tersity of California Nthern Regional Library Facility fflffl .-.-. :'-> , ' m :: ;;vX>--;^ MODEKN DWELLINGS THE ENTRANCE. MODEEN DWELLINGS IN TOWN AND COUNTRY ADAPTED TO AMERICAN WANTS AND CLIMATE WITH A TREATISE ON FURNITURE AND DECORATION BY H. HUDSON HOLLY WITH ONE HUNDRED ORIGINAL DESIGNS COMPRISING COTTAGES VILLAS AND MANSIONS NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS FRANKLIN SQUARE 1878 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by HARPER & BROTHER^, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Architecture & Urban Planning Library PREFACE. IN" the spring of 1876, I prepared an article on Country-houses for Haider's Magazine, which was followed by a series of papers on inte- riors, containing a few suggestions on household art in general. It then occurred to me that the importance of the subject would justify its treat- ment in a more extended form. With this view, I began the prepara- tion of the present work, which, although it might have been extended to several volumes without exhausting the subject, will, I trust, prove a practical and reliable guide for those persons who wish to build, furnish, and beautify their houses without an extravagant outlay of money. - In the following pages I have profited considerably by the writings of Eastlake and others. In some instances, I have quoted from The American Architect and London Building News, and also from a work of my own published in 1863, which has been for some years out of print. In regard to the designs, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. H. F. Jelliffe, who rendered me great assistance in working them up, and to Mr. Charles Parsons, Superintendent of the Art Department at Harper & Brothers, who has added greatly to their attraction by the graceful in- troduction of suitable figures and scenery. I feel some hesitation in giving the cost of the various dwellings described, as the fluctuations in prices are such that the expense of build- ing a house in any one year might not be a guide at another time. The estimates I have given are based upon the value of labor and material in the year 1878. H. HUDSON HOLLY. Ill Broadway, N. Y. CONTENTS. I. -CONSTRUCTION CHAPTER I. THE QUEEN ANNE STYLE. Gothic Revival. Cottage Architecture. Suburban Homes. The Park System... Page 17 CHAPTER II. ECONOMY OF COUNTRY LIFE. Fluctuations. Blessings of Poverty. Small Homes 29 CHAPTER III. SITE. Cesspool Remote from the House. Earth Closets. Ventilating Sewers. Grading Cellar Floors. Areas. Foundations on Made Ground. Terraces. Side Hills. Hydraulic Rams. Cistern Filters. Force-pump. Windmills 33 CHAPTER IV. PLANS. Views. Exposure. Estimates. Architect's Supervision. Commercial Value attached to a Well-arranged Plan 42 CHAPTER V. BUILDING MATERIALS. Brick. Stone. Concrete 48 CHAPTER VI. SPECIFICATIONS. Estimates. Contracts. Mechanic's Lieu. Foundations. Rubble-work. Pointing... 52 10 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. FRAMING. Timber. Furring. Cellar Partitions. Covering a Frame House. Seasoned Lum- ber Page 56 CHAPTER VIII. ROOFING. Metals. Shingles. Slate. Testing Slate. Sheathing. French Method. Oiling Slate. Painting Roofs. Tiles for Roofing. Crestiugs and Fiuials 61 CHAPTER IX. GLASS. Plate-glass. Stained Glass. Prismatic Glass. Blue Glass 66 CHAPTER X. CHIMNEYS. Painting Chimneys. Chimneys on Exterior of Houses. Draughts. Security against Fire. French System of laying Floor Beams. Smoke Flues. Hot-air Registers... 71 CHAPTER XI. COST OF HOUSES. Miscalculation of Expense. Simple Rule for making Estimates 78 CHAPTER XII. ARCHITECTS' DUTIES AND CHARGES. American Institute of Architects. Preliminary Sketches. Plans. Specifications. De- tail Drawing. Supervision. Speculative Building 82 CHAPTER XIII. PLUMBERS' BLUNDERS. The Overflow of Tanks. Boiler Explosions. Leaky Gas -pipes. The Lightning-rod Man 88 CHAPTER XIV. HEATING AND VENTILATION. Large Furnaces. Open Grates. Ventilating Sliaft. Ventilators in Windows. Venti- lating Soil-pipes. Tin Flues in Dark Rooms 94 CONTENTS. 11 CHAPTER XV. STEAM HEATING. ELECTRICITY. Pure Air. Automatic Contrivances. Electric Signals. Burglar Alarms Page 100 CHAPTER XVI. ALTERATIONS. Remodelling Houses. Self-styled Architects. Saving Expense 104 CHAPTER XVII. LIBRARY. Nooks and Cubby-holes 107 CHAPTER XVIII. KITCHEN. The Comfort of Servants 114 CHAPTER XIX. BILLIARD-ROOM. Billiards as an Amusement. Location of Room. Tables 118 CHAPTER XX. BLINDS. Inside and Outside Shutters. Venetian Blinds. Shades. Wire Screens 122 CPIAPTER XXI. CARE NECESSARY IN ADAPTING A ROOM TO FURNITURE. Hot-air Registers. Location of Doors and Windows. Position for the Piano. Gas- fixtures, etc 126 CHAPTER XXII. THE MANSION. Arrangement of Roads. Natural Effect. Planting of Trees. View from Railway.... 129 CHAPTER XXIII. CITY ARCHITECTURE. The Law of Alignment. Amusing Story by the RCA*. Walter Mitchell 138 12 CONTENTS. II -FURNITURE AND DECORATION. CHAPTER I. INDUSTRIAL ART EDUCATION. ( The Necessity of it in the United States. Impulse given to it by the Centen- nial Page 151 CHAPTER II. COLOR. Interior Decorations directed by Architect. Theory, Effects, and Gradations of Color. Symmetry 158 CHAPTER III. PAPER-HANGING. Selection of Patterns. Adaptation of Colors 163 CHAPTER IV. CEILINGS. Cornices. Mouldings. Location of Chandelier. Country Decorators 166 CHAPTER Y. BORDERS. Ceilings. Friezes. Stamped Leather. Legendary Decoration. Wood-panelling. ... 169 CHAPTER VI. BACKGROUNDS. Harmony of Colors. Majolica Ware. Bric-a-brac 173 CHAPTER VII. ADVANCED ARTS ABROAD. Some Descriptions of late English Work 175 CHAPTER VIII. FURNITURE. Durability and Honesty in Furniture. Treatment of Wood. Graining. Painting. Staining. Oiling and Varnishing. The Arch. Cross Grain. Bent Wood 183 CONTENTS. 13 CHAPTER IX. LEGITIMATE WOOD -WORK. Gluing. Carving in Solid Wood. Sideboard. Marble Top. Fine China. Painting on Pottery Page 18G CHAPTER X. FIREPLACES. Mantels. Marble Mantel. Wooden Mantel. Open Fireplaces. The Crane. Hearths. Tile. Tile in Furniture. Screens 189 CHAPTER XL COLONIAL FASHIONS. Fashion iu Furniture. Dining-room. High-back Chair. Diniug-table. Dining-rooms treated in Dark Colors. Table-cloth 194 CHAPTER XII. BOOKCASES AND PIANOS. Light in Library. Bay-windows. Hooded Chimney-piece. Music-stool. Music- stand 198 CHAPTER XIII. PLANTS. Flower Decoration. Swiss Scene. Miniature Conservatory. Buckingham Hotel. Pottery and Wooden Chests in Fireplaces 202 CHAPTER XIY. BEDROOM FURNITURE. Fashionable Furniture. Architect designing Furniture 205 CHAPTER XV. METALS. Locks. Bolts. Handles. Hinges. Imitation in Metals. Sconce. Mirror. Chan- delier .. 207 14 CONTENTS. CHAPTEK XVI. HOME ART. Gentlemen as Amateur Cabinet-makers. Ladies as "Wall Decorators. Imitation Stained Glass. Home-made Curtains. Kods and Brackets. Fret or Bracket Saws. Bur- laps Hearth-rug. Impromptu Sconces. Grouping of Flags. Renewing Picture- frames Page 210 CHAPTER XYIL ART-SCHOOLS FOR WOMEN. Woman's Carving School of Cincinnati. Royal School of Art Needle-work. Industrial Arts taught in our Schools. Artists decorating Walls. Adapting Curious Workman- ship. Trousseau Chest and Old Mantel 216 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. THE ENTRANCE Frontispiece GATE-WAY 17 DESIGN No. 1. SMALL COTTAGE, OR LODGE. . 22 GROUND-PLAN FOR DESIGN No. 1 24 DESIGN No. 2 30 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 2 31 DESIGN No. 3 38 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 3 41 HALL AND STAIRCASE OF DESIGN No. 3 42 DESIGN No. 4 45 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 4 46 DESIGN No. 5 49 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 5 51 DESIGN No. 6 63 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 6 55 DESIGN No. 7 57 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 7 59 DESIGN No. 8 63 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 8 65 DESIGN No. 9 67 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 9 69 DESIGN No. 10 73 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 10 75 VIGNETTE OF DESIGN No. 10 76 DESIGN No. 11 79 BALCONY FROM WITHIN, IN DESIGN No. 11.. 80 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 11 81 DESIGN No. 12 84 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 12 86 MAIN STAIRCASE, DESIGN No. 12 87 RECESSED BALCONY 88 DESIGN No. 13 91 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OK DESIGN No. 13.. . 92 DESIGN No. 14 95 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 14 98 GABLE OF DESIGN No. 14 98 DESIGN No. 15 101 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 15 103 DESIGN No. 16 105 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 16 106 THE LIBRARY, IN DESIGN No. 16 107 DESIGN No. 17 , 110 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 17 112 SERVANT'S PORCH, IN DESIGN No. 17 113 DESIGN No. 18 115 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 18 116 STAIRCASE HALL, IN DESIGN No. 18 117 THE BILLIARD-ROOM 119 DESIGN No. 19 120 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 19 121 INTERIOR OF BAY-WIXDOW 122 DESIGN No. 20 124 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 20 125 DESIGN No. 21 126 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 21 128 DESIGN No. 22 130 GRAND STAIRCASE, IN DESIGN No. 22 181 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 22 132 BEDROOM, IN DESIGN No. 22 134 CORNER MCLLION, IN DESIGN No. 22 136 DESIGN No. 23 139 PARLOR, IN DESIGN No. 23 145 FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 23 146 SECOND-FLOOR PLAN OF DESIGN No. 23 .... 147 BOCDOIR, IN DESIGN No. 23 148 LIBRARY, IN DESIGN No. 23 149 16 LIST OF 1LLUSTKATIONS. FIG. 1. FRIEZE : THE LADY OF SHALOTT . . 151 " 2. WALL-PAPER 152 3. WALL-PAPER 153 4. WALL-PAPER 156 " 5. HUNTING SCENE 159 " 6. GARDEN SCENE 161 " 7. GUELDER-ROSE FOR WALL-DIAPER. .. 164 " 8. GUELDER-ROSE FOR FLOOR PATTERN. 164 " 9. HARBOR SCENE 169 10. WOOD PANEL 171 " 11. HALL AND STAIRCASE 177 " 12. "ANGLO-JAPANESE" PARLOR...... 178 " 13. LIBRARY TABLE 179 " 14. HALL SETTLE 180 " 15. PARLOR SOFA 181 " 16. HIGH-BACKED CHAIR 183 " 17. SUBSTITUTE FOR A CURVED BACK. . 183 " 18. CURTED-BACK CHAIR 185 " 19. STAIR NEWEL 186 " 20. SIDEBOARD 187 " 21. MARBLE MANTEL 189 " 22. WOOD MANTEL 190 " 23. " FIRESIDE STORIES" 192 " 24. SCREEN PANEL 193 " 25. SOME EXAMPLES OF MODERN UPHOL- STERY . . .194 FIG. 26. A CHAIR OF THE NEW SCHOOL... 195 " 27. SPECIMENS OF THE REFORMED SCHOOL 196 " 28. DINING-ROOM INTERIOR 197 " 29. NEO- JACOBEAN BOOKCASE 198 " 30. THE LIBRARY 199 " 31. UPRIGHT PIANO 200 " 32. ENGLISH DESIGN OF GRAND PI- ANO 200 " 33. MUSIC-STAND 201 " 34. FLOWER-STAND 202 " 35. FLOWER-VASE 203 " 36. GLIMPSE OF THE DINING-ROOM .... 204 " 37. HANGING CABINET 206 " 38. DOOR LOCK 208 " 39. DRAWER LOCK 209 " 40. DRAWER HANDLE 209 " 41. BOLT 209 " 42. HINGE 210 " 43. LIGHTER HINGE 211 " 44. CHANDELIER 212 " 45. A SCONCE 213 " 46. BEDROOM FURNITURE 214 " 47. DRESSING-TABLE AND CABINET.... 215 " 48. WASH-STAND 216 " 49. COMMODE . . .218 MODEBN DWELLINGS. PART I. CONSTRUCTION. CHAPTER I. THE QUEEN ANNE STYLE. Gothic Revival. Cottage Architecture. Suburban Homes. The Park System. A RCHITECTURE is a comparatively new art in this country, and * has had but little earnest and intelligent study; so we cannot be said to have any styles and systems peculiarly our own. In the absence of such, we have been too apt to use, inappropriately, the orders of foreign nations, which express the especial needs of those countries, and those alone. Yet out of our necessities there have grown certain idiosyncrasies of building which point toward an American style. Doubtless we may introduce from abroad methods of design which meet our requirements, but we must not hesitate to eliminate those portions for which we have no use, or to make such additions as our circumstances demand. For instance, in our pure atmosphere, where odors are readily absorbed, it would be foolish, except in large establishments, to build the kitchen apart from the house to escape from its fumes, when a simple butler's 2 18 MODERN DWELLINGS. pantry between it and the dining-room would effectually prevent their entrance. So, too, it would be the merest folly, in building an English cottage, not to have a veranda, simply because its prototypes in Eng- land have none. We evidently have need of this appliance in our dry and sunny climate. From such requirements a distinctive feature of American architecture must arise. In this way we are doubtless building up an architecture of our own, profiting, as other founders of style have done, by precedents in older countries. Our materials, climate, and habits differ enough from those of Europe to demand a material change in their use and arrangement. For example, in European countries, wood, a most valuable building ma- terial, is rare and expensive, while in most sections of our own, it is very abundant. But instead of using this in accordance with its nature and capacities, we have stupidly employed it in copying, as exactly as we can, details of foreign architecture, which were designed with reference to the constructive capacities of brick and stone ; hence w r e see rounded arches, keystones, and buttresses of wood ; wood siding is sanded and blocked off to represent stone ; and the prosperous American citizen, with a taste for feudal castles, like Horace Walpole, may live to see three sets of his own turrets decay. Fortunately our people are beginning to recognize the folly of such unmeaning shams ; and when brick or stone is adopted, it is treated as such ; and when wood is employed, we are properly commenc- ing to show details adapted to its nature. Until, however, we come to possess a vernacular style, we must content ourselves with copying ; and the question arises, Which of the innumerable systems is best suited to our requirements? We have tried the Egyptian, but nothing cheerful seems to have been the result, as our City Prison will testify. The Greek, as set forth by Stuart and Rivett, has had a more successful career; but while "counterfeit presentments" of the temples of the gods have mocked the eye with their exterior of wood and whitewash, so, within, we might sometimes find the Pythia with a wash-bench for a tripod, with the fumes of soapsuds representing the vapor of inspiration. But the Gothic revival, started by the masterly hand of Pugin, glori- fied and made national by such men as Street and Ruskin, seemed to have decided the matter, and both England and America rested with unmo- lested satisfaction until within the last few years, when it was suddenly discovered that the Gothic, however well adapted for ecclesiastical pur- poses, was lacking in essential points for domestic uses; and Norman Shaw, J. J. Stevenson, and others have openly advocated this view. Their ar- gument was that the Gothic meant the development of the arched con- THE QUEEN ANNE STYLE. 