^OKAtlFORfc |lVW\S ^UB-ANCOau % l/Or^l ^lOSANGElfr> & <* ^^ -n O j\\\EUNIVER%. vjaOS ANGELA r A- ^ <2> cS ^ -r> o r Q I ^ ^ V -n C_> ^ O li- ^ ^^ ^? -//,.. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. DESCRIBING THE CHARACTERISTICS, CUSTOMS, HABITS, RELIGION, MARRIAGES, DANCES AND BATTLES OF THE WILD INDIANS IN THEIR NATURAL STATE, TOGETHER WITH THE ENTRANCE OF CIVILIZATION THROUGH THEIR HUNTING GROUNDS, ALSO THE FUR COMPANIES. OVERLAND STAGE, PONY EXPRESS, ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, AND OTHER PHASES OF LIFE IN THE PATHLESS REGIONS OF THE WILD WEST. BY J. LEE HUMFREVILLE, (Late Captain United States Cavalry.) FULLY ILLUSTRATED FROM ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHS. HUNTER & CO., PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK. Copyrighted, 1899, BY J. T.rett HUMFREVILLR Ail Bights Reserved. 78 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. TETON SIOUX. OF the small number of white men who were on the Great Plains, or in the mount- ains of the Far West many years ago, when each nation of Indians in its prime- val state occupied its own territory or hunting ground, very few are left who knew the Indian in his absolutely wild condition ; and as none of them have de- scribed him in his untutored state, as he actually lived in his original home, I have ventured to give in this volume some of my experiences among the many nations and tribes with which I came in contact sometimes in friendly intercourse, often in deadly strife. These experiences covered a period of twenty years immed- iately preceding the time when civilization had begun to exercise an influence over their manners and customs ; during this time I knew the Indian inti- mately, saw Indian life in all its phases, and had abundant opportunity to study Indian character thoroughly and exhaustively. My twenty years of life among the Indians, beginning forty years ago, embraced the entire territory from the Saskatchewan River in British America, south to the central portion of Mexico, and from the Mississippi and Sioux Rivers west to the Pacific Ocean, which area covers, as the reader knows, a large portion of our country's vast domain. It was then, except to the Indians who roamed over its far-stretchiug prairies and followed the windings of its rivers and streams, or climbed its mountain heights in quest of game, almost terra incognita. It seems to me, therefore, that in describing the characteristics, habits, customs, traits, religion and mode of life of a race of people of whose orig- 1932345 xii AUTHOR'S PREFACE. inal condition comparatively little is now known beyond vague traditions, fragmentary descriptions, and more frequently untrustworthy or misleading reports, that I might interest at least a portion of the present generation, as well as those to follow, in portraying the inner life, as it then existed of a savage people who, practically, have now disappeared forever. In this work I shall endeavor to give an accurate account of the daily life of the wild Indians, as I knew them in their .natural state. I have often been impressed with the fact that, both in their character and manner of life, they have been grossly misrepresented by modern writers, many of whom evidently depended upon vivid imaginations to furnish what personal experi- ence and knowledge could not supply. The Indian as a wild man lived in a state of nature and followed his natural impulses. He neither dwelt on the past nor anticipated the future. He lived solely in the present, and his life and actions were controlled by the primeval laws of necessity. Before com- ing in contact with the white man he had neither the virtues nor the vices of civilization. After coming in contact with white traders and others, he had all the vices of civilization but none of its virtues. The first thing he learned from his civilized brother was his vices; these he acquired and re- tained with wonderful proficiency and tenacity, and instead of improving degenerated. In the following chapters I shall describe the Indian as he was, when I first knew him, at which time he was absolutely a wild man. I shall en- deavor to give a truthful account of what came under my personal experi- ence and observation. It will be my aim to state the truth impartially, and nothing but the truth, to portray the Indian of fact, and not the Indian of fiction. If my experience and views are at variance with preconceived ideas of wild Indian life and character, my readers may rest assured that I am testifying to what I have seen or of which I have personal knowledge, un- less otherwise stated. If I assert that I know as much of Indian life and character as any man now living, the reader may reasonably ask upon what I base so pretentious a claim. My answer is simple. During my experience with the many nations and tribes with which the duties of army life threw me in contact, I was generally protected by troops or other armed bodies of sufficient strength to enable me to enter Indian camps and there observe the inner life and study the character of the Red Man in comparative safety. Some apparent repetitions may be noticed in the text; but the reader must not forget that while the customs, characteristics, religious belief, and per- sonal traits of the Indian nations and tribes were nearly identical in many AUTHOR'S PREFACE. xiii respects, yet some of them differed in a variety of interesting ways. Hence in portraying the everyday life of so many nations and tribes, I could not avoid at times a certain sameness of ideas and expression, which, however, is more apparent than real. I have also briefly described some noted Indian massacres and battles, because they illustrate certain phases of Indian char- acter better than they could be shown in any other way. The reader will observe that I use the words nations and tribes frequently, and in a very distinctive manner. This I do for the following reason : I class as nations all those Indians who spoke a language of their own; and as tribes, those bodies that formed only apart of a nation. A band of Indians, as they were known on the frontier, was a party or boJy composed of allied nations or tribes, which might, or might not, speak different lan- guages or dialects. They banded together for specific purposes, and when these were accomplished they separated, each nation or tribe returning to its own hunting ground or territory. It was my original purpose to confine this volume to a description of the wild Indians as I knew them, and the animals upon which they depended for subsistence, as well as those they killed for pelts for barter with white traders; these animals at that time roamed over the plains and mountains in countless numbers, but like their pursuers have almost entirely disap- peared. There were other phases of life in the almost pathless West at the time I was there, which deserve mention. These were the Pony Express, Overland Stage and Fur Companies, all of which are things of the past. I have given a brief description of them, as well as an account of a few famous mountain- eers, trappers, and guides, who spent their lives among the savages. They were at that time as much a part of the Wild West as the Indians them- selves, and it was they who paved the way for civilization as it trended westward, at the imminent peril of their own lives. i I *n, if{w*v4riw^ CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE PATHLESS WEST OF YEARS AGO THE NATURAL HOME OF OUR SAVAGE INDIANS ROVERS AND FIGHTERS. PAGE The Natural Home of the Indians Their Numbers when I first knew them Their Superstition against being counted Keeping a Roster of their Fighting Men The Terrible Scourge of Small-pox Indian Dread of this Disease Leaving the Afflicted to Suffer and Die An Imposing Body of Warriors A Treacherous and Vicious Lot Visiting the Great Father at Washington Stories told by them on their Return Starting a War Party 45 CHAPTER II. THE COURAGE AND FIGHTING QUALITIES OF THE WILD INDIANS FOES THAT ASKED AND GAVE NO QUARTER, Going into Battle How the Indians Planned a Massacre Methods of Surprising their Enemies How we Defended Ourselves against Sudden Attacks Descrip- tion of a Real Battle with Indians Hardships of an Indian Campaign Indian Courage and Ferocity in Battle Personal Experiences How we Felt in an In- dian Battle Nerved to Desperation Mounted Indian Warriors Their Per- sonal Appearance and Peculiar Fighting Tactics Fight to the Death Giving and Asking no Quarter Pursuing the Indians Indian Wiles and Treachery A Lurking Foe Indian War Horses How the Indians Scalped their Enemies on the Battlefield Burial of the Bodies of Troopers Burial of Indians who Fell in Battle Mourning for the Slain The Safest Place after a Massacre 50 CHAPTER III. THE INDIAN'S MENTAL FACULTIES HIS PERFECT PHYSICAL SENSES AND BLUNTED MORAL NATURE HIS GREAT CRUELTY- SCALPS AND SCALPING. The Indian's Preternatural Cunning and Stunted Intelligence His Highly Devel- oped Physical Senses His Perfect Vision and Acute Hearing Vanishing like an Apparition His Keenness in following a Trail His Untiring Patience H^s Intractable Nature His Instinctive Cruelty His Suspicious and Distrustful CONTENTS. PAGE Nature His Duplicity Rarely to be Trusted The Indian of Fiction, and the Indian of Fact Indian Orators Indian Languages The Fate of Indian Female Captives A Living Death How Indians Computed Time Mourning for their Dead Return of a War Party How the Indian Scalped his Foe Customs in regard to Scalp-Taking Jerking the Scalp from the Skull Looking for Nits How to tell an Indian's Scalp Curing a Scalp A Ghastly Spectacle 55 CHAPTER IV. INDIAN SMOKES AND SMOKERS QUEER CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS- HOW ANIMALS WERE AFFECTED BY THE UN- SEEN PRESENCE OF INDIANS. Method of Dressing and Decorating the Hair The Scalp Lock Keeping It Greased, Smooth, and Shiny Combs made from Weeds Curious Ornamentations A Beardless Race Manner of Smoking the Indian Pipe Method of Lighting the Pipe Indian Surprise on First Seeing Matches Smoking and Praying to Two Great Spirits, the Good and the Bad God Queer Superstitions Killikinick, or Indian Tobacco Method of Preparing It for Smoking Its Strong and Lasting Odor How Animals Detected the Approach of Indians in the Night Olfactory Sensitiveness of Horses and Mules Smelling Indians at a Long Distance Red Pipestone Curious Legend as to its Origin The Intermingling of the Blood of Whites and Indians Pipe Ornamentation A Marvel of Beauty A Neutral Ground for all Indian Nations Prehistoric Gatherings 61 CHAPTER V. INDIAN INQUISITIVENESS AND CUNNING CRUEL TREATMENT OF PRISON- ERSTHE FATE OF WHITE CAPTIVE WOMEN. Indian Habits and Customs Marvelous Instinct of the Indian His Inquisitiveness No Idea of Morality, or of Right and Wrong Power of the Chief The Medicine Man Making Medicine Medicine Horses and Medicine Dogs How the Women made Medicine The Medicines of Different Nations and Tribes How and why they were selected Women standing in Cold Water while making Medicine Cutting their Arms and Legs with a Knife The Greater the Scar, the Greater the Medicine Striking the Water with their Hands and Feet Broken Medi- cine Treatment of Prisoners Captive Indian Wome n A Living Death An Incident on Green River Indian Treatment of White Captive Women 68 CHAPTER VI. THE INDIANS' STRANGE IDEAS OF THE HEAVENS INDIAN CAMPS SIGNIFI- CANCE OF SIGNS WONDERFUL SKILL IN TRAILING THE INDIAN AS A PLAINSMAN. The Milky Way Composed of the Shadows of Departed Spirits The Road of De- parted Spirits Their Idea of Thunder and Lightning The Aurora Borealis Lighting the Road of the Spirits to the Happy Hunting Ground Reverence for the Dead Placing the Dead in Trees Providing Food for the Spirits to eat Final CONTENTS. XV11 PAGE Departure of the Spirits from the Corpse Indian Camps Surrounded by Filth Broken Bones Care of Wounds Indian Fortitude No Regular Time for Eating or Sleeping How they set their Lodges and made their Camps Drinking Dirty 'Water Signs Everything a Sign to an Indian The most important Thing to all Indians Skill in Trailing Punishment for Crimes Lack of Mus- cular Strength No Match for the White Man in Personal Encounter 74 CHAPTER VII. HOW INDIANS COOKED AND ATE THEIR LOVE OF FINERY AND PERSONAL ADORNMENT PAINTING THEIR FACES AND BODIES- MAKING A WILL PLAINSCRAFT. Cooking Pots made of Fresh Hides Eating Raw Meat from newly-slain Animals A Meal twenty-four hours long A Daily Gorge Insatiable Appetites First- class Gluttons Eating Skins andMoccasins Their first Coffee Indian Improv- idence A Chief's Powers and Limitations The Chief in Camp and on the War- path Forming a new Tribe The Survival of the Fittest Love of Ornament Fondness for Soldiers' cast-off Uniforms and High Hats Aversion to wearing Trousers Fashion of Painting the Face and Body Indian Dandies Indian Artists How an Indian made his Will Distribution of Property before Death Reading the Signs of an Abandoned Camp Plainscraf t 79 CHAPTER VIII. INDIAN WOOING AND MARRIAGE CUSTOMS BIRTH OF AN INDIAN BABY- INDIAN WIDOWS AND WIDOWHOOD NIGHT IN AN INDIAN LODGE. How an Indian Secured a Wife Price of an Indian Maiden Daily Occupations in the Lodge Life in the Camp The Birth of a Child Indian Babies How they were cared for Endurance of Indian Women On Hand for the Promised Pres- ent How Indian Babies were Cradled Indian Widows Weeping and Wailing at the Burial Place Genuine Grief Married Women Slaves Female Occupa- tions How the Family Lived Punishments for Infidelity Mourning for the Dead A Widow's Weeds Care and Affection for the Aged Choosing a Name How Names were Selected Life in the Lodge No Privacy, and little Decency Observed The Indian's Affection for his Wife and Children Dying of Homesick- ness An Indian Elopement .' 90 CHAPTER IX. INDIAN AMUSEMENTS AND PASTIMES THEIR THIRST FOR GAMBLING THEIR GAMES OF SKILL AND CHANCE EXPERTNESS IN THROWING A KNIFE. The Indian's Limited Amusements Horse-racing the Favorite Pastime Betting on the Results \Vomen Gamblers Ball Playing Skill of the Players How the Game was Played Proficiency in Running and Jumping Skill in Throwing the Knife Indian Music and Musical Instruments Serenading Dusky Maidens The Romance of Indian Youth Admiring Himself in Nature's Looking-glass Lack of Amusements and Pastimes in Winter . . 98 xviii CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTEK X. INDIAN WOMEN TANNERS THE MAKING OF AN INDIAN LODGE INDIAN ART AND ARTISTS AN INDIAN VILLAGE ON THE MOVE. Indian Tepees and Camps How Lodge Covers were made Lodge Poles Erecting Lodges The Entrance Suffering from Cold Going Barefoot in the Snow Decorating the Lodge Cover Deeds of Valor recorded in Picture Writing Some well Executed Drawings Going to bed with their Clothes on Interior Arrange- ment of a Lodge Expert Horsewomen Dexterity in throwing the Lasso Pack- ing the Animals The Travois Adjusting the Pack How the Old, Infirm, and Children were Transported A Village on the Move A Strange Sight Crossing Streams Clothing that was never Cleansed A Filthy Race The Art of Pack- ing Animals How Pack Animals were prevented from lying down 101 CHAPTEE XL THE SIGN LANGUAGE ITS MYSTERIOUS ORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE COM- MUNICATION BY SIGNALS. Indian Languages Their Strange Diversity No two Indian Nations known to Con- verse in the Language of the Other The Sign Language Its Mysterious Origin The Arapaho, Sioux, Cheyenne, and Navajo Languages Significance of the Sign Language Sign Language by Horse Riding The Sign Language of the Hands Difficult Sentence in the Sign Language An Incident in my own Experi- ence Sign Language by Movements of the Horse Sign Language by the Mirror Sign Language by Smoke Communicating at Long Distance How an Indian Wrote a Letter Hieroglyphics on the Faces of Rocks in Texas Rude Drawing in Caves Difficulty of Intrepreting them 108 CHAPTEE XII. THE INDIAN AS A FIGHTER HIS BRAVERY AND CONTEMPT OF DEATH A CUNNING, STEALTHY, AND TREACHEROUS FOE. Born Fighters The Indian's Contempt of Death His Great Courage Fighting and Hunting His only Occupations Not easily Surprised or Ambushed Indian Method of Preparing for Battle Return of a War Party Re-enacting the War- like Scene Treatment of Captives Prolonging the Torture Effect of Firearms on the Primeval Indian How the Indian first secured Firearms Horse-stealing considered a Virtue Indian Lack of Inventiveness Articles that have never been improved on The Snowshoe, Moccasin, Tepee, and Bow and Arrow Great Buoyancy of their Canoes 113 CHAPTEE XIII. THE INDIAN'S NATURAL WEAPONS AND HOW HE USED THEM TEACHING YOUNG BRAVES INDIAN WARFARE. Indian Weapons of War and of the Chase The Indian War Club The Tomahawk The Scalping Knife The Lance and Shield The Bow and Arrow How they CONTENTS. XIX PAGE were made Dexterity of the Indian in the Use of the Bow His Lack of Pro- ficiency in the Use of Modern Firearms His Limited Use of Tools Boys Prac- ticing with Bow and Arrow Securing their first Firearms The Indian not a Good Rifle Shot Sham Battles A Realistic and Exciting Exhibition Their Decorations and Equipment How the Young Brave Acquired a Knowledge of War Dexterity in Rescuing their Wounded during Battle His thorough Mas- tery of his Horse 118 CHAPTER XIV. AN INDIAN DOG FEAST FINGERS VERSUS FORKS AN INDIAN DINNER PARTY PERSONAL EXPERIENCES. Why the Indians were Nomadic A Dog Feast Cooked in its Skin with the Hair on How the Favorite Dish Tastes Its Peculiar Flavor Giving a Dinner to a Famous Chief Astonished Indians Eating all Night Indians with "Good Hearts" A Perfect Gorge Eating with their Fingers Refusing to use Knives and Forks A Delicate Meal Speech of a Great Chief "Wacpominie" What it consisted of Old-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses An Embarrassment of Riches Some Valuable Presents Disagreeable Pests Manner of Ridding Skins of Ver- min A Pertinent Conversation with a Chief and his Significant Reply The Grossest Insult known to the Sioux 124 CHAPTER XV. BURIAL OF THE DEAD STRANGE FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES THE INDIAN'S IDEA OF THE FUTURE STATE LIFE IN THE SPIRIT LAND. Funeral Ceremonies Burial of a Chief Last Rites Final Resting-Place of their Important Personages Buried in a Sitting Posture Scaffolds on which the Dead were placed How they were thrown down by Buffalo Taken by the Whites for Fuel Killing Animals at the Funeral Women and Female Children buried in various ways Dead Bodies eaten by Carnivorous Animals and Birds of Prey Intolerable Stench at an Indian Burial-Place Journey of the Soul to the Spirit Land The Indian's Inability to Compute Time Feeding the Soul during its Jour- ney Belief that the Spirit left the Body through the MouthWhy Indians Mutilated the Slain Bodies of Enemies Execution of Big Foot, Black Crow, and others by hanging in Chains Death in its most Dreaded Form 128 CHAPTER XVI. THE GREAT SIOUX NATION A FIERCE AND WARLIKE PEOPLE LIFE AND SCENES AMONG THEM. One of the Largest and Most Warlike of Indian Nations Old-Man-Afraid-of-His Horses A Noted Chief How he acquired his Name How he became Famous When and how a Brave could change his Name A Nation of Meat Eaters Their Manner of Cooking and Eating The Universal Dirty Cooking Pot A Vora- cious Sioux Drinking Dish Water Why Indians were constantly on the Move Always at War with their Neighbors Why they had no Intoxicating Liquors XX CONTENTS. PAGE Insulting an Indian by asking his Name Indian Vulgarity Indian Mothers-in- law HOW they were regarded An Indian Forlorn Hope An Alliance that meant Death and Destruction Splendid Horsemanship The Stone Bath Prac- tice of Voodooism Heroic Treatment Wealthy Indians Many Ceremonies Demonstrative Love No Social Castes Dog Soldiers Widely Separated Tribes Superstitious fear of Hailstorms 136 CHAPTEE XVII. STILL AMONG THE SIOUX THE MANDAXS INDIAN FREE MASONS THE ASSINIBOINS THE GROS VENTRES, OR THE BIG BELLIES, CUISSES BRULES OR BURNT THIGHS. The Mandans Their Interesting History Nearly Exterminated by Small-Pox Indian Free Masons A Great Mystery How did they Acquire a Knowledge of the Order? Their Pastimes The Buffalo Dance Manner of Disposing of their Dead How the Skulls of their Dead were Used Their Happy Domestic Life The Assiniboins Their Hunting Ground A Far Northern Tribe of Indians Their Characteristics and Customs Scourged by Small-Pox The Gros Ventres, or Big Bellies Origin of the Name The Brules Battle of Ash Hollow The Ogalalas Their Country The Bad Faces The Yankton Sioux Their Hunting Ground The Minneconjoux A Savage Tribe Their Hunting Ground The Uncpapas A Fierce Tribe Where they Lived The Kaws, or Kansas The Win- nebagoes The Poncas The Omahas The Osages The Quapaws, or Arkansas The Otoes The lowas 153 CHAPTER XVIII. THE COMANCHES FIERCE TRIBES OF THE SHOSHONEE NATION GUARDING AGAINST AMBUSH AND SURPRISE THRILLING INCIDENTS. Where the Comanches Lived A Fierce and Implacable Foe A Terror to all Settlers Alliance with the Apaches Bloody Raids A Mexican Bandit Leader and his Fol- lowers A Lot of Murderous Renegades The Comanches Receive their First Chastisement Attack on Fort Lancaster Soldiers Lassoed while Guarding their Herds Carried Away and Murdered Carrying the Mail through a Hostile Coun- try in a Concord Buggy Cruel Fate of the Driver and Guard The Wagon Train Vast Sums in Gold and Silver Carried through a Hostile Country How the Trains Were Waylaid Horrible Fate of a Wounded Trainman Guarding against Surprise 174 CHAPTER XIX. THE COMANCHES CONTINUED PUNISHMENT INFLICTED ON THEIR WOMEN- STEALING CONSIDERED A FINE ART. Comanche Home Life A Nation of Thieves Polygamy common among them Miser- able Women Never known to Marry outside of their own People What made them unusually Virtuous Severe Penalty for Unfaithfulness Slitting the Nose Self-inflicted Wounds Mourning for the Dead Superstitious Healing of the CONTENTS. XXI PAGE Sick Their Medicines Curing the Bite of a Rattlesnake Capturing Wild Horses Killing Wild Turkeys Their Scanty Clothing A Filthy and Repulsive People Feats of Horsemanship Cutting the Hamstring of a Running Animal Mothers at Twelve Years of Age Making up a Party for Plunder and Pillage Living in Rocks and Caves Expert Thieves Stealing considered a Mark of Honor 181 CHAPTER XX. THE APACHES APPALLING RECORD THEIR STEALTH AND CUNNING. In the Country of the Apaches Shaving off the Nose of a Woman Horrible Mutila- tions Apache Depredations The Ishmaelites of all Men Their Repulsive and Hideous Appearance Their Small and Peculiar Feet Painting Themselves with Mud An Unspeakably Dirty People Swarming with Vermin Murderous War- riors Art of Concealing their Persons How they Made Themselves Resemble a Rock Looking like a Bunch of Grass Mistaken for a Bush or Shrub Their Stealth and Cunning On the Warpath Return of a War Party Thievish and Cruel Propensities An Appalling Record Driving Out Ten Thousand Settlers Hiding in the Dense Jungles 187 CHAPTER XXI. THE APACHES CONTINUED ELUSIVE, CUNNING AND DARING INDIANS EX- PERT TRAIL FOLLOWERS INDIAN LIFE IN TEXAS, NEW MEXICO, AND ARIZONA. Expert Trailers Detecting Signs Concealing their own Trail Their Cunning in eluding Pursuit Apache Cruelty to Captives Fate of Captive White Boys and Girls How the Apaches Lived Great Aversion to Telling their Names Queer Superstitions Burying their Dead at Night Their Fear of a Dead Body Trav- eling One Hundred Miles a Day on Foot Marvelous Endurance Victorious in Capturing Trains Raiding Settlers Bones of Victims An Able but Vicious Chief The Deadly Fear He Inspired Attacking Ranch and Cattle Men Dread- ful Fate of a Mexican Captive Stripped, and Staked out on the Ground over an Ant Hill A Horrible Death Midnight Groans and Screams The Story of a Noted Chief's First Raid as Told by Himself 192 CHAPTER XXII. THE MYSTERIOUS UTES THEIR SECRET CUSTOMS AND QUEER DOINGS. The Mysterious Utes A Part of the Great Shoshonee Nation Their Fierce Encoun- ters with their Neighbors A Wandering Tribe Rarely Defeated Small, Black, Strong and Vicious Constantly on the Warpath Their Home Life Their Pov- erty Filthy Indians and Dirty Lodges A Lazy People The Most Secretive of all Indians Their One Great Peculiarity Profound Secrecy Secret Burial The Mysterious Grave of a Ute Where Did they Bury their Dead? Death of the Head of the Family Destruction of his Property Birth of a Child Treating the Sick Their Food. Clothing, and Arms Eating Rats. Mice, Crickets and Snakes The Pah-Utes and the Pi-Utes A Miserable Lot of Red Men. . . 200 CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER XXIII. THE SNAKES AND ROOT DIGGERS INTERESTING AND PECULIAR TRIBE- LOAFERS AND GAMBLERS. The Snakes a Part of the Shoshonee Nation An Interesting Tribe Their Hunting Ground Afflicted with Goitre Necks Larger than their Heads Their Great Enmity with the Cheyennes, Blackfeet and Sioux A Crafty, Treacherous Tribe Their Fiendish Cruelty to Prisoners How they Secured Firearms Manner of Wearing their Hair Their Poverty Securing Wild Horses Their Expertness as Boatmen Description of a Bull-Boat Ingenuity of the Snakes Manner of Catching Fish Lazy Fishermen Their Expertness in the Use of the Sign Lan- guage Communication by Means of Horses, Fire, and Smoke The Bannocks, or Root Diggers A Miserable People Loafers and Gamblers 207 CHAPTER XXIV. THE DIGGER INDIANS OUTCASTS OF OTHER TRIBES THE LOWEST OF THE LOW. How the Diggers Acquired their Name A Conglomerate Lot Living on Roots and Burrowing in Holes The Lowest in Intelligence and most Degraded of all Indians Only one Remove from Apes Their Repulsive Apppearance Extraor- dinary Voracity Surrounding the Carcass of a Horse Leaving Nothing but its Bones Selling their Children to Obtain Food Living together in Herds Below the Level of Beasts Going Entirely Naked in Summer Living on Insects and Reptiles The Personification of all that is Low and Vile Their Filthy Lodges Living in Caves A Tribe of Vermin Eaters Their Gaunt, Half-Famished Dogs Ignorance of the Sign Language Marriage Unknown among Them Eating Raw Fish Ostracized by Every One How a Sick Digger was Taken Care of His Fate after Death 213 CHAPTER XXV. THE BLACKFEET THE SMALL-POX EPIDEMIC APPALLING SCENES OF DEATH AND DESOLATION A CAMP OF HUMAN BONES AND DESERTED LODGES. The Blackfeet Indians How they -got their Name Their Country The Neighbors with whom they were at War The Piegans, Bloods, and Gros Ventres of the Prairie Their Standing Grudge against the American Fur Companies Trap- ping under Difficulties How Trappers Protected themselves against the In- diansUnwritten Laws of the Blackfeet Their Superstition against Fish Their Religious Beliefs and Burial Ceremonies Flight of the Spirit Manner of Feed- ing the Spirit The Dual Spirit Carrying out Dreams The Small-Pox Epidemic How it Gained a Foothold Fearful Ravages How they Treated this Dread Disease Fifteen Hundred Lodges and their Dead Abandoned Appalling Scenes of Death and Desolation Small-Pox Corpses Eaten by Wolves 217 CONTENTS. XX111 PAGE CHAPTEK XXVI. THE CROWS, OR UPSORUKA AS THEY CALLED THEMSELVES JAMES BECK- WOURTH, THE FAMOUS MULATTO FRONTIERSMAN- LIFE AMONG THE CROWS. The Crows Driven out by the Sioux A Skulking, Thievish Race A Tall and Ath- letic People Their Flowing Hair The Crow W 7 omen How the Crows Attacked Trappers and Traders Murdering Entire Expeditions Night Attacks The Home of the Beaver, Otter, and other Fur-Bearing Animals The Famous Mulatto Trapper, Jim Beckwourth His Alliance with the Crows His Great Influence among Them His Return to St. Louis and Supposed Death Effect of the Rumor on the Crows A Bloody Tragedy Averted Reappearance of Beck- wourth A Brave and Sagacious Man A Warrior Race Bitterness between the Crows and Sioux What Happens after Death 224 CHAPTER XXVII. THE FLATHEADS HOW THEY GOT THEIR NAME PECULIAR CUSTOMS FLAT- TENING HEADS OF CHILDREN A MARK OF BEAUTY. The Flatheads Their Peculiar Language Their Habitations, Food, and Clothing How the Women gathered Camas Peculiar Manner of Cooking it How they caught Wild Horses Manner of catching Fish Bone Fish-hooks How they Cooked Fish Fine Boatmen How the Flatheads got their Name Manner of Flattening the Heads A Peculiar Custom Position of a Child during the Pro- cess Appearance of the Head having been Flattened A Deformity that was Considered a Mark of Beauty 231 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE KIOWAS A PART OF THE SHOSHONEE NATION BRAVE, TREACHEROUS AND CUNNING SOME FAMOUS CHIEFS RAIDS AND WARS. The Kiowas Part of the Shoshonee Family Originally from the Far North Hunt- ing Ground in the Black Hills Driven Out by the Sioux Their Last Home Characteristics of the Kiowas A Murderous People Treacherous, Cunning and Vicious Stealing from each other How Stolen Property was Returned Med- icine Men Death of Santanta Raids into Mexico Their Alliances Their Per- sonal Appearance ' 235 CHAPTER XXIX. THE BRAVE AND WARLIKE CHEYENNES THE FINEST BODY OF SAVAGES IN THE WORLD THEIR SINGULAR FRIENDSHIP FOR THE ARAPAHOES BLOODY AND COSTLY WARS WITH THE WHITES. A Brave and Intelligent People Manner of Caring for their Hair A Nation of War- riors Expertness of Cheyenne Women in Handiwork Religious Belief of the Cheyennes Their Dances and Ceremonies Their Language Their Alliance with CONTENTS. PAGE the Sioux and Arapahoes Their Attacks on Emigrant Trains Treaties with the Government Broken Faith followed by Fierce and Bloody Battles The Chiv- ington Massacre A Bloody and Costly War Nearly Forty Million Dollars Spent in Fighting the Cheyennes Their Home Life Peculiar Marriage Customs Treatment of their Wives and Children Their Singular Friendship with the Arapahoes A Friendship that has never been explained Burial of the Dead Their Lodges Primitive Weapons Symbols used by them The Northern Cheyennes 24 ^ CHAPTER XXX. THE DIRTY AND POVERTY-STRICKEN ARAPAHOES A SHIFTLESS AND LAZY PEOPLE HOW THEY LIVED BEGGARS, MENIALS, AND THIEVES. Where did the Arapahoes come from? Obscurity of their Origin A Lazy People Their Habits, Characteristics, Customs, and Language A Filthy Lot Their Strange Friendship for the Cheyennes Brutal Treatment of their Wives Menials and Thieves for the Cheyennes The Vilest of Beggars Begging and Stealing for a Living Unable to Speak their own Language A Language rarely Acquired by a White Man Their Poor Weapons for War and the Chase Too Lazy to Fish How they Made their Clothing Swarming with Vermin Disgust- ing Habits A Wretched Existence 251 CHAPTEE XXXI. CLIFF DWELLERS THE NAVAJOES AND THEIR COUNTRY THE TONKAWAYS THEIR WARS AND WANDERINGS CANNIBALISM AMONG THE INDIANS. How the Navajoes Resembled White Men in their Habits A Tribe of Cliff Dwellers Their Famous Blankets Their Handiwork and Skill Horsehair Lariats Beauti- ful Earthen Ware How they Purified and Cooled Water How the Cactus was used for Clearing Water Peculiarity of the Cactus Leaf Personal Apppearance of the Navajoes Children Adepts in Throwing the Lasso An Expert Indian Lad of Ten His Feats with the Lasso Catching a Dog by either Leg The Navajoe in his Family A Model Indian Deserted Dwellings The Tonkaways A Rem- nant of a once Powerful People Their Vague Traditions Their Wars and Wan- derings A Cannibal Race Killing and Eating their Prisoners 255 CHAPTER XXXII. THE PUEBLOS AND ZUNIS HIDEOUSLY UGLY GODS AND IDOLS CUSTOMS OF A STRANGE PEOPLE. Where did they come from? Why did they keep to themselves? Supposed to be Christians, but in reality Heathen Their Ugly Idols A Mooted Question Why they were made so Ugly Smashing them to Pieces Putting an Idol to a Queer Use Using a God for a Liquor Flask Homeliness an Antidote for Pain Where have the Pueblos Gone? An Unsolved Mystery Walled Caves and Ruins of Stone Dwellings A Lost Art How did they make Cement? The Zunis How they CONTENTS. XXV PAGE Lived Their Numerous Flocks and Herds A Strange People Praying to the Spirits of Ocean The Pimas or Papagoes Buried in a sitting Posture Feasting at the Grave Praying for a New Husband Tar as a Cosmetic 261 CHAPTER XXXIIL THE PAWNEES A NATION WHOSE ORIGIN IS UNKNOWN FEUDS AND FIERCE BATTLES SKINNING A MAN ALIVE TRIBES CONSTITUTING THE NATION. Once a Numerous and Warlike People Peculiar Manner of Cutting their Hair Their Hunting Ground Natural Home of the Buffalo Jealousies and Feuds Created in Hunting Them Hated by all their Neighbors Hatred of the Sioux Ambition of the Sioux to be Known as a Pawnee Killer Vicious Tribes traveling a long way to Fight the Pawnees Vindictiveness Skinning a Man Alive Pawnee Religion Priests and Doctors Medicine Bags Widows of the Pawnees The Wichitas. . . 267 CHAPTER XXXIV. THE CHIPPEWAS, OCHIPPWAS, OR, AS THEY CALLED THEMSELVES, OJIBWAS ALGONQUIN STOCK. The Chippewas Who They Were Treatment of the Sick Curious Customs Widows Snowshoe Dance Striking the Post Story Telling Season Large Scars Strange Burial Customs The Crees Practiced Sun Dancing to a Recent Date Sacs and Foxes Ottawas Pottawattomies Miamis Kaskasias Seminoles Caddoes Wacoes 275 CHAPTER XXXV. THE NEZ PERCES, OR PIERCED-NOSED INDIANS ON THE WARPATH SUR- RENDER OF CHIEF JOSEPH THE CAYUSES. A Part of the Shahaptin Family How the Nez Perces were first Discovered Their Pierced Noses An Intelligent Tribe W T hite Squatters First Outbreak against the Whites Going on the Warpath Organizing a Bloody Campaign A Fierce Battle Indian Tactics Troops in Pursuit Peculiar Incident of the Battle Birth of a Child during the Engagement Chief Joseph His Daughter Lost in the Confusion of Battle Devoured by Wild Animals The Chief's only Heir His Wonderful Retreat of Two Thousand Miles His Military Ability Indians Fighting with their Clothes On Rare Instance of Indian Magnanimity Surren- der of Chief Joseph Asking no Favors His Patriotic Speech The Cayuses Low, Cunning Great Thieves 283 CHAPTER XXXVI. CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS OF THE CALIFORNIA TRIBES INDIANS WHO TATTOOED THEIR FACES AND BODIES. Different Linguistic Stock Many Languages Spoken among this Group Tribes which went Naked Garments of Rabbit Skins Painting their Faces and Bodies CONTENTS. PAGH Personal Adornment Slitting their Ears The Custom of Tattooing and what it Meant Passing Goose Quills through the Nose Night Watchers of the Camp An Indian Bath Ingenious Ways of Catching Fish Eating their Food Raw, Entrails and All A Meal of Grasshoppers Bread made of dried and pulverized Grasshoppers Eating Portions of the Bodies of their Enemies Money Esti- mate of Human Life Peculiar Marriage Customs Dances and Festivities Gam- bling and Games Treatment of the Sick Cremating their Dead 291 CHAPTER XXXVII. THE COLUMBIAN GROUP THE STORY OF AN INDIAN QUEST FOR THE WHITE MAN'S BIBLE INDIAN ATROCITIES. A Brave but Peaceably Inclined People Ceremonies when Preparing for the War- path Imitating the Cry of Birds and Wild Animals The War Chief -How Braves were Enlisted for War Treatment of Women among the Different Tribes Indian Slaves and Slavery Staking Wives and Children on Games of Chance A Risky Profession Burial Ceremonies A Vicious Tribe Called the Rogues Why they were so named An Expedition in Search of the White Man's Bible Father De Smet His Life and Labors among the Indians The Measles among the Indians Destruction of the Protestant Mission Savage Instincts Aroused An Expedition for the Rescue of Captives 302 CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE GREAT INDIAN NATIONS. Their Marked Characteristics and Radically Different Languages The Great Algon- quin Family Their Widely Separated Tribes Names of the Different Tribes The Apalachees or Mobiles, Often Called the Southern Indians Names of the Tribes The Athabaskees Names of the Tribes The Lacotah or Sioux Names of Tribes The Shoshone Nation Names of Tribes Constituting this Nation The Shahaptin Family and its Tribes The Salish Family The Chinooks The Haidahs The California Tribes The Pueblos The Columbian Group Names of Tribes The Pawnees Their Obscure Origin The Miscellaneous Tribes, of whose Origin Little or Nothing is Known 311 CHAPTER XXXIX. THE SUN DANCE OF THE SIOUX THE GREATEST OF ALL INDIAN CERE- MONIESSELF-INFLICTED WOUNDS AND AGONIZING TOR- TUREA TERRIBLE ORDEAL. The Greatest of all Indian Ceremonies I find myself in Favor with the Indians and take Advantage of it Obtain Permission to Witness a Sun Dance Assurance that I should not be Molested Precautionary Measures An Animated Scene A Moving Mass of Animal Life Preparations for the Dance Selecting the Sun Pole Awaiting the Rising of the Sun Painted Warriors on their best Horses A CONTENTS. XXVH PAGE Wild Dash around the Sun Pole The Dance formally begun Scenes in Camp during the First Day Wonderful Endurance First Night of the Dance Left Naked and Destitute on the Prairie Horrible Self-Torture Slitting Open both Breasts Inserting a Lariat through the Slits A Dreadful Ordeal 323 CHAPTER XL. THE SCALP DANCE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE GHASTLY TROPHIES OF MASSA- CRE AND WAR THE WAR DANCE AND ITS OBJECT GREWSOME TRINKETS WORN. The Scalp Dance Treatment of Scalps Scalp Poles Description of the Dance A Strange Place to make Love Courting an Indian Maiden The Scalp Dance next in Importance to the Sun Dance Excitement of the Dancers Telling how the Scalp was taken Exhibition of Trophies The Scalp the Unmistakable Evidence of having killed an Enemy Indian Braggarts Notorious Liars The War Dance Its Object Organizing a War Party Encouraging the Braves to Join Praying for their Safe Return Feasting on Dogs Prayers of the Old Women The Medicine Dance What it was and why it was held The Medicine Bag Nations who used it Mystery of the Medicine Bag Disinclination of Indians to talk about it Grewsome Trinkets Worn The Fire Dance The Snake Dance. . . . 334 CHAPTER XLI. ORIGIN OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS WHERE DID THEY COME FROM INTERESTING THEORIES A QUESTION NEVER SOLVED. The Indians of North America Ingenious Theories of their Origin Claimed to be of Mongolian, Africa, and Hebrew Descent Did they Descend from the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel ? Different Theories Difference between the Indians and Hebrews, Chinamen, and Negroes Curious Analogies My Own Opinion Why I think that the Indian was Placed here by our Great Creator A Distinct Race Entirely Unlike any other Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses' Logical Reasoning Mountains and Rivers in the Moon Did they cross over from Asia by way of Bering's Straits? The Mound Builders Implements found in the Mounds Their Art in Cutting Precious Stones Exquisite Gold Images from their Graves Con- clusion as to the Origin of the Red Man 341 CHAPTER XLII. INDIAN MASSACRES AND BATTLES THRILLING INCIDENTS OF FRONTIER LIFE TRAGEDIES OF THE MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS. Indian Warfare Attacking Field Pieces with Tomahawks Burial of Massacred Troops Burial of Dead Warriors The Fetterman Massacre Reserving the Last Shot for Themselves How Information about this Bloody Affair was Obtained Firing the Station with Burning Arrows Killing a Lurking Foe Blowing the top of an Indian's Head off Our Battle on Tongue River A Desperate Charge A Trooper's Grim Remark A Fierce Indian Battle Two able Leaders How they described other Battles and Massacres . 343 CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTEK XLIII. THE MASSACRE OF GENERAL CANBY BY THE MODOCS CAPTAIN JACK AND SCAR-FACED CHARLIE INDIAN TREACHERY PUNISH- MENT OF THE MURDERERS. War* between the Modocs and their Neighbors Inexperienced Agents Surprising Captain Jack's Camp Fight between the Modocs and the Troops Massacre of White Settlers by the Modocs Avenging the Massacre Thirty Soldiers Killed, and not an Indian Injured The Peace Commission General Canby Chosen Sullen and Angry Indians Schonochin His Hatred of the Whites Waiting for Revenge Ben Wright's Inhuman Massacre of the Modocs A Bloody Day Scar- faced Charlie His Friendship for the Whites Treachery Suspected Danger Ahead The Indians Indicted for Murder Captain Jack's Retreat to the Lava Beds A Conference sought with him Falling into a Trap Going to the Meeting Unarmed Massacre of General Canby and his Party Capture and Punishment of the Murderers 359 CHAPTEE XLIV. A FRONTIER TRAGEDY GENERAL OUSTER'S LAST FIGHT HIS DEATH, AND THE ANNIHILATION OF HIS ENTIRE COMMAND NARRA- TIVE OF RED HORSE, A SIOUX CHIEF. Custei's Annihilation The Country alive with Hostile Indians Who was Sitting Bui!? An Indian Camp of Ten Thousand Men, Women, and Children Striking tlia Tinemy Chief Gall An Able Indian Leader The Battle of the Little Big Horn Ouster's Fatal Mistake A Desperate and Bloody Battle Where was General Ouster? Discovering the Bodies of the Slain A Pile of Empty Cartridge Shells beside each Corpse Coming to the Rescue Burying the Dead Appear- ance of the Slain Their Pained and Terrified Expressions Rain-in-the-Face His vow to Cut Out the Heart of Captain Thomas Custer Sitting Bull a Great Liar, a Wily Old Rascal My Interview with Rain-in-the-Face An Indian Ac- count of the Battle by Red Horse, a Sioux Chief 365 CHAPTER XLV. THE GREAT SIOUX MASSACRE MIRACULOUS ESCAPES AND THRILLING ADVENTURES SUFFERINGS OF CAPTIVES. Cause of the Massacre War of Extermination decided upon by the Indians They take the Warpath Their First Attack Courage of a French Ferryman His Heroic Death Killing Fleeing Settlers Hacked to Pieces with Knives Children's Brains Beaten Out Burned Alive Hung on Hooks Sticks Driven through their Bodies Mutilation of the Dead Roasting a Child Alive Thrilling Escapes Two Brothers trying to Save a Sick Mother The Settlers Rally for De- fense Holding White Prisoners Their Extreme Suffering Miraculous Escape of Two Brothers Six Hundred and Forty-four Settlers and Ninety-three Soldiers Slain. . CONTENTS. XXIX PAGE CHAPTER XLVI. THE FUR COMPANIES HOW THEY OPERATED HUNTERS AND TRADERS IN THE INDIAN COUNTRY THEIR EVERYDAY LIFE AND EXPLOITS. The First White Men among the Wild Indians The Hudson Bay Company How Trading Posts were Established from Ocean to Ocean Their Maxim, "Never Trust an Indian" Effect of a White Man's Fist on an Indian's Nose Fierce Competition Vile Liquors Sold to the Indians John Jacob Astor and the Ameri- can Fur Company Hardy Trappers and Daring Frontiersmen Danger of Trap- ping in a Hostile Country In the Wilderness for Several Years Robbing the Indian Twenty Dollars' Worth of Beaver Skins for Fifty Cents "Fire Water" why so Named How Indians Tested Brandy Made of the "Hearts of Wild Cats and the Tongues of Women" Trappers taken by Surprise Lying in Ambush .... 388 CHAPTER XLVIL FAMOUS EXPEDITIONS INTO THE INDIAN COUNTRY PERU ,OUS JOURNEYS OVERLAND BY OX TEAMS AND PRAIRIE SCHOONERS. Expedition of Lieutenants Lewis and Clark Preparations for the Journey Their First Winter in a Wild and Unknown Country Assistance from Friendly Indians Meeting the Snakes Explorations of Lieutenants Pike and Long Capture of Lieutenant Pike and Party Expedition of Captain Bonneville Battles with the Early Traders Gold Discoveries The Rush to the Mines Fremont's Expedition The Santa F6 Trail Prairie Schooners A Dangerous Trip Excitement in the Pike's Peak Country An Overland Wagon Train Waylaid by Indians How Wagon Trains were Corraled Fighting against Odds The Great American Bull- Whacker His Whip and Skill in Using It An Incident on the Sweetwater River An Astonished Indian . 398 CHAPTER XLVIIL THE AMERICAN TROOPER AS AN INDIAN FIGHTER PERILOUS SERVICE- SCOUTING FOR INDIANS. Fighting Indians with Cannon Their Amazement at, and Dread of Shells An In- scrutable Mystery Fighting them after their own Fashion The best Soldiers in the World Hand-to-Hand Conflict with the Indians Fighting on Foot Keep- ing with the Command Blowing their own Brains Out As Mild as a Child but as full of Fight as a Tiger Fighting Indians Day by Day Sleepless Nights On a Scout How the Trooper Slept at Night A Duel between two Soldiers A Sad Incident After the Duel Toes, Fingers, and Hands Frozen Animals Fro- zen to Death Unwelcome Night Visitors Grizzly Bears in Camp The Despised Wolves Cunning and Dangerous Animals Eating Boots and Saddles Eating their Companions Alive Horses and Mules Crazed by Fright 406 CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER XLIX. THE OVERLAND STAGE DESPERADOES AND ROAD AGENTS AX INDIAN ATTACK THAT COVERED TWELVE HUNDRED MILES. The Overland Stage Line How the Line was Operated A Hundred Miles in Twenty- four Hours Its Extraordinary Service Prey for Indians and Road Agents Fre- quent Raids on the Stage Stations Looting the Stages Road Agents Jules Bevi and his Tragic Death Killed by the Noted Desperado, Alfred Slade Cut- ting Off his Victim's Ears Nailing One of them to the Door Dangling the Other from his Watch Chain The W T oist White Man in that Country His Misdeeds His Visit to my Camp A Heeded Warning In the Hands of the Vigilantes Ex- ecution of Slade and his two Comrades Dying like Cowards A Massacre that Extended Twelve Hundred Miles The Wonderful Mirage 416 CHAPTER L. THE PONY EXPRESS A DANGEROUS SERVICE IN A DANGEROUS COUNTRY- WONDERFUL ENDURANCE AND DARING FEATS OF THE RIDERS. Riding on Horseback from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean in Ten Days A Bucking Pony A Vicious Beast Bleeding from the Nose, Mouth, Eyes, and Ears Courage and Daring of Pony Express Riders Running the Gauntlet for Hun- dreds of Miles among Hostile Indians and Murderous Road Agents Exhaustion of the Riders Unable to Dismount Incidents and Experiences Riding Night and Day The Fastest and Longest Ride ever made Wonderful Endurance How the News of Abraham Lincoln's Inauguration was carried across the Continent Taking a Dead Man's Place Dangers by the way Pursued Safe at last Physical Strain of Long Horseback Riding A Personal Experience- -My Escort A never-to-be-forgotten Ride A Country alive with Wild and Frenzied Warriors The Electric Telegraph 422 CHAPTER LI. WILD HORSES WHERE THEY CAME FROM HOW 7 THEY WERE CAPTURED AND SUBDUED. Wild Horses First Known in America in 1518 Indians' Astonishment at first see-" ing a Horse and Rider The Wild Horse's Struggle for Existence during the Cold Winter Indian's Mode of Securing them Their Cruelty to them Their Great Abundance in Early Days The White Man's Method of Securing them "Creasing" Walking them down From Twenty-four to Thirty-six Hours Neces- sary to Accomplish it Difficulty in Breaking them 430 CHAPTER LIT. KILLING BUFFALOES AN EXCITING AND DANGEROUS SPORT "BUCK AGUE" GREEN SPORTSMEN PERSONAL EXPERIENCES AND REMINISCENCES. Millions of Buffaloes Indispensable to the Indians How Wolves Attacked and Killed them Why did they always cross in Front of a Railroad Train? Buffalo CONTENTS. XXXI PAGE Gnats Stinging the Animals to Fury Buffalo Chips The only Fuel on the Plains Guests Deceived Eaten Alive by Wolves The Latter's Unearthly Howls Excitement of a Buffalo Hunt A Thrilling Spectacle Horses as Buffalo Hunters Dashing into the Herd A Shower of Stones and Earth Dangerous Sport for a Verdant Shooting the Animal through the Ears Inexperienced Hunters Teaching them to Hunt Shooting his own Horse An Astonished Sportsman Danger of being Trampled to Death Buck Ague Its Effects 433 CHAPTER LIU. WILD ANIMALS AND REPTILES OF THE PLAINS AND MOUNTAINS THE DEADLY RATTLESNAKE AND ITS HABITS FUR- BEARING ANIMALS AND THEIR WAYS. The Rattlesnake Its Deadly Bite Its One Good Trait Its Sickening Odor Coiling for a Spring Planner of Striking How Deer Killed the Rattler The Rattler's Only Redeeming Quality How the Peccary and Hog Killed Snakes How the Blacksnake Killed the Rattler The Pisano or Road Runner Its Method of Killing Rattlers The Bull-Whacker's Method The Prairie Dog and its Habita- tion What it Lived on Its Domicile Invaded by Rattlers and Screech Owls The Antelope and its Habits Its Fatal Curiosity The Elk The Moose Use of his Flag Horns The Black-Tailed Deer The White-Tailed Deer The Beaver A Born Aichitect Their Beds A Sagacious and Industrious Animal Gnawing Feet off to Gain their Freedom The Otter 443 CHAPTER LIV. BEARS AND THEIR WAYS ADVENTURES WITH GRIZZLIES AN EXCITING FIGHT AND A RACE FOR LIFE. The Black Bear Its Home, Habits and Food Fondness for Honey Tenacity of Life The Bear as a Boxer How Indians Secured Them Four Bears Equal to One Scalp Tearing out the Entrails of a Dog at one Blow The Cinnamon Bear Its Peculiarities A Puzzle to Naturalists The Grizzly Bear The Largest and Most Formidable Bear in Existence Its Awkward Gait Why the Grizzly was called "Sambo" Avoided by Mountaineers Indians Killing a Grizzly A Memorable Fight With a Grizzly Starting Him Up in the Underbrush An Exciting Time An Enraged Bear The Fight On A Race for Life A Narrow Escape Tor- mented by Dogs Fourteen Bullets in Sambo's Body Killed at Last 457 CHAPTER LV. JIM BRIDGER, FAMOUS SCOUT, GUIDE, FRONTIERSMAN, AND INDIAN FIGHTER PERSONAL EXPERIENCES WITH HIM. A Typical Frontiersman Trapper, and Famous Indian Fighter An Unerring Guide His Skill as a Trailer The Man who Trained Kit Carson Bridger's Wit and Humor Some Characteristic Anecdotes The Invisible Mountain A Thrilling and Fatal Adventure Telling the Stoi-y of his own Death Bridger's Strange Man- ner of Living Unable to Read, but could Quote from Shakespeare A High- CONTENTS. PAGE Priced Book Bridget at the Battle of Powder River "A Mean Camp" His Visit to the President What Bridger thought of Him A Gang of Despeiadoes Discom- fited My Winter with Him His Queer Habits Going to Bed at all Hours Cooking his Meals in the Middle of the Night Singing "Injun" Bridger in Battle with the Utes, Killing and Scalping a Ute in a Hand-to-Hand Conflict Challenging an Arapahoe What Followed 462 CHAPTEE LVI. A FAMOUS FRONTIERSMAN, TRAPPER, SCOUT AND GUIDE A WHITE MAN W r HO HAD A SNAKE WOMAN AND LIVED THE INDIAN LIFE MANY YEARS HIS ADVENTURES AND EXPLOITS. Jim Baker a Noted Character Wanders into the Snake Tribe Lives With a Snake Woman and Adopts the Clothing and the Life of the Snakes A Desperate Fig"ht with Indians Fleeced by Gamblers His Fortitude Adventures with a Party of Miners Discovers Gold Attacked by Indians Fighting Indians Step by Step for a Hundred Miles The Killed and Wounded His Deadly Rifle Hatred of the Mormons A Perilous Journey Concealed by Day and Traveling by Night 411 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Portrait of the Author Frontispiece. Teton Sioux X1 Jumping Dog Ogalala Sioux A Typical Indian Village Skin Covered Lodges 49 Spotted Wolf Typical Chippewa . 51 Warrior with Bear Claw Necklace War Painting 56 Medicine Man in Mourning Showing manner of Cutting the Hair for Mourning .... 59 Many Horns, Gros Ventre Indian, with Ear Pendants of Iroquois shells tipped with Large Shell 62 Red Cloud, the noted Sioux Chief . 65 The One who hits the Bear With Red Stone Pipe and Pipe Stem Decorated with Scalps Blackfoot Indian 67 The Challenge The Tail of the Scalp Lock thrown over the Head, indicating "Take it" 69 Comanche Warrior Gap in the Salt 75 White Thunder in Mourning Iroquois shell Ear Pendants 80 Painting on Bodies Peculiar manner of Cutting the Hair Pipe Tomahawk 83 Buckskin Shirt with Indian Drawing 84 Indian Drawing on Tanned Deer Skin 86 Lodge and Wind Break 87 Baby Carrier Ornamented with Bead work in various Colors Cheyenne 92 Sioux Warrior in Mourning 94 Child's Rattle and Quirt 95 Whistling Bear Brule Sioux 102 Kiowa Lodge 103 Indian Travois Blackfoot 106 Kicking Bear's Camp Sioux 110 Indian Bark House 112 Bull-Boat of the Northwest 115 Snowshoes of the Blackfeet 116 Little Kiowa Girl with Doll 117 War Club Ornamented with Brass-headed Nails Bear Claw Necklace Decoration on End of Buckskin Shirt Sleeves Facial Painting Minneconjoux Sioux 119 Lance and Belt Sioux. Dog Soldier Insignia 120 Scaffold Graves on the Plains Sioux Platte River 128 Spotted Tail and Wife Number Two The Noted Chief of the Ogalala Sioux 130 Tree Grave Brule Sioux Republican River 132 Mandan Burial Place Dish with Food for the Spirit 134 Slow Bull Typical Sioux 136 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Sioux Camp on the Yellowstone River 137 Barbed Arrrow Head Sioux 138 Little Wound War Bonnet decorated with Scalps on End of Feathers Beaded Leg- gings and Moccasins Red Stone Pipe and Ornamented Stem 140 Group of Sioux Woman on Right. Showing Manner of Sitting on the Legs 141 Good Hawk, in full Ceremonial Costume Sioux 143 Sioux Camp Shield on Tripod with Scalp Hanging from the Center 144 Sweat House of the Sioux 146 Medicine Man Making Medicine 147 Typical Indian Saddle Warrior in full Mourning 148 Sioux Woman Shirt Ornamented with Deer Hoofs 150 Zin-Tha Kin-Yan (Flying Bird) Typical Sioux Tobacco Pouch, Leggings and Mocca- sins Ornamented with Beads of Various Colors 151 Story Telling Sioux 15 Mandan Indian * 153 Chief with Big War Bonnet Full Dress Beaded Leggings and Moccasins Toma- hawk Sioux 155 Wash-Ona-Koora Rushing War Eagle Bear Claw Necklace Mandan Sioux 157 Sioux Camp at Agency 158 Ta-To-Kain-You-Ka Running Antelope Typical Brule Sioux 160 Brule Sioux with War Bonnet 161 Ma-To-Shi-Sha Wicked Bear War Bonnet Decorated with Scalps on Tips of Feathers Sioux 162 Ma-To-Yeu-Mni Ogalala Three Bears and War Bonnet Sioux 163 Yankton Sioux in their Homes 164 Spotted Dog Sioux 165 Bloody Mouth Uncpapa Sioux 166 Group of Sioux in Ceremonial Dress 168 Iron Fae 169 Omaha Indian of Rank Insignia of Hand on Bead Ornamented Cap 171 Chief of the Omahas 172 Wife of Chevers Comanche 1 74 Horse Back's Camp 176 Comanche Woman 179 Mounted Comanche Woman Igl Comancho Lodges Ig3 Loco. Chief of the Warm Spring Apaches 187 Typical Apache Warrior 190 Warm Spring Apache I9> Wood Arrow Head. 194 Geronimo. Chief of the Apaches 195 Various Indian Characters in Arizona 197 Typical Arizona Indians UK. Children's Toys l^q Ouray f Arrow \ . Ute Chief Fte Stone Knife TTte Camp. Los Pinos AM Ute Family Man and Three Wires o , - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXXV PAGE Pi-Ute Habitation 206 Typical Snake Indian 208 Bannock Family at Home Man with Three Wives 212 Blackfoot Chief Headdress of Eagle Feathers 217 Typical Warrior 220 Chopped Up Piegan 222 Wild Warrior Large Ear Pendants Eagle Feathers Tipped with Scalps In Scalp- lock 223 Crow Lodges 225 Child's Rattle 235 Kiowa Camp Arkansas River 237 Feather Wolf Typical Cheyenne Warrior 421 Crazy Head and Spotted Wolf Cheyennes 242 Stone Calf and Wife Cheyennes 244 Starving Elk Typical Cheyenne Warrior 246 Cheyenne Warrior in full War Costume 248 Medicine Staff and Medicine Arrows Cheyenne 249 Typical Plains Indian 250 Arrowhead made from a Root 251 Arapahoe Lodge Drying Meat 253 Typical Navajoe 255 Navajoe Woman Weaving 256 Navajoe in War Costume 257 Navajoe Warrior 258 Cebra Negra Navajoe 259 Manner of Wearing the Hair Zunis Females 263 Group of Indians with Bear Claw Necklaces 266 Pawnee Village 268 Pawnee Warriors Manner of Wearing the Hair 269 Pawnee Habitations Mud Houses 270 Pawnee Warrior Full War Costume 271 Group of Pawnee Braves 272 Reed Habitation Decorated Indian 274 Little Shell Typical Chippewa 275 Ornamented Otter Skin Medicine Bag 270 Wooden Arrowhead 277 Bear Claw Necklace Head Covering made of Skins Horsehair Ornamentation Sac and Fox 281 Full Buckskin Dress, ornamented with Beads and Fringes Nez Perc Warrior. 284 Thunder-Rolling-in-the-Mountains, otherwise Chief Joseph Nez Perce 280 Mounted Warrior Painted War Horse Nez Perce 288 Indian with Beaded Leggings and Moccasins Shirt ornamented with Wolf Skin Strips Government Medal J . 291 Indian Drawing on Buffalo Robe 293 Habitations of Mountain Tribes Skin-covered Lodges 301 Indian with Beaver Cap and Fan 302 Indian Ball Bat 304 Wooden Lance Head 3j 1 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Tattooed Warrior Decorated Breech Cloth 313 Typical Sioux 3 Warrior in Ceremonial Costume Preparatory to a "Big Talk". 316 Ready for the Council Standing Buffalo 318 Facial Painting Bear Skin Cap 323 Sioux in Full Mourning 327 Tom-Tom and Elk Horn Scraper 329 A Typical Indian 333 Indian of Rank Insignia on Cap 335 Indians Preparing for the Scalp Dance 338 Fire Dance 339 Snake Dancers 340 An Arikara Indian Belt Decorated with Brass Buttons Bear Claw Necklace 343 Painted Warrior Osage . 346 Typical Indian Encampment 348 Typical Indian Buckskin Shirt 350 Typical Lodge and Indians 352 Indian Tree Grave 355 Indian Woman weaving Basket Zuni 358 Indian in Mourning 359 Indian with Cap, Ornamented Shirt, Leggings and Tobacco Pouch 362 Indian Woman Cloak decorated with Elk Teeth 364 Gall Chief Uncpapa Sioux, and Leader of Battle of Little Big Horn 365 Rain-in-the-Face 372 Sitting-Bull Sioux 373 Sitting-Bull's Cabin, and the Place of his Death 374 Battle of Little Big Horn Sioux Leaving Battle-Ground Drawn by Red Horse Sioux 376 Dead Sioux Drawn by Red Horse, Sioux Chief 378 Warrior with Government Medal 380 Warrior with Bear Claw Necklace 383 Chippewa in War Costume 388 Warm Spring Indian 395 Woman's Belt made of Various Colored Beads, with Thongs for Fastening Around the Body 401 Lone Horn 410 Prairie Wolves Coyotes 413 Gray Wolf 414 Overland Stage 417 Mountain Lion 444 Rattlesnakes at Rest 445 Rattlesnake Preparing to Strike 446 Prairie Dogs 449 The Antelope 4<-Q Rocky Mountain Buck 459 Bark House Sac and Fox 475 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER I. THE PATHLESS WEST OF YEARS AGO THE NATURAL HOME OF OUR SAVAGE INDIANS ROVERS AND FIGHTERS. The Natural Home of the Indians Their Numbers when I first knew them Their Superstition against being counted Keeping a Roster of their Fighting Men The Terrible Scourge of Small-pox Indian Dread of this Disease Leaving the Afflicted to Suffer and Die An Imposing Body of Warriors A Treacherous and Vicious Lot Visiting the Great Father at Washington Stories told by them on their Return Starting a War Party. THE majority of people to-day little realize that only a few years ago that tract of country lying west of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers and the Sioux River from its mouth to its source, north into the British pos- sessions, as far west as the Pacific Ocean, and as far south as the central portion of Mexico, was a trackless waste, but little known to the white man, and inhabited by various nations and . tribes of savage Indians, who lived almost exclusively by the chase. When I first went to this wild country the Indian population was almost entirely confined within the boundaries I have described. There were living there, at that time, as nearly as could be estimated, between three hundred and fifty thousand and four hundred thousand Indians. These estimates were based solely on information that came from traders, trappers, and chiefs of friendly nations, of which there were only a few. This information was, of course, vague, but I have little doubt of its ap- proximate correctness. The Indians had a superstition against being 46 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. counted, and as white men were seldom permitted to enter their camps, no accurate computation of their numbers could be made. Each chief, how- ever, kept himself informed as to the number of warriors in his tribe upon whom he could rely should occasion arise to go on the war-path. Horses and mules, too, were important factors, and the chiefs carried the number of them in their memories with the same accuracy that they kept a roster of their righting men. In their aboriginal condition each tribe occupied its own hunting ground, and was, so to speak, a free and independent sovereignty. The remnants of these once powerful peoples are now kept on "Indian Reservations," there literally cabined, cribbed and confined. Formerly they were their own masters, while at present they are almost entirely under the supervision of the United States Government. Then they had arms, horses and mules, and hunted and lived on the choicest game. To-day they have no arms, no horses, no mules, and sub- sist on rations doled out to them with niggardly hand by government agents. They have become what they are in many portions of the country where they have been partly civilized, or an effort made to civilize them, namely, miserable specimens of humanity, with hardly JUMPING DOG OGATALA SIOUX. enough to eat, not enough clothing to cover their bodies, and with inadequate means of shelter. The Indian population has been greatly reduced during the past forty years. There have been various causes for this reduction, the principal being small-pox and warfare among themselves. It is a well-authenticated fact that this dread disease is respon- sible for more deaths among our wild Indians than any other cause. ^When this scourge once got into an Indian camp it played havoc among the occupants, those who were well fleeing and leaving the afflicted to suffer and die. The appearance of small-pox would not unreasonably throw any TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 47 tribe into the utmost consternation ; as they had no means of combating it the disease was generally fatal. ) Our wild Indians had no idea of the ownership of land, either indi- vidually or collectively. Like most nomadic people they roamed within a certain territory, ill-defined in most instances, which they regarded as the exclusive hunting ground of their nation or tribe. As they did not till the soil they placed no value on any particular spot or locality, save for the game it afforded for the time being. With the advent of the whites they gradu- ally realized that the lands they claimed as their hunting grounds had a value of which they had never dreamed. The white man was anxious to secure what the Indians considered a small portion of their land to settle on, and would pay for it in money or valuables. They accordingly bartered away their lands on the best terms and conditions they could obtain, which were usually any offer that the white man chose to make. The idea propagated by some modern sentimentalists that in resisting the march of civilization, the wild Indians were fighting for their homes and firesides, belongs to fiction rather than to fact. In the first place they had no home and no fireside, in the civilized sense of these terms. They had no regard whatever for home as a locality and no conception of a fire- side as we understand the term. Their home was wherever they could secure food, and when roaming over the prairies and mountains, or hunting game, fear alone kept them on their own territory. They had no conception of either individual or common rights, outside of their own nation or tribe. There have been many instances where one tribe or nation appropriated the hunting ground of another, driving the weaker people from their terri- tory, and adding the seized tract of land to their own. They did not do this for the purpose of owning territory, as we understand it, but from a spirit of resentment, or, if I may be allowed the expression, from pure cuss- edness. About 1855 the Government sent several parties of Indians to Wash- ington to visit the Great Father, that they might see for themselves the great number of white people in the East, and, returning to their people, tell them what they had seen. They would always compare the number of whites to the grasses on the prairie. For a long time those who had remained at home were disbelievers, and said those who had gone East were bewitched by the whites who had escorted them, and that they were great liars. It required persistent effort on their part to make their friends believe the statements they made in regard to the number of people they had seen ; but as the Government sent many of these parties to Washington, at different times, who corroborated what had already been told by former 48 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. visitors, the skeptics were finally compelled to accept these wonderful stories as true. (it may seem strange that a people so vicious and murderous should pray, nevertheless the custom obtained among nearly all Indians, and it was by no means uncommon for some of them to pray many times each day.^ They scarcely did anything of importance without addressing a crude petition to their unknown Great Creator, for it was to him that the prayers of all the wild Indians of North America were directed. They prayed to him because he was good, and had made so much in the world for which they should be thankful. On rare occasions, when there was an important subject to be discussed, the Indians would meet in council, at which the most prominent ones would arise, one after another, and in a standing position address the assembly. These "big talks" were generally in relation to the fitting out and starting of a war party, although other matters of importance might be discussed as well. When a war party was to be made up it was formed of all the available fighting material of the nation or tribe. Sometimes two or three tribes of the same nation joined together to make the war party as formidable as possible. Great care was taken in selecting those who were to go, or rather in rejecting those who were not to go, for, as a rule, every warrior was anxious to fight. A mounted party of several hundred warriors made a very imposing body, and if one were inclined to be nervous their approach in fighting trim would not be likely to add to his comfort. The time taken in preparing a war party varied. If there was no neces- sity for an immediate start they would take one, two, or three weeks in making preparations. During the time preceding the departure of one of these expeditions the entire tribe devoted itself to merrymaking. During the day they engaged in horse-racing, gambling, or other amusements known to aboriginal life, and feasted almost continually. They would form in circles in the open air; dance and sing, or, rather, howl their weird chants. Their dances consisted of jumping up and down on their toes, the men on one side of the circle and the women on the other, not joining hands, but each individual, covered with a skin or blanket, faces painted, hair decorated, acted independently, moving together to the time of their drums. They would vigorously beat their tomtoms, or Indian drums, the noise of which could be heard a long distance. When the war party was ready to leave, the women assembled, began weeping and wailing, offering prayers at the same time to the Great Creator for the safe return of the braves. It was necessary at all times to leave a certain number of men in the camp TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 49 to do the hunting and keep the night watch, as every Indian camp always had its night watch to prevent surprises from hostile war parties, or un- known enemies, as well as to look after the animals. When going into battle warriors rarely, if ever, used a saddle, and, with the exception of the lariat around the animal's lower jaw, the horse was naked, the Indian riding first on one side, then on the other, using the animal as a shield. When attacking whites, they rode in a circle round and round them ; as the fight progressed they would draw nearer and nearer. Their particular object was to stampede the animals of the party attacked. When they accomplished this they generally withdrew, unless the enemy had other plunder they wished to obtain. At that time the Indians' weapons were the bow and arrow, the lance, the tomahawk, and sometimes an old-fashioned pistol or gun; consequently, they found it necessary to approach comparative!)' near to the party attacked that they might be able to use these primitive weapons effectively. A TYPICAL INDIAN VILLAGE SKIN COVERED LODGES. 50 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER II. THE COURAGE AND FIGHTING QUALITIES OF THE WILD INDIANS FOES THAT ASKED AND GAVE NO QUARTER. Going into Battle How the Indians Planned a Massacre Methods of Surprising their Enemies How we Defended Ourselves against Sudden Attacks Description of a Real Battle with Indians Hardships of an Indian Campaign Indian Courage and Ferocity in Battle Personal Experiences How we Felt in an Indian Battle- Nerved to Desperation Mounted Indian Warriors Their Personal Appearance and Peculiar Fighting Tactics Fight to the Death Giving and Asking no Quarter- Pursuing the Indians Indian Wiles and Treachery A Lurking Foe Indian Wai- Horses How the Indians Scalped their Enemies on the Battlefield Burial of the Bodies of Troopers Burial of Indians who Fell in Battle Mouining for the Slain The Safest Place after a Massacre. I HAVE been in many engagements with these red men, who always outnumbered us by two or three to one. When attacked our plan of defense was to dismount, side line or hobble our animals, then tie them together to prevent their being stampeded. We would then form a circle outside of our horses and mules, and wait for a warrior to approach sufficiently near to kill or wound him. We were careful to allow them to come near enough for our men to take deadly aim. In reserving our fire in this way, we re- served our strength, and kept the enemy at a safe distance. An Indian battle, as we usually see it portrayed pictorially, represents the warriors looking as though they had just feasted on a hearty meal at some hostelry, the Indians naked, their heads decorated with splendid war bonnets of eagle feathers, their faces and bodies gorgeously painted in all colors of the rainbow; their horses fine, fat and sleek, painted after Indian fashion in different-colored stripes on body, head, neck, and legs, all decorated with jaunty eagle feathers in their tails and manes ; the day perfect ; the lay of the land just right; the troops in gay uniforms handsomely mounted on prancing steeds, all indicating that everything had been prepared for an ideal battle. Let me give a brief description of the usual conditions of a real battle with Indians. (jThe trooper, more or less incapacitated by disease incident to long exposed camp life, was usually almost worn out by excessive fatigue; TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 51 his dress consisted of a pair of boots (no stockings), a pair of old military trousers (no drawers) full of holes and saturated with grease and dirt, a woolen army shirt, blouse and cap. His rations consisted of hard bread (often filled with worms), rancid bacon, and sometimes pieces of fresh meat, frequently eaten without salt or pepper. For weeks, and sometimes for months, he would be with- out shelter, sleeping on the ground under the broad canopy of heaven in all kinds of weather, often in rain or snow, sometimes with only a blanket crawling with vermin to cover him, half dead with repeated night watches and long daily marches over arid plains or rugged mountains. Such was the trooper's physical condition.) His horse, after subsisting on grass alone for a long time, and drinking stagnant water, would be much run down and weakened. Such was his mount. This is a true descrip- tion of the actual trooper, in my time, as he usually engaged in battle with the Indians. The engagement once open, neither men nor animals would get rest or food until it was over. Sometimes the conflict lasted the entire day and per- haps late into the night, tour- ing the heat of the battle the hardships which the trooper had undergone for weeks past might le tempo- rarily forgotten ; and as there was no rear to fall to in a fight with these red men, the safest place for him was at the front.) QThe night before the battle (and every old campaigner will bear me out in this assertion), while lying on the ground, probabty in the rain or snow, trying to get a little sleep, the troops were more or less nervous and rest- less, being up and down the whole night. When the battle opened there SPOTTED WOLF TYPICAL CHTPPEWA. 5'2 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. was great uneasiness even among the most hardened campaigners. We were always very anxious from the time the engagement opened until it was finished, for the Indians generally outnumbered us not less than two to one. Once wounded and left on the field, there was nothing in store for a white man but torture and death. The thought of such a fate added terror to distress, though, at the same time, it nerved us to desperation. On the other hand, the Indian warrior when on the war path rarely, if ever, rode his war horse. He rode another horse, leading his war horse to mount when going into actual battle. This horse, which was the best owned by the brave, was a good one, and was generally fantastically deco- rated. When entering battle the warrior wore only his breech-cloth, with sometimes a pair of moccasins; as he was accustomed to living on meat only, he had probably fared plentifully on that and was in good fighting condi- tion. When he thought the battle was likely to be a desperate one. or to the death, he would blacken his face with coals from the fire, or paint it in the most hideous manner, to make himself look as frightful as possible. A dis- tinguished brave or chief would occasionally wear a war bonnet in battle, but this was rare, as it was a great incumbrance while fighting. Every war- rior carried around shield from two to two and a half feet in diameter, which covered his back or breast, and which by a dextrous movement of the body he kept between himself and the enemy. This shield was made of the thick hide of a buffalo bull, which when dried in the sun became very hard. The ghield was slightly convex in shape and covered with soft buckskin. An arrow or lance would uot penetrate it, but a bullet from any modern firearm would go through it and the wearer also. The horse he rode was seldom incumbered with equipment, usually having nothing but the lariat rope by which he was guided, and carrying no weight but the rider and his weapons. The animal was thoroughly trained for this mode of fighting; being small and wiry, he was amazingly quick iu his movements, as compared with the heavy and often jaded horse of the trooper. Both warrior and war horse seemed to enjo} T the bat- tle to the fullest degree, especially when they had the best of it. This is a true picture of the wild Indian as he usually entered battle. A conflict with these red men was unlike an encounter between any other forces on earth. In reality it was a combination of a battle and a fight. There was little or no room for strategy on the part of the troops, as the Indian would attack at any point where he thought he could succeed by the force of numbers, and the troops had to attack the Indian wherever they could catch him. When the fight was in the open, it consisted of a series of charges and counter charges. The Indian was generally mounted, and TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 53 the troops were necessarily so. The Indians circled around and around the enemy with amazing, dazzling rapidity, necessitating constant movement and vigilance on the part of the troops in every direction, and at every point. Sometimes he charged close up to them ; discharging his arrows or other weapons, and retired as quickly as he came. Again he sat erect on his horse for a moment, and then apparently fell as if dropped by a bullet. But he was still there, clinging to the farther side of the horse, discharging his weapons at the enemy over or under the neck of the animal be rode, still circling around at full speed. His courage was unquestioned, and he fought with the ferocity of a tiger. (He did not engage in a battle with the intention merely of defeating his foes; his only thought was to kill them, to exterminate them, if possible. Consequently, there was no quarter asked or given on either side; the Indian would not show an^, and the trooper, in self-defense, could not give any.) When defeated, or fearing defeat, the warriors scattered into numerous small bodies and vanished in various directions. Hence it was impossible for the troops to pursue them successfully. Should they attempt to do so, they would lose their strong point of vantage, solid serried formation, and miss their object besides. They might kill a few Indians here or there, but even this was next to impossible, as the latter went into battle on fresh horses, the best and fleetest they possessed. Should the troops break in order to pursue the flying groups of Indians, they might be cut off, or surrounded by the Indians and killed in detail; for the warriors could return to the attack and reunite their forces as rapidly as they had broken up a short time before. By their method of signaling which was understood by all Indians they made it perilous for the pursuing party, which was liable to be ambushed or destroyed at an unexpected moment. When an Indian's horse was shot in battle, he usually had another at a short but safe distance, tied or picketed, and was soon back again on his new mount. On the other hand, if the hor;e of one of the troops was shot or disabled, the soldier was compelled to fight and defend himself on foot, as best be could. If some of his comrades were killed, he might, perhaps, secure a remount, but even this was a matter of difficulty. In short, the trooper was at a disadvantage in almost every respect, for he was compelled to fight the enemy after his own peculiar tactics and terms. The officers rarely urged the troops during an engagement. The troopers knew they were fighting not only for their country, but for their lives; and they soon learned the methods of Indian warfare, and the wiles and ways of the red man. The only absolute requisite for the soldier 54 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. was not to allow his wily foe to draw and waste his fire, or tire himself or his mount. When, as frequently happened, troops attacked an Indian encampment, the manner of fighting was still more to the disadvantage of the troopers. It then became almost a hand-to-hand conflict, men, women, and children fighting with fiendish ferocity, using every accessible weapon, firing through peep-holes in their lodges, or from behind bushes, recks, and every object that afforded concealment, with warriors on horseback charging from every quarter and assailing small bodies of troops whenever they could find them separated, or at a disadvantage. Should the encampment be a large one it was all the more difficult and dangerous for the troopers, for the Indians who had been caught in their lodges and unable to escape would remain where they were, preparing themselves for the approach of the troops, would shoot them down from their hiding-places. Indian horses were usually small, and the Indian being an expert rider would mount and ride with lightning rapidity to a bush, rock, or other place of concealment, dismount, take aim, and fire a number of times with his riiio or his bow and arrow at his enemy, then bound on his horse and be off again like a flash. Should he be fortunate enough to kill an enemy in this way, he immediately rushed in and struck his prostrate victim, claiming a coup, (a brave deed or act, the killing of an enemy or securing his scalp); then proceeded to scalp him at once. The Indians scalped every person killed in battle whom they could reach. With the fresh scalp, dripping with blood and dangling from his hand, he would again spring on his horse and return to the fight, elated by his success and stimu- lated to further efforts by his bloody trophy. The burial of the bodies of troopers who fell in battle in these lonely wilds was a saddening spectacle. The remains were thrown into a trench or large hole in the ground ; these were generally dug up in a day or two and de- voured by wolves or other carnivorous animals. Should the Indians lose a number of their warriors in battle, the families and friends of the dead would repair to the spot for years after, where they bitterly wailed and mourned, and in accordance with their superstition "made medicine" on the scene of the battlefield. The Indians believed, and were taught from infancy, that death on the battlefield was the highest honor, the greatest glory that could be attained in life. Should they perpetrate a massacre, destroy a wagon train, or commit a great outrage, the scene of their villainy was for some time afterward the safest place that a white man could select. The savages under such circum- stances expected chastisement for the deed, and they immediately left the scene of villainy as far behind them as possible. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 55 CHAPTER III. THE INDIAN'S MENTAL FACULTIES HIS PERFECT PHYSICAL SENSES AND BLUNTED MORAL NATURE HIS GREAT CRUELTY SCALPS AND SCALPING. The Indian's Preternatural Cunning and Stunted Intelligence His Highly Developed Physical Senses His Perfect Vision and Acute Hearing Vanishing like an Appa- rition His Keenness in following a Trail His Untiring Patience His Intractable Nature His Instinctive Cruelty His Suspicious and Distrustful Nature His Duplicity Rarely to be Trusted The Indian of Fiction, and the Indian of Fact Indian Orators Indian Languages The Fate of Indian Female Captives A Living Death How Indians Computed Time Mourning for their Dead Retui'n of a War Party How the Indian Scalped his Foe Customs in regard to Scalp-Taking Jerking the Scalp from the Skull Looking for Nits How to tell an Indian's Scalp Curing a Scalp A Ghastly Spectacle. THE Indian has been frequently, I may say generally, represented as hav- ing been endowed with great powers of observation and extraordinary gifts of natural cunning. This is only partly true. SThe Indian's mental facul- ties were sharpened by the necessities of his existence ; but, like all other savage people, his intellectual gifts were limited.) From his mode of life his physical senses were highly developed. His vision was usually perfect, and his sense of hearing was phenomenally acute. He could put his ear to the ground and detect the tramp of men, horses or other animals, at long distances. He could appear with the celerity of thought and vanish like an apparition. In following a trail he was as sure as fate. What to the ordi- nary observer was unnoticeable, was to him as plain as a well-beaten path, and his patience in following the trail was untiring. A broken twig, an upturned stone, or the appearance of the grass where trodden, had for him a significant meaning. He would find evidences of the presence of man or animal where the white man could not detect a sign. His intuitive percep- tions enabled him to arrive quickly at a conclusion from the lay of the land or other material things. (He depended upon his natural animal instinct more than on human judgment. Yet, granting his superiority in these and other ways, he could not compete with civilized man.\ There was in the Indian nature a trait of intractability not found in any 56 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. other portion of the human race. Unlike the negro, he could not be en- slaved. The Spaniards in the early clays of discovery endeavored to enslave the Indian; the result was that he died in his chains. He was the same when I first knew him as he was then unamenable to law, and impatient of restraint. (So far he had shown himself incapable of even a veneer of civilization. He might be brought up in the midst of civilized surroundings and educated, but at the first opportunity he would relapse into his original barbarism. Coupled with his barbarous instincts, or rather with a part of them, was his natural inclination to cruelty. It has been said that all savage races are like children, in that they have no adequate conception of suffering or pain endured by others. They were entirely devoid of sympathy. The controlling instinct of the Indian was to kill. The Indian could hardly be said to have possessed any moral nature. In the first place, he had no abstract ideas. He could understand nothing unless it appeared to him in the concrete. There were no words in his vice, generosity, hospitality, to him unknown. He only WARRIOR WITH BEAR CLAW NECKLACE WAR PAINTING. language to express moral ideas. Virtue, magnanimity, and all cognate words were believed what he saw or felt. He was naturally distrustful. This was one of the impediments encoun- tered in the work of Indian civilization. He had been for ages the slave of heredity and environment, and he suspected an enemy everywhere. Of all the savage races the Indian was the only one who never tried to imitate the white man. Any ore knowing his character would not trust him in any way. He would not do right from moral impulse, for the reason, as already observed, that his moral perceptions were limited or undeveloped. To his mind every- thing was right that redounded to his own interest if he could successfully perform it; and anything was wrong (or bad, as he called it) if he failed. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 5? His moral standard was measured by the difference between success and failure. He was the very impersonation of duplicity. He might enter the cabin of a frontiersman, or a military fort, or an Indian agency, and listen to all that was said, without giving the slightest evidence that he understood what he heard, or that he was taking notice of his surroundings. In his attitude and facial expression, he might appear as taciturn as a Sphynx, and yet un- derstand every word that was uttered and be planning a murderous raid at the same moment. Occasionall} 7 , it is true, the Indian evinced some commendable traits of character. But these were the exception to the rule. Doubtless there are also instances of truthfulness and fidelity on Lis part. But granting this, it is still an indisputable fact that the Indian, of all uncivilized people, has offered the greatest degree of opposition to the influences of civilization.) Apropos of the intellectual qualities of the Indian, a prevailing idea is that he was a master of oratory. We read imaginary speeches of Indian chiefs in school books, and untrustworthy sources, then jump to the conclusion that the Red Man was a wonderfully eloquent though untutored child of nature. Nothing could be more foreign to the fact. The Indian vocabulary was extremely limited, and was confined to material ideas. All the poetic rhap- sody and oratorical fireworks attributed to him are but the delusion of writers who have given free rein to their imagination. The alleged master- ful speeches at council-fires, and pathetic appeals to the justice of the white man, protesting against intrusion on Indian hunting grounds, belong to fic- tion, not to fact. (it is difficult to place the Indian intellectually. Other savage races when brought within the environment of civilization have afforded brilliant in- stances of individual effort, but the Indian never. There is no instance in the four hundred years of American history of an Indian who attained greatness through the channels of civilization. The few Indians who stand out prominently in our history from King Philip down to Sitting Bull, achieved greatness not by adopting the ways of the white man, but by opposing them. The Indian was proud by nature. He was animal in his instinct?, and he neither knew nor cared about anything not connected with his material wants. He had an insatiable desire to excel. He wanted to be the bravest brave in his tribe. He resented injustice, even t tough he did not practice justice himself. ^ The Indian nations differed from most other savage people in that each had a different language. Except in a few instances there were no dialects 5S TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. among the different nations. The great Athabascan family, comprising as it did the Zunis, who attained the highest degree of civilization of any of its branches, the Mohaves, the Navajoes, and the Apaches, could communicate with each other through their somewhat varying dialect. But no distinct nation that I have ever known would communicate in the oral language of the other. Neither would they intermarry with one another, although some- times it occurred that a female captive, especially if young and handsome, became the wife of the man who captured her. Even then her life was little more than a living death, as the women of the nation treated their captive sisters with great severity and contempt, although they might be the wives of prominent chiefs. West of the Mississippi River there were many distinct languages spoken by the various Indian nations. This diversity of languages explains the existence of their sign language, which I shall describe in another chapter. This was the only common means of communication that they possessed; though it varied somewhat among the different nations they could nearly all understand it. In conversation, both oral and by signs, all Indians were obscene to a degree unknown to any other people. They seemed to have no conception of vulgarity, obscenity, or decency. Frequently the most revolting and dis- gusting subjects formed the topic of their common conversation. They would sit in large numbers listening to stories told by different persons, some of which were obscene beyond description. The stories were not witty or of interest to the listeners, but idle, vulgar talk. Men, women and children listened to these stories with the utmost stoicism, their object being to retain as much of them as possible that they themselves might be able to repeat them to others. The Indian was never demonstrative. He rarely manifested surprise, He was reticent by nature ; what he could not understand did not trouble him in the least. A few things, however, excited his admiration beyond the power of silence. One of these was the mystery of how the white man could read. He imagined that the paper talked to the white man, and the reason it did not talk to an Indian was a puzzle he could not solve. I have seen Indians pore over an old newspaper by the hour, turn it upside down and inside out, manipulate it in every conceivable manner, then throw it away in disgust because it did not talk to them as to the white man. The Indian had no regular method of computing time. He knew neither years, months, weeks, nor days. He counted days by the number of "sleeps," that is, nights; months by the number of moons; and longer inter- vals by the recurrence of winter and summer. To him every day was the same; he had neither Sundays nor week days. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 59 He was very much surprised to see his civilized brother look at his watch to ascertain the time of day. I have seen Indians stare at a watch for hours, in utter amazement. We could not make them understand how, by looking at a watch, we could tell precisely where the sun was in the sky, although not visible at the time. Some of the nations or tribes cut their hair, namely, the Osages, Otoes, Pawnees, lowas, Sacs and Foxes. Some of them cut it off from both sides of the head, leaving only one stiff tuft, two or three inches in length and a couple of inches in width, on the top of the head from the forehead back to the scalp lock. All the Indians who did this lived along the Missouri River above the mouth of the Kansas River. How they acquired this custom I am unable to state. It probably originated among themselves. The cus- tom of warriors cutting their hair as a sign of mourning differed from that which pre- vailed among those whom I have quoted. An Indian on losing a wife or child would sometimes cut off all his hair except the scalp lock. In those days it was difficult for Indians to obtain scissors, as the trad ing posts were widely scattered. Accordingly, they cut their hair with a knife, or burned it, leaving it uneven and ragged. These are the only instances among North Amer- ican Indians where the hair was cut short, it being the general custom to let it grow in the most abundant profusion. An Indian woman sometimes mourned the loss of a near relative by cutting off one of her braids; then unbraiding the other she would let it hang down her back, and over her shoulder in front. The surest evidence that a scalp when taken was really that of an Indian was the fact that the hairs were covered with nits. Any person acquainted with Indians would always look for these nits to be assured that it was the scalp lock of an Indian. Sometimes the hair of the scalp was coarse and a tuft of a horse's tail might be substituted for it; but the presence of these nits in the hair was proof positive that the scalp lock was that of an Indian. MEDICINE MAN IN MOURNING SHOWING MANNER OF CUTTING THE HAIR FOR MOURNING. 6U TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Tho manner of taking a scalp in battle was to cut with a knife, around the braid of the scalp lock, a circle two or three inches in diameter, and then with a jerk tear it from the skull. Occasionally, especially if not pressed by danger, and there was plenty of time, be would cut around the entire scalp, tearing it from the head. Such a scalp was often divided into numerous small locks, which were used in ornamenting his war shirt or other personal belongings. Half a dozen or more scalp locks often represented but a single victim. A few people who have been scalped by the savages, after they were supposed to be dead, have recovered, but were great sufferers ever after. The majority of Indians had a peculiar custom in relation to claiming the scalp. The one who first struck an enemy after he was down, and supposed to be dead, could claim the scalp, although the person killing him had made every effort to strike the prostrate body and demand the trophy. This cus- tom I attribute to the warrior's desire to be the first to strike the enemy, so that he could claim to be in advance of all others in the battle, and therefore the foremost brave. Scalps when taken in this way were the personal property of the individual who struck the dead body first; they were kept and exhibited by him and his family as a token of bravery. They would take a twig off a bush and make a hoop five or six inches in diameter; then thongs of raw- hide were put through the scalp around the edges and fastened to the inside of the hoop, thus stretching the scalp tight, when it was left to dry. When a scalp dance took place, these scalps, stretched in their tiny hoops, and frequently ornamented with fur and other articles, were fastened to long poles, which the women carried in an upright position. Scalp dances were always held on the return of a victorious war party, especially if, in addi- tion to scalps, it had secured a large amount of booty in the way of horses and mules. When one Indian scalped another who had a feather in his scalp lock, this feather was fastened to the scalp, and dangled from the pole on which the trophy was carried. Such a scalp was the special admiration of the dancers, for the presence of the feather was supposed to be evidence of the superior bravery of the slain, and the still greater bravery of the captor. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 61 CHAPTEE IV. INDIAN SMOKES AND SMOKERS QUEER CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS- HOW ANIMALS WERE AFFECTED BY THE UNSEEN PRESENCE OF INDIANS. Method of Dressing and Decorating the Hair The Scalp Lock Keeping It Greased, Smooth, and Shiny Combs made from Weeds Curious Ornamentations A Beard- less Race Manner of Smoking the Indian Pipe Method of Lighting the Pij>e Indian Surprise on First Seeing Matches Smoking and Praying to Two Great Spirits, the Good and the Bad God Queer Superstitions Killikinick, or Indian Tobacco Method of Preparing It for Smoking Its Strong and Lasting Odor How Animals Detected the Approach of Indians in the Night Olfactory Sensi- tiveness of Horses and Mules Smelling Indians at a Long Distance Red Pipe- Stone Curious Legend as to its Origin The Intermingling of the Blood of Whites and Indians Pipe Ornamentation A Marvel of Beauty A Neutral Ground for all Indian Nations Prehistoric Gatherings. I HAVE never seen a North American Indian who was bald-headed. Their hair was coarse, luxuriant, black, and straight. The men and women plaited it in two plaits as a schoolgirl wears it, letting it hang over both shoulders. These plaits were frequently covered with the fur of the beaver or otter, cut in strips from one to two inches wide. Men and women alike usually parted their hair in the middle, the end of the part on the man's head reaching back to the scalp lock. This scalp lock was two or three inches in diameter, and was formed of the hair drawn together in a circle at the crown of the head. It was plaited in a braid by itself, to which the men sometimes attached a strap ornamented with tin or silver disks, a brass button being often fastened in the middle of each. The disks were fastened on the strap as close together as possible without touch- ing, the first disk next to the scalp lock being as large as an ordinary teacup and diminishing in size until they reached the end of the strap, which fre- quently extended to the heels of the wearer, the last disk being not larger than a twenty-five cent piece. Sometimes the disks were uniform in size. Men did not cut their scalp locks, as it was considered an act of cowardice to deprive themselves of this appendage. Indian women did not wear scalp locks, but Indian male children had a scalp lock from the time they first began to dress their hair. The more intelligent Indians, such as the Chey- ennes, Sioux, Assiniboins, and Crows, took great care of their hair, oiling it 62 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. and keeping it smooth and shiny, though not clean. When they had no combs they would use a substitute. The stem of a weed on which were prickly points was often used for this purpose. They also used a straight stick or pointed bone which, after a manner, would separate and comb the hair. As they only un braided their hair at long intervals, it was not a great inconvenience to be without a comb. After they were able to secure combs from the whites, they were highly prized, and they were rarely without them. The Indians did not have beards. I have never seen an Indian with more than a few straggling hairs which would sometimes ap- pear on his face, and which he would immediately pro- ceed to pluck out with his thumb and fingers; or if he could secure a pair of tweez- ers, he would pluck at every hair as it made its appear- ance, continuing the opera- tion for weeks and months, until the beard was entirely eradicated. The eyebrows and eyelashes of both sexes were sparse and thin. It was a rare thing to find any hair on the body of either sex. They were, as a rule, a hairless people, but when hair made its appearance on any part of their bodies, except the head, they proceeded to pluck it out and kept at it patiently and persistently until the roots were destroyed. I have never known an Indian to wear a ring in his nose, as they are sometimes represented in pictures. The men would generally sit cross- legged like tailors when in their lodges or tepees, or elsewhere on the ground. The women would sit on their legs, with their feet together on one side or the other, rarely ever resting on their haunches. When a number of Indian men met they would squat on their haunches, or sit cross-legged in a circle, making the circle large or small enough to be complete, in which position they would remain and smoke for hours. If there was a circle of sixty or seventy-five, they would have from MANY HOENS, GROS VENTRE INDIAN, WITH EAR PEN- DANTS OF IROQUOIS SHELLS TIPPED WITH LARGE SHELL. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 63 fifteen to twenty-five pipes going at a time. After lighting a pipe, each Indian, as the pipe was passed to him, would take one or two long whiffs, then blowing the smoke up toward the sky, holding the bowl in an inclined position with the end of the stem that goes in the mouth toward the ground, and lifting up his head would say a prayer. All of these prayers were about of the same trend, thus: "This smoke I hope will go to my Great Creator, who lives in the clouds, and who is very good to me. I hope he will take pity on me and my family, and send me something to eat and wear." With the other end pointed toward the earth, be would say: "This goes to the bad spirit, who I hope will not trouble me or make any disease." Indians were all superstitious. One might have a superstition, his " med- icine," as he termed it, not to pass the pipe while smoking to more than one, two, three, or more men to his left. When his pipe was passed as far as his "medicine" demanded, it was returned by the last smoker to the man on his right, who handed it to the next man, and so on, until it reached the one who started it. Hence, there were many pipes going all the time. The pipe was never smoked when it was being passed from left to right. Each man had his own bag of " killikinick," or tobacco. When the pipe came to the smoker with the contents gone, he immedi- ately proceeded to clean, fill, and start it again. For cleaning these pipes every man carried a stick about the size of a lead pencil. The pipe was lit with a lighted ember, matches being rare among the Indians in those days. When they first saw a match and the manner in which it was lighted, by simply scratching it, their surprise was be}'ond expression. Killikinick was the inner bark or pulp of the red willow. It lies next to the wood and immediately under the bark. The bark was first removed, then the pulp was scraped off with a knife and laid on the green stick from which it had been taken, and held over the fire and dried. It was then cut up fine and was ready for use. When the Indians had tobacco, killikinick was mixed with it for smoking. The flavor as well as the odor of this red willow pulp was pleasant, and it had none of the injurious qualities of tobacco. Among the Northern Indians the women did not smoke. Some of those living along the Rio Grande, in Texas and in Arizona, made cigarettes of coarse tobacco rolled in brown paper or in the inner leaf of the corn husk. They acquired this habit from their Mexican neighbors. The smoke of mixed tobacco and killikinick made a sweet and pleasant odor. The Indian's person and all his belongings were completely saturated with it, and it lasted for a long time. Horses, and particularly mules, 64 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. whose sense of smell is very acute, would scent an Indian by this odor at a long distance. It caused them to become uneasy and constantly look in the direction from whence the odor came. Animals, at the approach of Indians, would always get up and become restless at unusual times in the night, when the command was immediately put in fighting condition. In the morning we were sure to discover signs of Indians. Animals when on the march and rather tired, if picketed or sidelined, or tied to the picket rope, would usually lie down when the camp grew quiet, about ten o'clock at night, and sleep for a half or three-quarters of an hour; then all would awake, rise, and remain in that position until about two o'clock, when they would lie down again, and sleep for probably an hour. Every company of cavalry carried a picket rope. It was about one and a half inches in diameter, and two hundred, or two hundred and fifty feet long. A sufficient length of it was stretched to hold all the animals, which were tied to it on both sides, for safety by day or night. Should they get up at any other time in the night this unusual movement would attract our attention, and we knew that Indians were near. The Indian pipe was a marvel of beauty. There is only one known quarry in the world where the red pipestone clay can be had, and it is located in Minnesota. The clay when first found is soft and can be cut with a knife. The Indians living in that locality were expert in carving and making pipes which were highly prized by them. I have in my possession the most beautiful specimen I have ever seen. It was smoked at the treaty of peace at Fort Laramie, between Colonel W. E. Maynadier and Red Cloud, and cost forty-five horses. The clay stem of this magnificent pipe is ten inches in length; the bowl, which stands upright, is four inches in height; the hole in the bowl for the tobacco is half an inch in diameter, and the hole in the clay part of the stem a little more than three- eighths of an inch in diameter. The pipe throughout its entire length is formed of two different colors of the stone, one side of it being a deep red, the other a pale red, the colors intermingling, and forming a beautiful mottle, after the style of a meerschaum pipe when just commencing to color. Those accustomed to Indian paraphernalia, who have examined this pipe, pronounce it the fin- est specimen they have ever seen. The Indians had a tradition that where the red pipestone quarry is located a fierce battle was fought between the whites and Indians a long time ago, in which a great many red men were killed, and that their blood soaked into the ground, thus forming the red pipestone. But of the piece of stone in this pipe, the legend recites that the blood of some whites who were killed in this battle sank into the ground and intermingled with the blood of the red men, thus giving the two colors, RED CLOUD, THE NOTED SIOUX CHIEF. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 65 66 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. the pale red and the very dark red. This legend gives an idea of Indian tradition. Pipes made from this stone are susceptible of a very high polish, and after having been smoked for a time, become much darker, and rich in color like the meerschaum. The wooden stem to such pipes, made of hard wood, was generally from one and one-half to two feet in length, about one-half to three-quarters of an inch in thickness, one and one-half inches in width the whole length, and oval or flat in shape. On either end was a nipple, one for insertion in the pipe, the other for the smoker's mouth. An Indian never wet the nipple on the end of his pipe stem when smoking, as he only held it between the lips. Each smoker inhaled the smoke into his lungs, and blew it out of his nostrils and mouth in clouds, leaving the nipple as dry as if it had come out of an oven. Many of these pipe stems were artis- tically decorated with buckskin covers, upon which were handsomely worked ornamental designs in beads of many colors, or variegated porcupine quills. Some of the stems were carved into the figures of animals, birds, and other original devices. They would hardly be called artistic by a modern carver, but for Indians the carving was quite well done. On the site of the quarry, according to Indian tradition, the Great Spirit once assembled all the Indian nations, and breaking a piece from the rock fashioned a huge pipe by rolling it in his hands. He then smoked it over them to the north, south, east and west, told them that the red stone was composed of their flesh and blood, and that the quarry belonged to all of them and was to be used for pipes of peace, and that all, even the bitterest enemies, must meet as brothers on its ground. Giving a final whiff, the Spirit's head disappeared in a great cloud of smoke and the stone for several miles around was melted and glazed. Two women, the guardian spirits of the place, then descended into the large ovens that opened beneath, and they ever afterward answered the prayers and invocations of the "medicine men" who visited this spot. This and other legends connected with the place were spread throughout nearly all the Indian nations, and numerous excavations in the rock, marks, hieroglyphics, and other signs, testify that this spot was frequented by many Indian people from a very remote period. Here they met in peace and held their savage instincts in check, in their fear of the wrath of the Great Spirit. The pipes made from this material were found among nearly all the Indian nations of the North American continent, and were highly prized by them. Parties from many nations made annual pilgrimages to this quarry to procure material for pipes. It differs from any other substance known TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 67 to science, and is capable of receiving a lustre superior to and unlike that of any other material. Component parts of this material, as given by Gov- ernment experts, are as follows : Silicia. 46 Alumina 28 Moisture 9 Peroxide of Iron. . 5 Carbonate of Lime 3 Copper 2 Magnesia 7 The Indians procured this stone by digging through the soil and slate to the sub-stratum in front of the wall for a depth of four or five feet. Here they broke off the stone in such quantities as they required for making their pipes. THE ONE WHO HITS THE BEAR WITH RED STONE PIPE AND PIPE STEM DECORATED WITH SCALPSBLACK-FOOT INDIAN. 6 g TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER V. INDIAN INQUISITIVENESS AND CUNNING CEUEL TREATMENT OF PRISON- ERSTHE FATE OF WHITE CAPTIVE WOMEN. Indian Habits and Customs Marvelous Instinct of the Indian His Inquisitiveness No Idea of Morality, or of Pight and Wrong Power of the Chief The Medicine Man Making Medicine Medicine Horses and Medicine Dogs How the Women made Medicine The Medicines of Different Nations and Tribes How and why they were selected Women standing in Cold Water while making Medicine Cutting their Arms and Legs with a Knife The Greater the Scar, the Greater the Medi- cine Striking the Water with their Hands and Feet Broken Medicine Treatment of Prisoners Captive Indian Women A Living Death An Incident on Green Riv er _Indian Treatment of White Captive Women. SOME of the faculties of the wild Indians were much developed and sharp- ened. They did not jump to conclusions, but arrived at them by a keen process of reasoning after their own fashion. Their mental resources were naturally limited, but in those practices which their mode of life compelled them to adopt and on which their existence depended, they became very pro- ficient. In traveling over the trackless plains and rugged mountains they never lost their way; as they had no compass or means of guiding them- selves, except by instinct, they would go by the shortest route from place to place with remarkable precision and not miss their objective point. Another peculiarity was their inquisitiveness. They desired to know at all times what was going on about them; although they would sit apparently unconcerned, yet all their faculties were strained to the utmost to learn what was going on and what was being said. Morality, as we understand it, was unknown among them. Having no conception of right and wrong, murder was not considered a crime. Theft from strangers was considered an act of cunning. The more adroit the thief the more he was respected. Among their own people, however, theft was rare, for their individual possessions were small, and every one knew what bis neighbor owned. Furthermore, it was almost impossible for the thief to conceal any article stolen from one of his own tribe. From their earliest TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 69 childhood they were brought up to understand that theft, or other crime, committed against a person outside of their own tribe was legitimate; conse- quently such a thing as conscience in an Indian was entirely unknown. In some of the nations or tribes the chief was a despot in relation to the return of stolen property. He had authority to cause the return of such articles, and redress the wrong in any way he might see fit, except bv tak- ing life. When this was deemed necessary some member of the injured family was depended upon to take the life of the offender. Some of the penalties imposed upon mem- bers of the tribe were severe; this had much to do in keep- ing them honest. The power of the chiefs as civilization pushed westward was greatly diminished, until it was re- duced almost to abstract in- fluence over the tribe. The large nations were divided into many small tribes, each under its own chief; the latter used every effort to keep his tribe together and prevent its members from leaving and joining another tribe, or form- ing a new one. There was no penalty for this, but it was considered a disgrace to a chief for members of his tribe to desert him. Each chief looked after the unpro- tected members of his tribe, such as the women and children of dead warriors, and saw that they were cared for. This was one of the redeeming features of the red man. Nearly all had their "medicine chief," "medicine man," and their pecu- liar manner of "making medicine." This was not, as one would naturally suppose, the medical treatment of the sick and afflicted with herbs or drugs, but was a deep-rooted superstition peculiar to themselves. The medicine chief of some of the nations and tribes was a man who by bold-faced con- THE CHALLENGE THE TAIL OF THE SCALP LOCK THROWN OVER THE HEAD, INDICATING " TAKE IT.'' ijO TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. juring had induced his people to believe that he was possessed of super- natural powers, or some mysterious art. To maintain himself in this posi- tion he habitually went through all sorts of wild gesticulations, bodily contortions, and mysterious movements, both day and night, in order to con- vince those who noticed him of his superior ability and supernatural gifts. He made speeches and described in much detail his ability to perform cer- tain wonderful things. Occasionally, in endeavoring to convince those about him of his occult powers, he sacrificed his life in attempting rash deeds in battle, or in vain efforts to perform miracles. This excited other Indians, both male and female, to do many foolish things. The medicine man was not looked upon as a jhief in any sense of the word, but was regarded as one possessing the power to perform wonderful feats and cures. The members of his tribe, both male and female, constantly applied to him for assistance to prevent disease, cure the sick, bring good luck in battle, in the chase, and particularly in all family affairs. The truth is, the medicine man was a base impostor, an unmitigated fraud. The individual making of medicine was practiced by nearly all of the wild Indians, and was a purely superstitious rite. Each had his or her own medicine. An Indian would silently leave camp, sit alone in the sun on a hilltop or in a ravine for hours, hoping thereby to induce the power of "med- icine " to come and adhere to him. So with the women. Medicine-making consisted of peculiar forms among different Indians. With most of them it meant to do certain things only in a particular way. With others the med- icine consisted mainly in some peculiar manner of handling the pipe; or the manner of turning the face to the sun or the moon, when they first saw it. Others, after a long journey, would strike the water of a stream or pond with their hands, or with a bow, tomahawk, or other weapon, uttering a prayer to the Great Spirit at the same time. They had their medicine horses ; these were painted fantastically when they could obtain paints to do so. The tail, mane, and foretop were cut, and oddly decorated with feathers. Such a horse was supposed to be proof against all enemies, and was ridden or used on important occasions. They also had medicine dogs, which were supposed to possess extraordinary powers. These dogs were brought into requisition when they started on the chase, or were about to perform some particular feat. When they were used against the influence of spirits to cure, or prevent disease, they were brought inside the lodge and kept there for the purpose of warding off trouble. They were not killed and eaten so long as their medicine was effective, but woe to them when the Indian supposed their supernatural powers had departed or failed to attract their credulity. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 71 The medicine-making of the Sioux was interesting. They would sit for hours in a certain position, with their faces directly to the sun, inviting the medicine to come to them. A woman made medicine by standing in the water and hacking her arm or leg with a knife, on the principle that the greater the scar the more powerful the medicine. There were numerous other ways of making medicine. One of these was, when they first approached a body of water to strike it with the hand or foot, and if tney had a vessel with them, to dip up and pour some water on the ground where grass was growing, before drinking, no matter how thirsty they might be. Another was to stand naked in the rain when it began to fall, until their hair was thoroughly wet. This was considered particularly good medicine; but should the rain be of short duration, they considered their medicine had been " broken." When an Indian had ill luck he would insist that his medicine had been broken. He would at once seek to discover the cause and invariably found a satisfactory explanation. Should he lay it to one of his wives she was" sure to pay the penalty in some way. He might ignore her entirely until his luck changed for the better. Different nations and tribes had different symbols and medicines. The Cheyennes had a medicine arrow, and the Arapahoes used the root of a tree or bush, which represented in form an image of man or beast. This they hung up when alone and made their medicine to it. They sometimes held medicine dances, although they were tame affairs. The medicine of the Utes was a stone figure, or the skeleton of a bird. The loss of this emblem was considered an evil omen. The only medicine that was anything like universal among the wild Indians was the manner of treating the females of the lodge, in relation to their exclusion once every month. All the females of the family, be they wives, daughters, relatives, or visitors, when the monthly period arrived, be it day or night, no matter how inclement the weather, immediately left the great lodge and took up their abode in a small lodge, which was erected by the side of the larger one. Should there be no small lodge they must shift for themselves as best they could. The small lodge was their home until the period passed ; there they were compelled to eat, sleep, and abide until recovered, when they might again enter the family lodge. But during this entire period they were not permitted to enter the great lodge. To do so was sure to "break the medicine" of the entire family, of which offense no Indian woman would be guilty. Sickness was supposed to be the work of the bad spirit ; it was to nullify the power of this spirit that the services of the medicine man were called into requisition. He might, or might not, believe in the efficacy of hie medicine, 72 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. but he was shrewd enough to exploit his special powers, and among the savages his pretensions naturally found easy credence. He occupied an influential position among his tribe, and frequently used this power with evil effects. He opposed any change that might tend to enlighten his people and diminish his own standing; hence his power was usually exercised in keeping the Indian in his primitve ignorance and barbarism. It was difficult to eradicate from the Indian mind his belief in the efficacy of the medicine man. Even those who claimed to be civilized frequently reverted to the incantations and rites of these conjurors, in whom they placed implicit confidence as to their powers. Indians who had been taken away from their heathenish surroundings, brought under the influence of civiliza- tion and educational privileges, and who had given up their belief in the medicine man and his superstitions rites, no sooner returned to their tribe than they resumed their savage mode of life, and relapsed into their native barbarism. Such persons might speak English ; conform outwardly to the requirements of the Christian religion; dress and act like the white man, and invest themselves with all the externals of civilization, but instinctively they remained at heart the innate savage. The manner of treating prisoners differed among the various nations. Among some, women captives were invariably outraged by all the men of the party. Among others, a woman captive was subject to the caprice of all the party, until they returned to their own camps, when she became the slave of her captor. With others, the captor claimed the woman and kept her for the revenues derived from immorality. Among those who practiced this custom it was not considered degrading. White women captives were highly prized by all Indians for the pur- pose of ransom. To hold white captives as hostages was a strong argument for peace. Cases have been known where they forced a white woman to write a letter on a tanned skin, a piece of bark, or other smooth substance, which was sent to the commanding officer of the nearest troops, as an appeal for peace, in order that her own life might be spared. But the Indians neve"r allowed a captive white woman to fall into the hands of white soldiers until a treaty had been made, well knowing that should she inform the soldiers of the manner in which she had been treated, the troops would make no agreement with them. I knew of a case where three women had been captured from a wagon train on Green River, and retained by the Indians without being violated. Knowing that they were closely pursued, the Indians voluntarily surren- dered these women to the troops at South Pass, for which they received rewards in the way of supplies, and were treated as good Indians, because TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 73 they had not outraged the captives. This was the most injudicious step that the authorities could have taken, as it was a premium for these treach- erous wretches to capture women and children from other overland wagon trains for the purpose of getting a reward for their return. When having women captives, t^d closely pursued by the troops, the Indians placed them in such position, that in case the soldiers opened fire, the captives must be seen and killed by them. When a treaty was made under these circumstances, it was always to the Indians' advantage. Some of the captive white women who had been returned to the troops for ransom told revolting stories of the brutal manner in which they had been treated. In dealing with the Indians under these conditions, the troops were more or less hampered in doing their duty. They knew there were influential people in the East whose intentions were good enough, but who were mis- guided by ignorance of Indian character, who would condemn any action the troops might take in their efforts to punish these miscreants, no matter how outrageously they treated innocent children and defenseless women captives. Warriors captured in battles between themselves were guarded with much vigilance, for among some of the nations they were valuable as slaves; others compelled them to inform of the numbers and whereabouts of their tribe. Information of this nature could only be forced from the unfortunate by extreme cruelty, if at all. The usual method of wringing such from the prisoner was to tie the hands together in front; then just above the elbows of both arms two strong raw- hide thongs were securely bound ; to these a stout pole about six feet long was fastened near the center, one end resting on the back of the head ; then some of the women seized the lower end, forcing the head of the person downward on the breast, where it was firmly held until existence became so unendurable that the sufferer either confessed or died in great agon y. During any and all cruelties inflicted, the unfortunate was allowed no sleep, water, or food, and his sufferings were increased by constant shouts of his torturers. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 74 CHAPTER VI. THE INDIANS' STRANGE IDEAS OF THE HEAVENS INDIAN CAMPS SIGNIFI- CANCE OF SIGNS WONDERFUL SKILL IN TRAILING THE INDIAN AS A PLAINSMAN. The Milky Way Composed of the Shadows of Departed Spirits. The Road of Departed Spirits Their Ideas of Thunder and Lightning The Aurora Borealis Lighting the Road of the Spirits to the Happy Hunting Ground Reverence for the Dead Placing the Dead in Trees Providing Food for the Spirits to eat Final Departure of the Spirits from the Corpse Indian Camps Surrounded by Filth Broken Bones Care of Wounds Indian Fortitude No Regular Time for Eating or Sleeping How they set their Lodges and made their Camps Drinking Dirty Water Signs Everything a Sign to an Indian The most important Thing to all Indians Skill in Trailing Punishment for Crimes Lack of Muscular Strength No Match for the White Man in Personal Encounter. THE wild Indians had peculiar ideas regarding the heavens, and what they believed is contained therein. Nearly all attempted to explain the Milky Way. Some said that it was composed of the shadows of departed spirits, others that it was the road traveled by these spirits on the way to their future abode, and others that it was the true happy hunting ground, where all Indians would arrive after death, there to spend an eternity of bliss. They did not arrive at this conclusion through a process of reasoning, but accepted it as an indisputable fact. None of them had any theory con- cerning the constant change in the appearance of the heavens caused by the movement of the planets; they could not explain the rising and setting of the sun ; the only thing they knew about the heavens was that the moon changed at regular intervals. They also had strange ideas about thunder and lightning. The Sioux believed that it was the direct manifestation of the Great Spirit's anger. After the thunder was over they believed that the anger of the Great Spirit had been appeased, and that no harm would come from him for some time. Many Indians believed that the Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, was produced by departed spirits in the happy hunting ground, for the pur- pose of lighting the way for spirits which were then hovering around the dead, and those which were still groping in the dark in their effort to find TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 75 COMANCHE WARRIOR GAP IN THE SALT. the road to the Spirit Land. After this light had been shining for some time, they believed that all the spirits which had lost their way would arrive safe in the Spirit Land. All the savage Indians had great respect and reverence for the dead. No matter how bitter the feeling between two nations or tribes, when they came upon the burial places of the dead, whether of their own people or of their enemies, they would conduct them- selves with much solemnity. They would not disturb the resting place of the dead, or remove anything that had been placed at or near it by the relatives or friends of the departed, no matter how much they might have been in need of it or how recently it had been left there. The Sioux and some others, who placed their dead in trees or on scaffolds, would, after the poles had rotted away and the bones had fallen to the ground, gather up the bones, place them in a pile, and cover them with stones, to prevent wild animals from dragging them away. Even these piles of stones were respected by every red man. Some of the Indians who placed their dead on scaffolds would leave a hole in the skins in which the corpse was wrapped for the purpose of allow- ing the spirit to look at the corpse during the time that it was hovering about; should food left for the spirit be eaten by carnivorous animals, noth- ing could make them believe that it was not consumed by the departed spirit. They believed that the spirit hovered around the body of the dead and returned at irregular intervals to witness the rites paid to the body before the spirit took its final leave. There was no regularity in setting the lodges of an Indian camp. No one, not even the chief, had supervision over the manner or place where the lodges were to be set. They were erected in such places as best suited each individual owner. There were no streets or walks, neither did the owner of a lodge claim the space around it which he kept clean, and no sanitary pre- cautions whatever were taken. Dirt, bones, and filth of every description were strewn everywhere, and the stench was frequently unendurable to any 76 one but an Indian. The camps were located near a stream, and were gen- erally set in such position that when a rain storm came, all the filth that had accumulated was drained into the watercourse. In tanning bides the women fastened them in the stream to soak for days, and the watercourse along the entire length of the camp would be filled with these filthy skins, polluting the water with the hair and dirt that soaked off from them. This polluted water was used for cooking and drinking purposes indiscriminately, yet it seemed to have no evil effect on those using it. Being too lazy to go to a point above where the hides had been placed, for the purpose of securing good fresh water, and having no medical skill in treating ordinary diseases, it is surprising that the mortality was not greater among them. None of them knew anything about treating a broken bone. A bone once broken was liable to leave the owner a cripple for life. Neither had they any skill in dressing or healing a wound. A wound once inflicted was left to heal itself; yet it was rare for an Indian to die of a wound that did not strike a vital part. I have seen Indians with wounds that were sufficient to kill a white man, bear them with the greatest fortitude and re- cover from their effects. They had no regular meal time. They ate when they had food and were hungry, that was all. This would seem to disprove the theory advanced by physicians that regularity in eating is essential to good health, as the In- dians were a remarkably healthy race, and rarely, if ever, suffered from indigestion. Neither had they any regular time for sleeping. They slept when they felt like it, and arose in the same way. One thing that all Indians were expert in was the reading of signs, and they were constantly on the alert to discover them. From their earliest childhood they were taught to look at all times for signs that betrayed the presence, recent or remote, of human beings and all animal life. No mat- ter where they were they were constantly looking at the ground for foot- prints of human beings, animals, and birds, instinctively and persistently examining the grass, weeds, bushes, trees, and even the water, in their efforts to discover signs left by any living thing. These tell-tale signs were the Indian's trusted guide. To him the trail or footprint of man, beast, or bird, could be as plainly read as if printed in an open book. He knew, moreover, that by his own trail his enemies could fathom his intentions, and learn about his movements, hence he employed every art and devise to con- ceal his trail and mislead his enemies. When a war or other party was on the move it had no advance or flank guard, but invariably had a rear guard, or body of watchers, which con- sisted of a small number of braves well-mounted, who kept to the rear of the TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 77 moving party, at a distance of from a mile to two miles, scouting through the hills in every direction to discover if they were being followed. The rear guard of the moving body was rarely seen, but they were in a position at all times to know whether they were pursued ; if so, they would instantly notify the main body, which would at once scatter and break the trail in every direction. As hunters they could not compare with a mountaineer or frontiersman ; but when on the hunt they were wonderfully patient and would work for hours to approach near enough to an animal in order to have a dead shot before firing. They gained this habit in their early days, when they had only the bow and arrow with which to procure food. After they secured modern firearms they continued to approach close to an animal before firing in order not to waste their ammunition, which was not easily obtained by them. Trial by judge, jury, or council of the tribe was unknown. All such representations in works of fiction and tales of frontier life are purely imaginary. Neither was there a formal punishment for crime, or offenses committed by members of the nation or tribe. The only approach to such a rule was the penalty inflicted on women for marital infidelity, and this was general among nearly all the Indians of the West. -***^ The only punishment inflicted upon the male members of the various tribes was administered by the injured party, or by his friends or relatives, if he had been killed. This partook rather of the nature of retaliation or vengeance than of justice or punishment, in our sense of these terms. Neither did the Indians keep any record of the history or interesting events pertaining to their nation or tribe, indeed, such a thing would have been impossible. In the first place they had no written language. Secondly, if they possessed such records, it would have been impossible for them to preserve them. They were continually on the move; they kept and carried with them only such articles as were indispensable to their wants and necessities. All attempts at picture writing, or efforts to perpetuate events by symbols were made only by individuals; these were the property of the author. As such pictures were generally executed on tanned hides, they might be disposed of by the owner at the first opportunity to exchange for some article he desired. Personally, he attached no great importance or value to them. Again, Indian habitations were frequently flooded during heavy rains, and such rude records would on these occasions be irreparably ruined. Add to these reasons the facts that the Indians had no accurate conception of time; cared nothing whatever about dates; that births, mar- riages, and deaths were regarded as common occurrences of which not even 78 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. a mental record was made; finally, that the Indian lived only in the present, for the most part heedless of the future, wholly heedless of the past, and it will readily be seen that to expect him to keep chronicles of his nation or tribe would be to expect the impossible. The only past events that were worthy of an Indian's attention were his own deeds of prowess; these he could describe from memory, or if that failed, he did not hesitate to draw on his imagination, which could always be depended upon to make a glowing picture. As they held no traffic with other Indian nations all trading they did among themselves was only an exchange of articles on the spot they had no occasion to keep accounts, or records of any kind. They did not even tax their memories to retain an account of a mercantile transaction that occurred among themselves. Once an incident of this character was finished, the Indian dismissed it from his mind. While his faculties were preternatural ly keen in all things pertain- ing to his everyday necessities, they were stunted and undeveloped in many things that were not essential to his existence. The same may be said of his physical development. It will be noticed, by reference to the photographs in this book, that the Indians are lack- ing in muscular development. They possessed great endurance, but were destitute of bodily strength. This was largely owing to the fact that they lived almost exclusively on meat, a diet that does not seem to create flesh or increase muscular strength as do many kinds of cereal and vegetable foods. Furthermore, as the Indian never deigned to work,- the upper portions of his body were not developed by exercise, and his outdoor life tended to make him lithe and active rather than stout or strong. Hence, in personal encounter, witbout weapons, the Indian was no match for the white man. Such a thing as a fistic combat was unknown to Indian life and custom; whenever they fought, whether among themselves, or with their enemies, they fought with weapons, and to the death. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 79 CHAPTER VII. HOW INDIANS COOKED AND ATE THEIR LOVE OF FINERY AND PERSONAL ADORNMENT PAINTING THEIR FACES AND B ODIES MAKING A WILL PLAINSCRAFT. Cooking Pots made of Fresh Hides Eating Raw Meat from newly-slain Animals A Meal twenty-four hours long A Daily Gorge Insatiable Appetites First-class Gluttons Eating Skins and Moccasins Their first Coffee Indian Improvidence A Chief's Powers and Limitations The Chief in Camp and on the War-path Forming a new Tribe The Survival of the Fittest Love of Ornament Fondness for Soldiers' cast-off Uniforms and High Hats Aversion to wearing Trousers Fash, ion of Painting the Face and Body Indian Dandies Indian Artists How an Indian made his Will Distribution of Property before Death Reading the Signs of an Abandoned Camp Plainscraft. WHEN the Indian first came into intercourse with the white man, his most eager desire was to secure knives, hatchets, and kettles. He usually cooked his food by broiling it, or by semi-boiling it in a pot made of fresh hides, or in hollowed wooden receptacles which answered the purpose of ket- tles. In these water was poured, and heated by hot stones which were constantly thrown in. When on the chase, and hungry, he often ate his meat raw and bloody just as it was cut from the newly-slain animal. As to taste, it did not figure at all in the Indian's manner of preparing his food. His only thought was to appease his hunger, not to gratify his palate. Everything was cooked in miscellaneous fashion, a pot-pourri, or mess, of which everybody partook while it lasted. Though the Indians ate only once a day, it must not be supposed that they had only one msal during every twenty-four hours. The meal, if there was enough of it, and the diners were hungry, lasted the whole twenty-four hours through. They sat around the kettle, or the roasted animal, and ate until satisfied, eating again when sufficient appetite returned. The Indian meal was simply a daily gorge the white man's three meals in one. If another member of the tribe chanced to enter the lodge while food remained he was at liberty to help himself. When food was scarce for the Indian was the impersonation of improvi- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. dence they would endure hunger uncomplainingly. When in desperate straits, they would eat skins, their moccasins; roots, buds, and the bark of trees were not despised. In times of want, as long as their ponies and dogs lasted, they did not fast long at a time. They didn't use salt with their food or as a condiment ; they did not have it and were not accus- tomed to its use. Jn eating jerked meat, they rarely cooked it at all. It was left until thoroughly cured, when the entire family could munch it all day. None of the fruits or berries that grew wild in their country were cooked, but were eaten just as they were gathered, or in dried form. They sometimes put the Pomme blanche a species of wild carrot in their pots to boil with meat, but as they kept the pots boiling for a long time, the contents were event- ually reduced to pulp, and the mess became a thick mass of nameless soup. Their manner of cooking fish was to boil them, sometimes putting in the Pomme blanche, which, when boiled with the fish, made a disgusting dish. They also cooked fish by digging holes in the ground, in which they made a fire, and, placing the uncleaned fish in the hot ashes and coals, left them to bake. Fisn cooked in this way, with the help of a sharp appetite, could be eaten, although I must say that I did not relish it. They also broiled fish over hot coals, first placing a stick in the fish's mouth, and hold- ing it over the fire, turning it until done. The first coffee they had was taken from some emigrants crossing the plains, whom they killed. They boiled the green coffee for a long time, and, not being able to make anything palatable out of it, they wondered WHITE THUNDER IN MOURNING IROQUOIS SHELL EAR PENDANTS. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 81 what the white people did with it. This they afterward learned, and be- came very fond of coffee, especially when well sweetened. Their manner of selecting chiefs varied somewhat with different nations; there was no gradation, as a rule, between the chiefs of tribes of the same nation. In some of the nations they became chiefs by heredity. The honor was handed down from father to son, though it was necessary in all cases that the son should have the ability and courage to maintain his posi- tion after he had once secured it. Merit and personal attractions had their weight. In other nations a man was made chief by common consent, usu- ally by the warriors of the tribe. There were many jealousies between chiefs and those who aspired to the office. Occasionally these jealousies re- sulted in the death of the chief or the aspirant, or both. An Indian who was once made chief of his tribe would almost rather lose his life than the position. He would fight for it to the death. This is one reason why there were so many tribes of the same nation. Those who de- sired to follow a certain man or chief would secede from the original triba and form themselves into a new one, taking some name by which they might be distinguished from their old tribe. This was particularly true of the Utes. It was regarded as necessary that a chief should be able to make a logical speech to his tribe. It was not so essential that he should show great bravery in battle. A chief did not exercise supreme control over his entire people, nor were his counsels always taken. In the majority of instances he was simply a leading man, to whom the others looked for advice and instruction. When in camp he was little more than any other Indian, and had usually about as much control over the actions of individual members of his tribe as the mayor of a city would have over one of its citizens. When in battle, how- ever, there must be one in command, and it was generally a noted chief, whose ability in this direction had been tested on many previous occasions. Even then he did not have anything like the control over his warriors that an army officer has over his troops. The warriors in battle usually fought independently, and could not therefore be subject to the command of any one, though the chief might from time to time give orders which were obeyed with promptness. The chiefs of tribes were sometimes deposed, although this was rare. This was accomplished by a leader who, aspiring to be a chief, would create dissension in a tribe, and take as many followers with him as possible. Should the new leader, in setting up for himself an independent tribe, be able to reduce the adherents of the old chief to such an insignificant number as to be unable to defend themselves against their enemies, they either 82 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. followed the new leader or abandoned the old chief and joined another tribe of their nation, thus leaving the deserted chief to seek some tribe to which he could adhere for protection. Should the position of chief become vacant, and there be two or more aspirants for the office, a struggle followed. The bitterest passions of the rivals were aroused to such a degree that they became engaged in personal deadly conflict, and fought to the death with tomahawks or knives. To become a chief it was sometimes necessary for one of the braves to be the hero of two or three bloody personal combats. When this was the case he asserted himself as chief, and all recognized him as such. Should any one demur to his authority the person so objecting was bound to enter into a personal combat with him. In all such cases the chieftain- ship was determined by the survival of the fittest. The office of chief had no compensation or emolument attached to it. It was honorary, laborious, and its duties were performed without thanks. There was no insignia of rank, except the head dress of eagle feathers worn by distinguished chiefs on ceremonial occasions and occasionallj" in battle; a chief did not dress better than the majority of the members of his tribe. Indians all wished to rule; this created a great deal of jealousy and ill-feel- ing. A chief had to secure his living in the same manner as the others, neither did he possess the great power usually attributed to him in fiction. The photographs we see to-day of Indians generally represent them as wearing shirts, hats, coats, woolen leggings, and other articles of civilized apparel. During my time among them no wild Indian wore shirts or any wearing apparel whatever after the fashion of the white man. His drtss usually consisted of a pair of moccasins, buckskin leggings reaching up to the thigh, a breech-cloth and a buffalo robe. Occasionally one would have a buckskin shirt or jacket elaborately decorated with beads, porcupine quills, and Iroquois shells; it was fringed at the bottom and on the lower part of the sleeves. In their hair they wore a few feathers, usually those of the eagle, wild turkey, or hawk. At a later period the men wore woolen shirts, and red or blue flannel for their breech -cloths and leggings. They were fond of personal finery, and would decorate and adorn them- selves with all sorts of trinkets. Brass and copper wire for wristlets and armlets were favorite decorations with both sexes. The brass ornaments of a soldier's hat or cap were much prized by them. Broken cross sabres, cross guns, old epaulettes, tassels, letters and figures of regiments were placed in their head gear in almost every conceivable manner. If they could pro- cure a soldier's discarded hat or cap with the ornaments on, to which they would add feathers and trinkets, they considered that they were dressed in the PAINTING ON BODIES PECULIAR MANNER OF CUTTING THE HAIR -PIPE TOMAHAWK. Twenty Yea-s Among Our Hostil > In'liruis. Page 83 fc,4 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. height of fashion. Any and all decoration, no matter how ridiculous, would be proudly worn in the most conspicuous manner. I once saw some Sioux Indians on the South Platte, decked out in the most fantastic style. Some of them had old discarded white and black plug hats, decorated with the soldiers' ornaments I have mentioned. In many cases the hats were much too large for the wearers, resting on the top of the ears; others were much too small, sitting only on the top of the head. Another wore an old vest, many sizes too large, but buttoned up to the last button. Several had large, flam- BUCKSKIN SHIRT WITH INDIAN DRAWING-. ing red ties around their necks, with no shirt, collar, or other article of civilization on them. As they moved about in the most dignified manner in this peculiar uniform, several of the men who wore tall hats suddenly dropped the buffalo robes from their bodies, leaving as the only wearing apparel in view, the tall hats and breech-cloth, presenting a laughable spec- tacle. No Indian would wear trousers. He drew the line at this article of ap- parel. If he secured a pair he would immediately cut the legs off halfway TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 85 between the knee and the hip, rip open the outer seam and have his wife sew them skin tight down the leg, leaving the surplus cloth on the outside of the seam. Some of them decorated the surplus strips of cloth with beads, deer and antelope hoofs, and frequently with scalps cut up for the purpose, so that, when walking or riding rapidly, they presented a striking appear- ance. The women's dress consisted of a pair of moccasins, leggings reaching to the thigh, a low-necked, short-sleeved, buckskin skirt extending below the knee, the lower edge ornamented with fringed buckskin, a buffalo robe or blanket, and around the waist a belt made of hide and decorated with brass buttoi s beads or porcupine quills when they could procure them. Though from long usage such articles of dress were dirty and greasy beyond descrip- tion, nevertheless, they were highly prized, for they were the only ones the Indian woman had. Every Indian, big, little, old or young, wore a belt. To the male's belt was attached a sheath knife, tobacco pouch, and other paraphernalia ; to the woman's a sheath knife, small pouches containing bone awls and needles, and other feminine notions. Painting their faces and bodies was also a favorite way of decorating themselves. When they could procure the colors they painted their faces in stripes and spots, in any style to please individual fancy. A common style was to paint stripes from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in width, start- ing at the nose, then running horizontally across to the ear, using red, yel- low, blue, green, and as many other tints as they could procure. The fore- head was striped in the same manner, with the lines running up and down. Sometimes the face was painted in spots, the pigments being daubed on without reference to any particular design, the sole intent seeming to be to make themselves as hideously ugly as possible. Their bodies were painted in much the same manner and colors, except that the lines were larger and sometimes wavy. The paints being originally mixed with grease would re- main on the body for a long time, for the wild Indian never under any cir- cumstances washed himself. I have heard of Indian dandies, but have never seen one. When a young man arrived at the age when he would naturally be a dandy his thoughts were taken up with securing a livelihood, or sufficient of this world's goods by plunder, or the hunt, to enable him to start in life and obtain for himself a lodge and family. That there were different characters among these peo- ple as to dress and ornament, must be admitted, but these were merely mat- ters of personal characteristics, one being more cleanly than another and arranging his scanty wardrobe with more taste and effect. 86 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. At that time the IndiaD had no use for money. If he procured any it was usually in silver. He would pound the silver pieces into disks to ornament his scalp lock, as I have elsewhere described. Other favorite articles of ornamentation were brass buttons, particularly the old-fashioned smooth INDIAN DRAWING ON TANNED DEER SKIN. kind, about as large as a twenty-five-cent piece. These they would put on their belts and fasten in various fantastic ways sometimes artistically, but more frequently the reverse. Some of the drawings on their buft'allo robes, lodges, and skins, were, for Indians, well done, the artists being both men and women. Many of the TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 87 drawings were pictorial efforts to tell the story of some event in family life, in battle, or on the chase. Some of them were so obscene as to be unfit for reproduction. When an Indian who had several wives and a number of children was very ill, and thought he was about to die, he called around him as many members of his family as could be gotten together, then he proceeded to make his will orally, by distribut- ing such of his worldly be- longings as were not to accompany him on his jour- ney to the Spirit laud. He presented to each member of the family various articles, saying, "I give you this," until he had divided his entire possessions among them. It was the custom to make as nearly as possible an equitable distribution of his property among his family. Oral wills were always respected and no effort was ever made to break or contest them. Should his effects be limited and the number of family be large, they would continue to live together as before, using the possessions of each for the benefit of the entire household. Should one of his wives, however, become the wife of another man, she was at liberty to take her share of the goods and her children to her new home. The tepee of the Indian family being one of their most valuable possessions, one would natur- ally suppose that an Indian widow becoming the wife of another man would want her share of it, if not the article itself, or its value as represented by something else ; yet such was not the case. She was satisfied to take such of his worldly goods as she was entitled to, and could carry away, leaving the tepee, with its good will, to the remaining members of the family. When it came to the last widow, she was tben the sole owner of this habitation and could do with it as she chose. Should the woman, however, be taken by an- LODGE AND WIND BREAK. 