13 I "SOW UC^RLI Hen | V8BT , B 3Dl — TUJTAKEJ"- TEACHING- JflMEffcHVGHE* THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA GIFT OF Mrs, William Erwin Dozier STije Meatrfnfl (tivtlt ULtfirarg* "No. 2. Mistakes in Teaching BY JAMES L. HUGHES, Inspector of Schools, Toronto, Canada. REVISED EDITION. New York and Chicago: E. L. KELLOGG & CO. 1893. Copyright, 1887, E. L. KELLOGG & CO., New York. P GIFT PREFACE. In issuing a revised edition of this book it seems fitting to acknowledge gratefully the hearty appreciation that has been accorded to it by American teachers. Realizing as I do that its very large sale indicates that it has been of service to many of my fellow-teachers, I have recognized the duty of enlarging and revising it so as to make it still more helpful in preventing the com- mon mistakes in teaching and training. The addition of a new chapter concerning mistakes in regard to the true aims of education should add to the value of the book. Unless teachers are clearly conscious of the specific object they should have in view in each lesson, and in using the various disciplinary agencies, their success in communicating knowledge, or in pro- moting the true growth of their pupils, is largely a matter of chance. The chapter on moral training is added with the hope that it may help to prevent errors in this most impor- tant department of the teacher's work. The edition of E. L. Kellogg & Co. is the only author- ized and copyrighted edition published in the United States, and I have much pleasure in expressing my gratitude to them for their honest recognition of my rights, and for the care they have taken and the superior taste they have shown in regard to the typography and the various matters connected with the mechanical con • struction of the book. J. L. H. M832875 CONTENTS. Mistakes in Aim. PAGK 1. To regard knowledge as more important than the child, . 5 2. To make knowledge the chief aim even in intellectual educa- tion, 8 3. To confine education to the school, 9 4. To be satisfied with an aggressively receptive attitude to- wards knowledge, 10 5. To neglect physical training, 11 6. To neglect industrial training in primary classes, . . .17 7. To neglect definite moral training, 21 Mistakes in School Management. 8. To neglect the details of management, 27 9. To omit yard supervision, 32 10. To abstain from playing with children, 38 11. To stand too near the class, .34 12. To take hold of a pupil to put him in line, .... 34 13. To give many demerit-marks, 35 14. To censure trifling errors severely, 35 15. To complain or grumble much, 36 16. To keep pupils in at recess, 37 1 7. To invoke higher authority, 38 18. To confound giving evidence with talebearing, ... 38 19. To be late, 40 20. To be careless about personal habits, 40 21. To sit much while teaching, 41 22. To give commands instead of suggestions, . . .41 23. To allow pupils to be frequently troublesome without notify- ing their parents, 42 CONTENTS. v PAGE 24. To annoy parents, 43 25. To show temper in dealing with parents, .... 44 26. To dispute with an angry parent before the class, ... 46 27. To make spiteful remarks about parents, .... 47 28. To neglect opportunities for arousing interest of parents in school enterprises, 47 Mistakes in Discipline. 29. To try to teach without good order, 48 30. To confound "securing" with "maintaining'' order, . . 49 31. To suppose that children like to have their own way, . . 50 32. To think that order means perfect stillness, .... 51 33. To try to startle a class into being orderly, .... 51 34. To try to drown noise by greater noise, 52 35. To call for order in general terms, 52 36. To be demonstrative in maintaining discipline, . . .53 37. To use a bell as a signal for order, 55 38. To be variable in discipline, 55 39. To be satisfied with orders depending on the teacher's pres- ence, 56 40. To give an order without having it fully obeyed, ... 57 41. To think pupils like to violate rules, 58 42. To make too many rules, 58 43. To speak in too high a key, 60 44. To force children to sit long in the same position, ... 61 45. To allow unrestrained play in the school-room, ... 61 46. To lose sight of the class, 63 47. To get excited in school, 64 48. To ridicule pupils, 64 49. To punish without explanation, 65 50. To whip for disciplinary purposes only, 67 51. To whip in a formal manner, 68 52. To punish by pulling ears, etc., . . . . . .68 53. To allow whispering, 69 54. To continually repress the activities of childhood, . . 70 Mistakes in Method. 55. To question in rotation, 72 56. To indicate who is to receive a question until it has been stated, Ti vi CONTENTS. PAGE 57. To repeat a question for the inattentive, 73 58. To watch the pupil reading or answering, .... 73 59. To be the slave of any text-book, 73 60. To assign lessons without eareful explanation, . . .74 61. To assign much home-work to young children, ... 74 62. To assign lessons without testing their preparation, . . 76 63. To continue lessons too long, 76 64. To think one teaching of a subject sufficient, ... 77 65. To be satisfied with repetition at the time of teaching, . . 78 66. To substitute repetition of words for repetition of process, . 79 67. To suppose detecting errors means correcting them, . . 79 68. To be satisfied with one correction of an error, ... 80 69. To try to teach too much in one lesson, 80 70. To be indefinite in teaching, 81 71. To pay most attention to smart pupils, 81 72. To give information which cannot be applied at once, . . 82 73. To use objects in reviewing or drilling, 84 74. To accept partial answers, 85 75. To repeat every answer, 85 76. To have a stereotyped plan of teaching, 86 77. To talk too much, 86 78. To use long words, 87 79. To make learning names a direct object, .... 87 80. To try to make* difficulties too simple, 89 81. To fail to make the pupils " do " as much as possible in learning, . . . ". 89 82. To confound telling and teaching, 92 Mistakes in Moral Training. 83. To neglect manners and deportment of pupils, ... 97 84. To appeal to motives not clearly understood, .... 99 85. To tempt pupils by the self -reporting system, ... 99 86. To train pupils to criticise by noting faults only, . . . 100 87. To neglect opportunities for moral development afforded on the play-ground, 100 88. To control chiefly by external agencies, 101 89. To punish for " not being good," . . . . . .102 90. To punish unsympathetically, 102 CONTENTS. Vll 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. PAGE To expect too much moral goodness in children, . . . 103 To arouse the emotional nature too much, .... 104 To arouse feelings and thoughts regarding distant duties, . 105 To allow conscious violation of law without an inevitable consequence, 106 To allow even slight habitual deviations from right, . . 107 To praise for natural ability or goodness, . . . . 108 THE READING CIRCLE LIBRARY. A new series of volumes of Circle size on Psychology in its Relation to Teaching, Principles of Teaching, Methods, History of Education, the Kindergarten, Physical Education, etc., for Teachers, Normal Schools, and Reading Circles. Already Issued. Allen's Mind Studies for Young Teachers. FroebePs Autobiography, etc. Hughes' Mistakes in Teaching . . Hughes Securing and Retaining Attention Wilhelm's Student's Calendar. Other volumes in preparation for immediate issue Published by .50 .50 .50 .50 .30 E. L. KELLOGG & CO., 61 E. Ninth St., N. Y. MISTAKES IN TEACHING. (ftfjapter X- MISTAKES IN Aim. The defects of educational systems, and the mistakes in educational methods, have arisen from erroneous and indefinite views regarding the true aim of education. All our activities in planning, and in executing our plans are limited by our ideals. Even if our plans could be correct while our aims were not true and definite, com- paratively little good would be attained. A perfect plan for the accomplishment of an imperfect purpose may produce evil instead of good results. The following are common mistakes regarding the aim of education: 1. It is a Mistake to Regard Knowledge as of Greater Importance than the Child. — This is a fundamental error. For centuries the minds of teachers have been clouded by the accepted maxim: "Knowledge is power." This is only partially true. The undue recognition of this par- tial truth prevents our conception of the greater truth beyond it. Knowledge in itself is not power. A single human being is worth infinitely more than all the knowl- 6 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. edge that can be communicated to him or acquired by him. Knowledge has no power of development in itself. Man has. Man is the grandest earthly power created by God, and he should continue to grow forever. The teacher has to deal with two elements of power, the child and knowledge. The attention of educators has been directed chiefly to knowledge. This should not be the case. Man was originally created in the image of God. He would have continued to grow more like God, if nothing had interfered with his development. Sin did interfere with his development and weakened him physi- cally, intellectually, and morally. It continues to do so still. Education should counteract sin by making the race stronger. The influences of good and evil in the individual and the race are cumulative by heredity. While the influence of evil of any kind will continue to grow stronger from generation to generation if unchecked, its curse may be removed in four generations. The in- fluence of good, on the other hand, when it has been ex- pressed in definite activity goes on forever. "While man never could have saved himself from the effects of sin, it is equally clear that as an individual or a race he can never grow better without conscious effort of his own. To help him to make this conscious effort should be the aim of the teacher. God, perfect in knowledge, in purity, and in power, is the centre of a universal unity. This unity cannot be complete until it is in perfect harmony with itself throughout its entirety. It is the teacher's glorious privilege to aid in bringing about this harmony. The fullest measure of human happiness and the highest rate MISTAKES IN ATM. of human progress will be attained when each individual in the human race is growing consciously towards God in knowledge, in purity, and in power. To secure this re- sult should be the aim of the teacher. He can never have this aim so long as he overestimates mere knowl- edge, and undervalues humanity. It is not necessary to decide how much development is possible for the human race in time. The questions to settle are, can mankind be raised to a higher plane physi- cally, intellectually, and morally? and may his upward tendency become stronger and more controlling as he advances? The system of education that is based on a philosophy which does not give definite affirmative answers to these questions is narrow and weak, and can offer no hope or inspiration to the true teacher. When we have a clear conception of the relative value of the child and knowledge, we will have an infallible means for separating the gold from the dross in the theories of educational writers, and of discovering the harmony that really exists between the good thoughts of those who have looked at education from widely different standpoints. No better illustration of the blinding effect of a limited or incorrect conception of the true aim of education can be given than is afforded by the total misapprehen- sion of the foundation truth in the systems of Pestalozzi and Froebel by most of the teachers of England and America. Pestalozzi and Froebel made the children use material things as a means of working out their systems. They did not give objects to the children in order that they might learn about the things themselves. Their 8 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. chief aim was to arouse the child's mental, industrial, and executive powers into definite receptive and pro- ductive activity and consequent growth, by the use of the material placed in his hands. English and American teachers, with their mental vision shadowed by the thought that the increase of knowledge is the great aim of education, saw in the use of objects a means of learn- ing more easily and more thoroughly the nature and characteristics of the objects themselves. We certainly gained by even this partial insight into the truth, and our methods of communicating knowledge have greatly improved as we have seen more clearly the advantages that follow from objective illustration of any subject of study; but this was a small part of the truth revealed to Pestalozzi and Froebel. Their first aim was growth, to increase the power of mankind for good; and the increase of knowledge in extent and definiteness was a secondary or incidental part of their work. We reversed this order, making knowledge our chief aim, and development, so far as we thought of it at all, an incidental result of our learning. The distinction is of vital consequence. Our misconception made our boasted system of object-lessons in some essential respects the most ridiculous attempt at teaching ever introduced into the school-room. No teacher is ready to begin his work until he believes that his chief duty is to train his pupils to climb from the positions they individually occupy, when they are placed in his charge. 2. It is a Mistake to Make the Communication of Knowledge the Great Aim of Teaching, even in the Intel- MISTAKES IN AIM. lectual Training of a Child. — The teacher should store the minds of his pupils. The more knowledge he communi- cates to them the better; provided that, in giving it, he does not cripple their power to gain knowledge independently for themselves. It would be a serious error to compel each child to attempt to acquire for himself by original ex- periments and investigation the accumulated knowledge of nearly sixty centuries. It would be a still greater blunder for the teacher to attempt to communicate all this knowledge to his pupils. The amount even of known truth that can be learned during school life is compara- tively small. Valuable as knowledge may be, the power to acquire it independently is better. The more I value knowledge, the more carefully will I train my pupils, that they may be able to gain it for themselves after they leave school. What an advantage it will be to them to be keenly receptive to truth from books, from their fellow- men, and from the world of nature! The result of proper intellectual training should not be merely increased wis- dom, but additional power to investigate known truth, and make discoveries of truths yet unrevealed. 3. It is a Mistake to Think that Education should be Completed at School. — There is very little systematic study done after school-life with a. definite idea of dis- ciplining the mind, or widening the intellectual vision. The years when men should do their best independent work are usually wasted. There is no stronger condem- nation of a system of education possible, than the fact that a race of pupils trained under it leaves school with- out the desire as well as the ability for further study. IO MISTAKES IN TEACHING. Pupils have naturally a desire for knowledge. Like every other good tendency that desire may be developed, in- creased in depth and intensity. If the teacher's methods are correct this desire must so increase. The teacher should develop this natural desire into a conscious habit of regular study as a duty. " I like," should yield when necessary to "I ought." The teacher should deal with his pupils in regard to all departments of learning as Dr. Arnold did in teaching history: " show them that it con- tains gold, and train them to dig for it. " Pupils do not receive enough practice in extracting thought rapidly and definitely from printed matter. One of the most hope- ful educational movements of the age is the agitation in favor of systematic study for broader and greater intel- ligence after school life is over. 4. It is a Mistake to be Satisfied with the Development of an Aggressively Receptive Attitude of the Mind to- wards Knowledge. — Aggressive receptivity is good, active productivity is much better. Great as is the power to gather knowledge readily and thoroughly, the power to use it advantageously is much greater. The acquisi- tion of knowledge in its highest development will be of little use unless accompanied by the motive and the ability to use it unselfishly and advantageously. How many men there are with vast knowledge, and great facility for gaining additional information, who never- theless have no direct influence in the social or moral uplifting of the race. The executive power of the intel- lect is essential in enabling a man to accomplish any work to which he may be called. It can be developed f MISTAKES IN AIM. II and it is therefore clearly the teacher's duty to aid in its development. Knowledge may be used in two ways: as a Jbasis in reasoning, and as a guide in improving our own condition, and that of our fellow-men. The teacher cannot fail to increase the readiness and the power of his pupils to use knowledge in both ways, if he remembers that knowledge should be applied as soon as it is learned, and that truth is never clear to us until we have used it; until we have in some way made it a part of ourselves by crystallizing it into a life-activity. The "rote process" of learning was abandoned for "oral teaching;" the weakness of oral teaching was recognized and an advance made when the guiding motto of teachers became " We learn through the eye;" this in turn has been given up by good teachers for the better maxim, "We learn by doing." Even this may be improved, and should be " We grow by doing." After all that we have read, and heard, and seen, we are to-day the products of what we have done, so far as we have been moulded by educational forces. The teacher has well performed his duty to his pupils intellectually, when he has stored their minds, trained them to acquire knowledge accurately for themselves, developed their natural love for knowledge, and given them power to use knowledge up to the measure of their individual ability. 5. It is a Mistake to Neglect the Physical Training of Pupils. — The physical nature of the child is a part, and a very important part, of its outfit of power. The physi- cal powers may be developed as easily and as systemat- 12 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. ically as the mental powers. In the upward movement of the human race the prime essential for definite ad- vancement is the improvement of the body. Men would be grander intellectually, and purer morally, if they had better bodies. The fact that some physical development is necessarily obtained outside the school-room, does not relieve the teacher of his duty in regard to physical train- ing. It is equally true that we get intellectual develop- ment outside the school-room (more than we get in it), but this does not prevent the effort to make the school a means of additional mental training. The importance of placing children in favorable phy- sical conditions while they are engaged in study is now universally acknowledged. Provision is usually made, and should always be made, for proper lighting, warming, seating, and ventilation in a school-room. But this is not enough. Pupils have a right to a definite physical training by means of carefully selected calisthenic ex- ercises and drill, for the following reasons: 1. To give the most beneficial rest from the weariness of long-continued study in the same position. 2. To cause the blood to circulate freely to the ex- tremities and prevent a chronic condition of over-supply to the brain, as a result of study. 3. To enlarge the chest and thereby increase the capa- city of the lungs and the power of the heart. 4. To preserve the bodily health in a vigorous con- dition. 5. To increase the strength of the bodies of our pupils. 6. To develop the power of physical- endurance in our pupils. MISTAKES IN AIM. 1 3 7. To give erectness of figure and gracefulness of car- riage. A man's walk and bearing have a good deal to do in deciding his influence over other men. Our bodies are subject to improvement by proper exercise. A Brit- ish soldier without a uniform can be recognized in any part of the world, though only his lower extremities may be visible. The influence of drill in early life is much greater than in later years in giving a graceful action and a manly bearing. Pupils have a right to such train- ing as will improve their bodies, and add to their control over them. It is a good instinct that prompts mothers to send their children to the dancing-school, that they may secure an easy and harmonious action of their mus- cles. It is greatly to the discredit of the schools that the special training of the dancing- master should be neces- sary. Children should get proper physical culture in the school, where they would be exposed to no weakening influences. While dancing gives gracefulness and ease of motion it almost necessarily leads to a certain light- ness and indefiniteness in character. Drill, on the other hand, develops steadiness, firmness, definiteness, and dignity. 8. Physical exercises should be practised in order to improve the powers of expression. Appropriate gesture always adds clearness and emphasis to the expression of our thoughts. He who speaks only with his tongue uses but a portion of his power to instruct or influence his fellow-men. Many people are as susceptible to the in- fluence of graceful motion as to the effects of change of tone, emphasis, and inflection combined. The perform- ances of a skilled athlete are always attractive and pleas- 14 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. ing. Gesture exercises and calisthenics executed by a large number of children delight and inspire an audience more than music. It is worthy of the best thought of teachers to make the bodies of their pupils harmoniously responsive to their minds. In performing calisthenic exercises, the various parts of the body necessarily act in obedience to the child's will. The teacher's or leader's will expressed by word of command is the motive that calls the will of the child into action, but the movements of the child's body are controlled by his own mind. Appropriate calisthenic exercises practised regularly at school will make gesture a habit, and will tend to make the body sympathetically responsive to the feelings and thoughts of the mind. 9. Physical exercises form the best means of develop- ing energetic and definite executive intellectual activity in pupils. Our executive power, the most important department of our intellectual nature, depends on the way our will force is roused to activity. A habit of energetic and definite will action will increase the in- fluence of a man for good more than any other power that -the teacher can develop in him. Calisthenic ex- ercises properly performed help to form this habit of will action in two ways: the will must be roused to definite and energetic activity in order to stimulate vigorous bodily movement, and definite physical action reacts on the will and tends to make it correspondingly definite. It is also true, that the teacher who allows calisthenic exercises to be performed in a listless, indefinite manner, develops a corresponding listlessness and indefiniteness in his pupils. MISTAKES IN AIM. 1 5 10. Physical exercises are of great service to the teacher as a means of securing good order. Disorder re- sults from misdirected energy. The energy is right. The teacher's duty is to find a legitimate outlet for the energy, not to check it. The outlet provided should not waste the child's energy, but should use it in securing some advantage to the child. All expenditure of energy may be made to help the growth of the being. Surplus physical energy cannot be used so advantageously in any other way as in calisthenic exercises. This use of it prevents its application to any disorderly practice, and at the same time promotes the health, endurance, and grace- fulness of the children. 11. Physical drill tends to strengthen the moral nature. The boy who has a slouching body and a shuffling gait cannot fail to become a better and higher type morally as well as intellectually, if he is trained to stand on both feet, to step firmly and gracefully, to brace his knees, to hold his shoulders back and his head up, and to look steadily into the eye of his teacher. It is universally acknowl- edged that a man's moral nature alters the physical for- mation of his face. This is true, though in a smaller de- gree, of the entire body. The converse of this is also true. As the moral nature influences the body, so does the body to a certain extent influence the moral nature. The wide, expansive sweep of the arms in response to the feeling of freedom makes the feeling itself deeper and stronger. Our spiritual natures would act more freely if released altogether from bodily restraint; and therefore the more perfectly our bodies are developed and dis- 1 6 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. ciplined, the more favorable will be the conditions for spiritual growth. Teachers of rural schools usually excuse their neglect of drill by saying that their pupils get enough physical exercise. They forget that strength is not the only bene- fit resulting from exercise. Look at those lines of well- drilled boys in their school-yard ready to march into school ! Five hundred manly-looking fellows they are, erect in figure and graceful in action. See that boy near the centre of the second line! You could pick him out at a glance from thrice five hundred boys. How his shoul- ders stoop, how clumsy is his manner! He is fresh from the gymnastics of the hoe and the pitchfork. His teacher from the country stands beside us, and hearing our criti- cisms he says: "You need not criticise Tom. He is stronger than any other boy of his age in the line. " This may be true, but you as his former teacher deserve no credit for his strength, while you should receive severe censure for allowing him to grow up with a deformed body and an awkward gait. Farmer's sons and daughters are as much entitled to the physical, mental, and moral benefits of calisthenics and drill as any other children are. Other teachers plead that they have no time for physi- cal exercises. These teachers should remember two things: 1. Physical exercises practised frequently save time by improving the discipline, and preventing irritation to both teacher and pupils. 2. No pupils should be allowed to try to work sixty minutes in an hour. It is impossible for them to do so MISTAKES IN AIM. I? for five or six hours a day, and it would be very injuri- ous to them to do so if they could. Pupils who are forced to make the attempt are being trained to work at a lower rate of speed than they should acquire. Those who de- vote fifty minutes to intellectual work and ten minutes to physical exercise will have more knowledge, better bodies, happier dispositions, and greater intellectual force, than if they had been compelled to plod wearily at the same kind of work through each long hour of the day. 6. It is a Mistake to Neglect Industrial Training in Primary Classes. — The hand should be trained for three reasons: 1. It is the chief means by which mankind earns a livelihood. 2. It is the agency by which most of our intellectual conceptions have to be carried into execution. 3. The intellectual powers of young children are aroused to complete activity by working with material things. Few observant parents have failed to notice that children have naturally both destructive and constructive tendencies. Both instincts are given to them for a good purpose: the first that they may gain knowledge by in- vestigation, the second that they may apply the knowl- edge they have gained by using, or making, or building things. A child has to use his hands in executing his intention in either case. No mind but his own can guide his hand. In order to guide his hand his mind must complete the circle of intellectual process. He must ob- serve, think, decide, and execute. Some educational 1 8 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. writers recommend the training of one set of what they call mental faculties or powers at a time, and they fix the ages at which the observant powers, the powers of com- parison, and the reasoning powers should be developed. They do not complete the circle at all. They leave the definite training of will action, the most essential part of intellectual training, to chance. The child grows by no such piecemeal mental work before he goes to school. He completes the round of intellectual process on every possible occasion. The way he performs each part of the process depends, of course, on his age and his develop- ment, but he is never satisfied until the thought gathered by his senses has been developed into a plan and carried out in activity. The repetition of this completed mental process many times each day defines and strengthens his intellectual powers. His mind gains strength as his body does, by suitable exercise. He does not deal with abstractions but with things. He should continue to do so to a considerable extent after he goes to school. This was the root idea of Froebel in one department of kinder- garten work. After the child has begun work in a primary school he should still be trained in systematic manual work. This is especially the case in ungraded schools. The most difficult problem in connection with ungraded or rural schools is to find profitable plans for occupying the little ones at their seats while the teacher is engaged with other classes. Too often little children are in the position of the boy who was asked "What he did in school when he was not out in class ■?" His re- ply was: "Oh! nothing, but just sit still, and wait for school to get out. " What a blessing it would be to the MISTAKES IN AIM. 1 9 thousands of unoccupied boys and girls in school, who are being trained in habits of idleness in a way that can never be counteracted by any formal stimulation to effort, if they were allowed to work part of the time in any of the following ways: 1. At some of the kindergarten occupations. 