amtals f0r (Cmfrtrs EDITED BY OSCAR BROWNING M.A., Principal of the Cambridge University Day Training College S. S. F. FLETCHER, M.A., Ph.D., Master of Method in the Cambridge University Day Training College PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING BY J. J. FINDLAY, M.A., WADHAM COLLEGE, OXFORD \ PH.D. LEIPZIG ', HEADMASTER OF THE CARDIFF INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL FOR BOYS J LATE EXAMINER IN EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITIES OF CAMBRIDGE AND VICTORIA ILonfcon MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1902 All rights reserved RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY. 1VH3N3D PREFACE THIS book is written with a very practical purpose. It is meant to help teachers the younger generation of teachers who are either already at work, or are preparing for their profes- sion. Complaints are still made that young teachers will not be "trained," but there is sufficient evidence that men and women are far more interested in professional studies than they were ten years ago; and this genuine interest in professional pursuits is now about to be stimulated by the recent Order in Privy Council requiring that teachers shall study Education before being recognised on the pro- fessional Register. But, quite apart from formal plans for " Training," there is a demand, constantly growing, for information about Education in all its aspects ; and this demand needs to be met, not only by Courses of Study in Lectures, but by books. This book, then, has been prepared with the con- 104586 vi PREFACE fident belief that such writing is needed, and will be welcomed, as one factor in the task of "Training." The topics which it embraces are very wide, but an elaborate treatment, extending over several volumes, would have been ill adapted to the present situation. The pressure of multifarious duties upon teachers in Great Britain at the present day limits the amount of attention that the majority can give to professional studies : and the first " charge " which the writer laid upon himself was to set out the matter in a form adapted to the practical requirements of teachers now at work, in days when we are slowly emerging as a profession. Practical these chapters are meant to be, in the best sense of the word arising directly out of the writer's practice, with colleagues, in a large school. Everything here advanced comes from a quarter where Inspectors, Governors, parents, are ever present to watch, and if necessary to challenge, the results. The style of the book probably suffers on this account, for it has necessarily been put together in spare moments, and even the author anticipates a few of the defects which are due to this cause. But these defects may be outbalanced by the ad- vantage of writing from the workshop instead of from the lecture-room, So far as the main principles are concerned, these PREFACE vii chapters were thought out while the author was engaged in lecturing on Education, and they might have been prepared four years ago. But they have been put to a somewhat severe test during the interval, and the trial may now be regarded as sufficiently complete. Part of this test has involved the co-operation of a number of colleagues who have been on the staff of the Cardiff Intermediate School for Boys since 1898, and the author would like to take this opportunity of thanking these colleagues. It is only by such co-operation that it becomes possible, in Education, to put theory to the test of practice. In the Appendix will be found some Notes of Lessons and other material worked out in this place, and the preference is given to work so done rather than to examples which might have been copied from elsewhere, because it is necessary to emphasize the practical character of these professional pursuits. Whatever objection may be offered to views and examples here advocated, it can at least be alleged that it is the work of craftsmen who are carrying on school business under the ordinary conditions. It need hardly be added that these illustrations are not offered as models for imitation, but merely as illustrations and examples. So much for these chapters under one aspect. Fro m another point of view, a few lines of preface viii PREFACE may be helpful. The author has a very distinct conception in his own mind as to the conditions under which progress in the study of Education can be achieved ; l and in view of the adoption by the British Association of " Education " (with a capital E) as the youngest of the Sciences, the moment is appropriate for a review of these conditions. It may be questioned whether any of the members of that Association who met at Glasgow last August, recollected the fortunes of the Society for the Development of the Science of Education, which, under its later title of the Education Society, brought together some eminent thinkers, as well as a few practical teachers. Its President in 1879, Alex- ander Bain, propounded the question, "Is there a Science of Education 1 " and his book, published about the same time, gave an answer, which, while accepted by many thinkers of that time, has never met with the approval of the teaching profession. It would be going beyond the scope of a preface to deal with Bain's position (his views on one or two vital matters are referred to in the first chapter) but it is worth while to try and clear the air as to the standpoint from which the study of Education may be regarded. In popular usage the term " Science " is still 1 See reference at foot of p. 264, below. PREFACE ix restricted to the Natural Sciences, which are limited to a description of natural phenomena, and the discussion of cause and effect in relation to these. But, among scientific men, the term has long ago taken a wider scope, embracing a number of branches of knowledge concerned with human conduct : these are called " Social " Sciences, and while they also are concerned with the descrip- tion of phenomena, their results cannot meet the same uniform acceptance, because each exponent is compelled to start from/ certain fundamental premises relating to mankind ^ "and these colour, inevitably, his whole exposition, however detached he may imagine himself to be from the prejudices of his generation. This qualification, however, does not rule the Social Sciences out of the realm of scientific knowledge : they claim such a rank, not because of the finality of their conclusions, but because of their method. The distinction between popular knowledge and science, properly so called, is looked for in the mode by which the man of science approaches his study, in the canons of scientific method to which he submits his investigations. Any large body of knowledge, when it has been sufficiently thought out by competent men of scientific habit under the guidance of these canons, may fairly claim, if it so desire, to be labelled as a science. What, then, x PREFACE are these canons ? They are fairly well accepted in the scientific world, and may be formulated thus : (1) Scientific exposition must be ordered, system- atised, and classified: general information, on the contrary, is loose and scattered. (2) A most important feature in this classification is correlation and differentiation : the place of this field of knowledge in relation to other sciences must be clearly conceived. The above canons distinguish science from popular knowledge. Two others serve to distinguish it from false or useless knowledge. (3) It uses technical terms, and these must be defined and consistently employed., -^ (4) It must be based u^on observation and experience. And, especially, upon a comprehensive observation and ripe experience which acknowledge all the factors of the situation. *4*f4 J&o^ This last canon involves another which writers sometimes omit, but which is vital in all except the earliest stages of research : (5) Knowledge to be recognised as science, must not spring wholly out of the thinker's own experience, but must take account of the results of previous investigators. 1 1 In respect of the Social Sciences, which deal with the life and ways of men, a sixth canon might be added : The student should not pay regard exclusively to the work of his predecessors, but should keep his eyes open to the life of PREFACE xi Now when a writer on Education has recognised his obligation to submit, so far as his personal imperfections will allow, to these canons, he may surely claim for his work the name of scientific, for he is toiling along the path of investigation which leads, under favourable conditions, to the produc- tion of new ideas and new modes of operations in a word, to new aspects of truth in the business of Education. ** And yet, while the controversy as to the scientific label is thus answered, the teacher is conscious all the while that his practical purpose is not research at all : he is a worker, not a thinker ; and his business partakes rather of the nature of an art than of a science. 1 In all the professions there is a similar duality. The Science of Law is a fascinating pursuit, but it stands in many respects apart from the arts of professional practice, and although no lawyer is so foolish as to deny its value in his professional or scientific studies, on the other hand he is never so enamoured of study as to fail to recognise the limit between the arts of the law- mankind about him ; his sympathies and observations must be in close touch with the everyday world, apart from the Chair, if his results are to accord with truth. And he must include in his observation, a review of earlier times (see e.g. Chap. II. below). 