caccecia 
 only attacks the outside. This insect also attacks and disfigures the 
 cherry-laurel (Prunus lauro-cerasus). 
 
 Two native species belonging to the Caradrinidae may be men- 
 tioned in this connection. Agrotis ypsilon t Bott., is known in New 
 Zealand as the tussock moth, the larva? doing considerable damage 
 in tussock country; it is also a very common pest in vegetable 
 gardens. In Hawaii, where it is known as the greasy cutworm, it is 
 very prevalent, and attacks cotton and tobacco. 
 
 Cyrphus unipunctatus , Hawthorne, which is very abundant in the 
 North Island, occasionally attacks grain crops, but is apparently kept 
 in check to a considerable extent by birds. In North America it is 
 one of the most serious of the cereal crop pests. 
 
 Among Coleoptera only a few instances are recorded. 
 
 (Emona humilis, Newman, attacks lemon trees in the northern 
 orchards, and eats into the wood. 
 
 Xyloteles griseus, Westwood, has been reported several times as 
 attacking fig trees, while X. Icetus, White, sometimes called the " apple- 
 borer," occasionally destroys the apples on the trees. 
 
 All three species of beetles belong to the Cerambycidse, one of 
 the few families reported to contain destructive pests, but none of 
 them have become serious. 
 
 The larva of Odontria striata, White, commonly known as the 
 "grass-grub," is a very destructive insect, especially in pastures and
 
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 525 
 
 lawns. It cuts the grass at the roots, and in this manner destroys 
 the plants, so that the surface growth dies right out. The larvae are 
 sufficiently deep in the soil to be beyond the range of starlings and 
 other insectivorous birds, and the chief means of destruction are 
 either flooding the land, or rolling with a very heavy roller. 
 
 Two indigenous scale insects have been recorded as attacking 
 introduced plants. In the Agricultural Department's Report for 1909, 
 Diaspis santali, Maskell, is reported as becoming troublesome in 
 orchards, where it attacks the plum trees; while Dactylopius aurila- 
 natus, Maskell, has established itself on Norfolk Island Pines and 
 other species of Araucaria in the North Island. 
 
 Though these few are the only examples recorded of indigenous 
 species of insects attacking introduced plants, it must be noted that 
 the small number is probably due to the fact that observations on the 
 point have not been made. Anyone taking up a research on this 
 subject would find that the list might be multiplied to a very great 
 extent. 
 
 Inter-relation of Native and Introduced Flora 
 
 The introduction of foreign plants into New Zealand has wrought 
 a very radical change in the facies of the vegetation. The distinctive 
 character of the native flora has disappeared from nearly all closely 
 settled portions of the country, and what may be called a cosmopolitan 
 type of vegetation has taken the room formerly occupied by the dis- 
 placed species. This fact led many naturalists to the conclusion that 
 the indigenous fauna was doomed to destruction, and would in time 
 be exterminated by the alien introductions. Sir J. D. Hooker, who 
 visited New Zealand in 1841, and published an account of its plant 
 life in the Flora Novce-Zealandice, which forms the second part of 
 the Botany of the Antarctic Expedition of Sir J. Ross, published in 
 1854-5, was the first who voiced this conclusion, and the pre-eminent 
 position he occupied as the leading British botanist, deservedly and 
 naturally caused his views to be widely accepted. He came to the 
 conclusion that the northern or Arctic element in all the south 
 temperate floras, including that of New Zealand, was due to the 
 wonderful aggressive and colonising power of what he termed "the 
 Scandinavian Flora." He says: 
 
 When I take a comprehensive view of the vegetation of the Old World, 
 I am struck with the appearance it presents of there being a continuous 
 current of vegetation (if I may so fancifully express myself) from Scandi- 
 navia to Tasmania.. . .Scandinavian genera, and even species, reappear 
 everywhere from Lapland and Iceland to the tops of the Tasmanian Alps 
 in rapidly diminishing numbers it is true, but in vigorous development
 
 526 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE 
 
 throughout;. . .and in New Zealand and the Antarctic Islands, many of 
 the species remaining unchanged throughout. 
 
 Darwin in the Origin of Species states that : 
 
 from the extraordinary manner in which European productions have 
 recently spread over New Zealand, and have seized on places which must 
 have been previously occupied, we may believe, if all the animals and 
 plants of Great Britain were set free in New Zealand, that in the course 
 of time a multitude of British forms would become thoroughly naturalised 
 there, and would exterminate many of the natives. On the other hand, 
 from what we see now occurring in New Zealand, and from hardly a 
 single inhabitant of the southern hemisphere having become wild in any 
 part of Europe, we may doubt, if all the productions of New Zealand were 
 set free in Great Britain, whether any considerable number would be 
 enabled to seize on places now occupied by our native plants and animals. 
 
 Arguing from the facts advanced by Sir J. D. Hooker, A. R. 
 Wallace in Island Life (1880) has discussed the question at some 
 length, and I quote that portion of his remarks which bears directly 
 on the New Zealand flora. He says (p. 479): 
 
 The first important fact bearing upon this question is the wonderful 
 aggressive and colonising power of the Scandinavian flora, as shown by 
 the way in which it established itself in any temperate country to which 
 it may gain access. About 150 species have thus established themselves in 
 New Zealand, often taking possession of large tracts of country ; about the 
 same number are found in Australia, and nearly as many in the Atlantic 
 states of America, where they form the commonest weeds. Whether or 
 not we accept Mr Darwin's explanation of this power as due to develop- 
 ment in the most extensive land area of the globe where competition has 
 been most severe and long-continued, the fact of the existence of this 
 power remains, and we can see how important an agent it must be in 
 the formation of the floras of any lands to which these aggressive plants 
 have been able to gain access. 
 
 Wallace was very strongly impressed by several instances of the 
 rapid spread of European plants in New Zealand which had been 
 communicated to him by Enys, Travers, and other good observers. 
 Some of the examples given by Wallace in Darwinism may be referred 
 to here. Thus he gives instances of the spread of water-cress in the 
 streams of the Canterbury Plains ; of white clover displacing native 
 species and even exterminating the native flax (Phormium tenax) ; of 
 Hypochoeris radicata (the so-called Cape-weed of the South Island) : 
 
 which destroyed excellent pasture in three years, and absolutely displaced 
 every other plant on the ground. It grows on every kind of soil, and is 
 even said to drive out the white clover, which is usually so powerful 
 in taking possession of the soil ; 
 
 of knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare), common dock (Rumex obtusi- 
 folius), sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus) and sorrel (Rumex acetosella),
 
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 527 
 
 spreading in all directions, and in many places absolutely occupying 
 the ground they invaded. 
 
 Many of these statements are unintentionally misleading. Thus 
 Hypochceris radicata, the most abundant and most widespread intro- 
 duced plant into New Zealand, can only assert itself in land grazed 
 over by cattle (it asserts itself in lawns), which eat out all the good 
 grasses and the clover, and leave the others. When sheep are intro- 
 duced the Cape-weed is itself quickly eaten out. Dr Cockayne is 
 very emphatic on the subject. He says : 
 
 The often quoted stories of white clover being able to wipe out Phor- 
 mium tenax, of Salix Babylonica overcoming the water-cress, of Hypochceris 
 radicata displacing every other plant of excellent pastures in Nelson, are 
 without foundation. P. tenax has certainly been eradicated in many 
 places, and perhaps, in a sense, replaced by white clover, but not until 
 fire and feeding of stock had killed the plant. 
 
 Dr Cockayne's reference is to a well-known passage in Darwinism'. 
 
 A curious example of the struggle between plants has been communi- 
 cated to me by Mr John Enys, a resident of New Zealand. The English 
 water-cress grows so luxuriantly in that country as to completely choke up 
 the rivers, sometimes leading to disastrous floods, and necessitating great 
 outlay to keep the streams open. But a natural remedy has now been 
 found by planting willows on the banks. The roots of these trees penetrate 
 the bed of the stream in every direction, and the water-cress, unable to 
 obtain the requisite amount of nourishment, gradually disappears. 
 
 Enys is partly right in this statement. I have recently noticed that 
 a species of Nitella, whether native or introduced I do not know, is 
 killing out the water-cress in some of the streams about Christchurch. 
 W. T. L. Travers, addressing the Wellington Philosophical Society 
 in 1871, in referring to the destruction of the native alpine and sub- 
 alpine flora of Nelson province said : 
 
 Indeed I have no doubt, from the comparative rarity of many plants 
 which were formerly found in abundance in such districts, that in a few 
 years our only knowledge of them will be derived from the dried speci- 
 mens in our herbaria. 
 
 In another place, quoted by Cheeseman, he stated: 
 
 Such, in effect, is the activity with which the introduced plants are 
 doing their work, that I believe if every human being were at once removed 
 from the islands for even a limited number of years, looking at the matter 
 from a geological point of view, the introduced would succeed in dis- 
 placing the indigenous fauna and flora. 
 
 I have no doubt that had Travers been living to-day he would 
 have completely reversed this judgment. The opinion of all botanists 
 in New Zealand to-day is that when the direct, or to a large extent
 
 528 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE 
 
 the indirect influence of man is eliminated, the native vegetation can 
 always hold its own against the introduced. Those plants which have 
 thriven abnormally in this new country, and have impressed visitors 
 by their abundance, are found in settled and cultivated districts, and 
 belong chiefly to what are known as weeds of cultivation, that is, 
 plants which have become adapted to conditions caused by the direct 
 and indirect action of human beings, and which only thrive where 
 those conditions are maintained. 
 
 In a paper on plant acclimatisation in New Zealand which was 
 published in 1900 I said: 
 
 Seeds of such plants as violets, primroses, cowslips, bluebells, heaths, 
 etc., and of fruits like the bilberry (or blaeberry) and cranberry, have 
 been sown by numbers of persons during the past 50 or 60 years in all 
 sorts of situations, but they have not established themselves. They cannot 
 always succeed even when growing in open competition against the 
 indigenous vegetation, and they never make the slightest headway against 
 many of the vigorous introduced forms. Even where individual plants 
 become established, they nearly always fail to produce seed, and this is 
 the chief reason why such species do not become naturalised. In their 
 native countries their flowers are visited and fertilised by certain species 
 of insects, and these are totally wanting here. Our indigenous insects 
 are unable to fertilise them, and so they do not produce seed. There are 
 no doubt other differences which affect their success in the struggle for 
 existence. The rapidity of germination of their seeds, the subsequent 
 rapidity of growth of the young plants, and many other factors, which 
 have not been sufficiently looked into in this connection, all bear on this 
 question. I have in past years sown quantities of the seeds of many 
 flowering plants of Great Britain along the wayside in one of the suburban 
 roads leading through our Town Belt, but from none of them have plants 
 appeared except from those of foxgloves, whose strong coarse foliage 
 enables it to hold its own against most of its neighbours. If the others 
 have germinated they have nearly always been smothered by cocksfoot 
 or other coarse grass. In gardens many of our European flowers seed 
 now on account of the general prevalence of humble-bees, but many others 
 remain unfertilised. 
 
 Most of the common naturalised plants are capable of self-fertilisation 
 if they are not habitually self- fertilised. For instance the following are 
 found producing seeds in midwinter from flowers which never open and 
 which are more or less imperfect in structure : Shepherd's Purse (Capsella 
 Bursa-pastoris), winter-cress (Barbarea vulgaris), bitter-cress (Cardamine 
 hirsuta), hedge-mustard (Sisymbrium officinale), wart-cress (Senebiera 
 didyma), chickweed (Stellaria media), mouse-ear chickweed (Cerastium 
 glomeratum and C. triviale), groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), sowthistle 
 (Sonchus oleraceus), spurge (Euphorbia Peplus), and perhaps others. This 
 faculty of producing more or less imperfect self- fertilised flowers is almost 
 an essential feature in all such plants, many of which are thus enabled 
 to produce fruit at all seasons of the year, and almost independent of 
 the weather. Another point is that most of them produce very small and
 
 
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 529 
 
 very numerous seeds ; and still another, that a large proportion of them 
 come to maturity very rapidly, and that their seeds germinate quickly. 
 These characters are all retrogressive from one point of view that is to 
 say the plants exhibiting them have tended to become less instead of 
 more specialised in their development; but by this degradation of their 
 reproductive organs they have really become better adapted for the 
 peculiar conditions which are imposed upon them in their struggle with 
 the gardener and agriculturist. 
 
 Commenting on this paper D. Petrie wrote as follows: 
 
 The spread of weeds is mainly due to useful plants their competitors 
 being regularly checked and eaten down, while the weeds are mostly 
 allowed to grow without check of any important nature. Almost all weeds 
 found in our northern pastures owe their spread to this; e.g., several 
 buttercups, numerous docks, pennyroyal, Holcus mollis and H. lanatus, 
 and many weedy grasses, various spurges, mallows, mulleins, and so 
 forth. In many cases their spread is facilitated by the ready germination 
 of their seeds, by the long time that the seeds retain their vitality in the 
 soil, and by the readiness with which their earliest roots strike deep down 
 into the soil, which allows the plants to establish themselves in hot, dry 
 weather. Black Medick (Medicago lupulind), meadow plantain (Plantago 
 lanceolata), the docks and spurges, all start and thrive in hot, dry weather, 
 when more superficial-rooting seedlings die off. The introduced speed- 
 wells and poor man's weather-glass (Anagallis arvensis) are much in the 
 same case. The decline of plants that have taken possession of a district 
 for some years is no doubt due to temporary exhaustion of some element 
 of plant-food needful for their vigorous growth. This principle lies at the 
 base of the theory of rotation of crops. In Central Otago, when I first 
 knew it, Carduus lanceolatus was the prevailing weed on open downs and 
 dry hill-slopes. Some years after C. pauciflorus 1 completely replaced it, 
 and this will, no doubt, be now giving way to something else. The doctrine 
 that the Scandinavian plants possess extraordinary vigour, which is the cause 
 of their aggressive character, seems to me very doubtful. In each single 
 species particular advantages can generally be assigned that will readily 
 explain their rapid spread. In the peninsula north of Auckland there are 
 very large areas of land on which European weeds have but slightly 
 established themselves, though the ground is frequently cleared of all 
 native vegetation by fires. In these areas native plants mostly grow up 
 with great readiness, especially species of Leptospermum and Pomaderris, 
 Haloragis tetragyna and H. minuta, besides various cyperaceous plants. The 
 pre-eminence in aggressive characters of North European plants is 
 decided enough, but many non-European plants are now widely spread 
 here and are indeed very aggressive. I may instance Modiola multifida, 
 a North American malvaceous plant, an Australian Plantago, two species 
 ofErigeron, and Kyllinga. The rat-tail grass, too, is no doubt introduced, 
 and has been most aggressive, while the South African Cyperus (minimus?) 
 is nearly as ubiquitous as sorrel. 
 
 Here, as in the South, a few native plants are spreading: Aristotelia 
 racemosa, Fuchsia excorticata, Pomaderris phylicifolia, Erechtites, etc.; but 
 1 ? C. pycnocephalus . 
 
 T. N. z. 34
 
 530 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE 
 
 the most aggressive plant of all is Pteris aquilina, which is rapidly over- 
 running much of the land that has been cleared of bush, and which 
 permanently establishes itself before its roots are sufficiently decayed to 
 admit of ploughing. 
 
 The most abundant and most wide-spread introduced weed is Hypo- 
 chceris radicata. 
 
 Cheeseman writes as follows on the naturalised plants of the 
 Auckland district: 
 
 387 species are catalogued. Of these 280 are natives of Europe, many 
 of them also ranging into temperate Asia and North America, and some 
 into North Africa. Ten species, not European, are from the eastern portion 
 of N. America, and four are from the western. Total, 294 species from the 
 north temperate zone. From Australia only 19; from Chili and the cool 
 portions of S. America 9; from the Cape of Good Hope 21. Total 49 
 species from the south temperate zone. Finally 53 species subtropical 
 and tropical. 
 
 31 are trees or shrubs, and 356 herbaceous. Of this latter number, 
 176 are annual, 28 biennial, 152 perennial. The large proportion of 
 annual species is noteworthy, as in the indigenous flora nearly all the 
 herbaceous plants are of perennial growth. 
 
 With the above facts before us, we are better able to enquire into the 
 general subject of the naturalisation of plants in New Zealand and to 
 attempt an answer to the question why the native vegetation should 
 apparently be unable to hold its own against the numerous intruders 
 streaming in on every side. In considering the subject, it appears to me 
 most important to bear in mind constantly that the conditions of plant- 
 life now prevailing in New Zealand are in great measure different to those 
 that existed when European voyagers first visited its shores. When Cook 
 landed here the whole country was covered with a dense native vegetation, 
 hardly interfered with by man. The cultivations of the Maoris were small 
 in areas, and as they rarely tilled the same plot of ground for many years 
 in succession, preferring to abandon it when the soil showed signs of 
 exhaustion and to make new clearings elsewhere, there is little chance of 
 the establishment of a race of indigenous weeds. In fact, it can be roundly 
 said that the New Zealand Flora contained no such class. At that time 
 there were no herbivorous animals of any kind, either wild or domesticated, 
 to graze upon the vegetation, or to interfere with it in any way. Thus no 
 check existed to the growth of many species which can now hardly live 
 in a district where our introduced cattle are abundant. And the repeated 
 burning off, year by year, of large tracts of open country, was then a 
 circumstance almost unknown. The Maori rarely wantonly destroyed the 
 vegetation, and if he used fire in making his new clearings, generally took 
 precautions that it should not spread further than was absolutely required. 
 It is hardly necessary to dwell longer on this point; for all must admit 
 that the advent of European settlers and the colonisation of the country have 
 brought into operation a set of conditions injurious to both the indigenous 
 fauna and flora. The chief of these conditions may be conveniently grouped 
 under three heads: first, the actual destruction of the vegetation by the
 
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 531 
 
 settlers to make room for their cultivations, or in the construction of 
 roads, or in the cutting down of the forests for timber, etc. ; second, the 
 introduction of sheep, cattle and horses, and their spread over the greater 
 part of the country; third, the practice, now very generally followed, of 
 burning off the vegetation in the open districts at regular intervals. 
 
 If the above facts are duly considered there will not be so much cause 
 for wonder in the introduction and rapid spread of so many foreign plants. 
 For instance, it might be expected that the weeds of our corn-fields and 
 pasture which now form such an important and conspicuous element 
 in the naturalised Flora would be almost wholly composed of introduc- 
 tions from abroad. The native Flora possessed few plants suitable for the 
 places they have taken, and these few could hardly compete with a chance 
 of success against species that have from time immemorial occupied the 
 cultivations of man, and whose best adapted varieties have been rigorously 
 selected. The introduced weeds flourish and multiply because they have 
 an environment suited to them and to which they have been modified ; the 
 native ones fail because the conditions have become altogether different 
 to those they had been accustomed to. 
 
 Similarly it was to be expected that foreign plants would in some 
 degree displace the indigenous ones in districts grazed over but not actually 
 cultivated. Many native species will not bear repeated cropping, and soon 
 decrease in numbers when cattle and sheep are brought in. Their places 
 will, therefore, be taken by plants that are indifferent to this, or escape 
 by reason of being unpalatable At the same time it must be remem- 
 bered that any native plants possessing similar advantages would also 
 increase; and in many cases this has actually taken place. The spread of 
 such indigenous plants as Poa australis and Discaria in the river valleys 
 in the interior of Nelson and Canterbury, of Cassinia on the shores of Cook 
 Straits; and of some grasses (as Danthonia semiannularis and Microlcena 
 stipoides) in Auckland, are well-known examples, and it would be easy 
 to enumerate more. 
 
 But although we may safely credit the changed conditions of plant life 
 with being a powerful reason for the spread of naturalised plants in New 
 Zealand, it is impossible to consider it as the sole explanation. For we 
 find that not a few species have penetrated into localities where cultivation 
 and cattle are alike unknown, and where man himself is a rare visitant; 
 where in fact, the conditions are still unchanged. This is the most interesting 
 part of the subject, for it proves conclusively, as remarked by Mr Darwin, 
 that the indigenous plants of any district are not necessarily those best 
 suited for it. In most cases it is impossible to assign any obvious reason 
 for the fact that these intruders should be able to thrust on one side the 
 native vegetation; but it is significant that all, or nearly all, are common 
 and widely distributed in their native countries, in short, are predominant 
 species; and that they have followed almost everywhere the footsteps of 
 man, being as extensively naturalised in many other countries as in New 
 Zealand. We may, therefore, suppose that by long-continued competition 
 with other species, in different localities and in different climates, they 
 have gained a vigour of constitution and a faculty of adapting themselves 
 to a great variety of conditions which enable them to readily overcome 
 plants that have not been so advantageously modified. 
 
 342
 
 532 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE 
 
 This supposition will also throw some light on the curious fact that 
 the vast majority of our plants are of northern origin. It is now generally 
 admitted by geologists that the present continents are of immense 
 antiquity, and that there has been no great alteration in the relative pro- 
 portions of land and water during vast geological epochs. Mr Darwin 
 therefore argues that as the northern hemisphere has probably always 
 possessed the most extensive continuous land area, so the wonderfully 
 aggressive and colonizing power of its plants at the present time is due 
 to development where the competition of species has been the most severe 
 and long continued, owing to the presence of facilities for natural migration. 
 The plants of the comparatively isolated countries of the southern hemi- 
 sphere have not been subjected to the same degree of competition, and 
 consequently could not be so advantageously modified. 
 
 Mr Kirk, who paid special attention to the naturalisation of plants 
 in New Zealand, in a paper on the naturalised plants of Port Nicholson > 
 says: 
 
 At length a turning-point is reached, the invaders lose a portion of 
 their vigour and become less encroaching, while the indigenous plants 
 find the struggle less severe and gradually recover a portion of their lost 
 ground, the result being the gradual amalgamation of those kinds best 
 adapted to hold their own in the struggle for existence with the introduced 
 forms, and the restriction of those less favourably adapted to habitats 
 which afford them special advantages. 
 
 Further on in the same article Mr Kirk combats the view that the 
 majority of our native plants will become extinct, stating that the 
 particular species for which this danger is to be feared might almost 
 be counted upon one's fingers. 
 
 My own views on this difficult question are much nearer to 
 Mr Kirk's than to those of Mr Travers. I can certainly find little 
 evidence in support of the opinion that a considerable proportion of 
 the native flora will become extinct. Even in isolated localities of 
 limited areas, like Madeira and St Helena, where there is little variety 
 of climate and physical conditions, and where the native plants have 
 been subjected to far more disadvantageous influences, and to a 
 keener competition with introduced forms than in New Zealand, the 
 process of naturalisation has not gone so far as to stamp out the whole 
 of the indigenous vegetation, although great and remarkable changes 
 have been effected, and many species have become extinct. I fail to 
 see why it is assumed that a greater effect will be produced in New 
 Zealand, with its diversified physical features and many varieties of 
 soil, situation, and climate. Surely its far-stretching coast-line, bold 
 cliffs, and extensive sand-dunes, its swamps and moorlands, its lofty 
 mountains and wide-spreading forests, will afford numerous places of 
 refuge for its plants until sufficient time has been allowed for the 
 gradual development of varieties better suited to the changed con-
 
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 
 
 533 
 
 ditions. No doubt some few species will become extinct; but these 
 will be mostly plants whose distribution was local and confined even 
 when Europeans first arrived here ; and probably all will be species 
 that have for some time been tending towards extinction, and whose 
 final exit has thus been hastened. I cannot call to mind a single case 
 of a plant known to be widely distributed when settlement com- 
 menced that is at present in any danger of extinction. Species have 
 been banished from cultivated districts, of course, but they are still 
 abundant in other situations, and probably there will always be a 
 sufficient area of unoccupied and uncultivated lands to afford them a 
 secure home. 
 
 Speaking generally, I am inclined to believe that the struggle 
 between the naturalised and the native floras will result in a limitation 
 of the range of the native species rather than in their actual extermina- 
 tion. We must be prepared to see many plants once common become 
 comparatively rare, and possibly a limited number I should not 
 estimate it at more than a score or two may altogether disappear, 
 to be only known to us in the future by the dried specimens preserved 
 in our museums. 
 
 Perhaps the most emphatic testimony as to the staying power of 
 the indigenous vegetation is that borne by Dr Cockayne in his 
 Ecological Studies in Evolution (p. 32), where he says: 
 
 There have been recorded for New Zealand up to the present time 
 some 555 species of introduced plants, but less than 180 can be considered 
 common, while others are local, rare, or even not truly established as wild 
 plants. Many at first sight appear better suited to the soil and climate 
 than are the indigenous species, and over much of the land they give the 
 characteristic stamp to the vegetation; but this is only the case where 
 draining, cultivation, constant burning of forest, scrub, and tussock, and the 
 grazing of a multitude of domestic animals have made absolutely new edaphic 
 conditions which approximate to those of Europe, and where it is no wonder 
 that the European invader can replace the aboriginal. On the other hand, 
 although this foreign host is present in its millions, and notwithstanding 
 abundant winds and land-birds (introduced, not native birds), the indigenous 
 vegetation is still virgin and the introduced plants altogether absent where 
 grazing animals have no access and where fires have never been. On certain 
 sub-alpine herb-fields the indigenous form of the dandelion (Taraxacum 
 officinale, Wigg.) is abundant, and yet the introduced form, with its readily 
 wind-borne fruit, has not gained a foothold, nor even the abundant 
 Hypochceris radicata, L., though it may be in thousands on the neighbouring 
 tussock pasture, less than one mile away. On Auckland Island, introduced 
 plants occur only in the neighbourhood of the depots for castaways, but 
 on Enderby Island, where there are cattle, they are much more widely 
 spread. Even where the rain forest has been felled or burnt, and cattle 
 etc., are kept away, it is gradually replaced by indigenous trees and shrubs 
 i.e., in localities where the rain-fall is sufficient.
 
 534 ALTERATION IN FLORA SINCE 
 
 Some of the indigenous species are quite as aggressive, or even more 
 so, than any of the introduced. In primeval New Zealand each would 
 have its place in the association to which it belonged there would be no 
 aggression ; but when the balance of nature was upset by the fire or cultiva- 
 tion of Maori or European, then the plants best equipped for occupying 
 the new ground become dominant, their "adaptations" for that purpose 
 fortuitously present. The miles on miles of Leptospermum scoparium and 
 Pteridium esculentum were absent in primitive New Zealand. So, too, the 
 pastures of Danthonia semiannularis in Marlborough, and the many acres 
 of Chrysobactron Hookeri in the lower mountain region of Canterbury. 
 Celmisia spectabilis, an apparently highly specialized herb for alpine fell- 
 field or tussock-steppe conditions, is now on the increase in many montane 
 parts of the Ashburton-Rakaia mountains and valleys, owing to its being 
 able to withstand fire, the buds being protected by a close investment of 
 wet decayed leaf-sheaths. 
 
 Nor are all the introduced species aggressive, by any means. Some can 
 barely hold their own; others are limited to certain edaphic conditions. 
 Thus, Glaucium flavum, Crantz, occurs, as yet, only on the coast of Wel- 
 lington, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Cook Strait. It is confined to 
 gravelly or stony shores, and appears unable to grow on the clay hillside. 
 And yet where the latter is, in one place near Lyall Bay, covered with 
 gravel there is a large colony of the plant, whence none have found their 
 way on to the adjacent hillside. Lupinus arboreus, now so common on 
 New Zealand dunes, appears unable to spread beyond the sandy ground 1 . 
 
 The fortuitous introduction of foreign species of animals and 
 plants into the country has been going on continuously since the 
 European settlement of New Zealand began. This was first brought 
 to my notice when we settled in Southland, and took up a farm there. 
 
 In 1870 we imported from Messrs Lawson and Sons, Edinburgh, 
 a quantity of grass-seed for permanent pasture invoiced to contain 
 the following species: 
 
 Alopecurus pratensis Phleum pratense 
 
 Anthoxanthum odoratum Poa nemoralis 
 
 Trisetum flavescens pratensis 
 
 Dactylis glomerata trivialis 
 
 Festuca elatior Lotus corniculatus 
 
 ,, duriuscula ,, major 
 
 heterophylla Medicago lupulina 
 
 pratensis Trifolium pratense 
 
 ,, rubra hybridum 
 
 Lolium perenne repens 
 
 In addition to these the following appeared, the ground being 
 newly broken up and having never previously been cultivated : 
 
 Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Ononis arvensis 
 
 segetum Anthyllis vulneraria 
 
 Lychnis Githago Vicia saliva 
 
 Geranium molle Knautia arvensis 
 
 1 The latest expression of views on this interesting subject will be found in 
 Dr Cockayne's New Zealand Plants and their story, Chap. X (Wellington, 1919).
 
 EUROPEAN OCCUPATION 535 
 
 Leontodon Taraxacum Sinapis arvensis 
 
 Prunella vulgaris Papaver argemone 
 
 Veronica Chanuedrys Rhceas 
 
 Cuscuta Trifolii or Trifolium repens and T. pratense. 
 
 Similar experiences have occurred, but have not been recorded, 
 many thousand of times in the intervening years. 
 
 In all agricultural seeds imported into the country a certain pro- 
 portion of seeds of foreign plants is introduced, amounting in the 
 aggregate to many millions. The number of those which do not 
 grow, or if they germinate, do not succeed in establishing them- 
 selves, is very remarkable. 
 