88 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. other Indian for his wife, be was supposed, if he had sufficient wealth, to pay a reasonable price for tbe lodge to its former owners, or return it to them. As the Indian's worldly possessions were few, so his standards of value were limited. Horses and mules were tbe chief portions of his wealth; these were the general standard of value among all tribes owning them. Among some of the tribes where horses were plentiful and easily procured, their value was not rated so high as where the contrary conditions prevailed. One good horse was usually considered worth two poor ones. Next to their horses, the principal standard of value was the buffalo robe. One good horse was usually considered worth twenty buffalo skins. But where the buffalo was abundant and easily killed, a lesser value was placed on the animal's hide. Again a tepee was rated as worth from two to twenty horses according to its size and condition. In many places, especially on the barren plains, the poles of the lodge over which the skins were stretched were more difficult to procure than the robes, and were accordingly more highly valued. The dressed skins of the deer and antelope, bear skins and other animals, also had a general value among most of the tribes. The bow and arrow, pipes, knives, and trinkets of various kinds, especially if procured from the whites, were all rated by the excellence of the article or by the difficulty in obtaining it. A 11 Indians, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and from the central portion of Mexico to the country occupied by the Esquimaux in the British possessions, in whatever respects they differed, or whether one nation was more intelligent than another, or more advanced in the arts of civilization, or in war, had the distinguishing marks of the North American Indian in- delibly imprinted upon them. Their personal appearance, their mode of life, their innate cruelty, the treatment of their women, animals, and captives, were distinctly and purely Indian, and nothing else. Their amusements and pastimes; their inability to remain long in one place; their resistance to the advance of civilization ; their tenacity of life in its primeval state, all were so distinctly Indian as to be very noticeable, no matter how far they might have been removed from savage life. The traits, habits, characteristics, and customs might differ widely in different Indian nations, yet all unmistakably showed their com- mon origin; it is probably for this reason that some one once made the silly and often-quoted remark, "See one Indian and you have seen all." No more untruthful statement could be made. A person who by personal intercourse, had become familiar with the different nations, could pick out TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 89 the members of different nations wherever he found them, without hearing them speak a word. He could do this as readily as any one can make the distinction between a white person and a black one. By looking at their implements of war, their handiwork and personal effects, an experienced person could tell at sight which nation had made them. When coming upon places where Indians had camped, or in following their trails, an old mountaineer, or an experienced Indian fighter, could tell almost at a glance what nation had been there. So distinctly had each Indian nation its own way of making its camps that the trappers and plainsmen who had been among them for any length of time would voluntarily, or involuntarily, fall into the habit of making their own camps precisely like the Indians in whose country they were. To the ordinary person these abandoned camps would indicate nothing; but to the experienced eye they would not only tell with surprising accuracy who the former occupants were, but could at a glance, tell their number, how long they had been there, how long they had been gone, the direction in which they went, whether they were a war or hunting party, and other important things. 90 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER VIII. INDIAN WOOING AND MARRIAGE CUSTOMS BIRTH OF AN INDIAN BABY- INDIAN WIDOWS AND WIDOWHOOD NIGHT IN AN INDIAN LODGE. How an Indian Secured a Wife Price of an Indian Maiden Daily Occupations in tne Lodge Life in the Camp The Birth of a Child Indian Babies How they were cared for Endurance of Indian Women On Hand for the Promised Present How Indian Babies were Cradled Indian Widows Weeping and Wailing at the Burial Place Genuine Grief Married Women Slaves Female Occupations How the Family Lived Punishments for Infidelity Mourning for the Dead A Widow's Weeds Care and Affection for the Aged Choosing a Name How Names were Selected Life in the Lodge No Privacy, and little Decency Observed The In- dian's Affection for his Wife and Children Dying of Homesickness An Indian Elopement. WHEN an Indian desired a woman of his tribe for a wife the custom among many of the nations was to send one of his friends to the girl's father, or to one of her nearest male relatives, to ascertain the price at which she was valued. An Indian's wealth in those days was usually counted by the number of horses he had, and these were the common standard of value in negotiating for a wife. The friend then returned and informed the wooing Indian of the price demanded, that is, the number of horses required to buy the girl, when tha barter began. A certain num- ber of horses (always less than the number asked) were led to the tepee and tied to the pole of the lodge where the girl slept ; means would then be used to induce some member of the family to come out. The latter, seeing the horses so tied, knowing well the significance of the act, immediately in- formed the head of the family, or natural protector of the girl. The barter then began in earnest, and was continued until the proposal was rejected or accepted. If accepted, the horses were at once taken away to the herd of those belonging to the girl's protector. Should the bid not be acceptable the horses were left tied where they were, when more could be added by the wooer, or the lot taken away ; the latter meant that the price demanded was refused. The price of an Indian maiden was from one to forty horses, but on rare occasions more were given, the number usually depending on the wealth and TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 91 ardor of the suitor. I have known fifty horses to be paid for a girl. If the bid was accepted the girl became the property of the man making the offer. She had nothing whatever to say about it, or about who her future husband should be. Should he be the most distasteful person on earth to her, she was his the moment her parents accepted the price they had placed upon her, and that ended it. The husband was free to do with her as he pleased, even to the extent of taking her life. If she died and the parents had another eligible daughter, they were supposed to make good his loss. After an Indian woman entered the married state she was simply a slave. The domestic life of the females of the wild tribes was peculiar. They had but few amusements with which to entertain themselves, and no light by which to see at night, except the light of the camp or lodge fire. They generally retired early, and rose early. During the day the old women usually occupied themselves in tanning hides, jerking meat (cutting it up in strips and hanging it on poles to dry in the open air), making moccasins, leggings, and other clothing from skins, making and repairing lodge covers, taking care of the animals, attending to general family duties, and doing the family cooking. As they had no dishes or kitchen utensils, the labor im- posed by cooking was very limited. When they had a pot, everything was cooked in and eaten from it. When they had none the meats were roasted over the fire. One would naturally suppose that women whose natural functions had never been impaired by the restraints of dress, who had been reared from in- fancy in their natural condition, and enjoyed perfect health, would be pro- lific, yet such was not the case. Indian wives rarely had more than two or three children, more frequently only one child, and often none. In extremely warm climates Indian girls became wives and mothers at the age of twelve or fourteen years, and in middle life appeared old and wrin- kled. The women were extremely hardy and their endurance and fortitude were equal to that of the men. I have known an Indian camp while on the move to stop, and a woman to have a lariat placed u*nder her arms, the end thrown over the limb of a tree or lodge pole, and in a few minutes, while partly suspended in a sitting or squatting position, give birth to a child. In a very few minutes, without assistance, she would be astride of her horse, her child on her back, resuming her journey as if nothing unusual had hap- pened. At the first opportunity after the birth of a child an Indian woman would enter the water, no matter how cold, and bathe herself. The child was usually laid on a robe or skin that was covered with a thick layer of the dried contents of the paunch of the buffalo. This was as fine and soft as down. The youngster was covered with this downy stuff, its arms placed TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. alongside its body, the robe drawn over and around it and tied with a thong. The head was supported by the untanned skin of a buffalo calf or deer, and so placed that the child's face alone was visible, present- ing the appearance of a dimin- utive mummy. In traveling, the mother would either carry it on her back, place it on a travois, or hang it by a noose over the pommel of the saddle. Infants were often left wrapped up in this manner for days with- out being taken out of their nest. When opportunity of- fered they were removed, washed and replaced in the same manner. The Indians had no infantile food, and mothers nursed their young until they were four or five years old. I have seen them run to their mothers and take their dinner, in a standing position, from the maternal fountain. An instance characteristic of Indian childbirth occurred on Chugwater Creek, under my immediate observation, which is worth recording. One or two army officers and a few civilians were engaged in a game of cards in an Indian camp. We were in the lodge of a white man who had an In- dian woman for his wife; in this lodge were several other women. About two o'clock in the morning one of the women on the other side BABY CARRIER ORNAMENTED WITH BEAD WORK IN VARIOUS COLORS CHEYENNE. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 93 of the tepee groaned as if suffering great pain. Some one asked her what was the matter; we soon discovered without her answering, for in a few minutes she was strapped to the poles of the lodge with a rawhide rope placed under her arms and in this position gave birth to a child. I asked the interpreter to tell her to be quiet, promising that if she did so, I would make her a present for herself and child whenever she came to my quarters at the Fort. Long before I was up next morning she was there with her child on her back, waiting for me. Indian children were spoiled by being permitted to have their own way. They were allowed to grow up like young animals, with no other training than the force of example. Hence every generation was precisely like its predecessor. The child was inured to hardship and endurance from infancy. As the youngster emerged into boyhood or girlhood, it did as it pleased, rarely being corrected, taught, or restrained in any way. Though the In- dians were fond of their children they were not given to manifesting their affection towards them. They seemed rather to regard them with total in- difference until such time as the youth was old enough to enter the list of warriors, and the girl was old enough to be salable as a wife. Children usually ran naked until they were from ten to fifteen years of age, though they commonly wore moccasins to protect their feet. After free access to the family dinner pot, their stomachs were very much distended and out of shape ; and when a belt was fastened tightly around their waists, they presented a most peculiar and grotesque appearance. As a rule Indian children were healthy and there was but little disease among them; they were not subject to the diseases of children of the white people, such as measles, whooping cough, etc. Indian mothers showed considerable ingenuity in making toys for their children. Toy dolls, often grotesque in dress and appearance, were common enough. Some of them were made to represent warriors and were adorned with miniature bows and arrows, and shields, thus early instilling the spirit of war into the minds of the young. Toy canoes, miniature horses with mounted warriors on them, and various other kinds of toys could be found in almost every Indian camp. Infidelity on the part of the women was almost unknown among the majority of the wild Indians, as the punishment for that offense was so severe that no woman cared to incur it. She was even liable to lose her life for the offense, as the unwritten law of the Indians was an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth. The punishment liable to be inflicted on an Indian who had killed one of his wives was that some relative of the woman might kill him at the first opportunity. The punishment for infidelity 94 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. among several of the wild nations, especially the Sioux, was called "passing on the prairie." The offending woman was inveigled out of the lodge when she was immediately seized by a number of Indians in waiting, taken a distance from the camp, thrown upon her back upon the ground, a man holding each hand and foot, when each member of the party one by one violated her person. She was thenceforth an outcast of the tribe, and the lawful prey of any man. She could not enter the lodge of a medicine man, or other Indian whose medicine or superstition was against this class. The Apaches and Navajoes cut off the nose of the offending female as pun- ishment for infidelity. The Comanches slit the nose from the point to its connection with the forehead, and pre- vented the wound from uniting. The Cheyennes were at liberty to inflict such punishment as they pleased, but their usual mode was to return the guilty woman to her parents, compelling them to restore the property, or its value, which was originally paid for her. There was, aside from the ques- tion of morals, a special reason why the men were polygamous. They were almost constantly engaged in war and their number was depleted in conse- quence. Hence the women usually out- numbered the men two or three to one. When an Indian died, his wives were at liberty to become the wives of another member of the nation. He was not compelled to buy a wife after her widowhood, as when she was a maiden, unless she returned to her family and refused to become the wife of another without again being bought. When a woman lost her husband she went into mourning, and evinced her grief and proclaimed her widow- hood at the same time by cutting off her long hair. As long as she remained a widow she would visit the burial place of her husband, remaining there for hours weeping and wailing bitterly. If the actions of the women at the burial places were a true index of their feelings, their grief was both genuine and poignant. When an Indian lost a favorite wife or child, he too exhibited his mourn- ing by cutting off one or both of the long plaits of his hair. Some of them SIOUX WABKIOB IN MOURNING. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. would cut off the braid of their scalp lock and blacken their faces with coals from the fire. Some would cut off the tails and manes of their horses and mules, which effected a strange transformation in their appearance, The affection of the Indian for the aged of their families was very marked, and was one of the few redeeming features of their vicious nature. Many of them lived to a good old age, if their appearance was an indication. These were as tenderly cared for in their help- lessness as were the young babies. In going from place to place they were given an animal to ride, if they were able to use it. When too infirm to mount a horse they were placed on the Indian travois, and were transported in the same manner as were the young child- ren and the sick or wounded. It was the special delight and duty of one of their grown-up children, or if there were none, then of their friends, to care for them; so that the aged and infirm were rarely neglected. These persons looked after their every want, served them with food, saw that thej T had a good place to sleep, and afforded them every Indian comfort. There was, of course, no choice for either sex as to what they should do in life. When the male arrived at man's estate he had only one line of endeavor open to him to hunt and fight ; and the female had only one also to bear children and to work for her lord and master. CHILD'S RATTLE AND QUIRT. 96 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Among them the question of ''Woman's rights" was settled absolutely. She had the undisputed right to labor, and she was not expected to complain about it. Slave as she was by heredity and environment, she accepted her lot uncomplainingly. The women did not question the right of their lords not to do a stroke of work; and the latter did not question their women's right to do all the camp drudgery, and endure without a murmur the hard- ships of their menial position. The manner of selecting names varied with different nations, although they were all of about the same character. They had no surnames. The male children were generally named after some animal, or given a name in- dicating some personal peculiarity, or commemorating some event or mat- ter of note, as I shall hereafter describe. The names of the females were always in the diminutive; a woman retained the name that was given to her when she was a baby throughout her natural life, unless she changed it for some good and substantial reason. There was no prefix as Mrs. or Miss; when a woman became a wife she did not take her husband's name, but re- mained the same plain Yellow Chin, Sweet Grass, Yellow Leaf, Small Tree, or Running Water, as before. A child might have a pet or diminutive name given it while very young, but with the privilege of exchanging it for another of its own selection when it arrived at the age of puberty. A change of name was to gratify their own wishes until the boy was grown to be a warrior and had counted a coup. So it was in naming their animals and favorite camping-places. Nearly all rivers and streams known to them were given permanent names. The large mountains also had names by which they were known, and so had notable places in their country. These supplied names for children born near them. Nearly all the wild Indians were polygamists. The number of wives that an Indian could maintain varied with different nations, but the num- ber usually depended upon his means to buy them. Sometimes he would have from one to twenty. Strange as it may seem, there was rarely jealousy among them. Their home life was generally congenial, and a married man was usually kind to his entire household. Ill-feeling rarely existed, much less was it ever shown in an Indian family. Should the hus- band show marked attention to one of bis wives it was taken as a matter of course, and the favored one was not slighted or abused by the others. All the wives, be they few or many, lived in the same lodge, and there was little or no privacy. Each wife had her own particular place in the lodge; if she had children they slept with her. The only division between tho sleeping places, w.hich were always on the ground, was at the ona next to TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 97 the opening. Two sticks might be stuck in the ground and a skin or blanket hung on them. This was the only screen in the entire lodge. The treatment of the female in the civilized world is usually considered the standard by which man ; s moral qualities can be estimated. This rule could scarcely be applied to the Indians, for the males of every Indian na- tion, with one or two minor exceptions, compelled the women to do all the labor and menial drudgery. One would naturally conclude that there could be little or no affection between a man and wives so treated. Such was not the case, however, for the affection of an Indian for his family and children was particularly marked, although rarely demonstrative. His love of home, not as a locality, but as a place where his family and friends were, was in- tense. To be separated from kith and kin was a hardship. Therefore it is not strange that nostalgia was common among captives; they have been known to die of homesickness, and not unfrequently went crazy from the refusal of their captors to allow them to return to their kindred and friends. Among the far Northwestern nations the unwritten law was that a man should select his wives from different families. In some of them divorce if such it could be called was easily obtained. A woman could leave her husband at will and return to her parents, taking her children with her. This was considered a great disgrace to the husband. It sometimes hap- pened that an Indian would steal the wife of another. When this occurred the family of the girl was expected to return to the husband the amount he had originally paid for her. The man and abducted weman would go to another tribe and become a part of it. Different tribes had different ways of settling the value of a runaway wife. Among some of them, the new husband was compelled to pay the former husband for his loss a number of horses, skins, or other articles of value. Captive women and children, especially when the captives were superior in intelligence and cleanliness, became the prisoners or wives of their cap- tors. This custom was followed for various reasons. First, it did not cost anything to possess these women. Second, it was the desire of the captors to induce their prisoners to become part of their own people. Again, it pre- vented an effort on the part of the females to escape. Among some of the nations a female thus married was sometimes treated with kindness, not only by the man whose wife she became but by the people in general, though this was rare. 98 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR .HOSTILE 'INDIANS. CHAPTER IX. INDIAN AMUSEMENTS AND PASTIMES THEIR THIRST FOR GAMBLING THEIR GAMES OF SKILL AND CHANCE EXPERTNESS IN THROWING A KNIFE. The Indian's Limited Amusements Horse-racing the Favorite Pastime Betting on the Results Women Gamblers Ball Playing Skill of the Players How the Game was Played Proficiency in Running and Jumping Skill in Throwing the Knife Indian Music and Musical Instruments Serenading Dusky Maidens The Romance of Indian Youth Admiring Himself in Nature's Looking-glass Lack of Amusements and Pastimes in Winter. ALL Indians had amusements and pastimes of their own, though the more ignorant the Indian the fewer were his pleasures. When the white man in- troduced playing cards among them, they soon learned tc use them after their own fashion, and this enabled them to gratify their thirst for gambling. The Indian did not learn the vice of gambling from the white man. It was universal among the savage tribes when the white man first came in contact with them. This penchant for gambling was the natural result of being compelled to pass long periods in a state almost approaching torpidity. They indulged in it to break the monotony of their long winter days, when frosts and deep snows shut them off from the chase and all active outdoor life. Their sports were few, but their quickness of eye and agility of move- ment lent a peculiar interest to their simple games. Horse- racing was a favorite sport with all of them. They raced their best horses at all times, using the lash unmercifully, driving them to their utmost speed. In these races they would usually bet on the result, but as their worldly possessions were limited, and some of them absolutely indispens- able, notably their weapons, horses, horse equipments, and articles of daily use, these were not usually risked, though they were always ready to wager such articles as they could spare. The women also bet on these races among themselves, and occasionally acted as jockeys, and handled the horses with skill. At times children also rode. The whole population of the eamp would turn out at a horse race, all taking great interest in it. As they had no way of timing horses, their races usually consisted of matching two or more, usually two, and the fleeter one was declared the winner. Another TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 99 favorite amusement was ball playing. In this they used a ball stuffed with hair, the players having two bats shaped something like a lawn tennis racquet. They used one in each hand, and were expert in playing the game. They sometimes batted the ball, but the favorite mode of putting it over the goal was to carry it over on their racquets. When a ball game was to be played, the Indians were organized on two sides, a captain over each was selected, and a referee chosen. Two posts were set up at each end of the field ; the game consisted of passing the ball between these two posts or goals, each side having its own end of the field. A game would last one or two hours. It was very exciting, and the only surprise to me was that they did not fight or squabble among themselves, for they were rough players, and would hit each other unmercifully with their racquet when striking at the ball. To me these terrific whacks at one another seemed intentional, although they appeared to take them good naturedly. The players looked decidedly picturesque, having nothing on but their breech-cloths and a pair of moccasins, their tall, lean, erect forms making them appear like athletes. They were good runners, and played the game with skill. Running was another favorite amusement. A match between two In- dians, with the judges appointed and everything in readiness, was sure to be interesting. Sometimes the race was for a short distance, probably an eighth of a mile. Another amusement was jumping. In this some of them attained great proficiency. The standing and running jump was practiced as well as the hop, skip, and jump. The game of jackstones was a favor- ite pastime. They amused themselves, too, by target practice with bow and arrow. Throwing the knife at an object was a sport at which the majority of In- dians were particularly expert. Taking the knife in the palm of the hand with the handle toward the end of the fingers, and standing at from ten to thirty feet from the target, they would, by a dexterous movement of the forearm, throw the knife at an object often not larger than a saucer, and with such precision that the point of the knife struck within this small circle at almost every throw. I have seen them stand at a distance of twenty-five feet from the target and hit it twenty-five or thirty times consecutively. A buffalo chase or a hunt was not regarded as an amusement. It was more like work forced upon them by the necessity of securing their food and clothing, for upon their success their existence depended. They did not seem to recognize it as a pastime, but often went reluctantly about it as one doing hard work. Neither was the killing of small game sport; it 100 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. was bard work with them for they were frequently compelled to dismount and crawl a long distance to get within shooting range. Few, if any, of the wild Indians exhibited any musical talent. What little musical efforts they attempted were confined to rude lutes, and consisted of a few notes without change or expression. All noises or sounds being in the same key, neither were they played har- moniously. In beating torn toms and flint hides at ceremonies and dances, perfect time was observed by each musician. One of their musical instruments was a whistle or lute made of the bone of an animal or bird, or from a hollowed twig of the red willow or birch. An Indian who could play a few notes on such an instrument considered himself an accomplished musician, and, dressing himself in his most gor- geous attire, would stand near some picturesque place a spring if there was one in the vicinity where the young girls came for water, and, admiring the reflection of himself in the water, blow his lute for hours for the enter- tainment of the dusky maidens. Some of them made a banjo-like instrument, with two or three twisted sinew strings, which were tightened over the drum-like head. The strings were picked with the fingers, or struck with a hard substance held between the thumb and first finger. The noise made on such an instrument was anything but grateful to the ear of one at all musical. Their tambourines, made of flint hides, were the most perfect musical instrument they possessed, and nearly every family had one or two, which were in use almost every clear night ; for among all the savages, night was the time for merrymaking, and at these times music was indispensable. Vocal music, if such it can be called, consisted of three or four unpleasant sounding guttural notes. When singing in chorus they all sang together, but at the conclusion of each song all joined in a common yell. None of their songs were poetical, but a repetition of a few sentences in relation to the subject in which they were engaged. If in merrymaking, the words related to the charms of both sexes, and were the same that had been used by them for generations. The amusements I have mentioned were nearly all out-of-door sports, and were indulged in during the warm or summer months. The majority of Indians had few or no winter amusements, especially those living in a cold or inhospitable climate. Their principal occupation during the cold weather was to keep themselves warm and secure their food. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 101 JNT CHAPTER X. INDIAN WOMEN TANNERS THE MAKING OF AN INDIAN LODGE INDIAN ART AND ARTISTS AN INDIAN VILLAGE ON THE MOVE. Indian Tepees and Camps How Lodge Covers were made Lodge Poles Erecting Lodges The Entrance Suffering from Cold Going Barefoot in the Snow Decorating the Lodge Cover Deeds of Valor recorded in Picture Writing Some well Executed Drawings Going to bed with their Clothes on Interior Arrangement of a Lodge Expert Horsewomen Dexterity in throwing the Lasso Packing the Animals The Travois Adjusting the Pack How the Old, Infirm, and Children were Transported A Village on the Move A Strange Sight Crossing Streams Clothing that was never Cleansed A Filthy Race The Art of Packing Animals How Pack Animals were prevented from lying down. INDIAN women did all the tanning for the family requirements, and the work was done in various ways. When it was intended that a skin should be very soft and pliable, only the brain of the animal and clear fresh water were used. Skins tanned in this way were made into dresses, leggings, moccasins, and other articles of personal and wearing apparel. The skins used for lodge covers, and hides used for horse equipments and coarser articles of home and camp life were tanned in a different way and with much less care. They were simply thrown into the water and allowed to remain until the hair fell off, when they were stretched tight on the ground by driving sticks through holes cut in the edges while the hide waa wet and soft. Scraping knives made from the horn of the elk were gener- ally used. The women would get down on their hands and knees on the hide and scrape off all the flesh and pulpy matter. After the hide had dried it was put through a process of softening before it was in condition to be used as a lodge cover. The hide used for this purpose was usually that of a buffalo bull, as it was much thicker and more serviceable than that of a buffalo cow. Lodge covers were made by the women, who sewed them to- gether with thongs. From ten to twenty hides were required for the cover- ings of each lodge according to its size. Poles for the lodges were difficult to obtain by the Indians of the plains, where wood was scarce and good straight poles hard to find, and they were 102 TWENTY YEARS, AMONG, QJJR HOSTILE INDIANS. accordingly highly valued. They were procured and finished by the women, and were necessarily of sound, straight young trees, generally of pine, birch, or other light but strong wood. They were from one and one-half to three inches in diameter, and from fifteen to twenty-five feet in length. The bark and every small knot or growth was carefully removed from them and they were made perfectly smooth. In putting up a lodge from fifteen to twenty- five of these poles were used. The covering was drawn over them and fas- tened with skewers or sticks where the edges of the covering met. At the top of the lodge was a large flap in the corner of which the end of a pole was inserted. When this flap was closed it kept the heat in and the cold out, and unless opened when the fire was built the interior would soon be filled with smoke. The lower edge of the lodge cov- ering was fastened to the ground by long pegs driven deep into the earth. The pegs prevented the lodge from be- ing blown over by high winds. The entrance was the only hole of any size, except the top, in the entire cover- ing. This entrance was cov- ered by a hide, drawn over a hoop made from a small branch and hung over the hole. The opening was rarely closed, except in cold weather, or to keep the dogs out. Even the best of these lodges afforded but slight protection against severe storms or bitter cold. Rain found its way into them and the snow blew through the holes underneath the covering, half-filling the interior, making it exceedingly uncomfortable. During severe rainstorms the beds and sometimes the lodges were flooded, and the occupants were compelled to flee to higher ground with such effects as they could carry. The fire in the lodges was necessarily built on the ground; around it the women and children would huddle to keep warm. During winter storms when the Indians were compelled to go about their camps in the perform- ance of necessary duties, they often did so barefoot, as their moccasins and leggings would become "saturated in the snow or rain in a short time; when WHISTLING BEAR BRULE SIOUX. KIOWA LODGE. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 103 104 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. in that condition were cold and disagreeable to the wearer. They preferred to keep their footwear dry even at the expense of temporary discomfort. Both men and women would frequently carry their moccasins and leggings in their hands after having been caught in a cold rain or snow storm. At times during the cold weather they would wear sandals made from the flint hides of some animal as a protection to the soles of the feet. During a pro- longed cold storm or blizzard, which was frequent in the far north, the In- dians and their animals, including their dogs, were great sufferers. Lodges of this description were probably the best habitations that could be used by these nomads; for, being continually on the move,- it was neces- sary to transport their entire camp equipment from place to place. They were easily and quickly put up and taken down, and it was a rare thing, even in the severest wind storm, for one of them to be blown down, although it sometimes occurred. Frequently the coverings were fantastically painted with figures outlined in different colors, red and blue being the favorite. These figures repre- sented different scenes, some depicting a warrior seated on his horse in deadly combat with a hostile brave; an Indian fighting a bear with his spear; an Indian on foot killing a man with bis bow and arrow, tomahawk, knife, or lance; or some other prodigious deed of valor. Sometimes the entire lodge covering was decorated with these rude drawings. They gener- ally commemorated some great event in the career of the occupant of the lodge, or hairbreadth escape of himself or some of the male members of his family. These drawings were usually made by the men, some of them show- ing considerable artistic ability. Some of the women also possessed no little skill. Nearly all Indians were fond of decorating their lodge covers in this manner, using the brightest colors they could obtain, and some of their imaginary or real deeds of valor were portrayed in the most picturesque style, though they were often more glaring than artistic. When the wild Indians retired to sleep they wrapped themselves in the robes or blankets they had worn during the day. The beds were more a name than a reality ; these consisted of the dried hides of buffalo, horses, or other animals, laid upon the ground to keep out the dampness. Occasion- ally they placed an additional buffalo robe or two on top. For pillows they used skins, or any bulky, soft stuff which they might have at hand. The interior arrangement of an Indian lodge was a series of such beds arranged in a circle, leaving a space in the center for the fire on which the cooking was done, and it also served to some extent to warm the lodge in winter. Some of the women were expert at drawing designs on buckskin for bead and porcupine quill work. In ornamenting their clothing they would first TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 105 draw the outlines of the figure, then sew bead or porcupine ornaments on them, using an awl made of bone; and the end of a small sinew for a needle. All Indian women were expert riders and rode astride on the animal's bare back, or on a man's saddle. Like the men they were expert in throw- ing the lasso, and were fearless of any animal, no matter how vicious. Children, both boys and girls, were tied on the backs of horses almost as soon as they were able to walk, and taught to ride, to manage animals, and to throw the lasso or the lariat rope. When Indians moved their camp, which they were frequently compelled to do, the women did all the packing. Their belongings and the whole camp outfit was put in condition by them for transportation and fastened on travois, or packed on their horses, mules, and dogs. Travois were made by lashing the ends of lodge poles together, then throwing the lashed ends over the saddle of an animal, leaving the other end of the poles dragging on the ground in the rear. Immediately behind the animal was a large oval frame made from the limbs of a young tree, with rawhide thongs woven in and out across it, so that it somewhat resembled a lawn tennis racquet, only that it was much larger and coarser. This frame was lashed to the poles on each side, forming the bottom of a rude basket on which their effects were to be transported. It also served to keep the poles a sufficient distance apart. When the children, and the sick, infirm, or aged were to be transported on a travois, a cage-like covering of the same material was placed over this platform and lashed to it; over this lodge covers were thrown as a protection against the sun, rain, or snow, as well as to keep the inmates from falling out. In traveling, each animal had its travois. Even the dogs were not exempt from this service; most of them were required to drag a travois made of small poles. Children not old enough to care for themselves, but too old to be carried by their mothers, were placed in them. Drawing the travois was very severe on the animals. After a short time in this service their backs would become a mass of raw sores. Horses and mules that had been in possession of the Indians for any length of time were rarely seen without such sores or scars upon them, which was sure evidence of their labor in drawing the travois. To one not accustomed to it it was a novel sight to see an Indian village on the move. Some of the horses would have one, two, and three children on their backs while dragging the travois, others would have two women astride in addition to dragging the load. The travois and pack animals were scattered in every direction along the route, but all moved together toward one general point. In dry weather the dust made by one of these 106 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. moving villages could be seen for miles. When crossing swollen streams the work of the women was very laborious. Everything had to be removed from the travois and packed on the backs of the animals to prevent the goods from getting wet. Once across they were replaced on the travois, and the village proceeded until camp was reached, where they erected the lodges. The packing of animals was an art in itself. The pack saddle was made, both at the pommel and cantle, like the figure "X." The bottom, where it rested on the back of the animal, was shaped something like the bottom of a INDIAN TRAVOIS BLACKFOOT. wooden saddle. The Indians used strong rawhide cinches to fasten the sad- dle to the animal. The load was added gradually, and when the pack was complete, a rawhide or hair lariat rope was placed around and over the goods and over and under the animal many times, being fastened on the crosses at the top of the pommel and cantle. The pack of an animal should be so placed on its back as to have the weight equal on both sides, and in such manner that it would not slip or move, or any portion of it fall out or get in such position as to cause repeated stoppages to adjust it. Pack ani- mals would sometimes carry a load of five or six hundred pounds each, and, when packed, it was necessary to lead them around in a circle constantly to 'TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ' 107 prevent them from tying down, for should they lie down with the pack they would be unable to rise again unless the pack was removed. Of all expert packers in the mountains and on the plains, none oould compare with Indian women. People of to-day little realize how long it took the Indians to acquire or accumulate the small amount of stuff they had in their keeping. Beads, porcupine work, Iroquois shells, claws and teeth of bears and mountain lions, arrowheads, lances, shields, pipes and stems, bows and arrows, and horse equipments largely made up their possessions. These were handed down from generation to generation, and were much prized as having been the property of their forefathers. As they never cleaned or wasted their effects, their dirty condition can be readily imagined. All their habitations were foul-smelling from the unutterably filthy condition of their entire be- longings. All Indians were fond of trinkets, particularly of the Iroquois shell. The Iroquois is a shell-fish caught off the coast of British Columbia, in the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The method of catching it was to attach a piece of fresh meat to a rope and sink it to the bottom of the sea, when the Iroquois would settle upon it as thick as the quills on the back of a porcupine. The meat was then drawn to the surface, the shell-fish were laid in the sun, and the animal life soon passed out. The shell, when cleaned and polished, was a beautiful white, like ivory, and slightly curved, like a bear's claw. It was from one, to two and one-half inches in length, tapering from the diame- ter of a rye straw at the larger end nearly to a point. The Indians passed sinews through these shells and made necklaces and breastplates of them for their women; the men also wore them when they could procure them. The shells were highly prized and expensive, because they were difficult to obtain. 108 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XL THE SIGN LANGUAGE ITS MYSTERIOUS ORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE COM- MUNICATION BY SIGNALS. Indian Languages Their Strange Diversity No two Indian Nations known to Converse in the Language of the Other The Sign Language Its Mysterious Origin The Arapaho, Sioux, Cheyenne, and Navajo Languages Significance of the Sign Lan- guage Sign Language by Horse Riding The Sign Language of the Hands Diffi- cult Sentence in the Sign Language An Incident in my own Experience Sign Language by Movements of the Horse Sign Language by the Mirror Sign Lan- guage by Smoke Communicating at Long Distance How an Indian Wrote a Letter Hieroglyphics on the Faces of Rocks in Texas Rude Drawing in Caves Difficulty of Interpreting Them. ALL Indian nations spoke a different language, and this diversity has given rise to much discussion among philologists. It must he conceded that the Indian nations had a very ancient history, as ibey lived in compara- tively close proximity to each other and yet spoke wholly different tongues. The sign language of the Indians was nearly universal among all In- dian nations, and was handed down from a remote period. Neither the learned nor the unlearned can throw any light on its origin. The Indians themselves did not know how they acquired it. It descended from their ancestors, and that is all they knew about it. The hieroglyphs of the Aztecs are not more mysterious in their origin than the sign languages of the Indian races of the West. The wild Indian had the faculty of adapting himself to his surroundings, so long as they were congenial, and found means at all times to utilize every- thing suited to his needs. Nothing in his entire existence was more useful to him than the sign lan- guage; through this silent means of communication a mem her of any tribe located in Texas, could converse with a member of another living in the far north, or along the St. Lawrence river, although both were unconscious of the existence of the other. In this, immediately on meeting, conversation began by one of these mys- terious mediums; probably the first was by the movements of the horse or smoke, when i truce was declared ; then, if satisfactory, a friendly conversa- tion was held by the more complete, or comprehensive means of the signs by the hands. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 109 So well were the signs understood by all, that no practice was necessary between the parties. Among no other peoples in the world speaking different languages, is there a general means of communication of any kind that is understood at sight. These signs were exceedingly graceful, as well as significant. The oral language of one nation might be pleasing to the ear; another might be harsh, coarse, and guttural ; in another the words might be very few. It was difficult and sometimes almost impossible for an Indian nation to acquire or speak intelligently any language but its own. So it was even with tribes of the same nation. The Navajo, for instance, a tribe of the great Athabaskan nation, could scarcely understand the Apache, who be- longed to the same family. The Arapaho language in particular was very poor, having but a few hundred words, yet it was extremely difficult to ac- quire sufficient knowledge of it to converse on the most ordinary subjects; whereas the Sioux language was rich in words, pleasant in sound, and was much more easily acquired. The Algonquin language was also pleasing to the ear and readily learned. Yet nearly all Indians possessed a means of ready communication between themselves through the medium of the sign language, wbich somewhat re- sembled the method of communication between mutes. All Indians were extremely reticent, speaking but few words, yet they would sit for hours conversing with each other in the sign language. The sign language of the hands was highly significant, though it was necessary to follow closely the thread of conversation, for the wrong interpretation of a single sign was sufficient to break the whole chain of thought. Another peculiarity was the rapidity with which Indians could communi- cate with each other by ifc. The Sioux would by its use express a great deal more in a shorter time than by word of mouth. The sign language was very figurative. For instance, if an Indian de- sired to say that you were not truthful, he would touch his tongue with one finger, and hold up two fingers toward you, signifying that you were double- tongued, that is, untruthful. If he wished to say that a given place was distant two, three, or more days' journey, he would twirl the fingers of both hands, one over the other like a wheel rolling, inclining the head as if asleep, and hold up as many fingers as there were "sleeps," meaning nights, thus indicating the number of days of travel necessary to reach the place in question. If he desired to refer to the past, he would extend the hand in front with the index finger pointed, drawing his arm back with a screw motion, meaning a long time back. If he intended to refer to the future, he would put his hand with the index finger extended at his back, pushing 110 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. it forward with a screw motion, thus indicating a distant time in the future. If he desired to speak of being on horseback he did so by putting the first and second fingers over the fingers of the left hand, representing a man on horseback. If he wished to state that he had a large quantity of anything, he would make the sign of a heap with his two hands shaped like a funnel, moving them upward from the ground to a point, in the form of the letter A. If he desired to say that he had nothing, he would open the palm of his right hand and in a sweeping way, with a movement of the fore- arm to the right would indi- cate that the hand wasemptj'. If he desired to say that he had had a good meal he would extend the thumb and fore- finger of his right hand over the region of his stomach, moving the hand up to his mouth, indicating that he was full. These are a few of the symbols of the sign language. The signs employed were innumerable, and every one of them illustrated the idea to be conveyed. One of the most difficult sign sentences that I ever tried to comprehend was in conversation with some Indians in the South Park. We were ex- pecting to go into battle the next day, and the night before one of our Indian allies came to me and talked in the sign language. The first sign given was one sleep, after which the right hand was passed rapidly under the left, both palms being opened downward, which meant "going in." The next sign was opening and shutting the fingers of each hand toward each other rapidly, which meant to fight, then a downward catch of the forefinger, which meant good or true; and last, the most incomprehensible of all, the making of the figure with the index finger and thumb of the right hand, turning the hand over as though emptying a bottle. After repeated efforts to interpret the last sign I gave it up in despair, but finally learned the translation of it KICKING BEAR S CAMP SIOUX. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Ill It meant to pour something out. The whole sentence translated verbatim was, "To-morrow I will go in and fight good, if I pour my life out." Such was the brief but graphic description of his intentions as expressed by the sign language. Mounted Indians often communicated in the sign language by the move- ments of their horses. I never was able to translate many of these signs, but to the Indian they were all perfectly plain. I have seen Indians con- verse in this manner as far as the eye could see, understanding each other perfectly. The movements of the horses were made in rapid succession, and seemed to me in the long distance all about the same. Another means of communication was by the flashing of a mirror in the sun. This method of signaling was sometimes used for long distances. At that time, however, it was rare for an Indian to have a mirror, and as they could only be used in the sunlight they were not of great service. Still another means of communication was by fire and smoke. The latter was of great service while in the mountains, and to the Indians was per- fectly intelligible. Although smoke seems uncontrollable, yet they made it serve their purpose well. The sign language enabled each nation of Indians to converse with one another intelligently. By it bands of warriors of different nations could communicate at long distances, making alliances among themselves for descent on their enemies and for attacks upon settlers, overland travelers, and others. None of the wild Indians had any method of general communication by means of pen or pencil, although I once saw an Indian letter written under the following circumstances: Some traders had been sent to trade with In- dians in the vicinity of Rawhide Peak. The Indians had brought in a great many more pelts than the traders expected would be offered, and the stores they brought for exchange soon ran low. An Indian took the dressed hide of a deer and pictured a letter on it with colored crayons. It rep- resented an Indian leading a mule with a pack saddle on it; a red roll, representing a bolt of red cloth; a black tin can such as powder is sold in, and a drawing representing a bar of lead, thus signifying that his party wanted a pack mule, a roll of scarlet cloth, some powder, lead, and ammunition to trade. This letter was considered a great curiosity by all who saw it. Along some of the streams in Texas, there is a limestone formation with perpendicular smooth walls, varying in height from fifty to a hundred and fifty feet. On the rocks along some of these streams are petroglyphics, drawn and cut by the Indians. They are found in various portions of that 112 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. State, and are the work of different Indian nations. Some of the Jesuit Fathers claimed to be able to translate this figure writing, but I have never known any two of them to give the same translation. My opinion is, that the Indians, being in camp near these places, drew and cut these figures for their own amusement, and without any serious intention of perpetuating historical or other events. Nearly all the figures on the rocks in that State are of about the same kind, representing horses mounted and unmounted, Indian men and women, deer, bears, and other animals. One striking feature is the great age of some of these petroglyphics. In that State some of the Indian nations buried their dead in the ground, and put a stone over the grave to mark the spot as well as to keep wild animals from digging up the remains. If the Indians were able to write, they would no doubt mark the spot with hierolgyphics cut in stone in some way that would be intelligible to those who came after. If these petrographs were not for this purpose it may be that they are of no special significance, but were rather the work of vain Indians who desired to show their ability as artists. INDIAN BARK HOUSE. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 113 CHAPTER XII. THE INDIAN AS A FIGHTER HIS BRAVERY AND CONTEMPT OF DEATH A CUNNING, STEALTHY, AND TREACHEROUS FOE. Born Fighters The Indian's Contempt of Death His Great Courage Fighting and Hunt- ing His only Occupations Not easily Surprised or Ambushed Indian Method of Preparing for Battle Return of a War Party Re-enacting the Warlike Scene Treatment of Captives Prolonging the Torture Effect of Firearms on the Primeval Indian How the Indian first secured Firearms Horse-stealing consid- ered a Virtue Indian Lack of Inventiveness Articles that have never been im- proved on The Snowshoe, Moccasin, Tepee, and Bow and Arrow Great Buoyancy of their Canoes. WHATEVER may be said of Indian ferocity, whether in conflict with his own race or with the white man, his courage cannot be disputed. From his first contact with the whites until his recent round-up on the reservations, he always proved himself a born fighter. He usually hesitated to attack until he was sure he had the advantage; but that only proved that he was shrewd as well as brave. The white man had the best of modern weapons, while the Indian for the most part had to depend upon his bow and arrow, or a rusty old gun or pistol, with limited ammunition. If he resorted to treachery in fighting, and was wily almost to cowardice during battle, he was only making up for his disadvantages, and could not reasonably be blamed for it. When fighting with other In- dians, on equal terms as to equipments of war. he evinced the greatest cour- age and showed supreme contempt of death. Fighting was as natural to the Indians as hunting. They were fighting among themselves when the white man first met them; they had traditions of strife and warfare from im- memorial periods; and kept up a chronic warfare with each other, as well as with the whites, until the national government reduced them to submission. When fighting among themselves they had rude military codes and regula- tions, held war councils, and planned campaigns or raids, after true Indian fashion. It was not often that one Indian tribe surprised another, for the Indian instinctively feared an enemy on every side, and was on the alert. Before 114 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. going on the warpath, many of them worked themselves into diabolic frenzy by engaging in their so-called war dance, painting their faces and bodies, uttering fierce cries and war-whoops. The aged, the feeble, and the young who remained behind, cheered them on, and eagerly awaited their return with booty or captives. When the war party returned, its approach was first announced by scouts, and the result of the adventure related. If the expedition had met with disaster, the names of the dead or captured were made known, when the women indulged in wild waitings and other signs of grief. Should the un- lucky party, however, bring with them captives, all the passion and fury of the tribe was sure to be wreaked on them. Unless thoroughly crushed, the returning party did not admit defeat, but indulged in shouts of triumph, brandishing their weapons and waving the scalps or other trophies they might have taken. An imitation of the warlike scene was re-enacted, and the exploits of the braves rehearsed in mimicry. If successful, the captives were sometimes spared and adopted into the tribe. Captive men were rarely permitted to accompany a war party against their own people, the warriors fearing that the prisoner might escape and rejoin his tribe; besides the Indians were suspicious of every one, and placed con- fidence in no one outside of their own people. When condemned to torture and death, the sufferings of the captives were intensified by every method of barbarity the tormentor could devise. In ingenuity of cruelty, and in the exercise of it, the women were invariably the most fiendish. If the victim manifested any indication of weakness or cowardice he was treated with jeers and scorn, and his sufferings were pro- longed and multiplied. If, on the contrary, he bore his torture with indom- itable stoicism, as he usually did, he elicited the admiration of his torment- ors, and at times his fortitude was rewarded by his torturers putting an end to his sufferings. When the Indian first encountered the white man's firearms he was stricken with superstitious awe. He knew not what to make of the artificial thunder and lightning. As civilization advanced to the West he gradually secured modern implements of war, and became more or less proficient in their use. The adventurer and trader did not hesitate to supply the savage with these instruments of destruction, although they might be turned against those who supplied them at any moment. Next to taking the scalp of his enemy, the highest virtue in the Indian's catalogue was success in horse-stealing. When the merits of a brave were recounted by others, adeptness as a thief was considered by his tribe as almost equivalent to exploits in battle. Hence there was for the Indian a TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 115 double incentive in horse-stealing it gained for him admiration and wealth at the same time. The more horses he had the richer he was, and the more influential he was with his people. The North American Indian was not noted for his inventiveness. Like the animals to which he so closely adapted himself, he was satisfied with his existence, and did not try to improve his condition, or to render life more agreeable. But there are several things that he invented which all the in- genuity of the white man has never been able to improve. These are the canoe, the moccasin, the snowshoe, the tepee, and the bow and arrow. BULL-BOAT OF THE NORTHWEST. Each of these is simply perfect in regard to the use for which it was intended. The Indians roamed over the entire country in search of subsistence, and utilized the water highways in their rovings to the fullest extent possible. The birch-bark canoe was well adapted to the end for which it was designed. It was made sufficiently strong to carry themselves and their belongings over the lakes and streams; it was also light enough to be transported over port, ages from one waterway to another. Over portages they first transported their goods, and then returned for the boat. The birch-bark canoe was gen- erally used on the waters of the North and Northwest. In the far western plains, where no birch trees grew, they fashioned boats out of the hides of buffalo, making the so-called bull-boat. This was shaped by stretching the green hides over a wooden frame. It was extremely difficult to adapt one's self to those frail canoes without overturning them, but Indians manipulated them with consummate skill. It is, however, worthy of note that the French voyageurs handled bull-boats 116 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. and canoes with more facility, and adapted them to a greater variety of uses than the Indian had ever done. The material of which the Indian canoe was made was easily procurable, and if damaged it was easy to repair. Some of the bark canoes were capable of carrying many tons of freight, besides paddlers and passen- gers, and were used by all the fur companies, traders, hunters, and pioneers in transporting their stores. The moccasin, as a foot cov- ering, was as admirably adapted to the Indian as was the canoe. It was made of tanned deer skin, and was sewed with the sinews of animals, the hole for the sinew being made with an awl of bone or other sharp instru- ment. The moccasin kept the foot warm, did not impede per- spiration, was elastic and soft, allowing perfect use of the foot and toes in climbing rough places or treading rugged paths. It was easily made and easily mended. The snowshoe was a necessity for the Indian in the more northerly regions, enabling him to travel in winter through deep snows, and to hunt game. With it he could go over the deepest snow drifts without sinking, and where he had level footing he could run with great speed. The snowshoe is to-day universally used in cold coun- tries, and in the armies of north- SNOWSHOES OF THE BLAOKFEET. ern Europe is B. part of the mili- tary equipment. It is, in its make and in its use, the same as the Indian gave it to us. Neither science nor art has improved on it in the least. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 117 Of the tepee, and bow and arrow, nothing further need be said here, as they are elsewhere fully described. The tepee or skin-covered lodge is a thing of the past. The Indian has passed from his nomadic condition and no longer requires this kind of habitation. Furthermore, the animals upon which he depended for the covering of this movable dwelling have become almost extinct. LITTLE KIOWA GIRL, WITH DOLL. 118 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XIII. THE INDIAN'S NATURAL WEAPONS AND HOW HE USED THEM TEACHING YOUNG BRAVES INDIAN WARFARE. Indian Weapons of War and of the Chase The Indian War Club The Tomahawk The ' Scalping Knife The Lance and Shield The Bow and Arrow How they were made Dexterity of the Indian in the Use of the Bow His Lack of Proficiency in the Use of Modern Firearms His Limited Use of Tools Boys Practicing with Bow and Arrow Securing their first Firearms The Indian not a Good Rifle Shot Sham Battles A Realistic and Exciting Exhibition Their Decorations and Equipment How the Young Brave Acquired a Knowledge of War Dexterity in Rescuing their Wounded during Battle His thorough Mastery of his Horse. THE oft-repeated and commonly accepted statement that the wild Indians of this country used a stone war club as a weapon of offense or defense is largely fictitious. In the first place, it is unfitted for such a purpose. The person using a club must first come in close contact with his enemy before he could make use of such a weapon. Again, the stone club is heavy and unwieldy, and is not dangerous except when the enemy is lying prostrate. Clubs of the kind referred to were common in Indian camps, but were usually employed as mallets in driving stakes or lodge pins, and for general camp purposes. It is true, however, that after a battle the women would sometimes dispatch the wounded and mutilate the dead on the battlefield by smashing their skulls with these clubs. Some of the men carried a peculiar-looking club, painted in gaudy colors, the handle thickly studded with brass-headed nails. On one side, near the top, was fastened one or more formidable looking blades of iron. Other kinds of clubs had a solid wooden head at the end, in which was fastened a long iron spike. The Indians did not, to my knowledge, use these clubs in battle with white men, or between themselves. They were carried upon ceremonial occasions for show. The Indian loved to see himself portrayed with this ugly- looking, but useless weapon, conspicuously displayed, and nothing would tickle his vanity more than to have his picture taken with his favorite club in his hand. With the advent of firearms among the Indians, the tomahawk also ceased TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 119 to be an important war weapon. It was commonly carried, but generally used as a pipe, the back or head being hollow and used for a bowl, and the handle, which had a hole through it, was used for a stem. The blade or axe was of iron or steel; this they procured from white traders. The tomahawk has passed into history as a bloody weapon, and at one time might have been en- titled to its reputation as such, but of late years it was rarely used. If by chance an Indian met another in a hand-to-hand combat his weapon was the knife. Some of the duels with knives were of the bloodiest kind; they would stab and slash each other so terribly that both contes- tants died locked in each other's arms. When a fight of this kind occurred it was sure to end fatally for one or both. I once saw the bodies of two Indians who died in this manner, and counted eight stabs and twenty one slashes on one body, and eight stabs and fourteen slashes on the other; the bodies were lying close to each other just as they had died. All Indians, both men and women, carried a knife in a sheath attached to the belt, and were dexterous in its use. The knife was their inseparable companion, and was used for slaughtering animals, scalping enemies, and for general purposes. Knives were kept as sharp as possible, the handle being often elaborately ornamented in true Indian style. In early days on the plains it was difficult for them to secure a sufficient supply of knives, but that difficulty ceased after white traders established trading posts throughout the Indian country. WAR CLUB ORNAMENTED WITH BRASS-HEADED NAILS BEAR CLAW DECORATION ON END OF BUCKSKIN SHIRT SLEEVES FACIAL PAINTING MINNECONJOUX SIOUX. 120 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The wild Indian was also armed with a lance, which he sometimes used with deadly effect in battle or on raiding ex- peditions; many of the nations and tribes carried this weapon until they were disarmed. The-head of the lance was made of iron or steel procured from white traders. The old tradition, so common in history and fiction, of Indians using poisoned arrows, is without foundation. In the first place, I am at loss to know where they could procure the poison. It is claimed, however, by some that they used the venom of the rattlesnake for this purpose. Admitting this to be a fact they could have but few poisoned arrows, for the owner would be apt to be the first to suffer from contact with them. If they ever did use poisoned arrows it must have been of rare occur- rence. I never saw or heard of any, in my long experience among the Indians. The bow and arrow was well made, and was often a work of art. The shaft of the arrow varied in length among different tribes, and was usually made from reeds, or carefully selected straight, slender branches of the red willow. The lower end was feathered along the sides from two or three inches to more than a foot. The point or head was ordinarily made of hoop iron, and was fastened to the shaft by sinews. Some of these were barbed on both sides like a fish-hook. Once a barbed arrow entered the body of a human being it was neces- sary to push it entirely through, or cut it out, in order to remove it, for should an attempt be made to draw it out the way it went in, the barbs would catch in the flesh, and pull off of the staff. Should an arrow remain in the flesh for a length of time the sinew used to fasten the head to the shaft became soft, and an effort made to withdraw the arrow at once disengaged the shaft and left the arrowhead in the wound. The bow was usually made of hickory, willow, mesquit, or Qsage orange wood. Occasionally bows were reinforced or LANCE AND BELT SIOUX. DOG SOLDIER INSIGNIA. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 121 backed with the sinew of the elk or buffalo, which made them very strong and elastic. A person not accustomed to a bow of this kind might scarcely spring it two inches, while an Indian would spring it a foot or more, driv- ing the arrow with tremendous velocity. With a strong bow he would drive the arrow half its length into the body of a buffalo. The bowstring was of twisted sinews and was very strong, lasting a long time. It would cut like a knife when used by unskilled hands. The Indian protected his arm at the wrist by a piece of rawhide, to prevent the relaxed bowstring from cutting and disabling him. A bow and arrow outfit was usually carried in a bow case and quiver, attached to each other, made of skin, generally of the mountain lion, otter, or buffalo, and was slung over the Indian's back. Indian boys would frequently stand in line when practicing with the bow, each with his hand full of arrows, firing them with such rapidity that the air would be filled with them. After they were through firing each would run and select his own arrows where they had fallen. This seems incredible, as all the arrows looked alike, yet they rarely made a mistake. At first the only firearms they had were the old-fashioned, flint-lock, muzzle-loading pistols and muskets. Later on, however, they managed to obtain the best modern arms, but they still clung to their natural weapon, the bow and arrow. With the advance of civilization the Indians experi- enced less difficulty in securing modern firearms and ammunition. It is a notable fact that Indians did not acquire proficiency in the use of firearms. Even after the red man was employed in the United States mili- tary service, where he had every facility for improvement, he did not com- pare favorably with the white man in handling firearms. The common idea gained from Cooper's "Leather Stocking Tales," and more modern litera- ture, that all Indian warriors were superior marksmen, is a romantic delu- sion. The best that can be said of them is that they made progress in the use of modern arms. They were not experts with the rifle, and rarely, if ever, practiced target shooting which is absolutely necessary to make a fine marksman principally for the reason that such practice meant a waste of ammunition; as it was difficult for them to obtain this they preferred to re- serve it for fighting or procuring food. Not until about 1863 or 1864, when some benevolent people of the East took pity on these poor red men, did they obtain modern firearms, such as Winchester repeating rifles, Spencer car- bines, and other magazine pieces. As it was necessary to have metallic cartridges for the use of these arms, they were particularly careful not to waste this kind of ammunition. Besides, the Indian did not acquire pro- ficiency in the use of tools, nor did he have them, so when his modern firearms 122 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. got out of order he was unable to repair them ; therefore they remained use- less weapons. Efforts were made to teach Indians in the employ of the government the principles of marksmanship, but according to a recent de- partment report they did not reach much more than one-third of the average of the white man either in individual or collective firing with the rifle. At pistol firing they were somewhat better in mounted practice, showing some improvement over their degree of skill with the rifle. In spite of all efforts of the government the record made by them was far below that made by the troops. Notwithstanding the Indian's constant use of his weapons and the fact that from earliest childhood he had but one ambition, proficiency in war, they did not organize themselves into bodies for drill with arms, or in manoeu- vring or instruction in the art of war. When they attempted a drill of any kind a number of them would come together and go through a sham battle. Sometimes they would choose a chief or leader, when going through an imaginary fight. Sham fights were not for instruction but for amuse- ment. Each member of the tribe was at liberty to join in the fun and retire when he pleased. When going through sham manoeuvres they were often fantastically dressed in war bonnets and feathers, with their bodies and faces painted in the most hideous style. They were naked, except the breech cloth and moccasins, as though entering a real battle. They would mount their best war horses, which had their bodies painted, and were decorated with feathers in the tails, manes, and foretops. Their shields on such occasions were indispensable. Everything being in readiness, the Indians formed themselves in line on the open ground or field, facing toward an imaginary foe. Suddenly they would make a charge in the direction of the party they were supposed to attack. After the charge had been made every warrior would act independently, throwing himself from one side of his horse to the other, charging and counter-charging, circling as if surrounding the enemy, throwing his lance, firing his arrows, uttering war cries and yells, and mak- ing all sorts of movements as if engaged in the fiercest battles. The shield was fastened about the neck and over the shoulder with a buckskin thong, would by dexterous movements of the body, and without the use of the hanJs be constantly moved from one side to the other, to the back and front, and placed in every position possible to prevent the warrior being pierced by the weapons of the opposing party. They presented a pic- turesque appearance when moving and circling rapidly with their gayly colored war bonnets and feathers, especially if scalps dangled from the shields, which was often the case. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 123 During sham battles the yells of the flying warriors were deafening. These imaginary conflicts usually lasted hut a short time, for it was hard work; to this, the red man was constitutionally opposed. The Indian was so independent in his nature and so impatient of restraint, that it prevented his becoming a part of an organization for the purpose of instruction or drill. The young brave acquired much knowledge of war from listening to the old warriors as they told of their many battles, and the glorious part they had acted in them. After hearing these stories the young man at the first opportunity mounted one of the best horses belonging to himself or father, and went through an imaginary fight by himself. In this way he became a good horseman, as well as versed in the movements of Indian warfare. One thing all Indian warriors practiced and became proficient in, was the manner of seizing and carrying off a wounded comrade from the field of battle to a place of safety. Owing to this practice the troops rarely captured a wounded Indian. They also practiced how to disperse in case of defeat; this to them was one of their important manoeuvres in escaping from the enemy. They scattered in ever} T direction, in ones, twos, and threes, to prevent pursuit. After going a short distance they returned and repeated the same manoeuvre, each Indian selecting a different comrade and going in a different direction. When mounted on a vicious or untrained war horse, it is surprising with what skill a warrior managed his mount, with nothing on the animal but a lariat rope around the lower jaw. He was perfect master of his horse, twisting and turning him within his own length, and in every direction without apparent injury to the animal. When in actual battle these movements were rarely ever adhered to, but they served to teach the young warrior how to conduct himself during a real engagement, and made him an expert in handling his mount and weapons. Indians did not use spurs. It would have been difficult to obtain them ; moreover, when riding they thumped the animals constantly with their heels, and spurs would have cut through their sides in a short time. All Indians mounted and dismounted from the right, or off side with or without a saddle. When in battle they mounted from either side, when necessary. When mounted they were expert with the lasso, throwing it with great precision, catching an animal around the leg, neck or almost any part aimed at. This they could do when going at any speed. In throwing the lasso, men, women, and children were all experts. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XIV. AN INDIAN DOG FEAST FINGEES VERSUS FORKS AN INDIAN DINNER PARTY PERSONAL EXPERIENCES. Why the Indians were Nomadic A Dog Feast Cooked in its Skin with the Hair on How the Favorite Dish Tastes Its Peculiar Flavor Giving a Dinner to a Famous Chief Astonished Indians Eating all Night Indians with "Good Hearts" A Perfect Gorge Eating with their Fingers Refusing to use Knives and Forks A Delicate Meal Speech of a Great Chief" Wacpominie "What it consisted of Old-Man- Afraid-of -His -Horses An Embarrassment of Riches Some Valuable Presents Disagreeable Pests Manner of Ridding Skins of Vermin A Pertinent Conversation with a Chief and his Significant Reply The Grossest Insult known to the Sioux. IN their wild state the savages were kept moving constantly from one place to another, for the reason that when the grass was consumed in and about their camps, they went elsewhere, not to get away from the filth which had accumulated about them, but to supply forage for their animals and food for themselves. Besides, the wild Indian was naturally of a roving disposition ; he was not satisfied to remain long in one place, no matter how comfortable it might be. He had an insatiable desire for new scenes, to visit old and new acquaint- ances. Often he changed location to please one of his daughters, whose heart was attracted to another portion of the country, where she hoped to see some young man she fancied ; again he moved for reasons known only to himself. I have seen them locate in beautiful places, that afforded protec- tion from the rigors of the winter. In a few weeks the spot was deserted and they were occupying a barren, inhospitable place. The weather had nc terrors for the red man when he desired a change of locality ; they were con- stantly on the move during all seasons of the year. On notable occasions they held a feast. Of these the greatest of all was a dog feast. Their dogs every Indian village and camp was overrun with them were a species more or less inbred with the coyote and gray wolf. For a feast of this kind some of the fattest dogs were killed. The Indians TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 125 would sit all night eating the meat of a dog boiled in a pot, bones and all, cooked without salt, and eaten without accompaniments of any kind. The flesh of a dog, when boiled Indian style, has its own peculiar flavor. It is stringy and tough, though the fat of the animal when boiled is passably palatable. I have been to many of these feasts, and must confess that I do not relish dog meat. A great feast was once held near Fort Laramie, pending negotiations between Colonel Wm. E. Maynadier and Red Cloud, at which many Indians were present, probably ten thousand, all Sioux. Old-Man- Afraid-cf-his- Horses was not present at the treaty, but arrived a few days afterwards, when I had a talk with him. This was after the massacre of August, 1863. As he called me his son, I gave him a banquet consisting of hard bread (a kind of cracker supplied by the government to the troops), bacon, salt pork, dried beans, peas, rice, hominy, sugar and coffee. There were about two hundred and fifty Indians present at this feast, in- cluding Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses, and other chiefs less notable. The cooking was done by the troops in kettles and pans belonging to the garri- son, and was served by the soldiers on tin plates. Our Sioux guests sat in a large circle after their own fashion, and ate with their fingers, refusing to use the knives and forks with which we supplied them. This was not a meal, but as some of the troops aptly remarked, a perfect gorge. The Indians sat eating the entire night; when morning came there was not a vestige of what I had supposed was an abundant supply, besides something for each one to take to his lodge for his family. The amount of very much sweetened coffee they consumed was astounding. This feast would not com- mend itself to the ordinary white man on account of the tempting dishes pro- vided, but as few, if any, of these Indians had ever tasted such a variety of food, they made many grunts and gesticulations testifying to their high ap- preciation of such a delicate repast. They licked their fingers and looked at each other in astonishment, their eyes following the men serving the food as if saying to them, "Give me some more." After the feast was over and the Indians had "good hearts" for the time being, on account of the fullness of their stomachs, Old-Man-Afraid-of-his- Horses arose and made a speech, saying in substance, "For this feast and for all that we have received at the hands of our friend Possuscopie" (Roman Nose, for that was the name these people called me) "we will pour out the goodness of our hearts. " Many of the Indians who partook of the feast made me presents afterwards, mainly consisting of buffalo robes, some of which were decorated in the most gorgeous style of aboriginal art. I also received some tanned deer and antelope skins, and other articles of small 126 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. value. I must have received that day, in all, fully sixty or seventy skins. Many of them were handsomely decorated with porcupine quills, and were as soft and pliable as a piece of the finest cloth. The labor of tanning them on the fleshy side required great skill. In preparing them the roots of the hair were not injured ; otherwise the hair and fur would constantly shed, which would diminish the value of the skin and annoy the wearer. Among these presents were a number of beaver skins, which were not only of intrin- sic value but were rendered more so by the way the pelts had been prepared. These were tannea with the brains of the animal and had a pleasant smell. I had some of the beaver skins made into a robe that was much admired, and which often served to cover me while lying on the ground exposed to the rain or snow. I returned some of the presents to the donors. It may be asked why I did so. In the first place it required a long time for Indians to make such ac- cumulations; secondly, I could not use them all; and lastly, and the most important reason was, they were filled with vermin. The manner of ridding buffalo robes of vermin was to lay the robes on the ground upon or near the hills of the large black ants which were numerous in that country, when the ants would seize the vermin and eat them. It took many days to rid a hide of the pests, as each hair had numerous nits or eggs upon it. These had to hatch out (which took some time) and be destroyed by the ants before the robe was entirely freed from the vermin. On this occasion, there were present Red Cloud, Spotted Tail, Old Smoke, The Trunk, Dull Knife, Lone Dog, Ribs, Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses, and many other Sioux notables. I asked Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses to answer one question, insisting that he should do so frankly. Prefixing my question by saying, "You call me your sou. What would you have done to me, had you met me in a defenseless position during the time of the massa- cre?" He hung his head for a moment as if in deep thought, and without raising his eyes or looking at me, said, "My son, I should have regretted meeting you. I would not have harmed you, myself, but I could not have been responsible for the acts of my young men." My reply was, "I under- stand fully what you mean ; you would not have killed me yourself, but some of your young men would have had that pleasure." To this he made no answer. Another instance illustrative of Indian character occurred at Fort Lar- amie. S. E. Ward, who had been an old trapper and mountaineer, and knew Indian character well, was the sutler or post trader. He was a man of keen perception and spoke the Sioux language well. On one occasion, when some Minneconjou Sioux were on a trading visit at this fort they met Ward, TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 127 who was an old acquaintance. After a pow-wow with them, he offered to give to some army officers present an illustration of Indian character. A short time before this one of the Indians had said to him, "You are rich, and I am poor. 1 want you to make my heart glad by giving me sgme presents." Ward replied, "You may go into the warehouses and select anything you want, but when you have made your selection, you cannot return to the warehouse again, for I will give you nothing more, no matter how small." The Indian entered the store and selected articles which amounted to a considerable sum. Returning to Ward he said, "My heart is full, I have everything I want," and departed. After a short time he returned, saying that he had forgotten to take some gun flints. The value of the flints would not have amounted to ten cents. He asked Ward to supply them. Ward reminded him of his former proposition, saying that he could have nothing more. The Indian turned on his heel, used a vile name, and then offered the greatest insult known in the Indian sign language, which was the closing of the hand tightly, with the nails of the fingers downward, thrusting it in Ward's face, then suddenly opening the hand. With a sneer and look of contempt he departed. "This," said Mr. Ward, "is an illustra- tion of one phase of Indian character. I have read and heard of Indian gratitude, but I have never seen an Indian who possessed that virtue." 128 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XV. BURIAL OF THE DEAD STRANGE FUNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES THE INDIAN'S IDEA OF THE FUTURE STATE LIFE IN THE SPIRIT LAND. Funeral Ceremonies Burial of a Chief Last Rites Final Resting-Place of their Impor- tant Personages Buried in a Sitting Posture Scaffolds on which the Dead were placed How they were thrown down by Buffalo Taken by the Whites for Fuel Killing Animals at the Fimeral Women and Female Children buried in various ways Dead Bodies eaten by Carnivorous Animals and Birds of Prey Intolerable Stench at an Indian Burial-Place Journey of the Soul to the Spirit Land The Indian's Inability to Compute Time Feeding the Soul during its Journey Belief that the Spirit left the Body through the Mouth Why Indians Mutilated the Slain Bodies of Enemies Execution of Big Foot, Black Crow, and others by hanging in Chains Death in its most Dreaded Form. THE burial ceremony among Indian nations varied. Among the majority of them the death and burial of one of their chiefs was at- tended with great ceremony. Large numbers of warriors would assemble to attend the last rites. The body of the dead chief was always attired in the best raiment he pos- sessed during life. His war equipments, bow and arrow, lance, shield, saddle and horse equipments, blankets, buffalo robes, and other personal be- longings were left with the body when placed in its final resting-place. The body of one of these distinguished personages was sometimes deposited in a tree SCAFFOLD GRAVES ON THE PLAINS SIOUX RIVER. PLATTE particularly adapted to receive the remains. Others were placed on a platform, six to eight feet in width, and ten to twelve feet in TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 129 length, resting on upright poles set in the ground, and from ten to fifteen feet in height. On these platforms were frequently placed the bodies of several important chiefs. Scaffold graves were usually set on the summit of a hill or in a valley, selected because it was a favorite place of the de- ceased during life. On top of the platform was laid one or more bodies, over which buffalo robes, a lodge cover, or skins of different kinds, were tightly drawn, and securely fastened by thongs to prevent them falling to the ground. In this manner the corpses were left until they rotted and fell. The bodies of common warriors were frequently disposed of in the same manner, usually being dressed in the best clothing they possessed during life. Some of them were placed in a sitting posture, and presented a pecu- liar appearance; others were left lying on their backs, all being covered to prevent birds of prey from eating the flesh. On the plains, the scaffolds on which the bodies of the dead were left did not remain standing for a great length of time unless carefully watched. The buffalos, when roaming over the prairie, their hair filled with buffalo gnats, which ate great sores into their tough hides, would, in trying to rid themselves of their tormentors, rub against the poles and throw them down. If the buffalo did not do so, the oxen and domestic cattle belonging to freighters crossing the plains, when turned loose to graze near these places, would rub against the scaffolds with the same result. When the platforms were erected near the Overland road, the numerous emigrants, in crossing the plains, were usually vandals enough to cut them down for fuel for cooking purposes; consequently this was not so secure a method of disposing of the bodies as placing them in trees. The Indians, however, had an aversion to placing their dead in trees where members of the tribe were likely to make their camp, as the stench from the decomposing bodies remained for a long time; and as horses, mules and dogs belong- ing to the deceased were frequently killed and left at the funeral spot, the stench from the decomposing remains of warriors and animals was intoler- able, especially when the sun came out very hot after a rain storm. I recall the illness and burial of one of Spotted Tail's daughters. A very noted Indian was Spotted Tail. He fought the whites only -when he could be benefited by increasing his number of horses, mules, and stores by pillage. He had his headquarters and that of his tribe in the neighborhood of Raw Hide Peak. When one of his daughters, to whom he was much attached, was taken seriously ill, he immediately repaired to Fort Laramie and asked assistance of one of the army surgeons. His daughter was kindly treated by the surgeon, but finally died, and was given the usual Indian funeral about twenty-five or thirty miles from that place. Her body was placed on a SPOTTED TAIL AND WIFE NUMBER TWO THE NOTED CHIEF OF THE OGALALA SIOUX. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 130 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 131 scaffold of poles set up after Indian fashion. Afterwards her remains were interred in the hills just outside the fort. I was present at this burial ; and was particularly interested in the prayers said by each one of the friends of the family who spoke. Charles E. Guerreu, who was the best interpreter of the Sioux language that I ever knew, stood near me and repeated the prayer that each one made. The body was interred in the early evening. One of the Indians in his prayer said : "We bury your body as the sun goes down, and as the sun rises in the morning, so your spirit will go to our Great Creator with the rising of the sun, which will take you to the spirit land, and there keep you until all your family and friends shall join yon. You will be in life again with them, and live for a long time without want or care." Other prayers were equally expressive, and all of the same im- port. The death of this young girl, and the kindness of the whites at the fort in caring for her during her illness, seemed to soften Spotted Tail's sav- age nature. For a long time he was quite friendly, and made almost weekly visits to the grave of his daughter, after which he would visit the fort, where he was kindly treated. The bodies of women and female children were frequently buried in caves, or in ravines or holes; as the Indians had no tools for digging the ground, the corpses were covered only with a little dirt, over which grass, leaves or branches were usually thrown. Bodies buried in this manner did not remain long undisturbed. Wolves and other carnivorous beasts in search of food would eat the flesh entirely from the bones in from one to two nights, and drag the remnants far away from the place where the corpses were left. At nearly all funerals of warriors, and sometimes of their favorite sons, a sufficient amount of food was placed near the deceased to supply them during the journey to the new home. No Indians I have ever conversed with could tell me how long it took the disembodied spirit to make the journey to their imaginary heaven. The Sioux believed that the soul arrived at the spirit land at the adult age, ready and equipped for all the pleasures incident to adult life, and that their animals arrived with them in good condition. The Indians had no way of computing time; it was therefore exceedingly difficult for them to explain how long a time was required to make this jour- ney, nor could they explain how it was made. When it is considered that the most intelligent of them did not attempt to account for the change from day to night, or why the seasons varied, it can readily be understood how difficult it was for them to explain anything about the time required for the journey of the soul to its future home. I once had a talk with Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses in relation to the soul from the time of death to its arrival in the spirit land, and asked him 132 if he believed that the soul would have in its new home the articles which were buried with the body here, and if, during its journey, the road wo did be a pleasant and safe one, or one in which all sorts of wild beasts and other TREE GRAVE BRULE SIOUX REPUBLICAN RIVER. dangers or obstacles would be encountered. 1 asked him if the soul made this journey alone, and whether it traveled during the light of day or the darkness of night; also to explain the flight of the soul from one point to another. He said he could not explain anything about it, but he knew well enough that the articles that were buried with the remains would not be with the person in his new home; that such a person would know how to make exact reproductions of what was buried with the body here, and that the souls of horses and dogs killed at the funeral would accompany the soul of the deceased, and be the souls of those animals in the happy land. I asked, if that was true, why they placed meats on the scaffold for the journey of the spirit. He replied that it was necessary for the soul to have something TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 133 to subsist upon during its journey, be it long or shcrt. I then inquired where he got all these theories. He said, with some warmth, that they were not theories, but facts; that it was necessary for everything that lived to have something to feed upon, and, as the soul was alive, it was necessary that it should be fed in passing from one stage to another. I then said to him : Suppose the soul had left the body for several days, during which time it had traveled a long distance, how could it feed upon the food which was left upon the scaffold and which still remained there? He replied that the soul was a spirit, and that it extracted the spirit food from the meat, which accompanied the soul on its journey. I then asked him how he arrived at such conclusions. He said he did not reach them at all; that this belief had been handed down to him by his forefathers, that he believed they knew, and he did not trouble himself to learn anything fur- ther about it. He abruptly turned and asked me what my belief was whether the white man expected, when he died, to go to a happy hunting-ground, or a spirit land. My answer was in the affirmative. He then inquired how our spirits reached that place. Frankness compelled me to reply that I did not know. The questions he propounded as to the change from one life to another re- quired more of a philosopher than I to answer. Every one of his questions would be called, if asked by our children, "a poser," and I found it was much easier to ask questions of this nature than to answer them. The Indian believed that the spirit left the body through the mouth, and that all Indians who were not scalped or hanged would go to the spirit land, where they would live forever, after the manner they had lived here, but on a grander scale. He would need there all the things he required here, or he would not be happy. Hence the best weapons he possessed in life were buried with him, and his best animals were killed at his final resting-place. As he expected his career in the future world to expand and be far superior to his earthly life, he would, therefore, all the more require the means of livelihood, and of defense against his enemies. The Indian's idea of the future life was purely materialistic. He had no spiritual conceptions, consequently it was impossible for him to imagine a condition of things in a future state different from what he knew in this. The other world or state of existence was to him only a magnification of the present one. Anything that could be procured here he believed could be obtained there; hence, the only things that were buried with him were those that would be needful to him in procuring his subsistence in the spirit land. If the warrior had not as complete an outfit as was deemed needful in this 134 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. world at the time of his death, his friends endeavored to supply the deficiency before his burial. The final resting-places were never despoiled. A super- stitious awe attached to them, and no Indian would dare draw on himself the wrath of the Great Spirit by touching any of the arti- cles left for the use of the dead. Another phase of Indian belief was that the body in the next life would appear in exactly the same form as it was when the earthly life had departed from it. Young or old, whole or mutilated, it would remain in the spirit land forever the same. Hence the fiendish mutila- tions of the dead by the Indians. They would seek, after killing their enemy, to make his existence in the next life as miserable as pos- sible. The Indian's idea of a future life was based purely on tradition he never reasoned on the subject. His fathers believed it and that was sufficient for him. He had no fear of death in its natural form, or in battle. He was a stoic and a fatalist. When Colonel Moonlight decided to execute the Indian chiefs, Big Foot, Black Crow, and others, about the years 1864-65, they were told of their ap- proaching fate, tied, put in a six-mule wagou, and driven to the place of execution. During the time they were being transported to the gallows, on which they were to be hanged in chains and left for the birds to prey upon, or to rot down (which they eventually did), they did not evince the slightest fear. They sang their weird death chant, and were driven under a scaffold made of two poles twenty feet high, with a pole across the top, with the chains hanging therefrom. The chains were adjusted around their necks, the wagon driven from under them, and they were left dangling in the air. Apparently the least concerned of all were those who were executed, and, as they were to be hung in chains, which, according to their belief, prevented MANDAN BUErAL PLACE DISH WITH FOOD FOR THE SPIRIT. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 135 the spirit from leaving the body through the mouth, the stoicism was all the more remarkable, as death came to them in its most dreaded form. Some tribes of the great Athabaskan nation had different ways of dis- posing of the bodies of the dead. The Zunis, another tribe of this nation, burned the bodies of the dead. First digging a shallow hole in the ground, in this the remains were placed ; logs and branches were then laid over the spot and set on fire; after all had been consumed, the location was marked with a stone. The Chippewas of the Algonquin family buried the corpses in the ground in a sitting posture, and the funerals were attended with great ceremony, often lasting for weeks. Among these people females and children received the same funeral as the males and adults. Some of the California tribes had peculiar burial customs: these are fully described in the chapter on those Indians. 136 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XVI. THE GREAT SIOUX NATION A FIERCE AND WARLIKE PEOPLE LIFE AND SCENES AMONG THEM. One of the Largest and Most Warlike of Indian Nations Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses A Noted Chief How he acquired his Name How he became Famous When and how a Brave could change his Name A Nation of Meat Eaters Their Manner of Cooking and Eating The Universal Dirty Cooking Pot A Voracious Sioux Drinking Dish Water Why Indians were constantly on the Move Always at War with their Neighbors Why they had no Intoxicating Liquors Insulting an Indian by asking his Name Indian Vulgarity Indian Mothers-in-law How they were regarded An Indian Forlorn Hope An Alliance that meant Death and Destruction Splendid Horsemanship The Stone Bath Practice of Voodooism Heroic Treatment Wealthy Indians Many Ceremonies Demonstrative Love No Social Castes Dog Soldiers Widely Separated Tribes Superstitious fear of Hail- storms. THE name of the great Sioux nation as known among themselves was the Lakotas or Da- kctas. The early French trappers gave them the name of Nadowesioux, or Nad- oessi ; this was afterward abbreviated to the word Sioux, by which name this nation has long been known. During my life in the Far West, the Sioux were the largest and most warlike nation of North American Indians, num- bering from sixty thousand to eighty thou- sand souls according to the best estimates, for no accurate census could be taken at that time. They occupied the entire coun- try from the Mississippi River on the east to the eastern chain of the Rocky Mountains on the west, and almost from the boundary line between the British possessions and the United States on the north, as far south as the Republican River in Kansas and an imaginary line about due east and west from the mouth of SLOW BULL TYPICAL SIOUX. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 13? that stream, crossing the South Platte River between Julesburg and Fre- mont's Orchard. They were divided into many tribes, each with its own name and chief. Some very prominent Indians wore chiefs of the different tribes. The most noted ohief in the entire nation at that time was Old-Man- Afraid-of-his- Horses. All the other chiefs bore much the same relation to him that the Governors of the different States do to the President of the United States. It may be asked how Old-Man- Af raid -of-his-Horses acquired such a pecu- liar and suggestive name. The story as I received it from his own lips was as follows: When he was a young man and an aspirant for Indian honors, a war party was made up of Minneconjou Sioux to attack the Pawnees and Pottawottomies in their hunting grounds in Kansas and Nebraska. During SIOUX CAMP ON THE YELLOWSTONE RIVER. the battle that followed, this young warrior captured some very vicious horses and evinced great fear of them; for this the Indians dubbed him Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses. Being thus ridiculed by his Indian comrades he de- termined to relieve himself of the stigma fastened upon him by his name, by performing deeds of valor at the first opportunity; and in subsequent battles he acquitted himself with such distinction that his people looked upon him with great favor. For these acts of bravery, his sound advice, and personal magnetism, he was afterward made chief of the Minneconjoux. On many other occasions war parties were made up of his and other tribes of the Sioux, for the pur- pose of making war on the Crows, Snakes, Utes, Cheyennes and Arapahoes, as well as on their old and inveterate enemies, the Pawnees. 138 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. When war parties were organized, and he was one of them, the command by common consent was always given to him; and he showed such superior judgment and military ability that he was soon recognized as the most im- portant chief of the entire Sioux nation. He was a man of large stature, with a massive head denoting superior intelligence, mild in manner, and, if it can be said of an Indian, not without some generous impulses. It was customary among the Sioux when a brave counted a coup, to change his name for any other that he preferred ; but as Old-Man- Afraid- of-his-Horses had achieved great distinction under his old name he clung to it ever afterward. After the death of this illustrious old warrior his name was handed down to his son, who was known as Young-Man- Afraid-of -his-Horses. Both father and son were widely known, and for years retained great influence with the Sioux. Both tried as far as lay in their power to keep the Sioux at paece with the white people. The country occupied by the Sioux was the natural home of the buffalo,elk, moose, black, white-tailed, and mule deer, the antelope, mountain sheep, black, grizzly, and cinnamon bear, beaver, otter, foxes of various kinds, gray wolves, black wolves of the timber, and coyotes. These animals, in addition to their dogs, horses, and mules, supplied them with an abun- dance of meat; for the Sioux ate the flesh of all the animals mentioned. When they were fortunate in a hunt and secured more meat than they could eat at the time, the women jerked and cured the surplus by cutting it into long strips, which were hung over poles outside of the lodge, and out of the way of dogs and wolves, leaving them there until thoroughly dried. The meat was then packed in bags made of hide, and kept for use during the winter months after the buffalo had migrated to a warmer climate. The Sioux were carnivorous. They did not eat cereals, or vegetable food. They often ate their meat raw while the blood of the animal was still warm. Commerce and trade were un- known to them. They fashioned their own implements of war, stole what they could from their neighbors, and, later on, from emigrants and freighters crossing the plains. They were great gluttons and ate enormous quantities at a time, which SIOUX CAMP SHIELD ON TEIPOD WITH SCALP HANGING FROM THE CEN1ER. When the shield of a warrior was fastened on a tripod outside of his lodge, with a scalp dangling from the center of the shield, it informed all TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 145 comers that the scalp was captured by one of the male members of the lodge. It was a token of no little significance. A visitor could not tickle the vanity of an Indian more than to enter the lodge and make inquiries about this trophy. He would be told in the most graphic manner of the terrible battle with the owner of the scalp, of his desperate character, and of the hair- breadth escape the brave had in killing his victim and securing the prize. Indian ingenuity would be almost exhausted in describing the different stages of the fight, and the tremendous difficulty the warrior had in dis- patching so gallant a foe. Nothing pleased the braves more than to be asked all the minor details of the combat, and the imaginary or real battle would be described in glowing colors. I use the word imaginary, for should they by stealth manage to kill a person while asleep they would weave about it a picture of prowess and glory that could not be outdone by Cooper or Longfellow. In treating the sick the Sioux used the stone bath. A large number of round boulders were placed in a pile, eight to ten feet in length, three to four feet in width, and one to two feet in height. On this a fire was kept burn- ing until the stones were thoroughly heated, after which the fire was re- moved, and sticks two or three feet high were bent over the entire pile. Over these sticks were thrown the coverings of lodges, three or four thick- nesses, making the hole thus enclosed almost air-tight. In this the person who was to receive a hot-air bath was placed, lying at full length on the heated stones over which was spread his blanket or buffalo robe. If a steam bath was required water was thrown on the stones while the patient occupied the bath. The suffering of a patient in one of these baths was intense, although the sufferer would never display signs of discomfort. The patient was kept in them from twentj r minutes to two hours ; when the bath was over, he would sometimes take a plunge into the river or pond, near which the sweat houses were always built. The appearance of the patient as he emerged from, the sweat house, after a long bath, was pitiable. He was usually bleached to a deathly color, and presented the appearance of one who had undergone a trying ordeal. Another manner of treating the sick was through the ministrations of the medicine man and his voodooism. He would make wild gesticulations, and do mysterious things that nobody could understand, under pretense of benefiting the afflicted person. When his conjury failed he would endeavor to save his reputation by claiming that he had not called upon the right "med- icine" to effect the cure. The old women resorted to voodooism also, 146 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. as well as to teas made from herbs, meats, berries, and barks; even portions of rare animals were often administered in efforts to relieve the afflicted. One of the greatest feats known to the Sioux was termed by them "throw- ing himself away," or "pouring himself out," and would be with us called SWEAT HOUSE OF THE SIOUX. "a forlorn hope." When one nation determined to have a pow-wow or a talk with another with whom it was at war, a party of young warriors would carefully approach and signal the other party. If their signal was not respected, one or two of the warriors were selected to make a dash into the camp or a village of the enemy with whom a talk was desired. All be- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 147 ing in readiness, the warriors would "throw themselves away." Mounted on their best horses, and riding at the top of their speed, they would dash into the camp of the enemy, gesticulating in the sign language that they wanted to talk. If the feeling was not too bitter between them they might be accorded a pow-wow. If the pow-wow was granted they would sit conversing for hours in the sign language. Should their desires not be granted, however, they paid the penalty of their rashness with their lives. If the interview terminated favorably, it portended disaster for some one, as it meant the alliance of the two peoples for the warpath. When Indians allied in this way, the warriors of one vied with those of the other in deeds of bravery and atroc- ity. A war party of this kind was always formidable, and left nothing undone to accomplish the object for which the alliance was formed. When the object of the expedition had been attained, the alliance which had been made with such great effort came to an abrupt end, and it would not be long before the parties were again at war with each other; though there are instances where such alliances were lasting, namely, between the Cheyennes and Arapahoes, Utes and Apaches, Comanches and Kiowas. The Sioux and all Indians for that matter were splendid horsemen, using saddles of wood made by them- selves ; these were covered with raw- hide sewed with a thong of the same material. After this covering had shrunk and dried on the saddle it was very tight. The stirrups were also made of wood, covered with rawhide, the stirrup straps being short. The bridle consisted of a long lariat or rawhide rope, the noose of which was placed looselj' around the animal's neck, thence to and around the lower jaw in MEDICINE MAN MAKING MEDICINE. 148 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. two half hitches, and thence to the rider. The long end was left trailing on the ground, the rider using it as a whip when driving the herd. When he desired to strike one of the herd he could, by a dexterous nmvement of the forearm, hit an animal a severe blow on any part of the body he wished. All men, women, and children, when riding, carried a quirt. This was TYPICAL INDIAN SADDLE WARRIOR IN FULL MOURNING. a riding-whip, with a handle of wood from twelve to fifteen inches in length and of convenient size. Through a hole in the end a rawhide thong was passed, in two strands, with a knot in the middle. The lashes were from twelve to eighteen inches in length. At the other end a thong of tanned skin was placed through a hole made in a loop, and passed over the wrist for carrying it. A whip made after this fashion was a severe instrument; TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. (149 with it, an Indian would take an animal which had been overridden and abandoned by a white man and get many more miles of travel out of it. The Sioux wore moccasins of two kinds, one kind having soles of flint hide and uppers of buckskin sewed together with sinews; the other was made from one piece of buckskin, the soles and uppers being alike. Mocca- sins were generally ornamented with bead work of various colors, or porcu- pine quills : moccasins were strong and durable, and well adapted for going over rough ground ; they were also soft, pliable, and comfortable for the wearer in dry weather. The Sioux men, women and children frequently wore large ornaments in their ears, which were slit open from the top to the bottom of the lobe, sometimes with an inner cut. From these slits hung pendants of various kinds, often of huge size and length. These consisted of Iroquois shells or beads, and to the end, which hung over the shoulders to the breast, was attached a huge shell, usually mussel or mother-of-pearl. From the inner slit hung rings of brass, copper, or iron. Wristlets and armlets of wire were commonly worn. In the extent, variety, and quality of their handiwork the Sioux were far in advance of any other Indians of the West. Their women were more comely than those of other Indians. This may be partly accounted for by their manner of living. Occupying an immense territory, abounding in all kinds of game, the women were not subjected to the privations and drudgery endured by the women of other nations. A certain sort of communism prevailed among the Sioux. Sometimes several families occupied the same lodge, and the stock of food was common to all. But unlike some others, there was no tribal communism. The Sioux were polygamous, securing their wives, few or many, by pur- chase after the usual Indian fashion. Infidelity was practicably unknown among them, and families lived in harmony in their homes. They possessed more wealth in horses, mules, lodges, robes, skins, arms and wearing ap- parel than any of the savage Indians in the entire West. Wild horses were numerous in their territory, from the herds of which they caught large numbers. The Sioux had more ceremonies, dances, feasts and pastimes, than any other nation of wild people on this Continent. Living in a good climate they were constantly engaged in some outdoor amusement. Their clothing was well made, and for Indians they were well dressed. Their Indian weapons were of the best. Nearly all of them had the red 150 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. stone pipe; groups of men would sit in circles in the open air smoking them in silence for hours. These people believed in, and worshiped the Great Creator, to whom they smoked. Originally they smoked the pulp of the red willow; when they could procure tobacco it was mixed with killikinick for smoking, Some of their pipe-stem ornamentation was handsome, i.e., for Indians. The tribes of the Sioux living along the foot hills, or in the Rocky Mountains were the most ferocious of any Indians I have known being so far removed from civilization, they seldom saw or came in contact with the whites. In those days it was perilous for the whites to enter their country. After our Powder River expedition opened their territory, they continually attacked and killed the troops, as well as others who had the temerity to enter their hunting grounds. These tribes were numerous, and well able to defend themselves against all comers. The Sioux buried their dead warriors on scaffolds or in trees. The bodies of dead fe- males and children were thrown into gullys or ravines, then covered with stones or branches of trees; wild beasts and birds soon left no trace of them. The only case of demonstrative love that came under my observation among the wild Indians was in the tribe of the Ogalalas of this nation. A short, stout, comely young girl caught the heart of a young man. They were so enamored with each other that they were constantly together. He would sit for hours by her side, combing her hair with a stick, oiling and braiding it, painting and patting her face, and paying her his most delicate attentions. If water was needed he would run for it, returning in the short- est time. He finally secured her for his wife without cost or ceremony. After this they seemed more cemented together than before. So strong was his affection that he could not be induced to go on a war party, or to any place she could not accompany him. The others ridiculed him, calling him "woman's heart." This made no difference ; he was the same constant lover. When I last saw them they had no children, and their love seemed as deep-rooted as ever. They lived with his parents, who, for Indians, were well-to-do. It was not necessary that he should go on the hunt, conse- quently they were not separated, and both seemed to take no other interest SIOUX WOMAN SHIRT ORNA- MENTED WITH DEER HOOFS. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 151 in life than to be together all the time. Their conduct was so unusual that the tribe could scarcely understand what to make of them. At first some of the Indians claimed both were crazy. After they learned what it meant they were the admiration of the tribe. The oral language of the Sioux was rich in words, pleasant to the ear, and easily learned. Some of the tribes living along the Missouri River had a slight dia- lect. They acquired this from their sur- rounding neighbors. There were no social castes among the Sioux. Every person seemed on the same level in this respect. There was a semi- military organization known among them- selves as the "Dog Soldiers." Each mem- ber of this fraternity had an insignia of some kind, usually a lance, spear, shield, or war implement, which he carried as a mark of distinction. With this in full view, warriors would strut about iu the most imperious manner. Each member considered it a great honor to belong to the "Dog Soldiers," and thought himself much better than those who were not members of this organization. What the object of this clan was, I was never quite able to discover, as they had no drills or other war instruction. This was the only society of any kind among the wild Indians in those days. The Sioux differed from the majorit)* of other nations in that the large tribes were not subdivided into numerous small ones. Each of the large tribes retained their dis- trict tribal cohesion. Should necessity compel them to sepa- rate temporarily, the members remained loyal to their original tribe; consequently each tribe of this nation was large and powerful. Some of the tribes were so widely scattered that their members rarely, if ever, met. This was notably true of the Assiniboins, Mandans and Yanktons, and the Ogalalas, Minneconjoux and Uncpapas. ZIN THA KIN-YAN (FLYING BIRD) TYPICAL SIOUX TOBACCO POUCH, LEGGINGS AND MOCCASINS ORNAMENTED WITH BEADS OF VARIOUS COLORS. 152 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The Sioux were very superstitious, and nothing filled them with terror more than a severe hailstorm during summer. This they believed was the Great Spirit showing his anger. Severe hailstorms caused them much trou- ble as well as loss, as their animals were often stampeded beyond recovery. Lodges were sometimes broken to pieces by the large hail stones. After one of these storms, both men and women believed their medicine had been broken. Then they went through their mysterious rites in trying to recover the broken charm. STORY TELLING SIOUX TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 153 CHAPTER XVII. STILL AMONG THE SIOUX THE MANDANS INDIAN FREE MASONS THE ASSINIBOINS THE GROS VENTRES, OR THE BIG BELLIES, CUISSES BRULES OR BURNT THIGHS. The Mandans Their Interesting History Nearly Exterminated by Small-Pox Indian Free Masons A Great Mystery How did they Acquire a Knowledge of the Order? Their Pastimes The Buffalo Dance Manner of Disposing of their Dead How the Skulls of their Dead were Used Their Happy Domestic Life The Assiniboins Their Hunting Ground A Far Northern Trite of Indians Their Characteristics and Customs Scourged by Small-Pox The Gros Ventres, or Big Bellies Origin of the Name The Brules Battle of Ash Hollow The Ogalalas Their Country The Bad Faces The Yankton Sioux Their Hunting Ground The Minneconjoux A Savage Tribe Their Hunting Ground The Uncpapas A Fierce Tribe Where they Lived The Kaws or Kansas The Winnebagoes The Poncas The Omahas The Osages The Quapaws, or Arkansas The Otoes The lowas. THE Mandans were a portion of the great Sioux family, and originally belonged to the Yankton Sioux, from whom they sep- arated at the time the Assiniboins left the Sioux nation. Their home or principal hunting ground was to the north of the Missouri River, and about the mouth of Wood River. They were first known by the white man when Lieutenants Lewis and Clark made their exploration of the Missouri River; at that time they were among the most intelligent Indians on this continent. They lived in huts which were superior to anything of the kind built by Indians north of New Mexico. Their dwellings were circular in shape, and from twenty to thirty feet in diameter. The framework was made of poles and posts, the whole covered by willow mats, and thatched with grass and covered with MANDAN. 154 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. earth. The roof was conical, a hole being left in the center to let out the smoke. The entrance was by a long passage, something like that of an Esquimaux snowhouse. Inside were curtains of willow matting, which divided the hut into rooms. Mats of this kind were also used to car- pet the floor. Their habitations were kept clean and neat, and the floors were swept daily. Their beds were usually on the ground ; these were kept clean, being made of robes of the buffalo and other animals. In the center was a large open space, within which a fire was built to keep the hut warm, as well as to do the family cooking. One of these huts would accommodate from twenty to thirty persons, though at times the number of the occupants was less, at other times much greater. The Mandansatone time numbered about two thousand five hundred; but were reduced by the small-pox to less than twenty-five persons. They had a rude kind of civilization. The sexes wore a different dress; had certain rules of decency and manners unknown to their surrounding neighbors. While polygamy may have been permissible among them, it was not generally practiced. They were a peaceable people, consequently the men were not killed off in battles between themselves and neighbors. I have never heard of their going on the warpath at any time, either before or since the small-pox opidemic. It is claimed that they understood the principles of freemasonry. How they acquired this knowledge, if they had it, no one I have ever met has been able to satisfactorily explain. During the winter that Lieutenants Lewis and Clark passed near their villages, some member of this expedition may have taught the Mandans the secrets of this order. Their sports and pastimes were more numerous than that of any other tribe of Indians in the great Northwest, and consisted of ball playing, at which they were experts, canoe racing, and many other pastimes. In none of these amusements did they indulge in rough horse play, so common to the Indians. The Buffalo dance of the Mandans was sometimes continued for days uninterruptedly. The Mandans attributed the annual coming of buffalo to their observance of this ceremony, and would persist in it until the animals appeared. This dance was often grotesque. In the center of the village was a circular space of perhaps two hundred feet in diameter, in the center of which a lot of stout poles, about eight or ten feet in length, were firmly planted upright in the ground and bound together with thongs or young saplings. This sacred spot was the rallying point of the whole tribe. CHIEF WITH BIG WAR BONNET FULL DRESS BEADED LEGGINGS AND MOCCASINS TOMAHAWK SIOUX . Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 155 156 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. During the dance two braves, with the skin of grizzly bears thrown over them, stood by the poles, while the principal dancers, clad in buffalo hides with the horns, hoofs and tails on them, wildly jumped and yelled, making ludicrous efforts to imitate the actions of the buffalo. The bodies of the dancers were nearly naked, and were painted in fantastic colors. Each dancer had a lock of buffalo's hair tied to his ankles, holding in one hand a rattle, in the other a small rod or staff, while a bundle of willow branches was tied to his back. In this condition the dancers made all sorts of manoeuvres, nd bodily con- tortions, appealing to the Great Creator to send the buffalo. Both sexes, children and the aged, joined in the dance. This was the greatest, as well as the most important ceremony they had. They were staunch believers in the efficacy of this dance, that without it the buffalo would not return. This is probably the reason why it was con- tinued so long at a time. In their religious belief the Mandans worshiped the Great Creator. They also believed that the soul of the departed went to a happy spirit land, that its path would be strewn with food, and everything in readiness for a comfortable journey. Neither did they kill their horses and animals under the trees or scaffolds where their dead were placed. Some of their legends relating to the journey of the spirit to its new home were poetic and beautiful. The Mandans wrapped their dead in skins and placed them in trees or on scaffolds to dry, always being careful to have them at sufficient height to be out of the reach of carnivorous beasts. After the bodies crumbled to dust and the bones and skulls fell to the ground, they were gathered by members of the tribe. The skulls were placed in a circle around a hill or mound in which were also buffalo skulls, food was placed at night near the remains by relatives of the dead, or other members of the tribe. This food was supposed to be consumed by the spirits of the deceased after their departure for the spirit land. Often food was left at the funeral place after there was nothing left but the skulls and bones. Sometimes the skulls were collected and placed in a large circle, the face being outward ; a receptacle was then placed in front of each skull and food was left on it for the spirit. In the center of the circle several poles were set in the ground, then buffalo skulls were fastened to them near the top. To these places relatives and friends went almost daily; here they sang weird chants for the spirits of the dead. TWENTY YEARS. AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The Mandans had great reverence for the dead and burial places, more so than any other Indians in the West. The Mandans were not nomadic, but lived in fixed habitations. Some of their villages were quite large. They were governed by se- lectmen. Neither did they have medicine men who claimed to cure by vood- oo ism. The sick were treated by administering teas, made from herbs, roots, berries, leaves, etc. They were expert boatmen with the bull-boat and canoe. In the division of the prop- erty of a dead Mandan an effort was made to dispose of it equitably by giving to each member of the family a fair share of his earthly possessions ; it rarely occurred that a controversy arose about the distribution. There was less jealousy and more good feeling among the different members of the tribe than among any other Indian people in the entire West. Sometimes eight or ten families would oc- cupy one habitation at the same time, yet all lived in peace and harmony. WASH-ONA-KOORA RUSHING WAR EAGLE BEAR- CLAW NECKLACE MANDAN SIOUX. THE ASSINIBOINS. The Assiniboins were among the most northerly of any Indians on this continent, their hunting grounds extending as far into the British possessions as the Great Slave Lake, and about as far south as the Missouri River. They 158 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. were a part of the great Sioux family, and originally belonged to the Yank- ton Sioux, from whom they separated in the early part of this century. Why they left the Yankton has always been a mystery. They must have had some reason satisfactory to themselves for leaving and going so far north to such an inhospitable climate. The members of this tribe were much darker in color than the Sioux in general. Their skins were rough and coarse, which was something unusual among the Sioux. Like the others of this nation they were polygamous until they joined the Mandans; after this, although permissible, it was not practiced. SIOUX CAMP AT AGENCY. At one time they were a cruel, vicious and treacherous people, murdering every white man who entered their country. After joining the Mandans they became more tractable. They were called by the other tribes of the Sioux, "Hopa," or Rebels. For a long time they made their home near Lake Winnipeg, frequently going south far into the United States, but not with hostile intentions. They sometimes formed alliances with other tribes or quarreled among each other, but remained at peace with the whites. At one time the tribe was numerous, and next to the Mandans it was probably one of the most intelli- gent in this country. In the early part of this century they lived exclu- sively by the chase; as game was abundant at that time, they lived well. Inhabiting an extremely cold climate they made warm clothing for them- selves from the skins of various animals. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 159 They understood the making and handling of all kinds of boats. The bull-boats were of great service to them in crossing rivers with their stores during journeys to the south, when the rivers and streams were swollen by the melting snows from the mountains. In habits, customs and personal appearance the Assiniboins resembled the Sioux closely. They spoke the same language, and their home life was nearly the same. They were a cleanly and if such a thing can be said of Indians a thrifty people. All their belongings were superior to, and better cared for than those of any other Indians in that country, except the Man- dans. When the small-pox epidemic visited the northern country with such fatal results it nearly exterminated the Assiniboins. Those that were left immediately moved north to Lake Winnipeg, where they remained for a long time, believing that the Great Creator had sent this scourge among them for wrongs they had committed, or for having gone south to the vicin- ity of the Missouri River. I have never been able to learn why they were called Assiniboins, as they did not themselves use this name, but were known to each other as the Assinpalik, or Stone Sioux. They greatly assisted Lieutenants Lewis and Clark while making their first expedition up the Missouri River, these ex- plorers having passed a winter near one of their villages. GROS VENTRES, OR BIG BELLIES. The name Gros Ventres, or Big Bellies, as applied to the Indians of the prairie, is a misnomer. The term was applied to this tribe by French Canadian trappers and traders, because they claimed some of the mem- bers of the tribe had abdomens of aldermanic proportions. So far from being a corpulent people, the so-called Gros Ventres were a lithe and well-formed race; in fact obesity was almost unknown among them. They were as comely and active as any tribe in the Northwest. In characteristics, customs, habits, and general appearance little can be said of them that has not already been said of the Sioux in general. Their hunting ground was near the northern limits of the United States, principallj T around the north fork of Milk River, and east of the eastern chain of the Rocky Mountains. As their country was cold and inhospitable during winter they moved east to the regions of the Mandans and Assiniboins, and were there when the small-pox epidemic visited that region. 160 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The entire tribe was nearly exterminated by this scourge. After that event the Mandans, Assiniboins, and Gros Ventres lived in the immediate vicinity of each other, all three tribes living together in friendship and harmony. The Gros Ventres gave up polygamy and their savage ways, adopting the mode of life of the other two tribes. BURNT THIGHS, OR BRULE SIOUX. In early days one of the most powerful of the Sioux tribes was the Brules. At that time the French trappers gave them the name of the Cuisses Brules, meaning burnt thighs. They were distinctly a prairie people, and claimed as their hunting ground what is now Western Kansas and Nebraska. This territory was covered with tall, rank grass. In the fall or winter the grass became dry and very inflammable. When it caught fire the heat was intense, and the spread of the flames so rapid that scarcely any- thing could get out of its way. Prairie fires were often caused by lightning. Many of this tribe were caught by prairie fires and burnt to the waist. It was for this reason the early French gave them this name. They have adopted the name into their own language, and have been known by it for a long time. All other tribes or nations TA-TO-KAIN-YOU-KA RUNNING ANTELOPE wne n speaking of them in the TYPICAL BRULE SIOUX. ,1-1,1 , -r, sign language called them 'Burnt Thighs." In early xlays they were a very fierce and vicious lot, causing much trouble to all the whites and other Indians who entered their country. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 161 Singing Bear was chief. He was an able, daring and treacherous* leader, and was constantly planning mischief. Under his leadership the Brules committed many serious depredations on the whites. Finally the Government was aroused, and sent a,n expedition to chastise them. This was under the command of General William S. Harney, United States Army, familiarly known as "Old Harney." BATTLE OF ASH HOLLOW. About the year 1856-'57 he organized a cam. paignat Foit Leavenworth, Kansas, consisting of about thirteen hundred troops to proceed against the hostiles who had been committing depredations all along the Platte Valley. His force was composed of infantry and dragoons, and what is now the First and Second Cavalry was then the First and Second Dragoons. General Harney arrived with his command at Ash Hollow, which is in a\alle3 T on Ash Creek, a tributary to tue Platte. Joe, Tesson, an old plainsman and mountaineer, was his principal guide. After discovering Indian signs, Tesson made a reconnaissance and reported to Harney that there were large bodies of Indians in the vicinity. Harney prepared his troops for battle, and marching down the bed of a dry creek, he soon came in front of the Indian camps. Upon seeing the troops the Indians sent forward two of their number for a pow-wow, in order to gain time to enable them to retreat. Harney, knowing Indian character thoroughly, had sent a portion of the dragoons up the valley to cut off all chance of escape. The two warriors who had been in conversation with Harney, seeing that their ruse had failed, immediately returned to their people. After deliver- ing a volley, the dragoons charged, scattering the Indians in every direc- tion. Harne3 T promptly ordered the infantry to advance and fire. The latter soon put their opponents to flight. After this it was a running fight between the Indians and Dragoons. The Indian horses being fresh, soon carried their riders out of danger, although the flight extended a distance of about ten miles. In this engagement the red men lost over one hundred killed, and left BRULE SIOUX WITH WAR BON- NET. 162 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. behind them twenty-five wounded. MA-TO-SHI-SHA WICKED BEAR WAR BONNET DECORATED WITH SCALPS ON TIPS OP FEATHERS SIOUX The other wounded were carried off by the Indians. About a hun- dred women and children were captured, besides a large num- ber of animals. All their camp equipage and provisions were destroyed by the troops. A large quantity of clothing and other articles of civilization were found in their camps, which had formerly belonged to emigrants, and others, whom they had doubtless slain. Among the animals taken in this fight were a number of horses that had formerly been attached to the artillery, and were captured by the Indians on the occasion of the G rattan massacre, thus showing that the Ogalala and Brule Sioux had been the chief actors in that bloody affair. Among the Indians who lost their lives in this bat- tle was the noted chief, Sing- ing Bear. It was he who led the Indians on this and former occasions. After his death Little Thunder assumed com- mand. He reorganized his warriors and prepared for con- tinued depredations, claiming that his people had not been defeated, but only demoralized by the death of Singing Bear Little Thunder was chief when I knew this tribe, and was an Indian of superior judgment. He was a giant physically, weighing about two hundred and TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 163 seventy-five pounds, and fully six feet six inches tall. After this battle the Brules recognized the power of the army, and were more inclined to peaceful ways toward the whites. This tribe took part in the massacre of 1864, killing every person for some three hundred miles along the Overland road. Immediately after the massacre I went over this road. The scenes of destruc- tion, death and desolation were appalling. Travel ceased over this line for the whole season, and it was a long time be- fore the country was again sufficiently quieted for set- tlers to enter that territory in safety. THE OGALALAS. The Ogalalas were also a numerous and warlike tribe. They claimed as their hunting ground all that territory west of the Brules, to the country of the Minnecoujoux, and from about the northern boundary of Colorado as far north as the Yellow- stone River. Practically they were plains Indians, as there was but little tim- ber in the country they roamed over. Some of the members of this tribe who lived in the north were very savage. At the treaty at Fort Laramie, Wyomi g, Red Cloud said to the officers present, that it wastho first time that he and many of his warriors were ever under a roof made of shingles. Red Cloud was chief of this tribe, and was very noted among all the Indians and whites of the West. MATO-YEN-MNI OGALALA THREE BEARS AND WAR BONNET SIOUX. 164 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. This tribe caused much trouble, and it was necessary for the Govern- ment to keep a strong military force in their country at all times to keep them quiet. THE BAD FACES. The Bad Face tribe lived within the hunting ground of, an., were strong allies of the Ogalalas. Black Curling Smoke was chief of the Bad Faces. When the warriors of these two tribes went on the warpath together they were very formidable. When in battle they were very fierce, as both tried to out do each other. These two tribes wsre so closely allied that they were practically one, there being a sort of communism among them, the warriors of both going on raids and the warpath together, without the ceremony of a big talk to decide on an agreement or understanding. They selected wives and husbands from each other as though of the same tribe. Neither of these tribes knew anything about building or han- dling canoes or the bull-boats. THE YANKTON SIOUX. Originally the Yankton Sioux were a powerful tribe. For a long period they occupied what is now portions of Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota and Nebraska as their hunting ground. As their country became set- tled by whites, they grew less and less aggressive toward them. It was a portion of this tribe who were the principal actors in the New Ulm massacre. After that bloody affair their warlike spirit was greatly re- duced. They have long been under civilizing influences, conse- quently are not troublesome. Some of the Yanktons left their tribe, form ing themselves into new tribes, moving far away from their original homes; adopting new names by which they were afterward known. YANKTON sioux IN THEIR HOMES. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 165 THE MINNECONJOUX TRIBE. The Minneconjoux were another large tribe of the Sioux famity. They* claimed and occupied as their hunting ground all the territory east of the eastern chain of the Rocky Mountains, and as far east as the country of the Ogalalas, as far south to about the northern boundary of Utah, and as far north as the country of the Uncpapa. Being so far removed from civilization they rarely came in contact with the whites. Consequently they remained in ignorance of the ways of civilization longer than many other of their kindred tribes. The Minneconjoux were very fierce and savage, retaining all their innate savagery longer than any tribe of the Sioux. When the Bozeman road was opened through their country, they became greatly alarmed, and the warriors of the whole tribe started on the warpath against the whites, attacking troops, travelers, and all who came within their hunting ground. It was not until our Powder River expedition entered their country that they realized the strength of the Government and became reconciled to the advance of civilization. Even after this they constantly attacked the troops, defeating them on several occasions. Their chief, Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses, was the general who planned and carried out most of the attacks. SPOTTED DOG SIOUX. 166 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. It was not until after the Civil War ended that sufficient troops were sent to subdue these savage people, that this country was safe for miners, pros- pectors, and wagon trains to enter. THE UNCPAPA TRIBE. Another very fierce, savage, numerous and warlike tribe of the Sioux was the Uncpapa. They had their hunting ground immediately above the Minnecon joux and below that of the Crows. The chief of this tribe was Gall. He was one of the ablest leaders of the entire Sioux nation, The Uncpapa and Minne- conjoux Sioux united in their resistance to the entrance of the whites through their re- spective hunting grounds. Under the leadership of such able men as Gall and the Man - Afraid - of - his - Horses, the savages of both tribes fought the advance of the whites with great vigor and ferocity, and it was not until after the battle of Little Big Horn that this country was safe for any one to enter who did not belong to either of the tribes mentioned. Both these tribes were almost constantly at war with the Utes, their neighbors on the south; the Crows and Snakes, their northern and northwestern neighbors; their eastern neighbors, the Northern Cheyennes. These two tribes frequently joined in war parties going south to the country of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes to make war upon them. Being almost constantly in battle, they became skilful warriors, and were the dread BLOODY MOUTH UNCPAPA SIOUX. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 167 of the surrounding tribes. They even defeated troops in battle for many years, and it was not until after the battle of Little Big Horn that they were finally subdued. THE KAWS, OR KANSAS. The Kaws, or Kansas, were a part of the Sioux family, and occupied the territory just west of the Missouri River, which is now em- braced in the State of Kansas. In their wild state they lived wholly by the chase. The buffalo was plentiful, and they were able to secure their food without much difficulty. The country occupied was an excellent tract of land and if they had had the inclination could have raised by agriculture a sufficient amount of food for their wants. The Indian's natural aversion to labor prevented this, and they were on the verge of starvation nearly all the time, until the Government came to their relief. Even this furnished them with but scanty supplies of food. They were of small numerical strength, but were treacherous to their weak neighbors, on whom they made war. In their habits and customs little can be said that does not apply to all Indians of that territory. WINNEBAGOES. The Winnebagoes originally lived in territory lying between Green Bay and Lake Winnebago, in the present State of Wisconsin. Though belong- ing to the great Dakota family they allied themselves with the Sacs and Foxes and Pottawattomies, against the Dakotas, and the fierce Huron- Iroquois. They were always a peace-loving people, and were never inclined to make trouble for red man or white, if let alone. They had a fine country, the streams and lakes furnishing an abundance offish. Game was plentiful, and they lived well for Indians; they remained on their lands until the pressure of the white population compelled them to cede them to the Government and move west of the Mississippi. They were again removed to a reservation in Minnesota, where they were assured a "permanent home." Here they made progress, although they became addicted to drunkenness and gambling, both of which vices they learned from the whites. Many of them became discontented and wandered back to their old home in Wisconsin, where they remained. 168 TWENTY YEARS AMONd OUR HOSTILE 7 INDIANS. When the Sioux massacre broke out in 1863, the Winnebagoes refused to' join the hostile Indians, and the Sioux threatened to exterminate them. After the massacre the people of Minnesota demanded that all Indians be removed from the State, and the Winnebagoes were again removed from GROUP OF SIOUX IN CEREMONIAL DRESS. their homes, at their own expense. They were located in a barren, alkali tract of country in Dakota near the Missouri River, where nothing grew, and they dared not go to hunt for fear of the surrounding hostile tribes. To escape starvation they built canoes, and the greater portion of them, about two thousand in number, made their way down the river to the Omahas in Nebraska. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. THE PONCAS. This tribe was a part of the Sioux nation. Poncas came into contact with the white man they were looked upon as be- ing among the most peace- able Indian peoples of the West. Their original home was near a branch of the Red River and Lake Winnipeg. They were after- ward driven west of the Mis- souri River by their old enemy, the Chippeways. The latter again drove them from their new home, and the Poncas joined the Omahas, who became closely allied with them. War was constantly made on these people by the Sioux, Pawnees, Osages, and the Kaws or Kansas. These wars greatly reduced them in numbers, and small-pox and the white man's vices destroyed most of the sur- vivors. The remnant was placed on a reservation near the mouth of the Niobrara River in Nebraska. The Government, failing to carry out the terms of its treaty with them, they were again compelled to go on the hunt, but were forced to return by their old ensmies. After this they suffered se- verely from want of food. Afterward they were Frorp the first time the IRON FACE. 170 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. forcibly removed to the Indian Territory, where they suffered from un- wholesome water. A great many of their animals died, and from one hundred and fifty to two hundred out of the total of seven hundred of the Poncas died in a short time. The remainder, after a three-months' journey, succeeded in reaching their old friends, the Omahas. The treatment of these peaceable Indians by the Government aroused much discussion throughout the country, and they were afterward restored to their rights on their former reservation at the mouth of the Niobrara River in Nebraska. THE OTOES. To the south of the Omahas lived this tribe of Indians. They were a part of the great Dakota family, from whom they separated in the early part of this century. Little is to be said of them that is not applicable to their ancestors, the Sioux. They were few in number, and living near the border of civilization, early secured the articles of the white man, and fell into his habit sooner than those living farther west. THE OSAGES. The Osages were a part of the Dakota or Sioux nation, and were one of the most intelligent tribes of this family. They had their home in Kan- sas, and were at war with nearly all the Indians in that section, and physi- cally were one of the finest bodies of Indians in this country. Man for man in war they were equal, if not superior, to the Cbeyennes. They had a large number of horses of which they took great care. They had a peculiar custom of cutting their hair; cutting it off both sides of the head, except a roach from the front to back below the scalplock about three inches wide and three inches in height. Their tall, erect forms with this roach added, made them appear a great deal taller than they really were, and with their fine physique gave them an imposing appearance. As to their characteristics and customs nothing can be said about them that does not apply to the Sioux nation. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 171 THE OMAHAS. The Omahas, a part of the Sioux, were found on the St. Peter's River, where they lived an agricultural life, supporting themselves from the soil. After a terrible visitation of the small-pox, which reduced their numbers greatly, they abandoned their village and wandered west to the Niobrara River, in Nebraska. After a succession of treaties and removals, they were located on a reservation in eastern Nebraska, where they rapidly improved in civilization and pecuniary resources. They were a peaceable and inoffensive people from the time they were first vis- ited by white men until their removal to the reservation assigned them. OMAHA INDIAN OF RANK INSIGNIA OF HAND ON BKAD ORNAMENTED CAP. THE IOWAS. The lowas when first found by white men occupied the territory bordering on the Mississippi River, in the present State of Iowa. They were closely allied with the Winnebagoes, and belonged to the same stock. Their hunting grounds extended east as far as Illinois. The Sacs and Foxes pressed into their territory, and drove them back far toward the Mississippi. THE QUAPAWS, OR ARKANSAS. The Quapaws, or Arkansas Indians, also of Sioux stock, had their former home on the Ohio River. They were subsequently pushed west by their warlike neighbors. They finally settled near the mouth of the Arkan- sas River. They have become much reduced in numbers, and since their removal to a reservation in the Indian Territory, several other tribes have amalgamated with them. The early French trappers and traders called all the Sionx, who had their hunting ground about the headwaters of the Mississippi River, and to the CHIEF OF THE OilAHAS. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 172. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 173 west, Tetons, believing that all Sioux in that country belonged to this tribe. On account of their superior numbers, the Sioux in that vicinity exercised control over the entire territory they roamed over, driving the tribes of other nations out, and seizing their lands. The Chippeways, having secured firearms earlier than the Sioux, attacked them, forcing them from their original hunting ground westward, claiming the territory as their own. After this different tribes of the Sioux located along the Missouri River and throughout the Northwest, where they remained until the Government finally placed them on reservations. Nearly all the Sioux nation were physically fine specimens of manhood, and were of a general uniform type. Both sexes were tall, straight, and of athletic build. Their faces were pleasing, the eyes bright and beamed with intelligence; none had the fierce, wild eyes so common in the Shoshonee family. The prominent Roman nose was usually seen in both sexes. Their skins were smooth and of a fine copper color, and with their coal-black hair, neatly dressed, gave them the appearance of the ideal Indian. All the Sioux were the most proud, haughty and imperious Indians in the entire West, and their defeat by the Chippewas was a severe blow to, them. 174 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XVIII. THE COMANCHES FIERCE TRIBES OF THE SHOSHONEE NATION GUARDING AGAINST AMBUSH AND SURPRISE THRILLING INCIDENTS. Where the Comanches Lived A Fierce and Implacable Foe A Terror to all Settlers Alliance with the Apaches Bloody Raids A Mexican Bandit Leader and his Fol- lowers A Lot of Murderous Renegades The Comanches Receive their First Chastisement Attack on Fort Lancaster Soldiers Lassoed while Guarding their Herds Carried Away and Murdered Carrying the Mail through a Hostile Coun- try in a Concord Buggy Cruel Fate of the Driver and Guard The Wagon Train Vast Sums in Gold and Silver Carried through a Hostile Country How the Trains Were Waylaid Horrible Fate of a Wounded Trainman Guarding against Sur- prise. THE Comanches were the most southerly branch of the Shoshonee nation. Their original language was Shoshone, but liv- ing so long near the Mexicans, they ac- quired a mongrel sort of dialect. Some of them understood the Spanish language, but would not converse in it unless they were engaged in some nefarious expedition, and desired it charged to the Mexicans. The name Comanche, by which these people were known, is supposed to have been given to them in early days by the Spaniards. The name they originally had and by which they called themselves, was Naiini, which meant in their tongue, "Those that live," or, "We are alive." Years ago they were numerous but be- came much reduced by war, disease, and other causes. At one time cholera and yellow fever threatened them with extermination, for, like all other Indians, they had no effectual means of combating disease. WIFE OF CHEVERS COMANCHE. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 175 The principal rendezvous of the Comanches for a greai many years was in the Hueco Mountains, Texas, and in the passes of the Chihuahua Mountains, in Mexico. They were divided into four or five different tribes each under its own chief. The names of the largest or principal tribes were the Yamparack, and the Tenawa. The former roamed over the country east of the Lipans, and were the fiercest as well as the most numerous tribe of the Comanches. The Comanches were among the fiercest Indians on this continent. For years they committed depredations in Texas, on the settlers, traders, and others, killing hundreds of men, women and children. During the time the present state of Texas was a Republic the Comanche committed so many deprecations against its inhabitants that they or- ganized the Texas Rangers to repel and drive them out of that country. When attacked by these troops they fled across the Rio Grande River into Mexico, knowing that the troops could not enter that country to give them battle. Here they recuperated until ready for another dash into Texas. These raids continued until as late as 1875 or 1876. When committing depredations on the citizens of that Republic, and pur- sued by Mexican troops, they would recross the Rio Grande into Texas, where they felt secure for a time with their plunder. They terrorized the entire country along the Rio Grande from its mouth to its source, and on both sides of it, roving north into the United States for hundreds of miles, and south into Mexico for probably the same distance. To them belongs the discredit of keeping that portion of Texas entirely unsettled until about I860 or 1867. It was not until after our Civil War that the Government sent troops to Texas, who prevented, to a certain extent, these marauding Indians from continuing their frequent expeditions. The entire country for probably a hundred to a hundred and fifty miles in Texas, parallel with the Rio Grande River, was without grazing herds of domestic animals, solely on account of these depredations. Even after the troops were sent there the Comancbes continued their destructive and frequent raids, and for a time effectually prevented the country from being settled. The Comanches, Apaches and Kiowas stealing as they did so many horses and mules from both Mexicans and Texans were always well mounted, and consequently in prime fighting condition. Knowing that international law would not permit United States troops to pursue them into Mexico, or Mexican troops to enter the United States, they hovered about the border line and fled across whenever they committed depredations on either side. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 177 For more than a century the Comanches were at war with the Spaniards living in Mexico. They came near annihilating De Soto's army. The feeling between the two people was so bitter that there was constant warfare between them, the Comanches making expeditions far into Mexico to engage the Spaniards, as well as for booty. The Comanches were at home everywhere, either on the plains, in the mountains, or the timbers, thus having great advantage over their adver- saries. Furthermore, the supposed boundary line between the United States and Mexico was the Rio Grande River. This river is wide, and in a great many places runs through a low country with sandy soil. When there was a great freshet this usually occurred every year the river would suddenly cut a new channel for a long distance, sometimes taking two or three miles of territory that had formerly been in the State of Texas, transferring it to the Republic of Mexico, on the other hand, sometimes transferring portions of Mexico to the United States. This did not tend to weld the bond of friend- ship between the Mexicans living along the river in Mexico, and the Texans living on the other side in Texas. For this reason an intensely bitter feel- ing existed between the two peoples; many depredations were committed by the Texans on the Mexicans, by which the former grew rich in horses, mules, and other animals, the Mexicans returning the compliment at every opportunity. To add to the disturbance the Mexicans had a daring leader of banditti, in the person of Juan Nipomecina Cortina. This leader held some kind of commission in the Mexican army ; although freqeuently ordered to the City of Mexico by the authorities of that Republic, he persistently refused to go, consequently he was not brought to justice. He had a large following, composed of the worst vagabonds and cutthroats that could be found in that country. Cortina himself grew to be very wealthy from thiev- ing, numerous raids, and the natural increase of his animals. He was never seen alone, always having with him an armed escort of his renegades. To him and bis party must be credited the killing of a great many people, the destruction of much property, as well as the loss of many animals along the Rio Grande at that time. Nearly everybody in the northern portion of Mexico was either in his employ, or terrorized by him or his band. All raids and depredations committed by them were laid at the door of the Comanche and Apache Indians. Consequently they were some- times charged with outrages of which they were innocent. Still, they 178 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. were bad enough, and if not guilty of all the crimes attributed to them it was only because they lacked the opportunity. It was not until about 1871 or 1872 that Colonel Randall S. McKenzie, of the 4th U. S. Cavalry, organized a body of troops at Fort Clark, and fol- lowed these Indians across the Rio Grande into Mexico, where he gave them their first chastisement. After some hard marching he reached their head- quarters, surprised and defeated them, securing a large number of stolen animals, and returned to Fort Clark with them. Before this the government of Mexico had been pressed by the authorities at Washington, who demanded that measures be taken to stop the raids of the Comanches, and their whilom allies, the Apaches. The governor of the State of Chihuahua at that time was Don Louis Tarasas. He directed a body of about a hundred cavalry to be made up from volunteer Mexican rancheros, to show the United States authorities that an effort was being made to check these raids. Captain Tarasas, a brother of the governor, was placed in command. The troops crossed the Rio Grande, between El Paso and Los Crucas, trailing the Indians to the Sierra Blanca Mountains, where a battle was fought, the Indians defeating the Mexicans, who returned to their homes. This was the last effort made on the part of the Mexican Government toward suppressing these Indians. In the summer of 1867, the allied bands of Comanches and Apaches attacked the garrison at Fort Lancaster, situated on Live Oak Creek, near its confluence with the Pecos River. This fort consisted of corrals, officers' quarters, storehouses, barracks for the troops, etc. ; all were built of sun- dried bricks called adobe. The troops and civilians garrisoned at this point numbered from a hundred to a hundred and twenty-five. The troops belonged to the regular army, and were well armed and equipped. The Indians captured the animals belonging to the garrison, and actually lassoed and carried away some of the troops who were guarding the herds. The bodies of the men were found where they had been left after having been killed and mutilated by the Indians. About this time Ben Ficklin established the first mail line from San Antonio to El Paso, a distance of about seven hundred miles. The Indians gave this line a great deal of trouble. When it was first established the mail was carried across the country in a Concord buggy, drawn by two horses or mules; a driver and guard made up the outfit. Once when one of the buggies was traveling between El Muerto and Eagle Springs, a Comanche jumped from behind some rocks after the buggy had passed, ran after the vehicle, and thrust his lance through the bodies of the unsuspecting driver and guard. I mention this instance to show the audacity of this TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 179 treacherous people. They were responsible for more loss of life and prop- erty, were more ferocious and cruel to the inhabitants of Texas than any Indians within its borders. It was by no means uncommon for them to at- tack travelers and wagon trains of freight while making tbe overland jour- ney, and destroy them. In those days freight trains consisted of prairie schooners (wagons), each capable of transporting seven or eight tons of freight. Two mules were hitched to the pole of the wagon, and then four abreast until the entire team was made up, which some- times consisted of fourteen, eighteen, and occasionally twenty - two animals. The number of wagons that made up a train varied from eight to twenty-five. It can readily be seen what a rich haul the Indians made in capturing one of these large overland outfits, as well as the great loss the owners sustained by its destruction. At this time the only means of transporting gold and silver coin and bullion from Mexico into tbe United States was by wagon trains. The gold and silver was placed in boxes of convenient size, and shipped from Chihuahua, Mexico, to San Antonio, Texas, a distance, probably, of one thousand miles, requiring from thirty-five to sixty days to make the journey. The route was through a country almost uninhabited except by the Indians. The trains carried great quantities of coin, sometimes amounting to several hundred thousand dollars. One would naturally suppose that such a large sum of money, with the animals and equipment belonging to the train, would be a tempting prize for the Comanches, for the wagon trains passed directl} 7 through their country. Strange to say, they did not, to rny knowl- COMANCHE WOMAN. 180 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. edge, attack a train that carried a large amount of money. Whether this was the result of accident or design I do not know. At Howard's Wells the Cornanches and their allies attacked a wagon train loaded with stores, while in corral there, killing all the trainmen and securing the animals. After taking what stores they could carry away, they burned the rest, including the wagons. One of the men, who was badly wounded and left for dead, fell under a wagon which was loaded with salt. The hot salt fell upon, and burned him in a frightful manner, adding intense agony to his sufferings until death relieved him. I arrived there shortly afterward, and was much impressed by the destruction of this ill- fated train and the massacre of the entire party. I mention the fact of the Indians attacking this train while in corral, be- cause it was unusual for them to attack a wagon train while in this fortified position, the trainmen having a better opportunity to protect themselves by using the wagons for breastworks. The usual manner of attacking a wagon train was to do so when it was on the move; then it was extended over the road for a long distance, each wagon with its team measuring prob- ably a hundred feet, and a train of twenty-five wagons extending over the road not less than half a mile. The wily savages would conceal themselves behind bushes and rocks along the route in advance of the slowly moving train ; at a given signal they would attack each wagon separately, making the whole train an easy prey. When a train was in corral and was attacked by Indians, the assault was usually made to secure the animals. When these were quietly grazing at a distance from the train the Indians would suddenly rush upon them with frightful yells, flaping their blankets, stampeding the terrified animals. To prevent this, when a train was in corral the mules were usually side- lined or hobbled. Side-lining is the fastening of the hind and forefoot on the same side of the animal together; side-lines had a chain between the feet to prevent the Indians from cutting them and releasing the animals. In addition to this a bell-mare usually accompanied the train. This mare was gray or white, with a bell around her neck. She was securely held by one of the herdsmen, and it was difficult to separate mules from a bell-mare. In this manner the animals were sent from the train in a herd for food and water, being guarded by a number of armed herders. Sometimes, when the Indians were particularly anxious to secure animals, they attacked the herds, killed the herdsmen, removed the side-lines and hobbles, then seizing the bell-mare and as many animals as possible, rapidly made off with them. Hobbling of animals is fastening the two forefeet together by the same means as the side lines, except that the chain between the feet is shorter. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 181 CHAPTER XIX. THE COMANCHES CONTINUED PUNISHMENT INFLICTED ON THEIR WOMEN- STEALING CONSIDERED A FINE ART. Comanche Home Life A Nation of Thieves Polygamy common among them Miser- able Women Never known to Marry outside of their own People What made them unusually Virtuous Severe Penalty for Unfaithfulness Slitting the Nose Self-in- flicted W^ounds Mourning for the Dead Superstitious Healing of the Sick Their Medicines Curing the Bite of a Rattlesnake Capturing Wild Horses Killing Wild Turkeys Their Scanty Clothing A Filthy and Repulsive People Feats of Horse- manshipCutting the Hamstring of a Running Animal Mothers at Twelve Years of Age Making up a Party for Plunder and Pillage Living in Rocks and Caves Expert Thieves Stealing considered a Mark of Honor. WHAT little home life the Co- manches had was congenial. Like the majority of Indians, they were kind to each other. They were polygamous, each family living in a separate habitation. Their lodges were miserable affairs made of poles, over which tanned skins or cloth were drawn. They were not advanced in the ruder arts beyond other Indians. For supplies they depended more largely on their ability to steal, than on honest efforts of their own. Their camp effects were few ; even these were generally secured by theft. A Comanche woman did not become the wife of a Mexican, a white man, or an Indian of another nation, except after capture. Although miserable, dirty and ignorant, the women were chaste, possibly from fear of MOUNTED COMANCHE WOMAN. 182 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. punishment; for the penalty for infidelity was terribly severe. For unfaith- fulness the offending woman, while being securely held, had a knife inserted in the cartilage at the end of the nose, which was then split to the eyes. The husband forced this wound to be kept open until healed, to prevent its unit- ing. A woman so marked presented a horrible appearance. They had no religion or worship above a rude superstition. They believed in the Great Spirit, but seemed to take no interest whatever in learning how they came here, or in speculating about the future state. They lived only for the present. When mourning for the dead, the Comanches were very demonstrative. The period of mourning lasted from three to fifteen days. During this time the family and friends of the dead visited the burial place of the deceased and showed their grief in various ways. The principal manifestation of sor- row was by slashing their arms, legs and bodies with knives. Sometimes the blood ran down their bodies in streams from head to foot from these self-inflicted wounds. With them the severest wounds, indicated the great- est intensity of grief. On the persons of old Comanche women could often be seen great soars of wounds made on these occasions. At mournings the men pmoked to the Great Spirit, to whom they also offered a prayer. The first puff of smoke was to the Great Spirit, the second to the sun, and the third to the earth. During the period of mourning, whenever they ate the first bite was offered to the Great Spirit for the benefit of the dead. Then some of the women buried a portion of the remaining food in the earth, that it might be eaten by the spirit of the departed. They had no medicine men, but performed all the rites of this class them- selves. In addition to their superstitious faith in their ability to heal the sick, they made medicine from roots and herbs for the treatment of bites of venomous insects and reptiles, which were very numerous in their country. They claimed to be able to cure the bite of a rattlesnake, but aside from cutting out the injured part at once, either by the person bitten or by some one else, then sucking the wound, their medicines were of little avail. They resorted to conjuring, singing weird chants, making all sorts of noises and hideous displays to drive away disease. Childbirth with them, even when the mother was only twelve to fourteen years of age, was a mat- ter of little moment. Sometimes within three or four hours after the first pains of labor the child was born, and the woman was going about as though nothing unusual had occurred. The country inhabited by the Comanches was, after that of the Sioux, the largest, and more abundantly supplied with game, wild horses, fruits, ber- ries, and nuts than that of any other nation of Indians. Their hunting COMANCHE LODGES. Twenty Years Among: Our Hostil" Indian'--. Pape 183 184 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ground covered the northern portions of the States of Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, and Chihuahua in Mexico, and Texas from the Brazos River on the north to the Rio Grande on the south. Within this vast area wild horses were abundant. Here, also, the buffalo roamed in vast num- bers in winter, besides several kinds of deer, bear, and wild turkeys in great abundance. The latter lived principally on the pecan nut, and were the finest turkeys I have ever seen. The Indians' mode of killing wild turkeys was simple and effective, though it could hardly be called sportsmanlike. The birds roost night after night in the same tree. After discovering a roost the Indians visited the tree at night, and, with bow and arrow, drop the birds one by one, always shooting the one nearest the ground. The turkeys looking up for the trou- ble, would not fly so long as they were not disturbed from above. The climate of their territory was warm, and they wore but little cloth- ing. A blanket or robe, belt, and breechcloth were indispensable parts of a man's dress; these they usually had. The portions of their bodies requiring the most protection were the feet and legs, as the ground in this region becomes hot in summer; in many places it is covered with sharp stones, and overgrown with thorny plants and prickly undergrowth. The dress of the women consisted of a blanket or skin, hanging to the knees from a belt around the waist. This, with the foot covering and leggings, made up their apparel. Comancho men or women took but little care of their hair, letting it grow long and hang over the shoulders and backs, never washing it, and it was in consequence filled with vermin. On the whole, the Conunches presented a repulsive and disgusting appearance. Both sexes tattooed their faces after the style of Indian art. They were fond of painting their bodies, and fre- quently used mud of various colors in this ornamentation, striping their faces, foreheads and cheeks. When paint was abundant, and the Comarlche was enabled to indulge his fancy for personal decoration of this kind, he could make himself disgustingly hideous-looking. In cold weather, or during a norther (a cold wind and snowstorm from the north), they wore a buffalo robe or blanket over what little clothing they had, squatting around the fire in vain efforts to keep warm. During these cold blasts they were extremely miserable and suffered greatly. The Comanches differed largely from other Indians in characteristics, customs and sports. They were expert and daring horsemen; and practiced riding and racing almost daily when not on the hunt or warpath. Horses were abundant in their locality, and they were almost a race of Centaurs. The feats of horsemanship performed by them were equal to, if they did not TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 185 excel, anything achieved in this line by any other Indian tribe or nation. On foot they were slow in their movements, but when mounted, they seemed to have undergone a complete transformation. The Comanche off his horse seemed out of his element. When on a buffalo hunt the Comanches would ride close to the. hind legs of the fleeing animal, and with a knife, cut its hamstring, compelling the helpless animal to fall. The women and children then attacked the pros- trate beast, cutting it up, almost alive. When butchering animals, they drank the warm blood, and when hungry, ate the liver and entrails raw. At best they ate their meat only partly cooked. The meat secured on one of these hunts was cut into strips, dried in the sun for use as occasion required. It was not an uncommon thing for them to eat their horses and mules, or the meat of an animal which had been dead for days. Notwithstanding their low order of intelligence, the men were brave, and were expert in handling their weapons. During battle the horses were kept in continual motion. When in large numbers, they formed themselves into subdivisions, charging the enemy almost simultaneously from every direc- tion, running away with lightning rapidity, and re-forming, charging again and again in the same manner. It required courage and vigilance to with- stand their attacks. Their arms consisted of bow and arrow, lance, shield, and modern firearms. When an important subject was to be considered, every person was invited to the talk, the warriors doing the talking. At these talks the affairs of the tribe were discussed to a conclusion. Comanche females became wives at an early age, and mothers of twelve and fourteen years were common. The women were compelled to do all the drudgery of the camp, and treated cruelly. They looked old and haggard at thirty-five and forty years. A Comanche could have as many wives as he could buy. He could also repudiate them at any time, and take back the property he had paid for them. Should a wife abandon her hus- band, the latter was considered disgraced, and the stain could be wiped out only by his killing some of her relatives. On reaching the age of puberty the names of the children were changed, the diminutive or pet name was dropped, and a name more dignified or suit- able to the age of the person adopted. Drunkenness was rare, although they made a strong intoxicating liquor from the mescal, a plant which grows wild in that country and iy plentiful. The Comanches were nomadic, rarely remaining more than a week or two in the same place. They frequently lived in caves when in a mountainous or rocky region. The women gathered the mesquit bean, pinon nut, the 186 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. agave and other fruits that grew wild in that country; these they used for food. During the winter when the buffalo migrated into their country, everybody, men, women and children, joined in the chase. They were skillful buffalo hunters, and rode fearlessly into a herd, killing the auimals in large num- bers with bows and arrows and lances. When in Mexico, they readily sup- plied themselves with an abundance of fresh meat by raiding the flocks of sheep and goats owned by Mexicans, or by stealing cattle. Among them the acquisition of other people's property by theft was con- sidered a mark of distinguished honor. The warrior who returned from a raiding expedition with the greatest amount of plunder was not only re- garded as the most courageous and skillful hrave, but was highly respected for his success as a thief. An old Comanche warrior, in speaking of the good qualities of his two sons, capped the climax of praise, by declaring that they understood horse stealing better than any other two young men of the tribe. In their predatory expeditions they feared only one disgrace, that of returning without plunder. From infancy they were trained to war. Each warrior kept a war horse, which was chosen for its swiftness. When raiding a settlement they descended upon it with surprising suddenness, vanishing as quickly as they came. At this time the Comanches had more arms than any wild Indians in the Southwest. Their territory was so vast and adjoined that of so many people having modern firearms that they easily secured a liberal supply from their neighbors, both Texans and Mexicans. Their principal difficulty was in securing ammunition. They were governed by a chief whose term of authority depended on gen- eral consent. He was their leader in war, and presided over their councils in peace; but if proven guilty of cowardice or incapacity was at once deposed. The Comanches counted by their fingers, ten being the highest number they were able to grasp; this was used in the same manner that we use our hundred ; thus, two tens, three tens, four tens, and so on. The Comanches were nearly always in friendly relations with the Kiowas on the north, as well as the Lipans and Apaches on the west. All these Indians held the Mexicans in contempt, frequently allying to enter their country and make war on them. When a body of any of these Indians en- tered Mexico, they raided everything in their path, seizing what they could carry away, and destroying what they could not. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 187 CHAPTER XX. THE APACHES APPALLING RECORD THEIR STEALTH AND CUNNING. In the Country of the Apaches Shaving off the Nose of a Woman Horrible Mutila- tions Apache Depredations The Ishmaelites of all Men Their Repulsive and Hideous Appearance Their Small and Peculiar Feet Painting Themselves with Mud An Unspeakably Dirty People Swarming with Vermin Murderous War- riors Art of Concealing their Persons How they Made Themselves Resemble a Rock Looking like a Bunch of Grass Mistaken for a Bush or Shrub Their Stealth and Cunning On the War Path Return of a War Party Thievish and Cruel Propensities An Appalling Record Driving Out Ten Thousand Settlers Hiding in the Dense Jungles. THE Apaches were the most southerly tribe of the Athabaska nation. It is more than probable that at one time they lived among the other tribes of this family in the far north, and that they were driven by other Indians whose territory they entered, further south to their present locality. They have been so long in their present territory that neither they or any one else can give reliable accounts of having been elsewhere. Their headquarters were in Arizona, anywhere between the Gila Range and the Mogollon Mountains. They were an itinerant people, and in habits, appearance and characteristics closely resembled the Comanches. Their depredations extended as far north as the Wasatch Mountains, and they frequently made raids as far as the Brazos River in Texas. The A paches, with the Comanches, were responsible for the southern por- tions of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona having been so long closed to white settlers. In their raids they destroyed everything in their path, LOCO, CHIEF OF THE WARM SPRING APACHES. 188 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. secured all the booty tbey could, attacked villages, settlements, and wagon trains, killing hunters, miners and settlers, capturing their entire belong- ings. If the booty was more than they could carry away the excess was burned. Their habits and home life were of the lowest order. Though polygamous they were very rigorous in regard to the fidelity of their wives. Any infrac- tion of this law was punished by shaving off the nose of the offending woman close to the face. A woman thus mutilated presented a revolting appear- ance. But, happily, there were few of them who had undergone such a severe mutilation ; this affords convincing evidence that the Apache women were generally faithful. The Apache was distinguished from all other Indians by his thievish pro- pensities. The Comanche was bad enough in this respect, but the Apache could outdo him. He was a born thief, and his education in this respect was never neglected. The Apache would undergo toil and danger to secure, by stealing or raiding, the articles he could have more easily obtained by hunting or working like his northern brothers, the Pueblos. They were the Ishmaelites of Indians, the inveterate enemy of all men, red or white, except when they allied with the Comanches against a common foe. It was rare to see a pleasing countenance even among their women. They had thick, rusty, black hair, and a mongrel cast of features. Their eyes were sharp and piercing. A notable peculiarity was their remarkably small feet, and the fact that the great toe was widely separated from the others. This was the result of the children wearing sandals made of thick hide, which were fastened to the feet by strong rawhide thongs, the larger thong passing between the great toe and the next. They painted themselves more profusely and hideously than any other Indians, using a great variety of colors in doing this. They sometimes plastered their heads and bodies with mud, both as a protection against the heat of the sun, and as a preventative against vermin. They often orna- mented their headdresses with deer hoofs, fishbones, shells, beads, and porcu- pine quills. They were good horsemen, and experts in the use of the lasso. At the time I was among them their arms consisted of the bow and arrow, lance, tomahawk, and old-fashioned guns and pistols. When hunting, they covered themselves with skins of various animals, and by imitating their movements, managed to approach the game within shooting distance. They ate every portion of the animal, the entrails being considered the daintiest part. Usually they half-cooked their meat, but sometimes it was eaten raw. Although they were gluttons of the most pro- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 189 nounced type, and could consume an enormous quantity of food at a time, they could also, if occasion required, go without eating for an incredibly long time. They were unspeakably dirty, both in person and habit. They had a natural antipathy to water as a means of cleansing themselves ; their lodges reeked with filth and swarmed with vermin. Offal, as well as the remains of dead animals, was allowed to remain in and about their camps until the odors became almost unbearable. Their fighting was invariably of a murderous character. They rarely attacked an enemy unless success seemed certain. They would lie patiently in ambush for days to surprise an enemy, and at the first opportunity sneak upon him under the cover of night. They were trained from youth to theft, murder, and cruelty, and practiced these at every opportunity. The Apache was an adept in the art of concealing his person. He some- times covered himself with a blanket, or sprinkled earth on his body, then placing himself among the rocks and boulders, remain as silent and immov- able as his surroundings, so that an inexperienced person often passed within a few yards of him without detecting his presence. Again, he cov- ered himself with grass, and lying on the ground, would so closely resem- ble a shrub or bush as to be easily mistaken for either. When once they entered on the warpath they fought with deadly feroc- ity. They traversed a large extent of territory, knew every portion of it, and utilized all the strategical advantages of the situation. When ap- proaching a settlement, village, or intended victims, they swept upon them with the fury of a cyclone, securing all the animals and plunder they could carry away, after deliberately killing all who were so unfortunate as to be within their reach, then mutilating the bodies of the victims in every fiendish manner, leaving them in the heat of the almost tropical sun to rot, or be eaten by wild animals. I have seen the bodies of women and children who had been killed by these diabolical wretches, mangled in the most horrible manner ; and have taken as many as fifteen arrows from the body of one of the victims. These bloodthirsty wretches killed people merely for the sake of killing. This did not, as a rule, extend to their captives from Mexico; but the latter would have preferred death rather than suffer what they did at the hands of these miscreants. Before entering on a marauding expedition the families of the warriors were concealed in some of the most inaccessible of the mountain fastnesses, the paths to which were known only to themselves. When they returned laden with booty and elated by victory, a period of feasting and rejoicing followed ; but if they returned empty-handed thej T were met by the women 190 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. with reproaches and jeers. When pursued too closely they killed the cap- tives, and even the horses and cattle that they had stolen rather than allow them to fall into other hands. If one Apache killed another he was not punished for it by the tribe, but the nearest relatives of the dead man might kill the murderer. When a girl arrived at a marriageable age the event was celebrated with feasting and dancing, during which time the girl was isolated in a lodge; at the conclusion of the ceremony she was divested of her eyebrows. A marriage was sometimes celebrated with a feast of horseflesh. The warriors considered it beneath their dignity to do anything but bunt and fight. The women were even compelled to saddle the horses for the braves when going on a chase or raid. As far back as 1762 the Mexican Government Re- ports state that the Apaches alone had de- stroyed and depopulated one hundred and seventy- four towns and stations. It has been estimated that the Apaches killed or drove out of the country in recent years, more than ten thousand settlers. The Jesuits in the early days built missions all through the northern and central portions of Texas as well as New Mexico and the northern portion of Arizona, some of which are at present standing, although in a dilapidated condition. The Jesuits were never able to establish a mis- sion successfully among the Apaches, nor did their teachings have any effect upon them. After the acquisition of the territory they roamed over the government of the United States with its handful of troops undertook to exercise supervision over them; but the Indians were so refractory that nothing could be done. While the government did not abandon its project or efforts, it made TYPICAL APACHE WARRIOR. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 191 no progress in subduing them. Some portions of their country were over- grown with chaparral as well as various kinds of undergrowth, such as cat- claw bushes and other thorny plants. These grew so dense in places that not a blade of grass grew under them. These spots were the hiding places of the Apaches after their raids. It was impossi ble to penetrate these jungles without the aid of a sharp instrument, on account of the interminable entanglement of the undergrowth. The Apaches wore shoes made of flint hide that successfully resisted the sharpest thorns or cat-claws, and served also as a protection against the bite of the black ant, the scorpion, the centipede, the wingless bumblebee, the chigoe, popularly called "chigger" or "jigger," the rattlesnake, and other venomous reptiles and bugs that infest that region. Their legs were also protected by a thick pair of leggings made from flint hide, with the hairy side out; for in walking, and especially riding rapidly through cat-claw bushes and thornj 7 chaparral, without this protection the legs of the rider would in a short time be a mass of raw flesh. Horses when ridden rapidly through this country instinctively jumped cat-claw bushes whenever possi- ble, otherwise fifteen minutes of travel through this undergrowth would tear the skin of their legs into shreds. Living in a hot climate, under an almost tropical sun, the Apaches re- quired, and had but little clothing. The dress of the men consisted of a visor or shade for the eyes, made of flint hide and fitted over the head to afford protection against the sun, and a Navajo or other blanket, which they had no doubt stolen on some thieving expedition. The women wore a piece of blanket around their waists extending to the knee, and had the same kind of protection for the feet and legs as the men. Their habitations were merely low bushes or shrubs drawn together at the top and covered with cloth, blanket or hide, affording slight protection against the sun and in- clement weather. The heat in that semi-tropical climate is intense. When the wind blows in summer it is like the blast from a furnace; it parches all vegetation and dries up the ground, leaving great cracks in it until the rainy season sets in for July, August, and September. The troops had a great horror of being stationed in this country on account of its climate. 192 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XXI. THE APACHES CONTINUED ELUSIVE, CUNNING AND DARING INDIANS EX PERT TRAIL FOLLOWERS INDIAN LIFE IN TEXAS, NEW MEXICO, AND ARIZONA. Expert Trailers Detecting Signs Concealing their own Trail Their Cunning in eluding Pursuit Apache Cruelty to Captives Fate of Captive White Boys and Girls How the Apaches Lived Great Aversion to Telling their Names Queer Super- stitions Burying their Dead at Night Their Fear of a Dead Body Traveling One Hundred Miles a Day on Foot Marvelous Endurance Victorious in Capturing Trains Raiding Settlers Bones of Victims An Able but Vicious Chief The Deadly Fear He Inspired Attacking Ranch and Cattle Men Dreadful Fate of a Mexican Captive Stripped, and Staked out on the Ground over an Ant Hill A Horrible Death Midnight Groans and Screams The Story of a Noted Chief's First Raid as Told by Himself. FOR many years after the acquisition of Texas by the United States the Apaches had their headquarters and chief hunting ground in the San Carlos Mountains in Arizona and New Mexico, and it was impossible either for the United States or Mexico to chastise them successfully. They were as elusive when pursued as they were daring when attack- ing. In following a trail an Apache could detect signs which, to an expert white man, were invisible. In this respect he surpassed all other Indians. In en- deavoring to escape he would cover, or break his trail so that it was almost impossible to follow him. He would double in his track, twist, turn, and circle around in the most inexplicable and cunning way. Sometimes the party would break up or scatter, only to meet miles away at some point previously agreed upon. They were endowed WARM SPRING APACHE. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 193 with great physical endurance, could travel on foot surprising distances in an incredibly short time, and penetrate into almost inaccessible recesses. When broken up into parties each band left signs for the information of others which their pursuers could not read, or, as a usual thing, could not notice. When on the warpath they carried with them the least possible quantity of impedimenta. They depended for subsistence on what the country afforded, or on what they could steal. After capturing their enemies they usually dispatched them ; if they had time and opportunity, they frequently did so with the most fiendish cruelty, though when white boys and girls were captured who were old and strong enough to endure the hardships of Indian life, they were sometimes adopted into the tribes. The Apaches had a great advantage over other Indians in resisting the white man, they could procure food far more easily than they. The Indians of more northern latitudes lived almost exclusively on animal food, and could, when driven to places where this kind of food was not easily obtainable, be starved into submission. Not so with the Apaches. When driven to the mountains they found an abundance of deer and other animals to supplj T them with food ; when on the southern plains, on either side of the border line, they subsisted on the vege- tables, fruits, and esculent roots which grew abundantly there. The mescal, or agave, the fruit of the Spanish bayonet, themesquit bean, the giant cactus fruit, acorns, nuts, and wild potatoes were all eaten by them. They could live on cacti if need be, and accustomed themselves to go from forty-eight to seventy-two hours without water. This they did by placing pebbles in the mouth undar the tongue to promote the flow of saliva, also by sucking moist- ure from pieces of cactus. They always found some means of subsistence and were at home anywhere. An Apache would not tell his name, but he would permit any one else to tell it for him. They usually buried their dead at night; they had a super- stitious fear of a dead body, never going near one when it could be avoided. They did not like to speak on the subject of death, and rarely mentioned the names of the dead ; though the name of a warrior who had achieved distinc- tion or performed some special act cf bravery, might, if sufficient 'time had elapsed since his death, be conferred on a near relative. They were very superstitious, hence the medicine men exercised great influence among them. There was less uniformity of type among the Apaches than in many other Indian nations. Some were tall, sinewy, and athletic-looking, while others were short and broad-chested. But all possessed wonderful physical endur- ance, as every old cavalry officer who has had occasion to pursue them can 194 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. testify. Their animals also had great endurance. Having an almost un- limited territory to roam over, and each warrior having from three to five well -trained horses or mules that lived on the grass and underbrush, but without success. THE KASKASIAS AND OTHER ALGONQUIN TRIBES. The Kaskasias were one of a number of Algonquin tribes that occupied the territory between the Wabash and the Mississippi Rivers. These tribes formed a sort of confederacy. They were the Kaskasias, the Cahokias, Tamaronas, Peorias and the Michigamis. All these confederated tribes were known under the name of Illinois. In the early part of the century they ceded their lands to the United States Government, and moved west of the Mississippi. 280 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. THE M1AMIS. These Indians originally came from the western part of Ohio and eastern part of Indiana. They occupied the country south of the Maumee River, and as far as the Wabash. They were removed to Kansas and lived in the southeastern part of that State. At one time they were estimated to number ten thousand souls, and to have been very fierce warriors. Since their re- moval to Kansas they have lived a sort of half -civilized life. THE POTTAWATTOMIES. These people originally occupied the country around Green Bay, Wiscon- sin, but subsequently pushed to the territory of the Miamis, whom they ex- pelled from the region around the southern end of Lake Michigan. They subsequently moved to Kansas, and thence to the Indian Territory. THE OTTAWAS. The Ottawas were a portion of the Algonquin stock, and originally lived on the banks of the river of the same name. They compelled the Hurons and other peoples to pay them tribute for the privilege of passing up and down the river through their territory. A small portion of the same nation lived formerly in the upper part of the peninsula of Michigan. When the Hurons were attacked and almost destroyed by the Six Nations, the Ottawas suffered greatly, and the remnant of the nation fled, taking refuge on the southwestern extremity of Lake Superior. THE SACS AND FOXES. The Outagamias or Sacs were of Algonquin stock and originally occupied the country about Green Bay, Wisconsin. They allied themselves with the Kickapoos, their neighbors on the south, finally advancing toward the Illinois River, driving out the tribes inhabiting that territory. They were finally TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 281 removed to Kansas, where they rapidly increased in numbers, hoko tribe refused to leave their home in Black River. These people have always been noted for their superior intelligence and their great powers in war. Although liv- ing far to the east they refused to adopt the customs of civili- zation. The Sacs and Foxes adopted among their numbers warriors belonging to other tribes, whom they made chiefs. One of whom, Black Hawk, was a Pottawattomie by birth. Keo- kuk was also one of their prominent men. During the Black Hawk war they allied with the Winnebagoes. The Noko- VARIOUS TRIBES. BEAR CLAW NECKLACE HEAD COVERING MADE OP SKINS HORSEHAIR ORNAMENTATION SAC AND FOX. There were in Texas various Indian peoples. On the head- waters of the Brazos River lived the Huecos or Wacoes. They were a small number of Indians who had lived there for a long time. Little is known of their origin, but they had a language of their own. In the early part of this cen- tury their numbers were less than one hundred. Somewhere about 1840 they numbered about four hundred, and now are partly civilized. The Keechies were also another small body of Indians living in northwestern Texas, having a language of their own. In the early part of this century they numbered from sixty to seventy-h've, in 1840 they numbered from two to three hundred. The several members of these small tribes who lived together as neighbors, held friendly intercourse, and lived at peace with other, were more or less of different stock. The languages, manners and customs in some instances were very different, while among some of the others they had a strong resemblance both in language and habits. The language of the Wacoes, Tawaconies, lones were similar, while others were totally different. 282 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The Caddoes constituted one linguistic stock. Shortly after the acquisi- tion of Texas by the United States, they numbered about two thousand; ten years later they numbered about fifteen hundred, and at present there is only a remnant of the tribe left, numbering about four hundred. They had their home in northwestern Texas, and were neighbors to the Tonka ways. Little is to be said of them, as little is known. When I last saw them it was about the year 1869 or 1870. They were partially civilized and lived at peace with all their neighbors. THE SEMINOLES. These people originally belonged to the Appalache family and had their home in Florida, and too much has been written of their history for me to say anything about them during the time they lived in their original terri- tory ; but that they married and intermarried with the negroes is evidenced by the fact that a large portion of the Seminoles, after they were removed from Florida, had their home in Texas on the Kio Grande, in and about Fort Duncan or the town of Eagle Pass, and bore all the characteristic? of the Afri- can. Here they lived after a style more Mexican than Indian. Few of them were less than half-blood negro. Their hair was curly, their noses flat, and in appearance looked like the African. Among their number were some very old people who could speak a little English. They had a language of their own, which was guttural and sounded very much like that of the ignorant negro of slavery days. The Seminoles were employed as guides by the troops and others in Texas. They were efficient in running the trail ; this was about the only Indian trait they possessed. They raised sheep, goats and other animals in large numbers, but made only slight advances in the arts of civilization. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 283 CHAPTER XXXV. THE NEZ PERCES, OR PIERCED-NOSED INDIANS ON THE WARPATH-SUR- RENDER OF CHIEF JOSEPH THE CAYUSES. A Part of the Shahaptin Family How the Nez Perces were first Discovered Their Pierced Noses An Intelligent Tribe White Squatters First Outbreak against the Whites Going on the Warpath Organizing a Bloody Campaign A Fierce Battle Indian Tactics Troops in Pursuit Peculiar Incident of the Battle Birth of a Child during the Engagement Chief Joseph His Daughter Lost in the Confu- sion of Battle Devoured by Wild Animals The Chief's only Heir His Wonderful Retreat of Two Thousand Miles His Military Ability Indians Fighting with their Clothes On Rare Instance of Indian Magnanimity Surrender of Chief Joseph Asking no Favors His Patriotic Speech The Cayuses Low, Cunning Great Thieves. THE Nez Perces, or Pierced Noses, were the most numerous tribe of the Shahaptin nation, and spoke the language of that family. The name was given them by French Canadian trappers and traders, for the reason that at one time they pierced the cartilage at the end of the nose; in this a polished bone, stick, or feather was worn. They have been erroneously called by many other names, such as Shahap- tin, Numepo, Shopomish, etc. This can readily be accounted for from the fact that they were divided into many small tribes, each of which had its own name. Sometimes the whole tribe was called by the name of one or another of the small ones. When first discovered by Lieutenants Lewis and Clark at the head- waters of the Columbia River, they were peaceable and hospitable, and aided the party greatly in making explorations in that region. In their report to the War Department these officers stated that the Nez Perces occu- pied almost the entire Northwestern Territory, that they were the richest tribe of Indians in that country and that they numbered from twenty thou- sand to twenty-five thousand. How they arrived at this conclusion I cannot understand, for the Nez Perces, with even their superior intelligence, had no means of making Or keeping records; and as they were scattered all over their territory, it was sim- ply impossible for Lieutenants Lewis and Clark, during their short stay among them, to have seen more than a small portion of them. I never knew any one to make an estimate of their numbers to exceed five thousand to ten thousand. FULL BUCKSKIN DRESS, ORNAMENTED WITH BEADS AND FRINGES NEZ PERCE WARRIOR. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 284 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. .285 The Nez Perces were one of the most peaceful and intelligent of Indian peoples, although they sometimes engaged in hostilities with the Blackfeet, on which occasions they generally proved themselves superior warriors. There were two divisions of this tribe, designated as the Upper and Lower Nez Perces. At one time the Nez Perces and some other tribes of their kindred stock were the richest Indians in the West. Wherever there was one of their camps, all the valleys and plains were covered with large herds of good horses. The owners often had so many that it was necessary to mark them; this was usually done by cutting the ears in different ways, often a large slit was taken out in the shape of the letter V, another cut off the top of both ears. A handsome horse was often changed to a homely one by these large marks. These Indians made for themselves warm clothing for winter use from the skins of various animals. Sometimes coats were made double, with fur or hair inside and out. They took much care of their effects, persons and habitations, and laid away large quantities of dried meat, wild fruits, as well as the camas for winter use. Not being constantly engaged in war, the women did not outnumber the men ; consequently polygamy was not general among them. It was among these people that some of the first missionaries from Canada located. They did much good teaching some of the Indians the Christian religion, and also did much to soften their savage instincts, as well as to teach them the ways of civilization by which they could better their condi- tion. After this the Indians progressed, were contented, and had they been properly treated, would not have caused the loss of life and treasure from the unjust acts of the Government and whites in their country. With the advance of civilization is always accompanied desperate char- acters, whose only aim is to secure lands or property without much effort or exertion. So it was in this case; as white squatters became more numerous the hunting grounds of the Indians grew less. This so incensed them, that their savage instincts were aroused to such an extent that they could bear it no longer. They were brought into prominence by their first outbreak against the whites, having entered into several treaties with the Government, which had scarcely been made before they were broken by one side or the other. As the Indian lands were valuable, as fast as the whites invaded the country they settled upon them. After many whites had taken possession the Government made an effort to secure another treaty, but their chief said, THUNDER-ROLLING IN -THE-MOUNTAINS, OTHERWISE CHIEF JOSEPH NEZ PERCE. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile I-^lians. ape 286 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 287 "No, we have kept our faith with you, DOW keep yours with my people." The old chief died and his son took his place; both he and his people refused to submit to the decision of the Government, although the Indians had agreed to live on the reservation. Knowing the futility of going to war, the chief reluctantly consented to make concessions; but many of the Indians resented this, and organized themselves into war parties, taking the warpath against the whites. This occurred during the absence of the head men, who were away on a hunting expedition. After their return they upheld the acts of the others, and organized all the warriors of the tribe into a fighting body. One of the fiercest battles that followed took place in a deep basaltic walled canon on White Bird Creek. The troops which had been sent in pur- suit entered the canon thinking that they could approach the Indians and lead them away, as they had always been peaceful. In this they were mis- taken, for the latter threw out a herd of horses to cover their movements. They then deployed as skirmishers, and with some fine manoeuvres closed on the troops, and in a short time turned their flank. Among the troops were a number of volunteers from the settlers, who, observing the success of the Indians, became panic-stricken and broke from the lines; the Indians then made fierce and sudden dashes on the soldiers, demoralizing the whole body. The first dash was so quick that the troops had no time to get into position ; but for the coolness and courage of the regular forces the whole body of whites might have been annihilated. The army officers forced the fighting, compelling the Indians to retreat. During this retreat, which lasted more than four months, the Indians fought many pitched battles with the United States troops, in which the former were usually victorious. A very unusual thing occurred during this retreat. When passing through a village of Indians who wished to join him in his fight against the whites, Chief Joseph rejected their proposition, saying, "Remain where you are, and let me fight this out my own way." He also requested them to do what he recommended, and not to commit any outrage that might embitter the feeling then existing. His orders to his warriors to spare all white pris- oners taken in battle and not to kill a white woman or child, was something unknown among the North American Indians in time of war. Such mag- nanimity is entirely foreign to Indian character. During the many battles with the troops the Indian warriors did not strip off their clothing, as was their usual custom, but wore their breechcloths and moccasins, and did not look so hideous while engaged in conflict. A peculiar incident of this battle was that Chief Joseph's wife gave birth to a child during the heat of the fight. This infant daughter was the only MOUNTED WARRIOR PAIN 1 ED WAR HORSE NEZ PP:RCE. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 288 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 289 child left to him when he finally surrendered; his other child, a girl about ten years, ran away on the day of the final engagement, and being lost, either died of starvation or was devoured by wild animals. Chief Joseph, whose Indian name was Thunder- rolling-in-the-Mountains, must be rated among the greatest Indian chiefs and warriors of this conti- nent. He possessed splendid military capacity, as well as great ability in the management of his people. His retreat from Kamia on the Nez Perces reservation to the Bear Paw Mountains, twice crossing the Rocky Moun- tains, carrying with him the wounded, infirm, and the children of his people, with very insufficient supplies, through a rugged mountainous country, in all kinds of weather, covering a distance of two thousand miles, is one of the greatest achievements ever performed by an uncivilized man. During this remarkable retreat, which lasted nearly six months, Joseph was followed by some of the ablest generals of the Civil War. He was finally brought to bay in the Bear Paw Mountains, where, after a six-days' battle, in which both sides fought with desperate bravery and persistence, he finally surrendered. In person Joseph was tall and spare, in intellect he was a giant. He was pre-eminently a war chief; though he was not so popular with his people at first as some other chiefs, he gradually grew in the estimation of his tribe and the whites, until he became the first Indian in the Northwest. When he surrendered he did so with dignity, asking no favors for his people; but calling attention to the many alleged breaches of faith on the part of the Government, made no complaint. On one occasion he remarked that he did not blame the President for his neglect, as he had so much to attend to in looking after the whites that he could not be expected to trouble himself about anything so unimportant as an Indian. If this utterance was sincere it was magnanimous; if not, it was very sarcastic. The highest eulogy that can be written of Joseph is that his best friends were those who fought him hardest. They learned to respect his ability and character. His language when he surrendered and resigned his freedom for- ever was as touching as it was dignified. He said : "I surrender because I do not wish to see the continued suffering of my people. My camp is filled with wounded, sick, and infirm; my brother has been killed in battle; my little daughter has been lost on the prairie where she ran in the confusion of the fight; my people, who have been S3 rich in horses and the necessaries of life, are now on the snow-covered prairie, comfortless and starving. I am within a short distance of British America, and should I care to leave my wounded behind, I can escape with my well people and cross the line, where I can be protected; but I prefer to surrender on my own ground, and TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. the Government is at liberty to treat me personally as it may choose." To the Shahaptiu family also belonged several other large tribes. The principal in regard to numbers were the Cayuses Palooses, Umatillas, Walla Wallas and Klikatahs. THE CAYUSES. Of the various tribes the Cayuses were the worst of the whole. They were crafty, cunning, and troublesome, being constantly on some thieving expedition. They were notorious horse thieves, and were despised by all people in their country. The trappers and traders suffered severely from them, as they frequently stole their entire outfit, after killing many of the men when they could do so without being caught. They were probably the meanest as well as the lowest tribe of their family, as they were constantly skulking through the mountains in small parties, and also roaming over the country in search of small bodies of Indians and whites, whom they attacked when found in a defenseless position. When mounted they rarely used a saddle, the horse was guided by a raw- hide rope around the lower jaw. The warriors, almost naked, were ready for any emergency, and could dash on a party with great rapidity, running away as quickly as they came. Having such good mounts it was seldom that they were overtaken. After an attack in which they killed some one, they immediately returned to their homes, when the whole tribe protected them in declaring that none of its people had been away from camp even for an hour. They were so secretive that it was with difficulty that anything could be learned about their affairs; it was not until after their savage instincts had been reduced that a white man was permitted to have one of their women for his wife; even then they were so suspicious that he was never taken into confidence. Should anything become known about them, it was charged to the "squaw men," when some of them were sure to suffer in some way either by killing, being robbed of his entire effects, or driven away. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 291 CHAPTER XXXVI. CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS OF THE CALIFORNIA TRIBES INDIANS WHO TATTOOED THEIR FACES AND BODIES. Different Linguistic Stock Many Languages Spoken among this Group Tribes which went Naked Garments of Rabbit Skins Painting their Faces and Bodies Per- sonal Adornment Slitting their Ears The Custom of Tattooing and what it Meant Passing Goose Quills through the Nose Night Watchers of the Camp An Indian Bath Ingenious Ways of Catching Fish Eating their Food Raw, Entrails and All A Meal of Grasshoppers Bread Made of Dried and Pulverized Grass- hoppers Eating Portions of the Bodies of their Enemies Money Estimate of Human Life Peculiar Marriage Customs Dances and Festivities Gambling and Games Treatment of the Sick Cremating their Dead. PREVIOUS to the advent of the white man in California that region was more densely popu- lated by Indians than any portion of this coun- try. They were not of one linguistic stock, there being from ten to twelve distinct lan- guages, and double that number of dialects spoken among this group. In complexion they were much darker than those east of the moun- tains. There was less uniformity of type among them than any other group of Indians in this country; some being short and of com- pact build, others thin INDIAN WITH BEADED LEGGINGS AND MOCCASINS SHIRT , , rmK* A fAW ORNAMENTED WITH WOLF SKIN STRIPS GOVERN- MENT MEDAL, were tall and well formed; none were fierce, and when the whites entered their country, 292 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. the Indians offered no stern resistance to them, as did those of other sections. The mountain tribes were more warlike and physically better developed than those living in the lowlands. They were better armed and frequently fought among themselves, or made raids on their neighbors. The Indian nations and tribes of North America resembled each other in general' characteristics. Nevertheless, the influence of soil, climate, and environment, operating on them through centuries, gave to many nations as marked an individuality as may be observed among different nationalities of the civilized races. The California Indians not only differed greatly from those who were remote from them, but differed from many of their immediate neighbors, and even differed in some respects among themselves. Living in a mild climate they were less warlike than many other Indians; their custom of living in rude habitations, and of wearing little clotbing, or sometimes none, was not so much characteristic of a lower type of manhood as their inheritance of laziness. They were content simply to exist, and nothing but necessity com- pelled them to the least exertion. The natives of northern California were the Yurok and Karok, who occu- pied the most northerly portion of the territory on the lower Klamath River. and spoke entirely different tongues. South of the Yurok, on Hum- bolt River were the Wishosks; these two tribes spoke languages of a common origin. Between the Wishosk and the Yuki were a Tinueh tribe, in the vicinity of the Eel and Trinity Rivers. The Yuki con- stituted two divisions or groups, the one embracing the region between John's Creek and the Pacific, and the other the territory south of Clear Lake. The Yuki and the Tinneh tribes, were among the lowest and most degraded of all the California Indians, and were despised by all their neighbors. They intermarried to such an extent as to produce a mixed race, which inhabited this region, and were worse, if anything, than their ancestors. The Porno family also occupied a large territory as far north as the Rus- sian River, extending inland to about the borders of Clear Lake, and as far west as the Pacific Ocean. This nation was divided into various tribes that differed but little from one another in characteristics and customs. The Chimariko, had their home immediately south of the Karok, were few in numbers and insignificant in almost every way. The Wintun family occupied the territory lying between Mt. Shasta and Benecia. The family was divided into two groups, the northern known as Wintuns, and the southern as Patwins. To the south and east of the south- INDIAN DRAWING ON BUFFALO ROBE. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 293 294 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ern Wintuns lived the Maidn, and east of the northern Wintuns were the Achomawi, who extended as far east as Nevada. The Maidu family differed somewhat in their manners and customs, and even in their dialect. The further south they extended the more pronounced were their peculiari- ties, and the greater their superstitions. The territory around Lake Tahoe and the Truckee River was the home of the Washo family. Between the Sierra Nevada and the Pacific, and ex- tending southward from above San Francisco to Monterey was the territory of the Mutsun. This great family consisted of four large groups: on the east the Miook; on the south and southwest the Mutson proper; on the north- west the Olamentke, and on the north and northeast the Talatin. To the south of the Mutsun was the Yokuts family, occupying an irregu- lar-shaped territory into which they had been driven by the Pi-Utes. This territory stretched east and west from the Sierras to the Coast Range, and south to Tulare Lake, embracing a narrow tract of country as far as Los Angeles county. They were divided into many small tribes, forming a sort of confederacy, which acted in unison. Each tribe regulated its own affairs, but in matters of importance councils of the chiefs of the different tribes were held. The chiefs of all the different tribes were subordinate to the head chief of the nation, but the decision of the latter was not always final, and might be overruled by a council of the subordinate chiefs. The position of head chief was hereditary, while the tribal chiefs were chosen in the usual Indian manner. Every year a great council was held at which all the chiefs were present. Councils were always presided over by the head chief, and the affairs of each tribe were presented to the council by its chief, and such measures as were deemed necessary for their common interest were agreed upon. They were not particular about their clothing, either as to quality or quantity. The Yuroks wore a breechcloth only, though in the cold season they wore a buckskin, or a robe made of rabbit skins around them. A robe of rabbit skins was made double, with fur inside and out, and required from sixty to seventy-five skins. Among the coast tribes, garments made of seal, and other skins were often worn. The Pitt River Indians wore only a deer- skin thrown over them. The men usually went bareheaded, but the women wore headgear or covering made of basket work, often gaily ornamented with feathers. In central and southern California the men frequently went naked. The women wore an apron of deerskin or braided grass, and sometimes a gar- ment covering the bosom and reaching to the knees. In cold weather the men often wore a deerskin about the shoulders; and the women wore a TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 295 garment of skin thrown over them, in addition to a short kilt of braided grass. The women and children of the coast tribes wore petticoats of sealskin, which were occasionally ornamented with fringe and shells. The chief's cloak reached nearly to the ground ; this was the only mark of distinction in his dress or appearance. At times some of these tribes wore a gala dress, covering the body, but this was on special occasions, and was the result of vanity rather than a sense of decency. They made moccasins of braided grass to protect the feet while traveling over rough places, through brush, and sometimes bound their legs and bodies with twisted bands of hide for protection. Both men and women painted their faces and bodies in various colors. They were fond of ear ornaments, and wore huge pendants from slits made in their ears. Some of the ornaments were from six to eight inches in length. Through the ear-holes was inserted a piece of hollow wood or bone as thick as one's finger, this was sometimes used as a needlecase; it was often decorated with glass beads and other ornaments. Bracelets and necklaces made of strings of beads and ornamented shells were also worn. The various tribes differed in the manner of wearing their hair. Some wore it in the form of a queue, some in two twisted braids hanging down the back or over the shoulders, while others let it hang loose. Those who wore the hair loose cut it off at the shoulders, others cut it around the face; some of the tribes who plaited it wove the fibre of bark or silk grass in the plaits; although the hair was considered the greatest ornament of their per- sons none of them took much care of it. Some of the men tattooed their breasts and arms, but the practice was not general among them. Occasionally they tattooed themselves by certain marks whereby they could be identified if captured. The women tattooed their faces, breasts and arms in colors made from the juices of plants; the lines were sometimes so arranged as to indicate the per- sonal characteristics of the person so ornamented. This, however, was only peculiar to certain tribes. The natives around Klamath Lake bedecked themselves more profusely than their neighbors, covering their bodies from the face to the waist with various colors and figures. Occasionally not only different tribes, but even families of the same tribe bad their own distinctive style of tattooing and painting their faces and bodies. Their habitations did not greatly differ. In summer they drew the bushes together to shade them from the sun. Their permanent dwellings, however, consisted of a hole dug in the ground ; around this poles were set, over 296 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. which a conical covering was placed. The size of the huts, or dugouts, de- pended on the number of inmates, which greatly varied. Habitations of this kind, as among all nomadic races, were built to meet the requirements of time and place. Some were dome shaped, like beaver houses ; others were square. All here a certain resemblance to each other in construction and arrangement. A few tribes built more permanent dwellings, and evinced no little inge- nuity in making them strong and serviceable; and all consisted of but one apartment. The sleeping places were invariably arranged in Indian fashion around the wall of the hut. Among certain tribes some of the men re- mained awake all night watching, while the others slept; often the guards took their weapons and joined the watchers in other lodges of the camp all fearful of being unexpectedly attacked or surprised. The tribes of southern California had the worst, the flimsiest, and most ill-kept dwellings of any of the Californian tribes. Those of the northern Indians were substantial and well adapted for the purposes for which they were designed, while some of the southern tribes seemed to have derived some ideas in regard to house- build ing from their immediate neighbors to the south, residing in what was formerly Mexican territory. A few of the tribes bathed, or rather took an occasional plunge in the water; but this was done to cool themselves and not from a sense of cleanli- ness. They only moistened the dirt on their bodies, and came out of the water as filthy as they went in. They built sweat houses of earth; these were low and small, and always located near a body of water. When taking a bath of this kind, several of them entered the sweat house, then closing the entrance, remained there until almost overcome by the intense heat; after they were nearly exhausted they rushed out and plunged into the water. Hot baths and a cold plunge were taken during the coldest weather, which did not seem to cause them in- convenience, or have any effect detrimental to the health of the bather. Sweat houses were heated by hot stones after the usual Indian custom, and were scattered all through California and Oregon. They preferred fishing to hunting, as. it required less exertion. Some of them caught fish by building closely constructed willow dams at certain places on the streams, so that the fish could not pass through; and when they swarmed at these dams, they were scooped out by means of baskets and rude drag-nets. Salmon especially were easily taken in this way by the northern tribes. When they swarmed up the rivers in spawning time, they collected in such numbers before the dams that they could be literally taken out of the water in basketfuls. Some of the tribes had fishing chiefs when TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 297 they went on their fishing expeditions, and the orders of these chiefs during that time were implicitly obeyed. The coast Indians ate shellfish, seal, and stranded whales. Their principal food consisted of acorns and nuts. These were often eaten raw, or sometimes pounded into a pulp, then made into bread; this was baked in a hole in the ground, over which hot coals were heaped. Occasionally they ate their food raw; at other times it was half -boiled in close- woven baskets filled with water heated by hot stones. Meat was some- times broiled or cooked in a hole in the ground, over which were placed live coals. The animal was roasted whole, just as it was killed, and entrails and all were eaten. They never washed their cooking utensils, or their hands, although they uniformly ate with their fingers. Fruits, roots, berries and vegetables formed part of their diet. The women did all the fruit gathering, the men confining their labors to hunting and fishing. Some of the more provident dried or smoked their fish and meats, and preserved roots, berries and acorns in baskets for seasons of want. Many of the tribes were too lazy to hunt, and resorted to various devices for capturing game. What little game they secured was usually captured by traps or snares, or by running it down by relays, at which they were ex- perts. Often brush fences or corrals were built, into which game was driven. Deer and small game were shot with the bow and arrow, by stealing close to the animal. In chasing deer the hunter covered himself with a deer skin, with the head and horns aloft, and approached close to the herd before the ruse was discovered by the unsuspecting animals. Grasshoppers were secured by setting fire to the grass in dry weather and driving the insects into pits prepared for the purpose. At other times they formed a line and beat the ground with sticks, driving the grasshoppers into the pit. These insects, when caught in large numbers, were cooked in holes in the ground, over which fires were built; at other times they were dried and put away for future use, and when pulverized were made into a kind of paste or cake. Some of the tribes were deterred by superstition from eating the flesh of large animals, especially bear, as they believed that the bodies of these beasts contained the spirits of their ancestors. For a low and ignorant people they were capable of great endurance, and could go for long intervals without food or water. Their weapons consisted of the bow and arrow and lance. Their bows and arrows were well made, being equal to those used by any other North Amer- ican Indians. The bow was made of the toughest and most elastic wood. 298 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. and strengthened by being bound around with sinews. The arrows were from two to two and one-half feet in length. They were barbed with flint, volcanic glass, obsidian, or bone, and barbed so that the head would remain in the body it penetrated unless cut out. Great skill and patience were re- quired in making some of the arrow-heads, and only those who had mastered jhe trade by long practice could produce them. Some of the flint and obsidian oebble heads required weeks of labor to fashion. The quiver was made of ohe skin of small animals. Despite their inoffensive disposition, these Indians were good fighters when put to it, and possessed all the unwincing courage and stoicism of the typical red man. Some tribes scalped their enemies, others did not. All were possessed of the innate Indian trait of torturing prisoners. They sometimes ate portions of the bodies of captives, not from a cannibalistic impulse, but to absorb the courage of the slain. Their wars, as a usual thing, were neither bloody or prolonged. They invariably killed the male prisoners, and made slaves of captire women and children. Among some tribes children accompanied the warriors to battle, and at intervals were sent, by both sides, into the ene- mies' lines to pick up and bring back the arrows. Nearly all these people fought on foot, and, unlike other Indians, they fought in extended lines and at comparatively close quarters, so that their arrows would be effective. Some of the stronger nations or tribes compelled their weaker neighbors to pay them tribute. Other tribes made a practice of informing the enemy, either by courier or by signs, when they intended to march against them. The stealing of women was one of the most fruitful causes of war among these people. Another source of contention was the building of fishing dams in the rivers. The dams cut off the supply of fish from those further up the stream, and bloodshed was the inevitable result. The women were skillful in plaiting grass, making baskets and other arti- cles, and the men of certain tribes made substantial boats, but their skill in handiwork went no further. Their wealth consisted of shell money, canoes, deerskins and women. The more wives a man had the richer he was. Shell money consisted of shells obtained on the coast, its value depending on size and shape. Shells were fashioned in the form of quills, and strung together like beads. They were, as a rule, from one to two inches in length, and about a quarter of an inch in thickness. Five perfect shells were con- sidered to be worth about one dollar in gold or silver. Skins, furs, and rare feathers also constituted articles of exchangeable value. Among some tribes chieftainship was hereditary, in others the chief was chosen on account of his wealth or prowess. Where there were no male descendants, the office was by some tribes conferred on the wife of the dead TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 299 chief, a custom peculiar to these Indians. The wife and daughters of a chief had little power, though they were generally respected and their advice was occasionally followed. Murder was punished by a fine, or the relatives of the victim slew the mur- derer. Fines, however, were not very exorbitant. The life of a woman was worth only half as much as that of a man. They were usually paid in allicochick shells, the price among certain tribes being a hundred dollars for the murder of a man, and fifty dollars for killing a woman. Some of the fines were paid in canoes or other articles of recognized value. Six canoes wore considered an equivalent for a man's life. The California Indians had no marriage ceremony. The girls were sold by their parents for such articles of value as the husband could give in exchange for them. At other times a man and woman agreed to live together, and this agreement constituted them husband and wife. A man could have as many wives as he could buy, but a woman could not have a plural- ity of husbands, or more than one man to whom she owed allegiance. When a difficulty occurred between two men about a woman, and they could not otherwise settle it, they fought it out, the victor claiming the female. Wives were bought; the price was regulated by the appearance of the woman or her capacity for work. The old men who had accumulated the most wealth bought the handsomest girls; the young men who were not able to pay a high price had to content themselves with the old and ugly women. Should a man grow rich enough to buy a young wife he discarded the old one unceremoniously. Some of the coast Indians were allowed to have only one wife at a time, but they could exchange her for another as often as they wished. Adultery was severely punished and was consequently rare. Some tribes disemboweled the offending woman; among others the man who committed the offense was compelled to buy the woman ; while in other tribes the outraged husband compelled the offender to exchange wives with him. Childbirth rarely interrupted the mother in her usual avocations for more than an hour or so. When the time arrived she retired to the forest or in the vicinity of a stream, where, after the birth, she washed the newborn infant and returned to the lodge with the babe strapped to a board on her back, resuming her usual work. They had few games or pastimes, but owing to their indolence, took little interest in them. In games of chance the winner did not exult in his success, nor did the loser manifest regret over his losses. Both men and women often gambled away the last article of clothing in 300 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. their possession, after which they went about naked, and with a satisfied air, as though owning the effects of the whole tribe. They had dances at intervals and festivals on certain occasions, such as the season when they gathered acorns and nuts for winter, or after a success- ful hunt, and upon other important events. They usually danced naked. Their music was of the rudest kind, and consisted of beating on skin drums, or blowing a reed whistle. The California Indians seemed to be subject to a greater variety of dis- eases than any others of the Western tribes. Their medical treatment was confined for the most part to the incantations and mummeries of the medicine men. Women doctors among some tribes were more numer- ous than male doctors, though among other tribes they were not toler- ated. They never mentioned the names of their dead ; although they had no religious rites or beliefs, in the Indian sense, they were victims of all kinds of superstitions. Having no conception of the Great Creator, as believed in by other Indians, they imagined that the coyote or small prairie wolf was responsible for everything that existed. How they got this idea none of them could tell. They had an abundance of evil spirits, some of which were considered all-powerful, while others were limited in their capacity for evil. They had doctors and medicine men, who were supposed to be able to placate evil spirits or neutralize their powers. Only when sickness or misfortune befell them did they endeavor to propitiate evil spirits by paying homage to them. The medicine men were chosen by a competitive dance, the dancer who held out the longest being the successful candidate. No other qualifications were required for this position among the majority of the tribes. Different mourning customs prevailed among the various tribes. The widow and the relatives of the dead lingered around the grave for days, lamenting their loss, and the widow sometimes cut off her hair in token of grief. The property of the deceased was either buried with him or left at the burial place. Their idea of heaven and the future life was purely materialistic. They believed heaven to be a place where they would enjoy all the good things they desired in their earthly life. The dead were disposed of in various ways; some of the tribes buried them in shallow holes; others were dragged away to be eaten by dogs or wolves. The coast tribes threw the corpse into the ocean, while others placed them in trunks of trees which had been cut out sufficiently to receive the remains; these were wrapped with grass, then placed in a standing position in the timbers. Among the northern tribes bodies were covered with skins and left TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 301 in a sitting posture. The bodies of prominent men were often placed in trees, shrouded in their best raiment. Among the more ignorant or indolent tribes, neither common warriors, women, or children received much attention after death. A few tribes burned the bodies of the dead; these and a few Indians in Arizona were the only savages who disposed of the dead in this manner. HABITATIONS OF MOUNTAIN TRIBES SKIN-COVERED LODGES, 302 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XXXVII. THE COLUMBIAN GEOUP THE STORY OF AN INDIAN QUEST FOR THE WHITE MAN'S BIBLE INDIAN ATROCITIES. A Brave but Peaceably Inclined People Ceremonies when Preparing for the Warpath Imitating the Cry of Birds and Wild Animals The War Chief How Braves were Enlisted for War Treatment of Women among the Different Tribes Indian Slaves and Slavery Staking Wives and Children on Games of Chance A Risky Profes- sion Burial Ceremonies A Vicious Tribe Called the Rogues Why they were so named An Expedition in Search of the White Man's Bible Father De Smet His Life and Labors among the Indians The Measles among the Indians Destruction of the Protestant Mission Savage Instincts Aroused An Expedition for the Rescue of Captives. THE Columbian tribes possessed a fertile country where subsistence could be procured without much effort. Although nomadic they did not wander far from their central home. In nearly all their characteristics and customs they were somewhat in advance o f the Indians living east of the Rocky Mountains, yet retaining the innate barbarism of the Red Man. Their wealth consisted chiefly of horses; large herds of these were pastured in the rich valleys of their country. How they first obtained them is not known. They had a tradition that the}' originally obtained them from the Shoshonees, who secured them from wild herds. Some of the tribes, notably the Walla Wallas, when first visited by white men owned thousands of horyes; in some places the country was literally covered with them. Among many of these INDIAN WITH BEAVER CAP AND FAN. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 303 tribes a man was deemed poor if he did not own fifteen or twenty horses. They were the only standard of value when used in barter. The Columbian Indians were excellent horsemen, and when forced into war handled the animals with great ability. Though living within a comparatively restricted territory, the Oregon and Washington tribes differed in character and personal appearance. The tribes of the interior, from their pastoral life, were, when left undisturbed, generally mild and inoffensive, though when aroused they were vindictive; while the coast Indians, especially those of the north, were ferocious and treacherous. They differed no less in characteristics and customs. Almost every locality had its own tribe, that spoke a language distinct from the others. Before starting on the warpath a grand council was held, which all the chiefs attended, and the old men of the tribes determined on the best meas- ures to be adopted. The pipe was smoked, speeches were made by the old men and tribal chiefs, and the ceremony was concluded with a grand war dance. A field review was held ; the warriors, mounted on their best horses and bedecked in all their rude ornaments, went through the manoeuvres of an imaginary battle. In dress they were not particular. Formerly they were comfortably clothed in furs and skins, but after the trade in peltries became general throughout their country, they found it difficult to procure clothing, and the poor were often unable to protect themselves adequately against the rigors of the cold winters. Hunting and fishing were the two principal sources of subsistence. The streams furnished a plentiful supply of fish, and the woods abounded in game. The Nez Perces, who were the richest, and in many respects the most advanced, of the Oregon tribes, raised a few vegetables. The women made periodical trips and migrations to gather various kinds of roots, berries, and fruits. Salmon and other fish were dried, then pulverized, and after being mixed with oil were laid away for winter use. Fish swarmed so abundantly in the lakes and streams that it was easy to lay in a sufficient store for the winter; yet most of the tribes were so improvident that they took little heed of the future, and frequently passed from the greatest abundance to extreme want feasting one day and starving the next. The Shooshwaps crossed one chain of the Rocky Mountains on their hunts, but being at war with tribes on the east could go no further. The Okinagans disguised themselves with wolf and bear skins, when hunting buffalo, and could imitate the cry of birds and beasts with wonderful effec- 304 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. tiveness. The Nez Perces, Flatheads, Coeur d'Alenes, Spokaries, Pend d'Oreilles and other tribes hunted together; the Flatheads and the Yakimas often joined in the eastern hunt. The office of chieftainship was hereditary, although some chiefs were chosen on account of conspicuous bravery. With the exception of the war chief they did not exercise great power. Armed with a whip, the war chief could enforce dis- cipline when necessary by flagellation: he could not, how- ever, compel his warriors to go upon a war expedition against their will. A war dance was therefore held, which was in reality a recruiting measure, for any brave who joined in the dance was in honor bound to go with the war party, or upon the warpath. The Kootenais and others usually entered battle naked, sometimes not even wearing a breechcloth. Their saddles and bridles were the same as those used by other Indians, but unlike most Indians, some of them used spurs made of sharp fishbones. They were extremely cruel to their prison- ers of war, keeping them for torture, which was repeated over and over again at short intervals, until death ended the vic- tim's agony. Instead of scalping, some of the tribes cut off the forefingers of the fallen foe as evidence of the victor's prowess. Many of the tribes used boats, some making them of birch and pine, others of logs hollowed out and sloped at the ends, and others made the more serviceable bull-boat. The Nez Perces, Cayuses, and other mountain tribes had no boats. Some tribes made rude maps of the countries they traversed on skins or the bark of trees. They believed simply in a state of future existence, when the individual would be happy or unhappy according to bis merits or demerits. They distinguished readily between right and wrong, recognizing the principles of justice to a considerable degree. Adultery, homicide, theft, lying, and even minor offenses were con- BALL demned as wrong, and were punished in various ways by the different tribes, usually by fines, flogging, or the reprimand of the chief. Polygamy was tolerated and practiced ; though it was not approved among many of the tribes, among a few it was principally confined to the chiefs. Their laxity of morals was perhaps not any worse than might be expected INDIAN BAT. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 305 among a rude and ignorant people. Modesty and decency were recognized in a general way and among a few of the tribes were respected. Some tribes had no marriage ceremonies, while among others the occasion was celebrated by feastings and rejoicings. Wives were bought, the price usually being paid in horses; it was not infrequent for betrothals to be made by parents while the parties were yet children. A Spokane wooer was com- pelled to consult the chief and the girl herself, as well as her parents or natural protectors before he could claim her as his wife. When a party eloped, as sometimes happened, the Indians condemned the woman as an outcast, subject to the caprice of any man in the tribe; then the girl's parents were entitled to confiscate the man's property. If the wife should die in consequence of her husband's harsh treatment the husband was disgraced, and was bound to propitiate the woman's parents or relations with additional presents. The wife could be discarded at will, and it was not uncommon for a discarded wife to be taken back by her husband. The husband, in certain tribes, could at his wife's death recover the price paid for her. A custom prevailed among some tribes, prohibiting the hus- band from marrying for a year after the death of a wife. The rule was often evaded by the husband marrying just before her death, unless she died suddenly. In the Okinagan tribe the wives lived among their relatives a great part of the time, one or two of them remaining with the husband. When a Spokane married a woman of another tribe he joined her tribe, on the ground that a woman would be more useful and work better in the tribe to which she was accustomed than among strangers. Some tribes treated the women with remarkable consideration, for Indians. Most of the work was done by prisoners held by the tribes, therefore they were considered val- uable property. Prisoners were generally treated well except in old age, or when disabled, then they were left to perish of want or neglect. Captives were generally regarded as slaves, and it was not uncommon for some of these tribes to engage in war for the purpose of capturing them. Children born of captives were also considered slaves. Throughout the entire territory occupied by these Indians their habitations were much the same. Usually they lived in lodges, especially when mov- ing about; but during the winter season those tribes that lived almost ex- clusively on fish, and did not wander far in search of food, built themselves huts. These were usually from fifteen to twenty-five feet long, and wide in proportion, verging into conical form at the top. Within, wooden strips or cross pieces were stretched for the purpose of drying salmon, meat, and other articles of food. All the Oregon tribes were fond of amusements, diversions, and were 306 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. inveterate gamblers. Horse racing was the chief amusement. Those in the region of the Columbia River carried the vice of gambling to excess. In horse racing they stopped at nothing. After having lost all their personal effects they staked their children or wives, and last of all, themselves. Should he lose himself, he became the slave of the winner. Sometimes a number of individuals staked their effects together, when one side or the other was sure to be beggared. Their dancing consisted of jumping around, after the usual Indian fashion, uttering fierce yells, singing weird songs, and vigorously beating drums. They were greatly addicted to smoking after the white man taught them the use of tobacco. OQ all important occasions from the making up of a war party to meetings for barter and trade, the pipe was smoked con- tinually. Their large herds of horses were marked by cutting the ears in various ways, so that the owners could tell their own. Horses were often left with- out a guard, yet they rarely strayed far from the habitations of their owners, who were good, though not remarkable, horsemen. Children learned to ride when two or three years old. They also had countless numbers of dogs, which, in reality, came pretty near being tamed prairie wolves. Oc- casionally when traveling, they used them in carrying light burdens on travois. All the tribes used the same kind of sweat baths as the California In- dians, besides various herbs for curing disease. When these failed, they resorted to the magic of the medicine man. As he was supposed to possess the power of curing all maladies, if he lost his patient he paid the penalty with his life, provided he could not satisfactorily explain how his medicine was neutralized by that of some rival medicine man. Sometimes he bought off the indignant friends of the deceased. Few medicine men died a natural death, as they were sure to lose a patient sooner or later. Mourning for the dead was shown by painting the face black and cutting off the hair. On special occasions they lacerated their bodies in a frightful manner, and cut out pieces of flesh, and threw them into the fire in their frantic demonstrations of grief. All these tribes had an aversion to mentioning the names of the dead. They had various ways of disposing of the bodies of the dead, and various customs and ceremonies on these occasions. Some buried the bodies in the ground, wrapped in their clothing ; others placed them in a canoe, suspended from a tree. The Okinagans bound the bodies of the dead to the trunk of a tree, in an upright position. Food and valuables were left at the burial place, and horses were killed at the spot. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 307 The Nez Perces, Flatbeads and Kootenais were among the best type of the aboriginal race found west of the Rocky Mountains. The Klamaths embraced the Modocs, Shasta, and other tribes. The Umatillas, who were a notable tribe, were a branch of the Cayuses. The Warm Spring Indians consisted of what was called the "confederated tribes," confined mainly to middle Oregon. They were comprised of the Walla Walla and Wasco tribes, which banded together in self-defense, but did not trouble their neighbors as long as left undisturbed. In characteris- tics and customs they were degraded to the ordinary Indian level, and were much less advanced than the Nez Perces and other tribes. The Umatillas, Cayuses, the Walla Wallas, and Nez Perces lived near the Columbia River about a hundred miles east of the Cascade Mountains. To the left of this range lived a tribe, vicious and treacherous, called the Rogues, who gave that name to the river where they had their homes some- times called the Rascal River. Their aboriginal name was the Potameos, but, owing to their treachery and hostility toward white men, the French Canadian trappers called them the Rogues, or Rascals. Next to the Nez Perces, the Cayuses were the most intelligent and the best disposed toward the whites. They were an inferior off-shoot of the Nez Perces, and lived on the north side of the Snake River. Next to them lived the Spokanes, also a peaceable tribe, quite intelligent for Indians, and usually willing to serve the whites who entered that territory. The tribes that lived in the Willamette Valley, and along the basin of the Columbia River west of the Cascade Mountains, were irredeemably vicious, and the savages east of the mountains in the Dalles country were in no wise better. The country then inhabited by these people was generally avoided by settlers, owing to the hostile and treacherous disposition of the Indians. The Umatilla branch of the Cayuses showed the strongest inclination of any of the Oregon tribes to receive the white man's civilization, which was the result of the influence exercised among them by the French Canadian trappers and voyageurs, and half -civilized Iroquois Indians from Canada, who had come among them and joined the tribe. Some of the Coeur d'Alenes were among the first of the wild Indians to embrace Christianity. It came about in the following curious manner. A party of semi- civilized Iroquois from French Lower Canada made their way to the country of the Coeur d'Alenes, fraternizing with them. They told their newly-made acquaintances of the many wonders in the white man's land; how they lived; of the great things they performed; their countless numbers, and, chief of all, their manner of reaching the happy hunting ground after death. They told them that the white man had a book, a 308 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. "medicine" book (the Bible), that would show every Indian the true trail to the happy hunting ground, where he would live forever in perfect bliss. After much discussion and consultation the Coeur d'Alenes determined to procure a copy of this wonderful book, and a party was organized to go in quest of it. They had no definite objective point other than the vague East, where the Iroquoia told them they could procure it. This little band, after traveling a long distance, encountered a war party from their neighbors on the east, who attacked and killed some of them. The others escaped, and returning to their own people told them what had occurred. Another and larger party was immediately formed to continue the search for the white man's Bible. This party succeeded in reaching Fort Benton, where they sold enough animals and skins to pay the passage of a few of them to St, Louis on the steamboat. Wandering about the city, they fell in with Pierre Chouteau, an old trap- per of the Indian country, and by the use of the sign language told him what they wanted. He took them to the "black gowns" priests, among whom was one Father De Smet. They recounted to him what the Iroquois had told them, and enlisted his sympathies to yuch a degree that he asked and received permission from his superiors to accompany the Indians back to their country. Father De Smet was one of the most remarkable men of his day. A Bel- gian by birth, he came to the United State? when a young man, and his entire after life was shaped by the Indians endeavoring to secure a copy of the Bible for their people. The most astonishing thing in his entire career among the Indians is the fact that he lived for many years among the Black- feet, the Co3ur d'Alenes, the Flatheads, and other savage tribes without molestation. Endowed with a singular faculty of acquiring languages, he was soon able to communicate orally and by the sign language with almost all Indian tribes with which he came in contact. His services were subse- quently enlisted by the Government, and he kept army officers and officers of the Fur Companies well informed of the true condition of affairs among the many Indians with whom he was acquainted. When war parties were being formed, and he knew their object, or objective points, he was fre- quently instrumental in preventing Indian wars and bloodshed. At the request of the Secretary of War, he accompanied the army as envoy extraordinary to the Rocky Mountain Indians on one of the longest marches ever made, covering over fifteen thousand miles. I believe he finally died in his self-imposed service of attempting to spread Christianity among these wild people. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 309 In 1847 occurred the first outbreak of the Oregon Indians against the whites. A party of emigrants, while passing through the Cayuse country, were attacked by the mountain fever, a disease brought on by the extremes of temperature that prevail in the mountainous regions of the West. Then the measles attacked the Indian children, soon spreading among the older people. It was in the winter season, and the Indians, ignorant and neglectful of advice, took no adequate measures to combat the disease. They noticed, however, that the whites recovered, while many of the Indians died. In addition to this the United States Government had promised to pay the Indians for their lands, but failed to keep the contract. The Indians accordingly be- came sullen, discontented, and finally turbulent. They thought that the whites were responsible for the death of so many of their number an idea that was encouraged among them by some half- breeds and other unscrupulous persons. The consequence was that the perscn who had charge of the Protestant Mission, a devoted man who had long served the Indians with unflagging zeal, was one night called to his door and killed by two Indians, armed with tomahawks. A tumult was precipitated by this act, and a general up- rising took place, in which all of the whites attached to the Mission were slain. In this slaughter none of the atrocities usually perpetrated by Indians when inflamed by passion were wanting. The massacre lasted for days, very few of the whites escaping. Even some of the Indians who bad shared the hospitality of the Mission and received its assistance, were among the most bloodthirsty of the murderers. Some of the white women were taken captive, and the horrors to which they were subjected cannot be written. Some of those who survived captivity never recovered their reason. One of the notable features of this massacre was the fact that neither reli- gion or civilization had up to that time, a controlling influence on the Indian character. Some of them were "friendly," or "good Indians," having been for years regarded as sincere Christian converts. But, no sooner was the slaughter begun than, like wolves at the smell of blood, all their innate savagery was aroused, when they outdid their unconverted brethren in deeds of violence and butchery. It is but just to say, for the honor of human nature, that a few of these Indians exhibited humane instincts, and did what they could to protect the defenseless whites. Especially praiseworthy was the action of the chief of the Spokanes, who cared for those who sought his protection and sent them away in safety the following spring. An expedition was fitted out to rescue the captives, who would doubtless have been murdered if the Indians had been hard pressed or defeated ; but Mr. Ogden, of the Hudson Bay Fur Company, had in the meantime effected their release. The prisoners numbered many women and children. How 310 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. near they were to death may be realized from the fact that when a messenger from Mr. McBean, the agent, arrived at the Cayuse encampment the Indian women always the most fiendish in torturing prisoners were assembled with knives to kill the captives. A threat from the messenger saved them. It must be admitted that the Cayuses committed these acts of atrocity under the idea of grievous wrongs, real or imaginary. They had despaired of ever getting justice from the whites. Meantime a military expedition had been sent to punish the Cayuses, and, as usual in such cases, the innocent were killed in punishing the guilty. An Indian was shot wherever he was seen, simply because he was an Indian. This precipitated the Cayuse war. Five hundred volunteers marched from the Willamette Valley against the Cayuses, and the latter met them in about equal numbers. An Indian battle followed. The savages fought from behind trees, and other obstacles, but the volunteers, all frontiersmen, beat the Indians at their own tactics. The Palooses, who occupied neutral territory between the Spokanes, the Cayuses, and the Nez Perces, joined in the war against the whites. The result was that the lands of the Indians were confiscated, because the latter did not surrender the murderers of the whites. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 311 CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE GREAT INDIAN NATIONS. Their Marked Characteristics and Radically Different Languages The Great Algonquin Family Their Widely Separated Tribes Names of the Different Tribes The Apalachees or Mobiles, Often Called the Southern Indians Names of the Tribes The Athabaskees Names of the Tribes The Lacotah or Sioux Names of Tribes The Shoshone Nation Names of Tribes Constituting this Nation The Sahaptin Family and its Tribes The Salish Family The Chinooks The Haidahs The California Tribes The Pueblos The Columbian Group Names of Tribes The Pawnees Their Obscure Origin The Miscellaneous Tribes, of whose Origin Little or Notliing is Known. THE Indians of North America were divided into a num- ber of great nations or families, each possessing marked characteristics, and speaking radically different lan- guages. Nearly all tribes, wherever located, could be traced to one of these nations; not that they possessed written records, or had reliable traditions concerning their origin, but be- cause the characteristics and customs of eacbof the great nations were different. The resemblance of members of the same family to one another was so marked among all, that their origin could be traced by their peculiarities or personal appear- ance, even if it were not betrayed by their language or dialects. Some of the tribes of the different nations became widely separated, but so indelibly marked were they, that to one knowing Indian character and general outline, their origin could be readily told. THE ALGONQUIN. WOODEN LANCE HEAD. Among the largest and most widely spread of these nations was the Algonquin. They were first found along the St. Lawrence River, and afterward throughout the West. 312 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. They were divided into a great number of tribes. These differed greatly in characteristics and customs, some being fierce and warlike, others mild and inoffensive; some being nomadic, living by the chase; others remaining sta- tionary. Some of the tribes of this nation were the best warriors in the great West. This is notably true of the Blackfeet, Bloods, Piegans, Crees and the Northern and Southern Cheyennes. To this nation belonged the following tribes: Piegans, Blackfeet, Illinois, Bloods, Chippewas, Piankashaws, Gros Ventres of the Prairie, Sacs and Foxes, Kickapoos, Kaskasias, Ottawas, Crees (or Abbitibi), Keeches, Pottowatomies, Mohicans (or Mohegans), Cheyennes (Northern), Menomonees, Abenaki, Cheyennes (Southern), Miamis, New England tribes, etc. Lenni Lenapes, Peorias, THE APPALACHEES, OR MOBILES, SOMETIMES CALLED THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. Another of the great Indian nations was the Appalachees. Their original home embraced the country bounded by the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, and from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic Ocean. In the early history of our country they caused the settlers much trouble. During the Revolutionary War some of them allied themselves with the British, fighting against the Americans. In early days some of their handi- work was skilfully executed. Specimens of Jasper, Quartz and Chalcedony cut by them are fine. This is the only nation of Indians that has increased in numbers during this century. To this family the following tribes belong : Alabamians, Choctaws, Creeks, Musoogees, Chickasaws, Congies, Natchez, Seminoles, Cherokees. Some of the tribes of this family who lived along the Gulf, have long been extinct, leaving no trace of themselves. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 313 THE ATHABASKAN. Another of the great nations of Indians, was the Atha- baskan. Their original home extended from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific Ocean, on the north to the great Slave Lake, and on the south to the northern portion of the United States. Some of the tribes were found along the Pacific, from Cook's Inlet to Oregon. Other tribes occupied portions of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and the northern por- tion of Old Mexico. This nation had a language of its own, but the dialects of some of the widely separated tribes differed markedly. All the tribes, whether located in the extreme north, or the almost tropical climate of Arizona, or the mild climate of California, bore unmistakable evidence of their origin. In stature those of the north were tall and lithe, those of the south were short but strongly formed. The tribes of this family differed greatly in intelli- gence. The Navajoes and Apaches, who lived in close proximity, are a striking ex- i J.L e mu TVT TATOOED WARRIOR DECORATED BREECH CLOTH. ample of this fact. The Nav- ajoes were mild, inoffensive, and lived in fixed habitations, cultivating the soil, raising animals, and producing some of the finest handiwork. They were monogamous, and universally kind to their females. 314 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The Apaches were nomadic, of a low order of intelligence, savage, treach- erous, brutal, and all that was bad. Some of the northern tribes were gentle and peaceful when left undis- turbed. Other tribes of this family had peculiar superstitions, and believed that when the moon was in that phase that it presented the appearance of a man's face, that it was a deity, looking at them, reading their thoughts, and scanning their actions. Should sickness visit them during this time, they believed it to be the work of the "man in the moon," and that they must make an offering to appease the offended deity. Other tribes believed in a multitude of deities, who watched them constantly; that when the deity on watch became tired or sleepy, another took its place. When in trouble all the members of the camp went through their mysterious rites to appease its anger. In doing this, both men and women were almost naked. At times they awaited a rainstorm to make their medicine more effective. They would stand in the rain until it ceased, when they believed the penalty had been fully paid. To this nation belonged the following tribes : Chippewayans, Horn Mountains, Beavers, Dog-Ribs, Hares, Rocky Mountains, Sikannis. Kutchins, Inkaliks, Red Knives, Sheep Indians, Sursees, Brushwoods, Chins, Mauvais Mondes, Apaches, Navajoes, Lipans, Taculli (or Carriers). THE LACOTAH, DACOTAH, NADOWESIOUX, NADOESSI, AND LASTLY THE SIOUX. TYPICAL SIOUX. The largest, most intelligent and warlike nation of wild Indians of this continent was the Sioux, or, as they called themselves, the Lacotah. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 315 They had a language of their own. It was rich in words, soft and pleasing to the ear, and could be more readily acquired than any other tongue of the aborigines of America. There were no dialects among the tribes, of which there were a great many, all living within the hunting ground of the nation in harmony with each other. In characteristics and customs they were the furthest advanced for Indians of all savage people of North America. Their territory was so immense and produced such a diversity of natural food for man and beast, that both they and their animals lived well. They were no- inadic, polygamous, and some of the tribes very savage. The following tribes belonged to this family : Yanktons, Osages, Uncpapas, Ogalalas, Winnebagoes, Otoes, Two Kettles, Tetons, Assiniboines, Bad Faces, Poncas, Missouris, Mandans, Omahas, Minneconjoux, lowas, Minitarees, Sans Arcs, Santees, Kaws (or Kansas), Crows, Sissetons, Brules, Quaquas, Qros Ventres, Tribe-that-Don't-Eat-Dog, etc. THE SHOSHONEE NATION. Another of the great Indian nations whose many tribes were scattered over the country from the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, west to the Pacific, and from the boundary line between the United States and the Brit- ish possessions on tne north, and south into Mexico, was the Shoshone. This nation had a language of its own, but the dialects of its widely scattered tribes differed greatly. The Shoshones were the lowest in the order of intelligence and manner of living of any of the great families of the con- tinent. None of the tribes belonging to this nation rose above a low level, whether in intelligence, customs or property, so far as such a term can be applied to the effects of Indians. They were for the most part filthy, miserable, thievish, treacherous and bloodthirsty. To this nation belonged some of the lowest and most degraded people in the world. Wherever found, and under what conditions soever, they had marked characteristics that plainly indicated their origin. Their language was also of the poorest, both in vocabulary and flexibility of ex- pression. The Shoshones seemed to excel in nothing save in vice. None even of 316 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. the most intelligent tribes of this nation compared favorably with the most degraded tribes of some of the other nations. In personal appearance all the various tribes of the Shoshones bore a strong resemblance to one another, from the Bannocks in the far north to the Co- manches in the extreme south. In stature the Shoshones were short, but of compact build. Their complexion was dark, and the characteristics and customs among all the dif- ferent tribes were somewhat similar. Their possessions were few, and of small value, except among certain of the tribes, who stole or captured large numbers of horses. Their intelligence was stunted ; they had no traditions extend- ing back more than one or two generations. They cared little for the future, lived solely in the present, and only exerted themselves in supplying their daily material wants. Some of these tribes, when in war, were very fierce, and would go to any extreme to defeat their enemies. None of these people, no matter under what exigencies, were skilled in handiwork, or in the making or handling of boats. To this nation belong the fol- lowing tribes : Kechi, Kishnetela, Kool-Salkara, Tukuarika, Hokandikah. WARRIOR IN CEREMONIAL COSTUME PREPARA- TORY TO A " BIG TALK.' Snakes, Bannocks, Utes, Pah-Utes, Gosh-Utes, Weber- Utes, Diggers, Comauches, Kiowas, Pah-Vants, Pah-Edes, Washoes, Sam pitches, Tosawees, Cum Umhahs, Wimmenuches, Chemehuevi, Cohuillo, TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. THE SHAHAPTIN FAMILY. The Shahaptin family occupied the territory lying between that of the Salish on the north and the Snakes on the south. They are tall, muscular, and well formed, especially the Nez Perces and the Walla Wallas. They were in every respect superior to the coast Indians. Their complexion was some- what lighter than that of the surrounding tribes, and many of their young women were fairly good looking. They dressed in skins in winter, using for this purpose the hide of the buffalo, the elk and smaller animals. Their dress was profusely ornamented after Indian fashion. The men painted their faces and bodies. They wore their hair hanging loose over the shoulders. Their dwellings were constructed of poles, and covered with skins, matting or bark. The principal tribes of this family were: Nez Perces, Palooses, Cayuses, Wascoes, Walla Wallas, Waiilatpuans, Umatillas, Cascades, Klikitats, Molales, Piscons, Yakimas, Shastas, Scotans, Coosas, Alsias, Klamaths, Modocs, Wal-pah-pio, Warm Springs, Catsops, Tillmorocs, Nehalins, Cluckmans, Calapoorias, Rogues or Rascals, and numerous coast tribes. There were many other small tribes speaking the language and living in the territory of this nation. THE SALISH FAMILY. Another family or nation of Indians who had their home in the northwest was the Salish. Some of the tribes of this family differed greatly, and had very marked characteristics, notably the Flatheads, who flattened the heads of their children by compressing the head between two boards in the shape of the letter V. Another tribe, the Pend d'Oreilles, slit the ears, from which hung large and long pendants, made of different trinkets, sometimes reaching to the ground. In these pendants were shells of various kinds, The women of some tribes, when a child was born, wound its legs and hips in a tight bandage in order to keep the legs straight, the hips small, to give the body the appearance of having broad shoulders. These they considered a mark of beauty. They spoke various dialects, but all derived from a common tongue. 318 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. They were not a warlike people, but when aroused were brave and skilful warriors. To their prisoners of war they were fiendishly cruel, exercising every art and mode of ingenuity to torture their victims. In this the women were the worst. Among their methods of torture were burning the flesh with hot irons, cutting off the ears, cutting out the tongue, scooping out the eyes, pulling off the nails and other cruelties. In personal appearance they were tall and well formed, and their skins were somewhat lighter in color than the majority of Indians. While this was a distinct family, having its own language, it was not a large one, its chief tribes being : Salisb, Pend d'Oreilles, Sans Puell, Spokanes, Okinagans, Lakes, Colvilles (or Skoyelpi), Pisquows, Cceur d' Alenes (or Skit- shuish). Chaudieres (or Kettle Falls), CHINOOKS. Another of the great families of this continent was the Columbian group. Of these the principal was the Chinooks, the entire family being sometimes called by that name. The Chinooks had their home in the present State of Oregon, west of the Cascade Mountains, extending north of the Columbia River, and were divided into a number of tribes. Those living on the south side of the river differed markedly from those on the north, but all bore a common resemblance in appearance, language, characteristics and customs. They were small of stature, thick-set and muscular. In winter they READY FOR THE COUNCIL- BUFFALO. -STANDING TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 319 dressed in skins, but during the heat of summer most of them went naked. Some of the women made a sort of garment from the fibre of cedar bark, or of strong grass, which was fastened around the waist, reaching to the knee. Their winter habitations were large, built of logs and thatched with bark. They lived largely on fish, there being an inexhaustible supply of salmon, which they caught. Their principal weapon was the bow and arrow, and some of the tribes made a shield or armor of the dried elk skin, which would resist an arrow. They were not a bloodthirsty people, and when they went to war did not perpetrate the cruelties so characteristic of the North American Indian in general. The captives taken during their wars were made slaves, and the families or descendants of these captives were also slaves. When one of the slaves died the body received no burial, being left on the ground to rot, or to be devoured by wild animals. They had medicine men, who were called in case of sickness. Should the patient not recover, the medicine men were sometimes killed by members of the family. There were some twenty distinct languages spoken in this group, and all were so peculiar that they could not be reduced to any form of writing, and I do not believe a white man was ever able to acquire any one. All the tribes were polygamous. When a young man bought a wife he took her to the lodge of his parents. When there were several sons, the family grew very large, but they all lived together in harmony. The master of the lodge was not always the oldest, but the most active member of the family. It was among these people that the custom of flattening the head of a child originated. Slaves were not allowed to flatten the head, as this custom was regarded as a badge of honor or distinction. The following tribes belonged to this family : Chinooks proper, Wilapah, Calapoogas, Kootenais, Saiustklas, Clackamas, Flatheads, Katlawotsetts, Molales. Chilts, Alseas, Another family belonging to this group, but which had its own language, and was divided into a number of tribes, was the Haidah. The principal tribes were: Haidah proper, Massets, Kaignaies, Chimmesyans, Nass, and about a dozen others. 320 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. THE CALIFORNIA INDIANS. One of the Indian families of the west was that known as the Californian group. They had no traditions concerning their origin or migrations, and it is difficult to classify them generally. They were divided into three somewhat distinctly marked portions, or sub-groups, namely, the northern, the central and the southern Californians. The home of these various tribes embraced the territory of the present State of California. They spoke a multitude of dialects, and differed widely from each other in a variety of ways. Those of the north were superior physically and mentally to those of the center and the south, some of the latter being among the most de- graded type of humanity. Some of these people wore a scanty covering made of skins of the smaller animals, but in the warmer regions they went entirely naked. Both sexes among the various tribes tattooed their faces and bodies, and were fond of paitit and the usual Indian ornamentation. Their habitations were of various types, from the log built, earth-covered hut to a mere burrow or hole in the ground. In general manners and customs they resembled the other Indians of the northwest, though there were many things peculiar to certain tribes. Some of the lower tribes could not be said to have marked characteristics or customs, and were human in nothing save in form. This family was divided into the following tribes: Northern Group. Central Group. Southern Group. Tototins, Mattoles, Tulares, Modocs, Betunkes, Yosemites, Klamaths, Loloncooks, Cahuillos, Euroes, Fresnos, Diegnos, Tolemahs, Pomos, Cayotes, Hoopahs, Comachos, New Rivers, Shastas. Kinklas. San Luisienos. MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES OF CALIFORNIA. Yurok, Karok, Wishoska, Wishosk, Yuki, Chimariko, Wintun, Patwin, Maidu, Achonrawi, Washo, Mutsun, Miook, Alamentke, Talatin, Yoknt. San Antonia, Santa Barbara. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 321 Many of these tribes were of different linguistic stock, there being as many as five to ten different languages spoken among them. Some of the northern tribes were physically the equal of any of the In- dians of the northwest, while some of the more southern were repulsive in appearance, and were inferior to the point of deformity. PUEBLOS. Another body of Indians were the Pueblos, or those tribes living in fixed habitations. This was the name given by the early Spanish discoverers to all those Indians living in villages or towns, the word pueblo signifying town or village. These people were not all of one stock, but were an aggre- gation of tribes, scattered throughout New Mexico and Arizona, and were partly civilized, as compared with their wilder nomadic neighbors. Some of them claimed to be of Aztec, and others of northern origin, while many of them cannot be classified with any degree of certainty. To this group be- knged : Pueblos Proper, Papagos, Pimas, Maricopas, Moquins, Cosinos, Yampais, Cocopas, Zunis, and a few minor tribes. " VARIOUS TRIBES. West of the Mississippi and Sioux rivers, and from the British posses- sions on the north to Mexico on the south, were scattered a multitude of In- dian tribes of whose origin little or nothing is known. Each of these spoke its own language, and differed from the others in personal appearance, char- acteristics and customs. One of the most important, in the order of numbers and intelligence, was the Pawnees. It was claimed by some of the early frontiersmen that these people originally belonged to the Sioux. This I do not believe, as their language bore no resemblance to that of the Sioux. Their characteristics and customs were also different. Their mode of cut- ting the hair was peculiar to themselves. They had no reliable traditions as to their origin, and I must therefore class them with the tribes whose family origin is obscure or entirely unknown. These people were divided into three tribes, namely: 322 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Pawnees proper (or Pani), Arickrees (sometimes called the Rees), Wichitas (or Pictured Pawnees, who tattooed themselves). These tribes were also divided into various minor tribes. There were other tribes or bodies of Indians scattered throughout the great West whose origin is obscure or unknown. All of these spoke a differ- ent language, had their own peculiar characteristics and customs, and each differed from the other in many noticeable ways. Some were intelligent, others ignorant; none of these were numerous, con- sequently, as civilization encroached upon them they were compelled to re- main stationary, and live in peace. Some of these tribes were: Arapahoes, Tawacamies, Tonkaways, Tawaccaras, Cad does, Umpquas, lonies, Keeches, Wacoes. There were also many other tribes that have long since disappeared, leav- ing no trace of themselves. This is especially true of tribes who lived all along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 323 CHAPTER XXXIX. THE SUN DANCE OF THE SIOUX THE GREATEST OF ALL INDIAN CERE- MONIESSELF-INFLICTED WOUNDS AND AGONIZING TORTURE A TERRIBLE ORDEAL. The Greatest of all Indian Ceremonies I find myself in Favor with the Indians and take Advantage of it Obtain Permission to Witness a Sun Dance Assurance that I should not be Molested Precautionary Measures An Animated Scene A Moving Mass of Animal Life Preparations for the Dance Selecting the Sun Pole Await- ing the Rising of the Sun Painted Warriors on their best Horses A Wild Dash around the Sun Pole The Dance formally begun Scenes in Camp during the First Day Wonderful Endurance First Night of the Dance Left Naked and Destitute on the Prairie Horrible Self-Torture Slitting Open both Breasts Inserting a Lariat Through the Slits A Dreadful Ordeal. THE Sun Dance was not peculiar to any one nation of Indians, but was held by many nations under other names and in various forms, and was usually given as the result of a vow or solemn promise made by the dancers who engaged in it. One, for instance, would make a vow that he would dance the sun dance, if some member of his family who had been very ill, recovered ; another, after a fierce battle in which he narrowly escaped being captured or scalped by the enemy, would say to his comrades, "I will dance the sun dance because of my deliverance," while another went through this terrible ordeal for the sole purpose of exhibiting his cour- age and endurance. In this instance, the person was generally a young man who was anxious to gain the admiration of his people. Another perhaps, used this method of furthering his ambitious designs to become a chief by thus proving to his tribe his bravery, endurance and contempt of physical pain. Hardly any two participants, as a rule, engaged in the sun dance from exactly the same FACIAL PAINTING BEAR SKIN CAP. 324 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. motive. Among some nations it partook somewhat of the nature of a reli- gious ceremooy ; among others the motives of the dancers were known only to themselves. At the time of which I write, it was exceedingly difficult for a white man to obtain permission to witness these savage rites. I was fortunate in this respect, however, owing to the fact that I had on numerous occasions done friendly service for some of the Indian leaders with whom I had come in contact, and performed some acts of unexpected kindness toward them. The old adage says the nearest way to a man's heart is down his throat; and I found this to be particularly true of the red men. On several occa- sions I had given them a wacpomanie (feast), such as my means would allow me to prepare from the stores that the United States Government's Com- missary Department supplied to the troops. These feasts usually consisted of hard bread, bacon, peas, rice, hominy, coffee, etc., etc., and after being cooked by the troops such a meal was considered by the Indians a dinner fit for the gods, and gained for me great favor. Furthermore, at the distribution of annuities to the Sioux during the time when Majors Twist and Loiree were the agents, these distributions were made in the bailiwick of Old Smoke's tribe (with whom I was well ac- quainted), at Bordeaux' ranch on the Platte River, near the Overland stage road some miles below the confluence of the Platte and Laramie rivers. Great dissatisfaction had prevailed among the Indians at that time in rela- tion to the manner in which their annuities had been previously distributed to them by the agents of the Government. In accordance with special in- structions from Washington, Major Mackey, myself, and Mr. Charles E. Guerreu, an expert interpreter of the Sioux language, with a detachment of troops for protection, proceeded to this point on the day set for the distribu- tion. There were a great many Indians present, I should say not less than ten thousand. Major Mackey and myself examined the articles intended for distribution to the different tribes, and the allowance to which each was entitled ; we also had the original invoices in our possession to verify the correctness of the supplies. The chief or head of each tribe then called out the names of the heads of the families for whom the supplies were intended, and the names were translated into their English equivalents by the inter- preter. Both Major Mackey and myself were determined that nothing should be left undone to ensure the delivery of everything contained in the invoices, and that the authorities at Washington should be fully apprised of the number of the recipients. Many of the Indians expressed great satis- faction at the amount of stores received on this occasion. This gained for me the reputation of being their friend and benefactor. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 325 Knowing that the sun dance was to take place some few months later, and finding that I waa in special favor with the Sioux, I then and there secured permission from them to witness this, the greatest of all Indian ceremonies. I had the assurance of several of their prominent chiefs and influential men that I should not be molested in any way while witnessing these savage rites. These pledges were carried out fully, although as a precautionary measure I had some troops present. There was no stated time for holding a sun dance, and it was not of frequent occurrence. Whenever the Indians determined to perform the ceremony the announcement was heralded throughout the nation. The dance was given dur- ing the warm weather, usually in August or September, on a fixed date, which was designated by the number of nights in advance of it. For a long time previous to the celebration of the ceremony great preparations were made among the tribes who were to take part. Bands of warriors mounted on ponies, groups, and caravans bearing the old people, the food, and para- phernalia to be used on the occasion, moved from mountains and plains in every direction, for days previous to the meeting, all converging to the designated point of rendezvous. This particular dance was held during the month of September, in the valley of the North Platte River. After a great many Indians had assem- bled in this beautiful place the scene was very animated. As far as the eye could reach the fertile, grassy plain around the large encampment was a moving mass of animal life. Horses and mules were everywhere picketed, or turned loose, all contentedly feeding on the luxuriant grass. Dcgs were also in great abundance ; although strange to each other and largely inbred with the wolves of the plains, they were not quarreling, but were ranging or lying about the camp, apparently taking no notice of each other. Many of the Indians, too, coming as they did from every quarter of their vast domain, were entire strangers to each other. The appointed day arrived. All being in readiness, the first proceeding in the ceremony was to stake out a large circle from one hundred to one hun- dred and fifty feet in diameter, which was surrounded by a wall ten or twelve feet high, made of the skin coverings of lodges, the enclosure some- what resembling a circus tent without a roof. In the center of this large enclosure was an inner circle from fifty to seventy- five feet in diameter, sur- rounded bj r rawhide ropes. This enclosure was set apart exclusively for the dancers, no one else being permitted to enter it during the ceremony. Then followed the selection of the sun pole. This was made of the trunk of a straight tree, eight to twelve inches in diameter at the base, and from twenty-five to thirty-five feet high. The selection was made by one of the 326 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. oldest women in the nation, who was especially chosen for the purpose. In this duty she was accompanied by a number of Indian maidens; as this cere- mony was one of the most solemn rites known to the Indians, no female could think of joining the procession against whose virtue the slightest im- putation could be cast. The bark was taken off, and the pole was securely set in the ground in the center of the dancers' enclosure. The pole had sus- pended from it the heads of buffaloes, skulls of bears, and other portions of animals which had been killed by some of the warriors about to participate in the dance. With the selection, preparation, and setting of the pole, the ceremonies of the first day ended. Early on the following morning a number of old men repaired to an ele- vated spot in the immediate vicinity and remained there until the rising of the sun. As soon as the entire disk appeared about the horizon, these old men uttered wild yells, waved their hands, swayed their bodies, and made violent gesticulations. This was the signal to the vast throng that the anxiously awaited moment had arrived. A number of young warriors, mounted on their best horses, and fantastically painted in many colors, now dashed around the enclosure in which the pole had been placed, frantically shouting and wildly gesticulating after Indian fashion. A prayer of some kind was then offered by the old men to the newly arisen sun, when every person made a dash for the enclosure and commenced a weird chant. With this the dance was formally begun. The dancers, eleven in number, and naked except the breech cloth, were gathered together by the master of ceremonies about one hundred and fifty yards from the tent, and, after being placed in Indian file, were thus marched into the inner enclosure, the master leading with uplifted hands, as if to command silence. Though passing through the great number of assembled Indians, the way was kept open, and absolute silence prevailed. Every one stood still, intently gazing on the dancers as they marched to the enclosure. The faces of the dancers wore a smile as they passed through the throng. After they had entered the ring the master of ceremonies made a short address to the sun and then to the sun pole. To the sun he said : "To-day we dance to you as the great giver of light and heat, who makes the snows melt, the grass and trees grow, and brings warmth to our bodies." Having placed each in position around the sun pole, he began an address to the dancers in a loud voice, which, as interpreted by Mr. Guerren, was substantially as follows: "To-day you dance to our Great Creator, as a sacred thank offering to him for his goodness in granting the requests you have asked. We all know your hearts are brave, and by this dance you will sho- hat you are Lakotas, the bravest of all people. When you are TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 327 through you will be loved by the Great Spirit, and be the pride of our own great people." Then turning to the assembled crowd he harangued them, crying out, "Lakotas, Lakotas, Lakotas, to-day you will witness the valor of our people! Those of you who have come from afar off can return, when this ordeal is over, and tell those who could not come of the strong hearts of our warriors. You can tell them of the valor of our braves. You can tell them that the prayers to our Great Creator have been heard, and will be answered." Turning to the musicians he indicated that everything was ready, whereupon they began a chant which did not exceed the compass of three or four notes, in which the entire assembly joined. At a given signal from the master of ceremonies the chant ceased, the musicians be- gan to beat their tom-toms, and the dancers began to dance. The spectators now divided into groups, or moved about at will. The young maidens and women formed in a circle out- side the enclosure, and danced and skipped around it. They were encouraging by their songs and presence those within, who were about to undergo a fearful ordeal; stimulating them to sus- tained effort by the conscious- ness that their feats of endurance were winning the praise and admiration of the dusky beauties outside. The old women, gathered in groups, sat on the ground and talked and boasted of the prowess of those of their tribe or family that were undergoing this crucial test ; while the old warriors from time to time sent encouraging yells and cries to the dancers. This was a part of the first day's proceedings. After this the dance by the young maidens and women around the enclosure ceased. SIOUX IN FULL MOURNING. 328 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. During the entire first day the Indians streamed back and forth to get a look through the opening of the enclosure at the animated scene within. The dancers jumped up and down on their toes, chanting their weird chants, their heads thrown back, and their faces turned toward the sun. As night came on, their heads were lowered to their natural position, but they contin- ued dancing without interruption during the entire night, never for a moment ceasing the monotonous movement of their bodies, or relaxing from an erect position. When the moon shone brightly no other light was required ; otherwise fires were built from pine knots which lighted the enclosure. On this occasion small fires were built outside, around which both males and females sat, or stood, during the entire night. Here strangers became acquainted with each other, the young of both sexes admired each other's charms, and the old people told improbable stories of personal prowess, indulged in the tittle- tattle of the camp, and entertained themselves after Indian fashion generally. Within the enclosure to the left as one entered sat the musicians, all fan- tastically painted and decorated, some with buffalo horns on their heads, others with small war bonnets, others with the head of a wolf, but all hav- ing headgear of some kind. The majority were naked to the waist. The dried flint hides of several large animals were stretched in full before them. Each musician had a strong stick in his hand with which he struck these hides in unison, and thus marked the time to which the dancers danced. Those who had a tom-tom beat it to the same measure. The musicians num- bered from thirty to forty; and their chanting and beating of tom-torns and flint hides made a noise that was anything but grateful to the ear. On the right of the enclosure stood the friends and admirers of the dancers. On this side a passage was kept open all the time to permit the people to enter freely and witness the dance. Through this channel a constant stream of Indians passed in and out. They would enter, watch the dancers for a short time, and depart without saying a word. The second day and night of the dance was a duplicate of the first, only that some of the musicians who had tired themselves out were replaced by others. After tnree days and nights of constant dancing in the manner I have described, during which time the dancers neither ate, drank, slept, nor smoked, the dancing was brought to an end about mid-day by the master of ceremonies directing the musicians to cease, whereupon the dancers also stopped. All the Indians of the camp were now in the highest state of expectancy, for the dancers were known to possess a good supply of worldly goods, and this meant a bar vest, for the crowd. Short pieces of wood were now laid TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 329 before the braves, each piece being marked in some way known to them. A dancer took one of these pieces and threw it over the wall outside of the en- closure, saying, "Whoever gets this stick has such a horse" (naming the horse) ; seizing another stick and throwing it in the same manner, only in a different direction, he exclaimed, " Whoever gets this stick has such a horse" (naming it). The throwing of these sticks continued until the dancer had given away all the property belonging to himself and family. This was continued by the other dancers until each one had given away his TOM-TOM AND ELK HORN SCRAPER. entire possessions. For each article owned by the dancers, a stick was thrown by the owner. In this way they disposed, in a short time, of their accumulations of years. They first started with their most valuable articles and continued until they finished with those of the least value. The dancer could not tell who would come into possession of the article represented by the stick, for each was thrown in a different direction, and the Indians outside made a lively scramble for them. After thus disposing of their property, both the dancers and their families were left destitute and almost naked, though after the 330 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. dance was over such of the Indians who chose to take pity on them presented them with some articles of wearing apparel and camp equipage to enable them to start in life again. After the dancers had disposed of their worldly wealth, the master of cere- monies stepped into the enclosure of the dancers and made a speech, inviting other warriors who had gone through the sun dance to enter the arena, nam- ing each one who was to participate. After these had entered the circle, one of the prominent warriors stepped forward, knife in hand, and seizing a dancer, thrust the knife through the flesh of his breast to the bone, making two wounds, one where the knife entered, and the other where it came out. He then slit the breast up and down from four to six inches in length, and two to three inches in width. After both breasts were slit in this manner the warrior passed the end of a lariat rope through each wound leaving the rope trailing on the ground. The next dancer was then seized by another one of the warriors, who had been invited into the circle. This warrior thrust his knife through the back of the dancer in the same manner, making terrible wounds, through which lariat ropes were passed. Each dancer was treated in a similar manner, some having the outside of the thighs slit and a rough piece of wood inserted through the gashes. One end of the lariat ropes which now dangled from the gaping wounds was then fastened to the sun -pole at a height of from five to ten feet from the ground. Against these lariat ropes the dancers threw themselves with terrific force, in their efforts to break away, until at last the ropes tore through the quivering flesh and set the victims free. It required repeated efforts of the dancers to tear themselves loose from these ropes. One dancer, with a lariat rope in his back, to the end of which were fastened several buffalo heads, ran madly around the arena, dragging them after him. The skin of the back rarely ever tore out when dragging this weight. One of the most surprising things revealed at these dances was the elastic- ity of human muscles and skin. The skin and muscles of the back would stretch six inches or more before the lariat broke through the flesh. After this horrible torture had been continued for a couple of hours, the master of ceremonies gave a signal to stop; and, after haranguing the In- dians present for a few minutes, the ceremony was declared at an end. During this trying ordeal of voluntary torture the dancers never showed the slightest sign of pain or fear, but laughed a sickly laugh during the whole ceremony. They left the enclosure without congratulations of any kind, immediately sought their families and friends, and partook of food and drink for the first time since entering the arena. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 331 The reader may naturally suppose that in many instances these tortured and mutilated people succumbed to the effects of this terrible ordeal. Such, however, was not the case. In endurance of pain the Indian was very different from bis civilized brother. After going through these cruel rites the dancers never complained of their sufferings or exhibited the slightest feeling of discomfort, much less of pain. Any such demonstration would be deemed unworthy of a man who had at so severe a cost established his title to a brave. Sometimes representatives from most if not all of the tribes took part in these dances, and when they returned to their respective locali- ties, with lacerated bodies but stout hearts, they were recognized as heroes for a time, and braves forever. No further deeds of daring or danger could, in Indian estimation, add to their renown, and no matter what happened to the brave afterward, he was never alluded to as lacking in physical courage. It was a great honor to have gone through the sun dance. It secured for the participant many tribal honors and privileges. At one time the Government endeavored to prevent this ceremony, and I believe that Father De Smet called the attention of the authorities in Washing- ton to its cruelty, and tried himself to prevent it, but both were unsuccessful. Many people believe that the sun dance was given just prior to the de- parture of a war party, but this was not true; neither did it in any way resemble a gala day. It was a serious ceremony, and boisterous festivities were not indulged in during the performance. At sunrise the following morning many of the families had their effects packed on their animals and travois and were ready to return from whence they came. Before the middle of the day the entire country was covered with caravans of the different tribes going in every direction, each returning to its own home. During the entire ceremony the vast concourse of Indians quietly amused themselves in different ways. They formed into groups and feasted on their favorite meat, the dog. The young men assumed their most inviting and imposing manner, and formed the acquaintance of, and wooed young Indian girls from far-off portions of their territory. Many a young brave secured for himself, if not then, at some future time, the hand, if not the heart, of one of these dusky maidens. Old women and young girls sat in groups amusing themselves after their own fashion. The men were dressed in their finest attire, and showed them- selves to the best advantage to their neighbors. With their hair greased, done up in plaits, combed and smoothed until it shone like glass, the part in the middle freshly painted a bright carmine; their faces painted in all the colors of the rainbow; their moccasins, leggings, and robes of the newest 332 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. and most elaborate pattern in their possession; holding their pipes, toma- hawks, or bows and arrows on their arms; in their hands bunches of sweet smelling grass, wild flowers, or the branches of some odoriferous tree, they would strut through the camp with such dignified pomp as only an Indian can assume, each one in his egotism believing himself to be the observed of all observers, and the most important personage of the entire assembly. During the ceremony, no woman, old or young, did any work other than cooking and taking care of the animals. They believed that unnecessary work militated against the medicine of the dancers, and, according to their superstition, cause great injury to those going through this ordeal. During the evening and night the scenes all through the camp were picturesque and animated. 