19 struction in the pointed work, vaulted and traceried windows ; and that while these features were suited to churches and great halls, they were un- fitted for modern domestic structures, divided as they are into compara- tively low stories ; therefore, that even in the dwellings of the Middle Ages, when this style reached its highest perfection, its characteristic feat- ures could not be displayed. In fact, Gothic architecture was not origi- nally intended to meet domestic wants. There are some who are so carried aw r ay with the architecture that happens to be in vogue, that they consider it indispensable, regardless of its adaptability, like the quack doctor, who, finding that a certain medicine is efficacious in one disease, advertises its infallible power to cure " all the ills that flesh is heir to." This was displayed recently in a competi- tion for furnishing plans for a town-hall in Paisley, England, in which a Gothic design was. selected, resembling, not only in its general appearance, but in all its details, inside and out, a cathedral. So, too, in this country. An expensive villa near our city, built after a Gothic design, is so wedded to the style, that, notwithstanding the absence of natural shade, it has neither porch nor veranda to serve as a protection from the rays of our almost tropical sun. Common-sense should be at the base of all true art, as well as of all true living and thinking. These writers exempt themselves from a slavish conformity to the Gothic, admirable as it may be in its proper sphere, on the ground that it is manifestly inadequate to meet all domestic requirements. One of the principles upon which the promoters of the Gothic revival insisted witli energy and eloquence was " truth in architecture ;" that the construction should not be hidden under some fair-seeming mask which had no affinity with it, and often represented something very different from it, but should be made apparent, and the basis of whatever adornment should be em- ployed. But the new reformers say that truth is not the peculiar pos- session of Gothic architecture ; and, indeed, modern Gothic has often found the temptations of an age that loves to be deceived too strong for it, and has fallen into the errors of the system it has attempted to replace. What, then, do they propose as a substitute for this in domestic architecture '* They claim that in what is loosely called the " Queen Anne " style we find the most simple mode of honest English building, worked out in an artistic and natural form, fitting with the sash-windows and ordinary door- ways which express real domestic needs (of which it is the outcome) ; and so, in our house-building, conserving truth far more effectively than can be done with the Gothic. One great advantage in adopting this and other styles of the " free classic " school is, that they are in their construction, 20 MODERN DWELLINGS. and in the forms of the mouldings employed, the same as the common vernacular styles with which our workmen are familiar. They are described by Mr. Ridge somewhat as follows : " The Queen Anne revival shows the influence of the group of styles known as the Elizabethan, Jacobite, and the style of Francis L, which are now indeed to be arranged under the general head of ' free classic ;' but it has also been influenced by what is known as the ' cottage architecture ' of that period." These cottages, which were common in the home counties, are partly timbered, partly covered with tile hangings, and have tall and spacious chimneys of considerable merit. They have really nothing by which to flx their date. Their details partook strongly of the classic character, while the boldness of their outline bore striking resemblance to the pict- uresque and ever-varying Gothic. Nevertheless, they were very genuine and striking buildings, and have been taken freely as suggestions upon which to work by Mr. Norman Shaw, in Leyswood, Cragside, and a house at Harrow Weald, which are certainly some of the most beautiful and suitable specimens of modern cottage architecture in England ; and those erected by the British Government at the Centennial Grounds at Phila- delphia are adequate illustrations of this style. I have frequently noticed that whereas formerly the introduction of any novelty excited a certain amount of adverse criticism, that it took some time to remove (such as "All Souls," in Fourth Avenue, which, though a good specimen of Italian Gothic, bore for years the sobriquet of the " Beefsteak Church "), the Queen Anne, from its thorough adapt- ability to the uses to which it was applied, seemed never to call forth any comment of this kind, and, as an evident exponent of domestic re- quirements, became popular at once, not only among the educated, but even among the rustic population. Mr. J. J. Stevenson, one of the most celebrated architects in England, in his admirable article in the January number of Harper's Magazine (1876), after styling Gothic as the "artistic expression of an obsolete mode of construction," and proving most conclusively the inappropriateness of this style for domestic uses, concludes as follows : " As there is a common language which every one more or less understands, so there is a common architecture which arose with the growth of modern thought, and has been the architectural style of the country for the last three centuries, which every builder naturally follows, which every workman has been ap- prenticed to, and more or less understands. But while our language has been kept up to a reasonable mark of artistic excellence by a high standard THE QUEEN ANNE STYLE. 21 of criticism and the constant effort of educated minds, our vernacular architecture is characterized by the vulgarity and commonplaceness of the men in whose hands it has been left. The interest of refined and edu- cated minds for the last thirty years has been directed, not to improving the vernacular style, but to the hopeless attempt of supplanting it by an- other (the Gothic), which appeared at first to flourish, but has not taken root in the soil of the country." Now, this vernacular style is precisely what this book is intended to advocate, it being none other than the free classic, or Queen Anne. In America it is the privilege of nearly all classes to build for them- selves homes in the country, where, for such rent as they would pay for a flat or tenement in town, they can secure an entire house with sufficient ground for a garden and ornamental lawn ; and, if not immediately in a village, sufficient acres can be obtained to aiford the luxury of a horse and cow, the products of the little farm going far toward the support of an extra man, and with good management may be made a source of profit also. Railroads and steamboats have now become so numerous that all classes, from the humblest mechanic to the wealthy banker, can have their homes in the country, reaching them in about the same time and as cheap- ly or nearly so as the old omnibus ride from the City Hall to the upper part of the city. It is not an occasion of wonder, then, that there are so many ready to avail themselves of this rapid transit, and that we see stud- ded along the lines of our railroads picturesque and cheerful homes, where the heads of families are not only recuperating from the deleterious effects of the confinement of city life, but are, with the aid of fresh air and wholesome food, laying the foundation for greater strength and in- creased happiness for their children. The following is quoted from the New York Herald of April 19th, 187T: "New York is gradually, year by year, becoming the home of the very rich and very poor. The middle classes are surely, rapidly, and permanently removing to the neighboring localities ; the ample railroad facilities to all places embracing a radius of twenty miles around the city, together with cheap rents, pure air, and freedom from infectious diseases caused by dirty streets and other causes prevailing in large cities, tending to make residences in such places more and more sought for every year by old New York residents." In the selection of a site, of course, the sanitary considerations are paramount. Next should be the advantage of fine scenery. Our country abounds in beautiful ocean, river, and mountain views, equal to, if not 22 MODERN DWELLINGS. surpassing, those of Europe. Yet how seldom is this considered in locat- ing our homes ! It is too often the case that an unattractive, barren spot is selected inland, apart from views, devoid of trees or other natural beau- ties. If a pretty pond or brook should enliven the scene, the former is probably filled up, or, at least, stoned around like a dock, and the brook is, as likely as not, turned into a sewer. Of course there are reasons why these beautiful sites cannot always be chosen. One is, they are apt to be lonely. Society is a consideration, and society, strange to say, will not bear you out in the love for the picturesque ; so that your family must either possess superior resources within themselves, or have the means of entertaining largely in order to find contentment in the " Happy Yalley." Design No. 1 Small Cottage, or Lodge. There is a method adopted in England, however, by which fine scen- ery and agreeable company may not be incompatible. It is by a num- ber of families clubbing together, and procuring an attractive spot, filled with shady nooks and pleasant streams, which, by mutual agreements and some slight restrictions, can be laid out in a picturesque manner for building. The park system has been attempted in this country, but hitherto it has generally failed of success, for the reason that the projectors lacked THE QUEEN ANNE STYLE. 23 the knowledge necessary to select the locations, to say nothing of laying out or conducting the parks when complete. Instead of employing an educated landscape-gardener, who would take advantage of its topography, and with care arid judgment would accommodate the roads to the natural curves and best positions for building, they are satisfied if only an outline survey be made, the roads laid out on the checker-board pattern, and the lots numbered in the auctioneer's office. The proprietors then cause the place to be extensively advertised, and the lots sold to the highest bidder. The result is that the ground is seldom improved, because one does not know who his next-door neighbor may be, or what he may do ; or if one has the temerity to build and settle, he finds the roads are left to grow up with weeds, and there are no funds to keep them in order ; moreover, he discovers that none of the owners intends building, as each has bought only on speculation, and will not sell unless for extravagant prices. Like the dog in the manger, these speculative owners neither improve the land nor allow any one else to do so. Now, as parks on this system have hitherto proved a failure, could not the community plan be adopted, combining real business and real taste, making judicious laws and restrictions simply with the view of fa- cilitating improvements and keeping up the enterprise ? Of course the value of this would not be solely of a social character ; for if each one takes pains to keep up his own place and contributes to the care of the roads, he enjoys the advantages of cultivated surroundings as if the whole were his private estate. It has been objected that, by this method, they experience too much restraint ; that all their ground is common lawn ; that they cannot keep a horse or cow, etc. But there can be no objection to having each place enclosed, though pains should be taken to have a tasteful barrier. All kinds of fencing would not be suitable for a park. An inexpensive plain wire-work painted the color of the grass, so as to be as nearly invisible as possible, would be the most appropriate. Perhaps as satisfactory a way of arranging these conditions would be to submit all plans of improvement to the censorship of a commission; but it would be wisest to have as little constraint as possible, for men of education and taste in our day seldom go very wide of the mark. No one is expected to grow potatoes on his lawn, or build a barn in front of his house. 24 MODERN DWELLINGS. DESIGN No. 1. 1. Porch; 2. Main hall; 3. Kitchen, 10x17; 4. Living-room, 10 X 12. Estimated cost, $2200. In this series of cottages, it would, perhaps, be appropriate to com- mence with the gate entrance, in connection with the porter's lodge, at the entrance of such a park as we have just described, in which we might expect to find, each on its appropriate site, the following designs. The lodge should not be so large or conspicuous as to be mistaken for the mansion, but should be more simple in its architecture, although ac- cording sufficiently with it to show its re- lationship. For this reason we build the foundation only of brick, while the first story is of less pretentious material. Here the simple clapboard construction appears ; and to give it variety and, at the same time, to show its connection with the man- sion, the second story is covered with cut ornamental shingles, while the roof should be of slate. One of the most important re- Ground-plan for Design No. 1. . . quirements is that there should be an agree- able effect of color. Let, therefore, the clapboards on the first story be of French gray a color harmonizing with the brick the shingles buff, and, if the house be well shaded, the trimmings might be of Indian red with black chamfers. If there is not much shade, however, a kind of salmon color with Indian-red chamfers would appear well : the roof to be of dark or red slate. Red for roofs seems to be growing much in favor, and some of the quarries in Vermont are producing admirable slates for this purpose ; but the introduction of various colors I consider objection- able, as it is apt to destroy the repose, and appears frivolous. The chimney, being of red brick, unpainted, might be relieved occa- sionally with brick of dark color, or even black. As black bricks are difficult to procure in this country, the following recipe for producing them, by T. M. C., taken from the American Archi- tect, may be valuable : Jilack Bricks. The black bricks used about Boston are colored by heating red-hot, and dipping the exposed surface into a pan containing half an inch or so of melted coal- tar. Soft bricks are the best. Hard bricks or hard spots prevent the tar from penetrat- ing the surface, as it should do, to a depth of one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch, and the coating peels off. THE QUEEN ANNE STYLE. 