 In recent years the Agricultural Department has set up a seed- 
 testing bureau at its experimental farm of Weraroa, near Levin, and 
 has drawn up a "List of Extraneous Seeds found in Commercial 
 Samples of Seed, showing relative frequency of occurrence of each, 
 and whether harmful or otherwise." The list for 1916 contains the 
 names of 224 species of plants, all except three being introduced 
 species. It included the following twenty species which have never 
 yet been observed growing in the country, although evidently the 
 seeds are introduced from time to time: 
 
 Alyssum alyssoides Lolium westwolticum 
 
 Anthemis austriaca Matricaria discoidea 
 
 Camelina microcarpa Odontites rubra 
 
 Carex cephalophora Ornithopus sativus 
 
 Centaurea picris Plantago aristata 
 Crepis capillaris Rugeli 
 
 Erysimum cheiranthoides Rudbeckia hirta 
 
 Geranium pusillum Setaria italica 
 
 Lepidium intermedium Triodia Thompsoni 
 
 virginicum Verbena urticifolia 
 
 In this connection it is very remarkable to notice the number of 
 foreign seeds introduced into this country with agricultural seeds, 
 but which do not grow 1 . 
 
 1 The following newly introduced grasses were placed in the trial beds at 
 Ruakura Farm in 1909: 
 
 Agropyrum tenerum (slender wheat- Ecrucaria cusptdata 
 
 grass, U.S.A.) Panicum brazilianum 
 A. Smithii (western wheat-grass, P. paranensis 
 
 U.S.A.) Panicum sp. Giant-couch 
 
 Bromus pacificus P. altissimum 
 
 Boutdoua curtipendula Paspalum stoloniferum 
 
 Briza geniculata Phalaris cterulescens 
 
 Chloris abyssinica Piptatherum Thomasti 
 
 C. barbata Sporobolus Wrightii 
 
 Elymus submuticus Tristegis glutinosa 
 
 E. canadensis Uniola speciosa 
 
 E. giganteus Vilfa arguti 
 Erianthes ravennee
 
 Chapter XV 
 
 ACCLIMATISATION WORK; GENERAL 
 CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 IN the various experiments made in the attempt to acclimatise, or, 
 as I prefer always to call it, to naturalise, certain animals, very little 
 forethought was given as to the possibilities of any particular case. 
 We are wise now after the event, and we blame the acclimatisation 
 societies, the Government, or various private individuals for mistakes 
 made. But it is doubtful whether we would have done any better 
 ourselves. There is one curious fact which never seems to have entered 
 into the minds of most if not all of the acclimatisation enthusiasts, 
 viz., the migratory character of the species which it was sought to 
 establish in this new land. This applies especially, of course, to the 
 birds. It probably explains the failure of certain species to become 
 established here. Thus the blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) and nightingale 
 (Daulias luscinia) are summer visitors only in the British Isles, the 
 former wintering in Southern Europe, Northern and Tropical Africa, 
 and the latter in Tropical Africa. Only a very few examples of these 
 two species were introduced, but it would "not have mattered how 
 many had been successfully conveyed to New Zealand, and liberated, 
 the result must have been the same. After a time the birds would 
 almost certainly have become possessed by the desire to migrate to a 
 warmer climate, but having no hereditary line of migration to follow, 
 they would probably have proceeded northwards and perished at 
 sea. There is no information at all as to the effect of the migratory 
 instinct on birds which have been taken from their own country to 
 a totally different hemisphere. We can only assume that the desire to 
 migrate would come on them strongly, and if so, it would inevitably 
 prove fatal to them in an island country like New Zealand. Seebohm 
 (in Siberia in Asia, p. 196) states that 
 
 the migration of birds follows ancient coast-lines. The migration from 
 the south of Denmark over Heligoland to the coast of Lincolnshire seems 
 to correspond so exactly with what geologists tell us must have been the 
 old coast-line, that it is difficult to believe it to be only a coincidence. 
 
 The following species which have failed to become established 
 in New Zealand are purely winter visitors in Britain: brambling 
 (Fringilla montifringilla), white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons), brent
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 537 
 
 goose (Branta nigricans), and grey plover (Squatorola helvetica). These 
 birds are in the same category as the previously named group. 
 
 The following species are partial migrants, being resident in 
 Britain at all seasons, but having migratory representatives which 
 visit Britain in summer, and which winter somewhere to the south : 
 linnet (Linota cannabina), twite (Linota flavirostris), redbreast (Erith- 
 acus rubecula), and teal (Nettion creccd). The following, which have 
 also failed to establish themselves, are partial residents, but are also 
 largely winter visitors in Britain: gad wall (Chaulelasmus streperus), 
 pintail (Dafila acuta), wigeon (Mareca penelope), pochard (Nyroca 
 ferina), and golden plover (Charadrius pluvialis). 
 
 As several writers on the subject of migration have pointed out, 
 racial forms of certain species appear regularly in Britain, either as 
 seasonal visitors or as occasional guests, and these include species of 
 which resident representatives occur all the year round. Again in 
 catching birds for exportation, it is impossible for the professional 
 bird-catcher to ascertain whether the specimens captured belong to 
 residents or to migrant races. The probabilities seem to me to be 
 that they mostly belong to the latter, because the bird-catcher goes 
 where he knows or expects to find birds gathered together in flocks, 
 and these mostly come together preparatory to migration. It is quite 
 possible that the specimens of linnets and twites brought to this 
 country were migratory representatives of these species; this may 
 explain their failure to remain here. The following birds, all of which 
 have become naturalised in New Zealand, are also resident in Britain 
 all the year round, but it is well known that there are numerous 
 migratory races of them: rook (Corvus frugilegus), starling (Sturnus 
 vulgaris), goldfinch (Carduelis elegans), greenfinch (Ligurinus Moris), 
 skylark (Alauda arvensis), song thrush (Turdus musicus), hedge-sparrow 
 (Accentor modularis), Mallard (Anas boscas). In a note to his list of 
 partial migrants, Clarke states that: " Starlings marked in Britain have 
 been recovered in France, Greenfinches in France, Linnets in France, 
 Song Thrushes in France and Portugal, and Mallard and Teal in 
 Germany." Seebohm also (in Siberia in Europe, p. 245) says: 
 
 Many birds, such as the Robin, the Blackbird, the Song Thrush, etc., 
 which are resident in England, are migratory in Germany. There is every 
 probability that it is only within comparatively recent times that these 
 birds have ceased to migrate in England, and we may fairly conjecture 
 that should the English climate remain long enough favourable to the 
 winter residence of these birds, they will develop into local races, which 
 will eventually have rounder and shorter wings than their Continental allies. 
 
 In connection with the naturalisation of the rabbit, it is interesting 
 to note that the earlier introductions all failed to establish themselves
 
 538 ACCLIMATISATION WORK; 
 
 There were rabbits in Otago at three or more different localities in 
 the very early days of settlement. None of these colonies succeeded, 
 but we cannot tell now to what particular breeds they belonged. It 
 is just possible that they were of races which had been long under 
 domestication, which would certainly be the kind that would carry 
 best, and would be the most likely to be brought out in immigrant 
 ships as pets. It was not till after the introduction of grey rabbits 
 in the sixties, rabbits of a particularly aggressive and vigorous type, 
 that these animals became a nuisance. 
 
 Very little is known about the movements and migrations of 
 fishes in the sea, and in New Zealand practically nothing definite has 
 been recorded. The date of the movements of the eels from the Wai- 
 kato to the sea; the invasion of the southern rivers by lampreys in 
 October ; the northern drift of vast shoals of Clupea (pilchards and 
 sprats) along the east coast of Otago in January and February such 
 general facts as these have been recorded, but no detailed observations 
 have been made. It is to be regretted that steps were not taken in 
 the past to mark specimens of Atlantic salmon (Salmo solar) when 
 liberating them, in order to try, if possible, to gain some knowledge 
 of their movements. The fact is that for over fifty years in this country, 
 and for even longer in Tasmania, the young of this species have 
 been turned out into the rivers by the million. They have found 
 their way to the sea, and yet none have ever returned. What comes 
 of them is a mystery regarding which no solution has ever been 
 offered. 
 
 Another interesting case is the failure, so far, of the European 
 lobster (Homarus vulgaris) to appear again in our seas. In this instance 
 numerous larvae averaging at a low estimate 100,000 per annum, 
 and in many cases at a fairly advanced stage of development have 
 been liberated from the Portobello Fish Hatchery into Otago Harbour, 
 for twelve years past. In addition, several adults were liberated within 
 the harbour. Allowing even ten years for a lobster to come to sexual 
 maturity, when all the larger crustaceans usually begin to move about 
 in large shoals, there has been ample time for adult specimens to 
 show themselves, if they are in New Zealand waters, either near the 
 Otago coast, or further north, whither the northerly current would 
 carry them while they were still in the free-swimming stage. It is. 
 hoped, and with good reason, that they will appear some day in 
 quantity, but there are no indications so far. The same remarks 
 apply to the European edible crab (Cancer pagurus) of which between 
 thirty and forty million larvae, and some adults, have been liberated. 
 Periodical migration of Crustacea large and small does take place 
 in the seas, the causes of which are quite unknown, so both the
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 539 
 
 lobster and the crab may yet be met with as permanent residents 
 of New Zealand waters. 
 
 Other interesting problems in connection with introduced bird- 
 life in New Zealand are the partial migrations which take place, and 
 the extent to which certain species have succeeded or failed to estab- 
 lish themselves in various districts. These problems may be best 
 illustrated by taking specific examples. 
 
 The Australian magpie (Gymnorhina leuconotd) was introduced in 
 considerable numbers into Canterbury and Otago between the years 
 1865 and 1871. In the latter district it seemed at first as if it were 
 going to become strongly established, for the birds began to build in 
 the neighbourhood of Dunedin, and as far south as Inch Clutha, 
 but for some unexplained reason they gradually disappeared com- 
 pletely. Meanwhile they throve in the neighbourhood of Christ- 
 church, especially to the south, and have since been gradually working 
 their way southwards. Within the last year or two (1918-19) they 
 have been reported as far south as Hampden and Moeraki. In the 
 North Island they are fairly common in certain parts, but Mr W. W. 
 Smith informs me that they are not so abundant now in Taranaki as 
 they were some years ago. No doubt the food supply, which varies 
 to a considerable extent according to the prevalence or scarcity of 
 other insect-eating birds, is a main cause of this partial migration, 
 but it is most difficult to arrive at the facts of the case. 
 
 The minah (Acridotheres tristis) is another species which has 
 largely changed its location since the early days of its introduction, 
 only in this case the cause of its gradual disappearance from certain 
 districts is more directly traceable to its competition with the ubiqui- 
 tous starling. Minahs were introduced into all the main centres 
 Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch and Dunedin in the 
 early seventies. They increased in all these localities for a time, but 
 as the starlings multiplied much more rapidly, the minahs either all 
 died out, or were driven away in the south. By 1890 there were none 
 left in Dunedin or its neighbourhood, only a few about Christchurch, 
 and none in Nelson. They have all but disappeared from Wellington, 
 and from the towns of Wanganui and New Plymouth, though they 
 are still common in the country districts of Taranaki, Manawatu, 
 Wairarapa and Hawke's Bay. 
 
 The chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) was introduced into all the main 
 centres in the early seventies. These birds are most abundant in 
 many parts now, but their occurrence in Otago has been most erratic. 
 A few years after their introduction they became fairly common and 
 then nearly disappeared. Probably the eating of poisoned grain was 
 the cause of the partial disappearance of these and other small birds,
 
 540 ACCLIMATISATION WORK 
 
 but while the latter have re-established themselves in great numbers, 
 the chaffinches still remain rare birds in most of the lower levels of 
 Otago. In the higher country, however, wherever bush abounds, 
 up to 3000 feet, they are reported as abundant. Their comparative 
 absence in the southern half of the South Island, and their abundance 
 in the north, especially from Lake Taupo northwards, seem to bear 
 out the idea that poisoned grain has been the disturbing factor in 
 the first-named districts. 
 
 Something of the same kind perhaps explains the erratic occur- 
 rence of the cirl bunting (Emberiza cirlus). These birds were intro- 
 duced into Otago about 1871, and became fairly common. Then for 
 a time they nearly quite disappeared, at least from districts where 
 cultivation of the land was carried on, but recently they have been 
 more in evidence. In the north, for example along the coast from 
 Manawatu to Taranaki, they are quite common. These birds, as well 
 as yellow-hammers (Emberiza dtrinella) and red-polls (Linota rufescens) 
 gather in large flocks at certain seasons of the year, just as migratory 
 species do in Europe, but there is no evidence that they leave the 
 country-
 
 Chapter XVI 
 
 LEGISLATION 
 
 VERY early in the history of the colony of New Zealand legislation 
 was passed to cope with animal and vegetable pests, which had been 
 introduced along with live stock, or in seeds and plants, and which 
 began to threaten the productivity of the new settlements. The pests 
 increased as rapidly, and in some cases much more rapidly than the 
 organisms they attacked or the plants they displaced, so that it became 
 necessary to take concerted action to eradicate them if possible, or, 
 at any rate, to keep them under control. In many cases the early 
 legislation was an utter failure, and this is shown not only by the 
 spread of the organisms themselves, but also by continual recurrence 
 of Acts of Parliament to amend the legislation previously passed. 
 
 In the early days of settlement the various local legislatures did 
 not pass Acts, but Ordinances, and the first of these was a "Dog 
 Nuisance Ordinance" of New Ulster, passed on iyth July, 1844, by 
 the Legislative Council of New Zealand, sitting at Auckland. The 
 provincial districts of New Ulster, New Munster and New Leinster 
 (Stewart Island), were apparently not defined till 1848. On 28th 
 January of that year Sir George Grey by proclamation defined New 
 Ulster as that portion of New Zealand north of the parallel of latitude 
 running through the mouth of the Patea River, or about 39 46' S. 
 The Southern Province was called New Munster. This Act was 
 entitled "An Ordinance to provide a summary mode of abating the 
 nuisance of Dogs wandering at large in Towns." The method was 
 quite simple. The dog was to be seized, kept for a night and a day; 
 if claimed it was to be delivered to the owner on payment of a fine 
 of five shillings, and if not claimed it was to be destroyed. In suc- 
 ceeding years most of the Provincial Legislatures also passed "Dog 
 Nuisance Acts." This would seem to show that stray dogs were early 
 recognised as a nuisance and a danger to the community, and it 
 helps to explain the extraordinary abundance of wild dogs in later 
 days, for it shows that great numbers of these animals were allowed 
 to breed and to learn to find food for themselves. 
 
 On 6th November, 1846, there was passed a "Duties of Customs 
 Ordinance," by which horses, mules, asses, sheep, cattle, and all other 
 live stock and animals, as well as seeds, bulbs and plants were admitted 
 duty free into New Zealand. (The italics are mine.) Not only was
 
 542 LEGISLATION 
 
 there no inspection at this period to guard against various pests being 
 introduced along with the stock, but some cranks would have brought 
 some strange "cattle" into the country. Thus one proposal was to 
 introduce foxes from England, so that the noble sport of fox-hunting 
 might be indulged in. This was actually done in Victoria, and many 
 Australians rued it afterwards. At a later date it was suggested to 
 introduce the Arctic fox to cope with the rabbit, and at the same time 
 to furnish valuable furs. Some one actually introduced bears into 
 Canterbury, but fortunately they were not liberated. 
 
 One effect of the unrestricted importation of live stock was the 
 prevalence of scab and other serious diseases among the sheep flocks 
 of the country, and the seriousness and widespread nature of the 
 trouble is shown by the passing of preventive and protective laws in 
 every provincial district. The first of these appears to be the " Scab 
 Ordinance" of 1849, passed by the Province of New Munster. This 
 was "An Act to prevent the extension of the infectious disease called 
 the Scab, as well as the disease called the Influenza or Catarrh, in 
 Sheep or Lambs." 
 
 The history of this legislation may be outlined concisely as follows. 
 The Wellington Provincial Council repealed the above Act in 1854, 
 and passed another "Scab and Catarrh Act." In 1856 a third Act 
 was passed; in 1862 there was a " Scab, Catarrh and Sheep Inspectors 
 Act," followed by an Amendment Act in 1864. In the Session of 
 Parliament of 1868 it was stated that all. flocks in the Wellington 
 district were free from Scab, except one at Castle Point, and another 
 at Waikaraka, which were only slightly affected. 
 
 The Taranaki Provincial Council passed "An Ordinance to prevent 
 the extension of the contagious disease in Sheep called Scab," re- 
 enacteditin 1863, again in 1864 and 1866, and an Amending Ordinance 
 in 1875. 
 
 The Auckland Provincial Council in 1854 passed "An Act to 
 prevent the Extension among Sheep of the Disease called the Scab," 
 a second Act in 1856, and a third in 1868. 
 
 The Otago Provincial Council passed a "Scab and Catarrh Bill" 
 in 1854, an amending Act in 1856, and a " Sheep Ordinance Amend- 
 ment" in i 86 i. 
 
 In the case of scab caused by the presence of a mite (Psoroptes 
 communis, var. ovis) the precautionary measures taken were successful 
 in stamping out the disease, and by 1880 it had quite disappeared 
 from the country. But preventive legislation was continued until 
 1906, and a "Sheep Act" was passed by the Colonial Parliament 
 in 1890 "to provide for eradication and prevention of parasitic and 
 other Diseases in Sheep."
 
 LEGISLATION 543 
 
 In nearly all the preceding Ordinances and Acts provision was 
 made that all sheep dying of catarrh were to be burned or buried 
 at least three feet under ground, no carcasses were to be thrown 
 into any stream, and no infected sheep were to be slaughtered for sale. 
 
 In 1876 there was passed "An Act to restrict the importation of 
 Cattle and other animals into the Colony of New Zealand in certain 
 cases," and Section 2 prohibits "all cattle, sheep, horses, swine, 
 goats or other animals," etc., which are likely to propagate any 
 infectious or contagious disease amongst men or animals. 
 
 The next subject to attract political attention was the increase 
 of thistles. Wellington was first in the field in 1854 with an Act, 
 the wording of which is interesting. It was entitled "An Act to prevent 
 the propagation of certain plants known as Thistles" (the italics are 
 mine), and penalties were imposed for allowing thistles to run to 
 seed. I do not know whether the fines were actually enforced, but 
 it is highly improbable that they were, otherwise a large proportion 
 of the population would have been heavily penalised. The Act was 
 amended in 1856, and again in 1857. 
 
 The Taranaki Provincial Council in 1856 passed "An Ordinance 
 to prevent the spread of the Scotch Thistle," and amended this six 
 years later to provide "better prevention of the growth, etc." of the 
 Scotch thistle. This was further amended in 1863. In the previous 
 year, also, "A Thistle Ordinance" was passed for the prevention of 
 noxious thistles. I do not know whether Scotch thistles were not 
 considered noxious, or whether it was that they were specially so, 
 but they certainly had a Bill all to themselves. 
 
 The Auckland Provincial Council passed a Thistle Act in 1857, 
 and an Amending Act in 1859; the Nelson Council passed one in 
 1859, and an Amending Act in 1861 ; while the Otago Council passed 
 "A Thistle Prevention Act" in 1862. 
 
 Gorse and broom gave trouble even in the early days of settlement. 
 Thus in 1859 the Provincial Council of Taranaki passed a "Furze 
 Ordinance," "an Ordinance to impose a Penalty on the growth of 
 Furze within the Town of New Plymouth." In 1868 another " Furze 
 Ordinance" was enacted, "An Ordinance to provide for the eradica- 
 tion of Furze growing on Public Roads," and this was amended and 
 re-enacted in 1875. 
 
 In 1861 the Provincial Council of Nelson passed "An Act to 
 prevent the planting of Gorse Hedges in the City of Nelson," and 
 imposed a penalty not exceeding five pounds on any one disobeying 
 this law. Any one also who did not keep an existing gorse or furze 
 hedge pruned was liable to the same penalty. 
 
 The early settlers were great law-makers, but also great law-
 
 544 LEGISLATION 
 
 breakers, for it is of no avail to make laws which cannot be kept or 
 at least enforced, and in a great many of these restrictive ordinances 
 Nature was too strong for the settlers and beat them very frequently. 
 
 In view of the keen desire which arose early in the history of 
 the colony to enter on an extensive introduction of foreign species 
 of animals and plants, protective legislation was passed as early as 
 1861. In that year the Provincial Council of Nelson passed "An 
 Act to provide for the protection of certain Animals, Birds, and 
 Fishes imported into the Province of Nelson." There were practically 
 no specially imported animals at the time, but the law was for the 
 protection of such species as "may at any time be imported into the 
 said province." And to make it drastic enough a penalty up to fifty 
 pounds was imposed for killing, taking or destroying, or selling or 
 offering for sale any such animal, bird, or fish; with a penalty not 
 exceeding ten pounds "for taking or destroying any egg of any bird 
 or spawn of any fish, proclaimed to come under the operation of 
 this Act." 
 
 In the same year a "Protection of Certain Animals Act 1861" 
 was passed by the Colonial Parliament, in which Section 2 provided 
 that: " No Deer of any kind, Hare, Swan, Partridge, English Plover, 
 Rook, Starling, Thrush or Blackbird, shall be hunted, taken or killed 
 at any time whatever before the first day of March, which shall be 
 in the year 1870, and after that day only during the months of April, 
 May, June and July in any year." Section 3 adds pheasant and quail 
 to this list ; and 4 says : " No Wild Duck or wild goose of any imported 
 species shall be hunted, etc." Later sections prohibit the poisoning 
 or trapping of any of these animals ; no one is to have them in posses- 
 sion without lawful excuse, nor to sell or offer to sell, or buy or offer 
 to buy such animals or birds." It is all rather curious and interesting 
 legislation, for it was almost entirely anticipatory, as the animals 
 referred to were mostly not introduced till a later date. Four years 
 later this Act was re-enacted. In 1866 it was amended, and the 
 ideas dominating the minds of the legislators of that time appear 
 chiefly to have been the preservation of "game" for such as could 
 afford to shoot. It defines the word "game" to include deer of any 
 kind, swan, wild goose or wild duck of any imported species whatever, 
 hares, pheasants, partridges, grouse, English plover, quail, heath- or 
 moor-game, black grouse or bustards. Yet at the time of the passing 
 of this Act none of the animals whose names are in italics had been 
 introduced into the colony, and some, such as bustards, have not even 
 been attempted. Provision was made for proprietors or tenants de- 
 stroying hares on their own enclosed lands, for coursing hares by 
 greyhounds or hunting them with beagles, for killing deer on enclosed
 
 LEGISLATION 
 
 545 
 
 lands or hunting them with hounds. Lastly no game was to be sold 
 without a licence, the fee for which was fixed at five pounds. It is 
 very interesting to notice how strong was the conservative instinct 
 to preserve game so that the privileged few should have sport. Any 
 one who within three years of the passing of this Act was convicted 
 of exposing a dead hen pheasant for sale was to be fined not less than 
 five nor more than twenty pounds. 
 
 Next year, 1867, the Acts of the two preceding sessions were 
 repealed and a new one was passed: "An Act to provide for the 
 Protection of Certain Animals and for the Encouragement of Ac- 
 climatisation Societies in New Zealand." Section 22 reads as follows: 
 "Any person who shall wilfully take or wilfully destroy the eggs of 
 any game birds shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding Five Pounds." 
 Limitation of power to introduce certain animals is covered by 
 Section 29, which reads: "It shall not be lawful for any person to 
 introduce any fox, venomous reptile, hawk, vulture, or other bird of 
 prey into the colony," or to allow such if already in possession to go 
 at large. In the Schedule which defines "game," the Snipe and the 
 Antelope are included. 
 
 This Act was amended in 1868 so as to enable game to be taken 
 for the purposes of distribution to other parts of the colony. In 1872, 
 and again in 1873, Amendment Acts were passed, and in the latter 
 year the Schedule remained the same as before, except that Ptarmigan 
 was added. Another Amendment was passed in 1875, and then in 
 1880 the preceding Acts were repealed, and a new Act was passed 
 "to consolidate the Law for the Protection of Animals and for the 
 encouragement of Acclimatisation Societies." Amendments to this 
 Act were passed in 1881, 1884, 1886, 1889 and 1895. In the last of 
 these was a clause which should have been enacted at a very much 
 earlier date. Section 2 reads : 
 
 From after the commencement of this Act no society, authority or person 
 shall introduce or import into the colony, or turn at large, for the purposes 
 of sport or acclimatisation, or as game, any animal or bird whatever without 
 the consent in writing of the Minister for the time being in charge of 
 the Department of Agriculture ; nor shall any insect or reptile be introduced 
 or imported into the colony without such consent as aforesaid. 
 
 Section 3 seems to be a piece of unworkable legislation, for it throws 
 the onus of guarding against undesirable immigrants on persons who 
 have very little means of stopping such. It states : 
 
 It shall be the duty of the master, owner, charterer or agent of any vessel 
 arriving at any port or place in New Zealand to effectually prevent any 
 snake, scorpion, or other noxious reptile from being landed in New Zealand 
 from such vessel, whether in the cargo or otherwise. 
 
 T. N. z. 35
 
 546 LEGISLATION 
 
 No one seems to have discovered the interesting zoological error of 
 classing scorpions as reptiles till 1910, when in an Amending Act the 
 section was made to read "snake or other noxious reptile, scorpion 
 or insect" As a matter of fact an occasional snake has been found in 
 foreign (chiefly Australian) cargoes, but has always been destroyed; 
 but scorpions and large centipedes are frequently introduced along 
 with fruit and hardwood timber from the South Sea Islands and 
 Australia, and none of those responsible can possibly prevent these 
 accidental importations. 
 
 Amendment Acts were passed in 1900 and 1903, and in the latter 
 a clause was introduced (over-riding clauses in the Rabbit Act) giving 
 the Governor in Council power to "declare that weasels, stoats, etc., 
 declared to be a natural enemy of the Rabbit, and which have since 
 proved to be the enemies of game and poultry may be killed " in any 
 specified district. 
 
 In 1907 all the Acts passed between 1880 and 1903 were repealed 
 and the "Animals Protection Act 1907" was passed, consolidating 
 all previous legislation. The following is Section 17: "Every person 
 who unlawfully takes or destroys, or wilfully destroys the eggs of 
 any birds mentioned in the First, Second or Fifth Schedules hereto, 
 is liable to a fine not exceeding Ten Pounds." 
 
 The First Schedule contains the following names : antelope, black 
 game, deer, grouse, hares, imported wild duck of any species, moose, 
 partridge, pheasant, plover, ptarmigan, quail, snipe, swans. 
 
 The Second Schedule contains the names of several native species, 
 and the following introduced birds: black stilt plover (?), black swan, 
 curlew and wild goose. 
 
 The Fifth Schedule deals with about thirty species of indigenous 
 birds, and also includes the Tuatara lizard and opossums. 
 
 An Amending Act in 1914 gives the Governor in Council power 
 to make sanctuaries for imported and native game, and the protection 
 thus afforded has been freely availed of. 
 
 All the preceding legislation from 1861 onwards, dealing with the 
 protection of certain animals, was really aimed at conserving imported 
 animals for the purposes of sport. It was supplemented in 1862 by 
 a "Birds Protection Act," which limited the period during which 
 game could be shot. One of its provisions, one which certainly could 
 not be passed to-day, was in Section 6, in which shooting on Sundays 
 was prohibited. 
 
 The introduction of small birds into New Zealand was partly due 
 to sentimental considerations, and partly to the necessity of checking 
 the ravages of " army worms " and other caterpillars which threatened 
 to arrest the cultivation of certain crops. However, within ten or
 
 LEGISLATION 547 
 
 fifteen years of the coming in of the birds, their numbers increased 
 to such an extent, that the protection afforded them had to be taken 
 away, and restrictive legislation imposed. In 1882 a "Small Birds 
 Nuisance Act" was passed, "to authorize Local Governing Bodies 
 to appropriate Funds and to levy Rates for the destruction of Sparrows 
 or other birds injurious to crops." This Act was repealed in 1889, 
 and replaced by a new Act (which was itself repealed and re-enacted 
 in 1902), giving increased powers for the use of poisoned grain and 
 other means of destruction. Finally in 1908 "The Injurious Birds 
 Act" was passed, and under the provisions of this, wholesale destruc- 
 tion of birds and eggs is carried on every year, without, however, 
 doing more than just keeping the danger within limits. 
 