1 Tb Indians formed themselves in groups, dancing and singing tc the noise of their tom-toms. At another place a warrior entertained his hearers with vulgar stories. Elsewhere a brave told his newly-made acquaint- ances of the many battles in which he had been engaged, of his hairbreadth escapes, his skill, and his wonderful deeds of daring. In another spot a number of men sat in a circle on the ground, smoking their long pipes. Here they remained for hours smoking in perfect silence, presenting a very solemn, not to say doleful, appearance. It is but natural to suppose that at these gatherings there was more or less trading and bartering. Such was not the case. They came solely to witness the dance or to join in its rites. Whatever amusements they had during this time were of a quiet nature. Even with the breaking up of the camp and starting of the different tribes for their homes, they did not engage in any traffic whatever; each tribe returned from whence it came in a grave, dignified, and silent manner. Catlin states, in substance, that a most cruel ceremonial dance was occa- sionally performed by the Mandans immediately after undergoing the terri- ble ordeal of the sun dance. Six or eight of them were led out of the dance lodge with buffalo skulls and other weights still hanging from the freshly- cut slits in their flesh and dragging on the ground. The dancers were naked, and the dance was performed in the presence of the whole assembly. Rude wreaths made of willow branches were held in the dancers' hands, connecting them in a circle. At a given signal the dancers circled around and around, yelping as loudly as their exhausted condition permitted. Weak from long fasting and loss of blood they were urged on by the spec- tators. Those who fell were immediately seized by the wrists and dragged around the circle, often with their faces in the dirt, until the weights hang- ing to their flesh were disengaged, which was often done by violently tear- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. : ing the flesh out. Friends and relatives fainting victim and restore him. stood ready to minister to each NOTE. The last instance of the performance of the sun dance among the Indians took place at Havre, Mont., June 19, 1894, despite the Government's efforts to prevent it. This barbarous ceremony was witnessed by many white people. All the newspaper corre- spondents who were present described it in about the same way. I give literally that published in the New York Sun : "HAVRE, MONT., June 19. The Cree sun dance has just been concluded here, after being in progress for three days. Every sheriff in the State had been instructed to prevent the dance at any hazard, but there was no interference here. Three Indians were hung up by thongs thrust into slits in their breasts, and slashed by Little Eggs, the chief. All fainted before the ordeal was over. " A young Indian had slits cut in his shoulders, and to the inserted thongs were tied four buffalo skulls, which he dragged after him. Eighty pieces of flesh were cut from his arm, to be kept as tokens." A TYPICAL INDIAN. 334 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XL. THE SCALP DANCE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE GHASTLY TROPHIES OF MASSA- CRE AND WAR THE WAR DANCE AND ITS OBJECT GREWSOME TRINKETS WORN. The Scalp Dance Treatment of Scalps Scalp Poles Description of the Dance A Strange Place to make Love Courting an Indian Maiden The Scalp Dance next in Impor- tance to the Sim Dance Excitement of the Dancers Telling how the Scalp was taken Exhibition of Trophies The Scalp the Unmistakable Evidence of having killed an Enemy Indian Braggarts Notorious Liars The War Dance Its Object Organizing a War Party Encouraging the Braves to Join Praying for their Safe Return Feasting on Dogs Prayers of the Old Women The Medicine Dance What it was and why it was held The Medicine Bag Nations who used it Mystery of the Medicine Bag Disinclination of Indians to talk about it Grewsome Trikets Worn The Fire Dance The Snake Dance. AFTER the return of a war party with a goodly number of scalps, the ghastly trophies were stretched inside of small wooden hoops and attached to poles eight to ten feet in length. At the appointed time the Indians, both men and women, would assemble and sit or stand in circles. The musicians sat or stood by themselves, and vigorously beat their tom-toms to the noise of which the dancers kept time. The poles to which the scalps were attached were held high in the air. The dancers jumped up and down on their toes, moving slightly to the right and left, and keeping together in a circle, while chanting the praise of the valor and skill of the captors of these bloody tro- phies of massacre and war. The dance was continued during the entire night, and all present who cared to do so had an opportunity to join in it. Ceremonial dancing in various forms was a prominent feature in Indian life. They were fond of amusement of this kind and indulged their taste in this direction upon the slightest provocation, and with a fervor worthy of a civilized devotee of the Terpsichorean art. The scalp dance was not a religious ceremony, but was a dance of rejoic- ing and festivity to which all came and enjoyed themselves after Indian fashion. There was always a feast generally a dog feast and all kinds of devices were adopted for the entertainment of those present. If there was ever love-making it was at the scalp dance. Young women on these occa- sions separated themselves a short distance from their natural protectors, in TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 335 order to meet a young brave. Etiquette required that they should remain standing. The robes of the two might encircle both, and love-making thus be carried on, but always under the watchful eyes of the family of the girl. The scalp dance was regarded by the Indians as one of their greatest fes- tivities. It afforded the braves an opportunity to exhibit the evidence of their prowess, and to indulge to the fullest extent in self- laudation. The excitement produced among both dancers and spectators on these oc- casions only fell short of that witnessed at a sun dance. All who attended exhausted their strength in the ceremonies. The participators mimicked the manner in which they had slain and scalped their vic- tims, and their bloodthirsty Bavage passions were again inflamed, as when in the midst of deadly conflict. Those who had taken no scalps boasted of the manner in which they intended to make up for their present mis- fortune in the next battle, or recounted deeds of blood and daring in which they had participated on previous oc- casions. They related to the spectators the cause of their failure, which they invari- ably attributed to the malign intervention of the Bad God. When a long period had elapsed since they encountered and scalped their enemies they contented themselves with bringing out old scalps and re-enacting the scenes of their capture. The participators in a scalp dance usually prepared a speech for the occasion, and each had a self- laudatory harangue or his excuse for failure at his tongue's end. There was no ceremony preceding or succeeding a scalp dance. Its object was to attest the bravery of the warriors who had performed certain deeds of INDIAN OF BANK INSIGNIA ON CAP. 336 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. valor. This attestation could be made only by a warrior exhibiting the scalp he had taken. The ghastly trophy was, of course, proof positive that the brave who possessed it had slain an enemy, or was the first to strike a pros- trate victim. Should the scalp be that of a white person it redounded all the more to the glory of the slayer. No one would believe that an Indian had killed his enemy unless he pro- duced the scalp of his victim; this was one reason why such extraordinary pains were taken to secure this evidence of their valor. Sometimes an Indian might have been defeated and driven from the field, in that case he could not scalp the slain. Again, a warrior might receive a wound, and be car- ried off by his comrades, in order to prevent his falling into the hands of his adversaries and being scalped by them. In such cases a warrior made all kinds of representations at a scalp dance as to what he had accomplished in such a battle. But as Indians are notorious liars, these stories were regarded by all with a great deal of suspicion. Another dance and one that was more frequently indulged in was the war dance. Among all the different nations and tribes the war dance was com- mon. It was held during the time a war party was in course of preparation, for there was no military discipline whatever among the Indians, and war parties had to be made up of volunteers. The war dance was held prior to the departure of, or immediately after the return of a war party. If held before, it might last from two days to two or three weeks, according as the warriors and braves volunteered to go on the warpath. There were no for- mal invitations to the war dances. Both men and women congregated at a convenient spot in the camp where the dance was to be held, and all who cared to do so joined in the ceremony. This was continued until a sufficent number of warriors had volunteered to make a war party of the desired size. The merrymaking and festivities were continued during the afternoon and the greater part of the night. Those who did not take part in the dance sat around in groups telling stories, or the warriors described what they intended to do when they met in battle. The men remained on one side of the circle and the women on the other, each jumping up and down by themselves and all keeping time to the beat of the tom-tom. The -women were dressed in their best clothing, with a bunch of sweet-smelling grass, or holding a wild flower or the branch of a fragrant tree in their hands. The men were gaily adorned but without robes or blankets. Their faces were painted in stripes of various colors, and their bodies were painted in the same colors, though with much broader stripes. Their hair was neatly dressed, and in every way they assumed their most attractive appearance. Both men and women held in their hands poles to which scalps were attached. They gave voice to TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 337 howls and yells, and told each other of the valor of the braves that belonged to their families, now about to go to war, and of their ability to defeat all whom they met. Everything was done to induce the young warriors to join the party and conduct themselves as braves during the battles they might engage in. During these dances the chief or leader who was to guide the party after it set out gave several feasts, one or two of which were dog feasts. In giv- ing these feasts the leader hoped to gain the good will and obedience of his warriors. When the war party was completed and ready to start, those who remained behind sang songs to encourage the departing braves, and made prayers to the Great Spirit for their safe return. On these occasions the old women were loud in their lamentations, not only for warriors who had been killed in battle on former occasions, but also for those who might lose their lives while on this expedition. Among some nations and tribes a dance called the medicine dance was indulged in at irregular intervals. In the majority of cases the medicine dance was a dance of superstition, and was held for the purpose of attracting some imaginary power. Among the Sioux the medicine dance did not differ materially from the war dance, except that there were no scalps exhibited. It more nearly re- sembled a supplication to the Great Spirit, beseeching him to grant extraor- dinary powers. At some of these dances great numbers of Indians congre- gated, at others there were but few. Occasionally a brave who was ambitious to become a medicine man would go through strange manoeuvres and violent bodily contortions, making wild gestures with his hands and arms, to attract the supposed medicine to him ; using his best endeavors to make the spectators believe that he had been endowed by the Great Spirit, the sun, the moon, or something else, with superhuman powers. After this he might claim to be a medicine man. When but few Indians were present the dance was of short duration. When there were many it fre- quently lasted from one to two days, at which time nearly all joined in a prayer to the Great Spirit to bestow upon them some special favor. Among other nations and tribes the medicine dance was conducted in other ways. Among the Blackfeet it was the dance of a few braves who desired to be known as medicine men. They congregated at a certain place at a fixed time, being naked, except for the breech cloth. They first black- ened their faces and bodies, and went through the most violent contor- tions, gesticulating in the most absurd manner with their hands and arms, making themselves look as hideous and as much unlike human beings as possible. In this manner they sought to attract the medicine to them, and 338 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. to appear to those witnessing the performance as though they were receiving mysterious powers from some unknown source that would enable them to perform miracles in keeping away or curing disease. At the medicine dance of the Comanches a large number of them gathered on a fixed day at a certain place, each one having a small medicine bag. The dance was begun in the afternoon, and was continued late into the night. The dancers sought to draw the medicine or power from some unknown INDIANS PREPARING FOR THE SCALP DANCE. Reproduced by permission of the "Illustrated American," 1892. source to their medicine bags, which were carried away by them after the charm was believed to have entered. All who had medicine bags danced the medicine dance; firmly believing that the medicine would enter the bags during the dance. Often medicine dances were continued uninterruptedly for days, or until such time as the dancers believed the charm to have taken effect. The Cheyennes had no hesitancy in speaking of the medicine bag or exhibiting it, but I do not believe they ever told what it contained. Some others had medicine charms or totems which they carried with them, or kept in their habitations, all firmly believing in their efficacy. Many other tribes and nations had various medicine totems; some carried about their persons portions of the bodies of brave warriors whom they had slain in battle. This often consisted of bones of the fingers, toes, or the ears; charms of this nature were not hidden, but were worn conspicuously. War implements taken from the beaten enemy were also constantly carried by them, as they believed them to be very "good medicine," bears' claws and teeth were also considered particularly good luck; this is one reason why TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 339 there were so many bears' claw and teeth necklaces worn among all the Indians of the West. Some few tribes held fire dances, the object of which was known only to themselves. First a large amount of dry wood was placed in a pile, then set on fire, and when the heat was the most intense, naked men rushed to the burning pile, and, lighting the dry bark or sticks each held in their hands FIRE DANCE. began skipping around the fire, yelling like demons. The dancers burning each other's bodies with their lighted torches; of ten the burns left great scars on the bodies of those so burned. This dance was always held during dark nights, and was continued rntil those going through this ceremony were completely exhausted. While it lasted the dance was very exciting, and all who witnessed, or engaged in it, were excited to wild frenzy. When it was over all disappeared In the darkness; silently going to their homes. 340 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Some of the Arizona tribes held snake dances. Clad in peculiar attires, both men and women assembled with the figures of snakes in their mouths and hands, or coiled about the neck. They then shuffled about, each acting independently, before entering the snake dance. The dancers faces were smeared with white clay ; then spots were rubbed on in black made from charcoal or smut. At best snake dances were tame affairs, and of short duration. The only noticeable feature being the horrible appearance of the faces, arms, and hair of those dancing. After the Government presented "good Indians" with metal medals, these were conspiculously worn, usually by a string or chain around the neck, the medal hanging over the chest. For a long time the Indians who were fortunate enough to secure one of these prizes considered them a gr/eat charm, and were never seen without it. SNAKE DANCERS. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 341 CHAPTER XLI. ORIGIN OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS WHERE DID THEY COME FROM INTERESTING THEORIES A QUESTION NEVER SOLVED. The Indians of North America Ingenious Theories of their Origin Claimed to be of Mongolian, African, and Hebrew Descent Did they Descend from tlie Ten Lost Tribes of Israel? Different Theories Difference between the Indians and Hebrews, Chinamen, and Negroes Curious Analogies My Own Opinion Why I think that the Indian was Placed here by our Great Creator A Distinct Race Entirely Unlike any other Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses' Logical Reasoning Mountains and Rivers in the Moon Did they cross Over from Asia by way of Bering's Straits? The Mound Builders Implements found in the Mounds Their Art in Cutting Precious Stones Exquisite Gold Images from their Graves Conclusion as to the Origin of the Red Man. MANY attempts have been made to explain the origin of the Indians of North America, and no field of archaeological research has been more prolific in theories. The fact that the New World was occupied by unknown races of men was a revelation to the civilized nations of Europe. When it was known that the inhabitants were savages, and when some, in their native barbarous costumes, were taken to Europe and exhibited as specimens of the aboriginal people living here at that time, the question at once arose as to their origin. Much study and research has been given to this question, and the problem is no nearer solution than when America was first discovered. Many ingenious and plausible theories have been advanced on this subject. One is that the Indians were descendants of the Mongolian race; another that they were of African descent; and a third, which seems as plausible as any, that they were the direct lineal descendants of the ten lost tribes of Israel, who were carried away captive by the Assyrian king, as recorded in the Old Testament, and ever after lost to history. In support of the Chinese theory, the strongest point argued is the similar- ity in complexion and hair of the two peoples. Both had skins of nearly the same hue, prominent cheek bones, and coarse black hair, but here the comparison ends. No similarity can be traced in the language, charac- teristics and customs of the two races. The Chinese have preserved, in writ- ten records, their national history, long antedating the time of Confucius and the era of American discovery. The Indians had no written language 342 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. and no records; and it is absurd to suppose that if people from China had come to this country by way of Bering Straits, that separate the two great continents, they would not, with their pronounced conservative character- istics, have maintained their old mode of life, clung to their religious belief and worship, and held in sacred memory their national traditions. They would unquestionably have followed up their observance of these things with the same zeal and pertinacity with which they are now retained in the Chinese Empire. There is much less to be said in favor of the African descent theory. The ebon hue of the native full-blooded African is too many shades darker than that of the Indian to presuppose a possibility of descent from the same source. Besides, I have never seen or heard of. and I do not believe any one else has, a full-blooded Indian with kinks in his hair, that capillary peculiarity so distinctly African and so utterly unlike the long, straight, coarse hair of the American Indian. Again, the Indians almost invariably had sound teeth, which the negroes, as a class, do not have. The theory that the Indians descended from the Hebrews is more plausible; for it cannot be denied that they were many points of resemblance between the aborigines of America and the early Israelites. So marked has been this similarity that it has arrested the attention of historians and ethnolo- gists. There are very striking analogies between these races. For instance, some Indians, in certain ceremonies, marched under a rude ensign bearing the figure of an animal, which was selected as their distinguishing emblem? and no two tribes had the same symbol. This custom, though not universal, might have been all that remained among the Indians of a similar custom that prevailed among the Hebrews, and was handed down from their fore- fathers from time immemorial. Again, the Indians computed time the same as did the early Hebrews, reckoning it by moons. They calculated their travels in the same way, by days' journeys, and nights' sleeps. These analo- gies might be followed out at great length, but while they are curious they are by no means convincing. After my varied experiences among many nations and tribes of Indians, and as the result of a great many conversations with the most intelligent men among them, and diligent studies on the subject, I assert without fear of logical contradiction that the North American Indian was placed on this continent, in his original entirety, by our great Creator, and that he is in- digenous to this country as much so as are its animals and trees. Our great Creator also provided subsistence for them, and the means of obtaining it. He covered this entire country with the most nutritious grasses, and placed on it large herds of antelope, elk, deer, bear, mountain AN ARIKAKA INDIAN BELT DECORATED WITH BRASS BUTTONS BEAR CLAW NECKLACE Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indi.ins Pae-p 343 344 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. sheep, and millions of buffaloes. For this reason I again assert, all other theories to the contrary notwithstanding, that the North American Indian was placed here by his Maker. The North American Indians look like North American Indians, and nothing else. I have never seen another race of people that resembled them in any way. Their high cheek bones, prominent noses, narrow heads, broad, strong jaws, beardless faces, hairless bodies, strong teeth, and erect forms, are peculiarities of the North American Indian alone. Again there were more than three hundred distinct languages spoken among the aborigines of America. Each nation of Indians not only had its own language, but many customs uncommon to any other people in the world. Their only religion was the worship of the Great Creator. Their theories of their origin extended only a short time back, and the conclusions they arrived at were somewhat logical. For example, on a bright moonlight night, while I was having a "talk ' with Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses, at which other Indians were present, the old chief turned to me, and through the interpreter said : "They tell me there are mountains and rivers in the moon." I replied, "They say so." He said: "If there are mountains and rivers in the moon, there must be white men there." I asked him why he came to this conclu- sion. He replied, "Where there are mountains and rivers there must be beavers and otters, and where there are beavers and otters white men surely go." He arrived at this conclusion from the fact that for many j'ears back the whites had trapped from the mouth to the source of almost every stream in his country, for beaver, otter, and other pelts. This, to my mind, seemed a logical conclusion. The fallacy of the arguments adduced in favor of the theory that the North American Indian is a natural descendant of the lost tribes of Israel, or that he is of Mongolian or African origin, is also apparent from the fact that there is but one way by which be could reach the American continent. This was by Bering Straits. If the Indian followed this course it would have been impossible for him to have reached Ohio, where so many discoveries have recently been made, relating to the early mound builders, without leav- ing unmistakable evidences of his migration behind him. The mounds and ruins scattered from the Lakes to the Gulf abundantly testify that this con- tinent has been the home of an indigenous race from time immemorial. More than ten thousand of these mounds have been found in the State of Ohio alone. Their antiquity is evidenced by the fact that the largest forest trees are found growing on them. The Indian races had no tradition concerning these mounds. Their origin is lost in the mists of antiquity, and they stand TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 345 as enduring testimony to the existence of the red man on this continent cen' turies before the white man touched these shores. In many of the States of the West and South, including Wisconsin, Michi- gan, Indiana, Tennessee, Kentucky, the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama, we also find relics of various nations of Indians, sometimes in mounds, sometimes overturned by the plow, or washed to the surface by rains. All these show that the Indians, from a remote period, possessed the art of making articles necessary for procuring their food and material for their clothing. In nearly all of these mounds are found pipes of various designs and forms, and wrought of different materials. The most of these are made of stone or clay. It is highly probable that other kinds of material were also used ; but so ancient are these ruins that the more perishable materials have long ago crumbled to dust. Some of the Indians living on the coast of Lake Superior made pipes of copper by pounding the metal into the desired shape in its raw state. Nowhere west of the Missouri River, save in a few places in Missouri, have any mounds been discovered containing the bones and im- plements of the red man. Nor have I ever known of the discovery of mounds left by the Indians in any part of the great plains of the West, North or South. Nor have any remains of the articles and implements used by the many nations that once inhabited that vast territory ever been brought to light. These people, especially below the mouth of the Missouri River, did not make use of the flint in making arrowheads, stone knives, and kindred instruments. No specimens of pottery or articles of ornamentation, or im- plements of war or the chase, have been left by this primitive people west of this great river. They seem to have been different in a variety of ways from the people who inhabited the older States. The latter lived entirely by the chase, have made no advancement in the mechanical arts, and had no desire to learn, or to change or improve their condition. It is incredible that these people could have come by the way of north- eastern Asia and worked their way down to the South without leaving any indications or signs of their progress. The mounds of the Mississippi valley, and the proficiency attained by some Indians in mechanical arts, prove conclusively that they occupied the North American Continent at a very remote period. Had they come by Bering Straits they would undoubtedly, on their way south, have left some signs of their migration. They had no beasts of burden previous to the discovery of America by Columbus, and their migration would have been necessarily slow before that time. Besides, the ruins and remains of prehistoric times abundantly prove that this continent was occupied centuries ago by a stationary people; and PAINTE'O WARRIOR OSAGE. Page 846. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 347 that this people did in due course of time push south is evidenced by their articles of use and ornamentation. Among them I have seen beads and even pearls, which had been taken from graves where they had lain for cen- turies, with holes in them that must have required the most delicate art to execute. Some of their articles recently found show the existence of villages and camp life. As the race migrated toward the south they seem to have devel- oped a higher stage of civilization, and to have advanced in the mechanical arts. The implements and articles they have left behind were better made, were more symmetrical in shape, and of finer material. I have seen articles exhumed from the graves of the Aztec Indians wrought in pure gold, and of exquisite workmanship, containing from three to five hundred dollars' worth of gold. They represented various ideas and were wrought in different forms, sometimes taking that of an imaginary animal. They were symbolic of the dead, with whom these ornaments were interred, and perhaps they re- ferred to some deed of prowess, or personal or family trait. The grotesque- ness of the designs in these trinkets never detracted from their skillful and cunning workmanship. Passing to Mexico, we find the native races enjoying a rude civilization and skilled in many of the mechanical arts. The Aztec Indians, ages before the advent of the Spanish conqueror, had learned the use of metals and were proficient in extracting gold and silver from quartz. They were also highly skilled in cutting precious stones, and in the art of ornamentation and decora- tion. We find to-day specimens of quartz crystal cut by this primitive people of beautiful shapes and designs; and as quartz crystal is one of the most refractory minerals known to science, necessitating great patience and skill in cutting it, it must have required ages for these people to have at- tained so high a degree of proficiency in this line of handiwork. It is equally improbable that the aboriginal races of America were the descendants of persons wafted across the Atlantic to the shores of the West- ern Hemisphere. The time necessary for their increase and migration, as well as the diversity of the native races, on both the American continents, disprove this theory. The same reasons show that it would have been im- possible for the two American continents to have been peopled by the lost tribes of Israel within the period intervening between their disappearance and the discovery of America by Columbus. For every argument in favor of the Old-World origin of the American aborigine, a dozen can be adduced to the contrary. He was characterized not so much by his resemblance to other races or portions of the human family, as by his marked difference from all of them. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The only logical conclusion, therefore, to my mind, is that the great Creator placed the Indian here, and surrounded him with everything neces- sary to his existence. I also assert that the animals of this country were placed here by our Creator in their entirety. Except on the theory that they are indigenous to the soil, it is wholly im- TYPICAL INDIAN ENCAMPMENT. possible to explain the presence not only of the buffalo, but of nearly all other wild animals that once existed on the American Continent. If they were not here from the beginning, how could they have reached here? If it be argued that the American continents were at some prehistoric period united to the Old World, the difficulty arises of explaining how it is that many of the animals of America are found nowhere else on the globe. Did they migrate to this continent en masse, leaving no trace behind them? Neither have any fossil remains of many of these animals been found in any TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 349 other part of the world. What more conclusive proof could be adduced that they are indigenous to this country? But even admitting that they could have come by way of Bering Straits, how could they have subsisted during their migration to warmer latitudes, as these northern wastes were entirely devoid of vegetation? And furthermore, even if they possessed an abun- dance of food they must have perished of cold. How could the cloven-hoofed animals, including the buffalo, have crossed the ice? It is almost impossible for animals of any kind to stand on ice, to say nothing of making a long journey across its glassy fields. Many of the animals of Central and South- ern America could not live an hour unsheltered and unwarmed in our north- ern latitudes. The Rocky Mountain grizzly bear, for instance, is found only within a small area in the Rocky Mountain region, and nowhere else in all the world. Hundreds of animals from the Arctic zone to Terra del Fuego might be enumerated that exist nowhere else on earth, and of which no trace or remains have ever been found save right here on this continent, their original home. 350 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XLII. INDIAN MASSACRES AND BATTLES THRILLING INCIDENTS OF FRONTIER LIFE TRAGEDIES OF THE MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS. Indian Warfare Attacking Field Pieces with Tomahawks Burial of Massacred Troops Burial of Dead Warriors The Fetterman Massacre Reserving the Last Shot for Themselves How Information about this Bloody Affair was Obtained Firing the Station with Burning Arrows Killing a Lurking Foe Blowing the top of an In- dian's Head off Our Battle on Tongue River A Desperate Charge A Troopers' Grim Remark A Fierce Indian Battle Two able Leaders How they described other Battles and Massacres. FROM the troopers' point of view, Indian warfare was very unsatisfactory. First it was always necessary for troops to travel long dis- tances before the scene of action was reached; even then the troops arrived at the battle ground in an ex- hausted condition. Traveling for days, weeks, and months, over dry and arid plains, through rugged mountains, in all kinds of weather, constantly changing water, with poor and insuffi- cient food, broke not only the health, but the spirits of the soldiers. When the Indians made a stand the troops were compelled to fight after the red man's tactics, as well as obey the orders of the officers, which made it doubly severe for the white men. Therefore Indian warfare was usually a one-sided battle. They rarely attacked the whites until they felt sure of defeating them. They often hovered about a camp for weeks, remaining unseen in the vicinity, TYPICAL INDIAN BUCKSKIN SHIRT. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 351 waiting for an opportune moment to strike. Their favorite time for attack- ing was early in the morning, just at break of day. The red men mounted their animals, riding in a circle around the besieged party, yelling at the top of their voices, flaunting buffalo robes, firing arrows and guns, and doing everything possible to stampede the animals. They seldom, if ever, exposed themselves in an upright position when mounted. They would lie on the side of their horses away from the party attacked, and fire over or under the animals, thus using the latter as a shield. They rarely, if ever, took chances in killing a party of whites, if they could possibly secure their ani- mals without "doing so, unless it was a foregone conclusion that they could kill the whole party without much risk to themselves. There have been many complete annihilations of troops at various times by the Sioux, notably the Grattan massacre, on the North Platte. Lieutenant Grattan was sent from Fort Laramie with a detachment of soldiers and two brass field howitzers, twenty-four pounders, to this rendez- vous of the Indians, with instructions to hold them in check. Upon their arrival the troops were placed in position, and the guns double-shotted, but through an error of judgment, or a mistake of some kind, one of the guns was fired prematurely; whereupon the Indians, who greatly outnumbered the troops, made a rush and massacred them to the last man, with their tomahawks, knives, lances, and bows and arrows. Their fear of the field pieces was so great that during the fight they rushed in, striking a blow at the guns with their tomahawks, and instantly ran away. After a while their fears were partly allayed, when they rushed back, again attacking the gun carriages with tomahawks, viciously hacking the wheels in their efforts to destroy them. These field pieces were at Fort Laiamis as late as 1866 or 1867, and still bore the marks of this attack; some of the spokes of the wheels were almost cut through, the brass pieces themselves bearing the marks of the tomahawks in many places. The troops killed in this unfortunate engagement were subsequently buried on the battle ground, just as they had fallen. They were interred in their uniforms, as soldiers usually are buried after a battle, namely, by digging a trench or large hole in the ground into which the bodies were thrown. In this instance the trench or grave was dug deep and covered with large stones to prevent wild animals from preying on the remains. The last time I passed through this region, I visited the burial place of these unfortunate men, and found it in a fair state of preservation. The locality was a forbid- ding and barren stretch of country, with nothing to break the monotonous stillness save the howling of wolves at night, and the mournful wailing of the wind. a- 852 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The Indians killed by the troops in this fight were also buried here. Their relatives or friends erected posts from ten to fifteen feet in height, and made scaffolds on them, upon which they placed the dead. Some of them were deposited in the few trees in the vicinity; the bodies were wrapped in the robes they had used during life; their saddles, lariats, and firearms were placed on the scaffolds beside them. A number of their best horses were killed under their resting places. For years afterward, relatives repaired to this spot and wailed most dismally, although they had probably never seen one of the deceased during life. I may cite the massacre of the Collins party as an illustration. Lieutenant Caspar W. Collins's command numbered about eighty men, of whom, forty or fifty were cavalry and the rest teamsters. They en- countered a large Indian war party at Platte Bridge and having allowed their fire to be drawn by their cunning foes, were all massacred- The Indians captured the stores and animals, then burned the wagons and outfit. Warriors from the Uncpa- pa,Ogalala, and Minneconjou Sioux perpetrated this mas- sacre. Fort Caspar stands near this place, and was named after the given name of this unfortunate young officer, because there was already a fort on Cache La Poudre River in Colorado TYPICAL, LODGE AND INDIANS. bearing the name of Fort Collins. Lieutenant Collins was an officer of superior ability, highly educated and expert with his pencil, having made many drawings of the Indians, and the physical features of that country. He was brave to rashness, but impetuous, and lacked discretion. He allowed the wily savages to out-general him, and paid the penalty with the lives of himself and of his entire command. When found, his men were mutilated beyond description. They were TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 353 stripped of their clothing and the bodies of all were penetrated by arrows, some having over twenty driven through them. Some, though not all, of the men were scalped, and all would have been had not the Indians been anxious to get as far away from the scene as possible, fearing the approach of a body of troops that they knew were in the vicinity. After setting fire to the wagons and securing all the animals, the savages made off to the north, taking their booty to the fastnesses of the Rocky Mountains. They were never punished for this outrage, for the Government at that time did not have sufficient troops in that vicinity to pursue and chastise them. Some of the animals of Lieutenant Collins's command were subsequently captured in our battle with the Indians on the Tongue River, thus showing that the Sioux had afterward been at war with the Cheyennes and Arapa- hoes, as there were no Sioux at the battle of Tongue River. Another noted massacre was that which occurred at Fort Fetterman, on La Paralle Creek, in December, 1866, when Lieutenants Fetterman and Brown were in command, in which about one hundred persons, and these two officers, lost their lives. I was credibly informed by Indians who were in that bloody affair, that Lieutenants Fetterman and Brown, seeing that the day was lost, rather than fall into the hands of the Indians and be tor- tured to death, grasped each other's left hands, and with pistols in their right hands simultaneously blew out each other's brains. As every white person in this affray lost his life, the only means of obtaining information of the battle was from the Indians who participated in it. I do not doubt the truth of the story of the fate of these officers, however, for it was under- stood by every soldier, trapper, and mountaineer, who knew the habits of the wild Indians, that he should save the last shot for himself and take his own life rather than be captured. Not so with the Indian, however. He fired his last shot at the enemy, then made a bold dash with his lance or other weapon, standing in a defiant attitude, as if saying: "Do your worst, I am ready to die." Another massacre was that of Lieutenant John Brown and his command, at Brown Springs, a stream tributary to the Cheyenne River which prior to his massacre had no name. Here Lieutenant Brown, with his command, after a desperate battle, were annihilated. We were never quite able to learn who perpetrated this massacre, whether the Crows or Minneconjou Sioux. I also recall the massacre of an entire party at Sage Run, a small stream west of the stage route crossing at North Platte, thirty- five miles from the mouth of Bridger's Pass. Here the station with its corral was attacked by Indians. After besieging the party for nearly a whole day, without makicg 354 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. an impression upon them, the Indians fixed lighted rags to their arrows, firing them into the station. As it was built of wood it caught fire, com- pelling the inmates to leave the burning building, when the Indians killed them all. Shortly after this affair I was sent to protect the stage route at that place. Just above the station a vicious band of Sioux attacked us, who gave me a hot time for several hours. I received an arrow in my knee during this battle, inflicting a severe and permanent injury. A snowstorm coming on enabled my command to withdraw, for which I was thankful, for we were greatly outnumbered, and defeat for us was sure. Our campaign to the north, along the Powder River and into the Big Horn Mountains, under General Connor, resulted in the battle of Goose Creek. The troops, numbering some eight or nine hundred, with three or four pieces of mountain howitzers, traveled a long distance north to reach this place. Colonel Cole, with his command, was to have swept around from the Yellowstone, to make a junction somewhere about the Rosebud River with the troops under General Connor. The latter discovered a large In- dian trail running up Goose Creek, and started in the evening to follow it. After riding the entire night we suddenly came to an Indian village about four o'clock in the morning. It was situated in a beautiful bend of the river, which was skirted with numerous trees and thick underbrush. We were compelled to cross a deep ravine before we could get into the valley in which the village was located. General Connor ordered me with about two hundred cavalry to cross this ravine, and draw up in front of the village. He crossed the ravine a little later with his troops, bringing them into line in front on the edge of this ravine, which brought them at right angles with my command, or on my flank. When his bugle sounded the charge, we dashed into the village, tired and exhausted as we were, dealing death on every hand. It only required a minute to start up the sleeping warriors, who outnumbered us to such an extent that it was necessary to retreat a short distance; after rallying again, the general's bugle sounded the charge for the entire command. We went into that village as I have never seen cavalry go before or since, and the fight was something terrific. For the first half or three-quarters of an hour we used one of our howitzers so rapidly that it became heated and useless. We drove the Indians out of their camp and across the river (in which many of them lost their lives), attacking them in the foothills of the mountains on the other side. We had the advantage until about eleven o'clock in the day, having them on the run ; the troops were so exhausted by this time that they were scarcely able to do anything further, when we TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 355 began to retreat. The ground was covered with dead and wounded Indians. A guide named Autoine Ladeau, a Canadian Frenchman, was riding beside me. Pointing to a heap on the ground that looked like some buffalo skins, he said : "Do you see that Indian lying under his robe, pretending to be dead?" INDIAN TREE GRAVE. Whereupon Ladeau rose in his stirrups, took aim with his carbine, and sent a bullet into the lurking foe. The Indian jumped two or three feet from the ground after being shot, and fell a corpse, one of the troopers facetiously remarking, "Be quiet after this, please," this caused a grim smile. Re- turning to the village, we set it on fire, burning three or four hundred lodges and contents, and capturing six or seven hundred horses and mules. We had in this expedition a number of Omaha Indians. While we were on the march they were constantly in front, looking for signs. When the 356 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. battle commenced they charged into the village, fighting Indian fashion, showing their savage instincts by killing everybody they met, men, women and children. Many of the Omahas lost their lives in this battle, for when the Indians emerged from their lodges, and saw that we were accompanied by red men they directed their attack on the Omahas. Soon after the beginning of our retreat, when both the Indian and our own lines were wavering and the ground was being contested step by step, the troops killed a warrior, who, falling from his horse, dropped two Indian children he had been carrying. In retreating, the Indians left the children about halfway between the two lines, where they could not be reached by either party. After a few minutes of severe fighting, they were both unin- tentionally killed either by the troops or the Indians. It was a sad sight, but one of the unavoidable incidents of this kind of warfare. While burning this encampment, we discovered some buffalo skins on the banks of the river piled up like cotton bales, over which lodge covers were drawn. The wind blew the coverings off, exposing the heads of one or two Indians, who, I supposed were wounded, and had gone there to conceal them- selves. One of the Omaha Indians, seeing the head of a Cheyenne just above the bales of hides, knelt down, and taking deliberate aim with his rifle, shot off the top of the Cheyenne's head ; whereupon out jumped two or three more warriors who were quickly despatched by the troops. We con- tinued to fire the village until about three or four o'clock in the afternoon, and then started for our base of supplies, a distance of about forty miles, on Tongue River. Notwithstanding our desperate attack and fighting this was not a com- plete victory for us, for after eleven o'clock we were on the retreat, followed by the Indians, who fired upon us during the entire night. We arrived at camp about seven o'clock the next morning, more dead than alive, having a number of captives, whom General Connor returned to their people. Never have I seen troops undergo such hardships as we experienced during the forty hours of this march and battle. In this engagement we encountered some of the allied Cheyennes, Arapa- hoes, and others, numbering from twenty-five hundred to three thousand, who had for a long time previous been committing exasperating depreda- tions on emigrant trains, overland freight trains, and the stage line, murder- ing travelers and settlers, throughout the entire country from the South Platte to Bridger's Pass, a distance of some three hundred miles. In these raids, they had captured large numbers of horses and mules, as well as arms, ammunition and general stores. The Government, realizing the serious depredations committed by these TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 357 miscreants, determined to strike them a blow they would not readily forget, and the expeditions under General Connor and Colonel Cole were organized for this purpose. Had Colonel Cole succeeded in making the junction where it was originally intended, the result of the battle might have been different. Unfortunately he lost all his animals about seventy-five miles from the point of junction, and came near losing his entire command. They would all undoubtedly have perished had not General Connor come to their rescue by sending them supplies. The command when found presented a pitiable appearance, being nearly dead from starvation, hardship, Jack of boots, clothing, and the necessaries of life. They had been compelled to eat the putrid flesh of horses and. mules. Had the Indians come upon them while in this condition, they might have massacred the entire command. Probably the fiercest battle that ever took place between the Indians within the memory of white men, was that fought between a war party of Crows and Sioux. As the warriors of both were brave, well mounted and equipped, the battle was to the death. They met in the Big Horn Moun- tains, near the headwaters of Clark's Fork of the Missouri River. There was about an equal number on each side. The Sioux were led by their chief, Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses, the Crows by their noted chief, A-ra-poo- ash. The Sioux warriors, realizing that they were about to encounter their greatest enemy and most formidable foe, blackened their faces, which in the Indian sign language was equivalent to raising the black flag, announcing no quarter. All the warriors were mounted as usual, and it was nothing more nor less than a series of cavalry charges, fierce, impetuous and deadly. The horses were not encumbered by saddles or bridles. A lariat secured by two half hitches around the lower jaw of each horse made up his equipment. But the daring Indian riders guided their war steeds with consummate skill, and under their control the horses made forward bounds and charges, and halted or wheeled, as the case might be, with lightning rapidity. The war- riors were naked with the exception of a breech cloth ; bows and arrows, lances and some firearms, which, latter, however, were very limited, were their only weapons. The repeated charges were made with a terrific yell a wild whoop on both sides, which could be heard a long distance. For a few moments the air was clouded with whizzing arrows, and the resounding clash of lances told the fierceness of the fight. At the first onslaught of the battle many were killed and wounded on both sides. Each side then withdrew for a short distance. When they resumed 358 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. hostilities they fought with strategy, the hattle lasting all day. When night came on each side was willing to retire, and in the darkness they secured as many of their wounded as possible, remaining to makean observa- tion of the situation the following morning. The loss in killed and wounded was very great, so much so that hostilities were not resumed. Each party claimed to their own people to have been victorious. This is the substance of this battle, as given me by the Indians of both sides; some of them when describing it, gave the most glowing descriptions of how they had fought, and what they had accomplshed. One of the Indians' methods in attacking wagon trains, freighters, settlers and others, was to surround them; then by cunning draw the fire of the besieged party. When the latter had exhausted their ammunition, rush upon them and destroy the entire party, or if any were spared it was invaria- bly women and children, who were carried away into captivity. INDIAN WOMAN WEAVING BASKET ZUNI. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 359 CHAPTER XLIII. THE MASSACRE OF GENERAL CANBY BY THE MODOCS CAPTAIN JACK AND SCAR-FACED CHARLIE INDIAN TREACHERY PUNISHMENT OF THE MURDERERS. Wars between the Modoos and their Neighbors Inexperienced Agents Surprising Cap- tain Jack's Camp Fight between the Modocs and the Troops Massacre of White Settlers by the Modocs Avenging the Massacre Thirty Soldiers Killed, and not an Indian Injured The Peace Commission General Canby Chosen Sullen and Angry Indians Schonochin His Hatred of the Whites Waiting for Revenge Ben Wright's Inhuman Massacre of the Modocs A Bloody Day Scar-faced Charlie His Friendship for the Whites Treachery Suspected Danger Ahead The Indians Indicted for Murder Captain Jack's Retreat to the Lava Beds A Conference sought with him Falling into a Trap Going to the Meeting Unarmed Massacre of Gen- eral Canby and his Party Capture and Punishment of the Murderers. THE Modocs occupied the territory east of the Cascade Mountains, and south of the boundary line between Cali- fornia and Oregon. They were a comparatively insig- nificant tribe, but acquired prominence some years ago by their war with the Gov- ernment, and the massacre of General Canby. Their country was about forty by sixty miles in extent, a most desolate and sterile region, covered with basaltic and volcanic rock. It con- tained no large game, but berries, edible roots, small game, wild fowl and fish were rather plentiful ; on these the Modocs subsisted. The country to the north was occu- pied by the Klamath and Snake Indians. With these the Modocs were sometimes at war, and most of the tribes, previous to 1865, were at war with the whites. In that year a treaty was made with the Government by which INDIAN IN MOURNING. 360 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. a reservation was allotted to the Klamaths, Snakes, and Modocs. The Indians ceded nearly twenty thousand square miles of territory for seventeen thousand dollars. A few of the Snakes, and a portion of the Modocs, accepted this treaty and moved to the reservation. After remaining there for over two years they found that the Government had failed to keep its promises, whereupon the Modocs claimed that they had not sold their lands at all; that they were good lands for fishing and hunting, and intimated that they intended to re- turn to them. They claimed that the parties who sold these lands were unauthorized to do so; were only interlopers who were thrust forward by un- scrupulous and irresponsible parties in order to secure possession of this ter- ritory ; and having at length consented to go on a reservation they found themselves constantly annoyed and harassed by the Klamaths. Having complained so bitterly of the difficulties of their position, Agent Knapp ordered them removed to another location where they might not be troubled by the Klamaths. But the Modocs were opposed to another removal, and stampeded without a sign or warning. Thej T soon turned up in their old hunting ground, in the vicinity of Lost River, but made no trou- ble, wishing only to be left undisturbed. Soon afterward Agent Knapp, Superintendent Huntingdon, Dr. Mackey, and Mr. Applegate had a parley at their camp and sought to induce them to return to the reservation. After many talks, extending over ten days, the greater part of the tribe returned peaceably to the reservation, where blankets and provisions were issued to them, the same as to other reservation Indians. Here they remained quiet, giving no trouble and manifesting no signs of discontent, until the following spring, when the agent stopped issuing rations to them. Pressed by hunger, they left the reserve, and hunted over the country lying between Lost River and Yreka. Once more they were induced to take a small reservation of about six miles square, exclusively to themselves, under promise of remaining at peace with the whites. Superintendent Meacham, who always acted honestly and for what he thought the best interests of the Indians, recommended this policy to the Government; but before it could be fully and successfully car- ried out, a change took place in the Oregon superintendency, and a new and inexperienced agent undertook to remove the Modocs to the Klamath reserva- tion by military force. The officer commanding the troops at the nearest military post was applied to by the superintendent to enforce his order. This officer, with thirty-five men set out to surprise the Modocs. After a forced march of fifty -five miles the soldiers surrounded the Modocs' camp in the early morning, and sum- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 361 moned them to surrender. The Indians came out of their tepees, and upon learning the mission of the soldiers they generally agreed to obey the order, though under protest, saying that they did not want to fight with the whites. While this talk was going on, one of the Indians, Scar-faced Charlie, made some menacing demonstrations, whereupon the military officer in command ordered him arrested. A fight ensued in which four Indians were killed, and some soldiers lost their lives. The Modocs made for the nearest white settlement, where they killed all the men and boys, but spared the women and young children. Intense excitement prevailed throughout that country following this murderous raid, and the settlers demanded that vengeance be wreaked on the murder- ers. A military expedition was sent to punish the Modocs. At the first attack thirty soldiers were killed, and as far as could be learned not a single Indian was either killed or wounded. The Government then sent three peace commissioners to settle the question by inducing the Indians to accept a small reservation in the vicinity of Lost River. General Canby, who had command of the forces at the time, was invested with full power to settle the difficulty. He was a man of sound judgment, of long experience, and just in his acts toward all concerned. The commissioners, under instructions from Washington, were to confer with him before taking action looking to the final settlement of the affair. The commissioners, after consulting with General Canby, proposed that the Indians remove to Angel Island, in San Francisco Bay, until a suitable reservation could be established for them in Arizona. The interview led to to no satisfactory results ; although Captain Jack's speech on the occasion was pacific, it was evident that the Modocs were in an ugly mood. There were sixty-nine warriors present at this talk. Schonochin, one of the leaders of the tribe, was especially hostile, and threw every obstacle he could in the way of an amicable settlement. His hostility to the whites may be more readily understood when we recall the fact that he was the survivor of one of the most dastardly and cold-blooded massacres that white men ever per- petrated on the Indians. Some twenty years before, Ben Wright and his followers massacred in the most treacherous manner forty-one of a party of forty-six Modocs, who, under the promises of friendship and safety, he managed to get into his power. One of the five survivors was Schonochin, then a youth. He never forgot the scenes of that bloody day, and his hatred of the white man was ever afterward unquenchable. Many of those who were murdered were members of Schonochin's family, and he was deter- mined, if possible, to avenge their death. When the conference ended Scar-faced Charlie asked Commissioner INDIAN WITH CAP, ORNAMENTED SHIRT, LEGGINGS AND TOBACCO POUCH. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 362 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 363 Steele, the only commissioner present, and who acted for the entire commis- sion, to sleep in his lodge, as he anticipated trouble. The commissioner did so, and Charlie sat beside him all night. Were it not for this action the commissioner would certainly have been killed. In the morning another council was held, as the Indians were menacing and ugly. Captain Jack wore a war bonnet, and Schonochin made a vicious speech. Captain Jack also made a war speech. The Indians finally declared that if they were allowed to remain in the Lava Beds they would live in peace with the whites. They proposed that Mr. Meacham and Mr. Applegate should meet them the next day and shake hands with them, in ratification of their renewed friendship. The Indians, when they made this proposition, evidently contemplated treachery. The local authorities of Oregon had in the meantime indicted the Indians for murder; and obstacles in the way of a settlement were precipitated by speculators and others who made money out of the troubles between the Indians and whites. Commissioners Applegate and Steele resigned in disgust; the vacancies were filled by Mr. Roseborough of Yreka, at the suggestion of General Canby. Rev. Mr. Thomas, Agent Dyer, and General Canby himself made up the new commissioners. Captain Jack had in the meantime reached the Lava Beds, and feeling that he was secure would make no terms whatever. He promised to remain at peace if left undisturbed, but he would not consent to a change of location. After many unsuccessful attempts to come to terms, Captain Jack sent word that he and three or four others desired to meet the commissioners at a spot near the lake, about three-quraters of a mile from the camp. Frank Rid- dle, a white man who had an Indian woman for his wife, informed General Canby of the danger he was about to incur, as one of the Modocs had told Riddle's wife that they intended to kill General Canby and the commission- ers. Mr. Meacham, who had experience of Indian ways and wiles, was un- willing to go; but when General Canby and Dr. Thomas insisted, he ac- companied them. The party went to the conference unarmed. The meeting took place in an open space, the talk for a time being peaceful and satis- factory. Mr. Meacham anticipated danger and kept a close eye on the move- ments of the Indians. After a time the latter grew haughty and insolent, and finally, at a signal from Captain Jack, an attack was made on the party. Captain Jack himself shot down General Canby. Mr. Meacham was the only member of the party who escaped, but he was badly wounded. The Indians fled to the Lava Beds, an almost inaccessible spot. They were followed by the troops, and compelled to surrender within a month. 364 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Captain Jack and his associates were tried by a military commission, and were found guilty of murder. Jack and three others were hanged at Fort Klamath for their crimes. This massacre was only another instance of the white man's injustice and bungling in dealing with the Indian, and the Indian's innate treachery in dealing with the white man. INDIAN WOMAN CLOAK DECORATED WITH ET,K TEETH. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 365 A CHAPTER XLIV. A FRONTIER TRAGEDY GENERAL OUSTER'S LAST FIGHT HIS DEATH, AND THE ANNIHILATION OF HIS ENTIRE COMMAND NARRATIVE OF RED HORSE, A SIOUX CHIEF. Custer's Annihilation The Country alive with Hostile Indians Who was Sitting Bull? An Indian Camp of Ten Thousand Men, Women, and Children Striking the Enemy Chief Gall An Able Indian Leader The Battle of the Little Big Horn Custer's Fatal Mistake A Desperate and Bloody Battle Where was General Custer? Discovering the Bodies of the Slain A Pile of Empty Cartridge Shells be- side each Corpse Coming to the Rescue Burying the Dead Appearance of the Slain Their Pained and Terrified Expressions Rain-in-the-Face His Vow to Cut Out the Heart of Captain Thomas Custer Sitting Bull a Great Liar, a Wily Old Rascal My Interview with Rain-in-the-Face An Indian Account of the Battle by Red Horse, a Sioux Chief. No frontier tragedy excited greater horror than the anni- hilation of General Custer and his command in the bat- tle of the Little Big Horn^ June 25, 1876. In this bloody battle two hundred and sixty- five officers and soldiers lost their lives, and fifty-two more were wounded. The causes which led to this battle were substantially as follows: A large number of discontented Sioux had re- fused to be confined within a new reservation. Notice was accordingly served upon them by the Government that unless they moved to the reservation before January 1, 1876, they would be treated as hostiles. To this notice they paid no attention. These wild bands of Indians were influenced by Sitting Bull, an impostor, who never had more than sixty lodges on wborn he could depend, and by Crazy Horse, GALL CHIEF UNCPAPA SIOUX, AND LEADER OF BATTLE OF LITTLE BIG HORN. 366 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. who was an able leader. These Indians roamed over an almost unknown region comprising an area of nearly ninety thousand square miles. The hostile camps contained eight or ten separate bands, each having a chief of its own. No chief was endowed with supreme authority, but in this emergency Sitting Bull was accepted by many of the Indians as their leader. From five hundred to eight hundred warriors were the most the military authorities thought the hostiles could muster, but this proved a fatal mis- take, as results subsequently showed ; for when Ouster met the enemy he found nearly ten thousand men, women, and children, and probably not less than two thousand five hundred warriors armed with Winchester rifles and other firearms, besides Indian boys who were armed with bows and arrows. The campaign opened in the winter, but the troops were partially defeated, and it was not until spring that they resumed the offensive in three isolated columns, the first column under General Crook, the second under General Terry, including the entire Seventh United States Cavalry, commanded by General Custer, and the third column under General Gibbon. It was believed by the authorities that either one of these columns could defeat the Indians. The result showed how utterly mistaken the Govern- ment was in its estimate of the enemy's numbers. The first result was that General Crook's column encountered the enemy June 17, and was so badly defeated that it was practically out of the cam- paign. On the 21st of June, Terry, with Gibbon's column from the east, which had by this time united with him, was on the south bank of the Yellow- stone, at the mouth of the Rosebud. Up to this time not an Indian had been seen, nor recent signs of them. The troops were in good spirits, and the officers expressed the belief that they would find no Indians, and all were sanguine that they would return to their stations by the middle of August. General Terry therefore returned with his staff to the mouth of the Tongue River. General Custer, with the left wing, proceeded to the Little Big Horn River, on the 25th, where he found Indians and gave them battle on the following day. The Sioux were commanded by Gall, who was chief of the Uncpapa Sioux. He was a man of more than ordinary natural force and intellect. It was he who planned and directed the battle of the Little Big Horn with the consummate skill of an able and experienced general. Gall did not enter the battle personally, but remained at a distance, directing the move- ments of the warriors under their respective leaders, and the result proved his ability and sagacity as a commander of men, as well as an Indian tac- tician. On that day he had several able lieutenants, the principal of whom were Crazy Horse, Rain-in-the-Face, and several others less notable. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 367 Rain-in-the-Face afterward told me that the presence of the troops had been suspected by the Indians for some days previous to the attack, and after learning that Ouster had divided his command into two parts, one being left far in the rear to guard, care for, and bring up the pack-train (this was com- posed of four companies of the Seventh Cavalry under command of Captain Benteen), and that the other eight companies under Custer were advancing rapidly in the direction of the village, they prepared to meet the troops. The Indian scouts soon afterward reported to Gall that Custer had again divided his troops, the smaller portion going in the direction of the Uncpapa camps. This was Major Reno's command, consisting of three companies of the Seventh Cavalr)'. As he approached the Indian village the Indian skirmishers fell back a short distance, when Gall directed a large number of warriors to surround and attack this body of troops. Here a desperate encounter took place, the troops being compelled to retreat toward the river, when another stand was made, Reno dismounting his men. Trooper num- ber four of each set of fours remained mounted, leading the horses of the other three, and in this way all the horses were taken into the brush. After dismounting, Reno formed his troops into three sides of a rectangle, keeping the space open toward the river and the brush where the horses were. Ob- serving this, some of the Indians crossed the river, got into position from which they could shoot, and killed a number of the horses. One of the troopers reported the situation to Major Reno. As the troops were vastly outnumbered, and would have had no chance of escaping on foot, Major Reno ordered them to retire to the horses and remount. This they did with much difficulty, as during the retreat they had to maintain their lines to keep the red men from rushing in upon them. After reaching their horses, some remained on foot fighting until the others mounted, these latter then taking up the fight until all were mounted. Major Reno, seeing that they were virtually surrounded, gave orders to charge to the ford of the river, which was a short distance away, and cross it. Here took place a desperate hand-to-hand encounter with the pursuing savages, Lieutenant Mclntosh being pulled from his horse and cut to pieces. While crossing the river some of the troops were drowned. The opposite bank was steep, and the only way out was through a gap that afforded passage for but one man at a time. The Indians, seeing the helpless position of the troops, posted them- selves along the bank, firing into them, killing and wounding many. After crossing, Reno led the troops to the hills a short distance away. Here they prepared to resist an attack. Meantime, Captain Benteen came up with his command and pack-train, and joined Reno. Shortly afterward a large portion of the Indians withdrew in the direction of the village. This move 368 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. was by order of Gall, and was for the purpose of reinforcing the Indians who were engaged against Ouster. The Indian chief also directed that a sufficient number of warriors should remain to prevent Reno's joining Ous- ter. Reno was left in this situation for two or three hours, during which time he fortified his position. After this large numbers of Indians returned and renewed the attack, fighting the remainder of the day and far into the night. On the following morning they resumed the assault, which was con- tinued until late in the evening, when the Indian scouts reported to Gall that a large body of troops were approaching. This was General Terry's com- mand, and consisted of infantry, cavalry and artillery. On learning of the advance of this body of troops, the Indians immediately broke camp and started for the Canadian frontier. But where was General Ouster all this time? As not one of the troops that followed him escaped, it cannot be known from a white source just what did happen to him, and the brave soldiers who followed his lead in his last battle. While the Indians were engaged with Reno, Ouster must have been in conflict with the larger body of warriors, for the leascn that the village was so near, and the time that had elapsed in the fight with Reno so long, he must have reached the Indian camps at the other point and begun his disastrous battle. When Gall drew off the main body of the warriors who had been fighting Reno, to reinforce those engaged with Ouster, the latter, seeing the great numbers that confronted him, must have retired to the top of the hill, where the battle was fought, and made his final stand there, as that was the method followed, whenever possible, in resisting the onslaught of the enemy in Indian warfare. After the arrival of this reinforcement Gall directed a simultaneous attack to be made on both sides of the troops, Rain-in-the-Face leading the attack on one side, and Crazy Horse on the other. The attack of the Indians was so fierce and overpowering that the troops did not have time to fortify their position, and the conformation of the battle ground was such, that there was no natural protection of which they could take immediate advantage. There could have been little or no shift- ing position, and the troops must have fought dismounted, as was evidenced by the fact that beside the body of each dead trooper were found many empty cartridge shells, thus showing that the troops had held the position originally occupied when the line of battle was formed. The position of the bodies when found, showed that the troops had maintained their military precision until the last man fell, and that they fought with unyielding determination. The energy and skill with which they maintained the unequal conflict is attested by the fact that although outnumbered by at least ten to one, they killed over one-third more of thp enemy than their own entire number, be- fore death put an end to the conflict. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 369 Of the arrival of relief for Reno's command, Captain Godfrey, who was in the battle, says :* "About 9:30 A.M. a cloud of dust was observed several miles down the river. The assembly was sounded, the horses were placed in a protected situation, and camp-kettles and canteens were filled with water. An hour of suspense followed ; but from the slow advance we concluded that they were our own troops. 