UC-NRLF B 3 1DM ALPHABET OF BOTANY. JAMES RENNIE, M. A. PRICE HALF-A-CROWN. THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID ALPHABET OF BOTANY, FOR THE USE OF BEGINNERS. BY JAMES RENNIE, M. A, PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, KINo's-COLLKGE, LONDON. REVISED, WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS. RKV. JOHK RAY, M.A. F.R.S. LONDON : WILLIAM ORR, 14, PATERNOSTER ROW. MDCCCXXXIII. ;v .< LONDON: BRADBURY AND RVANS, (LATH T. DAV1SON,) WHITBTRIARS. CONTENTS. Page PLAN OF THE WORK Botany multiplies human pleasures . xiii The Author's first and most recent botanical rambles ib. Minute study does not narrow the mind . xiv Want of plainness in introductory books . xv All confined to some system . . . ib. List of Philosophical Botanists . . xvi List of Systematic Botanists omitted . . ib. Notice of the Second Edition . . ib. THE WORD PLANT In what plants differ from animals . . .1 Wire-drawn distinctions useless . . . . 2 External parts of a plant . . . .3 MEMBERS OF PLANTS The term Appendage objectionable . . . 4 Order of description . . . ib. ROOTS Their office . . . . . ib. Dutch fruit trees in pots ... . .5 Roots in palms . . . ib. Depth of roots . . . . ib. Parts of a root . . . ib. Body of a root . . . . ib. Legends of the mandrake and devil's bit . . . 6 Effect of stones on roots . - . . . ib. Use of the tubers in potatoes . . ib. Crown or life-knot of a root . . .7 Varieties in annuals and perennials . ib. Radicles or branches of a root . . . ib. Rootlets or fibres of a root . . . . 8 Their use proved by experiment . . ib. Effects of soil on roots . . . ib. Experiments on the lengthening of roots . ib . Propagation by cuttings and layers . . .9 Roots shun the light . . . ib. Experiment on a misseltoe . . 10 Experiments on French beans . . ib. No roots of a green colour . . ib. TUBERS AND CORMS . . . .11 Potatoes and the corm of crocus not roots . . ib. IV CONTENTS. Page BULBS Root buds of the tulip . . . .11 Bulbs mistaken for roots . . , .12 Bulbs similar to buds . . . ib. Stalk-bulbs in the tiger- lily . . . ,13 Bulbs ? in ferns, mosses, and lichens . . ib. STEMS . . . . . .13 Character of stems . . . 14 Varieties in stems . . . . ib. Distinction of plants by their stems into trees, shrubs, herbs, and palms . . . 15 BUDS Popular meaning of budding . . . ib. Forms of buds . . . ib. Leaf- buds and flower-buds . . . .16 Flowers rolled up in their buds . . 17 Buds of grasses . . . . .18 Buds of the oak and the horse- chestnut . 19 Providence of bud-eating birds and insects . . 20 Bonnet's arrangement of buds . . . ib. Darwin's fancy about buds . . . ib. Budding or bud grafting . . . ib. LEAVES Their office similar to that of lungs . . .21 Parts of a leaf . . ib. The leaf-stalk . . . . ib. The terms Nerves and Veins objectionable . . 22 Leaf-ribs and riblets . . . . ib. Varieties of leaf-ribs . . ib. Dr. Drummond's arrangement . . .23 Professor Lindley's arrangement . ib. Expansion of the mid-rib a guide . . . ib. Simple Leaves Variety in form . . . ib. Branchings of the mid-rib .... ib. Compound Leaves Variety in form . . . 2/ Winged leaves . . . . .28 Doubly winged leaves . . . 29 Circumference of Leaves Varieties in the tip . . . . . 30 Varieties in the margin . . . 31 Borderings of the margin . . . .32 Insertion and Direction of Leaves . . 33 With relation to the stem or branch . . . ib. With relation to their distribution . . . ib. With respect to direction . . . . ib. With respect to duration . . 34 Leaf, flower, and fruit scales . . . ib. The leaf-scale . . . . ib. The floral leaf . . . . ib CONTENTS. V Page Fence of flower-scales . % . ,.35 Fruit scales . ... 36 BRANCHES . . . . 37 Branches measure more than their stems . ib. Utility of pruning . . . ib. Acacias of Belgium and pollards of England . . ib. Varieties of branches . . . 38 Characters of sprays .... ib. SCALES, HAIRS, PRICKLES, AND THORNS . . . ib. Scales on fern stalks .... ib. Hairs on plants like those on animals . . . ib. Terms applied to hairs . . ,39 Leaves like felt or cloth . . . ib. Varieties of hairs and bristles . . ib. Prickles characterised . . . 40 Sting of the nettle . . . . . ib. Thorns different from prickles . . . ib. Theoretical fancies . . . . . ib. GLANDS . . . . 41 Differ from the glands of animals . . ib. The pitcher plant . 42 CLASPERS AND TENDRILS .... ib. Claspers of ivy mistaken for roots . ib. Varieties of tendrils . . . .43 FLOWERS . . . . ib. Considered as members .... ib. Wild Theory of Goethe and Von Martius . ib. THE FLOWER-STALK AND INFLORESCENCE Confusion in botanical works . . ib. Simple flower- stalks .... ib. Compound flower-stalks . . ib. Professor Roper's arrangement . . ib. Centripetal Evolution of Flowers . . . . 45 Forms of centripetal flowers . ^J . ib. Centrifugal Evolution . . . 48 Forms of centrifugal flowers . . . ib. Mixed Evolution . . . 49 The Flower- Cup Puzzling to beginners . . .50 Cup always the expanded bud-scales . . 51 Curtain in mushrooms . . . ib* Veil in mosses . . . . ib. Husk in corn and grass . . . ib. Sheath in lilies , . . . ib. Colours of the flower -cup . . . ib. Parts of the flower-cup . 52 Varieties in position . . .53 The Receptacle Proper or common . - . . ib. VI CONTENTS. Page Receptacle in the strawberry . . .53 The Blossom Disputes as to what is really the blossom . . . 54 Opinions of Richard and of De Candolle . . ib. General description of the blossom , . . 55 Regular blossoms of one petal . . .56 Irregular blossoms of one petal . . 57 Regular blossoms of several petals . .58 Irregular blossoms of several petals . . . ib. Illogical account of the nectary by Linnaeus . .59 The Stamens The male organs of reproduction . . . ib. Their importance in systems . . .60 The Disc Its situation . . . . . ib. The Pistils The female organs of reproduction . 6l Their importance in systems . . .62 FABRIC OF PLANTS . . . 63 Comparison with animals .... ib. Texture of plants . . . ib. TISSUE OF CELLS '. . . . . ib. Formed like froth by the expansion of gas . 64 Varieties of their form . . ib. Intercellular Canals . . . 66 Figured from Link . . . . . ib. Their existence denied by Rudolphi and Mirbel . . ib. TISSUE OF FIBRES . . . . .67 Similar to animal bones . . . . ib. Its infinite divisibility according to Du Hamel . ib. The Straight Vessels . . . . 67 According to Grew . . . . ib. According to Leeuwenhoeck, Hill, and Mirbel . . 68 Pores of Tissue ..... According to Hook, Kieser, De Candolle, Mirbel, Amici, Dutrochet, and A. Richard . . 69 Silver Grain . . . . 70 Formed by compression . . . .71 TISSUE OF VESSELS . . . ib. Opinions of Kieser and Link . . . ib. The Spiral Vessels . . . . . ib. Opinions of Malpighi, Grew, aud Du Hamel . . 72 Opinions of Hill, Reichel, and Hedwig . . . ib. Opinions of Mirbel, De Candolle,Treviranus,andBernhardi 73 Transformation of vessels . . . ib. THE FLUIDS OF PLANTS . . . .75 The sap frequently confounded with other fluids . . ib. The pulp or prepared sap . . . . ib, Peculiar fluids .... fft. CONTENTS. Vli Page THE SKIN OR RIND OF PLANTS . . .76 Like the scarf skin of animals . ib. Stretches as the plant grows . . '77 Opinions respecting its origin . . . ib. The Pores of the Rind . . . 79 Remarks of Rudolphi and M. A. Richard . 80 Opinions of Link and R. Brown . . .81 Air Cells . . . . . . ib. Similar to the spiracles of insects . . ib. Experiments of Dutrochet . . . ib. The Coloured Rind . . . . .82 Lies immediately under the outer rind . . . ib. THE INNER BARK . . . . . ib. Composed of two layers . . . . ib. The pulp bark . ... 83 Terms applied to the Rind . . 84 Varieties in aspect and surface . . . ib. THE WOOD OF PLANTS . . . ib. Composed of fibrous tissue and silver grain . . 85 Annual layers or rings , . . ib. THE PITH^OF PLANTS .... ib. The pith tube . ib. ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS . . 86 This department neglected by Botanists . ib. A leading branch of Botany .... ib. ORGANS OF DIGESTION . . . ib. Plants have no locomotion .... ib. Must find their food where they grow . . . ib. Food of Plants . . . . . ib. Plants can only take liquid food . . 87 Water only the vehicle, not the real food . ib. Proofs from hyacinths . . ib. Proofs from experiments with distilled water . ib. Proofs from chemical analysis . . . ib. Lassaigne's experiment . . . ib. Subject still imperfectly understood . 88 The Spongelets or Suckers .... ib. Suckers of plants differ from those of insects . . ib. Will not admit fluids thicker than water . ib. Plants famished in the midst of plenty . ib. Experiment of Sir H. Davy . . 89 Suckers of leaves . ib. Experiments of Bonnet and Du Hamel . ib. Propagation by cuttings . ib. Experiments of Hales - 90 The alleged course of the sap . ib. Rain and river water preferable to spring water . ib. Principles of manuring . . . 91 Abortive proposal of Kretschmar and Tull . ib. Vlll CONTENTS. Page Fertility of volcanic and basaltic soils , 91 Digestion . , . . . .92 Supposition of a sort of saliva . . il>. ORGANS OF CIRCULATION .... ib. The pith, popularly termed the heart . . . ib. No organ in plants like the animal heart . . . ib. Capillary attraction . . . .93 Opinions of Grew, Malpighi, and Borelli . . . ib. Opinions of Du Hamel, Saussure, Mirbel, aridT' A. Knight ib. Opinions of De La Hire, Perault, and De Candolle . ib. Dutrochet's celebrated experiments . 94 Experiment by Hales . . . .95 Experiment on the influence of heat . . . ib. Difference of the effect of day and night . 96 Experiments and Researches on Circulation . ib. Discovery by Corti ..... ib. Observations of Amici and Schultz . . . ib. . Experiments of Link . . . -97 Experiments of Bischoff . . 98 Preparation of the Pulp ., . .99 How to obtain the water evaporated . . . ib. The usual proportion evaporated . * ib. Descent of the Pulp . . . ib. Experiments of Darwin, and T. A. Knight . .100 Experiments of Du Hamel and De Sarrabat . . ib. Moving force not understood . . . ib. The Pulp Cells . . . . ib. Superfluous pulp stored up . . ib. Reservoir ceUs for this purpose . . ib. Descriptions by Malpighi and Dutrochet . . ib. Opinion of De Candolle . 101 ORGANS OP AERATION .... ib. Plants destitute of lungs or gills . . ib. Air indispensable to plants .... ib. Action of the animal lungs on air in the dark . . 102 Action of plants on air in the light . . . ib. Oxygen and water given off . . ib. Quantity of water exhaled .... ib. Light indispensable to aeration . . ib. Effects of shade on plants . . . .103 Colour of leaves and flowers . . . ib. Opinions of Sennebier . . . ib. Autumnal changes of colour . . ib. Researches of Macaire . > . ib. Effects of smoke upon plants . 104 Air purified by plants . . . ib. Deteriorated during the night . . . ib. Effects of azote on plants . . . ib. Evolution of heat in cuckoo-pint . * 105 Odours of plants . . . . ib. CONTENTS. IX Page ORGANS OF S-ECRETION . . . . . 105 Comparison with animal glands . . . ib. Poisons kill the individuals that secrete them . .106 ORGANS OF SENSATION ... ib. Fancies of Darwin . . . ib. Sensitive plant . . . . ib. Experiments of Professor Burnet . . . 107 Experiments of Dutrochet .... ib. Effects of poisons on plants . . ib. Experiments of Marcet, Macaire, Christison, and Turner ib. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION . . . .108 Discovery of the sexuality of plants . ib. Foundation of the Linnaean system . - ib. The Anthers and Pollen . . ' . ib. Structure of anthers . . . . ib. Singular anthers of laurel . . . . ib. Structure of pollen . . . . 1 09 Description by Guillemin . . . ib. Researches of Adolphe Brongniart . . . ib. Observations of Amici . . . 110 Pollen of the orchis . . . . ib. Observations of Needham and R. Brown . . . ib. Whether all things be alive .... ib. The Pistils and Seed- Organs . . ib. Action of the pollen on the pistil . . . ib. Experiments oil the hop by Lecoq . . . ib. Observations of Amici and R. Brown . .Ill According to Adolphe Brongniart . 112 Experiments of Balliard .... ib. The situation of the seed-organ . . 113 Its usual form . . . . .114 Structure according to Gaertner and R. Brown . . ib. Misstatement of Linnaeus .... ib. Membranes of the seed-organ . . 115 The outer membrane .... ib. The middle membrane . . . ib. The inner membrane . . . . . ib. Its chambers and partitions .... ib. The verge or placenta . . . . . 1 16 The scar and seed-stalk . ib. Expansion of the seed-stalk . . . . ib. The pillar or column in the centre . . ib. The dehiscence of seed-organs . . . ib. The Seed The regions of a seed . . . 118 Apertures of a scar . . . . ib. The shell or outer coat . . . . ib. Its uses . . . . . .119 The kernel . . . . ib. Structure of the kernel . . . . ib. The outer and inner seed-pulp . . 120 The embryo . . . . . ib. The radicle and its sheath . . . ib. X CONTENTS. Page The seed-lobe or cotyledon . . . .121 Foundation of Jussieu's system . . ] 22 The neck . . . . . . 123 The gemlet or plumelet . . . ib. Arrangement of Seeds and Fruits . . .124 Labours of Gaertner, Richard, Mirbel, and Desvaux . 1 25 Seeds, their varieties . . . ib. Fruits, their varieties .... ib. GROWTH OF PLANTS Appropriate soil and situation . , 127 DIFFUSION OF SEEDS .... ib. Number of seeds in poppy and in tobacco . .128 Seeds diffused by animals . . . . ib. Spring mechanism of the seed organ . . ib. Details taken from the violet . . ib. Observations on heart's-ease . . .129 Rose of Jericho . . . ib. Winged seeds of ash and sycamore . . .130 Floating bulbs (if bulbs they are) of mosses . . ib. Mistake of Linnaeus . . . . ib. Discovery by J. Drummond . . ib. Green matter of Dr. Priestley . . . ib. GERMINATION . . . . ib. Indispensable for the seed to have been fecundated and ripened . . . . . .131 Water indispensable . . . ib. Too much water injurious, and why . . . ib. Heat important, but too much of it injurious . . ib. Air necessary ..... 132 Experiments of Homberg and Humboldt . . . ib. Light unfavourable to germination . . . ib. Remarks of Mirbel on light . . . ib. Time required for germination . . ib. Phenomena of Germination . . 133 Enlargement and softening of the shell . . ib. Shell prevents the entrance of too much water . ; ib. Use of the seed-pulp .... ib. Experiments of Desfontaines and Vastel . ib. Upright Growth of Plants . . .134 Experiments of Knight and Dutrochet . ib. Creeping stems . . . . ib. Weak stems . . . . ' . . ib. Twining stems . . . .135 Germination of Plants with one Seed- Lobe . . . ib. Observations of Malpighi, Poiteau, and Yule . . ib. Daily history of a grain of wheat . ib. Cause of wheat being so prolific . . .136 False alarm from a species of fly . . . . 137 Young wheat eaten down with horses . . ib. Germination of the cabbage palm, from Von Martius . ib. Germination of Plants with two Seed-Lobes . 13Q More easily observed than the preceding . . ib. CONTENTS. XI Page Daily history of a germinating pea . . . 139 The chestnut and horse-chestnut . . .140 The Trunk of Plants . . . ib. Structure of the trunk of a tree . . . ib. Parts of the wood . . . 141 Pulp- wood improperly termed sap-wood . . ib. Rings of wood . . . ib. The pith -tube . . . . ib. The centre of the pith or tube in hemlock . ib. The straw of grasses t ib. The stalk of palms . . . ib. Its singular structure and form . . .142 GROWTH OF TREES HAVING Two SEED-LOBES . . ib. Different opinions of philosophical Botanists . . ib. Opinions of Malpighi, Grew, and Parent . . . ib. Opinions of Hales, Mustel, and Du Hamel . . 143 Opinions of T. A. Knight and Mirbel . . . 144 Opinion of A. Richard .... 145 Experiments of Kieser, Link, and Dutrochet . . 148 Opinions of De La Hire, Darwin, and Du Petit Thouars . 147 Opinion of Amici . . . . 148 Summary . . . . . . ib. Chestnut of Mount Etna . . . . 149 Growth in height . . . . . ib. Height of forest trees . . . ib. American palm, according to Von Martius . . ib. Flow of sap checked . . . . . 150 Fall of the leaf . . . . . ib. Not caused by cold . . . ib. AGE OF PLANTS ... ib. Short life of mould . . . ib. Mosses and annual plants , . . .151 Biennials . . . . . ib. Trees have lived for as much as six thousand years . ib. Table of aged trees . . . ib. Death of trees . . . ( . . ib. THEORY OF THE METAMORPHOSIS OF PLANTS . 153 Invented by Goethe in 1790 . . . ib. Bearing of the doctrine .... ib. Mr. Lindley's theoretical plant . . 155 Analogies taken for realities > 156 Loop-hole of the theory . . . . 157 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS Classing and naming plants is not science . . 153 This indispensable as a mere rudiment . . ib. Delusions prevalent on this subject . . . ib- Practical mischief caused by systems and their erroneous rules . . . . . ib. LINNJEAN CLASSIFICATION OP PLANTS, CALLED THE ARTI- FICIAL SYSTEM. Tourneforte's system outrivalled by the Linnsean . . 159 Stamens selected instead of the petals . ib. Xll CONTENTS. Page Orders determined by the pistils . . 150 Plants do not always conform to this system . .160 The system too natural ! ! ! . . ib. Character of Linnaeus . . . . ib. First Linncean Lesson . . . ] 60 Questions upon flowers , . 16 1 The twenty-four Linrircan classes . . . ib. Second Linncean Lesson . . . 162 Plants with apparent and with non- apparent flowers . ib. 1 . Flowers with definite and equal stamens . . t b . 2. Flowers with indefinite stamens . . .166 3. Flowers with two of the stamens shorter . . 167 4. Flowers with stamens united by their filaments . 168 5. Flowers with stamens united by their anthers . 169 6. Flowers with stamens and pistils united . . .170 7. Flowers of only one sex . . .171 8. No flowers apparent on the plant . . . 172 This system extensively injurious . . . ib. Easier to understand than to apply . ib. Instance from red valerian .... ib. Withal, this system superior to all others . ib. CLASSIFICATION OP JUSSIEU, ALLEGED TO BE THE NATU- RAL SYSTEM ..... 173 Jussieu fixed upon the seed . . ib. Chief employment of modern Botanists . . ib. Sorting the characteristics of seeds cannot be science . ib. Logical exercise of the mind . . . 174 First Lesson on Jussieu's System Plants classed by their seeds or by their structure . . ib. De Candolle's classes . . . " .175 Second Lesson on Jussieu's System . . . ib. Plants without seed-lobes or sap and pulp vessels . ib. Seeds with one seed-lobe . . . . 176 Seeds with two or more seed-lobes . . .177 1. Flowers without petals . . ib. 2. Flowers with one-petaled blossoms . .178 3. Flowers with many petaled blossoms . 179 4. Flowers with the stamens and pistils in separate blossoms . . . . .180 OBJECTIONS TO THE NATURAL SYSTEM Its alleged character . . . .181 Its true character incongruous and unnatural groupings 182 Instances given from Professor Lindley . . . ib. Wholesome and poisonous plants . . . ib. Inert and actively medicinal plants . 