 It will be seen from the history of the introduction of rabbits 
 into New Zealand that it was not till about 1870 that these animals 
 began to be abundant, but after that date their increase was so very 
 great that they seriously affected the great pastoral industry of the 
 country, and in some districts threatened to destroy it. Protection 
 against them has led to the passing of much legislation, and of many 
 regulations. This commenced in 1876 in the General Assembly, when 
 the " Rabbit Nuisance Act " was passed. By this Act power was given 
 to proclaim certain areas as districts in which the Act was to be en- 
 forced ; trustees were to be elected annually, and were to have power 
 to levy rates on the landowners not exceeding one halfpenny per acre. 
 The occupiers or owners of affected lands were also to be called on 
 to destroy all rabbits. In the following year an Amending Act was 
 passed, and a bonus of one halfpenny per skin was to be offered for 
 rabbit-skins. Any one introducing rabbits into any district without 
 authority, rendered himself liable to be imprisoned for a period not 
 exceeding six months, or to a fine up to fifty pounds. These Acts 
 were repealed in 1880, and another was passed giving increased 
 powers. Among other provisions was one giving the Trustees, in 
 the event of any owner failing to control the pest, power to enter 
 private lands and destroy the rabbits. Any owners failing to take 
 efficient steps rendered themselves liable to a penalty of not less than 
 one pound nor more than twenty pounds for each seven days of 
 neglect. The sheep inspectors were also appointed rabbit inspectors. 
 In 1881 the Act of the previous year was repealed, and another 
 enacted. By this time ferrets, stoats and weasels had been introduced 
 into the country, and they had to be protected. By Section 25 the 
 Government had power to declare "any animals, the importation 
 of which is not prohibited by any Act in force relating to the protec- 
 tion of animals, to be natural enemies of the rabbit," and such animals 
 were to be protected. By Section 26, "Any person who shall be 
 
 352
 
 548 LEGISLATION 
 
 convicted of destroying or catching ferrets, weasels or such other 
 animals as may from time to time be declared to be the natural 
 enemies of the rabbit," rendered himself liable to a penalty not 
 exceeding ten pounds or fourteen days' imprisonment. 
 
 I do not know that these sections were ever enforced to any extent, 
 till recently (1921). In the rabbit-infested districts the enemies of the 
 rabbit were protected, because the evil was ever present and the 
 menace serious. In the outside districts to which ferrets, stoats and 
 weasels quickly spread, these animals were destroyed to a considerable 
 extent, and no one said anything about it. 
 
 By this same Act while rating powers within proclaimed districts 
 were reduced to one farthing per acre, inspectors were authorised to 
 enter on all unoccupied crown or native lands, and to destroy rabbits 
 thereon. 
 
 In spite of all the legislation and regulations passed, the rabbit 
 nuisance continued to get more severe, so in 1882 the previous Acts 
 were repealed, and increased powers were given in a new Act to cope 
 with the pest. In the case of an owner who would not pay for the 
 cost of destruction of the rabbits, the Government could take his land 
 and sell it. At the same time permission was given to private indi- 
 viduals to keep rabbits in cages or suitable enclosures, this being to 
 provide material for biological classes in schools and university col- 
 leges. In 1885 a small Amendment Act was passed, and in the fol- 
 lowing year a fuller amending Act. In -this the liberating of live 
 rabbits was absolutely prohibited, and the keeping of them in captivity 
 was prohibited to all except teachers of biology. The maximum penalty 
 for any breaches of the Act was further increased to one hundred 
 pounds. In addition, power was given to the Board to erect fences 
 to check the spread of the pest, and under this provision many 
 hundreds of miles of rabbit-proof fences were erected in Canterbury 
 and other districts to arrest the onward march of the invading 
 "bunny." In 1890 a further Rabbit Nuisance Act was passed; and 
 an Amending Act in the following year. In 1898 "The Rabbit- 
 proof Wire-netting Act," containing no fewer than 35 sections, was 
 enacted, and this dealt with one phase of the question, as under it 
 fencing districts were formed, Boards of Trustees set up, and rating 
 powers were granted. While all the preceding legislation referred to 
 areas which were rabbit-infested, this one enabled districts which 
 were threatened to keep out the pest. In 1901 an Amendment Act 
 to the Rabbit Nuisance Act was passed, and in 1902 a Consolidating 
 Act of 116 sections dealt with the whole subject, repealing all past 
 legislation, and re-enacting it in full detail. This is now the law of 
 the whole important question, except that in 1910 a small Amendment
 
 LEGISLATION 
 
 549 
 
 Act was passed, referring to a matter arising out of the main Act. 
 Section 7 reads as follows : 
 
 Notwithstanding anything in any Act it shall be lawful for any person to 
 destroy hares, weasels or stoats: Provided that the Governor in Council 
 may, on the recommendation of the Minister of Agriculture, suspend 
 within any specified area the operation with respect to hares, weasels 
 and stoats. 
 
 An interesting piece of legislation called "The Chatham Islands 
 Animals Act" became law in 1884, an ^ was re-enacted in 1908. 
 Section 2 says: "No person shall introduce or allow to go at large 
 any rabbit or hare in that part of the Colony called the Chatham 
 Islands." 
 
 The legal position regarding opossums in New Zealand is rather 
 interesting. By a Gazette Notice of iQth August, 1912, it was declared 
 that opossums ceased to be imported game. Just a year later, owing 
 to representations from acclimatisation societies, it was decided that 
 the animals should be absolutely protected in certain districts; and 
 a warrant to that effect was published in the Gazette of yth August, 
 1913. In 1916 a further warrant was issued specifically protecting 
 them in the Wellington Acclimatisation district. 
 
 They have now ceased to be imported game and they have been 
 absolutely protected in certain areas. The position is now, in June, 
 1919, that: 
 
 there is no existing law in force giving power to declare an open season 
 for the taking or killing of these animals unless they were again declared 
 to be either imported or native game, and this is not practicable as they 
 would then automatically be protected in parts of the Dominion where 
 protection is not desired; there being no existing power to enable them 
 to be declared imported game in part only of the Dominion. 
 
 Probably an Amendment of the Law relating to these animals will 
 shortly be enacted. (See Appendix A, p. 556.) 
 
 Insect pests due to imported species have received a good deal 
 of attention from the legislature. In 1854 the Nelson Provincial 
 Council passed an " Ordinance to prevent the increase of American 
 Blight," which imposed a penalty of forty shillings on any one not 
 clearing blight off any infected tree after due notice had been given, 
 with five pounds for a repetition of the offence, and ten pounds for 
 any one selling infected trees. 
 
 Thirty years later the New Zealand Parliament passed " the Codlin 
 Moth Act 1884," "An Act to provide for the Destruction of the 
 Insect known as Carpocapsa pomonella, or the * Codlin Moth,' " under 
 which power was given to proclaim certain districts in which it was 
 to take effect, to levy contributions from all the orchards within these
 
 550 LEGISLATION 
 
 districts (such contributions not to exceed one halfpenny per tree), and 
 to make regulations for the destruction and eradication of the pest. 
 
 Both the American blight and the codlin moth are still with us, 
 but both are kept well under in all the fruit-growing districts. It 
 is in small holdings where a few odd trees are grown and are not 
 registered, or get overlooked, that all the dangerous fruit pests are 
 found. Within recent years much more comprehensive legislation 
 than these isolated Acts covered was passed. Thus in 1903 was 
 enacted "The Orchard and Gardens Pest Act" "An Act to prevent 
 the Introduction into New Zealand of Diseases affecting Orchards 
 and Gardens, and to provide for the eradication of such Diseases, 
 and to prevent the spread thereof." Section 4 gave power to the 
 Governor in Council to prohibit absolutely the introduction of any 
 plant, fruit, fungus, parasite, insect or any other thing likely to 
 introduce any disease into New Zealand. The First Schedule detailed 
 the following insects which were to be kept out by all possible means : 
 
 Mediterranean or West Australian fruit fly (Halterophora capitata), 
 
 San Jose scale (Aspidiotus perniriosus) , 
 
 Queensland fruit fly (Tephrites tryoni), 
 
 Vine louse or Phylloxera (Phylloxera vastatrix). 
 The Second Schedule contained the names of pests already in the 
 country, whose eradication was left to district authorities to deal 
 with: 
 
 American blight (Schizoneura lanigera), 
 
 Codlin moth (Carpocapsapomonella), 
 
 Mussel- or oyster-scale (Mytilaspis pomorum), 
 
 Red mite (Bryobia pratensis). 
 
 This Act was re-enacted in 1908 in the Orchards and Gardens 
 Diseases Act, which consolidated all previous legislation. This Act 
 is still in force, but its operations have been greatly extended by 
 numerous Orders in Council, specifying certain insects, fungi, etc., 
 to be rigidly kept out 1 . 
 
 1 The following is a list of these prohibited insects, etc., the fungoid and bacterial 
 pests being left out, as I have not attempted to deal with them in this work. Those 
 marked f have never been introduced into New Zealand as yet. If fruit, timber, 
 or other foreign material have shown any signs of these pests, they have been seized 
 at the port of entry and destroyed. 
 1908, Sept. 7th: 
 
 Tomato fruit fly (Lonchesa splendidd) 
 1911, Aug. 2ist: 
 
 f Dacus facialis -f Dacus kirki 
 
 t Dacus virgatus \ Dacus raratongiensis 
 
 t Dacus melanotus \ Dacus passiflorce 
 
 t Dacus cucumis Currant-borer (&geria tipuliformis) 
 
 t Dacus tongice f Gypsy moth (Ocneria dispar)
 
 LEGISLATION 
 
 Fishery legislation in New Zealand deals largely with marine 
 fisheries. That dealing with imported fishes begins in 1867, with 
 a "Salmon and Trout Act," "An Act to make provision for the 
 preservation and propagation of Salmon and Trout in this Colony," 
 and the preamble states: "Whereas it is contemplated to introduce 
 Salmon and Trout into this Colony from abroad, etc." This Act gives 
 the Governor power to make regulations for the protection of fish 
 which had not then been introduced, "for the preservation and 
 propagation of young salmon, salmon fry and spawn and young trout, 
 trout fry and spawn upon its importation into the colony " ; it placed 
 restrictions on fishing in those streams into which such young fish 
 or spawn were deposited ; regulated the times and seasons for fishing ; 
 prohibited "the use of nets or other engines or devices for taking 
 fish in any stream" so utilised; and prohibited the use of lime or 
 other deleterious materials for destroying the fish. It is a curious little 
 piece of legislation in advance of its object. 
 
 In 1877 "The Fish Protection Act" was passed, giving more 
 
 1915, Aug. 23rd: 
 
 f Apple aphis (Aphis mall) 
 Apple-blossom weevil Anthonomus 
 
 pomorum) 
 
 f Apple-bud moth (Hedya ocellana) 
 f Apple-pith moths (Blastoderma hille- 
 
 rella and B. vinolentella) 
 t Apple root-borer (Leptops hopei) 
 t Apple saw-fly (Hoplocampa testu- 
 
 dinea) 
 
 f Apple-sucker (Psylla mall) 
 f Apple-tree borers (Rhizopertha col- 
 
 laris, Chrysobothris femorata and 
 
 C. mali) 
 
 f Bulb-mite (Rhizoglyphus echinopus) 
 f Colorado beetle (Doryphora decem- 
 
 lineatd) 
 
 t Currant aphis (Rhopalosiphon ribis) 
 Currant clearwing (Sesia tipuli- 
 
 formis) 
 Currant gall-mite or big bud (Erio- 
 
 phyces ribis) 
 
 1917, i6th April: 
 
 t Banana scale (Aspidiotus destructor transparent) 
 
 1918, 23rd April: 
 Leaf-roller (Caccecia excessand) 
 
 The last named is a native of New Zealand. 
 
 No doubt the object of including in these lists so many species which apparently 
 have never yet been recorded as met with in the country, is to enable inspectors 
 at the various ports of entry to at once hold up a consignment of fruit, etc., where 
 any of these may be found. They occur in localities from whence they might be 
 exported to New Zealand, and it is evident that up to the present time, if any of 
 them have been met with, they have been destroyed at once, so that they have not 
 got free into the country. 
 
 Currant-shoot borer (Incurvaria 
 
 capitella) 
 
 t Fruit-bark beetle (Scolytys rugulostu) 
 f Gooseberry saw-fly (Nematus ribesii) 
 f Hop-aphis (Phorodon humuli) 
 j- Lesser narcissus-fly (Eumerus stri- 
 
 gatus) 
 t Light brown apple-moth (Caccecia 
 
 postvittand) 
 
 f Onion fly (Hylemyia antigua) 
 {Raspberry beetle (Byturus tomen- 
 
 tosus) 
 
 Raspberry moth (Lamprorda rubielld) 
 t Raspberry weevil (Otiorhynchus 
 
 picipes) 
 t Round-headed tree-borer (Saperda 
 
 Candida) 
 
 t Rutherglen bug (Nysius virdtor) 
 t Woolly currant-scale (Pulvinaria 
 
 vitis)
 
 552 LEGISLATION 
 
 definite power to make regulations. (By some oversight this Act 
 seems to have been overlooked when the Consolidating Act of 1908 
 was passed.) In the following year "The Fisheries Dynamite Act 
 1878 " was passed to prohibit the use of dynamite or other explosives 
 in public fisheries, whether marine or inland. 
 
 In 1884 an Amendment Act to that of 1867 was passed; and in 
 the same year "The Fisheries Conservation Act," which gave power 
 to make regulations for the protection of marine and fresh-water 
 fisheries. In 1892 an Amendment Act to this was passed, giving, inter 
 alia, power to acquire land for fish hatcheries. Further Amendment 
 Acts were passed in 1903, 1906 and 1907. Then in 1908 "The 
 Fisheries Act" consolidated all previous enactments. Among other 
 provisions it prohibited the casting of sawdust or any saw-mill refuse 
 into any waters, which has always been a sore point with saw-millers. 
 (It apparently did not make any reference to refuse from flax-mills, 
 which, in quantity, is a very deleterious substance.) It also fixed 
 definitely close seasons for trout fishing, viz., from ist day of May 
 in each year to the following 3th day of September, and fixed the 
 annual licence fee at ^i for men and 5$. for women and for boys 
 under sixteen years of age. Licences to fish for perch were also 
 provided for. This comprehensive Act of 99 sections is practically 
 the complete law on the subject. An Amendment Act of 1912 deals 
 chiefly with the encouragement of the whale fishery ; but Section 9 
 authorises the construction of ponds for breeding and rearing trout 
 for sale, a branch of industry which has not been really started to 
 any extent in this country. A further small Amendment Act in 1914 
 completes the legislation on this subject. 
 
 I have already referred to early legislation directed towards the 
 suppression or mitigation of the trouble caused by the vigorous 
 growth and wide extension of thistles, gorse and broom. These, 
 however, were only a few of the plants which soon got out of hand, 
 and became a serious problem to the country. Spasmodic efforts to 
 deal with the difficulty culminated in the passing of "The Noxious 
 Weeds Act" in 1900. This was "An Act to prevent the spread of 
 Noxious Weeds, and to enforce the Trimming of Hedges." This not 
 only required owners to keep their land free of certain weeds, but 
 also to clear the road-lines within their properties, and half the width 
 of the boundary lines; with power to inspectors to enter upon the 
 land, and, if necessary, to do the work at the owner's expense. The 
 law has been more honoured in the breach than in the observance, 
 and the Government has been itself one of the greatest offenders, 
 some areas of Crown lands being perfect nurseries of weeds, which 
 have sowed the country all round. Maori lands, too, have been an
 
 LEGISLATION 553 
 
 almost insuperable obstacle to the carrying out of the conditions of 
 the Act, chiefly on account of the difficulties of joint ownership. 
 There is a continual outcry about the necessity of eradicating noxious 
 weeds, but the fault does not lie in the law, but in the difficulty of 
 putting it into effect. Section 7 prohibits the sale of: 
 
 (a) Any noxious seeds, except in the case of gorse-seed to be sown 
 for forage or fodder by permission in writing of the local authority, or 
 for the planting of hedges or live fences ; or 
 
 (b) Any grass-seed, or other seed or grain, which has not been 
 thoroughly dressed by means of a seed-cleaning machine or other sufficient 
 process for the purpose of removing all noxious seeds. 
 
 The Schedules of this Act are interesting, as giving some idea of the 
 relative importance or seriousness of the weeds specified. Schedule I 
 includes three plants which are always, and everywhere without 
 exception, to be treated as enemies to be destroyed: 
 
 Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), 
 
 Canadian or Calif ornian thistle (Cnicus arvensis), 
 
 Sweet-briar (Rosa rubiginosa). 
 
 Schedule II specifies plants which are to be declared noxious weeds 
 in certain restricted areas defined by the local authority : 
 
 Bathurst burr (Xanthium spinosum), 
 
 Broom (Cytisus scoparius), 
 
 Giant burdock (Arctium majus), 
 
 Gorse (Ulex europceus), 
 
 Hakea (Hakea acicularis), 
 
 Ragwort or ragweed (Senecio jacobced). 
 
 Schedule III specifies noxious seeds, viz., those referred to in Sec- 
 tion 7, but the Governor may from time to time extend these 
 Schedules II and III, by including other plants than those mentioned, 
 on the recommendation of the Parliamentary Committee known as 
 the Joint Agricultural, Pastoral and Stock Committee : 
 
 Bathburst burr (Xanthium spinosum), 
 
 Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), 
 
 Broom (Cytisus scoparius), 
 
 Burdock (Arctium, any species), 
 
 Burr clovers (Medicago denticulata and M. maculata), 
 
 Clover dodder (Cuscuta trifolii), 
 
 Dock (Rumex, any species), 
 
 Fat-hen or white goose-foot (Chenopodium album), 
 
 Ox-eye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), 
 
 Sweet-briar (Rosa rubiginosa),
 
 554 LEGISLATION 
 
 Thistles (any species of Carlina, stemless thistle), Carduus (com- 
 mon plume or Scotch thistle), Cnicus (Calif ornian thistle and 
 woolly-headed thistle), Centaurea (star thistle), Silybum (milk 
 thistle), 
 
 Wild turnip (Brassica campestris), 
 
 Ragwort or ragweed (Senecio jacobcea). 
 
 In 1908 "The Noxious Weeds Act" consolidated the preceding 
 enactments, and, as far as machinery was concerned, was practically 
 the same. Schedule III (the old Schedule II) specifies the same 
 weeds with the addition of any species of Arctium, or burdock, and 
 any species of Rumex or dock, elderberry (Sambucus niger), fennel 
 (Fceniculum vulgar e), foxglove (Digitalis pur pur ea), hemlock (Conium 
 maculatum), kangaroo acacia (Acacia armata), lupin (Lupinus luteus), 
 ox-eye daisy, pennyroyal (Mentha pulegiuni), periwinkle (Vinca major), 
 St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum or H. humifusum], Tauhinu or 
 New Zealand cotton-wood (Cassinia leptophylla), any species of thistle 
 as specified above, tutsan (Hypericum Androsccmum), viper's bugloss 
 (Echium vulgar e), and wild borage (Echium violaceum). 
 
 The Noxious Seeds Schedule is similar to No. Ill of the previous 
 Act with the addition of fennel, hemlock, pennyroyal, St John's 
 wort and tutsan. 
 
 The record of the legislation passed by various parliaments in 
 New Zealand is historically of interest, and of value from the point 
 of view of the naturalist, as showing how various animals and plants 
 developing under new conditions in a new country, "run away," as 
 it were, and become so aggressive and so numerous in individuals as 
 to constitute a serious menace to the well-being of the community. 
 At the same time it is rather a curious record when looked at as a 
 whole, for hardly had any Bill passed into law when amendments 
 were found to be necessary, and these succeeded each other year 
 after year with monotonous regularity. The point reached to-day, 
 however, is one that can be contemplated with a certain amount of 
 satisfaction. As far as new introductions of animals and plants are 
 concerned, there is pretty close inspection at all ports of entry of 
 seeds, fruits, etc., and few deleterious things pass the inspectors. 
 Where objectionable introductions have got in during recent years, 
 they have in several cases been followed up to the localities to which 
 they were distributed, and have been eradicated. As to those animals 
 and plants which are already in the country and which it is desirable 
 to eradicate or keep in check, the conditions are more difficult, but 
 in many cases the laws which have been passed have enabled them 
 to be coped with. The hope for the future lies in two directions, viz.,
 
 LEGISLATION 555 
 
 closer settlement of the land coupled with more intensive cultivation ; 
 and better education of all those concerned in the primitive industries 
 of the country, which are mainly agricultural and pastoral, as to the 
 economic waste which ensues whenever undesirable animals and 
 plants are allowed to thrive. There is a growing desire for such educa- 
 tion, and it is becoming more fully recognised that it is one of the 
 important factors in the future success of the country.
 
 APPENDIX A 
 
 OPOSSUMS IN NEW ZEALAND 
 
 IN March, 1920, Professor H. B. Kirk, in response to a request from the 
 New Zealand Government, made a report on the Australian Opossums in 
 the country in answer to the following questions : 
 
 (1) Whether the damage to forests is likely to outweigh advantages to 
 settlers in being able to earn a revenue by trapping or taking opossums in 
 new country ? 
 
 (2) On what areas these animals could be liberated with reasonable 
 security against their overrunning and damaging State forests ? 
 
 He found that these animals often do considerable damage in orchards 
 by eating the leaves and young shoots of apple trees, of lemons, of peaches, 
 and all other stone fruits ; they bite fruit of all kinds, sometimes consuming 
 the whole fruit, sometimes leaving it damaged on the trees, or causing it 
 to fall. During the winter they do little damage. 
 
 They also bite off buds and shoots of roses and other garden shrubs, 
 eat peas when the pods are filling, and occasionally eat other vegetables. 
 
 Though reported as very destructive to pine forests (Pinus halepensis 
 and P. maritima) in South Australia, he found very little damage to pine 
 plantations in New Zealand. North of Auckland they eat the young male 
 cones of P. radiata (P. insignis). 
 
 In the native bush " the opossums eat leaves and young shoots of 
 makomaka (Aristotelia racemosa), of karaka (Corynocarpus Icevigata), of 
 houhou (Schefflera digitata), of mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus), of broadleaf 
 (Griselinia lucida), of konini (Fuchsia excorticata), of matipo (Pittosporum 
 eugenioides and other species), of kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile), the soft 
 parts of miro-fruit and of the nikau-fruit (Rhopalostylis sapida), the fruit of 
 the konini, and many others. By his weight he breaks young shoots, causing 
 them to wither. I have examined the upper branches of many favourite 
 food trees, but have never found that greater damage has been done than 
 I have described, and the trees branch freely below the wound. I have 
 found no native tree that has, in my opinion, been killed by an opossum. 
 The favourite plants of the opossum are damaged by constant climbing 
 and playing, but this generally happens near houses or at the edge of a 
 clearing, but I have never seen serious damage of this kind in the forest." 
 His general conclusions are that opossums do very little real damage in 
 the bush. 
 
 He recommends that an open season be declared during which opossums 
 may be lawfully taken, and that for the present this open season be the 
 months of May, June and July. Also that a licence fee of 1 be charged 
 to all trappers, and that for each skin taken a royalty of is. should be 
 paid to the Crown. In fruit districts he recommends that any resident may
 
 APPENDIX A 557 
 
 kill opossums at any time without penalty, but he must report the same to 
 the local postmaster. He further approves of the suggestion made by the 
 Otago Acclimatisation Society to stock the forests on both sides of the 
 great Alpine Range with opossums, and estimates that the fur trade would 
 soon reach a value of 200,000 a year. 
 
 As an outcome of this report Regulations for the taking and killing of 
 these animals appeared in the Supplement to the New Zealand Gazette of 
 May 5th, 1921. A licence fee of 2. IQS. entitles the licencee to take or 
 kill opossums; a royalty of is. per skin shall be paid to licensed brokers, 
 who shall pay a licence fee of 2is., and shall receive 5 per cent, commission 
 on the royalties collected. Every skin shall be stamped on payment of the 
 royalty fee. Exportation of skins must be with the consent of the Under 
 Secretary, Department of Internal Affairs. 
 
 Following on this Gazette notice the month of June, 1921, was declared 
 an open season, several hundred licences were issued, and many thousands 
 of skins were obtained, the exact number not being obtainable at the date 
 of publication of this work. 
 
 APPENDIX B 
 LATER RECORDS 
 
 INURING the progress of this book notices of many new species, especially 
 among the Insecta, have been received, together with later accounts of 
 those already referred to. As it was impossible to incorporate these into 
 the text without disturbing the paging of the book, they have been collected 
 together into an appendix, and each entry gives the reference to the page 
 where it should be interpolated. 
 
 p. 241 Quinnat Salmon 
 
 Mr Ayson, Inspector of New Zealand Fisheries, informs me that while 
 the run of this salmon in 1918 and 1919 in the Waitaki River was very 
 small, so much so indeed that some people thought they had disappeared 
 altogether, that of 1920 was quite large. Salmon are now running in several 
 rivers to the north as far as the Waiau, and quite recently they have 
 been reported from the Wairaripa in the North Island. These fish must 
 have spawned also in the Hokitika River on the West Coast, as young 
 salmon, only a few inches long, have been taken there. 
 
 During the present spawning season (1921) about 1,133,000 ova have 
 been collected at the Hakataramea Hatchery, and fish from 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. 
 in length have been seen right up to the foothills of the Southern Alps. 
 The run of fish this year in the Waitaki is quite phenomenal, and they are 
 also showing up in the Clutha River in the south. The Quinnat Salmon is 
 evidently firmly established in the South Island.
 
 558 APPENDIX B 
 
 p. 258 MOLLUSCA 
 
 Family MURICID^: 
 Murex ramosus, Linn. 
 
 Within the five years 1903-08 two specimens of this introduced 
 mollusc were found at Tauranga: one of these, 8| in. long, was living when 
 collected. 
 
 They must have been brought from one of the South Sea Islands, 
 either purposely, or perhaps attached either to a ship's bottom, or to her 
 anchors. 
 
 p. 265 MYRIAPODA 
 
 Order CHILOPODA 
 
 Family SCOLOPENDRID^E 
 
 Scolopendra subspinipes, Leach 
 
 This centipede is frequently introduced into New Zealand in fruit cases, 
 usually from the South Sea Islands. The species is very widely spread in 
 most tropical and sub-tropical countries. It does not seem to have estab- 
 lished itself, unless perhaps from Whangarei northwards. 
 
 Ethmostigmus platycephalus, Newport 
 
 Recorded in the Index Fauna Novee-Zealandia (p. 235) as an indi- 
 genous species Heterostoma platycephala but without locality. 
 
 Ethmostigmus rubripes, Brandt 
 
 A specimen, now in the Christchurch Museum, was found in 1901 
 among timber imported from Australia. 
 
 INSECTA 
 p. 270 Sub-order PSEUDO-NEUROPTERA 
 
 Family ATROPIDJE 
 
 Troctes divinatorius, Miiller. Cabinet mite ; Book-louse ; Book-tick 
 This species appears to be equally common with Atropos pulsatoria. 
 
 p. 272 Order HYMENOPTERA 
 
 Family ICHNEUMONID^E 
 
 Pleurotropus (Entodori) epigonus, Walker, was recorded by the Agri- 
 cultural Department on its introduction as Semiotellus nigripes. But this 
 latter species is a parasite of Oscinella in Britain, not of the Hessian fly, 
 and Mr D. Miller informs me that it is doubtful whether it occurs in 
 New Zealand at all. 
 
 p. 273 Family CHALCIDID^ 
 
 Aphelinus mail, Haldane 
 
 This little wasp was introduced from America early in 1921 by Dr R. J. 
 Tillyard, Chief of the Biological Department of the Cawthron Institute,
 
 APPENDIX B 559 
 
 Nelson, and was recently stated by him to be "becoming established in 
 the Institute's grounds." It is parasitic on the Woolly Aphis (Schizoneura 
 lanigerd) and the Mealy Bug (Pseudococcus longispinus). 
 
 In introducing these wasps Dr Tillyard found that other species of 
 insects were unwittingly introduced along with them. There were two or 
 three Chalcids, and also a small moth Nepticula pomivorella, Packard, whose 
 caterpillar is a leaf-miner on apple trees. 
 
 p. 273 Bruchophagtis funebris, Howard 
 
 This parasitic wasp was first identified and recorded by the Agricultural 
 Department in 1921. 
 
 p. 282 Family APID.&: 
 
 Hive-bees (Apis mellifica, Linn., and A. ligustica, Spin.) 
 
 On yth October, 1920, regulations under the Apiaries Amendment Act, 
 1913, were gazetted, defining the conditions under which bees, honey, and 
 apiary appliances may be introduced into New Zealand. 
 
 Bees and honey can only be introduced at Auckland, Wellington, 
 Lyttelton, Dunedin or Bluff. If they come by parcel post, they must be 
 examined before being forwarded. Bees may be imported from any pro- 
 vince of Italy, the United States of America, or the Commonwealth of 
 Australia, but they must be accompanied by a certificate from the snipper 
 of their freedom from disease. They have all to be examined by an In- 
 spector on arrival. 
 
 p. 282 Family VESPIDJE 
 
 Vespa germanica, Fabr. 
 
 Specimens of this wasp were taken in the Wairarapa district recently, 
 and were identified by the officials of the Agricultural Department. It has 
 not previously been recorded from New Zealand. 
 
 Order COLEOPTERA 
 
 p. 291 Family BOSTRICHID^E 
 
 Lyctus linearis, Goeze 
 
 This beetle, Mr D. Miller informs me, is frequently introduced into 
 New Zealand in packing-cases and wooden furniture into which it bores. 
 It does not seem to have established itself permanently. 
 
 It is noteworthy, however, that there is no restriction to the importation 
 of insect-infected timbers, whether they are intended for building, packing- 
 cases or furniture. 
 
 p. 299 Family CURCULIONID/E 
 
 Cyclas formicarius, Fabr. 
 