1 Compare Chap. Ill, 3 ; also p. 369 in Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Vol. II. (Board of Education, 1898). xii PREFACE court and the science of the lecture-room. With engineers, with physicians and with teachers it is the same, or should be. It is comparatively easy to realise, apart from each other, these two fields of Theory and Practice, of Science and Art, in the study of Education ; but when we come to details, and seek to bring the two together, it is a different matter. The majority of writers in Great Britain have hitherto adopted methods of exposition which are frankly empirical. They have recognised that the time has not arrived to offer the profession a scientific exposition of Education, and they have taken the scientific basis for granted (or, perhaps, they have denied the validity of any such basis) and have taught Education as a practical art. Fitch's Lectures on Teaching is the most striking example in this field ; and many readers of this book will agree with the present writer in acknowledging the prac- tical service that those Lectures have rendered for many years past. It would be invidious to mention other books of more recent date which have been content with the same common-sense, or "practical," starting-point. Such books or at least the 1 best of them have been successful, i.e. they have exercised a marked in- fluence upon the practice of the profession. But the PREFACE xiii books which have sought a more ambitious founda- tion, relying upon a formal foundation in scientific thinking Bain's Education as a Science taay be selected as an example these have, by comparison, failed, and their failure has done much to discredit the study of Education in Great Britain. Some may be inclined to say that this failure is due to permanent elements connected with the pursuit of Education ; they would hold that Education is a kind of knowledge which does not lend itself to scientific treatment. But there is surely no warrant, in the nature of the study itself, for such a pessimistic view, and it seems more reasonable to urge that Bain and his friends in the 70s were right in seeking to place their study on a scientific founda- tion, but were not always prepared to obey the canons of scientific method. And their most dangerous deflection obvious enough now in the light of later times was in their divorce from experience. The empirical writers, the handicraftsmen of the time, such as Edward Thring, were doing the work of the schools, apart from men like Bain, who were trying to write the theory of the same business, apart from school-life. The combination of scientific method and practical experience was lacking at that time, and it would be very presumptuous in the present writer, if he xiv PREFACE were to hope that he has adequately achieved such a combination here. But it is at least attempted not from choice, but from necessity the necessity laid upon a student who has had the privilege of studying in a scientific environment. The distinctive note of Professor Rein's labours at Jena 1 is not, as is often supposed, in the special Herbartian label which is attached to his Seminar, but in the per- petual combination of scientific method with daily practice among children. The result can best be expressed by the term System. A professional man, be he physician, soldier, banker, or what not, who has trained his mind by prolonged study on scientific methods, and at the same time has continually practised his art, arrives at length, with ripening years, at a well-ordered system of thought, which guides him in every professional act. It is his own system, and cannot, in all its details, be appropriated by others. When such a body of systematic thought is put down in black and white, its usefulness to others will depend upon the obedience rendered by its author to the canons of scientific method ; for these criteria alone will determine its validity, and will diminish the amount of error arising from the personal equation. 1 See Preface to Rein's Pddagogik im Grundriss (or Van Liew's translation, p. ix). PREFACE xv Whether or no described by the term System, every one who practises a calling performs his work in obedience to some rough-and-ready scheme of thought which has grown up in his own brain, and the study of Education can do nothing more than help to shape these thoughts into something more systematic, more worthy of the name of " System." Thus this book is offered as an attempt at systematic exposition of those parts of Education which are covered by the title. And the author's aim will be mainly achieved, not in obtaining con- verts to his own doctrines, but in pointing out a road, which others, with better equipment, may follow hereafter to issues far beyond his range. Acknowledgments should be made, not only to colleagues who have helped to find errors in the proofs, but especially to Mr. A. E. Twentyman, of the Board of Education Library, who has assisted with the Index, and to Dr. Fletcher, Editor of this series of Manuals for Teachers, who has read and criticised the whole book. If these acknowledgments took a wider range, it would be hard to find a limit, for the footnotes bear witness to a few only of the teachers from whom, since boyhood days, it has been the writer's privilege to learn. CARDIFF, S. David's Day, 1902. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE . . v ANALYSIS OF CHAPTERS SECTION I CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION SECTION II THE CURRICULUM IN GENERAL CHAPTER II MOTIVES IN THE SELECTION OF MATERIAL ...... 18 CHAPTER III THE NATURE OF THE PURSUITS SELECTED FOR CLASS TEACHING .... 53 \> xviii CONTENTS CHAPTER IV PAGE DIFFERENTIATION . . ,. . 92 CHAPTER V A FEW MAXIMS . ...'... . ... lib' SECTION III THE CURRICULUM FOR EACH PERIOD OF SCHOOL LIFE CHAPTER VI THE INFANT SCHOOL (OR KINDERGARTEN) 126 CHAPTER VII LATER CHILDHOOD . . ....... . . . . . . , . . 147 CHAPTER VIII THE BEGINNINGS OF BOYHOOD AND GIRLHOOD 178 CHAPTER IX THE LAST YEARS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 208 CHAPTER X THE HIGHER ELEMENTARY (HIGHER PRIMARY) SCHOOL . 222 CHAPTER XI THE CURRICULUM OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL ... 231 CONTENTS xix SECTION IV METHOD CHAPTER XII PAGE FIRST TYPE OF LESSONS THE ACQUIREMENT OF KNOW- LEDGE * 261 CHAPTER XIII THE ACQUIREMENT OF KNOWLEDGE (continued) STEPS FOLLOWED IN THE PROCESS 309 CHAPTER XIV SECOND TYPE OF LESSONS THE ACQUIREMENT OF SKILL 334 CHAPTER XV THE ACQUIREMENT OF SKILL (continued) STEPS ADAPTED TO THE SECOND TYPE OF LESSONS 353 SECTION V CHAPTER XVI A FEW HINTS ON CLASS MANAGEMENT ... . 385 APPENDIX SPECIMEN COURSES OF STUDY AND NOTES OF LESSONS REFERRED TO IN THE TEXT 413 INDEX ...,.,. 437 b 2 ANALYSIS SECTION I CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. A definition of Education explained and illustrated Page 1 2. From this we derive three divisions of the Science The Aim, The Control, and the Practice of Educa- tion : this order needs to be adhered to in ex- position Page 4 3. Summary review of doctrine relating to the Aim of Education : particularly as regards Ethics Page 6 4. Topics included in the Control of Education : Ad- ministration, Organisation, Management. The teacher's success in Class Teaching is strictly limited by the Control of those who administer and organise the Schools Page 9 5. The term "Practice" as used in this volume does not exclude " Theory." Analysis of topics included under this head : The unit in Education is The Individual Child. ! I I Mental Life of Physical the child. Life. I I I Direct means of Indirect means of influence : influence : By Training : By Teaching, which (a) Government. includes various (b) Guidance. branches : (a) Of Instruction in Knowledge. (b) Of Occupation (or Perform- ance) in Arts. Teaching alone is the topic of this volume, and it is treated mainly under conditions where many pupils are gathered together to form Classes . . . Page 11 xxii ANALYSIS SECTION II THE CURRICULUM IN GENERAL CHAPTER II MOTIVES IN THE SELECTION OF MATERIAL 1. Resume. Why not leave the child alone? We teach him because he has (1) no capacity for selecting suit- able pursuits, (2) no method in handling these to his advantage. But we had better allow him some little scope for freedom after all Page 18 2. The search for principles in the selection of Material. These range in two hostile groups : the child and the adult pull in opposite ways. The adult lays upon the child the demand of EQUIP- MENT (a) for the Necessities of life, and (6) for Progress Page 21 3. This plea is checked by another the plea of IN- HERITANCE or Tradition, which preserves culture from age to age. The travesty of this principle has produced a notorious reaction since 1850 . Page 25 4. The opposite array of principles : these recognise the NATURE OF THE CHILD, as a factor not only in the choice of Method, but of Material. They are modern, but the sentiment at their root is early Christian. A parable by way of illustration. Growth (compare with the Herbartian Theory of Culture-Epochs) Page 27 5. Balance. Criticism of the theory of the Harmonious Development of Faculty Page 31 6. Interest and Apperception. These terms spring from the school of Pestalozzi. " Interest " with Herbart differs from the use of the term among English