25 One great advantage architects possess in our clear atmosphere is the strong contrast of light and shade which assists materially in producing good effects in building. The introduction of irregularities, such as pro- jections of roofs, canopies, verandas, and bay-windows, together with the intersections of gables, dormers, and the height of chimneys, serve to break up the bare formality of the usual barn-like outline, and to obtain the ever-varying sentiment and expression which the GREAT ARCHITECT never fails to give to all his rocks and hills. Light and shade are the happiest instruments of design, and most easily procured in our climate, and are ever ready to give new life and spirit to forms properly man- aged for their play. The repetition of the perforated barge boards in shadow against the walls, always making new interpretations of its pat- terns, shows how delicately and tenderly Nature assists the sympathetic architect. In cities, where the great value of land almost precludes the designer from availing himself of these opposing masses, which can be produced in emphasis only by costly irregularities of plan, and large re-entering angles of outer walls, it seems necessary to resort to some other expedi- ent, where delicacy of line is not considered a sufficient substitute for the more massive effects of chiaro-oscuro. The luxurious and sensuous peoples of the East, not content with the more serious and sober habits of design of the North, were accustomed to break their sky lines with pierced parapets and lily patterns, with swelling domes, with endless pinnacles and fantastic minarets, to a degree never thought of else- where, and availed themselves of strong and vivid contrasts of bright colors. It would be Avell for us to take a lesson from the Eastern nations in this respect, and, while repudiating, perhaps, as undignified any com- plete adaptation of their endless fancies of form, to study their picturesque use of external colors, and let the walls of our cities assume new life and meaning by contrasting tints of various bricks, stones, and brilliant tiles. This source of design, if used with discretion in our metropolitan struct- ures, would effect the happiest results, and preserve their architecture from inanity and insipidity. But in the country, where growth of shapes and forms is unchecked by any consideration of economy of space, it seems almost superfluous to use decorative external color to any great extent certainly, we think, never for its own sake, as in the town ; but so far as it may serve to protect wood- en surfaces, to assist in giving expression to form, and to harmonize masses with the nature around, its employment is of great value. It is, then, im- portant to know by what rule we are to be governed in the use of colors 26 MODERN DWELLINGS. under these circumstances. It is evident that the general tint covering the plain surface of a small house, surrounded by trees, should be light and cheerful, warm in its tone, and of a neutral rather than positive char- acter, as the former very readily harmonizes with nature. But do not fall into the opposite extreme, and paint your house white, which is no color at all, always cold and glaring, and making an ugly spot in the landscape: we find nothing to warrant so forcible an intrusion. A white building might not be so objectionable in the city, where we have no nature with which to assimilate and work ; but in the country, nothing but snow and chalk cliffs are white, and these put out the eyes by their intensity. Choose, then, any of the hundred soft, neutral tints which may afford to your house the cheerfulness or dignity it may require. These are to be determined chiefly by its location and size. A house of large and com- manding proportions, occupying a conspicuous place in the scenery, would present a ludicrous appearance if painted a light color; while one of smaller size, subordinate to its natural surroundings and well shaded by trees, would, if painted dark, give an impression of gloom. Having selected the general tint, the trimmings should be of a darker shade of the same, or a deeper color, to give them prominence and assist in bringing out the design, though they should be rather in harmony than in violent contrast. As a general rule, any trimmings forming a frame to a panel should be darker than the background or body of the house ; as also, the stiles of a door should be more emphasized than the panel. I would not have it supposed that positive colors cannot be employed to advantage on the exteriors of country houses. For example, green as the color for the blinds not only has a cool and cheerful effect, but seems to be that chosen by Nature in which to clothe her natural bowers. Still, if neutral tints are used on the body of the house, green is apt to appear in too violent contrast unless a line of some other harmonizing color be interposed. If the general tone of the house is drab or olive, a line of Indian red between this and the blinds would produce a relief. But in coloring our houses it is certainly well to follow the architect's advice, since an improper application of paint might quite nullify the effect of his design, and render that ridiculous which was intended to be dignified ; small, that which was to appear large ; and obtrusive, that which was to appear modest and retiring. By a judicious subordination of various tints, many errors and incon- gruities may be lessened or quite concealed, and the good points of design be properly emphasized and made to assume a worthy prominence in the composition. THE QUEEN ANNE STYLE. 27 It is well for the architect, in studying the colors for a house, to make a tinted drawing of one or two of the elevations, in order to give the painter an intelligible idea of what is required. The great difficulty is, however, in exactly matching these colors, and the slightest variation often destroys the effect. I have been much assisted in this by using the sample card of some of our manufacturers, by which the painter is enabled to order the exact colors, mixed and ready for use, by simply sending the number of the sample. I lay particular stress on the archi- tect's directing the arrangement of the colors, as so many buildings are utterly spoiled by this important branch being taken out of his hands and intrusted to the mercies of the painter. Many of them are color-blind ; and if they are unable, from their own skill, to match the sample given them, how much less should they be trusted with the original selection ! In the course of conversation between a gentleman and a painter re- garding the color of a house, the latter remarked, with the same authori- tative air in which a modiste would lay down the fashion to her customer, " We don't trim as much as we did, sir," thus stupidly establishing a change of fashion, governed by no rule or reason, and tacitly acknowl- edging that if he were right at the present time, he must have been wrong last season. The fact is, the laws of color are such that they can- not be regulated by ignorant caprice. We may improve as the science of art advances, but to imagine that they can be changed by mere vulgar prejudice is beneath intelligent consideration. Upon any portion of the house receding from the facade, such as an alcoved balcony or recessed door-way, when deeply sunken, positive colors would be in keeping, as they have the appearance of protection from the weather, and form brilliant contrasts with the neutral tints of the exterior, with fittings and decorations of soft and delicate hues. Thus, in Design No. 9 the exterior is of neutral buff, the sides of the embrasure are painted a deep ultramarine green ; the trimmings of Indian red are re- lieved by lines of black, while the coved ceiling is of brilliant blue. Some years ago it was quite customary to paint houses a sort of dirty yellow, which custom arose from the fact that Mr. Downing, in giving some figurative instructions as to the color employed, said : " Pluck from the ground the roots of the grass, and the color of the earth thereon will be the color of the house." Now, the gist of this was that the color of the house should be in harmony with the landscape; but some of his unim- aginative followers failed to see that it was not to be taken literally, and hence arose a fashion which, we are glad to see, has gone by, of painting houses an offensive mud color. 28 MODERN DWELLINGS. Painters seem to have the idea that a leader-pipe should be disguised as much as possible, and so paint it the same color as its background ; therefore, when it crosses the cornice it is dark, and when arriving at the body of the house, chameleon-like, it assumes the lighter hue. It is a rule in all good architecture that whatever is necessary in the construction of a building should be accepted in the decoration, and be treated according to its importance in the general design ; thus the leader, when viewed in this light, may become a leading feature. For this rea- son we place it conspicuously on the house, not necessarily following the trimmings, but running boldly down the facade wherever it is required. The top may be made ornamental ; and instead of attempting to conceal the pipe, the color should be such as to give it due prominence, which need be neither that of the trimmings nor the body, as its material and use are of so different a character that a color denoting its purpose would be more appropriate. The tube, then, might be made to imitate galvan- ized iron, and the cap rendered more prominent by decoration. ECONOMY OF COUNTRY LIFE. 29 CHAPTER II. ECONOMY OF COUNTRY LIFE. Fluctuations. Blessings of Poverty. Small Homes. the general prosperity of our country, and the rapidity and ease with which wealth is acquired, there is yet, in the fluctuations of commercial life, a constant liability to serious loss, if not entire reverse of fortune. It is sad to think that our firesides, though far removed from the bustle and keen anxieties of the exchange, are ever sensitive to the mismanagements or misfortunes of a single venture on the dangerous sea of trade. These fluctuations affect all classes of society, compelling them to retrench their expenses the rich by giving up their carriage and reducing the number of their servants, and sometimes chang- ing their luxurious abodes in town for less pretentious homes in the coun- try; while the "well-to-do" must content themselves with a "flat," where they may be comfortable with one servant, or perhaps sufficiently indepen- dent to dispense with one altogether. A lady, in speaking of the blessings of poverty, remarked to me that in her zeal to assist her husband, after misfortune had befallen him, she had persuaded him to take a small house out of town, and that she and her daughter would, as long as they had their health, do the work themselves, stipulating only that the house should be provided with modern conveniences. Although at the time she consid- ered this a great sacrifice, she found, after systematizing their work, that they experienced more comfort, had more cleanliness, and more time for reading and other occupations than when they kept a servant ; and it cer- tainly proved far more economical ; for joints which were formerly sent from the table and never heard of again, now served for a variety of dishes for several days, and her husband declared that his dinners never tasted so good, nor were so well selected. His approval more than compensated for all their trouble, and they were no longer afraid to talk freely of their affairs on account of the girl's eavesdropping ; and altogether her absence was an inexpressible relief. Such families, pros- trated by the changes of a day, reared in the midst of refinement and 30 MODERN DWELLINGS. luxury, and surrounded by the golden opportunities of wealth, have, per- haps, under these influences, so shaped their minds and manners as to have become ornaments in the circles in which they moved. They are often, of all others, equal to an emergency of this kind. They find that adversity is not without its sweetness. Knowing that if they remain in town, they must assume a position inferior to their station or custom, they will turn to the country as affording a congenial home. Here, with true taste and sound judgment, they will build a cottage, which, though small in dimensions, will be complete in all its parts. In such a home, with the qualifications within themselves for making it happy, they will probably find a calm content unknown in the giddy turmoil of fashion, Design No. 2. and a consolation full of gentleness and peace. Other associations, dear as those of old, will cluster around them, and they will find, as in the touching description of "the Wife" in Irving's "Sketch Book," that they have no desire to return to the noise and bustle, the whirl and excite- ment, of a life in town. Everything about such a house should be truly refined and chaste, with all the conveniences that comfort demands, without superfluities. The interior must be suggestive of the refinement of the occupants ; not necessarily ornamental or showy, but in every respect tasteful and elegant. The great want of small houses at moderate rents, and in respectable quarters of our cities, has obliged many of limited means to seek homes in the country. But now the custom of living on flats has, in a great ECONOMY OF COUNTRY LIFE. 31 measure, met this requirement, although these have their drawbacks, es- pecially where children are in the question. The advantages of gardens and spacious lawns, where they may have pure air and room to exercise their lungs and muscles without disturbing the family, is a matter which should be considered. True, it may be argued that a flat could be closed during the summer, and the family visit the mountains or sea-shore, or even a summer cottage may be taken. But for the class where econom- ical living has become a necessity, this double expense cannot be borne. Besides, we do not think the American people, as a general thing, take to flats. The old English proverb " Every man's house his castle " remains true of us, and the Anglo-Saxon home and family fireside are still sacred. It is to this influence, in no small degree, that we owe our love of truth and virtue. DESIGN No. 2. First-floor Plan. 1. Vestibule; 2. Parlor, 15 X 23 ; 3. Diniug-hall, 14 X 18; 4. Dining-room closet; 5. But- ler's pantry; 6. Kitchen, 14 X 16; 7. Main stairs; 8. Back stairs; 9. Kitchen closet; 10, 10, 10. Verandas. Estimated cost, $4500. This is a design for a small cottage of moderate cost. It was intended for an alteration of an ordinary square house, with a kitchen wing, the lines of the house and roof re- maining the same, the interior materially changed. The principal features added are the two bay-windows in front, the one on the right for the par- lor, and that on the left accom- modating the main staircase, each running the entire height of the building. The space between these windows is used as a hood- ed porch, with a recessed balcony above, giving the whole a varied and somewhat original aspect. For motives of economy, the main staircase is placed in the dining-hall, the vestibule acting as an entrance to the dining-hall and parlor, so that guests may be introduced into the latter without disturbing the family while at meals. First-floor Plan of Design No. tt. 32 MODERN DWELLINGS. The dining-room has a large china-closet and butler's pantry, with recess for sideboard. The kitchen contains a back staircase and two clos- ets. The room over the kitchen is intended for servants, and is ap- proached directly by the back stairs. The second story has three large bedrooms and bath ; there is space for two rooms in the attic. SITE. 