 This weevil probably spread originally from Cochin China, but is now 
 distributed very widely over the tropics. It is frequently found in ship- 
 ments of kumaras from the South Sea Islands, but it does not seem to 
 have become established in New Zealand. Regulations to prevent its 
 introduction have been gazetted.
 
 560 APPENDIX B 
 
 Order LEPIDOPTERA 
 p. 300 Family BOMBYCID^: 
 
 Bombyx mori, Linn. Silkworm 
 
 As already stated at p. 300, Mr T. C. Batchelor introduced silkworms 
 into Nelson in 1863. Seven years later he urged on the Government the 
 importance of fostering the silk industry in New Zealand, stating that he 
 had imported Tuscan mulberries, and had about 1800 trees ready to plant 
 out. In the following year Mr Batchelor had two varieties of silkworms, 
 viz. Lombardy Buffs and Japanese, and from these he reared two broods 
 of cocoons, the latest forming in November. At the same time, and as an 
 outcome of his action, the Government offered a bonus for the encourage- 
 ment of the industry. Apparently a certain number, both of colonists and 
 natives, commenced the cultivation of silkworms, but no one secured the 
 bonus, and it was allowed to lapse. 
 
 In 1879 a case f cru de silk from Auckland was shown at the Sydney 
 Exhibition, but I have not been able to find out by whom it was grown. 
 
 In 1886-87 another effort to start sericulture was made by Mr G. A. 
 Schoch of Auckland. He found that between 19,000 and 20,000 white 
 mulberry trees suitable for silkworm-food were in the country. He ordered 
 fresh seed from Italy, and this was distributed gratis. The Auckland 
 Domain Board planted (in 1886) n octrees in the domain for distribution 
 to silk-raisers. On December gih, 1886, a shipment of silkworm eggs 
 arrived from Italy, and about 600,000 were distributed gratis. Towards 
 the end of January a further batch of eggs arrived from Japan rather late 
 in the season and about two-thirds of these were distributed. Samples 
 of Italian and Japanese cocoons, and skeins of both kinds of silk were later 
 on forwarded to the Manchester Jubilee Exhibition. Mr Schoch was 
 confident of success in his efforts, but the matter was not taken up seriously 
 by others, and ultimately nothing came of it. 
 
 In times of agricultural depression and low prices, schemes for estab- 
 lishing sericulture as one of the industries of the Dominion are brought 
 forward and command some attention, but whenever other primary in- 
 dustries are making good headway, the interest dies out. 
 
 Silkworms are still commonly reared about Auckland and other centres 
 on a small scale, but not as commercial ventures. 
 
 Mr G. Howes informs me that in the neighbourhood of Sydney, New 
 South Wales, silkworm escapes have established themselves in a wild state. 
 
 p. 327 Order HEMIPTERA 
 
 The insects of this order have not been at all commonly collected in 
 New Zealand. As increasing attention is given to them, very many more 
 species than are at present known will be recognised, and this applies to 
 both native and introduced species. Since this work went to press, nine 
 of the latter have been reported to me. 
 
 Sub-order HETEROPTERA 
 p. 328 Family CAPSIDJE 
 
 Oncognathus binotatus, Fabr. 
 Mr D. Miller states that this European species, which feeds chiefly on
 
 APPENDIX B 561 
 
 grasses, is found at Wellington and at Wanganin, where it is very common. 
 It is probably widely distributed. 
 
 Sub-order HOMOPTERA 
 p. 3 28 Family FULGORHWE 
 
 Siphanta acuta, Walk. 
 
 First recorded by Kirkaldy in 1909. This Australian species has been 
 collected at Nelson, and in several localities in the North Island. 
 
 Saphena cinerea, Kirkaldy 
 
 Another Australian species, first recognised in 1921, and wrongly 
 identified as Siphanta granulata, Kirk. It occurs generally throughout the 
 Auckland provincial district. 
 
 p. 328 Family 
 
 Empoasca australis, Froggatt (?). Apple leaf-hopper 
 This insect has been introduced from Australia, but I have no informa- 
 tion as to its range within New Zealand. Dr R. J. Tilly ard informs me 
 that the species has so far not been determined with certainty. 
 
 p. 331 Family APHIDIDJE 
 
 Schizoneura ulmi, Linn. Leaf-crumpling Aphis of Elm 
 This aphis has been recently (1920-21) noticed for the first time in 
 the Auckland district. 
 
 Mysus persicae, Sulzer. Green Peach Aphis 
 
 Mr D. Miller informs me that this species is widespread in New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Aphis nerii, Fonsc. 
 First recorded in 1921 as occurring on Oleander. 
 
 Aphis bakeri, Lowen 
 Observed and recorded by Mr J. Meyrs on clover in 1921. 
 
 Pemphigus populi-transversus, Riley. The Poplar gall Aphis 
 This species was first observed on Poplar trees in Central Otago in 
 1920; it has since been reported from Nelson. 
 
 Myzaphis abietina, Walk. Spruce Aphis 
 
 This aphis, first recorded in 1919, is found generally throughout the 
 North Island. 
 
 CRUSTACEA 
 
 p. 340 Division SYNC ARID A 
 
 Order ANASPIDACE^) 
 Anaspides tasmaniee, G. M. Thomson 
 
 In February, 1898, 1 received from Mr Leonard Rodway, the eminent 
 Tasmanian botanist, a jar containing about twenty specimens of this most 
 interesting shrimp. He had experienced great difficulty in keeping them 
 
 T. N. Z. 36
 
 562 APPENDIX B 
 
 alive in Hobart on account of the heat of the weather, and he also found 
 that they were terrible cannibals. But this is probably true of all crus- 
 taceans when confined in a limited space without food. The remainder 
 carried over to Dunedin remarkably well. But the mortality continued, 
 though they were placed in a tank continuously supplied with fresh running 
 water. All were dead within 16 days after arrival, the last eight of them 
 being badly infested with fungus (Saprolegnia or Achlya). 
 
 In a communication to me in June, 1920, Mr Cheeseman adds the 
 following notes of introduced species : 
 
 SAPINDACES 
 p. 390 Acer pseudo-platanus, Linn. 
 
 Spreading in many localities in the neighbourhood of plantations. 
 
 p. 408 Hawthorn (Crateegus oxyacantha) 
 
 In the latter part of 1919 it was found that certain orchards in the 
 Auckland district were infected with the bacterial disease known as Fire- 
 blight (Bacillus amylivorus, Trev.). It is supposed that the disease was 
 introduced from the Western States of America, and distributed by means 
 of nursery stock from Auckland. An examination in 1920 showed that 
 the infected area ranged from Warkworth in the north to Kihikihi in the 
 south. The Waikato was the most widely infected district; there was a 
 considerable spread of the trouble in Tauranga, but the orchards in the 
 Thames district were free from it. Drastic restrictive measures were adopted 
 by the Agricultural Department, and apparently in some areas, i.e. Wark- 
 worth and Silverdale, the disease was stamped out. As tested in the 
 departmental laboratories the plants affected in New Zealand belong to the 
 genera Pyrus (pears, apples, and quinces) and Crateegus (Hawthorn). Pear 
 trees have suffered most, but the Department has come to the conclusion 
 that the disease cannot be coped with in any district as long as the common 
 Hawthorn (C. oxyacantha) is allowed to remain in evidence. Therefore at 
 the end of last session of Parliament (1920) an Amendment of the Noxious 
 Weeds Act 1908 was passed declaring Hawthorn a noxious weed. Clause 3 
 of this Act states that a special order may be made by any local authority 
 limiting the operation of the Act to a part only of any district. Clause 4 
 reads as follows: "The planting of hawthorn is hereby prohibited, and 
 every person commits an offence against the principal Act who propagates 
 hawthorn in any manner, or who does any act with intent to propagate 
 hawthorn, or who sells any seeds, plants, or cuttings of hawthorn." 
 
 p. 409 ROSACES 
 
 Spireea Lindleyana 
 
 Found near Arrowtown, where it was first observed by the Pastoral 
 Runs Commission in May, 1920. 
 
 p. 409 SAXIFRAGES 
 
 Escallonia macrantha 
 Common on banks in and near Wellington.
 
 APPENDIX B 563 
 
 p. 410 ONAGRARIE^ 
 
 Fuchsia Riccartoni 
 Found on old mining tailings near Ross, South Westland. 
 
 LABIATE 
 p. 460 Thymus serpyllum, Linn. 
 
 Abundantly naturalised near Clyde, in Central Otago. 
 
 p. 486 CYPERACEJE 
 
 KylUngia brevifolia, Rottb. 
 
 This species, doubtfully placed as indigenous in the Manual N.Z. 
 Flora (p. 764), is now considered by Cheeseman as an introduction. 
 
 Cyperus tenellus, Linn. 
 Cyperus vegetus, Willd. 
 
 Both species are treated as doubtfully indigenous in the Manual 
 (pp. 765 and 766), but are now considered to be introductions. 
 
 p. 496 
 
 In regard to Festuca ovina and F. rubra Mr Cheeseman has sent me 
 the following note (July, 1921): 
 
 "For the common fescue-tussock I follow J. B. Armstrong in calling 
 it Festuca novce-zealandiee. The introduced fescues are very different. They 
 are common only in a comparatively few places where they have been sown 
 purposely. The most widely spread is known as ' Chewing's fescue.' Red 
 fescue (F. rubra} is taller and more tussocky, but is easily distinguished 
 from F, novce-zealandice. There are also several other indigenous, but non- 
 tussocky species of Festuca, not properly classified as yet. Petrie has named 
 a distinct one F. multinodis," 
 
 p. 501 LYCOPODIACE^E 
 
 Selaginella Kraussiana 
 Common in damaged forest in the vicinity of Wellington. 
 
 APPENDIX C 
 THE TUTIRA DISTRICT 
 
 SINCE this work was in print, a very fine book entitled Tutira, the Story 
 of a New Zealand Sheep Station, by Mr H . Guthrie-Smith, has been published 
 by Messrs William Blackwood and Sons. It is a most interesting record 
 of fine observational work, by a skilled naturalist, dealing with the physical 
 and biological features and history of a comparatively small area of land 
 
 36-2
 
 564 APPENDIX C 
 
 in the Hawke's Bay district. No fewer than seven chapters deal with the 
 naturalised plants, and seven more with naturalised animals. Much of the 
 book consequently covers some of the ground gone over by me, but Mr 
 Guthrie-Smith has given much greater detail regarding the introduction 
 and spread of the species referred to than I have been able to do. Very 
 many of his conclusions are identical with my own, and the book is a most 
 valuable contribution to the biological literature of New Zealand. Unfor- 
 tunately it has no index, and the table of contents only very partially 
 supplies this want. 
 
 Without in any way attempting to summarise the information contained 
 in this book, I here record a few of the facts, taking the various animals 
 and plants in the order referred to in my own work. 
 
 Much valuable information is given as to the remarkable tracks made 
 over the unbroken country by sheep (p. 181), while an interesting instance 
 of melanism in sheep is recorded at p. 355, et seq. Each patch of bush 
 and scrub, chiefly on Eastern Tutira, maintained its little herd of wild 
 sheep. About 1892 a small flock of four or five black sheep was noticed 
 on a block in the north-west of the Tutira district. In about ten or twelve 
 years the flock had greatly increased, and when the land on which they 
 had been running came to be cleared and fenced, some 220 wild sheep were 
 rounded up and yarded. Of these over 90 were black, the larger number 
 with white tips to their tails ; about five or six were piebalds, and the rest 
 white. All of these were pure merino, the rams carrying magnificent heads. 
 Mr Guthrie- Smith's account of this flock and the explanation are worth 
 careful study. 
 
 At pp. 308-9, four cases are given of the. capture of rats, which were 
 claimed to be of the species which occurred in New Zealand prior to 
 Captain Cook's first visit, viz., the Kiore maori, or Mus exulans. Three 
 of these captures, dating between 1879 and 1906, cannot be verified; it 
 is possible that the animals caught belonged to this species. But the 
 fourth specimen, captured by Captain Donne "in the forest path between 
 Waikaremoana and Waikareiti not many years ago," seems from its photo- 
 graph to be an example of the Maori rat. Though nearly extinct in New 
 Zealand, it would appear that a very few specimens still survive in wild 
 rough country. 
 
 In 1886 and succeeding years, stoats, ferrets and weasels were liberated 
 in numbers in the Wairarapa district, and by 1901 they had reached the 
 neighbourhood of Tutira. "Between 1902 and 1904 they had overrun the 
 country between Tutira and the southern edge of the Poverty Bay Flat. 
 Everywhere I heard of them. On every road and new-cut bridle-track 
 during these two seasons I met or overtook weasels hurrying northwards, 
 travelling as if life and death were in the matter. Three or four times also 
 I came on weasels dead on the tracks. These weasels, alive or dead, were 
 or had been travelling singly.... For a short period weasels overran like 
 fire the east coast between Tutira and Poverty Bay, and then like fire died 
 out.... Nowadays on Tutira I do not hear from shepherds or fencers of 
 the weasel once in six years. I have not seen one for twenty years. There is
 
 APPENDIX C 565 
 
 something ridiculous in the fact that the weasel should have arrived on 
 the station before the rabbit, and that later, when rabbits had become 
 numerous, weasels should have practically passed out of the district." 
 
 Mr Guthrie-Smith says that the Australian Quail (Syncecus australis) 
 was privately introduced in the sixties by Colonel Whitmore on Rissington, 
 Hawke's Bay, but did not reach Tutira for more than thirty years. But it 
 seems more likely to me that this bird came to Hawke's Bay from the 
 Wellington Society's importations in 1875-76, for their game farm was 
 in the Wairarapa. 
 
 Again it is said that the Californian Quail was introduced by the Hawke's 
 Bay Provincial Council, and again at a later date by the Hawke's Bay 
 Acclimatisation Society. Unfortunately I have been unable to obtain in- 
 formation from either of those sources. Mr Guthrie-Smith bears out my 
 contention, originally suggested by Mr Cheeseman (see p. 116), that the 
 failure of game birds in New Zealand is due to the food supply being 
 destroyed by small birds. He says: "Californian Quail reached Tutira in 
 the middle nineties, and although there was at first an increase in their 
 numbers, it was a limited increase and soon ceased. Their advent as 
 game-birds had come, in fact, too late to admit of any great success. The 
 competition of innumerable goldfinches, yellow-hammers, larks, sparrows, 
 and native species, several of which had also increased with the enlarged 
 area of open country consequent on the destruction of bracken, had already 
 affected the insect food-supply ; the Californian quail is now disappearing 
 from the run." 
 
 In connection with the naturalisation of the thrush and the blackbird, 
 the spread of these birds in the North Island was almost certainly from 
 Auckland, and Mr Guthrie-Smith gives reasons why their course was right 
 round the coast of the Gulf of Thames, the Coromandel Peninsula, down 
 the Bay of Plenty, round the East Cape, and so to Hawke's Bay, and he 
 illustrates their probable route by an outline map. Mr Philpott's observa- 
 tions in Southland show that the thrush shuns the dense bush, hence the 
 coastal route may have been followed in the case of those which penetrated 
 to Tutira. But he found blackbirds in the heart of the forest country, 
 and I see no reason why both species should not have spread over from 
 the Thames valley direct to the east coast, the intervening strip of bush 
 land being comparatively narrow. 
 
 The sparrow, on the other hand, is stated to have spread from Auckland 
 up the Waikato as far as Taupo, and then across by the line of the Taupo- 
 Napier road. This is quite probable, for the sparrow never seems to stray 
 far from the haunts of men. 
 
 Minahs (Acridotheres tristis) were liberated by the Hawke's Bay Society 
 in 1877, that is, after the Wellington Society's introductions of 1875-76, 
 but they did not increase on Tutira till about 1890, though they became 
 very common about Napier. This bird, like the sparrow, follows man in 
 his migrations, and Mr Guthrie-Smith describes how "upon the approach 
 of autumn, minahs largely use the roads, closing in on homesteads for 
 scraps of fowl-feed and leavings of the gallows and kennels. The species
 
 566 APPENDIX C 
 
 has also of late developed a vulture-like habit of congregating near any 
 sheep dead on the hills ; in the vicinity of the carcase, awaiting the process 
 of skinning, the expectant birds gather for their ghoulish meal." It is a 
 most remarkable fact that starlings do not seem to have reached Tutira, 
 though they have been extraordinarily abundant at Napier, only distant 
 about a score of miles. 
 
 At p. 318, Mr Guthrie-Smith describes the mason fly (Pison pruinosus, 
 Cameron) as one of the most remarkable of the alien insects on Tutira. 
 It is really a wasp, and belongs to the Family Sphegidae. He says it is 
 believed to have reached New Zealand in chinks and knots of Australian 
 lumber, and that it was noticed by the late Mr J. N. Williams in the late 
 sixties. It is recorded in the Index Faunae Novce-Zealandice (p. 98) as an 
 indigenous species, but Mr Guthrie-Smith says: " Unlike the black cricket, 
 it seems never to have received a Maori name a fact in itself pointing to 
 a comparatively late naturalisation." Mr Howes is inclined to think it is 
 an introduction, as it is slowly spreading south. He met with it at Waipori 
 three years ago, and saw it for the first time in Dunedin later. 
 
 Chapters XXIV to XXX deal at length with the naturalised alien flora of 
 Tutira, and give the date of introduction of many of the species recorded 
 on the run, and frequently also the mode of their carriage and spread. 
 A list of plants naturalised on Tutira prior to 1882 is followed by three 
 lists bringing down the catalogue to 1920, and the names are in approximate 
 order of their arrival. These lists, and the subsequent notes on many of 
 the introduced plants, are extraordinarily valuable from a naturalist's point 
 of view, for they represent careful and elose observational work. 
 
 I cannot follow this record in detail, but will only select a few facts to 
 supplement my own statements. It is stated at p. 252, that "owing to 
 the great extent of second- and third-class country sown, also to the parlous 
 state of the finances of the run in early days, cheap seeds were largely 
 purchased ; hundreds of bags of ' seconds,' of Yorkshire fog and warehouse 
 sweepings, have been at various times scattered broadcast on its pumiceous 
 areas." 
 
 On p. 256 a list of plants whose seeds were brought in or attached to 
 sacks is given, and I quote the following passage, not only because it is a 
 true picture, but also because it illustrates remarkably well the author's 
 interesting and graphic style: 
 
 "The average life of a sack is, I daresay, about five years, each sack in 
 its time playing many parts. Starting at the Bluff, the southernmost port 
 of the South Island, a sack may only become finally useless in the far north 
 of the North Island, having spread blights and noxious weeds from one 
 end of the colony to the other. It may commence its career with all sorts 
 of high ideals, with the determination to carry only Timaru wheat, Hawke's 
 Bay ryegrass, and Akaroa cock's-foot, but has in later life to abate the 
 lofty pretensions of youth and ultimately to submit to the carriage of 
 ordinary grain, ordinary ryegrass, and ordinary cock's-foot. Later, still 
 whole and presentable, our bag will be considered fit for tailings and oaten 
 chaff. It will now perhaps cross Cook Strait and be passed about a farm- 
 ing district bearing perhaps in one short jolt apples, in another onions,
 
 APPENDIX C 567 
 
 becoming at each trip more stained with rain and marked with mud. It is 
 now filled with potatoes another downward stage and forwarded to 
 Auckland. By this time ragged, rent, disreputable, with senses blunted 
 in regard to weed-carriage, it may reach some struggling settler's little home 
 in the roadless north ; there, with no pride left, it will cover a bee-hive, roof 
 a leaky hen-coop, or in a buggy act as mat for dirty boots. Lastly, the 
 poor creature takes to drink, and hangs in a besotted state about a native 
 settlement. There, utterly degraded, it may serve as a saddle-cloth to some 
 galled Maori hack, and ultimately dropped, hatch out some long-secreted 
 weed, that like a wicked action comes to light at last. It is not very often 
 that a stowaway is thus caught red-handed emerging from his hiding- 
 place; yet white goose-foot (Chenopodium alburn) was seized by me in the 
 very act, a magnificent specimen, his great roots embedded in a rotten 
 sack, one of many strewn about the site of a Maori drainer's camp."
 
 MAP OF 
 MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL 
 
 OF 
 
 NEW ZEALAND
 
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 YATE, Rev. WILLIAM. "An account of New Zealand." London. 1835.
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 
 
 Records and notes of animals and plants by Messrs Armstrong, Cheeseman, 
 Hudson, T. Kirk, Miller, W. W. Smith and others, occur throughout 
 Chapters VII to XII inclusive; they are too numerous to index. 
 
 Anderton, T. : on polecats at Portobello, 
 74; introduction of turbot, 186 
 
 Arthur, W.: Brown Trout, 214; growth 
 of, 215, 217; spawning of, 219; 
 white-fish, 244 
 
 Aston, B. C.: note on wild pigs, 37; 
 action of red deer on vegetation, 47 ; 
 of wild cattle, 52; of sheep, 55; of 
 goats, 57 ; wild cats on the Kaikouras, 
 63 ; effect of rabbits, 93 ; note on wild 
 turkeys, 108 ; starlings imitating calls 
 of introduced birds, 159; colour 
 changes in animals, 515 
 
 Ayson, L. F. : introduction of quinnat, 
 239 ; white-fish, 248 
 
 Banks, Sir Joseph : biscuits and insects, 
 295; Maoris and vermin, 338; culti- 
 vation of sweet potato, 446; paper 
 mulberry, 474 
 
 Basstian, Christopher: on kangaroos, 
 28, 29 
 
 Bathgate, Alexander: rabbits in Otago, 
 87; introduction of sparrows, 165 
 
 Begg, James: introduction of rabbits, 
 
 Bell, Sir F. D.: shipment of salmon 
 
 ova, 198 
 
 Bellingshausen, Commander: Maori 
 
 dogs, 64 ; cultivation of potatoes, 450 
 
 Benham, Prof. W. B. : earthworms, 358- 
 
 61 
 
 Best, Elsdon: on Maori fleas, 7, 325; 
 native dogs, 65, 66; Maoris and 
 vermin, 338 ; introduction of kurnara, 
 446; potatoes in Maori clearings, 
 451 ; Cordyline terminalis, 483 
 Best, W.: on flight of starlings, 155 
 Bidwill: cultivation of potatoes, 451 
 Bills, C. : meal-worms, 295 
 Black, R. S.: colours of rabbits, 90 
 Blakiston, A. J.: food of opossums, 32 
 Bollons, Captain: opossums in West 
 Coast Sounds, 29; goats on the 
 Southern Island, 59 
 Boscawen, Col.: on wallabis, 27; 
 laughing jackasses in Auckland dis- 
 trict, 138 
 
 Brakeley, J. H.: carp in America, 250 
 Buckland, F.: humble-bees, 273 
 Bullen, W. R.: goats on the Kaikouras, 
 58 
 
 Buller, Sir Walter: destruction of Maori 
 rats by owls, 78; incompatibility of 
 black swans and native ducks, 107; 
 on introduction of the wood owl, 140 ; 
 on Australian swallows, 150; spar- 
 rows and Scotch thistle, 169; king- 
 fisher and bees, 281 ; albinism, 513 
 
 Bunbury, Major: on cultivations in 
 Stewart Island, 18; presence of 
 "cassiowary" there, 98 
 
 Butterworth, C. P. M.: brown and rain- 
 bow trout, 227 
 
 Chambers, W.: shipment of toads, 183 
 Cheeseman, Thomas : Polynesian migra- 
 tions, 7; on Pomaderris apetala, 12; 
 specific character of introduced 
 pheasants, 113; destruction of phea- 
 sants due to small birds, 116; spar- 
 rows in Auckland, 166; tortoises, 
 178; rainbow trout, 226; Lepidium 
 oleraceum, 517; naturalised plants, 
 
 53 
 
 Clarke, F. G.: frogs on west coast, 181 
 
 Clouston, R. E. : absence of sparrows on 
 Gouland Downs, 167 
 
 Cockayne, Dr A. : pigs on Chatham Is- 
 lands, 38 ; goats on Auckland Islands, 
 58 ; re-grassing of Central Otago, 92 ; 
 wild turkeys in Canterbury, 108; 
 colour variation of lupin and gorse, 
 392; aggressive power of European 
 flora, 527; staying power of native 
 vegetation, 533 
 
 Colenso, William: on Maori dog-skins, 
 70 ; discovery of Veronica Anagallu, 
 
 Cook, Captain Jas. : arrival in N.Z. on 
 second voyage, 6, 13, 14; third 
 voyage, 16, 34 ; introduction of sheep, 
 53 ; goats, 57 ; geese, 105 ; fowls, 109 ; 
 gardens at Moruara, 449 
 
 Cotter, W. P. : rainbow trout in Hawea, 
 228 
 
 Cotton, Prof. : denudation due to rabbits, 
 94 
 
 Cox, F. A. D.: wild cats on Chatham 
 Islands, 63 
 
 Crozet: introduced plants, 13; Maori 
 dogs, 64 
 
 Cruise, Major: on plants cultivated in 
 N.Z., 18
 
 5 86 
 
 Dansey, R. D.: Frogs in Rotorua, 179; 
 brown trout, 220 ; white-fish, 243 ; 
 carp, 249 
 
 Darwin, Chas.: migration of N.Z. birds, 
 1 1 ; colour of wild cats, 62 ; Norway 
 rat, 82; potatoes at B. of Islands, 
 45 1 ; supplanting of native by intro- 
 duced species, 509, 526 
 
 Dawbin: salmon in Otago, 195 
 
 Deans, F.: twite and redpole in Otago, 
 172 
 
 De Blosseville : early introductions into 
 New Zealand, 17 
 
 D'Esterre, E.: introduction of sparrows 
 into Auckland, 166 
 
 De Surville: arrival in N.Z., 13 
 
 D'Urville, Dumont: visit to N.Z., 18 
 
 Dieffenbach, Dr: introduced pigs, 34; 
 colours of wild cats, 62; Maori dog, 
 65; Norway rat, 82; mouse, 84; 
 cultivation of potatoes, 451 
 
 Don, Rev. A. : denudation due to rabbits, 
 94 
 
 Drummond, Jas.: wild pigs, 37; change 
 of colour in stoats, 75; failure of 
 pheasants in Canterbury, 115; libera- 
 tion of lapwings, 131; skylarks at 
 Collingwood, 141 ; food of thrush, 
 143 ; blackbirds on Auckland Islands, 
 147; hedge-sparrows, 148; minahs 
 destroying fruit, 160 ; house-sparrow, 
 164; greenfinch in Canterbury, 174 
 
 Enys, John : water-cress, 370 
 
 Ewart, Prof. Cossar: herring ova, 186 
 
 Farr, S. C.: salmon ova, 198; salmon 
 
 trout, 209 
 Fereday, R. W. : extermination of native 
 
 fauna, 508 
 Flett, H. B. : stoats and weasels v. rabbits, 
 
 72 
 Forster, J.: introduction of pigs, 34; 
 
 Maori dogs, 64; increase of rats, 76; 
 
 gardens in Queen Charlotte Sound, 
 
 449 
 Fowler, H. J.: flights of starlings, 155; 
 
 minahs following the plough, 160 
 
 Gates, W. H.: wild goats in Lake dis- 
 trict, 58 ; colours of rabbits, 91 ; wild 
 pigeons, 134 
 
 George, Hon. S. Thorne: wild cattle 
 on Kawau, 52 
 
 Gibbs, F. G.: wild goats in Nelson, 57; 
 disappearance of minahs, 159 ; white- 
 fish, 244 
 
 Gillies, Robert: pigs in Otago, 36; wild 
 dogs, 68 ; first appearance of mice, 84 
 
 Grant, James : cats catching eels, 64 
 
 Green, Richard: starlings eating elder- 
 berries, 158 
 
 Grey, Sir George: introduced wallabies, 
 26; zebras, 40; fallow deer, 48; 
 wapiti, 49; gnu, 51; rabbits, 87; 
 cassowary, 98; emu, 99; Egyptian 
 goose, 103; black swan, 107; white 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 
 
 swan, 107 ; Cape dove, 136 ; laughing 
 
 jackass, 137; diamond sparrow, 163 
 Gunn, A.: goats on Galloway run, 58 
 Gunther, Dr A.: identification of Sal- 
 
 monida;, 191, 211, 234 
 Guppy: dispersal of seeds, 368, 464, 
 
 466 
 Guthrie-Smith, H. : bullfinches in 
 
 Hawke's Bay, 175 
 
 Hall, J.: wild dogs in North Island, 
 
 69 
 Hallett, T. : wild turkeys, 108 ; peafowls, 
 
 109; fowls in North Island, no 
 Hamilton, A. : introduction of potatoes, 
 
 45 
 
 Hansen : red deer, 47 
 Hardcastle, E.: wild pigs, 36; red deer, 
 
 41-46; rutting season of fallow deer, 
 
 48 
 
 Hart, F. : food of opossums, 31 
 Hassing, G. M.: wild dogs in Otago, 69 
 Hay, James: wild fowls on Banks' 
 