'But whose command is it?' We looked in vain for a gray-horse troop. It could not be Ouster; it must then be Crook; for, if it was Terry, Ouster would be with him. Cheer after cheer was given for Crook. A white man, Harris, I think, soon came up with a note from Gen- eral Terry, addressed to General Ouster, dated June 26, stating that two of our Crow scouts had given information that our column had been whipped and nearly all had been killed; that he did not believe their story, but was coming with medical assistance. The scout said that he could not get to our lines the night before, as the Indians were on the alert. Very soon after this Lieutenant Bradley, Seventh Infantry, came into our lines, and asked where I was. Greeting most cordially my old friend, I immediately asked, ' Where is Ouster?' He replied, 'I don't know, but I suppose he was killed, as we counted one hundred and ninety -seven dead bodies. I don't sup- pose any escaped. ' We were simply dumfounded. This was the first in- timation we had of his fate. It was hard to realize; it did seem impossible. "General Terry and staff, and officers of General Gibbon's column soon after approached, and their coming was greeted with prolonged hearty cheers. The grave countenance of the General awed the men to silence. The officers assembled to meet their guests. There was scarcely a dry eye; hardly a word was spoken, but quivering of lips and hearty grasping of hands gave token of thankfulness for the relief and grief for the misfor- tune. . . . "On the morning of the 28th we left our intrenchments to bury the dead of Ouster's command. The morning was bright, and from the high bluffs we had a clear view of Ouster's battlefield. We saw a large number of objects that looked like white boulders scattered over the field. Glasses were brought into requisition, and it was announced that the objects were dead bodies. Captain Weir exclaimed, 'Oh, how white they look!' "All the bodies, except a few, were stripped of their clothing. According to my recollection nearly all were scalped or mutilated, but there was one notable exception, that of General Ouster, whose face and expression were natural; he had been shot in the temple and in the left side. Many faces had a pained, almost terrified expression. It is said that Rain-in-the-Face, * In The Century. 370 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. a Sioux warrior, has gloried that he had cut out and had eaten the heart and liver of one of the officers. Other bodies were mutilated in a disgust- ing manner. The bodies of Dr. Lord and Lieutenants Porter, Harrington, and Sturgis were not found, at least not recognized. The clothing of Por- ter and Sturgis was found in the village, and showed that they had been killed. Wo buried, according to my memoranda, two hundred and twelve bodies. The killed of the entire command was two hundred and sixty-five, and of wounded we had fifty-two." Had not General Terry arrived just when he did, it is my belief that Major Reno and his command would have suffered Ouster's fate, and that not a single white man would have lived to tell the tale. Longfellow, in the accompanying poom on this battle, makes it appear that Sitting Bull led the warriors, and that Rain-in-the-Face killed General Ouster. As already stated, Sitting Bull was not present at all, and it was Captain Thomas W. Ouster General Ouster's brother whose heart Rain- in-the-Face is supposed to have cut out. THE REVENGE OF RAIN-IN-THE-FACE. In that desolate laud and lone, Where the Big Horn and Yellowstone Roar down their mountain path, By their fires the Sioux Chiefs Muttered their woes and griefs And the menace of their wrath. " Revenge !" cried Rain-in-the-Face, " Revenge upon all the race Of the White Chief with yellow hair ! " And the mountains dark and high From their crags re-echoed the cry, Of his anger and despair. In the meadow, spreading wide By woodland and riverside The Indian village stood : All was silent as a dream, Save the rushing of the stream And the blue- jay in the wood. In his war paint and his beads, Like a bison among the reeds, In ambush the Sitting Bull Lay with three thousand braves Crouched in the clefts and caves, Savage, unmerciful! TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 371 Into the fatal snare The White Chief with yellow hair And his three hundred men Dashed headlong, sword in hand ; But of that gallant band Not one returned again. The sudden darkness of death Overwhelmed them like the breath And smoke of a furnace tire : By the river's bank, and between The rocks of the ravine They lay in their bloody attire. But the foeman fled in the night, And Rain-in-the-Face, in his flight, Uplifted high in air As a ghastly trophy, bore The brave heart, that beat no more, Of the White Chief with yellow hair. Whose was the right and the wrong ? Sing it, O funeral song, With a voice that is full of tears, And say that our broken faith Wrought all this ruin and scathe, In the Year of a Hundred Years. Longfellow. Rain-in-the-Face presented me with his photograph, and a printed copy of the foregoing, at the bottom of which he also wrote his name. He had a good supply of printed copies of this poem. It must not be inferred from the fact that Rain-in-the-Face wrote his name that he was an educated Indian. He had simply been taught to write his name mechanically, and that was all he could write. It was curious to note the surprising uniformity in his signatures, and the ease with which he wrote them. An expert in calig- raphy could not detect the slightest difference in the crude formation of the letters. Here is a facsimile of his autograph written in my presence : The reader may notice that the "i" in Rain is rounded, like half of the letter "n." This peculiarity was always present. He seemed to take a pride in writing his name, and repeated the operation over and over again without being asked. When I told him the name by which I was known TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. among the Sioux, be uttered a grunt of recognition. I gave him a few trifling presents, such as I knew took the Indians' fancy, and then asked him to answer a few questions, which were substantially as follows: First? I asked him who Sitting Bull was, as I had never heard him prominently mentioned previous to the battle of the Little Big Horn. He replied that Sitting Bull was not a chief or a leader in any sense, and was not present at the battle; that he was a long distance from the conflict, and that he had gained notorietj 7 among some white people by pretending to be the chief of the Sioux tribes then in hostility. Sitting Bull was not an able Indian, as compared with some of the great Sioux chiefs, but being an impressive talker, a clever charlatan, and a great liar, he achieved influence among a small portion of his people for a short time during an emergency. I asked Kain-in-the-Face if it were true that he had cut the heart out of General Ouster "the white chief with yellow hair." He answered, "No!" but said that some time previous to the battle, Captain Tom Ouster (the General's brother) had put him in the guard-house at Fort Abraham Lincoln, and treated him very harshly, and that he had at that time told some of the whites at the Fort that he would cut the heart out of him, if the opportunity ever presented itself. I then asked him if he bad cut out the Captain's heart. To this question he made no response, but grew sullen and morose, refusing to answer any more questions for a time. Some of the white persons present who knew Indian character well, and spoke the Sioux language fluently, and had been much with Rain-in- the-Face, and with other Indian participators in the fight, told me that Rain-in-the-Face had accomplished his horrible threat, and had literally cut out Tom Ouster's heart while he was yet alive. When the body was found, Captain Ouster's heart had actually been cut out, but as no white RAIN IN-THE FACE. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 373 man who entered the battle lived to tell of the terrible tragedy, we are com- pelled to take the fragmentary accounts of it, as told by the Indians, for what such stories are worth. It has even been said that Rain-in-the-Face, in his ferocity and thirst for vengeance, ate the heart, after tearing it from his victim's breast. Never did the American trooper give a grander exhibition of his courage and fidelity than in the fatal battle of the Little Big Horn, when every man that followed Ouster, from the General himself to the private soldier, went down fighting to the last. There were no wounded, no prisoners, no missing all were killed. The battle was in no wise an ambush, as has been erroneously stated; it was a fight in which the pursuers were attacked by the pursued with the usual result in Indian warfare, in which the troops were almost invariably outnumbered and defeated. Had not General Ouster in an ill-judged moment divided his command, the result might have been different. That he erred in this regard, no one who knows the character of Indian warfare doubts. Nor did this battle differ markedly from many other miscalled massacres in the history of our Indian wars, except by reason of the numbers engaged on both sides, and the fame General Ouster had achieved. One fact seems plain, namely, that Ouster's scouts and guides in this campaign were of an inferior kind, as they did not keep the General advised of the presence or numbers of the enemy, and the dangers of the country in which he was operating. I cannot believe tbat a man of General Ouster's military acumen and experience in Indian warfare would have divided his command if kept properly informed of his surroundings. So large a body of Indians as were in the vicinity, counting not less than two thousand lodges SITTING BULL SIOUX. 374 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. and probably not less than ten or twelve thousand souls, must have scoured the country for miles around in search of food for themselves and forage for their animals, and left signs everywhere of their presence and numbers that even an ordinary guide should have seen. If Custer had had a Jim Bridger or a Jim Baker to guide his command, he never would have been trapped. Although this was a great victory for the Indians, they won it at a terri- ble cost; for in addition to the large number of slain they left on the field, there must have been also a large number of wounded, many of them mor- SITTTNG-BULL'S CABIN, AND THE PLACE OF HIS DEATH. This cabin was built by the Government for Sitting Bull and his family. While resisting arrest he was killed in it by Bull-Head, an Indian Policeman. tally, for their dead were strewn all along the route to the Canadian frontier. The Indians admit that they suffered terribly. Not a tepee, not a family, but had to lament its slain or wounded. Even Rain-in-the-Face, when I last saw him, was a living illustration that his people had paid dearly for their victory. As the result of his wounds, one of his legs was stiff, and drawn up close to his body so that he could only move about on crutches and with much difficulty. Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon United States Army, communicated to the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington a unique Indian account, both in carefully noted gesture signs and in pictographs, of the battle of the Little Big Horn. These drawings were made, and the account which accompanied them was given by Red Horse, a Sioux chief, and a prominent actor in the battle. His narrative, closely translated into simple English, is herewith given. The drawings were made on rough manila paper, some of them with colored pencils. Some of these drawings are pre- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS 375 sented in this volume, not only as specimens of Indian art, but as a contribu- tion from the Indian standpoint to our knowledge of Ouster's last fight. Here is the story of Red Horse : "Five springs ago, I, with many Sioux Indians, took down and packed up our tipis [tepees] and moved from Cheyenne River to the Rosebud River, where we camped a few days; then took down and packed up our lodges and moved to the Little Big Horn River and pitched our lodges with the large camp of Sioux. "The Sioux were camped on the Little Big Horn River as follows: The lodges of the Uncpapas were pitched highest up the river under a bluff. The Santee lodges were pitched next. The Ogalalas' lodges were pitched next. The Brule lodges were pitched next. The Minneconjoux lodges were pitched next. The Sans'- Arcs' lodges were pitched next. The Blackfeet lodges were pitched next. The Cheyenne lodges were pitched next. A few Arikara Indians were among the Sioux [being without lodges of their own]. Two-Kettles [a tribe of Sioux], among the other Sioux [without lodges]. "I was a Sioux chief in the council lodge. My lodge was pitched in the center of the camp. The day of the attack I and four women were a short distance from the camp digging wild turnips. Suddenly one of the women attracted my attention to a cloud of dust rising a short distance from camp. I soon saw that the soldiers were charging the camp. To the camp I and the women ran. When I arrived a person told me to hurry to the council lodge. The soldiers charged so quickly we could not talk [council]. We came out of the council lodge and talked in all directions. The Sioux mount horses, take guns, and go fight the soldiers. Women and children mount horses and go [meaning to get out of the way]. "Among the soldiers was an officer who rode a horse with four white feet. The Sioux have for a long time fought many brave men of different people, but the Sioux say this officer was the bravest man they had ever fought. I don't know whether this was General Custer or not. Many of the Sioux men that I hear talking tell me it was. I saw this officer in the fight many times, but did not see his body. It has been told me that he was killed by a Santee Indian, who took his horse. This officer wore a large-brimmed hat and a deerskin coat. This officer saved the lives of many soldiers by turning his horse and covering the retreat. Sioux say this officer was the bravest man they ever fought. I saw two officers looking alike, both having long yellowish hair. "Before the attack the Sioux were camped on the Rosebud River. Sioux moved down a river running into the Little Big Horn River, crossed the Little Big Horn River, and camped on its west bank. 376 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. "This day [day of attack] a Sioux man started to go to Red Cloud agency, but when he had gone a short distance from camp, he saw a cloud of dust rising and turned back and said he thought a herd of buffalo was coming near the village. "The day was hot. In a short time the soldiers charged the camp. [This was Major Reno's battalion of the Seventh Cavalry.] The soldiers came on the trail made by the Sioux camp in moving, and crossed the Little Big Horn River above where the Sioux crossed, and attacked the lodges of the Uncpapas, farthest up the river. The women and children ran down the Little .big Horn River a short distance into a ravine. The soldiers set fire BATTLE OF LITTLE BIG HORN SIOUX LEAVING BATTLE GROUND DRAWN BY RED HORSE SIOUX. to the lodges. All the Sioux now charged the soldiers and drove them in confusion across the Little Big Horn River, which was very rapid, and several soldiers were drowned in it. On a hill the soldiers stopped and the Sioux surrounded them. A Sioux man came and said that a different party of soldiers had all the women and children prisoners. Like a whirlwind the word went around, and the Sioux all heard it and left the soldiers on the hill and went quickly to save the women and children. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 37? "From the hill that the soldiers were on to the place where the different soldiers [by this terra Red Horse always means the battalion immediately commanded by General Ouster, his mode of distinction being that they were a different body from that first encountered] were seen was level ground with the exception of a creek. Sioux thought the soldiers on the hill [i.e., Reno's battalion] would charge them in rear, but when they did not the Sioux thought the soldiers on the hill were out of cartridges. As soon as we had killed all the different soldiers the Sioux all went back to kill the soldiers on the hill. All the Sioux watched around the hill until a Sioux man came and said many walking soldiers were coming near. The coming of the walking soldiers was the saving of the soldiers on the hill. Sioux cannot fight the walking soldiers [infantry] being afraid of them, so the Sioux left. "The soldiers charged the Sioux camp about noon. The soldiers were divided, one party charging right into the camp. After driving these soldiers across the river, the Sioux charged the different soldiers [i.e., Ous- ter's] below, and drove them in confusion; these soldiers became foolish, many throwing away their guns and raising their hands, saying, 'Sioux, pity us; take us prisoners,' The Sioux did not take a single soldier pris- oner, but killed all of them; none were left alive for even a few minutes. These different soldiers discharged their guns but little. I took a gun and two belts off two dead soldiers; out of one belt two cartridges were gone, out of the other five. "The Sioux took the guns and cartridges off the dead soldiers and went to the hill on which the soldiers were, surrounded and fought them with the guns and cartridges of the dead soldiers. Had the soldiers not divided I think they would have killed many Sioux. The different soldiers [i.e., Ouster's battalion] that the Sioux killed made five brave stands. Once the Sioux charged right in the midst of the different soldiers and scattered them all, fighting among the soldiers hand to hand, "One band of soldiers was in the rear of the Sioux. When this band of soldiers charged, the Sioux fell back, and the Sioux and the soldiers stood facing each other. Then all the Sioux became brave and charged the soldiers. The Sioux went but a short distance before they separated and sur- rounded the soldiers. I could see the officers riding in front of the soldiers and hear them shouting. Now the Sioux had many killed. The soldiers killed one hundred and thirty six and wounded one hundred and sixty Sioux. The Sioux killed all these different soldiers in the ravine. "The soldiers charged the Sioux camp farthest upthe river. A short time after the different soldiers charged the village below. While the different DEAD SIOUX DRAWN BY RED-HORSE SIOUX CHIEF, Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 378 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 379 soldiers and Sioux were fighting together the Sioux chief said, 'Sioux men, go watch the soldiers on the hill and prevent their joining the different soldiers.' The Sioux men took the clothing off the dead and dressed them- selves in it. Among the soldiers were white men who were not soldiers. The Sioux dressed in the soldiers' and white men's clothing fought the soldiers on the hill. "The banks of the Little Big Horn River were high, and the Sioux killed many of the soldiers while crossing. The soldiers on the hill dug up the ground [i.e., made earthworks], and the soldiers and Sioux fought at long range, sometimes the Sioux charging close up. The fight continued at long range until a Sioux man saw the walking soldiers coming. When the walk- ing soldiers came near the Sioux became afraid and ran away." 380 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XLV. THE GREAT SIOUX MASSACRE MIRACULOUS ESCAPES AND THRILLING ADVENTURES SUFFERINGS OF CAPTIVES. Cause of the Massacre War of Extermination decided upon by the Indians They take the Warpath Their First Attack Courage of a French Ferryman His Heroic Death Killing of Fleeing Settlers Hacked to Pieces with Knives Children's Brains Beaten Out Burned Alive Hung on Hooks Sticks Driven through their Bodies Mutilation of the Dead Roasting a Child Alive Thrilling Escapes Two Brothers trying to Save a Sick Mother The Settlers Rally for Defense Holding White Pris- oners Their Extreme Suffering Miraculous Escape of Two Brothers Six Hundred and Forty-four Settlers and Ninety -three Soldiers Slain. DUKING the summer of 1863, while our country was strain- ing every energy in suppres- sing the war of the Rebellion, there occurred in northern Minnesota the bloodiest Indian massacre in the history of the North American Continent. The Civil War at that time absorbed the attention of the people to the exclusion of almost every other subject, and the great Sioux massacre did not make such an impression on the public as it would had it happened at any other time. This massacre was distin- guished, too, by its suddenness, its extent, its dreadful results, and the fact that it occurred almost within the limits of civilization. A part of the Sioux had manifested a tendency to submit to the transform- ng influences of civilization. Churches and schools had been established in WARRIOR, WITH GOVERNMENT MEDAL. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 381 some parts of their territory in Minnesota, and it looked as if this portion of the Sioux and their white neighbors would live thenceforth in peace. A short time before, they had sold a large and valuable portion of their lands to the Government. They were to receive annuities, food, and neces- sary articles for their new mode of life, in payment for these lands. The Government kept faith with them in every respect; but the old story of rob- bery of the Indians by government agents, traders, and adventurers was repeated. In this instance particularly, the robbery of the Indians was flagrant in the extreme. They were swindled on some occasions of every penny that was coming to them. In their ignorance they did not know how to seek redress ; and starving men cannot afford to look for relief in a protracted or roundabout way. They could no longer live by the chase, as civilization had driven the ani- mals on which they subsisted far beyond their hunting grounds, and the money and rations the Government furnished them, for the most part, never reached their hands. Finally they were reduced to the necessity of living on their horses and dogs. There were other causes which created dissatisfaction among the Sioux. Knowing that the whites were engaged in a war among themselves, wild stories were circulated among them about it. It was rumored that the armies of the Government had been destroyed; that Washington had been captured and the Great White Father taken prisoner. It was therefore natural for the Indians to suppose that they could regain their hunting ground by taking to the warpath and exterminating the whites. Although the Indians had been in a sullen and discontented mood for some time, and rumors of danger had been afloat, the settlers believed them- selves secure and took no precautions. The outbreak occurred in a simple and unforeseen manner. A party of twenty young bucks started up the country a distance of some eighty miles to hunt. On their way a dispute arose among themselves, when some charged others with being afraid of the whites. To show that the imputa- tion was undeserved, a few of the braves left the party and proceeded to kill several white settlers. The Sioux were asked to surrender the mur- derers. A great council of war was held, and the matter was debated at length. As the talk grew warm, Indian passions were aroused, and it was then and there determined to wage a war of extermination on the frontier settlers. A number of braves, painted and accoutred for the warpath, proceeded to the dwelling of Little Crow, a semi-civilized chieftain, who spoke English, 382 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. had been to Washington, knew the power of the whites, and was noted among his people for his eloquence and sound judgment. Little Crow, was surprised at the turn affairs had taken, sought at first to dissuade the warriors from their purpose; but seeing that they were maddened and determined, and that refusal on his part would be dangerous, he suddenly arose and said: "I am with you." The first attack was made on the Redwood Agency. The savages burst on the place unexpectedly and killed several white people. All who could escape fled in terror across the Minnesota River. The crossing was by a ferry- boat, and was a slow and dangerous process, the fugitives being closely fol- lowed by a horde of infuriated savages. The ferryman was a French Canadian, illiterate and ignorant, and seem- ingly incapable of doing anything higher than running his boat across the river. But in this supreme moment he proved himself a hero of the highest type. He carried the refugees across as they managed to escape to the landing, and returned, time and again, until all who were not killed had been taken to the other side. On his last trip, the savages, maddened at the way in which he had rescued the people, fired a. final shot at him and he dropped dead in his boat. He had saved over fifty people, most of them women and children, at the sacrifice of his own life. Having finished at the agency, the Indians moved down the river, under the leadership of Cut Nose, killing twenty-five fleeing settlers on the way. The most fiendish acts of cruelty and atrocity were perpetrated. The vic- tims in some instances were hacked to pieces; children were seized by the legs and their brains were beaten out against the wall ; some were hung alive on hooks, with sticks driven through their legs, as the carcasses of slaughtered animals are suspended. The women were invariably ravished by the whole band, and then killed. The bodies of men and boys were mutilated in a manner that only fiendish ingenuity could devise. Children were fastened to doors and tables with nails drjven through the hands and feet, while the savages amused themselves by throwing knives and toma- hawks at them until they killed them. Sometimes houses were surrounded and the surprised inmates burned alive. In one instance, the savages entered a settler's house where a woman was engaged in making bread. They split her head open with an axe, and then took the baby from the cradle and baked it in the oven until nearly dead, when its brains were beaten out against a wall. Meantime, Captain March had been dispatched from Fort Ridgely to meet the marauders and come to the aid of the settlers. On his way up the river TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS 383 be encountered the Indians, and while parleying with them, on the other side of the river, a number crossed to where he and his little force stood and ambushed them, killing twenty at the first fire. He himself fought his way out, losing all but nine men. While trying to ford the stream farther down, his retreat was cut off, and he was drowned, but the nine survivors succeeded in reaching the other side in safety. The Upper Agency on the Yellow Medicine was saved through the good- ness of Other Day, a friendly Indian, who informed the garrison. Instances of escape and thrilling adventure during the march of the sav- ages down the river would be considered exaggeration, if found in the regu- lation Indian dime novel. The instances of heroism and self-sacrifice also were striking. In one case two brothers placed their sick mother on a mat- tress in a wagon, and sought to reach a place of safety. They were pursued by the Indians and could have escaped, but would not abandon their mother, and both were killed while she was compelled to witness their murder. The savages then set fire to the mattress, burning her to death. All the Indians in this locality were now aroused, and their savage instincts were inflamed to the fiercest degree. They were deter mined on a war of extermination. They moved next on New Ulm, a town then containing about fifteen hundred inhabi- tants and some five hundred fugitives, who had fled before WARRIOR WITH BEAR CLAW NECKLACE. the advancing hostiles. Most of the people were women and children, and the inhabitants of the place were unprepared to meet an attack. Before the arrival of the savages, Mr. Boardman from St. Peter's, with fifteen men, reached the town, and began preparing means for defense. With what force he could gather in the town, he moved out to the prairie, after dark, and repulsed the Indians for some time. At nine o'clock that night, Judge Flandreau, with a force of a hundred men, arrived. After a prolonged and desperate attack, in which several lives were lost, the savages withdrew and proceeded to join Little Crow in an attack on Fort Ridgely. Sergeant Jones and a small force, with two howitzers, were sent to meet the 384 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. advancing hostiles, and to save the defenseless settlers. The Indians' dread of artillery kept them at a safe distance for a time; a violent rainstorm com- ing on, the savages, fearing that their ammunition and arms might be ren- dered useless by the rain, retired to the woods, yelling and gesticulating in the usual Indian manner. Meantime the garrison had put the fort in the best condition it could for defense. The Indians, the next morning, after a few desultory movements, aban- doned the attack on the fort and resumed the easier business of murdering set- tlers. They continued atrocities and mutilated the bodies of the dead in the usual revolting manner. A few days afterward, Little Crow, with four hundred and fifty warriors, resumed the attack on Fort Ridgely, fight- ing with desperate persistence. They tried to set fire to the agency buildings by discharging fire arrows into them, and exhausted every means of surprise. For three days the garrison had been cut off, and the country felt alarmed for their safety. Failing to capture the fort, Little Crow now moved on to New Ulm again. After the arrival of Judge Flandreau, the attack on the town had not been renewed. The approach of the Indians was marked by the smoke of the settlers' dwellings on the way. The people were as well prepared as the conditions of the situation allowed. Judge Flandreau, who now had two hundred and fifty well-armed men, left the barricades and moved out on the prairie to encounter the Indians. This was the second time that such a false move had been made. The defenders were forced to fall back behind the de- fenses of the town. The battle raged all day and was fought in the regular Indian fashion, a series of charges, retreats, and counter-charges. The sav- ages retired to a safe distance during the night and renewed the attack at daybreak, but -gave up the attempt to capture the town at noon, and withdrew. Meantime, scattered bands of the hostiles were going through the settle- ments, murdering and burning on their way. All the male adults were killed, and the women were subjected to a worse fate before they were mas- sacred. Even children were subjected to torture. Two hundred inhabitants of New Ulm had gone to Mankato ; their am- munition having been exhausted, their position became indefensible. The bodies of the dead, in their precipitate flight, were left unburied. A body of fourteen hundred volunteers who had enlisted for the Civil War were now dispatched under Colonel Sibley to the relief of the Redwood Agency. On the march the most appalling sights were witnessed. The bodies of the murdered settlers were left where they had fallen, and were, in many instances, devoured by hogs and prairie wolves. Over two hundred bodies were buried by the soldiers while on this march. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 385 Colonel Sibley, after his arrival at the fort, sent Major Brown with one hundred and sixty men to ascertain in what direction the Indians had gone. He camped at a place called Birch Cooley, admirably adapted for a surprise, where he was discovered by Little Crow. The Indians approached unex- pectedly, and at the first fire most of the guard and nearly a hundred horses fell. Had the Indians charged they could have captured the entire camp, but fortunately they held off. Meantime the troops rallied behind the dead horses, the wagons, and every available object, and fought to the best ad- vantage possible. The Indian warriors were over one thousand strong. Captain McPhail was dispatched to the fort for relief, but before going many miles he met Colonel Sibley, with his full force on the way, who had heard the firing. As the long line of troops appeared, coming over the prairie, the Indians hurriedly withdrew. When the troops reached the scene of conflict, they found the defenders in the last stage of exhaustion, having been all day without food or water, fighting as best they could, with thirteen of their number dead and sixty wounded. It would have been impossible for them to have held out more than a few hours longer. Little Crow, realizing the military strength opposed to him, sued for peace. He was crafty, cunning, and quick to discern the impracticability of continued resistance. He was known to be an inveterate liar, full of double-dealing and treachery, but wide-awake and shrewd. He had judg- ment enough to use his influence in preventing the murdering of settlers further, but the traders, whom he detested were murdered ruthlessly. Another incident at this juncture contributed to bring about a cessation of hostilities on the part of the Indians. The tribes who lived on the upper and lower river had a dispute about the distribution of the plunder taken at the lower agency, and the breach nearly ended in a battle among themselves. Little Crow represented that the Indians were only fighting for their rights, and although their rights had not been secured, they were, nevertheless, will- ing to make peace with the white people. Colonel Sibley refused to treat, except on condition of the surrender of white captives by the Indians. Little Crow, knowing that the possession of these prisoners was one of his strongest advantages in negotiating for peace, would not give them up. About two weeks afterward Colonel Sibley marched against the Indians and defeated them at Yellow Medicine Agency, Little Crow, with two hun- dred of his warriors, retreating into Dakota. The others, among whom were a large number of mission Indians, who now desired peace, requested Colonel Sibley to come and take the white captives before Little Crow could return and kill them. 386 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Colonel Sibley's forces accordingly marched to the Indian camp, where they were received by the Indians with every manifestation of delight. The wretches, who had murdered so many innocent men, women and children in the most fiendish manner, now shook hands with the soldiers, declaring that they were glad to see them, also that they had always desired to live in peace with the whites. More than two hundred captives, principally women and children, were handed over to the troops. The sufferings of the prisoners had been extreme; some were on the verge of insanity; some told the most heartrending tales as they clasped their rescuers, weeping in rejoicing. Other captives were brought in, and all told the same tale of kindred and friends slain and outrages endured. One incident in this campaign of massacre is especially worthy of men- tion the escape of Burton Eastwick and his little brother. Burton was but ten^years old and his brother five. Having escaped massacre, both started for Fort Ridgely, a distance of eighty miles. They did not know where the fort was ; the elder child only knew that the soldiers were somewhere down the river. Sometimes the elder boy carried his little brother in his arms over rough places, resting with him every now and then when he was tired out or frightened. But the two children finally reached the fort, to the surprise of the soldiers, who could scarcely believe at first they had come such a long and toilsome journey; living on berries and fruits, which they gathered on the way, having to be always on the alert to prevent being discovered by the Indians. Besides those killed many persons were lost in wandering over the prai- ries, vainly endeavoring to escape. Some went mad, others died of starva- tion "and exposure. The Indians who surrendered were carefully guarded, and Lieutenant- Colonel Marshall was sent into Dakota, where he captured a portion of Little Crow's band. In October the prisoners were brought to Mankato, and on the way to Fargo passed through New Ulm. All were in wagons, well secured and guarded ; as they entered the town on Sunday morning, the news spread in a few moments, when the entire population turned out to attack them. The people of the town who had suffered so severely at the hands of these bloodthirsty wretches, and who had barely saved their lives, assembled with every weapon they could find at hand guns, pistols, axes, pitchforks, and sticks, while the women filled their aprons with stones and flung them at the heads of the prisoners. One woman seized an Indian by the hair, and half dragged him out of the wagon, pounding his head with a stone, before she was taken TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 387 off by the soldiers. The soldiers in many cases were compelled to use vio- lence in order to save the lives of the Indian prisoners. The Indians were finally tried by a military commission, and three hun- dred and three of their number were condemned to be hanged, and eighteen to be imprisoned for life. This decision was reversed by the authorities at Washington, who pardoned all but thirty-eight, who were hanged on Febru- ary 26, 1803. They died with the stoicism characteristic of the Indian, with- out manifesting signs of fear. In this terrible massacre six hundred and forty-four settlers and ninety- three sol'liers were slain, and the country round about had been desolated for more than two hundred miles. After the suppression of the hostiles, isolated bands continued for some time to raid here and there, and killed thirty more whites. Little Crow escaped capture, but retributive justice overtook the miscreant, and he paid the penalty for his atrocities with his life even before the affair was ended. A farmer and his son were passing along the prairie when they saw two Indians picking berries in a clump of bushes. The horrors of the massacre were fresh in the farmer's memory, and he crept stealthily within rifle shot of the Indians and fired. One Indian jumped in the air with a yell, then dropped, and crawled along on his hands and knees through the prairie grass in the direction of his assailant, dragging his rifle with him. When sufficiently close he fired, but harmlessly, and a bullet from the farmer's rifle put an end to him. The other Indian in the meantime had run away. He was afterward captured, and it was not discovered until then that the Indian who was shot was none other than the prisoner's father, Little Crow. The results of this massacre were very disastrous, preventing for a long time further settlement of that part of the country. With proper pre- caution, too, the massacre might have been prevented. Bishop Whipple had predicted the outbreak, and on more than one occasion had warned the authorities. He laid the blame on the Government, owing to its system of dealing with the Indians, and neglect in preventing the robbery of them by agents and traders. For the eight hundred thousand acres of land sold to the Government, the Inv'liaus received scarcely anything. The amount due to them was absorbed in various pretended claims, and a large portion of their annuities were stolen under similar pretexts by pirates who made for- tunes by robbing both the Government and the Indian. For every dollar of which the Indian was robbed, the Government lost ten, to say nothing of the loss of human life, the destruction of property, and the retarding, for a long time, of the progress of civilization. 388 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XLVI. THE FUR COMPANIES HOW THEY OPERATED HUNTERS AND TRADERS IN THE INDIAN COUNTRY THEIR EVERY DAY LIFE AND EXPLOITS. The First White Men among the Wild Indians The Hudson Bay Company How Trading Posts were Established from Ocean to Ocean Their Maxim, " Never Trust an In- dian " Effect of a White Man's Fist on an Indian's Nose Fierce Competition Vile Liquors Sold to the Indians John Jacob Astor and the American Fur Company Hardy Trappers and Daring Frontiersmen Danger of Trapping in a Hostile Country In the Wilderness for Several Years Robbing the Indian Twenty Dollars' Worth of Beaver Skins for Fifty Cents "Fire Water," why so Named How Indians Tested Brandy Made of the " Hearts of Wild Cats and the Tongues of Women " Trappers taken by Surprise Lying in Ambush. THE first white men with whom the Indians of the north and northwestern parts of this continent came in con- tact were the trappers, hunt- ers, and traders of the various Fur Companies. An adven- turous explorer, or an enthu- siastic missionary might, from time to time, penetrate into the heart of the Indian country, but they were seen by only a few of the natives in their transient passage, and rarely left a lasting im- pression behind them. The first Fur Company to enter this wild region for barter and trade was the OHIPPEWA IN WAR COSTUME. Hudson Bay Company. This association was formed dur- ing the reign of Charles II., for the purpose of importing into Great Britain furs and skins obtained from the Indians of British North America, or secured TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 38U in their territory. The company established numerous trading posts through- out the immense region bounded east by the Altantic, west by the Pacific, north by the Arctic ocean, and south by what is now a portion of the United States. This company had an exclusive monopoly of the fur trade in this vast terri- tory, and it also controlled the entire legislative, judicial, and executive powers within those limits. In the course of time this company developed into one of the most com- plete as well as tyrannical commercial systems in the world. The native Indians were as fierce as those of any other portion of the North American Continent, yet the company and its officials had little difficulty with them. This, according to the authorities of the company, was mainly attributable to the perfect system of discipline maintained among their employees. One of their maxims was never to trust an Indian, no matter how friendly he might seem or how honest he pretended to be. In case of difficulty or trou- ble, employees were instructed to act with the utmost prudence and firm- ness, to be as just as they were stern, and never to use their weapons, or kill an Indian, except in self-defense. Any exhibition of hostility or even arro- gance was to be stopped the moment it showed itself. The punishment for insolence or petty offenses was to knock the Indian down at once with the fist. However expert the Indian might be with his knife, lance, gun, or other weapon, he was invariably taken back by the landing of a white man's fist on his nose. No offense on the part of the Indians was passed unnoticed, but instead of shooting the culprits down, or butchering them indiscriminately, the tribe was frequently prevailed upon to send in the criminal for punishment, and he usually got off with a reprimand, sometimes receiving a present, which made him for the time being at least a "good Indian." Under this system, the company's trade prospered immensely. After the cession of Canada, in 1763, numbers of fur traders spread over that country and into the northwestern part of the continent, and began to encroach on the Hudson Bay Company's territory. These individual spec- ulators finally combined, forming the Northwest Fur Company in 1787. They had their headquarters at Fort William, where the directors or their representatives met once a year. The trade of this company was in the region of the north. There were many other companies engaged in this business both before and after the amalgamation of the Hudson Bay and Northwest Com- panies. Fierce competition at once sprang up between these rival companies. Both supplied the Indians with an abundance of intoxicating liquors, in order to 390 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. increase their trade and maintain commercial supremacy in the Indian country. The consequence was inevitable. The worst passions of both Indians and whites many of these latter being really half-breedswere inflamed to the fiercest degree, and great destruction of human life and prop- erty was the result. The supply of furs, too, threatened to become ex- hausted by the indiscriminate slaughter, even in the breeding season, of both male and female animals. The Northwest Company had the monopoly of the fur trade of the entire region of the Northwest, and were also practically the political rulers of that great stretch of territory. The Mackinaw Company, another rival, was subsequently established and sought to monopolize the trade to the south and southwest of the Northwest Company. Meantime, John Jacob Astor engaged in the fr.r trade on his own account, and obtained a charter from the legislature of New York in 1809, incorporating the American Fur Company. The rivalry of the Mack- inaw Company rendering his own venture unprofitable, he and some mem- bers of the Northwest Company bought out the Mackinaw Company, and established a new one under the name of the Southwest Company, embrac- ing part of the Northwest Company, the American Company, and probably the interests of individual traders, who had become strong. This company controlled a number of establishments within both British and American territory. Mr. Astor engaged in the trade in consequence of the treaty of 1794, which permitted commercial intercourse between Canada and the United States, and entailed the evacuation of all the posts held by the Brit- ish within United States territory. Previous to the establishment of the American Fur Company, Congress enacted a law decreeing that all fur traders in the United States territory should be American citizens, and that no foreigners should be employed in this line of business unless under bonds furnished by American employers for the proper conduct of these traders. The central business post of the consolidated companies was near Sault Ste. Marie, on Lake Superior. The interior sub-posts extended over a vast region, running north to the fifty-ninth degree north latitude, and west as far as the Missouri River. It was found impossible to conduct the business suc- cessfully without employing some of the agents, clerks, interpreters, and boatmen of the old company, all of whom were foreigners or French Cana- dians. This procedure exercised an evil influence on all Indians in that region. As already stated, when the commercial rivalry between the two British Fur Companies sprang up, both parties sold the Indians ardent spirits. Con- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 391 gress passed a law, after the establishment of the American Fur Company, prohibiting the sale of intoxicants to Indians, not even allowing their intro- duction into their country under any circumstances. But as the old em- ployees of the Northwest Company virtually held the field of trade, this law was almost a dead letter. They were employed to secure furs, and to utilize the Indians in every way necessary for this purpose, and aimed only to make good returns to their employers. The consequence was that the Indian was debased, and all the inherent evil in his nature was awakened and set in motion. The political influence exercised on the Indians of the Northwest was also bad. The great body of Indians in the region of the upper lakes, and ex- tending to the source of the Mississippi, were averse to American rule. Many of them had been influenced to fight the Americans, who were fre- quently ambushed, surprised, and attacked in various ways and in many places, including Fort Dearborn (now Chicago), Brownstone, River Basin, Manmee, Fort Harrison, Machilimackimac, and other strongholds. The British fur traders made the Indians believe that the Americans were to be driven back to the lines of the Illinois and Ohio Rivers, an old and popular wish of the Lake Indians from early days. Large numbers of them joined the British in the war that followed, and suffered severely. Their great chief was killed; their prophet, Elksatawa, was driven into Canada; and what was worse, they were abandoned by the British after the close of the war. Many of them never came back ; those who did, and those who had remained in United States territory, were discontented, sullen, and hostile. It was among these that the foreign employees of the American Fur Company traded. To their baneful influence more than to anything else may be largely ascribed the beginning of our subsequent troubles with the Indians of the Northwest. These trappers included many of the most hardy and daring frontiersmen of those days. Their trapping expeditions were always led by one man. It was their custom to travel up the streams until they came to the mouth of a stream confluent to the one on which they were traveling, where they made camp. They then trapped to the entire source of this stream, and after securing all the beaver, otter, and other pelts possible, returned to the main stream again, moving camp to the mouth of the next stream above, going up that, and so on until thej* arrived at the source of the main river. Sometimes trapping parties were absent for one or two years at a time, subsisting almost entirely on meats and fish. Their only means of trans- portation, as a rule, were pack animals and small boats. It may be interesting to state here that while the trappers had no bread, \ 392 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. flour, or vegetables of any kind, they subsisted very well on the different meats which they obtained in abundance along the rivers, the flesh of the beaver being particularly sweet and nutritious, resembling much the flavor of fresh pork. The Fur Companies were exceedingly arbitrary in dealing with their own and other men. Being far from civilization, the only law that they ap- pealed to was force. This they used in various ways. Their traffic was highly remunerative, and the companies grew immensely wealthy. The more wealth they secured, the more arbitrary they became, frequently com- mitting acts for which, in a civilized community, they would have been condemned and severely punished. To the employees of these companies can be traced more viciousness on the part of the North American Indians than to any other source. They did more to demoralize them than any other agency. They simply robbed the Indians of their property whenever oppor- tunity offered. It was not uncommon for them to secure two or three choice beaver skins for a butcher knife valued at fifty or seventy-five cents, one beaver skin alone being worth in gold from four to eight dollars, according to its size and condition. The Fur Companies made all the men connected with them immensely wealthy, from John Jacob Astor down. To offset this record, in a measure, it may be said that the Fur Companies were the first agency to send civilized persons into what was then an un- known country. They first learned the nature of the country and its inhabi- tants. As their trappers and hunters traveled up the streams and along nearly every river throughout this vast region, they made maps of the coun- try, and especially of the rivers where the most valuable pelts were obtained, delivering the maps to the companies' agents. These maps were withheld by the fur companies from the general public, in order that no encroach- ments should be made on their rich hunting grounds. Occasionally a party of trappers sent out by one of the companies were massacred and their goods taken by the Indians. The story of these occur- rences was always exaggerated by the Fur Companies, then scattered broad- cast throughout the country to show the great danger attending trapping ex- peditions, and the great loss entailed on the companies themselves by such massacres. This was done to prevent others from engaging in the same business. As late as 1866, these companies sent trapping expeditions throughout the western country, and all of them, even as late as this, secured large numbers of valuable pelts, although they did not trade much with the Indians. Most of the trading done with the red man was for buffalo robes, bear, deer, fox, and wolf skins. The articles traded by the companies for pelts in latter days consisted of butcher knives, red blankets, scarlet cloth, TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 393 various colored paints for the Indians to decorate their faces 1 and bodies, such as yellow ochre, carmine, vermilion, and indigo blue, small mirrors, beads, Iroquois shells, brass buttons, and other articles of small value. When the Fur Companies first began to supply ardent liquor to the Indians in order to help their trade, the liquor was imported from England. It was the cheapest and most poisonous brand manufactured at the time, and for that reason was all the more acceptable to the Indian. When it reached the Hudson Bay territory, or the great region within which the rival fur com- panies traded, it was carried overland to the various posts. For conven- ience of transportation, casks or barrels of liquor were divided into kegs. The carriers soon learned that they could make a profit by diluting the liquor with water, when changing it from the barrels into kegs. The Indians, however, missed the powerful effects and suspected that they were being cheated. They learned how to test liquor before exchanging peltries for it. The liquor was poured on a fire, and if the fire was extinguished it was evident that the liquor was watered, and they at once pronounced it "bad." If, on the contrary, the liquor added to the flame, they knew that the alcohol had not been tampered with, and it was accepted as genuine "fire water." Hence the name "fire water," as used by the Indians, when referring to liquor. That the "fire water" supplied to the Indians of that day was com- parable to the vilest stuff of present day manufacture, is illustrated by an Indian chief who had experienced its effects, and who had witnessed the sad havoc it had produced among his people. "Fire water," exclaimed this savage, "can only be distilled from the hearts of wild cats and tongues of women, it makes my people at once so fierce and so foolish." The hunters and trappers employed by the Fur Companies were shrewd and adventurous characters. They were perfect mountaineers and frontiersmen, as much at home in the untrodden forest as in the civilization they had left behind. They learned the habits of the red man, the untamed savagenessof his nature, and the danger of placing confidence in him. Hence, they were rarely taken by surprise. They were led by such men as Major Henry Vanderburgh, Jim Bridger, Jim Baker, and many others whose names will always be connected with the history of that country. These hardy and intrepid men pursued their trade at all seasons of the year, and in the face of tremendous obstacles. They penetrated into the ter- ritory of unknown tribes, and were prepared to resist, if they could not evade, all perils and enemies. Many romances of Indian life have been written, most of them greatly exaggerated, and some of them preposterously absurd ; but if the real details of some of the daring ad ventures of these early trappers could be written they would verify the old adage that "truth is .. 394 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. stranger than fiction." Sometimes a solitary trapper was murdered by the treacherous Indians, and never heard of more. This did not prevent another trapper from starting over the same route as soon as sufficient time had elapsed to convince him that his predecessor was dead. Their moral and physical courage have not been duly appreciated. The general goes to battle surrounded with his legions, in all the panoply of war, and if he meets disaster, he can escape under what is called a well-ordered retreat. But the trapper or hunter could not retreat, and as for fighting, he was compelled to do it all himself. Occasionally a number of trappers went together when entering the territory of a powerful and treacherous nation, such as the Blackfeet or the Crows. On these occasions they used diplomacy, and when that failed, they fought their way through, or were killed. Few of such murders have been recorded, but they were generally heralded throughout the country by the Fur Companies at the time. Occa- sionally an incident occurred of such a bloody or dramatic character as to become historical. Of these one of the most noteworthy was the massacre of Major Vander- burgh and his party. They were in the employ of the American Fur Com- pany, and hunted and trapped among Indians who had been up to that time somewhat friendly. Major Vanderburgh's party numbered about one hun- dred men. He was careful of their lives and distrustful of the savages, whom he knew well. At this time there was the most intense rivalry between the many Fur Companies, each seeking by every possible means to obtain the mastery of the fur trade. The Rocky Mountain Company was managed by two experienced and shrewd men Fitzpatrick and Jim Bridger; while the Americaa Fur Com- pany had in its employ Major Henry Vanderburgh and Mr. Dripps. Van- derburgh was one of the most daring leaders in the pathless wilds of the West, and a typical American frontiersman. All of these men were coura- geous, enterprising, and vigilant, but Vanderburgh and Dripps lacked the experience of the others and were unacquainted with the mountain regions. Both Bridger and Fitzpatrick had been traders and trappers for years and knew every spot of these wilds. They were impressed by the fact that the evils of competition were injuring the two companies, and endeavored to bring about a compromise that would redound to the benefit of both. They accordingly proposed that the country should be divided into sec- tions and allotted to each, neither intruding on the territory of the other. This sensible proposition was not accepted, and both companies continued their rivalry with increased energy. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 31)5 Bridger and Fitzpatrick, acting on their experience and knowledge of the country, sought to throw Vanderburgh and Dripps on the wrong track, and to a certain extent succeeded ; but what Major Vanderburgh lacked in ex- perience he made up in intelligence, now following his rivals with irritating perseverance, and then leading them a hot chase. Finally, in an ill-judged moment, Vanderburgh divided his party in the midst of the Indian country, Dripps going in one direction, and himself, with some fifty to seventy-five men, in another. He was in the hunting ground of the Blackfeet, and having come on a deserted Indian camp which bore traces of the precipitate flight of the savages, he unwisely followed their trail. While the party were pas- sing through a ravine uncon- scious of danger, they were suddenly startled by the yells and warwhoops of a legion of Indians who sprang from ambush and closed upon them from every side. Major Vanderburgh 's horse was killed at the first on- slaught, and in falling he carried the rider with him, pinioning him to the ground. Unable to extricate himself, he determined to defend his life as best he could. One of his party was scalped almost within an arm's length of him, most of the others were killed near the spot where he fell. He had a rifle across his saddle and two pistols in bis belt; and when the savages approached to dis- patch him, he raised his rifle and shot the first one dead. He then drew both pistols and emptied the last shot at the yelling red men, while still lying pinned to the ground by his horse. After firing his last shot the Blackfeet rushed in and hacked him to death with tomahawks. A large reward was offered by the American Fur Company for the recov- ery of his body, but it was never found. The Indians were supposed to have WARM SPRING INDIAN. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. burned it, aud also the bodies of the rest of the party who lost their lives. At any rate, no one ever discovered the slightest trace of the massacre, or relics ef the party. The incidents connected with the tragedy were subsequently learned from the Indians who participated in it. The loss of Major Vander- burgh and his party was a serious blow to the American Fur Company. In trapping for beaver and otter the trappers generally went singly, or in twos, threes, or fours. They carried the traps and outfit on their backs. A trapper usually carried from six to eight traps. These were generally set in the evening and visited in the morning, when, after having reset the trap, the catch was carried to camp. While the work was laborious and dangerous the trappers had plenty of leisure time; and as the devil always finds work for idle hands, they amused themselves in leisure hours by swindling the Indian out of his belongings. It was during these times that a trapper usually took an Indian woman for his wife, and for the time being became more Indian than the Indians them- selves. Some of the French Canadian half-breed trappers and hunters became more vicious and villainous than the savages. They knew all the ways and habits of the Indian, and as they were more intelligent than the latter they soon combined the vices of barbarism and civilization, without the virtues of either. Edward Umfreville, to whose book, "The Present State of Hudson's Bay," I have already referred, was a Frenchman who had been in the employ of the Fur Companies for seven years; he was also four years in the same business for himself, making eleven years which he spent among the wild Indians in the British possessions. He saw a few nations only, and did not travel farther west than the vicinity of the Great Lakes. His book was well and temperately written, but was severe on the management of the Fur Companies. He declared that they did much to demoralize all Indians with whom they dealt; that they traded them at all times a vile liquor known as English brandy. This liquor, he states, made the Indians who drank it crazy, and when in this condition all the viciousness of their nature asserted itself. During these debauches the drunken Indians not only committed extreme acts of brutality, but, in many instances, murder also. After hav- ing swindled the Indian out of all his pelts and other articles of value the companies drove him away by force, leaving him in a worse condition than before, for during the winter it was almost impossible for the Indians to secure food for themselves and their families, in consequence of which they suffered greatly. The Indian of a hundred and twenty-five years ago, as he knew and described him, was in nowise different from tbe Indian that I knew, thus TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 397 showing that during more than a century he made no material advance- ment, and no improvement in his mental or moral condition. He also speaks of many nations of Indians to the far west, hut does not particularize them, except the Sioux, of whom he speaks as being a nation to the west, who must have numbered "at least five hundred," thus showing that at that time no white man had penetrated the Sioux territory, for that powerful nation did not then number less than seventy-five thousand souls. The description given by him of the attack and murder of a village of Esquimaux by a part}' of Indians, is without parallel. The Esquimaux were attacked while sleeping, and all were murdered in the most fiendish man- ner. A young Esquimau girl of about eighteen years, after having been subjected to every indignity, was pinioned to the ground by a spear driven through her body; while writhing in this position she seized Umfreville by the legs, begging him to kill her. The Indians would not permit him to interfere, and she was left to end her miserable existence after hours of excruciating torture. He is severe on Indian character, and states that the young were reared without restraint, and that the worst part of their vicious natures were always cultivated, also that at no time during his eleven years' experience among the Indians, did he ever know of the lash having been used by any of them. 398 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XLVII. FAMOUS EXPEDITIONS INTO THE INDIAN COUNTRY PERILOUS JOURNEYS OVERLAND BY OX TEAMS AND PRAIRIE SCHOONERS. Expeditions of Lieutenants Lewis and Clark Preparations for the Journey Their First Winter in a Wild and Unknown Country Assistance from Friendly Indians Meet- ing the Snakes Explorations of Lieutenants Pike and Long Capture of Lieutenant Pike and Party Expedition of Captain Bonneville Battles with the Early Traders Gold Discoveries The Rush to the Mines Fremont's Expedition The Santa Fe Trail Prairie Schooners A Dangerous Trip Excitement in the Pike's Peak Country An Overland Wagon Train Waylaid by Indians How Wagon Trains were Gorraled Fighting against Odds The Great American Bull-Whacker His Whip and Skill in Using It An Incident on the Sweetwater River An Aston- ished Indian. AFTER the acquisition by the United States of the territory of Louisiana from the French, in the year 1803, President Jefferson and his cabinet de- sired to have the newly-acquired territory explored. This territory con- tained nearly one million square miles, and its boundaries were not only ill-defined, but unknown. Nor had the French, the English, or the Span- iards any settled boundary line of the territory they respectively claimed in what was then the far West. The territory of Louisiana then contained all that portion of the country south of the British possessions, lying west of the Mississippi River from its source to its mouth, and from the confluence of the Sabine directly north to the Red River; thence westward along this river to its source; thence along the Arkansas River; thence west to the Rocky Mountains; thence north to the headwaters of the South Platte; and thence west to the Pacific Ocean. The President decided to send an explor- ing party up the Mississippi River to the mouth of the Missouri, and from thence to make an exploration of the Missouri River, and the country adja- cent thereto, to its source. Two young army officers were selected for this perilous expedition. They were Lieutenants Lewis and Clark. Both were men of enterprise and brav- ery, and could be relied upon to make an accurate statement of their experi- ences and observations. They were sent to St. Louis, where the outfit was secured. The party consisted of some thirty or forty soldiers and as many civilians, mostly Frenchmen, from in and about St. Louis. One entire TWENTY \EARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 399 winter was spent in getting the outfit ready for the long journey, which was expected to last for three or four years. The stores were carried on one large and several smaller boats, one of which was a rowboat. These were towed up the rivers by the men, horses, and mules; the animals were also used for hunting and ether purposes. Early in the following spring, when the ice had left the rivers, the ex- ploring party started for this unknown region. By the time cold weather set in they had reached the vicinity of the mouth of Wood River. There they spent the winter in the hunting ground of the Mandan Indians. They were more hospitable and civilized than their wild brothers further west, and treated the white party with friendly consideration. In the spring of the following year, as soon as they could safely do so, they proceeded up the Missouri River, making further explorations of the stream and country to the land of tha Snakes. The Indians, after receiving the presents which Lieutenants Lewis and Clark gave them, showed them the passes through the mountains. Being near the headwaters of the Missouri River the party went into camp for the winter, meantime making explora- tions of the surrounding country and its watercourses. It was during this winter that they discovered the largest tributaries to the Missouri, and gave to these streams the names by which they are now known Lewis and Clark, Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin Forks, being named in honor of themselves and the distinguished men then at the head of the Government. The next spring, under the guidance of some Snake Indians, the explorers were piloted through the passes of the mountains, and crossed to the head- waters of the Columbia River, making the trip to its mouth, where they re- mained during that winter. Early in the following year they returned over the same route, again passing through the mountains, and arrived safely at St. Louis after an absence of three years. ' The most remarkable part of this journey was that it was safely accom- plished. That the party were not all massacred by the Indians through whose territory they passed, can only be accounted for by the fact that the rivers which they traveled, formed the boundary line between different nations of hostile Indians, and that no war party happened along at that time. To this expedition the country was greatly indebted for information re- garding the newly-acquired territory along the rivers which they passed. On returning, they made full reports to the President of their achievements and observations. This expedition was as important in its results as it was remarkable in its execution. For fullness and accuracy of statement in relation to the coun- 400 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. try traversed, the various tribes of Indians with whom they came in contact, the fertility of the soil, and the many resources of the region, it will always remain one of the most valuable contributions to the history of that portion of the Northwest. After the report was published, the attention of the people of the East was attracted to the prospective wealth of our western -empire. From this time onward, a steady flow of emigration set in toward the getting sun, which within half a century reached the Pacific. No similar instance of rapid de- velopment is known to history, as the settlement of the country which Lewis and Clark explored less than a century ago. The next exploration sent out by the Government to ascertain the value and the resources of its newly-acquired inland territory, was in 1805. Lieu- tenant Zebulon N. Pike, with a party of twenty-five or thirty soldiers, and as many civilians, went up the Arkansas River to make an exploration of the country lying adjacent thereto. Spain claimed this country, and sent Spanish troops there, who fortified themselves and captured Lieutenant Pike and his party, holding them as prisoners. They were afterward released, and returned without having accomplished their object. Subsequently, about 1819 or 1820, Captain S. H. Long was sent with a body of troops to make an exploration of the same territory. He, I believe, accomplished more, and returning, made a report of his observations. The two most prominent peaks in Colorado were named after these two officers, Pike's Peak and Long's Peak. The next expedition sent into this territory was that of Captain Bonne- ville, of the American Fur Company. He went for the purpose of trapping, but he also made some valuable explorations. The American Fur Com- pany, finding this country a rich harvest field, established forts and trading posts at various places that were most accessible to their trapping grounds, which were near the rivers, and in close proximity to the road which they made. During this time an active trade was carried on by caravans between the western limit of civilization and these outposts. The company also carried large amounts of stores to trade with the Indians, as well as for the main- tenance and protection of their own men. Many battles were fought be- tween the caravans, the men at the fortifications, and the Indians. For a long time the latter had possession of the country and prevented communica- tion between these fortifications and civilization. The country at that time was a source of great profit to the Fur Company, as the rivers and streams were filled with all kinds of fur-bearing animals. Gradually settlers crept in, and as the country became more or less in- WOMAN'S BELT MADE OF VARIOUS COLORED BEADS, WITH THONGS FOE FASTENING AROUND THE BODY. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 401 402 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. habited, Overland route travelers were less and less molested. It was by this route that the first travelers went overland to Santa Fe and California. After this the prairie schooner (a large wagon having a canvas top to protect travelers and goods from the weather), with its ox-teams, capable of carrying several tons, traveled from civilization to these posts. The Indians resisted the encroachment of the white men with all their power, capturing and destroying many entire trains and their contents, and killing every one connected with them ; but as the business was exceedingly remunerative, men would risk any danger to engage in it. The difficulties encountered by the pioneers were almost insurmountable, but they persevered in the face of great odds, stimulated by the attraction of the fabulous wealth of rich gold and silver mines that were said to exist in the far West. Previous to 1847 few white men had gone west of the Missouri River. From that time onward, however, the tide of adventurous travel began for what was known as the Pike's Peak country. Prospecting for gold and silver was largely carried on in that region, and the stories of the mineral wealth which this territory contained, when reported in the East, gave a wonderful impetus to western settlement. The gold discoveries of the Pike's Peak country resulted in greatly in- creasing the tide of emigration over this vast stretch of territory ; and the adventurous and intrepid people who composed the caravans and encoun- tered the dangers and difficulties of the routes, were naturally calculated to bring a spirit of enterprise into the new land. They embraced all sorts of characters, but as each and all were bent on seeking fortunes or bettering their condition, it resulted in the rapid settlement of the country. These new settlers were men of daring and enterprise, and soon established numer- ous villages and communities, with lines of communication between them. As the settlements grew the frontier lines were strengthened. The red man was driven back and forced to recognize the undisputed right of all people to travel from one point to another through his country without molestation. The next exploration of the western country was that undertaken by Colonel John C. Fremont. The object of his expedition was to discover, if possible, a route along the Platte Valley, and through the mountains to Salt Lake and California. This expedition consisted of sixty sold iers and civilians, and a sufficient number of six-mule teams to carry the outfit. It was the best equipped of any expedition sent out by the Government. The party dis- covered and made what was afterward the Overland Route through this val- ley, and through the mountains by way of South Pass. This was the most direct and accessible route between the western borders of civilization and TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 403 the Pacific coast, and was afterward traveled by the Mormons, the Overland Stage, and the Pony Express. After this route became known, there followed during the summer months, an almost endless stream of horse, mule, and ox-teams traveling over it, some of which were composed of freighters, and others of prospectors, miners, or settlers. The trains were frequently attacked by bands of hostile Indians, and sometimes were entirely annihilated, as the bones of the dead which were left to bleach in the sun, where the wolves had drawn them after eating the flesh, bore ghastly testimony. It was afterward found necessary by the military to organize these trains so that they coulu, to a certain extent, protect themselves. The wagons were detained until there were about fifty in number, with a sufficient force of able-bodied righting men in the company to afford protection. A captain was appointed from among the travelers by the military commander of the post at wl