2. At needlework, sewing, knitting, darning, etc. 3. With pieces of wood and knives, gimlets and other noiseless tools. 4. In plaiting straw braid. 5. In weaving mats, hats, etc., from rushes, grasses, etc. 6. With moistened clay in modelling. The teacher must take care that the material used is inexpensive, and that the manufactured results serve some purpose of use or ornament. Plenty of opportunity should be given for original invention and varied appli- cations of the material by the pupils themselves. Boys and girls should do the same kind of work in primary classes. Such work will do much good by preventing idleness and consequent disorder, by laying the best possible foundation for industrial skill by the development of manual dexterity, and by training the pupils to use for practical purposes the vast quantity of raw material which is commonly allowed to go to waste; but its best educational effects will be seen in the development of in- creased intellectual power and productive activity. Among the mistakes usually made where industrial training has been attempted the following may be named: 1. The manual work done in public schools has been 20 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. confined chiefly to girls. Needlework is the only general work yet introduced to any considerable extent. This has been taught to girls, as something to be used by them in after-life, not as a means by which they might be made better intellectual and moral beings; not even with the design of giving training to the hand, but that the girls may know how to do a certain kind of work when they become women. The error has* been made because edu- cators have had their minds fixed on the knowledge to be given to the child, instead of on the child itself. Boys need manual training as much as girls do for utilitarian as well as developing purposes. Girls get far more of this training at home than boys do, and yet the school neglects the boys to attend to the girls. "Boys' fingers are all thumbs." Boys' fingers should be as nimble and skilful as those of girls, and they would be so, if they had the same training. 2. Attempts are made to teach trades in school. This is a mistake, because girls have as much right to manual training as boys have; and because teaching a particular trade to a class predisposes the individuals of the class to that trade as a means of earning a livelihood. The school has no right to do this. Special trade schools may be very valuable as a means of training those who intend to follow certain occupations, but they cannot be made a part of a general school system. 3. Manual training is not given early enough in the school course. The manual training of the race should be done in the primary schools for three reasons: First, because these are the only schools in which all pupils can receive such a training; a very small percentage would ever MISTAKES IN AIM. 21 reach the special manual training schools, or technical schools, even if they were generally established. Second, because the fingers are more susceptible to training in early life than at any other time. Third, because during the primary school period the intellectual powers of children develop most rapidly and most harmoniously by guiding their hands in working with material things. 7. It is a Mistake to Neglect a Definite Training of the Moral Nature in School.-— The moral nature is susceptible to discipline. Spiritual insight may be quickened, in- tensified, and strengthened. Our power to control our weakening tendencies will grow stronger, by every suc- cessful effort in exercising control. It is a grievous error to give a man more physical and intellectual power, without trying to make sure that he will use his power for good purposes. It is wicked to add to the responsi- bilities of human beings, without at the same time strengthening their moral power. The best develop- ment of a child's physical and mental nature in- creases the possibilities of his moral development, but moral growth will not follow physical and intellectual growth as a necessary consequence. Increasing intel- ligence does not eradicate crime, or cause the general moral uplifting of the race. This could only be true, if men never did what they knew to be wrong. The moral nature itself must be trained. This training should be given early. Hence the great responsibility of the school as an agency for increasing the moral force of the race as the most certain means of aiding in its " conscious growth towards the Divine." A great deal of moral, or immoral, 22 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. training is done before the child is old enough to go to school. The teacher should at once set to work to undo what is wrong, and to strengthen the good that is weak. He can do little good and he may do very much harm by formal lessons on morality. Our words of counsel should have some weight with our pupils; our example will have much greater influence over them; but their own actions affect their moral characters a thousand times more than all we say or do. "What we say or do does not really in- fluence them for good until they put it into practice as a motive to their own activity. The teacher's greatest duty in the moral training of his pupils is to see that their acts are right. He must attend to the smallest and com- monest details of the work in connection with every study on his programme, as well as every special duty assigned to his pupils as a class and as individuals. No voluntary act, however trivial in itself, can be performed by a child until he first decides to perform it. He must decide in each case either in conformity with right as he recog- nizes it, or in opposition to it. Every time he decides properly his will and conscience have won a victory; every time his decision is at variance with his conception of right, his will and conscience have been defeated. Every victory strengthens will and conscience, every de- feat weakens them. Successive defeats even in matters that are trivial in themselves may weaken will and con- science so that they lose their controlling power. When a boy's will and conscience have been weakened to this extent, there is not much material left in him out of which to form a man. There should be one general law in school, " We must MISTAKES IN AIM. 23 all do right." In regard to this law the teacher has two duties: he should give the pupils clear and definite con- ceptions of the right in connection with their varied school duties, and he should secure a rigid adherence to the right in every detail. At first, conformity with law may be obtained by the exercise of the will of the teacher, as a motive power controlling the will of the pupil. The will of a young child grows rapidly in responsive, sympa- thetic submission to a superior will. As soon as possible, however, the pupil should be led to conscious, independ- ent decision in favor of the right course. Such decisions should be reached only in relation to duties immediately to be performed. This is most important. To arouse pure feeling and good thought with reference to distant or indefinite duties is a most dangerous practice, alto- gether too common in Sunday-schools and public schools. God's sequence for our moral growth is feeling, thought, decision, action. The first three steps are useless with- out the fourth. Every time a boy takes the first two steps without proceeding further, he strengthens the habit of neglect of duty; when he completes the first three steps without taking the fourth he becomes weaker as an executive moral force. When a pupil leaves school to enter upon his duties as a citizen his moral character should be consciously de- fined in the following particulars at least. 1. His conscience and will should have grown so clear and strong as to lead him to yield willing obedience to law, as an unvarying practice, not merely as a theory. Dis- regard to school rules develops into disobedience to law in society. No man can keep God's law, if he consciously 24 MISTAKES IN. TEACHING. sets man's law at defiance. Keady submission to law is one of a man's first duties to the State and to himself. 2. His respect for law should be developed into a hatred of tyranny and a love of freedom. A true con- ception of the sacredness of individual freedom is the root of all true individual growth. Law is perfect liberty to the freeman who wishes only to do right. 3. With the consciousness of individual freedom should come a definite belief in individual power. Every man should know that the race as a whole can never advance at its best rate of progress until every individual in it does his duty to the highest limit of his power. Men say when asked to work in aid of some great principle: "Oh! it makes no difference whether I work or not. Truth will take care of itself." Truth never did take care of itself. Truth needs exponents, and it can never prevail as completely as it ought, so long as one individual neglects to do his part in its advocacy. Every man should be made to feel certain that the universe will be weakened, if he fails to do his duty bravely. 4. Individual freedom and power lead to individual responsibility. The wise teacher places on each pupil some responsibility in regard to the well-being of the school as a whole, and in this way they grow naturally to a consciousness of the harmony resulting from the per- formance of individual duty, and the evil consequences that follow individual failure. The proper fulfilment of the duties assigned in school is the surest way to lead to a recognition of individual responsibility to the State and to God. 5. One of the best things a teacher can ever do for a MISTAKES IN AIM. 2$ pupil is to give him a just faith in himself. One half the power of mankind for good is not used because men lack faith in themselves sufficient to enable them to success- fully crystallize their insights into attainments. Definite convictions of individual freedom, individual power, and individual responsibility will under the guidance of a true teacher lead the pupil to a stronger faith in him- self. True faith in one's own power is not that conceit that leads him to be satisfied with himself, and paralyzes his desire for continued growth; that is vanity. True self-reliance is that which prevents men from being mere imitators of their predecessors, or blind followers of in- terested demagogues. A man who has faith in himself becomes to the extent of his natural ability successful in improving the trade or profession he adopts as his sphere of labor, and influential in the elevation of society. As self-faith leads to the fullest exercise of executive power, so the systematic activity of a pupiPs intellectual and moral force naturally develops faith in himself. A man's most perfect faith in himself comes from a complete faith in God as the living, central source of knowledge, inspira- tion, and energy. An honest man will soon be convinced of his weakness when isolated from this source of power. The more he values the germ of divinity within him, the more clearly he will see the need and the possibility of its connection with the Infinite Divinity. The mind that is submissively receptive and responsive to the mind of God is the only mind that has a true conception of its own grandeur, and a clear realization of the possibility of its unlimited development. The school should be one of the chief agencies in 26 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. bringing the human race into proper relationship with God, not by formal theological teaching, but by syste- matic training of the moral nature. This will in no way weaken the influence of the school as an agency in train- ing the physical powers, and storing and developing the intellect. Moral training will increase the efficiency of the school in all other good respects. There is an inti- mate interdependence between the physical, mental, and moral natures, that prevents the full development of one without a correspondingly symmetrical development of the other two. The true aims of education are: 1. Physically. To train the body that it may be strong, healthy, vigorous, graceful, skilful, and respon- sively active to the will. 2. Intellectually. To store the mind with knowledge, develop the love of knowledge, qualify for the independ- ent acquisition of knowledge, and give regular practice in the use of knowledge. 3. Morally. To strengthen the conscience and will by forming the habit of carrying out pure feeling and good thought into immediate activity, to secure ready obedi- ence to law as the embodiment of right, to implant a love of freedom, to give a consciousness of individual power and responsibility, and to develop in every child self- faith as the result of faith in God. MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 2*J <£f)apter XX* (MISTAKES IN SCHOOL M^NzAGE&AENT. 8. It is a Mistake to Neglect the Details of School Management. — The attention paid to what are regarded by many as " minor points" unworthy of attention, in reality makes the difference between a well-managed and a poorly conducted school. Minor points they may be, but the mistake consists in regarding them as therefore unimportant. Mr. J. K. Blakiston, one of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools in England, says: " The least gifted may take heart when he bethinks him, that success in school management depends mainly on watchful and un- remitting attention to little details, and on conscientiously grappling with every difficulty as it arises." He who is careful in the details of school management will, in nearly all cases, attend carefully to matters of larger scope. He who attends to the "minor" points will not need to at- tend to so many weighty matters, because they will not occur. There can be no doubt that uniform attention to par- ticulars in connection with the deportment of the pupils in the yard, in line, and in the school-room, is a most valuable disciplinary agent in forming their characters. Habits may thus be formed which will do much to de- cide the degree of success to which the pupils will attain, 28 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. when they become men and women. A man's ability to use knowledge decides the success or failure of his teachers in training him. His ability to use knowledge depends on the definiteness of his will-action more than on the extent of his knowledge, the training of his powers of observation, and the development of his power of logical thought. The habit of precise and forcible will- action is therefore of very great importance. The charac- ter of will-action depends on the way in which pupils are allowed to do the thousand and one acts in the routine of their daily lives. Hence every act in standing, sitting, walking, taking books, slates, etc., etc., should be per- formed in a prompt, definite, and orderly manner. The following details should receive the careful atten- tion of every teacher: 1. Lining the pupils at the close of all recesses and marching them in regular order to their school-rooms. — This should be done in a uniform manner, and without haste, pushing or any disorder. For lining, a walk a single plank in width may be laid down for each class, if the whole yard is not planked. All play should cease at once on the giving of the signal for lining. The lines should be "dressed" by the teacher standing at the end of the line, before the pupils are allowed to march in. The lining should be done by the glance of the pupils towards the end where the teacher stands, and not by placing the feet along any kind of a line. No talking should be allowed in line. Pupils should know their places in line, and should fix their relative positions by some mark or object in front of them so as to avoid crowding. MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 29 2. Pupils should be taught to stand and walk with the heads erect, shoulders ivell hack, hands at the sides, and eyes to the front. — The habit of walking with the hands behind, while it keeps the shoulders back, unfits the pupils for walking properly on the street, in the drawing-room, or in the ranks when drilling. 3. If pupils are brought out in classes, they should stand in line, not lean against the ivall, or on desks, etc. — In fact whenever a pupil stands up in school he should stand on both feet and avoid leaning. 4. It is wrong to tell pupils to Si walk on their toes." — This is very often done by young teachers in order to prevent noise. In fact, School Boards sometimes give directions in their rules to have pupils walk in #this way. It is not right to do so: (1) because it makes pupils hob- ble; (2) because it leads to the turning in of the toes in an awkward manner; and (3) because it prevents an easy and elegant gait in walking. Pupils can walk naturally without making noise, if they are trained to move their feet with the toes turned outwards at an angle of about 45 degrees, and the sole parallel with the floor. The military "balance step" should be practised for this pur- pose. 5. They should be taught how to go up and down stairs. — Most pupils go up or down three steps, while they ought to go but one. Two or three lines can walk on a proper school stairway side by side, and thus no time will be lost by a steady uniform step. Rapidity of step is, however, by no means the worst evil in the walk- ing of pupils on a staircase. It will take a great deal of care and watchfulness to secure proper lightness of Btep 30 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. Pupils are always inclined to stamp, when marching in time on a floor, or in any place where they can make a good deal of noise. They step as though striking snow from their heels in winter. In going down-stairs they should be trained to gradually bend the leg sustaining the weight at the knee, until the foot of the other leg reaches the next step below. 6. They should be made to stand up to answer ques- tions, or to read. — Politeness would require this. The change from the sitting posture will be of great physical advantage to the pupils. The vocal organs have freer play when the pupil is standing than while sitting. Standing up should be done promptly. 7. They should be taught to hold the book in the left hand when standing to read. — "Book in left hand, right foot slightly drawn back," is the uniform rule given by authorities for the position of a reader. If the book is held in both hands, it is usually brought much too close to the eyes, and the tendency is to round the shoulders. 8. All work should be kept far enough from the eye.-- Near-sightedness is on the increase. Statistics carefully made in Europe and America show that, while only a fractional percentage of children are afflicted with myopia when they enter school, about 60 per cent of those who leave it at eighteen are more or less affected by it. This is a startling statement, and ought to cause every humane teacher to consider carefully what he can do to avert such a result. He can at least try to have plenty of light admitted to the school-room, only from the left side of the pupils, or from left and rear, and never from the front. He can also by constant watchfulness insist that ML L\ 1 MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 3 1 the eyes should be kept far enough from slates, reading- books, copy-books, etc. 9. Habits of neatness, cleanliness, and punctuality should be insisted on. — These may do more for the pupils than the mere knowledge imparted in school. No paper or rubbish of any kind should be allowed to litter the floor. Each pupil should be responsible for the part of the floor nearest to his own desk. The teacher should frequently examine the desks of his pupils to see that they arrange their books properly. The teacher should be a model in this respect, by keeping the window-sills free from accumulations and by arranging the books on his desk in an orderly manner. Clothing should be carefully hung up, and all maps, charts, pictures, etc., should hang "on the square." 10. No pupil sliould be alloived to leave his seat with- out 'permission. — If one has this privilege all must be allowed to do so, and all might choose to do so at the same time. Monitors may have a standing permission to attend to their duties without referring to their teachers every day. 11. The pupils should have a uniform method of per- forming class operations. — "Oh, dear ! you will destroy their originality and make them mere machines by com- pelling them to do everything in a fixed way. " So talk some teachers who are unable to control their classes, and have therefore to find some excuse for their neglect. Does system prevent the exercise of originality? Will methodical habits cramp the " free exercise of individual- ity"? Any originality or individuality so trammelled must be of an evil nature which ought to be restricted. 32 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. Pupils should place slates and books on their desks in exactly the same way. There must be one way, which is less noisy and more appropriate than others. Let the teacher decide on the best plan of doing the work, and then carry it out in the most regular manner. There should be an unvarying signal for each movement, for standing up, sitting down, taking and returning slates and books, opening books, taking positions, and begin- ning work. No second step should be taken until the first has been definitely performed by all. Uniformity and precision in movement can never be secured without a proper word of command. The command should be given in a full, firm, definite tone, but not too loud, and it must absolutely consist of two parts, the first to arouse to readiness, the second as the signal for executing the movement. Between the two words of command a de- cided pause should be made, and the second word should be more definite than the first; as " stand -up." School movements should not be performed merely for show. The aim should be to save time, avoid noise, and make the will-action definite. 9. It is a Mistake to Omit Yard Supervision. — Pupils who are controlled in the yard are more easily managed in the school-room. If children learn evil habits or hear impure or profane language at school, they do so chiefly during the recesses. The presence of the teacher in the playground should restrain what is wrong, without in any way checking the interest in healthful sports and innocent recreation. Rough games which interfere with the comfort of those not engaged in them, or endanger MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 33 the limbs of those who are playing, would not be in- dulged in under the eye of the teacher. Without march- ing up and down with the air of a soldier on guard, he prevents wanton destruction of school property, or inten- tional injury to clothing, such as kicking of hats, and secures due attention to propriety of language and cour* tesy of manner. The absence of a teacher for a quartei of an hour during the arithmetic lesson, would not be so serious a neglect of duty as absence from the playground during recess. 10. It is a Mistake for the Teacher to Hold Himself Aloof from his Pupils while they are Playing. — The presence of the teacher in the yard should have a double effect : it should repress the evil and develop the good The child never reveals his whole nature as he does wher. playing. His physical, mental, and moral powers are all called then into vigorous exercise. In the playground the boy begins to learn how to struggle with his fellow- men in the great battle of life. His strength and his weakness both manifest themselves there, so that it pays to study him. The teacher who fails to recognize these facts and make the most of them never becomes thoroughly ac- quainted with his pupils, and fails to obtain his most nat- ural and most complete control over them. How impor- tant then that, instead of checking the playful spirit of innocent and healthful childhood, the teacher should have sufficient sympathy for it to develop it and turn it into right channels. What true dignity there is, too, in the playing of the full-grown man with the head of an 34 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. adult and the heart and spirit of a boy ! How different is this genuine dignity from the enamelled variety which cannot bend without cracking, and exposing the coarser or weaker material beneath. The teacher who cannot play with his pupils without " putting on the brakes" is to be pitied. One of the most valid reasons for not placing large boys in the charge of a female teacher is, that she cannot as a rule take part in their games and exercises. 11. It is a Mistake to Stand too Near the Class. — Whether in the school -room or in the yard, the teacher should take such a position as will enable him to see every pupil at the same time. He should retain this position without fail when "lining" or "drilling" in the yard. 12. It is a Mistake to Take Hold of a Pupil to put him in his Place in Line. — If the teacher stands so as to see all his pupils at the same time, he cannot make this grievous error. To push or pull a boy into position arouses in him only bad feelings. He may be roused to resistance, in which case the teacher is certain to lose in dignity, and may have to injure the pupil in order to make him submit. It is wrong for even a primary teacher to place her children in position with her hands, however kindly she may do it. The movements of pupils should be guided by their own wills. The teacher should train, and when necessary control, the will of the pupil. She should never do the work that should be done by the will of the pupil. There is no orderly, well- MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 3$ managed class in which the pupils' bodies are moved into position by the hands of the teacher. 13. It is a Mistake to give too Many Demerit Marks. — There are continual showers of bad marks in some classes. Bad marks for conduct, and bad marks for lessons. The teachers of such classes often complain, that "their pupils do not attend to the marks given." It would be surprising if they did, or their parents either. If the worst pupil in a well-organized school receives more than five or six misdemeanor marks in a month, there is cause for alarm. The teacher should feel ashamed. He has been giving marks to save himself trouble, or because he is afraid to grapple with a troublesome case in the right way. If a large number of bad marks have to be given for lessons, it is the teacher's fault in nearly all cases. The lessons are too difficult or too long ; sufficient explana- tion has not been given ; or else the pupils have not been taught how to study, or have not had proper incentives to study laid earnestly before them. 14. It is a Mistake to Censure Trifling Errors too Severely. — Some teachers pour out their " vials of wrath " to the last drop on the heads of those whose offences are not of a very serious nature. Their sternest countenance and harshest language are called into requisition to find fault with the little unfortunate who carelessly lets fall his slate, or turns to look at his neigh- bor behind him. Such teachers place themselves in an awkward position, for they are unable to adapt the 36 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. severity of their censure to the circumstances of the case. This has a confusing effect on the moral natures of children, by leading them to believe that all offences are equally grave in their nature. It is of the utmost importance that the teacher should never confound the accidental with the intentional, or thoughtlessness with design. 