183 Dangerous principles of the Natural System . .184 The days of mystery and nonsense nearly over . . ib. Classing and naming of plants . . . ib. PLAN OF THE WORK, IF it may be considered of some little moment, in this world of care, to multiply the sources of human enjoyment, the study of Botany, independently of any "other circumstance, ought to stand high in the estimation of those who have more leisure than they know well how to get rid of. So long as every plant that intrudes itself unbidden into the garden or the corn field is stigmatised as a weed, and every flower that may blow by the way side, though it beautify the hedge bank or the green lane, or though, in the fine poetical language of Scripture, it cause "the wilder- ness and the solitary place to be glad, and the desert to rejoice and blossom as the rose" so long, I say, as such are passed unheeded by those who walk abroad in the fields, they might almost as well be previously blindfolded, since they must overlook many thousand beauties, which the Botanist everywhere discovers, and must lose more than half the pleasure they might otherwise enjoy. I was about fifteen when I took my first botanical ramble with Withering's British Plants under my arm, and the fresh enthusiasm of youth to spur me onward in the path of knowledge. The day, I recol- lect, was one of the loveliest in what Coleridge so expressively calls " the leafy month of June ; " and I soon found a spot on the banks of the Ayr, where there were more flowers than it was possible for a mere beginner to master, even with a long summer's day at his command. I was delighted, however, to make out, XIV PLAN OF THE WORK. by the aid of my book, the pretty bright blue flowered germander speedwell, and one or two more plants of easy discovery, which I happily met with ; and from that day to the present moment, when I am just returned from botanising in the place so splendidly described by Lord Byron, where, " The castelPd crag of Drachenfels Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine, " CHILDE HAROLD. I have never felt more simple and unalloyed pleasure than in the study of Botany. By widening the field of thought, if such an expres- sion be allowable, this study- adds much to the plea- sures of a traveller, even when wandering among the sublimest scenery of Nature ; and though Akenside, in a fine burst of poetry, exclaims, " Who, that from Alpine heights, his labouring eye Shoots round the wide horizon, to survey Nilus or Ganges rolling his bright wave Through mountains, plains, through empires black with shade, And continents of sand : will turn his gaze To mark the windings of a scanty rill That murmurs at his feet ? " PLEASURES OF IMAGINATION. yet this does not agree with my own experience ; for while on our British " Alpine heights," when admiring, as I have done, a glorious sunset from the top of Skiddaw, and while watching the thick mustering of thunder-clouds from the summit of Snowdon ; and no less in Switzerland, when viewing, as I have done, the unclouded majesty of Mont Blanc in the bright sunshine of summer, from the lofty ridge of the Col de Balm, I have always found my thoughts expanded rather than narrowed ; my fancy elevated rather than brought low, by turning from the magnificence and grandeur around me, to the minute plants growing and blooming at my feet. In all such circumstances, while studying the look, the aspect, the countenance of things, as I may call it, from the tiniest moss, or the PLAN OF THE WORK. XV smallest flower, up to the mountain range and the expanded firmament, the interpretation thereof has rushed irresistibly into my mind, " The hand that made us is DIVINE," ADIHSON. The following little book, then, is intended to assist beginners, who commence, as I myself did, without any instructor, and who may find, as I did, that all the ordinary books purporting to be elementary intro- ductions, are written on the principle of the student knowing a great deal before he begins ; or rather of the authors being seemingly afraid of vulgarising their science by making it too plain. Having no fear of this kind, but rather that of not being plain enough, I shall never be deterred from resorting to the plainest and most homely language, in order to be as intelligible as possible. The chief feature, however, that distinguishes the present little book is, that it is not confined to the mere exposition of a system. Most of the elementary works on Botany are limited to illustrations of the Linnsean System, and a few comprehend also the Jussieuan System ; but whilst I have introduced out- lines of both these systems, I have, at the same time, placed more prominently the most important parts of the science connected with Structure, Fructification, aud Germination. I have further rejected the modern fanciful nonsense of every part of a plant being only a metamorphosed leaf. (See page 153.) It has been very injurious to the genuine science of Botany, that it has been recently fashionable to place the names of mere systematic Botanists so much higher than those who study the superior branches of the science, as to cause the latter to be thereby much over- looked and neglected. The great masters of philoso- phical Botany, whose works I earnestly request the student to peruse, are Grew, Malpighi, Leuwenhoeck, Ray, Micheli, Reichel, Hill, Saussure, Bonnet, Du XVI PLAN OF THE WORK. . Hamel, Hales, Hedwig, Gaertner, Comparetti, Kroc- ker, Mirbel, Link, Rudolphi, Treviranus, Moldenhewer, Kieser, Turpin, Sennebier, Spallanzani, Darwin, Keith, Ellis, Knight, Dutrochet, Amici, Adolphe Brongniart, Girou de Busaraingues, and a few others. It is honour- able to our own country to have produced such able observers and experimenters as Grew, Hales, Ellis, and T. A. Knight. I leave it to others to give a similar list of the Systematists, who can never stand in a higher rank than mere pioneers, whose labours are indispensably necessary to the philosophers in the higher departments of the science. Bonn on the Rhine, July 20th, 1832. ALPHABET OF BOTANY. THE WORD PLANT. IT will be useful, on commencing the study of which this little book treats, to mention some of the points that distinguish plants from the other productions of nature. The word Plant l means " fixed/' or " rooted," and hence any production without this leading character- istic is not a plant, though several distinctions besides this are necessary; for otherwise a dead post, the column of a portico, or a granite rock, might be called a plant, from being fixed or rooted. In a general sense we say that every tree, shrub, herb, grass, fern, moss, sea- weed, or mushroom, is a plant ; and popularly it may be said that a plant consists of a root, a stem, and leaves, though many plants, such as mosses and lichens, want one or all of these parts. Plants differ from animals in having no common mouth, no common gullet, no stomach for the reception (l) In Greek jSoraj/Tj, from which we take our English word Botany. 2 THE WORD PLANT. and digestion of food, and no intestines. They have besides no heart, and consequently no fluid like blood circulating from a point and returning to the same. It follows that they have no lungs, and consequently do not breathe like animals, though they imbibe and exhale gases. The movements of animals are all made by means of muscles or fleshy ribands ; but plants have none of these, and the only locomotion, therefore, which they possess, consists in the extension of parts as in the runners of the strawberry, or the rooting branches of the bramble and the banyan tree ; or in the death of one bulb or corm, and growth of another, as in the orchis and meadow saffron. Animals again are all more or less endowed with sensibility by means of nerves ; but plants have no nerves, and hence, in all probability, no feeling similar ' to animal sensations. The appearances supposed to indicate feeling in plants I shall afterwards notice. Dr. Virey remarks that the organs of reproduction in animals are permanent; in plants the organs of reproduction are renewed and fall off every year. Much ingenuity has been superfluously wasted in discussions to determine whether certain productions, such as the sponge and the freshwater polypus, are plants or animals. It would be equally wise, as it appears to me, for a chemist to set about determining whether Epsom salts is an acid or an alkali ; for a sponge and other similar productions may be neither animal nor vegetable, and yet may contain chemical principles from both. The eggs or seeds of some sponges have been observed. BULBOUS BUTTERCUP. It is contrary to the best established principles of philosophy, also, to maintain with Professor Agardh and M. Unger, that plants, such as the changeable crow-silk, are actually transformed into animals 1 . The following figure contains most of the external parts of a plant. Bulbous Buttercup (Ranunculus Bulbosus}. a, root; b, bulb: c, root leaves ; d, stem; e, stem -leaves ; /, branches; #, flower- stalk ; h, flowers. (l) See INSECT TRANSFORMATIONS, chap, vi., where I have discussed this at length. B2 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. UNDER the term member, I shall consider the parts of plants which project from the main body, chiefly with regard to their form, leaving their internal struc- ture to be afterwards noticed. The term appendage, often used in modern works, is theoretical and objec- tionable. With few exceptions plants consist of a part below ground, called the root, and a part above ground, which in the greater number of instances is called the stem. In describing the members of animals, it is most convenient and natural to begin at the head, but in plants it is usual, and perhaps best, to begin at the root, proceeding from this to the stem and its buds, leaves, branches, and flowers. THE root l of a plant performs the two important offices of retaining it in a fixed position, and supplying it with nourishment, being therefore analogous to the limbs and mouths of animals. In transplanting trees^ it is accordingly found, that the roots are proportional to the branches, spreading widely in trees planted in an open field, but remaining (1) In Latin, Radix or Axis descendcns. in a narrow compass in thick woods and forests l ; and further, that the roots spread much farther on the windward than on the sheltered side of a tree, in order to form a secure hold-fast ; while the branches spread least in the windward side. Advantage is taken of this law by the Dutch gardeners, who rear fruit trees in garden-pots, for the roots being thus kept confined, prevent the branches from spreading. In palms and pines, on the contrary, the lofty stems arise from very short roots ; and many slender herbs, such as lucerne and rest harrow, have very long roots. The perpendicular extent of roots depends greatly on the looseness or compactness of the soil ; Du Hamel thence found the root of an oak, sown in a rich deep soil, to be four feet in length, while the stem rose only six inches. In lichens which encrust rocks, walls, and the bark of trees, I am disposed to consider the whole under surface of the plant as the root, which always clings with more or less firmness to the spot where it grows. A root usually consists of several parts, the body, the collar or life-knot, the branches or radicles, when such exist, and the rootlets or small fibres which seem to be indispensable in all roots. The body of the root 2 , which is sometimes termed simply the root, varies greatly in form in different spe- cies. It may be vertical 3 , spindle-shaped 4 , conical 5 , (1) See ALPHABET OF SCIENTIFIC GARDENING, page 31, &c., where illustrative figures are given. (2) In Latin, Caudex. (3) In Latin, Perpendicular is. (4) In Latin, Fusiformis. (5) In Latin, Conica. O MEMBERS OF PLANTS. turnip-shaped l , round 2 , twin 3 , palmate 4 , as in peony., digitate 5 . abrupt 6 , knotted 7 , tuberculated 8 , bun- dled 9 , jointed 10 , contorted ", fibrous l ~, hairy I3 , or beaded H . Of spindle-shaped roots, the best known is that of the carrot ; the most famous in legendary superstition is that of the mandrake, which, however, is not simple, but forked. The abrupt root of a species of scabious is popularly said to have been bitten off by the Devil, a superstition absurdly retained in the terms of scien- tific works on botany. In popular belief, also, imagi- nary restorative properties are contained in the twin roots of orchis. It is worthy of remark, that when the body of a root comes upon a stone, it either divides or goes round it, moulding itself thereupon. I have a specimen of an alder root grown amongst gravel, all over marked with the contour of small stones. On the other hand, when certain roots, such as that of timothy grass, are planted in a moist soil, they are fibrous, but if removed to a dry loose soil, they become tuberculated. This circumstance corroborates the opinion, that the tubers on the roots of potatoes and some other plants^ (1) In Latin, Napiformis. (2) In Latin, Rotunda. (3) In Latin, Didyma. (4) In Latin, Palmata. (5) Tn Latin, Digitata. (6) In Latin, Abrupta or Preemorsa, which is bad. (7) In Latin, Nodosa. (8) In Latin, Tuberculata or Granulata. (9) In Latin, Fasciculafa. (10) In Latin, Articulate. (11) In Latin, Contorta. (12) In Latin, Fibrosa. (13) In Latin, Comosa. (14) In Latin, Moniliformi*. are intended to store up nourishment for the young plants of a succeeding season, in a similar manner to the fat stored up in adolescent insects and animals which become torpid in winter. The shrivelling up o the potato, after the young plant has sprouted and grown, proves the same view. The most essential part of every root is the crown l , collar, or life-knot, which is the portion of the plant between the stem or leaves and the body of the root. In many plants, such as the primrose, nearly the whole body of the root may be cut away, and still the plant will grow; but though the body of the root is un- touched, if the crown only be removed or seriously injured, it will inevitably die. The crown of a carrot cut off during winter, and made to swim in a glass of water in a warm room, will shoot out vigorous leaves, When the crown of a root is slender, it dries up as the seed ripens, and the plant soon dies. Such plants are termed annuals, as the poppy, and most sorts of grass and corn. But when from soil, climate, or cul- ture, the crown of the root is rendered strong, several annuals are brought to grow two years, and are then called biennials; or for several years, and are then called perennials. Thus the annual mignonette be- comes perennial in Egypt, and the marvel of Peru and the castor oil plant, which are annuals in Europe, are perennial in warm countries, as is also the scarlet runner. The radicles or branches 2 of roots are to the main (1) In Latin, Collum; in French, Collet. (2) In Latin, Rami or diminutively Ramuli. 8 MEMBERS OP PLANTS. body what the branches are to the stem, originating and growing in a manner precisely similar, and increasing yearly after the first year in thickness, but not in length. A tuft of grass accordingly has in this way been found with its root branches so much thickened as to form almost a solid mass, in cases where the life of the plant has been many years preserved, in conse- quence of its being regularly nibbled down by sheep and prevented from seeding. The small fibres or rootlets 1 , though an essential part of a plant, may be destroyed in most cases with- out causing its death, on account of their being readily reproduced so long as the crown is uninjured. It is at the tips indeed of these rootlets that the spongelets are situated, which take up the food of the plant from the soil. To prove this by Sennebier's experiment, plunge a turnip or a radish in water all but its tail where the rootlets grow, and it will soon wither ; place the root- lets only in the water, and it will shoot out fresh leaves. The rootlets, like the leaves of trees that are not evergreen, are produced annually ; in some cases dying and falling off like leaves, as in the dahlia ; and in others becoming thicker, harder, and forming radicles or root branches, no longer capable of performing the office of rootlets in taking in nourishment, as in most trees. This view is beautifully corroborated by plants with fibrous roots growing in loose dry sand, in which, in order to procure all the little moisture possible, an (1) In Latin, Fibrillcs or Radicufa. ROOTS. 9 incalculable number of rootlets grow from the radicles as fine as hairs. a, fibrous root of grass ; 6, the same, downy from growing in loose sand. The roots of trees and most other plants, when once formed, do not lengthen, except at the tips, a fact proved by Du Ham el and Mr. T. A. Knight, who tied threads around roots, and found that the spaces between the threads always measured, the same. In the orchis group, Professor Lindley proved, by similar experi- ments, that this does not hold. The great care which Providence has taken for the preservation of the life of plants, is strikingly mani- fested in the fact, that any part of a plant which is furnished with pores, or, in other words, which can form buds, leaves, or branches, may be made to shoot out rootlets, by placing it in warm and moist earth. It is on this principle that plants are propagated by cuttings and layers. It is a singular property of roots, that they seem as anxious to shun the light, as the leaves and young 10 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. shoots are to turn to it ; and heiice, when Dutrochet caused a misseltoe seed to germinate on the inside of a window pane, it sent its root inwards towards the apartment; when on the outside of the pane it did the same. Hence it is that hyacinths grow better in water glasses of a dark colour, than in uncoloured ones. It may be from this inexplicable Jaw, perhaps, that all roots tend more or less towards the centre of the earth ; yet Grew, and recently Dutrochet, found that when French beans were placed in a suspended box, with earth above them and holes below to admit light, they sent their roots down through the holes into the light, and not into the earth in the box. Mr. T. A. Knight placed French beans in moistened moss on revolving wheels, and found that both when the wheel was vertical and when it was horizontal, the radicles were directed outwards towards the circumference. No root, it is said, is of a green colour, which can- not be produced even by exposure to the light ; though by this means green branches may be made to spring from roots, and potatoes exposed to light become green, though their rootlets will not. Besides sucking in nutriment from the soil, roots give off refuse or indigested matter, as may be seen in the case of hyacinths grown in water. This appears to be the chief cause, that plants will not grow well successively in the same soil unless changed by rota- (1) This will be explained in the "ALPHABET OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE," under Rotation of Crops. 11 TUBERSf AND CORMS. UroN the same principle which leads naturalists to rank the whale and the dolphin among land animals, and not among fishes, modern botanists do not con- sider carrots, potatoes, and the like, as roots, but as subterranean stems, because they perform the functions of stems rather than of roots. There are three sorts of these subterranean or root stems, the tuber, as in the potato and arrow root ; the corm 1 , as in crocus, meadow saffron, and cuckoo pint, erroneously termed a bulb, as it has no scales ; and the creeping root stem 2 , as in couch grass. The rootlike claspers emitted from the stems of ivy and some other plants, are not roots, as is erroneously stated by Professor Lindley. BULBS. AN instance of rootlets falling off like leaves occurs in those arising from bulbs, such as the lily, the tulip, and onion, which perish and fall off, or rather they are pushed off, as is the case with leaves, by buds contain- ing the rudiments of the rootlets destined to be evolved the succeeding season. These root buds are scarcely observable in autumn, but after Christmas they become very distinct. The crown of the root, in such cases, is the thin circular plate at the base of the bulb, and not the bulb (i; In Latin, Cormus or Lecus. (2) In Latin, Soboles. 12 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. itself, as might at first sight be supposed. Bulbs indeed, have often, by inaccurate writers, been mis- taken for a species of roots, though these are never scaly. The bulb 1 is very similar to, if not identical with, what is termed a bud, when found on a stem or branch, and is formed by the base of the leaves becoming thick, and storing up a quantity of nourishment within them for future use. These base-leaves take the form of concentric plates 2 , as in the onion, or scales placed somewhat like tiles 3 , as in the lilies. In the daffodil, the snowdrop, and hyacinth, the plates of the bulb may be seen in the spring to expand into leaves, and the flower-stalk, previously short and minute, to rise up with the flower-buds at the summit. Bulbous Roots cut asunder. a, tulip ; b, lily ; c, onion. (1) In Latin, Bulbus. (2) In Latin, Tunicatus. (3) In Latin, Imbricatus. STEMS. 