33 CHAPTER III. SITE. Cesspool remote from the House. Earth Closets. Ventilating Sewers. Grading Cellar Floors. Areas. Foundations on Made Ground. Terraces. Side Hills. Hydraulic Rams. Cistern Filters. Force-pump. Windmills. THE first thing to be considered in building a house should be the judicious selection of a site ; and here good drainage is not only nec- essary for the health, but adds materially to the fertility of the soil. La- tham says, " It is absolutely necessary, in order to render the soil capable of performing its functions of oxidizing or neutralizing the elements of decomposition which are brought into contact with it, that works of sub- drainage should be prosecuted. It is now well known that the admission of air into the soil enables that soil to exert a most powerful chemical influence upon all organic compounds, so great, indeed, as to be capable of purifying the crudest sewage. The effect of drainage upon the soil is to promote porosity, and the effect of porosity is to make the soil drier, warmer, and less capable of conveying extremes of temperature. It is also well known that a soil perfectly saturated with water, which can only part with its water by evaporation, is rendered cold and unwholesome as a site for human dwellings ; for all the impurities that enter the soil accumulate. Soils which are naturally porous, from which rain rapidly disappears, are known to be the healthiest for the sites of houses. In this case the action of the soil oxidizes all organic impurities, the result- ing product is washed away by the rain, and the soil remains sweet and wholesome. The advantages of site appear to have been known from the earliest ages of antiquity. Vetruvius in his works lays down special in- structions for selecting the sites for towns and hospitals ; namely, regard- ing the quality of porosity and the perfection of drainage, the absence of a water-logged soil being looked upon as the best situation for the loca- tion of buildings." In order to effect good drainage, high land is generally considered necessary; but much depends on its geological formation. There are often rock or clay basins not appearing upon the surface, which offer 3 34 MODERN DWELLINGS. a barrier to the lateral flow of water, and the moisture thus prevented from escaping is retained in a stagnant pool. That low level ground is objectionable for drainage is apparent ; yet this seems a favorite spot for building, and people wonder why the country is so unhealthy. In order, therefore, to find a safe location, good drainage must be secured. The centre of a knoll from which the water may run in every direction from the house, if possible to obtain, would be preferable. But if this cannot be, a side hill affords good drainage one way, at least. The surface on the higher ground can be so graded as to turn the water aside and prevent its direct entrance into the cellar, although in wet weather, when the ground is saturated, it is apt to find its way there. This may be avoided by sinking drains below the foundation around the exposed sides of the house, made from two to three feet wide, and filled in with broken stone, into which the water coming from the higher ground may collect before reaching the cellar, and may be carried off, not to lower ground where it would settle, and generate malarious gases but connect, if possible, with the main sewer, and through that be con- veyed to some outlet. Of course, when the ground drainage empties into a small stream, a separate drain should be arranged for the sewage, which should terminate in a cesspool or vault underground, to avoid poisoning the water. And here it would be well to mention that one of the most important things in regard to drainage is, that when a leaching cesspool is used, to have it remote from the well ; and when I say remote, fifty or seventy-five feet are not sufficient. A distinguished physician, speaking on this subject, stated that he had often heard of wells being' affected by a cesspool a hundred feet distant, and would advise that they should never be less than a hundred and fifty feet apart, as the fluids percolating from the vault are sure to infect the water, making it not only disagreeable to the taste, but very liable to the poison to which the most dreaded diseases may be traced. It is, therefore, not alone essential that they themselves should be kept well apart, but that even the drains connected with the cesspool should be at a distance, as more or less of their noxious contents are apt to escape from their joints. It might be supposed that a cistern cemented and made water tight would not be exposed to this danger, but I have often known of the seeds of disease being carried into it. The impurity of rain-water in cisterns is a phenomenon which has often puzzled the minds of our sages, who never seem to consider the fact that two leaders in close proximity may absorb each other's contents. Ordinary tile-pipe, from four to six inches, laid three or four feet be- SITE. 35 neath the surface, so as to be below the action of the frost, answers the purpose best. It is a mistaken idea that large pipes are less liable to foul than small ones; for, from the fact of the latter presenting less surface, the friction is diminished, and the flow of water is more rapid, whereas pipes of larger diameter are apt to clog in consequence of the more slugirMi movement of the fluids. In case of main sewers or trunk drains, where the capacity must be large in order to carry off the extra flow from the freshets, it is well to make them smaller at the bottom, something of the shape of an egg, which will concentrate the water and cause it to flow rapidly in dry times, when the supply is naturally less. In surface drainage, it is a mistake to cement the joints of these pipes, as we depend upon their openings to admit the water. So, in soil-pipes, the cement often forms an obstruction to the solid matter, which, collect- ing, eventually chokes the pipes. These, however, not being used for sur- face drainage, should have their joints cemented in order to avoid poison- ing the ground ; but before the cement is set, it is well to clear out these ridges, so that they may be free from obstruction. In the country, if there be no outfall, and the sewage must conse- quently be confined to one's own estate, the simple system afforded by the use of -earth closets for the management of solid matter is to be pre- ferred. The fluids may then be carried to a water-tight tank or vault un- derneath the ground, as far distant from the house as possible, and may serve for irrigation. The necessity for ventilating cesspools and sewers is of the utmost importance, as the gases from them are liable to create a back pressure and find their way into the house. The readiest way of preventing this seems to be by connecting a pipe with a ventilating flue arranged in the stable chimney, the top of which is provided with a cowl in order to prevent a downward draught. This, when of sufficient height, seems to obviate the difficulty by discharging the poisonous gases beyond the reach of harm, provided always that there be an inlet to supply the vacuum. If, however, a vent of this kind be impracticable, a galvanized iron pipe may be carried to the top of a high tree; and I have known instances where a ventilation pipe was returned and discharged into the smoke flue of the kitchen chimney, which, being always heated, insures a thorough draught, which causes the gases to escape at a safe elevation. The old idea that sewer gases may be kept from the house by means of traps seems to have generally exploded, as it is well understood that as these gases generate they are apt to force their way into the house through the traps. Of course, a sewer thoroughly ventilated will, in a measure, 36 MODERN DWELLINGS. prevent this; but even then, in certain winds, a back pressure is pro- duced, so that the only safe method is to ventilate all traps and soil-pipes as well, by extending them above the roof, and capping them in such a manner as to prevent a downward current. The danger of these foul emanations, carrying the germs of typhoid and diphtheria, cannot be too forcibly impressed upon the public ; and since of late numerous cases of disease directly traceable to this miasma have been prominently brought to notice, it is time that some active meas- ures should be taken to prevent their entrance. A physician told me that he had never known a case of diphtheria which was not produced by these causes ; even those in the country, he says, are directly traceable to the influence of some foul vault, which is sufficiently near the well to poison the water, or so near the house as to allow the gases admittance. There are, however, cases in which it seems impossible to ventilate, when fumigation or disinfectants may answer the purpose. Common salt, and nitric acid, and chloride of lime have been recommended, and are fre- quently used, as absorbents of noxious gases ; but nothing has proved so efficacious as charcoal, which, placed in an apartment where sewer gases or other foul odors arise, will absorb and effectually destroy their mala- rial qualities. Professor Voelcker says of charcoal : " It possesses the power of absorbing certain smelling-gases, also destroying the gases thus absorbed. The evil effects of sewer gas upon public health were known in the ages of antiquity, for it appears from ' Justinian's Digest,' which was completed in the year 555, that, quoting Ulpian, ' The praetor took care that all sewers should be cleansed and repaired for the health of the citizen, because unclean or unrepaired sewers threaten a pestilential at- mosphere, and are dangerous.' The Romans, too, displayed a clear knowl- edge of the necessity of underground conduits, as may be seen in the pro- visions for the construction of their aqueducts whenever they passed be- low the level of the ground." Leaching cesspools, as a general thing, should be avoided, as their poisonous contents, being absorbed by the earth, in time not only emit malaria into the atmosphere, but are liable to infect our own and our neighbors' wells. This danger may, in a measure, be obviated by vege- tation. Sometimes the roots of trees, when located near, are attracted to their vicinity and absorb a large amount of their contents. I know of a case in which a cesspool has been in constant use for twenty years with- out requiring to be cleansed, which I am convinced is attributable to a large willow-tree that grows beside it, and has sent into it such a mass SITE. 37 of fibrous roots that the contents have been absorbed as fast as they accumulated. A cesspool or vault made water-tight, which can be cleansed at pleas- ure, is less objectionable. If possible, this should be situated near the garden, where, with the aid of a force-pump and hose, the contents may be conducted to any point where its fertilizing qualities are required. Colonel Waring, one of our leading sanitary engineers, in the American Agriculturist of October, 1877, describes a flush tank invented by Mr. Rogers Field, which, at slight expense, may be placed just outside of the walls, and receive the waste of the house ; this, when filled, is automati- cally emptied on the principle of a siphon, its contents being discharged into open drains, placed in the ground ten or twelve inches deep. The matter is then absorbed by the earth, and, being near the surface, is again taken up by vegetation. Colonel Waring states that he has used this for some years on his own place at Newport with eminent success. " These flush-tanks, made of iron, and with all their appliances complete, are now for sale by the agent of the patentee. They cost thirty-five dollars." Basement floors should be so underdrained as to prevent the possibil- ity of water entering the cellar ; and where this is not practicable, the cementing of the floors and walls should be resorted to. It is always well, however, to give the floors sufficient slant, so that in case any damp- ness should enter, the water may flow to one point, from which there should be a drain ; and the fact that there is not sufficient descent from the house to accomplish this, is an obvious reason why such a location should be avoided. Areas also require draining ; but when natural drainage is impractica- ble, by filling a few feet below their surface with broken stone or coarse gravel, the water collecting here will filter through. Wash-trays or water-closets should never be placed in the basement, unless there be a decided slope from the house to the cesspool ; for the fact that a sewer must start from a point below the basement floor, not only necessitates going to a great depth with the drains, but enters the cesspool at so low a level as to render the latter comparatively useless, for it is evident that the moment the fluids which must enter near the bottom rise above the mouth of the drain, they are liable to back up into the pipe. Great caution should be used in the laying of soil-pipes ; as, in the event of settlement, their joints are liable to open, causing the escape of gases. It is well, therefore, that those within the house should be en- tirely of iron, and their joints calked with lead. Outside soil-pipes 38 MODERN DWELLINGS. should always be laid on solid bottom, as, when placed on made ground, they are liable to settle. The matter of grading is of much importance, and great economy can be practised by placing the earth from the excavations exactly where we shall want to use it. A gentleman who had had but little experience in this matter, in superintending his own work went to much expense in having the earth removed; and when he came to grade, he discovered that he needed it all, and was put to the additional expense of bringing it back. One thing should always be observed that foundations should never rest upon made ground, as this takes years to settle, and, in fact, may never be considered as firm as the original stra- ta. On side hills we are often obliged to exca- vate considerably into the bank, bringing the earth forward in order to make a level plateau on which to place the house, one half resting on the main bank and the other on the new ground. Here the temptation is great to rest the walls on the new grade ; and if builders are not closely watched, they are very apt to transgress in this particular. Another serious difficulty in grades of this description is, that the new earth, resting upon the bank, which is necessarily on an incline, is apt to shift, when, if our rule is not strictly observed, the shift- ing bank is liable to carry the foundation with it. There is often serious trouble with our roads and the general lay-out of the grounds by terraces shifting in this manner, to avoid which, the original bank should be stepped, inclining somewhat inward, which will effectually prevent accidents of this kind. Walls to protect terraces are often insufficient, unless they be built on the principle of "retaining walls," battering on each side; or if for good reasons it is thought