writers on Education. Native and acquired interests. Apperception points to the relation between the child's own mental store and the new ideas which are to be presented to him Page 35 7 Correlation and Self-Activity are other terms from the vocabulary of educational reformers which are powerfully influencing the teacher's practice to day Page 39 ANALYSIS xxiii 8. Concentration , or Unity, completes the list : this points directly towards the ethical ideal, and reconciles the conflict between the " Old Education " and the New. Old Greek Education . . . Page 43 9. Summary Page 50 10. The child a " social" being Page 51 CHAPTER III THE NATURE OF THE PURSUITS SELECTED FOR CLASS TEACHING 1. A chapter usually omitted in books on Teaching : and yet necessary. The inquiry should be conducted, so far as possible, apart from ulterior considerations Page 54 2. First line of demarcation : pursuits which involve mental strain, and those undertaken chiefly to secure re- creation from strain Page 55 3. A second distinction : parallel with the psychological division of the intellectual and the active aspects of mind. Language we treat as an art not as a science Page 57 4. The objects of Knowledge are distinguished as (a) those concerned with mankind ; (b) those concerned with the natural world. Geography now belongs to one group, now to the other Page 60 5. And these again lead to a further group of Sciences, which are abstracted from the Humanities and the Natural Sciences Page 62 6. The arts are classified on a similar plan. The con- ventional arts stand in close relation to the Humanities ; the natural arts to the Natural Sciences. All arts, however, give expression to the thoughts and feelings of man, and hence should, whenever possible, be correlated with the Humanities. Arts may be pursued in a mechanical or a liberal spirit : Art is creative and demands opportunity for self-expression Page 63 7. These pursuits can now be arranged in six groups. A comparison of these will help us to an opinion as to "Educational Values." Group I. The Humanities. The Holy Bible as a branch of study in schools. History and Literature from the standpoint here adopted are almost inseparable. But Literature is not to be limited to heroic poetry. Subjective appreciation of Nature is also a part of the Humanistic field Page 67 xxiv ANALYSIS 8. Group II. The Natural Sciences. A child's interests do not begin, or end, in Chemistry and Physics Page 71 9. Group III. Abstract Sciences. Mathematics during the years of school being the most important. Mathe- matics is also an Art, but it must be grouped according to the source from whence it is derived. Grammar, for the same reason, is transferred to our next Group, although it is an abstract science Page 72 10. Group IV. The Conventional Arts of Symbolic Ex- pression. The real nature of Art needs to be emphasised. Art, at least in the school, cannot be pursued merely for Art's sake. Music and the Drama are only Fine Arts, but they are not on this account to be excluded Page 76 11. Group V. The Natural Arts (of Representation or Ex- pression through natural material). Art, to the young child, must be realistic. The Manual or Productive Arts find their place in the next Group Page 79 12. Group VI. Physical Recreations. These are also " means" in the hands of the teacher. They may be divided, according to their leading features, as follows : (a) Simple Physical Activity ; (b) Imitative Exercises (Play or Occupations) ; (c) Games and Contests ; (d) Gymnastics, Rowing, etc. ; (e) Rhyth- mical Exercises; (/) Exercises incidental to the teaching in other Groups . ... r . . . Page 81 13. Summary and Scheme .......... Page 89 CHAPTER IV DIFFERENTIATION 1. A problem in Administration which needs, for the logical completeness of the survey, to be dealt with here also Page 92 2. Division of school life into periods, according to changes indicated by Growth (II, 4) Five "stages" decided upon : /Early Childhood, ages 4 to 6 on the average (Later Childhood, ,, 7 to 9 {Early Boyhood (Girlhood), ages 10 to 12 on the average Later Boyhood (Girlhood), 13 to 15 Adolescence, from 15 Features of these periods Page 93 ANALYSIS xxv 3. Hence we derive the three permanent types of edu- cational "institution" Primary, Secondary, Uni- versity Page 100 4. The claim of Inheritance (II, 3) guides us in further de- fining these institutions, especially with regard to the function of the Secondary School in its earlier years Page 102 5. The demand for Equipment (II, 2) provides another prin- ciple for Differentiation. Every pupil's life, before he becomes a full citizen, divides into three stages. The work of Primar}' and of Secondary Schools in relation to these stages Page 104 6. Hence we adopt a working scheme for types of schools, which has also some countenance from the policy at this moment (1902) of English educational authorities Page 112 CHAPTER V A FEW MAXIMS 1. These rules are the dictates of common-sense, dis- tinguished from principles which should be based on scientific contemplation. The rule of Restraint Page 116 2. The rule of Sufficiency illustrated by the "intensive" plan : example of a time-table in two forms Page 118 3. The rule of Sequence illustration from Geometry, Object Lessons, etc Page 121 4. The rule" of Continuity Class teaching should not be disturbed at short intervals Page 124 SECTION III THE CURRICULUM FOR EACH PERIOD OF SCHOOL LIFE CHAPTER VI THE INFANT SCHOOL (OR KINDERGARTEN) 1. Preliminary caution : we are not about to prescribe a code Page 126 2. Early Childhood. All is not of Froebel that is labelled Kindergarten. (Note on reformers who go beyond Froebel.) Main principles of the Frobelsche Pada- gogik under seven heads Page 129 xxvi ANALYSIS 3. All the seven being applications of the General Principles of Chapter III Page 132 4. The Curriculum of the Kindergarten. A week in January : example of a Concentration Plan. Ex- ample of a succession of stories (with correlated pursuits) for a whole season. Fairy stories are a luxury not wholesome as a regular diet : the opposite course followed by Professor Dewey in Chicago Page 133 5. Hints on Kindergarten practice : order in disorder. A child will be perfectly quiet while listening to a well- told story ; but when it is finished ! Respect for the child's personality. The Time Table. Correla- tion must be natural : example of a forced attempt to create interest Page 139 6. Results of Kindergarten life. The child is humanised by the influence of good congenial society. Results attained in the five Groups (following Chapter III). Other "results "are to be deprecated . . . Page 143 CHAPTER VII LATER CHILDHOOD 1. Features of the Growing Child. He " gladly goes alone " growth of mental power. Practical apprehension of the world about him. The inner life of fancy Page 147 2. Selection of Material. Antagonism between the realist and the humanist. Contrast between the Herbartians and the teaching of John Dewey. The use of Fairy Tales Page 153 3. The Humanities. Examples of "Classic" literature. Can Teutonic or Celtic Sagas be selected? Page 155 4. Nature Knowledge. The time for "Science" not yet arrived. His studies can be conducted in orderly fashion, but "stones " (or other " Objects ") must not be given for bread ! Page 159 5. Mathematics. The nature of Mathematics needs to be investigated by teachers. The counting of money not an end in itself. Drill in arithmetical opera- tions is necessary. Progress must be slow. Geometry. The ground to be covered is not extensive. Page 161 ANALYSIS xxvii 6. The Arts of Expression. Acquirement of interest in the symbols of speech. Steps in the study of words : should we begin with analysis ? Writing must go with reading. A sound phonetic system necessary. Miss Dale's plan of a different colour for each group of symbols. At a later stage these devices are un- necessary. Reading carried on apart from lessons. Grammar. First attempt at reasoning as to the function of words. Music Page 165 7. The Arts of Representation. Artists must not take pride in forcing children to premature facility Page 171 8. Physical Recreations. Special importance of Imitative exercises correlated with the Humanities. Games may be delayed to a later stage. The value of Gymnastic exercises and rhythmical exercises Page 171 9. The Time Table. No need to overcrowd it with 1 'subjects." Summary of achievement during the three years Page 174 CHAPTER VIII THE BEGINNINGS OF BOYHOOD AND GIRLHOOD 1. Compromise between the demand for correlation and the demands of the " specialist Page 178 2. History. Must begin (1) with the locality, (2) with early times. Example of treatment for in, school in England, selecting always what is worthiest in each epoch. Literature. The miscellaneous " Reader"" should be banished. Books should be read for a " direct " purpose. The habit of using books of reference. Literary power not acquired by * ( tasting " the great writers in scraps. Human Geography. A correlated plan for the three years. But certain portions of the globe are omitted ! Scripture Lessons. The Jena plan of correlation with periods of national history is difficult. Another scheme proposed. Occasional selection of material for reasons not con- nected with the general scheme of study. Illustra- tions Page 179 xxviii ANALYSIS 3. Natural Science. The foundation of scientific habits. The historic order of the sciences : does it coincide with the psychologic order of study? Hints as to scheme