 Peninsula, no 
 Hector, Dr (Sir) James : Maori dogs, 67 ; 
 
 identification of Salmonidae, 19 1,192, 
 
 234 
 Henry, Richard: ferrets and native 
 
 ducks, 74 
 Hilgendorf, Dr F.: skylarks at high 
 
 altitudes, 141 ; sparrows and insects, 
 
 169; white-pine-borer, 293 
 Hill, H.: rooks in Hawke's Bay, 153; 
 
 starlings and hawks, 155 ; bullfinches, 
 
 175 
 Hill, T. B.: introduction of sparrows in 
 
 Auckland, 167 
 Holman: guinea-fowls and hawks, 108, 
 
 510; shining cuckoo and Nyctemera, 
 
 512 
 Hooker, Sir J. D.: aggressive power of 
 
 Scandinavian flora, 525 
 Hopkins, I.: humble-bees, 274 
 Hotop, L. : goats in Lake county, 58 
 Howell, Wilfred, Salmo fontinalis , habits 
 
 of, 225 ; rainbow trout, 229 
 Howes, George: small birds and fruit, 
 1 74 ; fresh- water turtles in Southland , 
 178 
 
 Huddlestone : red deer in Nelson, 41 
 Hunt, F. L.: ornamental finches, 164 
 Hurrell: food of opossums, 32 
 Hutchins, C.: ticks on hedgehogs, 97; 
 
 starlings at Napier, 155 
 Hutton, Captain F. W. : relationships of 
 N.Z. Fauna, 7; rat swarms, 81 ; wild 
 Spaniards and rabbits, 93 ; destruc- 
 tion of pheasants, 113; rooks in 
 Canterbury, 154 
 
 Johnson, A. M. : wallabies, 26 ; introduc- 
 tion of salmon, 194; salmon-trout, 
 208; brown trout, 212; Scotch burn 
 trout, 221 ; alpine char, 222; American 
 brook trout, 222 ; white-fish, 245 ; 
 gold-fish, 250; sundry fish, 251,252; 
 perch, 254
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 
 
 587 
 
 Kennedy : wild pigs, 39 
 
 Kent, W. Saville: Tasmanian salmon, 
 
 193 
 Kerner, E. von M. : food of thrush, 145 ; 
 
 of blackbird, 147 
 
 Killen, J. M.: frog in Whangarei, 182 
 King, Captain: visit to New Zealand, 19 
 King, J.: Australian brown frog, 181; 
 
 rainbow trout, 228 
 Kirk, H. B.: sheep on Kapiti, 56; report 
 
 on opossums, Appendix A, white- 
 pine-borer, 292 
 Kirk, Thomas : naturalisation of plants, 
 
 532 
 Kirk, T. W. : breeding habits of sparrow, 
 
 1 68; English lizards in Wellington, 
 
 178; climbing frogs, 181 
 
 Labes, Alfred : wild pigeons at Duntroon, 
 
 Le Souef, Dudley: opossums in 
 
 Australia, 32 
 Lyall, Dr: wild dogs, 68 
 
 McBean: mallards on Lake Okareka, 
 
 1 02 ; American wood duck, 103 ; black 
 
 Indian duck, 103 
 McDonald, Marshall: quinnat salmon 
 
 on Atlantic coast, 240 
 Mackenzie, Sir Thomas : weasels, 74 
 M'Latchie, Thomas: starlings and 
 
 poisoned grain, 158 
 McNab, Dr R.: destruction of eggs by 
 
 wekas, 105 
 Mahoney: starlings' flights, 155 ; minahs 
 
 destructive to fruit, 160 
 Marriner: grey rats, 81; brown frogs 
 
 eaten by Australian green frogs, 179 
 Marsden, Rev. Samuel: arrival in N.Z., 
 
 19; introduction of cattle, 51; of 
 
 sheep, 53 ; cultivation of potatoes, 
 
 450 
 Martin, H. B., disappearance of rabbits 
 
 from Auckland, 90 
 Meeson : rat swarms, 80 
 Meyrick: relationships of N.Z. Lepi- 
 
 doptera, 8 
 
 Monro, Dr: wild pigs in Otago, 35 
 Morrison, W. G.: red deer, 47 
 Mueller, George: weasels and ferrets 
 
 v. native birds, 74 
 
 Murison, W. D. : wild dogs in Otago, 68 
 Murrell, J. R.: Bharal in Mt Cook 
 
 region, 56; chamois, 60 
 
 Norman, Richard: ferrets and native 
 birds, 74; starlings and poisoned 
 grain, 157 
 
 O 'Regan, P. J.: destruction of native 
 pigeons attributed to introduced 
 birds, 157 
 
 Peacock, Hon. J. T. : sparrows in Canter- 
 bury, 165 
 
 Peters, Charles J.: cats v. rabbits, 62; 
 stoats and weasels, 72 
 
 Petrie, D.: rabbits in Central Otago, 92; 
 denudation due to rabbits, 94; gorse 
 and Californian quail, 392; thistles 
 as sheep feed, 423 ; flowering plants 
 of Otago, 521 ; spread of introduced 
 plants, 529 
 
 Phillips, Ernest: growth of trout, 220; 
 rainbow trout, 229 
 
 Phillips, L. J.: blackbirds killing tuis, 
 .147 
 
 Philpott, A. : distribution of N.Z. Lepi- 
 dpptera, 8; mice in western bush 
 district, 84; small brown owl, 139; 
 range of song thrush, 144; of black- 
 bird, 146; flight of starlings, 156; 
 food of starlings, 157 ; nesting places, 
 158; sparrows not in bush country, 
 167 ; range of chaffinch, 170 ; 
 redpole in Southland, 172; gold- 
 finch, 173; greenfinch, 174; yellow- 
 hammers in Southland, 176; humble- 
 bees, 277 ; white-pine-borer, 293 
 
 Pollock, John: Californian quails in 
 Nelson, 126 
 
 Potter, A. T.: life-history of Dermestes, 
 290 
 
 Potts, T. H.: habits of skylarks, 141; 
 Australian magpies resisting harrier 
 hawks, 151 ; food of greenfinch, 174 
 
 Reynolds, Richard : abundance of hawks, 
 
 5io 
 
 Riddell, W. : white-pine-borer, 293 
 Ritchie, Dr Russell: fleas, 326 
 Rutherford, A. J.: type of Salmonidas 
 
 in N.Z. , 190 ; carriage of frozen trout 
 
 ova, 215 
 Rutland, J.: swarms of rats, 80 
 
 Scott, Robert: wild pigs in Otago, 35; 
 wild cats, 62 
 
 Seebohm, H.: migration of larks, 142; 
 lines of migration, 536; migrant 
 races of birds, 537 
 
 Smith, S. Percy: Maori dogs, 65, 67; 
 introduction of Kumara, 446 
 
 Smith, Captain W. M.: early settlement 
 in Otago, 19 
 
 Smith, W. W. : food of opossums, 29 ; 
 Maori rat, 78; starlings, 155; dis- 
 appearance of minahs, 160; food of 
 goldfinch, 173; siskins in Taranaki, 
 174; cirl-buntings, 175; yellow- 
 hammers in camps, 176; bees, 277; 
 thrips, 327 
 
 Spackman, W. H.: salmon trout, 209 
 
 Speight, Prof. R. : rats in Christchurch, 
 81 
 
 Stead, Edgar T. : disappearance of 
 rabbits, 90; hedgehogs and poultry, 
 97; wonga-wonga pigeons, 133; 
 ring-doves, 133; disappearance of 
 the minah, 159; cause of failure of 
 linnets, 172; white-fish, 246 
 
 Studholme, M.: introduction of walla- 
 bies, 26 
 
 Suter, H.: land mollusca, 8
 
 588 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES 
 
 Tancred : wild dogs, 69 ; rats, 77 
 Tanner: identification of Salmonidae, 
 
 192 
 Taylor, Rev. R.: naturalised pigs, 36; 
 
 native dogs, 65 ; Maori rat, 77 
 Thomson, G. Stuart: wild dogs in 
 
 Marlboro', 70; behaviour of stoat, 
 
 73 ; Maori rat, 78 
 Thomson, Dr W. Malcolm : brown owl 
 
 v. morepork, 139 
 Traill, W.: geese on Stewart Island, 
 
 1 06 
 Travers, H. H.: wild cats on Chatham 
 
 Islands, 64; silver-grey rabbits, 86; 
 
 cause of disappearance of turkeys, 
 
 109 
 Travers, W. T. L. : Maori rat, 77 ; food 
 
 of native hawks, 85 ; destruction of 
 
 native flora, 527 
 Treves, Sir F. : destructive work by 
 
 American squirrels, 76 
 Tuckett, T.: first record of rabbits in 
 
 N.Z., 85 
 Turner, E. Phillips: wild horses, 39; 
 
 hares on volcanic plateau, 96 
 
 Wallace, Alfred Russell: effect of Nor- 
 way rat, 82; supplanting of native 
 by introduced species, 509, 526 
 
 Warburton, A.: kowhai trees and wild 
 pigeons, 135 
 
 Warden, H.: small brown owl v. more- 
 pork, 139 
 
 Watson, H. N.: introduction of toads, 
 183 
 
 Watts, H.: alleged hybridisation of sky- 
 lark and native pipit, 141 ; starlings 
 and red currants, 158 
 
 Weir, H. C.: wild cats in Otago, 63 
 
 White, Taylor : wild dogs, 67 ; rats, 80 ; 
 plague of mice, 84 
 
 Wilkes : vegetables on Auckland Islands, 
 45i 
 
 Williams, Captain: early cultivation of 
 the potato, 17 
 
 Williamson, Dr H. C.: retardation of 
 herring ova, 186 
 
 Wilson, Andrew : wild dogs, 69 
 
 Wohlers, Pastor: mice in Ruapuke, 84 
 
 Wright, A. M.: destructive beetles, 290 
 
 Yarborough: wild horses, 39; cattle 
 in Hokianga district, 52; stoats and 
 weasels, 75 ; non-burrowing rabbits, 
 91; frogs, 179 
 
 Youl: introduction of Salmonidae into 
 Australia, 188, 194
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 The names of species of animals are indicated by f, those of species 
 of plants by J 
 
 ^.Acacia armata, 404, 554; \A. dealbata, 
 403 ; % A. decurrens, 403 ; I A. longi- 
 folia, 404; %A. melanoxylon, 404; 
 \A. pycnantha, 403 
 
 %Accena ovina, 407 ; native species spread 
 by animals, 522; %A. glabra, 522; 
 \A. Buchanani, 522; %A. micro- 
 phylla, 522; $A. sanguisorbce, 522 
 
 "^Accentor modularis, 148, 537 
 
 \Acer pseudo-platanus, 562 
 
 \Achet a fuliginosa, 268 
 
 lAchillea millefolium, 430; \A. tanaceti- 
 folia, 430 
 
 ^Achorutes armatus, 266 
 
 iAcicarpha tribuloid.es, 420 
 Aconitum napellus, 367 
 Acridotheres tristis, 159, 539, 565 
 \Adeixis inostentata, 302 
 \ Algeria tipuliformis, 301, 550 
 \JEgintha temporalis, 163 
 
 ! Agave Americana, 480 
 Agonochila binotata, 284 
 Agrimonia Eupatoria, 407 
 Agrimony, 407 
 
 ^Agriolimax agrestis, 260; f-4- fet#s, 260 
 \Agriotes lineatus, 295 
 \Agropyrum pectinatum, 449 ; J^4 . repens, 
 
 499 
 
 ^.Agrostis alba, 491 ; J.4. vulgaris, 491 
 \Agrostis segetum, 303 ; t^4. ypsilon, 524 
 \Aira Caryophyllea,^g2 ; J ^4 ./>r<coa;,492 
 t^4^ galericulata, 103; f^4. sponsa, 103 
 t^4/awrfa aryensis, 140, 537 
 
 Albinism in birds, 513 
 \Albizzia lophantha, 404 
 t^4/6Mrn2 lucidus, 251 
 \Alchemilla arvensis, 407 
 f./J/e&es machlis, 50 
 Alder, 476 
 Alfalfa, 394 
 \Alisma Plantago, 481 
 Alkanet, 444 
 All-good, 470 
 
 \Allium sp., 13 ; J^4. ce^a, 482; JA/ra- 
 grans, 483; J^4. Porrum, 482; 
 J^4. vineale, 482 
 ^Allobophora caliginosa, 360 ; \A.fcetida, 
 
 360 
 
 \Allurus tetreedrus, 359 
 %Alnus glutinosa, 476 
 |.4/ocast'a indica, 485; J^4. macrorhiza, 
 
 485 
 Aloe, American, 480; J^/o? latifolia, 
 
 482 
 
 \Alopecurus agrestis, 490; J^4. pratensts, 
 490 
 
 caudatus, 
 hybridus, 
 oleraceus, 
 
 Alpaca, 39 
 Alpine Char, 222 
 \Althcea officinalis, 385 
 %Alyssum calycinum, 370; $A. mari- 
 
 timum, 370; \A. orientale, 370 
 ^Amaha antipoda, 261 ; ^A. emarginata, 
 
 261; f A. fuliginosa, 261 
 %Amarantus Blitum, 469; %A 
 
 469 ; IA. deflexus,tfo ; ^ 
 
 469; \A. lividus, 470; J^ 
 
 470; I A. retroflexus, 469; 
 
 t^mWyo/>oH<? cephalotes, 306 
 tAmbrosia artemisieefolia, 428 
 
 American aloe, 480; A. blight, 330, 
 550; A. brook-trout, 223; A. cat- 
 fish, 253 ; A. ragweed, 428 
 
 Aminia leonina, 319 
 
 Amrni majus, 415 
 _AmmophUa arundinacea, 491 
 \-Amphistomum cordcum, 350 
 ' Amsinckia angustifolia, 443 
 
 Amygdalus Persica, 404 
 
 Anacharis Canadensis, 478 
 
 Anagallis arvensis, 441, 529 
 
 ^47KW 60JC05, 101, 537; -JV: 
 
 ipo; fvi. obscura, 102; 
 
 ciliosa, 100, 101, 107 
 \Anaspides tasmanice, 561 
 j-<4ncAia arvensis, 444; |^4. italica, 444; 
 
 J^4. officinalis, 414 
 \Andropogon annulatus, 487 
 f^4fa grceffei, 264 
 % Angelica gingidium, 518 
 Angora goat, 59 
 Angoumois grain moth, 310 
 \-Anguilla aucklandii, 187 
 \Anobium domesticum, 292; f-^- j><ri- 
 
 ceww, 293 ; f^- tesselatum? , 292 
 \Anoplocephala perfoliata, 353 
 \Anser albifrons, 106, 536; f-^. dnereus, 
 
 105 
 
 Ant, 283 
 \Anthemis arvensis, 429; J^4. Cotula, 
 
 Morotis, 
 
 is, 296 
 \Anthistiria australis, 487; J. 
 
 487; IA. tmberbis, 487 
 \Antholyza eethiopica, 480 
 ^Anthonomus pomorum, 298, 551 
 \Anthornis melanura, 509 
 \Anthoxanthum odoratum, 489 
 t^4wfArCTZi musteorum, 291 
 %Anthriscus cerefolium,4i6 ; %A. vulgaris, 
 
 \Anthus novee-sealandice, 141, 511
 
 590 
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 \Anihyllis vulneraria, 399 
 ^.Antirrhinum orontium, 455 
 \Apargia autumnalis, 437 
 ^ Aphcenogaster antarcticus, 306 
 \Aphelinus malt, 558 
 Aphis, black, 331; black peach, 329; 
 
 cabbage, 329; pine white, 329; 
 
 woolly, 330; yellow, 328; green 
 
 peach, 561; leaf crumpling a. of 
 
 elm, 561; poplar gall, 561; spruce, 
 
 561 
 f Aphis bakeri, 561; ^A. brassicee, 272, 
 
 370; \A. nerii, 561; -jvJ. persicce- 
 
 niger, 329; ^A. rosce, 329 
 \Aphodius granarius, 283; -\A. pusillus, 
 
 283 
 [Apis ligustica, 279, 559; \A. mellifica, 
 
 279, 559 
 \Apium graveolens, 415; %A. Lessonii, 
 
 415; \A. leptophyllum, 415 
 \Aponogeton distachyon, 370, 481 
 Apple, 409; borer, 524 
 Apple-blossom weevil, 298, 551; A. 
 
 leaf-hopper, 561 ; A. scale, 332 
 \Apteryx australis, 98, 507; \A. haastii, 
 
 507; -\A. mantelli, 507; -\A. oweni, 
 
 507 
 
 \Aquilegia vulgaris, 366 
 \Arabis hirsuta, 370 
 Arctic fox, proposed introduction, 
 
 542 
 
 \Arctium Lappa, 421, 554 
 \Arenaria serpyllifolia, 382 
 \Argemone mexicana, 368 
 }Arion empiricorum, 263 ; \A. hortensis, 
 
 263; ^A. incommodus, 263; ^A. 
 
 minimus, 263 ; \A. subfuscus, 263 
 t Armadillidium vulgare, 340 
 \Arnoseris pusilla, 435 
 \Arrhenatherum avenaceum, 493 ; \A, 
 
 bulbosum, 493 
 $ Artemisia absinthium, 432 
 Artichoke, Jerusalem, 428 
 Arum-lily, 485 
 
 \Arundinaria macrosperma, 495 
 \Ascaris lumbricoides, 353; -[A. mar- 
 
 ginata, 354; f^- megalocephala, 
 
 353; t^4- mystax, 354; t^- s ". 
 
 353 
 
 \Asclepias nivea, 442 
 j-^tt'/ws varius destroying humble-bees, 
 
 279 
 
 % Asparagus officinalis, 481 
 \Asphodelus fislulosus, 482 
 \Aspidiotus aurantii, 332; f-^- buddleiez, 
 
 333 ; t^4- camellia, 333 ; t-4. Ae^er, 
 
 333 ; "M- wer . 333 ; "M- perniciosus, 
 
 333. 550; t^-^o^", 333 
 % Aster imbricatus, 427; Jvi. subulatus, 
 
 427 
 
 ^Asterolecanium variolosum, 336 
 ^Athene noctua, 138; carrying seeds of 
 
 wormwood, 432 
 Atlantic salmon, 193-211; failure to 
 
 mark, 538 
 
 J^Zro/xz belladonna, 452 
 \Atropis distans, 496 
 
 pulsatoria, 270 
 \Aulacaspis rosce, 331 
 
 Aute (aouta), 474 
 
 \Avena fatua, 493; %A. flavescens, 493; 
 J^4. pubescens, 493; J^4. safi^a, 
 492; J^. strigosa, 493 
 Axis deer, 48 
 
 Bacon-beetle, 290, 291 
 Balm, 460 
 Banana-moth, 302 
 Bandicoot, 33 
 \Barbarea prcecox, 370; J5. vulgaris, 
 
 37 
 
 Barbel, 251 
 Barberry, 367 
 \-JBarbus vulgaris, 251 
 f-Barec confusella, 308 
 \Barkhausia taraxacifolia, 438 
 
 Barley, 500; grass, 501 
 ^Bartsia viscosa, 458 
 
 Basil thyme, 460 
 tBosstw generosus, 271 ; f-S- lactatorius, 
 
 271 
 
 Bathurst bur, 428, 553 
 Beaked parsley, 416 
 Bean, broad, 402 ; kidney, 402 
 Beard-grass, 490 
 Bears in Canterbury, 542 
 Bed-bug, 327; straw, 419 
 ^Bedellia somnulenta, 309 
 Bee, hive-, 279; humble-, 273; bee- 
 moth, 303, 304 
 Beet, 471 
 
 Bell-bird, Australian, 162; native, in- 
 crease of, 509 
 ^.Bellis perennis, 428 
 \Benthamiafragifera, 418 
 \Berberis vulgaris, 367 
 \Beta cycla, 471 ; JJS. vulgaris, 471 
 
 Bharal, 56 
 
 \Bidens tripartita, 429 
 ^Bipalium kewense, 350 
 Birds, native species of, 506 
 Bird's-foot, 400 
 Biscuit-weevil, 293 
 
 Black beetle, 267 ; -berry, 400, 553 ; 
 bindweed, 466; -bird, 146, 565; 
 -cap warbler, 150, 536; couch, 
 491; fly, 331; game, 128; -spotted 
 trout, 231; -thorn, 405; vine- 
 weevil, 297 ; wood, 404 
 Bladder campion, 380 
 \Blatta germanica, 267; -[B. latipennis, 
 
 267 ; f-B. orientalis, 267 
 Bleak, 251 
 
 Blight-bird, 161 ; increase of, 511 
 Blow-fly , European , 3 20 ; golden-haired , 
 
 321 
 Blue-back salmon, 241 ; -eyed grass, 
 
 479; gum, 411 ; -tit, 152 
 Boar, wild, 33 
 Bob-white, 127 
 
 ^Bombus hortorum, 273 ; f-B. lapidarius, 
 273 ; t^- lucorum, 273 ; -\B. rudera- 
 tus, 273 ; f-B- terrestris, 273 
 \Bombyx mori, 300
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 Book-louse, 270, 558; -tick, 270, 
 
 558 
 
 \Borago officinalis, 443 
 Borer, 297; ship-, 291; wharf-, 296; 
 
 white-pine-, 292 
 
 \Borkhausenia pseudospretella, 307 
 {Bos taurus, 51 
 
 Bot-fly, horse, 323; sheep nasal, 323 
 ^.Bowlesia tenera, 415 
 
 Box-thorn, 453 
 \Brachypodium pinnatum, 495 
 Bramble, 405 ; -finch (brambling), 171, 
 
 536 
 \Branta canadensis, 104; "\B. nigricans, 
 
 104 
 
 %Brassica adpressa, 375 ; Jfi. alba, 375 ; 
 IB. campestris, 373, 554; %B. napus, 
 374; %B. nigra, 375; %B. oleracea, 
 372; %B. Rapa, 374; %B. sinapis- 
 trum, 375 
 
 Brent goose, 104, 536-7 
 Bristle-tail, 265 
 %Briza maxima, 494; $B. minor, 494 
 
 Brome-grass, 497 
 
 ^.Bromus arvensis, 498 ; JJB. commutatus, 
 497 ; %B. erectus, 497 ; %B. madriten- 
 sis, 497 ; J.B. mollis, 497 ; %B.patulus, 
 497 ; t#- racemosus, 497 ; J.B. schree- 
 deri, 498; J.B. secalinus, 498; J.B. 
 sterilis, 497; J.B. tectorum, 497; 
 J.B. unioloides, 498; J.B. vestitus, 
 498 
 Broom, 393 ; prevention of, 543, 553 ; 
 
 rape, 458; white, 393 
 \Broussonetia papyrifera, 474 
 
 Brown trout, 212-20 
 ) Bruchophagus funebris ,559 
 \Bruchus rufimanus, 296 
 
 Brush turkey, 107 
 \Bryobia pratensis, 348, 550 
 Buckwheat, 466 
 Budgerigar, 136 
 Buffalo-grass, 488 
 \Bufo calamita, 183; fB. vulgaris, 
 
 182 
 
 Bug, bed-, 327 
 Bullfinch, 175 
 Bunting, cirl, 175 ; Ortolan, 176; reed, 
 
 i?5 
 
 %Bupleurum rotundifolium, 414 
 \Buprestis lauta, 295 
 Bur clover, 553 ; marigold, 429; thistle, 
 
 421 ; weed, 428 
 Burdock, 421, 553 ; small, 428 
 Burnet, 407; great, 407; salad, 407; 
 
 saxifrage, 416 
 Burying beetle, 294 
 Butter-bur, 422 
 Buttercups, 36466 
 Butterfly, English Red Admiral, 300; 
 Small Tortoiseshell, 300 
 
 Cabbage aphis, 329; moth, 308; wild 
 
 c., 372 
 
 \-Cacatuagalerita, 137 
 \Caccabis petrosa, 124; fC". rufa, 123; 
 
 fC. saxatilis, 124 
 
 \Caccecia exccssana, 516; mistaken for 
 
 codlin moth, 524, 551 
 ^Ccecilianella acicula, 263 
 \Ccedida olivacea, 268 
 \Cairina moschata, 99 
 \Cakile maritima, 377 
 \Caladium esculentum, 485 
 \Calamintha Acinos, 460 
 \Calandra oryzce, 298 
 \Calandrinia caulescens, 384 
 \Calathus zealandicus, 284 
 ^.Calendula officinalis, 435 
 Californian quail, 124, 392, increase 
 
 attributed to stoats and weasels, 
 
 515; red-wood, 477; salmon, 231; 
 
 thistle, 425, 553 
 %Calla cethiopica, 484 
 \Calliephaltes messer, 273, 305 
 \Callipepla calif arnica, 124 
 \Calliphora erythrocephala, 320; fC. 
 
 quadrimaculata, 321 
 \Callirhae allaspa, 297 
 \Calluna vulgaris, 440 
 %Calocasia antiquorum, 485 ; JC. macro- 
 
 rhiza, 485 
 
 \Calopsitta novee-hollandiee , 137 
 \Calotis lappulacea, 427 
 \Camelina saliva, 372 
 ^Campanula hybrida, 439; JC. Trache- 
 
 lium, 439 
 Campion, red, 381 ; rose, 381 ; white, 
 
 381 
 Canadian flea-bane, 427; land-locked 
 
 salmon, 242 ; stinkweed, 377 ; thistle, 
 
 425, 553; water-thyme, 478; wild 
 
 rice, 489 
 
 Canary, 176, 515; native, 507 
 Canary grass, 489 
 ^Cancer pagurus, 343, 538 
 
 Candytuft, 377 
 fCants familiaris , 64 
 \Canna indica, 478 
 Cape cardinal, 162; fuchsia, 418; 
 
 gooseberry, 452; water-lily, 481; 
 
 weed, 435, 436 
 
 \Capra ccgagrus, 56; ^C.jemlatca, 59 
 ICapsella Bursa-pastoris, 375 
 ^.Capsicum annuum, 452 
 
 Caraway, 415 
 \Carcinops, i^-striata, 286 
 \Cardamine hirsuta, 371; JC. hetero- 
 
 phylla, 371 
 Cardoon, 422 
 \Carduelis elegans, 173, 537; \C. spinus, 
 
 173 
 \Carduus crispus, 423; \C. nutans, 422; 
 
 ^C.pycnocephalus, 423, 554 
 %Carex divisa, 486; IC.flacca, 486; JC. 
 
 longifolia, 486; JC. muricata, 486; 
 C. panicea, 486 
 
 chilensis, 50; fC. virginianus, 
 
 noctua, 139 
 
 Carline thistle, 421, 554 
 Carp, 249 ; trout, 211 
 {Carpocapsa pomonella, 305, 524, 549, 
 550 
 
 ^Carine
 
 592 
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 fCarpophilus hemipteris, 286 ; fC". muti- 
 latus, 286 
 
 Carrot, 417 
 ICarum Carui, 415; %C. Petroselinum, 
 
 415 
 \-Casarca variegata, 100 
 
 Cassowary, Solomon Island, 98 
 
 Castor-oil plant, 473 
 \Casuarinus bennetti, 98 
 
 Cat, Australian native, 33; wild, 61; 
 destroying lizards, 508 
 
 Catchfly, 380; nodding, 381 
 
 Catfish, American, 253 
 ^Catheturus lathami, 107 
 
 Cat mint, 461 
 
 Cat's-ear, 436 
 
 Cattle, wild, 51; c. killed by eating 
 
 thistles in Australia, 426 
 %Caucalis nodosa, 417 
 ifCavia porcellus, 84 
 \-Cecidomyia destructor, 311 
 \Cedrondla triphylla, 461 
 
 Celandine, 368 
 
 Celery, 415 
 
 \Celmisia spectabilis, 534 
 i.Celsia cretica, 455 
 \Cenia turbinata, 431 
 \Centaurea Calcitrapa, 421, 554; JC. 
 cyanus, 421; JC. melitensis, 422; 
 %C. nigra, 421 ; 1C. solstitialis, 422 
 
 Centaury, 442 
 
 Centipedes, 546 
 \Centranthus ruber, 419 
 %Cerastiumglomeratum, 382 ; %C. triviale, 
 382; %C. viscosum, 382; JC. WM/- 
 gatum, 382 
 
 \Ceratochloa unioloides, 498 
 \Ceratophyllus fasciatus, 325 
 \Cercyonflavipes, 285 
 fCereopttf novce-hollandice, 106 
 tCen'ornw temmincki, 117 
 fCermafta smithii, 265 
 fCm;ws a*w, 48; fC". canadensis, 49; 
 fC. Jama, 47; f^. elaphus, 41; 
 fC. m'/ja, 50 ; fC 1 . unicolor, 49 
 \Chcerocampa celeris, 301 
 \Chcerophyllum temulum, 416 
 fCAiSfococciw parvus, 338 
 
 Chaffinch, 170, 539 
 \Chalcococcyx lucidus, 512 
 
 Chamois, 60 
 
 Chamomile, wild, 430 
 
 Char, alpine, 222 ; American, 223 
 ^Charadrius pluvialis, 130, 537 
 
 Charlock, 375 
 
 ^Chaulelasmus streperus, 101, 537 
 \Cheurantkus Cheiri, 369 
 \Chelidonium majus, 368 
 \Chelisoches moris, 267 
 \Chelodina longicollis, 178 
 fC/ien hyperboreus, 106 
 \Chenalopex eegyptiaca, 103 
 \Chenopodium album, 470, 
 