necessary to build the outside vertical, the inside should have an additional batter, or incline. Indeed, this rule should apply to all bank walls, as the frost exerts sufficient pressure to throw them out of line, unless this method be adopted. Area w T alls especially should be built as retaining walls, as, being ex- Design No. 3. SITE. 30 posed to the cold, the frost is liable to penetrate their entire deptli ; espe- cially as builders are in the habit of carrying these down but a few inches below the cellar bottom, regarding them in the same light as the foun- dations of the house. These, being protected on the inside, prevent the frost from striking down, which renders a few inches below the cellar bottom sufficient ; but the condition of an area wall is different. The in- side not being protected, the frost may extend its usual deptli below the area floor, which makes it important that these foundations should extend two or three feet lower ; and the same rule holds good with area steps. Side hills, in addition to the facilities already offered for draining, pos- sess other advantages for building ; for when the slope is sufficient, one side of the cellar can be above ground, serving as an outlet in case of over- flow, and by this means cheerful kitchens, located above the surface, may be obtained. If these rooms, however, are to be occupied, it is always well to have a subcellar ; not only on account of the dryness, but because this is the proper place for the heater, giving the benefit of registers in the basement, besides keeping the ashes and coal-dust out of the way. In regard to water supplies, the best system is to bring the water in from some higher level, by which an impetus to carry it throughout the house may be obtained. Unless, however, there is a regularly constructed reservoir, it is difficult to find it in sufficient volume without collecting it in a tank in a situation above the living-rooms. The attic is generally the best place for this, as in a tank arranged outside the house the water is apt to freeze. A reservoir, however, might be constructed on higher ground, from which the water could be carried through pipes laid below the frost, and this, I think, would be a desirable method. There are situations where even wells are not to be had without great expense, in which case the ordinary cistern will prove an excellent sub- stitute. In a house erected for my own use, where water was difficult to obtain, I built a cistern twelve feet square, in which I constructed a filter, which consisted of a simple four-inch brick wall built across one corner, through which the water percolated, and by a force-pump, was brought into the house as pure and clear as from a spring. In fact, it was difficult to discern any difference in the taste. The cistern, which was fed from the roof, never gave out. I even supplied my neighbors with water during a very severe drought; and in rainy seasons, had there not been an overflow from the top, I might have experienced serious inconvenience. These overflows are better discharged upon lower ground than into a sewer or cesspool, for in the latter case the gases are liable to enter the cistern ; for, however well protected with traps, which are, 40 MODERN DWELLINGS. at best, of but little use, they are much of the time dry. When the lower end of this drain is exposed, it is well to protect it from the entrance of reptiles and insects by a wire gauze. This also serves the purpose of admitting fresh air, while the foul exhalations find an escape through the leader-pipes from the roof. When springs on a sufficient elevation are not at hand, the hydraulic ram placed in a running brook will answer the purpose. The ordinary method of raising water into a tank by means of a force-pump is perhaps the simplest; yet there are various mechanical contrivances for saving the manual labor involved by that system. A small Ericsson engine, placed in the cellar at a trifling cost, is an excellent arrangement ; and its cheapness and economy in fuel especially recommend it. There is also a small steam-engine manufactured by Baker & Smith, which is put up in connection with their furnace, and, being supplied with steam from the same boiler, is worked without extra expense. The cost of each of these does not exceed two or three hundred dollars. The favorite system of raising water by windmills, although very effective in its results, I think, in an aesthetic point of view, should be condemned, for they are sure to obtrude themselves most offensively upon the sight ; and to see these awkward, spider-like structures dancing fandangoes before our eyes disturbs the repose, and mars the landscape of our otherwise beautiful homes. If these could be constructed in a picturesque manner, in imitation of some of the old Holland windmills, they might become a pleasing object in the landscape. I have seen an arrangement propelled by wind, and enclosed in an ornamental cupola, placed on top of a dwelling-house, or an out-building, which, while add- ing a pleasing feature to the architecture, kept up an adequate supply of water with scarcely an hour's work a day. These spiders, however, have an advantage mechanically, as, by presenting a greater surface to the wind, their capacity is increased, which, where great power is a consider- ation, as in the manufactory, is an argument in their favor. DESIGN No. 3. First-floor Plan. 1. Living hall, 18X18; 2. Parlor, 14^X21; 3. Dining-room, 14X18; 4. Kitchen, 14^X16; 5. Back hall ; 6. Store-room. Estimated cost, $6000. This cottage has recently been erected at Montclair, New Jersey, for Mrs. A. C. Connelly, and, with some slight changes, at West Brighton, SITE. 41 Staten Island, for Mr. C. Dubois, Jim. Its principal feature is the square entrance -hall, with its irregular staircase, landing on a raised platform which constitutes a bay - window. This bay, which is conspicuous from the entrance, is nearly filled with stained glass, and is made large enough for the accommodation of plants (the lower part of the sash being clear glass, in order to admit the sun), and running up sufficiently high to light both stories. The vignette shows a similar hall recently con- structed at Staten Island, the plan of which is reversed from the pres- ent design. The dining-room and parlor com- municate with the hall by double doors. The latter has the upper part of the bay-window, which is opposite the doors, filled with stained glass. The butler's sink, in this case, is placed in the back hall, which, as a matter of economy, has its advan- tages ; though, as a general thing, we would advise having the butler's pantry separate. There are four large bedrooms and bath-room in the second story, also two bedrooms and billiard-room in the attic. The tank, which is large, is sunk below the attic floor, in order to admit the water directly from the roof, and, being floored over and well lighted, affords space for a trunk and store room. First-floor Plan of Design No. 3. MODERN DWELLINGS. CHAPTER IY. PLANS. Views. Exposure. Estimates. Architect's Supervision. Commercial Value attached to a Well-arranged Plan. THE next step, after the site is selected, is to provide proper plans or working drawings. There is no doubt that every one who intends building has some general idea of what he wants, and frequently sketches out an arrangement of the various floors which he fancies is just the thing. There can be no particular harm in his doing this ; on the con- trary, it frequently enables the architect to judge somewhat of the num- ber and size of the rooms needed, and the general requirements of his client. Still, there is this dan- ger; he is too apt to be wed- ded to his own ideas, thus tram- melling the professional man in producing the best arrangement and effects. These amateur de- signs should be taken as sug- gestions simply, nothing more. It is the duty of the archi- tect, studying the desires and needs of his client, carefully to manage the design in all its parts, so as to n't into, and har- monize with, the lives to be spent under its roof. He will first arrange the rooms in re- gard to exposure. For example, the parlor or living-room that most occupied by the family he would place toward the south, being the most cheerful, which, while being sheltered from the bleak winds of win- ter, receives, also, the prevailing summer breezes. Should the gentleman be a reading man, it would be well to place Hall and Staircase of Design No. 3. PLANS. 43 the -library at the north, in order to acquire a steady light. The dining- room may properly be situated at the western side, giving a view of the sunset at the evening meal. North of this should be the kitchen, occupy- ing the least-desirable exposure. If the verandas are limited, the most val- uable position would be on the east side of the house, on account of the shade the greater portion of the day. For the contrary reason, the con- servatory should have a southerly exposure. The plumbing should also be located at a warm side, to prevent its freezing. And this is not all that is to be taken into consideration in a well-studied plan. It is es- sential that the rooms most frequented should command tine views, and their arrangement should be such as to form a pleasing exterior as well, the important parts to present the most imposing appearance. Again, a constructional motive should be considered. The arrangement of sup- ports, the disposition of doors and windows, the intersection of roofs, and the general outlines of the building all have a bearing upon the arrange- ment of the rooms, which should suggest themselves to the architect in the first conception of his plan. After these preliminaries, he should sub- mit the sketch to his client, w r hich may not prove altogether satisfactory. It is either unsuited to some of his domestic requirements, or not in ac- cordance with his original intentions. Should these prove solid objec- tions, it would be the architect's duty to alter his sketch, and, while trans- gressing no general rules, conform more with his client's notions. This settled, he next proceeds with his working drawings, which consist of the floor plans for each story, and the four exterior sides or elevations. These, in connection with the specifications, are sufficient for obtaining estimates from the various contractors. It is often considered by the un- initiated that mere sketches or preliminary studies are sufficient to obtain correct estimates of the cost. But this is a most dangerous plan to work upon, as it is almost certain to mislead ; for no builder can have a clear con- ception of what the building really is to be, until regular plans and specifi- cations are matured. These estimates being received from reliable parties, the owner may then go on with a certainty of what the building will cost. ISTo work of any importance should be carried on without the general supervision of the architect, for rarely is there a plan so perfect that improvements cannot be made, and they are likely to suggest themselves as the building develops. But the most dangerous thing an owner can do is to allow alterations to be made without consulting the original de- signer, who has fully studied the plan in all its bearings, and one slight change may affect the composition in twenty different ways, both of a constructive and aesthetic nature. The architect is always willing , to 44 MODERN DWELLINGS. make changes when the owner desires them, and he alone is able to make them in conformity with the other parts of the plan. I can cite, as an exemplification of this, an instance of an expensive dwelling, for which an architect had prepared the plans, on the line of one of our metropolitan railways. The design was prepared with espe- cial reference to the rules to which we have alluded, and he had laid out the house on the ground accordingly, ready for the building to proceed. Upon visiting the place a few weeks after, he found, to his dismay, that, for some trivial reason, suggested by the mason, it had been turned and made to face in a different direction. Immediately all the advantages of exposure, view, and the general appearance of the building so much studied, and from which he had expected such good results were en- tirely lost. One point on which he had depended making a favorable impression was that from the railway, from which hundreds of passen- gers daily commanded a view of the building. Another was from the highway leading from the village. The side of the house least consid- ered was the north, from whence it was little seen, and had no partic- ular view, where he had located the kitchen. Imagine his chagrin, then, at finding the picturesque grouping turned entirely away from the points upon which he had calculated, and in their place those parts he had most endeavored to conceal. The kitchen seemed to have been the object of especial pride to the owner, as it was this he had placed fronting the rail- way, and it now occupies the agreeable exposure designed for the living- rooms. There shortly after offered just the opportunity for rectifying the blunder, as, wishing to enlarge this department, he could build a taste- ful addition, relieving its gaunt and meagre appearance. But instead of consulting his architect, he was again guided by his builder, who assured him that the way to accomplish his design was to lengthen the kitchen portion some ten or twelve feet. Then the error assumed a magnitude truly sublime, for the blemish was intensified at least tenfold, as it over- powered and destroyed all the proportions of the house. This is the solution of the question I have so often heard asked, as we ride by in the cars, why Mr. B 's house so much resembles a prison or a lunatic asylum ; and, I might add, had not his obstinacy stood in the way of his interests, the building might, in case of trouble, have brought him a fair profit, instead of a loss of fifty per cent, on the orig- inal investment, and the architect's reputation might not have suffered, as it invariably does when these charlatans thus distort his plans, and the damage he sustains overbalances by far any pecuniary advantages he may derive. PLANS. 