13 In bulbous plants, such as the hyacinth and tulip, small bulbs ' are formed on the edges of the crown of the root between the scales, which gradually enlarge at the expensq of the scales, are detached, become perfect bulbs, and send up leaves and flower-stalks. At |he inner base of the stalk leaves, in some other bulbous plants, as in the tiger lily, and in the flower itself, as in the tree onion, small bulbs 2 grow, which on being thrown off and planted, produce perfect plants. Stem bulbs of the tiger lily. I am disposed to agree with M. Richard, in consider- ing the small bodies 3 , improperly called seeds, in ferns, mosses, and lichens, as similar to the small stem bulbs of the tiger lily^ inasmuch as they do not contain a complete embryo, as seeds always do. As the root and its modifications are, with rare exceptions, always under ground, so the stem 4 is, with (l). Popularly, Cloves; in Latin, Adnata, (2) In Latin, Bulbuli ; or Soboles ; or Propagines. (3) In Latin, Sporulce. (4) In Latin, Candex, or Axis ascendens. 14- MEMBERS OP PLANTS. similar exceptions, as in the rootstock 1 of the iris, always above ground. Accurately speaking, then, there can be no stemless 2 plant, though there may be leaves arising from the collar of the root, which is in that case the stem, as in the star thistle, in which there is no apparent trunk or bole ; and hence it is, in a popular sense, stemless. The stem 3 is divided from the root by the crown or collar already described, which, though evident in all herbs and on young trees, cannot be recognised in trees of several years* growth. The space between the collar and the first leaf or bud, is termed the bole 4 , which is also applied to the space between two or more leaves or buds, whose base is called a node 5 , by gar- deners an eye. The great body of a stem, whether divided into boles or not, is termed the trunk 6 . The stem of grasses, corn, and reeds, is termed the straw 7 ; the stem of palms, ferns, mushrooms, and sea weeds, is termed the stalk 8 ; the stem of such flowers as the primrose, the daisy, the snowdrop, and the lilies, is termed a scape 9 , though flower-stalk is certainly better ; the running stem, as in the strawberry and cinquefoil, is termed a runner 10 ; a shorter runner, that does not root, as in houseleek, is termed an offset 11 ; a longer one that does not root, as in the (1) In Latin, Rhizoma. (2) In Latin, Acaulis. (3) In Latin, Caulis. (4) In Latin, Internodium. (5) In Latin, Nodus. (6) In Latin, Truncus. (7) In Latin, Culmus. (8) In Latin, Stipes. (9) In Latin, Scapus. (10) In Latin, Sarmentum. (HJ In Latin, Propagulum. BUDS. 15 cucumber, a vinelet l ; and a small stem proceeding laterally from a root or stool, a sucker 2 . When a trunk bears permanent or perennial branches, the plant is termed a tree 3 ; when permanent branches arise, not from a trunk, but from the root, the plant is termed a shrub 4 ; when small and much branched, a copse-shrub 5 ; when furnished with woody branches that are not permanent, as in tree mignonette, it is termed an under-shrub 6 ; and when the whole stem is not woody, and dies down every year at least as far as the crown of the root, the plant is termed an herb 7 ; when a trunk is formed, like the underground stem of iris, of the hardened bases of leaves which have withered and fallen, and is not taper, but ah 1 of one thickness, giving off no branches as in the date and cocoa, the plant is termed a palm 8 . IN a popular sense, budding means the expanding of buds in spring, and is applied both to flowers and leaves; but buds 9 , instead of being then produced, are usually formed, some early in summer, others in autumn ; and are beautifully contrived to preserve the (1) In Latin, Viticula. (2) In Latin, Surculus and Stolo. (3) In Latin, Arbor; in Greek, Atf$g0y. (4) In Latin, Frutex or Arbustum. (5) In Latin, DUIMM. (6) In Latin, Subfrutex. (7) In Latin, Herba, whence Herbaceus. (8) In Latin, Palma. (9) In Latin, Gemmae. 16 MEMBERS OF PLANTS leaves and flowers from the cold of winter. Hence there are no buds (because they are not wanted) in the plants of warm climates, and in our hot-houses ; that is, the embryo leaves at the base of the full grown ones, have no bud scales ', a circumstance which holds also in alder-buckthorn, and in most herbs. Buds are indeed in most respects like bulbs. Buds have various forms, but are most usually oval or roundish, composed on the outside of tough, some- what leathery scales, closely tiled, frequently covered with a gummy resin, and internally kept warm by a thick downy substance between the several tender scales or leaves. Theoretical writers of the present day represent the scales of buds as abortive or imperfect leaves, leaf- scales, or leaf-stalks ; but in creation there is nothing imperfect, and the scales of buds are as perfect and as beautifully contrived as any leaf or flower. The covering or winter case 2 of a bud, including both the outer hard scales and several inner ones soft and downy, is only a temporary protection, by keeping out water and keeping in warmth, for the central part 3 , and for the most part fall off when the latter enlarges in growth. The central part of a bud may either contain embryo leaves, or embryo flowers. When it contains leaves only 4 , it lengthens upwards as it expands into a branch, (1) In Latin, Tegmenta. (2) In Latin, Hybernaculum. (3) In Latin, Embryo, objectionably Germen. (4) In Latin, Gemma follfer:t. BUDS. 17 hence there is no real difference between a leaf bud and a branch bud 1 . When it contains a flower 2 , this is situated as in the bulb of the tulip above figured. When it contains leaves only, the arrangement of these in folds or otherwise 3 , varies much in different groups of plants. It may be plaited 4 , as in the birch ; doubled 5 , as in the rose and the oak; tiled 6 , as in the lilac and privet ; embracing 7 , as in the iris and the sage; rolled lengthways 8 ; rolled inwards 9 ; rolled out- wards 10 ; rolled from the tip to the base 11 ; or wrapt round the leaf-stalk 12 . Modes in which the leaves in buds are folded. a, doubled, oak, rose, &c. ; b, doubled embracing, valerian, teasel, &c. ; c, doubled- compound, mimosa, carrot, &c. ; d, rolled inwards, grasses, &C; ; e, tiled, privet, lilac, &c. ; /, rolled outwards, rosemary, prim- rose, &c.; g, plaited, palms, birch, &c. j h, rolled breadth-wise, ferns; i, reclining, wolf's-bane, anemone, &c. (1) In Latin, Gemma ramifera. (2) In Latin, Gemma florif 'era. (3) In Latin, Foliatio or Vernatio. (4) In Latin, Plicata. (5) In Latin, Conduplex. (6) In Latin, Imbricata. (7) In Latin, Equitans. (8) In Latin, Convoluta. (9) In Latin, Involuta. (10) In Latin, Revoluta. (11) In Latin, Circinali*. (12) In Latin, Reclinata. C 18 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. Turpin says the buds of grasses and plants of the same class, are always distinguished by an outer single scale between the stem and the bud; while plants of another class have two scales on opposite sides, either distinct or united. Grass Buds. a, a, covered by the scales; b, the scales re- moved. A leaf-bud is always more slender and pointed than a flower-bud,, and when it expands it lengthens up- wards. When the buds contain flowers again, they are more or less bulged out and blunt at the point, and hence gardeners discover the prospect of blooming long be- fore summer. They do not, upon expanding, lengthen upwards like a leaf-bud. As in the case of leaf-buds, the embryo flower is disposed in various forms 1 within its envelope, both as to the petals of the blossom, and as to the cup or calyx, though these two are often arranged differently in the same flower. It may be (1) In Latin, J&stivatio. BUDS. 19 tiled 1 , as in the rose and the cherry; plaited 2 , as in the potato ; rolled up into a spiral 3 , as in the wood- sorrel ; rumpled 4 , as in the poppy; five-fold 5 , as in the pink ; or valved 6 , as in ginseng. Very beautiful details have been given by Malpighi of the bud of the oak, and by Du Hamel of the bud of the horse chestnut. Three stages in the growth of a horse-chestnut leaf-bud. a, full grown bud ; b, the same bud further advanced, in which the young leaves are seen expanding, but still enclosed by the bud scales ; c, the young leaves after the bud has partially opened, the bud- scales removed. Buds are usually found at the inner base 7 of leaves ; but sometimes they occur on the edge of a leaf, as in (1) In Latin, Imbricata. (2) In Latin, Plicata. (3) In Latin, Contortaor Torsiva. (4) In Latin, Corrugata. (5) In Latin, Quincuncialis . (6) In Latin, Valvaris. (7) In Latin, Axilla. 02 20 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. marsh twayblade ; and M. Turpin found them on the surface of the leaf in the star of Bethlehem. When a tree puts forth very many buds, it is liable to exhaust its strength in nourishing them. In order in some measure to prevent this, Providence has cre- ated several birds, such as bullfinches, which devour flower buds in winter, and many insects which devour them in spring ; but it is not true, as has been said, that a tree rendered sickly by over production, is most favourable to the hatching of the eggs of such insects ; and much less true that bud-eating insects prefer sickly to vigorous buds. Bonnet arranged buds according as they are placed opposite each other or alternating on opposite sides of a branch ; in form of a ring round a branch ; or in form of a spiral round a branch. When they are opposite, there are three buds at the top of the branch; when alternate, only one. In pines the buds are only at the summit, and several shoots spring from one bud. Darwin fancied each bud to be a complete indivi- dual plant, and a tree to be an aggregate of buds ; because when a bud is cut from one tree and inserted into another, it is found to grow into a perfect branch, a circumstance from which gardeners have derived the ingenious art of budding or bud-grafting. Baron Tschudy has in this way grafted the potato on the love-apple, and the melon on the gourd ; and others have grafted fine varieties of the dahlia on more com- mon sorts, by inserting the young buds or eyes into the root. (U In Latin, Oculi. 21 IT appears from experiments, that leaves perform some office similar to the lungs of animals ; at least, when healthy and exposed to sunshine, that they exhale oxygen gas through the pores on their surface, afterwards described, and at nigju or in cloudy weather that they exhale carbonic acid gas. A leaf 1 may be said, with several exceptions, to con- sist of a leaf-stalk 2 , and a leaf-plate, which is the part usually termed the leaf. When the leaf stalk is want- ing, or so short that the base of the leaf touches the branch or stem, it is termed a sitting 3 leaf, as in the poppy. The inner base 4 of the leaf-stalk, where it joins the stem, is the place where buds are formed. The leaf- plate 5 , or proper leaf itself, is sometimes wanting, the leaf-stalk only spreading out like a leaf. In such cases, not the surfaces, which are both alike, are presented to earth and sky, but the edges. The leaf-stalk may be simple, compound, round, flattish 6 , channelled 7 , winged 8 , tendrilled 9 , or sheath- ing 10 . From the upper end of the leaf-stalk a number of (1) In Latin, Folium. (2) In Latin, Petiolus, whence Petiolatum. (3) In Latin, Stssile. (4) In Latin, Axilla, whence Axillaris. (5) In Latin, Lamina. (6) la Latin, Compressus, which is objectionable. (7) In Latin, Canaliculatus. (8) In Latin, Alatus. (9) In Latin, Cirriferus- (10) In Latin, Vaginans. 22 THE MEMBERS OF PLANTS. branches run through the whole leaf-plate, which have improperly been termed nerves, and sometimes veins, but which I shall term leaf-ribs 1 , and their small branches riblets 2 . The simplest form of leaf-ribs occurs in grasses and other plants, the bases of whose leaves sheath or em- brace the stems 3 ; and in some other leaves there are, besides the main or mid rib 4 , in the middle of the leaf two nearly as large at each side 5 , from which botanists term such leaves three-nerved; and when the large ribs are five, seven, or any other number* they are named accordingly. In the tulip, no branches are observable. Ribs of Leaves. a, grass leaf, one-ribbed; b, ivy leaf, three- ribbed ; c, grape leaf, five -ribbed. By following out the branching from the mid-rib, some clue may be obtained to the almost countless array (1) In Latin, Cosice folii. (2) In Latin, CostuJee. (3) In Latin, Folia amplexicaulia. (4) In Latin, Costa media. (5) In Latin, Costce laterales. LEAVES. 23 of forms of leaves and terms for these which botanists enumerate, presenting to the beginner a wilderness of words, enough to deter him from journeying farther. Dr. Drummond has not, as it appears to me, been happy in his endeavour to simplify this matter, by ar- raying leaves as named from "parts of the animal body;" from "instruments of war;" from " musical instruments;" from "mechanical bodies;" and from f( the heavenly bodies." Professor Lindley, adhering to the objectionable term vein, divides leaves into vein- less, equal-veined, straight- veined, curve- veined, netted, ribbed, false /y-ribbed, radiating, feather- veined, and hidden veined ; most of the corresponding Latin terms which he has invented are quite barbarous: his falsely I do not pretend to understand. I shall follow the expansion of the ribs, according as they are throughout regular, or as one or more pairs of the side branches are more or less long than the others ; and again, as these branches are united in a single leaf-plate, termed simple leaves, or divided into several small leaf-plates on the same common leaf- stalk, termed compound leaves. Simple Leaves. When the mid-rib and its branches form a simple leaf*, it may be line-like J , as in juniper ; awl-shaped 2 , as in the jonquil ; spear-shaped 3 , as in rib- wort; sword- () In Latin, Folium simplex. (1) In Latin, Lineare. (2) In Latin, Subulatum. (3) In Latin, Lanceolatum. 24 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. shaped 4 , as in the iris ; riband-like V as i n grass ; spoon-shaped 6 , as in navel-wort; oblong 7 , as in the banana; egg-oblong 8 , as in the marjoram; inversely egg-oblong 9 , as in the cowslip ; wedge-shaped 10 , as in shrub-candy tuft; roundish 1J ,as in round-leaved mal- low; or shield-shaped l2 , as in the Indian cress or nasturtium. Simple Leaves. The reference figures correspond with those in the text of the preceding paragraph. When the pair of rib-branches at the base stretch farther than the others, the leaves become halberd- (4) In Latin, Ensiforme. (6) In Latin, Spatulatum. (8) In Latin, Ovatum. (10) In Latin, Cuneiforme. (12) In Latin, Peltatum. (5) In Latin, Gramineutn. (7) In Latin, Oblongum. (9) In Latin, Obovatum. (11) In Latin, Subrotundum. LEAVES. 25 shaped l , as in cuckoo-pint ; heart-shaped 2 , as in bur- dock ; arrow-shaped 3 , as in sorrel ; kidney-shaped 4 , as in ground ivy ; triangular 5 , as in mercury ; three- lobed 6 , as in hepatica ; four-cornered 7 , as in the tulip tree ; fiddle- shaped 8 , as in fiddle dock ; trowel-shaped 9 , as in black poplar ; or diamond-shaped 10 , as in water caltrops. Simple Leaves. The reference figures correspond with those in the text of the preceding paragraph. Again, when more of the rib-branches besides the (1) In Latin, Hastatun* (3) In Latin, Sagittatum. (5) In Latin, Triangulate. (7) In Latin, Quadr angular e. (9) In Latin, Ddtoideum. (2) In Latin, Cordatum. (4) In Latin, Reniforme. (6) In Latin, Trilobatum. (8) In Latin, Pandurceforme. (10) In Latin, Rhomboideum- 26 MEMB^lS OF PLANTS. pair at the base are long, the plate of the leaf is often more or less regularly formed to correspond with this, and becomes five-lobed *, as in the hop and sycamore ; hand-shaped 2 , as in the blue passion flower ; slashed 3 , as long-stalked geranium ; five- cleft *, as in spotted geranium ; many-cleft 5 , as in monk's hood ; cleft-cut 6 , as in dandelion; wing-cleft 7 , as in star- thistle : or comb-cleft 8 , as in water violet. Simple Leaves. The reference figures correspond with those in the text of the preceding paragraph. (1) In Latin, Quinquelobatum. (3) In Latin, Laeiniatum. (5) In Latin, Multifidum. (7) In Latin, Pinnatifidum. (2) In Latin, Palmatum. (4) In Latin, Quinquefidum . (6) In Latin, Runcinatum. (8) In Latin, Pectinatum, 27 Compound Leaves. The branches of the mid-rib, instead of forming with the connecting textures of the leaf a single plate, divide it in many species into several smaller plates, so that the main leaf -stalk supports a number of small leaves or leafits *, not merely deeply cut divisions, as in the wing-cleft and other simple leaves. The leafits are accordingly denominated in a similar manner to the simple leaves. It will therefore be altogether unneces- sary for me to repeat in this place the terms enumerated in the preceding paragraphs, with which I presume the beginner has already become quite tired, though they are in some degree indispensable in order to understand botanical descriptions. When there is a common leaf-stalk supporting two or more leafits, the compound leaf may be three-fold ! , as in clover; four-fold 2 , as in four-leaved marsilea; five-fold 3 , as in red horse-chestnut; fingered 4 , as in cinque foil ; many-fold, 5 when the leafits are more than seven ; umbelled 6 , when the leafits are disposed like an umbrella, as in several lupins ; and yoked 7 , when the leafits are attached to the sides and not to the top of the leaf-stalk." * In Latin, Folio la. (1) In Latin, Ternatum or Trifoliatum. (2) In Latin, Quaternum. (3) In Latin, Quinatum. (4) In Latin, Digitatum. (5) In Latin, Multipartitum. (6) In Latin, Umbellatum. (7) In Latin, Jugatum. MEMBERS OF PLANTS. Compound Leaves. The reference figures correspond with those in the text of the preceding paragraph. When a number of distinct leafits * are placed along the sides of the common leaf-stalk, the compound leaf is said to be winged 2 , and may be abruptly winged 3 , as in mimosa ; unequally winged 4 , as in roses ; tendril- winged 5 , as in the pea; lyre- winged 6 , as in winter green ; oppositely winged 7 , as in saint-foin ; alternately (1) In Latin, Pinnae. (2) In Latin, Pinnatum. (3) In Latin, Abrupt e pinnatum. (4) In Latin, Impure pinnatum. (5) In Latin, Cirroso pinnatum. (6) In Latin, Lyrato pinnatum. (7) In Latin, Opposite pinnatum. LEAVES. 29 winged 8 , as in the wood vetch ; interruptedly winged 9 , as in meadow sweet ; jointedly winged 10 , as in winged weimannia; whirl- winged n ; or vertebrated 12 . Compound Leaves. The reference figures correspond with those in the text of the preceding paragraph. When the small leafits of a winged leaf are again divided into leafits, the whole leaf is said to be doubly (8) In Latin, Alterne pinnatum. (9) In Latin, Interrupts pinnatum. (10) In Latin, Articulato pinnatum. (11) In Latin, Verticillato pinnatum. (12) In Latin, Vertebratum. 30 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. compound l ; and the divisions may be in twos 'f, threes 3 , or more 4 , as in columbine, fumitory, carrot, or fennel. Compound Leaves. The reference figures correspond with those in the text. Circumference of Leaves. The terms applied to the various characteristics of the circumference of leaves, which may be conveniently divided into the tips and the margins, are rather numerous and puzzling to beginners. A leaf, as to the tip,* may be sharp 1 ; sharpish 2 ; (1) In Latin, Decompositum. (2) In Latin, Bigeminatum. (3) In Latin, Trigeminatum. (4) In Latin, Multipinnatum. (*) In Latin, Apex. (1) In Latin, Acutum. (2) In Latin, Subacutum. LEAVES. 31 tapering 3 , as in the lilac ; spine-pointed 4 , as in thistles ; awned 5 ; tendrilled 6 ; blunt 7 ; as in Saint Peter's wort; bluntly notched 6 , as in mountain sor- rel; sharply notched 9 , as in navel wort; abrupt 10 , as in the tulip tree; jagged 11 , as in the jagged hibiscus ; three-toothed 12 ; or unpointed l3 . Tips of Leaves. The' reference figures correspond with those in the text of the preceding paragraph. As to the margin, 14 the leaf, taking the whole round, with the exception of the tip and the insertion of the leaf-stalk, may be entire 15 , as in goat's beard ; or in- dented l , in various manners, being waved 2 , as in the (3) In Latin Acuminatmn. (4) In Latin, Cuspidatum. (5) In Latin, Aristatum. (6) In Latin, Cirrosum or Circinatum. (7) In Latin, Obtusum. (8) In Latin, Reiusum. (9) In Latin, Emarginatum. (10) In Latin, Abruptum. (11) In Latin, Prasmorsum. (12) In Latin, Tridentatum. (13) In Latin, Muticum. (14) In Latin, Margo. (15) In Latin, Integrum. (1) In Latin, Indentatum. (2) In Latin, Sinuaturn. 