for the three years Page 186 4. The Abstract Sciences: The Study of Number. Quanti- tative work from science lessons, associated with decimals and then with fractions. Algebra can be commenced during this period, and is not out of place in the Primary School, although its introduction need not be forced. Geometry, however, should be commenced in all types of school ; it should begin with what is called Concrete Geometry, growing out of the scheme of Science teaching, and treated largely as exercise in Drawing. Grammar treated in the next Page 188 5. The Arts of Expression. (1) The Native Tongue. Com- position. Reading, not only reading aloud, but silent reading. Use of a Form Library. (2) Foreign Tongues. When should a foreign language be first introduced? The issue confused by conflicting demands of Equipment and of Tradition. Rapid revolution in opinion at the present time, giving opportunity for treating the problem on sound principles of Education. Foreign languages, must be allied with the Humanities : hence, the native tongue should come first, and a modern language precede Latin or Greek. Modern Languages in the nursery. The BHingual problem. The first years of study in a foreign language should follow the intensive rule. Selection of subject-matter. The * ' forms " of the foreign language also to be studied in the foreign speech. (3) Grammar. Elementary notions of analysis and parsing. Music. Part-singing may be taken up. The selection of songs : what themes are most appropriate ? Page 191 6. The Arts of Representation. A proper sequence of study has not been thought out. The organised systems are to be distrusted Page 201 7. Physical Recreations. Carpentry, Cookery, Laundry work are appropriate so far as the pupil's age is concerned ; but what is the motive for their adoption ? The boy is now ready to begin school games Page 203 8. The Time Table. Suggested division for six periods in each school day Page 205 9. Summary. After this period, Differentiation plays its part Page 206 ANALYSIS xxix CHAPTER IX THE LAST YEARS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 1. At present there are few schools which contain classes consisting solely of this type. And in villages there never can be. Characteristic of the pupils : looking keenly towards the future ; most of them are to join the ranks of unskilled labour. This factor must govern the situation Page 208 2. The Humanities. The study of the Nineteenth Century : in its literary, its economic, and political aspects Page 210 3. Natural Science. The part played by the great sciences Chemistry, Physics, Biology during the late Queen's reign. Human Physiology is especially important in relation to Hygiene .... Page 21 1 4. Mathematics. Problems started in Science teaching, together with mercantile arithmetic . . . Page 212 5. A second language only to be studied by pupils who are bi-lingual in the home already ; *. e. , in most of the minor countries of Europe. In England the case is different. Music, see Chapters VII and VIII Page 213 6. There are special reasons for making much of the Arts of Representation and of Production . . . Page 215 7. Physical Recreations. The striking success of the Industrial School curriculum in contrast to 'the ordinary Elementary School curriculum at this period. A new age will discover a new value in manual toil, both in town and country Page 215 CHAPTER X THE HIGHER ELEMENTARY (HIGHER PRIMARY) SCHOOL 1. This type scarcely exists in Great Britain, although the name for it has been selected by Government. It must be regarded (1) as a sequel to what has been achieved in Chapter VIII ; (2) as containing many pupils of ability ; (3) as leading directly, during its last two years, to certain callings in life, divided roughly into (a) mechanical, (b) commercial. Distribu- tion of hours during the four years . . . Page 222 2. The Course for the first two years vide Chapter XI. Page 225 xxx ANALYSIS 3. The Scientific "side" (for the last two years), specially planned to suit the needs of higher artisan employ- ments, e. g. , building trades and the lower grades of engineering Page 226 4. The Commercial "side" (last two years), similarly planned to meet the needs of office employment and of the lower grades of Civil Sen r ice employments Page 227 CHAPTER XI THE CURRICULUM OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 1. Our endeavour to " dovetail" the curricula of different types of schools must not go so far as to injure the efficiency of each type of school as an end in itself Page 231 2. Slow mental growth of the typical pupil of a Secondary School. Conditions relating to "choice" of a career Page 232 3. Scheme for the Four Years' Course of general education. The Humanities. The programme for the first year or two will probably overlap that described in Chapter VIII. Suggestions for a course in Ancient History, and in Modern History. Example of a syllabus, correlated with a syllabus in Literature. History cannot yet be treated as a "scientific" study, either in its constitutional or social aspects Page 234 4. Natural Science. But abstract studies in Natural Sciences can now be undertaken with success. Ele- mentary Physics to be succeeded by Elementary Chemistry Page 239 5. Mathematics. The reforms in the teaching of Element- ary Mathematics now in progress .... Page 241 6. The Arts of Expression. Is good taste in literature cultivated by Secondary Schools? Reading aloud, and recitation or elocution, need far more attention, if this art is to receive adequate treatment. Foreign Languages. The Secondary School should com- mence (in Great Britain) with French, and after two or three years introduce Latin (with all pupils for the first year of Latin). Why Latin should be preferred to German at this point. The value of "a little" Latin, if taught in connection with the Humanities. A fourth language (Greek, German, or Spanish) only to be reached after the Four Years' Course. ANALYSIS xxxi The friends of Classical Instruction need not fear the outcome of this postponement of Latin and Greek. Grammar, in connection with the Arts of Language Page 243 7. The Arts of Representation. The " Fine Arts" have a claim on Secondary Schools for boys as well as for girls, and they should not be dropped until the end of the Four Years' Course. For reforms in teaching have now advanced sufficiently to enable us to make a good choice of material Page 249 8. Physical Exercises and Recreation. School Games now become of paramount importance especially to the older pupils ; and for them also Military Drill and Exercises are suitable Page 250 9. The Time Table for this Four Years' Course . Page 252 10. The Later Years of the Secondary School. Two styles of Secondary School, called by the Government, First Grade and Second Grade. Analogous titles in ' Germany. Illustrations of curricula affording choice of studies for various careers. Three arguments in defence of this organisation. But it involves great expenditure for staff and apparatus, and large schools become almost a necessity for complete success Page 253 SECTION IV METHOD CHAPTER XII FIRST TYPE OF LESSONS THE ACQUIREMENT OF KNOWLEDGE 1. Objections raised to the study of Method the teacher's desire for "freedom." But we are not proposing mechanical rules : we are in search of principles of Method. And a certain restriction of "freedom" is inevitable in any corporate work .... Page 261 2. Distinction between General Method and Special Method. The basis for General Method in the nature of the Child. Summary of doctrines based upon Child-Nature : these involve (A) An Introduction to each new portion of study or employment ; (B) Correlation of this new study with other interests or pursuits ; (C) Application of new ideas or powers ; (D) Orderly Sequence through the "Sections" of a new study Page 265 xxxii ANALYSIS 3. These general canons of Method arise out of our earlier discussion of Child-Nature in Chapter II, and they are worked out in more detail below. For further analysis we must look more closely into the varying nature of school pursuits, following the conclusions of Chapter III. Groups I, II, and III are mainly branches of knowledge, and are subject to laws of apperception. Groups IV, V, VI are mainly branches of skill, and are subject to laws of imitation and habit. All the Groups in- volve a subjective, emotional element, which also claims proper consideration in Method. For practi- cal purposes we adopt two main types of lesson those concerned mainly (1) with the acquirement of knowledge ; (2) with the acquirement of skill : but they are only types Page 269 4. We admit the possibility of working out further "types," as pedagogic research advances . Page 274 5. First Type. Lessons on the Herbart-Ziller model, which seek mainly the acquirement of knowledge. But what is knowledge ? Illustration : knowledge of a seaside place. Concluding with some elementary facts: (1)* knowledge begins with sense -percept ion ; (2) but immediately tends to combine with other knowledge ; (3) and to take higher forms or shapes ; (4) but knowledge of the same object differs in various subjects ; (5) knowledge dies unless it is put to use Page 275 6. A further illustration to distinguish full vivifying knowledge from knowledge falsely so called Page 279 7. Notes of a series of History Lessons to exhibit these features of knowledge in the daily routine of a class : English History for beginners, from 1258 to 1272. Divided into four