 \Chermes corticalis, 329; fC. lands, 
 329; \C.pini, 329 
 
 Cherry, 405 
 
 Chervil, 416 
 
 Chicken-louse, 269 
 
 Chickweed, 382; mouse-ear, 382 
 
 Chicory, 436 
 
 Chili, 452 
 
 Chinook salmon, 231 
 \-Chionaspis citri, 331 ; |C. a"&z'a, 331 
 
 Chipmunk, 75 
 
 Chital, 48 
 
 fChlamydocen jubata, 106 
 \Chlora perfoliata, 442 
 \Chorioptes auricularum, 346 
 
 Chrysanthemum fly, 317 
 ^.Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, 431, 
 553; JC. Parthenium, 431; JC. 
 segetum, 43 1 
 
 \Chrysobactron Hookeri, 534 
 \Chrysocaris sp., 317 
 \Chrysolophus amherstite, 1 10 ; -\-C.pictus, 
 
 no 
 
 \Chrysomphalus rossi, 333 
 \Cichorium endivium, 436; %C.Intybus, 
 
 ^Cicindela tuberculata, 306 
 f-Ciwex lactularius, 327 
 Cineraria fly, 317 
 Cinquefoil, 406 
 \Cionella lubrica, 263 
 \Circus gouldii, 510 
 Cirl bunting, 175, 540 
 Cisco herring, 249 
 Cistus sp., 378 
 ^Citrullus vulgaris, 413 
 iCftrtw aurantium, 390 
 \Claytoniaperfoliata, 384 
 
 Cleavers, 419 
 \Clemmysjaponica, 178 
 \Clianthus puniceus, 518 
 Click-beetle, 294 
 Clothes-moth, 307, 309, 310 
 Clover, alsike, 398; clustered, 397; 
 crimson, 395 ; Dutch, 398 ; meadow, 
 397; red, and humble-bees, 273, 
 395; reversed, 398; rough, 397; 
 strawberry, 398; sulphur, 395; 
 white, 398; zigzag, 397 
 [Clupea harengus, 185; movement of 
 indigenous species on the coast, 538 
 %Cnicus arvensis, 425, 553; JC. m'o- 
 phorus, 425 ; JC. lanceolatus, 423 ; 
 JC. palustris, 425 
 
 \Coccinella n-punctata, 287; fC. co/i- 
 fornica, 287; f^. sanguinea, 288; 
 fC. tasmanii, 515 
 
 fCocow cacri, 337; fC. hesperidus, 334; 
 fC. longulus, 334; fC. maculatus, 
 334; t c - wor, 334; fC. persicce, 
 
 ichii 
 
 553. 507; 
 
 C. Bonus-henricus, 470; JC. murale, 
 470; JC. urbicum, 470; JC. viride, 
 470 
 ^Chenopsis atratus, 106 
 
 Cochineal insect, 337 
 \Cochlearia Armorada, 371 
 Cockatoo, sulphur-crested, 137 
 Cockroach, 267, 268 
 Cockspur-grass, 488 
 Cockspur thistle, 422
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 593 
 
 Cocos, 485 
 
 Codlin moth, 272, 305, 549, 550 
 \Ccenurus cerebralis, 352 ; ^C.serialis, 352 
 \Collomia coccinea, 442 
 ^Columba livid, 134 
 
 Columbine, 366 
 
 Comfrey, 443 
 
 iComptosia bicolor, 318; \C.fasciata, 318 
 Conium maculatum, 414, 554 
 Coniuomus nodifer, 289 
 Connochcetes gnu, 51 
 ^Contarinia tritici, 312 
 if C onus marmoreus, 258 
 ^.Convolvulus arvensis, 447 
 
 Convolvulus hawk-moth, 301 
 \Conyza ambiqua, 427 
 
 Coot, Australian or Murray, 129 
 ^Coptomma variegata, 349 
 \Cordiceps sp., 306 
 
 Cordyline terminalis, 483 
 ^Coregonus albus, 243 
 Corn chamomile, 429; cockle, 382; 
 flower, 421; gromwell, 444; salad, 
 420; weevil, 298 
 
 iCoronilla varia, 400 
 Coronopus procumbens, 376 
 Corvus frugilegus, 152, 537; fC. ntone- 
 
 dula, 154 
 
 %Corydalis lutea, 369 
 \Corynocarpus Icevigata, 391 
 \Coturnix australis, 118; fC. coroman- 
 delica, 120; fC. novee-zealandus, 
 100, 507; fC. pectoralis, 3, 119 
 Couch-grass, 499 
 Cowry bird, 163 
 Cowslip, 441 
 
 Crab, British edible, 343, 538 
 Crab-louse, 338; grass, 487 
 Cranberry, American, 440 
 Cranesbill, meadow, 387 ; shining, 387 
 \Cratcegus oxyacantha, 408, 562 
 
 Crayfish, native fresh-water, 216, 508 
 \Creadion carunculatus, 507 
 
 Creeping jenny, 441 ; thistle, 425 
 \Crepis fcetida, 438; JC. setosa, 438; 
 JC. tar axacif olio. , 438; JC. virens, 
 438 
 
 Cress, American, 370; bitter, 371; 
 field, 376; garden, 377; hoary, 376; 
 hog's, 376; Indian, 389; narrow- 
 leaved, 376 ; penny, 377 ; rock, 370 ; 
 sheep's, 376, Virginian, 371 ; wart, 
 376 ; winter, 370 
 \Crex alector, 107 
 
 Cricket, 268 
 
 \Cristivomer namaycush, 230 
 \Crocydopora cinigerella, 304 
 Croton bug, 267 
 Crow, native, 507 
 Crowfoot, water, 364 
 Crow garlic, 482 
 Cryptococcus nudata, 338 
 Cryptolcemus montrouzeri, 289, 336 
 Cryptostemma calendulacea, 435 
 Ctenocephalus cants, 325; fC. felts, 325 
 Ctenopseustes obliquana, 306, 524 
 Cuckoo, long-tailed, 511; shining, 512 
 
 Cucumber, 413 
 ^.Cucumis sativus, 413 
 \Cucurbita ovifera, 413; JC. Pepo, 413 
 Curassow, 107 
 Curlew, Australian, 131 
 Currant, black, red and white, 409 
 Currant clear-wing moth, 301 , 550, 551 
 \Cuscuta Epilinum, 447 ; JC. Eptthymum, 
 447, 553J %C. Hassiaca, 447; JC. 
 racemosa, 447 
 \Cyanorhamphus auriceps, 507; ^C. 
 
 novce-zealandice, 507 
 Cyclonotum marginale, 285 
 Cycnopsis cycnotdes, 105 
 .Cydonia vulgaris, 409 
 Cygnus olor, 107 
 4.Cynara Cardunculus, 422 
 \Cynodon dactylon, 493 
 \Cynoglossumfurcatum, 445 ; JC.fmcron- 
 
 jAwm, 445 
 ICynosurus cristatus, 494; JC. ecfunatus, 
 
 494 
 \Cyperus lucidus, 486; 1C. rotundas, 
 
 486; jc. ^f5, 4 86, 563; :c. 
 
 tenellus, 563 
 tCy/>nitt carasnus, 250; fC. carpio, 
 
 240 
 
 pacificus, 3 
 
 unipunctatus, 524 
 ow &OVM, 353; f^ 
 352; fC. fasciolaris, 
 mediocanellatee, 353 ; fC 
 353 J fC. temticollis, 352 
 ' albidus, 393; JC. 
 
 ceUulosa, 
 353; fC. 
 pisiformis, 
 
 393; 
 
 aus, 393; . at, 393 
 . candicans, 394; JC. capensis 
 393 ; JC. jcoporiitf, 393, 553 
 
 . 
 
 nudus, 347 
 candidus, 376 
 
 Dace, 252 
 
 \Dacelogigas, 137 - 
 \Dacnusa sonckivorus, 271, 317 
 JDacfy/w glomerata, 494 
 ^Dactylopius adonidum, 289, 336; f^- 
 
 aunlanatus, 525 ; f^- coccus, 337 
 t-Dacus psidii, 315 
 t/)o^/a acuta, 99, 537 
 
 Daisy, 428; ox-eye, 431 
 
 Dame's rocket, 371 
 \-Damonica reevesii, 178 
 \Danaida chrysippus, 299; f-D- erippus, 
 299; ^D.plexippus, 299 
 
 Dandelion, 533 
 
 \Danthonia semtannularis spreading in 
 Auckland, 531; in Marlborough, 
 
 534 
 Darnel, 499 
 
 SDasyneura pyri, 3 1 2 
 Dasyurus viverrimus, 33 
 Datura Stramonium, 453 
 Dowciw Corora, 417; t/). brachiatus 
 
 spread by animals, 523 
 \Daulias luscinia, 148, 536 
 Deadly nightshade, 452 
 Dead-nettle, purple, 462; white, 462 
 Dead-sea apple, 448 
 Death-watch, 292 ; lesser, 270 
 
 38
 
 594 
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 Deer, axis, 48; black-tailed, 50; fallow, 
 47; Japanese, 50; mule, 50; red, 
 41; sambur, 49; South American, 
 50; Virginian, 50; Wapiti, 49; 
 white-tailed, 50 
 J Delphinium Ajacis, 366 
 ^Demodex folliculorum, 345 ; \D. phyl- 
 
 loides, 345 
 
 \-Dendrobezna rubida, 360 
 \Deopeia pulchella, 302 
 
 Deptford pink, 380 
 \-Dermanyssus gaUince, 348 
 \Dermestes lardarius, 291 ; ^D. vulpinus, 
 
 290, 294 
 
 Devil-in-a-bush, 366 
 \Dexia rubricarinata, 319 
 
 Diamond-back moth, 308 
 \Diantkus Armeria, 380; %D. barbatus, 
 
 380 
 "fDiaspis boisduvalli, 331 ; "\D. rosce, 331 ; 
 
 fZ). santali, 525 
 \Dichogaster modigliani, 358; fZ). ma- 
 
 layana, 358; fZ). sylvatica, 359 
 Digger's weed, 443 
 ^.Digitalis purpurea, 456, 554 
 ^.Digitaria humifusa, 487; JZ). sangta 
 
 nalis, 487 
 
 %Dioscorea alata, 480 
 ^Diplocephalus cristatus, 344 
 \Diplopseustis perieralis, 304 
 ^.Diplotaxis muralis, 375 
 IDipsacus Fullonum, 420 ; JZ>. sylvestris, 
 
 420 
 
 \Discaria , spread of, 531 
 fD/sfowMW hepaticum, 351 
 Doab-grass, 493 
 Dock, common, 466, 553 ; curled, 467 ; 
 
 spiny, 468 
 Dodder, clover, 447, 553; flax, 447; 
 
 lesser, 447 
 Dog, wild, 64 
 Dog-louse, 269 ; rose, 407 
 Dog's mercury, 473 
 
 %Dolichos lignosus, 402 ; JZ). Lablab, 402 
 
 ^Doticus pestilens, 297 
 
 Dove, Cape, 136; Harlequin, 136; 
 
 Indian, 135 ; Java, 136; little turtle, 
 
 135; Moreton Bay, 136; New 
 
 Caledonia green, 135; Queensland, 
 
 135; ring, 133; rock, 134; turtle, 
 
 *33 
 %Draba verna, 371 
 
 Dragon-flies and bees, 280 
 
 Dried-apple beetle, 297 
 \Drosophila ampelophila, 315 
 
 Drug-store beetle, 293 
 
 Duck, American black, 102; American 
 wood, 103 ; black Indian, 103 ; 
 canvas-back, 99; English pochard, 
 99> 537; English teal, 100; English 
 wild, 101 ; Gad well's, 101 ; Korean, 
 101 ; mandarin, 103 ; Muscovy, 99; 
 native brown, 100; native grey, 
 100; paradise, 100; pintail, 99, 537; 
 tufted, 103 
 
 Ducks, disappearance of, before black 
 swans, 107 
 
 Dunbird, 99 
 Dyer's weed, 378 
 
 Ear-cockle, 357 
 Earthworms, 35861 
 Earwig, 266 
 
 %Echinochloa crus-galli, 488 
 fEchinococcus polymorphic, 352; -\E. 
 
 veterinorum, 352 
 ^Echinorhynchus gigas, 358 
 \Echium plantagineum, 445 ; %E. viola- 
 ceum, 445, 554; IE. vulgare, 445, 
 
 \Eclipta alba, 429 ; \E. erecta, 429 
 Eels, 187; movements to sea, 538 
 Eelworm, beet, 358; cucumber, 358; 
 potato, 357 ; stem, 357 ; tomato, 358 
 
 %Eichhornia crassipes, 484 
 
 fEiseniafcetida, 360; -\E. rosea, 360 
 
 \Eiseniella tetrcedra, 359 
 
 \Elater sp., 348 
 
 Elderberry, 418, 554; red-berried, 
 418 
 
 %Eleusine coracana, 492; %E. indica, 492 
 Elk, 49 
 
 iElodea canadensis, 370, 478 
 Elymus arenarius, 500 
 Emberiza cirlus, 175, 540 ; \E. citrinella, 
 
 176, 540; -\E. hortulana, 176; f^- 
 
 schceniclus, 175 
 \Emex australis, 468 
 \Empoasca australis, 561 
 
 Emu, 99 
 \Endrosis fenestrella, 307 ; \E. lactcella, 
 
 307 
 \Entelea arborescens destroyed by cattle, 
 
 etc., 518 
 
 \Entodon epigonus, 558 
 \Entomobrya multifasciata, 266 
 \.Epacris microphylla, 440 ; %E. pulchella, 
 
 440 ; %E. purpurascens , 439 
 \-Ephestia kuehniella, 304 
 \Epimys norvegicus, 81 ; fZ^. rattus, 78 
 \Equus caballus, 39; f". zebra, 40 
 \Eragrostis Brownii, 494; %E. major, 
 
 493 ; %E. minor, 494 
 \Erechtites Atkinsonies, 435 ; %E. valeri- 
 
 aneefolia, 435 
 ^Ericusa sowerbyi, 258 
 \.Erigeron annuus, 428; %E. canadensis, 
 
 427 ; %E. linifolius, 427 
 \Erinaceus europeeus, 96 
 \Eriocampa adumbrata, 270; f. lima- 
 
 cina, 270, 283 
 "\Eriococcus araucariee, 289, 337 ; \E. 
 
 coriaceus, 288, 289, 410, 411 
 \Eripphyes pyri, 348 
 \Eriosoma lanigera, 330 
 \Eristalis tenax, 314 
 \Eritheecus rubecula, 147, 537 
 
 Ermine, 70 
 %Erodium cicutarium, 388; %E. mala- 
 
 choides, 388; JZ?. maritimum, 388; 
 
 ^E. moschatum, 388 
 \Erophila verna, 371 
 \Eruca sativa, 375 
 \Erysimum officinale, 372
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 595 
 
 j-Erythrtea australis, 442; %E. Cen- 
 taurium, 442 
 
 ^.Escallonia macrantha, 562 
 
 \Eschscholtzia calif ornica, 368 
 
 ^Estrelda temporalis, 163 
 
 ^.Eucalyptus amygdalina, 410; JJ?. cocci- 
 fera, 410; %E. globulus, 411; JF,. 
 Gunnii, 411; JF,. hcemastoma, 411; 
 JF. Macarthuri, 41 1 ; JF. numerosa, 
 410; JF. obliqua, 410; ^E.piperita, 
 410; JF. radiata, 410; JF. regnans, 
 410; JF. Stuartiana, 411; JF. 
 viminalis, 411 
 
 "\Eudrilus eugenics, 359 
 
 \Eulophus albitarsis, 271 
 
 ^Eunetta falcata, 101 
 
 ^.Euphorbia cyperissias, 473; JF. Helio- 
 scopia, 472 ; t^- hyperictfolia, 473 ; 
 JF. Lathyris, 472; JF. ovalifolia, 
 473 ; JF. Peplus, 472 ; JF. segetalis, 
 473 
 Euro, 28 
 
 tFwxo/iw viridis, 470 
 Evening primrose, 412 
 
 fFtfajref a spiniger, 313 
 
 \Exalphatoriasinensis, 118 
 
 ^.Faba vulgarts, 402 
 \Fagopyrum esculentum, 466 
 fj^a/co novce-zealandice , 151 
 
 Fallow-deer, 47 
 
 False acacia, 400 
 \-Fannia canicularis, 317 
 j-Fosao/a hepatica, 351 
 
 Fat-hen, 470, 554 
 
 \Fedia olitoria, 420 
 
 ' 61 
 
 Fennel, 416, 554 
 
 Fern-bird, Chatham Island, 507; 
 
 royal, 501 
 Ferret, 70 
 
 Fescue, meadow, 496; sheep's, 496 
 \Festuca bromoides, 496 ; JF. elatior, 496 ; 
 JF. Myurus, 496; JF. ovina, 496; 
 JF. pratensis, 496 ; JF. n/ftro, 496 ; 
 JF. sciur aides, 496 
 Feverfew, 431 
 ~[Ficus Carica, 474 
 Field cricket, 268; madder, 419 
 
 \Filaria immitis, 357 
 
 Finch, bramble, 171 ; chestnut-breasted, 
 163; chestnut-eared, 164; firetail, 
 164; red-browed, 163; spotted- 
 sided, 163; temporal, 163; white- 
 headed, 163; zebra, 164 
 
 Fiorin, 491 
 
 Fire-brat, 266 
 
 Fishes, native species of, 506 
 
 Fish-moth, 265 
 
 Flag-lily, 479 
 Flax, common, 
 
 purging, 387 
 Flax-grubs, 512 
 Flea-bane, Canadian, 427 
 Flea, bird, 326; common, 324; 
 
 and cat, 325; rat, 325, 326 
 
 386; heath, 387; 
 
 dog 
 
 Flesh-fly, 319 
 Flix-weed, 371 
 
 Flounders holding-up their ova, 257 
 Flour moth, 304 
 
 Fly,bitinghouse,322 ; chrysanthemum, 
 317; cineraria, 317; drone, 314; 
 European blow, 320; flesh, 319; 
 fruit, 315 ; golden-haired blow, 321 ; 
 green-bottle, 321 ; guava fruit, 315; 
 Hessian, 311; horse bot, 323; 
 house, 319; little house, 317; 
 Marguerite, 317; Mediterranean 
 fruit, 316; narcissus, 315; New 
 Hebrides fruit, 316; ox- warble, 
 324; pomace, 315; Queensland 
 fruit, 316; sheep-maggot, 321, 322; 
 sheep nasal bot, 323 ; stable, 320, 
 322; tomato fruit, 316 
 Fly, disappearance of native, 509 
 \Fceniculum vulgare, 416, 554 
 
 Fog, Yorkshire, 492 
 ^Forficula auricularia, 266 
 Forget-me-not, 444 
 Fowl, common, first introduction of, 
 
 109 
 
 Fox, proposal to introduce, 542 ; legisla- 
 tion against, 545 
 Foxglove, 456, 554 
 Foxtail, field, 490; meadow, 490; 
 
 slender, 490 
 
 \Fragaria elatior, 406 ; JF. vesca, 406 
 \Fretum novaree, 264 
 \Fringilla caelebs, 170, 539; -\F. monti- 
 
 fringilla, 171, 536 
 
 Frog, Australian brown, 181; A. 
 climbing, 181; A. green, 179; 
 European brown, 182; grass, 182; 
 whistling, 181 
 ^Fuchsia Riccartoni, 563 
 fFu/tca australis, 129 
 \Fuligula cristata, 103 
 IFumaria muralis, 369; JF. officinalis, 
 
 369 
 
 Fumitory, 309 
 Furze, 392 ; prevention of, 543 
 
 Gadwall duck, 101, 537 
 ^Galaxias attenuatus, 187; ^G. kokopu, 
 
 \Galega officinalis, 400 
 \Galeopsis Tetr afrit, 462 
 iGaliumAparine,4i9 ; JG. Mollugo,^ig; 
 
 IG. palustre, 419; JG. pansieme, 
 
 419; JG. verum, 419 
 ^Galleria mellonella, 304 
 IGallinsoga parviflora, 429 
 ^Callus bankiva, 109 
 
 Garlic, crow-, 482; sweet-scented, 483 
 \Gasterosteus aculeatus, 253 
 \Gastridium australe, 491 ; JG. lant- 
 
 gerum, 491 ; JG. lendigerum, 491 
 \Gastrodia Cunninghamii, 519 
 }Gastrophilus equi, 323; fG. htemor- 
 
 rhoidalis, 323 ; |G. nasalis, 324 
 Gean, 405 
 
 ^Genneeus nycthemerus, 117 
 \Geopelia cuneata, 136 
 
 38-2
 
 596 
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 Gold 3 .; 
 
 \Geophaps scripta, 136 
 
 \Geoplana ccerulea, 350; ^G. sanguinea, 
 
 35p 
 
 ^Geotria chilensis, 187 
 ^Geranium lucidum, 387; JG. molle, 
 388 ; IG.pratense, 387 ; JG. Roberti- 
 anum, 387; scarlet, 389 
 German lake trout, 223 
 Gid, 352 
 
 Gilia ccerulea, 443 ; JG. squarrosa, 443 
 Gladiolus byzantinus, 480 
 Glaucium flavum, 368, 534 
 Glaucopis cinerea, 507 ; fG. wilsoni, 507 
 Glyceria aquatica, 495; JG. fluitans, 
 
 496; JG. rigida, 497 
 \Glyciphagus domesticus, 347; fG. ru- 
 
 norum, 347 
 %Gnaphalium germanicum, 433 ; JG. />wr- 
 
 pureum, 432 
 
 \Gnathocerus cornutus, 296 
 Goat, Angora, 59 ; Cashmere, 59 ; first 
 introduction of, 15; Himalayan, 60 ; 
 wild, 57 
 
 Goats-beard, 437; rue, 400 
 \-Gobiofluviatilis, 251 
 Golden-eye duck, 103; plover, 130, 
 
 -eye, 161; of pleasure, 372; fish, 
 
 Goldfinch, 173 ; and strawberries, 406; 
 change of colour in, 514; migratory 
 races of, 537 
 
 \Gomphocarpus fruticosus , 442 
 ^Goniodes dissimilis, 269 
 \Gonipterus reticulatus, 298 
 
 Good King Henry, 470 
 
 Goose, Adelaide, 1 06; Australian wild, 
 106; black brant, 104; brent, 104; 
 Cape, 103; Cape Barren, 106; 
 Chinese, 105 ; common, 105 ; Egyp- 
 tian, 103; grey lag, 105; Maine, 
 104; maned, 106; Oregon wild, 
 1 06; Sandwich Island, 104; white- 
 fronted, 1 06, 536 
 
 Goose, first animal introduced into 
 New Zealand of set purpose, 14 
 
 Goose-berry, 409; foot, 470; grass, 
 419 
 
 Gorse, 392; prevention of, 543, 553 
 
 Gourami, 255 
 
 Gourd, 412 
 
 Gowan, 428 
 
 Grain weevil, 298 
 \Grallina australis, 151 
 
 Grape-vine, 390 
 
 Grass, annual meadow, 495; barley, 
 501; beard, 490; blue-eyed, 479; 
 buffalo, 488; canary, 489; cocks- 
 foot, 494; cockspur, 488; couch, 
 495, 499; crab, 487; doab, 493; 
 dog's tail, 494;* downy oat, 493; 
 field brome, 498; fine bent, 491; 
 hair, 492; hare's tail, 491; Italian 
 rye, 498; kangaroo, 487; lesser 
 trembling, 494; marram, 491; 
 meadow, 495 ; millet, 490; nit, 491 ; 
 nut, 486 ; reed, 489, 495 ; rye, 498 ; 
 
 sea-lyme, 500 ; smooth brome, 497 ; 
 soft, 492 ; soft brome, 497 ; squirrel- 
 tail, 501 ; sterile brome, 495 ; sweet 
 vernal, 489 ; tall oat, 493 ; trembling, 
 494 ; wavy hair, 492 ; wild oat, 493 ; 
 yellow oat, 493 
 
 Grass-caterpillar, 524; grub, 512; 
 moth, 524 
 
 Grayling, native, 187, 230, 508; dis- 
 appearance of, 509 
 
 Greasy cutworm, 524 
 
 Greenfinch, 174, 537; plover, 130 
 
 Grey plover, 131, 537 
 
 Gromwell, corn, 444 
 
 Ground ivy, 461 
 
 Groundsel, 433 ; climbing, 434 
 
 Grouse, black, 128; common, 128 ; 
 pintail sand, 132; pointed-tailed, 
 129 
 
 \Gryllotalpa vulgaris, 269 
 \Gryllus servillei, 268 
 
 Guava fruit-fly, 315 
 
 Gudgeon, 251 
 
 Guimauve, 385 
 
 Guinea fowl, 108; driving off native 
 hawks, 510 
 
 Guinea-pig, 85 
 
 Gum, blue, 411; peppermint, 410; 
 
 red, 411 ; white, 411 
 \Gymnorhina leuconota, 151, 539 
 
 \Heemaphysalis bispinosa, 347 ; ^H. punc- 
 tata, 348 
 
 ^Heematopinus asini, 339; f/f. eury- 
 sternus, 339; ^H. macrocephalus , 
 339; -\H. ovillus, 339; -\H. pedalis f 
 339; ^H. piliferus, 339; -\H. suis, 
 339 ; t#- tenuirostris, 339 ; ^H. urius y 
 339 ; \H . ventricosus, 339 ; -\H. vituli, 
 
 .339 
 
 Hair-grass, 492 
 Hairy oat, 493 
 IHakea aticularis, 472, 554; J#. saligna^ 
 
 472 
 
 Hakihaki, 345 
 
 f Halter ophora capitata, 316, 550 
 Ham -beetle, 294 
 Hare, 94; destroyed by harrier hawks, 
 
 510 
 
 Hare's ear, 414; tail grass, 491 
 Havers, 493 
 Hawk, harrier, destroying partridges, 
 
 123 ; increase of, 510 ; quail, resisted 
 
 by Australian magpies, 151 
 Hawk-bit, 437 ; autumnal, 437 ; weed, 
 
 Hawk's beard, 438 
 
 Hawthorn, 408 
 
 Heartsease, 378 
 
 Heather, 440 
 \Hedera helix, 417 
 
 Hedgehog, 96 
 
 Hedge-mustard, 371; parsley, 417; 
 
 sparrow, 148, 537 
 \tieleniwn quadridentatum, 429 
 \Helianthus annuus, 428 ; J/f. tuberosus f 
 428
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 597 
 
 \Helicella caperata, 262 
 \Helichrysum cymosum, 432 
 ^Helicostyla daphnis, 263 ; \H.fulgetrum, 
 
 263 ; \H. tricolor, 262 
 \Helipihis armigera, 300 
 \Helix aspersa, 261, 262; ^H. caperata, 
 
 262 ; \H. hortensis, 262 
 \Helminthia echioides, 437 
 ^Helodrilus caliginosus, 360; ffl". co- 
 
 strictus, 360; f/f. rubidus, 360 
 Hemlock, 414, 554 
 Hemp-nettle, 462 
 Henbane, 453 
 \Hepialis virescens attacking introduced 
 
 trees, 523 
 Herb Robert, 387 
 ^.Herniaria hirsute, 469 
 \Herodias timoriensis , 507 
 Heron, white, 507 
 Herring, 185; cisco, 249 
 \Hesperis matronalis, 371 
 
 Hessian fly, 311 
 \Heterakis papillosa, 354; ^H. perspi- 
 
 cillum, 354 
 
 \-Heteralocha acutirostns, 507 
 \Heterpdera radicicola, 358 ; \H. schach- 
 
 tii, 358 
 ^Hibiscus, native species destroyed by 
 
 cattle, etc., 517 
 \Hieracium aurantiacum, 439 
 \Hippodamia convergeus, 288 
 \Hirudo medicinalis, 361 
 \Hirundo neoxena, 150 
 
 Hive-bee, 279, 559 
 IHolcus lanatus, 492, 529; %H. mollis, 
 
 492, 529 
 
 \Homalomyia camculans, 317 
 \Homalota sordida, 285 
 \Homarus vulgaris, 341, 548 
 
 Hop, 473 
 
 \Hordeum distichum, 501 ; %H. manti- 
 mum, 501 ; %H. murinum, 501 ; %H. 
 vulgare, 500 
 Horehound, 461 
 
 Horse, 39; louse, 339; radish, 371 
 Hottentot fig, 414 
 House-fly, biting, 322; common, 319; 
 
 little, 317 
 Hue, 412 
 
 Huia, disappearance of, 507 
 Humble-bee, 273 
 \Humuliis lupulus, 473 
 \Hyalina alliaria, 261 ; ^H. cellaria, 261 ; 
 
 \H. crystalline, 261 
 Hydatid cists, 352 
 \Hydrobius assimilis, 285 
 IHydrodeis nymphceoides, 481 
 \Hydrocotyle vulgaris, 414 
 }Hyla aurea, 179; t#- caerulea (?), 181 ; 
 
 f#. ewingii, 181 
 \Hylotrupes bajalus, 297 
 \Hymeniafascialis, 304 
 \Hyoscyamus niger, 453 
 \Hypericum Androscemum, 384, 554; 
 IH. humifusum, 385, 554! % H - P^' 
 foratum, 384, 554! 1 H - montanum, 
 385 
 
 \Hypharpax australis, 284 ; f# atutral- 
 
 asiee, 284 
 %Hypochceris glabra, 436 ; J//. radicata, 
 
 T 436,526,527,530,533 
 \Hypoderma bows, 324 
 \Hypotcenidiapftilippinensis, 130 
 
 Alberts amara, 377 
 \Iceryapurchasi, 288, 337 
 
 Ichneumon wasps, 271, 305, 306 
 
 Indian corn, 489; fig, 414; shot, 478 
 %Indigofera viscosa, 400 
 
 Ink-weed, 471 
 
 Insects, disappearance of, 505; native 
 species of, 506, 507 
 
 Internal mite of fowls, 347 
 \Ionidium filiforme, 379 
 \Ipamcea batatas, 446 
 \Iris germanica, 479; \l. susiana, 479; 
 
 J/. pseud-acorus, 479 
 \Isaria farinosa, 306 
 t/sowie*ritt thorelli, 344 
 
 Itch-mite, 345 
 
 Ivy, 417 
 
 ricinus, 347 
 
 Jackdaw, 154 
 
 Japanese minnow, 251 ; tortoise, 178 
 ^Jasione montana, 439 
 ^Jatropha Curcas, 473 
 
 Jerusalem artichoke, 428 
 jjuglans regia, 475 
 
 Jumping anthribid, 297 
 tJuncus Gerhardi, 484 ; JJ. glaucus, 484 ; 
 JJ. obtusiflorus, 484 
 
 Jungle cock, 109 
 fjwnom'a vellida, 300 
 
 Kaka, 507 
 Kakapo, 507 
 
 Kangaroo, 27 ; grass, 487 ; rat, 28 
 Karaka, 12, 391 
 Kea, 56 
 Ked, 324 
 
 Kidney-bean, 402 ; vetch, 399 
 Kiore, 76 
 Kiwi, 507 
 Knapweed, 421 
 Knot-grass, 465 
 Kokopu(ru), 187, 508 
 Kumara, 12, 446 
 Kutu, 338 
 IKyllingia brevifolia, 563 
 
 \Lacerta vivipara, 178 
 
 \Lachnus strobi, 330 
 
 \Lacon variabilis, 294 
 
 \Lactuca muralis, 438 ; JL. saligna, 437 ; 
 
 JL. iaftwa, 438; JL. scariola, 438 
 Ladybirds, 287-9 
 ^Lamosthenes complanatus, 285 
 tLa^ffnon'a vulgans, 412 
 
 ^Lagopus mutus, 129; f^- scoticus, 128 
 Lake Blagdon trout, 222; L. Tahoe. 
 