32 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. oak; gnawed 3 , as it were irregularly; toothed 4 , as in the throat wort; and this may be equally, unequally, slightly, deeply, singly, or doubly toothed ; sawed 5 , as in the orpine, and this may be varied as in the toothed margin ; scalloped 6 , as in betony, and this may be tooth-scalloped, doubly-scalloped, slightly or deeply- scalloped; thorny 7 , as in common holly; or prickly 8 , as in the spear thistle. The margin may be bordered 9 , when the substance is of different texture, and this may be gristly 10 , as in Adam's needle; horny n ; fringed 1 -; or glandular 13 . The margin may also be rolled u ; and this may be rolled backwards 15 ; rolled forwards 16 ; wavy 17 , as in base rocket 5 or curled I8 j as in double parsley. The figures correspond with those in the following paragraph. (3) In Latin, Erosum. (5) In Latin, Serratum. (7) In Latin, Spinosum. (9) In Latin, Marginatum. (11) In Latin, Corneum. (13) In Latin, Glandulosum. (15) In Latin, Revolutum. (17) In Latin, Undulatwn. (4) In Latin, Dentatum. (6) In Latin, Crenatum. (8) In Latin, Aculeosum. (10) In Latin, Cartilaginosum. (12) In Latin, Ciliatum. (14) In Latin, Volutum. (16) In Latin, Involutum. (13) In Latin, Crispum. LEAVES. 33 Insertion and Direction of Leaves. IN relation to the stem or branch on which it grows, a leaf may be embracing 1 9 as in the white poppy ; sheathing 2 , as in grasses ; clasping or riding 3 , as in iris; connate 4 , as in teasel; decurrent 5 , or running down on each side from the base, as in comfrey ; or perforate 6 , as if pierced by the stem. With respect to their distribution, leaves may be opposite 7 , as in the nettle : crossing in pairs 8 , as in caper spurge; in threes 9 , as in three-leafed vervain ; in fours 10 , as in some heaths; cross-formed 11 , as in cross wort; whorled 12 , as in woodroof 5 alternate 13 , as in vervain mallow ; spiral 14 , as in spruce fir ; scat- tered irregularly l5 ; in two ranks l6 , as in the yew tree; tufted 17 , as in the larch; crowded 1S , as in chick-weed and winter-green ; or rose-like 19 , as in rose bryum. With respect to direction, leaves may be erect, ap- pressed M , spreading, horizontal, nodding 21 , curved backwards 22 , curved upwards 23 , drooping 24 , twisted, (I) In Latin, Amplexicaulium. (2) In Latin, Fag-maws. (3) In Latin, Equitans. (4) In Latin, Connatum. (5) In Latin, Decurrens. (6) In Latin, Perfoliatum, (7) In Latin, Opposita. (8) In Latin, Decussatu. (9) In Latin, Ternata. (10) In Latin, Quaternata. (11) In Latin, Cruciata. (12) In Latin Verticillata. (13) In Latin, Alternata. (14) In Latin, Spiralia. (15) In Latin, Sparsa. (16) In Latin, Bifaria. (17) In Latin, Fasciculate,. (18) In Latin, Conferta. (19) In Latin, Rosea. (20) In Latin, Appressa. (21) In Latin, Nutantia. (22) In Latin, Reflexa. (23) In Latin, Inflexa. (24) In Latin^PewoWo, D 34 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. reversed ! , on one side 2 , procumbent, submersed, floating 3 , or emerging out of water. With respect to duration, leaves either fall off in summer, at the approach of winter, or are evergreen. When they wither and remain without falling, they are said to be persistent 4 , as in oak and beech. Leaf, Flower, and Fruit Scales. At the bases of leaves, there is in most species a member similar to a leaf, most commonly small, as in the hedge vetch, but larger than the leaf itself in the pea ; this I term the leaf-scale 5 , which is always double, or in pairs. The leaf-scale in heart's-ease is lyre- winged; in the rose it is on the . leaf-stalk, and in grasses it is a white gouge-formed membrane at the inner base of the leaf. This, however, is not considered by some to be a leaf scale, but a crown like that in the flowers of catch-fly; yet both this, and also the sheathing scale 6 of rhubarb, bistort, and buckwheat, are certainly leaf-scales. There are somewhat similar leaf-like members, often coloured otherwise than green, in many species on the flower-stalk, which may be called the floral leaf, or flower-scale 7 , as in the lime tree and the purple clary. (1) In Latin, Resupinata. (2) In Latin, Unilateralia or Secunda. (3) In Latin, Fluitantia. (4) In Latin, Persistentia. (5) In Latin, Stipula. (6) In Latin, Ochrea. (7) In Latin, Bractea. LEAVES. 35 Leaf-scales and flower-scales. a, a, leaf scales of the heart's ease : b, the leaf? c, flower -scale of the lime tree j d, the leaf. In the carrot and hemlock there are flower-scales both at the base of the large umbels and the small umbels, sometimes termed the fence l . The fences of flower scales in the daisy and dandelion are placed circularly in a single or double row, imme- a Flower-scales a, fence of flower-scales in the daisy ; b, sheath- ing flower-scale in cuckoo-pint. (1) In Latin, Involucrum. D2 36 MEMBERS OF PLANTS. diately below the flower cup. In corn and grasses, the flower scale consists of the two outer enve- lopes, usually termed husk 1 , which sometimes are tipped with what is called an awn 2 . In lilies, cuckoo- pint, and the palms, the flower-scale is in form of a sheath 3 , which had previously enwrapt the flower bud. In some cases, scales similar to the preceding do not expand till the fruit advances in growth, and hence they may be termed fruit-scales 4 , which are leafy and nearly surrounding the nut in the filbert ; leathery and rough, quite surrounding the nut, in beech and chest- nut; woody and hard, and forming a cup for the acorn, in the oak; and fleshy like a berry, in the yew. Fruit-scales, a, a, a, a. A, in the filbert -, B, in the beech ; C, in the oak ; D, in the yew. (1) In Latin, Gluma. (2) In Latin, Arista. (3) In Latin, Spatha. (4) In Latin, Cupula. 37 BRANCHES. BUDS give origin, as we have seen, to branches, as well as to leaves and flowers ; but the branch ', being a portion of the body or stem of the plant, exactly re- sembles it in structure, and is always of course younger by at least one season in trees. It might be supposed that the stem of a plant would measure as much, or perhaps more, than the head of branches 2 which spring from it, and which it has to support and nourish. So far, however, from this being the case, Du Hamel found by actual measurement, that the solid contents of the whole branches may often be at least a fourth or a fifth more, the trunk usually increasing more slowly than the branches, though it grows gradually more compact, and therefore furnishes the best timber. From this circumstance, trees with crowded branches are apt to be weakened and exhausted, and hence the operation of pruning is resorted to for the purpose of repressing luxuriance. As trees, however, do not thrive well without a due supply of leaves, which usually grow on the branches and seldom on the stem, when all the branches are cut off, the tree often dies before it can push out a sufficient number of branches, as I have seen happen with the cherry and the poplar. When the tree is vigorous, it survives the loss of its branches, and pushes out fresh ones in a crowded form, as may be seen in the acacias in Belgium, which look more like mops than trees; the pollard willows and the mutilated elms near London are produced by a similar (1) In Latin, llanw-s. (2) In Latin, Coma, improperly Cyma, 38 MEMBERS OP PLANTS. practice. In closely crowded woods, and particularly in pine forests, the want of free air suffocates many of the lower branches, which die, and are thus in a manner pruned by nature. The branches, like leaves, may be opposite, alternate, whorled, irregularly dispersed, descending, drooping, as in the weeping willow, or possess various modes of bending. It is worthy of remark, that the sprays or branchlets of trees are much the same in the same species, a circumstance well described by Gilpin, and of considerable interest to landscape painters. SCALES, HAIRS, PRICKLES, AND THORNS. THE rind of many plants, instead of a smooth bald surface, is clothed with various species of scales, down, wool, cotton, silk, hair, bristles, prickles, and thorns, about whose use various opinions have been held. The scales 1 here meant are entirely different in structure from the leaf- scales and flower-scales for- merly described, not having, like these, the character of leaves, and hence the scale-like appearance in pine shoots are not scales but young leaves. Scales are found abundantly on the leaf-stalks of ferns. The beginner must not confound with these scales the bark scales thrown off by some trees, nor the lichens which often encrust bark. Hairs 2 on plants, somewhat similar to those on ani- mals, arise, according to Du Hamel, from small bulbs, either within the rind or the first layer of the inner (l) In Latin, Rament having of course two chambers or cells 2 , but some- times one, sometimes four, rarely more, each anther being often detached and free^* in other cases all the anthers of a flower may cohere by their margins, as in the thistle and the daisy. In the laurel, each of the (1) In Latin, Connectivum. (2) In Latin, Loculamenta. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 109 two cells of the anther has two small lids or valves, which open into the interior. The cells of the anthers are filled with a peculiar matter termed pollen, which to the naked eye appears like a sort of dust or flour, most frequently yellow, but sometimes white, violet, or brown; and, when viewed by the microscope, having various forms in various species. M. Guillemin describes the grains of pollen as minute bladders, containing granules l of extreme minuteness. The bladders, may either be smooth and dry, as in the pea, the potato, gentian, spurge, pinks and grasses; or covered with small knobs, giving out a clammy fluid, as in mallow, gourd, sun-flower, chicory, and bindweed. When dry grains are exposed to water, they change from spherical to elliptical; the viscid grains burst, and scatter a liquid denser than water, having myriads of granules swimming about in it with circulatory motion. Amici has seen these in motion for four hours. M. Adolphe Brongniart, on examining an anther in a flower-bud long before blowing, found it in form of a tissue of cells, each cell in the progress of growth be- coming separated from the others, and forming one grain of pollen, but sometimes these are enclosed in other larger cells which progressively burst. Each grain has an outer envelope, thickish, furnished with pores, and sometimes with elevated points; and an inner very thin, transparent, and unconnected with (1) In Latin, Fovilla. 110 ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. the outer. When exposed to water, the inner swells and bursts through the outer, forming a longish tube j or bursts at two opposite points, as Amici observed in the tree primrose. In the orchis and swallow wort 1 groups of plants, the pollen, instead of being in grains, is found in a solid mass, or several smaller masses united by an elastic net- work. It is in all plants very inflammable; and the peculiar odour of many flowers arises more from it than from the petals. Needham formerly, and R. Brown lately, were led, from observing the spontaneous motions of pollen in water, to observe similar motions in inorganic sub- stances, leading to the fanciful inference that all things are full of life 2 . The Pistils and Seed-Organs. The pollen, when it arrives at maturity and bursts from the cells of the anther, is shed upon the summit of the pistil ; either from the stamens being near it j or by the winds or insects, when they are at some dis- tance on the same plants, as in the hazel, or on dif- ferent plants, as in the hop. M. Lecoq, however, appears to have proved by ex- periment, that fertile seeds may be produced in the female hop plant without the intervention of the male; and we have a similar example among animals in aphides, of which the hop-fly is a species. Cl) In Latin, Asclepias. <2) See the ALPHABET OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, or PHYSICS. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. Ill The summit is well contrived for retaining the pol- len that may fall upon it, from being without any rind to cover it and in all cases moistened with a clammy fluid, which causes the grains of pollen to swell, burst, and discharge their minute granules. Some suppose that these are taken up by spongelets in the summit similar to those of the root, while others allege that the fluid matter in which the granules float is sucked up. Professor Amici discovered in 1823, that the grains of pollen, when shed on the summit, do not burst as they do in water, but in a few hours shoot out one or more very delicate tubes, which penetrate the tissue of the summit, and extend themselves down through the interior of the style, as far as the seed organ, where they expand between and around the nascent seeds, serving, it is probable, to convey thither the granules which at least enter into the tubes. Mr. R. Brown is of opinion that the tubes, or the granules which they convey, only produce a stimu- lating effect on the nascent seeds, without penetrating their texture. In the swallow-worts the grains of pol- len are inclosed in a kind of sac, the most prominent part of the convex edge of which is applied to the summit of the pistil as fecundation is about to take place, when a number of extremely slender threads, each being the pollen tube of a single grain, and not more than the 1500th of an inch in diameter, are emitted from this edge into the tissue of the pistil. 112 ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. Process of the pollen penetrating into the pistil. a, a grain of pollen from the swallow- wort with its tube and granules ; b, 6, seed-organs of the same plant with the pollen tubes penetrating to them ; c, pollen of snapdragon with its tubes penetrating into d, the pistil ; e, triangular grain of pollen in the tree primrose ; /, /, its tubes; g, the tissue of the pistil. M. Adolphe Brongniart, on the other hand, says there are no vessels for such conveyance, but the granules pass into the spaces between the cells in the summit ; and he observed them penetrate deeper and deeper till they reached the seed organ, where they actually find their way into the interior of the nascent seeds by means of a delicate membranous tube, at the end of which is a minute vesicle in which the embryo plant is formed, the neck of the vesicle forming the radicle. M. Balliard is said to have traced coloured liquids, sucked up by the spongelets of the summit along the ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 113 vessels of the style, till they arrived at the seed organ ; and in the same way, it is inferred, the granules or their fluids are conveyed thither for the purposes of fecundation. Fecundation in the Sunflower of the Nile: a, a, walls of the seed organ ; b, b, walls of the pistil, c, c, summit covered with grains of pollen ; d, conducting tissue of the centre of the pistil ? e, e, filaments from this tissue running to the nascent seeds ;/, base of one of the walls of the verge ; g, g, numerous nascent seeds placed perpendicularly on the verge. The seed-organ is always placed at the base of the pistil, containing the seeds either nascent l , or advanced to maturity-, and bearing so strong a re- semblance, both in structure and functions, to the egg organ of birds and insects, that the membranes and (1) In Latin, Ovula. (2) In Latin, Semina, or by modern writers, Ova. 114 ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. other parts have received from naturalists the same scientific names. The seed-organ l is usually of an egg-oblong form, and according as it may or may not unite by adhesion with the sides of the flower-cup, it is in some species placed above, and in others below the other parts of the flowers ; consisting, in some instances, of one cell, in others of two or more cells, in which the seeds, one or many in number, are contained. The modern theo- retical views of this structure are given below under Theory of Metamorphosis. Gaertner describes the seed-organs before fecun- dation as composed simply of small cells, which ultimately become the chambers in which the minute globules originate that are to form the seeds. Mr. R. Brown observed in fragrant coltsfoot, and other plants, two thread-like cords running from the base of the seed to the base of the style, for the purpose, as he conceived, of conveying nourishment ; and there is a similar connection between the stem bulbs and the stem in the tiger lily. Linnaeus describes certain seeds as naked ; but the envelope 2 of the seed-organ is, with very few excep- tions, such as in firs and pines, and the sago plant, never wanting, though sometimes it is so thin as not to be easily seen. It is always composed of an outer mem- brane 3 , a middle membrane 4 , and an inner membrane 5 , (l) In Latin, Ovarium. (2) In Latin, Pericarpium. (3) In Latin, Epicurpium. (4) In Latin, Mesocarpium or Sarcocarpium. (5) In Latin, Endocarpium. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 115 a:l intimately united. These parts are very distinct in the peach, but not obviously distinct in the nut. The outer membrane is formed of the tube of the flower-cup, when the seed-organ is below this, and then the pulpy part of the flower becomes the middle membrane. The middle membrane forms the fleshy or pulpy part of peaches, apples, melons, and similar fruits, but in the case of thin and dry envelopes, it may be known by its always containing vessels, or traces of such as have been dried up by evaporation in the process of ripening. The outer coat of the stone, in stone fruit, belongs to this middle membrane. The inner membrane is that which immediately encloses the seeds, and usually contains one chamber, as in the cherry and filbert ; or several, as in the apple and pea : in the first case, thick, hard and stony ; in the second, thin and husky. This membrane has three parts which require notice, the partitions and the verge with its expansion, in flowers having more than one petal. The partitions l are usually formed by the two layers of the inner membrane, and alternate with the sum- mits of the pistils, or their divisions, in the form of vertical plates ; but sometimes they are not formed by two layers, and do not alternate, when they are ab- surdly called false or spurious partitions by botanists, as in the poppy and the thorn apple. (1) In Latin, Septa, or Dissepimenta. I 2 116 ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. As every seed derives its nourishment from the inner membrane, there must be a communicating point, and this point being always on the verge 1 of the membrane, may be so termed ; that on the seed being termed the seed-scar 2 , but popularly, though improperly, named the eye. In some species, the verge bears a number of smaller verges, to each of which a seed is attached, by what is named the navel string 2 , by those who pursue animal analogies to extreme minuteness, but is better termed the verge- cord or seed-stalk 4 ; all these parts are obvious in an unripe pea or bean. The verge of the seed-stalk sometimes occurs in the form of an expansion 5 , surrounding the seed in a greater or less degree, which has been mistaken for a part of the seed. It is this expansion in the nutmeg which forms the mace of commerce. The centre of the seed-organ is sometimes formed of a sort of support, round which the seeds are ranged, termed the pillar 6 , and theoretically represented as consisting of several verges united in a whorl 7 , with a space between. The peculiar manner in which seed-organs open when ripe, is also distinguished by the term dehis- cence 8 , when it does not open, by indehiscence. The (1) In Latin, Limes seminiferus, Trophospermium, or Placenta. (2) In Latin, Hilum or Umbilicus. (3) In Latin, Funiculus umbilicalis. (4) In Latin, Podospermium. (5) In Latin, Arillus. (6) In Latin, Columella. (7) In Latin, Commissuru. (8) In Latin, Dehiscentia. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 117 opening may take place so that while the cells continue closed at the back, the partitions divide lengthwise into two plates ', as in Irish heath, and laurel rose ; it may take place so that the cells open at the back, while the partitions continue undivided 2 , as in the lily and the lilac; it may take place by the separation of the partitions from the valves 3 , as in bindweed; it may take place along the inner edge of a simple fruit 4 , as in the pea ; it may take place cross ways 5 , as in pimpernel and plantain ; it may take place by teeth, as in pinks ; by pores or holes, as in poppy, toad flat, and bell flower ; or by cross contractions, as in bird's foot. The seed vessel of a lychnis, opening at the top, by its valve for the dispersion of seeds. (1) In Latin, Dehiscentia septicidalis. (2) In Latin, Dehiscentia loculicidalis. (3) In Latin, Dehiscentia septifragalis. (4) In Latin, Dehiscentia suturalis. (5) In Latin, Dehiscentia circumscissilis. 118 ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. The Seed. The structure of seeds is no less curious than that of the seed-organs. The regions of a seed are named from the position of the seed-scar which is placed at the base 1 ; the point opposite, the tip 2 ; the upper part, the back 3 ; the opposite to that, the belly 4 ; and between the two, sides 5 . In curved seeds, such as in mignonette, the base and the tip become opposite. M. Turpin describes the seed scar, which he observed in 1200 seeds, as consisting of a seed pore, and this again often, if not always, exhibiting a larger seed pore 6 , for the passage of nutrient vessels, and a smaller seed pore 7 for the passage of fecundating vessels. M. Mirbel describes an outer seed pore 8 , and an inner seed pore 9 . The seed scar is sometimes large, as in the horse chestnut, and sometimes small, as in the poppy. It is through the seed pore that the young plant appears in germination. The outer coat of the seed may be properly termed the shell 10 , and consists in most cases of a simple and single membrane; but sometimes this is thickish,, fleshy internally, and separable, according to Gaertner, into two coats, an outer n , and an inner 12 , as in the castor (1) In Latin, Basis. (2) In Latin, Vertex. (3) In Latin, Dorsum. (4) In Latin, Venter. . (5) In Latin, Latera. (6) In Latin, Omphaloidum. (7) In Latin, Micropylum. (8) In Latin, Exostoma. (9) In Latin, Endostoma. (10) In Latin, Endospermium. (11) In Latin, Testa, (12) In Latin, Membr ana intern a. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 119 oil plant ; but M. A. Richard denies the existence of two different membranes. Malpighi and Grew however mention an outer coat, still different and more deli- cate ] ; and Grew one still within Gaertner's inner coat, immediately investing the seed. The shell of the seed, like that of eggs, is so com- posed as to protect them from extremes of heat and cold ; but that of seeds will remain uncorrupted for many years, so that wheat, found with mummies pro- bably 3000 years old, has been made to germinate. What becomes the shell of the seed consists, in the unripe seed, of two envelopes, one including the other, and these including, according to M. Mirbel, three others, but all five united in some part of their texture. The outer is termed primine ; the next, secundine; the three inner collectively, the kernel ; and severally, ter- cine, quartine, and quintine; the last being the centre of the kernel. When in the progress of ripening the base of the kernel rises partially, or altogether, to the tip of the seed, it remains connected with that base by certain vessels termed the vascular cord 2 , and when this cord expands at the base of the kernel it is termed the ball 3 . The shell, viewing it in ripe seeds, envelopes the more essential part termed the kernel 4 , which in some instances is composed of one body only, termed the embryo ; and in others, besides this, what may be (1) In Latin, Pelicula. (2; In Latin, Raphe. (3) In Latin, Chalaza. (4) In Latin, Nucleus. 120 ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. termed the outer seed-pulp x , or white ; and in others still, a body which may be termed the inner seed-pulp '-', or yolk. These seed-pulps, which are green in mis- seltoe, white and mealy in wheat and oats, and oily in spurge, are not connected with the embryo by vessels, but serve to nourish it, as has been proved by the ex- periments of Dr. Yule, and M. Mirbel. In the greater number of seeds, however, the seed-pulp, instead of being separate and distinct from the embryo, is con- tained within its substance. Fig. l. Fig. 2. Seeds of the cabbage palm. Fig 1. a, the seed with its shell; 6, the seed scar, with the seed pore : c, the vascular cord which runs from the scar half way down to the pore. Fig. 2. The seed, cut across to show the outer seed pulp in form of teat-like rays from the shell, a, to the centre ; 6, the embryo, bluntly tapering and placed on one side. The embryo of a seed consists of four parts : the radicle, the seed-lobe or lobes, the neck, and the gemlet ; all of which are important to be noticed in the progress of germination, and with regard to the foundation of modern systems. The radicle 3 forms that extremity of the embryo from which the root springs in the progress of germina- (1) In Latin, Albumen, (2) In Latin, Vitellvs. (3) In Latin, Radicula. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 121 tion ; and before this it is always simple and undivided, but afterwards it may divide into branching radicles, as in grasses and misseltoe. The radicle may be naked without any external envelope, becoming, as it en- larges in growth, the root of the plant, as in borage, dead nettle, cabbage, and kidney bean l ; it may be enveloped and concealed in a sheath 2 which bursts during germination, and gives passage to the tubercles of the radicle 3 , as in Indian shot ; or it may be incor- porated with the seed-pulp 4 , as in the pines and firs. Upon these three distinctions Richard founded a system. Germinating seeds of cabbage palm to show a, the radicle as it bursts through the seed pore, with the sheath j b, the root fibre ; c and d, the gemlet. The seed-lobe 5 is very various in form and in size, being sometimes considerable, and sometimes so small as to elude the naked eye; and though the colour (1) In Latin, Plants exorhizce. (2) In Latin, Coleorhiza. (3) In Latin, Plant a endorhizee. (4) In Latin, Plantce synorhizce. (5) In Latin, Cotyledon. 122 ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. may be white, yellowish, or purple, it is always green after germination. It may be simple and with- out any division, as in corn, grass, lilies, and other bulbs 1 ; or it may be formed of two lobes united base to base, as in the bean and castor oil plant 2 ; upon this principle Jussieu founded his system. But it is inconsistent with this system, that the lobes may be three, as in drooping cypress; five, as in larch; six, as in deciduous cypress; and even ten or twelve, as in the pine fir. Sometimes it is difficult to ascertain whe- ther the lobes be one or more. In some cases, during germination the seed-lobes remain below ground 3 , as in the horse chestnut; in others they appear above ground 4 in the form of seed leaves 5 . Seed lobes in the bean, with the nutrient vessels branching through them, a, a, root: b, b, gemlet. (1) In Latin, Plantce Monocotyledones. (2) In Latin, Plantee Dicotyledones. (3) In Latin, Cotyledones hypogei, (4) In Latin, Cotyledones epigei. (5) In Latin, Folia seminalia. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 123 The neck l is not always distinctly marked as a part separate from the radicle ; but when it is remark- able, it forms the crown of the radicle and the base of the seed-lobe, and it is by the lengthening of the neck that the seed-lobes are raised above the ground, as in the cabbage, radish, and mustard. Dr. Yule considers it analogous in wheat to the base of the bulb in lilies and other bulbs. To consider the neck with Lamarck as the life knot, and with Treviranus to call it the centre of vegetation, is as fanciful as the notion of Mr. Main, that vegetable life is a distinct member of a plant situated between the pulp bark, and the pulp wood. Life, as De Candolle justly remarks, is diffused through every part of a plant, and the neck is only the point of junction of the root and the stem. The gemlet 2 , or, as it has been termed, the plume or plumelet, is a small body, often formed like a feather, situated in the cavity between the seed-lobes, when there is but one; and between the lobes when there are two. It is the first bud, in fact, from which all the parts of the plants above ground are progressively evolved. It is often so small as to escape observation. It is in all cases nourished by the seed-pulp, contained in the seed-lobes or beside them, and these are pre- vented from adhering to it by a very fine pellicle. Like the radicle, the gemlet is also at first inclosed in a sheath 3 . (1) In Latin, Collum or Cauliculus, or, as Treviranus terms it, Centrum Vegetationis. (2) In Latin, Gemmula, or Plumula. (3) In Latin, Coleoptilon. 124 ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. Germinating seeds of cabbage palm, to show the gemlet, with its sheath, a, a, the first radicle; b, its sheath; c, the geralet just appearing ; d, d, d, d, d, d, d, branches from the first radicle ; e, e, seed pore ; /, sheath of the gemlet ; g, the gemlet with a cleft tip, through which the inner leaf shoots. The embryo of the seed may be erect l , as in the apple and plum ; inverted 2 , as in the nettle and rock rose ; oblique 3 , as in the primrose ; or curved 4 , as in the pink and pea. Arrangement of Seeds and Fruits. The number of sorts of seeds and fruits which vari- ous plants produce, require to be disposed in some order, a subject which has been carefully studied by Gaertner, Richard, Mirbel, and Desvaux. The best arrangements are still very defective. (l) In Latin, Orthotropus or Anatropus. (2) In Latin, Antitropus. (3) In Latin, Heterotropus. (4) In Latin, Campulitropus. ORGANS OP REPRODUCTION. 125 Seeds may be either close J , or dehiscent 2 . A close seed may be a grain 3 , like wheat, maize, and rye-grass ; it may be a simple pip 4 , as in thistle and sun-flower; it may be a composite pip 5 , as in borage, dead nettle, lady's bed straw, ranunculus, parsley, and hemlock; it may- be a key 6 , as in ash, maple, and elm ; it may be a gland 7 , as in the oak and filbert; or it may be a utricle 8 , as in the lime, the nettle, and orach. A dehiscent seed may be follicle 9 , as in the laurel rose ; it may be a double follicle, as in swallow wort ; it may be a purse 10 , as in the cabbage and wall flower, it may be a purselet u , as in honesty and shepherd's purse; it may be a pod 12 , as in the pea, the bean, bladder senna, cassia, and astragalus; it may be a capsule 13 , as in the pimpernel, poppy, and pinks ; it may be a caper 14 , as in spurge; or it may be a cone l5 , as in alder, birch, and fir. Fruits, as popularly distinguished from seed, are more succulent or fleshy, and are all close. Botanists consider fruits to be the ripened seed organ. A fruit (1) In Latin, Indehiscens. (2) In Latin, Dehiscens. (3) In Latin, Cerium, or Caryopsis. (4) In Latin, Achenium. (5) In Latin, Polachenium. (6) In Latin, Samara. (7) In Latin, Glans. (8) In Latin, Utriculum, or Carcerulus. (9) In Latin, Folliculum. (10) In Latin, Siligua. (11) In Latin, Silicula. (12) In Latin, Legumen. (13) In Latin, Capsula, and Pyxidium. (14) In Latin, Elaterium. (15) In Latin, Conus,or Strobile. 126 ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS. may be a stone fruit l , as the plum, the cherry, and the haw ; it may be a nut 2 , as the walnut and the almond ; it may be a nutlet 3 , as in the ivy ; it may be a pome 4 , as the apple, pear, and hip ; it may be a pepon 5 , as the melon and cucumber ; and it may be a berry 6 , as the vine, potato, gooseberry, orange, and fig ; but the strawberry and raspberry rank as seeds with composite pips; and the mulberry and pine apple as a compound berry 7 . (1) In Latin, Drupa. (2) -In Latin, Nux, (3) In Latin, Nuculanium. (4) In Latin, Pomum, or Melonida. (5) In Latin, Peponida. (6) In Latin, Baccu. (7) In Latin, Sorosis. 127 GROWTH OF PLANTS. THE reader who has paid any attention to the pre- ceding details, will be prepared to follow the progress displayed by the seed, from the time it leaves the parent plant till it becomes a plant every way similar ; and may thus become acquainted with the whole his- tory of vegetation from the commencement of germi- nation till the decay and extinction of organic life. As it is requisite for a seed to be placed in an appro- priate soil and situation before it can germinate, I shall first notice the various ways in which seeds are diffused. RIPENING AND DIFFUSION OF SEEDS. WHEN fecundation has taken place, the nascent seed becomes a peculiar centre of life, and attracts towards it a supply of pulp, and the seed vessel be- comes enlarged, acting, so long as it continues green, precisely like a leaf. The nascent seeds which have not been fecundated shrivel up and die; and it is remarkable that in the oak and the horse chestnut, though there are six nascent seeds, only one of these is evolved and ripens. In some species, as the culti- vated pine apple and the bread-fruit tree, though the nascent seeds are not fecundated, the seed-organ be- comes abundantly evolved, and thereby much improved for the table. 128 RIPENING AND DIFFUSION OF SEEDS. The greater number of plants ripen their seeds within a year after fecundation; but firs and pine trees require more, and the cedar takes no less than twenty-seven months to mature its cones. As soon as the fruit becomes perfectly ripe, the different parts of the seed organ separate in various manners, and the seeds are loosened and scattered by the means which Providence has contrived for con- tinuing and disseminating the species, as well as by the enormous number of seeds produced. Ray counted no less than 32,000 seeds on one poppy plant, and 360,000 on a plant of tobacco ; but were all these to be disseminated and grow, a single species would soon overrun the whole surface of the globe, a circumstance prevented by the over produce being eaten by various animals, for whose subsistence, indeed, it seems to have been expressly provided. Animals, indeed, and man himself, are active agents in the diffusion of seeds ; the missel thrush disseminating the misseltoe berries, and the European weeds having become com- mon in America by being carried thither (not inten- tionally) by European settlers. Rivers and seas also diffuse seeds by conveying them to distant regions; and thus islands which rise from the sea by volcanic or other agency, become in time covered with vegetation. The seed-organ itself often opens with a spring-like mechanism, calculated to project the ripe seeds to a distance, as in the balsam, the sand box tree, the wood sorrel, and in the violets. In the latter, as I have observed, the seeds are contained in an organ of three valves, the sides of each of which shrinking and col- RIPENING AND DIFFUSION OF SEEDS. 129 lapsing with the sun's heat, press with their hard edges upon the slope of the smoothly polished seed, and along this the edge slides forcibly down, and the seed is con- sequently torn from its fastening, and thrown with a jerk to a considerable distance. It is worthy of remark, also, that before the seed is ripe, the whole head hangs drooping with the persistent flower cup spread over it, like an umbrella, to guard it from rain and dews that would retard its ripening; but as soon as it is ripe, it rises to an upright position with the cup for a support, while it gains in this way a greater elevation for scat- tering the seeds. In a drawer, I found the ripe heads of heart's ease project their seeds about two feet ; and when enclosed in a pill box, they may be heard suc- cessively popping against the lid as they are discharged. The above is an instance of a seed-vessel bursting from becoming dry. De Candolle gives a still more singular one in the rose of Jericho from its meeting with moisture. "This little plant," he says, "grows in the most parched deserts. By the time it dies, owing to the great drought its tissue has become almost woody, its branches fold over each other, till the whole assumes the form of a bah 1 ; its seed vessels have their valves tightly shut, and the plant remains adhering to the ground by a solitary branchless root. The wind, which always acts powerfully along the surface of a sandy plain, uproots the dry ball and roUs it along. If it now chance to meet with a plash of water whilst performing its constrained but necessary journey, it speedily imbibes the moisture, which causes the branches to unfold and the pericarps to burst; and 130 GROWTH OP PLANTS. the seeds, which could not have germinated if they had fallen on the dry ground, now sow themselves naturally in a moist soil,, where they are able to grow, and where the young plant may support itself." A number of seeds are so thin and light as to be easily carried about by the winds, such as cotton grass, virgin's bower, avens, dandelion, and thistle, which are furnished with wings studded with down 1 to fly withal; some other plants, such as the ash, the fir, and the sycamore, have seeds with membranous wings 2 ; while others are furnished with hooks for adhering to ani- mals, as the burdock. The most interesting, however, of these floating seeds, perhaps, are the minute bulbs (if bulbs they are) of mosses, such as grow on walls and trees, which being wafted about, as it would ap- pear, in great numbers, and being so minute and light as to easily adhere, soon cover a newly-built wall with a thin green coating, mistaken by Linnaeus for a pecu- liar plant which he termed silk moss 3 ; but proved by Mr. J. Drummond, formerly of Cork, to be the germinations of several common mosses. The green matter of Dr. Priestley, produced on stagnant water, has the same origin from moss seeds. GERMINATION. THE evolution of a young plant from a seed, which is termed germination 4 , depends upon the seed itself (1) In Latin, Pappus, (2) 111 Latin, Alee. (3; In Latin, Byssus. (i) In Latin, Germinatio. GERMINATION. 