main portions, or Steps . Page 282 8. Notes of a series of lessons in Elementary Mathematics ; Geometry of Euclid I. 27 to 32 ; also following a psychological sequence of four Steps : Part I. cover- ing the ground of Euclid I. 27, 28 ; Part II. taking 29 to 32 (and other riders if necessary) . . Page 295 9. A dialogue with an unbeliever . , . , , , Page 303 ANALYSIS xxxiii CHAPTER XIII THE ACQUIREMENT OF KNOWLEDGE (continued) STEPS FOLLOWED IN THE PROCESS 1. Theory underlying the examples given in Chapter XII. The Distribution of a Course of Study into " Sections" Features of a good Section Page 309 2. The First Step. Intention of the Preparation. Its Content it is an analysis. It includes the Aim of the Section. Its Form by question and answer. Hindrances to success Page 313 3. The Second Step : The Presentation of New Knowledge. The Intention. Features of a good Presentation. Varieties in the form of the Presentation, by narra- tion, or experiment, or development. The Presentation in relation to the Arts. Hindrances to a good Presentation Page 318 4. The Third Step: Abstraction. Leading to "choicer, finer products," sometimes anticipated by a bright pupil in the Second Step, (a) Limitations to use of this Step : with young children at the outset of a course of study in some branches more than in others : precocious reflection to be discouraged. (6) Content of the Third Step. Comparison, followed by Formulation, expressed in appropriate language. Sometimes completed with a summary extending over several previous Sections Page 324 5. The Final Step: Application. It is always necessary. And in several directions (1) in the First Step of the next Section ; (2) or to miscellaneous problems, especially such as are suggested by the pupils them- selves ; (3) or to topics taken from other branches ; (4) and to the practical needs of daily life : these take us beyond school lessons, especially in the Humanities. Note on technical terms for the Steps in Method Page 330 CHAPTER XIV SECOND TYPE OF LESSONS THE ACQUIREMENT OF SKILL 1. Our aid in these chapters to be found rather from artists than from psychologists or teachers . . . Page 334 2. Imitation the central factor in the process : leading to the formation of habits. Habit, while a good servant, is a bad master. The relation between volition and cognition : the intellect cannot be shut out. The demand for good Content, as well as correct Form Page 335 xxxiv ANALYSIS 3. An example, from Modern Language Teaching : a series of Sections for First Lessons in German to English-speaking pupils Page 339 CHAPTER XV THE ACQUIREMENT OF SKILL (continued] STEPS ADAPTED TO THE SECOND TYPE OF LESSONS 1. Distribution into Sections. Each should lead the pupil to some new exercise in technique. But sometimes a teacher may only propose new Content (such a Section is however, logically, only a mode of practising earlier habits). The " Systems" for Sloyd, drawing, pianoforte teaching, languages, etc. , usually neglect Content for the sake of Form Page 354 2. The First Step : Preparation. An intellectual process, having much in common with the Preparation of Chapter XIII, but the Aim is different, (a) Funda- mentally, it should spring out of some correlated " Content," but (b) it will involve also the proposal of some definite act. The intelligence must be won from the first to take interest in technique (except with young children) Page 357 3. The Second Step : Presentation, (a) involving Contempla- tion (passive, receptive, aided by much " experience," gained in contemplation apart from school). (b) Involving also Copying or Imitation : active, pro- ductive. The copy must be (i. ) faithful, but (ii. ) in all the finer arts, differentiation must not be suppressed. (c) The model need not always be present to sense, and the parts of the Presentation need usually to be articulated. (d) Complex arrangement of Lesson Notes in which Performance of an Art has to be closely associated with the Instruction Page 360 4. The Third Step: Apprehension of Rules. A general- ising process, but the aim is not towards higher forms of thought, for the chief aim in the Section is to acquire Skill : true of the Arts of Foreign Language as of all other fine arts. The modes of studying the rules vary Page 367 ANALYSIS xxxv 5. A Final Step: Practice. Imitation once again, but in a different guise. The habit must be formed by infinite repetition of exercises. But opportunity for free practice must be afforded. (a) This Step is not merely an "application" of the Third Step. (5) Vital difference between rigid practice in imitation of the model, and free practice. The teaching of John Ruskin. (c) Can young people perfectly acquire a new habit in a short time? It is best to go on to a new Section before weariness sets in : illustration from Hand- writing. (d) Free Practice leads to Invention but Invention lies outside the sphere of school teaching. Genius in art cannot be prophesied before adolescence (in spite of exhibitions by child-pianists). Never- theless, constant opportunity for freedom in treat- ment should be afforded all through the school period Page 369 6. Suggestions for further study : references to books Page 376 7. On the Construction of Notes of Lessons : (1) by beginners ; (2) by teachers of experience . Page 378 SECTION V CHAPTER XVI A FEW HINTS ON CLASS MANAGEMENT 1. The general idea to make teaching so effective that Management as a separate problem is forgotten Page 385 2. Before the Lesson begins. With a new class foresight should be exercised. Note on interruptions by visitors Page 386 3. First Lessons with a New Class. Personal knowledge of difficult pupils. The teacher's own personality sometimes an element of disturbance!. A special type of teacher criticised. The dangers involved in "suggestion" as a mode of control . . . Page 388 4. Treatment of Offenders. They must not be handled so as to interfere with the rest of the class. " What thou doest, do quickly," is a good rule in punishment Page 391 xxxvi ANALYSIS 5. Use of the Blackboard. The teacher's eye. Length of Periods for Lessons Page 392 6. Correction of Written Worlc. A Frenchman's experience. The uselessness of too much correction : illustration from Spelling Page 393 7. Taking Notes Page 396 8. Questions and Answers. The Socratic Method not a good method for school. Once more, let the teacher suppress himself. A note on a German proposal Page 397 9. The Care of Backward Pupils. Edward Thring. (a,) Large schools can distribute into two types of Forms. (b) In small schools a class may often be subdivided for certain branches ; but if not, much can be done to " keep the class together," wherein, indeed, a great principle is involved, for each class should be a corporate body Page 399 10. Length of Periods for Lessons Page 402 11. Home Lessons. Necessary, after early childhood. A misfortune that they are so little employed in the upper Standards of Elementary Schools. Gross abuse of Home Lessons ; rules are necessary to restrict this. The amount to be strictly measured, and adapted to the average pupil, with supplementary consideration for those who can do more. Additional voluntary exercises should always be available. The home should take an interest but not too great an interest ! The work must be exacted. The parent is partly answerable for failure. Home Lessons should be skilfully worked in with the whole Course of Study. They should not make too great a call upon the mental powers Page 403 12. Management with a new class composed of pupils entered from schools of various types Page 410 APPENDIX SPECIMEN COURSES OF STUDY AND NOTES OF LESSONS REFERRED TO IN THE TEXT ;.... Page 413 SAMPLE OF A CURRICULUM TABLE Page 433 PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING SECTION I CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The whole work of education may be summed up in the concept : Morality. HEBBABT (Felkin's Science of Educa- tion, p. 57). Was ist gewonnen, wenn es gelingt, die Kultur des Erdbodens zu erhohen, den Geist des Handels und der Industrie iiberall zu beleben, den Gesetzen und Grundver- fassungen der Lander die hochste Vollkommenheit zu geben, wenn die Menschen nicht wiirdig sind, eine so schone Erde zu bewohnen, und nicht fahig, auf ihr einen Himmel zu finden ? - REIN, Padagogik im Grundriss, p. 8. Image the whole, then execute the parts ; Fancy the fabric Quite, ere you build ; ere steel strike fire from quartz, Ere mortar dab brick ! BROWNING, The Grammarian's Funeral. 1. THE topic of this book is Teaching the ends, means, methods to be employed when a group of children are placed in charge of an adult during specified hours of the day. It is obvious that a IE B 2 PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING CHAP. systematised exposition of principles relating to this topic must assume, in the reader's mind, a set of ideas relating to other departments in the science of Education. For example, who brings together this group of children 1 What motives set this machinery of teaching a-going? Such questions must already have received an answer. Let us, then, by way of an introductory chapter, survey this wider field ; we shall thus hope to bring our subject into its right perspective; thus we shall see the end from the beginning. Let us accept the following as a description of the meaning of Education : The adult portion of the community, orga- nised in the forms of the Family, the State, 1 the Church, and various miscellaneous asso- ciations, desires to promote the welfare of the rising generation. This it seeks to do by the employment of certain deliberate modes of influence, as an addition to the inevitable influences of circumstance and environment that operate upon all human life. These specific influences are called Education, and those who exercise them (whether profes- sionally or incidentally) are called Teachers. 