 231 
 fLoma kuanacos, 39
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 Lamb's lettuce, 420 
 
 %Lamium album, 462; %L. amplexicaule, 
 462; JZ,. maculatum, 462; JZ.. pur- 
 pureum, 462 
 
 Lamprey, native, 187, 538 
 ^Lampria eenea, 313 
 
 \Lamprogaster ccerulea, 318; fZ.. strigi- 
 pennis, 318 
 
 ILampronia rubiella, 311 
 Lantana Camara, 463 
 Lapsana communis, 435 ; } 
 Lapwing, 130 
 Lark, Californian meadow, 164; native 
 ground, 164; sky, 142; wood, 140 
 Larkspur, 366 
 "^Laspeyresia pomonella, 305 
 \Lathyrus latifolius, 403 ; %L. Nissolia, 
 403 ; JL. odoratus, 403 ; JL. />ra- 
 tensis, 403 
 Laughing jackass, 137; owl, destroying 
 
 Maori rats, 78 
 %Lavatera arbor ea, 385 
 \Lecamum chirimolue, 334; fZ.. depres- 
 sun *, 335; fZ'. hemisphericum, 335; 
 fZ,. hesperidium, 289, 334; f-" 
 hibernaculorum, 335; fL. hispidum, 
 334; fZ,. longulum, 334; fZ.. won, 
 334; fZ-. nigrum, 335; f^-- ^> 
 335 ; fZ,. now, 335 
 Leech, medicinal, 361 ; sawfly, 270 
 Leek, 482 
 \Leis conformis, 288 
 
 Lemon scale, 332 
 %Lens esculenta, 402 
 
 Lentil, common, 402 
 %Leontodon autumnalis, 437; JZ,. hirtus, 
 
 437; JZ,. hispidus, 437 
 "^Lephthyphantes tenuis, 345 
 \Lepidium campestre, 376; JL. Draba, 
 376; JL. hirtum, 376; JL. olera- 
 ceum, destroyed locally, 517; JX. 
 ruderale, 376; JL. Smithii, 376; 
 JL. sativum, 377 
 ^Lepidosaphes nullipora, 332 ; fZ.. pinnee- 
 
 formis, 332; |L. u/ra, 332 
 \Lepisma saccharina, 265 
 
 nw incurvatus, 499 
 
 fL/)W5 cuniculus, 85 ; f.L. europceus, 95 
 Lesser white-fish, 249 
 Lettuce, garden, 438; wall, 438; 
 
 willow, 437 
 tLwcam'a purdiei, 318 
 \Leuciscus erythrocephalus, 252; f. ^- 
 
 ciscus, 252 ; f" rutilus, 253 ; fL. 
 
 phoxinus, 253 
 ^Leucosarcia picata, 133 
 \Leycesteriafarmosa, 418 
 \Ligurinus Moris, 174, 537 
 %Ligusticum Scoticum, 416 
 \Ligustrum vulgare, 441 
 
 Lilac, 454 
 
 "\Limax flavus, 260; "fi/. maximus, 260 
 t-Limn<ga tasmanica, 259 
 \Limnanthes Douglasii, 390 
 \L.inaria Cymbalaria, 455 ; JL. Elatine, 
 
 455 5 $L.latifolia,455 ; \L.purpurea, 
 
 455 ; JL. vulgaris, 455 
 
 Ling, 440 
 \Linguatula denticulatum, 358; fL. /QM- 
 
 ceolatum, 358 
 Linnet, 171, 537 
 
 fLmota cannabina, 171, 537; -\L. flavi- 
 rostris, 172, 537; fZ/- rufescens, 172, 
 540 
 
 %Linum angustifolium, 387; JL. catharti- 
 cum, 387; JL. gallicum, 387; t^,. 
 marginale, 386; JL. usitatissimum, 
 386 
 
 ^Linyphia melanopygia, 344 
 \Liothula omnivora, 318, 524 
 
 Liquorice, wild, 394 
 ^Lissopimpla semipunctata, 271 
 fZ/issofes reticulatus, 348 
 t-Li'ta solanella, 306 
 \Liihospermum arvense, 444 
 Liver-fluke, 351 
 Lizards, native species of, 506, 508; 
 
 English scaly, 178 
 ^.Lobelia erinus, 439 
 Lobster, 341, 548 
 Lochleven trout, 221 
 Locust, 268 ; tree, 400 
 \L.olium italicum, 498 ; JL. perenne, 498 ; 
 
 JZ,. temulentum, 499 
 tLoncA<ea splendida, 316, 550 
 
 Loosestrife, 41 1 
 fLop/zortyx calif ornicus, 124 
 %Loranthus Colensoi, 408 
 JLofus angustissimus, 399; JL. cornicu- 
 
 latus, 399 ; Ji/. uliginosus, 399 
 Louse, body, 338; book, 270; brown 
 chicken, 269; common, 338; crab, 
 338; dog, 269, 339; goat, 269; ox, 
 269 ; ox, long-nosed, 339 ; pig, 339 ; 
 shaft, of chickens, 269; sheep, 269 
 Lovage, 416 
 Love-in-a-mist, 366 
 Lucerne, 394 
 
 \Lucilia ccesar, 321 ; fZ/. sericata, 321 , 322 
 \Lullula arbor ea, 142 
 \Lumbricus annulatus, 360; fZ,. campes- 
 tris, 360; fL. castaneus, 361; fZ,. 
 rubellus, 360; fL. terrestris, 361 
 %Lupinus arboreus, 391 ; JL. luteus, 391, 
 
 554 
 
 fZ/yc^Ewa labradus, 460; fZ/. phoebe, 46 
 ^.Lychnis coronaria, 381 ; JL. diurna, 381 ; 
 JL. Flos-cuculi, 381; JL. Githago, 
 382; JZ,. vesper tina, 381 
 \Lycium barbarum, 452; JX. chinense, 
 
 452; JZ<. horridum, 453 
 \Lycopersicum esculentum, 448 
 arvensis, 44/1 
 iratica, 345 
 
 brunneus, 291 ; f^- linearis, 
 559 
 
 \Lygosoma moco, 508 
 fZ/ymn<a auricularia, 259 ; fL. stagnalis, 
 259 ; fZ/. tasmanica, 259 ; fZ. truncu- 
 lata, 351 
 
 tZ/yrunts tetrix, 128 
 %Lysimachia Nummularia, 441 
 ^.Ly thrum Greeferi, 411; JZ,. hyssopi- 
 folia, 411
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 599 
 
 Mackinaw trout, 230 
 \Macropus robuslus, 28 ; fAf . thetidis, 27 ; 
 
 fAf. ualabatus, 27 
 \Madia saliva, 429 
 Magpie, Australian, 151, 539 
 Magpie-lark, Australian, 151 
 Maize, 489 
 
 \Malcolmia maritima, 371 
 Mallard, 101, 537 
 Mallow, common, 385 ; dwarf, 385 ; 
 
 marsh, 385 ; tree, 385 
 %Malva campeslris, 386 ; %M. caroliniana, 
 386; \M. crispa, 386; %M. parvi- 
 flora, 385; JAf. rolundifolia, 385; 
 JAf . sylvestris, 385 ; %M. verticillata, 
 386 
 
 \Mamestra (see -\Melanchrd) 
 \Manorhina melanophrys, 162 
 
 Mantis, 268 
 
 J Marattia fraxinea, 519 
 \Marecapenelope, 100, 537 
 Marguerite, 431 ; fly, 317 
 Marigold, 435; corn, 431 
 Marram-grass, 491 
 Marrow, vegetable, 413 
 \Mamibium vulgar e, 461 
 Marsh-mallow, 385 
 Marvel of Peru, 469 
 Mason fly, 566 
 \Matricaria Chamomilla, 430; %M. dis- 
 
 coidea, 430 ; %M. inodora, 430 
 \Matthiola incana, 369 ; JAf . sinuata, 369 
 Meadow-foxtail, 490; midge, 312 
 Meadow-lark, Californian, 164 
 Meal-moth, 304; worm, 295, 296 
 Mealy bug, 336 
 
 \Medicago denliculala, 394, 553 ; JAf . 
 lupulina, 393, 529; %M. maculata, 
 394, 553 J %M. saliva, 394 
 Medick-clovers, 394 
 Mediterranean fruit- fly, 316, 550 
 "\Melanchra composite, 313, 318, 524; 
 "|" M. graminosa, 313; "fAf. mutans, 
 
 313, 318, 524; -\M.sleropaslis, 512; 
 fAf. uslislriga, 313, 318 
 Melanism in introduced animals, 515 
 
 "\Melanosloma fasciala, 307, 309 
 \Meleagris gallipavo, 108 
 \Melianthus major, 390 
 
 Melilot, 394-5 
 \Melilotus alba, 395 ; JAf. arvensis, 395; 
 
 \M. officinalis, 394 
 \Meliphora grisella, 303 
 \Mellissa officinalis, 460 
 
 Melon, water, 413 
 \Melophagus ovinus. 324 
 \Melopsillacus undulalus, 136 
 \Menoponpallidum, 269 ; fAf. biserialim, 
 
 270 
 ^.Menlha aqualica, 459; JAf. arvensis, 
 
 459; JAf. auslralis, 461; JAf. rfew- 
 
 fafa, 460; JAf. genlilis, 460; JAf. 
 
 piperila, 459; JAf. Pulegium, 460, 
 
 554; JA/. saliva, 460; JM. spicata, 
 
 459 ; JAf. viridis, 459 
 \Mercurialis annua, 473 
 fAferorfow equestris, 315 
 
 \Mesembryanthemum edule, 414 
 \Meloponorlhus pruinosus, 340 
 ^Metriorhynckus erratiau, 294; fAf. 
 
 rufipennis, 294, 411 
 \Microlcena stipmdes spreading in Auck- 
 
 . , /f . land - 531 
 t^Wicroneto sp., 345 
 ^Micropalpus brevigaster, 318 
 Mignonette, 378 
 Milfoil, 430 
 \Milium effusum, 490 
 Milk-moth, 307 ; weed, 472 ; wort, 380 
 Millet, 487 ; grass, 490 
 IMimulus luleus, 456; JAf. moschatiu, 
 
 456 
 
 Minah, Indian, 159, 160, 565; Austra- 
 lian, 1 60 
 
 Minnow, English, 253; Japanese, 251 
 Mint, cat, 461; common, 459; field, 
 459; pepper, 459; spear, 459; 
 water, 459 
 
 IMirabilis Jalapa, 469 
 fAfiro albifrons, 507 ; fAf . australis, 507 
 Mistletoe, scarlet, 408 
 Mite, cat, 346; cheese, 346; common, 
 347; dog, 345; hair-follicle, 345; 
 internal m. of fowls, 347 ; itch, 345 ; 
 pear, 348; pig, 345; rabbit, 346; 
 red, 348 ; scaly-leg, 346 ; wheat, 347 
 Mithndate mustard, 377 
 \Modiola mullifida, 386, 529 
 \Mohua ochrocephala, 507 
 Mole-cricket, 269 
 Moneywort, 441 
 
 \Moniezia alba, 351 ; fAf. expansa, 351 ; 
 fAf. filicollis,35i ; fAf. pianissimo, 
 35 1 
 
 Monkshood, 367 
 ^Monocrepidius exsul, 294 
 \Monomorium antarcticum, 306 
 \Monopis crocicapitella, 310; fAf. ethel- 
 
 ella, 310; ^M.ferruginella, 310 
 ^Monoloma picipes, 289; fAf. J/ra- 
 co//ix, 289; fAf. sub-4-faveolata, 
 289 
 
 Mooruk, 98 
 Mo-pork, 507 
 JAforus papyri/era, 474 
 Moth, angoumois grain, 310; banana, 
 302; bee, 303, 304; cabbage, 308; 
 clothes, 307, 309, 310; codlin, 
 305 ; convolvulus hawk, 301 ; cur- 
 rant clear-wing, 301 ; diamond- 
 back, 308; Indian meal, 303; 
 meal, 304; Mediterranean flour, 
 304; potato, 306; privet, 301; 
 shot-hole, 308; silver-stripe, 301; 
 tapestry, 309; turnip, 303; wax, 
 304; window, 307 
 Mountain linnet, 172 
 Mouse, 84 
 
 Mud-fish, native, 187 
 Mud-lark, 151 
 Mullein, 454 
 f Aft/ma castaneithorax, 163; fAf. ory- 
 
 zivora, 163; fAf . punc tulata, 163 
 fA/us decumamu, 82; \M. exulans, 76,
 
 6oo 
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 564; +M. musculus, 84; ^M. rattus, 
 78 
 ^Musca corvina, 320; fM. domestica, 
 
 317, 319, 322; ^M. taitensis, 320 
 \Muscina stabulans, 320 
 Museum beetle, 291 
 Musk, 456 
 
 Mussel-scale, 332, 550 
 Mustard, black, 375 ; mithridate, 377 ; 
 
 wall, 375 ; white, 375 ; wild, 375 
 ^Mydas macquarti, 312 
 
 Myna (see Minah) 
 \Myosotidium nobile, 518 
 %Myosotis arvensis, 444; JM. ceespitosa, 
 /\<\<\ ; JM. collina, 445 ; %M .palustris , 
 /H4 ; JM. sylvatica, 444 ; JM. strigu- 
 losa, 444 
 
 \-Mysus cerasi, 331 ; fM. persicte, 561 
 \Mytilaspis citricola, 332 ; \M.pomarum, 
 
 332, 55 
 \Myzaphis abietina, 561 
 
 \Nabis lineatus, 327 
 \Nacerdes melanura, 296 
 ^.Narcissus biflorus, 480 
 
 Narcissus-fly, 315; mite, 347 
 
 Nasturtium, garden, 389 
 "^Nasturtium officinale, 369 
 ^Naultinus elegans, 508 ; ^N. grayi, 508 
 j.Navarettia squarrosa, 443 
 \Necrobia ruficollis, 294; t-^. rufipes, 
 
 ^ 2 94. 
 
 Nectarine, 404 
 "^Neochanna apoda, 187 
 \Nepeta Cataria, 461 ; J.ZV. Glechoma, 
 
 461 
 
 \Neritina fluviatilis, 264 
 fATeiocAen sandvicensis, 104 
 fJVesfor meridionalis , 507 
 \Nettion crecca, 100, 537 
 
 Nettle, common, 474 
 
 New Hebrides fruit- fly, 316 
 \Nezara prasina, 328 
 %Nicandra physaloides, 452 
 ^Nicotiana acutiflora, 454 ; JJV. suaveo- 
 
 lens, 454 ; JW. Tabacum, 453 
 ^Nigella damascena, 366 
 
 Nightingale, 148, 536 
 \Ninox boobook, 140; fN. novce-zea- 
 landice, 507 
 
 Nipplewort, 435 
 INttella sp., 370, 527 
 
 Nit-grass, 491 
 ^Novius cardinalis, 288 
 f^VMwewius cyanopus, 131 
 \Numida meleagris, 108 
 
 Nut-grass, 486 
 
 t-ZVyctemera annulata, 318, 433, 434, 512 
 \Nymphcea sp., 370 
 \Nyrocaferina, 99, 537 
 
 Oak, 476 
 
 Oat, 492 ; bristle-pointed, 493 ; hairy, 
 ... 493 ; grass, 493 
 \Ucnosternus zealandicus, 409 
 \Ocydromus sp., 515 
 \Ocyphaps lophotes, 132 
 
 j-Ocjtfto/fl acroxantha, 308 
 
 \Odocoileus hemionus, 28; "fO. inrgini- 
 
 anus, 28 
 ^Odontria puncticollis, 512; fO- striata, 
 
 512, 524; fO. zealandica, 512 
 cefJCMJ omnivorus, 318, 512, 524 
 \CEcophora pseudospretella, 307 
 CEmona hirta, 349; f(E. humilis, 524 
 Oena capensis, 136 
 (Enothera biennis, 412; JCB. grandiflpra, 
 
 412 ; JCE 1 . odorata, 412 ; J<2?. stricta, 
 
 412; jffi 1 . tetraptera, 412 
 \CEsophagostomum columbianum, 356; 
 
 fCE. dentatum, 357; fGE 1 . inflatum, 
 
 356; fCE. venulosum, 356 
 fCEsfrzw o^V, 323 
 \Olea europcea, 441 
 \-Oligotropus alopecuri, 312 
 
 Olive, 441 
 \-Onchorhynchus nerka, 241 ; fO. tscha- 
 
 wytscha, 231 
 \Oncognathus binotatus, 560 
 
 Onion, 482 
 fOnwcws sp., 348 
 %Onobrychis gemella, 400; JO. sativa, 
 
 400; JO. vicieefolia, 400 
 JOnomV arvensis, 394 
 \Onopordon Acanthium, 422 
 ^Onthophagus fulvolineatus , 283; fO. 
 
 granulatus, 284 ; fO. posticus, 284 
 \Ophideres fullonica, 302; fO. maturna, 
 
 \Ophiusa melicerte, 303; fO. pulcher- 
 
 rima, 303 
 
 [Opogona comptella, 309 
 Opossum, brush-tailed, 28; grey, 28; 
 
 ring-tailed, 33 ; sooty, 28 
 %Opuntia vulgaris, 414 
 
 Orange, 390 
 Orc/zws c/za/> 
 
 ilybeus, 289, 336 ; fO. austra- 
 lasice, 289 
 
 \Oreortyx pictus, 119 
 \Ornithopus perpusillus, 400 
 \Orobanche minor, 458 
 ^Orthodera mimstralis, 268 
 
 Ortolan, 176 
 \Ortyx virginiana, 127 
 \Osmosita colon, 286 
 \Osmunda regalis, 501 
 \Osphromenus olfax, 255 
 
 !Ostearius, 344 
 Osteospermum moniliferum, 435 
 Ostrea edulis, 264 
 ^Otiorhynchus sulcatus, 297 
 \Otoclasium cyaneum, 360 
 lOttelia ovaUfolia, 478 
 fOn's sp., 53 ; fO. nayaur, 56 
 Owl, Australian, 140; barn, 138; 
 Boobook, 140; brown, 138; laugh- 
 ing, 507 ; wood, 140 
 alis cernua, 389 ; JO. compressa, 389 ; 
 JO. hirta, 390; JO. rosea, 390; 
 JO. variabilis, 390 
 Ox-eye daisy, 431, 553 
 Ox-louse, 269; tongue, 437; warble- 
 fly, 324 
 
 macrocarpus, 440
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 601 
 
 \Oxyops concrete, 299 
 \Oxytelus rugosus, 285 
 -f Oxyuris curvula, 354 
 Oysters, 264 
 
 Paddy bird, 163 
 Pademelon wallaby, 27 
 ^Parncum colonum, 488 ; JP. Crus-galli, 
 488 ; IP.glabrum, 487 ; IP.glaucum, 
 488; %P. Linderheimeri, 488; %P. 
 miliaceum, 487 
 Pansy, 378 
 
 \Papaver Argemone, 367; JP. dubium, 
 367 ; JP. horridum, 367 ; JP. Rhoeus, 
 367 ; JP. somniferum, 368 
 Paper mulberry, 474 
 \Paracalliope fluviatilis, 216 
 -fParacymus nitidiusculus, 285 
 
 Paradise fish, 255 
 \Paragyrtis inostentata, 302 
 Parakeet, long-tailed grass, 136; native, 
 
 507; warbling grass, 136 
 \Paramelis obesula, 33 
 \Paranephrops sp., 508 
 \Pardalotuspunctatus, 163 
 -fParo/ms sp., 296 
 Par roquets, 136, 137 
 Parsley, 415 ; beaked, 416; hedge, 417; 
 
 piert, 407 
 Parsnip, 416 
 
 Partridge, Barbary, 124; common, 120; 
 destruction of, 510; French, 123; 
 Hungarian, 124; mountain, 119; 
 New Holland, 120 ; red-legged, 123 ; 
 stubble, 119; Teneriffe, 124 
 -\Parus caeruleus, 152 
 \Pascalia glauca, 428 
 \Paspalum dilatatum, 487 
 ^Passer domesticus, 164; fP. montanus, 
 
 170 
 
 "Paterson's Curse," 445 
 \Pavo cristatus, 109 
 Pea, common, 401 ; everlasting, 403 ; 
 
 sweet, 403 
 Peach, 404 
 Pea- fowl, 109 
 Pear, 408; midge, 312 
 Pearlwort, 383 
 Pea-weevil, 296 
 
 \Pediculus capitis, 338 ; f-P- corporis, 338 
 \Pedicecetus columbianus, 129 
 Pee-wee, 151 
 Peewit, 130 
 ^Pelargonium quercifolium, 389; JP. 
 
 zonale, 389 
 
 [Pemphigus populi-transversus , 561 
 \Penceus canaliculatus , 341 
 Penny cress, 377; royal, 460, 554; 
 
 wort, 414 
 
 IPeplis For tula, 41 1 
 Peppercorns, 357 
 Peppermint, 459 ; gum, 410; tree, 410; 
 
 wort, 376 
 
 f Perca fluviatilis, 254 
 ^Percolates colonorum, 255 
 
 Perch, common, 254; Gippsland, 255 
 \Perdix cinerea, 120 
 
 \Periplaneta americana, 268 
 \Perissectes australasice, 311 
 \Perissiapyri, 312 
 
 Periwinkle, 442, 554 
 %Petasite$ vulgaris, 422 
 \Petrceca macrocephala, 511 
 \Petrogale penicillata, 26; ^P. xantho- 
 
 pus (?), 28 
 
 ^.Petunia parviflora, 454 
 \Peucedanum satiyum, 416 
 
 Phalanger, vulpine, 28 
 \Phalangista vulptna, 28 
 \Phalangvum canchroides, 295 
 %Phalaris arundinacea, 489; JP. cana- 
 
 riensis, 489 
 \Phaps, chalcoptera, 132 ; fP- histrionica, 
 
 132 
 
 %Phaseolus vulgaris, 402 
 \Phasianus colchicus, 1 1 1 ; fP. ellioti, 
 
 117; fP. reevesii, 1 17 ; fP. torquatus, 
 
 in 
 Pheasant, Chinese, 1 1 1 ; common, 1 1 1 ; 
 
 diamond, 1 10 ; Elliot's, 117; golden, 
 
 no; jungle, 117; Lady Amherst's, 
 
 110; Reeves 's, 117; feeding on 
 
 ink-weed, 471 
 \Philonthus eeneus, 267, 286; fP- affinis, 
 
 286; fP- nigritulus, 286; fP- scyba- 
 
 larius, 286 
 \PUeum arenarium, 490 ; JP. pratense, 
 
 \Pholcus thalangioides , 344 
 fPAora omnivora, 313 
 \Phoracantha recurva, 297 
 iPhormium tenax, 398 
 \Phoroceraferedayi, 318; |P- marginata, 
 
 318; fP- nyctemeriana, 318 
 \Phrissogonus laticostatus, 302 
 \Phthirius inguinalis, 338 
 \Phthorimcea operculella, 306 
 \Phyllodronda germanica, 267; f^. 
 
 opima, 267 
 
 ^Phylloxera vastatrix, 330 
 IPhysalis alkekengi, 452; JP. peruviana, 
 
 452 
 
 Physic nut, 473 
 \Phytolacca decandra eaten by thrushes, 
 
 145, 4?i 
 
 fPAyfomyza albiceps, 271, 272, 317; 
 fP. chrysanthemi, 317; t**- wn- 
 corms, 317 
 ^Phytopus pyri, 348 
 jPtcrts echioides, 437 
 Pied grallina, 151 
 Pig, 14, 33; bicoloration in, 515 
 Pigeon, Australian grey-necked, 135; 
 bronze-wing, 132; common, 134; 
 crested bronze-wing, 132; harle- 
 quin bronze-wing, 132 ; Indian, 136 ; 
 native, 507; partridge bronze- 
 wing, 136; Solomon Island, 135; 
 squatter, 136; Wonga-Wonga, 132 
 Pig-face, 414 
 
 Pilchards, movement of shoals, 538 
 \Pimelodus cattus, 253 
 
 Pimpernel, 441 
 IPimpinella saxifraga, 416
 
 602 
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 Pink, Deptford, 380 
 Pintado, 108 
 Pintail duck, 99, 537 
 IPinus insignis, 477 ; IP. maritima, 476 ; 
 IP. pinaster, 476 ; IP. radiata, 477 
 Pipit, native, 511 
 Piri-piri distributed by sheep and dogs, 
 
 522 
 
 \-Pison pruinosus, 566 
 \.Pisum sativum, 401 
 
 Planarian, land, 350 
 \Planchonia quercicola, 336 
 IPlantago Coronopus, 465 ; JP. hirtella, 
 465; %P. lanceolata, 464, 529; JP. 
 major, 463; JP. media, 464; JP. 
 varia, 464 ; JP. virginica, 465 
 Plantain, 463 
 ^Platycercus exinrius, 137 
 \Platygaster minutus, 311 
 \Platysoma bakewelli, 286 
 \Pleurotropus epigonus, 271, 311, 558 
 \Plodia interpunctella, 303 
 Plover, Australian, 131; golden, 130; 
 
 green, 130; grey, 131 
 ^Plusia oxy gramma, 303 
 \Plutella cruciferarum, 272, 308; fP. 
 
 maculipennis, 272, 308 
 JPoa annua, 495; JP. australis, 531; 
 JP. compressa, 495; JP. nemoralis, 
 495 J %P .pratensis , 495 ; JP. trivialis, 
 
 Pochard, 99, 537 
 \Pochasia australis, 328 
 \Pogonornis cincta, 507 
 Poke-weed, 471 
 Polecat, 70 
 
 "^Polistes tasmaniensis, 282 
 \Pollenia villosa, 321 
 
 i/Mtt opercularis, 255 
 carpon tetraphyttum, 383 
 virgata, 379 ; JP. 
 