15. It is a Mistake to Complain or Grumble Much. — If there is one teacher who more than any other is certain to be disliked by pupils, parents, and trustees, it is the inveterate grumbler. He would dislike himself if he had the honor of his. own thorough acquaintance. He does not know how tiresome his complaining becomes. " I never had such bad pupils in my life ; I do not know whatever to do with them," he says, when some one in authority visits his school ; and his pupils despise him for it, as they do the tale-bearer of their own age. His visitor, too, regards him with pity, as one who seems to glory in his own utter weakness or incompetency. Chil- dren in civilized communities are very much alike in their characteristics. Every class is an open book in which may be read at a glance the executive power and the definiteness or mdefiniteness of the ideals of the teacher. No class will long continue orderly or progres- sive of its own accord, but, on the other hand, there is no class that does not like being orderly and studious, when managed by a good teacher. No rational teacher will ever blame the class for disorder or idleness. No teacher who scolds, or sneers, or grumbles, can ever have the sympathy of his pupils, and without it he MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 37 can never control them, or secure their best efforts in their school work. He who recognizes, appreciates, and judiciously commends the feeble efforts of his pupils, will be certain by this means to induce greater zeal and earnestness. 16. It is a Mistake to Detain Pupils in the School- room during Recess. — They have a right to get out for rest, and change, and exercise. Pupils should not be allowed to remain in the school-room during recess, even should they wish to do so, unless the weather is unfavorable. Old and young, male and female, should take the opportunity of playing in the fresh air, due precautions as to clothing, etc., being taken when the weather is cold. During cold weather, those who have any chest affec- tion may be permitted to remain in and rest, but they should not be allowed to move around the room, unless they do so in an orderly manner as directed by the teacher. In graded schools one room should be set apart for all who are permitted to remain in. If the weather is too severe for the class to go out, the relaxation should be taken as usual. The time may be devoted to physical exercises, the windows being open for ventilation. Pupils may be allowed to walk around the room in couples in an orderly procession, conversing as they walk. The teacher may tell a story, or allow a pupil to tell or read one. The news of the day may be discussed, but the teacher must be the directing power always at indoor recesses. 38 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. 17. It is a Mistake to Invoke Higher Authority Except as a Last Resort. — Assistant teachers often send for the head-master to settle trivial affairs. Wise head-masters will, of course, prohibit such folly. A principal cannot afford to neglect his own class to obey all the calls of weak or whimsical assistants. If a teacher could only realize how he humiliates himself in the eyes of his pupils by unnecessary appeals to the head-master, or the trus- tees, he would adopt that means of escaping from a difficulty on very rare occasions. How can pupils be ex- pected to respect a teacher, who becomes merely a self- appointed spy, to watch for wrong-doing in order that he may call in a higher authority to inflict punishment ? 18. It is a Mistake to Confound Giving Information or Evidence with Tale-bearing. — There are many things which a teacher ought to know, which he cannot possibly learn without the assistance of his pupils. No proper rule should be intentionally violated without the matter being brought to the teacher's knowledge. Some teachers hedge their pupils in with so many cramping rules that they cannot be natural and indulge in healthful boyish amusements without constant terror of breaking some of them. The rules for the guidance of pupils when not under the eye of the teacher should be few, and should relate to the protection of property, or the suppression of vice. If school property is injured, defaced, or destroyed, or if the purity or morality of the pupils generally is endangered by the continued bad language or bad habits of a few, it is of the highest importance that the teacher should be made acquainted with the facts of the case. MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 39 To give information in a case of this nature is in no way related to " tale-bearing" in the usual meaning of that term. "Tale-bearing" means giving information from mean motives; to expose a rival, or to secure his punish- ment. On the other hand, to give proper information requires the highest moral courage, and frequently neces- sitates self-sacrifice for the general good. It is much better, however, for the moral development of the pupils, if the teacher can lead to the formation of such a feeling among the pupils themselves as will lead to the inde- pendent suppression of vicious practices, when the teacher is not present. There are some people who condemn as unmanly the giving of information, when asked for by the teacher con- ducting an investigation into some case of wrong-doing. Whatever may be the opinion held in regard to the voluntary giving of information, there certainly is only one right view in which to regard a pupil's duty, when required to give evidence by his teacher. "Unmanly" indeed! Is it unmanly for a witness to give evidence in court ? Is not the school a miniature world, and a teacher's investigation a school court ? While " tale-bearing" from mean and selfish motives ought to be condemned as unmanly and ungenerous in the extreme, the teacher will do well to spare no pains to develop a spirit of frankness and honor in his pupils, which will lead them to give him assistance in every proper way to control evil even when he is not present. Wise teachers never seek occasion for making investi- gations of a petty nature. 40 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. 19. It is a Mistake for the Teacher to be Late. — It sets the pupils a bad example, and is bad policy. Pupils will certainly not be punctual, if the teacher is not. They will be guided by his actions instead of his words, or rather they will estimate the value he sets upon his own instructions by the way he follows them. He will thus lose his power over his pupils in one of the most impor- tant directions in which he can ever influence them. But it is bad policy for him to be late, even for his own sake. He should be at the school at least a quarter of an hour before the time for opening in summer, and half an hour in winter. If pupils are allowed to be disorderly in the schoolhouse before the arrival of the teacher, it need not surprise any one to find them difficult to control during school hours. Individual morning greeting for each pupil is one of the best ways for gaining an influence over the class. Their peculiarities of temperament may be recognized and treated then better than at any other time during the day. 20. It is a Mistake to be Careless about Personal Habits. — The teacher should be in all respects a model for his pupils. His manner and habits are sure to be imitated by them. The best lessons he can give on cleanliness and tidiness are not lectures, but good ex- amples. He should be more than a pattern, however. He should talk a little about manners, habits, methods of dressing, etc., and he should acta good deal. Inspec- tion, without being a formal ceremony, ought invariably to be made daily. The boots may be noticed in line be- fore school; the faces and dress at the first " Good morn- MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 4 1 ing" glance; and the hands and nails during writing hour. All may be noted without having a set time for critical inspection. Delinquents, after having been care- fully warned previously, ought to be sent out to attend to the matters neglected. If it be a small matter it may be attended to in the lobby, where the school apparatus for washing, etc., is kept. If a pupil often fails in any par- ticular he should be sent home, after the matter has been brought to the notice of the parents. All parents, whose good opinion is worth having, will be under an obligation to a teacher, who calls their attention in a considerate way to any bad habits on the part of their children. 21. It is a Mistake to Sit while Teaching. — It is bet- ter for the health to stand, and move as much as may be done without disturbing the class. The ceaseless tramp, tramp, of some teachers while speaking to their pupils should be avoided. A teacher has more control of his class when standing than while seated. He is also certain to be more lively and energetic in teaching. Of course, if he feels wearied, he should sit down for a while. Ladies especially should rest by sitting. 22. It is a Mistake to Give a Command when a Sug- gestion will do Instead. — Suggest and recommend any improvement in dress, style, manner, conduct, or in any department of school work or management, giving rea- sons in a clear manner, and at least one half of your pupils will carry out your suggestion, either to please you, or because they are convinced that they will be benefited by doing so. With one half on your side, it will not be 42 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. very difficult to establish a public opinion in a quiet way (the quieter the better) in favor of the change. The seeds having been planted, let them grow. You only need to be patient and the good work will spread. Prob- ably only two or three in a school will require much pres- sure to lead them to do what is desired if the teacher manages with tact. 23. It is a Mistake to allow Pupils to be Frequently Troublesome without Notifying their Parents. — It is an axiom that parents and teachers should work in harmony. So far as possible and judicious, the school discipline should correspond to that of the home. The teacher should respect the rights and opinions of the parents, and they in turn should sustain the authority of the teacher. These desirable ends can only be secured by some system of communication between the parties concerned. There are always in a school a few pupils who, without being guilty of any offences of a very serious character, give the teacher a vast amount of trouble. No other class of pupils causes so much worry and annoyance as these, and after a time it usually becomes necessary to take decided action and suspend the offenders, or ad- minister a severe punishment of some kind. The punish- ment, whether by suspension or otherwise, is of course much too great for the last act of wrong-doing. The last transgression is merely " the last straw that breaks the camel's back," the penalty " covers a multitude of sins." The parent of the offending child makes inquiry as to the cause of the extreme punishment, and receives from his own child, or from others, if he asks them, a statement of MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 43 the last offence only. He naturally concludes that the teacher is unreasonably severe, if not excessively unjust; and unfortunately in too many cases he expresses his opinions in an emphatic manner in the presence of his child. Sometimes indeed he makes known his sentiments in a highly dramatic manner before the whole school. In either case the result must be a loss of respect for the teacher on the part of his pupils. Nor can the parent be blamed for the difficulty, unless he has been promptly and faithfully notified of the previous wrong-doings of his child, as they accumulated. These notifications should be on paper, and they should be returned to the teacher signed by the parent, and kept for reference when necessary. If the pupil is old enough, it is best that he should write the note according to directions given by the teacher. This will save the time of the teacher, and have a good effect on the pupil. Of course in most cases such a note should be signed by the teacher, not the pupil. Occasion- ally the communication may be from the child himself. 24. It is a Mistake to Annoy Parents Unnecessarily. — When calling the attention of parents to any bad be- havior of their children, or notifying them of any care- lessness, or inattention to the cleanliness or tidiness of their dress or persons, the teacher is often unnecessarily sharp and unkind in his language. So far as it is pos- sible to avoid it, the feelings of parents should not be wounded at any time by the teacher. He cannot hope to govern his class easily and in a proper way, unless he has the sympathy of the parents, and he cannot have that, if he is discourteous or unduly severe towards them. 44 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. Conciliation should be his motto. Eespectful or even deferential interviews or correspondence will work won- ders in awakening an interest in school matters on the part of parents, and in securing their co-operation and support. The teacher who can say to a parent, "I re- gret that Tom is absent so frequently; he is a smart boy, and it is worth a great effort on your part to send him regularly," or "It is a pity such a good-looking boy as James should ever forget to wash his face and comb his hair," will readily secure his objects, without in any way making the parents feel humiliated. The " smart" and "good-looking" will never seem out of place to parents, and they remove the sting from the teacher's complaint. 25. It is a Mistake to show Temper in Dealing with Parents. — Teachers will very often have great provoca- tion to anger, on account of the injustice and some- times the rudeness and impertinence of parents. They will write the most cruelly unjust accusations, and make the most bitter remarks about " paying taxes to keep the teacher in bread and butter," etc. They will even come to the school to browbeat and abuse the teacher. Under all these and similar circumstances he is the best manager who shows a calm and deliberate nature. He cannot be blamed for feeling anger, but he must not show it. He should remember that the parent, in nearly every case, reasons correctly according to the information he has received. He has heard only one side of the case, and that is usually greatly exag- gerated, if not grossly misrepresented. True, he MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 45 should not decide until he has heard both sides, but affection for his child, whom he regards £s unjustly treated, and whose rights he as a parent is bound to maintain, makes him forget this. He receives the child's statements as facts, and naturally gets excited. It is safe to say that very few parents get angry at teachers without sufficient reason, if the child's evi- dence be taken as correct. Granted that the facts are as stated, the reasoning of parents is nearly always right, and their anger but the expression of their chiv- alrous feelings, as the natural protectors of the children God has given them. But the facts are not usually as related by pupils. Without being guilty of any delib- erate falsehood, they are not likely to give a correct account of a punishment they have received, or any circumstances with which they are directly connected. Herein lies the secret of the teacher's power over angry parents, if he uses it judiciously. If an indignant parent finds an angry teacher, he re- ceives the clearest proof possible that the teacher is unreasonable ; and is certain to obtain sufficient evi- dence to corroborate his child's statements. An angry teacher will do as any other angry person does. He will be sure to say something unkind or unjust, and in this way give 'the parent, what he had not before, a good ground for complaint. If the teacher is cool, and in correspondence or by personal interview shows the parent that his child's version is incorrect, his victory is speedily secured, and one such victory is sufficient. A parent so convinced is convinced forever. Now, no teacher can make a parent 46 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. believe his child to be guilty of misrepresentation, unless he first convinces him that he is absolutely im- partial, and without the slightest trace of animosity or prejudice against him. He cannot do this, if he shows any temper in his dealings with the parent. If, how- ever, his manner is firm but quiet, and his language definite but moderate, he at once relieves the parent of the impression that he has a prejudice against the child, and the matter is amicably settled. The teacher can- not achieve so complete a triumph in any other way. He does not merely defeat an enemy, he secures a friend. 26. It is a Mistake to Dispute with an Angry Parent before the Class. — If the teacher gets angry too, the pupils witness an unseemly quarrel ; if he does not, some of his class will think he is afraid. In either case the work of the school is interrupted, and the respect of the pupils for the authority of the teacher is lessened. They cannot regard his power as very great, if a parent may come and question it in an offensive and contempt- uous manner. If a parent comes for an explanation of any misunderstanding in regard to school management, the teacher should receive him courteously at the door, give his class some work to occupy it for a few minutes, and step outside to make the necessary explanation. If the parent is exceedingly unreasonable, the teacher should quietly inform him that his time must now be devoted to his class, but that if he will call again after school, or receive a call from him, he will gladly give the matter full consideration. MISTAKES IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 47 27. It is a Mistake to make Spiteful Remarks before the Class about Notes Received from Parents. — It shows a petty spirit to do so, and allows the class to see that the teacher is annoyed by the remarks of the parents. His dignity is lowered, and when his pupils are not in his presence they will laugh at him. It is unfair to parents to read their notes or part of them before a class. These notes are private communications, and as such they should be regarded as too sacred for public comment. 28. It is a Mistake to Neglect Opportunities for Arous- ing the Active Co-operative Interest of Parents in some School Enterprise. — Sympathetic interest, like every good, is best developed by activity. We are most in- terested in those t persons or institutions for which we have done most. Devise as many reasonable ways as possible to afford opportunities for parents to do some- thing for or in connection with the school. Have an- nual picnics, games, drill and calisthenic exhibitions, tree and flower planting days, school processions, evening entertainments, etc., and give the parents some share in preparing for them and in carrying them out. Arouse an interest in a school library and a school museum. Be what every teacher, especially in rural districts, should be, the centre of inspiration towards intellectual culture for the district in which your school is situated. 48 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. <£fjapttr %ffl. (MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. 29. It is a Mistake to Try to Teach without having Good Order. — No teacher should think of teaching at all, until he has established between himself and his class a perfect understanding regarding this mat- ter; until he has clearly shown his pupils that it is necessary that one person should be absolutely master, and that he is the person entitled to that position by virtue of his office, his superior intelligence, experience, and force of character. Without order in his affairs and among those he employs, no business man can hope to be successful. Without the perfect order called discipline in an army it is a disorganized mob, in- capable, unmanageable, and at the mercy of its foes. Without order pupils cannot give attention, without at- tention they cannot learn. The most important effect of order is its influence on the characters of the pupils. Without order in a school, at least one half a teacher's power is wasted, partly through the inattention of the scholars, and partly in reducing the disorder to what some teachers regard as endurable limits. Experience has proved this, and therefore every good teacher insists on having good order before attempting to teach. "The husband who starts in his matrimonial career as MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. 49 lieutenant never gets promotion." A teacher is rarely promoted in a school in which he has not earned his position at the close of the first day. There is a lamentable weakness about a teacher who allows his scholars to form the public opinion of his school, and establish its character independent of him. 30. It is a Mistake to Confound "Securing Order" with " Maintaining Order. — Many teachers forget, when taking charge of a new class, that they are dealing with strangers, on whose sympathy and affection they have no claim. They often lose control of their pupils on the first day by practising the very principles which are of highest service in securing the best discipline. They appeal to instincts which are slumbering and to motives which, so far as they are concerned, have no existence. Pupils are at school on the opening day to study the "new teacher," not their lessons, and the more incomprehensible and non-committal he is the more they will respect him. Like their seniors, they will regard mysterious silence as profundity, and a self- contained manner as indicative of great reserve power. No rational teacher should expect to win the lo\e of his pupils at first sight. During the first few days his great aim should be to show them by his actions and manner, not by words, that he understands himself, his pupils, and their relations to each other. He is sure to make a good impression if he carries out the following rules: 1. He must be definite^ in all he says and does. 2. He must give his pupils constant and varied work 50 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. in their studies of a kind that they can do, not new work. Time tests in arithmetic and contests in work- ing long examples in the simple rules, matches of vari- ous kinds, and other plans for inducing energetic work should be practised freely during the first few days. The pupils must be occupied with work, and work they know how to do. They are never so happy as when so engaged. 3. He must show that he can see everybody at all times, and that it is impossible to do wrong without being detected. 4. While he should avoid punishing if possible, he must be decided in inflicting punishment for an inten- tional offence. A severe punishment promptly and coolly given on the first day may assist materially in doing away with punishment afterwards. 5. He must prove that he is master of the subjects he has to teach. 31. It is a Mistake to Suppose that Children Like to Have their Own "Way at School. — No greater mistake Could be made. flhilrlrpn likft Qrfje, r hat-far than diii. order. So would all grown people, if they had been properly trained at school. Children are most joyous and happy, and therefore most thoroughly educated, in those schools where the discipline is strict without being severe. There is no quicker way for a teacher to lose the respect of his pupils than by over-indulging them. TLey will not chafe long under just restraint. Control develops reverence. MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. 5 1 32. It is a Mistake to Think that Order means Perfect Quiet or Stillness. — Many classes are quiet through sheer listlessness or dulness. What is needed in a school is the order of life, not the order of death. Or- der means having every child in school attending to his own duty, and attending to it, of course, in the quiet- est possible manner. So long as no individual in a school is attending to another's business, or doing any- thing to attract the attention of any person else, effi- ciency should not be sacrificed for the sake of silence. A good stiff breeze is better than a dead calm. The breeze is all right if it does not come in squalls. Per- fect order may be quite in harmony with a considerable amount of noise. In a factory, for instance, although the noise of machinery may be deafening, and the bust- ling of the workmen may appear quite confusing to an outsider, everything is usually in the most perfect order. Order does not necessarily mean repression. The order needed in school is work systematized. This is genuine order, the only kind that will last. 33. It is a Mistake to Try to Startle a Class into being Orderly. — Some teachers strike the desk; stamp on the floor; call " Order, order, order!" or ring a bell to cause quietness. A thunder-clap startles us into still- ness for a few moments, but even thunder would soon lose its effect, if controlled by some teachers. Disor- derly pupils should be subdued, not terrified. It would be a poor way to calm a nervous child by firing cannon near it. A teacher must be deliberate, not impulsive and explosive. If he wishes to secure good order, he 52 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. must be orderly himself. Attention gained by making any sudden noise is only of a temporary kind. The noise of the pupils yields for a time, but very soon it re-asserts itself. To be valuable, attention must be fixed. Teachers should, of course, never forget that giving fixed, active attention is an exhaustive exercise, and that relaxation in some form — music, free gymnas- tics, or both combined — should be given to pupils at frequent intervals. 34. It is a Mistake for the Teacher to try to Drown the Noise of his Pupils by making a Greater Noise Him- self. — Some teachers attempt to force out disorder by talking in a loud tone, and in a high key. They may avoid hearing any noise except that made by them- selves in this way, but they are certain to increase the noise made by their pupils. The pupils will have to speak louder in order to hear each other. A low tone is much more certain to produce quietness than a high tone. There are certain noises which render children nervous and irritable. The noise made in filing a saw, and that made by a teacher talking in a high key, are two of them. 35. It is a Mistake to call for Order in General Terms, however Quietly it may be Done. — Disorder always begins with one or two, and no rational teacher allows it to proceed until it has spread throughout the whole class before stopping it. It should be quieted as soon as it commences. This should be done by a mean- ing look, a question quietly asked, or in some natural MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. 53 way that will attract the attention of no person but those immediately concerned. It is bad enough that the disorderly pupil should lose his time, without compelling the whole school to listen to an absurd method of quiet- ing him. 36. It is a Mistake to be Demonstrative in Maintaining Discipline. — Some machines make a perpetual jarring noise while running. Some schools are disciplined in such a way as to make them really disorderly. Teachers are often disorderly in attempting to secure order. They may succeed in obtaining a kind of discipline, but they lose much valuable time in getting it ; and when secured it lacks many of the beneficial influences of good disci- pline in forming the characters of the pupils. Visitors at schools will frequently hear the teachers cannonading their pupils with such orders as these: "Take down your hand, sir;" " Turn around in your seat, James f* " Sit up, Mary;" " Attention, Susan ;" etc. These are commands, and the wise teacher will never even make a request, when a suggestion will accomplish his purpose. There is one result always noticeable in schools in which the teacher has to resort continually to the above method of controlling his class. His work is never done. The supply of disorder never runs out. In fact he does not notice and check in most cases one half the wrong-doing that goes on, and at its best the order of the pupils is only indifferent. Even if the best of order on the part of the class could be secured by such means, the disor- der of the teacher would neutralize its good effects. There are classes always in order, whose teachers do 54 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. not seem to be controlling them at all. The teacher is teaching and the pupils attending in a quiet and re- spectful manner, when a visitor enters, and he leaves after a stay of a couple of hours without having heard a single child named in connection with the violation of a rule of any kind. The teacher was controlling the class, but neither class nor visitor was painfully conscious of the fact. What causes the difference between the two classes ? Is the noisy, restless, forgetful class to be blamed for its condition? Certainly not. The teacher is responsible in every sense. Let the two teachers exchange classes, and after a couple of weeks the pupils will have altered their characteristics. One teacher strives for order merely for its own sake, the other maintains discipline that he may teach. One talks, preaches, and scolds about order, and demands it with threats of impositions or punishments in case of refusal or neglect by the pupils; the other secures "the silent co-operation of natural laws, by good organization, by careful fore- thought, and by quiet self-control." It may be said by some, that the power of governing without apparent effort is a natural gift, possessed by few, and beyond the acquisition of those not so blest by nature. Undoubtedly some possess this power to a greater extent than others, but all may learn the princi- ples that underlie good government ; and no one should presume to teach, until he is able to practise those which are essential. The methods of securing order on first taking charge of a class may vary, as they will depend to a considera- MISTAKES IN DISCIPIINE. 