131 having been duly fecundated by the pollen, then per- fectly ripened, and afterwards not exposed to destruc- tive degrees of cold or of heat, to freeze its juices in the one case, or parch them up in the other. Some seeds, as those of the coffee plant, require to be sown almost immediately on being gathered; others, if kept from air, light, and moisture, may be kept long good, such as those of the sensitive plant The external circumstances necessary to germination depend on water, heat, and air, and, as connected with these, on soil and situation ; though soil is not indis- pensable, for seeds, such as those of mustard, will germinate on a sponge or a moist piece of flannel. Water is indispensable, from its being the common vehicle in which the food of plants is taken up by the spongelets. In germination, water enters into the substance of the seed, swells the kernel, and causes the enveloping shell to burst, and, by carrying food into the seed-pulp and the seed-lobes, it supplies them with materials for increasing in bulk, its decomposi- tion and the new combinations of the elementary matters, producing starch, sugar, acids, oils, resins, woody fibre, and whatever else may be found in the germinating seed. Water, however, should not be too abundantly supplied, as in that case it will macerate the seeds, and cause them to rot; and hence a wet spring is unfavourable to corn, French beans, &c. and hence, also, the advantage of sowing in dry, rather than moist, weather. Heat is no less indispensable than water ; for the expansion of the parts is prevented by a temperature 132 GROWTH OF PLANTS. at or below the freezing point, and hence seeds will not germinate in such circumstances. When the tem- perature, again, is too high, that is, above 90 Fahr. the parts and fluids become too much expanded ; and hence it has been found by experiment, that from 132 to 144 is unfavourable to germination. Air is likewise indispensable to germination, though Homberg alleges that he made some seeds germinate in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, an experi- ment, however, not since verified, and Saussure deemed it inaccurate. It is on this account that seeds long buried in the earth lie dormant, but when turned up by digging or otherwise, soon germinate. Oxygen is the most indispensable requisite, for seeds placed in azote, or in carbonic acid gas, will not germinate. In pure oxygen gas, and as Humboldt found in a solution of chlorine, germination is very rapid, but the young plants thus produced soon perish. Light, from its causing the disengagement of oxy- gen, and the retention of carbonic acid gas, is unfa- vourable to germination, because there is wanted the fixing of the oxygen, and the disengaging of carbonic acid gas. When the gemlet or plumule once gets to a certain size, however, it counteracts, according to Mirbel, the fermentation which light may have caused to begin, by converting the starch of the embryo into sugar, and an emulsive fluid. The time required for germination varies much in different species : thus, mustard takes li ttle more than one day ; cress, two days ; spinach, turnip, and kidney beans, three days; lettuce, four days; most grasses, GERMINATION. 133 one week ; hyssop, one month ; parsley and celery, from six to nine weeks ; the peach and almond, one year ; and the rose, hazel, and cornel, two years. Phenomena of Germination. The first apparent change in a seed that has begun to germinate, is its obvious enlargement, and the soft- ening of its shell, which ultimately bursts. Whenever the embryo begins to grow, it is termed the plantlet, and consists of two parts, one descending, and another ascending : the first being the embryo root, the second the embryo stem. As soon as the embryo stem or gemlet has reached the open air, its leafits are ex- panded, and begin to perform all the functions of leaves. In the meanwhile the shell of the seed prevents the access of too much water, which might, as it were, drown the young plant, and hence Du Hamel found by experiment, that seeds when stript of their shell germinate badly, if at all. The seed-pulp, again, which is nothing more than what remains of the liquid in the cavity where the embryo was developed, being evaporated till it becomes a solid (though this, as in the milk of the cocoa nut, is not always quile effected), is again diluted with the absorbed water, and serves to supply nourishment. This is the case whether the seed-pulp be included or not in the seed-lobes, which it is only necessary to water sufficiently in order to see the whole grow, as was proved by the experiments of Desfontaines, Thouin, Labillardiere, and Vastel. 134 GROWTH OF PLANTS. Upright Growth of Plants. It may be considered one of the most universal laws of germination, that every part of a plant, except the root, rises in an upright direction from the ground in the same way as the root goes downwards. I have already mentioned the experiments of Mr. T. A. Knight and Dutroehet, who placed germinating plants on wheels revolving both vertically and horizontally, when the stems uniformly tended to the centre of the wheel and the roots to the circumference, which tends to prove that gravitation is the chief agent in causing plants to rise perpendicularly. The same law will account for the side branches bending down, as in the weeping willow and the lime tree, while the main stem rises upwards. Lord Kames mentions an ash tree growing on the high wall of a ruin, which sent a root down along the wall to the ground; a circumstance easily accounted for on the same principle, though it has been adduced as a proof of instinct, if not of reason itself, in the tree. What are termed creeping stems may be thought exceptions ; but the runners ' of the strawberry, and the suckers 2 of the sweet violet, are not by any means stems, but side shoots for the purpose of propagating new plants. Weak stems, which are unable to rise high in a perpendicular direction, are furnished with various (1) In Latin, Sarmenta. (2) In Latin, Stolones. GERMINATION. 135 means of attaining what at first may seem impossible. In some the stems merely rise amongst others in an irregular manner, as the bramble and the bitter sweet; while in others they twine closely around the stronger support, some from left to right with the sun, as the hop : and others from right to left, or against the sun, as the bind-weed and kidney-bean. It is singular, that when those plants are forced to wind in a contrary direction, it injures or kills them. Germination of Plants, with one Seed-lobe. There being considerable differences in the two great classes of seeds having only one seed-lobe, and having two or more seed-lobes, I shall give some details of the progress of germination in each class ; and for the first I shall select wheat, which has been most minutely described by Malpighi, Poiteau, and Yule. The grain of wheat, after being moistened for about thirty hours, increases in size, and the sheath or enve- lope of the radicle, from being fine, smooth, opaque, and solid, becomes thick, downy, transparent, and cellular ; and when the sheath bursts, there is seen a main radicle, and a smaller one at each side. At the same time, the gemlet may be observed, consisting of several rolled leafits resting on the seed-lobe. When the germination is a little farther advanced, a number of very minute rootlets are seen springing from the three radicles. The first day, according to Malpighi, the body of the embryo is closely connected with the seed-lobe, 136 GROWTH OF PLANTS. which he terms a " farinaceous leaf/' The second day the sheath gives way, the gemlet or plume rises upwards, and the seed-lobe appears moist. The third day the seed-lobe becomes quite turgid; the gemlet looks green; and two other radicles begin to sprout from the two side radicles, while their sheath begins to waste. The fourth day, the seed-lobe when pressed yields a white sweetish fluid, somewhat like milk, while the other parts are increased in 'length. The fifth day the gemlet pierces the membranous envelope, pushing up a green rolled leaf sheathed by the enve- lope, the seed-pulp is much diminished ; and the five radicles are nearly of a length, and clothed with hairs. About the sixth day, the plantlet, still in its sheath, begins to expand, while the envelopes of the seed shrink. After the eleventh day, these envelopes still adhere, but are much wasted, and yield on pressure only water and air, while the stem, now forming many knots, and the radicles, sending out many rootlets, progressively enlarge. After a month, new buds burst upwards from the crown of the root (formerly, as I think, the neck of the embryo), and new radicles shoot out downwards. After two months, several young plants are seen, enveloped in withered sheaths, rising from the same spot, the two original envelopes of the seed still remaining attached. It is this mode of shooting up many stems that causes corn to be so prolific, Du Hamel having seen a seed of barley produce 200 ears, each having 24 grains, or in all 4800 grains. Other plants, with one seed- lobe, do not yield so many stems ; but Poiteau says it GERMINATION. 137 is a general law of such plants for the main radicle to dry and fall off, and hence none of the palms have a tap root. When the top of the stem in wheat is destroyed, as it is by a small green-eyed fly l , it threatens destruction to the crop, but side stems soon shoot, and no loss is sustained. In England it is the practice to eat down the young wheat with horses, to make it multiply the stems. Transplanting pro- duces a similar effect. Dr. Von Martius has given a minute account, with interesting figures, of the germination of the cabbage palm, some of which I shall here give. The Cabbage Palm (Euterpe oleracea} in three several stages of germination. At a, the gemlet just escaped from the seed is slightly arched. (1) In Latin, Chlorops jjumilionis, respecting which details will be given in the ALPHABET OF BLIGHTS. 138 GROWTH OF PLANTS. The same farther advanced. a, the central part of the embryo twisted ; b, the neck ; c, the first radicle -, d, the sheath. The same farther advanced. a, the central part of the embryo : b, salient point of the radicle with its pith ; c, d, the stem and leaf of the young plant ; e, the root sheath j /, side rootlets ; g, g-emlet sheath ; h, neck or dividing line between the root and the stem. GERMINATION. 139 Germination of Plants with two Seed-lobes. In this class of plants, the parts, from being usually larger, are more easily observed than in those with one seed-lobe, the radicle projecting like a small cone, and the naked gemlet lying between the two lobes. I shall again follow Malpighi in tracing the progressive growth of the pea. After being planted or moistened in a dark place for one day, the shell becomes softer, whiter, and thinner, and while the scar remains shut, an irregular opening occurs near it. On stripping off the shell, the two seed- lobes are seen distinct, having the small gemlet with yellow leaves, and the white radicle between them, while the neck is seen united to each seed-lobe by a minute stem. The second day the shell gives way, and the radicle protrudes. The third day it sends out many rootlets, while the seed-lobes separate and show the gemlet. By the fifth day the white stem mounts upward with the curved green gemlet on the summit. By the end of the seventh day the whole is much advanced, there being distinct knots on the stem, the radicle much lengthened, and the seed-lobes, when pressed, giving out a bitter juice. By the ninth day the plant is completely formed, while the seed-lobes are shrinking, and at the end of a month they are thin and wrinkled. It would be an interesting exercise for the young botanist to watch the progress of germination in this manner. 140 GROWTH OF PLANTS. Germination of the Pea. a, the pea stript of its skin and split open, to show the two cotyledons or seed-lobes, with the embryo plant between them ; b, a profile view of the same parts ; c, d, e,f, g, successive stages of the growth of the plant from the seed : r, the seed-lobes bursting: the outer skin ; d, the root striking downwards ; e, the plant about to unfold its seed-leaves, and the seed-skin torn and withering ; /, the seed-leaves expanded, and the root becoming fibrous ; g> the perfect plarTt. In the chestnut and the horse chestnut, the seed- lobes are very large and thick, but do not rise above ground, and send up only the gemlet, and this in time becomes the trunk or stem, which I shall now describe. The Trunk of Plants. The body of a tree or shrub is always thickest at the base, tapering as it rises, and composed internally of what is termed wood, covered by the bark, already described. The woody portion of a tree consists of the following distinct parts : Immediately within the inner bark we find first a GERMINATION. 14-1 soft pulpy layer, usually of a white colour, which I shall term the pulp- wood ! , sometimes inaccurately named sap-wood. In succeeding years, besides this pulp- wood, we find one or more rings of wood 2 , harder and closer in the grain, the innermost being the hardest. This inner- most ring forms what is termed the pith-tube 3 , which is of various forms, being usually cylindrical, some- times elliptical or angular, but always, according to Du Petit Thouars, retaining the same dimensions at every stage of growth. This tube encloses the pith 4 , which is a light spongy substance, dry in old trees, but moist in young trees, and in shoots and branches of the first year, as may be seen in elder or bower tree. In herbs having two seed-lobes, the structure of the stem is somewhat different, the distinction between the two layers of bark, the pith-wood, the hard wood, and the pith, being seldom apparent, though in endive this is sufficiently distinct. In hemlock and cow- parsnep, the centre of the pith forms a hollow tube of considerable width. In the stem of grasses, corn, and reeds, instead of pith, as in trees, the centre is hollow, and there are only two parts whose structure is different. The stem of palms, though solid, more nearly re- sembles that of the grasses than that of trees, though (1) In Latin, Alburnum ; in French, Aubier. (2) In Latin, Lignum. (3) In Latin, Tubus medullaris. (4) In Latin, Medulla, which is inaccurate. 142 GROWTH OP PLANTS. in height many of the palms outrival forest trees. In the palms the hardest part of the wood is the outer, and the softest the inner. GROWTH OF TREES HAVING TWO SEED-LOBES. PHILOSOPHICAL botanists have held very different opinions respecting the mode in which trees grow in thickness or diameter, as I shall now detail. The difficulty, indeed, of arriving at facts, unconta- minated with theoretical fancies in most of the points of vegetable physiology, is nowhere more strikingly exemplified than in the opinions advanced respecting the growth .of plants, particularly trees, in diameter. According to Malpighi, the interior part of the cor- tical tube, or in other words, the inner bark, produces the growth in thickness by successively uniting itself to the wood. According to Grew there is formed every year, between the bark and the wood, a layer of vessels, which arises from the inner side of the bark and is converted into a new layer of wood. " Every year/' he says, " the bark of a tree is divided into two parts, and distributed two contrary ways; the outer part falleth off, towards the skin, and at length becomes the skin itself: the inmost portion of the bark is annually distributed and added to the wood." M. Parent says the interior portion of the bark is converted annually into wood. Hales thinks that the pulp wood (alburnum) or new layer of wood, arises from an extension of the fibres GROWTH OF TREES. 143 and tubes of the woody layer of the preceding year, as well as the new inner layer of the bark. Hales like- wise says that he agrees in opinion with Borelli, who supposes the tender growing shoot to be distended like soft wax, by the expansion of the moisture of the spongy pith. M. Mustel says, that emanations from the ligneous body form a new layer of wood, by means of the rising sap, and that emanations from the inner bark form, at the same time, a new layer of inner bark by means of the descending sap, by which latter term he must mean pulp. Du Hamel, in order to satisfy himself respecting the truth of Grew's opinion, introduced a plate of metal between the bark and the wood of a tree early in spring, and when this was examined two or three years after- wards, it was found embedded in the wood, proving that the bark was not produced by the wood, though it was hence clear that the wood was formed on the outside of the metal plate. He came to the conclusion that the inner bark is every year changed into pulp- wood, and a new layer of inner bark formed to replace this. In the seed, before germination, he says, there is nothing but a dense tissue of cells, and no vessel can be traced : yet soon after the beginning of germination, a ring of vessels appears to form the commencement of the pith- tube, having the pith within it still green, and full of a watery fluid. Soon after, there appears out- side the pith-tube, a layer of pulp which goes to form the first portion of the inner and outer bark, and as soon as there is another layer of pulp to replace this, 144 GROWTH OP PLANTS. the inner bark is converted into pulp-wood, and this every year is farther converted into hard wood. When a tree,, accordingly, is cut across, these yearly layers may be observed, and the age of the tree may be thereby ascertained. Mr. T. A. Knight says, the bark is never changed into pulp wood, nor into hard wood. M. Mirbel appears to have somewhat altered his opinions at different times. He first says the inner bark is changed into wood and augments the mass of the ligneous body. Again, he says, the trunk is formed of one and the same cellular tissue, of which the rind forms the limit. But afterwards, in 1827, he expressly contradicts the first of these statements, saying, that the inner bark never becomes wood; but there is annually formed between the inner bark and the wood a new layer, which is a continuation of the wood and of the inner bark. This regenerating layer is termed pulp, which is not a fluid coming from one place or another, but a very young tissue that continues the older tissue. It is nourished and evolved by sap highly elaborated. Its organisation appears to be uni- form throughout, yet the part which is in contact with the pulp- wood, changes insensibly into hard wood, and that which is in contact with the inner bark, changes in the same manner into the inner bark. The latter change is perceptible to the eye of the observer. In a young shoot, the pulp between the inner bark and the pulp wood gradually thickens, while fine fibres begin to appear therein, till at length it is crowded with vessels and cells, slowly and gradually formed. GROWTH OF TREES. 145 M. A. Richard adopts similar views. He says, if a young branch be examined during the period of vege- tation, that is, when the juices abound in all parts of the plant, there may be observed between the inner bark and the pulp wood a layer of fluid, at first clear and limpid, but gradually becoming thicker and less transparent. This fluid is composed of the descending pulp, and in proportion as it thickens, fibres are seen to form therein , and it soon becomes organised and acquires the appearance of vegetable tissue, a change which is gradual, and continues so long as the buds are growing, so that the formation of the annual layer proceeds in a slow and progressive manner. It is on this account, that the new layers of pulp wood so fre- quently exhibit concentric zones, which shows that their whole thickness has not been formed at once. It hence appears, that the pulp wood is not formed by the inner bark thickening and becoming more consistent, but by the pulp which is organised, and thus becomes the means of growth in diameter, giving rise annually to the formation of a layer of pulp wood, and of a layer of inner bark, both distinct from each other, although produced by the same organ. When Du Hamel found in the pulp wood the silver wire, which he thought had passed through the inner bark, it was because it had been really engrossed in the organised layer of the pulp. It follows also, that the inner bark every year grows thick by its inner surface ; in fact, the layer of pulp spread over its inner surface becomes organised, and is added to this organ, so that it gradually acquires greater thickness, the reason that the inner bark con- L 116 GROWTH OF PLANTS. sists of several concentric plates, united together by a very fine layer of cellular tissue. M. Kieser takes a similar view, saying, that the sap rises in the wood, and after having undergone in the leaves a sort of respiration, it becomes pulp, in which form it descends by the bark and is deposited between the wood and the bark ; hence the formation of a new layer of wood, and a new layer of bark. Professor Link, of Berlin, and more recently, M. Dutrochet, support the opinion that the stem grows in width as well as in thickness ; trees, according to this view, being furnished with two systems, independent of each other, each having a centre or vital organic action, in opposite directions. The one system is cen- tral, comprehending the pith, the hard wood, and the pulp wood, the other is the tube of the bark, the interior of which is composed of the inner bark. Each of these systems acts on its own account, the result being a simple extension of tissue, namely, a layer cf pulp wood upon the pulp wood, and a layer of inner bark upon the inner bark. M. Dutrcchet tried his first experiments upon a stem of traveller's joy, the end of a young branch of which, when cut across, he found to be composed of six bun- dles of fibres running lengthways, and separated by wide rayed spaces, in the centre of each of which spaces new bundles of fibres are annually produced, so that at the end of the second year, instead of six he found thirty bundles, separated by an equal number of spaces. This process ceases as soon as the wood is solid, but always continues in the bark, while the roots show it GROWTH OF TREES. 