UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 GERHART HAUPTMANN 
 
 AND 
 
 JOHN GALSWORTHY, 
 A PARALLEI. 
 
 By 
 WALTER H. R. TRUMBAUER 
 
 A THESIS 
 
 Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School in partial fulfillment 
 of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. PA. 
 1917 
 
1917 
 
 Main! 
 
 It is with pleasure I acknoWledgt my 
 indebtedness to Professor Co.-neliusWt-y- 
 gandt, first, for inspiring in me an Intci ■ 
 est in modern drama, and second, for his 
 valuable counsel. I wish also to thank 
 Professors C. G. Child and F. E. Schell- 
 ing, and Mr. Karl Scholz for helpful sug- 
 gestions. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Chapter I. Introduction 9 
 
 Chapter II. Subject Matter 13 
 
 Chapter III. Art 37 
 
 Chapter IV. The Parallel Plays .- 65 
 
 Die Weber and Strife 65 
 
 Der Biherpelz and The Silver Box 68 
 
 Hanneles Himmclfahrt and The Little Dream. . 71 
 
 Michael Kramer and A Bit o' Love 72 
 
 Chapter V. Conclusion 76 
 
 Bibliography 79 
 
GERHART HAUPTMANN AND JOHN GALSWORTHY, 
 A PARALLEL. 
 
 L 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 John Galsworthy has unconsciously created on the last page of The 
 Country House a symbol of the relationship between Gerhart Hauptmann 
 and himself. Thus he puts it : "The faces of the Rector and Mr. Pendyce 
 were turned up at the same angle, and different as those faces and figures 
 were in their eternal rivalry of type, a sort of essential likeness struck her 
 with a feeling of surprise. It was as though a single spirit seeking for a 
 body had met with these two shapes, and becoming confused decided to 
 inhabit both." The astonishing thing is, not that a spiritual relationship 
 should exist between them, but that it should express itself in singular 
 parallels in their works and their careers. 
 
 The parallels in their careers take the form of interesting coincidences. 
 First, is the proximity of their ages. Then, is the fact that, tho each 
 has travelled extensively, each has laid the scenes of his works almost 
 exclusively in his native country. Moreover, each is pre-occupied with 
 his native district, Hauptmann in Silesia and Galsworthy with Devon. 
 As nearly all of the few exceptions are the results of travels, it can readily 
 be seen which countries have had the greatest influence upon them. These 
 few exceptions are, in the case of Hauptmann, laid wholly or partly, in 
 Italy,^ Switzerland,- Poland,^ Greece* and America f in the case of Gals- 
 worthy, in Italy ,^ Tyrol,'^ Germany,^ South Africa'' and America." Each, 
 it should be noticed, has visited Italy and America. Although neither 
 would pose as a prophet, each has written a prophetic book — Hauptmann, 
 
 ^Promethidenlos and Griselda. 
 
 -Dcr Apostel. 
 
 'Elga. 
 
 *Der Bogen des Odysseus and Gricchischer Frilhling. 
 
 ^Atlantis. 
 
 °"A Knight" in Villa Rubein and Other Stories, The Dark Flower, "Wind in the 
 Rocks" and "The Inn of TranquilHty" in The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 
 '"Villa Rubein" and The Little Dream. 
 
 ^"The Salvation of a Forsythe" in Villa Rubein and Other Stories. 
 
 '"A Woman" in A Motley. 
 
 ""The Silence" in J 'ilia Rubein and Other Stories, and "That Old Time Place" in 
 The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 
 [9] 
 
lO Ccrhcri H nuptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 Atlantis before the sinking of the Titanic, Galsworthy, The Mob before 
 the outbreak of the present war. Each is well versed in painting and 
 music. Each is a poet, a novdist, a dramatist of international repute. 
 Each has written prose sketches and comments, and an introduction to 
 another's work. 
 
 Hauptmann and Galsworthy are not what might be called "popu- 
 lar" writers. Their work is far above the comprehension of the mass of 
 people, and much too universal, too tolerant for the specialist. For the 
 man who desires mere art, or the man who desires mere amusement, they 
 have a superabundance of thought ; for the man who desires only ideas, 
 they are provokingly artistic. Consequently they write "fiir wenige Edle," 
 who can appreciate both their art and their thought. From this it must not 
 be inferred that either is isolated in some back eddy, out of the current 
 of modern life. The reverse is nearer the truth. Altho not channel break- 
 ers they ar6 channel makers. Each is abreast of modern development in 
 both thought and technique. Each is a leader in our renascent drama — 
 which is renascent as Galsworthy says — "not because this or that i^an is 
 writing, but because of a new spirit." Both Hauptmann and Galsworthy 
 eminently represent this new spirit, since Hauptmann is the foremost 
 dramatist of contemporary Germany, as Galsworthy is of contemporary 
 England. This fact, together wath the importance of drama, and the uni- 
 versal interest in it at the present time, is the justification of the present 
 study. 
 
 The purpose of this paper is not to point out merely that this new spirit 
 expresses itself in these two men, but more especially that it expresses 
 itself similarly in these two men ; not to prove any indebtedness to any 
 author or movement, but to point out the singular phenomenon of paral- 
 lelism ; not to show why they are alike, but how they are alike. Analysis 
 or critical appraisal of the work of either author is not here attempted — 
 rather interpretative comparison. Moreover no claim is made that this 
 study is either exhaustive or complete. 
 
 While both Hauptmann and Galsworthy began to write at the end of 
 the nineteenth century, they are essentially writers of the twentieth. This 
 is because they look forward instead of backward or merely around. The 
 century just closed was one of change of incalculable significance in all 
 phases of life — industry, politics, religion, ethics, art, due primarily to the 
 development of science. Perhaps the greatest change was wrought by the 
 
Introduction ii 
 
 expansion of the material side of life. The introduction of improved 
 machinery produced industrialism. This made life more complex and 
 intense, and created plutocrats and industrial slaves. An accompaniment 
 of this material expansion was the extension of the democratic and social 
 spirit, given, as it v^^as, its initial impetus by the French Revolution, and 
 later, acceleration by Marxian Socialism. The result was to place 
 emphasis upon the individual and his right to political, economic and reli- 
 gious freedom. Scarcely less important than the material expansion of 
 life was the mental. If science changed man's environment and mode of 
 life, it likewise extended his mental horizon, by the introduction of new 
 ideas in practically every field of human endeavor. It made the world 
 smaller and created a cosmopolitan spirit. But the phase of science that 
 revolutionized all things was the theory of evolution. Adopted in 
 philosophy by Hegel, in biology by Darwin, in sociology and ethics by 
 Spencer, it uprooted the accepted notions in the whole realm of human 
 knowledge and necessitated a revaluation of standards. Life was no 
 longer static but evolutionary, the individual was no longer the end but a 
 link in a great casual chain. Biology became the study of heredity and 
 environment, history, of social and economic conditions. Religion turned 
 toward humanitarianism. In ethics moral standards were recognized as 
 neither fixed nor final. The latter half of the last century was the battle- 
 time of these ideas, and out of this strife between the old and the new, 
 arose new Hfe in all activities. 
 
 Literature, too, felt the impress of the changing spirit, and reflected the 
 clash of ideas in life. The democratic and social spirit emphasized the 
 individual, and the scientific spirit emphasized the detail. Conse- 
 quently, literature turned more and more from pure imagination 
 and intuition to observation ; hence an increasing tendency toward 
 realism, which culminated toward the end of the century in what was 
 popularly called Naturalism, in the works of Zola and his school. At the 
 same time came a greater realization that the individual has value — since 
 he is a link in a chain — by and for himself. Greater emphasis was given 
 to his right to self-development and self-expression. The extraordinary 
 gave way to the ordinary. Character, with its various psychological man- 
 ifestations, was studied in relation to social and economic conditions. 
 Life was no longer conceived of as a struggle with fate, or moral guilt, 
 
12 Gcrhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 but with heredity and environment. In the words of Wilde, "Heredity 
 
 was Nemesis without her mask the last of the P'ates and the most 
 
 terrible." This attitude rrSturally led to the scourging of social and moral 
 I evils and the challenging of conventional standards as the basis of final 
 i judgment. This second phase of the literary development is best repre- 
 sented by the works of Ibsen, altho it had already been forecasted in the 
 work of Hebbel. The third great historic figure in nineteenth century 
 literature is Tolstoi. In him one finds epitomized a greater spirituality 
 and a deeper sens,e,of brotherly love. 
 
 Contemporary authors are, therefore, building on ground already 
 broken. They are trying to reveal the organic bond that unites man with 
 the universe; trying to show that spirit is as real as matter; trying to dis- 
 close the ideal values of life. One phase of this striving is revealed in 
 Malise's apostrophe to the messenger boy : "Man of the world — product 
 Vof a material age ; incapable of perceiving reality in the motions of the 
 
 Spirit, "" Another phase is succinctly expressed in these words: 
 
 "In the individual soul 'they saw the reflection of a social longing and in 
 the individual character the product of the conflict between that 
 which is and that which is to be. In their works the individual stands not 
 merely for his age, but for the coming age begotten in his age."^- They 
 are therefore pointing forward to a deeper religious spirit, a broader hu- 
 manitarianism and tolerance ; a more real sympathy with the disinherited 
 of the social order. If sympathy with the disinherited and misunder- 
 stood was lacking in Ibsen, he nevertheless "came to realize that for the 
 future the artist's attitude toward life must be not only revelative: it 
 must be redemptive as well."^^ This attitude toward life has been assumed 
 by Hauptmann and Galsworthy, tho not as a conscious effort or with 
 definite purpose. Yet, that they realize the value of art as a redemptive 
 force is indicated by Galsworthy's own statement : "Art is the one form 
 of human energy which really works for union, and destroys the barriers 
 between man and man. It is the continual, unconscious replacement, how- 
 ever fleeting, of oneself by another.'"* 
 
 "T/z^ Fugitive, Act 3, Sc. i, p. 57. 
 
 "J. F. Coar: Studies in German Literature in the Nineteenth Century, Chap. 12, 
 p. 311- 
 
 "Archibald Henderson : The Changing Drama, p. 99. 
 ""Vague Tlionghts on Art" in The Inn of Tranquillity, p. 258. 
 
II. 
 
 Subje:ct Matter. 
 
 Hauptmann has written twenty-four dramas, an epic, two novels, two 
 legends for children, two sketches, some poetry and a diary of travel. 
 Galsworthy has written ten dramas, eight novels, four books of sketches 
 and commentaries and a book of poems. In this total volume of work 
 of the two men are many parallels — of subject matter, form and thought. 
 Sometimes these parallels are isolated — subject matter alone, form alone, 
 or thought alone. Sometimes they extend thru the entire work. But in 
 four plays there is a complete synthesis of almost parallel matter, form 
 and thought. These are : Die IVeher and Strife; Der Biberpeh and The 
 Silver Box; Hanneles Himmelfahrt and The Little Dream; Michael 
 Kramer and A Bit o' Love. By a survey of Hauptmann's and Gals- 
 worthy's complete work, and a somewhat detailed comparison of these 
 four plays, I hope to indicate the parallelism of the work of the two 
 authors. 
 
 Hauptmann divides his dramas into social, domestic, historic, legendary 
 and symbolic plays. The social dramas include Vor Sonnenaiifgang, Die 
 Weher,'Dcr Biherpels, Der rote Hahn, Fuhrman Henschel, Rose Bernd, 
 Die Ratten; the domestic and personal. Das Friedenfest, Einsame Men- 
 schen, College Crampton, Michael Kramer, Die Jimgfern vom Bischofs- 
 berg, Gabriel Schillings Flucht; the historic, Florian Geyer; the leg- 
 endary, Griselda, Kaiser Karls Geisel, Der arme Heinrich, Der Bogen des 
 Odysseus; the symbolic, Hanneles Himmelfahrt, Die versunkene Glocke, 
 Schluck und J an, Und Pip pa tan:::t! Galsworthy's plays may be roughly 
 fitted into this same classification. Strife like Die Weber deals with the 
 problem of capital and labor; The Silver Box and Justice like Biber- 
 peh and Der rote Hahn treat the theme of justice; The Eldest Son like 
 Rose Bernd deals with that of the fallen girl ; The Fugitive like Einsame 
 Menschen, College Crampton, Michael Kramer with the unhappy mar- 
 riage ; Joy not unlike Die Jungfern vom Bischofsberg with personal love 
 affairs ; A Bit o' Love like Michael Kramer with persecution of a misun- 
 derstood man. The Mob like Florian Geyer has a political background, 
 but a more personal theme. The Pigeon, a fantastic comment on life, may 
 
14 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galszvorthy 
 
 be grouped with Schluck tind Jan, "spiel zu Scherz und Schimpf." The 
 Little Dream is a symbolic dream play like Hanneles Himmelfahrt. 1 
 
 It is a commonplace of criticism to point out that modern literature treats 
 the common people in their average daily life, that it illuminates the ordi- 
 nary daily life about us. Hauptmann and Galsworthy are no exceptions, 
 if we are careful not to interpret "life about us" in a too provincial sense. 
 They treat what might be called the "average" characters of their par- 
 ticular localities. By "average" is not necessarily meant mediocre or 
 merely normal, but more especially the generality that one might meet upon 
 a day's travel. Most of the people so met will be mediocre and normal 
 but that does not preclude the possibility of meeting an, exceptional char- 
 acter like Becky Sharp, or such superior men as Roberts and Anthony, 
 (Strife) or such abnormal people as Dr. Scholz (Fried.) and Emanuel 
 Quint (N. in C). Nor has "average" anything to do with class distinc- 
 tion. One class may be superior to another and yet the members of both 
 be "average." 
 
 While neither Hauptmann nor Galsworthy has treated the whole range 
 of society, each has dealt with a great many types. Each has a keen appre- 
 ciation, too, of the inter-relation of class with class. Yet of one class, the 
 patrician, they have made comparatively few studies. If we omit Haupt- 
 mann's legendary and historical plays we find very few characters belong- 
 ing to this class, von Wehrhahn (Rote H.), Baron Kellwinkel (N. im C), 
 Frau von Heyder (Jung. v. B.), Valleys, Dennis and Miltoun (Patric), 
 Sir William (Eld. S.)-^'^ Nor is either especially interested in ofificialdom, 
 altho each gives a few examples. More and Julian (Mob), Floyd (Justice), 
 John Freeland (Freeh), von Wehrhahn, Kellwinkel, Flamm (Rose B.). 
 
 In the lower and middle classes both are, however, vitally interested, 
 perhaps because of the importance of these classes in the world of to-day, 
 or because they are more familiar with them. The feature which distin- 
 guishes the two men in their treatment of these classes is that they ap- 
 proach their material from opposite sides, Hauptmann from below and 
 Galsworthy from above. Each gives emphasis to the group with which 
 he is most familiar by virtue of birth and training — Hauptmann with the 
 Silesian peasants and Berlin populace, and Galsworthy with the country- 
 house gentry. 
 
 "von Kammacher (Atlan.) and von Krautheim (Mich. K.) do not appear to belong 
 to this class. 
 
Subject Matter 15 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that the characters are "average" they are 
 not uninterestingly ahke. Each author has given us a wonderful and un- 
 usual gallery of portraits, tho Hauptmann's perhaps shows the greater 
 variety. Characters are individualized — even very minor ones in 
 Hauptmann. Yet they at the same time fall logically into certain groups 
 or types. If a distinction were to be made between Hauptmann's and Gals- 
 worthy's treatment of character it would probably be this : that Haupt- 
 mann creates individuals that approach very often to types while Gals- 
 worthy creates types that approach very often to individuality. Such a 
 rich gallery of portraits cannot be adequately described. And quite use- 
 less is it to name all the different types. Social differences, too, make a 
 real comparison virtually impossible. Therefore it must suffice to com- 
 pare only the most important types that both depict. 
 
 Of the peasant class which Hauptmann treats so abundantly — types like 
 the silent Thiel (Bahn. T.) or the pathetic Beipst (Vor S.) or the faithful 
 Friebe (Fried.) or the patient Hilse (Weber) or the "disciples" in Der 
 Narr in Christo, Galsworthy gives almost no examples. In "Sheep-Shear- 
 ing"^*' and "Threshing,"^^ one gets faint glimpses into country life. The 
 villagers in A Bit 0' Love, the shepard in "Progress,"^^ Tryst (Freel.), old 
 Studdenham (Eld. S.) are examples of the disappearing English rustics. 
 
 From the life of Society, on the other hand, Hauptmann draws few 
 pictures. In College Crampton we get a glimpse of the people who are 
 well-to-do but to whom social life has no special value either as a pastime 
 or as an occupation. In Die Jungfern vom Bischofsherg he draws a pic- 
 ture of the rural gentry. But social life is not a striking feature ; our 
 interest centers more in the individual members of the household and 
 their guests. 
 
 A group that is not very important but that merits attention, consists of 
 the financiers and manufacturers. They are Dreissiger (Weber), selfish, 
 cowardly; Anthony (Strife) obstinate, pugnacious; old Jolyon (Frat.) 
 kindly, masterful; the materialists, Adolf Strahler (Col. C.) and Stanley 
 Freeland (Freel.). To these should be added Hoflfman, an opportunist 
 who sacrified ideals for gold. 
 
 Another group consists of practical reformers, and includes Martin, the 
 
 "T/i^ Inn of Tranquillity. 
 ^'A Commentary. 
 
i6 Gerhart Haiiptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 sanitist (Frat.) and the Schmidts (Atlan.). Martin agitates a great deal 
 about what ought to be done for the poor, while the Schmidts unostenta- 
 tiously contribute their services. Loth (Vor S.) may be included in this 
 group; perhaps too, Clara Freeland (Freel), Schimmelpfennig (Vor S.) 
 and Boxer (Rote H.) who talk much about improving conditions but do 
 nothing. 
 
 The ministers make up a rather important group. Each author has 
 drawn a number, of very different types. Yet, with the exception of 
 Strangway (B. o' L.), practically not one of them has a higher conception 
 of religion than conformity to rules and externals; of real spirituality 
 they have little or none. Kollin (Eins. M.) is an anti-evolutionist; Kittle- 
 haus (Weber) a time-server; Miller, the prison chaplain (Justice), a 
 hardened soul surgeon; Latter (Eld. S.) a stickler for appearances. 
 Spitta (Ratten) is narrow, trivial but sincere. Barter (C. H.) is earthly 
 in body and spirit. The Fisher of Men^® practices a religion of hardness 
 and chastisement. 
 
 Curiously enough, one character in the work of each man forms a class 
 by himself — the French vagabond Ferrand (Pigeon and Is. Phar.) and 
 the Frenchified vagabond Klemt (Jung. v. B.). Both live by picking up odd 
 jobs — Ferrand by tutoring, and Klemt by soldiering and rat-catching. 
 Notwithstanding their reduced condition economically both maintain a 
 dignified and condescending attitude when talking to their betters. Both 
 have a way of reducing them to an uncomfortable sense of inferiority. 
 Ferrand is, of course, much better educated and much more of a gentle- 
 man, but perhaps no more of a philosopher, for Klemt, asked who and 
 what he is, answers, "mit Grandezsa: Ich bin ein Mann, der das Leben 
 versteht." 
 
 The artist or creative thinker is a type of man emphasized by both 
 authors. In a great many of Galsworthy's works, and in nearly all of 
 Hauptmann's one finds an author, artist, musician, architect, minister or 
 physician. Most of Hauptmann's men of this type are artists, tho both 
 authors give a number of variations. Loth is an investigator; Courtier 
 (Patric), Felix Freeland, Malise, Hilary (Frat.) are authors; Len- 
 non (Dark F.), a sculptor; Stone (Frat.) and Maurer (G. S. F.), profess- 
 ors; Bosinney (M. of P.), an architect; Lucy Heil (G. S. F.), a violin- 
 
 "'A Fisher of Men" in A Motley. 
 
Subject Matter 17 
 
 ist; Young Jolyon (M. of P.), Bianca (Frat.), Wellwyn (Pigeon), Harz 
 (Villa R.), Schilling, Crampton, artists; Martin, Von Kammacher, Boxer, 
 physicians; Strangway, a minister; Cuthciitts (Freel.) an editor. In 
 Atlantis, College Crampton, Michael Kramer and Gabriel Schillings 
 flitcht Hanptmann has introduced whole groups of artists or physicians. 
 The use of artists or thinkers for chief characters is a device much used 
 by modern writers. It affords opportunity for contrasting the progressive 
 and radical with the conservative element in society, and makes more vivid 
 the outline of the sensitive idealist leader against the unfeeling inert mass. 
 This device is used to some extent by Galsworthy. In general, however, 
 he makes his characters artists or thinkers because they are naturally more 
 sensitive than other people. Sometimes however, the artistic element is 
 purely decorative. We feel too often that they are not temperamentally 
 artists but dilettantes. Felix Freeland, Hilary, Lennon, Harz and Young 
 Jolyon have no special calling to art — at least we are never given any evi- 
 dence of it. Malise impresses one as more of a hack-writer than a genius. 
 Only in Stone, Wellwyn and Bosinney do we feel that art is in every fibre. 
 Hauptmann has given us some excellent analyses of artistic temperament 
 — Crampton, Arnold and Michael Kramer. We feel in Crampton and 
 Arnold the instability of genius. Wellwyn's weakness is that he cannot 
 refuse anyone a helping hand. He is an incorrigible philanthropist, even 
 when he has scarcely anything to give. Crampton is a good artist and a 
 lovable teacher, but he is not good at arithmetic and "conduct." His 
 downfall is due to the fact that he is an impractical child. Arnold Kramer, 
 hypersensitive because his beautiful soul was housed in a deformed body, 
 felt as Ibsen said in another connection : "I alone stood oppressed by the 
 truth of things" — which was his spiritual superiority to those who looked 
 upon him as a monstrosity. Stone is a visionary, a dreamer like Hein- 
 rich, who is as far from realizing his fraternity as Heinrich is from plac- 
 ing his bell. In justice it ought to be said that some of Hauptmann's 
 artists are artists in name only — Lachmann (Mich. K.), Eva Burns 
 (Atlan.), Max Strahler (Col. C), probably because we do not see them 
 in suitable environment. 
 