 379 J 
 
 myrtiflora, 
 - vulgaris, 380 
 
 %Polygonum aviculare, 465; JP. Co- 
 volvulus, 466; JP. Dryandri, 466; 
 JP. Hydropiper, 465; J.P. lapathi- 
 folium, 465 
 ^.Polypogon fugax, 490; JP. littoralis, 
 
 490; JP. monspeliensis , 490 
 \Polyzosteria truncata, 267 
 
 Pomace fly, 315 
 \Pamaderris apetala, 12 
 
 Pomegranate, 412 
 fPon/cwco/e:* carethrurus, 359 
 Poor man's weather-glass, 441 
 Poplar gall aphis, 561 
 \Poranthera ericeefolia, 473 
 \Parcettio gramger, 340, 348 ; fP. scaber, 
 
 340; fP. zealandicus, 340 
 fPon'na cervinata, 271 ; f-P- umbraculata, 
 
 271 
 
 \Portulaca oleracea, 383 
 Potato, early cultivation of, 17, 448 
 Potato-eelworm, 357; elater, 294; moth, 
 
 306 
 
 %Potentilla reptans, 406 
 JPoten'Mm officinale, 407; JP. />o/;y- 
 gamum, 407 ; JP. sanguisorba, 407 
 
 tridactylus, 28 
 
 Prairie hen, 127 
 
 Prawn, Australian, 342 
 \Prenolepis longicornis, 283 
 
 Prickly pear, 414 
 
 Primrose, 441 
 ^.Primula veris, 441 ; JP. elatior, 441 ; 
 
 JP. vulgaris, 441 
 \Pripnoplus reticularis, 476, 512 
 \Pristonychus terricola, 285 
 
 Privet, 441 ; hawk-moth, 301 
 \Proctophanes sculptus, 284 
 \Pronolepis longicornis, 283 
 \Prosthemadera novce-zealandice, 507 
 
 SPrototroctes oxyrhynchus, 508 
 Prunella vulgaris, 461 
 Prunus avium, 405; JP. cerasus, 405; 
 
 JP. communis, 405 
 }\PjeMa maxima, 255 
 \Pseudochirus peregrinus, 33 
 \Pseudococcus coriaceus, 336; f^ 5 - longi- 
 
 spinus, 336 
 
 \Pseudogerygone igata, 511 
 \Pseudorasboraparva, 251 
 \Psoralea pinnata, 399 
 fPyoro/>tes communis, 346, 542 
 \Psychodaphalcenoides, 312 
 fPsyZ/a acaciee-baileyanee, 328 
 
 Ptarmigan, 129 
 
 \Pteris (Pteridium) aquilina, spreading 
 commonly, 529, 534; JP. cretica, 
 501 ; |P. lomarioides, 501 ; JP. longi- 
 folia, 501 
 
 \Pterochlurus alchatus, 132 
 fPferoc/es bicinctus, 131 
 \Pter ostichus,prcecox, 349 
 \Ptinusfur, 291 
 fPttZea; avium, 326; tP. irritans, 324; 
 
 fP. serraticeps, 325 
 \Pulvinaria camellicola, 335; ^P.flocci- 
 
 fera, 335 
 Pumpkin, 413 
 \Punica Granatum, 412 
 Purplers, 357 
 Purslane, 383 
 fPwJon'ws erminea, 70 ; f^*- foetidus, 70 j 
 
 fP. vulgaris, 70 
 \Pyralisfarinalis, 304 
 fPyrr/iM/a europcea, 175 
 JPyrus communis, 408; /* malus > 
 409 
 
 Quail, Australian, 118, 119, 56 5; black- 
 breasted, 120; brown, 118; Cali- 
 fornian, 124, 565 ;Californian moun- 
 tain, 119; Chinese, 118; Egyptian > 
 120; Indian, 120; little Australian, 
 120; native, 100, 507; swamp, 
 118; Tasmanian, 118; Tasmanian 
 stubble, 119; Tasmanian swamp, 
 119; Virginian, 127 
 ^Quediusfulgidus, 285 
 
 Queensland fruit-fly, 316 
 JQweraw pedunculata, 476; JQ. robur > 
 476; tO- sessiliflora, 476 
 
 Quince, 409 
 
 Quinnat salmon, 231
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 603 
 
 Rabbit, 85; colours of, 90, 514; price 
 of skins, 91 ; legislation against, 
 547; louse, 339; mite, 346 
 Radish, 377 
 Ragged robin, 381 
 Ragweed, American, 428 
 Ragwort, 433, 553 
 Rail, Australian land, 129 
 Rainbow trout, 226 
 \Rana esculenta, 182; ^R. temporaria, 
 
 182 
 
 ^Ranunculus acris, 365 ; $R. aquatilis, 
 364 : ~[R. bulbosus, 365 ; %R. arvensis, 
 366; IR.falcatus, 366; $R. Flam- 
 mula, 365; JjR. muricatus, 366; 
 %R.parviflorus, 366; %R.philonotus, 
 366; %R. repens, 365; J.R. sardous, 
 365; $R. sceleratus, 365 
 Rape, 374 
 
 ^Raphanus sativus, 377 
 \Rapistrum rugosum, 377 
 Raspberry, 405 ; bud caterpillar, 311 
 Rat, black, 13, 78 ; brown, 82 ; kangaroo, 
 
 28; Maori, 76, 564; Norway, 82 
 Red admiral butterfly, 300 
 Red-bill, Australian, 163; breast, 147, 
 537; eye, 252; mite, 348, 550; pole, 
 172, 540; top grass, 491 
 Reed-bunting, 175; grass, 489; spar- 
 row, 175 
 \Reseda alba, 378; JjR. lutea, 378; $R. 
 
 luteola, 378 
 Rest-harrow, 394 
 ^Retropinna richardsoni, 187, 508 
 \Rhinanthus crista-galli, 458 
 ^Rhinocola eucalypti, 328 
 \Rhipidura flabellifera, 511; f/?. fuligi- 
 
 nosa, 511 
 
 ^Rhizobius ventralis, 288, 289, 334, 336 
 \Rhizoglyphus sp., 347 
 \Rhombosolea plebeia, 257 
 \Rhombus maxima, 255 
 \Rhynchodemus moseleyi, 350 
 \Rhytisternus puella, 284 
 \Ribes Grossularia, 409; \R. nigrum, 
 409; J/?. rubrum, 409; %R. sangui- 
 neum, 409 
 
 Rib-grass, 464; wort, 464 
 Rice-bird, 163; Canadian wild, 489; 
 
 weevil, 298 
 
 \Richardia africana, 484 
 %Ricinus communis, 473 
 Ring-dove, 133 
 Roach, 253 
 Robin, native, 507; redbreast, 147, 
 
 %Robinia Pseud-acacia, 400 
 
 Rock-dove, 134 
 
 Rocket, 375 ; sea, 377 
 
 Rook, 152, 537 
 \Rophalosiphon dianthi, 329 
 IRosa canina, 407; J.R. multiflora, 408; 
 $R. rubiginosa, 408, 553 
 
 Rose-fly, 331 
 \Roubieva multifida, 471 
 
 Rove-beetle, 286 
 IRubus discolor, 405 ; IR.fruticosus, 405, 
 
 553 ; %R. ideeus, 405 ; J.R. laciniatut, 
 456 ; %R. leucostachys, 405 ; J/?. 
 macrophyllus, 405; %R. rudis, 405; 
 $R. rusticanus, 405 
 Rudd, 252 
 
 $Rumex acetosa, 468 ; %R. acetosella, 468 ; 
 J.R. conglomeratus, 468 ; $R. crispus, 
 467 ; %R. maritimus, 468 ; J7?. obtusi- 
 folius, 467, 553 ; J^. palustris, 467 ; 
 JjR. sanguineus, 467 ; J.R. viridis, 468 
 
 \Rupicapra rupicapra, 60 
 Rupture-wort, 469 
 
 ^Rutilia pelluceus, 319 
 Rye-grass, 498 
 
 t-Ryssa semipunctata, 271 
 
 Saddle-back, 507 
 Sage, wild, 461 
 ISagina apetala, 383; JS. procumbcns, 
 
 383 
 
 Sainfoin, 400 
 \Saissetia hemispheerica, 335 ; f5. nigra, 
 
 335 '> t5. otaz, 335 
 JSa/iar a/6a, 476; JS. babylonica, 475; 
 
 IS.fragilis, 475 
 
 ^Salmo alpinus, 222 ; f5- clarkii Tahoen- 
 sis, 231; ^S.fario, 212; ^S.fonti- 
 nalis, 223; t<5. henshawi, 231; f5. 
 irideus, 226; f-5. Namaycush, 230; 
 t^. nerka, 241; t5- quinnat, 231; 
 f-5. sebago, 242; f-5. trua, 207; 
 f-S. umbla, 223 
 
 Salmon, Atlantic, 193-207; blue-back, 
 241; Canadian land-locked, 242; 
 quinnat, 231 ; sock-eye, 241 ; trout, 
 207 
 
 Salsafy, 437 
 ^Salvelinus (see Salmo) 
 \.Salvia Verbenaca, 461 
 J5am6uct nigra, 418; J5. racemotus, 
 
 418 
 
 Sambur deer, 49 
 Sandwort spurrey, 383 
 ^Saphena cinera, 561 
 \.Saponaria Vaccaria, 380 
 ^Sarcophago impatiens, 319 
 \Sarcoptes cuniculi, 339; t-5. mutatis, 
 
 346; f-5. scabiei, 345, 346 
 \Satur eia hortensis, 460 
 Savory, summer, 460 
 Sawflies, 270 
 Scab, 346, 542 
 IScabiosa arvensis, 420; |S. atro-pur- 
 
 purea, 420; JS. maritima, 420 
 Scabious, field, 420 
 Scale, apple, 332; black, 335; blue 
 gum, 336; broad, 334; cottony- 
 cushion, 337; holly, 334; ivy, 334; 
 lemon, 332; purple, 332; red, of 
 orange, 332; San Jos, 333, 550 
 Scaly-leg, 346 
 %Scandix Pecten-Veneris , 416 
 
 Scarlet tanager, 162 
 ^Scatopse notata, 312 
 \Schizoneura lanigera, 330, 515, 550; 
 
 f5. ulmi, 561 
 fSciocoris helferi, 328
 
 604 
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 $Sclavia verticillata, 486 
 \Scleria sp., 486 
 \Sclerochroa rigida, 497 
 \Sclerostomum armatum, 354; -\S. equi- 
 num, 354; t'S. hypostomum, 354; 
 f.S. tetracanthum, 354 
 ^Scolypopa australis, 328 
 Scorpion, Australian, 344, 546 
 Scotch burn trout, 221 
 \Scrophularia aquatica, 455 
 Scrub turkey, 107 
 Seal fishery of New Zealand, 16 
 Sea-rocket, 377 ; trout, 207 
 \Sedum acre, 410 
 \Selaginella denticulata, 501 ; %S. Kraus- 
 
 siana, 563 
 \Selandria cerasi, 270 
 
 Self-heal, 461 
 \Semiotellus nigripes, 271 
 \Senebiera Coronopus, 376; J5. didyma, 
 
 376 ; ^<S. pinnatifida, 376 
 %Senedo aquations, 434; J.S. erucifolius, 
 434; f^. jacobaa, 433, 553; JS. 
 mikanioides, 434; J.S. sylvaticus, 
 433; J.S. vulgaris, 433; species 
 attacked by -\Nyctemera annulata, 
 512 
 
 JSeguouz sempervirens , 477 
 tSemizw canarius, 176 
 t,Sea tipuliformis, 301 
 ISetaria glauca, 488; JS. imberbis, 488 ; 
 JS. italica, 488; J5. verticillata, 
 488; JS. viridis, 488 
 SHallots, 482 
 
 Sheep, blue, 56; common, 53; first 
 introduction of, 14; Himalayan 
 Bhurrel, 56 
 Sheep-louse, 269; maggot-fly, 321; 
 
 tick, 324 
 
 Sheep's-bit, 439 ; sorrel, 468 
 Shepherd's needle, 416; purse, 375 
 \Sherardia arvensis, 419 
 Ship-borer, 291 
 Shot-hole moth, 308 
 Shrike, Australian, 150 
 Shrimp, Australian fresh-water, 342; 
 
 native fresh-water, 230, 508 
 %Siegesbeckia orientalis, 428 
 \Silene anglica, 381; %S. cornea, 381; 
 IS. gallica, 380; $S. inflata, 380; 
 %S. italica, 381 ; %S. noctiflora, 381 ; 
 \S. nocturna, 381 ; %S. nutans, 381 ; 
 J5. orientalis, 381 ; J.S. quinque- 
 vulnera, 380 
 Silkworm, 300 
 tSifoatti surinamensis, 287; f'S'- MMI ~ 
 
 dentatus, 287 
 Silver-fish, 265; stripe moth, 301 
 
 iSilybum Marianum, 425 
 Sinapis arvensis, 375 
 Siphanta acuta, 561; fiS. granulata, 
 
 561 
 \Siphonophora granaria, 33 1 ; f5. ros<, 
 
 o- 33 ^ 
 
 Sirex juvencus, 270 
 Siskin, 173 
 *Sisymbrium heterophyllum, 371; JS. 
 
 officinale, 371 ; ^.S.pannonicum, 372 ; 
 t5. Sophia, 371 
 
 %Sisyrinchium anceps, 479 ; J5". Bermudi- 
 anum, 479; t<S. chilense, 479; J5. 
 micranthum, 480; JS. striatum, 479 
 fiStfonej lineatus, 298 
 f^'fofro^a cerealella, 310 
 Skillock, 375 
 
 Skylark, 140; migratory races of, 537 
 Sloe, 405 
 
 Slug, 260 ; worm, 270 
 Smelt, native, 187, 508 
 \Smyrnium aluco, 140 
 Snail, 260 
 
 Sock-eye salmon, 241 
 \Solanum auriculatum, 448 ; JS. indicum, 
 452; J5. marginatum, 448; J5. 
 mammosum, 452; JS 1 - sodomceum, 
 448; J5. tuberosum, 448; J.S. uzr^i- 
 nianum, 452 
 %Soliva anthemifolia, 431; J5. ptero- 
 
 sperma, 431 ; J5. sessilis, 431 
 %Sonchus arvensis, 438; J5. asper, 438; 
 15. littoralis, 438 ; JS. oleraceus, 438 
 Sorrel, 468 
 Sowthistle, 438 
 
 Sparrow, chestnut, 163 ; diamond, 163 ; 
 hedge, 148; house, 164; Java, 163; 
 mountain, 170; nutmeg, 163; reed, 
 175; Rockhampton, 163; tree, 170 
 Sparrow, albinism and change of colour 
 in, 5 13, 5 14 ; legislation against, 547 ; 
 direction of spread, 565 
 Spear- wort, lesser, 365 
 \Specularia hybrida, 439 
 iSpergula arvensis, 383 ; JS. pentandra, 
 383 
 
 iSpergularia rubra, 383 ; %S. media, 383 
 Sphenceacus punctatus, 507 
 Sphinx convolvuli, 301 ; f5. ligustri, 301 
 Spider, house, 314; red, 349; wort, 418 
 %Spireea Lindleyana, 562 
 Sprats, movement up coast, 538 
 Spruce aphis, 561 
 Spurge, caper, 472 ; sun, 472 
 Spurrey, 385 
 Spur- valerian, 419 
 ^Squatarola helvetica, 131, 537 
 Squirrels, American, 75 
 St John's wort, 384, 554 
 Stable-fly, 320, 322 
 
 ^Stachys annua, 462; $S. arvensis, 462; 
 JS. germanica, 462; %S. palustre, 
 462 
 Starling, 154, 537; Californian, 164; 
 
 red-winged, 164 
 \Steganopleuraguttata, 163 
 %Stellaria graminea, 382; $S. Holostea, 
 382; %S. media, 382; \S. uliginosa, 
 382 
 
 Stem eelworm, 357 
 \Stenotaphrum glabrum, 488 
 
 Stickleback, 253 
 \Stigmodera guglielmi, 295 
 Stinking May-weed, 430 
 Stink- weed, Californian, 443 
 %Stipa verticillata, 489
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 605 
 
 Stitch-bird, 507 
 
 Stitchwort, 382 
 
 Stoat, 70; legislation against, 546 
 
 Stock, common, 369 
 \Stomoxys calcitrant, 322 ; ^S. nigra, 323 
 
 Stonecrop, biting, 410 
 
 Stork's-bill, 388; musky, 388 
 
 Strawberry, 406; tree, 418 
 ^Stringops habroptilus, 507 
 
 Stringy-bark, 410 
 
 Striped pea- weevil, 298 
 \Strixflammea, 138 
 
 \Strongylus armatus, 354; f.S. capillaris, 
 355; t<5- cervicornis, 355; -\S. con- 
 tortus, 355 ; f-S. convolutus, 355 ; fS. 
 filicollis, 356 ; fS- gracilis, 355 ; \S. 
 micrurus, 355; -\S. ovis-pulmonalis, 
 355J \S. paradox, 356; f-S. />/- 
 monaris, 355; f^- rufescens, 355; 
 t<S. strigosus, 356; f'S. tetracanthus , 
 
 %Stuartina melleri, 433 
 
 Sturdy, 352 
 
 \Sturnella neglecta, 164 
 t^fwrMM/a ludoviciana, 164 
 t-Starmw vulgaris, 154, 537 
 ^.Stylidium graminifolium, 439 
 
 Sun-flower, 428 ; spurge, 472 
 f-Stw scro/a, 33 
 
 Swallow, Australian, 2, 150 
 
 Swan, black, 106; white, 107 
 
 Swede turnip, 373 
 
 Sweet-briar, 408, 553; potato, 446; 
 
 vernal grass, 489 ; William, 380 
 ^Sylvia atricapilla, 150, 536 ; -fS. cinerea, 
 14? 
 
 Symbiotic fungi and native bush plants, 
 
 519 
 
 \Symmoca quadripunctata, 308 
 %Symphytum officinale, 443 
 \Syncecus australis, 118, 565; ^S. die- 
 
 menensis, 119 
 tSyringa vulgaris, 454 
 \Syritta oceanica, 314 
 \Syrphus novee-zealandiee, 307, 309, 314; 
 f*S. obesus, 313 ; f.S. viridiceps, 313 
 
 fT. echinococcus, 352; 
 nata, 352; ^T.perfoliata, 353; f^- 
 saginata, 353 ; fT. serialis, 352; fl*. 
 serrata, 353 ; f^ 1 . solium, 352 
 \-Tteniopygia castanotus, 164 
 j-Tamio* striatus, 75 
 JTanacefMOT vulgare, 432 
 Tanager, scarlet, 162 
 Tansy, 432 
 Tapestry moth, 309 
 Tape-worms, 351-53 
 ^.Taraxacum officinale, 533 
 Tare, common, 401 ; hairy, 401 ; slender, 
 
 400 
 
 Taro, 12 
 Tar-weed, 458 
 Teal, 100, 537 
 
 Teasel, fuller's, 420; wild, 420 
 \Teleanthera sp., 470 
 
 Tench, 252 
 
 ^Tenebrioides mauritanicus, 287 
 fTene&rts mo/ifor, 296; }T. obscurant, 
 
 295 
 ^Tephrites tryoni, 316; fT. xanthodes, 
 
 315 
 
 iTessaromma sulcatum, 297 
 Testacella maugei, 259 
 Tetranychus bimaculatus, 349; fT. fe/. 
 . faW, 349 
 Teucnum Scorodonia, 462 
 Thar, 59 
 ^Theridion rufipes, 344; fT. tepidari- 
 
 orum, 344 
 
 ^Thermobia furnorum, 266 
 Thistle, blessed, 425 ; Californian, 425 ; 
 Canadian, 425; carline, 421; cock- 
 spur, 422; cotton, 422; creeping, 
 425; curled, 423; Malta, 422; 
 March, 425 ; milk, 425 ; musk, 425 ; 
 Scotch, 422, 425; slender, 423; 
 star, 421 ; woolly, 425; yellow star, 
 422 ; prevention of, 543 
 %Thlaspi arvense, 377 
 \Thoramus wakefieldii, 348 
 Thorn-apple, 453 
 Thorough- wax, 414 
 Three-cornered Jack, 468 
 \Thrincia hirta, 437 
 \Thrips sp., 327, 523 
 Thrush, song, 142, 409, 537, 565 
 
 native, 507 
 
 Thyme, 460 ; basil, 460 
 ^Thymus serpyllum, 460, 563 
 \Tillcea trichotoma, 410 
 
 Timothy-grass, 490 
 \-Tinca vulgaris, 252 
 \Tineafuscipunctella, 310; \T. terranea, 
 
 310 
 
 \Tineola biselliella, 310 
 Ti para, 483 
 Tipari, 452 
 Ti pore, 12, 483 
 Tit, native, 511 ; mouse, 152 
 \Tmeticus nigricauda, 344 
 Toad, 182; flax, 455 
 Tobacco, 453, 467; native Australian, 
 
 I Tolpis umbellata, 436 
 Tomato, 448; caterpillar, 300; fruit- 
 fly, 316, 550 
 JTonVts nodosa, 417 
 Tortoise, 178 
 
 Tortoiseshell butterfly, 300 
 \Tortrix excessana, 306 ; ^T. indigestana, 
 
 305 ; t^- postvittana, 305 
 J Tradescantia fluminensis, 484 
 
 Tragopan, 117 
 ITragopogon minus, 437 ; J T. porrifolius, 
 
 437J IT.pratensis, 437 
 Tree- hopper, 328 
 Trefoil, bird's-foot, 399; hare's-foot, 
 
 395; hop, 399; leaser, 399 
 ^Tribolium ferrugineum, 296 
 \Tribulus terrestris, 387 
 \Trichocephalusaffinis, 357 ; ^T.crenatus, 
 357
 
 6o6 
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 ^Trichodectes climax, 269; ^T. latus, 
 269; f^. scalaris, 269; -[T. sphcero- 
 cephalus, 269 
 
 \Trichogrammapretiosa, 272 
 
 \Trichophaga tapetiella, 309 
 
 \Trichosternus antarcticus, 348 
 
 }Trichosurus fuliginosus, 28; f^- vul- 
 pecula, 28 
 
 \Trifolium agrarium, 398; JT. arvense, 
 395 ; JT. dubium, 399 ; %T.filiforme, 
 399; JT. fragiferum, 398; jr. 
 glomeratum, 397; JT". hybridum, 
 398; JT. incarnatum, 395; JT. 
 maculatum, 399; JT. maritimum, 
 399; JT. medium, 397; JT. minus, 
 399; J7 1 . ochroleucum, 395; JT. 
 pratense, 273, 395; %T . procumbens , 
 3995 J7\ repens, 398; J7 1 . resupi- 
 natum, 398; JT. scabrum, 397; 
 J7\ subterraneum, 395 
 
 J Triodia decumbens, 493 
 
 JTrtficwm caninum, 500; JT. junceum, 
 500; JT. repens, 499; JT. sativum, 
 
 \-Trochilium tipuliforme, 301 
 fTVoctes divinatorius , 558 
 \Trogosita mauritanica, 287 
 \Tropceolum majus, 389 
 Trout, American brook, 223 ; black- 
 spotted, 231; brown, 212; carp, 
 21 1 ; German lake, 223; great 
 American lake, 230; Lake Blagdon, 
 222; Lake Tahoe, 231; Lochleven, 
 221 ; Mackinaw, 230 ; rainbow, 226 ; 
 Scotch burn, 221 ; destruction of 
 native fauna by, 508 
 j-Trooc sp., 283 
 fTrypeta musee, 316 
 Tuatara lizards destroyed by hawks, 
 
 5 10 
 
 Tuis killing humble-bees, 279 ; diminu- 
 tion of t., 507 
 Turbot, 255 
 \Turdusmerula,\tf> ; ^T.musicus, 142, 537 
 
 Turkey, 108 
 f Turnagra crassirostris, 507 ; "fT. tanagri, 
 
 50.7 
 
 Turnip, 374 ; moth, 303 
 \Turnix varia, 120 
 Turtle, Australian fresh -water, 178; 
 
 dove, 133 
 \Turtur ferrago, 135; f7\ risorius, 133; 
 
 fT. turtur, 134 
 Tutsan, 384, 554 
 Twinkie, 161 
 Twitch, 499 
 Twite, 172, 537 
 
 \Tylenchus devastatrix, 357; fT. scan- 
 dens, 357; |T. m'fta, 357 
 jTympanuchus amencanus, 127 
 \Tyroglyphus farinee, 347; fT. longior, 
 347; fT. >o, 346 
 
 %Ulex Europceus, 392, 553 
 ft//owa tenebrionides , 313 
 iUncinia australis, 522; 1C7. compacta, 
 522; JC7. rfeWZior, 522; Jt7. /itf- 
 
 formis, 522; JC7. Sinclairii, 522; 
 
 JC7. tenella, 522 
 \Uropoda vegetans, 348 
 j Urtica dioica, 474 ; J C7. urens, 474 
 \Utetheisapulchella, 302 
 
 Valerian, spur, 419 
 Valerianella olitoria, 420 
 Vallisneria spiralis, 478 
 Vallonia excentrica, 263 
 Vanellus cristatus, 130 
 Vanessa atalantce, 300; fF. urticce, 300 
 Vedalia cardinalis, 288 
 Vegetable marrow, 413 
 fFenMa verriculata, 512 
 
 Venus's comb, 416 
 J Verbascum Blattaria, 454 ; J F. phceni- 
 
 ceum, 455; JF. Thapsus, 454 
 J Verbena bonariensis, 463 ; J F. officinalis, 
 
 463 ; t F. hastata, 463 
 "[Veronica agrestis, 457; JF. Anagallis, 
 457 ; t F. arvensis, 458 ; J F. becca- 
 bunga, 457; JF. Buxbaumii, 457; 
 JF. Chameedrys, 457, 458; JF. 
 officinalis, 458; IF. saxatilis, 458; 
 tF. serpyllifolia, 458 
 Vervain, 463 
 ^Vespa germanica, 559 
 
 Vetch, common, 401 ; tufted, 401 
 ^Viburnum vulgar e, 418 
 %Vicia Cracca, 401; JF. gemella, 401; 
 JF. gracilis, 401 ; JF. hirsuta, 401 ; 
 JF. /utea, 401; JF. narbonensis, 
 401; JF. sativa, 401; JF. fefra- 
 sperma, 400 
 
 \Vinca major ^^442, 554; JF. minor, 442 
 Vine, grape, 390; hopper, 328; louse, 
 
 33 
 \Viola arvensis, 379; JF. odorata, 379; 
 
 J F. tricolor, 378 
 Violets, not eaten by guinea-pigs, 85, 
 
 379 
 
 Viper's bugloss, 445, 554 
 Virginian deer, 50; stock, 371 
 J Ft its vinifera, 390 
 j Vittadinia australis, 426 
 
 \Walckencera cristata, 344 
 Wallaby, black-tailed, 26; common 
 scrub, 26 ; pademelon, 26 ; rock, 27 
 Wallaroo, 28 
 Wall-flower, 369; mustard, 375; 
 
 pepper, 410 
 Walnut, 47 
 
 475 
 
 Wandering Jew, 484 
 Wapiti, 49 
 Warbler, black-cap, 150; native grey, 
 
 511 ; whitethroat, 149 
 Water-cress, 369, 527; hyacinth, 484; 
 
 melon, 413; pepper, 465; plantain, 
 
 481 ; purslane, 411 ; snails, 259 
 Wattle, black, 403 ; brush, 404 ; golden, 
 
 403 ; silver, 403 
 
 Waxbill, Australian, 163; Sydney, 163 
 Wax-eye, 161, 511 ; moth, 304 
 Way-bent, 501 
 Weasel, 70, 546, 564
 
 INDEX OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 607 
 
 \Wedelia biflora, 429 
 Weeds of cultivation, 528 
 Weevil, apple-blossom, 298; biscuit, 
 
 293; black vine, 297; pea, 296; 
 
 striped pea, 298 
 Weld, 378 
 Werau, 338 
 
 Whalers in New Zealand, 16 
 Wharf-borer, 296 
 Wheat, 499; midge, 312 
 Whin, 392 
 White clover said to displace native 
 
 flax QPhormium), 526, 527 
 White-eye, 161; fish, 243 ; pine-borer, 
 
 292; rot, 414; thorn, 408; throat 
 
 warbler, 149 
 Whitlow-grass, 371 
 Widgeon, 100, 537 
 Wild liquorice, 394 
 Willow, crack, 475; weeping, 475; 
 
 white, 476 
 Window moth, 307 
 Winter cherry, 452 
 Winton disease in stock, 433 
 Withy, 475 
 
 \Wollastoma biflora, 429 
 Wood-borer, 292; lark, 142; louse, 
 
 340 ; sage, 462 
 Woolly aphis, 330; destroyed by native 
 
 ladybird, 515 
 Worm, common white, 353 ; earth 
 
 358-61; eel, 357; large white w. 
 
 of pig, 353J lung, 355, 356; maw, 
 354; palisade, 354; round w. of 
 horse, 354; stomach w. of cat, 354; 
 thread, 356; whip, 354, 357; white 
 intestinal w. of fowls, 354 
 
 Wormwood, 432 
 
 Woundwort, 462 
 
 Wren, Stephen Island, 507 
 
 %Xanttuum spinosum, 428, 553; \X. 
 
 strumosum, 428 
 Xantholinus punctulatus, 286 
 ^XanthorhoSbeata, 348; \X.preefectata, 
 
 271, 512; t-^- rosearia, 348 
 ^Xiphocaris curvirostris, 230, 508 
 \Xyloteles griseus, 349, 524; ^\X. leetus, 
 
 524 
 
 Yam, 480 
 
 Yar, 383 
 
 Yarrow, 430 
 
 Yellow-flag, 479; hammer, 176, 540; 
 
 roach, 268 ; suckling, 399 
 Yorkshire fog, 492 
 
 \Zea Mays, 489 
 
 Zebra, 40 
 \-Zele sp., 272, 305 
 \Zizama aquatica, 489 
 \Zontzginthus bellus, 164 
 \Zomtes nitidus, 264 
 \Zosterops caeridescens , 161, 511 
 
 PRINTED IN ENGLAND BY J. B. PEACE, M.A. 
 AT THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 Los Angeles 
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