2 The full bearing of this definition will appear as we proceed with our study ; it will suffice for the moment to emphasise the following : (a) The fount or source of Education is not the teacher. However much he may pride himself on the name of " master," he has not the supreme con- trol at the outset ; he is the servant of the 1 Including both Central and Local authorities. 2 " On the Definition of Education" (Journal of Education, Sept. 1896) ; also in Vol. II. of Special Reports (Education Dept., 1898), article "On the Study of Education." i INTRODUCTION 3 community. This submission does not absolve him from professional responsibility ; nor does it limit the range of his legitimate authority, which should in- deed be absolute, within the walls of his classroom. But it places him, in the last extremity, at the bidding of those social organisations which have called him to their aid. (b) The subject of Education is the rising genera-/' tion. The young, the immature, are subjected to this process by the adult community. 1 It is necessary, whatever the dictionaries may say, to place this restriction upon the scope of the term " Education." When you have entered upon the active duties of life as a citizen, your Education, in the proper sense of the term, is ended. It is very true that the culture of the mind may continue, but nothing is gained by confusing the terms " culture," or " development," or " environment," with the term Education as employed in Acts of Parliament and in common speech. To say that " a sojourn in Italy is a liberal education " is a statement which can be understood, but it had better be expressed otherwise. Travel in Italy may be undertaken expressly for the purpose of Education by those who are being educated; but it is more commonly an affair of culture. And here it may be convenient to dismiss one branch of Education which cannot engage our atten- tion further in this book, but which, for the first time in the world's history, is beginning to move the heart and conscience of society. The adult community is taking upon itself not only the burden of children, but also of those classes of the community who, al- though no longer children in age, remain children 1 Plato : Lysis : c ' The reason is, Socrates, that I am not of age." 4 PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING CHAP. in morals or in intellect, and who therefore require the processes of Education long after the normal period. The great army of the criminal, the ab- normal, the defective, the insane, stand on the same footing in respect of Education ; they are children, and they demand from the community the same pity, the same training and teaching, the same control and restraint, which we afford to our little ones. Blessed are the weak, for they shall inherit the earth ! A general exposition of Class Teaching, such as this book attempts, has no concern with these pupils, beyond urging the necessity for providing separate teaching for children who are abnormal or defective. The presence in the classroom of even a single pupil of weak intellect, or of grave physical defect, is sufficient to hinder the whole work. (c) The agency of a teacher is necessary to the pro- cess of Education. This is a specific undertaking, designed by social organisations ; they entrust the task which we call " Education " to individuals who are either set apart entirely for this duty, or who take it up incidentally. Thus a mother sometimes acts as private tutor to her children ; or a clergyman teaches in a Sunday School. The professional teacher is, indeed, only found in societies which have pro- gressed to a high standard of civilisation, and are able to recognise the value of deliberate systematised efforts to promote the welfare of the rising genera- tion ; and, whatever he may achieve, he is scarcely likely in our day to ignore the aid of those who are not teachers by profession, but who have an equally deep interest in the child's welfare. 2. From the definition of the last paragraph (p. 2), we now trace three main problems which, if treated in order, cover the entire field embraced in the study of Education. Firstly, what do we include in i INTRODUCTION 5 " the welfare of the rising generation " 2 We answer this question by investigating the Aim or End of Education. Secondly, what are the functions of the corporate bodies (State, Church, Family, etc.) who are united in seeking to achieve this aim t What are their mutual relations, to one another, and to the teachers whom they engage upon the task *? Here we treat of the Control of Education. The final problem is the Conduct or Practice of Education the business of the teacher when he and his pupils are brought face to face. We will proceed as rapidly as is possible to this third branch of our science, pausing only for a moment to clear the way by a summary review of the other two. Let it be noted that the order here chosen is logical and necessary : Aim, Administration, Practice. We cannot de- termine what sort of teachers we want, we cannot settle the mutual claims of Church, Family, State, etc., to control Education, until we have realised the end to be kept in view. Nor can the teacher set about his task until he knows what are its limits and what are his relations to those whose agent he is. In the present year of Grace (1901) it is hardly neces- sary to plead, either with teachers or with laymen, for support in this order of procedure. For, even in England, our public men have come to recognise the momentous issues, moral and social, involved in the upbringing of the young. On the other hand, these three branches must always keep each other in sight : the active mind of the student of Educa- tion must be prepared to revise conclusions drawn from one field in the light of his investigations into another. The teacher is not prepared to let the philosopher propound the Aims of Education or the politician determine the principles of Control apart from some insight into the possibilities of prac- tice. A system of Education which is in touch with the realities of life, which plays its part in the behaviour of those who profess it, must be a united whole. 1 Hence the obliga- 1 Compare p. 35 in The (New York) Educational Review (June, 1901), on "The Situation as regards the Course of Study," by John Dewey. The whole article is of the highest value to students of Education. 6 PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING CHAP. tion, which the present writer admits, to direct the reader's attention to the whole field of inquiry before claiming attention for the department taken up in this volume. After this introductory chapter only occasional references are made to topics relating to the Control of Education. A few such references are, however, inserted with the design of impressing the close relationship between tne different parts of educational science, and the illustrations are taken from topics of interest at the present moment, since these are more likely to attract the reader's attention. (See, e.g. , p. 374, Chap. XV. below.) 3. The Aim of Education. That eminently practical person " the man in the street " is irritated by inquiries as to ends and aims ; common-sense, he says, is a sufficient guide in such matters. Dr. John- son expressed the sentiment of such minds when he told Mr. Thrale that " Education is as well known, and has long been as well known, as ever it can be." But at that very moment Pestalozzi was working out new ideals for the teacher ideals which are to be reckoned among the great forces of the new cen- tury ; for they form a part of all the strong moral tendencies which have struggled for supremacy in the Europe of the last hundred years. Hence, while the man in the street is still content to say that his child goes to school to learn lessons, 1 to acquire knowledge, or to train the mind, without bothering his brain about further issues, the sounder instinct of earnest-thinking people, whether parents, statesmen, or teachers, has sought firmer ground. As they contemplate a group of children assembled in school, and forecast their future, taking up the burden of the new century, they desire for them the one supreme gift in which all others are comprehended the endowment of character. Parents, now as ever, " covet the best gifts " for their young, and they 1 Compare Bain, Education as a Science, Chap. I. Bain also endeavours to keep Education apart from Ethics and fails. (See Preface, p. xiii, above ) i INTRODUCTION 7 know that a virtuous life is the only right issue of a scheme of Education. Speculations between the schools of Ethics are here beside the mark. We are not required to create a new Ethic which shall suit the special ends of Education, or to make our choice between Hegel or Herbart, Spencer or Kant. The teacher is one with his kind : he springs from " the people," and takes from them, at their best, the hopes and fears, the ideals and longings, which they express on behalf of their offspring. His Ethics must submit to be the " Ethics of the Period," as the present writer has elsewhere termed it. 1 We must be content here to put our argument into a few brief sentences. (a) Education is a social science, related like other social sciences (Politics, Economics) to Ethics and Philosophy, but compelled to assume the conclusions of philosophy, and to confine itself to its own proper field the welfare of the child, the pupil. (5) This limitation, however, does not warrant the teacher in disregarding the moral issue : he is bound to seek for an ideal, as much as the econo- mist or the politician. He is not describing a series of phenomena : he is an actor in the human tragedy, (Compare Preface, above.) (c) He takes his ideal, therefore, not from the text-book of Speculative Philosophy, but from the open book of human intercourse. The "man in the street " who, in vulgar mood, scorns to speak of the ideal, will, in a more serious and intimate mood, reveal his heart. He has hopes and fears for his children. Hence the teacher, springing out of " the people," working under their direction, takes his 1 Journal of Education, September, 1896. 