14>7 equally with the stem. By carefully studying, then, the manner in which the bundles of fibres are multi- plied, it will be seen that the growth takes place in a lateral direction ; a direct consequence indeed of new bundles of fibres forming in the centre of the rays, or that of rays in the centre of the bundles of fibres. The circular layers in this way increase in width. With respect to growth in thickness, M. Dutrochet is of opinion, that each layer of new wood is first formed of a thin layer of pith, similar to that in the centre, full of cells, giving birth to vessels which form a pith- tube, so that each successive layer of wood is in reality a pith tube, the pith disappearing in all but the centre "one. The bark, he thinks, grows in a similar way, by means of what he terms the hark pith, con- sisting of a thin layer of cellular tissue. M. Dela Hire, and after wards Hales and Dr. Darwin, maintained an opinion respecting the growth of plants, which has lately been warmly taken up by M. Du Petit Thouars, and is adopted by Professor Lindley and by one or two living botanists. Professor Henslow says this " rests entirely upon vague conjecture and hypothetical reasoning ; and it appears to me to be the most fanciful and baseless opinion ever propounded." According to this opinion, when a bud shows itself at the base of a leaf, or on a branch or stem, it follows two opposite movements, one upwards towards the air, the other downwards towards the earth. By the upward movement a new branch is produced, while the down- ward movement gives origin to a great number of new fibres which lengthen out between the bark and the 148 GROWTH OF PLANTS. wood of the mother branch, as well as of the trunk, down to the very extremities of the roots. These fibres descending from the bud, meet in their descent with the fibres from other contiguous buds, and these toge- ther form the annual ring of hard wood ; the bark in the same way is increased by bark fibres descending from the buds. The whole of the bark and of the wood in this view are nothing more than the roots of buds. It has been supposed that Hales had some opinion similar to this, when he says, <( That it is not easy to conceive how additional ringlets of wood should be formed by a merely horizontal dilatation of the vessels ; but rather by the shooting of the longitudinal fibres, lengthways under the bark, as young fibrous shoots of roots do in the solid earth." However this may be, the opinion is clearly fanciful, as Professor Henslow has justly said. Professor Amici says, I perfectly agree with M. Mirbel, that between the bark and the wood .there are successively organised layers, of which one part unites with the pulp wood and acquires its nature, and the others are placed upon the inner bark, augmenting its mass. But we do not yet know the origin of the young tissue, which has been distinguished under the name of pulp tissue. These several opinions may all be referred to three general heads. I. That growth in diameter is carried on by the annual change of the inner bark into pulp wood, and of pulp wood into hard wood, and by the successive renewal of the inner bark. GROWTH OP TREES. 149 II. That the successive formation of the layers of wood is produced by the evolving of buds. III. That the annual formation of woody layers is owing to the pulp, which, every year, forms at one and the same time, a new layer of pulp wood, and a new layer of inner bark. Our oaks and elms seldom exceed thirty feet in circumference ; but the great chestnut tree on Mount JStna is reported to be one hundred and sixty feet in circumference. Growth in height, again, arises from the impulse given to the sap in spring, which rises first in the hard wood ; and, as the season advances, in the sap-wood of the previous year. This expands the buds, and from the upper part of the stem young shoots rise, which, of course, possess one layer less than those of the pre- ceding year ; and by thus going down to the root in a tree ten years old, for example, we find ten rings at the base, while there are only nine above the second shoot, and only one at the summit. Our forest trees seldom exceed one hundred feet in height, and are rarely so high as this, while palms often reach one hundred and fifty feet, without in- creasing an inch in thickness from the root to the summit. Von Martius describes one fifteen feet high, and not thicker than a man's thumb. The flower- stalk of the American aloe often reaches thirty feet, and M. A. Richard has seen this in another species 1 (J) In Latin, Agave faetida. 10 GROWTH OF PLANTS. grow as much as a foot in one day,, and twenty-two feet and a half in eighty-seven days. When the new layer of wood begins to harden, the rise of the sap is checked, and towards the end of autumn, little or no sap rises, while all the pulp and the watery vapour imhibed from the atmosphere descends. The vessels of the leaves consequently not being supplied with fresh pulp, are emptied and shrink, an effect sometimes hastened by the pressure of the newly-formed bud ; and the leaves become detached and fall, except where the juices are very thick, as in holly, or resinous, as in fir, when the leaves do not fall till the new wood is formed. That the fall of the leaf is not caused by cold, is proved by the early fall of those of the ash or poplar ; or by withering, appears from their adhering firmly to a branch cut off or killed in summer. In India, where almost all trees, even our oaks, are evergreen, they produce an artificial fall of the leaf by uncovering the roots during the violent heats, for the purposes of subsequent forcing. When gardeners observe in their cuttings that the leaves wither and remain, they consider ^that the plant will not strike; but when the leaves fall, success is more certain, as this indicates that the swelling of the bud at the base has cut off the supply of sap. AGE OF PLANTS. SOME plants, such as the minute funguses, termed moulds, only live a few hours, or at most a few days. AGE OF PLANTS. 151 Mosses, for the most part, live only one season, as do the garden plants called annuals, which die of old age as soon as they ripen their seeds. Some, again, as the foxglove and the holyhock, live for two years, occasionally prolonged to three, if their flowering be prevented. Trees, again, planted in a suitable soil and situation, live for centuries. Thus, the singular elephant plant has been said to attain, at the Cape of Good Hope, the age of two hundred years, reckoning by the rings in the bark of the crown ; the olive may live three hun- dred years, the oak double that number ; the chestnut is said to have lasted for nine hundred and fifty years ; the dragon's blood tree of Teneriffe may be two thou- sand years old ; and Adanson mentions banians six thousand years old. De Candolle gives the following table of very old trees. Years. Elm . . . . .335 Cypress .... about 350 Cheirostemon . . . about 400 Ivy . . . . .450 Larch ... .5/6 Orange ..... 630 Olive . . . . .700 Oriental Plane . . .720 and upwards Cedar of Lebanon . . . about 800 Oak .... 870, 1080, 1500 Lime . . . 1076, 1147 Yew . . . 1214, 1458, 2588, 2880 Taxodium . . . about 4000 to 6000 Baobab . . 5] 50 (in the year 1757) When the wood of the interior ceases to afford room, by the closeness of its texture, for the passage of 152 GROWTH OF TREES. sap or pulp, or the formation of new vessels, it dies, and by all its moisture passing off into the younger wood, the fibres shrink, and are ultimately reduced to dust. The centre of the tree thus becomes dead, while the outer portion' continues to live, and in this way trees may exist for many years before they perish. An interesting mode of comparing the infancy of the oak with one of advanced age, is given by Ruricola, in the Field Naturalist's Magazine. He hangs to a piece of cork, a, an acorn, b } in a hyacinth glass, in which it will germinate and grow to some height. 153 THEORY OF THE METAMORPHOSIS OF PLANTS. THE term theory is very commonly used to bemask some wild fancy with the semblance of science ; and I could not bring a stronger example of this than what has been termed the metamorphosis of plants 1 , as must at a glance appear to every reader endowed with common sense. The doctrine in question is alleged to have ori- ginated with Linnaeus, in 1759-60, but the distin- guished German poet, Goethe, thinks very lightly of the fancies which Linnaeus termed anticipation 2 , while he claims the honour of discovering (inventing, I should say) the doctrine of metamorphosis in 1790, a doctrine of which De Candolle is the most dis- tinguished disciple. The doctrine bears that every part of a plant con- sists of " disguised leaves," and hence the boles 3 of the stem, the flower-cup, the blossom, the stamens, and pistils, with the seed vessels, and even fruits themselves, are nothing but leaves in a state of disguise or meta- morphosis. " They are all the same," says Von Mar- (1) Technically, Morphology. (2) Technically, Prolepsis. (3) In Latin, Internodia. 1S4 THEORY OF THE tius, " in their essence, and only differ according to the intensity of their metamorphosis." Von Martius farther instructs us, that every plant possesses two living forces, one vertical, the other spiral; by the action of which forces the plant is formed. By the action of the vertical force, the root goes down, and the stem rises up ; and by the spiral force, the leaves, both in their natural state and in their disguised forms of flowers and fruit, are wound about the stem in spiral whirls. As soon then as a plant begins to grow, a series of leaves winds upwards around the stem in a spiral direction, and hence a whole plant is considered to consist of nothing more than a vertical axis, and a spiral of leaves. The whole fancy well accords with, if it have not sprung out of, the speculative theory of what is termed unity by the German mystics, a phantom as unreal as the philosopher's stone. On their principle of unity, they maintain that the same phenomena ocjur in every individual thing, and in every part of it, however dif- ferent it may appear, otherwise the unity would not be maintained. Dr. Carus, for example, tells us that the liver and the kidneys, in animals, are mere repeti- tions of the lungs, and consequently are in reality lungs, in the same way as we have just seen flowers and fruit asserted to be repetitions of leaves. The spiral whirls again are said to depend on the general law of polarity, which consists of motion round an axis. It will render the theory more obvious to exhibit the sketch of a plant conforming to its announce- ments : MKTAMOR1HOS1S OF PLANTS. 155 Theoretical plant of Professor Lindley, generated by a leaf whirling F.pirally ; a a, the leaves as yet alternate ; 6, five leaves in a whirl degenerated into a flower- cup; c, five leaves degene- rated into a blossom : d, five leaves degenerated into stamens ; as the poppy and lime-tree ; if two pistils, to the second order J, as the peony; if three pistils, to the third order ||, as larkspur and monkshood ; if four pistils, to the fourth order 7 , as bugwort ; if five pistils, to the fifth order 9 , as columbine ; if six pistils, to the sixth order 12 , as water soldier; and if many pistils, to the seventh or- der l , as hellebore and anemone. Ml. Flowers ivith two of the Stamens shorter. FOURTEENTH CLASS 23 , Flowers with four stamens, two longer and two shorter, inserted on a one-petalled blossom. If the four seeds are apparently not in a seed-vessel, but naked, they belong to the first order 24 , as mint and thyme; if the seeds are not apparent, but concealed in a seed organ, they belong to the second order 25 , as eye-bright and fox-glove. (22^ In Latin, Polyandria. (23) In Latin, Didynamia. (24) In Latin, Gymnospermia. (25) In Latin, Angwspennia. 168 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS. FIFTEENTH CLASS 26 . Flowers with six stamens, four longer and two shorter, the blossom with more petals than one. If the seed-organ is a short pod, they belong to the first order 27 , as shepherd's purse and honesty ; and if a long round pod, to the second order 28 , as turnip and mustard. IV. Flowers with Stamens united by their Filaments. SIXTEENTH CLASS 29 . Flowers with the filaments of all the stamens united at the base into one bun- dle. If there are three stamens, they belong to the first order 5 ; if five stamens, to the second order 8 , as heron's bill ; if seven stamens, to the third order 13 , as stork's bill ; if eight stamens, to the fourth order 15 ; if ten stamens, to the fifth order I7 , as geranium ; if eleven stamens, to the sixth order 30 ; if from twelve to twenty stamens, to the seventh order 19 ; and if more than twenty stamens, to the eighth order 22 , as the mallow and camellia. (26) In Latin, Tetradynamia. (27) In Latin, Siliculosa. (28) In Latin, Siliquosa. (29) In Latin, Monadelphia. (30) In Latin, Endecandria. LINNJ2AN CLASSIFICATION. 169 SEVENTEENTH CLASS 31 . Flowers with the filaments of all the stamens united into two bundles. If there are five stamens, they be- long to the first order 8 ; if six sta- mens, to the second order H , as fumitory ; if eight stamens, to the third order '% as milk wort ; if ten stamens, to the fourth order l7 , as pea, broom, clover, and laburnum. EIGHTEENTH CLASS 3 '. Flowers with the filaments of all the stamens united into three or more bun- dles. If there are from twelve to twenty- five stamens unconnected with the flower- cup, they belong to the first order 19 , as the orange tree ; if the bundled stamens are inserted in the cup, to the second order 21 ; and if there are more than twenty- five stamens unconnected with the flower-cup, to the third order 22 , as in St. John's wort. V. Flowers with Stamens united by their Anthers. NINETEENTH CLASS* 3 . Flowers composite, with all the an- thers in a floret united into a tube, while their filaments are not united. If all the florets are equal, they belong to the first order 34 , as thistle and dan- (31) In Latin, Diadelphia. (32) In Latin, Polyadelphia. (33) In Latin, Syngenesia. (34) In Latin, Polygamia aquaUs, 170 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS. delion ; if the florets of the circumference have pistils without stamens, to the second order 35 , as daisy and groundsel ; if the florets of the circumference have neither stamens nor pistils, to the third order 36 , as the blue bottle and sunflower; if the florets of the cir- cumference have pistils without stamens, and those of the centre stamens without pistils, to the fourth order 37 , as marygold; and if the florets have a partial flower- cup all within a general flower- cup, to the fifth order* 8 , as globe thistle. VI. Flowers ivith the Stamens and Pistils united. TWENTIETH CLASS 39 . Flowers with the stamens inserted upon the style or the seed-organ. If they have one stamen, they belong to the first order*, as orchis ; if two stamens, to the second order , as lady's slipper ; if three stamens, to the third order 5 ; if four stamens, to the fourth order 6 ; if five stamens, to the fifth order 8 ; if six stamens, to the sixth order H , as birth wort ; and if eight stamens, to the eighth order 15 . (35) In Latin, Potygamia super flua. (36) In Latin, Polygamia frustranea. (37) In Latin, Polygamia necessaria. (38) In Latin, Polygamia segregata. (3p) In Latin, Gynandria. LINNJBAN CLASSIFICATION. 171 VII. Flowers of only one Sex. TWENTY-FIRST CLASS*". Flowers, some with pistils only, and some with stamens only, on the same plant. There are nine orders, taken from the number and bundling of the stamens as before. TWENTY-SECOND CLASS 11 . Flowers with pistils only, or with stamens only, on two sepa- rate plants of the same species. There are nine orders founded as in the preceding class. TWENTY-THIRD CLASS 42 . Flowers with both stamens and pistils, and also with only one of these, both on the same and on separate plants of the same species. There are three orders. (40) In Latin, Monaecia. (41) In Latin, Dioecia, (42) In Latin, Polygumia, 1 72 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS, VIII. No Flowers apparent on the Plants. TWENTY-FOURTH CLASS 43 . Stamens and pistils if present, cannot, from their minuteness, be as- certained. The class con- tains five orders ferns 44 mosses 45 , liverworts 46 sea- weeds 47 , and mushrooms 48 . Such is as plain an outline as I have been able to draw up of this celebrated system, which has proved so extensively injurious to philosophical inquiry and genuine science, by leading its disciples to mistake the means for the end. It may not be amiss to remark, however, that it appears easier to understand it on paper than to apply it in practice, for as nature will not bend to our imperfect systems, anomalies are con- stantly occurring which puzzle the beginner. For example, the flowers of red valerian have only one stamen, though they rank in the third class, because the other valerians rank there. In the twenty-fourth class again, the system fails altogether in guiding the student in his inquiries. But with all its defects, this system is every way superior in distinctness and easy (43) In Latin, Cryptogamia. (44) In Latin, Filices. (45) In Latin, Musci. (46) In Latin, Hepaticee. (47) In Latin, Algce. (48) In Latin, Fungi. CLASSIFICATION OF JUSSIEU. 173 application to all others and particularly to the system very improperly termed the Natural System, which I shall now notice. CLASSIFICATION OF JUSSIEU, ALLEGED TO BE THE NATURAL SYSTEM. IT being obvious that the Linnaean system groups together plants which are comparatively incongruous, though they agree in the number of their stamens and pistils, it was thought desirable to fix upon some principle, which would allow of plants more alike in all respects, being associated in the same classes and orders. Viewing the seed then as a more important organ than the stamens and pistils, Jussieu devised a classification which takes its leading divisions from the seed-lobes ; and it is this system, with its recent improvements or alterations, that is now in vogue among botanists in the highest repute, whose chief labours consist in its elaboration, by establishing new orders, and removing plants supposed to be wrongly classed, from one order to another; topics that lead to innumerable minute details respecting the seed- organ as well as the flower, and endless nibbling criticisms respecting the accuracy, or the errors of preceding botanists upon these subjects. But with all due deference to the ingenious men who thus choose to spend their time, I am disposed to look upon such employment as precisely of the same character with that of the Linnaean botanist, who counts his stamens and pistils, or of the pin manufacturer, who sorts pins 174 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OP PLANTS. of particular sizes, colours, and polish, into their appro- priate papers. Philosophy it cannot be, in any genuine acceptation of the term, and it is an insult upon com- mon sense to make the assertion. In the system of Jussieu indeed, there is more exercise given to the mind from there being more circumstances to observe and consider, than in the Linnaean system; and, in many instances, the plants grouped together are more congruous, or in keeping, as a painter would say, and therefore it is more in accordance with divisional logic ; but to more praise than this the so-called Natural System does not appear to me to be entitled. First Lesson on Jussieu s System. The beginner, when it is required to class a plant in this system, must first procure the seed and examine the seed-lobes, and this must furnish an answer to one of the following questions : 1. Has it any seed-lobes?) No '- Tllen * belon S s to D ion I. J Yes. Then see question 2. "\ One Then it belongs to II. 2. How many seed-lobes has it ? L Two or more Then it J belongs to ... III. Or, If the seed cannot be found, the stem or the leaves must furnish answers to the following questions : l . Are there any sap ^ No Then it belongs to Division I. and pulp vessels ? J Yes Then see question 2. CLASSIFICATION OF JUSSIEU. 