55 ble extent on circumstances, but good discipline can only be maintained by the most careful attention to the physi- cal comfort, the instincts, and the mental characteristics of the children. 37. It is a Mistake to Use a Bell as a Signal for Order. — It is purely a time or movement signal. Even the occa- sional ringing of the bell for order is a mistake. It dis- turbs every pupil while perhaps only two or three are offending, and after a time loses its effect, because it speaks directly to no one, and gives in general terms to a whole class what should be given particularly to cer- tain individuals. The bell is a valuable aid in securing discipline. It may be used with great profit instead of the teacher's voice, as a signal for commencing, chang- ing, or closing exercises ; or for standing up, sitting down, assembling, dismissing, etc., — but it never should be used to give a direct command for order. It should never convey a command that does not apply with equal force to each member of the school or class. 38. It is a Mistake to be Variable in Discipline. — Some teachers are intermittent in their exercise of " will- power. " They are fully charged with energy and force one day, but seem to have lost connection with their character batteries on the next. Steady, even, regular, uniform control is the kind required. In the school- room and in the yard the teacher's influence should be supreme, whether he himself is present or absent. He must never be a tyrant, he should always be a governor. He should carefully study his proper social and legal $6 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. relationship to the pupils, their parents, and the school authorities. He should stand on a foundation of solid rock, and be ready for prompt action in cases of emer- gency. Promptness and deliberation should go hand in hand. Promptitude and haste or excitement are not synonymous. Hesitation and timidity on the part of a teacher will stir to life germs of rebellion which other- wise might have been left to die for lack of nutriment. While a teacher should always pay due respect and attention to the advice of his friends, he should never allow either the counsel of friends or the opposition of foes to make him deviate from the course which he knows to be the right and just one. Many men fail because when a wave of opposition meets them they feebly yield to its power and aimlessly drift with it ; when if they had met it bravely and remained firm it would soon have passed them and left them better for its washing. The teacher may yield many times with profit to his school and himself, if he does it gracefully, but he can never do so when the question of control is at stake. He must then assert his "will-power" in a most determined manner, without making himself offen- sive or tyrannical. 39. It is a Mistake to be Satisfied with Order which Lasts Only while the Teacher is Present. — There are teachers who control their pupils merely by the exercise of "will-power." It is necessary to do so sometimes, especially when the teacher has lately taken charge of the class. The teacher's "will-power" should always be held in reserve for an emergency, but he should con- MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. 57 trol his class by the expenditure of the smallest possible degree of it. His engine should not always be running at its highest pressure. The pupils have powers of self- control which require development ; and they need to be trained to do right from a sense of duty, not merely from the consciousness of subordination to a superior will, or fear of punishment, when the teacher is present to detect the wrong. Many boys go astray after leaving home, because they have been controlled by the sweetness of a mother's nature, or the strength of a father's will. In either case they were not acting on principle in doing right, and the element of self-government had not been properly developed in them. Their restraining influences were external to themselves, hence they were rudderless on removing beyond the power of their controlling forces. The same result is found in many a school whose pu- pils are fairly orderly in the presence of the teacher, but uncontrolled when he leaves the room. The remedy is to be found in using influences external to the pupils as sparingly as possible, and developing to the fullest ex- tent those which may be awakened in the pupil him- self. 40. It is a Mistake to give an Order without Having it Obeyed by All to whom it is Given. — A great deal of disorder exists in some schools, because the teacher while changing exercises, or dismissing his class, does not wait to have one order obeyed before giving another. Whether the signals be given by word of mouth, by numbers, by touching a bell, or otherwise, every pupil 58 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. should have fully completed the motion indicated by " one" before " two" is given. If any other course is adopted confusion and disorder are inevitable, and the pupils learn to pay little attention to the teacher's com- mand. Obedience to an order and submission to a rule may be quite different. The one should be prompt and de- cided, the other should be intelligent and voluntary. 41. It is a Mistake to Treat Pupils as though they were Anxious to Violate the Rules of the School. — If a teacher does not respect his pupils, they will not re- spect him. Confidence is necessary on the part of both teacher and pupils. A threat implies that the teacher does not trust his pupils, and prevents the class having sympathy with him. " It is better to assume that your pupils will be eager to carry out your wishes, and so im- pose upon them the obligation of honor, than to take it for granted that the only motive which will deter them from disregarding your wishes will be the fear of a pen- alty." Blind confidence must, however, be distin- guished from honest trust in those who have not proved unworthy. 42. It is a Mistake to make Too Many Rules. — Some teachers make so many rules, that they cannot remem- ber them themselves. Their pupils forget them too, and violate them without intending any wrong. The breaking of a law should be a most serious offence. Children will not be very good citizens, if they regard the violation of laws as a trifling matter. They cannot MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. 59 avoid coming to this conclusion, if a teacher has so many rules that he forgets to punish for neglecting them; or if they are of so unimportant a character as not to command the respect of the pupils. There should be few cast-iron rules beginning with " Thou shalt," or " Thou shalt not." The rules should state general principles, and each one should cover a whole class of specific acts. Rules in detail should not be formulated in a code? either written or printed. No rule should be issued until some wrong-doing makes it necessary. The very prohibition may suggest the wrong course to the pupils. Pupils should learn rules as they should learn every- thing else, by experiencing the necessity for them, and by putting them in practice as they learn them. The rules that will be best learned, and most consistently obeyed, are those that are not spoken or written or printed, but regularly acted by the pupils under the guidance of a wise teacher. The pupils should have the reasons for rules explained to them so far as to enable them to see their justness; in- deed, judicious teachers may allow their scholars to assist them in framing rules. While the teacher should issue as few restraining rules as possible to his pupils, he must not neglect to define clearly their duties towards each other and t<5 the school, nor to explain fully the nature and results of the offences which they commit. He should be especially careful to show that the evil offence of conscious violation of rules is more disastrous in its influence in weakening the will 60 • MISTAKES IN TEACHING. and conscience than in injuring the discipline of the school. 43. It is a Mistake to Speak in Too High a Key. — Probably no other error increases the fatigue of the teacher and the disorder of the class to so great an ex- tent as this. Children soon cease to attend to a teacher with a loud voice pitched in a high key. It is not surprising that they do so. A loud voice soon be- comes monotonous, and loses its influence in securing attention and order. It has, indeed, a positively injuri- ous influence on a class in two respects: 1. It induces a corresponding loudness and harshness of tone on the part of the pupils, and leads them to speak and read in a forced, unnatural manner. In this way their voices lose all their sweetness and half their influence. " Loudness," says Emerson, "is always rude, quietness always genteel." 2. It produces an irritating effect on the nervous sys- tems of children, which prevents their being quiet and attentive. The voice should be pitched rather below than above the natural key, and used with only moderate force in the schoolroom. It is then much more impressive than a high, loud voice, and infinitely more effective in se- curing good discipline. Children will learn much more rapidly too if the teacher speaks in a quiet, conversa- tional tone. It must be remembered, however, that weakness of voice must not be confounded with good modulation, Weakness of voice indicates some corresponding weak- MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. ness in body or character. Proper modulation, on the contrary, conveys the impression that the speaker thor- oughly understands himself and his surroundings, and has a large amount of reserve force ready for any emer- gency. Decision and sternness are not synonymous. 44. It is a Mistake to try to Force Children to Sit Still even for Half an Hour in the Same Position. — It is right to insist that all the pupils shall sit in a uniform position while engaged at the same lesson. It is wrong even to allow them to sit for a minute in ungraceful or unhealth- ful positions. The teacher cannot be too exacting in these particulars, but the same position should not be continued too long. This is especially true in the case of little children, whose bones are not hardened. The muscles will weary of sustaining the weight of the body in any position too long, and the weight being thrown on the flexible bones will bend them out of their proper shape. The judicious teacher will not attempt to restrain the restlessness of junior children, but will give it a natural outlet. There is no other so good as light calisthenic exercises, accompanied by singing. These are exceed- ingly interesting to the pupils, and give the needed exer- cise and change to the muscles that have been wearied in one position. 45. It is a Mistake to Allow Pupils to Play in the School-room. — There are many stormy days, when no reasonable teacher would compel his pupils to go out at recess. Instead of doing so, it is the custom in many 62 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. schools to allow the pupils to have their recess and play in the school-room. It is desirable that a recess should be given for relaxation from study. The hygienic laws relating to both mind and body demand frequent rests from labor. If they were more frequent in schools, and of shorter duration, there would be more work, less scolding, and better order in them. Eelaxation and unrestrained play are not synonymous, however, nor is the one the natural consequence of the other. If chil- dren play as they choose in a school-room they are certain to make too much noise, and endanger the safety of desks and other school property. The worst effect of such a license is the loss of a proper feeling of respect for the school-room. While children should not regard the school-room as a place of solitary confinement or look upon the teacher with dread, they should feel that there are proprieties of conduct and manner inseparably con- nected with entering the outer door of a school building. They should never be allowed to play unrestrictedly even in the halls of a schoolhouse. They may be allowed to converse, or even to move around the room in a quiet and regular manner. There is no harm, for instance, in pupils of the same sex walking in couples around the outside aisles during the recess, provided they all walk in procession in the same direction, and with a slow, measured step. Pupils may very properly be taught to march by the teacher at these times, or they may per- form calisthenic exercises in time with singing. Prom- iscuous playing around the school-room should be pro- hibited also on the part of those pupils who wish to re- main in at noon, or who arrive too early in the morning. MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. 63 It is best, if possible, to have assembly rooms in the basement of the building, but if these cannot be secured one room should be set apart for a lunch or assembly room. A teacher should always have charge of it, and pupils should understand clearly that good behavior is the one condition on which they are allowed to remain in it. 46. It is a Mistake to Lose Sight of the Class. — Con- trol asserts itself chiefly through the lip, the tongue, and the eye. They should be used in the inverse order to that in which they are named. The eye should be the exclusive medium of control, as far as possible ; the tongue may be called to its aid in cases of emergency ; the lip should be used very sparingly. The lip ex- presses firmness, combined with scorn or contempt, and these are sure to stir up active antagonism, rather than submission. A pupil may be, and often is, forced to yield without full obedience. The eye alone can convey a message of powe r and r,o nr,iliat.i on at the same time, and these are the elements of genuine control. If a pupil feels that his teacher's eye is constantly and quietly taking note of all that is going on in his class, he cannot fail to be conscious of its controlling power. Unless he is defiant or exceedingly thoughtless, he will need little more than the teacher's untiring eye to re- strain him. The eye can be cultivated and its range of vision greatly widened. Few teachers have the power to see and watch every pupil in a class of fifty at the same instant, but every teacher may acquire the ability to do so. It is astonishing to what extent clearness of 64 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. lateral vision may be developed without rolling the eyes from side to side. The influence of the eyes is neutral- ized by an uneasy, nervous movement or fixed stare. The seeing should be done without any apparent effort, but it should be done, and done unerringly. Even when using the blackboard the teacher should avoid turning his back to his class. 47. It is a Mistake to get Excited in School. — A man opens the gates of his stronghold when he becomes an- gry. A teacher to exercise control, must be calm and patient. The quality of " will-power" is of great im- portance, the quantity of it at a teacher's disposal is of far more consequence. It must wear well. There is a dignity and a majesty in the patient assertion of the right and the ability to control, which never fails to command respect. It is well, especially when taking charge of a new class, not to try to compel absolute order too suddenly. So long as pupils are really trying to do what the teacher wishes, he will, if a reasonable man, overlook slight offences, until good conduct has become a habit. Obedience on any terms is better than disobedience, but willing obedience must be secured by the teacher if he wishes to benefit his pupils. If "will-power" is ex- erted in a noisy and violent manner it is offensive ; if it is of the fussy kind, it excites ridicule. It must be calm, if it would secure control, beneath whose placid surface no rebellion lurks in ambush. 48. It is a Mistake to Ridicule a Pupil. — It is wrong to do so for bad conduct, neglect of lessons, or any MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. 65 breach of school discipline. The pupil so treated loses to a certain extent the respect of his classmates, and, what is of more consequence to himself, he frequently sinks in his own estimation. Sarcasm inflicts a poisoned wound which does not heal. No personal or family weakness or peculiarity ought to be publicly referred to by the teacher. Do not make a pupil lose his own self- respect, or expose him to contemptuous remarks by his companions. To ridicule a feeble attempt, may pre- vent a stronger effort. 49. It is a Mistake to Punish without Explanation. — Teachers sometimes say, " Smith, take a misdemeanor mark," or " Mary, stay in at recess," or "Brown, hold out your hand," etc., without taking time to explain why the mark or the prohibition or the whipping should be given. "It would waste too much time; I could do very little else in my school," is the justifica- tion given for such a course. This answer is likely to be correct in schools in which such a method of pun- ishment is adopted. The teacher who adopts such a course will soon have sufficient reason to conclude from his standpoint that explanations would waste time. Punishment is a judicial act, and it should be admin- istered judiciously. A boy has a right to know why he receives punishment, before the punishment is inflicted. If the teacher does not take the trouble to give him this explanation in a perfectly candid manner, he gives the pupil just cause for regarding him as a petty tyrant, who punishes merely for the personal gratification it affords him. Punishment produces good results, not 66 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. according to the amount of pain caused, but in propor- tion to the clearness with which pupils see the nature of the offence and the justness of the penalty. Pain by itself causes anger, resentment, and a desire for revenge; therefore, no teacher should cause pain without taking care to neutralize its evil effects. Whipping alone is brutal and brutalizing. A pupil who receives such treatment naturally grows sullen, and becomes doggedly resentful. He believes that his teacher has a dislike to him, and he cannot be blamed for coming to this con- clusion. It is the teacher's fault. Parents get their impressions of the teacher from their children, and so he loses the confidence of both pupils and parents. There is nothing that parents so quickly resent as in- justice to their children. Whether the injustice be real or imaginary is not of the slightest consequence so long as the impression is made on their minds. The teach- er's influence is often weakened, therefore, by causes which he has himself set in motion. He is shorn of more than half his power if the parents of his pupils lose confidence in his unswerving justice. One of the quickest ways to secure the distrust of the public is to inflict punishment of any kind and leave the pupil to decide its causes, as well as to suggest the teacher's motive. It is well to remember that the pupil directly con- cerned is not the only one interested in the punishment. Great care should be taken to make the whole class see the fairness and justness of the punishment before ad- ministering it. They should not be allowed to think that they have a right to decide that punishment shall MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. not be given by the teacher as he deems proper ; but they should be led to understand very clearly, that the teacher punishes solely for the benefit of the individual or the general good, that his decisions are uniformly an£ impartially based on equitable principles, and that he is always ready to state his reasons for awarding punish- ment of any kind. If the class does not approve of the punishment, evil results are produced. Punishment inflicted hastily will often be unjustly given. If the teacher cannot explain satisfactorily the reason for a punishment, he should doubt the propriety of imposing it. The attempt to state his reasons may often lead him to modify his decisions. Horace Mann says : "I confess that I have been amazed and over • whelmed to see a teacher spend an hour at the black- board explaining arithmetical questions, and another hour on the reading or grammar 'lesson ; and in the mean time, as though it were only some interlude, seize a boy by the collar, drag him to the floor, castigate him, and remand him to his seat ; the whole process not oc- cupying two minutes." A certain amount of formality should accompany the infliction of punishment. The marking-sheet on which are entered the marks for misconduct or imperfect lessons should always be hung near the door, so that the pupils in passing may see at a glance if any mark has been accidentally or in- correctly placed opposite their names. Only in this way can full confidence be established in the accuracy of monthly reports to parents. 50. It is a Mistake to Whip for Disciplinary Purposes merely. — Whipping should be used as a reformatory 68 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. agent only. It is better for boys than confinement in jail. It should rarely if ever be administered to girls. The teacher who resorts to frequent whipping, as a means of securing discipline, is either excessively lazy or weak. He can have very little tact or will-power. The good order of the classes varies with the amount of whip- ping done, in inverse ratio. Much whipping, bad order ; little whipping, better order ; least whipping, best or- der. This will be found to be the experience of all who have given the question a fair trial. There are some who have relied for many years solely on whipping, and who have, therefore, no other means of control but the cane. They and their pupils are to be pitied. They were never qualified or trained to perform the high du- ties of teachers. 51. It is a Mistake to Whip Pupils in a merely Formal Manner. — Some teachers hold that the disgrace of re- ceiving punishment constitutes its chief restraining power. This is a grievous error. If the opinion were a correct one it would be one of the strongest reasons against corporal punishment. It is certainly not the teacher's aim to bring disgrace on his pupils. Boys laugh at the credulity of a master, who takes it for granted that they feel intensely humiliated by a whip- ping. Whip rarely but severely. Whip only for serious or repeated offences, but let the whipping be of such a character that it will not need to be repeated often. 52. It is a Mistake to Punish by Pulling a Child's Ears, Slapping his Cheeks, etc., etc. — Punishment should sub- due. The horrible idea that the chief object of punish- MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. 69 ment is to cause pain is not accepted by modern teachers. The punishments referred to above always cause rebel- lious feelings, and nothing but the comparative weak- ness of the pupil ever prevents his prompt resentment of such an indignity by the personal chastisement of the teacher. Such punishments are improper — 1. Because they indicate haste, bad temper and inhu- manity on the part of the teacher. 2. Because they are inflicted without any previous explanation to the pupils of their necessity and justness. Explanation should precede punishment. No teacher should ever torture his pupils by pinching, etc. , or by compelling them to keep the body long in an unnatural position. 53. It is a Mistake to Allow Whispering on the Plea of " Allowing Pupils to Assist each Other." — Whispering during study hours is an unmitigated evil, and those who permit it commit a grievous error. There are some who, seeking for a justification of what they are too weak or too indolent to prohibit, defend whispering on the plea that " pupils should be allowed to assist each other in their work." This plea is fallacious for two reasons: 1. Whispering cannot be restricted to the limit named. 2. Children cannot teach each other well. Is the art of teaching so simple that every child is cap- able of practising it ? No indeed. Few adults naturally possess the power of teaching, and it requires a long and careful course of training to make a man of average ability and good culture even a fair teacher. How ridiculous then to allow every pupil to assume the duties JO MISTAKES IN TEACHING. of a teacher, when he chooses. But, if the plea is a good one, we must allow all pupils the privilege, for it will not do to show partiality. There can be no favored few with unsealed lips, while those of others are locked. What good would result, even in the higher classes, if the pupils were allowed to assist each other? Brown cannot work his example, and calls on Smith, who sits beside him, for help. Smith tells him what to do. Has Brown been developed in any way by the process ? Will he always have Smith at his side through life to tell him when to multiply, divide, etc., in solving his business problems ? The teachers who allow this telling process to be per- formed by their pupils, would be shocked to find them copying from each other, while solving their problems. Wherein lies the difference ? Telling is a noisy method of copying. Their results, so far as securing answers and the mental growth of the pupils, are the same. If either plan has the advantage in securing the advance- ment of the pupil, it is undoubtedly copying, because Brown must do more work for himself if he copies, than if he is told by Smith. Copying is also the quieter method, and of the two evils is decidedly the less objec- tionable. 54. It is a Mistake to be Continually Repressing the Activities of Childhood. — There are three classes of educa- tors. One dams up the fountains of the free tendencies of childhood, and turns the stagnant waters back upon the child-life, so that they drown it out; another goes to the other extreme, and says, "Let Dame Nature have MISTAKES IN DISCIPLINE. J\ her way unrestrained, let childhood unfold itself." He lets the waters flow freely enough, but they unfortunately have a natural tendency to flow in wrong directions. Like real water, they flow down hill, and far too fre- quently transform what might have been a fertile valley into a marsh. The proper method recognizes the neces- sity of a full development of the natural faculties and the free exercise of them, but it gives them direction without seeming to do so. It selects the channel in which the stream should flow, and inclines each little rill of charac- ter in that direction, so that as the stream flows onward it gains more breadth and depth and momentum, until it becomes a mighty river, bearing on its bosom freights of blessing toward the great sea of life. Some teachers are horrified if pupils laugh in the school-room. The discipline that cannot stand a good laugh frequently is unnatural and unsound. Giggling and tittering should be forbidden as unbecoming, but a genuine hearty laugh, indulged in by both teacher and pupils for a proper reason, may be repeated often with the best results even to the discipline of the school. J2 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. {MISTAKES I&C METHOD. 55. It is a Mistake to Ask Questions to Pupils in Rota- tion. — Many commence at the head of the class, facing the pupil there, and after questioning him as though he were the only pupil in the class, they deal with number two in a similar manner, and so on to the end of the class, if happily that be reached before the time for closing the lesson. They can teach but one -at a time. The class of such a teacher should consist of one little pupil, so that he could see the whole of it at once. If questions are asked in rotation, a pupil, after answering his question, may discuss the circus, or the last lacrosse match, or the next base-ball match, or any other topic that may chance to come into his mind, until his turn is coming again. It is impossible to maintain good order in a natural way by such a method of questioning. 56. No Pupil should ever Know who is Likely to be Asked a Question until it has been Stated. — No name should be mentioned, no motion made or look given to indicate who is to answer, until the question has been asked. Many teachers, while proposing a question, make the mistake of looking steadily at the pupil whom they expect to answer. This should be so carefully avoided t MISTAKES IN METHOD. 73 as to leave every pupil completely in the dark as to the intentions of the teacher. Each pupil should know that he may be asked to answer every question. Every one will thus be compelled to attend. 57. It is a Mistake to Repeat a Question for the Sake of Those who do not Hear it the First Time. — To do so is simply an extra inducement to the scholars to be in- attentive. If a pupil knows that your question is only to be asked once, he will listen to it the first time. If he knows that, when you wish him to answer, you will shake him to get his attention, and then repeat your question, he will wait for the shaking. A pupil deserves more punishment for not knowing the question than for not being able to give its answer. 