8 PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING CHAP. ideal from them at their best moments. The lan- guage of the market-place, which speaks of Will, conscience, honour, honesty, An' things o' thet description, 1 may serve him better than the speech of Plato; though, as a scholar and a thinker (apart from his daily task), he may be glad to find himself in the company of the greatest thinkers and teachers, as well as with his humbler friends of the street corner. (d) He has an additional reason for declining to ex- press his ideal in the language of philosophy, because his function is limited to the care of the young. They do not need a new Ethic ; it suffices for them if they are inspired with a real devotion to the moral law of their parents. When they are grown, they may perhaps soar to heights beyond their teacher's ken. But he must abide in the valley ! (e) The popular or traditional aspect of the teacher's function, which limits him to instruction, to lessons and books, was never sound, because it disregarded the eminently important factors of personal influence and of the corporate character of school life. It is now less acceptable than formerly, because of so many new branches of teaching, such as Drawing and Manual Training, which are not concerned with the acquirement of knowledge at all. (Compare Chapters III, XIV, XV, etc.) It may be admitted as valid only in so far as it limits the mode by which the teacher chiefly seeks to achieve his ideal. His ideal is the same as that of the parent, but the means he employs are different. (/) Both parent and teacher aim at the same goal the development of a complete, individual character ; moral not only in respect of intellectual 1 Lowell, Biglow Papers, No. VI. i INTRODUCTION 9 power, 1 which was so rightly emphasised by Arnold and by Herbart, but of sentiment and of action. The unity of the child's life, body and mind, the diversity of the child's activities, compels the teacher to embrace within the scope of his ideal every side of human nature, so far as the limits of the im- mature child-nature extend. Hence we may formulate the Aim of Education to employ the powers and influence of teachers upon pupils, and upon the school society, so as to promote the growth of complete character, physical powers, mental attainments, happy dis- position, force of will; a character fitted to fulfil the duties of adult life so far as the native capa- city and environment of each individual will per- mit. The extent to which the teacher can achieve this aim is circumscribed not only by his own imper- fections, but by the limits of time, opportunity, and responsibility which are imposed upon him by the authorities who control Education. 4. The Control of Education. Responsibility for the welfare of the young is laid in the first in- stance upon various groups (or corporations) 2 of the community which claim a voice in the control of Education. Their claim is based upon some recog- nised function which they fulfil for the common good. The most primitive of these corporations is also the most primitive form of political and social organisa- tion it is the Family. The latest to be summoned to this service is the State, with its various func- tions of local and national authority. Besides these we have the Churches, with their lofty claims to 1 Compare the phrase of Arnold of Rugby, moral thought- fulness, and of Herbart, Erziehender Unterricht. 2 For the use of this term compare Seeley, Lectures on Political Science, Chap. I. 10 PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING CHAP. guard the spiritual interests of the child, and many miscellaneous associations which, in one age or another, have found some motive for taking up the cause of Education. It is no part of our present purpose to discuss the claims, often found in grave conflict, which the Family, the Church, the State make to control the business of the teacher : the fact that they do so control him, alike in a private school, a ' Public School,' or an Elementary School is undeniable. Fortunately for the prospects of Education in Great Britain the discussion of these claims has become a matter of the first political importance ; all authorities are now beginning to realise that their interest and their duty are bound up with the welfare of the rising generation. Many teachers have a dread of the whole movement, which, since 1870, has steadily increased its hold upon the affairs of the school ; but they should surely recognise the absolute dependence of the profession upon these corporations. By dependence is not meant the meaner dependence for bread-and-butter, but for efficiency, and for success in the highest sense of the word. It is only by setting our house in order in the external matters of administration and organisation that we can hope to fulfil our own duty within our own field. Now these corporations perform their functions through the agency of Educational Authorities, some of which cover a large area, national or provincial, and administer Education, while others operate in a smaller field and are entrusted with the organisation of Education in localities. The Board of Education is an example of an administrative authority ; a School Board or a Governing Body is an example of an organising authority. The actual management of schools and of other educational institutions is left (or should be left) in the hands of teachers. So much is necessary by way of definition of terms, so that we may have a clear course when we come to discuss in a later chapter the conditions governing the drafting of a school curriculum. We have admitted to the full, the subordination j INTRODUCTION 11 of the teacher to the authoritias created for the control of Education : let us, on the other hand, claim for him the privileges of a profession, and draw a sharp line between the province of the lay authority and that of the teacher. The creation of a body of recognised teachers, equipped by pro- fessional studies and by experience for the discharge of their office, involves the recognition of this distinction ; and however much it may be, here and there, ignored in the " chaos " of these times, it is not likely that the powers that be, whether parent, Governing Body, or County Council, will seek to degrade the office of those who serve the nation's children. We are here concerned with only one department of this service the business of Class Teaching. This business is obviously of an expert nature, with the details of which a lay " authority " can have no concern ; and if such an authority claims to usurp the teacher's function by prescribing text books, by rigid limitation as to time and manner and method, it should be resisted. On the other hand, the teacher must not assert that the children are his own property ; the " authority " has a claim to consider both the aim of Class Teaching and its results. Those who call the teacher into being have always claimed the right of prescribing to him in general terms the limits within which he shall work. It is for them to exercise a wise discretion in the express- ion of these terms : but it is for the teacher to exercise an equal prudence, not by rebelling against authority, but by seeking to guide public opinion, showing that the advice of an expert differs from the impatience of a rebel, showing also a willingness to yield, except in matters of vital moral principle. 5. The Practice of Education. Let us first 12 PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING CHAP. make an analysis of the topics embraced in the Practice 1 or Conduct of Education. Readers familiar with the later Herbartian literature will ob- serve many points of similarity, and some points of divergence, between this and the Herbartian analysis. 