 Of the criminal type we find few examples, — if Jones (Sil. B.), Falder 
 (Justice) and Frau Wolfif (Biber) must be called criminals, Bruno 
 (Ratten) is the only one that is criminal by character, 
 
 ; 
 
i8 Gci'liart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 In years Hauptmann's and Galsworthy's characters range from youth 
 to old age. Singularly enough tho, neither author draws very many young 
 men. The few they have drawn are Derek (Freel.), Otto (Jung. v. B.), 
 Weinhold (Weber), Max Strahler, Lennon, Dick (Joy). Usually the men 
 are past first youth and have become more or less established in socitey. 
 
 Both authors treat young girls, young women and elderly women. 
 Naturally most of their women are at the critical periods of girlhood or 
 young womanhood. Of young girls each author depicts a large number. 
 Hauptmann's are very different in temperament and so highly individual- 
 ized that it is impossible to make a general characterization. Perhaps the 
 most typical of them is Helen (Vor S.). She is innocent, meek, lovable. 
 Her outlook is decidedly limited, her manners crude, but her feelings fine 
 and sensitive. Somewhat like her are Ruth (N. in C), Ottegebe (Arme 
 H.) and Hannele. These three are however, so impressionable that they 
 later succumb to an ecstasy, partly religious, partly sexual. Perhaps the 
 best drawn, all-around girl in Hauptmann is Gertrude Crampton. Altho 
 she has a good knowledge of things and life, she is not sophisticated. 
 Her character is stable; her enthusiasm and affection are wholesome. 
 She understands her father and judges him justly. In her maternal atti- 
 tude toward him she reminds one of Ann (Pigeon). For a different rea- 
 son Lux (Jung. V. B.) reminds one of Joy. Like her she is somewhat of 
 an "enfant terrible." Joy is jealous of her mother's suitor. Lux says : 
 "Was geh^en mich denn Eure Brautigams an, wenn sie einem Geschwister 
 abspenstig machen !" And like Joy she finds understanding in love. She 
 more than any other of Hauptmann's girls is like Galsworthy's. The lat- 
 ter's are often naive and loving but seldom meek. They have enthusiasm 
 and exuberance. By virtue of superior education and opportunities they 
 have a better vision — or at least if it isn't vision, it is ingenuity enough to 
 get what they want. Pasiance^^ wins the day against her grandfather, 
 even tho it costs her life. Jane (M. of P.) is determined and self-suffi- 
 cient. Nell (Dark F.) is a mixture of innocence and abandon. Sylvia 
 (Dark F.) and Nedda (Freel.) are less spirited but more sweet and gentle. 
 The women who break moral laws probably attract the most attention. 
 They too, form a large group. Clare (Fugit), Olive (Dark F.) and 
 others of Galsworthy's women break conventions because they spiritually 
 
 *°"Man of Devon" \. V'illa Rubein and Other Stories. 
 
Subject Matter 19 
 
 rebel; they do so after a tremendous struggle. Hauptmann's women are 
 apt to break conventions because they have no moral scruples. Hannah 
 EHas (G. S. F.) is not striving for spiritual freedom but for sensual 
 pleasure. Ingigerd (Atlan.), Gersuind (K. K. G.), Melanto (B. des O) 
 live according to their instincts. The nearest to Galsworthy's women who 
 break moral laws is Elga. Her struggle, however, is not how to free her- 
 self from a man she doesn't love, but to live with one man and love an- 
 other. She! has a dual personality. She is the only one of Hauptmann's 
 or Galsworthy's women who stoops to wilful deceit. Of course, Gals- 
 worthy does not paint good women only. Mrs. Bellew (C. H.) we know 
 is "all body." 
 
 Hauptmann's older women are representative of tradition or convention, 
 and therefore are obstacles to more liberal people. Frau Vokerat (Eins. 
 M.) is a hinderance to her radical son; Frau Kramer and Frau Schilling 
 to their husbands. Galsworthy's women usually understand. At worst 
 they are like Mrs. Shelton (Is. Phar.) and Frances Freeland, harmless, 
 doting protesters. Only Frau Flamm (Rose B.) is comparable to Gals- 
 worthy's women in her philosophic and understanding attitude toward 
 life. 
 
 A large number of characters, both men and women, are described as 
 "pale, pallid, parchmenty." The pallor seems to arise from various causes. 
 Some of the characters are pale because they are poverty-stricken — the 
 weavers in Die Weber, the laborers in Strife, the Joneses (Sil. B.), The 
 Hughses (Frat.), Ruth (Justice) ; some because of pathological condi- 
 tions — Schilling, Hannah EHas, arme Heinrich ; others because of 
 worry — Frau John (Ratten), Thiel, Mrs. Sanford,-° Heinrich (vers G.), 
 Falder (Justice). Samuelson (Atlan) is pale from overwork, Pippin,-^ 
 from an oppressive sense of responsibility, Ottegebe, from an intense love, 
 Emanuel Quint from Christian Martyrdom. It need hardly be said that 
 certain characters are pale for more than one reason. Worry is a natural 
 accompaniment of poverty, illness, overwork and other difficulties. Per- 
 haps the proportion of pale people is not excessive ; perhaps it is the pro- 
 portion found in actual life. At any rate certain facts must be born in 
 mind. Both authors draw many characters from the lower class, the class 
 that is feeling economic pressure. In addition they draw people who are 
 
 -""The Neighbors" in A Motley. 
 
 ""The Silence" in Villa Rubein and Other Stories. 
 
20 Gcrhart Hauphnann and John Galsworthy 
 
 very sensitive or serious, and people who are feeling mental pressure. Pal- 
 lor is not a result of sensitiveness or seriousness but is often an accom- 
 paniment. 
 
 One who has read Hauptmann and Galsworthy must have been im- 
 pressed by the number of family studies found in the* works of each. In 
 For Soniienaufgang and Das Friedenfcst the family is part of the theme. 
 In Einsamc Menschen, Michael Kramer, Die Jungfern vom Buehofsberg, 
 The Freehands, Fraternity, The Man of Property, The Eldest Son, and 
 The Patrician, it plays a less important role. While both authors are in- 
 terested in the family, the interest arises from different causes. Haupt- 
 mann's interest seems to be biological, and Galsworthy's social. Haupt- 
 mann is concerned primarily, at least in Vor Sonnenaufgang, Das Fried- 
 cnsfest, Einsame Menschen, and Michael Kramer, with the effects of 
 heredity and environment upon character. Galsworthy is concerned with 
 showing the variations in type to be found in a limited group. It has its 
 root too, probably in his love of painting miniatures. 
 
 Vor Sonnenaufgang is the study of the effect of the sudden acquisition 
 of wealth upon a peasant family upon whose land coal has been discovered. 
 Luxury added to ignorance brings depravity. The family vice is alco- 
 holism. Das Fricdcnsfest is the story of a family of neurotics who are 
 mutually intolerable. They have been separated for years but return for 
 a Christmas reconciliation. The result is almost tragic. Einsame Men- 
 schen is the first treatment by Hauptmann of the theme of a man strug- 
 gling between duty and family on the one side and love and spiritual free- 
 dom on the other. The Vokerats are sincere, but narrow-minded and 
 conservative. The son is radical and unorthodox. To him the narrowness 
 of home life becomes intolerable. Michael Kramer, his son and daughter 
 are artists. His wife is a Hausfrau. The son, an ugly creature, has 
 genius, but he is misunderstood by father and mother alike. The daugh- 
 ter is a disappointed masculine woman with tenacity of purpose, but with- 
 out the divine spark. Die Jungfern vom Bischofsberg are four orphaned 
 sisters. The eldest is somewhat pensive, the youngest frivolous. Agatha 
 is burdened by a sense of duty to her unendurably pedantic fiance. Other 
 members of the family, the aunt, the uncle and the grandmother are inter- 
 esting but not important characters. The Man of Property gives an ex- 
 cellent picture of a family consisting of four brothers, three sisters and the 
 
Subject Matter 21 
 
 children and grandchildren of two of the brothers. All show traces of 
 the family strain, but all are exceedingly well differentiated. The head- 
 ship of the family assumed by the eldest sister and the petty jealousies of 
 the brothers are features very well handled. The family in Fraternity 
 consists of two brothers who married two sisters, the idealist father of the 
 sisters, the daughter of one sister, and others. In this case there is a de- 
 cided contrast between the sisters and the brothers, one pair is practical, 
 and the other artistic. Each member of the family assumes a characteris- 
 tic attitude toward social reform. In both The Eldest Son and The Patri- 
 cian the family consists of man and wife and four or five children. All 
 are well drawn but in each case the eldest son and the second daughter are 
 emphasized more than the others. The Freelands like The Man of Prop- 
 erty deals with a large family. In this case the family has four branches, 
 but one branch is stressed especially. This branch comprises the dreamer 
 Tom and his independent, sensible wife, and his impetuous children. 
 
 Both Hauptmann and Galsworthy have a keen sense of place, not that 
 either is interested in place per se, but in place as it helps to form a part 
 of, or a background to character. Each has a subtle power of conveying 
 the spirit of his native land. Hauptmann has given us numerous pictures 
 of his cherished Silesia and Galsworthy of his favored Devon, nowhere 
 better perhaps than in Der Narr in Christo and ''The Man of Devon." 
 From the former we get not only the spirit of the place but also a sense of 
 topography. We feel the altitude of the mountains ; the expanse of the 
 country ; the distance between the villages ; the poverty, ignorance, super- 
 stition of the peasants. In the latter, we are in the presence of the ele- 
 ments. We feel the spirit of the wind, the sea, the moor, reflected chiefly 
 thru Old Pearse. Other examples of their sense of locality are Atlantis, 
 Die Weber, "Villa Rubein" and "Riding in the Mist."-- Both authors are 
 especially careful to specify the exact spot where the action takes place. 
 In Das Friedensfest it is "bei Erkner" ; in Der Biberpelc, "irgendwo um 
 Berlin" ; in The Silver Box, "Rockingham Gate" ; in Joy, "near the 
 Thames above Oxford." Hauptmann further localizes by the use of dia- 
 lect. However, when the action of their stories is placed in large cities we 
 are less likely to feel the spirit of the place than when the action takes 
 place in villages or in the country. This is due probably to the fact that 
 
 'The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 
22 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 each is more fond of the rural life and knows it better, and too, to the fact 
 that each relies very much on the use of nature as a background. 
 
 The immediate setting in the vast majority of cases is the home. Out- 
 of-door settings are used too, to a considerable extent, especially in the 
 novels ; but they figure much less in Galsworthy's plays than in Haupt- 
 mann's. The plays dealing with justice have, of course, court settings. 
 Once the almshouse figures — Hanncle, twice the charity lodging house — 
 The Island Pharisees and "A Simple Tale."^^ Once each author gives a 
 glimpse into the tenements — Die Ratten and Fraternity. A favorite setting 
 with Hauptmann is the public inn. This is probably due to his personal 
 knowledge of such places. It serves, too, as a means of gathering together 
 a group of very different people. Galsworthy uses this setting only twice, 
 in The Fugitive and A Bit o' Love. 
 
 Neither Hauptmann nor Galsworthy selects material from the stand- 
 point of theatrical appeal. If then, they treat sex themes and the "special 
 case," it is not for the sake of effect, but because their seriousness and sin- 
 cerity must find expression. Their intense sympathy for human suffering 
 and the idealism in their outlook compel them to regard every case as 
 worthy of a hearing. As Galsworthy says, "Sincerity bars out no themes." 
 They agree with Ibsen that, "a man shares the responsibility and guilt of 
 society to which he belongs." Hence they feel with him : 
 "To live — is to war with fiends 
 
 That infest the brain and heart; 
 To write — is to summon one's self, 
 And play the judge's part."-* 
 
 While both have played the judge's part by condemning the social or- 
 ganization for its failure to leave scope for individual liberty and personal 
 expression, they are not propagandists, not reformers. They offer no 
 panacea for the world's woes, that they leave to "practical" men. They 
 ar€ primarily artists deeply pained by the injustice and darkness of human- 
 ity. In one thing, however, do they differ from Ibsen. Ibsen emphasized 
 the rights of the individual, often at the expense of society. But as he 
 won his ground, a social consciousness was awakened. Hence contem- 
 porary writers emphasized not the individual's rights so much as society's 
 
 ^The Little Man and Other Satires. 
 
 "*A. Henderson : The Changing Drama, p. 14. 
 
Subject Matter 23 
 
 responsibility. But Hauptmann and Galsworthy measure social respon- 
 sibility not so much in terms of material comfort as in terms of spiritual 
 freedom. Society's responsibility is not only positive, but negative. Mate- 
 rial aid is valuable, but more important is non-interference with the indi- 
 vidual's spiritual freedom. 
 
 Hauptmann's and Galsworthy's themes may be subsumed under three 
 headings: (i) Man's struggle with a hostile physical environment; (2) 
 Man's struggle to escape social bondage; and (3) Man's struggle with 
 himself. As a matter of fact the themes are not so readily placed in the 
 respective groups. Naturally environment, social standards and character 
 are inextricably conjoined ; so that all these may be found in one story. 
 If however, the themes treated are examined more especially with refer- 
 ence to the character of the subject matter a better understanding of the 
 work of the two men will be secured. For the sake of convenience, then, 
 they may be classified as social and economic, political, domestic and per- 
 sonal, humanitarian and moral. 
 
 Heredity and environment form the basis of practically all Hauptmann's 
 and Galsworthy's work, as they do of the work of nearly all the modern 
 writers. If they are not an explicit feature, as in the case of several of 
 Hauptmann's plays, they form an implicit background to the theme treated. 
 In Vor Sonnenaufgang, Das Friedensfest, Die Weber, Die Ratten, for in- 
 stance, heredity and environment form a part of the action, while in llie 
 Silver Box, The Man of Property, The Pigeon, they are implied behind the 
 action. Hauptmann emphasizes the harshness of environment and the evil 
 effects of heredity. Some of his works are definite studies of pathological 
 conditions. Such studies are the Krauses, the Scholzes and Emanuel 
 Quint. His treatment of abnormal characters may be due in part to his 
 early indebtedness to Zola, in part to the nervous character of the age, but 
 more especially to his intense interest in psychological phenomena. In his 
 early plays particularly, he showed as great an interest in the scientific as 
 in the human side of life. This attitude, however, he soon outgrew, but 
 never wholly discarded. If then, alcoholism is the dominant note of Vor 
 Sonnenaufgang; in Atlantis, College Crampton, and Michael Kramer, 
 it becomes an echo. In Strife, The Silver Box, Fraternity, likewise it 
 forms a more or less important part of the story. That they condemn it 
 goes without saying, tho both authors infer that it is the poor man's only 
 diversion. 
 
24 Gerhcrt Haiiptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 Hauptmann's intense sympathy with humanity is best shown in such a 
 play as Die JVeber. Here class is aligned against class ; the luxury and 
 pleasure of the life of the rich are contrasted with the poverty and ba,r- 
 renness of the life of the poor; the inequalities of opportunity are trench- 
 antly exposed. The ostensible theme is the conflict between capital and 
 labor. This is the theme too, of Galsworthy's Strife. Galsworthy has, 
 however, raised the problem from a mere bread and butter level to that of 
 economic justice, and has given a more balanced presentation of the prob- 
 lem. Der Biberpels_and The Stiver Box treat again the inequalities in the 
 life of rich and poor. In these plays, however, the immediate theme is the 
 ministration of justice. In Der Biberpelz the theme is treated humorously. 
 The guilty washerwoman escapes punishment while the wronged rich man 
 is censured, all because of the tendency of the magistrate to burrow and 
 magnify. The Silver Box is a serious indictment of one justice for the 
 rich and another for the poor. Justice is concerned less with the contrast 
 of the rich and the poor than with the system of justice — the system which 
 fails to consider the motive as well as the deed. In Atlantis once again we 
 find the contrast between rich and poor but less pointedly emphasized. 
 The indulgence and selfishness of the first-class passengers on the Roland 
 are set over against the poverty and sufferings of the steerage passengers. 
 In Fraternity too, the juxtaposition of the rich and poor, in their relations 
 to one another, if not in the actual juxtaposition of the handsome resi- 
 dences and the slum attic, where "each has a shadow," again forces the 
 inequalities of life upon our consciousness. 
 
 The inevitable results of the extremes of wealth and poverty are idle- 
 ness and overwork. And these have their social and economic effects. 
 While idleness on the part of the poor leads to crime, as we see in The 
 Silver Box, it leads on the part of the rich to self-indulgence, as in the case 
 of Jack Barthwick (Sil. B.), or the Krauses. Less serious consequences 
 are seen in The Country House, in which a man gets entangled with a 
 married woman, or in The Island Pharisees, in which Shelton becomes 
 dissatisfied with life, or in Schluck und Jau, in which Sidselill suffers from 
 ennui. Idleness produces, too, indifference and self-complacency as seen 
 in "Fashion."-" The other side of the story is presented in Die JVeber, 
 Strife, Fraternity, Atlantis, "Old Age,"-*' "Fear,"-'' "Holiday,"-" "Proces- 
 
 M Commentary. 
 'Ibid. 
 
Subject Matter 25 
 
 sion."-' In all these are emphasized the slavery of the victims of the sys- 
 tem, the barrenness of their lives of even the most trifling pleasure or re- 
 lief. One of the most poignant, yet unstaged comments on this state of 
 affairs is presented in the death of Zickelman the stoker on the Roland, 
 who dies at his post overcome by the heat, that others might travel in lux- 
 ury. The cheapness of life is brought home to us in the words of Von 
 Kammacher, after he has read in a New York newspaper of a mine ex- 
 plosion and a factory fire, in which hundreds lost their lives : "Nach uns 
 die Sintflut, die Kohle ist teuer, das Getreide ist teuer, der Spiritus, das 
 Petroleum, aber der Mensch ist billig wie Brombeeren."-® That life is 
 cheap is bad enough, but that large families are the means of keeping it 
 cheap is terrible indeed. In Die Weber we find a negative statement of 
 what Pendyce (C. H.) puts positively: "If I could get cottagers to have 
 families like that I shouldn't have much trouble about labor." 
 
 The plays that have political themes, or at least political backgrounds 
 are Florian Geyer and The Mob.. In a sense they are treatments of the 
 conflict of the individual and the mob. Florian is a young knight who 
 espouses the cause of the people. He would lead them to freedom, unity, 
 justice. Further, he has the ability. But he is swept aside by the insensate 
 madness of the mob. The collapse of the people's cause is due not so 
 much to the desertion from Florian as to the inability and unwillingness 
 of the mob to restrain its mad impetuosity and look beyond the conse- 
 quences of the moment. In this play Hauptmann has treated history from 
 the modern standpoint of evolution. History is made not the outcome of 
 one man's leadership but of deep-seated social and economic forces. 
 If Florian has a vision of freedom, harmony, justice beyond the compre- 
 hension of those about him, so More has a vision of greater patriotism, 
 beyond the comprehension of those about him. He attracks the policy of 
 aggression and champions the cause of the "little fellow" and of an inter- 
 national humanitarianism. 
 
 The mob as a force has been used many times before in literature, but 
 the mob spirit as an expression of crowd psychology is a modern develop- 
 ment. This mob psychology has taken a prominent place in modern liter- 
 ature. In Die Weber it takes the form of an outburst against starvation ; 
 
 '^''The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 
 ^Atlantis: Gesammcltc Werke, Vol. 6, p. 363. 
 
26 Gcrhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 in Der Narr in Christo an outburst of religious ecstasy. In Atlantis, it 
 takes the form of a morbid love of the sensational in the reception of the 
 armless virtuoso Stoss ; in "The Pack"-" of a wolfish love of rending a 
 victim. 
 