58. It is a Mistake to Look Fixedly at the Pupil who is Reading or Answering. — If there is one pupil who does not need watching, he is the one. He is certain to be attending to his work. We should attend to him with the ear, to all others with the eye. Many teachers, while teaching a reading lesson, divide their attention about equally between their book and the pupil who is reading. Such teachers never have good order or inter- ested classes. A good teacher will not watch closely either the book or the pupil reading. 59. It is a Mistake to be the Slave of any Text-books. — The teacher should understand principles, not certain statements, or rules, or examples. The teacher who merely hears recitations of words prepared in a text-book 74 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. has a poor estimate of his true function. The pupils should be trained to do independent study by using their text-books, and the teacher should test the results of their study by requiring them to make a practical use of it. He should not be satisfied with knowing that they can use it with their tongues only. The text-book can never be a substitute for the teacher. 60. It is a Mistake to Assign Lessons without Pre- viously Explaining Them. — One of our most important duties as teachers is to teach children how to study, and what to study most carefully in connection with each lesson. To assign a lesson to a child without giving him some idea of its leading features; w T hat you will expect him to know, or explain or prove next day; and how and where he can obtain most light on difficult parts, seems a good deal like sending him into a wilderness to fetch something he has never seen, and which you have not even described to him. 61. It is a Mistake to Assign much Home Work to Young Children. — The youthful mind should not be forced to make too great or too long continued effort in study. If a child's brain is actively employed for five or six hours per day in school, it must have nearly reached the "fatigue point" beyond which mental exertion is positively injurious. Physically and mentally it is better for the child to have but little home study until he reaches the age of thirteen or fourteen. Home study at any period should consist of work which the child can do for himself without the aid of the teacher. By doing it MISTAKES IN METHOD. ?$ at home school time is saved, and the pupil is allowed to do his fair share of the work of learning. It is of vital importance, however, that neither the ambition of the teacher nor the vanity of the parents should be allowed to dwarf the intellects of children by forcing them to make too great or too constant mental effort while young. There is no doubt that the majority of those who have attended the average school have had their faculties blunted by such a course. Professor Huxley says: "The educational abomination of desolation of the present day is the stimulation of young people to work at high pres- sure by incessant and competitive examinations. Some wise man (who probably was not an early riser) has said of early risers, in general, that they are conceited all the forenoon, and stupid all the afternoon. Now, whether this is true of early risers in the common acceptation of the word, or not, I will not pretend to say; but it is too often true of the unhappy children who are forced to rise too early in their classes. They are conceited all the forenoon of life, and stupid all its afternoon. The vigor and freshness which should have been stored up for the purposes of the hard struggle for existence in practical life, have been washed out of them by precocious mental debauchery, by book -gluttony and lesson- bibbing. Their faculties are worn out by the strain put upon their callow brains, and they are demoralized by worthless, childish triumphs before the real work of life begins. I have no compassion for sloth, but youth has more need for in- tellectual rest than age; and the cheerfulness, the tenac- ity of purpose, the power of work, which make many a successful man what he is, must often be placed to the y6 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. credit, not of his hours of industry, but to that of his hours of idleness, in boyhood." 62. It is a Mistake to Assign a Lesson without Test- ing the Class to see whether they Prepared it or Not. — To do so gives pupils systematic training in neglect of duty. The act of assigning a lesson should convey to the minds of the pupils, without any words to that effect, the statement, u I will examine you on this por- tion of work at our next lesson on this subject." Some teachers even forget or neglect to call for written ex- ercises assigned for home work. Some call for them without ever returning them or reporting their criti- cisms. These teachers are training their pupils to be careless and indifferent, and often dishonest. They are also sinning against themselves, for they are certain in this way to secure the disrespect of their classes. Pu- pils soon detect the weakness of a teacher. They love system and definiteness of purpose. They respect a teacher who attends to his own duty thoroughly and at the right time. They lose confidence in a teacher who neglects duty. 63. It is a Mistake to Continue a Lesson too long. — The attention will flag if confined too long to one sub- ject. The minds even of adults should be rested oc- casionally while studying. Variety in work aids in securing attention. Change of work gives rest and promotes the health of the pupils. Many of the physi- cal disadvantages of school life result from a continu- ance of the same kind of work in one position until the MISTAKES IN METHOD. 77 work becomes uninteresting, and the position weari- some. Recreation at the end of each hour for five minutes will enable the student to make more rapid progress than he would otherwise make. The rests should come more frequently in junior classes. Two fifteen minute lessons given at proper intervals are much better for little ones than one half -hour lesson. The business routine of changing classes may be made a means of natural discipline, and will be very useful especially in primary classes. 64. It is a Mistake to Think that One Teaching of a Subject will be Sufficient. — It is necessary not only to repeat but to review. One of the most discouraging things in the experience of a young teacher is to find that, a month after teaching a subject, his pupils seem to remember very little about it. He may have labored faithfully and skilfully to explain the mysteries of fractions, for instance; he may be proud, and justly proud, of his success: but if he rests satisfied with a fine explanation of the subject, he will find to his great dis- appointment that he has been merely writing in the sand. He should have regular reviews at times marked on his time-table, and in addition he should briefly re- view previous lessons before beginning a new one in any subject. The lesson of yesterday should be reviewed before beginning the lesson of to-day. It is only by thus repeating and reviewing that permanent impres- sions can be made. " Practice makes perfect." It is equally true, and for a similar reason, that repetition makes remembrance. 78 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. No teacher experiences so much difficulty in enabling his pupils to comprehend a lesson, as he does in impress- ing it upon their memories after it has been explained. Memory's track, to be fit for travel, must be well beaten. Memory, like a piece of polished metal, shines more brightly the more frequently it is burnished. The teacher has two duties in regard to knowledge — to get it into the minds of his pupils, and to keep it there; to explain, and to fix the knowledge explained. Explanation affords a teacher the widest field for the display of his individuality and teaching talent, but the permanency of his teaching depends upon persistent repetition and reviewing. The old lady's rule for sweet- ening rhubarb: "Put in as much sugar as your con- science will allow you, and then shut your eyes and throw in a handful more/' if slightly changed may be taken as a guide by teachers. We must eepeat and eeview, and keview and eepeat until it seems absurd to repeat any longer, and then experience will show us the necessity for repeating and reviewing again. 65. It is a Mistake to be Satisfied with Repetition at the Time of Teaching. — Some teachers repeat and have their classes repeat the facts taught, while teaching them, and rest contented with this. This repetition is frequently carried to such an extent as to weary the pupils and make teaching but a ** mechanical grind of words." It is, moreover, the least effective kind of repetition. It is merely applying a second coat of paint before the first has dried. The repetition that fixes knowledge is that in which the mind retraces its steps, MISTAKES IN METHOD. 79 and familiarizes itself with what it has passed over. True reviewing does not mean a tedious " wagging of the tongue. " 66. It is a Mistake to Substitute Repetition of Words for Repetition of a Process. — One repetition with the ends of the fingers is better than ten with the tongue. Words may be mere sounds; sets of words may be fixed in the mind without producing corresponding feeling or thought. Our growth comes from repeated acts, not by storing our memories. In every subject the pupils should review by doing what will call into action the knowledge we wish to fix in their minds. The child's doing must be guided by his own mind, and an effort of will-action marks the mind much more definitely than any direct attempts at memorizing. 67. It is a Mistake to Suppose that Detecting Errors is Equivalent to Correcting them. — Many teachers simply test the ability of their pupils to answer certain questions relating to the subject in hand. They ask the questions, and, if they are missed, they mark the results on the delinquent pupils themselves, or in the conduct and work register. Sometimes both methods of marking are adopted. The teacher seems to think that his whole duty is performed when he has wisely shaken his head and said "next," or "wrong," or passed the question to some other pupil. It is not enough to show a pupil that he does not know the answer or understand the subject. 80 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. 68. It is a Mistake to be Satisfied with One Correction of an Error. — The teacher should repeat and re-repeat the questions that have been missed. He should not, of course, repeat a question several times in succession. Time will not admit of consecutive repetition by the same individual. If several members of a class have failed to answer a question properly, it is quite right oc- casionally to have the answer given in rapid succession a few times by the class simultaneously. When an error has been made and corrected by the pupil who made it, the same question should be given again to him a few minutes afterwards. Impressions are rooted, and errors eradicated, by repetition. Whenever it is possible, as in spelling, composition, etc., for the pupil to make a list of the mistakes he makes, he should be required to do so. These lists should be used frequently in drills. The best spelling-book a pupil can have is a list of the words he has spelled inaccurately. The best pronouncing dic- tionary he can have is a list of words he has mispro- nounced in reading or in conversation with his teacher. 69. It is a Mistake to try to Teach too much in a Sin- gle Lesson. — Many teachers seem to think that their abil- ity as teachers is to be measured by the extent of ground which they can cover in a lesson. They reckon the progress of their scholars by the number of pages passed over. They measure the amount of their mathematical knowledge by the square yard. They forget that the pupils themselves have any part in the work of learning. The teacher gives information, the pupils receive it. The result of teaching depends much more on the re- MISTAKES IN METHOD. 8 1 ceiving than the giving. It is measured, not by what the pupils hear, but by what they carry with them from the class-room and apply in future life. The facts stated by the teacher or drawn by him from the pupils should be drilled upon persistently by the teacher while the lesson is in progress. " Questioning in" is the grandest method of the trained and cultured teacher in teaching new facts or thoughts ; ' ' question- ing out" is the only certain way of fastening them firmly in the mind. Drill when about three facts have been communicated, however simple they may be ; then give three additional facts and drill over the six, and so on to the close of the lesson. This repetition drill should be more thorough towards the close of the lesson. It should be varied as much as possible. The answering should be partly simultaneous and partly individual, and always brisk and lively. 70. It is a Mistake to be Indefinite in Teaching. — One of the most important lessons we can teach in school is thoroughness. Knowledge is valuable only when it is reliable. Be accurate first, even if you have to make apparently slow progress. Be sure that one idea is clearly understood and impressed before you proceed with another. Avoid ambiguous expressions. Correct them when used by your pupils either orally or in their compositions. 71. It is a Mistake to Devote Attention chiefly to the Smart Pupils in a Class. — Too often the teacher neglects the duller pupils in order to sweep triumphantly on with 82 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. those who are more brilliant. The temptation to do so is great, even without the additional stimulus given by comparison of the results of test examinations. Such a course is manifestly unfair, however, as the teacher is aiding those who least require assistance, and neglecting those who most need help. Archbishop Whately relates that "a certain gardener always outstripped his com- petitors by taking the highest prizes for gooseberries. Time after time he had been successful. The reason of his success was a secret which his rivals determined to learn. They accordingly watched him from an am- bush and found that he carefully stripped his best bushes early in the season of all but a few of their largest berries. He thus obtained berries of a very great size ; but he only raised a few quarts from bushes which would have produced a large quantity of berries. " Teachers should remember that they should aim to give all their pupils the highest and best culture possible for them under the circumstances in which they are placed, and not merely to develop a few " prize goose- berries. n 72. It is a Mistake to give Information to Children which they Cannot Apply at Once. — This is not the way in which they learned before they went to school, and they learned more rapidly then, and remembered what they learned better, than they ever do afterwards. They ac- quired knowledge then by using things, and they applied the knowledge at once as they gained it. When the pupil can give the sounds of two letters he should form and name the words that can be made with them. The MISTAKES IN METHOD. 83 sound or power of another letter should then be learned, and several new words can be formed by combining the three-letters, and so on. Even if the fossilized "alpha- betic" method is used, it is absurd to keep the child droning at the names of the twenty-six letters when long sentences might be prepared by using only a few of them. Whatever method of teaching word-recognition is used, pupils should read a sentence as soon as they can name the words it contains and can comprehend the thought it expresses. Pupils should not be compelled to go through the drudgery of learning the whole of the tables in arithme- tic before they put a part of them in practice. They should apply the simpler portions of the addition and multiplication tables, for instance, before completing the whole tables. When a pupil has found out by using shoe-pegs, slats, beans, or other objects that two ones make two, and two twos make four, he is ready to learn and apply the process of multiplication. The teacher may at once assign an example with the multi- plicand large enough to extend across the pupil's slate provided it contains no figures but 2 and 1. If he does so the pupil in a single example is forced to remember and record a considerable number of times the fact that two twos make four. Repetition of process is infinitely more interesting than repetition of mere words, and the impressions made by it are much more lasting. The teacher must of course carefully avoid any work involv- ing a knowledge of the tables beyond the pupil's acquire- ments. Pupils are frequently compelled to count their fingers by the thoughtlessness of the teachers who scold 84 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. them for it. In addition the teacher may assign long examples and yet involve in them only a few combina- tions thoroughly mastered by his pupils by preparing his examples before he needs to use them, and forming them from the bottom of the columns. Definitions in Euclid, grammar, geography, etc., should never be given until their need has been felt by the pupils. A boy in a workshop is never set to learn descriptions or definitions of the tools he is to use as a means of learning to use them. He learns to handle a tool by handling it. No master but the schoolmaster ever makes the blunder of making his pupils commit tables, alphabets, and definitions before they are needed for use. 73. It is a Mistake to use Objects in Reviewing or Drilling. — Objects should be used in giving the ideas at first, but not in repeating afterwards. The pupils should deal with the abstractions as soon as they have been clearly conceived by the aid of the real things. In ad- dition, for instance, it is necessary that the child should learn the sum of seven and nine first by means of balls, or beans, or some objects, but having clearly learned the fact that seven things added to nine things of the same kind made sixteen things, he should only add the num- bers 9 and 7 in future. The objects enable a teacher to communicate a lesson more easily than he could do with- out them, but once the lesson has been learned the ob- jects are only fetters which prevent the freest develop- ment of the mind. The perception should not be con- tinued after the conception has become definite. MISTAKES IN METHOD. 85 74. It is a Mistake to Accept Partial Answers. — It is well to insist that pupils should give their answers in the form of complete sentences. The best language lessons are the practical lessons given in oral composition in the general work of the schoolroom. Good speaking is not taught by rules but by correcting the errors made in con- versation, errors in pronunciation as well as in grammar. The pupils should express their ideas, therefore, at all times in the form of complete sentences to accustom them to the formation of sentences which accurately express their thoughts. This will give the teacher his best op- portunity for removing errors. Questions whose answers can be given by a single name or date need not be answered as above directed. Give the date of the battle of Hastings. The date of the battle of Hastings is 1066 a.d. Name the commander of the British forces at Water- loo. Wellington was the commander of the British forces at Waterloo. To answer these and similar questions in complete sentences is a waste of time, without compensation in the way of development. The rule that should guide the teacher in this matter is: Whenever the answer expresses a thought of the pupil, it should be expressed in his own language in the form of a sentence. Mere repetition of the question with the addition of a word or a date is of little benefit. 75. It is a Mistake to Repeat every Answer. — Teachers often acquire the habit of repeating an answer automat- 86 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. ically as soon as it is given by a pupil. This is simply a waste of time. Indeed, this method of killing time is resorted to by many designedly. They repeat the an- swer to one question while preparing to ask another. This should not be necessary. The teacher's questions should be ready, or the answering will be slow and the attention unsettled. Occasionally it may be wise to repeat the answer in order to impress it on the minds of the other members of the class, or to emphasize some essential part. 76. It is a Mistake to have a Stereotyped Plan of Pre- senting a Subject. — It is necessary to successful teaching that the teacher should prepare his lessons, not his sub- jects merely, carefully beforehand. He should also ar- range the general plan of his lesson. This will prevent his wandering while teaching. His plan should be elas- tic, however, so as to allow him to adapt it to the cir- cumstances that may arise, or the questions that may be asked while teaching. The bones of the plan should not be seen. The more variety the teacher can give to the method of presenting a subject the greater will be the interest taken in it by the pupils. 77. It is a Mistake to Talk too much while Teach- ing. — Some teachers are very fond of airing their knowl- edge of the lesson. If a teacher talks a great deal he is either too diffuse in the treatment of his subject, or he offers his pupils more thought than they can properly digest. It is not possible for a class to attend hour after hour and day after day to a teacher who gives them no MISTAKES IN METHOD. 87 share in the work of learning but as listeners. Even if they could do so, but little would be gained. Listening attention is not a very developing exercise. Receptive activity of the mind is its least stimulating positive effort. He is the best teacher who can stimulate his pupils with fewest words to greatest mental activity and interest in their lessons. Most of the talking should be done by the pupils as guided or led by the teacher. If the teacher talks too much he wearies himself as well as his class. Let the talking be reduced to the minimum, and the working increased to the maximum extent pos- sible. 78. It is a Mistake to use too many Long Words in Teaching. — Great thoughts are best expressed in simple language. Those who teach children must use plain, familiar words, or they will be misunderstood. All teachers are liable to forget the change that has taken place in their own mental development since they were children. The minds of pupils are frequently confused because their teachers take it for granted that they un- derstand the meaning of words with whose use they are unacquainted. The teacher should be as correct a model as possible in his language. It should be simple, carefully chosen, appropriate, and accurate as regards pronunciation and grammatical construction. 79. It is a Mistake to make the Learning of Names a Direct Aim in Teaching. — If the names of things are used incidentally in connection with the things themselves 88 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. the names will be learned incidentally without effort by the pupils. No child ever had a lesson on the name of a spoon, or a knife, or a chair, or any of the thousand and one things in its home, but it knows the names of them all before it is three years old. We should never ask for the names of things. It is only when we do so that it becomes difficult to learn them. Pupils will learn the names of the letters of the alphabet inciden- tally by hearing them spoken of by name as they are used, in a much shorter time than if they had been com- pelled to learn their names by a direct effort. The learning of names can never be a very interesting exer- cise. It is quite right for a teacher to name an object or a part of one, and ask the pupils to point out the part named, but he should not point to the thing and ask the name. Many teachers and parents object to the use of such words as "parallelogram," "triangle," "penin- sula," etc., by young children, on the plea that they are beyond their comprehension. That depends on how the child has been taught. If it has learned what a triangle is by actually handling triangles, and has become famil- iar with their distinguishing characteristics by using them, then it will use the word " triangle" as intelligent- ly as the word "chair." The child five years of age uses many words in its ordinary conversation, which are in themselves more difficult to spell and utter than those above named; for instance, polonaise, umbrella, parasol, refrigerator, etc. The name of a thing is always a mat- ter of secondary importance to a child. What the thing is or does is of supreme interest to it. If this can be learned, and especially if it can be learned practically, MISTAKES IN METHOD. 89 the name will give no trouble either to the memory or to the vocal organs. Without the idea, the name is a mere sound with no educative power. 80. It is a Mistake to try to make Difficulties too Sim- ple. — The duty of a teacher in teaching is held by some to consist in simplicity of explanation. The teacher is to make mild and sweetened decoctions of knowledge, and give them in homoeopathic doses to the pupils. When the scholars meet with any rocks in their pathway, he is to remove them. Instead of allowing them to climb the hill of knowledge, he is told to level the hill and even make a good road across the plain for their accom- modation. The teachers who act on this principle necessarily dwarf the minds of their pupils. The teacher should aim — 1. To make the pupils get over difficulties themselves. 2. To 'present the difficulties of a subject in their proper order, in a series of natural steps. 3. To graduate the steps to suit the ages and advance- ment of the classes. They should be very small indeed at first. 4. To avoid giving explanation as far as possible. Explain the nature of the materials for thought which are presented in the text-books or in other ways; do not do the thinking for the pupils. 5. When explanation is necessary it should be clear, definite, and brief. 81. It is a Mistake to Neglect any Opportunity for Making the Pupils do as Much as Possible in learning. — One of the fundamental principles of teaching is, " Chil- 90 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. dren learn by doing/' This principle if properly carried out has two great advantages. 1. It develops the executive power of the being, and will-action is the highest power the teacher has to de- velop. 2. It is the only certain way of maintaining attention. If a boy is using his hands he must be attentive, because no mind but his own can guide his hand. It must be remembered that the senses at best are merely servants of the mind. They convey impressions to the brain, but the accuracy, the intensity, and the permanency of these impressions depend upon the brain itself. The senses do not mould thought, they supply the mind with the materials from which thoughts are formed. They carry to the brain an infinite number of impressions to which it pays little or no attention. Unless the mind assumes a receptive attitude, thought is not developed at all, and even if thoughts are formed in the mind, they do not remain there unless they are used. To require pupils to learn by doing is the only method which abso- lutely demands the fulfilment of all the conditions nec- essary to secure clearness and permanency of thought. The attention is thus fixed, and the brain does not merely receive impressions but moulds them into thoughts which it uses at once in performing the work. Knowledge should not only be acquired but applied, and whenever possible applied through the instrumentality of the hands with actual things. At one time the teacher of chemistry was satisfied with learned statements of the facts of his subject, ac- companied with blackboard illustrations. Then actual MISTAKES IN METHOD. 