45 There are times, however, when buildings are so remote that it is impossible for the architect to visit them, or, if at all, perhaps not more than once or twice during their construction. In such cases, by retaining copies of all the drawings and specifications, with a practical superintend- ent upon the grounds, the architect may be consulted almost as well as if he were making constant visits to the works. I have at this time build- ings in Canada, Tennessee, and Texas, which I am superintending in this manner, the results of which are entirely satisfactory. Design No. 4. There is a commercial value to be attached to a well-arranged plan and carefully studied grouping of the exterior of a house; for it is evident that a dwelling built on these principles requires no more material or labor, but is simply a scientific rendering to produce harmonious and con- venient results ; and the difference between a house of this kind and one of ordinary construction, when placed in the market, is invariably appar- ent. I remember a neighborhood in New Jersey which had been built before the present decline in prices, but, owing to the results arising from the panic, many of the houses were offered for sale for which not more than half their cost was realized. Now, had they been constructed with a greater regard to these principles, it is certain that this sacrifice would not have occurred ; for there was one instance of a gentleman who had built a house no more expensively than the others, but in which the arrangement and proportion had been better studied, and the price realized at its sale was sufficient to pay a fair profit. Frequently persons bring their own plan of arrangement, which mate- MODERN DWELLINGS. rially transgresses these principles ; and when their attention is called to the fact that certain rooms have no closets, they state that they require none for this apartment, or that there is one in the adjoining hall. When it is remarked that certain rooms are inaccessible except by passing through others, they answer that, although it may be in violation of gen- eral principles, yet in their particular case it is especially suitable. It is then suggested that though this may be so, yet, should they desire to sell the house, such an arrangement might prove an insuperable objection to a purchaser. But the answer generally is that the house is not built for sale. It is intended for their own use ; and as their children are small, there is not the occasion for much independent privacy. I then remind them that in case of their demise they little know what disposition may be made of the establishment, and it would be well, at any rate, to con- sider it as an investment for their families after they are gone ; also, that their children will not always be young, and as they advance in years they will require different accommodations from those of the nursery. But suggestions and arguments are in vain. They will follow their own no- tions, and when, from some unex- pected calamity, they are compelled to sell, they find, too late, the warn- ings verified. DESIG-N No. 4. First-floor Plan. 1. Maiuhall; 2. Parlor, 14X20; 3. Library, 14X14; 4. Dining-room, 14x18; 5. But- ler's pantry; 6. Store-room ; 7. Kitchen, 14X15; 8. Pantry; 9. Laundry; 10. Ves- tibule; 11. Main stairs; 12. Backstairs; 13, 13, 13, Verandas. Estimated cost, This building has recently been erected at Montclair, New Jersey, First-floor Plan of Design No. 4. - ^, \- >, -n for M. Jb. Keddmg, Esq., and is a specimen of how a simple square structure may be broken up into pic- turesque outlines. The hall is of the L shape, having double doors near the entrance, connecting the parlor and library. A broad pier is left in the parlor for a piano, and a similar one in the library for the bookcase, while the dining-room has a special niche for the sideboard. The butler's PLANS. 47 pantry contains sink and dresser, and communicates with an ample store- room. The kitchen, though small in itself, has a large pantry, and is connected with the laundry, where much of the rough work may be done. There are four large bedrooms and one bath-room in the second story, together with finished rooms in the attic. The main staircase ascends to a landing, at the top of which there is a stained-glass window opening on to a second-story balcony. The house is of frame, sheathed on the out- side and clapboarded. The panels between the windows are smooth- ceiled, upon which flower patterns are stencilled. The gables and attic walls are covered with ornamental cut shingles, the whole having a broken and varied effect. 48 MODERN DWELLINGS. CHAPTER V. BUILDING MATERIALS. Brick. Stone. Concrete. THE site being determined and the drainage established, it becomes necessary to decide upon the material for building. In most of the Eastern and Middle States stone is very abundant ; and unless it can be utilized in the building of walls, it is necessary to dispose of it in some other way, which is both expensive and troublesome. The vast forests which formerly covered the land, from which timber could be procured, are rapidly becoming things of the past ; and lumber is now brought from Maine or Michigan, at an expense for freight- age of more than half its value. Why not, therefore, instead of going hundreds of miles for building material, utilize the stone which we dig out of our cellars ? In many cases, it is true, it is of coarse quality, and shaped in ill accord with jointed ashler ; but, however rough it may be, a clever mason can always make it appear well, even if its sides are not plumb or its bases true. Rubble or random courses often present a better appearance, especially if the material is of somewhat rough char- acter, in which case it is well, instead of. making the pointing flush, to sink it as deeply as possible within the recess. By thus emphasizing the irregularity, we show a more honest construction and secure a certain picturesqueness of effect; and here creepers and climbing vines have a better chance to cling than if the stone were dressed. The difficulty in working some of this unyielding material is in adapting it to the open- ings and corners ; for these parts it may prove economy to import a bet- ter quality of stone. Bricks may sometimes be used effectively in the angles, and are cheap, for the reason that they require no cutting. One of the chief expenses in stone building is in elevating the material ; for which reason, the custom of building the masonry simply to the second story, and finishing the remainder with wood, has become quite common in England, and seems to be appropriate for all attempts at such work. There are many cases, however, where stone is difficult to obtain, when BUILDING MATERIALS. 49 we would suggest, in order to carry out this motive, brick or concrete should be used. It has been sometimes argued that houses of these ma- terials were damp, but, if properly constructed, our experience has not proved them so ; and when we consider that in England and on the Continent these are the only materials used, and that in the principal cities of our own country wood as a building material is prohibited, we do not see why the dampness should be peculiar to our suburban build- ings, especially in so dry a climate. There are methods, however, by which capillary attraction may be prevented, and one is the laying of a course of slate in the wall above the ground, on a line with the water- table or first-story beams. This is, perhaps, more effective when laid in with hydraulic cement. When the stone taken from the ground is more than is needed for building purposes, it can be disposed of in the beds of our roads and walks ; for if excavated to a depth of from three to six feet, according to the amount of material at our disposal, and the larger stones placed at the bottom, graduating up with the smallest upon the top, the foundation being below the frost, the road will in all weathers be firm and dry, and the bottom, being open on the principle of a blind ditch, serves an admi- rable purpose for drainage. These road-beds often solve the embarrass- ing problem of what we shall do with our rubbish, for here seems a catch-all, not only for rocks and stones, but for stumps, shavings, and other debris. Indeed, if we place earth or gravel upon the surface, shavings or salt hay will prove a useful covering to prevent the earth from washing down ; oth- erwise, after every rain we are liable to find the road full of holes ; and shavings, especially those of cedar, will remain for years without decaying. Much has been said recently on the subject of concrete for building, and one of the English Design NO. 5. journals went so far as to offer a premium for the best design for a cot- tage in this material, and has published a number of papers on the sub- ject. They propose building, not only the exterior walls, but the parti- tions, floors, and even the staircases, of it. The smoke flues can be con- structed by drawing up a cylinder as the work progresses: the staircase 4 50 MODERN DWELLINGS. risers to be of illuminated tile ; the tread, balusters, and hand-rail made of Roman cement ; some of the floors and wainscots to be of tile, and the cornices and trimmings of cement. The staircase, trimmings, and pavements of the Gilsey House, New York, are of this material. The balusters are ornamental, and the heavy newels and hand-rail which latter is simply capped with mahogany attest its adaptability for this purpose. The chief difficulty in the use of concrete is, that, as it sets, it is liable to shrink ; and, when the wall is of great length, it is very apt to crack. It is proposed to overcome this by using iron anchors through the walls, which may show with an ornamental head on the surface. The walls may further be sustained by a system of wooden battening, resembling some of the half -timber constructions of an Elizabethan cottage, these battens to be bolted on the inside. However well this may be adapted to England, where they enjoy an equable climate, we think it would scarcely be so here, where we are subject to such extreme changes. If the shrinkage is suggested as an objection with them, how much more of one would it be here ! And the very system by which they propose to strengthen the walls iron ties would with us soon work ruin, where the climate, varying from twenty degrees below zero to a hundred and one in the shade, would cause contraction and expansion of these metal anchors; and if cracks should occur, the water entering them would cause disintegration, and, if then exposed to frost, would soon make such havoc as would be difficult to repair. Stucco, of course, would be some protection to the exterior, but even that has proved far from satis- factory in this country. It is true that in some parts of New England this has been applied with considerable success, but (whether owing to the climate, material, or mode of working, it is difficult to say) it has proved a failure in other sections. Some fifteen years since, I planned a house which was built of con- crete brick. This, in a measure, overcame the difficulty of shrinking, as what under the other system would have occurred the entire length of the wall was here distributed in each brick, which, being subjected to great pressure, became very hard and durable, so that the house still stands in good condition. But it is difficult to determine the quality of the con- crete. One builder may produce an excellent and satisfactory article; while another, either from want of experience or proper material, will make it in such a manner that it will scarcely last a season ; although its weakness may not become apparent until some time after the house is completed. BUILDING MATERIALS. 51 However good this method may be for contractors, it is certainly bad for owners ; and unless a builder and locality have an established reputa- tion for sound work of this character, it may be regarded as little better than an experiment. The material possesses this advantage, however it seems to be thoroughly fire-proof. When floors and partitions are con- structed of it, especially if the trimmings and mouldings are of the same, it gives a sense of almost absolute security in this respect. DESIGN No. 5. First-floor Plan. 1. Hall ; 2. Parlor, 15 X 26 ; 3. Library, 14x15; 4. Diuiug-room, 15 X 16 ; 5. Butler's pantry ; 6. Store-room; 7. Kitcheii, 15x20; 8. Lavatory; 9. Coat-closet; 10,10. Veraudas. Estimated cost, $8000. This represents a house on the Erie Railroad, a few miles above Pater- son, the residence of Wheeler W. Philips, Esq., in the thriving and pictu- resque town of Bidgewood. The first story is built of stone, above which the material is of wood, framed in the ordinary manner and clapboarded. The junction between the wood and the stone is covered with a bold dental cor- nice, running around the build- ing ; the gable separated from the second-story wall by a similar cor- nice of the battlemented type. The gables are covered with ver- tical boards and wide battens. A peculiar feature is the chimney showing on the outside, with panels relieved with bands of black brick. The parlor bay-window, too, is somewhat peculiar, owing to its being octagon below, terminating with a square gable above. The roof is of purple slate. First-floor Plan of Design No. 5. The wood -work is of a warm olive color, trimmed with chocolate, the finer lines being picked out with black and Indian red. 52 MODERN DWELLINGS. CHAPTEE VI. SPECIFICATIONS. Estimates. Contracts. Mechanic's Lien. Foundations. Rubble-work. Pointing. f J^IIE tedious and somewhat thankless task of preparing the plans being J- completed, it becomes necessary to draw specifications of the work- manship and material pertaining to the different trades, after which the obtaining of estimates is in order 1 . The usual system of submitting these to competition is, no doubt, the best, although it is frequently dangerous to award the contract to the lowest bidder, as it often proves the dearest in the end. It is always well, in obtaining estimates, to allow none but those in whom you have thorough confidence to compete, as irresponsible parties are in the habit of estimating low in order to obtain a contract, and then securing themselves against loss at the expense of the owner. Work done by the day is certainly the most satisfactory, and, although more ex- pensive at the start, frequently proves an ultimate economy. We would also, as a general thing, deprecate the system of giving out the entire building to one contractor, for it is too much to attribute to one man a thorough knowledge of all the complicated branches of building. If, for example, he be a carpenter, he is liable to let out the other trades to irresponsible men whose recommendation is simply that they are cheap. When there is no architect to superintend, of course it is well to employ some clever "jack of all trades;" but if the architect is accessible, it is much better for him to supervise and let out each of the trades separately. In this way the owner may use his own discretion in the selection of his men, and still have the advantage of the work at first cost. The plans and estimates being finally approved, careful contracts should be prepared stating terms of payment, and binding the contractor to furnish material and execute his work according to the true intent and meaning of the plans and specifications, and to the satisfaction of the ar- chitect, who should give a certificate that the work is complete before the various payments are made. One of the greatest bugbears in the way of building is what is known SPECIFICATIONS. 