2 a. The distinction between the single pupil, con- sidered apart, and a society of children, in a class or school, taken together, is obvious enough. Every branch of practice needs to take account of the numbers of pupils who are in the teacher's hands at one time. Private tuition must differ in many particulars from class teaching ; the teacher has the advantage of exercising a greater individual in- fluence, but the pupil is deprived of the stimulus afforded by the presence of comrades. We shall not delay to discuss the best possible size for a class under instruction. There are as many opinions on the matter as there are figures ; we shall take it for granted that thirty is a fair average for the size of classes as they actually exist in our schools at the present day. In many schools, some wealthy, some poor, the numbers allotted 1 It will be observed that we do not use the term ' Prac- tice ' in contrast to ' Theory. ' Very little is gained by making a sharp distinction /between the two. Theory treats of the same subject-matter as Practice, but in a more general or philosophic manner. A general text-book, such as this, is necessarily ' theoretical,' but there is no reason why it should be unpractical. In Medicine the distinction is falling into disuse, and it will be abandoned in the study of Education as soon as teachers in general come to treat the study as a serious pursuit.-- Theory without Practice is wind ; Practice without Theory is quackery. Reasonable beings, whether teachers or tinkers, have principles which control their practice, and these principles, when expressed and formu- lated, constitute their theory. 2 Compare especially Rein's Grundriss der Pddagogik (translated as "Outlines of Pedagogics," by Van Liew, Swan Sonnenschein and Co., 1893). i INTRODUCTION 13 to one teacher are larger ; in many others the numbers fall far below thirty. But we may, I think, take it as a common opinion that a teacher of experience will usually be willing to handle a class of > thirty pupils, if the thirty are fairly equal in attain- ments ; he would be unwilling to go up to forty, or to fall below twenty. 1 The chapters, therefore, in this book which deal with Lesson Notes will assume as a rule that the members of a class lie within these limits. In cases, such as many Primary Schools present, where more than forty children are in the charge of a single teacher, the methods here presented must be modified, and the best results cannot be fairly demanded. No pupil can, for example, be trained properly in the arts of speech if he has only an opportunity of expressing himself orally during three minutes of each day, apart from recitation in chorus. Such hindrances to sound method cannot be removed by the teacher ; the authorities who employ him are responsible, and it is gratifying to observe how, year by year, in all countries, the evils of understating are being acknowledged. Where the classes are so large as to prevent the possibility of such attention, special devices have to be employed which run counter to many of the precepts contained in the following chapters. These devices can only be learned in the class- room, and at best they are a poor substitute for sound class- teaching. His Majesty's Inspector of Elementary Schools knows very well that when a teacher is placed in sole charge of eighty children he cannot teach in any real sense of the term, and the Inspector has to deal generously with the results of such a situation. However large a class may be, the methods of handling it must always be based on our acquaintance with the individual child. The unit in Education is not the school, or the class, but the single pupil. However fruitful it may be to discuss " the psychology of the crowd," whether in school or on the streets, 1 For advanced pupils in a Sixth Form, many teachers would place the maximum lower. 14 PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING CHAP. the value of the study depends upon our previous acquaintance with single individuals. Doubtless a pupil will behave very differently when alone and when one of a group of thirty, but he is himself after all ; and the methods by which his single mind is guided are the methods by which the thirty minds must be guided. Hence the necessity for studying the child singly or apart; hence the circumstance that most of the great masters whom we follow, Locke, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Arnold, Her- bart, gained their early experience when in charge of a few pupils only. b. The distinction between tBe mental life and the physical life. Since the aim of Education includes the complete welfare of the young, the teacher can- not venture to omit the care of his pupil's body from his scheme of operation. True the parent is responsible (except in boarding-schools) for susten- ance, sleep, and, in part, for recreation ; but the body does not become extinct during the hours of school. Hence in all schools, the question of Hygiene claims attention in the Practice of Education ; Hygiene not only in respect of heat and ventilation, but in respect of conditions relating to the length of school periods, of home-lessons and the like, which have a direct bearing upon class-teaching. We shall be content in these chapters to assume the ordinary conclusions on these topics which are now accepted by students of School Hygiene, making in- cidental reference here and there as occasion suggests. c. The distinction between the mediate influence and the immediate influence of the teacher. We cannot do better than adopt Herbart's distinction of the teacher's task under the three heads of : Teaching (Unterricht\ Government (Regierung), Guidance i INTRODUCTION 15 (Zucht). 1 He points out that, although the ostensible business of teacher and of pupil is concerned with some branch of study (some medium through which the teacher seeks to attain the aim of Education), all the while the teacher is exercising a personal immediate influence over his pupil, he is both governing him by authority and guiding him by the suggestion of personal influence. Government and Guidance, in contrast to Teaching, may be described as Training (Fuhrung*), 2 and the process of Training, wisely or unwisely conducted, is always proceeding during lesson- hours, although the teacher cannot be perpetually conscious thereof. 3 But in all good schools the influence of the teacher is not wholly confined to the hours of lessons, and the effect of Training is observed more openly in those occasions of inter- course which are presented apart from teaching. A school society imbued with an active corporate life achieves the moral ends of Education with a completeness far beyond what is possible in a place where teacher and scholars always part on the stroke of the clock. And here our first distinction (see 5 (a) above) between the single pupil and the class or school comes once more into play : The social aspect of school life is a leading factor in the Educational problem. A new pupil coming into a large society is influenced quite as much by his schoolfellows as by 1 Herbart's Letters and Lectures on Education, translated by Felkin (Swan Sonnenschein and Co., 1898). The technical terms adopted by the translator are often unfortunate. 2 Rein, as above, II., B. 2. "Train up a child in the way he should go," said the wise man. Teaching in Old Testament days was not recognised as a function separate from training. 3 The present writer has discussed the Theory of Guidance more fully in "The Personal Influence of the Teacher." Educational Times, November, 1898. 16 PRINCIPLES OF CLASS TEACHING CHAP, i the personality of his teacher. The tone, the quality of the school atmosphere, may be a vague element, difficult to analyse, but it is an immensely powerful agent in the creation of character, and in the last resort its virtue springs from the personal influence and power of the school staff. The distinctions now made enable us to set out in order the fields of activity which are embraced within the teacher's province ; only the last of these concerns us in this book. A complete treatise on The Practice of Education, planned as a sequel to the study of The Aim and The Control of Education, would involve the following : I. The Physical Training of the child and the Hygienic Conditions of school life. II. The Training (including Physical Exercises) of Children, including their Government and Guid- ance both as individuals and in the corporate life of class and school. III. The Teaching of Children, i.e., the employ- ment of various occupations and branches of in- struction as a specific means of attaining the Aim of Education. This last is the proper topic before us ; and it has been made clear that while the Teaching of Children is an inquiry which needs to be pursued apart from other functions of the teacher, the connection between the three departments cannot be ignored. While therefore we shall keep within the limits prescribed by the title-page, 1 we shall find it necessary to refer incidentally to conditions relating to the physical life and to the Training of the pupil where these affect closely the problems of Teaching. 1 It will be observed that we define the term Teaching to, cover both Curriculum (Material) and Method, pg -c.0- o lag ^^ pq x< * ofan ^" 2 1 - a^.* gJ .2^3 o w ' 1 G tJDtJO go <1 -+3 >>, 3 ^1 B P3 . e8 ^ & a ^n-itS o ^j H w H g S.| ,11 |l 5| ' Hi 1 7\ H ^ .rf ^ -t- 3 O fl O ^ I ^3 H *- 2 Jl > O >s ^c ^ fc2 rd A 2 co^ 'OB^ 2 S-I 5 ^^ 1 1 1 H I ll| 5COpHfc>EH O>COo3 C5 ^ o ^ O | "] g ^ n 3< T3 H HH i | 0) H H di ryi ^sr o r/) 5^ tD HH ( s '' "S > E RELATION OF TOPIC! CONDUCT) OF EDUC THE CHILD, OR P OJ ^ l.| w ^ 1 Indirect : Employing va- rious branches of Teach- ing,* as means towards the end of Education. Method, considered types of Lessons ; with the idiosyncra 8 1 o> 0) 43 W ^ 'o *o eS H M 13 12 "2 g ^o & & O t~r tio tdo J ^J rH .^H d .3 t i H P c3 o> S-i J8 1 1 ** Lp 1 *a 1 W ^ , ^, s d a g cd ^ ^ CO >"^ .S g !s >? 1 iia& '"'S.-'g -g 1 3 . g O LC ^o^ ^^Sosrt S^ * W 's'S.S 05 1 P ^"Si^a ^^ ^