9 1 experiments were performed in the presence of the class to illustrate and confirm the teaching. A still further step was made when the experiments preceded the ex- planation, and the pupils were required to notice and account for the results. Now, however, the teacher who wishes to make definite and lasting impressions requires each student to perform the experiments for himself. It is only by doing this, and by frequently re- peating the same experiment, that the chemical theories will maintain themselves in the student's mind, in com- petition with the vast accumulation of thoughts which are forced into it in practical life. Botany is not now regarded as well taught unless the student actually handles typical specimens and draws their characteristic parts. A student may look for years at a map without get- ting a definite idea of the relations of the various parts of the countries outlined on it. For this as well as other reasons good teachers now depend mainly on map- sketching and map-making by modelling in clay, plaster, putty, or cutting out of wood, paper, etc., as a means of teaching geography. They do not simply draw a map themselves on the blackboard, but every pupil sketches the map for himself as the teaching progresses, and part by part is added to the map. It is an excellent plan to have a broad, shallow box with sand or moulder's earth in it, so that the beginners in geography may actually shape for themselves the various divisions of land in learning the definitions. Continents may be formed in this way with their mountain ranges, valleys, peninsulas, capes, etc. Wooden blocks may be used to represent 92 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. cities. If the bottom of the box is painted blue it will serve to represent water. Our mental powers may be divided into those that gather thought, those that classify thought, and those that use thought. They should not act independently, but in related sequence at the same time. No thought can be clearly defined or permanently fixed in the mind unless the last step in the process has been taken. Re- petition of words deadens, repetition of process arouses mental effort in a natural way. The principle of learning by doing is recognized by most teachers in teaching some subjects. In writing, drawing, reading, and the mathematical subjects, the pupils are allowed to perform their fair share of the work. No teacher is satisfied with merely giving them the necessary ideas. They put the theories into prac- tice at once. This should be done to the fullest extent possible in teaching all subjects. We may get new ideas into our minds by reading, by hearing, and by seeing, but they only become parts of ourselves when we have used them. Doing is the best way to gain clear thoughts, and the surest way to fix them in the mind. 82. It is a Mistake to Tell Pupils Anything they Should Know or can be Led to Find out by Judicious Teaching. — This is the teacher's golden rule. If only this one rule were carried out, the teaching in most schools would be revolutionized. Young teachers should repeat it every morning on their way to school, and ask them - selves every evening wherein they have violated it. It MISTAKES IN METHOD. 93 will form a pruning-hook to cut away most of the errors in method, if it is intelligently used. Telling is not teaching. Lecturing or sermonizing is not teaching. The teacher should lead or guide his pu- pils through the garden of knowledge, and show them which kinds of fruit are beneficial and which injurious ; he should also show them the best means of obtaining the fruit, but he should not pluck it for them, and eat it for them, and digest it for them. He should teach his scholars how to think; he should not do the thinking for them. This will help them to develop, by giving their mental activity the work for which it so ardently longs. No wonder that little fellows with so many germs of life and power in them waiting to be stirred into activity and vigor, should have an aversion to attend schools in which they are mere listeners. If a teacher is not ac- quainted with the wonderful nature of the mind he has to develop, and the natural order of the growth of its powers, he should be very tolerant of truancy. The temptation to play " hookey" may sometimes come from imprisoned faculties protesting against their most un- just neglect. Certain it is that, independent of the evil effects resulting from known disobedience, a boy would learn more in the fields and woods with the flowers and birds, than in many a school. Sir William Hamilton says: " The primary principle of education is the determination of the pupil to self -ac- tivity — the doing nothing for him which he is able to do for himself." Herbert Spencer says: " In education the process of 94 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. self-development should be encouraged to the fullest ex- tent. Children should be led to make their own investi- gations and to draw their own inferences. They should be told as little as possible, and induced to discover as much as possible. Self -evolution guarantees a vividness and permanency of impression which the usual methods can never produce. Any piece of knowledge which the pupil has himself acquired, any problem which he has himself solved, becomes by virtue of the conquest much more thoroughly his than it could else be. The prelim- inary activity of mind which his success implies, the concentration of thought necessary to it, and the ex- citement consequent on his triumph, conspire to register all the facts in his memory in a way that no mere infor- mation heard from a teacher, or read in a school-book, can be registered. Even if he fail, the tension to which his faculties have been wound up insures his remem- brance of the solution when given to him, better than half a dozen repetitions would. Observe again, that this discipline necessitates a continuous organization of the knowledge he acquires. It is in the very nature of facts and inferences, assimilated in this normal manner, that they successively become the premises of further conclusions, — the means of solving still further ques- tions. The solution of yesterday's problem helps the pupil in mastering to-day's. Thus knowledge is turned into a faculty as soon as it is taken in, and forthwith aids in the general function of thinking — does not lie merely written in the pages of an internal library, as when rote-learnt." Horace Mann wrote: "Unfortunately education MISTAKES IN METHOD. 95 amongst us at present consists too much in telling, not in training/' Let the pupils have a chance to enjoy the pleasures of discovering for themselves, and school will be to them not a prison, but a temple of joy. How children delight in overcoming a difficulty ! How much greater is their satisfaction when they overcome it without aid from the teacher ! The honor is then entirely their own. What a difference there is, too, in the results of teaching, when the pupil is allowed to do his own share of the work ! If an infant were always carried in arms, it would never learn to walk. Each little effort it makes for itself gives new power and vigor to its muscles. So the child that is lifted over every obstacle by the strong mental arm of its teacher will become mentally feeble, and dependent upon others. It will lean, if it is trained to do so; and when it has to go forth into the world without its teacher for a helper, it will be unable to surmount the difficulties in its path. A pupil can never forget a fact learned practically, as the result of his own investigation. One boy learns by actually mixing yel- low and blue colors that they form green, and discovers the effects of combining all the primary colors in form- ing secondary colors. Another is told the results of the combinations of the primary colors. He may even have these results exhibited by means of the most ingenious and elaborately colored charts. The permanence of the teaching in the two cases will be vastly different. The second boy, ten years after leaving school, may remem- ber, after a process of thought, that red and blue pro- duce purple. The first does not need to make a con- $6 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. scions effort in remembering. He knows it as he knows his name ; that he has two hands, ten toes, etc. ; that the weather is cold in winter ; or as he knows any of the thousand and one facts which he has learned for himself practically. MISTAKES IN MORAL TRAINING. g7 MISTAKES IN MORAL TRAINING. 83. It is a Mistake to Neglect the Manners and De- portment of the Pupils. — The true rules of politeness are not arbitrary. They rest on a foundation of right and justice. They are based on a recognition of the relation- ships we bear to those around us, and the duties we owe to each other as individual members of the family, soci- ety, or the state. If a boy is truly polite from proper motives, he has made a good start in his moral training. Good manners will not make a boy a Christian, but they make it a great deal easier for him to be a Christian. They are the outward sign of an unselfish character, and their reflex action tends to make the character unselfish. Good manners should be taught practically. Each child should receive an individual greeting as it arrives in the morning, and each should go home in the evening with a parting salutation from the teacher that is his "very own." In addition to this the teacher should welcome his class as a whole when it is time to open school with a pleasant "Good-morning," and also bid the class "Good-evening" at the close of the day's work. When a known visitor comes to the school, pupils should stand to receive him, and say "Good-morning, or Good- 98 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. afternoon, Mr. ." When a stranger comes, the pupils should wait until he has been introduced. They should then rise and address him. This is what they would be expected to do in their own homes under similar circum- stances. Why should they not be trained to do it in school ? Boys should be trained to raise their hats when they meet ladies of their acquaintance on the street, and to give a respectful salute to their male friends. They should learn in school how to do so. The use of the proper hand in raising the hat or saluting (the one far- thest from the person saluted) should be made instinc- tive by proper practice. The resting time between les- sons may very properly be devoted occasionally to train- ing in saluting. Boys and girls may march past each other and practise the street salutation. If it becomes a mockery, or is regarded as mere fun, the teacher is to blame. Pupils should salute their teachers as they march past them at the recesses, and when entering their rooms in the morning and at noon. The teacher should never allow pupils to answer " Yes" or "No," merely, but "Yes, sir," "No, sir," or "Yes, Miss ," "No, Miss ." The every-day work of the school will afford many op- portunities for enforcing a recognition of the rights of others, for showing respect to seniors or those in author- ity, and for practising the many acts of courtesy that boys should exhibit towards girls. The school training in manners, as in everything else, will depend on what is done rather than on what is said. An ounce of action is worth a pound of advice. MISTAKES IN MORAL TRAINING. 99 84. It is a Mistake to Appeal to Motives that are beyond the Perfect Comprehension of the Pupils. — Ab- stract doctrines of theology can have little weight with children. Formal statements of even religious truths may not be understood, and if they are not clearly com- prehended they should not be given as motives. A child who simulates a feeling he does not really feel is neces- sarily being trained in hypocrisy. The repeated state- ment of principles that do not give definite conceptions of duty must weaken the force that truth should have. Pestalozzi says, " Young children cannot be governed by appeals to conscience, because it is not yet developed. Sympathy must be gradually superseded by the rule of right, and children must be led from good feelings to right principles. Sympathy is the child's strongest mo- tive." 85. It is a Mistake to Place the Temptation to Dis- honesty too definitely in the Way of a Child by the Self- reporting System. — Where the position in the class, and the good opinion of parents, depend on the monthly re- port of the teacher regarding conduct and class work, it is a most dangerous thing to allow pupils to do their own reporting. There are, it is true, some pupils who could not be led to do wrong in order to secure advancement, but there are many who could be so tempted, and it is wrong to place them in such conditions as will reward dishonesty. The moral sense of the pupil who takes credit for better marks than he deserves is blunted and his tendency to dishonesty is strengthened. The honest pupil who sees cheating rewarded loses faith in justice 100 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. and righteousness, and thereby loses power to practise them. It is a sad thing for a child to receive the im- pression early in life that advancement is often the re- sult of improper actions. Unless the teacher's record of marks can be made absolutely correct, the marking should be abandoned. 86. It is a Mistake to Train Pupils in Criticising to Note only what is Wrong or Imperfect. — When pupils are called upon to express opinions in regard to the work of their classmates, they are usually asked to point out the errors they can find. They are to mark the mistakes in spelling, in punctuation, in composition, in pronuncia- tion, etc. This necessarily gives their minds a critical tendency, and probably has a good deal to do with the fault-finding spirit displayed by too many adults. The teacher should avail himself of the many opportunities afforded in the work of the school to allow the pupils to call attention to the excellencies in the work done by their neighbors. They may point out the good features in the reading, or composition, or drawing, map-sketching, etc., of other scholars as easily as the bad, if they are trained to do so. The influence of such training will be better, intellectually and morally, than that of the plan usually adopted. 87. It is a Mistake to Neglect the Opportunities for Moral Development Afforded in the Playground. — The teacher may give h)s pupils a great many definite moral lessons in the playground. Boys and girls . may learn there to bear defeat bravely, to allow no defeat to dis- MISTAKES IN MORAL TRAINING. . IOI courage them, to depend upon persevering effort to win success, to be prompt to decide and quick to execute, to put forth their best power in order to attain their pur- poses, to receive injury without giving way to anger, to take no mean advantage of an opponent, to exhibit, in short, the characteristics of ladies and gentlemen in meeting their fellows in a contest similar in very many respects to the struggle of after-life. Many of these opportunities will be lost if the teacher is not an ac- tive participator in, or a sympathetic observer of, the games. 88. It is a Mistake to Control Pupils by External Agen- cies Chiefly. — These may have to be used at first in a new class, or with a new child when he first comes to school. Control may have to be gained. by the vigorous exercise of the teacher's will, or by punishments or other coercive measures, but it should not be maintained by these means. No discipline maintained in such a way is good even in itself, and certainly such discipline cannot be as beneficial as it should be in the development of char- acter. Our aim should be to make the pupils self-gov- erning. No lower aim can make them good citizens, or qualify them for a conscious upward growth. Law should never bend to the whims of individuals, but every pupil should be made as independent as possible within the range of law, and in obedience to it. The teacher should awaken the in the child motives which will lead him to act. These motives should change as the child grows older from instinct to consciousness of duty, but as soon as possible the child should feel his power of control over 102 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. himself, as a necessary element in defining his individual responsibility. 89. It is a Mistake to Reprove or Punish for "not being Good." — "You see what you may expect, sir, if you are not good," said a stern teacher to a little boy on his first day in school, after he had given another boy an unmerciful whipping. Whipped for " not being good f whipped for "not being good." This was the message that was sent echoing through the sensitive and aroused moral nature of the child. He did not learn to hate the wrong, or the evil. He learned to hate " having to be good ;" because, if there was no such thing as " having to be good/' he would not be whipped. His reasoning was logical. The master was wrong. Goodness should not be associated with punishment. Punishment and wrong-doing should be linked together. The child should leave school with a clear knowledge of the fact that every act of conscious wrong-doing brings to him punishment in weakening his character, even if no fur- ther punishment comes from powers outside of himself. 90. It is a Mistake to Punish Unsympathetically. — Teachers often look and act as if it gave them satisfaction to punish a pupil. Others punish while angry. In either case it is clear to the pupil, at least, that the teacher's feeling is shown towards the pupil, and not towards the offence of which he was guilty. Indignation at the wrong-doing may be quite right, but no feeling should be shown towards the pupil but one of sorrowing sympathy. Even whipping may produce love. How different is MISTAKES IN MORAL TRAINING. IO3 its effect generally ! Horace Mann tells of a young blacksmith who said to his father when he failed in his attempt to harden the temper of a piece of steel, " Beat it, father, beat it ; that will harden it if anything will." Punishment is sure to harden, if the teacher is not care- ful. The right to punish is a sacred trust, and the awarding or inflicting of punishment a solemn duty. No teacher ever knows the highest joy that is to be found in his professional work until he loves his worst boy bet- ter than he does his best. The love of the best is always to a certain extent a sweet kind of selfishness, none the less dangerous or weakening because it is sweet. The love of the worst must spring from an unselfish desire to make him nobler, purer, truer. With such a love pun- ishment will surely serve its true purpose. 91. It is a Mistake to Expect too much Moral Goodness from Children. — Moral and immoral tendencies are communicated by heredity. Children should not there- fore be expected to have naturally very much moral goodness. Moral growth in children will necessarily be slow. It will develop hypocrisy to try to develop preco- cious goodness in little ones. It will also lead them to believe themselves to be better than they are, and moral as well as intellectual growth ceases as soon as we are sat- isfied with ourselves. There was a good deal of sugges- tive philosophy in the answer of a little girl whose mother said to her one evening, " Well, Bertha, have you been a very good girl to-day ?" "No, mamma." "Have you been a bad girl?" "No, mamma." "Well, what kind of a girl have you been?" "Oh, just a comfortable little 104 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. girl, mamma." Mature goodness is an unnatural devel- opment in young children. Play is better than formal piety for a child. Genuine play may be a true expres- sion of a child's piety. 92. It is a Mistake to Arouse the Emotional Nature too much. — The weakest of human beings is the mere senti- mentalist, who weeps at sorrow in the abstract, but whose feelings never develop into thought and decision, which they crystallize into generous action. There are thousands of young ladies who bewail the sufferings of ideal char- acters in the novels they read, who have never made the slightest effort involving a sacrifice of self in order to re- lieve the real woes of a single fellow-creature. A Russian lady wept piteously at the sadness she saw depicted on the stage, and found her coachman frozen to death at the close of the performance. Her best feelings had been wasted on the mere semblance of sorrow, while her selfish- ness was blinding her to the terrible affliction she was herself causing. All sentiment or feeling that does not produce a defi- nite tendency to corresponding activity is enfeebling. The songs and stories told to little ones should be chosen with the greatest care. Those that are seemingly good may often be most dangerous in character. The teacher should avoid pointing out what is called the "moral" of the story to young children. In the culture of the emo- tional nature we should distinguish very clearly between the general stimulation of the better and purer feelings, and awakening a definite feeling in favor of some specific duty. We may be influenced by a charming sunset, MISTAKES IN MORAL TRAINING. 105 beautiful scenery, music, painting, or poetry. They are to our spiritual nature, what pure air and wholesome food are to our physical nature. But as we may take too much good food, so we may have too much emotional stimulation. To over-develop even a good side of our nature at the expense of our other powers destroys the harmony of our being, and weakens us correspondingly. We should carefully guard against the development of the sentimental nature beyond the practical. The de- velopment of feeling in favor of a particular duty is even more dangerous than the general stimulation of the emotions unless it is carried into certain activity. 93. It is a Mistake to Arouse Feelings and Thoughts regarding Distant Duties. — Inertness of character is a terrible affliction. Executive power ; will activity ; abil- ity to carry out definitely the decisions arrived at : this is the most important element in a man's character, and consequently it is the most important department of a man's education, mentally or morally. Inertness of character may be caused by persistently awakening pure feelings and good thoughts, without securing the corre- sponding action that should accompany them. The completed course of a moral impulse is feeling, thought, decision, action. Unless this sequence is completed every time it begins with reference to a specific duty, the character is weakened in its most essential elements. Every time a boy decides to do right, without actually carrying out his decision, he strengthens the habit of in- ertness, or failure to act, and makes it harder for him to do a good deed of a similar kind. Every one knows lo6 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. the man who habitually decides and promises without performing. There are men who promise without intend- ing to perform. They are wicked, .but they may still be strong to execute the decisions they really make. The inert man truly takes the first three steps in the se- quence : he feels, thinks, decides for right, but fails to do what he decides. By habitually feeling, thinking, and deciding, without acting, we necessarily make this course a habit. What is the effect of this on character ? It weakens conscience and will, and dissipates the powers of feeling, thinking, and deciding definitely. Hence the great responsibility of teachers to make action always follow good decision promptly. It is a most dangerous thing to lead a boy to decision regarding a distant duty, because a thousand things may in the mean time distract his attention, destroy his interest, and prevent the accom- plishment of his purpose. The younger the child the more immediately should action follow decision. As the habit of completing the moral process is established it should gradually be strengthened by severer tests. 94. It is a Mistake to Allow Conscious Violation of any Rule without an Inevitable Consequence. — Eecognition of law and willing obedience to it are the foundations on which rest our ideas of duty in the home, in the na- tion, and to our Creator. The conscious violation or dis- regard of any school rule or law is more disastrous in its effect on the character of the offender than it can be in its other consequences. The consequences of consciously violating an unimportant rule are as serious in teaching disregard for law as if the rule itself were more impor- MISTAKES IN MORAL TRAINING. 107 tant. Bules in school are laws in the State. Conscious disregard for rules leads to conscious disrespect for them. Disrespect for rules leads to disrespect for law. Disre- spect for man's law leads to disrespect for God's law. Disrespect for God's law directly leads to disrespect for God himself. 95. It is a Mistake to Allow even Slight Deviations from Right to be made Consciously and Habitually. — The acts we do mould us. Conscience makes the right clear, the weaknesses of our natures lead us towards wrong ; our will settles the course we take. If we do right, will has won a victory ; if we do wrong, will has suffered defeat. Repeated victories strengthen either will or weakness. Every conscious act of the child is a victory for either will or weakness. The teacher has a thousand opportunities every day for strengthening the will of his pupils. Take the matter of pen-holding for illustration. Every child is taught the right position of the hand. In some schools very few pupils hold the pens properly. The general tendency is to turn the hand on the side. This is the easiest position for the muscles at rest, and so the pupils take it naturally. They know the right, they do the wrong. The tendency to gratify the convenience of a muscle is allowed to gain a victory over the will. Repeated defeats weaken the will, even though the defeats be in connection with common- place matters. It is chiefly in connection with common- place matters that will power becomes dissipated, and that failure becomes a habit. Therefore, while it is of great importance that the teacher should give his pupils 108 MISTAKES IN TEACHING. clear ideas of right in regard to their work and conduct, it is more important to see that the right is adhered to. It is a dangerous course to make duty clear to a child's mind without having it performed. Men err, not from lack of knowledge of the right, but because they have not sufficient will power to carry out their convictions of truth. 96. It is a Mistake to Praise for Natural Ability or Natural Goodness. — These qualities should, and do, re- ceive due recognition by the high-class positions and the freedom from punishment which they secure for their possessors. Ability and goodness will always be at a pre- mium. The evil arises from allowing the pupils to be- come proud of ability or goodness as something for which they deserve credit. Effort to do or to be should re- ceive the sympathetic recognition of the teacher. Will- ingness to try to climb is the condition that merits ap- probation. There is a pot of gold at the top of every mountain we have to climb in life. He who faithfully climbs under the most discouraging conditions as to mental or moral weakness earns the largest pot and the purest gold. Honest effort in work or study that we do not like is the kind that disciplines character, and this deserves the teacher's highest praise. INDEX. PAGE Accidental should not be confounded with intentional wrong- doing, 36 Activity the source of individual growth, 22 Aims of Education, The true, 26 Answers should not be repeated by the teacher, .... 85 Arnold, Dr., on teaching history, ....... 10 Assembly- and lunch- rooms desirable, 63 Assistant teachers should avoid complaints to Principals, . 36, 38 Attention an exhaustive effort, 52 ; should not be distracted, 53 ; secured by variety, 76 Bad pupils need most sympathy, 103 Bell, The, not a proper signal for order, 55 ; a signal for ac- tion, 55 Blackiston, J. R., on details in management, 27 Botany, Method of teaching, 91 Calisthenics develop will-action, 14 Character depends upon what we have done, 11 ; grows most rapidly when we make honest effort to do what is distasteful to us, 108 Chemistry, Method of teaching, 90 Children should not sit long in one position, 61 ; are often forced to count by units, 83 ; delight in overcoming difficulties, . 95 Circle, The, of intellectual forces, 17 Classes reflect their teachers, 36 Commands must be obeyed by all, 57 Conscience and will affected by our most trifling voluntary acts, . 22 Control develops reverence, . 50 I IO INDEX. PAGE Confidence in pupils makes them trustworthy, .... 58 Conscious violation of law weakens character, ... 59, 106 Contrast between the teaching in a school and a workshop, . . 84 Co-operation better than coercion, 41 Courtesy towards parents pays well, 46 Courtesies of pupils in sehool and on the street, .... 97 Criticism should recognize right as well as wrong, .... 100 Dangerous to arouse motives in regard to distant duty, . 23, 105 Decision necessary in securing good discipline, ... 56 Definitions should be taught incidentally as needed, ... 84 Demerit marks should be very few, . . . . . . .35 Details of management, 27 Difficulties should not be made too simple, 89 Dignity not real if reverence depends on formality, ... 33 Discipline should be uniform, 55 ; should develop power of self- government, 101 Disputes with angry parents should be avoided, .... 46 Doing is the source of learning, SO Drill and dancing compared, 13 Dull pupils need most attention, 81 Duties should be clearly defined, 59 Duty should be performed when made clear, 108 Each child should receive an individual morning greeting, . 40 Education should counteract sin, 6 ; means growth, 7; should fit for investigation of undiscovered truth, 9 ; should con- tinue after school, 9 Effort merits sympathetic recognition, 108 Emerson quoted regarding loudness, 60 Emotional nature may be made too sensitive, . . . .104 Errors should be corrected as well as detected, 79 ; should be cor- rected frequently at intervals 80 Evils of punishing hastily, .67 Every child should perform his own experiments, .... 