17.5 No Then it belongs to I . Yes Then it belongs to III. De Candolle, I may mention, terms the first class cellular ! , because the plants have cells but no vessels, and the two others vascular 2 , because they have both vessels and cells. The vascular plants he again divides into ingrowing 3 , and outgrowing 4 . Second Lesson on Jussieus System. These three great divisions having been mastered, the beginner may then look into the fifteen classes and their orders. I. Plants without Seed-lobes or Sap and Pulp Vessels 5 . FIRST CLASS a . The seed when it can be discovered is simple and without parts. There are ten orders : 1, Sea- weeds ; 2, Mush- rooms; 3, Lichens 5 4. Liverworts; 5, Mosses; 6, Lycopodiums; 7, Ferns; 8, Marsileas; 9, Mares' tails; 10, Starworts. (1) In Latin, Cellulares. (2) In Latin, Vasculares. (3) In Latin, Endogence. (4) In Latin, Exogena. (5) In Latin, Acotyledoncs. 176 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS. II. Seeds ivitk one Seed-lobe; Plants with Sap and Pulp Vessels 1 . SECOND CLASS 2 . Flowers with the stamens inserted under the seed organ. There are seven orders: 1, Pond -weeds; 2, Arums; 3, Burreeds; 3, Saururi; 5, American water plantains; 6, Bog- rushes ; 7, Grasses. THIRD CLASS J . Flowers with the stamens inserted around the seed organ. There are ten orders: 1, Palms;' 2, Restios ; 3, Rushes ; 4, Camme- linas ; 5, Pontederias ; 6, Water Plantains ; 7, Meadow Saffrons; 8, Asparagus; 9, Lilies; 10, Bromelias. FOURTH CLASS 4 . Flowers with the stamens inserted above the seed organ. There are ten orders: 1, Black Bryonies; 2, Daffodils; 3, Irises; 4, Hcemodori; 5, Musas; 6, Gingers; 7, Or- chises; 8, Frogbits; 9, Water Lilies; lO^Balanophoras. (1) In Latin, Monocotyledones. (3) In Latin, Monoperigynea,. (2) In Latin, Monohypogynece. ^4) In Latin, Monoepigyneee. CLASSIFICATION OF JUSSTEU. 177 III. Seeds with two or more Seed-fobes l . 1. Without Petals 2 . FIFTH CLASS 3 . Flowers with the stamens inserted above the seed organ. There are three orders : 1, Asarabaccas ; % Cytini ; 3, Santali. SIXTH CLASS 4 . Flowers with the stamens inserted around the seed organ. There are seven orders: 1, Eleagni; 2, Lace Woods; 3, Proteas; 4, Laurels; 5, Nutmegs; 6, Polygonums; 7, Beets. SEVENTH CLASS 5 . Flowers with the stamens inserted below the seed organ. There are two orders: 1, Amaranths; 2, Marvel of Peru. (1) In Latin, Dicotyledones. (2) In Latin, Apetala. (3) In Latin, Epistamineee. (4) In Latin, Feristaminea. (5) In Latin, Hypostaminece. N 178 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS. 2. With one petaled blossoms*. EIGHTH CLASS 2 . Flowers with the petal inserted below the seed- organ. There are twenty-one orders : 1, Plantains ; 2, Thrifts ; 3, Primroses ; 4, Len- tihularias; 5, Globularias; 6> Speedwells ; 7, Night Shades ; 8, Acanthuses; 9, Jasmins; 10, Vervains; 11, Myopo- rinias; 12, Labiate flowers; 13, Borages; 14, Con- volvuli ; 15, Lungworts; 16,Bignonias; 17, Gentians; 18, Periwinkles; 19, Milk trees; 20, Myrsinias; 21, Ebenaceas. NINTH CLASS 3 . Flowers with the petal inserted around the seed-organ. There are four orders: 1, Sty races; 2, Heaths; 3, Gesnerias; 4, Bell flowers. TENTH CLASS 4 . Flowers with the petal inserted above the seed-organ, and the anthers united. There are two orders: 1, Chicories; 2, Boopidias. (1) In Latin, Monopetalee. (2) In Latin, Hypocorollece. (3) In Latin, Pericorolleee. (4) In Latin, Epicorollece Synantherece. CLASSIFICATION OF JUSSIEU. 179 ELEVENTH CLASS 1 . Flowers with the petal inserted above the seed-organ, and the anthers not united. There are five orders: 1, Teazles; 2, Valerians; 3, Whirl worts; 4, Wood-bines; 5, Misseltoes. 3. With many petaled blossoms*. TWELFTH CLASS. Flowers with the stamens inserted above the seed-organ. There are three orders: 1, Rhizophoras; C 2 y Umbelled plants ; 3, Ginsengs. THIRTEENTH CLASS 4 . Flowers with the stamens inserted below the seed- organ. There are thirty-nine orders:!, Ranunculi; 2, Dillenias; 3, Anon as; 4, Bar- berries ; 5, Calumbas ; 6, Ochnas ; 7, Rues; 8, Pittospori ; 9, Geraniums; 10, Mallows; 11, Banians; 12, Cocoas; 13, Chlenaceas; 14, Lime trees; 15, Tea trees; 16, Olaxes; 17, Marcgravias ; 18, Gamboges; 19, St. John's Worts; 20, Orange trees; (1) In Latin, Epicorollece Corisanthereee. (2) In Latin, Polypetalece. (3) In Latin, Epipetaleee. (4) In Latin, Hypopetalece. 180 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS. 21, Vines ; 22, Maples; 23, Horse-chestnut trees; 24, Sethias ; 25, Canellas ; 26, Soap-berry trees ; 27, Milk worts; 28, Tremandreas; 29, Fumitories; 30, Poppies; 31, Cross worts; 32, Cappares; 33, Woads; 34, Fla- courtias; 35, Sun flowers; 36, Sundews; 37, Violets; 38, Frankenias ; 39, Pinks. FOURTEENTH CLASS 1 . Flowers with the stamens inserted ' around the seed-organ. There are twenty-six orders: 1, Rupture worts ; 2, Spring chickweeds ; 3, Mesembryanthemums ; 4, Saxi- frages ; 5, Hamameles; 6, Brunias; 7, Stonecrops; 8, Cactuses; 9, Gooseberry trees; 10, Gourds; ll,Loasas; 12, Passion flowers; 13, Thousand leaf; 14, Tree primroses; 15, Combretums; 16, Myrtles; 17, Melas- tomas; 18, Marsh hyssops; 19, Roses; 20, Homaliums; 21, Samydas; 22, Peas; 23, Turpentines; 24, Buck- thorns; 25, Spindle trees; 26, Holm oaks. 4. With the Stamens and Pistils in separate Flowers. FIFTEENTH CLASS'. Flowers without petals. There are eight orders : 1, Spurges; 2, Nettles; 3, Monimias; 4, Willows; 5, Gales ; 6, Oaks ; 7, Birches ; 8, Pines ; 9, Sago Plants. ( I ) In Latin, Peripetaleee. (2) In Latin, Declineee, 181 OBJECTIONS TO THE NATURAL SYSTEM. WE are told, by those who boast of this as the Natural System, that it brings together the plants which most resemble one another in anatomical struc- ture, in what are called affinities, and in nutritious or noxious qualities. To show that I do not exaggerate a jot in this statement, I refer the reader to London's Encyclopedia of Plants, p. 1052, where we are told, in the portion of the work contributed by Professor Lindley, that when the natural order of a plant is ascertained, many of its most important qualities, such as " medicinal properties," may be " safely " inferred. Now, if this were so, nobody, I think, would dispute the high value of this Natural system. Unfortunately, however, this principle is virtually contradicted by what follows. Thus, under CELLULAHES, Order viii., Mr. Lindley gives us " Cetraria Islandica, c., tonic and nutritive/' along with, " Evernia vulpina, poison- ous." Under VASCU LARES, again, Order cxli., (to say nothing as to size, form, and structure,) " the fig, the mulberry, and the bread-fruit tree" are natu- rally (common sense would say unnaturally) classed " among worthless weeds," such as " the common stinging nettle," " and shabby half herbaceous shrubs," such as f ' the hemp and the hop ; " but what are we to think of " safely " inferring from the fig, the bread- fruit tree, and the sago plant, the " medicinal pro- perties " of (< the Upas tree, now known to be the Antiaris toxicaria, the inspissated juice of which," 182 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS. to use Mr. Lindley's own words, " is a frightful poi- son " (p. 1083) ? Were I the proprietor of this work, I would not hesitate an instant to break up the stereo- type plates, in order to expunge such glaring contra- dictions and highly dangerous errors. In his own work on the " Natural System," Mr. Lindley alludes to the discrepancy in these words : " The fig, the bread-fruit tree, the jack, and the mulberry, are all found here, and are a curious instance of wholesome or harmless plants in an order which contains the most deadly poison in the world, the Upas of Java j the juice, however, of even those which have wholesome fruit, is acrid and suspicious, and in a species of fig, Ficus toxicaria, is absolutely venom- ous 1 /' Now had the author not been blindly preju- diced in favour of the system, he must have seen, that instead of this being a " curious instance" author- ising a theoretical suspicion of the mild fig and nutritious bread-fruit, it is fatal to the whole doctrine of safely inferring medicinal properties. Mr. Lindley complains bitterly in his preface, that " the Natural System of Botany 5 ' " has to contend with a great deal of deeply-rooted prejudice;" but the wonder ought rather to be, that such doctrines as those under notice ever found any person so fool-hardy as to promulgate and defend them. In the division just alluded to, which is the fifteenth class of our ALPHABET, in the second order, among those especially called the true nettles (as if there 0) P. 95, latrod. Nat. System of Botany. OBJECTIONS TO THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 183 could be in nature, any false ones), we find the mul- berry tree side by side with the stiff hemp and the light climbing hop. Now admitting that the seed and the flowers of all these agree in structure, as they nearly do, it must appear obvious that the plants are as incongruously and unnaturally grouped as possible, in reference to their general form and habits; while if we look to qualities, what can be more incongruous than to rank the poisonous upas of Java in the same order with the fig ? In the seventh order of the eighth class, also, we find the wholesome potatoe and the mild shepherd's club ranking with henbane and the deadly night shade. In the third order of the eleventh class, we find not only lofty trees ranked with dwarf shrubs, and tiny slender herbs ; but we have the coffee ranked with the well known emetic, ipecacuana, and this again with Peruvian bark. In the thirteenth class, we have, so far as size and form are concerned, the low growing pinks, violets, and buttercups, ranked not only with the tall sun-flower, but with the stately horse chestnut, the lime tree, and the maple; and these again with the climbing vine, and the waving barberry shrub ; while we could not, I think, " safely" infer the " medicinal properties" of the poppy, from which opium and laudanum are procured, gamboge, .which is violently purgative, and buttercup, which is an acrid poison, from the mild cocoa and marshmal- low, and the wholesome orange. This would indeed be altogether preposterous. The fourteenth class fur- nishes precisely similar discrepancies. In point of size and form, we find the spring chickweed, one of 184 SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OP PLANTS. our smallest British plants, ranked among apple trees and holm oaks ; and these again with the light climb- ing passion flower, and gooseberry bushes. The " me- dicinal properties," however, of the poisonous elate- rium, the acrid stonecrop, the emetic laburnum, and the purgative buckthorn, could not be "safely" in- ferred from the nutritive pea and bean, or the whole- some pear, apple, and gooseberry, which are all in this class. I could readily fill a volume with the similar discre- pancies of this so preposterously belauded Natural System, which, if it have not to answer for the loss of human lives by poisoning upon principle, it is no fault of its promulgators. The fact is, that so far from being more natural than the Linnsean system, these instances, now given, with many more, show it to be more palpably unnatural. But the day of philosophy has now, as I fondly hope, at last dawned, and rational and useful studies must ultimately banish mystery and nonsense, though these may, for a season, stalk about in the mask and under the assumed names of philosophy and science. The " CONSPECTUS OF BRITISH PLANTS, for the use of Collectors and Students," formerly announced, though considerably advanced, cannot be promised before spring ; the " ALPHABET OF MEDICAL BOTANY," however, will be ready, it is hoped, by the end of autumn. INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS IN THE NOTES. ABRUPTA, 6 Abrupte pinnatum, 28 Abr upturn, 31 Acaulis, 14 Achenium, 125 Acotyledones, 175 Aculei, 40 Aculeosum, 32 Acuininatum, 31 Acutura, 30 Adnata, 13 ^Equalis, 169 jEstivatio, 18 Aggregati, 45 Alee, 58 and 130 Alatus, 21 Albumen, 120 Alburnum, 85 and 141 Algae, 172 Alternate, 33 Alterne pinnatum, 29 Amentum, 46 Amplexicaulia, 22 Amplexicaulium, 33 Angiospermia, 167 Anatropus, 124 Antliera, 60 Antbodium, 46 Antitropus, 124 Apex, 30 Appressa, 33 Apetalse, 177 Arbor, 15 Arbustum, 15 Arillus, 116 Arista, 36 and 40 Aristatum, 31 Articulata, 6 Articulate pinnatum, 29 Articulatus, 40 Asclepias, 1 10 Asper, 84 Aubier, 141 Axilla, 19, 21, and 45 Axillaris, 21 Axis ascendens, 13 Axis descendens, 4 Bacca, 126 Barbae, 40 Basis, 118 Bifaria, 33 Bigeminatum, 30 Bo, 15 Exorhizse, 121 Dentatuin, 32 Exosmose, 95 Diadelphia, 169 Exostoma, 118 Diandria, 163 Dicotyledones, 122 and 177 Fasciculata, 6 and 33 Didyma, 6 Fasciculatus, 40 Didynamia, 167 Fasciculus, 48 Digitata, 6 Faux, 56 Digitatum, 27 Fibrillae, 8 Digynia, 162 Fibrosa, 6 Dioecia, 171 Filamentum, 60 Discus, 61 Filices, 172 Dissepimenta, 115 Florifera, 17 Dodecandria, 166 Fluitantia, 34 Dodecagynia, 166 Foliatio, 17 Dorsum, 118 Foliculum, 125 Drupa, 126 Folifera, 16 Ductus intercellularis, 66 Foliola, 27 Dumus, 15 Folium, 21 Fovilla, 109 Elaterium, 125 Fructus, 52 . Emarginatum, 31 Frustranea, 170 Embryo, 16 Frutex, 15 En chapelet, 74 Fungi, 172 Endecandria, 168 Funiculus, umbilicalis, 116 Endocarpium, 114 Furcatus, 40 Endogena?, 175 Fusiformis, 5 Endorhizse, 121 Endosmose, 95 Galea, 57 Endospermium, 118 Gamopetala, 56 Endostoma, 118 Gamosepalus, 52 Enneandria, 165 Gemma, 16 Ensiforrae, 24 Gemmae, 15 Epicarpium, 114 Gemmula, 123 Epicorollea?, 178 and 179 Germen, 16 and 61 "EwtStpftis, 76 Germiiiatio, 130 Epigei, 122 Glaber, 84 Epipetaleec, 179 Glandulse, 41 Epistaminese, 177 Glandulae lenticulares, 79 Equitans, 17 and 33 Glandulosuni, 32 Erosum, 32 Glans, 125 Exogena?, 175 Globuline, 69 188 INDEX. Glomerulus, 48 ^nterrupte pinnatum, 29 Glomus, 48 involucellum, 47 Gluma, 36 and 51 involucrum, 35 and 47 Glutinosus, 84 [nvoluta, 17 Gramineum, 24 [nvolutum, 32 Granulata, 6 Gynandria, 170 Jugatum, 27 Gynophorum, 54 Gymnospcrmia, 167 Labiata, 57 Labium, 57 Hastatum, 25 Laciniatum, 26 Hepaticse, 172 Lacunae, 73 Heptandria, 164 Lsevis, 84 Heptagynia, 164 Lamina, 21 and 56 Herba, 15 Lanatus, 39 Herbaceus, 15 Lanceolatum, 23 Heterotropus, 124 Latera, 118 Hexagynia, 164 Laterales, 22 Hexandria, 164 Lecus, 1 1 Hilum, 116 Legumen, 125 Hispidus, 39 Lenticellae, 42 Hybernaculum, 16 Lenticellulee, 79 Hygroscopicity, 93 Liber, 83 Hypocorolleae, 178 Lignum, 84 and 141 Hypocrateriformis, 56 Ligulata, 57 Hypogei, 122 Limbus, 56 Hypopetalese, 179 Limes seminiferus, 116 Hypostaminese, 177 Lineare, 23 Loculamenta, 108 Icosandria, 166 Locustae, 46 Imbricata, 17 and 19 Lyrato pinnatum, 28 Imbricatus, 12 Impare pinnatum, 28 Marginatum, 32 Indehiscens, 125 Margo, 31 Indentatum, 31 Meatus intercellularis, 66 Inflexa, 33 Media, 22 Inflorescentia, 44 Medulla, 85 and 141 Infundibiliformis, 56 Melonida, 126 Integrum, 31 Membrana interna, 118 Integumentum cellulare, 76 Mesocarpium, 114 Integumentum herbaceum, 82 Micropylum, 118 Internodium, 14 and 153 Monadelphia, 168 INDEX. Monandria, 162 Ovarium, 61 and 114 Moniliformis, 6 Ovatum, 24 Monocotyledones, 122 and 176 vula, 113 Monoeeia, 171 Monoepigyneae, 176 Palea, 51 Monogynia, 162 Palma, 15 Monohypogyneae, 176 Palmata, 6 Monoperigyneae, 176 Palmatum, 26 Monopetala, 56 Panduraeforme, 25 Moriopetalae, 178 Panicla, 46 Monophyllus, 52 Papilionacea, 58 Morphology, 153 Pappus, 53 and 130 Multifidum, 26 Papulosus, 84 Mnltipartitum, 27 Parenchyma, 63 Multipinnatum, 30 Pectinatum, 26 Musci, 172 Pedicelli, 44 Muticum, 31 Pedunculus, 44 Pellicula, 119 Napiformis, 6 Peltatum, 24 Necessaria, 170 Pendula, 33 Nectarium, 59 Peponida, 126 Nectarostigma, 59 Pentagynia, 164 Nitidus, 84 Pentandria, 164 Nodosa, 6 Perfoliatum, 33 Nodus, 14 Perianthium, 52 Nucleus, 119 Pericarpium, 114 Nuculanium, 126 Pericorolleae, 178 Nutantia, 33 Perigonium, 50 Nux, 126 Peripetalese, 180 Peristamineae, 177 Oblongum, 24 Perpendicularis, 5 Obovatum, 24 Persistentia, 34 Obtusum, 31 Personata, 57 Ochrea, 34 Petala, 56 Octandria, 165 Petiolatum, 21 Oculi, 20 Petiolus, 21 Omphaloidum, 118 Phanerogamia, 162 Opposita, 33 Phsenogamicae, 162 Opposite pinnatum, 28 Pili, 38 Orbiculus, 59 Pinnae, 28 Orthotropus, 124 Pinnatifidum, 26 Ova, 113 Pinnatum, 28 189 190 INDEX. Pistillum, 61 Ramuli, 7 Placenta, 116 and 156 Ramus, 37 Plicata, 17 and 19 Raplie, 119 Plumosus, 40 Raphides, 66 Plumula, 123 Receptaculuni, 53 Podogynum, 54 Reclinata, 17 Podosperinium, 116 Reflexa, 33 Polachenium, 125 Reniforme, 25 Polyadelphia, 169 Resupinata, 34 Polyandria, 167 Retusum, 31 Polygamia, 169 and 170 Revoluta, 17 Polygynia, 164 Revolution, 32 Polypetala, 58 Rhizoma, 14 Polypetalese, 179 Rhomboideum, 25 Pomum, 126 Rictus, 57 Praemorsa, 6 Ringens, 57 Praemorsum, 31 Rosacea, 58 Prolepsis, 153 Rosea, 33 Propagines, 13 Rotata, 56 Propagulum, 14 Rotunda, 6 Pseudo tracheae, 73 Runcinatum, 26 Pubens, 39 Pvxidiimi, 125 Sagittatum, 25 Samara, 125 Quadrangulare, 25 Sarcocarpium, 114 Quaternata, 33 Sarmentum, 14 and 134 Quaternum, 27 Scaber, 84 Quinatum, 27 Scapus, 14 and 44 Quincuncialis, 19 Scobina, 46 Quinquelobatuni, 26 Secunda, 34 Quinquefidum, 26 Segregata, 170 Semina, 113 Racemus, 46 Seminalia, 122 Rachis, 44 and 46 Sepalum, 52 Radicula, 120 Septa, 115 Radicula?, 8 Sericeus, 39 Radii medullaris, 70 Serratum, 32 Radix, 4 Sessile, 21 Ramentae, 38 Setae urentes, 40 Rami, 7 Silicula, 125 Ramifera, 17 Siliculosa, 168 Ramosus, 40 Siliqua, 125 191 Siliquosa, 168 Tentacula, 42 Simplex, 22 Terriata, 33 Sinuatum, 31 Ternatum, 27 Soboles, 11 and 13 Testa, 118 Sorosis, 126 Tetradynamia,-168 Sparsa, 33 Tetragynia, 163 Spatha, 36 and 51 Tetrandria, 163 Spatulatuui, 24 Textura cellularis, 63 Spica, 46 Thyrsus, 49 Spicula, 46 Tomentosus, 39 Spinse, 40 Torsiva, 19 Spinosum, 32 Torus, 53 Spiralia, 3 3 Tracheae, 71 Spongioluna, 88 Triandria, 163 Spondee, 13 Triangulare, 25 Stamina, 59 Tridentatum, 31 Stellata, 56 Trifoliatum, 27 Stellatus, 40 Trigeminatum, 30 Stigma, 61 Trigynia, 163 Stipes, 14 Trilobatum, 25 Stipula, 34 Trophospermium, 116 Stolo, 15 Truncus, 14 Stolones, 134 Tuberculata, 6 Stomata, 79 Tubularis, 56 Striatus, 84 Tubus medullaris, 141 Strobilus, 125 Tunicatus, 12 Subacutum, 30 Subfrutex, 15 Umbella, 46 Subrotundum, 24 Umbellatum, 27 Subulatum, 23 Umbellula, 47 Succus, 75 Umbilicus, 116 Sulcatus, 84 Uncinatus, 40 Superflua, 172 Undulatum, 32 Surculus, 15 Unguis, 56 Stylus, 61 Unilateralia, 34 Synantherese, 1 78 Urceolata, 56 Syngenesia, 169 Utriculum, 125 Synorhizae, 121 Vagina medullaris, 85 Tegmenta, 16 Vaginans, 21 and 33 Tela cellulosa, 63 Valvaris, 19 Tela fibrosa, 67 Vasa annularia, 74 Vasa fibrosa, 67 Vasa lymphatica, 79 Vasa moniliformia, 74 Vasa spiralia, 71 Vasculares, 175 Venter, 118 Vernatio, 17 Verrucosus, 84 Vertebratum, 29 Vertex, 118 Verticillata, 33 Verticillato pinnatum, 29 Verticillus, 49 Vexillum, 58 Viscidus, 84 Vitellus, 120 Viticula, 15 Volutum, 32 Volva, 51 o TO en m Co CD Hj m _x m TI i m fi X > Q^ >0 O 70 m *> O -HPD -n 1 1 DO Z "D rn II g O c O ^ h-* m 5 ^ 2f > ^ Cn ro J/ o c/> DO CT) H m ^ 73 ^fc m ^ n m O m GP O m 5 Tl O CO rn Co