53 as the mechanic's lien law, which, in most of the States, seems to be en- tirely one-sided, intended only to protect the mechanic; and owners, if they are not particular to guard against its penalties, are more than likely to become victims. I once knew a couple who, after an industrious and frugal life, had, as they supposed, accumulated sufficient to keep them from want in their old age, and, retiring from business, deter- mined to build for them- selves a modest home, and thus realize their life -long dream. The building was completed and paid for ; but im- agine their dismay when they found that, in con- sequence of the irre- sponsibility of their con- tractor, they were called upon to defend a series of lawsuits from parties who had furnished both work and material for which they had never been paid. The result was that the unfortunate couple completely lost their home, and what re- mained of their savings was consumed by their lawyers ; so that their dream, instead of being realized, proved the agent of their destruction. It becomes as important, therefore, for those inexperienced in building to employ an architect, as it is to have a lawyer conduct a lawsuit. The first thing an architect should attend to, in the execution of his work, is the laying-out of the building upon the grounds. This should be done under his own supervision, in order to secure the best grades, views, drainage, etc. Foundations are of paramount importance ; for if they are not sub- stantial, the mistake is of the most radical nature. How many buildings have we seen, in other respects thoroughly good, where this fatal blunder, if it did not imperil their safety, at least became a grievance of most sore description ! One church, we remember, had its tower taken down twice in consequence of insufficient foundations. The walls on the underside of the frame or water-table, constituting the underpinning, should, if possible, be laid with dressed stone, cut in square blocks, not necessarily of a size. It is true that there is an ex- pense attending this which may be overcome by introducing what is 54 MODERN DWELLINGS. known as rubble -work. The peculiarity of this is, that, though inex- pensive, it may be made to appear well by a judicious use of pointing, which should resemble as nearly as possible the natural color of the stone. But here, perhaps, arises an objection that the pointing becomes a sham, covering up the ragged edges of the stone and giving them the appear- ance of a closely dressed joint. We would therefore advise, if possible, that a better kind of work should be exposed to view. Still, as this seems a pardonable deception in inexpensive work, a slight description of its method might be advisable. The best way to imitate granite, or blue stone, is by a composition of cement and well-washed sand, colored with lamp-black, Spanish brown, and Venetian red. (Lamp-black being liable to fade, blacksmith's cinders or coal-dust might be substituted.) Regu- lar joints may then be struck with white-lead, imitating those of nicely jointed masonry. These lines should be perfectly horizontal and plumb, and as nearly as possible in the centre of the pointing. Sometimes the cement is sprinkled with pulverized stone, which is pressed into the pointing while fresh. The color for the entire work should be mixed at one time, as there is always a difficulty in reproducing the exact shade. In timber buildings the walls should be at least eighteen inches thick ; if of stone, the basement walls two feet, allowing a shelving of three inches within for the beams to rest upon, and projecting three inches on the outer side. This projection should be capped with a cut stone water- table, which may be bevelled to an angle of forty-five degrees. In regard to foundations, much depends on the natural bed upon which we are to build. Rock, as may be supposed, is the most sub- stantial, and next to this, gravel, or hard-pan. Large, flat stones should be placed at the bottom, and when these do not get a perfect bearing, they should be imbedded in a layer of cement or concrete, the thickness to depend upon the nature of the substratum. When there is any part of the foundation resting on rock, it is nec- essary, if practicable, to run all the trenches down to this ; for in case the portion resting upon the ground should yield, that upon the rock remaining solid, the structure must settle unequally, thereby materially injuring the building, and throwing it out of level. Chimneys, owing to their extreme height, but also to the fact that but little attention is usually paid to their foundations, are apt to settle, and where they join the walls of the apartments we almost invariably find cracks extending throughout their length. SPECIFICATIONS. 55 DESIGN No. 6. First-floor Plan. 1. Vestibule ; 2. Main ball ; 3. Library, 14 X 14 ; 4. Parlor, 14X20 ; 5. Dining-room, 14 X 18 : 6. Butler's pantry; 7. Store-room ; 8. Kitcbeu, 14X16; 9. Maiu stairs; 10. Back stairs; 11, 11. Verandas. Estimated cost, This is a frame cottage, with four rooms and a hall on the first story, four bedrooms and bath on the second floor, and good accommodations in the attic. The hall is well lighted by the staircase - window over the landing, which is suffi- ciently high to admit of a vesti- bule underneath. It is nine feet wide, and the rear is enclosed for the accommodation of the back stairs, which run from basement to attic. The butler's pantry, though small, has two dressers and a sink, and is connected with the store-room. There are two windows placed over the dressers for light. The fireplace in the parlor is opposite that of the library, while in order to give the chimney the appearance of being in the centre First-floor Plan of Desigu No. 6. of the room, there is a break in the ceiling, forming a transom, on a line with the library wall. This may be effectively treated with curtains, and, at the same time, improve the vista, by allowing the chandeliers to range on a line. 56 MODERN DWELLINGS, CHAPTEK VII. FRAMING. Timber. Furring. Cellar Partitions. Covering a Frame Honse. Seasoned Lumber. THE foundation being complete, let us now take up the subject of framing. The old method, where large timbers were not construct- ively put together, and no precaution taken against settling, seems mostly to have gone out of date, and to have been supplanted by a lighter and more simple method. It is evident that a stick of timber ten inches square can be divided into four sticks five inches square, and two of these, scientifically put together, will sustain a greater pressure than the original stick, put up regardless of these principles. One of the points to be guarded against in timber construction is that of shrinkage ; for however well the foundations may be prepared, if the frame is liable to shrink, an equally disastrous settlement, causing the cracking of plaster and a general derangement of doors and windows, is sure to follow. The old system of placing the sill on edge, with the beams resting on independent girders, each liable to shrink from a quarter to half an inch, necessarily caused the house to settle. Being unequal in its bearings, the floors not only became unlevel, but the resulting strain had a serious effect upon all its parts, caus- ing the external joints to open and the roof to leak. There was a mode of framing invented by our pioneers with a view to obviating this difficulty, in which the green timber was so manipulated as to avoid shrinkage ; and by a nice calculation of its bearings all the strength of the heavier method was attained with a small amount of tim- ber. Advocates of the unscientific mode ironically styled it the balloon system. Yet, notwithstanding all the ridicule to which it was subjected, it has steadily grown in favor, and is now, in a modified form, accepted by our best builders. The system upon which it is based is simply to avoid, as far as is possible, resting the frame on girders or interties. The sill, instead of being set on edge, is laid flat, reducing its shrinking properties to three inches instead of ten. This method has also the effect of distrib- uting the weight over a greater surface of the foundation, and supplying a sort of cap or binder to the wall. The studs and posts, instead of being FRAMING. 57 cut at each story, and surmounted by a lateral timber or intertie, which is liable to shrink, are run continuously up to the roof, interties being omit- ted altogether. Thus, instead of thirty or forty inches of timber across the grain, we have but the sill and plate, in both of which, being placed flat, the shrinkage is reduced to eight inches only. It is a well-known fact that timber shrinks across the grain, and not lengthwise. Design No. 7. All timbers receiving lath should be about sixteen inches from centres, in order to give the lath, which is four feet long, four bearings for nails. Furring strips might be placed at the distance of twelve inches, giving five nailings to each lath. It is generally a good principle not to lath immediately on the under- side of the floor beams, as the shrinking of these timbers is likely to cause irregularities and cracks. To prevent this, the system of furring, in which there is a series of strips, say one by two inches, nailed across the joists, may be introduced. In regard to roof timbers no particular suggestions need be offered. The plate may be of pine, laid flat as before described ; the sloping rafters, 3x5; rafters on decks, 3x8, each 24 inches from centres ; hip rafters, 2x8; valley rafters, 3 x 10 ; ridge pieces, 2x9. We would here observe that the cellar partitions in all first-class build- ings should be of stone or brick instead of wood, as the dampness of the 58 MODERN DWELLINGS. cellar is apt to rot the wood, making the foundation, in time, insecure. It is true that brick piers ever}' six or eight feet form an excellent substitute, but in this case the intermediate weight necessarily comes upon the gird- ers, which have to be heavy in order to prevent sagging, and the increased size offers a greater surface for shrinking. Brick arches over piers are a good construction, as they not only give the entire superstructure an equal bearing, but do away with solid partitions, which obstruct both light and air. I have sometimes seen iron rails, such as are used on railroads, placed on top of these piers. These make a thoroughly solid and fire-proof bear- ing, not being liable either to shrink or decay. The old plan of filling in the frame with brick has proved objection- able, inasmuch as it is found to collect moisture, making the house damp and thereby hastening decay. Brick filling, therefore, has been aban- doned and the process of sheathing substituted. This is simply a cov- ering of plank boards nailed diagonally over the outside, which adds so much to the strength that the frame may be made considerably lighter, and consequently less expensive. This sheathing is covered with thick paper or felt, and is then ready to receive the outside clapboards. In houses built after the old plan, the frame, in shrinking away from the bricks, was apt to leave numerous seams through which the wind and cold might penetrate, while the felt, a perfect non-conductor, being wrapped around the entire building, acts like a blanket, keeping all warm and dry within. Great care should be taken, in covering a frame house, that there are no joints in the trimmings that will admit rain or snow. The upper members should always overlap those underneath, on the same principle as a shingle or clapboard. Thus the upper trimming of a door or win- dow should have a lip, or, as it is known in carpentry, a rabbet, that may run up under the siding, as should every horizontal joint throughout the exterior of a building. I have often heard carpenters say that their joints fit so tight that no water could be admitted; and when you speak of shrinkage, they say their lumber is so well seasoned that you need have no fears on that score ; but no greater fallacy than this can exist. In our days there is no seasoned timber, and even if there were, it would shrink. I have known of wood that has stood for half a century, which, when worked over and a new surface exposed, has both swelled and shrunk. Therefore it is useless to accept the theory of non-shrinking of wood, even after it is painted. Of course, the better seasoned the lumber is, the better chance it has ; and as the difficulties of procuring seasoned timber are so great, if time FRAMING. 59 were not an object, it would be better for the owner to purchase his mate- rial a year or so before it is needed, and stack it up to dry. Usually, how- ever, the great point is to have the building completed in as short a time as possible, as our minds are rarely made up till the last minute, when everything is wanted in a hurry. In fact, if a house could be simply en- closed so as to protect it from the weather, and the lath put on, and so remain for six months or a year before plastering, the whole would have an opportunity to settle and shrink a process usually going on after the house is completed and cracks in the plaster would, in a great measure, be prevented. In the same way the interior wood -work and trimmings might be prepared, and have the advantage of being seasoned before being applied. DESIGN No. 7. First-floor Plan. 1. Veranda; 2. Main hall; 3. Library, 15X15; 4. Office, 8x9; 5. Living-room, 15X28; 6. Dining-room, 15X20; 7. Butler's pantry; 8. Store - room ; 9. Kitchen, 14x20; 10. Servants' hall; 11. Servants' porch; 12. Back stairs; 13. Principal stairs. Esti- mated cost, $8000. This is a simple frame cottage of small cost, such as many of our American people might build. The living-room is large, surrounded on three sides by a wide veranda. The dining-room connects with the kitchen through a butler's pantry, out of which opens a store-room. The kitchen has two closets, and there are back stairs. The library is of good size, communicating with the gentleman's " growlery :" both EEL these rooms open on to the veranda. The second story has four bedrooms, bath, and two dressing-rooms; the servants' apartments are in the attic. From the staircase landing a very pretty effect is obtained by a triplet window of colored glass, lighting the first and second stories, and showing conspicuously from both. The left- hand window communicates with a large balcony, covered by the main roof. Another unusual feature is the bracketing-out of the main roof over the sitting-room veranda, in order to cover the second-story balcony. In this climate, supplementary roofs, tacked on promiscuously, are , n II 3 -i * I JU 10 13 HMIi'i'M : a k'l 2 o itlJ 1 ' i . .J First-floor Plan of Design No. 7. 60 MODERN DWELLINGS. objectionable. Balconies, canopies, dormer-windows, and even veranda roofs, necessitate much work, and are a continual source of annoyance and expense, owing to leakage. Roof decks are also productive of much trouble, especially in our climate, where we are subject to heavy falls of snow. They should be abandoned, if possible, and the roofs carried tip to the ridge, sufficiently steep for the snow to slide off without obstruc- tion. The nearer we get to the form of a tent, the nearer we arrive at perfection in this respect. Here the Queen Anne system comes to our aid, and seems to offer the method that most fully meets our require- ments. Designs Nos. 10, 12, 14 are examples of this. In these the main roof covers everything, even to the balconies, dormers, and verandas. ROOFING. 61 CHAPTER VIII. ROOFING. Metals. Shingles. Slate. Testing Slate. Sheathing. French Method. Oiling Slate. Painting Roofs. Tiles for Roofing. Greetings and Fiuials. I AD VISE that the walls be covered before the roof is built, as I have frequently known the latter to be carried off by the wind, when the sides of the house were not protected. The further to exclude draughts, it is well to enclose the door and window openings with rough boards or temporary sashes, at least on the side toward the wind. The openings on the leeward side act as an escape, or safety-valve, in case of danger from this source. In regard to the material for covering the roof, much depends upon the angle of inclination. It is obvious that if flat, with sufficient pitch only to shed the water, slate or shingle would be impracticable, as driving storms would be apt to force the rain or snow under them. It is gener- ally considered that these materials are not desirable if the angle be less than thirty degrees. Metal forms the best covering for roofs that are inclined to be flat. Copper is no doubt the best material, but it is little used on account of its expense. Tin, in our climate, answers as an excel- lent substitute ; composition such as tar or other materials we would not advise on good work, as its only merit is its cheapness. It is gener- ally advisable that roofs of dwelling-houses should be of sufficient pitch to admit of the use of slate or shingles. Split shingles, although more expensive, serve their purpose better than the kind known as sawn shin- gles, as in the former the fibre runs the entire length. The advantage gained by their use is that the moisture, in following the line of the wood, is less likely to penetrate. In sawn shingles, the surface is fre- quently across the grain, rendering them not only more liable to break, but, the ends of the fibre being exposed, they more readily absorb moist- ure, which induces rapid decay. It is an erroneous idea that rafters must be boarded before the shingles are applied ; as much air as it is possible to procure is necessary for a shingle roof, both above and below, in order to keep it dry and free from rot. A shingle roof will last much long- 62 MODERN DWELLINGS. er if simply laid on slats placed at the proper distances to receive the nails. The numerous quarries of slate which have recently been developed throughout the country offer, we think, the most desirable material for rooting. The best slates supplied at present are from Pennsylvania and Vermont, although there are other quarries furnishing excellent varieties. Perhaps those of Virginia may also rank among the best. Their grain is so close and even, that they may be made thinner, and consequently lighter. At the same time they present a smooth surface; and their color, which is excellent, is less liable to fade. A good slate may be known by its ringing sound when struck. Hard- ness is thus indicated, which is a most desirable quality. Such slate pos- sesses small power of absorbing water. The contrary property is gener- ally found in those whose surface is smooth and greasy. " The quantity of water absorbed by slate in a given time is a sure test of its quality, the best being that which retains the smallest possible amount. In select- ing a rooting slate, therefore, a safe plan would be to weigh each variety before placing it in a tub of water, when, after several hours' immersion, and being again weighed, that which has gained the least will prove the most durable." The great advantage possessed by slate roofs lies in the fact that they are not affected by damp. Another is, that slats need not be employed. Here sheathing is not only legitimate, but between this and the slate thick felt may be placed, which is a protection from heat and cold, and acts as a barrier against wind and snow ; for, although the lap of the slate may be sufficient to exclude rain, snow will always be forced into every crevice in case of wind. In roofs of this kind it is always desirable that the grain should run lengthwise, rather than across, for, as the slates are usually secured by two nails near the top, they are apt, in case of cross grain, to break at these points during violent storms. The French method of laying slate, as given by Viollet le Due, has a great advantage in this respect. It consists of a strip of metal which lines the slate and is turned up at the bottom, space being allowed at the top for the nails. Thus each slate is secured in its position without the necessity of punching holes, which invariably impairs its strength. It is usually a custom, after the slating is completed, to cover it with a coating of oil. This seems to clean it off, and gives it a dark appear- ance, and the slater will assure you that it prevents its fading. This, however, ie an expedient entirely unnecessary in good work, for poor slate alone will absorb the oil, and only this quality is liable to fade. Oil ROOFING. 63 Design No. 8. on sound slating, therefore, remains on the surface only until it is wash- ed off by the rain, and is then conducted into our cisterns, and we won- der what is the matter with the water ! Another folly that we might as well condemn is that of painting roofs ; we mean particularly shingles, for these, if left to themselves, will naturally assume a color which improves every year by exposure ; while paint not only appears unnatural at the outset, but looks worse and more rusty as each sea- son passes. Another objection to paint is, that although it is used to protect the shingles against the weather, it in reality promotes their destruction ; for the shin- gles in their natural state allow the water to run free, whereas paint fills up the cracks or water-courses, and forms certain ridges, which prevent its escape ; consequently it remains in the wood. There is a certain sympathy between shingles and the changes of the weather which renders them especially suitable as a covering. Not only do they assume a harmonious color through exposure, but in dry weather they shrink and give ventilation to the roof ; and in wet weather, when it is necessary to keep out the storm, they swell again and become tight. Perhaps it is too much to say that shingles never appear well when painted. I have seen shingle roofs improved by being painted something the color of red tile. They have thus much the appearance of tiles, and, while less expensive, they require no additional construction to support their weight. I learned, however and I have since tried the experiment that the shingles were dipped in a tub of paint before being applied. This not only does away with the usual objection of filling up the cracks, but coats the shingle on the underside arid edges, so that the tendency of the paint is rather to preserve than destroy. Tiles, for the purpose of roofing, although much used in the Dutch colonies of this country a century or two ago, seemed to have fallen into disuse until within the last few years. That they possess much merit can- not be denied. The greatest difficulty hitherto appears to have been the expense, although we understand that those used on the building erected by the State of New Jersey on the Centennial Grounds were nearly as 64 MODERN DWELLINGS. cheap as ordinary slate. Tiles certainly are very orjjamental, and when of a color complementary to the exterior of the building, produce a de- cidedly picturesque effect. By this we would imply that when they are red they should not be used on a building the external walls of which are of the same color as brick, for instance. Here green or purple would present the best contrast ; but in case the walls were of darker material, say blue granite or limestone, the red is desirable, and seems to warm up the cheerless effect, as brick trimmings relieve the coldness of blue stone. In England some beautiful effects in crestings and finials have been de- veloped in this material (kindred specimens may be seen on St. George's Hall at Philadelphia), and seem, in a great measure, to have superseded the cast-iron structures which have hitherto " out-Heroded Herod " in ob- truding their fantastic proportions against the sky. The dipped shingles, as before described, producing the effect of these tiles in color, may have a ridge of wood somewhat resembling the tile cresting in outline, and painted the same color. This cresting should cover the ridge on the principle of a saddle, and, when properly secured, it may do away with the necessity of metal flashings. The beauty of tile roofs seems, however, to consist in simplicity. When worked into fancy forms, tiles lose their dignity, and have a frivolous, tawdry effect. In fact, the less we emphasize the roof the better, as it should be the chimneys which give prominence to the building. DESIGN No. 8. First-floor Plan. 1. Hall, 15X 18 ; 2. Parlor, 14 X 18 ; 3. Dining-room, 14X 18 ; 4. Butler's pantry ; 5. Store- room ; 6. Kitchen, 15X16. Estimated cost, $5000. The peculiarity of this design is the absence of verandas, which are superseded by a large porch some fourteen feet square. This porch has all the advantages of a room, and may be made secluded by an arrange- ment of rolling shutters, to let up or down at pleasure. Here the family may sit in groups, instead of being stretched out in a line, as must gen- erally be the case on a veranda. It is true, if the veranda be of suffi- cient width, social circles may be formed, but not without obstructing the space appropriated as a promenade, which is the chief reason why a ve- randa is preferable to a porch. Perhaps the best arrangement, therefore, in order to- meet both these requirements, is to have a veranda constructed on the principle of bays, where groups may assemble without interfering ROOFING. C5 with those who wish to enjoy a walk. An arrangement of this kind is attempted in Design No. 9. Passing the entrance porch, the large square hall with its low land- ing staircase, lighted by a triplet bay- window of stained glass, becomes the prominent object of interest. This hall and porch, therefore, would nat- urally become the favorite gathering- place of the family, while the parlor would serve as the reception and mu- sic room. The butler's pantry, store-room, and kitchen are arranged in the usual manner. The second story has four sleeping-rooms, bath-room, and the cus- tomary accompaniment of closets, one of which, connected with the cham- ber over the hall, is of somewhat unu- sual dimensions, being the space en- closed by the lean-to roof over the porch. Owing to the peculiar slope upon which this house is built, the rear of the cellar coming above the ground, the kitchen might easily have been located in the basement, allow- ing the one indicated in the design to serve as a dining-room. This was objected to on account of the too great exertion required in going up and down stairs, so the basement was converted into a laundry. 5 First-floor Plan of Design No. 8. 66 MODERN DWELLINGS. CHAPTER IX. GLASS. Plate-glass. Stained Glass. Prismatic Glass. Blue Glass. IN imitating ancient example, as was said before, it is not incumbent upon us to give up all that we have gained in the course of centuries, but to adopt and incorporate with the old everything that has been proved desirable in the new. For example, in Queen Anne's time, small panes of glass were invariably used, for the simple reason that they had no large ones ; but for us to go back to the use of small panes, only because they belong to the style, would be ridiculous. We should not only injure our view by cutting it up with these little checkered squares, but would miss the brilliant effect that we might obtain from that most beautiful of mod- ern inventions, plate-glass. Plate-glass in a country-house will add a greater richness than anything else. Its reflection from the exterior is so clear and perfect, that it in- stantly attracts the attention of the passer-by ; and as it is approached, its delineation of the lawn and distant scenery is a picture which none but the Great Architect could paint. From the interior, plate-glass is so abso- lutely translucent, that no obstruction seems offered to the view ; so that, in case of a window glazed with a single light, it is often supposed that the sash must be open, which is the acme of the effect to be produced. I remember a circumstance of a gentleman entertaining some of his friends at a lawn party, where a very ludicrous scene occurred. One of the com- pany, a clergyman, went into the house to procure a croquet set ; and, see- ing the window, which extended to the floor, open, as he supposed, he attempted to walk out that way, when, to his dismay, he crashed through an entire pane of glass. And here a scene followed which, but for the serious consequences that might have ensued, would have been laughable in the extreme. The sash, being suddenly relieved of its load of glass, flew up like a shot, and the poor gentleman came within an ace of being carried up with it. As it was, he was sent flying out on the lawn ; and had it not been for the croquet-box, which intervened between himself and the glass, he might have been severely injured. In order to prevent GLASS. 67 the repetition of such an accident, the owner had illuminated on the cen- tre of each pane the monogram of the different members of his family. In windows only intended to give light, and not in a position to com- mand a view, it would be proper to use small panes, or even stained glass with leaded sash. This would be allowable, for instance, in windows over a staircase landing, and indeed in all sashes above the height of the eye. Though this idea is borrowed from the Gothic, and seldom found in the examples of the Queen Anne, yet we do not hesitate to accept it as being extremely beautiful, and capable of the most artistic treatment. I have recently fitted up a dining-room, where the upper sashes are thus treated. Designs of fruit, game, convivial scenes, and texts of good cheer furnish appropriate decorations. Staircase windows particularly offer an opportunity for stained glass. When they are placed above a landing, thereby coming into a central position between the two stories, they serve the double purpose of lighting both, as is shown in several of these designs. When introduced in a prop- er hall I mean, one serving more as a room than a passage stained glass is ap- propriate, even if not admitted to any other part of the house. In the panels of the hall door, also, instead of having the unmeaning and at the same time expensive material, known as figured glass in which the figures, by-the-way, are almost always execrable stained glass would be appropriate, as its ob- scure effects would serve the purpose of preventing passers-by from see- ing in, which is the only object of ground glass. Upon the fan-lights it could also be well applied, and the green curtain or the chef d?