91 Executive power of the intellect, 10, 89 ; moral force essential, 23, 105 Explanation should precede punishment, 65 Executive attention the only kind essentially perfect, ... 90 External agencies the weakest in control, 101 INDEX. Ill PAGE Failure to do right not often caused by lack of knowledge of what is- right, 108 Fatigue point, The, should not be passed, 75 Fault-finding made a habit by criticism of errors only, . . . 100 Feeling and thought should not be awakened in regard to distant duties, 105 Fixing thought is more difficult than explaining it, ... 78 Formal whipping is improper, 68 *'roebel and Pestalozzi misunderstood, 7 General calls for order cause inattention, .... 52 Genuine play may express a child's piety, . . . .104 Geography in primary classes, 91 Gesture a means of expression, 13 Giving evidence is a pupil's duty, 39 Goodness should not be associated with punishment, ... 102 Governing power may be developed, 53 Growth comes from repeated acts, 79 Grumbling teachers do great harm, 36 H abits of will-action, 23, 27 ; of sitting, standing, walking, etc., of wrong- the will in 29 ; of neatness, cleanliness and punctuality, 31 doing formed by victories of weakness over trifling matters, Hamilton, Sir William, regarding self-activity, Health injured by studying too long in one position, Heredity in education, Home-work should not be assigned to young children, Huxley on over-study when young, .... Hypocrisy caused by stimulating precocious goodness, Tnattention is worse than inability, ■*- Increasing intelligence does not eradicate crime, Independent action should be in harmony with law, Individual freedom, power and responsibility defined, Industrial training, Advantages of, . Indoor recesses on stormy days, .... Inertness of character caused by arousing good feelings and thoughts that do not produce corresponding activity, 107 93 76 6 74 75 103 73 21 31 24 17 37 105 1 1 2 INDEX. PAGE influence of drill physically and morally, 13 Inspection of clothing and hands and face daily, .... 40 Intellectual education defined, 11 Interdependence, The, of the physical, mental and moral nature, 26 Knowledge is not power, 5 ; cannot all be acquired independ- ently, 9 ; cannot all be communicated, 9 ; to be valuable must be reliable, 81 ; should be applied as it is learned, 82 ; should be fixed by being used, . . . ' . .82 r anguage lessons, The best, are incidental, .... 85 ■*-J Language, The teacher's, should be simple and definite, . 87 Laughter perfectly proper in the school-room, .... 71 Law is perfect liberty, 24 Leaving the seat without permission not allowable, ... 31 Lessons should be explained before assigning them, 74; should be short, 76 Lining at recesses, 28 Listening is not a very developing exercise, 87 Love may be mere selfishness, 103 Maintaining order, 49 Mann, Horace, on training versus telling, 94 ; illustration of young blacksmith, 103 ; regarding hasty punishment, . 63 Manners an important department of moral training, ... 97 Manual training needed by both sexes, 20 ; should be given early, 20 Manual work most essential in ungraded schools, 18 ; appropriate schools, 19 Map-making and sketching, . • 91 Means for securing sympathetic co-operation of parents, . . 47 Mental powers classified, 92 Mind should be developed by completing the sequence of intellec- tual process, 18 Mistakes regarding order, 51 ; in questioning, .... 72 Moral nature susceptible to discipline, 21 Moral lessons of the playground, 101 Moral process, The, should result in activity, . . . . . 106 Motions should be executed promptly, . . . . . .23 Mutual relationship of the physical and moral natures, . . 15 Myopia, means of preventing, . . 30 INDEX. 113 PAGE Names, Learning of, should never be the direct aim of a lesson, 87 Natural goodness or ability should not be praised, . . 108 Noisy teachers make noisy pupils, 52 Notes from parents should not be read to the class, ... 47 Notifications to parents prevent misunderstandings, ... 42 Obedience to law a clear duty, . 23, 106 Objects of physical education, 12 Objectionable methods of punishment, 68 Objects should not be used when reviewing, 84 Order secured naturally by physical exercise, 15 ; essential to progress, 48 ; a means, not an end, 54 ; cannot be maintained by external agencies, 54 ; should be good in the teacher's ab- sence, 56 Parents and teachers should work in harmony, ... 42 Parents' feelings should be respected, ..... 43 Partial answers should not be accepted, 85 Personal habits of the teacher, 40 Pestolozzi on moral training of young children, .... 99 Physical exercises save time, 16 Physical training essential in true education, 11 ; necessary in rural schools. 16 Playground, The, sphere of the child's unrestrained activities, 33; affords best opportunity for moral development, . . . 100 Posture while teaching, . 41 Precocious goodness weakens the child's character, . . . 103 Proper position while reading, 30 Public opinion in a school should be directed by the teacher, . 49 Punctuality necessary on the part of teacher and pupil, . . 40 Punishing may do good in a new class, 50 Punishment a judicial act, 65 Punishment, The aim of, not merely to cause pain, ... 68 Punishment should be given for positive, not negative reasons, . 102 Pupils cannot work sixty minutes every hour, 16; should be allowed to aid in framing rules, 59; need not be watched while answering, 73 ; should never be pushed or pulled into line, U 1 14 INDEX. PAGE Questioning in rotation is wrong, 72 .Questions should not be repeated for the inattentive, 73 ; , shpuld be stated before indicating who is to answer them, 72 Quietness and order not synonymous, . . . . . .51 Reaction from external control, 57 Rebellious pupils are not most troublesome, ... 42 Receptive attention Very productive, 87 Recess should not be taken from the pupils, 37 Recesses in the school-room, 62 Recreation by physical exercises, 77 Repetition of process better than repetition of words, ... 79 Repression of activity is not true discipline, 70 Respect is lost by over-indulgence, 50 Reviewing essential 'in fixing thought, . . . . . .77 Ridicule not a proper means of discipline, 65 Rough play should be prohibited, 32 Rules should be few, 38, 58 ; for securing order in a new school, 49; hx school are laws in £he State, 107 Securing order, 49 Self-faith an important element in training, . . . .25 Self-reporting leads to dishonesty, ....... 99 Sentiment that does, not lead to activity is enfeebling, . . . 104 Sequence in moral growth, 23 Smart .pupijs need least attention, 81 Sources o£ new ideas, . . 92 Speaking in a high key injurious to teachers and pupils, . . 60 Spencer, Herbert, on self-development, 93 Standing the proper position when answering, . . . .30 Strict, adherence to the details of duty the best moral training, . 24 Strict discipline is enjoyable, 50 Sudden and noisy demands for order not good, .... 51 Suggestions better than commands, 41 Sympathetic interest springs from active effort, .... 47 'T^ables should be learned as needed for use, .... 83 -*- Tact in dealing with parents, 44 Tale-bearing clearly distinct from giving evidence, ■ . > . .38 INDEX. 1 1 5 PAGE Teachers should play with the pupils, 33, 100 ; should not stand too near the class, 34 ; are responsible for the condition of their classes, 36 ; should be calm in dealing with parents, 44 ; should lead the intellectual culture of their districts, 47; should have full control of classes, 48 ; should be governors, not tyrants, 55 ; should talk as little as possible, ... 86 Telling is not true teaching, 92 Test, The, of teaching not the amount or work gone over, but the amount understood and applied, 80 Text-books not a substitute for the teacher, 73 Theology, Abstract, injurious to children, 99 Thoroughness is better than speed, 81 Tone of the teacher's voice, Effect of the, 52 Trades should not be taught in public schools, .... 20 Training needed in extracting thought from books, ... 10 Trifling errors should not be severely censured, .... 35 Truth must have exponents, ......... 24 Two short lessons better than one long lesson in primary classes, 77 Uniformity in movement necessary, 31 Unrestrained play not allowable in the school-room, . . 61 Variety promotes mental and physical vigor, . . . 76, 86 Victory strengthens either will or weakness, . . . 107 Walking on the toes wrong, 29 ; on the stairs, ... 29 Whately quoted regarding coaching clever pupils, . . 82 Whipping a reformatory agent, 67 ; causes disorder, ... 68 Whispering not allowable, 69 Will, The, trained by our acts, 23 Will-power dissipated chiefly by lack of adherence to right in com- monplace affairs, 107 Word of command, how given properly, 32 Wrong to get excited in the school, 64 "Y^kd supervision important, 82 •*■ Young children should not study hard, .... 75 The Best Educational Periodicals. The School Journal is published weekly at $2.50 a year and is in its 25th year. It is the oldest, best known and widest circulated educational weekly in the U. S. The Journal is filled with ideas that will surely advance the teachers' conception of education. The best brain work on the work of professional teaching: is found in it — not theoretical essays, nor pieces scissored out of other journals. The Monthly School Board issue is a symposium of most interesting material relating to new buildings, heating, and ventilation, school law, etc., etc. The Primary School is published monthly from September to June at $1.00 a year. It is the ideal paper for primary teachers, being devoted almost exclusively to original primary methods and devices. Several entirely new fea- tures this year of great value. The Teachers- Institute is published monthly, at $1.00 a year. It is edited in the same spirit and from the same standpoint as The Journal, and has ever since it was started in 1878 been the most popular educational monthly published, circulating in every state. It is finely printed and crowded with illus- trations made specially for it. Every study taught by the teacher is covered in each issue. The large chart supplements with each issue are very popular. EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. This is not a paper, but a series of small monthly volumes, $1.00 a year, that bear on Professional Teaching. It is useful for those who want to study the foundations of education; for Normal Schools, Training Classes, Teachers' Institutes and individual teachers. If you desire to teach professionally you will want it Handsome paper covers, 64 pp. each month. The History, Science, Methods, and Civics of education are discussed each month, and it also contains all of the N. Y. State Examination Questions and Answers. OUR TIMES gives a resume of the imoortant news of the month — not the murders, the scandals, etc., but the news that bears upon the progress of the world and specially written for the school room. It is the brightest and best edited paper of current events published, and so cheap that it can be afforded by every pupil. 30 cents a year. Club rates, 25 cents. * # * Select the paper suited to your needs and send for a free sample. Samples of all the papers (40 cents worth) for 20 cents. E.L. KELLOGG & CO., New York and Chicago. PARKER'S Talks on Pedagogics. BY Col. Francis W. Parker, of the Cook County Normal School. Col. Parker needs no introduction to the teachers of America. The thousands who have drawn aid and inspriation from the Talks on Teaching and all to whom the name of Col. Parker has for years stood for aggres- sive leadership in education will want this book, which contains the results of the author's most mature thought and work. The book is the most mature expression of the educational belief of its author, formed after many years of study and investigation. The ideas presented and the methods outlined are the outcome of work done in the Cook Co. Normal School. The doctrine of concentra- tion alone is of sufficient importance and interest to arrest the attention of every thinking teacher in America. WHAT IT CONTAINS: The following titles of the chapters of the book will indicate the sub- jects of which it treats : Chap. I. The Child ; Chap. II. The Central Sub- jects of Study ; Chap. III. Form as a Mode of Judgment •, Chap. IV. Number and its Relation to the Central Subjects ; Chap. V. What can be done with numbers ; Chap. VI. Attention; Chap. VII. Observation ; Chap. VIII. Lan- guage and Hearing Language; Chap. IX. Reading and its Relations to the Central Subject; Chap. X. Modes of Expression; Chap. XI. Unity of Expressive Acts ; Chap. XII. Acquisition of the Forms of Thought Ex- pression; Chap. XIII. Speech and Writing ; Chap. XIV. School Govern- ment and Moral Training; Chap. XV. Summary of the Doctrine of Con- centration ; Chap. XVI. Democracy and Education. The whole makes a large volume of 507 pages. Nearly two solid years have been spent in its preparation. Nearly 2000 advance orders have been received for it. It is finely printed and durably bound as a book of its value and importance deserves to be. There are topic headings and ques- tions for the student. Price, $1.50; to teachers, $1.20; postage, 14 cents. E. L. KELLOGG & CO.. New York and Chicago. COMMENTS OF EDUCATORS ON PARKER 'S TALKS ON PEDAGOGICS. " It is in every respect an admirable book, replete with sound philos- ophy, and practical methods." — Supt. John Swett, San Francisco. 44 I find the book slow reading since it obliges me to keep up a ' brown study.' Every page bears evidence of earnest study." —Dr. E. E. White, Ohio. •*I am prepared to pronounce it the greatest of Col. Parker's great works. It is a work that should be studied by every teacher in the coun- try." — Supt. J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala. 44 It is a work of extraordinary value." — Prin. T. B. Noss, California (Pa.) Normal School. 44 A masterly exposition of the theory of concentration destined to exercise great influence over educational thought and practice of the twen- tieth century." — Prin. Albert E. Maltby, Slippery Rock Normal School, Penn. "I have examined with great interest and profit * Talks on Pedago- gics.' It is an able plea for the professional attitude. It appeals not only to the intelligence, but also to the conscience of teachers. It treats the child reverently and recognizes the varied possibilities that are opened to him through education. The doctrine of concentration, more or less new in this country, is treated, not from the theoretical standpoint, but from ths point of view of honest, patient experiment and practice. As a help to teachers it will rank among the very best of current pedagogical works." — Samuel T. Dutton, Supt. of Schools. Brookline, Mass. "It is a great book and indicates the profound thought and the sub- lime ideal inspiring the author during the years of his study of the child and education." — Clarence E. Meleney, Teachers College, New York City. "I regard Col. Parker's 'Talks on Pedagogies' as one of the very best books in my library. I always read anything from Col. Parker's pen with interest and profit. This, his latest production, is his best." — A. W. Edson, Worcester, Mass. 44 Parker's 4 Talks on Pedagogics' received. I like it. It is a splendid acquisition to pedagogical literature. It should be in the hands of every teacher." — Z. X. Snyder, Pres. State Normal School, Greeley, Col. 44 It is full of wise suggestions and interesting thoughts. No teacher can afford to leave this book unread." — E. A. Sheldon, Prin. State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y. 44 There never has appeared in English a book on pedagogics more pregnant with thought more suggestive to teachers, better adapted to their wants. Every chapter, every paragraph is full of suggestion and help. The principles which underlie, rather than the so-called ' methods,' receive primary attention, though there are sufficient illustrations to suggest the manner of carrying out and enforcing a principle. No one doubts after reading this book that Herbart's ' Theory of Concentration ' is thoroughly sound and entirely applicable to the training of children. As American teachers we are apt to say, 4 Well, that may apply in German schools, but we cannot apply it in America.' Col. Parker has proven that 4 Concentra- tion ' is a sound principle in education everywhere, and that its applica- tion in our schools is entirely feasible. —Dr. Levi Seeley. Price, $1.50; to teachers, $1.20; postage, 14 cts. E. X. KELLOGG & CO s Feiv York and Chicago. Best Books for Teachers, Classified List under Subjects. To aid teachers to procure the books best suited to their purpose, w« give below a list of our publications classified under subjects. The division \8 sometimes a difficult one to make, so that we have in many cases placed the same book uuder several titles; for instance, Currie's Early Education appears under Principles and Practice op Education, and also Primary Education. Recent books are starred, thus * Retail, HISTOBY OF EDUCATION, GREAT EDU- CATORS, ETC. Allen's Historic Outlines ot Education, Autobiography of Froebel, Browning's Aspects of Education Best edition. " Educational Theories. Best edition. * education Aii Foundations, bound vol. '91-'92, * " " K '92-'93, Kellogg's Life of Pestalozzi, - Lang's Comenius, M Basedow, ------- * " Rousseau and his "Emile'* - * ** Horace Mann, ------ * ** Great Teachers of Four Centuries, * " Herbart and His Outlines of the Science of Education. - Phelps' Life of David P. Page, - Quick's Educational Reformers, Best edition. - ♦Reinhart's History of Education, - PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. Carter's Artificial Stupidity in School, - - paper ♦Educational Foundations, bound vol. '91-'92, paper * " • " '92-'93, cl. Fitch's Improvement in Teaching, - - - paper *Hall (G. S.) Contents of Children's Minds, - cl. Huntington's Unconscious Tuition, - - - paper Payne's Lectures on Science and Art of Education, cl. cl. cl. cl. cl. cl. paper Our By Price to Mall Teachers '. Extra .15 pd. .50 .40 .05 .25 .20 .03 .50 .40 .05 .60 pd. 1.00 pd. .15 pd. .15 pd. .15 pd. .15 pd. .15 pd. .25 .20 .03 cl. cloth cl. paper cl. paper paper paper paper paper cl. .25 .20 .03 paper .15 pd. cl. 1.00 .80 .08 cl. .25 .20 .03 Reinhart's Principles of Education, ♦Spencer's Education. Best edition. - - - Perez's First Three Years of Childhood, - ♦Rein's Outlines of Pedagogics, - Fate's Philosophy of Education. Best edition. - ♦Teachers' Manual Series, 24 nos. ready, each, .25 LOO .25 1.00 1.50 .75 150 PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION, #1. .50 cl. .50 paper .25 ihood. Best edition, cl. 1.50 Rooper's Apperception, Best edition, - - cl. .25 Welch's Teachers' Psychology, - d. 1.25 *• Talks on Psychology, - d. .60 Allen's Mind Studies for Young Teachers, Allen's Temperament in Education, - ♦Kellogg's Outlines of Psychology Perez's First Three Years ot Childl .15 .60 1.00 .15 .20 .15 .80 .20 .80 1.20 .60 1.20 .15 .40 .40 .20 1.20 .20 1.00 .40 pd. pd. pd. pd. .03 pd. .08 .03 .10 .10 .08 .10 pd. .05 .05 .10 .10 jot GENERAL METHODS AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT, Currie'B Early Education, - Fitca's Art of Questioning, -••».• *' Art of Securing Attention ** Lectures on Teaching, - Gladstone's Object Teaching, - Hughes' Mistakes in Teaching. Best edition. ** Securing and Retaining Attention, " How to Keep Order. - Keliogg's School Management. - McMurry's How to Conduct the Recitation, ♦Parker's Talks on Pedagogics. " Talks on Teaching, • " Practical Teacher, - ♦Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching, Patridge's Quincy Methods, illustrated, - Quick's How to Train the Memory, - ♦Rein's Pedagogics, ------ ♦Reinbart's Principles of Education, ♦ *' Civics m Education, - ♦Rooper's Object Teaching, - Sidgwick's Stimulus in School, - Sliaw and Donneli's School Devices, - Southwick's Quiz Manual of Teaching, Yonge's Practical Work in School, METHODS IN SPECIAL SUBJ] Augsburg's Easy Drawings for Geog. Class, - 44 Easy Things to Draw, • ♦Burnz Step by Step Primer, - Calkins' How to Teach Phonics, - Dewey's How to Teach Manners, - Gladstone's Object Teaching, - Hughes' How to Keep Order, - ♦lies' A Class in Geometry - Johnson's Education by Doing, - ♦Keliogg's How to Write Compositions - Keliogg's Geography by Map Drawing ♦Picture Language Cards, 2 sets, each, Seeley's Grube Method of Teaching Arithmetic, ** Grube Idea in Teaching Arithmetic - Smith's Rapid Practice Cards, - - - 32 s< Woodhull's Easy Experiments m Science, PRIMARY AND KINDERGAR Cauni/s' How to Teach Phonics, - Currie's Early Education, - Gladstone's Object Teaching, - Autobiography of Proebel, - - • Hoif man's Kindergarten Gifts, • • • Johnson's Education by Doing, - ♦Kilburn's Manual of Elementary Teaching - Parker's Talks on Teaching, - Patridge's Quincy Methods, - Rooper's Object Teaching, - Seeley's Grube Method of Teaching Arithmetic, " Grube Idea in Primary Arithmetic, - •Sinclair's First Years at School, t cl. 1.35 1.00 .08 paper .15 pd paper .15 pd. cl. 1.25 1.00 pd. paper .15 pd. cl. .50 .40 .05 ed. cl. .50 .40 .05 paper .15 pd. cl. .75 .60 .05 paper .15 pd. cl. 1.50 1.80 .12 cL 1.25 1.00 .09 cl. 1.50 1.20 .14 cL .80 .64 .08 cl. 1.75 1.40 .13 paper .15 pd. cl. .75 .60 .08 cl. .25 .30 .03 cl. .25 .20 .03 cl. .25 .20 .03 paper .15 pd. cl. 1.25 1.00 .10 cL .75 .60 .05 paper ITVHTC .15 pd. paper .50 .40 .05 paper .30 .24 .03 .25 pd. cl. .50 .40 .05 cl. .50 .40 .05 paper .15 pd. paper .15 pd. .30 .24 .03 cl. .50 .40 .05 paper 15 pd. cl. .50 .40 .05 .30 pd. cl. 1.00 .80 .07 cl. .30 .24 .03 ts, each .50 cl. ■RTTTW .50 .40 .05 Cl. .50 .40 .05 Cl. 1.25 1.00 .08 paper .15 pd. cl. .50 .40 .05 paper .15 pd. cl. .50 .40 .05 1.50 1.20 .10 cl. 1.25 l.OO .09 cl. 1.75 1.40 .13 cl. .25 .20 .03 Cl. 1.00 .80 J07 Cl. .30 .24 .03 CL .75 .60 .06 MANUAL TRAINING. Butler v s Argument for Manual Training, - - paper .15 pd ♦Larsson's Text-Book of Sloyd, - cL 1.50 1.80 .15 Love's Industrial Education, • • c\ 1.50 1.30 .12 ♦Upham's Fifty Lessons in Woodworking, - cl. .50 .40 .05 QUESTION BOOKS FOE TEACHERS. Analytical Question Series. Geography, - cl. .50 .40 .05 ■ " M U. S. History, - d. .50 .40 .05 *• u *» Grammar, - cl. .50 .40 .05 *EDucATioNAii Foundations, bound vol. ♦91-'"92, paper .60 pd. •, " " • M ^-m cl. 1.00 pd. N . Y. State Examination Quest ons, - cl. LOO .80 .08 ♦Shaw's National Question Book Newly revised. 1.75 pd. Soutbwick's Handy Helps, ----- cl. 1.00 .80 .08 Scuthwick's Quiz Manual of Teaching. Best edition, cl. .75 .60 .05 PHYSICAL EDUCATION and SCHOOL HYGIENE. GrofTs School Hygiene, ----- paper .15 pd. MISCELLANEOUS. Blaikie On Self Culture, ----- cL .25 .20 .03 Fitch's Improvement in Education, - paper .15 pd. Gardner's Town and Country School Buildings, cl. 2.50 2.00 .12 Lubbock's Best 100 Books, ----- paper .20 pd. Pooler's N. Y. Scbool Law, ----- cl. .30 .24 m Portrait of Washington, ----- 5.00 pd. •Walsh's Great Rulers of the World, - cL .50 .40 .05 Wilbelm's Student's Calendar, - paper .30 .24 .03 Bas-Reliefs of 12 Authors, each, - 1.00 pd. SINGING AND DIALOGUE BOOKS. •Arbor Day, How to Celebrate It, paper .25 pd. Reception Day Series, 6 Nos. (Set $1.40 postpaid.) Each. .30 .24 .03 Song Treasures. ------- paper .15 pd. * Best Primary Songs, new - - - - - - - ,15 pd, ♦Washington's Birthday, How to Celebrate It, - paper .25 pd. SCHOOL APPARATUS. Smith's Rapid Practice Arithmetic Cards, (32 sets), Each, .50 pd. " Standard " Manikin. (Sold by subscription.) Price on application. "Man Wonderlul" Manikin, - 4.00 pd. Standard Blackboard Stencils, 500 different nos., from 5 to 50 cents each. Send for special catalogue. " Unique " Pencil Sharpener, - - - - 1.50 .10 ♦Russell's Solar Lantern, ----- 35.00 pd. Standard Physician's Manikin. (Sold by subscription.) ^~ 100 page classified, illustrated, descriptive Catalogue of the above and many other Method Books, Teachers' Helps, sent free. 100 page Cat- logue'of books for teachers, of all|publishers, light school apparatus, etc., sent free. Each of these contain our special teachers' prices. E. L. KELLOGG & CO., New York & Chicago. SEND ALX, ORDERS TO 20 E L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK <& CHICAGO. Hughes Securing and Retaining Atten* tion. By James L. Hughes, Inspector Schools, Toronto, Canada, author of "Mistakes in Teaching." Cloth, 116 pp. Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 cents extra. This valuable little book has already become widely known te American teachers. Our new edition has been almost entirety re-written, and several new important chapters added. It is the only authorized copyright edition. Caution. — Buy no other. WHAT IT CONTAINS. I. General Principles; II. Kinds of Attention; III. Characteristics of Good Attention; IV. Conditions of Attention; V. Essential Characteristics of the Teacher in Securing and Retaining Attention; VI. How to Control a Class; VII. Methods of Stimulating and Controlling a Desire for Knowledge; "VIII. How to Gratify and Develop the Desire for Mental Activity; IX. Distracting Attention; X. Training the Power of Attention; XI. General Suggestions regarding Attention. TESTIMONIALS. S. P. Bobbins, Pres. McGill Normal School, Montreal, Can., writes to Mr. Hughes:—" It is quite superfluous for me to say that your little books are admirable. I was yesterday authorized to put the ' Attention ' on the list of books to be used in the Normal School next year. Crisp and attractive in style, and mighty by reason of its good, sound common-sense, it is a book that every teacher should know." Popular Educator (Boston):—" Mr. Hughes has embodied the best think- ing of Iris life in these pages." Central School Journal (la.).—" Though published four or five years since, this book has steadily advanced in popularity." Educational Courant (Ky.).— "It is intensely practical. There isn't a mystical, muddy expression in the book." Educational Times (England).—" On an important subject, and admir< ably executed." School Guardian (England).—" We unhesitatingly recommend it." New England Journal of Education.—" The book is a guide and a manual of special value." New York School Journal.—" Every teacher would derive benefit from reading this volume." Chicago Educational Weekly.— "The teacher who aims at best sue* ess should study it." Phil. Teacher.—" Many who have spent months in the school-room would be benefited by it." Maryland School Journal.—" Always clear, never tedious." Va. Ed. Journal.—" Excellent hints as to securing attention." Ohio Educational Monthly.—" We advise readers to send for a copy." Pacific Home and School Journal.—" An excellent little manual." Prest. James H. Hoose, State Normal School. Cortland, N. Y., says:— "The book must prove of great benefit to the profession." Supt. A. W. Edson, Jersey City, N. J., says:—" A good treatise has long been needed, and Mr. Hughes has supplied the want." SEND ALL ORDERS TO & M. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. AUeris Mind Studies for Young Teach- ers. By Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor of the School Journal, Prof, of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of N. Y. 16mo, large, clear type, 128 pp. Cloth, 50 cents ; to teachers, 40 cents ; by mail, 5 cents extra. There are many teachers who Know little about psychology, and who desire to be better in- formed concerning its princi- ples, especially its relation to the work of teaching. For the aid of such, this book has been pre- pared. But it is not a psychol- ogy — only an introduction to it, aiming to give some funda- mental principles, together with something concerning the phi- losophy of education. Its meth- od is subjective rather than ob- jective, leading the student to watch mental processes, and draw his own conclusions. It is written in language easy to be comprehended, and has many Vf// Jerome Allen, Ph.D. , Associate Editor practical illustrations. It will of the Journal and Institute. aid the teacher in his daily work in dealing with mental facts and states. To most teachers psychology seems to be dry. This book shows how it may become the most interesting of all studies. It also shows how to begin the knowledge of self. " We cannot know in others what we do not first know in ourselves." This is the key-note of this book. Students of elementary psychology will appreciate this feature of "Mind Studies." ITS CONTENTS. CHAP. I. How to Study Mind. II. Some Facts in Mind Growth. III. Development. IV. Mind Incentives. V. A few Fundamental Principles Settled. VI. Temperaments. VII. Training of the Senses. VIII. Attention. IX. Perception. X. Abstraction. XI. Faculties used in Abstract Thinking. CHAP. XII. From the Subjective to the Conceptive. XIII. The Will. XIV. Diseases of the Will. XV. Kinds of Memory. XVI. The Sensibilities. XVII Relation of the Sensibilities to the Will. XVIil. Training of the Sensibilities. XIX. Relation of the Sensibilitiea to Morality. XX. The Imagination. 1 XXI. Imagination in its Maturity. • Z£H. Education of the Moral Sense. SKND ALL ORDERS TO E. L. KELLOGG & C0. 9 NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 25 Tayne's Lectures on the Science and Art op Education. Reading Circle Edition. By Joseph Payne, the first Professor of the Science and Art of Edu- cation in the College of Preceptors, London, England. With portrait. 