 The most vital and persistent note in both Hauptmann and Galsworthy 
 is the unhappy marriage and its terrible consequences. It forms the chief 
 theme in Michael Kramer, College Crampton, Binsame Menschen, Gabriel 
 Schillings Flucht, Atlantis, Bahmudrter Thiol, Fuhrmann Henschel, Das 
 Fridensfest, The Man of Property, Fugitive, The Country House, Fra- 
 ternity, A Bit o' Love. In all of Hauptmann's treatments of the problem, 
 except in Bahnwdrter Tliiel and Fnhrman Henschel, the husband suffers 
 because he is an idealist and his wife is an unsympathetic materialist. In 
 College Crampton, the wife's nagging costs the husband his position and 
 his all ; in Dos Friedenfest it drives the whole family to the verge of mad- 
 ness; in Michael Kramer it ruins the son and causes his death. In 
 Gabriel Schillings Flucht it is the combined efforts of the wife and a 
 second woman, to whom she has driven her husband, to gain his love that 
 brings about his despair and death. In Binsame Menschen, it is the ap- 
 pearance of a second woman, Anna Mahr, who opens up a new vision to 
 Vokerat, that estranges him from his family and his good, patient but un- 
 comprehending wife. In Bahnwdrter Thiel, it is the brutality of his wife 
 that drives him to crime and insanity ; in Fnhrman Henschel it is her im- 
 morality that drives him to suicide. A less conspicuous example of the 
 unhappy marriage is to be found in Der rote Hahn. Parallel cases are 
 found in Atlantis and Michael Kramer. This state of affairs can best be 
 understood by recognizing that the German Frau, particularly of the class 
 depicted by Hauptmann is essentially the woman of "Kiiche und Kinder- 
 stube," as Vokerat says of Kathe. She has little understanding of an ideal, 
 or sympathy with art. She is "strong thru the narrowness and intensity 
 of her elemental aims, destroying man, the thinker and dreamer, whose 
 will, dissipated in a hundred ideal purposes, goes under in the unequal 
 struggle. "'" 
 
 Galsworthy in presenting the case of the unhappy marriage in nearly 
 every instance takes the side of the woman. The woman suffers because 
 
 M Motley. 
 
 '"L. Lewisohn : Introduction to Dramatic Works of Gerhart Hauptmann. 
 
Subject Matter 27 
 
 her husband is a narrow materialist. Such is the situation in The Fugi- 
 tive, in which the husband has dried up spiritually; in The Man of Prop- 
 erty, in which he regards his wife as a chattel ; in ''A Knight,"'^^ llie Dark 
 Flower and Fraternity, in which the husband has ceased to have any at- 
 traction. In The Country House, the Bellews are mutually incompatible. 
 In A Bit 0' Love thd wife runs off with another because she cannot love 
 her husband. In Joy, The Patrician, The Country House, The Dark 
 Flozver and Justice, the women find lovers afterward. Of course, in nearly 
 every case the husband suffers intensely, but except in A Bit o' Love our 
 sympathy is always with the wife. Young Jolyon (M. of P.) serves as 
 the rare exception — the man who found marriage intolerable and ran 
 away. 
 
 Themes closely related to the unhappy marriage are those of the fallen 
 woman and maternity. The best example found in the work of either 
 author is Rose Bernd. Rose is a spirited, clean-minded girl who is driven 
 by circumstances to compromise herself, and then to the committal of in- 
 fanticide. While Rose is a spirited girl she succumbs to the traditions 
 of her heredity and environment. She feels herself forever condemned. 
 She could never rise to the height of Freda in her defiant attitude that 
 forced marriage is worse than disgrace. The purpose of The Eldest Son 
 is not so much) to treat the theme of the fallen girl as to exhibit English 
 hypocrisy with its double standard of "one law for you and another for 
 me." Galsworthy makes no definite study of maternity as Hauptmann 
 does in Die Ratten and Griselda, but he repeatedly casts sidelights on the 
 subject, as in "The Mother,"^^ ]y[j.s Jones, Mrs. Hussell Barter (C. H.) 
 and especially in Mrs. Roberts (Strife). Mrs. Roberts' thwarted matern- 
 ity is almost even mord tragic than that of Frau John (Ratten). 
 
 Neither Hauptmann nor Galsworthy is a feminist. Neither is a cham- 
 pion of women's rights. If each has drawn a few women that are self- 
 sufficient, it is not because he is interested in them as representative of a 
 movement, but as representative of the spiritual enlargement for which 
 he is contending. 
 
 That eternal theme of authors, love, has not escaped Hauptmann and 
 Galsworthy. But how diflferent a thing it is to them from what it is to 
 
 H'^illa Rubein and Other Stories. 
 'A Commentnry. 
 
(r^ 
 
 28 Gerliart Ilaiiptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 tlie romanticists. They draw no such glowing love scenes as those found 
 in The forest Lovers, or such colorless ones as those found in Scott. Nor 
 is love with them a sexual passion only. They see it in the combined 
 higher light of science and universal brotherhood. Love, in its various 
 aspects, is a phenomenon to be examined and reported on faithfully. 
 Hence they treat it from several points of view. The first of these is 
 that love is a tyrant against which the victim is helpless. This attitude 
 is represented in Kaiser Karls GeiscI, Gabriel Schillings Fhicht and The 
 Dark Flozver. Gersuind's love for Karl is the one consuming interest 
 in her life. And it is this which leads to her self-abandonment. To Len- 
 non love is the dark flower whose perfume carries him beyond self-con- 
 trol. To Schilling love is a consuming fire from which he canot escape. 
 In his case, however, it is not his love that consumes him, but love of him 
 by two women that sears him body and soul. Each of these works is a 
 study of passion, The Dark Floiver being an analysis of passion at three 
 critical periods in the life of the samejnan. Karl, being an old man, survives 
 the attack, Lennon escapes twice thru external circumstances, but Schilling 
 succumbs. Man's struggle with this tyrant is best expressed in the words of 
 Maurer : "Wer hat nicht mit Weibern Zeit verloren ! Ja, welcher Mann, 
 der wirklich einer ist, hat sich nicht selbst mehr als einmal an Weiber 
 verloren. Das schadet nichts ! Man laszt sich fallen, man hebt sich auf, 
 man verliert sich und man findet sich wieder. Hauptsache bleibt, dasz 
 man Richtung behalt. Wenn man Richtung behalt und entschlossen fort- 
 lebt, so wette ich tausend gegen eins, was schlecht geheiszen hat in der 
 Zeit, must dann in der Zeit auch wieder mal gut heiszen."^^ 
 
 The most potent manifestation of love in the work of these two authors, 
 after love as a tyrant, is the love thirst in the human heart. This is the 
 phase found in Hannele. While Hannele has of course, been smitten with 
 the schoolmaster, her desire for love is not wholly sexual. Her longing 
 for a kind and charitable friend has only intensified her love for Gott- 
 wald, and her religious enthusiasm. Arnold Kramer and Strangway so 
 intensely long for love, both in the concrete and the abstract, both in the 
 form of woman and of friends, that each cuts a figure which in its ludi- 
 crousness is sublimely pathetic. Most pathetic too, is the figure of the 
 model in Fraternity, who finds in Hilary the one oasis in the desert of 
 
 ^Gabriel Schillings Flucht, Act I, p. 37. 
 
Subject Matter 29 
 
 loneliness and barrenness of life. Perhaps nowhere is the love thirst 
 more tragically represented than in '*Once More,"^* in which the slaking 
 of the love thirst is more tragic than the thirst itself. 
 
 That the love thirst in the human soul is what Plato called a form of 
 the soul's craving for beauty finds corroboration in the work of these two 
 men. This shows itself in the power of love to redeem spiritually lost 
 souls and to reconcile them to an ugly and unsympathetic world. It is love 
 that restores arme Heinrich to life, health, position, serenity of mind 
 and harmony with the universe. It is Ida's love that saves Wilhelm 
 (Fried) from utter collapse. It is filial love that rescues Crampton from 
 almost certain ruin. Love mak^es Joy understand her mother. "It's love 
 that makes the world all beautiful — makes it like those pictures that seem 
 to be wrapped in gold, makes it like a dream — no, not like a dream — like 
 a wonderful tune." Thus wrote Nedda in her diary .^^ 
 
 If love redeems, it does so chiefly thru sacrifice. The best illustration 
 of this is Ottegebe to whom love made even death sweet. The purer and 
 more altruistic the love the greater the sacrifice. Wellwyn (Pigeon) sac- . 
 rifices himself to help derelicts, not so much because he wilfully sets out \ 
 to befriend downtrodden humanity, but because deep sympathy with suf- 
 fering impels him. Those who have the true spirit of brotherly love are 
 usually misunderstood, and even persecuted. Tho, "die menschenliebe 
 nagte an ihm," Quint^^ went to an outcast's grave. Strangway, who strove 
 to practice universal love, nearly lost his life. The old man in "A Simple 
 Tale," who befriended his poor comrades and asked of the rich only : 
 "let me rest in your doorway !" received the usual reward for his pains. 
 
 From a love of humanity to a love of animals and flowers is but one 
 step, almost an inevitable step. Grieselda is a maid of earth, a companion 
 of the flowers. Emanuel Quint has not only human followers ; swans and 
 dogs too, recognize him as master.^^ Michael Kramer loves his poplars. 
 Strangway loves birds. Shelton stops a dog fight.'* Stone's brotherhood 
 includes not only men, but birds and animals ; they too are brothers. Der 
 Apostel "liebte die Miicken und Fliegen briiderlich, und zu toten 
 
 'M Motley. 
 
 '^The'Freelands, Chap. IX. 
 
 "Der Narr in Christo; Gesammelte Wcrke, Vol. 5, Chap. 3. 
 
 ''Ibid.. Chap. 21. 
 
 "The Island Pharisees, Chap. XL 
 
30 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galszvorthy 
 
 schien ihm das schwerste aller Verbrechen Er selbst pfliickte niemals 
 
 Veilchen oder Rosen, um sich damit zu schmiicken er wollte alles an 
 
 seinem Ort."^^ Compare too, Loth's attack on hunting with passages in 
 The Country House and The Island Pharisees; and the vegetarianism of 
 Stone, Eva Burns and Der Apostel. But anyone who doubts Haupt- 
 mann's and Galsworthy's love of animals and flowers should read 
 Griechischer Friihling and "Memories,"*" "Apotheosis,"*^ "For Love of 
 Beasts."*^ 
 
 From what has been said of love as a tyrant it wall be seen that both 
 authors treat the dual elements in human nature, the conflict between the 
 higher and the lower. In Hauptmann the struggle usually takes the form 
 \of a conflict between the ideal aspiration of the individual and his mate- 
 rial environment. The best treatment of this phase is given in Die ver- 
 simkene Glocke. The dual element expressed in a wholly material way 
 is found in Elga. The spiritual form is expressed in Galsworthy's The 
 Little Dream, which represents allegorically this struggle in every soul; 
 and to some extent, in "The Magpie Over the Hill."*^ 
 
 One of the most important of Hauptmann's and Galsworthy's themes is 
 the exposure of selfishness, hypocrisy, narrow-minded self-complacency. 
 This theme is never pronounced, it lurks rather in the relations of the 
 characters to each other and the attitudes they assume toward the life's 
 problems. It is the gossip of the near-sighted Vokerats that is their son's 
 undoing. It is the depraved, inebriated Mrs. Krause who thinks the 
 miners drink too much. Schmwarowski,** a pillar of the church makes 
 money thru incendiarism. Dalchow*^ by overwork drives his son to 
 suicide, and having ruined girls, publicly condemns them. Keil and Bernd 
 by their sanctimoniousness drive Rose to destruction. Pastor Spitta by 
 his provincial narrow-mindedness drives his children from home. Dreis- 
 siger considers himself a philanthropist because he takes on two hundred 
 more weavers at starvation wages. Tryst goes to his death because the 
 Mallorings have a "high" sense of morality. Strangway is forced out of 
 
 ''Der Apostel, p. 84. 
 
 *''The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 
 *M Motley. 
 
 ^'A Sheaf. 
 
 *^The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 
 **Der rote Hahn. 
 
 ""Ibid., Act II. 
 
Subject Matter 31 
 
 his position because the villagers consider that he is sanctioning im- 
 morality. Pendyce would disinherit his son because he has dared to soil 
 his name. Sir William Cheshire forces his dependent to marry the girl 
 he has seduced, but refuses to let his son make similar amends. Mrs. 
 Barthwick would have Jones incarcerated as a dangerous person but fails 
 to see the same fault in her son. Chief among the sticklers for the letter 
 of morality in contradiction to its spirit are the numerous ministers found 
 in Hauptmann's and Galsworthy's pages. As these have been mentioned 
 earlier in the chapter no further comment is necessary here. 
 
 This satisfaction with the letter or form of things to the neglect of the 
 spirit is further indicated in their satires on education and reform. In 
 College Cramp ton the college that is run on principles of business and 
 rules instead of ability and freedom, is held up to ridicule. In Act III of 
 Die Jungfern vom Bischofsherg, the colloquy among the egotistic pedant 
 Nast, the cosmopolitan adventurer Griinwald, the budding poet Otto, and 
 Kozakiewicz, is a satire on the German system of higher education. In Act 
 II of The Pigeon, is a similar satire on the various methods of reforming 
 derelicts. Canon Bertley would have them "brace up" ; Justice Hoxton 
 would give them a "sharp lesson" and the theorist, Professor Calway 
 would improve them by "steady control." Only Wellwyn thinks of per- 
 sonal help. 
 
 Things literary and dramatic come in for a share of each author's satire. 
 Perhaps it would be more correct to say things unliterary, since it is the 
 
 ugly and conventional that rouse their ire. "The Voice of "** is a 
 
 satire on the vulgarity and baseness of a certain vaudeville "stunt." This 
 "stunt" is a virtual blasphemy against Beauty. Almost as repellant is the 
 feature described in Atlantis." Stoss, the armies violinist, thrills his audi- 
 ence by playing Gounod's "Ave Maria" with his toes. Inasmuch as he is 
 a survivor of the Roland, the emotion of the audience rises to a sentimen- 
 tal, religious fervor — which makes Von Kammacher shudder. Chapter 
 IV of The Island Pharisees is a satire on the conventional play and the 
 popular audience. In "The Plain Man,"*^ Galsworthy gibes the person 
 who insists on a happy ending, and in The Man of Property, '^^ the readers 
 
 "T/i(? Little Man and Other Satires. 
 "Gesammelte Werke, Vol. 6, p. 343. 
 *^The Little Man and Other Satires. 
 *^The Man of Property, pp. 35 and 77. 
 
 3 
 
32 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 of the stereotyped novels. On the other hand Hauptmann satirizes the 
 conventional stage manager and actor in the pompous Hassenreuter (Rat- 
 
 *^")- ^ fi^ t)6-v.^. kijL^J M^iU-;u ■ 
 
 A peculiarity of the work of both rwen is the tendency to repeat the 
 
 same situation and characters. We have seen already how often Haupt- 
 mann repeats the situation of the unsympathetic wife's being a hinderance 
 to an idealistic husband and how often Galsworthy repeats that of the 
 woman who cannot love her husband. No less than thirteen times does 
 Hauptmann use what is called the eternal triangle. Usually it is a man 
 drawn between two women. The exceptions are Elga, Rose Bernd, Die 
 Jiingfern vom Bischofsberg and Und Pippa tanzt! in the last of which 
 the struggle is symbolic. Only in The Man of Property, The Fugitive and 
 The Dark Flower does Galsworthy use the triangle, altho it often develops 
 out of the unhappy marriage that he so frequently treats. One of his 
 variations is that of the brutal husband, used in Justice, "Once More," 
 "Miller of Dee,"'^" "Demos,"^^ and Fraternity. 
 
 Each author works over material he has previously used. Der Narr in 
 Christo is an enlargement of Der Apostel, Fuhrman Henschel of Bahn- 
 w'drter Thiel. June and grandfather parallel Pasiance and her grand- 
 father; Von Kammacher's home life parallels that of Vokerat. The dying 
 wife figures in Bahmvdrter Thiel, Fuhrman Henschel and Der rote Hahn. 
 The seafaring physician Boxer (rote H.) is paralleled in Wilhelm (At- 
 lantis) and Von Kammacher. Frau Wolff, Glasenapp, Leontine and Von 
 Wehrhahn appear in both Der Biherpelz and Der rote Hahn; Golish ap- 
 pears in Vor Sonnenaufgang and Rose Bernd; Swithin Forsythe in "Sal- 
 vation of a Forsythe" and The Man of Property; Ferrand in The Pigeon, 
 The Island Pharisees, "A Simple Tale" and "Compensation."^- Rasmus- 
 sen figures in Gabriel Schillings Flucht and Atlantis; Nicholas Treffrey 
 in "Villa Rubein," and "The Man of Devon"; Pippin, Old Jolyon and 
 Hemmings in "The Silence" and The Man of Property. Authors before 
 now have repeated situations and characters but few have had the daring 
 to give the characters the same names, or the ability to play such varia- 
 tions upon the same situation. They please not by creating the new but 
 by varying the old. 
 
 ""A Motley. 
 
 °M Commentary. 
 
 "M Motley. 
 
Subject Matter 33 
 
 The romanticist uses symbols to build up a mood, the realist to create ; 
 an intellectual concept. Hauptmann's and Galsworthy's symbols are in • 
 almost every case used in the latter way. The intellectual concept may 
 be produced by proceeding from the abstract to the concrete, or from the 
 concrete to the abstract. As an illustration of the first we may take 
 Hauptmann's Und Pip pa tancti and Galsworthy's The Little Dream. The 
 idea that all men pursue an ideal is made concrete thru real characters. 
 The idea that all men waver between the good and the bad, between one 
 extreme and another is made concrete thru real and allegorical characters. 
 The latter method may be illustrated by Die Ratten and The Dark flower. 
 Each of these is a complete, concrete study of real people. Yet the choice 
 of the particular titles and the repeated references to rats and dark flowers 
 create in the mind an abstract idea. From this it must not be inferred that 
 these are the methods pursued by the authors in creating their works. It 
 merely explains the process of thought that takes place in the mind of the 
 reader. The symbols may be absolute, psychological, that is, related to the 
 psychology of the characters, or decorative. If for example, Der ver- 
 sunkene Glocke is interpreted as a representation of what passes in Hein- 
 rich's mind, then Rautendelein is his conception of nature. If it is not in- 
 terpreted as a dream, then of course, Rautendelein becomes an absolute 
 symbol of nature — absolute in the sense that she is not a decoration but an 
 integral part of the play. Similarly are to be considered the characters 
 of Und Pip pa tanzt! and The Little Dream. In these plays, in which the 
 symbolism is of primary importance, the whole play and its parts are 
 symbolic. But in plays like Kaiser Karls Geisel, the symbolism is sec- 
 ondary and not indispensable. 
 
 Most of the symbols, both psychological and decorative, are much more 
 obvious and less dependent upon interpretation. The cowslip, for in- 
 stance, the himmelschliissel, is the symbol of Hannele's mental himmel- 
 fahrt. Arme Heinrich's leprosy is a symbol, not so much of his physical 
 condition as of his mental. Grieselda's patience and the impulse that 
 instinctively draws her to her child (Scene X) are intimately related to 
 her inner being. On the other hand the faithfulness of the spaniel John, 
 is a decorative symbol of subserviency to Pendyce. The phrase "Bloody 
 Justice" (Weber) is a decorative symbol of coming vengeance. The hawk 
 and rabbit in The Dark Flower, Part I, the moths in Part II, and Ingi- 
 
34 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galstvorthy 
 
 gerd's dance in Atlantis are not intimately related to the psychology of the 
 characters. Rather they parallel the relations of Anna and Lennon, Olive 
 and Lennon, and Ingigerd and Von Kammacher. The reference to Abra- 
 ham and Isaac in Der arme Heinrich calls attention to the relation between 
 Heinrich and Ottegebe and the idea of sacrifice. The expression "The fire 
 is out" in Floriath Geyer^^ is similarly decorative. As an instance of the 
 combination of the two kinds of symbols we may take the situation at the 
 end of von Wehrhahn's grandiloquent speech,^* when the congenital im- 
 becile brays like an ass. As a humorous comment on the justice, the bray- 
 ing is decorative, as a sad comment on the boy himself it is psychological. 
 Another example is the term, der rote Hahn. Der rote Hahn is the Ger- 
 man symbol for incendiarism. It is also used by Hauptmann in connec- 
 tion with the weather vane. In these two senses the term is decorative. 
 But inasmuch as incendiarism and the weather vane are closely linked with 
 the machinations of Frau WolflF, it becomes a psychological symbol, par- 
 ticularly as Frau Wolff dies just as the vane is put up. Hauptmann's sym- 
 bols are generally psychological, Galsworthy's decorative. Hauptmann 
 uses many more than does Galsworthy and with much greater variety. 
 No matter how great the intellectual element, all symbols help to produce 
 a mood and are therefore, to that extent, romantic. 
 
 Hauptmann and Galsworthy are great lovers of nature. Consequently, 
 nature plays an important role in nearly all they have written. Of course, 
 it figures most in their undrammatic works, but is seldom wholly absent. 
 Their chief use of it is to create atmosphere. This they do very often by 
 making the mood of nature parallel the event. By this means they crieate 
 in a sense, a symbol of the event itself. Take for example, "A Parting,"^^ 
 for which a dreary autumn day forms the background, or the end of Part 
 I of The Dark Flower, which has as an accompaniment wild, elemental 
 nature. A storm precedes the breach between Antonia and Shelton.^" 
 The owl hoots and the moon gleams while Quint visits the graveyard. ^'^ 
 The moonlight shines in the window of the almshouse just as Hannele 
 begins her himmelfahrt. How appropriate too, is the autumn setting for 
 
 "End of Act III. 
 
 "Der rote Hahn, Act III. 
 
 ^A Motley. 
 
 ^"The Island Pharisees, Chap. 31. 
 
 ^''Der Narr in Christo, Chap. 21. 
 
Subject Matter 35 
 
 Die Jungfern vom Bischofsebrg; and' the sultry weather as a background 
 for Die Ratten, and the biting cold for that of Strife. 
 
 Not infrequently nature or inanimate objects are personified. The grain 
 has a "patient surface,"^® or the clothes "stare the daylight out of counte- 
 nance,""^ or the clock pines for its fatherland,*'" or the valley "ist von 
 Reichtum beschwert bis zur Traurigkeit/'*^^ Galsworthy personifies much 
 more than does Hauptmann. 
 
 It will be noticed that in the treatment of nature they come perilously 
 near being guilty of using the pathetic fallacy. Usually the details can 
 be rationalized like Hawthorne's elements of the supernatural. There is 
 nothing improbable in their selection of nature's moods. "A Parting" 
 might take place in the autumn ; the moonlight might shine in the alms- 
 house window at that particular time; the tragedy of Die Ratten might 
 occur in sultry weather. The same thing is true in the selection of par- 
 ticular times. The choice of Christmas as the time of Das Friedensfest 
 is not a sentimental trick. It is just as natural as the selection of the 
 same time in A Doll's House. On the other hand, the use of Christmas 
 Eve, New Year's and April first as the time settings of the fantastic 
 Pigeon has a more sentimental basis. 
 
 In the novels and sketches particularly, nature forms the background 
 of man, and passages of description are introduced as a contrast or relief 
 to man's thoughts and movements. Often, there are extended, but not in- 
 organic, passages of excellent description of nature. Note for example, 
 the opening of The Freelands, and passages in The Dark Flotver, Atlantis, 
 Der Narr in Christo. Very beautiful but less organic are those in Bahn- 
 warter Thiel. Frequently the contemplation of nature results in a flight 
 of imagination that is rich in images. Compare the following passage 
 from Galsworthy with almost any page of Greichischer Friihling: 
 
 we lay down on the thyme and the crumbled leaf-dust 
 
 there came to us no sound but that of the waves swimming in on a gentle 
 south wind. The wanton creatures seemed stretching out white arms to 
 the land, flying desperately from a sea of such stupendous serenity; and 
 over their bare shoulders their hair floated back, pale in the sunshine. If 
 
 ■^''Threshing-'' in The Inn of Tranquillity, p. 25. 
 
 ""My Distant Relative" in The Inn of Tranquillity, p. 77. 
 
 *^ Atlantis, p. 437. 
 
 '^Griechischer Friihling, p. 58. 
 
36 Gerhart Hauptuiann and John Galsiuorthy 
 
 the air was void of sound it was full of scent Large wine-red violets 
 
 were growing near. On such a clifif might Theocritus have lain, spinning 
 his songs ; on that divine sea Odysseus should have passed. And we felt 
 that presently the goat-god must put his head forth from behind a rock."*'^ 
 This passage serves also, to call attention to the fact that Hauptmann 
 and Galsworthy take toward nature a positive, optimistic attitude. Nature 
 is not the symbol of disintegration ; it is a symbol of generation, of bud- 
 ding beauty. Neither is it antagonistic to man. Even the storm in At- 
 lantis is not a diabolical force. Not nature but man is at fault. They 
 feel the mystical bond between man and nature, and agree with Michael 
 Kramer's thought : "Das drangt sich zur Einheit uberall und iiber uns 
 liegt doch der Fluch der Zerstreuung."°^ That very idea is symbolically 
 represented in Heinrich and Rautendelein. 
 
 °"The Inn of Tranquillity" in The Inn of Tranquillity, p. 4. 
 ^Michael Kramer, Act IV, p. 124. 
 
III. 
 
 Art. 
 
 Galsworthy is often described as a realist or satirist who has made in 
 The Little Dream a momentary excursion into romance ; Hauptmann as 
 a naturalist who has deserted naturalism for idealism, romance and sym- 
 bolism. Both have been dubbed pessimists. Is this an actual statement of 
 the case? What do these terms really signify and how are they related to 
 each other? It is not the function of this study to go into an explanation 
 of these hackneyed and much misused terms. Suffice it to say that the 
 distinctions glibly made and accepted do not here apply. If we mean by 
 satirist one who distorts the truth for the sake of the ideal, then Gals- 
 worthy is not a satirist. If we mean by idealist one who pictures the world 
 as it should be, then Hauptmann is not an idealist. If we mean by natural- 
 ist what Sologub means — "one who describes life from the standpoint of 
 material satisfaction," then Hauptman is not a naturalist. If by realist 
 we mean one who pictures the world merely as it is, then Galsworthy is 
 no realist. Surely some term that will comprehend more than mere sub- 
 ject matter and treatment is needed to explain the work of these two men. 
 This is afforded by Galsworthy himself in his "Vague Thoughts on Art."" 
 For the purpose of this study, therefore, we can do no better than to 
 accept his definitions in their entirety. 
 
 "What," he says, "is Realism? Is it descriptive of technique, on 
 
 descriptive of the spirit of the artist; or both, or neither? To me 
 
 the words realism, realistic have no longer reference to technique, 
 
 for which the words naturalism, naturalistic, serve far better. Nor have 
 they to do with the question of imaginative power — as much demanded by 
 realism as by romanticism. For me, a realist is by no means tied to natu- 
 ralistic technique — he may be poetic, idealistic, fantastic, impressionistic, 
 anything but — romantic ; that in so far as he is a realist, he cannot be. 
 The word, in fact, characterizes that artist whose temperamental preoc- 
 cupation is with revelation of the actual inter-relating spirit of life, char- 
 
 '^The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 
38 Gcrhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 acter and thought, with a view to enlighten himself and others; as dis- 
 tinguished from that artist whom I call romantic whose tem- 
 peramental purpose is invention of tale or design with a view to delight 
 himself and others. It is a question of temperamental antecedent motive 
 in the artist, and nothing more. 
 
 "Realist. .Romanticist! Enlightenment — Delight! That is the true ap- 
 position. To make a revelation — to tell a fairy-tale ! And either of these 
 artists may use what form he likes — naturalistic, fantastic, poetic, impres- 
 sionistic. For it is not by the form, but the purpose and mood of his art 
 that he shall be known as one or as the other." 
 
 To paraphrase him further — the realist's mood is one of brooding over 
 life, of contemplating its spiritual adventures, of making clear the vary- 
 ing traits and emotions of human character, and the varying moods of 
 nature. 
 
 If we apply this test to the work of Hauptmann and Galsworthy we 
 discover that both men are realists, that is, both have the temperamental 
 purpose to enlighten rather than to delight — altho to delight themselves 
 and others is not incompatible with enlightening. Both brood over life, 
 contemplate its spiritual adventures, malce clear the varying traits and 
 emotions of human character, and the varying moods of nature. Both 
 point out moral values and see the irony in things. Both are idealists, 
 for they have a vision of an ideal — of life and beauty. But before every- 
 thing else they are artists trying to represent life as they see it. Both are 
 seeking the truth, material and spiritual. ) That is why Huneker calls 
 Hauptmann a "transcendental realist," and Skemp calls Galsworthy "an 
 idealist with a passion for the actual." 
 
 This is the explanation of what is commonly regarded as an anomaly in 
 the work of Hauptmann and as a tour de force in the work of Galsworthy. 
 Both men illustrate the truth of the fact that the idealistic and naturalistic 
 elements, instead of being diametrically opposed are not only compatible 
 but complementary. That is why Hauptmann and Galsworthy have writ- 
 ten such very different plays as Vor Sonnenaiifgang and Und Pippa tanst! 
 and Strife and The Little Dream. Rarely, however, are these elements so 
 delicately balanced as in Hauptmann. That this view is justified is proved 
 by the fact that symbolism is only another side of naturalism. 
 
 Galsworthy has recognized this twofold tendency of modern drama, 
 
Art 39 
 
 while Hauptmann has abundantly contributed to it. The renascent drama 
 Galsworthy says will in coming years follow these two channels. "The 
 one will be the broad and clear-cut channel of naturalism down which will 
 come a drama poignantly shaped and inspired with high intention, but 
 faithful to the seething and multiple life around us, drama such as some 
 are inclined to term photographic, deceived by a seeming simplicity of the 
 old proverb 'ars est celare artem' and oblivious of the fact that to be vital, 
 to grip, such drama is in every respect as dependent on imagination, con- 
 struction, selection, and elimination — the main laws of artistry — as ever 
 
 was the romantic or rhapsodic play The other will, I think, 
 
 be a twisting and delicious stream, which will bear on its breast new 
 barques of poetry, shaped, it may be, like prose, but prose incarnating 
 thru its fantasy and symbolism all the deeper aspirations, yearning, 
 doubts, and mysterious stirrings of the human spirit; a poetic prose- 
 drama, emotionalizing us by its diversity and purity of form and inven- 
 tion, and whose province will be to disclose the elemental soul of man and 
 the forces of nature, not perhaps as the old tragedies disclosed them, not 
 necessarily in the epic mood, but always with beauty and in the spirit of 
 discovery."''^ 
 
 That art is the expression of a personality, is recognized by both authors. 
 Indeed, Hauptmann has used these identical words in his preface to his 
 collected works. "Art," says Galsworthy, "is the perfected expression of 
 self in contact with the world. "^® This latter idea Hauptmann puts in a 
 silghtly different form : Was ware ein Dichter, dessen Wesen nicht der 
 gesteigerte Ausdruck der Volkseele ist!"®^ Their conceptions of art, it 
 will be noticed, are in essential agreement. Moreover they agree in prac- 
 tice. The most naturalistic plays of Hauptmann reveal behind them a 
 definite temperament, and the most symbolic of his plays, the careful ob- 
 servation of fundamental and permanent elements of human nature. This 
 was in reality his purpose in using old legends, to interpret them accord- 
 ing to modern psychology. 
 
 While both authors see the world thru a temperament, they do not dis- 
 tort the truth either by selection or omission. Neither do they spoil their 
 
 ""Platitudes concerning Drama" in The Inn of Tranquillity, p. 277. 
 '*"Vague Thoughts on Art" in The Inn of Tranquillity, p. 277. 
 "Griechischer FrUhling, p. 103. 
 
40 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsivorthy 
 
 works by subjectivity. As dramatists they recognize that a play must have 
 objectivity, inevitability and no immediate moral. Moral codes, says Gals- 
 worthy, do not last, but a true picture of life does. Moreover, a true 
 story, if told sincerely, is the strongest moral argument that can be put 
 upon the stage. 
 
 Objectivity, inevitability and no immediate moral are best attained thru 
 naturalistic art, which is "like a steady lamp held up from time to time, in 
 whose light things are seen for a space clearly and in due proportion, 
 freed from the mists of prejudice and partisanship."®^ "A Novelist's Al- 
 legory"^^ is an artistic expression of the same thought. 
 
 The dominant modern drama deals with ordinary people struggling with 
 their environment. The protagonist of a modern drama is not beset by 
 enemies but by the limitations of his life. Hence, the interest centers not 
 so much in what he does as in what he thinks and feels; not so much in 
 action, but as Hauptmann says, in the psychological state which causes the 
 action. This means that action is giving way to being. Hauptmann him- 
 self champions this conception of drama. In the preface to his collected 
 works^° he has succinctly stated his point of view. 
 
 "Allem Denken liegt Anschauung zu grimde. Auch ist das Denken ein 
 Ringen : also dramatisch. Jeder Philosoph, der das System seiner logi- 
 schen Konstruktionen vor uns hinstellt, hat es aus Entscheidungen errich- 
 tet, die er in den Parteistreitigkeiten der Stimmen seines Innern getroflfen 
 hat : demnach halte ich das Drama f iir den Ausdruck urspriinglicher 
 Denktatigkeit, auf hoher Entwicklungsstufe, freilich ohne dasz jene Ent- 
 scheidungen getroffen werden, auf die es dem Philosophen ankommt. 
 
 "Aus dieser Anschauungsart ergeben sich Reihen von Folgerungen, die 
 das Gebiet des Dramas iiber das der herrschenden Dramaturgieen nach 
 alien Seiten hin unendlich erweitern, so dasz nichts, was sich dem ausseren 
 Oder inneren Sinn darbietet, von dieser Denkform, die zur Kunstform 
 geworden ist, ausgeschlossen werden kann." There could be no better 
 proof of the dramatic quality of thought than Hauptmann's own dream 
 play Hannele. 
 
 The other elements of his theory of drama are given in manager Has- 
 
 ■"' Platitudes Concerning Drama" in The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 ^The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 "1906 Edition. 
 
Art 41 
 
 senreuter's attack on his pupil Spitta.^"^ "Sie beweisen es selbst, wenn Sie 
 den Mund auftun ! — Sie leugnen die Kunst des Sprechens, das Organ, 
 und wollen die Kunst des organlosen Quakens dafiir einsetzen ! Sie leug- 
 nen die Handlung im Drama und behaupten, dasz sie ein wertloses Akzi- 
 denz, eine Sache fiir Griindlinge ist. Sie negieren die poetische Gerech- 
 tigkeit, Schuld und Suhne, die Sie als pobelhafte Erfindung bezeichnen: 
 eine Tatsache, wodurch die sittliche Weltordnung durch Euer Hochwohl- 
 geboren gelehrten und verkehrten Verstand aufgehoben ist. Von den 
 Hohen der Menschheit wissen Sie nichts. Sie haben neulich behauptet, 
 
 dasz unter Umstanden ein Barbier oder eine Reinmachef ran ebenso- 
 
 gut ein Objekt der Tragodie sein konnte als Lady Macbeth und Konig 
 Lear." To which Spitta replies calmly: ''Vor der Kunst wie vor dem 
 Gesetz sind alle Menschen gleich." 
 
 Galsworthy's theory of dramatic art is given in his "Platitudes Con- 
 cerning Drama." There he says "The Plot ! A good plot is that sure 
 edifice which slowly arises out of the interplay of circumstance on tem- 
 perament, and temperament on circumstance, within the encJosing atmos- 
 phere of an idea. A human being is the best plot there is; He is 
 
 organic." In another connection, he says of himself : "Comment on the 
 physical facts of the situation does not come within the scope of one who 
 by disposition and training is concerned with states of mind."^- 
 
 What Galsworthy has said is not exactly the same as what Hauptmann 
 has said, yet a careful examination of their statements will reveal the 
 similarity of the theories of drama that they hold. The idea of man as a 
 plot must include not merely his actions, but his thoughts, feelings and 
 dreams. Nor does it limit man to any social position. All are equal be- 
 fore art. Practically the only difference between the two theories is that 
 Galsworthy's places more emphasis on action than does Hauptmann's. Both 
 artists agree that "drama need not embody a story of human experience ; 
 it need only be a picture of human existence, real or imagined." And "this 
 picture may be so typical, so representative, as in itself to constitute a 
 criticism of life, a judgment of society, or an ideal striving of the human 
 
 soul."'* Life's struggles are not so important as life itself College 
 
 Crampton, and The Pigeon, for example. 
 
 "Dit- Ratten, Act III, p. 97. 
 
 ""Diagnosis of the Englishman" in A Sheaf. 
 
 ^'A. Henderson: The Chan'Aus Drama. 
 
42 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 As Hassenreuter advises his pupil Spitta after the tragedy that has 
 just taken place before them "Sic cunt fata hominum. Erlinden Sie so 
 was mal, guter Spitta."^* 
 
 Drama conceived on the principles "Man is the best plot" and "thinking 
 is dramatic,'' is concerned less W\X\\ what people do than with what they 
 are. Hence there is little of what is called plot or story. What plot there 
 is consists chiefly in revelation of character. Perhaps the nearest ap- 
 proach to story in Hauptmann is to be found in his Der Biberpelz. The 
 story of Hannelc is Hannele's vision of her reception into heaven. In 
 Schluck und Jau the plot is the entertainment of two good-for-nothings 
 for the enjoyment of the entertainers. That of Kaiser Karls Geisel is 
 Karl's struggle between duty and love for a young hostage. In Justice, a 
 man raises a check to help a needy woman, goes to jail and never after 
 is able to free himself from the stigma. In The Fugitive, an inexper- 
 ienced woman leaves her husband and gets into the toils. In The Mob, 
 2L man with a vision of higher justice is deserted by friends and relatives 
 and killed by a mob. 
 
 If these authors do not give much plot they compensate with atmos- 
 phere. In Die Weber the atmosphere is a kind of ghastliness ; in Die ver- 
 sunkene Glocke it is the spirit of elemental nature ; in Die Ratten, the 
 closeness, foulness of a slum tenement ; in Gabriel Schillings Flucht, the 
 freedom, vigor, lure of the sea, that is comparable to the lure of the sea in 
 The Lady from the Sea. In A Bit o' Love, it is parochial repression ; in 
 The Pigeon, a kind of pensive geniality ; in Strife, uncharitable hardness. 
 The successful creation of atmosphere is due to the sensitiveness of both 
 authors to the value of details and their careful selection of them, but 
 especially to their use of symbols and moods of nature. The latter ele- 
 ments, that is, the use of symbols and nature have already been discussed. 
 The former element, selection of detail, will be discussed later in this 
 chapter. 
 
 Milieu, which is a combination of environment and atmosphere, is re- 
 garded as the chief feature of what is generally called Naturalism. One'^ 
 writing on the subject, says : "The artistic element of naturalism is the 
 impression received from the total picture made up of details. A char- 
 
 ''*Die Ratten, Act III, end. 
 
 "A. Stoeckius : Naturalism in Recent German Drama, p. 38. 
 
Art 43 
 
 acter does not stand out any more prominently than the other details of 
 the milieu, he is not any more or less real than the other objects. He 
 
 forms a part of the whole The question of reality of characters 
 
 which is usually pointed out as Hauptmann's strong side, is only second- 
 ary, since it is not the artistic element of naturalism." While this state- 
 ment is true, it is not the whole truth. Hauptmann is not a naturalist in 
 the usually accepted sense of the word, and critics have not failed to note 
 the fact. One says his "naturalism from the very beginning showed a 
 deep-seated distrust of the materialism of the realists [i. e. naturalists]. 
 His interest lay not in the physical fortunes of men but in their psychical 
 experiences."^^ Milieu soon gave way, in his work, to character. In his 
 choice of legends as subjects, in his use of symbols and verse he has risen 
 above so-called naturalism, but especially has he risen above it in regard- 
 ing man as more than a mere animal for scientific experimentation, as a 
 being with a spiritual element which is independent of, and in conflict with 
 the physical."" 
 
 A comparison of Hauptmann's with Galsworthy's plays will reveal what 
 seems to be a severer selection of detail in Galsworthy's plays. While this 
 is true, the real difference in selection is not so much in degree as in kind. 
 The effect they desire to produce is somewhat different. Hauptmann's 
 purpose is to illuminate the entire neighborhood not for its own sake, but 
 to make the character complete. Take his College Crampton, Der Biber- 
 pelz, Der rote Hahn, for example. Galsworthy's method is to put the 
 spotlight on a few characters. Hauptmann carefully selects ; Galsworthy 
 selects and arranges. A few illustrations will serve to indicate the differ- 
 ence. Frau Lachmann (Mich. K.) is not needed so far as the story goes, 
 but her presence and words explain Lachmann's attitude toward her bet- 
 ter than an infinite number of words could possibly do. Die Nachbarin 
 (Vers. G.) is necessary to convey information that could not be conveyed 
 by soliloquy or otherwise, and to personalize the village people. The 
 Livens case (Sil. B.) has absolutely nothing to do with the Jones case, 
 yet it serves two purposes, to give reality to the magistrate's court, and 
 to afford a parallel to the Jones case. This juxtaposition doubles the value 
 
 "P. H. Grumman: Poet Lore, 21, p. 285. 
 
 "It might be well to recur to the distinctions made on page 37. As used in this 
 study, realism, realistic apply to motive, naturalism, naturalistic to method. By 
 naturalism is not meant photography, or lack of selection. 
 
44 Gerhart Haitptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 of the detail and makes for economy. Just there is the difference between 
 Hauptmann and Galsworthy. Hauptmann's details are selected for them- 
 selves, Galsworthy's for the light they may throw on other details. An- 
 other case in point is the introduction of the pups in The Eldest Son. This 
 use of detail is somewhat symbolic. There is no denying the fact that 
 Hauptmann does sometimes admit what seems extrinsic, like discussions 
 on Greece (G. S. F.) or education (Jung, von B.) But these may be 
 explained as in character. More serious is his introduction of Hopslabar 
 (Vor. S.) or Eine alte Frau (Florian). On the other hand consider how 
 closely wrought a play is Der Biherpels. 
 
 "Since the adventurous, and unwonted are rigidly excluded, dramatic 
 
 complication can but rarely proceed from an action. It follows 
 
 that conflict must grow from the clash of character with environment or 
 of character with character in its totality."^^ When thinking is dramatic 
 it /allocs that an act of a play will be largely discussion, and that action 
 OT^ncident will take place often between the acts. Such is the case in 
 Rose Bernd, [).ie Ratten, Kaiser Karls Geisel. Galsworthy, however, 
 ^emphasizes less What is thought and more what is done. Hence it follows, 
 that there is more incident in his plays. In The Silvef^ Box, theft, arrest 
 and trial take place on the stage ; in Justice, arrest and trial. In The Mob 
 the house is stormed and More slain. In A Bit o' Love, as in Michael 
 Kramer, there is a fracas. On the other hand, some plays have scarcely 
 any action. Das Friedensfest, Joy, The Pigeon and The Eldest Son. 
 
 Man as a product of heredity and environment is in himself neither 
 hero nor villian. Neither is one individual all important. But a protag- 
 onist is necessary. He is however, neither all good nor all bad ; he has 
 the strength and the weakness of human nature. Often he is a victim 
 rather than an offender. Falder raises a check out of weakness of will 
 but with a desire to do a kindness. When caught in the machine of jus- 
 tice hei is doomed. Jones goes to jail, while Jack goes free for the same 
 offense. Frau John's intense desire for a child leads to crime and death. 
 Rose Bernd's love for Flamm leads to downfall and crime. Very often 
 it is not a positive offense but merely human weakness or harsh environ- 
 ment that leads to ruin, as with Schilling, Arnold Kramer, Helen Krause. 
 Not infrequently the characters are benighted, helpless, unattractive and 
 gray at heart. 
 
 "L. Lewisohn : Introduction to Dramatic Works of Gerhart Hauptmann. 
 
Art 45 
 
 We do not love Hauptmann's and Galsworthy's characters because they 
 are good or hate them because they are bad ; rather we sympathize with 
 them because they are human. We have for them a kind of Christian 
 tolerance for their imperfections. And thru their imperfections we see 
 our own. Therefore our suffering is partly egotistical and emotional, and 
 partly altruistic and intellectual. We realize that life may be more tragic 
 than death, — instance Mrs. Megan (Pigeon), Clare (Fugitive), Frau 
 John (Ratten). 
 
 It is evident that this drama has nothing to do, as we have heard from 
 Hassenreuter, with poetic justice. Helen, the only deserving person in 
 Vor Sonnenaufgang, is driven to suicide. Frau Fielitz (Rote H.) tho 
 guilty of incendiarism, dies a natural death without qualms. Hannele, 
 The Pigeon, Schluck und Jau, Joy, have themes that cannot be solved by 
 rewards or punishments. 
 
 In spite of this fact the conclusions of the plays are tha inevitable out- 
 growth of the characters and situation — which is to say, as inevitable as 
 fate. This holds good even in the symbolic plays. Hauptmann's char- 
 acters, even when symbols, are human and act consistently according to 
 their natures. Hellriegel and Huhn (U. P. t.) must act according to their 
 definite human characteristics. The inevitability of The Little Dream 
 arises from the definite character of Seelchen, the human soul, even in a 
 dream state. To make the end seem inevitable it is necessary to cast 
 shadows before. This Hauptmann and Galsworthy do most skillfully. 
 Old Hilse's death (Weber) is foreshadowed by the toll of the funeral bell 
 and Mother Hilse's lament that she is so long a-dying. Roberts' and An- 
 thony's defeat (Strife) is foreshadowed in the attitude of the men and 
 directors. Helen's death is foreshadowed by her fear of what will happen 
 to her if Loth should leave her. Frau Fielitz's death is foreseen in the 
 doctor's warnings about getting excited. Freda's attitude is foreseen in 
 her speech to Bill at the end of Act I. The outcome of The Silver Box 
 
 is forecasted by Jack's words at the every opening: "I'm a Liberal 
 
 we're all equal before the law — tha's rot, tha's silly." Heinrich's defeat 
 (Vers. G.) is foretold in the attitude of the wood-sprite and the dwarfs. 
 
 An objection made to naturalistic art is that it seizes upon the momen- 
 tary rather than the permanent. The answer to this is: do not these 
 momentary conditions in the individual represent so-called permanent con- 
 
46 CerJiart Hauptmann and John Galsivorthy 
 
 ditions of the age? And further, is there anything more permanent than 
 character? Naturalistic art suggests the eternal and infinite thru the 
 momentary and finite. The words of Wann well express the idea : "Sehen 
 Sie sich so ein Tierchen mal an. Wenn ich es tue — so hore ich formlich 
 die Spharen donnern !"^® 
 
 Nor does the selection of a moment from the lives of the characters in- 
 hibit movement. Movement consists largely of changes in the emotions 
 of the characters, and in the relations of the characters with each other. 
 In Hauptmann this is virtually the only kind of movement. In Gals- 
 worthy there is in addition the movement arising from incident or action, 
 as already noted under the head of action. Both authors select the critical 
 or dramatic moment in the lives of their characters not because it is 
 an extraordinary moment but because the ordinary by accumulative force 
 has risen to a crisis. In like maner, tho movement consists of changes in 
 emotion, it does not imply change in the nature or temperament of the 
 characters. When characters are presented in a moment of time, and 
 when it is the trivial, commonplace act repeated every day and not the 
 exceptional act done once in a lifetime that determines one's fortune and 
 makes character — which is fate, these characters can hardly be anything 
 but static. That Hauptmann's characters have "few and fixed ideas"*** 
 is true because, after all, isn't it true of life in general and the uneducated 
 in particular? "That they do not evolve new ideas from within or admit 
 them from without,"^** is another way of saying that character is fate. 
 And the same may be said of Galsworthy's characters. That their char- 
 acters are static may be due to several reasons. They are exhibited for a 
 moment only, and character does not change in a moment — not even when 
 that moment is a crucial one. Unless the moment is of such great power 
 as to overbalance the accumulated force of the past, it will not greatly 
 change character — and these moments are not compatible with the theory 
 of naturalistic technique. That Hauptmann and Galsworthy believe in the 
 the possibility of modification in character is proved by their emphasis on 
 environment — for the idea environment presupposes dynamics — evolution. 
 Tho the fact is not driven home to us, Falder and Rose are much changed 
 by their experiences. As better examples take Hughs (Frat) who returns 
 
 """Und Pippa tanzt!" Act III, p. 65. 
 
 '"Otto Heller : Studies in Modern German Literature. 
 
Art 47 
 
 a broken man, and arme Heinrich who returns redeemed. Or take an-, 
 other kind of ilkistration. Would Vokerat and Helen have committed 
 suicide if their spiritual vision had not been broadened beyond the horizon 
 of their immediate enviornments ? Is not Joy's understanding of her 
 mother due to a change? Is not Clare's leaving home due to a previous 
 spiritual expansion ? 
 
 In the depiction of characters Hauptmann is interested in the characters 
 themselves, Galsworthy in the relations existing between the characters. 
 Hauptmann's interest is in the people, Galsworthy's in the problem. 
 Hauptmann's analysis of character is emotional, Galsworthy's intellectual. 
 Both tho, handle characters with delicacy, tolerance and sympathy, even 
 when they represent views opposed to their own. To illustrate, Haupt- 
 mann's characters commit wrong because they are forced by circum- 
 stances ; Galsworthy's while forced feel indignation. Jones for example, 
 refuses to get out of his difficulty as easily as possible by making restitu- 
 tion, because he desires to "score off" Jack. To that extent Hauptmann's 
 characters are passive and Galsworthy's active. Galsworthy's have a sense 
 of direction and a realization of results that is often lacking in Haupt- 
 mann's. This may be due in part to the class from which the characters 
 are drawn and the difference in their education and outlook ; but it is 
 more probably due to difference in analysis of the characters. Compare 
 Heinrich (Vers. G.) and More, or Rose and Clare. Heinrich strives for 
 his ideal by fleeing from life. More by staying in the turmoil. Heinrich is 
 driven by his emotions, to such an extent, that he forgets his family. 
 More is driven by an intellectual conviction, and consciously sees his fam- 
 ily desert him. Rose is drawn on by the innocence and inexperience of 
 her nature to commit an offense the consequences of which she cannot 
 escape. Clare enters the arena with her eyes wide open. Galsworthy's 
 characters are generally masters of themselves, probably because of con- 
 scious restraint for many generations. Most of them have strong wills — 
 More, Clare, Strangway, Hilary, Roberts, Anthony. It must be acknowl- 
 edged that often it is bull-headedness rather than will that the characters 
 exhibit, for example, Sir William and Pendyce. Not many of Haupt- 
 mann's characters have strong wills — Anna Mahr, Michael Kramer, Kaiser 
 Karl, Lucy Heil, Griselda, Quint. The explanation of this difference be- 
 tween Hauptmann and Galsworthy probably is that Hauptmann is inter- 
 
 4 
 
48 Gcrhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 ested in the psychological states of the characters, with or without refer- 
 ence to their moral actions, and Galsworthy in the moral actions as an ex- 
 pression of the? mental condition. This explains Hauptmann's interest in 
 pathological cases, and the fact that his women show moral weakness of 
 character and his men spiritual weakness. 
 
 "Hauptmann's success in depiction of emotional states is due not only 
 to his great psychological insight, but also to his rare skill in utilizing just 
 those elements in the environment of his characters that make them in- 
 telligible."^^ While Galsworthy is not as subtle a psychologist as Haupt- 
 mann, he is perhaps equally careful to make his characters intelligible by 
 the use of the proper elements in their environment. Both recognize that 
 environment determines and completes man. Therefore every object 
 brought into a drama must have definite value. Likewise every gesture, 
 facial expression, word must contribute its share to the total impression, 
 and too, help to interpret the temperament, and mental condition of the 
 character. As psychologists both recognize that no definite line divides 
 conscious from subconscious activity. Drama conceived on the principles 
 "thinking is dramatic" and "man is the best plot" must recognize the 
 validity of the inner life — dreams, hallucinations and imaginings. There- 
 fore, when in Hannele the thoughts of the child's distempered mind, and in 
 The Little Dream the dream of Seelchen, are represented before us, they 
 are not only dramatic, but the line which divides the psychical from the 
 factual is indiscernible. Neither author treats this world of thought from 
 a romantic motive. 
 
 Hauptmann has been most successful in the use of the dream device. 
 He used it in Blga, Schluck und Jau and Die versunkene Glocke if that play 
 is so interpreted. Galsworthy has used it in his stories "Salvation of a 
 Forsythe" and "The Silence," tho not very successfully. In The Mob, 
 the dream is used as a telepathic communication about an actual event.®^ 
 In The Dark Flower it is used symbolically to forecast an actual event.*' 
 The dream in "Sekhet,"** "Reveille,"*'* "Reverie of a Sportsman"*" serves 
 to clothe the allegorical content. In these latter cases the dreams are not 
 
 "P. H. Grumman: Poet Lore, 22, p. 117. 
 
 "The Mob, Act III, Sc. II. 
 
 "The Dark Flower, Part II, Chap. IV. 
 
 **The Little Man and Other Satires. 
 
 ^'A Sheaf. 
 
 "Ibid. 
 
Art 49 
 
 so much psychological as symbolical. Dreams and manifestations of a 
 disturbed mental condition are numerous in the works of Hauptmann, too 
 numerous to be noted specifically. The most striking examples are Schil- 
 ling's dream of the fisherman's net f Von Kammacher's dream on the 
 Roland,'^® or his fevered hallucination during his illness f^ Thiel's ecstasy 
 during which his dead wife reappears to him.^** Somewhat similar to 
 Thiel's experience is Derek's when haunted by Tryst's ghost. "^ Tho 
 Galsworthy does not generally treat disordered mental phenomena, lie 
 does like Hauptmann indulge in what might be called, day-dreaming or 
 seeing mental pictures. There is in this, nothing abnormal. It is merely 
 visualizing what memory and imagination, awakened by some object or 
 fact have conjured up. The most notable examples in Galsworthy are in 
 "Memories," in which a faithful dog reappears to his mistress f^ in his 
 "Old Time Place," in which he sees in his mind's eye the slave-market of 
 yore.^^ Only by reading Griechischer Friihling do we come to realize the 
 extent to which Hauptmann is addicted to day-dreaming. 
 
 Not merely in the fundamental analysis of character are Hauptmann 
 apd Galsworthy good psychologists, but in the presentation of character 
 as well. Not merely do they get at the root of Frau John's maternal in- 
 stinct; Grieselda's patience; Forsythe's idiosyncrasies; Falder's weak- 
 ness ; the Little Man's sensitiveness ; but by intuition seize upon the 
 proper means to give the exact interpretation. Their art is seen in both 
 what they include and what they exclude. Never do they falsify by un- 
 duly emphasizing details. Nor do they interpret character by extended 
 comment as in The Egoist. Both interpret by suggestion rather than by 
 direct explanation. What a feat, for instance, it is to portray in Henschel 
 a sorrow without a voice or More's mingled silent pity, superiority, con- 
 tempt,^* or Bosinney's and Irene's terrible silent struggles. Their sufifer- 
 ings are too deep for words, and these artists know that in such situations 
 more can be told by silence than by words, no matter how well chosen. 
 
 "Gabriel Schillings Flucht. Act II. 
 
 "'Atlantis: Gesammelte Werke, Vol. 6, p. 247. 
 
 '^Ibid., p. 450. 
 
 '^BahnxiHirter Thiel, Chap. I. 
 
 ''The Freclands, Chap. XXXVI. 
 
 *^The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 
 "Ibid. 
 
 ""The Mob, Act III, Sc. I. 
 
50 Gerliart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 This reticence in certain situations is not a sign of superficial treatment but 
 rather a mark of a true psychologist and sure artist. Nor should it be 
 confused with mere stage silence or pantomime. The two features are 
 closely related but not the same. One is what is done by the characters 
 rather than said ; the other what is neither done nor said but suggested 
 by the character thru the skill of the artist. A case in point is Kate's 
 temptation of More."^ Very little is said or done but much suggested. 
 Another case is Arnold's suffering. His real feelings are concealed be- 
 neath an exterior of bravado. 
 
 Some of the best examples of their power of suggestion are their love 
 scenes. These love scenes are not Romeo and Juliet like — romantic and 
 eloquent. Often their lovers talk not love but commonplaces or non- 
 sense. Compare the spriteliness of the scene between Gertrude and Max^^ 
 with the delicacy of that between Sylvia and Lennon f^ or the ingenuous- 
 ness of that between Walburga and Spitta,®* with the wistfulness of that 
 between Lux and Kosakiewicz^^ and the restraint of that between 
 Antonia and Shelton.^"^ In nearly every case Galsworthy treats 
 love scenes with greater restraint than does Hauptmann. His method is 
 often to report the scene thru a third person, or thru the recollection of 
 one of the pincipals. It amounts in some cases to a great effort to pre- 
 serve "good form." The scenes between Mrs. Bellow and George, Olive 
 and Lennon, Irene and Bosinney, as well as those between Irene and 
 Soames, and Olive and her husband, all are restrained or only vaguely 
 suggested. "Nichts ware verkehrter als Galsworthys Menschen gefiihls- 
 arm oder gar blutleer nennen zu wollen : aber wortarm smd sie, wortarm 
 
 bis zu einem Grade, "^°^ "It is astonishing, when one considers the 
 
 force and passion of so much of his work, to realize that it is all got from 
 surface-workings — not that he ever suggests the shallow or superficial 
 
 "^"^ Hauptmann's treatment of love themes is much bolder. Rose 
 
 Bcrnd and Griselda are daring but delicate studies. Full of passion but 
 
 "Ibid., Act III, Sc. II. 
 
 '^College Crampton, Act V. 
 
 ''The Dark Flozvcr, Part I, Chap. XIII. 
 
 'Die Ratten, Act IV. 
 
 "DiV Jungfcrn vom Bischofsberg, Act V. 
 
 "^The Island Pharisees, Chap. XXIV. 
 
 "^M. Meyerfeld : Das literarische Echo, 13J. 1093. 
 
 "'S. Kaye-Smith : John Galsixforthy. 
 
Art 51 
 
 restrained are the scenes between Helen and Loth/"^ Ruth and Quint/°* 
 Agatha and Griinwald/^^ Heinrich and Rautendelein.^"*' The scenes be- 
 tween Eva Burns and Von Kammacher are restrained because their love 
 is not so much a love of passion as of companionship. The scene between 
 Michaline and Lachmann shows how a love may smoulder but cannot be 
 rekindled.i"^ 
 
 In dialog too, Hauptmann and Galsworthy suggest rather than directly 
 announce. Hauptmann's method is to suggest by leaving a line of thought 
 incompleted. The suggestion arises thru the conversation's being inter- 
 rupted and later resumed from another angle. Galsworthy often suggests 
 by what the characters refrain from saying. Good examples are Marlow's 
 unwillingness to answer Barthwick's questions about the Unknown 
 Lady;^°^ and Jones' refusal to explain how he got the money.^°^ Much of 
 the suggestion comes too, from the wonderful sensitiveness with which 
 each picks out the appropriate detail to convey the exact meaning or im- 
 pression. Each movement, gesture, facial expression, detail of dress or 
 apearance is carefully noted and has specific value. It is no accident that 
 Melanto (B. des O.) has red-brown hair; that Anna Mahr is dressed in 
 black ; that Gertrude wears a Rembrandt hat ; that the Unknown Lady's 
 reticule is sky-blue ; that an oleograph and a bayonet hang over the Hughs' 
 bed;"" that Mr. Pendyce's head is long and narrow;"^ that Sir William 
 goes to Freda to get his glove buttoned ;^^- that Frau Motes asks for bread 
 and eggs ;"^ that Pippa's father is an Italian expert glass-blower. So also 
 is their use of the weather already noted. Their sensitiveness, too, ex- 
 presses itself in the choice of the specific word, which' a large vocabulary 
 permits them to do. This characteristic is so common in their work that 
 only a few of the best illustrations can be cited. Olive (Dark F.) has black 
 velvety eyes; Anna (Dark F.) has ice-green eyes; Pendyce has an "in- 
 
 ^'^Vor Sonnenaufgang, Act IV. 
 
 "^Der Narr in Christo, Chap. XVII. 
 
 ^"'ZPtV Jungfern vont Bischofsberg, Act V. 
 
 '^^Die versunkene Glocke, Act IV. 
 
 '^'"Michael Kramer, Act III. 
 
 ^'^The Silver Box, Act I, Sc. III. 
 
 'Vbid., Act III. 
 
 ^''Fraternity, Chap. VI. 
 
 '''''The Countrv House, Chap. IV. 
 
 '■''The Eldest Son, Act II. 
 
 "^Der Biberpeh, Act I. 
 
 I 
 
52 Gerhart Hanptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 clination to bottle shoulders" ;^^* the shepherd smokes "eine Pfeife aus 
 Rinde.""'* Ruth casts a "honeyed look";^^'' the Pfarrer speaks of the 
 Tollkraut of Heinrich's sin;^^^ Crampton objects to painting "in einem 
 Kartoffel-keller."^^® People with "steckenden und glaubenskranken 
 Augen" come to the Apostle. ^^^ 
 
 Because Hauptmann and Galsworthy present "slices of life" it must 
 not be inferred that their plays are formless. Nor must it be thought be- 
 cause Hauptmann's plays have a great deal of atmosphere that they lack 
 structure; or because his acts are largely discussions that he is guilty of 
 garrulity. Both men have a keen sense for dramatic values and an intui- 
 tive knowledge of the theatre. 
 
 In naturalistic plays the action usually takes place in a comparatively 
 short time. Therefore Hauptmann and Galsworthy in nearly all of their 
 plays follow Ibsen in seizing upon the culminating moment. This moment 
 has of course, a beginning and an end, but in so far as it is the resultant 
 of previous moments, it is only a link in a chain. Hence a play has a be- 
 ginning from the immediate complication and an ending which is often 
 inconclusive. Both authors differ from Ibsen, however, in that the stories 
 of their plays do not arise from the uncovering of the past. Hauptmann 
 has a fondness for the five act form. If in this feature he follows the old 
 drama, it is rather an accidental than a wilful conformity. Except for 
 Das Friedensfest in three acts ; Michael Kramer, Der Biberpeh, Der rote 
 Hahn, Kaiser Karls Geisel, Und Pip pa tanzt! in four; Hannele in two; 
 Griselda in ten scenes, and Blga, in six ; his plays are in five acts. Gals- 
 worthy's plays are much shorter. The Mob, The Fugitive, and Justice are 
 in four acts, and the Little Dream in six scenes. His other plays are in 
 three acts. When we consider, however, that he frequently divides an 
 act into two or three scenes, his structure is merely a modified form of a 
 four or five-act play. The most broken acts in all his plays are Act HI of 
 Justice, and Act II of A Bit o' Love, in each of which there are three 
 scenes. These are illustrations of the division into scenes for the sake 
 of change of place. Act I of The Silver Box, and Act I of The Eldest Son, 
 
 ^"The Country House, Chap. I. 
 
 ^^^Der Narr in Christo, Chap. III. 
 ^"■"Justice, Act I, p. 3. 
 ^^''Die versunkene Glocke, Act III. 
 ^^^College Crampton, Act V. 
 '"Der Apostel, p. 88. 
 
Art 53 
 
 are the best examples of division to indicate a lapse of time. All these 
 divisions are, however, organically related. In using them he follows the 
 natural division of his material. It creates a freer form and makes for 
 economy of time and words. This, and his power of selecting and arrang- 
 ing, explain the difference in length between his plays and Hauptmann's. 
 
 Exposition in their plays is not so much of antecedent events, except 
 perhaps in Vor Sonnenaufgang, as of character. And in both authors this 
 exposition covers all or nearly all the first act. The crisis, therefore, is to 
 be found at, or near the end of the first act. In Justice it is Falder's ar- 
 rest ; in Kaiser Karls Geisel, Gersuind's liberation ; in The Eldest Son, 
 Freda's declaration ; in Die rote Hahn, the conversation about Gustav. 
 
 Suspense is due, not to the action, but to the characters and situation. 
 In The Mob and The Fugitive, our interest is held by a desire to know the 
 outcome of the protagonist's struggle. We wish to know whether More 
 will have the courage to go on to ultimate martyrdom, or will capitulate 
 to opposition and his emotions. In the case of Clare our interest is in the 
 extent to which she succeeds and fails in her rebellion. We half realize 
 from the beginning that these characters are not going to succeed and yet 
 the uncertainty of the nature of the failure keeps us interested. For in- 
 stance Clare might solve her dilemma by returning to her husband or to 
 Malise, by selling herself or committing suicide. That she does the last is 
 the inevitable result of her character, her previous decisions having made 
 the other solutions impossible. Similarly with Loth. We are anxious to 
 see how the revelation of the family history will react upon him. His 
 
 decision is simply a reassertion of his fundamental principle. Our in- 
 terest in Crampton is in just how he will respond to the helping hands 
 
 extended to him. In Schluck und Jau the interest is in the trick played on 
 Schluck and Jau and how it affects them. In spite of the fact that we 
 vaguely guess the solution of these situations, our interest is held by the 
 analysis of character, the balance of forces in the struggle, and the way in 
 which the tension is increased up to the climax. 
 
 The climax, or turning point, comes in most of the plays at approx- 
 imately the middle of the play. That is, if the play is in four acts the 
 climax comes usually at the end of the second act, if in five acts at the end 
 of the third, or if in three acts in the middle of the second act. The climax 
 in Die versimkene Glocke, is the Pf arrer's threat to Heinrich ; in Gabriel 
 
54 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 Schillings Fliicht, it is Schilling's collapse; in Und Pippa tanst! Hell- 
 riegel's rescue of Pippa from Huhn. The climax of Griselda comes at the 
 end of Scene VI in the moment of agreement just before Ulrich's de- 
 parture. In Justice, the turning point is Falder's conviction ; in The Eld- 
 est Son, Lady Cheshire's discovery of Bill's relations with Freda ; in The 
 Pigeon, Wellwyn's failure to redeem the "rotters." 
 
 At first thought Galsworthy's plays seem to have better structure than 
 Hauptmann's. The last acts of Michael Kramer, Die Weber, and Die ver- 
 sunkene Glocke have been singled out as indicative of defective structure. 
 Such criticism fails to consider Hauptmann's intention. The protagonist 
 of Die Weber is not Dressiger but the body of weavers, of Michael Kram- 
 er, not Arnold but Michael. Technically the plays of both men are well 
 made. Exception might be made to patent weaknesses in Vor Sonncnauf- 
 gang, or to the conventional opening of The Fugitive, but generally defects 
 are inconspicuous. 
 
 Like most of the modern dramatists Hauptmann and Galsworthy have 
 accepted the principle of the unities. Einsame Menschen and The Pigeon 
 observe unity of place ; Strife and A Bii^ o' Love observe unity of time ; 
 Das Friedensfest, Joy and The Eldest Son observe both unities. Most of 
 the plays are restricted as to place and time. Die Ratten takes place in 
 different parts of the same building ; Die Jungfern vom Bischofsberg and 
 Vor Sonnenaufgang take place inside and outside the same house within a 
 limited time. The symbolic plays are more difficult to interpret. Han- 
 nele. The Little Dream and Elga, in so far as they are dream plays might 
 be considered as observing both unities. Schluck und Jau and Und Pippa 
 tanst! might be thought to observe that of time. 
 
 The soliloquy as a conventional dramatic device has long since been 
 abandoned. That people do talk to themselves under certain circum- 
 stances is however a recognized psychological fact. Hence Hauptmann 
 and Galsworthy use the solioquy, but in a thoroly realistic way. Usually 
 it takes the form of an impersonal exclamation, as in the case of Well- 
 wyn,i-° Keith,i2i j^^^jy Cheshire,^-^ Crampton/-^ prau Wolff,^24 Hassen- 
 
 ^"The Pigeon, Act I, p. 7. 
 
 ''The Eldest Son, Act I, Sc. II, p. 14. 
 
 "Ibid., Act 11, p. 45. 
 
 ^"College Crampton, Act I, p. 13. 
 
 ''*Der Biberpels, Act I, p. 29. 
 
^rt 55 
 
 reuter/-^ Strangway.'-" Less frequently it is resorted to as an expression 
 of a highly wrought-up emotional state, as in the case of Helen,' ^^ Frau 
 John,^-® Ansorge.^'^ In a few cases it is put in the mouth of an intoxi- 
 cated man — Krause,'^*^ Jones, '^^ Jack."^ Never, however, is the soliloquy 
 unreal when spoken by real people. Even when used in the poetic Dcr 
 versnnkene Glocke it is made probable by the character of Rautendelein, 
 and the situation. 
 
 One of the most distinguishing characteristics of the two authors is their 
 ability to handle groups or masses of men. A large part of the success of 
 Die IVeher and Strife depends on this ability. In other works it forms 
 a notable but less striking feature. In Die Ratten, Atlantis, Der Narr in 
 Christo, The Mob, are scenes showing a masterly handling of groups of 
 people. The dinner scene in the opening of A Man of Property; Clara 
 Freeland's meetings ; the court scenes in Justice, The Silver Box, Dcr 
 Biherpels, Der rote Hahn; Acts II and III of The Eldest Son are also 
 excellent examples. This ability shows itself in addition, in the fact that 
 practically every play has a large number of dramatis personcc, and that 
 these are always well handled. The number in general, ranges from fif- 
 teen to twenty. A few plays have less : Der arme Heinrich, seven ; Das 
 Friedensfest, eight ; Kaiser Karls Geisel, nine ; Joy, ten ; Binsame Men- 
 schen and Schluck und Jau, eleven; The Pigeon, thirteen; and a few 
 plays have more : Der rote Hahn, twenty-five ; The Little Dream, twenty- 
 seven; Hannele, about thirty; Strife, thirty-one; Die Weber, forty; 
 Florian Geyer, seventy-eight. 
 
 The handling of groups of characters is one of the best tests of a dram- 
 atist's technique and his knowledge of the theatre. That these authors 
 stand the test is a proof of their knowledge of stage-craft. They demon- 
 strate it not merely in the movement of the characters upon the stage in 
 what is called business, but in the manipulation of the conversation. Mul- 
 tiple conversation is not general, but what examples there are show the 
 touch of masters' hands. A few examples are : the end of Act I of Vor 
 
 ""Die Ratten, Act III. 
 
 '"A Bit o' Love, Act III, So. I, p. 63. 
 
 "'Vor Sonnciiaufgang, Act I, end, and Act V, end. 
 
 '^Die Ratten, Act IV, end. 
 
 ''Die IVeber, Act IV, end. 
 
 ^Vor Sonnenaufgang, Act II, beginning. 
 
 ^'^The Silver Box, Act I, beginning. 
 
56 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 Sonnenaufgang, Act III of. The Eldest Son, Act II of Das Friedensfest, 
 the end of Act V of Die Jungfern vom Bischofsberg, Act III of Der rote 
 Hahn, in each of which five or six persons converse. Conversations be- 
 tween three or four are somewhat common. In the vast majority of cases, 
 tho, the conversations are carried on between two or three characters, and 
 this too, even when several others are present on the stage. But this is 
 natural, since, very seldom in actual life dq more than two or three con- 
 verse, even in a group of people. Of course, that does not mean that the 
 two or three speakers never change. They do not tho, break in upon each 
 other's speeches, as do Granville Barker's characters. The conversation 
 is not alternate but consecutive. An interesting exception is found in Act 
 IV of Der Biherpeh, in which four people talk simultaneously. 
 
 The manipulation of conversation can not be isolated from action, busi- 
 ness, character and dialog, except for the purpose of analysis. Naturalistic 
 technique, as used by Hauptmann and Galsworthy, so closely knits these 
 elements together that every detail, sound or movement tells its part of 
 the story. Sometimes it is the suggested rather than the actual sound or 
 movement that tells the story. In Die Weber there is little real action, yet 
 a great deal of suggested action. Act III, Scene III of Justice is wordless 
 but very eloquent. In Act II, Scene II of Strife, as in other scenes in 
 which numbers of people appear there is not so much actual as suggested 
 stage business. This is because these men make pantomime as eloquent as 
 words, and immobility as full of meaning as movement. 
 
 Stage business both as an accompaniment to the words and as a sub- 
 stitute for words is so abundantly used by both authors as to make com- 
 ment or illustration superfluous. Elaborate stage business amounting to 
 a kind of pantomime is used, as already noted, in Justice, and, in Das 
 Friedensfest, Act II, and Und Pippa tanzt! Act III, in which the dumb 
 servant Jonathan figures. Each author has a keen sense of situation. 
 The situations are pregnant with dramatic possibilities, but never theatri- 
 cal. Almost any play will serve to illustrate the point. 
 
 One of the features for which both authors are celebrated is their rich, 
 natural dialog. Among contemporaries, each is unequalled in the writing 
 of dramatic dialog — for each has learned well the lesson taught by Ibsen. 
 Both are most scrupulously selective in the creation of dialog, yet they 
 never give it a "superior articulateness," which destroys the illusion of 
 
Art 57 
 
 complete reality. The speech is always suited to the speaker, or con- 
 versely, the dialog helps to create the character. Character and dialog 
 are inseparable, or as Galsworthy puts it, "Good dialog is character." 
 If it's an Ulrich who speaks, the dialog is easy and polished ; if it's a Frau 
 Wolff, it is racy and ungrammatical ; if it's a Ferrand, it is suave and dis- 
 jointed ; if it's a Mrs. Jones, it is monosyllabic and unvaried. Characters 
 are differentiated not merely by what is said but by the form and tone in 
 which it is said. Nast is characterized not only by what he says in defense 
 of the school system, but in the boastful and arrogant tone in which he 
 says it ; Frau Spiller ( Vor S.) by the — m — of her breathing, which forms 
 an audible accompaniment to her words, as well as by the words them- 
 selves. Malise and Col. Hope (Joy) are distinguished not only by what 
 they say, but by Malise's rhetorical and Hope's choleric way of saying it. 
 A few more examples must suffice. The child's vocabulary is revealed 
 in Little Olive's remark : "I never can go to sleep if I try — it's quite 
 helpless, you know."^^- The figurative language of the illiterate Rauch- 
 haupt is shown in his speech to Frau Schulze : "Wo dir man eens eener 
 uff't Handwerk paszt, mit Kinderkens pflegen und so 'ne Sachen, det de 
 Engel in Himmel nich alle wer'n ! denn mechten woll so 'ne Curessen 
 
 rauskomm' det du horen und sehen verjiszt."^^* The primitive 
 
 courage of the old crossing sweeper is revealed in his prayer for strength : 
 "Oh Lord God, that took the dog from me, and gave me this here rheu- 
 matics, help me to keep a stiff and contrite heart So God give me 
 
 a stiff heart, and I will remember you in my prayers, for that's all I can 
 do now, O God. I have been a good one in my time, O Lord, and cannot 
 remember doing harm to any man for a long while now, and I have tried 
 to keep upsides of it ; so, good Lord, remember and do not forget me, now 
 that I am down a-lying here all day, and the rent goin' on. For ever and 
 ever, O Lord, Amen."^^* That Hauptmann's and Galsworthy's dialog is 
 full of feeling and force hardly needs proof. 
 
 One reason for the vividness and naturalness of Hauptmann's dialog 
 is his use of dialect. Born in a country rich in dialects, and having had 
 from birth an intimate knowledge of Silesian, it is natural that he should 
 enrich his plays by dialectically differentiating his characters. And this is 
 
 'The Mob. Act III, Sc. II, p. 49- 
 ^Dcr rote Hahn, Act III, p. lOO. 
 *"The Choice" in A Motley. 
 
58 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 done with "phonetic accuracy In Vor Sonnenaufgang, Hoffman, 
 
 Loth, Dr. Schimmelpfennig and Helen speak normal High German ; all 
 the other characters speak Silesian except the imported footman, Edward, 
 who uses the Berlin dialect. In Der Biherpelz, the various gradations of 
 that dialect are scrupulously set down, from the impudent vulgarity of 
 Leontine and Adelaide to the occasional consontal slips of Wehrhahn."^^^ 
 Galsworthy born in a country poor in dialects, and treating a class of 
 society that does not use dialect, has naturally produced little. Yet his 
 Devon Sage^^** and the rustics in A Bit o' Love use a provincial English 
 that is rendered, too, with phonetic accuracy, Ruth (Justice) speaks with 
 a West-Country accent. Thomas (Strife) too, cannot deny his Welsh 
 extraction, 
 
 A characteristic which has attracted attention, particularly in Haupt- 
 mann, is the employment of long speeches. If, however, these speeches 
 are examined carefully, nearly all of them will be found very dramatic. 
 The last part of Act IV of Michael Kramer for instance, is almost a mono- 
 log by Kramer, and yet it is in character, and highly dramatic. Then there 
 is the very long but very dramatic speech of Roberts in Strife, Act II, 
 Most of the speeches have a dramatic motive. Spitta's to Walburga is a 
 complaint against his father's injustice ;^^^ Hoffmann's to Loth is to win 
 Loth over.^^^ Wehrhahn's harangue is dramatic because delivered in 
 court. So also are the lawyers' speeches in the second act of Justice. 
 Some speeches are long because in character. Crampton's speeches are 
 nearly all long. He is loquacious and dictatorial. Hassenreuter is pom- 
 pous and rhetorical. Mrs. Miler, Hke so many of her class suffers from 
 talkativeness of one unburdened with self-consciousness and refinement. 
 Repetitions and uncouth expressions may also account for the length of 
 some of Hauptmann's speeches. Then too, German as a language carries 
 much more "ballast" than does English. On the other hand, one has only 
 to turn to Acts II and III of Binsame Menschen, Act IV of Vor Sonnen- 
 aufgang and almost any play of Galsworthy's to find dialog in short, pithy 
 speeches. 
 
 Hauptmann and Galsworthy have been called novelists writing for the 
 
 %. Lewisohn : Introduction to Dramatic Works of Gerhart Hauptmann. 
 ^'Moods, Songs, and Doggerels. 
 'Die Ratten, Act IV, p. 153. 
 '^Vor Sonnenaufgang, Act III. 
 
Art 59 
 
 theatre. Such a statement need not be refuted. Yet Hauptmann says : 
 "1st doch das Dramatische und das Epische niemals reingetrennt, ebenso- 
 wenig wie die Tendenzen der Zeit und des Ortes."^^^ And that narrative 
 enters into his plays is not to be denied. One has only to read his stage 
 directions to ascertain the fact. And, of course, the same must be said of 
 Galsworthy. Citation of a few of the most epical stage directions must 
 suffice here. 
 
 "Dr. Scholz (macht eine Gebarde, die etwa ausdriickt : ich will nichts 
 verreden, ich kann mich vielleicht tauchen yuo 
 
 "Moved by that look, which is exactly as if she had said : 'I have no 
 friends,' he hurried on."^*^ 
 
 "Ein Zug des Nachdenkens, gleichsam iiber ein Problem, dessen Losung 
 ebenso aussichtslos als unbedingt notwendig ist, befallt sie immer, sofern 
 nicht auszere Eindrucke sie ablenken."^*- 
 
 " the brown eyes are lost, and seem always to be asking some- 
 thing to which there is no answer."^*" 
 
 Perhaps this is not a fair test, since the cases cited are exceptional 
 rather than general. Some of these stage directions are, of course, writ- 
 ten for the reader, but nine out of ten are written to make every detail 
 specific, so that the characters may be, in an actual production, as far as 
 possible identical with those characters as conceived in the authors' minds. 
 Hence they are objective, and not subjective like Shaw's. They specify 
 not conventional gestures but movements intimately related to the inner 
 life of the character, to the moral or spiritual nature, or the psychological 
 condition. But Galsworthy's are briefer and more general than Haupt- 
 mann's. 
 
 Hauptmann and Galsworthy do not play chorus, unless Miss Beech 
 (Joy) is honored with that title. Each is too great an artist to obtrude 
 upon his audience. Neither do they, like Shaw, talk thru the dialog. They 
 let the stories tell themselves thru the characters or situations. Haupt- 
 mann generally uses the former method, Galsworthy the latter. Tho 
 both are concerned primarily with the being and fate of humanity rather 
 
 "Griechischcr Prnhling, p. 222. 
 
 "Das Fricdcnsfest, Act II, p. 52. 
 
 ^The Fugitive, Act II, p. 36. 
 
 ^Gabriel Schillings Flucht, Act II, p. 47. 
 
 M Bit 0' Love, Act I, p. n. 
 
6o Ccrhart Haupimann and John Galsworthy 
 
 than with problems of art, economics, or ethics ; tho they do not attempt 
 definitely to prove anything, we know where their sympathies lie. Each 
 uses parallelism, contrast and balance in order that the plays may be 
 wholly objective. Galsworthy particularly, scrupulously balances the 
 forces against each other so that he may not seem to be pleading a case. 
 Only occasionally does the moralist speak at the expense of the artist. 
 Their characters discuss problems a little too freely, but then we cannot 
 accuse the authors of speaking thru the character's mouths, since the re- 
 marks are usually in character. Only in his early work Vor Sonnenanf- 
 gang and perhaps Das Fricdensfest, does Hauptmann sacrifice the play to 
 the Tendenz; and only in his decorative symbols or remarks does Gals- 
 worthy force his didacticism, as for example, in the choice of "Caste" for 
 the play rehearsed in The Eldest Son; or the song "This day a stag must 
 die," in The Fugitive;'^** or in the use of the symbol the hawk and rabbit, 
 in The Dark Flower; or of Jack's remark to his father : "Dad, that's what 
 you said to me."^^'^ This reinforcement of an objective story is too 
 adroitly managed to seem unconscious. Another device that makes us un- 
 pleasantly aware of his purpose is the choice of names — like Freelands. 
 Interesting sidelights are thrown too, by a comparison of the way in which 
 the two men treat the same ideas. Compare the brief, suggestive retort 
 of Laclimann to his wife: "Mein Mann: Ich bin nicht Dein Mann. Der 
 Ausdruck macht mich immer nervos,"'*® with Galsworthy's elaborate 
 treatment of the same idea in The Man of Property. On the other hand 
 compare Roberts' attitude on the question of the poor having children'*^ 
 with Loth's preachment on heredity. 
 
 "Tragodie und Komodie haben das gleiche StoflFgebiet,"^** says Haupt- 
 mann. And he has himself in Die Ratten come nearest to making the 
 same subject matter both tragic and comic. Here, as in real life, side by 
 side, yet inextricably interwoven are a comedy and a tragedy. Indeed we 
 approach in this play close to the "hysterical point" — the point at which 
 we can laugh and cry at the same event. Modern drama with its incon- 
 clusive ending has produced a hybrid form which is neither comedy or 
 
 "The Fugitive, Act IV. 
 *The Silver Box, Act III. 
 "Michael Kramer, Act I, p. 21. 
 "Strife, Act II, Sc. II. 
 *Griechischer Priihling, p. 91, 
 
Art 6i 
 
 tragedy. Thus Hauptmann has written a comedy (rote H.) which ends 
 in the protagonist's death and Galsworthy has written a comedy (Sil. B.) 
 which ends in a man's going to jail. Yet Hauptmann's comedy ending in 
 death is comic, while Galsworthy's comedy ending in a jail sentence is 
 tragic. Not the ending but the pervading spirit is the determining feature. 
 
 In modern drama comedy must be an outgrowth of character and situa- 
 tion, and not an extraneous element stuck on for comic relief. Even in 
 comedy itself no inorganic elements are permitted — no epigram, jokes or 
 horseplay. Consequently in Hauptmann and Galsworthy comedy arises 
 generally from peculiarities of characters. Scantlebury (Strife) ; the vil- 
 lagers in A Bit o' Love; Nast, Otto and Klemt (Jung. V. B.) are good 
 examples of somewhat incidental yet organic comedy. Mrs. Miler's inten- 
 tion to spill water on the man at the door is a side light on her character. 
 The naturalistic scenes in Hannele, were they not so terrible might be 
 comic. Some of the comedy arises from situation as well as from char- 
 acter : the trick of suspending a basket of bread over Arnold's seat in the 
 inn ; the colloquy about prison between Frances Freeland and Tryst's 
 children. ^*^ The most comic of Galsworthy's works is The Pigeon. It is 
 conceived in a humorous spirit, and the ending is a master stroke. The 
 kindly Pigeon plucked by all avenges himself upon the moving-men, by 
 leaving them the contents of a decanter. This turns out to be tea. Yet 
 with all its humor there is a pervading element of tragedy that cannot be 
 escaped. It is the tragedy that produces a grim smile. So too, with 
 Schluck und Jan. This is a masque conceived in a spirit of comedy, 
 but it is permeated with a biting irony. Crampton, while a comic figure, 
 is still somewhat tragic. Of pure humor there is practically none in either 
 author, unless certain few clever remarks made by characters are so under- 
 stood. And of whole-hearted fun there is little in Hauptmann and less in 
 Galsworthy. 
 
 Contrast is one of the most distinctive features of the work of both 
 authors. They use moral contrast, but it is social contrast in which they 
 are most interested and successful. Galsworthy's social contrast is often 
 of class against class. Hauptmann's of individuals against individuals. 
 Both use contrast tho, in other ways. In Schluck und Jau, Fraternity, 
 there is contrast of rich and poor ; in Vor Sonnenaufgang and The Free- 
 
 *The Freelands, Chap. XXXI, 
 
62 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsivorthy 
 
 lands of land-owner and laborer; in Die Ratten, of the old way of act- 
 ing with the new ; in Der arnie Heinrich, of two attitudes toward religion. 
 Der Narr in Christo and A Bit o Love contrast the true Christian religion 
 of spirit with the practical religion of form. "The Neighbors"^^° con- 
 trasts a Teutonic and a Celtic family living side by side. Profesor Stone's 
 book, and himself are examples of fraternity in theory and in practice. 
 
 Hauptmann likes to put a man between two very different types of 
 women. The commonplace wife Kathe is placed beside the superior Anna 
 Mahr ; the garrulous Frau Lachmann beside the masculine Michaline ; 
 the invalid Frau Flamm beside the buxom Rose ; the sensual Melanto 
 beside the chaste Leukone. Galsworthy does the same with Bianca 
 (Frat) and the model, and Sylvia and Nell (Dark F.). Usually he puts a 
 woman between two very different men. The artists Bosinney, Malise, 
 Lennon are contrasted with the practical Soames, Dedmond and Cramier. 
 Family studies also serve to emphasize contrast. 
 
 Both authors make much of the contrast that arises from situation. 
 Beside Frau John, who is madly desirous of a child, is placed Pauline, who 
 is desperate because she is with child. Over against Heinrich's children 
 and Luise's dead children are placed Dreissiger's ; over against the child- 
 less Mrs. Roberts, the happy mother Enid. Jones' and Jack Barthwick's 
 crimes are placed side by side. In order to bring out moral contrast both 
 authors adopt the use of parallel situations. Sir William commands his 
 dependent to marry a wronged girl but refuses to allow his son to make 
 like amends to his wife's maid. Mrs. Krause would discharge Marie for 
 an immoral act of which she herself is afterward proved guilty. 
 
 Closely related to contrast is the element irony. Both authors use it 
 very effectively. In Hauptmann it lurks beneath the surface, and gives 
 the impression of being unintentional. In Galsworthy it is rather evident 
 and is used with mordant effect. As Skemp points out the ironies of life 
 "sting his intellect" and thereby "save him from his emotions." Perhaps 
 the most striking example of his irony is the recovery of Mrs. Megan 
 (Pigeon) from attempted suicide. Another is the case of the minister 
 who is a lover of animals but a scourger of men.^"'^ Somewhat bitter is 
 "My Distant Relative. "^^- This gentleman, tho unfit for anything, objects 
 
 "M Motley. 
 
 "'"A Fisher of Men" in A. Motley. 
 
 ^^'The Inn of Tranquillity. 
 
Art 63 
 
 to mollycoddling, and thinks competition the only thing. Somewhat hu- 
 morous is MacCreedy's remark that when he smothered his wife "she 
 
 struggled very little she was aye an obedient woman. "^^^ More 
 
 genial is the remark that the dog Miranda found the perfect dog in a toy 
 dog on wheels. ^^* Perhaps the most ironic situation in Hauptmann is the 
 sinking of the Roland (Atlantis) and the fate of the passengers. The 
 brave captain went down while the parasites, Stoss and Frau Leibling were 
 saved. Almost as cruel is the irony of Schilling's fate. Following a re- 
 mark that a man must free his soul, he discovers the sunshade of his tor- 
 mentor.^^^ Later, just when Lucy has lied to Frau Schilling about the 
 occupants of the next room, Hannah Elias comes out.^'^" The mocking 
 irony of Schluck imd Jau has already been adverted to. Superb is the 
 irony, when Dreissiger announces that many of the weavers are willing to 
 wear their soles (it should have been souls) out in order to get work ; and 
 later when he thinks half-starved children should not be allowed to carry 
 heavy bundles. ^^^ More subtle is the irony of Frau Spiller's after-dinner 
 prayer ;^^^ or of Frau Fielitz's death without remorse, in spite of the retri- 
 bution Wehrhahn had promised to sinners ; or of the compromise at the 
 end of Strife. 
 
 Altho Hauptmann has written poetic dramas and an epic, he has writ- 
 ten comparatively few lyrics. Galsworthy has written a slender volume 
 entitled. Moods, Songs, and Doggerels. The explanation of this small out- 
 put of lyrics in a great quantity of work, is to be found in the following 
 quotation : "Hauptmann seems to be denied the gift of purely lyrical ex- 
 pression. His poems, as far as we know them, fail to carry us away by 
 an impression of spontaneity and impetuosity. They are too full of intel- 
 lectual reflection. "^^^ The applicability of this to Galsworthy is evident. 
 Yet Hauptmann "certainly has the gift of creating a uniform and har- 
 monious atmosphere which, after all, is perhaps the highest perfection of 
 a lyrical poem. He is so strongly gifted in this direction that it some- 
 times even endangers the realistic development of his dramatic plot.""^ 
 
 '""A Miller of Dee" in A Motley. 
 
 ^"^Fraternity, Chap. XVIII. 
 
 ^"^Gabrid Schillings Flucht, Act II. 
 
 "7&id., Act IV. 
 
 "^Die Weher, Act I. 
 
 ^^Vor Sonnenaufgang, Act I. 
 
 "'Karl Holl : Gerhart Hauptmann. 
 
 5 
 
64 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 One has only to test this by Gabriel Schillings Fliicht, Die Jung fern vom 
 Bischofsberg or Das Friedensfest. Galsworthy does not have the power 
 of creating atmosphere, in anything like this degree. Yet his sketches and 
 novels particularly, disclose a highly developed lyrical love of nature. 
 When one thinks of Griechischer Friihling, The Freelands, and Gals- 
 worthy's numerous sketches, one is inclined to claim that Hauptmann and 
 Galsworthy are more lyrical in prose than in verse. 
 
IV. 
 
 The Parallel Plays. 
 Die Weber and Strife. 
 
 Now, having examined in this sketchy way the general characteristics 
 of the two men, let us turn to the parallel plays for a comparison of the 
 details that are found in these plays only. The parallel most often noted 
 is that of Die Weber and Strife. Each deals with a struggle between capi- 
 tal and labor. The former treats of the revolt of the Silesian weavers in 
 1844; the latter a strike of tin-plate workmen on the borderland of Wales 
 in the present day. The former shows how starvation gradually forces 
 the peasants into blind revolt; the latter the havoc wrought by a strike 
 prolonged by uncompromising leaders on both sides, and the interference 
 of the labor union. 
 
 In characteristic fashion Hauptmann approaches the problem from the 
 side of the weavers, and Galsworthy from the side of the employers. Yet 
 each is very impersonal in the presentation of the case, tho sympathizing 
 with the men. This is because each balances the forces and gives scenes 
 from the life of the employers as well as from that of the men. Act I of 
 Die Weber is laid in Dreissiger's store-room. Act IV in his drawing-room. 
 Act I of Strife is laid in the manager's dining room, being temporarily used 
 for a board meeting, and Act III in his drawing-room. Ajgts II|f and V of 
 Die Weber are laid in the weavers' homes ; Act Il^^^ene I, of Strife in 
 the home of Roberts, the strike leader. Act lllfDi£W^ber, is laid in the 
 inn about which the men congregate before attacking Dreissiger's ; Act II, 
 Scene II, of Strife, before the works where the men meet to deliberate if 
 they will accept the terms offered.. 
 
 Die Weber is simple. Strife complex. This is due partly because the 
 situation in Die Weber is clear cut, that in Strife complicated by the inter- 
 ference of the labor union ; partly because the sufferings of the people, in 
 Die Weber, are given in detail, directly and at some length, those in Strife 
 generalized, made indirect, and conveyed thru a typical case ; and partly 
 because the characters in Die Weber, being lower class and uneducated, 
 
66 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 are presented emotionally, those in Strife being of a higher class and better 
 educated, are presented intellectually. This last remark is perhaps made 
 clearer by the statement that the weavers strike for bread, but the tin- 
 plate workmen strike on principle. 
 
 The characters in the two plays correspond pretty closely. To the 
 employer Driessiger corresponds the Board chairman, Anthony. The 
 former is petty and selfish, the latter, obstinate and hard. To the manager 
 Pfeiffer corresponds the manager Underwood. The leaders Backer and 
 Jager are united in the leader Roberts, and Backer's insolence to Dreis- 
 siger in Act I, and Jager's in Act IV are parelleled by Roberts' defiance 
 of Anthony and the directors in Act I. To Old Hilse corresponds Henry 
 Thomas. Both are religious in a rather narrow sense. Both protest 
 against the strike, the one against the unlawful conduct of the strikers, 
 the other against continuing the strike in the face of almost certain defeat. 
 One protests quietly to his own family, the other actively to a crowd of 
 workmen. Hilse has a daughter-in-law Luise, who has sufifered patiently 
 for years. Now, stirred by the action of the strikers, she passionately 
 reviles her husband and Old Hilse for what she calls cowardice. Thomas 
 has a daughter, Madge, who is fiery and sharp-tongued. Just before the 
 meeting of the men to consider the terms she spurns her fiance because of 
 his support of Roberts and thereby turns him against him. Dreissiger's 
 wife and children and the children's tutor correspond to Enid, her children 
 and her father's valet. 
 
 The contrast between the luxury of the employers and the poverty of 
 the men, is best brought- out by the way in which the children figure in the 
 plays. The Heinrich's have a large family. One of the children faints 
 in Dreissiger's from sheer exhaustion. Baumert's grandson is a poor 
 wretch without a father. Luise has lost four children thru poverty. On 
 the other hand Dreissiger's children are raised in luxury and have a 
 private tutor. In Strife this terrible situation is forced home not by the 
 number of cases given but by the juxtaposition of the elements. First 
 there is Mrs. Roberts, who is childless because Roberts thought it a crime 
 to have children under such conditions. Then is introduced in the bare 
 little room in which the invalid Mrs. Roberts lives, the spiritless little Jan 
 with his whistle. The monotony of its sound in those surroundings pro- 
 duces an atmosphere of desolation the effect of which can be likened to 
 
The Parallel Plays 67 
 
 nothing else than a sensation of sickness at the pit of the stomach. And 
 into this scene comes Enid, a happy mother having every comfort. Her 
 intention is of the best, but her activity only aggravates the tension be- 
 tween the employees and the company. She and her brother Edgar, real- 
 ize in a way, the sufferings of the people and try to win over their obstinate 
 father. At the same time friction arises among the directors. Similarly 
 Weinhold's attitude toward the weavers causes Dreissiger to discharge 
 him as tutor to his children. Edgar and Weinhold are the only characters 
 that really understand and see the injustice of the situations. 
 
 One of the excuses offered by the employer in each play is that "if the 
 men didn't spend such a lot in drink and betting they'd be quite well off." 
 
 To this is retorted: " they must have some pleasure."^®** In each 
 
 case "the expenses are very heavy." Underwood thinks the men not un- 
 derpaid, Dreissiger thinks them lucky that they have any work at all. 
 The employers in each case think they will be misjudged for the suffering 
 of the people. The fainting of the boy at Dreissiger's and the death of 
 Mrs. Roberts call forth the remark that the newspapers will probably 
 distort the truth with harrowing details and put the blame on them. In 
 each case the attitude is assumed that any assertion of rights must be dis- 
 couraged on principle. Dreissiger is afraid the disaffection will spread to 
 other factories ; Anthony would curb the men in defense of Capital. 
 
 The self-righteousness of Dreissiger is balanced by the studied hard- 
 ness of Anthony. Dreissiger feels himself very virtuous when he refuses 
 longer to permit half-starved children to work for him, and very philan- 
 thropic when he would employ two hundred more weavers. The irony of 
 these statements is superb. And when the weavers attack his place, he 
 uses the time-serving minister, Kittlehaus, as a pawn to stave off the at- 
 tack. Anthony calls the new generation a soft breed. He does not pity 
 the sufferings of the people. To do so would encourage mob rule, a thing 
 he cannot se'e, and what he cannot see he fears. He feels no responsibility 
 if his adversary suffers in a fair fight. Somewhat similarly, Kittlehaus 
 tells Weinhold when he notes the injustice suffered by the weavers, "bleib 
 bei Deinem Leisten." 
 
 Structurally the plays are different. Die Weber has rather loose struc- 
 ture. Strife, compact. In Die Weher, entanglement and disentanglement 
 
 'Strife, Act II, Sc. I, p. 206. 
 
68 Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 are about equal ; in Strife, entanglement aJready existing, is continued by 
 the refusal of terms by both sides. Not until after Mrs. Roberts' death is 
 there any disentanglement. In both plays there is more action than is gen- 
 eral in the work of either author. And in both plays there is less love 
 element than is general with either — in the one a slight scene between 
 Anna and the traveller, and in the other a short scene between Madge and 
 Rous. Strife is Galsworthy's longest play and the largest in number of 
 characters. Except for Florian Geyer, Die IVeher is the longest of Haupt- 
 mann's and has the greatest number of characters. The time of year in 
 Die Weber is the end of May, in Strife, February ; the weather being re- 
 spectively hot and cold. Each play opens at twelve o'clock noon. Strife 
 takes place in six hours ; the time of Die Weber is not specified but it could 
 take place in twenty-four hours. 
 
 Neither play has anything to do with poetic justice. The only results of 
 these bitter struggles are the deaths of Hilse, a harmless, extremely pious 
 old man, and of Mrs. Roberts, an innocent invalid ; the destruction of 
 Dreissiger's property, and the breaking of the two able men, Anthony and 
 Roberts. 
 
 Neither author offers any solution of the problem. Both are content 
 to show the effect of heredity and environment ; to contrast the rich and 
 the poor; to point out the injustice of such a system. Both suggest some- 
 thing deeper. Hauptmann makes implicit what Galsworthy makes ex- 
 plicit, thru the mouth of Edgar : "There's nothing wrong with our human- 
 ity. It's our imaginations." 
 
 Der Biberpels and The Silver Box. 
 
 Der Biberpels and The Silver Box deal with a theft and a subsequent 
 trial before a magistrate. They are called comedies, but are conceived in 
 very different spirits. Hauptmann says the field of the comic is the intel- 
 lect. As Galsworthy's plays have a pronounced intellectual element 
 comedy ought to be Galsworthy's forte. But the seriousness 
 with which he treats his subjects brings them close to tragedy. This 
 is true of The Silver Box. Der Biberpels is perhaps the most intellectual 
 of Hauptmann's plays, and more light and comic than any of Gals- 
 worthy's. By treating the subject intellectually he has forestalled criticism 
 of the morality of the characters. We must remember too, that he has 
 nothing to do with poetic justice. 
 
The Parallel Plays. 69 
 
 The objects stolen are respectively a beaver coat and a silver box. Sing- 
 ularly enough neither of these objects is a symbol, nor an integral part of 
 the action. It forms simply a minor detail for which many other objects 
 would have served almost as well. 
 
 The protagonist of Der Biberpeh is a washerwoman, Frau Wolff, who 
 manoeuvres a series of thefts from a wealthy old citizen named Kriiger. 
 Frau Wolff has a husband who assists her in her schemes, and two daugh- 
 ters, one of whom is employed as a servant in Kriiger's household. When 
 the theft is discovered Kriiger discharges an innocent woman on suspicion. 
 The protagonist of The Silver Box is Jones, who steals a cigarette box 
 from the Barthwicks. His wife is a charwoman at the Barthwick's, and 
 when the theft is discovered she at once is suspected. In each caseJ.nno- 
 cent persons suffer. Incidentally it should be noted that Galsworthy has 
 compressed the situation into smaller compass and therefore has fewer 
 characters. On the other hand he expands the situation in other directions. 
 The Wolffs and the Joneses are very different people. Frau Wolff is 
 clever and ingenious, and has an iron nerve. Mrs. Jones is a "Gawd-for- 
 saken image" and a supine fatalist. Wolff, who really corresponds to Mrs. 
 Jones, is slothful and slow-witted, and a pawn in the hands of his wife. 
 Jones, while far from being an ideal husband or man, is spirited and inde- 
 pendent. Frau Wolff steals because she has no compunction, and no moral 
 standard. Jones steals because poverty, drunkenness and a sense of suf- 
 fering injustice drive him to it. 
 
 One other character figures in an important way. . In the home of 
 Kriiger lives a Dr. Fleisher, a meek, law-abiding citizen. But he has 
 liberal views on certain questions and therefore fal's under the suspicion 
 of Wehrhahn, the magistrate. Barthwick has a son Jack, who is far from 
 being a respectable and law-abiding citizen. But in spite of his offenses, 
 he goes unmolested by the law thru the machinations of his attorney. The 
 attitude toward the law and the magistrate differs widely in the two plays. 
 Hauptmann satirizes the officials but does not attack the principles of jus- 
 tice. Galsworthy does not attack the judgment of the magistrate, but the 
 severity of the system. Both show the emptiness of human justice. Haupt- 
 mann ridicules a system that permits a fool to hold office and "run" a 
 community ; Galsworthy the system that considers only the deed and not 
 the motive. Wehrhahn is an egregious ass, a pillar of society and the 
 
 N.X 
 
yo Gerhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 Church. He is a blatant egotist who knows all about a case before he has 
 heard the evidence. He disbelieves the truth from those he dislikes and 
 believes lies from those he trusts. So intent is he upon hunting down 
 Socialists and others "det er nich iebern Kirchturm fiillt" when it lies be- 
 fore him. Galsworthy does not satirize the magistrate. He is depicted as 
 a sensible man who is intent on sticking to the point. Consequently, when 
 he is about to get off the point by examining into the way Jones got pos- 
 session of the reticule, he discovers his docket does not mention a reticule. 
 He is rather stupid, permitting Jack to be dismissed from the stand before 
 Jones has finished his questions. His intentions are good, but with 
 "form," stupidity and the manoeuvres of the lawyer, justice is one-sided. 
 Each magistrate, of course, has his set of assistants. For Glasenapp. the 
 clerk ; Mittledorf, the constable ; and Motes, a satellite, in Der Biberpelz, 
 there are a clerk, an officer, and Snow, a detective in The Silver Box. 
 
 Hauptmann as usual, treats the subject from the side of the poor, Gals- 
 worthy from that of the rich. Social contrast is used, but it is minimized 
 in Der Biberpelz. The scenes in the two plays are well balanced. In Der 
 Biberpelz, Acts I and HI are laid in the home of the Wolffs, Acts H and IV 
 in court. In The Silver Box, Act I and Act II, Scene II, are laid in the 
 home of the Barthwicks, Act III in court. Structurally the plays are 
 alike, the climax falling at about the middle. Action too, is more of a 
 feature than is general in the works of either author. Oddly enough, both 
 plays open in a similar manner. In Der Biberpelz Leontine is dozing 
 when the curtain rises. Then fumbling at the door and knocking break the 
 silence. The Silver Box begins with the stage empty. Then Jack fumbles 
 at the door and bursts in. 
 
 How approach to a problem from different points of view demands that 
 the same detail be used in different ways is illustrated by a few features. 
 The coat stolen by the Wolffs is handed on to Wulkow in order to get it 
 out of the way. The reticule stolen by Jack gets into Jones' hand by acci- 
 dent. Frau Wolff plans and executes thefts on the pretext of helping to 
 educate her daughters, so that they may rise in the world. Mrs. Barth- 
 wick laments the evils of education, asserting that education causes the 
 poor to get above themselves. And the difference in spirit in which the 
 plays are conceived, shows itself not only in the tone of the plays, but in 
 the emphasis put on certain elements. Der Biberpelz, being broad com- 
 edy, does not have a definite message, while The Silver Box does. Further, 
 the former puts the emphasis on the individuals, the latter on the problem. 
 
The Parallel Plays 71 
 
 Hanneles Himmelfahrt and The Little Dream. 
 
 Die IVcher and Strife are among Hauptmann's and Galworthy's long- 
 est plays ; Hanneles Himmelfahrt and The Little Dream are their shortest. 
 Hannele is a "Traumdichtung in zwei Teilen" ; The Little Dream is an 
 allegory in six scenes. Each is a dream poem in prose and verse. The 
 one is the dream of a child's fever-distraught brain of her reception into 
 heaven ; the other the dream of a mountain lass named Seelchen, of her 
 life's experiences. The scene of each is the mountains. The one is laid in 
 an almshouse to which the dying Hannele is brought, the other in a hut, 
 the home of the little soul. The transition from the factual world to the 
 imaginary is in each case imperceptible, tho in Hannele it is much more 
 subtle and delicate. 
 
 The dream in each case is set in a kind of frame, consisting of a prolog 
 and epilog from real life. Then within the dream are alternations of the 
 real and the imaginary. During Hannele's sane moments the scene is the 
 bare inhospitable almshouse, with its wretched inmates ; during her dream 
 it is the spirit world inhabited by her dead mother, angels and the spir- 
 itual counterparts of the people who enter into her life. Chief among 
 these are her father, Sister Martha and the teacher Gottwald. Her father 
 in her dream is just what he is in life, a drunken brute who abuses her. 
 Gottwald is confused with Christ. The kind teacher embodies for her 
 both an earthly and a divine love. It was this mixed love — partly reli- 
 gious, partly sexual, that drove her into the pool of water after the imag- 
 inary figure of Christ. 
 
 In The Little Dream too, the real and the imaginary alternate. The 
 dream experiences of Seelchen are, like Hannele's, the outgrowth of her 
 real experiences. The men staying in the hut become her rival lovers, 
 between whom she is drawn equally. But this is not all. The men are 
 made to personify certain abstractions as well. Lamond is from the city. 
 He therefore personifies the lure of the metropolis, the gay, ceaseless 
 whirl of life. Felsman is a mountaineer. He personifies the beauty, fresh- 
 ness, serenity of life close to nature. In addition the mountains and flow- 
 ers are personified. The Wine Horn promises Seelchen old wine, chance, 
 change, voice and many loves. The Cow Horn promises her new milk, 
 certainty, peace, stillness and one love. And thfe*'Great Horn warns her 
 that she shall love both. "Thou shalt lie Qrt'#ieflMUs with Silence; and 
 
 Qrl^'#iepl'^Us wit 
 
^2 Gcrliart flanptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 dance in the cities with Knowledge." Of course, the Wine Horn and the 
 Cow Horn are identified with Lamond and Felsman, being the allegorical 
 counterparts of these real characters. As the Great Horn prophesied, 
 Seelchen loves both men in turn, and having enjoyed and wearied of each 
 love, seeks refuge with the Great Horn — Mystery. 
 
 Hannele's dream thoughts alternate between the actual and the spiritual, 
 Seelchen's between city and country life; but in each case the dream blends 
 into and arises out of the factual. This transition makes necessary the use 
 of three sets of characters. First are the real characters. Then are the 
 imaginary ones, which may be further divided into those that speak and 
 those that are pantomimic. Of this latter group, there are a great many 
 more in The Little Dream than in Hannele. In the latter they are 
 chiefly angels, in the former, voices and figures of personified abstractions. 
 
 The time of both plays is the evening, for in Hannele "Mondschein fallt 
 durch's Fenster," and in The Little Dream the moonlight shines upon the 
 mountain peaks. In Hannele it is a winter evening; in The Little Dream, 
 a fine night in August. 
 
 Both plays have an element of symbolism. The black angel, the stranger, 
 the cowslip — himmelschliissel, all have a symbolic meaning. On the ot^er 
 hand the whole of The Little Dream is a symbol. The spirit in which the 
 plays are conceived is the same. The mood is that of aloofness from the 
 world. Hannele has a religious, and The Little Dream a philosophical 
 import. Hannele shows the soul's longing to escape the ugly, the burning 
 desire for happiness and love. It shows the deep-rooted convictions in 
 Hannele that her earthly sufferings will be glorified after death. The 
 Little Dream shows the eternal struggle in the human soul between the 
 opposed forces of life, and the final refuge in something greater — death. 
 It represents the universal desire for change and variety. As Seelchen 
 says : "I am full of big wants — like the cheese with holes." Hannele in- 
 terprets a universal human characteristic thru a concrete individual case. 
 The Little Dream interprets a similar characteristic thru the personification 
 of the abstact and the general. 
 
 Michael Kramer and A Bit o' Love. 
 
 Michael Kramer and A Bit o' Love have for their theme the sufferings 
 of a misunderstood man who is intensely desirous of love. Arnold 
 Kramer is a youth who is somewhat physically misshapen. He suffers 
 
The Parallel Plays 73 
 
 from the instability of genius. He is hypersensitive and as a consequence 
 of the unfortunate home conditions under which he grew up, has a warped 
 character. His father inspires him with unnatural fear. His mother 
 makes his life miserable by her continual nagging. He needs a helping 
 hand, but thru his own weakness of character fails to seize the hand held 
 out to him by his father. Above all, his sensitive soul required someone 
 to love him. Consequently he takes a mad fancy to an innkeeper's daugh- 
 ter, who is incapable of understanding him much less of loving him. 
 Furthermore, she is already engaged to a frequenter of the inn. Arnold 
 sits nightly in the same spot in the corner of the bar-room, devouring the 
 bar-maid with his eyes and sketching the boisterous frequenters with his 
 pencil. The result is that he becomes the butt of this crowd that can see 
 of him nothing but his ugly exterior. 
 
 Strangway is neither young nor unbalanced, nor is he a genius. He is a 
 minister who preaches the gospel of love, and moreover practices it. This 
 alone causes him to be misunderstood. But when his wife leaves him and 
 he refuses to seek some kind of legal revenge, he is regarded as a weakling, 
 a coward and one unfit to preach God's word. Like Arnold he is hyper- 
 sei^itive and has a burning desire for love — in his case the love of his not 
 too worthy wife, and, as in the case of Arnold, his love is unrequited. As 
 Arnold expresses himself thru his sketches, so Strangway gives vent to his 
 emotions by writing love poetry and playing a flute out in the meadow by 
 himself. This, of course, brings ridicule upon him from the villagers who 
 congregate at the public house. 
 
 Arnold and Strangway both have an inherent feeling of superiority to 
 those who persecute them, but Arnold is too timid and Strangway too 
 meek, to give it outward expression. Only once do they give their emo- 
 tions physical expression. Arnold is finally impelled to draw a revolver 
 on his tormentors. But as they soon overpower him, he is humiliated be- 
 yong endurance and rushes out and commits suicide. Strangway goes to 
 the inn to get some liquor to strengthen him for his sermon. While he 
 is there he is insulted by a drunken parishioner from whose daughter he 
 had taken and liberated a caged bird. On the spur of the moment Strang- 
 way throws him out of the window. After the sermon Strangway is 
 hissed at the church door. So humiliated is he that he goes away with 
 the intention of committing suicide. He is prevented, however, by the 
 
74 Gcrhart Hauptmann and John Galsworthy 
 
 timely appearance of a little girl. This difference in the solution of the 
 situation shows up prominently an important difference between Haupt- 
 mann and Galsworthy. In Hauptmann a character is often so hemmed 
 in by his own nature and environment that only one way out of the diffi- 
 culty is left him. This is frequently suicide. In Galsworthy some timely 
 circumstance intervenes and solves the situation for the character. 
 
 In this case, however, it is not solely the appearance of the girl that 
 saves Strangway. He has a strong will, and courage, which Arnold has 
 not. In this respect he resembles somewhat Arnold's father. Like Arnold 
 he is weak in his love, but like Michael he has an inner strength that helps 
 him to fight his way thru. He is described as "a gentle creature burnt 
 within." His struggle is not so much with the world as with himself. 
 "Fight !" he exclaims, touching his heart, "my fight is here. Have you 
 
 ever been in hell ? For months and months — burned and longed ; 
 
 killed a man in thought day by day ? Never rested for love and hate ?"^^^ 
 Somewhat similarly Arnold exclaims to his father and Liese : "Mir ist 
 nicht sehr wohl in meiner Haut."^®^ "Vielleicht bin ich auch wirklich 
 lacherlich. Ich meine auszerlich, innerlich nicht. Denn wenn Sie mich 
 innerlich konnten betrachten, da brenn' ich die Kerls von der Erde wegij^®^ 
 This struggle within a character's mind and heart is an important feature 
 of the work of both authors. It expresses itself outwardly in counte- 
 nances "schmutzig blasz" (Arnold) arid "blasz und griiblerish" (Mi- 
 chael). Written large in both these plays, tho much more explicitly in 
 Michael Kramer, is the thought that character is fate. 
 
 In spite of the tragic theme, each play is relieved by an element of 
 comedy. The inn scenes are made somewhat humorous thru incident and 
 character revelation. Those in A Bit o' Love particularly, are very good, 
 but they amount almost to an over-emphasis of the milieu, unless we are 
 to interpret them as parallel to the tragic element. Perhaps, however, they 
 serve to emphasize the contrast between those moral and superior judged 
 by their own standard, and those moral and superior judged by an abso- 
 hite standard. To some extent this applies too, to the inn scene in Michael 
 Kramer. 
 
 "'Act III, p. 70. 
 '""Act II. p. 70. 
 '"Act III, p. 80. 
 
The Parallel Plays 75 
 
 The action in each play is laid in the same or similar places, the home, 
 the inn, and the studio or outside the church. The structure of the plays is 
 the same. The climax falls about in the middle, in Michael Kramer at the 
 end of Act II, in A Bit o' Love at the end of Act II, Scene I. 
 
 In the end all that has happened is, in the one case, Arnold's death, in 
 the other Strangway's resignation. Had Arnold been able to confide in 
 his father, or Strangway been less of an idealist the calamity might have 
 been averted. Strangway goes out into the v^^orld as a stranger to begin 
 life anew. Michael buries in Arnold his heart's deepest desires and sto- 
 ically resigns himself to meet whatever the world holds in store. In the 
 first frenzy of despair Michael^ had raged at God and Strangway had 
 asked, "Is there a God?" But later, when they had risen above their 
 woes and had put themselves in harmony with the laws of nature, Michael 
 had no feeling of revenge and Strangway no feeling of despair. Then 
 Michael could calmly speak his valedictory : "Wo sollen wir landen, wo 
 
 treiben wir hin? was mit gen Himmel erhohenen H'dnden 
 
 was wird es wohl sein am Ende?" In like manner, Strangway could be- 
 fore his departure, lift his hand in the gesture of prayer and pray: 
 
 "Gpd, of the moon and the sun ; give me strength to go on, till I love 
 
 every living thing." 
 
V. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Now, after having noted the general characteristics of the two authors 
 and made a somewhat detailed comparison of four parallel plays, I am 
 ready to adduce the natural conclusions. I have shown that Hauptmann 
 and Galsworthy treat chiefly the middle and lower classes, and that Gals- 
 worthy approaches his subjects from the side of the middle class and 
 Hauptmann from the side of the lower. Yet both delineate essentially 
 "average" characters of similar types. These types fall into groups — 
 financiers, ministers, criminals, young men, girls and others, that are only 
 superficially alike. But in certain groups one finds a likeness that is not 
 superficial. Each author depicts some individual characters that are re- 
 markably similar. Each shows a decided predilection for making the chief 
 or very important characters creative thinkers or artists. Each draws a 
 number of people, who for some reason or other are pale. Further, ^e 
 study of family groups is a pronounced feature of the work of both 
 authors. But in one characteristic are they especially alike, the habit of 
 repeating situations and characters. 
 
 One of the points in which they are in closest contact is in their choice 
 of themes. Both are interested in the same social and economic problems 
 — capital and labor, idleness, overwork, justice, inequalities of opportunity. 
 In one play of each the subject matter is political. In that, and in other 
 works, each shows an interest in mob psychology. But the theme with 
 which they are preoccupied is that of the unhappy marriage. Closely re- 
 lated to this is that of the fallen girl, made the subject of one play of each 
 author. Love is a stock theme, but with them it takes dififerent forms. 
 First, it is represented as a tyrant ; second, as a thirst of the heart ; third, 
 as a beautifying and redeeming power. Humanitarian or brotherly love, 
 with its consequent sacrifice, has received several treatments by each 
 author. Akin to this universal love is love of animals and flowers which is 
 a marked characteristic of several of their characters. Their satires on 
 education and reform, and things literary, are also noteworthy. 
 
Conclusion TJ 
 
 Symbols they use with telUng effect, in their novels as well as their 
 plays, and in their naturalistic work as well as in their symbolic. Toward 
 nature they assume practically the same attitude. They use it in their art 
 to create atmosphere. Then they use it as a background to man. Philo- 
 sophically, they regard it not as an ugly thing or as an antagonistic force, 
 but something with which man must put himself in harmony. 
 
 That which urges both authors to write is the impulse to enlighten. 
 Further, they brood over life, and contemplate its spiritual adventures.- 
 Hence, they are realists. As such both use naturalistic and idealistic tech- 
 nique. Their conceptions of drama while not identical are in essential 
 agreement. Both acknowledge their preoccupation with states of mind. 
 
 As dramatists they use the same general technique. They scrupulously 
 select details, and interpret the problems of life thru the momentary and 
 the finite. Therefore they often resort to the unities. For the same rea- 
 son they use similar structure and create static characters. But they re- 
 ject poetic justice and features belonging to conventional drama. Both 
 have used the dream device, and as psychologists recognize the validity 
 of the world of imagination. As artists they produce their effects thru^ 
 sugfl^stion rather than by direct communication. This is shown especially 
 in their handling of love scenes, in the management of business and dialog, 
 and in the choice of the specific word. 
 
 A few features deserve special attention. The plays of each dramatist 
 have approximately the same number of characters. These are so well 
 managed as to constitute a distinctive feature of the work of each man. 
 This handling of groups of characters is revealed too, in the management 
 of multiple conversation. Usually, however, each author restricts his 
 conversation to two or three persons. Dialog is a characteristic for which 
 each is celebrated, for dialog is with them synonymous with character. 
 In this they are greatly aided by the use of dialect, provincial expressions 
 or accent. Moreover, their dialog is dramatic no matter whether the 
 speeches are long or short. Their stage directions are often epical ; but 
 they never degenerate to personal comment. Stage directions are made 
 full and specific because both dramatists regard every detail, sound or 
 movement described as part of the play. 
 
 The subjective peculiarities of the two authors are revealed in their use 
 of similar elements, balance, parallelism, contrast, and irony ; by their defi- 
 
78 Gcrhart Hauptntann and John Galsworthy 
 
 ciency in pure lyricism and humor, and by their production of the comic 
 thru the revelation of character. 
 
 In the preceding chapter I have shown the extent to which the four 
 plays of Galsworthy are like the four plays of Hauptmann. It will have 
 been noticed that Strife and The Little Dream very closely parallel Die 
 Weber and Hannele. The Silver Box, while dealing with a theme and a 
 situation similar to those of Der Biberpeh, does not parallel that play 
 so closely because of the difference in spirit in which the two arc^con- 
 ceived. On the other hand, Michael Kramer and A Bit 0' Love are more 
 alike in spirit and treatment than in the situation or characters. This is 
 chiefly due to the fact that the one deals with artists and the other with a 
 minister. 
 
 To none of the numerous problems that hauptmann and Galsworthy 
 treat do they offer a definite solution. They are concerned less with the 
 material outcome than with the spiritual. Their primary interest is in the 
 individual's spiritual freedom. Yet they are social dramatists. That is, 
 they look at things from the standpoint of society. They recognize that 
 real spiritual freedom for the individual is impossible unless society itself 
 rises to the point of spiritual freedom. The individual's struggle i^for 
 them then, the means of calling attention to society's responsibility. 
 
 The parallelism of the works of the two authors is now established, and 
 needs no further comment. Its cause, it is not the purpose of this study to 
 ascertain. Unquestionably the Zeitgeist explains some of it, as it does the 
 coincidences of their careers. The spirit of the age may explain the gen- 
 eral similarity of their works but hardly the detailed likeness. On the 
 other hand, their heredity and environment may explain the difference in 
 treatment of the same situations, themes, and other elements. In other 
 words, they might be even more aUke were they not of such different 
 nationalities. 
 
 a,Luy^>r^^^, "^f^y:^ ■ ^ 
 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 A. 
 Works. 
 
 Ge;rhart Hauptmann, 1862 — 
 
 Promethidenlos, 1885. W. Issleib, Berlin. 
 
 Bahnwdrter Thiel, 1887. Published, 1899. 
 
 Vor Sonnenaufgang, 1899. 7te Auflage, 1899. 
 
 Der Apostel, 1890. Published, 1899. 
 
 Das Fried ens f est, 1890. 3te Auflage, 1897. 
 
 Einsame Menschen, 1891. I2te Auflage, 1899. 
 
 Die Weber, 1892. 2ite Auflage, 1899. 
 
 College Crampton, 1892. 6te Auflage, 1899. 
 
 Der Biberpels, 1893. 5te Auflage, 1899. 
 
 Hanneles Himmelfahrt, 1893. 7te Auflage, 1899. 
 
 Florian Geyer, 1896. 2te Auflage, 1896. 
 ^.^^^Iga, 1896; Gesammelte Werke, 1912. 
 ^ Die versunkene Glocke^ 1897. 2ite Auflage, 1897. 
 
 Fuhrman Henschel, 1898. 4te Auflage, 1899. 
 
 Schluck und Jau, 1899. 5te Auflage, 1900. 
 
 Michael Kramer, 1900. 7te Auflage, 1900. 
 
 Der rote Hahn, 1901. 6te Auflage, 1901. , 
 
 Der arme Heinrich, 1902. I4te Auflage, 1902. 
 
 Rose Bernd, 1903. I7te Auflage, 1912. 
 
 Und Pip pa tanct! 1906. 7te Auflage, 1906. 
 
 Die Jungfejn vom Bischofsberg, 1907. 4te Auflage, 1907. 
 
 Kaiser Karls Geisel, 1908. 6te Auflage, 1908. 
 ^^riechischer Friihling, 1908. 
 
 Grlselda, 1909. 
 ^Der Narr in Christo, 1910; Gesammelte Werke, igj2. 
 
 Die Ratten, igii. 6te Auflage. 
 
 Gabriel Schillings Flttcht, 1912. 
 ^tlantis, igi2; Gesammelte Werke, 1912. 
 
 F est spiel, 191 3. 
 ^Lohengrin, 1913. Ullstein & Co., Berlin. 
 ^Der Bogen dcs Odysseus, 1914. 
 
 Parsival, 191 5. Ullstein & Co., Berlin. 
 
 Poems in Das Oxforder Buch Deutscher Dichtung. Edited by H. G. 
 Fiedler. Oxford University Press, 191 1. 
 Unless otherwise specified the Publisher of Hauptmann's works is 
 
 S. Fischer, Berlin. 
 6 
 
8o Gcrhort Hauptmann and John Galszvorthy 
 
 John Galsworthy, 1867 — 
 
 Villa Rubcin and Other Stories. Duckworth and Company, London, 
 1909. 
 
 Island Pharisees, 1904. William Heinemann, London, 1908. 
 
 The Man of Property, 1906. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. 7th 
 Printing. 
 ' .The Silver Box, 1906. Plays, First Series. 1916. 
 
 The Country House, 1907. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. 12th 
 
 Printing. 
 Joy, 1907. Plays, First Series, 1916. 
 
 A Commentary, 1908. Grant Richards, London, 1908. 
 
 Fraternity, 1909. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 191 1. 
 .Strife, 1909. Plays, First Series, 1916. 
 .The Eldest Son, 1909. Plays, Second Series, 1913. 
 
 A Motley, 1910. 
 
 Justice, 1910. Plays, Second Series, 1913. 
 
 'The Little Dream, 191 1. Plays, Second Series, 1913. 
 
 The Patrican, 1911. Published, 1915. 
 •The Pigeon, igi2. Published, 1913. 
 
 Moods, Songs, and Doggerels, 1912. 
 
 The Inn of Tranquillity, 1912. 
 'The Dark Floiuer, 191 3. 
 
 • The Fugitive, 1913. Duckworth and Company, London. 1913. 
 
 • The Mob, 191 4. • 
 ^A Bit o' Love, 191 5. 
 
 J'he Little Man and Other Satires, 1915. 
 The Fre elands, 191 5. 
 A Sheaf, 191 6. 
 
 Unless otherwise specified Galsworthy's works are from the press 
 of Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 
 
 B. 
 
 Critical Books and Articles. 
 Selected List. 
 
 Behl, C. F. W. : Gerhart Hauptmann, W. Borngraber, Berlin. 
 
 Coar, J. C. : Studies in German Literature in the Nineteenth Century, 
 Macmillan, New York. 1903. 
 
 Cooper, F. T. : Some Bnglish Story-tellers, Holt, New York, 1912. 
 _. Dukes, Ashley : Modern Dramatists, Sergei, Chicago^ 1912. 
 
 Freund, F. E. W. : Modern German Drama, The Drama 8: 124. 
 
 Grumman, P. H. : Gerhart Hauptmann, Poet Lore, 21:285; Poet Lore, 
 22: 117. 
 
 Heller, Otto : Studies in Modern German Literature, Ginn Company, Bos- 
 ton, 1905. 
 
Bibliography 8i 
 
 Henderson, Archibald : The Changing Drama, Holt, New York, 1914. 
 *-Holl, Karl: Gerhart Hauptmann, Gay and Hancock, London, 1913. 
 
 Howe, P. P.: Dramatic Portraits, M. Seeker, London, 1913. 
 • Huneker, James : Iconoclasts, Scribner, New York, 1905. 
 Kaye-Smith, Sheila : John Galsworthy, Nisbet and Company, London, 
 
 1916. 
 Lewisohn, L. : The Modern Drama, Huebsch, New York, 1915. 
 
 " " Spirit of Modern German Literature, Huebsch, New York^ 
 
 1916. 
 JVIeyerfield, M. : John Galsworthy, Das Literarische Bcho, 13J, 1090. 
 ^ Pekary, C. H. : Gerhart Hauptmanns Fraiiengestalten, Cornell Univer- 
 ^1,1^*''*^^ sity, M. A. Thesis, 1916. 
 
 /f;^^ Schlenter, Paul : Gerhart Hauptmann, S. Fischer, Berlin, 1898. 
 
 ■ ^,Sk€mp, A. R. : Plays of John Galsworthy, in Studies of English Associa- 
 tion. Vol. 4, Clarendon Press, 191 3. 
 Sternberg, Kurt : Gerhart Hauptmann, W. Borngraber, Berlin, 1910. 
 Stoeckius, A. : Naturalism in Recent German Drama, New York, 1903. 
 Witkowski, Georg : German Drama of the Nineteenth Century. Transl. 
 by L. E. Horning. Holt, New York, 1909. 
 
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