16mo, 350 pp., English cloth, with gold back stamp. Price, $1.00 ; to teachers, 80 cents ; by mail,. 7 cents extra. Elegant new edition from new plates. Teachers who are seeking te know the principles of education will find them clearly set forth in this volume. It must be remem- bered that principles are the basis upon which all methods of teach- ing must be founded. So valu- able is this book that if a teacher were to decide to own but three works on education, this would be one of them. This edition contains all of Mr. Payne's writ- ings that are in any other Ameri- can abridged edition, and is the only one with his portrait. It is far superior to any other edition '"^^RKOT ^ published. Joseph Payne. WHY THIS EDITION IS THE BEST. (1.) The side-titles. These give the contents of the page, (2.) The analysis of each lecture, with reference to the educa- tional points in it. (3.) The general analysis pointing out the three great principles found at the beginning. (4.) The index, where, under such heads as Teaching, Education, The Child, the important utterances of Mr. Payne are set forth. (5.) Its handy shape, large type, fine paper, and press-work and tasteful binding. All of these features make this a most val- uable book. To obtain all these features in one edition, it was found necessary to get out this new edition. t Ohio Educational Monthly.— "It does not deal with shadowy tneories; it is intensely practical." Philadelphia Educational News— "Ought to be in library of every progressive teacher." Educational Courant.— " To know how to teach, more if needed than a knowledge of the branches taught. This is especially variable." Pennsylvania Journal of Education.—" Will be of practical value te Normal Schools and InstituttT ^- . SEND ALD ORDERS TO E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 11 Shaw and TfonneU's School ^Devices. '* School Devices." A book of ways and suggestions foi teachers. By Edward E. Shaw and Webb Donnell, of the High School at Yonkers, N. Y. Illustrated. Dark-blue cloth binding, gold, 16mo, 224 pp. Price, $1.25 ; to teach- ers, $1.00 ; by mail, 9 cents extra. «^=A BOOK OF "WAYS" FOR TEACHERS.^ Teaching is an art ; there are " ways to do it." This book is made to point out " ways," and to help by suggestions. 1. It gives " ways " for teaching Language, Grammar, Read- ing, Spelling, Geography, etc. These are in many cases novel ; they are designed to help attract the attention of the pupil. 2. The " ways " given are not the questionable " ways " so often seen practiced in school-rooms, but are in accord with the spirit of modern educational ideas. 3. This book will afford practical assistance to teachers who wish to keep their work from degenerating into mere routine. It gives them, in convenient form for constant use at the desk, a multitude of new ways in which to present old truths. The great enemy of the teacher is want of interest. Their methods do not attract attention. There is no teaching unless there is attention. The teacher is too apt to think there is but one " way " of teaching spelling ; he thus falls into a rut. Now there are many " ways " of teaching spell- ing, and some " ways " are better than others. Variety must exist in the school-room ; the authors of this volume deserve the thanks of the teachers for pointing out methods of obtain- ing variety without sacrificing the great end sought — scholar- ship. New "ways" induce greater effort, and renewal of activity. 4. The book gives the result of large actual experience in the school-room, and will meet the needs of thousands of teachers, by placing at their command that for which visits to other schools are made, institutes and associations attended, viz., new ideas and fresh and forceful ways of teaching. The devices given under Drawing and Physiology are of an eminently practical nature, and cannot fail to invest these subjects with new interest. The attempt has been made to present only devices of a practical character. 5. The book suggests " ways " to make teaching effective ; it is not simply a book of new " ways," but of " ways " that wiH produce good results. SEKD AM ORDERS TO B. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. & Teachers Manuals Series. Each is printed in large, clear type, on good paper. Paper cover, price 15 cents; to teach- ers, 12 cents; by mail, 1 cent extra. There is a need of small vol- umes — " Educational tracts," that teachers can carry easily and study as they have opportunity. The following numbers have been ah ready published. It should be noted that while our editions of such of these little books that are not written specially for this series are as low in price as any other, the side-heads, top- ics, and analyses inserted by the editor, as well as the excellent paper and printing, make them far superior in every way to any other edition.. We would suggest that city super- intendents or conductor's of institutes supply each of their teachers with copies of these Utile books. Special rates for quantities. No. i. Fitch's Art of Questioning. By J. G. Fitch, M.A., author of " Lectures on Teaching." 38 pp. Already widely known as the most useful and practical essay on this most important part of the teachers' lesson-hearing. No. 2. Fitch's Art of Securing Attention. By J. G. Fitch, M. A. 39 pp. Of no less value than the author's "Art of Questioning." No. 3. Sidgwich's On Stimulus in School. B.y Arthur Sidgwick, M.A. 43 pp. N w can that dull, lazy scholar be pressed on to work up his lessons with a will?" This bright essay will tell how it can be done. No. 4. Yonge's Practical Work in School. , By Charlotte M. Yonge, author of " Heir of Redclyffe," 35 pp. - All who have read Miss Yonge's books will be glad to read or her views on School Work. No. 5. Fitch's Improvement in the Art of Teaching. By 3. G. Fitch, M.A. &"> pp. his thoughtful, earnest essay will bring courage and help to many a teacher who is struggling to do better work. It includes a course of study tor Teachers' Training Classes. J. G. Fitch, Inspector of the Training Colleges of England. SEND ALL ORDERS TO B. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. No. 6. Gladstone's Object Teaching. By J. H. Gladstone, of the London (Eng.) School Board. 25 pp. A short manual full of practical suggestions on Object Teaching. No. 7. Huntington's Unconscious Tuition. Bishop Huntington has placed all teachers under profound obligations to him by writing this work. The earnest teacher has felt its earnest spirit, due to its interesting discussion of the foundation principles of education. It is wonderfully suggestive. No. 8. Hughes' How to Keep Order. By James L. Hughes, author of " Mistakes in Teaching." Mr. Hughes is one of the few men who know what to say to help a young teacher. Thousands are to-day asking, " How shall we keep order ?" Thousands are saying, " I can teach well enough, but I cannot keep order." To such we recommend this little book. No. 9. Quick's How to Train the Memory. By Rev. R. H. Quick, author of " Educational Reformers." This book comes from school-room experience, and is not a matter of theory. Much attention has been lately paid to increasing the power of memory. The teacher must make it part of his business to store the memory, hence he must know how to do it properly and according to the laws of the mind. No. 10. Hoffman's Kindergarten Gifts. By Heinrich Hoffman, a pupil of Kroebel. The author sets forth very clearly the best methods of using tnem for training the child's senses and power of observation. No. 11. Sutler's Argument for Manual Training. By Nicholas Murray Butler, Pres. of N. Y. College for Training o£ Teachers. A clear statement of the foundation principles of Industrial Education No. 12. Groff's School Hygiene. Bv Pres. G. G. Groff, of Bucknell University, Pa. No. 13. McMurry's How to Conduct the Recitation. By Chas„ McMurry, Prof, in State Normal School, Winona, Minn. ' In 34 pp. is explained the ideas of the Hubart school of educators as re gards class teaching. These are now acknowledged to be the scientific method. Grube's plan for teaching primary arithmetic is in the same line No. I4. Carter's Artificial Production of Stupidity in Schools. By R. Brudenell Carter, F. R. S. This celebrated paper has been so often referred to that we reprint ft In neat form, with side-headings. 49 pp. No, 15. Kellogg' $ Pestaloni : His Educational Work and Principles. By Amos M. Kellogg, editor of the School Journal. 29 pp. A clear idea is given in this book of what this great reformer and dis< coverer in education thought and did. His foundation principles are made specially prominent. No. 16. Lang's Basedow. 32 pp. Same price as above. No t?. Lang's Comemius. By Ossian H. Lang. 32 pp. _Same price as 1 SEND ALL ORDERS TO R L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. Quick's Educational Reformers. By Rev. Kobeet Herbert Quick, M. A., of Trinity College, Cambridge, England. Bound in plain, but elegant cloth binding. 16mo, about 350 pp. $1.00; to teachers, 80 cts. ; by- mail, 10 cts. extra. New edition with topical headings, chronological table and. other aids for systematic study in normal schools and reading-circles. No book in the history of education has been so justly popular as this. Mr. Quick has the remarkable faculty of grasping the salient points of the work of the great educators, and restating their ideas in clear and vigorous language. This book supplies information that is contained in no other single volume, touching the progress of education in its earliest stages after the revival of learning. It is the work of a practical teacher, who supplements his sketches of famous educationists with some well-considered observations, that deserve the atten- tion of all who are interested in that subject. Beginning with Roger Ascham, it gives an account of the lives and schemes of most of the great thinkers and workers in the educational field, down to Herbert Spencer, with the addition of a valuable appen- dix oj thoughts and suggestions on teaching. The list includes the names of Montaigne, Ratich, Milton, Comenius, Locke, Rous- seau, Basedow Pestalozzi. and Jacotot. In the lives and thoughts of these eminent men is presented the whole philosophy of edu- cation, as developed in the progress of modern times. This book has been adopted by nearly every state reading-circle in the country, and purchased by thousands of teachers, and is used in many normal schools. Contents: 1. Schools of the Jesuits; 2. Ascham, Montaigne, Ratich, Milton: 3. Comenius; 4. Locke- 5. Rousseau's Emile; 6. Basedow and the Philanthropin ; 7. Pestalozzi ; 8. Jacotot ; 9. Herbert Spencer; 10. Thoughts and Suggestions about Teaching Children; 11. Some Remarks about Moral and Religious Educa- tion; 12. Appendix. OUR NEW EDITION. Be sure to get E. L. Kellogg's edition. There are other editions in the market that are not only higher in price, but very inferior in binding and typography and without the paragraph headings that are so useful. Our edition is complete with all these improve- ments, is beautifully printed and exquisitely bound in cloth, and the retail price is only $1.00, with discounts to teachers and read- ing-circles. BEND Alili ORDERS TO E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. Curries Early Education, " The Principles and Practice of Early and Infant School Education." By James Currie, A. M., Prin. Church of Scotland Training College, Edinburgh. Author of " Common School Education," etc. With an introduction by Clarence E. Meleney, A. M., Supt. Schools, Paterson, N. J. Bound in blue cloth, gold, 16mo, 290 pp. Price, $1.25 ; to teachers, $i oo ; by mail, 8 cents extra. WHY THIS BOOK IS VALUABLE. 1. Pestalozzi gave New England its educational supremacy. The Pestalozzian wave struck this country more than forty years ago, and produced a mighty shock. It set New Eng- land to thinking. Horace Mann became eloquent to help on the change, and went up and down Massachusetts, urging in earnest tones the change proposed by the Swiss educator. What gave New England its educational supremacy was its reception of Pestalozzi's doctrines. Page, Philbrick, Barnard were all his disciples. 2. It is the work of one of the best expounders of Pes- talozzi. Forty years ago there was an upheaval in education. Pes- talozzi's words were acting like yeast upon educators ; thou- sands had been to visit his schools at Y Verdun, and on their return to their own lands had reported the wonderful scenes they had witnessed. Rev. James Currie comprehended the movement, and sought to introduce it. Grasping the ideas of this great teacher, he spread them in Scotland ; but that country was not elastic and receptive. Still, Mr. Currie's presentation of them wrought a great change, and he is to be reckoned as the most powerful exponent of the new ideas in Scotland. Hence this book, which contains them, must be considered as a treasure by the educator. 3. This volume is really a Manual of Principles of Teaching. It exhibits enough of the principles to make the teacher intelligent in her practice. Most manuals give details, but no foundation principles. The first part lays a psychological basis— the only one there is for the teacher ; and this is done in a simple and concise way. He declares emphatically that teaching cannot be learned empirically. That is, that one can- uot watch a teacher and see how he does it, and then, imitat' ing, claim to be a teacher. The principles must be learned. 4. It ».s a Manual of Practice in Teaching,, SEVD ALL ORDERS TO B. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. Reinharfs Outline History of Education. With chronological Tables, Suggestions, and Test Questions. By J. A. Reinhart, Ph. D. Teachers' Professional Library. 77 pp., limp cloth, 25 cents; to teachers, 20 cents; by mail 2 cents extra. This is one of the little books intended to be studied in con- nection with The Teachers' Profession. The publishers, by means of these publications bring to the very doors of those teachers who lack the opportunity to attend a normal school a chance to improve in the art of teaching. " Outlines of History of Education " is what its name implies, a brief but comprehen- sive presentation of the main facts in educational progress. The chapters are: Introduction; Education among the Greeks; Educa- tion among the Romans; Education in the Middle Ages; the Dawn of the New Era; Education and the Reformation; Educa- tion in the Seventeenth Century; Education in the Eighteenth Century; Education in the Nineteenth Century. A thorough study of this book will be a good foundation for a more detailed study of the subject. The book is well printed from clear, large type, with topic heads and questions, and is durably bound in limp cloth. Reinharfs Outline Principles of Education By J. A. Reinhart., Ph. D. Teachers' Professional Library. 68 pp., limp cloth, 25 cents. To give an outline of a great subject, including nothing trivial and leaving out nothing important, is a great art. This difficult task has been successfully performed by the author of this small volume, who is an educator of long experience, and a thorough student of the science of education. The first two chapters give a general view of the subject, and the other chapters treat of the intuitive, imaginative, and logical stages of education, and the principles of moral education. This is one of the volumes intended to be studied in connection with the monthly paper, The Teachers' Profession. Type, printing, binding are neat and durable, and like the History by same author. Reinhart' s Civics in Education, is another little book of same price and number of pages. Ready Nov. 1891. SEND ALL ORDERS TO -;. L. KELLOGG & GO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. ±7 IVelcb's Teachers Psychology. A Treatise on the Intellectual Faculties, the Order of the Growth, and the Corresponding Series of Studies by which they are Educated. By the late A. S. Welch, Professor of Psychology, Iowa Agricultural College, formerly Pres. of the Mich. Normal School. Cloth, 12mo, 300 pp., $1.25; to teachers, $1; by mail, 12 cents extra. Special terms to Normal Schools and Reading Circles. A mastery of the branches to be taught was once thought, to be an all-sufficient preparation for teaching. But it is now seen that there must be a knowledge of the mind that is to be trained. Psychology is the foundation of intelligent pedagogy. Prof. Welch undertook to write a book that should deal with mind- unfolding, as exhibited in the school-room. He shows what is meant by attending, memorizing, judging, abstracting;, imagining, classifying, etc., as it is done by the pupil over his text-books. First, there is the concept; then there is (1) gathering concepts, (2) storing concepts, (3) dividing concepts, (4) abstracting concepts, (5) build- ing concepts, (6) grouping con- cepts, (7) connecting concepts, (8) deriving concepts. Each of these is clearly explained and il- lustrated ; the reader instead of being bewildered over strange terms comprehends that imagina- tion means a building up of con- cepts, and so of the other terms. A most valuable part of the book is its application to practical education. How to train these powers that deal with the concept — that is the question. There must be exercises to train the mind to gather, store, divide, abstract, build, group, connect, and derive concepts. The author shows what studies do this appropriately, and where there are mistakes made in the selection of studies. The book will prove a valuable one to the teacher who wishes to know the structure of the mind and the way to minister to its growth. It would seem thatat last a psychology had been written that would be a real aid, in- stead of a hindrance, to clear knowledge, Welch. . SEND ALL ORDERS TO R L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 55 621 Sherman's March. 622 Battle Fields of Ky. and Tenn. 623 Battle Field of Va. 624 Petersburg and Appotomax. MISCELLANEOUS. Size, 17x22 inches. Price, singly, 5 cents each. In groups with one extra design, 25 cents. Group One— CHILDREN. x In a Swing. 4 Kite Flying. 2 Jumping Rope. 5 Skating. 3 Leap Frog. Group Two— CHILDREN. 6 Feeding Doves. 9 On a Toboggan. 7 RollingtheHoop.10 Where am I ? 8 Blowing Soap Bubbles. Group Three— CHILDREN. 11 Two Lillies. 14 Fast Friends. 12 Training Pussy. 15 Dance, Little 13 What Do I Care. Baby. Group Four— CHILDREN. 16 Oh, How High ! 18 " My Pony Loves 17 Naughty Tab Sugar." and Dash. 19 Can I Get Them? 20 Mud Pies. Group Five— CHILDREN. 21 Saved From 23 Learning to Drowning. Read. 22 St. Bernard: Dog 24 Who Broke the and Boy. Window ? 25 The Milkmaid. Group Six-CHILDREN. 26 Wide Awake. 29 The Pet Squirrel. 27 Fast Asleep. 30 Learning to 28 Have You Been Walk. Bathing ? Group Seven— ON THE SEA-SHORE. 31 Star Fish. 34 Jelly Fish. 32 Hermit Crab. 35 Red Coral. 33 Lobster. Group Eight-PRESIDENTS. 36 Washington. 39 Lincoln. 37 Jefferson. 40 Grant. 38 Jackson. Group Nine— POETS. 41 Whittier. 44 Bryant. 42 Longfellow. 45 Tennyson. 43 Emerson. Group Ten-DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 46 Cow and Calf. 49 Camel. 47 Horse and Colt. 50 Reindeer. 48 Elephant and Baby. Group Eleven -DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 51 Dog. 54 Pig. 52 Cat. 55 Goat. 53 Sheep. Group Twelve-SMALL ANIMALS. 56 Rabbit. 59 Mouse. 57 Bat. 60 Lynx. 58 Rat. Group Thirteen— LARGE WILD ANI- MALS. 61 Polar Bear. 64 Rhinoceros. 62 Lion. 65 Hippopotamus. 63 Lioness. And many others. Full Group Fourteen— ANIMALS. 66 Wolf. 69 Kangaroo. 67 Fox. 70 Donkey. 68 Hyena. Group Fifteen— FLOWERS. 71 Wild Rose. 74 Laurel Spray. 72 Calla Lily. 75 Pear Blossom. 73 Solomon's Seal. Group Sixteen— FLOWERS. 76 Wood Violet. 79 Morning Glories. 77 Pond Lilies. 80 Fuchsias. 78 Roses. Group Seventeen— BIRDS. 81 Quails. 84 Stork. 82 Woodcocks. 85 Swan. 83 Eagle Flying. Group Eighteen-OLD AND YOUNG. 86 Hen and Chick- 88 Duck and Duck- ens, lings. 87 Goose and Gos- 89 Owl and Owlets. lings. 90 Bird and Young. Group Nineteen— BUILDINGS. 91 Light-house. 94 Bird House. 92 Castle. 95 Fort, 93 Wind Mill. Group Twenty— PATRIOTIC LIST. 96 The American 99 The American Flag. Eagle. 97 Liberty Bell. 100 Goddess of Lib- 98 U. S. Coat of erty. Arms. BORDERS. 101 Spiral Curves. 102 Greek Fret. 103 Triangular Combinations. 104 Greek Fret. 105 Greek Pattern Anthimion 106 Egyptian Lotos. 107 Ivy Leaf. 108 Dog Wood. 109 Holly Leaf and Berries. 110 Holly Leaf and Berries. ROLLS OF HONOR. 111 Script Letters, plain. 112 Script Letters, fancy. 113 Old English Letters. 114 German Text. 115 American Eagle on Shield. 116 Excelsior. WRITING CHARTS. 117 Capitals and Small Letters. The letters are nearly 6 in. high. Size of Stencils 9x36 in. The set contains 11 charts. Price, 50 cents a set. PHYSIOLOGY CHARTS. Six charts, size 24x36 in. each. Price, 10 cents each. Set 50 cents. 118 Bones. 121 Lungs. 119 Skull. 123 Liver. 120 Heart. 124 Intestines. NATURAL HISTORY CHARTS. Price each, 10 cents, except No. 136. Size 24x36 inches. 8 nos. catalogue on application. SEND ALL ORDERS TO E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. Song Treasures. THE PRICE HAS JUST BEEN GREATLY REDUCED. Compiled by Amos M. Kellogg, editor of the School Jour- nal. Elegant green and gold paper cover, 64 pp. Price, 15 cents each ; to teachers, 12 cents ; by mail, 2 cents extra. 10th thousand. Special terms to schools for 25 copies and over. This is a most valua- ble col lee- |||i tion of mu- %\ sic for all schools and institutes. 1. Most of the pieces have been se- lected by the teachers as favorites in the schools. They are the ones the pu- pils love to sing. 2. All the pieces " have a ring to them ;" they are easily learned, and will not be forgotten. 3. The themes and words are appropriate for young people. In these respects the work will be found to possess unusual merit. Nature, the Flowers, the Seasons, the Home, our Duties, our Creator, are entuned with beautiful music. 4. Great ideas may find an entrance into the mind through music. Aspirations for the good, the beautiful, and the true* are presented here in a musical form. 5. Many of the words have been written especially for the book. One piece, " The Voice Within Us," p. 57, is worth the price of the book. 6. The titles here given show the teacher what we mean : Ask the Children, Beauty Everywhere, Be in Time, Cheerfulness, Christmas Bells, Days of Summer Glory, The Dearest Spot, Evening Song, Gentle Words, Going to School, Hold up the Rietat Hand, I Love the .^erry, Merry Sunshine, Kind Deeds, Over in the Meadows, Our Happy School, Scatter the Germs of the Beautiful, Time to Walk, The Joliy Workerd, The Teacher's Life, Tribute to Whittier, etc., etc SEND ALL ORDERS TO B. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YOR K & CHICAGO. 53 Standard "Black ""Board Stencils. Aids to Illustration. The need of illustration in the work of the school-room is felt by every teacher; but lack of skill in drawing is a great obstacle. To overcome this we are manufacturing an entirely new line of blackboard stencils, by which hundreds of ob- jects may be put on the blackboard quickly and handsomely by any teacher however inex- perienced in drawing. Indeed it can be done by almost any pupil. Our blackboard stencils beautify the school-room and make it attrac- tive. They give good models for drawing and writing lessons. They assist the teacher in illustrating Geography, Language, Botany, and History. No class-room is complete with- out these available aids. Our standard blackboard stencils are made of tough manilla paper of great strength, made specially for us, on which the design is traced. These stencils will enable the teacher to put a handsome illustration on the blackboard in Language Lessons, Geography, Physiology, History, Botany, etc., etc., and thus attract and hold the attention of the class. These stencils can be used any number of times. Five to ten minutes will give a perfect map, or a drawing of an elephant, children playing, etc. A large and perfect map of Europe, 24x30 inches, showing all the prominent rivers, lakes, mountains and large cities can be made in eight mvnutes. Each stencil can be used an indefinite number of times, and only requires a little pulverized chalk for im- mediate use. WHY THE BEST. 1. All our designs are new and of a high grade of artistic merit. 2. The animals, plants, children, birds, portraits, etc., etc., are put on paper 17x22 inches in size. The maps are usually 24x36 inches in size. No other stencils on the market compete with them in size. 8. The maps are from the recent surveys and are absolutely correct in outline. 4. Each figure and map is plainly numbered and named to correspond with the catalogue. 5. Many of these stencils are arranged in groups. Each group contains five (5) Stencils, packed in h strong envelope. This envelope gives us a secure way of sending the stencils by mail, and the buyer a neat receptacle to pack each away when through using. Sold in Single Numbers as well as in groups. TWO SAMPLES FOR TRIAL. A simple map of South America and a design suitable for a laneruage or drawing lesson will be mailed post paid for 10 cents. We will also send a complete catalogue. SEND ALL ORDERS TO 54 E. L. KELLOGG <& GO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. MAPS. These maps are made on special ma- nilla paper, size 24x36 inches. Price, 10 cts. each. Please order by number. 501 Eastern Hemisphere. 502 Western Hemisphere. 503 Mercator's Eastern Hemisphere. 504 Mercator's Western Hemisphere. 505 North America. 506 South America. 507 Europe. 508 Asia. 509 Africa. 510 Australia. 511 British Isles. 512 Mexico. 513 Canada. 514 West Indies. SEPARATE STATES AND TERRITO- RIES. 48 maps, 24x36 inches. Price, 10 cents each, as follows : Please order by num- 524 Alaska. 548 Missouri. 525 Alabama. 549 Minnesota. 526 Arizona. 550 Montana. 527 Arkansas. 551 N. Hamp. 528 California. 552 N. Jersey. 529 Colorado. 553 N. Mexico. 530 Conn. 554 New York. 531 Dakota. 555 Nebraska. 532 Delaware. 556 Nevada. 533 Florida. 557 N. Carolina. 534 Georgia. S58 Ohio. 535 Idaho. 559 Oregon. 536 Illinois. 56(kPenn. 537 Indiana. 56rR. Island. 538 Ind. Ter.- 562 S. Carolina. 539 Iowa. 563 Tenn. 540 Kansas. 564 Texas. 541 Kentucky. 565 Utah. 542 Louisiana. 566 Vermont. 543 Maine. 567 Virginia. 544 Maryland. 568 Wash. Ter. 545 Mass. 569 West Virginia. 546 Michigan. 570 Wisconsin. 547 Mississippi. 571 Wyoming. GROUPS OF STATES. Size 24x36 inches. Please order by number. Price, 10 cents each. 515 New England, comprising Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Ct. 516 Middle Atlantic— N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., V;>., and W. Va. 517 Southern States (three groups). No. I— N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., and Tex. 518 No. II.— W. Va., Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla., Ala., and Miss. 519 No. III.— Ark., La., Tex., and In- dian Ter. 520 Central States (two groups). No. I.-Minn., Wis., Mich., la., 111., Ind., Ohio, Mo., and Ky. 521 No. II —Dak. Ter., Minn., Wis., Mich., Neb., la., 111., Ind., Ohio, Kan., Mo., and Ky. 522 Western States (two groups). No. I.— Wash. Ter., Idaho, Mon. Ter., Dak. Ter., Oregon, Wyoming Ter., Neb., Cal., Nev., Utah, Col., Kan., Arizona Ter., N. Mex., Ind. Ter., and Tex. 523 No. II.— Wash. Ter., Idaho Ter., Mon. Ter., Oregon, Wyoming Ter., Cal., Nev., Utah Ter., Col., Arizona Ter., New Mex. LARGE MAPS. These stencils make maps as large as the largest wall maps. 572 United States, 34x56 inches. Price, 50 cents. 573 Mercator's Eastern and Western Hemisphere with Western Hemisphere repeated, 34x56. Price, 50 cents. HISTORICAL MAPS. Please order by number. 600 Mercator's Eastern and Western Hemispheres with the Western Hemis- phere repeated, showing all the routes of the early voyagers to America and around the world. Price, 50 cents. 601 Large map of the U. S. showing territorial growth. Price, 25 cents. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Five maps, each 24x36 in. Price, 10 cents each. Set, 50 cents. 602 Map of Va. and Pa., showing Wash- ington's home, route taken in his jour- ney to St. Pierre, Ft. Duquesne. 603 Map of N. Y., showing all forts on the great lakes and Lake Champlain. 604 Canada, showing all the principal places and Nova Scotia. 605 Map showing British possessions before the War. 606 Map showing British possessions after the War. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. Five maps, each 24x36 in. Price, 50 cents each. 50 cents a set. 607 Boston and vicinity. N. Y. and vicinity. 608 Phila., Trenton, Valley Forge, Monmouth. 609 Burgoyne's Invasion. 610 Yorktown and Southern Battle Fields. 611 Map showing Territory of U. S. at close of the War. WAR OF 1812. Three maps, size 24x36 in. each. Price, 10 cents each. 612 Great Lakes and vicinity, showing battle fields. 613 Washington and vicinity. 614 New Orleans. CIVIL WAR. Size, 24x36 in. Price, 10 cents each. $1.00 a set. 615 U. S., showing territory seceded. 616 Washington and vicinity. 617 Richmond and vicinity. 618 Charleston Harbor. 619 Miss. River, New Orleans, ete= 620 Gettysburg Campaign. SEttD ALL ORDERS TO B. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK