J 
 
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 THE EDUCATION OF THE 
 SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE 
 SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES T. LORAM 
 
 B. A. (Cape), M.A., LL.B.(Carab.), PH.D. (Columbia) 
 
 SOMETIME FELLOW IN EDUCATION, TEACHERS* COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 INSPECTOR OK SCHOOLS, NATAL 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
 
 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON 
 
 FOURTH AVENUE AND 3OTH STREET, NEW YORK 
 BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS
 
 TO 
 
 MY WIFE 
 HILDA V. LORAM
 
 PREFACE 
 
 IN his famous address before the Congregation of the Uni- 
 versity of the Cape of Good Hope in 1909 on the Native 
 Question, Lord Selborne, then High Commissioner for South 
 Africa, said, " I believe that everyone who loves South 
 Africa is bound in honour to make what contribution he 
 can to the solution of the problem." As a native-born 
 South African, I feel that the call is a direct one to me, 
 and in the following pages I have attempted to deal with 
 one phase of the problem, although fully aware of the diffi- 
 culties of the task. It is commonly said in South Africa 
 that no one who has lived for more than a year in the 
 country would dare to write on such a complex and diffi- 
 cult subject as the Native Question. When it is known 
 that the present writer was born in that province which 
 is most thickly populated by Natives, that he was brought 
 up with Native attendants, and that he has spent all 
 but seven years of his life in the country, his temerity 
 may excite all the more wonder. I believe, however, 
 that those very circumstances, coupled with exceptional 
 opportunities of studying a similar problem in the United 
 States, make it incumbent upon me to do what I can 
 towards the solution of the greatest problem confronting 
 my native land. 
 
 The difficulties which have confronted me have been very 
 real. First and foremost is the absence of any scientific 
 
 vii
 
 Vlll THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 account of the ethnology of the Bantu. Books describing 
 Native customs and habits there are in abundance, but no 
 adequate accounts of the particular physiology and psychology 
 of the Bantu have appeared. There is a good deal of opinion 
 on the subject, but nothing which can altogether be relied 
 on as a basis for the structure of an educational practice. 
 A few studies on the physiology, craniology, and psychology 
 of Negroes in other parts of the world have been made, but 
 very little agreement of opinion has been reached. A second 
 difficulty is the absence of any definite policy on the part of 
 the governing Europeans towards the Native people. The 
 difficulties of race adjustment have been so great, and the 
 problems so unique, that the governing Europeans, busy 
 with the absorbing struggle with their natural environ- 
 ment, have not succeeded in establishing a uniform Native 
 policy founded on principles. Their non-success is the less 
 to be wondered at when it is realised that other and older 
 countries have failed in the same respect. A third diffi- 
 culty is the fact that until 1910 the four colonies had 
 separate governments, separate Native policies, and separate 
 schemes of Native education. A fourth difficulty, and one 
 that has militated against the completeness of the present 
 study, is the inadequate treatment of Native education 
 in the annual reports of the Education Departments. 
 In the Cape reports, which are more detailed than those 
 of the other provinces, statistics regarding Native educa- 
 tion are lumped with those of other non-European peoples 
 under the term " Coloured," and it is impossible to 
 separate them. The incompleteness of the Transvaal, 
 Orange Free State, and Basutoland reports has been a 
 serious hindrance. 
 
 These very real difficulties have tempted me more than 
 once to abandon the study in despair, but the vital necessity
 
 PREFACE IX 
 
 for some such study at the present time has induced me to 
 continue. 
 
 Since the Union, Native affairs have become a national 
 and not a provincial concern, and the five years during which, 
 and " until otherwise determined by Parliament," Native 
 education was to be a matter of provincial administration, 
 have elapsed, so that the time seems to be peculiarly appro- 
 priate for a consideration of the relation of education towards 
 the whole problem, for it is in the proper education of the 
 Native that the greatest hope for the settlement of the Native 
 Question lies. 
 
 A few words as to the methods used in the investiga- 
 tion are necessary. Such a study should be based on 
 unassailable facts, but what should be the procedure when 
 the facts are not available? The method here used has 
 been that advocated by Principal J. C. Maxwell Garnett 
 of the University of Manchester in his address before 
 the Educational Section of the British Association for the 
 Advancement of Science, 1915 : " Where facts are available 
 we should use them. . . . When facts are not available 
 we should, if possible, ascertain them by direct experiment ; 
 and, if that is not possible, we should have faith that is, 
 we should ascertain the facts indirectly by acting on a 
 hypothesis with a view to its verification or modification 
 by subsequent experience." There can be no finality in 
 educational theories and practice ; this is particularly true 
 of Native education, where we are only at the beginning of 
 our knowledge ; and although it is believed that this study 
 is sound so far as it goes, and points the way to action on 
 approved lines, further research may upset our conclusions. 
 In any case, the march of civilisation among our Native 
 peoples will compel us to revise our educational practice 
 from time to time.
 
 X THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 In arriving at my conclusions I have made use of : 
 
 (a) Reports of Government Commissions. The European 
 method of surveys by commissions is followed in South 
 Africa. Of the educational surveys of this nature an American 
 writer, Mr James Mahoney, in a report to the United States 
 Bureau of Education, says : " The scope of the foreign survey 
 is in general wider ; it looks less to local conditions than the 
 American survey. The method of the European survey is 
 (a) by oral testimony of school directors, inspectors, and 
 others who have knowledge of schools ; (b) personal investi- 
 gation of the schools by recognised experts ; (c) by circular 
 letters or questionnaires (i) to all persons directly concerned 
 with the schools in question, (2) to eminent men competent 
 to judge of educational matters; (d) through personal 
 investigation of schools resembling those under investigation 
 in all the other progressive nations." l Similar methods are 
 followed by other than educational commissioners. 
 
 (b) Reports of Government Departments. Although these 
 reports leave much to be desired in what they include and 
 in their arrangement, the figures are trustworthy and the 
 opinions expressed worthy of consideration. 
 
 (c) Reports of School Superintendents and Government 
 Officials in the United States, India, and elsewhere ; and the 
 very valuable Special Reports issued by the English Board 
 of Education. 
 
 (d) Books, Pamphlets, Articles in Periodicals. The value 
 of these depends upon the experience, sincerity, and methods 
 of presentation of their writers. 
 
 (e) Statistical and Experimental Investigations. The writer 
 has made several studies on what he believes to be approved 
 
 1 " Some Foreign Education Surveys," United States Bureau of 
 Education Bulletin, 1915, No. 37, p. 5.
 
 PREFACE XI 
 
 scientific methods. The difficulty of framing tests for Natives 
 which do not depend on school training and comprehension 
 of English has been only partially overcome, but the writer 
 hopes shortly to derive a series of tests free from these 
 disabilities. 
 
 (/) Personal Experience and the Experience of Colleagues. 
 As an inspector of schools in Natal, and as a member of a 
 special commission appointed to investigate Native training 
 colleges, I have had experience in matters connected with 
 Native education. I have been fortunate in having been 
 in close contact with fellow-inspectors, missionaries, and 
 teachers who have devoted their lives to supervision and 
 instruction in Native schools. I have also received replies 
 to a questionnaire from forty-two of the most experienced 
 missionary teachers in South Africa. During the fifteen 
 months which I spent in the United States I took every 
 opportunity to obtain a first-hand knowledge of Negro 
 education. The results of my observations at Hampton, 
 Tuskegee, Virginia Union University, and various types of 
 Negro schools in Virginia, Alabama, and Maryland, are 
 incorporated in this study. 
 
 My obligations are numerous and varied. In footnotes 
 I have attempted to acknowledge all the sources of my 
 information. My deep gratitude is due to the Honourable 
 F. S. Malan, Minister of Education for the Union of South 
 Africa, and the Executive Committee of the Natal Provincial 
 Council, who very generously extended the period of my leave 
 of absence, and made it possible for me to undertake the 
 study ; to Mr C. J. Mudie, Superintendent of Education in 
 Natal, and Mr George Hofmeyr, Under Secretary of Edu- 
 cation for the Union, for encouragement and interest in my 
 studies ; to the Secretaries of the several Education Depart-
 
 Xll THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 ments, and to my colleague Mr S. B. Theunissen, Inspector 
 of Native Schools, Natal, who have supplied me with valuable 
 data ; to the principals of the training institutions and schools, 
 both European and Native, who have replied to my question- 
 naire, given me additional information, and assisted me in 
 the tests. I owe a deep debt of gratitude to several mission- 
 aries : in particular to the Rev. J. Henderson and the Rev. J. 
 Lennox of Lovedale, the Rev. David Stormont of Blythswood, 
 the Rev. F. J. Briscoe of Kilnerton, the Rev. J. Arnt of 
 Bloemfontein, the Rev. E. Jocottet of Morija, the Rev. F. R. 
 Bunker of Durban, the Right Rev. Bishop Roach of Pieter- 
 maritzburg, and the Rev. A. E. Le Roy of Adams Mission 
 Station, Amanzimtoti. To the last mentioned, and to Mr 
 B. M. Narbeth of the Durban Technical College and Mr G. 
 Rees of Addington School, Durban, I am particularly grateful 
 for help in the supervising and scoring of tests. 
 
 My indebtedness to Mr Maurice Evans is not limited to 
 the extracts from his well-known book. By the loan of books 
 and pamphlets and by friendly encouragement he has helped 
 more than he knows towards the completion of my under- 
 taking. Mr Evans, Mr James Dick, and the Rev. Father 
 Bryant have kindly read the book in manuscript and have 
 made valuable suggestions. 
 
 The study was first undertaken as a doctorial dissertation 
 at Teachers' College, Columbia University. To Dean Russell 
 and the authorities of the College, to Professors Dewey, Monroe, 
 Strayer, Thorndike, M'Murry, Kilpatrick, and Bonsor, under 
 whom I studied, my sincere thanks are due for countless 
 kindnesses. Professor Strayer in particular has given me 
 the benefit of his wide knowledge of administrative systems, 
 and has shown as much interest in our South African problems 
 as if they were his own. Among my fellow-students at 
 Teachers' College, Messrs Eaton, Spencer, Marquard, and
 
 PREFACE Xlll 
 
 De Villiers (the last two being South Africans) have kindly 
 helped in the scoring of the papers. 
 
 I should like to take this opportunity of expressing my 
 thanks to my good friends Mrs W. R. Poynton, Dr S. G. 
 Campbell, and Mr G. A. Payne of Durban for their constant 
 encouragement and generous help. The assistance rendered 
 by my wife in the completion of the manuscript and in 
 countless other ways is but imperfectly acknowledged by 
 the dedication. 
 
 C. T. L.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 RACE CONTACT AND ITS LARGER EFFECTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sect. i. An Historical Outline . . . . . i 
 
 ,, 2. The Increase in the Native Population . . .3 
 
 3. The Enclosure of the Lands . . 5 
 
 ,, 4. Breaking up of Communal Tenure . . .7 
 
 ,, 5. The Native in the Towns ... .9 
 
 ,, 6. The Effect on the Whites . . . . .11 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE NATIVE PROBLEM AND THE 
 SOLUTIONS PROPOSED 
 
 Sect. i. The Attitude of White South Africa . 17 
 
 ,, 2. The Repressionists . . . . 17 
 
 ,, 3. The Equalists . . . . . .20 
 
 4. The Segregationists . . . . -23 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE? 
 
 Sect. i. Can we help Educating the Native? . . .28 
 
 ,, 2. The Calls of Humanity and Christianity . . -3 
 
 3. The Natives' Demand for Education . . 32 
 
 ,, 4. The Native Solving his own Problem . . -33 
 ,, 5, Advantage to Europeans in the Education of the Natives 34 
 
 ,, 6. The Success of Real Native Education . . 40
 
 XVI THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND THE HISTORY 
 OF NATIVE EDUCATION 
 
 PACK 
 
 Sect, i . The History of Native Education in the Cape . 46 
 
 ,, 2. The History of Native Education in Natal . -53 
 
 ,, 3. The History of Native Education in the Transvaal . 62 
 
 4. History of Native Education in the Orange Free State . 65 
 ,, 5. History of Native Education in Basutoland . . 66 
 
 ,, 6. The General Situation of Native Education at the Present 
 
 Time ....... 69 
 
 7. Statistics of Native Education, 1912 . . 71 
 
 ,, 8. The Missionaries and their Work . . . -73 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Sect, i . Government Grants-in-Aid 
 ,, 2. Government Certification of Teachers 
 ,, 3. Government Syllabuses 
 ,, 4. Government Inspection and Examination 
 ,, 5. Supervision in American Rural Negro Schools 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY 
 EDUCATION 
 
 Sect, i . Criteria for the Instruction in Native Elementary Schools 93 
 
 ,, 2. The Origin and Development of the Present System . 95 
 
 3. The Course of Study . . . . 98 
 
 ,, 4. Uniformity and Inflexibility in School Work . . 102 
 
 ,, 5. The Teaching ...... 106 
 
 ,, 6. The Supervision ...... 106 
 
 7. The Results ...... 108
 
 CONTENTS XV11 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION 
 
 PACK 
 
 Sect. i. Native High Schools ..... 128 
 
 ,, 2. Theological Institutions ..... 130 
 
 ,, 3. Training Institutions and Students . . -131 
 
 ,, 4. Methods of Training Teachers . . . . 134 
 
 ,, 5. The Courses of Study in Training Institutions . . 137 
 
 ,, 6. The Subjects of Instruction .... 139 
 
 ,, 7. The Methods of Instruction . . . .142 
 
 ,, 8. The Examinations for Teachers' Certificates . . 144 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL 
 TRAINING 
 
 Sect. i. The Provision for Industrial Training in Special Schools 151 
 
 ,, 2. The Financial Support of Industrial Institutions . 151 
 
 ,, 3. Industrial and Manual Training in Elementary Schools . 152 
 
 ,, 4. The Objections of Industrial Training . . . 155 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND 
 NATIVE PUPILS COMPARED 
 
 Sect. i. The Ages of the Pupils Compared .... 163 
 
 ,, 2. The Test in Writing ..... 164 
 
 ,, 3. The Test in Composition . . . . -171 
 
 ,, 4. The Tests in Arithmetic . . . . . 177 
 
 ,, 5. Speed and Accuracy . . . . .190 
 
 ,, 6. The Educational Significance of the Results in Arithmetic 191 
 
 ,, 7. Conclusions ...... 192 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 Part I. The Mental Development of the Native 
 
 Sect. i. General Studies in Racial Psychology . . . 195 
 
 ,, 2. Studies of School Children of Different Races in the 
 
 United States . . . . . . 195
 
 XV111 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 PACK 
 
 Sect. 3. A Study of School Children of Different Races in South 
 
 Africa ....... 201 
 
 4. Sex Differences ...... 207 
 
 Part II. The Theory of the Arrest of Mental Development 
 
 in the Native 
 Sect. i. The Theory Stated . . . . .209 
 
 ,, 2. Evidence in Support of the Theory of Arrested Develop- 
 ment ....... 210 
 
 ,, 3. Evidence in Rebuttal of the Theory of Arrested Develop- 
 ment . ...... 212 
 
 ,, 4. The Evidence from Experiments . . . .216 
 
 ,, 5. The Reasons for the Lack of Progress in Older Native 
 
 Pupils . ...... 218 
 
 6. Conclusion . . . . . . 224 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION contd. 
 
 Part III. The Position of the Vernacular Languages 
 
 Sect, i . Different Views on the Use of the Vernacular in Schools 227 
 ,, 2. The Case for the Vernacular .... 229 
 
 ,, 3. The Ultimate Supremacy of the European Language . 233 
 
 Part IV. Agriculture as a Native Industry . . . 234 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 
 
 Sect. i. The Present System of Government Gran ts-in- Aid . 240 
 ,, 2. Other Sources of Financial Support . . . 246 
 ,, 3. The Comparative Expenditure on European and Non- 
 European Education ..... 250 
 
 ,, 4. Does Native Education receive its Fair Share of Financial 
 
 Support ?...... 252 
 
 ,, 5. The Basis of Government Financial Support . . 254 
 
 ,, 6. The Nature of the Government Grants . . . 255 
 
 ,, 7. Proposed Government Grants-in-Aid . . . 258
 
 CONTENTS . XIX 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 PROPOSED ADMINISTRATION OF 
 NATIVE EDUCATION 
 
 PACK 
 
 Sect, i . The Three Factors in Administration . . . 263 
 
 2. The Department of Native Education . . . 266 
 
 ,, 3. The Functions of the Department of Native Education 268 
 ,, 4. The Powers and Duties of the Chief Inspector of Native 
 
 Schools ....... 269 
 
 5. The Powers and Duties of the Inspectors of Native Schools 269 
 
 ,, 6. The Powers and Duties of Supervisors . . . 270 
 ,, 7. The Reorganised System of Administration . .271 
 
 ,, 8. The Reorganised School System .... 273 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 PROPOSED COURSES OF STUDY 
 
 Sect, i . The Elementary School Course of Study . . . 280 
 
 2. The Intermediate School Course of Study . . 284 
 
 3. The Native High Schools . . . . .287 
 
 ,, 4. The Training Institution ..... 289 
 ,, 5. The Industrial Schools ..... 294 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 
 
 Sect. i. The History of the Movement for Higher Education . 296 
 ,, 2. The Objections to the Scheme .... 301 
 3. The Need for the College ..... 306 
 4. A Suggested Scheme ..... 306 
 
 ,, 5. Successful Institutions for the Higher Education of 
 
 Negroes in the United States . . . .310 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 A. Official Reports regarding Native Affairs in South Africa . 313 
 
 B. General Works on the Native . . . . -314 
 
 C. Books, Pamphlets, and Articles on Native Education . -315 
 
 D. Works on the American Negro . . . . .316 
 References ........ 317
 
 XX THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. Specimens of the Test Cards used for the Inspection of 
 
 Native Schools in Natal and the Cape . . .318 
 
 B. Examination of Native Candidates for Deacon's Orders, 1916, 
 
 Diocese of Natal ...... 320 
 
 C. Specimen Examination Papers for Native Teachers' Certificates 326 
 
 D. Ordinary, Standard, and Superior Schools . . . 331 
 
 E. Maize Competitions for Native Schools . . . 335 
 
 F. Proposed Scale of Grants to Native Institutions in the 
 
 Transvaal ....... 337
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE 
 SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 RACE CONTACT AND ITS LARGER EFFECTS 
 
 THE thesis maintained in the following pages is that the best 
 hope for the solution of the problem of race adjustment in 
 South Africa, the so-called Native Question, lies in the edu- 
 cation by the dominant Whites of the black race in the light 
 of its past history and institutions, its mental and moral make- 
 up, and its political, social, and economic future. 
 
 An attempt will first be made to estimate broadly the effects 
 of race contact ; next, the efforts already consciously made 
 by the Europeans to educate the Natives will be critically 
 examined; and finally, a scheme of education, based upon 
 the accepted principles of modern pedagogy, our knowledge 
 of the psychology of the Native people, and the probable 
 destiny of the race, will be suggested. 
 
 In this introductory chapter the larger effects of race con- 
 tact are touched upon. 
 
 Section i. An Historical Outline 
 
 Although the Cape of Good Hope was discovered in 1487, 
 it remained for more than a century and a half a mere land- 
 mark and place of call for passing vessels. It was not until 
 1651 that the Dutch East India Company determined to 
 establish a settlement at the Cape, and despatched Jan van 
 Riebeek with three ships and a hundred men to build and 
 garrison a fort on the shores of Table Bay. From the first
 
 2 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 there was conflict between the European and the Native. 
 The Hottentots, who had been on more or less friendly terms 
 with the crews of passing ships, perceiving, as was perfectly 
 evident, that now the Dutch occupation was to be permanent, 
 and fearing the diminution of their pasturage, took up arms 
 against the invaders. From this, the so-called " war of 1659," 
 until the present day, the history of South Africa has been 
 largely a matter of race conflict. The white man, expanding 
 northwards and eastwards, after subduing the cowardly 
 Hottentots and almost exterminating the treacherous Bush- 
 men, disputed the possession of the soil with the warlike 
 Bantu on the banks of the Kei, in the Transvaal, and in Natal. 
 The issue was often in doubt, but at length the superior 
 intelligence of the white man conquered, and the Native 
 settled down more or less willingly as the white man's vassal. 
 At first the relationship between White and Black was patri- 
 archal, but, for reasons which will be pointed out later, the 
 influx of immigrants from over seas brought the question 
 of race adjustment into the region of necessary politics, and 
 created a problem which has increased rapidly in complexity, 
 and which is to-day undoubtedly the most difficult confront- 
 ing South Africa. 
 
 The common opinion that the present Native tribes were 
 the original owners of all the land in South Africa, and that 
 the European peoples have dispossessed them of their 
 ancestral birthrights, is historically untrue. While it is im- 
 possible to speak authoritatively in the absence of records, 
 there is evidence to show that the original inhabitants of 
 South Africa were the pigmy Bushmen. The Hottentots, 
 mentally and physically a superior people, invading the 
 country from the north, disputed the land with the Bushmen, 
 and at the time of the coming of the white men in the fif- 
 teenth century had gained the upper hand, and had driven 
 their pigmy opponents to their mountain fastnesses. 1 
 
 Be that as it may, it is certain that it was the white man 
 who saved Hottentot and Bushman alike from being ex- 
 terminated by the invading tribes of the great Bantu people, 
 who, travelling down from Central Africa in many streams 
 
 1 See Theal, History and Ethnography of South Africa before 1795, 
 vol. i. chaps, i., ii., iii., for a conjectured account of these migrations.
 
 RACE CONTACT AND ITS LARGER EFFECTS 3 
 
 at divers times, were overrunning the sub-continent. Had 
 it not been for the resistance offered by the Whites along the 
 Kei River, the Hottentot and the Bushman alike would have 
 been swept into the sea by these warrior invaders. Not only 
 in the Cape, but in Natal and in the Transvaal, the European 
 has stood between some conquering Tshaka or Umzilikazi and 
 his victims. 1 Both European and Bantu are in South Africa 
 by right of conquest, and in the matter of race adjustment 
 neither can claim the right of original ownership of the soil. 
 
 The historic fact, however, as Lord Selborne has clearly 
 pointed out, does not mean that the Natives have no rights in 
 the soil of South Africa. Apart from their rights as human 
 beings, and as subjects of the British Empire, the Natives 
 possess a peculiar right to the Protectorates of Basutoland, 
 Bechuanaland, and Swaziland, and to the several reserves 
 and locations. Basutoland was never conquered by white 
 men, but came voluntarily under the aegis of the British Crown. 
 Bechuanaland, Swaziland, and the other reserves were the 
 results of pacts made between the races, and could not now 
 be alienated without manifest injustice. 2 It is the opinion 
 of some authorities, with whom the writer is inclined to agree, 
 that not only should the present reserves remain inviolate, 
 but that their number should be increased, so that a large 
 portion, if not the whole, of the Native population may be 
 able to live in a state of semi-segregation from the Europeans. 
 
 Section 2. The Increase in the Native Population 
 
 A situation unique in the history of race relationship is 
 found in South Africa in the rapid increase of the Natives 
 
 1 " In consequence of the exterminating wars of Chaka, late King 
 of the Zuloos, and other causes, the whole country included between 
 Umzincoola and Togala Rivers is now unoccupied by its original posses- 
 sors, and, with a very few exceptions, is totally uninhabited. Numbers 
 of natives from time to time have entered this settlement for protection, 
 the amount of whom at this present moment cannot be less than 3000. 
 These all acknowledge us as their chiefs, and look to us for protection, 
 notwithstanding which we are living in the neighbourhood of powerful 
 native States without the shadow of a law or a recognised authority 
 among us." (From the Petition of the Householders of the Town of 
 D'Urban, Port Natal, 1835.) 
 
 1 Address before the University of the Cape of Good Hope, p. 16.
 
 4 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 since they came into contact with the Europeans. The 
 splendid physique of the Bantu people, the fewness of their 
 needs, the comparative ease with which a living can be obtained, 
 and the fact that sons and daughters are desirable, not only 
 to speak with the enemy in the gate, but as sources of revenue 
 for their parents and as supports in their old age, have all 
 tended to an increase in the population. The inroads made 
 into the number of males by the constant intertribal wars 
 and faction fights, which were universal before the white man 
 gave the country a settled government, and by wholesale 
 murders on the score of sorcery, were made good by a custom 
 which provided that every adult female should be married. 1 
 
 If the conditions favouring prolificness were great in the 
 past, they have increased very considerably since the coming 
 of the white man. Not only have the old customs tending 
 to productiveness continued, but by suppressing intertribal 
 wars, by preventing murders for witchcraft, by spreading 
 information regarding hygiene and sanitation, and by check- 
 ing the losses due to infant mortality, the white man's govern- 
 ment has tended to increase the prolificness of the Native 
 people. Official returns show that the Native population 
 has doubled itself in the Cape in a little less than twenty- 
 eight years, and in Basutoland in less than twenty years. 2 
 
 How far this phenomenal increase will be checked in the 
 future by economic pressure, by the adoption of the white 
 man's habits and vices, and by the ravages of diseases such 
 as syphilis and tuberculosis, which appear to be spreading 
 rapidly among the Native people, 3 cannot be estimated with 
 
 1 " Provision was even made by custom for widows to add to the 
 families of their dead husbands. In some parts the brothers of the 
 deceased took them, in others male companions were selected for 
 them by their late husband's friends ; in each case the children born 
 thereafter being regarded as those of the dead man." (Theal, Yellow- 
 and Dark-Skinned People of South Africa.) 
 
 2 Evans, Black and White in South Africa, p. 64. 
 
 8 In his monograph on Tuberculosis among the South African 
 Natives (Townshend, Taylor & Snashall, Cape Town, 1908), Dr. Neil 
 Macvicar, of Lovedale, gives some interesting and alarming statements 
 regarding the spread of tuberculosis among the Natives. In the 
 thirty-five cities and chief towns of the Cape Province the average 
 death-rate from tuberculosis per 1000 of the population for the three 
 years 1903-5 was 1-48 in the case of the European population, and
 
 RACE CONTACT AND ITS LARGER EFFECTS 5 
 
 any degree of exactness; but in view of the tenacity with 
 which the " raw " Natives cling to their customs, and the efforts 
 which are being made to safeguard them from the diseases 
 mentioned, it may be assumed that the population will still 
 tend to increase rapidly. Even now signs are not wanting 
 that the black population will soon be greater than the 
 amount of land available for Natives can carry, at any rate 
 under the present system of Native land tenure and cultiva- 
 tion. The South African Native question will not be solved 
 by the extinction of the Blacks ; for the Bantus, unlike the 
 aboriginals of North America, Australia, and New Zealand, 
 show no sign of decreasing in numbers, but rather appear 
 to increase when brought into contact with the ruling white 
 race. 
 
 Section 3. The Enclosure of the Lands 
 
 The most far-reaching effect of the European colonisation 
 of South Africa has been the change it has wrought upon the 
 Native's mode of life. The Native was originally a pastoral- 
 ist. Before the days of the white man, when the Natives 
 were fewer, the black man grazed his flocks and herds on the 
 unoccupied countryside. Around his kraal would be found 
 the small, ill-cultivated patches of maize, Kafir corn, and 
 pumpkin, which provided his daily sustenance ; but this was 
 only a minor and toilsome concern to be looked after by the 
 women-folk. The wealth of the Bantu consisted in the JL 
 cattle, sheep, goats, and (later) horses, which grazed on the 
 natural pastures. The coming of the white man served at 
 first to improve the lot of the black, in so far as it gave him 
 some measure of protection from his enemies. Freed from 
 the dread of tribal raids and massacres, he was able to live 
 his life of ease and gaiety. His women-folk cultivated the 
 gardens, his sons herded his flocks and herds, and he, the lord 
 of creation, could spend his time in hunting, feasting, and sleep- 
 ing. To be sure, he sometimes owed certain services, such 
 
 7-20 in the case of the Coloured and Bantu population. Exact returns 
 for the other provinces and for the rural districts were not obtainable, 
 but from the reports of the district surgeons it can be seen that the 
 mortality is very great. It is noticeable that the mortality is greater 
 among Natives who have adopted European dress.
 
 6 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 as ploughing and reaping, to the white man on whose farm he 
 lived ; but these were generally light, and in any case, if they 
 became burdensome, he could move on to the unoccupied 
 Government or Crown lands, where he could live rent free. 
 This idyllic state of affairs was destroyed for ever by the new 
 settlers from Europe, who, fired with zeal for more improved 
 methods of farming, demanded that the farms be cultivated 
 more intensively, and that the Crown lands be opened up for 
 European settlement. While the Governments agreed to 
 this, they wisely set aside tracts of land as locations or 
 reserves exclusively for Native occupation. 1 
 
 Three lines of action were now open to the Native. He 
 could either remain on the white man's farm as a rent-paying 
 or service-giving tenant ; or continue to dwell on the less 
 fertile and unalienated Crown lands in return for a small 
 rental paid to the Government ; or go into one of the loca- 
 tions where until quite recently he was allowed to live rent 
 free, subject to occasional compulsory service on the roads 
 (Isibalo). In any case the area of land now at the service of 
 the Native was but a small fraction of what it had been before. 
 This fact, together with the ravages of animal diseases, which 
 became more potent in the congested areas, tended to change 
 his mode of life. If he remained on the Crown land or entered 
 a location his opportunities for pastoral farming decreased, 
 and, unwilling to take up the women's work of agriculture, 
 he would generally prefer to leave home and enter the service 
 wot the white man in the city, leaving his wife and children 
 to fend for themselves on the location, with what little financial 
 assistance he was able to send from time to time. 2 
 
 1 The extent of land available per head in the reserves is as 
 follows : 
 
 Province. Acres. Province. Acres. 
 
 Cape .... 12*8 Basutoland . . . ig - o 
 
 Natal .... 8-8 Bechuanaland . . 819-2 
 
 Transvaal ... 4-8 Zululand . . .12-0 
 
 Orange Free State . 4-8 
 
 1 The extent to which the Natives go to service in the cities can 
 be seen by referring to the table on p. 14. Thirty-four per cent, of 
 the inhabitants of the cities and towns of Africa are Natives who are 
 residing there while working, but who return periodically to their 
 homes in the country.
 
 RACE CONTACT AND ITS LARGER EFFECTS 7 
 
 Section 4. Breaking up of Communal Tenure 
 
 Concomitant with the enclosure of the lands and the more 
 intimate relationship between white and black have come 
 marked changes in the social organisation of the Bantu people, 
 the passing of the system of communal tenure of land, and the 
 rapid growth of individualism. In the old days tribalism was 
 the universal system of social organisation among the Bantu, 
 as it is, indeed, the prevailing system to-day. Each member 
 of the tribe recognised and gave willing allegiance to the chief 
 as the hereditary representative of the tribal spirit. The 
 individual was nothing, the tribe everything. Apart from the 
 tribe the individual had no rights. This almost superstitious 
 reverence for the chief was accompanied by strong family 
 discipline and a close attachment to one another of members 
 of the same tribe. While not a communist in any organised 
 way, the Bantu was always ready to assist his fellow-tribesman 
 in time of need. The cattle of the tribe roamed the hills at 
 will ; fences were unknown. No special provision was made 
 for bad seasons, for it would always be possible to borrow from 
 a more fortunate neighbour. So long as he had enough to eat 
 and drink and a hut to sleep in, the Bantu was happy. There 
 was an entire absence of the spirit of competition which seems 
 to be inextricably bound up with European individualism. 
 
 Failure to comprehend the Native's social views has led to 
 much misunderstanding. The white individualist, striving to 
 increase the wealth and happiness of himself and of his f ami 
 and working hard to improve his social condition, is amazed 
 at the want of attention given to these things by the black 
 tribalist. It is a very common experience in South Africa 
 for the Native, while working on the white man's farm, to 
 become familiar with all his superior way of agriculture and 
 stock-farming, or from the white man's homestead to learn 
 how to make his own home clean, healthy, and comfortable ; 
 then to go back to his kraal, take off his European garb, and 
 return to the manner of living of his fathers. When you 
 remonstrate with the Native, as the writer has often done, he 
 will admit the superiority of your methods, but with a shrug 
 of his shoulders will declare that he is but a Native, and that 
 those are the white man's ways.
 
 8 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The difference of view-point between the European indi- 
 vidualist and the Native socialist needs to be emphasised, for 
 many of our criticisms of the Native as lazy, stupid, un- 
 teachable are due to a failure to comprehend his outlook on 
 life. We have failed to realise that the Native does not feel 
 the need for such virtues as punctuality, application, and 
 thoroughness, which are essential to success in our European 
 sense of the word. 
 
 While tribalism remains the social system in the remoter 
 and less enlightened parts of the country, there are abundant 
 signs that it is breaking down among the more intelligent and 
 better informed Natives as a result of the conscious or un- 
 conscious influence of the white man. Basutoland, the Trans- 
 vaal, and Zululand remain on the whole true to the old tribal 
 system, whereas the Natives in the Transkei and in Natal are 
 rapidly tending towards individualism. Chiefs deplore the 
 limitation of their influence and the disappearance of tribal 
 loyalty, while parents admit their lack of control over their 
 sons and daughters. 1 
 
 The decline of the communal land system is seen in the 
 Transkei, where the Natives are exercising their option and in 
 increasing numbers are voluntarily coming under a system of 
 individual tenure. 
 
 This matter is of importance in any consideration of Native 
 education ; for if our system is controlled by conscious ends, 
 what are these ends to be in the case of the social future of the 
 , * Black ? The writer is convinced that individualism must ulti- 
 mately prevail. The influence of the white man's example and 
 the work of the missionaries both lead in that direction. It 
 is unreasonable to expect a trained and educated Christian 
 Native to subject himself willingly to the capricious rule of 
 a heathen and barbarian hereditary chief, nor is it possible 
 to expect any great interest in education unless such education 
 will bring material as well as spiritual advantages. Under the 
 tribal system there is no inducement for the Native to advance. 
 Any attempt at improved methods of agriculture is apt to be 
 resented by the conservative chief as an undesirable innovation. 2 
 
 1 Report Natal Native Commission, section 50. 
 
 1 " It should be borne in mind that the individual Native cannot 
 be indiscriminately blamed for this [lack of progress in agriculture].
 
 RACE CONTACT AND ITS LARGER EFFECTS 9 
 
 As will be demonstrated later, the social adjustment of the 
 two races demands that a large portion of the Blacks remain 
 on the land. For this to be carried into effect with the limited 
 amount of land available, better methods of agriculture must 
 be taught in the schools. Along with the primitive methods 
 of agriculture the primitive method of tribalism must die, if 
 we are to expect our educated Native youth to return to the 
 land. The successful working in the Cape province of the 
 Glen Grey Act, which gives the individual Native lease in 
 perpetuity of land, and the system of modified local self- 
 government given by the District Native Councils of the 
 Transkei and Pondoland, seem to the writer to point the way 
 to a settlement of the Native question through education. 1 
 
 Section 5. The Native in the Towns 
 
 Forced by economic pressure to go to the towns, the Native 
 has adapted himself in his own way to this new environment. 
 While little affected by the finer side of the life of a nineteenth- 
 century European city, he has not been slow to assimilate its 
 more primitive and less worthy features. As labourer in the 
 mine, or domestic servant in the house, he has been under 
 influences for evil too potent for his powers of resistance. The 
 South African Native Affairs Commission of 1903-5 reports 
 gloomily on this point : "It must apparently be accepted as 
 an axiom that contact with what we are accustomed to regard 
 as civilisation has a demoralising tendency as its first effect 
 upon primitive races. It is clear that the Native year by year 
 is becoming familiar with new forms of sexual immorality, 
 intemperance, and dishonesty, and that his naturally imitative 
 disposition, his virility, and escape from home and tribal 
 
 Instances have come to light from time to time of a Native who has 
 planted trees or otherwise taken a step in advance being penalised 
 by the Chief even to the extent of the land being allotted to someone 
 else ; and even a few such cases or the threat of such action will 
 effectively discourage enterprise. . . . Tribal tenure is, no doubt, the 
 root cause of much of the backwardness complained of, but it was 
 one of the conditions of annexation that the Glen Grey Act should 
 not be introduced without the authority of an Act of Parliament." 
 (Report British Bechuanaland : Bluebook on Native Affairs, 1910, p. 8.) 
 
 1 In 1910, seventeen out of the twenty-six districts where it may 
 be applied have voluntarily adopted the system (Union Bluebook on 
 Native Affairs, 1910). Since then other districts have done likewise.
 
 10 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 influences provide a too congenial soil for the cultivation of 
 acquired vices." l So bad, indeed, can the moral effect of a 
 large mining centre be, that a prominent South African states- 
 man, the Honourable John X. Merriman, in speaking of the 
 responsibility of the white race for the Native, referred to 
 Johannesburg as a " Criminal University." 2 
 
 As a rule the Native returns to his kraal after his term of 
 service has expired, and too often disseminates disease and 
 inculcates evil habits among his fellow-tribesmen. There is, 
 however, an increasing number of Natives who live more or 
 less permanently in the city, and this number is likely to 
 increase as the demand for labour increases and as provision 
 is made for married men in the urban locations. At present 
 the life of these town Natives is thus characterised by the 
 Commission on Assaults on Women : "A large number of 
 Natives of both sexes, especially of those who live in towns, 
 have practically forsaken their own people, cast off all tribal 
 restraints, and do not return to their kraals. They as a rule 
 become demoralised, and form a very undesirable part of the 
 population. In the absence of recognised authority, equivalent 
 to the Chief's influence, the Native on arrival at labour centres 
 
 1 Report, section 284. Mr P. A. Barnett, late Superintendent of 
 Education in Natal, remarks in this connection : " But when their 
 [the missionaries'] pupil goes into the town, or anywhere comes in 
 contact with the baser whites, he finds that the virtues which he has 
 learnt to regard as the peculiar marks of the white man are at least 
 not so conspicuous as some mean and base things to which his own 
 primitive instincts and immemorial customs are more akin. And if 
 the pupil is a girl, the dangers that assail her multiply a thousand 
 times, and they are directed against her not entirely by her own people." 
 (Report of the Superintendent of Education, Natal, 1904.) 
 
 * Abundant evidence of the demoralising effect of life on the mines 
 could be adduced ; e.g. : 
 
 " From Johannesburg, on the other hand, they (the Natives) go 
 back impoverished in wealth and health, and usually moral degener- 
 ates, and from their influence flow the physical degeneration as well 
 as the growing uneasiness among raw Natives who have not left their 
 kraal. It is responsible for the growing criminality, and the systematic 
 undermining of the best traditions not only of the Native kraals, but 
 also of respect for the white man's authority and loss of faith in his 
 good intentions." (From an interview in the Cape Argus with Mr C. J. 
 Levey, I.S.O., senior member for Tembuland in the old Cape Parlia- 
 ment, at one time C.C. and R.M. for Wodehouse, and magistrate in 
 Tembuland and the Transkei.)
 
 RACE CONTACT AND ITS LARGER EFFECTS II 
 
 loses his social and tribal unity, and, imitation being one of his 
 chief characteristics, he soon conforms to his environment." * 
 
 In some European homes, on the other hand, the employers 
 take thought for the physical, moral, and spiritual welfare of 
 the Natives ; but these are the exception, and indifference is 
 the rule. 2 
 
 We see, then, that the Native's mode of life has been largely 
 affected by his contact with the European. Originally a 
 pastoralist, he has been compelled by the enclosure of lands 
 to occupy localities where pastoral farming is difficult. Eco- 
 nomic pressure has forced him into the white man's service, 
 where his character and mode of life have been affected for 
 the worse by an environment for which he was not ready. 
 
 Section 6. The Effect on the Whites 
 
 In the preceding section we spoke of the unconscious in 
 fluence which the white man was having upon the Native, 
 and cited evidence to prove that this influence was, on the 
 whole, harmful. What of the reverse process, the influence of 
 the Native upon the European ? Visitors to South Africa are 
 struck by our complete dependence upon cheap Native labour. 
 No one is too poor to have a Zulu " boy " to do the housework 
 which is done by mother and daughters in the European 
 countries ; the " boy " carries the school-girl's satchel of books 
 and the workman's bag of tools. 3 Everywhere there is the 
 
 1 Report, section 103. For father evidence of demoralisation see 
 sections 46-70, 87-121 et passim. 
 
 * The unsuitable housing provision for female Native domestic 
 servants, the lack of supervision on the part of most employers, and 
 the consequent danger of demoralisation of the girls, are the chief 
 obstacles towards securing a supply of trained female domestic servants 
 in European homes. As things are, the parents are afraid to allow 
 their daughters to enter domestic service, and thus the chief avenue 
 of useful and suitable employment is closed to the products of the 
 Mission Industrial Schools for Girls. 
 
 3 As early as 1804 this tendency to rely on Black assistance was 
 deplored. In that year De Mist, the vigorous Commissioner- General 
 of the Batavian Republic, founded a boarding and day school for girls, 
 " to teach them female handiwork and domestic housekeeping ; above 
 all, to discontinue the needless and uncivilising custom of being at- 
 tended by female slaves from their earliest infancy, and on the contrary 
 to accustom them to help and clothe themselves, to provide for their
 
 12 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Native servant to save the white man physical exertion. The 
 evil effect of this upon the European is seen in his dislike of 
 manual work, his readiness to regard so many tasks as " Kafir's 
 work," the general attitude of " It's too much trouble " so 
 noticeable among the younger people, and a loosening of the 
 moral fibres, which seem to need to be braced by hard and 
 even severe physical exertions. 
 
 The further we progress from the centres of civilisation the 
 greater the amount of physical and moral degeneration, until 
 we come to the helpless and hopeless "poor white " of the 
 Dutch and the "white Kafir" of the British. It was not 
 without reason that a storekeeper in Zululand told the writer 
 that he would rather his son broke stones on the roadside than 
 followed his father's lucrative but demoralising occupation. 
 
 The moral and social dangers to the Europeans of contact 
 with uneducated Natives are dealt with later. 1 Here it is 
 enough to point out how it is possible for a large group, weak 
 in its standard of social life, to drag down a stronger group 
 through its very weakness. The backwardness of the 
 Southern States in the United States of America is partly 
 attributable to the presence of masses of uneducated Negroes, 
 who are dragging down the Whites to a lower level, socially, 
 politically, and economically. 2 
 
 Signs of a similar degeneration on the part of the Whites 
 in South Africa are not wanting. 3 That they will become more 
 common if the Native remains uneducated is inevitable ; and 
 that the Whites will ultimately have to educate the Blacks, 
 if only in self-defence, is certain. 
 
 own necessities, etc." (Quoted by Muir in Special Report on Educa- 
 tional Subjects, vol. v. p. 8.) 
 
 1 See p. 34 et seq. 
 
 * " Low standards in the services rendered by the Negro to the 
 community are not so serious as the low standard of the service he 
 exacts." (Murphy, The Basis of Ascendancy, p. 124.) 
 
 " The only real peril of our situation is, not in any aspect of the 
 Negro's wise and legitimate progress, but rather in the danger that 
 the Negro will know so little, will do so little, and will increasingly 
 care so little about knowing and doing, that the great black mass 
 of his numbers, his ignorance, his idleness, and his lethargy, will drag 
 for ever like a cancerous and suffocating burden at the heart of our 
 Southern life." (Murphy, The Present South, p. 61.) 
 
 1 Several instances are given by Mr Maurice Evans in his Black 
 and White in South-East Africa, chap. viii.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE NATIVE PROBLEM AND THE SOLUTIONS 
 PROPOSED 
 
 THE question of the relationship of Black and White in 
 British South Africa is probably the most difficult current 
 problem in racial sociology. In other parts of the globe in 
 India, in Egypt, and in many of the European colonies in 
 Africa we find a handful of white men ruling vast masses of 
 blacks, but in these countries there is no thought of white 
 settlement. The white man is there as an official to rule the 
 country for the black man, to maintain peace and order so 
 that the black may enjoy the benefits of settled government 
 and the white man may carry on his trade. It is only in 
 the United States of America, where the two races exist side 
 by side as co-inhabitants and citizens, that we have in the 
 South a problem at all comparable with that of British South 
 Africa, and there the presence of a vastly preponderating 
 white population in the Central and Northern States and in 
 Canada precludes any possibility of a struggle for race 
 supremacy. How difficult it has been to find a basis for 
 race adjustment even in a country where the whites out- 
 number the blacks in the proportion of nine to one, the history 
 of the Southern States since 1863 can tell. How much more 
 difficult must that question be in British South Africa, where 
 there are five Natives to each European ! 
 
 According to the last census (1911) the numbers of Euro- 
 peans, Natives or Bantu, and Mixed and other Coloured in 
 the Union and in each province were as in the following table. 
 For convenience of reference the figures for Basutoland are 
 added : 
 
 13
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 TABLE No. i 
 
 SHOWING FOR THE UNION AND FOR EACH PROVINCE THE NUMBER 
 OF PERSONS CLASSED ACCORDING TO THE THREE MAIN RACES 
 AND THE PROPORTION PER CENT. OF EACH TO THE RESPECTIVE 
 TOTAL POPULATION, ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS TAKEN MAY 7, 191 1. 
 
 
 
 
 European or 
 
 \TTl_i4, _, 
 
 Bantu. 
 
 Mixed and 
 other 
 
 1 
 
 Urban 
 
 Total 
 
 White. 
 
 
 Coloured. 
 
 g 
 
 and 
 
 all races. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rural. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Sag 
 
 
 dl 
 
 
 Sc"i 
 
 </> 
 
 d 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 II 5 
 
 Persons. 
 
 CXO 
 
 Persons. 
 
 II 8 
 
 $ 
 
 
 
 
 In 
 
 a 
 
 
 Jr* 
 
 
 nt 
 
 fe 
 
 c 
 
 The 
 
 Total . 
 
 5,973,394 
 
 21-37 
 
 1,276,242 
 
 67-28 
 
 4,019,006 
 
 n-35 
 
 678,146 
 
 Union 
 
 Urban . 
 
 1,477,868 
 
 44-54 
 
 658,286 
 
 34-38 
 
 508,142 21-08 
 
 311,440 
 
 of 
 
 Rural . 
 
 4,490,233 
 
 13-70 
 
 615,028 
 
 78-14 
 
 3,508,907 
 
 8-16 
 
 366,298 
 
 South 
 
 Travel- 
 
 5,293 
 
 55-32 
 
 2,918 
 
 36-97 
 
 1,957 
 
 7-71 
 
 408 
 
 Africa 
 
 lers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cape of 
 
 Total . 
 
 2,564,065 
 
 22-71 
 
 582,377 
 
 59-26 
 
 1,519,939 
 
 18-03 
 
 462,649 
 
 Good 
 
 Urban . 
 
 619,577 
 
 46-66 
 
 289,107 
 
 18-26 
 
 H3,i43 
 
 35-o8 
 
 217,327 
 
 Hope. 
 
 Rural . 
 
 1,942,949 
 
 15-01 
 
 291,664 
 
 73-38 
 
 1,406,240 
 
 12-61 
 
 245,045 
 
 
 Travel- 
 
 2,439 
 
 65-85 
 
 i, 606 
 
 22-79 
 
 556 
 
 11-36 
 
 277 
 
 
 lers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Natal. 
 
 Total . 
 
 1,194,043 
 
 8-22 
 
 98,114 
 
 79-84 
 
 953,389 
 
 11-94 
 
 142,531 
 
 
 Urban . 
 
 152,988 
 
 4I-OO 
 
 62,732 
 
 23-51 
 
 35,967 
 
 35-49 
 
 54,289 
 
 
 Rural . 
 
 1,040,302 
 
 3-38 
 
 35,H4 
 
 88-15 
 
 917,011 
 
 8-47 
 
 88,177 
 
 
 Travel- 
 
 753 
 
 35-59 
 
 268 
 
 55-78 
 
 420 
 
 8-63 
 
 65 
 
 
 lers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trans- 
 
 Total . 
 
 1,686,212 
 
 24-94 
 
 420,562 
 
 72-34 
 
 1,219,845 
 
 2-72 
 
 45,8o5 
 
 vaal. 
 
 Urban . 
 
 599,509 
 
 4I-95 
 
 251,468 
 
 52-82 
 
 316,686 
 
 5-23 
 
 31,355 
 
 Rural . 
 
 1,085,526 
 
 15-51 
 
 168,406 
 
 83-16 
 
 902,719 
 
 i'33 
 
 14,401 
 
 
 Travel- 
 
 i,i77 
 
 58-45 
 
 688 
 
 37-39 
 
 440 
 
 4-16 
 
 49 
 
 
 lers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Orange 
 
 Total . 
 
 528,174 
 
 33-19 
 
 175,189 
 
 61-67 
 
 325,824 
 
 5-14 
 
 27,161 
 
 Free 
 
 Urban . 
 
 195,794 
 
 51-97 
 
 54,979 
 
 40-03 
 
 42,346 
 
 8-00 
 
 8,469 
 
 State. 
 
 Rural . 
 
 421,456 
 
 28-46 
 
 119,844 
 
 67-11 
 
 282,937 
 
 4'43 
 
 18,675 
 
 
 Travel- 
 
 924 
 
 39-61 
 
 366 
 
 37-29 
 
 541 
 
 1-84 
 
 17 
 
 
 lers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Basutx- 
 
 Total . 
 
 405,903 
 
 3 
 
 1,396 
 
 99-7 
 
 404,507 
 
 
 
 land. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 THE NATIVE PROBLEM AND THE SOLUTIONS PROPOSED 15 
 
 The following points are worthy of comment : 
 
 i. Although the mass of the Native people are living in the 
 country, a considerable migration to the towns has taken 
 place, 34-38 per cent, of the town-dwellers being Natives. 
 
 100% 
 00% 
 
 oX 
 
 20% 
 
 CAPE. 
 
 NATAL. 
 
 1 KAN3- FREE 
 
 -VAAL. STATE. 
 
 BA5UTO- SOUTH 
 -LAND AFRICA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 European, Mixed, Banfu, 
 or or ll orl 
 
 Whihe. Coloured. Narive. 
 
 FIG. i . Showing in percentages the distribution among races 
 of the population of South Africa. 
 
 These, of course, are only temporary dwellers in the towns ; 
 their families and permanent homes are in the country. 
 
 2. The comparatively large percentage of Coloured people 
 in the Cape and Natal is due to the presence of large numbers 
 of half-castes in the former and of some one hundred and 
 fifty thousand Indians in the latter province. 
 
 3. The smallness of the mixed and other Coloured popu- 
 lation of the Transvaal and Orange Free State is due to the 
 anti-Asiatic laws of these provinces. 

 
 l6 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The problem of race adjustment resolves itself into social, 
 economic, and political problems of great magnitude. 
 
 On the social side there is the question of the effect each 
 race is having, and will continue to have, upon the other. 
 We have seen that in the past the social contact of the two 
 races has been harmful. We must attempt to provide a 
 development for each race so that contact, when it takes place 
 at all, should take place at a high level. 
 
 On the economic side our problem is two-sided : how to 
 secure the supply of constant unskilled labour which South 
 Africa needs, and how to employ the remainder of the Natives 
 to the advantage of themselves and of the country at large. 
 For the uplift of the Native race it is necessary that they 
 should make progress along manual and industrial lines, and 
 part of our problem is to enable them to do this without enter- 
 ing into " unfair " competition with the Europeans. 
 
 The political problem is one which is already causing 
 anxiety, and which will cause more as the years go on. The 
 patriarchal system of governing the Natives is breaking 
 down, and the question of how to allow the Native some share 
 in his own government has arisen. In the Cape Province some 
 six thousand Natives possess the parliamentary franchise, and 
 until recently a Coloured man has been a member of the 
 Provincial Parliament. No further parliamentary franchise 
 is to be given, but the success of local self-government in 
 Basutoland and in the Transkei suggests a way out of the 
 difficulty in areas where Natives can be segregated.
 
 THE NATIVE PROBLEM AND THE SOLUTIONS PROPOSED 17 
 
 Section i. The Attitude of White South Africa 
 
 The general attitude of the people of South Africa towards 
 this gigantic problem has been one of indifference. It is only 
 when the farmer feels the scarcity of labour or the city work- 
 ing man finds the Native competing with him, or when there 
 is a rebellion among the Natives, as occurred in Natal in 
 1906, that the average South African realises the existence 
 of this problem. Even then the magnitude of the problem 
 appals him, and he is content to return to his attitude of 
 laissez faire. 
 
 Since 1905, however, there has been a revival of interest in 
 the problem. The famous Report of the Native Affairs Com- 
 mission of 1903-5, the Natal Native Rebellion of 1906, the 
 outspoken Report of the Natal Native Affairs Commission 
 of 1906, the public utterances of high officials like Lord 
 Selborne and Sir Matthew Nathan, the publication of Mr 
 M. S. Evans's book, Black and White in South-East Africa, 
 and the institution of Native Affairs Reform Associations, 
 and, above all, the Government's Natives' Land Act of 1913 
 and the Native Affairs Administration Bill of 1917, have 
 all served to bring the question before the attention of the 
 public. 
 
 Three schools of thought on the problem can be distin- 
 guished, which we may call the Repressionists, the Equalists, 
 and the Segregationists. Similar schools of thought exist in 
 the Southern States of America. 
 
 Section 2. The Repressionists 
 
 Under this name must be classed the majority of the Whites 
 in the Southern States of America and in South Africa. 
 Their view is that the black man is an inferior creature, and 
 that he cannot escape from that inferiority. With naive 
 omniscience they say, " God meant the black man to be a hewer 
 of wood and a drawer of water for the white man. If you 
 attempt to raise him from that position you interfere with 
 God's plan, and bring trouble on yourself and him." x The 
 
 1 They contrast the old " raw " or " kraal " Native with the half- 
 fledged product of our schools, much to the discredit of the latter. 
 The illogicality of this frequently-made comparison needs to be pointed 
 
 2
 
 1 8 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Repressionists axe not necessarily harsh in their treatment 
 of the Native. In both America and South Africa some of 
 the kindest masters, to whom their black servants are devoted, 
 hold this view. The South African Repressionist regards the 
 Native as a troublesome child. So long as he " behaves him- 
 self " (i.e. keeps quiet) he is to be left to lead his simple life 
 of semi-barbarism in the Native Reserves, or on some remote 
 corner of the white man's farm, provided always that he 
 comes out at regular intervals to provide the white man 
 with the cheap unskilled labour which is needed for the mines, 
 the railways, the stores, and the kitchens. So long as he 
 does this, he is to be treated with fairness and indeed kind- 
 ness ; but the moment he wishes to " assert his rights," to 
 attempt to raise himself in the social scale, to profit by the 
 white man's example, and to turn to his own use the latent 
 powers within him, then he is to be sternly repressed as im- 
 perilling the supremacy of the white man. 
 
 As regards education for the Natives, the only education 
 he needs is to be taught to work. The " dignity of labour " 
 is the lesson he needs to learn labour, by the way, which 
 the white man cannot or will not do himself. Native schools 
 are a mistake, 1 but, if they must be established, let them teach 
 nothing but the three R's. 2 
 
 out. To ninety per cent, of the people who make it, the so-called 
 "raw" Kafir is the old trained Native servant unable to read or 
 write or even speak English, to be sure, but trained by good masters 
 and mistresses for practical life in the house, the shop, or the farm. 
 In so far as he received that training, the Native was educated in a 
 way impossible, alas ! in our own day. The illogicality also of com- 
 paring the best products of the old system with the worst of the present 
 should be noticed. 
 
 1 " So that by educating the Native you have been guilty of an 
 injustice to the white man by taxing him to provide funds for the 
 purpose of raising a competition against himself and so ousting him 
 from the country, and you have been guilty of an injustice to the 
 Native by forcing upon his race a civilisation which has involved misery 
 and death to him." (F. S. Tatham, The Race Conflict in South Africa, 
 p. 27.) 
 
 * " Voor gekleurden is lesen en rekenen genoeg, en verder moeten ziy 
 leeren werken." (Philipstown School Board, Cape Education Commis- 
 sion, Appendix, clxx.) 
 
 " We are of opinion that State-aided education for Natives should 
 be of a purely elementary character, and that in connection with it.
 
 THE NATIVE PROBLEM AND THE SOLUTIONS PROPOSED 19 
 
 Industrial education finds favour with this school of 
 thought, but the Native must not learn to do more than 
 the heavier manual work. Anything more would bring him 
 into unfair competition with the white man. 1 
 
 If the Repressionist would listen it might be possible to 
 convince him that his policy cannot be carried out to-day, 
 even if it were ever desirable. Contact with the White has 
 educated the Native, and to attempt to prevent him from 
 getting a better education is as wise as screwing down the 
 safety-valve of an engine. 
 
 The following extracts from Sir Bernard Mandeville's essay 
 on Charity and Charity Schools, written in 1714, when the 
 ancestors of the Repressionists themselves were asking for 
 education, represent the present views of that party so well 
 that space must be found for them. After stating that 
 "it is impossible that a society can long subsist and suffer 
 many of its members to live in idleness, and enjoy all the 
 ease and pleasure they can invent, without having at the 
 same time great multitudes of people that to make good this 
 defect will condescend to be quite the reverse, and by use of 
 patience inure their bodies to work for others and themselves 
 besides," Mandeville proves the necessity for a body of men 
 never used to ease and idleness and easily contented as to 
 the necessities of life, " such as are glad to take up with 
 
 agricultural labour should be fostered and encouraged in every way 
 possible. It also seems to us that coloured children are frequently 
 allowed to remain too long at school, certainly it is not desirable that 
 they should remain after they have passed the third standard, or 
 attained the age of fourteen years." (Report of a Select Committee 
 of the Cape Legislative Council on Education, 1896, quoted in The 
 Natives of South Africa, p. 332.) 
 
 1 A similar illogical attitude is taken up by the Repressionists 
 in the Southern States of America. " He [the Southern Repressionist] 
 tells the Negro he must make shoes, but that he mustn't make shoes 
 which people can wear ; that he may be a wheelwright, but that he 
 must make neither good wheels nor saleable wagons ; that he must 
 be a farmer, but that he mustn't farm well. According to this fatuous 
 philosophy of our situation, we are to find the true ground of inter-racial 
 harmony when we have proved to the Negro that it is useless for him 
 to be useful, and only after we have consistently sought the Negro's 
 industrial contentment on the basis of his industrial despair." (From 
 a speech by E. G. Murphy reported in the Southern Workman, March 
 1903.)
 
 2O THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 the coarsest manufacture in everything they wear, and in 
 their diet have no other aim than to feed their bodies when 
 their stomachs prompt them to eat, and with little regard 
 to taste or relish, refuse no wholesome nourishment that can 
 be swallowed when men are hungry or ask anything for 
 their thirst but to quench it." 
 
 If, then, says Mandeville, there must be such people, it is 
 the part of a wise legislature to cultivate the breed, for " in 
 a free nation where slaves are not allowed of, the surest wealth 
 consists in a multitude of labourous poor ; for besides that 
 they are the never-failing nursery of fleets and armies, with- 
 out them there could be no enjoyment, and no product of 
 any country could be valuable. To make the society happy, 
 and people easy under the meanest circiimstances, it requires 
 that great numbers of them should be ignorant as well as 
 poor. Knowledge both enlarges and multiplies our desires, 
 and the fewer things a man wishes for, the more easily his 
 necessities may be supplied." 
 
 Every hour which children of the poor people spend at 
 their books is so much time lost to society. " Going to school 
 in comparison to working is idleness ; and the longer boys 
 continue in this easy sort of life the more unfit they will be 
 when grown up for downright labour, both as to strength 
 and inclination." We should bring these people up to a 
 hard and painful life, for if we do otherwise it will be the 
 greatest cruelty to submit them to it later. 
 
 The danger of teaching people a little reading and writing 
 is that they will think themselves above their fellows, " as 
 if they were of another species," and will look with contempt 
 upon downright labour, i.e. " labour performed in the 
 service of others in the lowest station of life and for the mean- 
 est consideration." 
 
 Section 3. The Equalists 
 
 With views diametrically opposed to those of the Repres- 
 sionists we have a second school of thought, who, basing their 
 arguments on a common humanity, plead for equality of 
 treatment for White and Black. Two distinct parties are 
 found holding this view. On the one hand there are the 
 well-meaning philanthropists living for the most part over-
 
 THE NATIVE PROBLEM AND THE SOLUTIONS PROPOSED 21 
 
 seas, 1 or in those parts of South Africa where the absence 
 or paucity of the Native population makes it difficult to 
 imagine the existence, far less the consequence, of race con- 
 flict. 2 This party is paralleled in the United States by the 
 Northerners, who subscribe so handsomely to Negro univer- 
 sities and institutions in the South, and blame the Southern 
 white man for the race feeling which exists. On the other 
 hand, we have a section of the European missionaries, whose 
 adherence to the doctrine of the equality and brotherhood 
 of men makes it difficult for them to understand, and of 
 course impossible for them to sympathise with, the repugnance 
 of the Whites, and their determination to " keep the Native 
 in his place." 
 
 To this school of thought the physical, mental, and moral 
 qualities of the Natives are potentially equal to those of the 
 Europeans, and, given the same educational advantages, the 
 Natives will rapidly prove themselves the equal of the Whites. 3 
 
 1 The Aborigines Protection Society, known from the place of its 
 meetings as " Exeter Hall," has frequently opposed vigorously the 
 policy of the British and Colonial Governments regarding the Natives. 
 
 * It is the Cape Province which has been most liberal in its treat- 
 ment of the Natives, and has extended the franchise to some of them. 
 
 3 That the Natives are physically the equals of the Europeans 
 would be generally conceded ; morally their standards are so different 
 that comparison is difficult (see p. 27). With regard to their mental 
 abilities, the view of Rev. P. Blessing Dahle, an experienced missionary 
 and training institution principal, would find much support among 
 a section of the South African missionaries : " On the average, Native 
 children are just as well gifted as European, but circumstances affect 
 them generally in such a way that their mental development is checked 
 from a certain age. Still, we may say that in most educational subjects 
 Native children are not inferior to European, and in some few 
 singing, writing, needlework, etc. they seem to hold a better average 
 endowment than white children. In any case, it is evident that the 
 Native is far more capable of learning foreign languages than most 
 Europeans." (The Zulu's Future, p. 3.) 
 
 In this connection the following extract from an appeal for funds 
 for the training of preachers and teachers within the United States 
 and elsewhere, published by the Synod of New York and New Jersey 
 in 1816, is interesting : " In those days which are yet to come . . . the 
 descendants of Ham . . . will attain to an elevation and dignity which 
 will give them a rank among the polished nations of Europe and 
 America. Africa will yet boast of her poets and orators. Eloquence 
 will play on the tumid lips of her sons, and sable hands will strike 
 the lyre and weave the silken web."
 
 22 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The Equalists would encourage education. The training 
 given should be the same as that given to the Whites. 
 Indeed, any attempt at differentiation is construed by this 
 party (or at least the Coloured section) as an attempt to keep 
 down the Natives. A similar situation is found in the United 
 States. The Negro has been receiving the same education 
 as the White, and when men like Dr Frissell of Hampton and 
 Booker Washington of Tuskegee admit that the Negro is at 
 present " backward " in his development as compared with 
 the Whites, and stands in need of a different kind of educa- 
 tion, they are opposed by Negro Equalists like Du Bois and 
 Kelly Miller on the ground that the backwardness, if present at 
 all, is only due to lack of education, and that an acceptance of 
 industrial training as the staple of education would be a confes- 
 sion of inferiority. One of the reasons why the Cape Province 
 adheres to its policy of identity of curriculum for European 
 and Native, is that past attempts at differentiation have been 
 opposed by the Natives themselves, or at least their leaders. 1 
 
 The believers in race equality need to be reminded that 
 there can be no real equality between a people with many 
 centuries of civilisation behind them, and a race which is just 
 emerging from barbarism. The question, however, is of 
 academic interest only. The governing class in South Africa 
 has decided that for the present, at any rate, there can be no 
 talk of equality between the two races. 2 
 
 1 The absurd lengths to which this opinion is sometimes carried 
 was well illustrated at the Native Convention held at Lovedale in 1908 
 to decide on the educational policy of the proposed Inter-State Native 
 College. The sound proposition, " that the College should from the 
 commencement adapt itself to the existing educational needs of the 
 country, and, proceeding where necessary upon tentative lines, be 
 developed into a College of recognised University standing," was 
 strongly opposed by certain educated Natives, who felt that this was 
 an insidious attempt to repress their people. One of these Natives 
 said that this proposition meant that they were to get a stone instead 
 of bread. They were anxious to get higher education. Where did 
 they see it ? Among the white people. They wanted that same 
 education, not a bastard education, not to begin with new experiments. 
 Even if this curriculum was bad, it was not their place to patch it up 
 and correct it. They wanted the same higher education as the white 
 people. (See The Christian Express, Aug. i, 1908.) 
 
 * " Society, indeed, puts a marked line of demarcation between 
 the two great groups : European and African aborigines. No legis-
 
 THE NATIVE PROBLEM AND THE SOLUTIONS PROPOSED 23 
 
 Section 4. The Segregationists 
 
 Midway between the Repressionists and the Equalists 
 stands a third party, which, while recognising the tremendous 
 difficulty of the problem, believes that a solution may be 
 found in recognising the right of the Native to develop, but 
 believes that any such development must be a slow progress, 
 and that it is not necessary that the development should take 
 place entirely upon European lines. This school of thought 
 would attack the problem in a scientific fashion. It would 
 have exhaustive inquiries made into the social, political, and 
 economic progress of the race in the past. It would seek the 
 advice of anthropologists, ethnologists, and psychologists in its 
 endeavour to obtain a thorough knowledge of the people. 
 With this knowledge, and the facts culled from investigations 
 into race problems, it would endeavour to give the Bantu 
 race every assistance to develop on the lines of its racial 
 genius. 
 
 The present views of this school, which is gaining ground 
 rapidly in South Africa since the establishment of the Union 
 of South Africa in 1910, may best be expressed in the words of 
 its ablest exponent, Mr Maurice S. Evans, who in his book 
 Black and White in South-East Africa formulates its funda- 
 mental principles as follows : 1 
 
 1. The white man must govern. 
 
 2. The Parliament elected by the white man must realise 
 that, while it is their duty to decide upon the line of policy 
 to be adopted, they must delegate a large measure of power 
 to those specially qualified, and must refrain from undue 
 interference. 
 
 lation, no opinions about identity of origin, no religious sentiment 
 about the effacement of the distinctions of white and black, can delete 
 the line. It is drawn in bold, ineffaceable lines, and the demarcation 
 will last because it is in accord with the natural instincts of the two 
 groups of people." (Sir Langham Dale, Report to Cape House of 
 Assembly, 1890.) 
 
 The late Transvaal Republic, indeed, declared in its Grondwet 
 or Constitution that " the people will suffer no equality of white and 
 blacks in either Church or State." This law died with the Republic, 
 but its spirit is still potent in South Africa. 
 
 1 Pp. 310 et seq.
 
 24 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 3. The main line of policy must be the separation of the 
 races as far as possible, our aim being to prevent race de- 
 terioration, to preserve race integrity, and to give to both 
 opportunity to build up and develop their race life. 
 
 The Segregationists have been much encouraged by the 
 success of their policy in the Transkei and in Basutoland, 
 and believe that if this policy could be extended it might be 
 possible for the Natives to evolve a civilisation of their own, 
 more suited to the character and needs of the people than 
 the European civilisation which they are receiving at present. 
 Apart from the difficulties of carrying out anything like a 
 strict segregation in a country whose very existence is said 
 to depend on a supply of cheap black labour, 1 it is too late 
 in the day to expect the Natives to build up a civilisation 
 of their own, now that the European Government and the 
 European missionaries have to a great extent destroyed their 
 primitive customs and beliefs. In the old days the individual 
 Native had his small share in the making of tribal custom 
 and law ; to-day his law is handed to him ready-made by 
 the European Government. Then his energies were taken 
 up by the absorbing pastimes of war, faction fighting, and 
 hunting ; now war and faction fighting have been put down, 
 and hunting has been reduced to the destruction of rabbits, 
 porcupine, and other " vermin." In times past they could 
 show their disapproval of tyrannical government by open 
 revolt ; now the fear of the white man's armed forces will 
 lead them to submit to any laws. In the old days much 
 care and skill were devoted to the manufacture of weapons 
 and utensils of all kinds ; now these are " made in Germany " 
 and sold to the Natives by traders. The arts of govern- 
 ment, of war, and of peace are quickly being forgotten, and 
 nothing but a passive reliance on the white man has taken 
 their place. 
 
 If segregated, would these people evolve a civilisation of 
 their own ? It is more than doubtful. The breakdown of 
 the tribal system, the disappearance of parental discipline, 
 
 1 In referring to the practicability of the policy of segregation, 
 Booker T. Washington is reported to have said : " If your segregating 
 wall be high enough to keep the black man in, will it be high enough 
 to keep the white man out ? "
 
 THE NATIVE PROBLEM AND THE SOLUTIONS PROPOSED 25 
 
 the desire for the excitement, gaiety, and less worthy parts 
 of the white man's life, the tasting of which has made the 
 kraal life a monotonous existence, would unite to prevent 
 any return to the old practices, which would need to function 
 strongly if they were to form the bases of an independent 
 civilisation. It seems inevitable that any degree of civilisa- 
 tion which the Native people in South Africa attain must be 
 the product of conscious or unconscious European example 
 and guidance.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE? 
 
 " WHY educate the Native ? " is the question asked repeatedly 
 by the Whites in South Africa. In his " raw " state, they say, 
 the Native leads an Arcadian existence. His simple wants 
 food, cattle, women are easily satisfied. He is more moral 
 than his educated brother. His few savage virtues courtesy, 
 charity shine in use, and above all he is no trouble to the white 
 man. As soon as he goes to school, he puts on unhealthy 
 European clothes, he despises his " raw " parents, he becomes 
 dissatisfied with his position without knowing how to improve 
 it ; his thin veneer of European civilisation makes him wish to 
 consort with low-class white men, from whom he learns many 
 vices; he refuses to be subservient to the European, and 
 becomes the swaggering, impudent, and universally detested 
 "school Kafir." i 
 
 If it were necessary to controvert this argument at length, 
 it could be shown that the life of a people living in mental and 
 spiritual darkness and in constant fear of the spirit world, 
 terrorised by cruel chiefs and cunning witch-doctors, and 
 
 1 Mr Robert Plant accounts for the conceit of the " school Kafir" 
 in these words : " True, the transition state from barbarism to civilisa- 
 tion in which these people are found to-day is not altogether satis- 
 factory. There is much that appears forward, conceited, and insolent, 
 but it is not fair to expect to jump in a single generation from barbarism 
 to refinement, and the objectionable features referred to are not infre- 
 quently the natural exuberance arising from a consciousness of new 
 power or an outward attempt to ' do the correct thing ' and not un- 
 frequently the direct result of evil example set by Europeans. It 
 is a noticeable fact that the farther removed from the larger centres 
 of European civilisation the more respectful, industrious, and obedient 
 the partially civilised Natives are." (Report of Inspector of Native 
 Education, Natal, 1889.) 
 
 26
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 2J 
 
 subjected to periodical famines, can hardly be termed 
 Arcadian. 
 
 It does seem necessary, however, to refer to the alleged 
 superior morality of the " raw " Natives. This common 
 generalisation is based on insufficient evidence. What more 
 natural than that the European city-dweller, who mistakes 
 the " town Kafir " with his European clothes and his broken 
 English for an educated Native, and who sees signs of his 
 degeneration in the illicit drinking which takes place in the 
 suburbs of cities, and of demoralisation in the presence of 
 Native prostitutes, should contrast this objectionable upstart 
 with the respectful " raw " Native, with whom he is acquainted 
 chiefly through the superficial accounts of travellers. If he 
 could study the " raw " Native at first hand, he would find 
 that, judged by our European standards, the morality of the 
 uncivilised Natives is low. In their relations with people 
 outside their tribe, lying, thieving, and deceit of all kinds are 
 very common. On the question of sexual morality let the 
 unbiassed Commission on Assaults on Women speak: "As 
 regards sexual matters, however, the code of morality is low 
 in the extreme, viewed from a European standpoint. It is 
 stated by witnesses that the ' raw ' Native is born and brought 
 up in an atmosphere of immorality and lust ; his thoughts 
 and speech are lewd ; the topics of his ordinary conversation 
 from an early age are sexual matters ; even in the presence 
 of the other sex his talk in this respect is unrestrained ; his 
 jokes with his female friends and acquaintances have reference 
 to these matters. Persons who do not understand the Native 
 language, it is said, can hardly realise how low, according to 
 European standard, the state of morality is amongst them. 
 Several missionaries and others have declared that whilst their 
 work lay amongst a Native population they would not on any 
 account allow their children to acquire a knowledge of the 
 language spoken by the Natives, for fear of the pollution of 
 their minds." J 
 
 As we have seen, much of the objection to the education of 
 1 Report, section 39. Mr Dudley Kidd deals with the question 
 at length, and asserts : " The man who poses as an authority on the 
 Kafirs, and repeats the statement that the Natives are moral and 
 right enough if only missionaries would leave them alone, is either 
 a knave or a fool." (The Essential Kafir, pp. 228 et seq.)
 
 28 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 the Native is due to a mixture of ignorance, indifference, and 
 fear. There are, however, some honest sceptics who raise the 
 question. To these we would reply: We must educate the 
 Native because : 
 
 (i.) We cannot help educating him, if not intentionally then 
 
 unintentionally, 
 (ii.) The dictates of humanity and Christianity demand that 
 
 we educate him. 
 (iii.) He means to be educated, and we have no right to refuse 
 
 him this boon, 
 (iv.) It is the educated Native who will help most to solve 
 
 the " Native Problem." 
 (v.) It is to the moral, social, and economic interest of the 
 
 Europeans to educate him, and we dare not face the 
 
 consequence of failing to do so. 
 (vi.) Wherever we have given him anything in the way of real 
 
 education the results have been satisfactory. 
 
 Section i. Can we help Educating the Native ? 
 
 We cannot help educating the Native. Among the most potent 
 forces operating on the life of human beings are the imitative 
 tendencies. These tendencies are often inhibited among ad- 
 vanced races by a more fully developed reasoning ability which 
 enables its possessor to judge of the intrinsic value of actions ; 
 but among more primitive people they are extraordinarily 
 strong. It is mainly through imitation that the primitive man 
 adjusts himself to his environment, which is but another way 
 of saying that it is through imitation that he receives his 
 education. 
 
 Before the coming of the white man the education of the 
 South African Native consisted in his adjustment to the 
 narrow environment of his tribe through direct imitation of his 
 elders. With the coming of the white man an entirely new 
 environment was created, and the Native's response to this 
 new situation has been a gradual absorption through imitation 
 of as much of the new as he could comprehend. Unfortunately 
 for him, those aspects of the new environment to which he 
 could most easily adjust himself were not usually the best. 
 Hence the common charge against the Natives that they have
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 2Q 
 
 absorbed most of the white man's vices and none of his virtues. 
 While this statement, like most epigrammatic remarks, is not 
 wholly true, few would deny that contact with the white man, 
 as it takes place in the country store, on the farm, at the mines, 
 in the towns, has not tended to improve the Native's habits, 
 morals, or outlook on life. 
 
 The kind of " education " which the Native is " picking up " 
 from the white man is certainly bad. 1 Shall we not then cease 
 to give him this education ? Yes, if we can ; but seeing that 
 our daily contact with the Native is the school in which this 
 harmful education is being given, and that we ourselves are 
 the teachers, we can only cease to give this education by retiring 
 from the country or by segregating ourselves entirely from the 
 Natives. Are we prepared to do either of these things ? I 
 think not. We have made our homes in South Africa, and we 
 need the Natives for work in the house, the shop, the mine, 
 and on the farm. In so far, then, as we bring the Native into 
 contact with us we are educating him. 2 The late Superin- 
 tendent of Education for Natal, Mr P. A. Barnett, puts the 
 illogicality of our attitude very forcibly but truly when he 
 says : " We ought not to refuse to teach him to speak to us 
 and to understand us, and then denounce him for stupidity ; 
 deny him the means of being clean, and then gird at him for 
 filthiness ; lodge him in a pig-stye, and then complain that he 
 
 1 " The very moment that a Native comes into contact with the 
 white man his education has begun, if it is only with the storekeeper 
 in the Government location ; much more when he lives on a farm ; 
 and still more when he comes into domestic service, say, on the Wit- 
 watersrand. There his education goes on with a vengeance ; and if 
 that is the only education he receives, who in his senses will believe 
 that the Native, uninstructed and unguided, will pick up anything 
 from the white man but what is bad?" (Jx>rd Selborne, Address 
 before the Congregation of the University of the Cape of Good Hope, p. n.) 
 
 1 " The many thousands of Natives constantly employed on farms, 
 railways, and public work, and in mines and workshops, are inevitably 
 being brought under what is, in the wider sense of the word, an edu- 
 cational influence, and are thereby becoming more useful and pro- 
 ductive members of the community. These occupations involve 
 considerable travel, removal for longer or shorter periods from their 
 home environment, and contact with civilised conditions, all of which 
 have the effect of stimulating mental activity and widening their 
 intellectual outlook." (Report of South African Native Affairs Commis- 
 sion, 1903-5, section 326.)
 
 30 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 lives like a pig and disseminates disease ; plant him in the centre 
 of temptation and atrocious white example, and marvel that 
 he falls into vicious courses." * 
 
 If then we cannot help educating the Native by our contact 
 with him ; if this casual and indirect education is doing harm, 
 not only to the Native, but to us ; and if we are not prepared 
 to segregate ourselves from him how can this vicious education 
 be stopped ? The answer is clear : only by a counteracting, 
 purposeful, good education, such as can be given in good homes, 
 and principally in schools, which are the institutions established 
 by society for conserving and handing on that part of its 
 tradition which has been proved to be worth keeping. 
 
 Section 2. The Calls of Humanity and Christianity 
 
 The dictates of humanity and Christianity demand that we 
 educate the Native. To Christian peoples the work of convert- 
 ing the heathen has always been a solemn task imposed upon 
 them by the Founder of their religion. Missionary zeal has 
 always been one of the chief objects of exploration and colonisa- 
 tion, and the Christianising of the Hottentots was one of the 
 avowed objects of van Riebeek's settlement. 
 
 It is impossible that the Europeans in South Africa, mindful 
 of the blessings which have fallen to them through education 
 and the Christian religion, would wish to exclude those blessings 
 from their less fortunate fellows. So we are not surprised to 
 find that several of the missionary societies at work in South 
 Africa are manned and supported by South Africans. 
 
 It has often been suggested that the Natives be converted 
 to Christianity without being educated. This, however, is 
 impossible with the younger people. Conversion means so 
 complete a change from the former manner of life that it 
 must be accompanied by the discipline and ability to stand 
 the change ; in other words, by education. 2 
 
 1 Report of Superintendent of Education, Natal, 1904, p. 8. 
 
 1 " To teach a mass of barbarians the great moral and ethical 
 truths of the most enlightened religion of the most civilised part of 
 the world, without, at the same time, training their intellectual powers 
 to grasp the truths taught them, means that they must inevitably 
 degrade our religion to their own low state of mind." (A. F. Caldecott, 
 The Government and Civilisation of the Native Races of South Africa, p. 10).
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 31 
 
 One of the greatest blessings which education could bring 
 to the Native would be to free him from the dominance and 
 deadening influence of the spirit world. The " raw " South 
 African Native has a profound belief in the potency of spirits. 
 All the calamities which befall him or his tribe are due to 
 malignant spirits. Any Native whose life is out of the ordinary 
 runs the risk of being suspected of witchcraft. This is one of 
 the reasons why Natives are unwilling to practise at home 
 the arts they have learnt in the service of the white man. 
 To remove this blighting influence is one of the tasks of 
 education. 1 
 
 A further reason why we Europeans should educate the 
 Natives is because it is through our coming to South Africa 
 that formal education has become necessary. We have intro- 
 duced a new European environment to which the Native must 
 adjust himself. For example, we have introduced an economic 
 system in which the uneducated Native is at a serious dis- 
 advantage. The danger of the exploitation of the ignorant 
 Native by the unscrupulous educated European or Native is 
 very great. 
 
 On the whole our duty seems clear. God made the Native 
 a man. We cannot and we dare not make him less. 
 
 1 " At present the vast majority of Native children when they go 
 to school are already superstitious. . . . Much of the education . . . 
 fails even to disturb the underlying superstition. It ought surely to be 
 possible so to contrive that even the elementary education should 
 do something to loosen the hold that superstition has over the children's 
 minds. ... At the present time in the Cape Colony there are young 
 men holding teachers' certificates, and others who have passed the 
 School Higher Examination, who yet remain quite unconvinced of the 
 fallacy of their ancestral belief in witchcraft. . . . The superstitions 
 of the Natives constitute the dangerous feature of Native life. Under 
 the influence of superstition sane men lose their judgment, and any 
 leader who is clever enough to appeal to some deeply rooted superstition 
 can move his hearers to acts which they would never otherwise com- 
 mit. . . . Every Kafir war had its false prophet who professed to be 
 able to bewitch the enemy and to impart strength to the Kafirs to 
 overcome the Europeans. . . . The only way of getting rid of that 
 dreadful theory, which can be really called the curse of the Natives, 
 is to replace in their minds the primitive and dangerous animism by 
 the spiritual, highly moral, philosophical theism of Christianity." 
 (Dr Neil Macvicar, Medical Officer to the Lovedale Mission, in The 
 State, June 1909.)
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Section 3. The Natives' Demand for Education 
 
 The Native demands education, and we have no satisfactory 
 reason for denying him this boon. From the estimate on p. 76 
 it will be seen that in 1907 there were over 160,000 Natives 
 at school. The number has probably increased to 200,000 by 
 now. In other words, one Native school child out of five is 
 receiving some kind of education. The figures in the following 
 chapter show how marked has been the rate of increase in the 
 number of schools, and the demand for schools and still more 
 schools goes up from all parts of the country. 1 The inspector in 
 charge of Native schools in Natal recently informed the writer 
 that he could open sixty new schools in a week if he had the 
 teachers and the money. 
 
 The efforts made by the Natives themselves to secure an 
 education are extraordinary. No matter how old the Christian 
 convert may be, he is desirous of learning to read and write. 
 Masters and mistresses in towns are often astonished at the 
 requests of their old retainers, who ask to be allowed to attend 
 school in the evenings. One of the difficulties in the adminis- 
 tration of Native schools is to exclude grown-up men and 
 women from the infant classes. 
 
 1 The education of the Negroes in the United States shows a 
 wonderful advance. The decline in illiteracy can best be seen from 
 a comparison of age groups. 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES, 1910 
 
 Age period. 
 
 All classes. 
 
 Whites. 
 
 Negroes. 
 
 10 years and over 
 
 7'7 
 
 3-o 
 
 30-4 
 
 10 to 14 years 
 
 4'i 
 
 1-7 
 
 18-9 
 
 15 .. 19 
 
 4'9 
 
 1-9 
 
 20-3 
 
 20 24 
 
 6-9 
 
 2'3 
 
 23.9 
 
 25 34 
 
 7-2 
 
 2-4 
 
 24-6 
 
 35 .. 44 
 
 8-1 
 
 3-0 
 
 32-3 
 
 45 .. 64 
 
 10-7 
 
 5-o 
 
 52-7 
 
 65 and over 
 
 M'5 
 
 7'3 
 
 74'5 
 
 (Abstract, Thirteenth Census, 1910, quoted in The Negro's Progress 
 in Fifty Years.)
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 33 
 
 Surely we, who affect to prize education so highly, have no 
 right to deny it to the Native. Should we not, rather, encourage 
 this laudable ambition by every means in our power ? The 
 answer is not altogether in our hands, for the Native means to 
 receive education, if not in his own country, then abroad. All 
 recent Commissions on Native Affairs refer to the increasing 
 number of Native students who proceed to the United States 
 for their further education. This tendency is deprecated, in 
 that it is felt that the Natives get out of touch with their own 
 people, and imbibe ideas of social organisation unsuitable for 
 South Africa. The Commission for 1903-5 is emphatic in 
 its condemnation of this practice. " Asserting, as they do, 
 that they are denied in South Africa opportunities for higher 
 education, the independent Native (religious) bodies have sent 
 or have encouraged the parents to send youths to America for 
 a course of instruction in the Negro colleges. The character 
 of the education at these colleges, with the accompanying grant 
 of ' degrees ' on low qualifications, and the atmosphere of 
 racial animosity in which the education is acquired, render an 
 extension of this practice undesirable." * 
 
 Section 4. The Native Solving His Own Problem 
 
 We must help the Native to help himself. Common sense as 
 well as experience from America would advise us to make use 
 of the Native himself in any attempts to solve the Native 
 problem. In America it is a Negro, Booker T. Washington, 
 who has done more to solve the Negro question than any dozen 
 white men. However sympathetic he may be, the European 
 cannot see the question from the same point of view as the 
 Native, and we shall be wise if we educate the Natives so that 
 they may attempt a solution themselves. A race is what it is, 
 largely through the efforts of its great men. As has well been 
 said : " The ability of a hundred of its most gifted repre- 
 sentatives often counts more for a nation's or a race's* 
 welfare than the ability of a million of its mediocrities." 2 
 Our present European civilisation is not the result of the 
 
 1 Report of the South African Native Affairs Commission, section 329. 
 See also Report of the Natal Native Affairs Commission, 1906, section 83. 
 
 2 Thorndike, Educational Psychology, vol. iii. p. 210. 
 
 3
 
 34 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 mass of the people, but of the few bright geniuses who have 
 enabled us to advance in their steps by leaps and bounds. So 
 will it be with the Native people of South Africa. They will 
 be raised by their own fellows, and it is but the part of prudence 
 to educate the people, and so enlist in our difficult problem the 
 assistance of those most concerned. 
 
 Section 5. Advantage to Europeans in the Education 
 of the Natives 
 
 It is to the moral, social, and economic advantage of the Euro- 
 peans to educate the Natives. 
 
 (A) Moral. In an earlier part of this chapter we have shown 
 that, judged from our European standpoint, the standard of 
 morality of the uneducated Native is very low. The European 
 in South Africa comes into contact with this low standard of 
 morality every day of his life if not the intimate contact of 
 the farm or the house, then the more remote contact of the 
 street. We have seen that this contact is not without its ill 
 effects on adult Europeans ; on young children the evil effects 
 are still greater. The greatest hardship which missionaries face 
 is the necessity of bringing up their children among " raw" 
 Natives. Some, as we have seen, refuse to allow their children 
 to learn to speak the Native language, for fear of contamination. 
 On the farms the position is much the same, and in the towns 
 it is not much better. Comparatively few families are able to 
 afford a European nursemaid. Native boys, and to a lesser 
 extent Native girls, are the nursemaids of the majority of our 
 children. A common sight, even in such a comparatively 
 wealthy town as Durban, is a dozen Native nurse boys and girls 
 sprawling on the grass while their charges run about and over 
 them. In many cases the conversation of these Natives is 
 indescribably filthy. The strongest argument which has been 
 used in urging the lowering of the age of admission to the 
 European infant schools has been the baneful effects of the 
 " Kafir Kindergarten." 
 
 The South African Commission of Inquiry into Assaults on 
 Women is frank in its condemnation of this practice : 
 
 " When the disgusting sexual practices in which a large 
 number of natives indulge from early youth are borne in
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 35 
 
 mind, the danger of entrusting girl children to male 
 Natives is obvious. The existence of these practices is 
 unfortunately not so widely known among white people 
 as it should be ; and it would be well if all mothers, in 
 areas where Natives are employed, made themselves fully 
 informed in regard to them. Boys, too, may be easily 
 contaminated by the conversation and practices of many 
 of these young Natives." x 
 
 If, as seems commonly accepted in South Africa, the employ- 
 ment of Native servants in our houses, schools, and shops 
 as well as on our farms and mines, is unavoidable, we should 
 certainly take steps so that their contact with us is as little 
 harmful as possible. Since the mental, social, and moral 
 development of ourselves and of our children is inextricably 
 bound up with that of the Natives, we must, if only in self- 
 preservation, see to it that the " essential Kafir " is educated. 
 
 The ravages of disease among the Natives have already been 
 referred to. The dirty and ignorant Native is a danger to the 
 health of the Europeans. The Native quarters in our towns 
 can only be kept from becoming centres of contagion by the 
 activity of our sanitary authorities. It will be more effective 
 and more economical to educate the Native to be clean. 
 What can be accomplished in this direction can be seen by 
 anyone who compares the clean and healthy homes of the 
 educated Natives with the stuffy, dirty, and insanitary Kafir 
 huts. 2 
 
 (B) Social. Not a few South Africans otherwise well dis- 
 posed towards the Natives oppose their education because they 
 fear that with the advance of the Native will come race mixture 
 with the Europeans. The prospect of a mixed race or a " half- 
 caste " South Africa is a very real nightmare to them. Into 
 the argument for and against race admixture it is unnecessary 
 
 1 Report, section 121. 
 
 2 " An ignorant and untrained Negro is very much more apt to 
 be filthy and unhygienic than is the one who has had at least an ele- 
 mentary training. The prevalence of typhoid, tuberculosis, hookworm, 
 and other diseases which are such a present menace to the entire South, 
 can never be greatly lessened until the Negro is taught the meaning 
 of sanitation and cleanliness." (Dr W. D. Weatherford, in an address 
 delivered at the Conference of Education in the South, Nashville, April 
 1912, published in the Southern Workman, October 1912.)
 
 36 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 to enter. South Africa has decided with no uncertain voice 
 that she will have none of it. 1 Our purpose is rather to show 
 that education, instead of increasing race mixture, will cause 
 its decrease. 
 
 In the early days in South Africa marriages or unions be- 
 tween white men and Native women were not uncommon. 
 The men were of the rougher type of European professional 
 hunter, Kafir trader, or pioneer farmer, and the women were, 
 of course, utterly ignorant. Sometimes the marriage was by 
 Native custom, and the man settled down to lead the life 
 of a Native. As the country became more settled, and as 
 civilising influences began to work, these unions became less 
 common. They still exist in some of the remoter parts of 
 the country, but it is found that wherever there is any body 
 of public opinion the man who marries or cohabits with a 
 Native woman is ostracised, and the example serves to deter 
 others from following his example. 2 
 
 The impression that education leads the Native to the 
 perpetration of " black peril " outrages is totally unfounded. 
 On the contrary, as the Commission on Assaults on Women 
 suggests, the chief predisposing causes are the barbarism 
 and superstition of the Native people. 3 
 
 In the United States assaults upon women is not a common 
 Negro crime. Monroe N. Work, in his elucidating article on 
 " Negro Criminality in the South," says : " Of those committed 
 
 1 Not only the Europeans, but the Natives themselves, despise the 
 Eurafrican. Their attitude is exemplified by a dramatic incident 
 reported by the Natal Native Affairs Commission : " One old Native, 
 in vehement and passionate language, suiting gesture to words with 
 dramatic effect, asked, ' What are these white things, which their 
 girls were bringing home on their backs in such numbers ? What 
 did the Government mean by allowing their girls to bear so many 
 white children ? Did they want to breed mule-drivers ? ' in allusion 
 to the fact that men of mixed race invariably drive Government con- 
 veyances." (Report, section 70.) 
 
 2 A decrease in mixed marriages is reported from the United States. 
 Ray Stannard Baker, in his book Following the Color Line, reports 
 that in Boston, a city singularly free from race antagonism, the total 
 of mixed marriages as recorded in the Registry Department was 35 
 in 1900 ; 29 in 1903 ; 19 in 1905 and this in a city of more than half 
 a million inhabitants. (Reported by Murphy, The Basis of Ascend- 
 ancy, p. 75.) 
 
 3 Report, sections 38, 39, 40.
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 37 
 
 to prison for major offences in 1904, the per cent, committed 
 for rape was for coloured (i.e. Negro) 1-9, all whites 2-3, 
 foreign whites 2-6, Irish 1-3, Germans 1-8, Italians 4-4, 
 Hungarians 47. The commitments for assaults upon women 
 are low in the Southern States. In the South Atlantic 
 division the rate per 100,000 of the population in 1904 was 
 0-5, in the South Central division it was 07. Some would 
 suppose that the low rate of commitments for rape in the 
 South is due to the fact that the most of the perpetrators 
 of these crimes are summarily lynched ; but if, however, all 
 the Negroes who were lynched for rape in the South were 
 included, the rate for coloured would be changed less than 
 one-fourth of i per cent." x 
 
 The seduction and debauchment of Native girls by white 
 men of a certain class was one of the principal grievances 
 laid before the Natal Native Affairs Commission of igo6-j. z 
 Here again the men are generally of a low class, and the 
 women almost entirely uneducated. 
 
 While settled marriage and concubinage between the races 
 are diminishing, there seems to be an increase in illicit and 
 promiscuous intercourse between white men and black women, 
 and in a few cases (confined almost entirely to Johannesburg) 
 between European women and Natives. 
 
 Illicit and promiscuous intercourse between men and women 
 of different races takes place at its lowest level, and becomes 
 rare as the people rise in the social scale. 3 It is not claimed 
 that education will stop this intercourse entirely, but in 
 South Africa, just as in the United States, it seems clear that 
 
 1 The Negro's Progress in Fifty Years, p. 76. In this connection 
 it is interesting to learn that no graduate oi Hampton or Tuskegee 
 (the famous industrial schools for Negroes in the United States) has 
 ever been charged with assault upon a woman. 
 
 2 Sections 69 and 70. The Commission on Assaults on Women 
 admits that there is ample cause for this grievance (Report, section 18). 
 
 3 Outbreaks of immorality among Amakolwa girls and near mission 
 stations have occurred in South Africa (for a bad case see Izindaba 
 Zabantu, June i, 1914), but these are almost always due to the fact 
 that no employment has been found for the semi-educated Native 
 girls, whose veneer of education makes them refuse to work in the 
 fields as their " raw " sisters do. An adequate scheme of education 
 will see that its participants are trained for some occupation in which 
 there is opportunity for honourable employment.
 
 38 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 education will develop pride of race among the black people ; 
 and just as the Jew from racial motives segregates himself from 
 the Gentile, so pride of race will increase the present dis- 
 inclination of the Natives for marriage with the Whites. 1 
 
 (C) Economic. In a previous section it has been pointed 
 out that much of the apparent laziness and lack of enterprise 
 of the Native is due to the fewness of his wants. A man's 
 wants determine his progress. Through wants the arts and 
 sciences arise. The more we can increase the Native's legiti- 
 mate and satisfiable wants, the happier and better we shall 
 make him. To effect this no agency is more powerful than 
 education. The educated Native's wants are considerably 
 more than those of his " raw " brother. To meet these wants 
 he must work. If he 'works for the white man, we have a 
 better and more permanent servant. 2 If he works for him- 
 self, we have a more efficient tradesman or farmer. Not only 
 do the Natives and the individual white man benefit from 
 the increase in the Native's wants, but the State through the 
 Native's improved producing and purchasing power receives 
 a greater share of revenue. Magistrates' reports abound with 
 references to the improved spending power of the educated 
 Native throughout South Africa, 3 but the reports from the 
 Transkei are particularly elucidating in this connection because 
 of the advanced state of education in that district. 
 
 In the twenty-seven reports from magistrates in the 
 Transkei published in the Union Bluebook on Native Affairs, 
 1910, marked improvement in trade is reported by fifteen of 
 
 1 " The impression that the development of the Negro race, its 
 enlarging efficiency and intelligence, will in itself add to the frequency 
 of intermarriage, or will itself increase the impulses of racial fusion, 
 is, so far as one can now determine, totally unfounded." (Murphy, 
 Basis of Ascendancy, p. 76.) 
 
 * The irregularity and inefficiency of Negro labour in the South 
 of the United States is attributed to the fewness of the Negro's wants. 
 " These wants can be supplied by half-time labour, and consequently 
 it is impossible to get many of the Negroes to work full time. In order 
 to meet the situation the standards of living for the Negro must be 
 raised. He must be made to want better homes, more comforts, 
 some reading material, better clothes, better food. To this end there 
 must be a raising of standards through better training of the masses 
 of Negroes." (Dr W. D. Weatherford, op. cit.) 
 
 3 See Bluebook on Native Affairs, 1910, pp. 179-192.
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 39 
 
 the eighteen reports which deal with this question. The 
 magistrates regard the improved purchases of the Natives as 
 the result of education. 
 
 " The people are more civilised in this part, conse- 
 quently their requirements extend to a much wider 
 range of articles than in districts where the people are 
 mostly heathen." (R.M., Xalanga.) 
 
 " Evidence of progress is clearly manifest and proved 
 by comparison of the class of goods now stocked in local 
 stores with the old order of twenty years ago." (R.M., 
 Kentani.) 
 
 " Trade ... is a very remunerative business. The 
 wants of Natives have increased very greatly in the past 
 twenty years, and become more and more expensive." 
 (R.M., Engcobo.) 
 
 " The progress of the people is amply evident in trade. 
 Twenty years ago the hoe was the only agricultural 
 implement used ; now every kraal possesses its plough. 
 In those days trade was entirely by barter, which is now 
 extinct. Astonishing increases in the sale and con- 
 sumption of tea, coffee, sugar, matches, soap, paraffin, 
 and other groceries, as well as in the purchase of clothing 
 and saddles of much higher value, and of such commo- 
 dities as jugs, basins, and bedsteads (single and double), 
 point to the steady progress going on. The sale of wool 
 in the time referred to has increased tenfold." (R.M., 
 Tabankulu.) 
 
 In the absence of statistics it is impossible to give the 
 amount contributed by the Natives in indirect taxation, i.e. 
 through customs dues ; but it is generally admitted to be 
 considerable. 1 
 
 The following statement of expenditure by the General 
 
 1 " The imports of this small community [Basutoland] approximate 
 annually to a quarter of a million sterling, almost entirely for clothing 
 and goods manufactured in the United Kingdom ; the exports to a 
 similar value of agricultural produce for consumption in South Africa. 
 No white population could produce as much in the space available." 
 (Sir Godfrey Lagden, quoted by Evans, Black and White in South-East 
 Africa, p. 447.)
 
 40 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Council shows the improved earning and spending power of 
 the Natives in the Transkei : 1 
 
 TRANSKEIAN TERRITORIES GENERAL COUNCIL EXPENDITURE 
 
 
 Educa- 
 tion. 
 
 Agricul- 
 ture and 
 industry. 
 
 Forests. 
 
 Public 
 works. 
 
 Roads. 
 
 Hospitals. 
 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1910 
 
 15,193 
 
 9,354 
 
 1921 
 
 18,111 
 
 n,495 
 
 800 
 
 1911 
 
 18,001 
 
 13,861 
 
 2229 
 
 21,270 
 
 12,085 
 
 800 
 
 1912 
 
 19,579 
 
 24,090 
 
 i 49 8 
 
 17,055 
 
 13,021 
 
 IOOO 
 
 1913 
 
 20,425 
 
 33.555 
 
 1708 
 
 19,506 
 
 15.829 
 
 1050 
 
 1914 
 
 21,872 
 
 59,5 
 
 1917 
 
 19,093 
 
 16,000 
 
 95 
 
 (estimated) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 As producer the Native has in the past done little, because 
 he needed little, but it is clear that as his wants increase he 
 will be driven to greater productiveness. It is estimated 
 that there are 5,000,000 acres of land under regular cultiva- 
 tion in South Africa an acre for each head of population, 
 white and black. Many times that amount of land could 
 be put under cultivation, but the Native will not be willing, 
 nor indeed able, to do more, without education. 
 
 Section 6. The Success of Real Native Education 
 
 Wherever we have given the Native anything in the way of 
 real education the results have been satisfactory. At the out- 
 set we must distinguish between the really educated Native 
 and the one who is often classed as educated because he wears 
 European clothes and has learnt a few English words and 
 phrases from a European employer. The latter type is very 
 common in our South African towns. He is very much in 
 evidence on Sunday afternoons, when he swaggers up the 
 street in his squeaky boots, jostling passers-by, and carrying 
 on a conversation with his friends in broken English. To 
 
 1 Reproduced from Kingdon's " The Emergence of a Nation," a paper 
 read before the South African Association for the Advancement of 
 Science, 1914.
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 4! 
 
 regard such a Native as educated is to do the Native schools 
 a rank injustice. 1 
 
 If, however, we regard as an " educated " Native one who 
 has passed such a comparatively easy educational test as 
 the fourth standard in our schools, we have direct evidence 
 to prove that, so far from spoiling the Native, education has 
 done him positive good. 
 
 On the general question of the success of the Native educa- 
 tion we have much weighty and impartial opinion. 
 
 " The consensus of opinion expressed before the Com- 
 mission is to the effect that education, while in a certain 
 number of cases it has had the effect of creating in the 
 Natives an aggressive spirit arising, no doubt, from an 
 exaggerated sense of individual self-importance, which 
 renders them less docile and less disposed to be con- 
 tent with the position for which nature or circumstances 
 have fitted them has had generally a beneficial influence 
 on the Natives themselves, and by raising the level of their 
 intelligence, and by increasing their capacity as workers 
 and their earning power, has been an advantage to the 
 community." (South African Native Affairs Commission, 
 I 93~5 Report, section 328.) 
 
 " The witnesses are generally agreed that education 
 has the effect of making the Native more intelligent, more 
 civilised, and more loyal, and of increasing his wants. It 
 is also widely, though less generally, admitted that 
 education makes the Native more moral and more in- 
 dustrious. Your Committee can, however, find no 
 evidence in support of the theory that education has 
 a tendency to induce crime. Your Committee submit 
 that the primary objects of Native education must be 
 the development of intelligence, the training of character, 
 and in particular the promotion of industry, and that if 
 these objects are duly kept in view throughout, and 
 
 1 The same misconception exists in the United States. " The 
 typical educated Negro in the eyes of the white man is a Negro 
 with a high hat, imitation gold eye-glasses, a showy walking-stick, 
 kid gloves, fancy boots and what not in a word, a man who has 
 determined to live by his wits." (Booker T. Washington, Up from 
 Slavery, p. 151.)
 
 42 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 nothing is done to force development unnaturally, Native 
 education cannot fail to be to the advantage of the whole 
 country." (Cape Select Committee on Native Education, 
 1908 : Report, section 4.) 
 
 The belief that the educated Native tends to become 
 criminal is very widespread in South Africa, because of the 
 prominence given in the press to criminal cases in which 
 literate Natives are concerned, and because of the unfortunate 
 fallacy of classing the overdressed, swaggering, insolent street 
 Native as educated. To argue from a particular instance to 
 a general law is easy, when the thought is fathered by the 
 wish; and because one or two educated Natives have been 
 guilty of criminal offences, generalisation such as " eighty 
 per cent, of the pupils turned out as educated on mission 
 stations have turned criminals " are made. 
 
 In 1906 the Rev. A. E. Le Roy, principal of Amanzim- 
 toti Seminary, the largest educational institution for Natives 
 in Natal, investigated the charge and proved its falsity. 1 
 Three methods were used : 
 
 (a) Inquiry at six of the largest prisons in Natal and Zulu- 
 land produced the following statistics regarding the number 
 of literate Native prisoners : 
 
 Prison. 
 
 Date of report. 
 
 Total 
 No. of 
 prisoners. 
 
 No. 
 literate.* 
 
 Durban 
 
 Pietermaritzburg 
 Eshowe 
 Three smaller prisons . 
 
 Admitted April 7 
 to May 6. 
 Confined May 19. 
 Confined May 19. 
 
 260 
 
 57 
 214 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 3i 
 13 
 o 
 
 
 
 1024 
 
 46 
 
 * Literate here means able to read and write English or Zulu. The 
 number of educated Native criminals is much less. Of almost 2000 
 Native criminals received at Durban Jail during the two years ended 
 December 31, 1905, only 5, or '25 per cent., were sufficiently educated 
 to be able to read in the fourth reader. 
 
 1 Rev. A. E. Le Roy, " The Educated Zulu," a paper read before 
 the South African General Missionary Conference, Johannesburg, 1906.
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 43 
 
 (b) According to the Census Report, there were confined in 
 the prison of Natal, on the day the census was taken, 1862 
 Natives, of whom 82 were able to read and write. This 
 percentage of 4-4 corresponds almost exactly with the figures 
 under (a) above. 
 
 (c) Of the 800 ex-pupils of Amanzimtoti Seminary (Mr Le 
 Roy's school), only u, or 1-4 per cent., have ever been 
 convicted of crime. 1 
 
 The further charge that the educated Native was lazy, 
 disrespectful, and unfitted for work was also refuted by 
 Mr Le Roy. The employers of the 91 ex-students 
 from Amanzimtoti Seminary working in Durban and 
 Johannesburg were questioned as to the worth of the boys. 
 Were they good workers ? Were they respectful ? Were 
 they trustworthy ? How did they compare with the " raw " 
 Kafir ? Unqualified approval was given of 82 of the 
 boys, 5 were satisfactory in spite of minor weaknesses, 
 while 4 were unsatisfactory. Some of the comments of 
 the employers, all of which are given by Mr Le Roy, are 
 interesting: "Good and trustworthy." "The best boy I 
 have." " All rattling good boys, never had any trouble ; 
 hard workers." " Good boys, but exceptions. Mission 
 Natives worthless." " Was here a year, but knew too much." 
 " A credit to missionaries." " Not a word of complaint." 
 " Very good boy, respectful and willing." " Absolutely the 
 best boy I've had; gets drunk occasionally just like a 
 
 1 The argument that to educate a Negro is to make a criminal of 
 him is frequently used in the Southern States. It has been refuted 
 again and again. Thus Dr Weatherford says : " The facts do not 
 bear out this statement. It is estimated that 67 per cent, of the 
 Negro criminals to-day have had no training. If the South wishes to be 
 free from its fearful harvest of crime, it is none too soon to deliberately 
 start on a more definite plan for Negro training." (Op. cit.) 
 
 " Not a single graduate of the Hampton Institute or of the Tuskegee 
 Institute can be found to-day in any jail or State penitentiary. After 
 making careful inquiry I cannot find a half-dozen cases of a man or a 
 woman who has completed a full course of education in any of our 
 reputable institutions like Hampton, Tuskegee, Fisk, and Atlanta who 
 are in prisons. The records of the South show that go per cent, of 
 the coloured people in prisons are without knowledge of trades, and 
 61 per cent, are illiterate." (Booker T. Washington, Working with 
 the Hands, p. 235.)
 
 44 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 white man, but good worker and respectful." Mr Le Roy 
 estimates that of the 800 ex-students of his institution 10 per 
 cent, are worthless, " both from a Christian and industrial 
 viewpoint " ; 20 per cent, are good workers but are not lead- 
 ing Christian lives ; while 70 per cent, are to-day reliable men, 
 a credit to the school and to the Church. 
 
 Although it is almost certain that similar satisfactory results 
 could be obtained from other missions, it is a pity that they have 
 not been collected, as the contrary impression still prevails to 
 a considerable extent. 1 
 
 The experience of the United States shows that even the 
 inadequate education provided for Negroes in the Southern 
 States has produced good results. Dr Weatherford, after 
 quoting statistics to prove his points, sums up the results as 
 follows : 
 
 " It has never been found in all the world that a sane 
 and thorough intellectual equipment has been detrimental 
 to morals or to industrial efficiency. The Negro is no 
 exception to this rule. It is not the educated Negro 
 that fills our penitentiaries and jails, works in our chain 
 gangs, and fills our poorhouses. These places are given 
 over to the ignorant and depraved. It is not the educated 
 Negro that makes up our idle and vagrant class, that 
 commits our murders and despoils our women. Here, 
 again, it is the illiterate and degraded Negro. The 
 trained Negro lives in a better home, wears better clothes, 
 eats better food, does more efficient work, creates more 
 wealth, rears his children more decently, makes a 
 more decent citizen, and in times of race friction is 
 always to be found on the side of law and order. These 
 things seem to be worthy fruits, and whatever system 
 produces them should have our approval. If we are to 
 be fair to ourselves, fair to the section in which we live, 
 and fair to the Negro race, we must see that a common 
 school education is provided for all, that industrial 
 
 1 The calendar of Lovedale Institute contains the names of thousands 
 of educated Natives who are a credit to their school training and 
 education. Many similar proofs could be adduced from American 
 reports.
 
 WHY EDUCATE THE NATIVE ? 45 
 
 training is given to the majority, and that a more thorough 
 and complete training shall be given to the capable few 
 who are to become the leaders of this race." 1 
 
 Our own experience in South Africa has been the same, so 
 that the proper reply to the question, " Can we afford to 
 educate the Native ? " would seem to be, " Can we afford 
 not to educate him ? " 
 
 1 Negro Life in the South, p. 113.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND THE HISTORY 
 OF NATIVE EDUCATION 
 
 THE history of Native education in South Africa is the history 
 of South African missions, for it is due entirely to the efforts 
 of the missionaries that the Natives of South Africa have 
 received any education at all, and to this day all but three 
 of the several thousand Native schools are conducted by 
 missionary agencies. 
 
 The authoritative history of South African missions has been 
 written, 1 and all that we propose in the present chapter is to 
 examine the state of Native education at different stages in its 
 development, and where possible to show the attitude of the 
 several Colonial Governments to the question. Statistics show- 
 ing the growth of Native education and its present position are 
 given, and finally the work of the missionaries is considered. 
 
 Section i. The History of Native Education in the Cape 2 
 
 One of the avowed objects of the first settlement of the 
 Cape in 1652 was to bring the benefits of Christianity and 
 civilisation to the heathen. The Dutch lost no time in 
 carrying out their intentions, and in 1656 a school, the 
 first to be established in South Africa, was set up in Cape 
 Town for the instruction of slave children from the West 
 Coast. At first white and coloured were taught together, 
 for we hear of a school being opened in 1663 with 17 
 
 1 Du Plessis, History of South African Missions, Longmans, Green 
 & Co. 
 
 * Based on the account by Messrs G. B. Muir and M. E. Sadler 
 in vol. v. of Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Board of Education, 
 London. 
 
 46
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 47 
 
 children, of whom 4 were slave children, i a Hottentot, 
 and 12 Europeans. In 1676 a movement towards separa- 
 tion took place, but pending the establishment of the Coloured 
 school the brighter Coloured children were allowed to attend 
 the school for Europeans. At the end of the seventeenth 
 century there were, according to Mr Muir's estimate, three 
 school centres at Cape Town, Stellenbosch, and Drakenstein, 
 where small groups of children received a semi-secular educa- 
 tion under the care of the Church. These schools were prob- 
 ably attended by the European children and the best of the 
 Coloured pupils. Progress in the provision of educational 
 facilities must have been slow, for a century later, in 1779, the 
 School Commission reported the existence of only eight public 
 elementary schools, containing 696 children. Slave children 
 were in attendance at these schools, and there were also a 
 special " Slave Lodge " school of 84 children, and a few 
 private schools. 
 
 The educational efforts of the Dutch and English Govern- 
 ments were directed towards the establishment of Govern- 
 ment " Latin and Dutch Schools " in Cape Town, and the 
 Government-aided but locally controlled " Church Clerk 
 Schools " of the country districts. 1 The Churches everywhere, 
 however, gradually began to establish " mission schools " for 
 those who could not afford to pay school fees. These schools 
 were attended by a few poor Whites, but principally by slave 
 children and Hottentots. In 1824 a Commissioner speaks of 
 having inspected four mission schools, two for slave and two 
 for Hottentot children ; and the historian Theal speaks of a 
 " considerable number " of mission schools as existing in 1825. 
 
 We see that the mission schools were intended for the 
 Coloured children in the Colony proper, but towards the be- 
 ginning of the nineteenth century an entirely different set of 
 " Native " schools came into existence. The strong missionary 
 movement of that time resulted in the rapid establishment 
 of schools for Coloured and particularly for Bantu children. 
 Mr Muir, writing of the position about the year 1837, says : 
 
 " It is almost certain that by this time the number of 
 mission schools for Coloured children considerably ex- 
 
 1 Muir and Sadler, op. cit., p. 18.
 
 48 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 ceeded the number of all kinds of schools for White 
 children. The missionary movement begun by the 
 Moravians in 1792 had been taken up by the London 
 Missionary Society in 1799, the South African Society 
 about the same time, the Wesleyan Church in 1816, the 
 Glasgow Society in 1821, the Rhenish Society in 1829, 
 the Paris Society in 1829, and the Berlin Society in 1834. 
 It had thus gradually assumed large proportions, and we 
 are consequently not surprised to learn that at the time 
 now reached there were over fifty European missionaries 
 at work in the Colony. All of these, with their numerous 
 helpers, interested themselves in the education of the 
 Coloured races, no fees being charged, and the training 
 being in most cases similar to that given in the schools 
 attached to churches in England. In almost every 
 village, we are told, a branch of one or other society 
 existed, by means of which the education of Coloured 
 people, both children and adults, was fostered. Stations 
 also had been founded, such as Lovedale in 1824, which 
 afterwards came to be almost exclusively educational in 
 character. Theal is therefore probably correct in say- 
 ing that at the close of the period now under considera- 
 tion much better provision was made for the Coloured 
 people than for the White." * 
 
 In the year 1854 Sir George Grey came out to the Cape as 
 Governor. One of his first tasks was to attempt to settle 
 Native affairs, so as to prevent the recurrence of the Kafir 
 wars on the Eastern frontier. 
 
 " After visiting the frontier and making himself 
 thoroughly familiar with the facts, he resolved upon a 
 plan of ' peaceful subjugation ' in which education was to 
 play an important part. His idea was ' to gain an influence 
 over all the tribes inhabiting the borders of the Colony, 
 from British Kaffraria eastward to Natal, by employ- 
 ing them on public works opening up their country, by 
 establishing institutions for the education of their children 
 and the relief of their sick, and by introducing amongst 
 them laws and regulations suited to their condition.' 
 1 Muir and Sadler, op. cit., p. 18.
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 49 
 
 He therefore sought and obtained from the Imperial 
 Government a large annual sum for the furtherance of 
 his scheme, and of this sum a goodly portion was devoted 
 by him year after year to education. One or two Church 
 institutions for the training of Natives had, as we have 
 already seen, been for some time in operation in Kaffraria, 
 and these he utilised ; but his view was that the kind of 
 instruction given in them was too bookish, and that what 
 was most needed was instruction in manual work. Grants 
 were consequently given to develop industrial education 
 at Lovedale, Healdtown, Lesseyton, Salem, and a number 
 of other places, the total expenditure varying from year 
 to year, but in the year 1857 reaching almost 10,000. 
 As the Imperial Government gradually withdrew its 
 support, these grants-in-aid from ' the sum reserved under 
 Schedule D ' of course fell off ; but while the support 
 lasted it set agoing a movement in the industrial educa- 
 tion of the Natives which has never since come to a stop. 
 It must be noted carefully, however, that the institu- 
 tions thus aided were as yet in no way connected with 
 the educational system of the Colony, but were directly 
 under the care of the High Commissioner himself." 1 
 
 In 1854 the Cape Colony received representative govern- 
 ment, 2 and in 1861 a Commission was appointed to inquire 
 into the system of education and to suggest a revision of the 
 scale of grants. The result of this Commission's report formed 
 the basis of the system of education in the Cape Province 
 which has continued down to the present day. The points 
 affecting Native education are the recommendations which 
 resulted in the continuance of grants-in-aid of Mission Schools 
 and the official recognition of a new type of schools for the 
 Natives in the eastern parts of the colony, namely, " Native 
 Institutions and Schools (Aborigines Border Department)." 
 Both Mission Schools and Aborigines' Schools were classified 
 into three grades on the basis of staff and enrolment. The 
 annual grants-in-aid, which were to be expended on teachers' 
 
 1 Muir and Sadler, op. cit., pp. 28-29. 
 
 * A special provision required that the sum of 14,000 annually 
 be reserved for " Border Department (Aborigines)." 
 
 4
 
 50 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 salaries only, were: for Mission Schools, 75, 30, 15 for 
 Classes I., II., and III. respectively; and for Aborigines' Schools, 
 140, 40, and 20. All were to be under the management 
 of Church or missionary bodies, and subject to Government 
 inspection. The subjects of instruction were reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic for the Mission Schools, and " suitable elemen- 
 tary education in English or the native language, or in both " 
 and " suitable industrial training " for the Aborigines Schools. 
 A maintenance grant of 15 per annum was made to each of 
 a limited number of male Natives who apprenticed them- 
 selves to the authorities of the institution for a period of not 
 more than four and not less than two years, in the wagon- 
 making, blacksmith's, tailoring, shoemaking, and printing 
 trades, and a grant of 10 per annum for girl apprentices 
 to " household work." An allowance of from 10 to 12 
 per annum was offered towards the maintenance of boarders, 
 other than apprentices, who had " besides the ordinary school 
 work some industrial occupation such as field or garden 
 labour, or special training for pupil teachers." 
 
 This favourable treatment in the way of financial assist- 
 ance, and the inclusion under the operation of the Act of the 
 districts of King William's Town and East London in 1867, 
 districts thickly populated by Natives, led to a rapid increase 
 in the number of schools. Whereas the number of Public 
 Schools for Europeans increased from 147 in 1865 to 169 in 
 1873 (an increase of 22), the corresponding increase for Mission 
 and Aborigines' Schools was from 206 to 346 (an increase 
 of 140). The syllabus of instruction, which was binding in 
 the Mission Schools, and which was followed by the Aborigines' 
 Schools, sets out the requirements in reading, writing, and 
 arithmetic for the four standards. In Standard IV., for 
 example, the pupils were required to be able to read any ordi- 
 nary narrative fluently and correctly, to write freely to dicta- 
 tion, and to do sums in practice, proportion, and vulgar 
 fractions. 
 
 In 1877 the liberal policy of the Cape Government towards 
 Native education was again exemplified in the establishment 
 of a grant of 120 per annum in aid of the salary of a com- 
 petent trade teacher, and a special grant of 30 for the 
 purchase of tools, fittings, and materials for industrial work.
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 51 
 
 Mr Muir draws attention to the fact that better provision 
 was made for the manual training of Natives than for 
 Europeans. In the schools for European children " the 
 industrial education given amounted to little more than a 
 weekly lesson or two from the village carpenter, whereas the 
 class in an Aborigines' Institution consisted of apprentices 
 who, with their teacher, devoted practically the whole work- 
 ing day to their trade." l The principle underlying this 
 encouragement of industrial training among Natives is con- 
 tained in Sir Langham Dale's special report to the Cape House 
 Assembly in 1889 : 
 
 " The only way to enable the groups (i.e. Europeans 
 and Natives) to do their parts respectively in the social 
 world is to provide instruction adapted to the needs of 
 each : for the Native races ordinary school instruction and 
 training in the workshop and in domestic industries. 
 You may thus send forth into the labour market from 
 year to year a fair supply of ordinary artisans and domestic 
 servants, while the mass of the Coloured races must fulfil 
 the humbler tasks of agricultural labourers and shep- 
 herds ; and climatic considerations point to the necessity 
 of securing Coloured labour for outdoor occupations under 
 a semi-tropical sun. If the European race is to hold its 
 supremacy, the school instruction of its children must 
 not only be the best and most advanced, but must be 
 followed by a systematic training of the young colonists 
 in directive intelligence to be brought to bear on all the 
 industrial arts. As the future employers of labour, 
 they need themselves to have practical experience in the 
 productive interests as well as in the mechanical arts, 
 which if supplemented by a good commercial education 
 will enable them to take their places as superintendents, 
 foremen, and ultimately as masters in trade, agriculture, 
 manufactures, and the constructive branches of the arts. 
 
 " The majority of the natives may be, at the best, 
 qualified to do the rough work of artisans ; but even this 
 work must be under the direction of the guiding eye and 
 hand of the skilled European, and it is the paramount 
 
 1 Muir and Sadler, op. cii., p. 53.
 
 52 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 duty to see that the colonist is as well fitted for the 
 exercise of this directive intelligence as the stranger who 
 comes hither with the cultivation and energy and de- 
 veloped in the populous beehives of European industry." l 
 
 It would be difficult to find a better expression of the 
 present-day attitude toward Native education of the more 
 liberally-minded section of the European inhabitants of South 
 Africa. 
 
 The cautious policy of the Government with regard to the 
 extension of facilities for Native education is shown in one of 
 the terms of reference to the Education Commission of 1891, 
 which states that the Government does not wish to encourage 
 among the Aborigines any expectation of large additional 
 subsidies for their institutions and schools, and therefore in- 
 structs the Commission to restrict its inquiry to the present 
 status of industrial training among Aborigines. In its report 
 the Commission pointed out that only a very small percentage 
 of the Native population (viz. those in Native institutions) 
 were receiving manual training. " Probably in none of the 
 269 schools has any serious effort been put forth to provide 
 ' manual training ' for the boys. In their case the whole of 
 the four hours of daily attendance required by the bye-laws 
 of the Department is devoted to ' literary ' work." The 
 reasons for this neglect were (a) the lack of equipment and 
 facilities for industrial training; (b) the disinclination of 
 Natives for " bodily toil " ; (c) the fact that many missionaries 
 thought that it was no part of their " high vocation " to under- 
 take such elementary and menial forms of industrial work as 
 were possible ; and (d) because the Government had not made 
 manual training a condition precedent to the payment of the 
 Government grant-in-aid. It recommends that one-half of 
 the school time should be devoted " to such manual training 
 as can best be followed in the locality," and also that the 
 Natives should be required to contribute towards their educa- 
 tion in the form of a school tax. 
 
 The former recommendation was not acted upon, partly 
 because of the lack of suitable forms of industrial training 
 possible for the Natives, partly because of the opposition of 
 
 1 Quoted by Muir and Sadler, op. cit., p. 72.
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 
 
 53 
 
 certain influential educated Natives who wished to have the 
 " white man's education " for their children, but chiefly 
 because of the laissez faire policy which has characterised the 
 attitude of the South African Governments towards Native 
 education. The recommendation that Natives should be 
 taxed for school purposes was partially put into effect by the 
 passing of the Glen Grey Act in 1894, which provided local 
 self-government with local taxation for school and other 
 purposes in certain specified areas. It is in these areas that 
 Native education is most flourishing to-day. This sketch 
 brings us down to present-day regulations and practice in 
 Native schools, to which reference is made in different parts 
 of this study. In estimating the number of Native children 
 attending school in the Cape Province a serious difficulty arises 
 from the fact that both Coloured children and Natives attend 
 the Mission (or " B ") Schools, and that these are not separated 
 in the published returns. In the Aborigines' (or " C ") Schools 
 all but a negligible proportion are Native pupils. The recent 
 growth of Native education is shown in the following table : 
 
 
 B schools. 
 
 C schools. 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Enrol- 
 
 Attend- 
 
 No. of 
 
 Enrol- 
 
 Attend- 
 
 
 schools. 
 
 ment. 
 
 ance. 
 
 schools. 
 
 ment. 
 
 ance. 
 
 1890 
 
 442 
 
 39,859 
 
 28,388 256 
 
 14,718 
 
 ",381 
 
 1895 
 
 536 
 
 46,582 
 
 31,764 
 
 337 
 
 19,483 
 
 13,590 
 
 1900 
 
 590 
 
 50,856 
 
 36,633 
 
 547 
 
 39,028 
 
 29.615 
 
 1905 
 
 697 
 
 54.771 
 
 43,829 
 
 701 
 
 44.843 
 
 35,855 
 
 1910 
 
 716 
 
 5i,7oi 
 
 42,313 
 
 846 
 
 51,850 
 
 42,826 
 
 1915 
 
 825 
 
 6 4.794 
 
 53,5i8 
 
 990 
 
 68,169 
 
 57,954 
 
 Section 2. The History of Native Education in Natal 1 
 
 Up till the year 1848 there is little to record regarding 
 Native education in Natal. Politically Natal was part of 
 
 1 This sketch of the history of Native education has been compiled 
 by the present writer from the official records in the library of the 
 Provincial Council of Natal.
 
 54 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 the Cape, but the constant intertribal wars and the frequent 
 raids by Zulu kings prevented anything like a general system 
 of education. 1 The few missionaries who were at work 
 among the Natives of Natal maintained small and struggling 
 schools, but these were few in number and unimportant in 
 result. At the outset we must notice a difference between 
 the treatment of Natives in Natal and their treatment in 
 the Cape. In the Cape, as we have already seen, it was a 
 definite part of Sir George Grey's policy to break up the 
 tribal organisation. In Natal, on the other hand, no such 
 attempts have been made. In the Letters Patent of 1848 
 by which Natal became a separate colony it was laid down 
 that there should be no interference with Native law and 
 custom except in so far as these were repugnant to the prin- 
 ciples of humanity. In the Cape the restricting clause was 
 that Native law and custom should not be repugnant to the 
 law of England. The difference is important. The policy 
 in Natal has always been to preserve as far as possible the 
 racial and tribal characteristics of the Native. Hence we 
 have the authority of the Native chiefs maintained (at least 
 in theory), a separate code of Native law, separate schools 
 for Natives, and the retention in the schools of the Native 
 language. 
 
 In the Letters Patent of 1848 it was expressly enacted that 
 the sum of not less than 5000 raised from the general revenue 
 of the Colony was to be expended for the benefit of the 
 Natives. 2 A portion of this money was spent in grants to 
 the Mission Schools at work among the Natives, but there was 
 no Government control of the teaching in these schools. In 
 1852 a Commission was appointed " to inquire into the past 
 and present state of the Kafirs in the District of Natal " and 
 " to report as to their future government." The report of 
 the Commission advocates a measure of Native education 
 
 1 Indeed, the country was so troubled that in 1846 the British 
 Government seriously considered whether or not Natal should be 
 retained as a British Colony. The determining factor was the obliga- 
 tion of the British not to abandon the Native population, which had 
 taken refuge in Natal from the fierce Zulu tribes (see Sir Bulwer Lytton's 
 despatch, dated August 19, 1858). 
 
 1 As Sir Bulwer Lytton pointed out in his despatch, the tax col- 
 lected from the Natives averaged annually from ^10,000 to 12,000.
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 55 
 
 which we have not achieved even to-day. Industrial schools 
 were to be established in every village ; the attendance at 
 school for three years of Nat'/es between seven and twelve 
 years of age was to be compulsory in the Native locations 
 and later " on private occupied farms or elsewhere " ; the 
 English and Dutch languages were to be taught ; infant 
 schools were to be encouraged ; religious education was im- 
 perative, but should be left in the hands of the Christian 
 Churches. The Commission's report was fruitless as far as 
 Native education was concerned. 
 
 In 1854 Sir George Grey was appointed Governor of the 
 Cape of Good Hope. During his tenure of office he came 
 into contact with Bishop Colenso, who had been made first 
 Bishop of Natal in 1853, and was already upholding the cause 
 of the Natives against what he held to be European aggres- 
 sion. 1 These two powerful men influenced the Natal Legis- 
 lature, which, as we have already seen, was thinking in the 
 same direction, and in 1856 the first legislation regarding 
 Native education was passed by the Legislative Council and 
 approved by the Secretary for the Colonies. This " ordinance 
 for promoting the education of Coloured youth in the District 
 of Natal " made it permissible for the Government of Natal 
 both to establish and maintain schools for the education of 
 Natives (a scheme which, with the exception of the ill-starred 
 Industrial School at Zwartkop, to which further reference will 
 be made, has not yet been put into operation), and to con- 
 tribute to the support of Native schools otherwise established. 
 The schools were to be placed under the superintendence and 
 management of the missionaries, but were to be inspected and 
 reported upon by a Government inspector of schools. The 
 whole amount of the money contributed was not to exceed 
 one-fifteenth part of the estimated revenue of the District for 
 the year. The subjects of instruction were to be (a) religious 
 education, (b) industrial training, and (c) instruction in the 
 English language. 
 
 Although this ordinance passed the Legislative Council and 
 received the confirmation of the BritishGovernment.it remained 
 inoperative, partly because of the opposition of a certain 
 
 1 It is estimated that the population of Natal at this time con- 
 sisted of 10,000 Europeans and 150,000 Natives.
 
 56 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 section of the colonists, 1 and partly because it was not man- 
 datory on the Lieutenant-Go vernor to put it into operation. 
 
 Although the number of Native schools steadily increased 
 and the Government expenditure in grants in aid of schools 
 established and conducted by missionary agencies grew con- 
 siderably greater, no further legislative action appears to have 
 been taken until 1884, when the Council of Education, which 
 since 1877 had been entrusted with the administration of educa- 
 tion, 2 was given the following powers and duties : 3 
 
 (a) Its membership was increased from ten to twelve by the 
 
 addition of two persons acquainted with the Zulu 
 language and Native habits and customs and taking 
 an interest in Native education. 4 
 
 (b) It was empowered to appoint teachers in the Govern- 
 
 ment Native schools which were contemplated, and to 
 pay grants to the existing Mission Schools provided 
 they conformed to the syllabus, rules, and regulations 
 of the Council. 
 
 (c) The Natal Native Trust, the body which controlled the 
 . Native Reserves, was empowered to alienate and make 
 
 grants of land to the Council for the purposes of Native 
 education. 
 
 (d) The Council was authorised to appoint an Inspector of 
 
 Native Schools to carry out its instructions regarding 
 Native education. 
 
 (e) The Council was required to present to the Legislative 
 
 Council an annual report, which was to include the 
 report of the Inspector of Native Schools and a financial 
 statement. 
 
 (/) The financial provision for Native education was to be 
 made from the 5000 reserved annually under the 
 charter for Native purposes, and from such further 
 sums as might be voted from time to time by the 
 Legislature. 
 
 1 A strong protest was sent forward by a section of the community 
 in Durban who, while sympathising with the purpose of the bill, objected 
 to the absence of Government control. 
 
 * Law No. 15 of 1877. Law No. i of 1884. 
 
 4 The clause requiring an acquaintance with the Native language 
 was withdrawn by Law No. 17 of 1884.
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 57 
 
 (g) The syllabus of instruction was to consist of : 
 (i.) Reading and writing in the English language, 
 (ii.) Reading and writing in the Zulu language, 
 (iii.) Arithmetic, up to and including the " rule of three." 
 (iv.) The elements of industrial training. 1 
 (v.) Sewing and plain needlework in girls' schools, 
 (vi.) Instructions in the principles of morality " in a manner 
 
 adapted to their capabilities." 
 (h) The age limit for pupils was fixed at from six to fifteen. 
 
 The passing of this Act and the subsequent appointment in 
 April 1885 of Mr Fred B. Fynney as Inspector of Native Educa- 
 tion gave a strong impetus to Native education. A block of 
 land fifty-two acres in extent was set aside in the Zwartkop 
 Native location near Pietermaritzburg for the purpose of 
 establishing a Government Native Industrial School. A short 
 account of this ill-fated school will be given later. 
 
 In 1885, according to Mr Fynney's report, there were seventy 
 Native schools in receipt of Government grants-in-aid. The 
 total enrolment of these schools was 3817 pupils, 2 of whom 
 the following particulars are given : 
 
 Number of pupils receiving instruction in English 
 Do. do. receiving instruction in Zulu only . 
 Do. do. able to read English words of two or 
 
 more syllables . . . . 791 
 Do. do. able to write a fair small hand . 857 
 Do. do. able to work sums up to simple sub- 
 traction only .... 537 
 Do. do. able to work sums up to simple 
 
 division only . . . . 354 
 Do. do. able to work sums up to compound 
 
 (money) rules only . . . 231 
 Do. do. able to work sums in the higher rules 142 
 Do. do. doing plain sewing .... 1016 
 
 1 In 1885 the clause requiring instruction in the elements of 
 industrial training was relaxed to suit schools where this instruction 
 could not be given, but at the same time the age limit was extended 
 from fifteen to seventeen in the case of pupils attending schools where 
 such instruction was given (Law No. 13 of 1885). 
 
 * Boys, 978 under twelve years of age : 1 159 over twelve years of age. 
 Girls, 987 under twelve years of age : 693 over twelve years of age.
 
 58 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Details are also given of the number of pupils receiving 
 instruction in other subjects, which include singing, drill, 
 drawing, gymnastics, Bible history, English history, 
 geography, grammar, translation, physics, physiology, 
 chemistry, elementary Latin, and French. The industrial 
 subjects taught include farming, housework, carpentry, garden- 
 ing. An interesting feature in this and subsequent reports 
 details the " means taken to encourage conformity with 
 European habits." These range from such profound measures 
 as " constant reflection upon the infallible truth that Europe, 
 though the smallest of the four quarters of the globe, is the 
 greatest in spiritual, scientific, and military power " l to such 
 matter-of-fact methods as " a daily bath and a weekly washing 
 of clothes." 2 The subjects prescribed are reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, geography, and grammar. Mr Fynney bears testimony to 
 the desire of the Natives for education, and refers in eulogistic 
 terms to the civilising influence of missions. He deplores the 
 lack of properly trained teachers, and doubts the advisability 
 of placing Native teachers in sole charge of schools. " When 
 under direct supervision these teachers appear to do very well, 
 and the scholars have shown remarkable progress ; but when 
 left entirely to themselves, there has appeared to be a want of 
 energy, system, and discipline," He is emphatic on the need 
 for industrial training, and adds : " No training can be regarded 
 as industrial which does not provide for the teaching of trades 
 or agriculture or some productive labour that would enable the 
 student to earn a living." 
 
 In 1886, teachers' examinations of the first, second, and 
 third class were established. The syllabus consisted of the 
 subjects of the Native school syllabus, and in addition manual 
 work, and an ambitious course in science. 3 
 
 The steady advance in the standards of education is indicated 
 by the following table of passes in the inspector's examina- 
 tions : 
 
 1 St John's School, Ladysmith. 
 
 * Adams' Training College, Amanzimtoti. 
 
 * The Science syllabus for the second class certificate required 
 " some knowledge of one or more of the following subjects Chemistry, 
 geology (elementary), physiology, agriculture"; and for the first 
 class, " Astronomy, more advanced physiology, political economy, 
 chemistry, geology " (one or more of the above subjects).
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 
 
 59 
 
 
 1886. 
 
 1887. 
 
 l8gi. 
 
 1892. 
 
 Standard VII. 
 
 B % 
 
 # B 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 
 V. 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 88 
 
 87 
 
 IV. 
 
 12 
 
 4i 
 
 146 
 
 184 
 
 III. 
 
 8? 
 
 121 
 
 241 
 
 283 
 
 II. 
 
 158 
 
 192 
 
 43i 
 
 446 
 
 I. 
 
 377 
 
 332 
 
 470 
 
 443 
 
 In 1887, on the representation of those in charge of Native 
 schools, the Council of Education amended the standards in 
 Native schools, " in order to assimilate them more closely with 
 those in use in European schools," and the syllabuses of the 
 two types of schools became identical. 1 The formal nature of 
 the work from which our Native schools still suffer is indicated 
 by the following excerpts from the syllabus in English : 
 
 Standard I. : Read from Standard I. Reading Book, English 
 and Zulu. Translate words and know their meaning. 
 
 Standard IV. : Read from Standard IV. Reading Book or 
 History of England, and explain words and allusions. Parse 
 simple sentences and illustrate the use of the parts of speech. 
 Detailed, physical, and political geography. 
 
 Standard VI. : Read from Standard VI. Reading Book or some 
 standard author. Recite fifty lines from some standard author 
 approved by the inspector, and explain words and allusions. 
 Prefixes, affixes, and Latin roots. More detailed, physical, and 
 political geography. Manufacture and commerce. Circum- 
 stances which determine climate. 
 
 In 1888 the Council of Education was authorised to classify 
 all schools receiving Government grants-in-aid into three 
 classes, as follows : 
 
 Class i schools, which were to receive the highest rates of 
 grant, were industrial schools at which regular instruction was 
 given in trades or industries. 
 
 Class 2 schools were those in which manual or field labour 
 was regularly performed by the scholars. 
 
 1 Except that the recitation of English poetry is not required 
 in Standards I. to V. of the Native schools.
 
 6O THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Class 3 schools were those which offered no instruction in 
 industrial or manual work. 
 
 This evidence of the Government's belief in industrial educa- 
 tion is also shown in the establishment in 1887 of a Government 
 Industrial School in the Zwartkop location. This school, 
 which was erected at a cost of 612, 173. 3d., was opened with 
 a staff of three teachers, viz. a superintendent, an industrial 
 teacher, and a Native teacher. The initial enrolment was 13, 
 which increased to 19 before the end of the year. Mr Fynney 
 speaks well of the academic performances of the pupils at the 
 annual examination. On the industrial side he reports the 
 making of 40,000 bricks, the erection of a new workshop by 
 the pupils, the cultivation of between 9 and 12 acres of land, 
 and the planting of over 1000 trees. Mr Fynney states that 
 the young Natives living in the neighbourhood do not take 
 advantage of the school, but he is very optimistic as to the 
 future. Soon doubts began to appear as to the success of the 
 institution. At one time the whole of the boarders absconded 
 owing to some disagreement with the management ; the cost of 
 the institution (22, i8s. 6d. per pupil per annum) began to 
 alarm the Government, and the absence of local support from 
 the Native people continued. Finally, in 1892 the institution 
 was closed. Mr Robert Plant, who on the death of Mr Fynney 
 had become Inspector of Native Education, commenting on the 
 failure, says : " From the first it was seriously handicapped by 
 its unfortunate position, and that it has died so soon will 
 astonish no one who is acquainted with the facts of the case. 
 It has cost a considerable amount as an experiment, but may 
 have a distinct value as a lesson." l The lessons to be learnt 
 from this costly failure would appear to be : (a) the necessity 
 for close co-operation with the Mission Societies in all educa- 
 tional work connected with Natives ; (b) the importance of 
 inducing the support of the powerful Native chiefs in such 
 enterprises ; z (c) the need to work up gradually to such a 
 
 1 Report of Inspector of Native Education, June 1892. 
 
 1 " When I urged them (the Natives) to send their children, the 
 reply I got was, ' Our chiefs are the mouthpiece of the Government 
 to us ; we have not been told by them to send the children, and until 
 we are told we shall not send them.' " (Extract from the Report of the 
 Inspector of Native Education, 1889.)
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 6l 
 
 comparatively advanced scheme as an industrial school for 
 Natives ; and (d) the economy and efficiency of making use 
 of the voluntary efforts of missionaries. Since the failure of 
 this undertaking no further attempts have been made in Natal 
 to conduct a Government-managed institution, but a Govern- 
 ment school for Natives will be opened in Durban in 1917, the 
 progress of which will be watched with interest. The praise- 
 worthy, but not altogether judicious, attempts of the Council 
 of Education to foster industrial education were checked in 
 1894, when a popular agitation against the industrial education 
 of the Natives, coinciding with a general election, led to a 
 modification of the regulations regarding grants in aid of in- 
 dustrial work. The decision of the Government is stated in 
 the Report of the Superintendent of Education for 1895 : " No 
 Native school now receives Government aid if the products of 
 the industrial work done in that school are allowed to be sold 
 or disposed of in such a manner as to compete with general 
 trade, or if the school be in any way responsible for or asso- 
 ciated with the printing and publishing of any Native news- 
 paper. The object of the Government in making grants to the 
 Native Mission Schools is to assist the advancement of simple 
 rudimentary education among the Native population, and to 
 accustom the Natives to such regular habits of industry as 
 may be best calculated to promote their contentment and 
 happiness for the future." This represents the position with 
 regard to trade work in the Natal Native schools to-day. 
 
 In June 1894, on the establishment of responsible govern- 
 ment, the Council of Education ceased to exist, and the control 
 of education passed to the Minister of Education. This 
 brought about a change in the administration of Native educa- 
 tion. The Inspector of Native Education, who had hitherto 
 reported to the Council, now became a subordinate officer under 
 the Superintendent of Education, although he was allowed 
 wide discretion in his work. 
 
 An important change in the method of payment of grants-in- 
 aid was made at the same time. The system of an annual 
 fixed grant to the schools, irrespective of their size, was 
 abandoned in favour of a per capita grant on the quarterly 
 average attendance. This altered the amounts which the 
 several schools were receiving, and adjusted many inequalities.
 
 62 
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The unsuitable syllabus of 1887 continued in operation until 
 1893, with slight and unimportant modifications in 1889. 
 When the three higher standards, VI. to VIII., were eliminated, 
 a further modification took place in 1904, and in 1910 the 
 syllabus assumed its present form. 
 
 The growth of Native education in Natal is shown by the 
 following table, which refers to Government-aided schools only. 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Government 
 
 Native 
 
 Vpar 
 
 No. of 
 
 Average 
 
 attendance 
 
 grant to 
 
 contribu- 
 
 X ecu. 
 
 schools. 
 
 enrolment. 
 
 in per 
 
 nearest 
 
 tion in 
 
 
 
 
 cents. 
 
 pound. 
 
 fees, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1877 
 
 42 
 
 2,390* 
 
 63t 
 
 L938 
 
 174 
 
 1887 
 
 54 
 
 2,943* 
 
 6 7 t 
 
 2,286 
 
 489 
 
 i8 97 
 
 157 
 
 8,542* 
 
 75t 
 
 4.853 
 
 711 
 
 1907 
 
 170 
 
 12,246* 
 
 67t 
 
 7,319 
 
 2248 
 
 1908 
 
 168 
 
 14,056* 
 
 66f 
 
 7.594 
 
 2885 
 
 1909 
 
 178 
 
 12,484 
 
 80 
 
 8,914 
 
 2774 
 
 1910 
 
 175 
 
 13.452 
 
 82 
 
 10,431 
 
 3293 
 
 1911 
 
 198 
 
 15,186 
 
 87 
 
 ".773 
 
 3505 
 
 1912 
 
 231 
 
 17.852 
 
 88 
 
 14,170 
 
 5308 
 
 1913 
 
 267 
 
 20,098 
 
 88 
 
 17,304 
 
 4729 
 
 1914 
 
 296 
 
 21,595 
 
 89 
 
 21,574 
 
 6138 
 
 1915 
 
 302 
 
 21,700 
 
 89 
 
 21,587 
 
 6941 
 
 * Total enrolment. 
 
 f Calculated on total enrolment. 
 
 Section 3. The History of Native Education 
 in the Transvaal 
 
 Educational work among Natives in the Transvaal dates 
 from 1857, when the first mission, the Hermannsburg Evan- 
 gelical Lutheran Society, began work. No financial support or 
 official recognition was given to the schools by the Republican 
 Government. After the Boer War the Government made a 
 survey of the schools conducted by the various religious bodies, 
 and instituted a scheme for the payment of grants-in-aid. A 
 great number of schools were unable to meet the conditions 
 and continued to operate as unaided institutions. Thus in 
 1906 there were 177 unaided schools with an enrolment of
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 63 
 
 8492 pupils, in addition to the 197 aided schools with their 
 enrolment of 11,730 pupils. Of the work of these schools it 
 has been said: " The official reports and the evidence given 
 before the Native Affairs Commission show that most of the 
 Native schools are in a state of deplorable inefficiency. They 
 are generally held in church buildings ill adapted for educa- 
 tional purposes. In many cases seats and desks have not 
 been provided, ' squatting room ' for the children having been 
 thought sufficient. The education given is often of an ex- 
 tremely rudimentary kind. In 114 schools inspected during 
 1904 no less than 85-5 per cent, of the children in attendance 
 were in the sub-standards, and only 1-5 per cent, had passed 
 or reached Standard III. In 1905-1906 only 65 out of the 
 305 Native teachers held certificates ; and the unsatisfactory 
 condition of these schools is largely due to the inefficiency of 
 the teaching staffs. Many teachers are incapable of giving 
 instruction beyond Standard I., and comparatively few are 
 competent to bring the pupils up to Standard III." 1 
 
 The highest standard to which pupils could proceed was 
 Standard III., and the syllabus of instruction was but an 
 abbreviation of the syllabus in use in European schools. A 
 special officer to inspect and supervise Native schools was 
 appointed ; but in 1909 this post was abolished, as it was found 
 that no one man could adequately supervise the numerous 
 Native schools in so large an area as the Transvaal, and the 
 inspection of the schools was transferred to the officers who 
 inspect the European schools. 
 
 The Education Law of the Transvaal empowers the Depart- 
 ment to establish as well as to aid Native schools, but up to 
 the present there is only one Government school for Natives, 
 that in the Klipspruit location. 
 
 The whole of the regulations governing Native education 
 have recently been revised by the Council of Education, and 
 new syllabuses drawn up. This new code is to come into 
 operation in 1916, provided that the Legislature grants the 
 necessary funds. 2 The chief features of the new code are : 
 
 1 The South African Natives, 1906, pp. 169, 170. 
 
 2 Up to the present (Feb. 1917) the legislature has not given the 
 financial assistance recommended, but many of the schools and institu- 
 tions are making an effort to carry out the syllabus.
 
 64 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (1) A very liberal system of grants-in-aid to missionary- 
 
 conducted schools and institutions. 
 
 (2) The division of school work into " training " and " in- 
 
 struction," the latter to comprise the usual subjects 
 taught in primary schools, and the former to include 
 " religious, moral, physical, and industrial training 
 through appropriate exercises and activities." At 
 least one-half of the school time is to be devoted to 
 this side of education. The object of the distinction is 
 obviously to emphasise the permanent habit-forming 
 side of education, but it is nevertheless unfortunate, 
 as it will tend to set up a distinction, which should not 
 exist, since all subjects of instruction should possess 
 a definite and discernible training value if properly 
 taught. No subject of instruction which does not 
 show itself in action is worth inclusion in a syllabus. 
 
 (3) The non-requirement of school fees as a condition of 
 
 Government support. 
 
 (4) The institution of a two-years' preparatory course, and 
 
 of a seventh-year or teacher preparatory course. 
 
 The educational reforms proposed are thus summarised in 
 the report : " The Native is to have an extra year's schooling 
 where the conditions warrant it ; his own language is to be 
 recognised as the original vehicle of instruction ; such of the 
 elements of literary subjects as he can assimilate and take 
 profit from are to be taught, while the whole fabric is to rest 
 on a liberal scheme of training aimed at developing a healthy, 
 moral, and industrious member of the community. To achieve 
 these aims, a liberal measure of assistance must be forthcoming 
 from the Government, and.fwhat is equally if not more necessary, 
 a liberal readjustment of views on the part of teachers and 
 superintendents responsible for Native education, so that the 
 relation between training and instruction as conceived in the 
 revised curricula may be a living reality in the schools." 
 The whole report represents a liberal attitude towards Native 
 education expressed in sound educational theory, and if put 
 into operation will do much to set Native education on the 
 right fines. 
 
 The following table indicates the enrolment and attendance
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 63 
 
 in Government-aided schools, and expenditure on Native 
 education for the past ten years : 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of 
 schools. 
 
 Average 
 enrol- 
 ment. 
 
 Average 
 attend- 
 ance. 
 
 Govern- 
 ment 
 grant 
 ( only). 
 
 1906-7 
 
 197 
 
 "-730 
 
 9,896 
 
 7,942 
 
 1907-8 
 
 221 
 
 12,091 
 
 io,332 
 
 9-152 
 
 1908-9 
 
 243 
 
 11,664 
 
 9,922 
 
 10,408 
 
 1909-10 
 
 230 
 
 ",73 
 
 9,795 
 
 10,979 
 
 June igio-Dec. 1911 
 
 236 
 
 12,839 
 
 10,738 
 
 19,107 * 
 
 1912 
 
 251 
 
 14.743 
 
 12,109 
 
 I3,96i 
 
 1913 
 
 253 
 
 15.179 
 
 12,670 
 
 17,074 
 
 1914 
 
 260 
 
 15,138 
 
 12,677 f 
 
 14,099 t 
 
 1915 
 
 267 
 
 15,428 
 
 12,748 
 
 16,168 
 
 * Expenditure for eighteen months. 
 
 t Exceptionally severe malaria in northern districts. 
 
 J Grants curtailed owing to financial conditions. 
 
 Section 4. History of Native Education in the 
 Orange Free State 
 
 Although missionary societies have been at work in the 
 Orange Free State since 1835, it was n t until 1878 that the 
 Government of the Republic recognised their educational efforts 
 by giving a grant of 45 per annum to the schools conducted 
 by the Dutch Reformed Church at Witzie's Hoek. This grant 
 was increased to 145 in 1893. In 1890, grants of 50 and 30 
 per annum were made to the school at Moroko and Bethany 
 respectively, and these aided schools were placed under the 
 supervision of the Education Department. No syllabus or 
 course of study appears to have been drawn up by the Depart- 
 ment of Education. 
 
 Since the late war a considerable advance in Native educa- 
 tion has been made. A Government Industrial School for 
 Native girls has been established at Moroko, and grants in aid 
 of school work have been paid to the various mission societies 
 operating in the Orange Free State. These grants have been 
 paid in lump sums on a capitation basis on the returns sent in
 
 66 
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 by the missionaries. The schools are not inspected, and no 
 syllabus is prescribed, although, as a matter of fact, most of the 
 Native schools work on the excellent permissive code drawn 
 up by the Department in 1912, which, however, failed to 
 receive the endorsement of the Orange Free State Provincial 
 Government. 
 
 The following figures will indicate the growth of Native 
 education in the Orange Free State : l 
 
 Year. 
 
 Enrolment. 
 
 Government 
 expenditure. 
 
 1903 
 
 
 2000 
 
 1904 
 
 
 1500 
 
 1905 
 1906 
 
 ; 
 
 1500 
 1700 
 
 1907 
 1908 
 
 
 2000 
 2000 
 
 1909 
 1910 
 
 9,281 
 
 2000 
 
 2OOO 
 
 1911 
 
 9,945 
 
 4000 
 
 1912 
 
 10,444 
 
 4000 
 
 1913 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 10,898 
 11,864 
 12,056 
 
 4000 
 4000 
 4000 
 
 Section 5. History of Native Education in 
 
 Basutoland 2 
 
 The history of Native education in Basutoland is largely the 
 history of the Paris Evangelical Mission Society, although 
 valuable educational work has also been done by the Roman 
 Catholic and English Church Missions. From the time of the 
 first settlement of the Paris missionaries at Morija in 1833 until 
 the present day, the missionaries of this society have exercised a 
 great influence on the political and social history of the Basutos. 
 Moshesh, the able and far-sighted chief of the Basutos, 
 
 1 Owing to the records of the Department having been destroyed by 
 fire, no information regarding the enrolment prior to 1911 is available. 
 
 2 This short sketch of education in Basutoland has been compiled 
 form the Livre (for de la Mission de Lessouto, the official history of the 
 Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, and from Mr Sargant's reports.
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 67 
 
 welcomed the missionaries as a force who would not only 
 instruct his people, but would increase his own power in the 
 troubled and rebellious districts around Morija. He made use 
 of them as counsellors and as intermediaries in his discussions 
 and disputes with the Colonial Governments. In return for 
 these services he gave them his protection and encouraged 
 them in their work, although he himself never embraced the 
 Christian faith. A Native school was opened at Morija shortly 
 after the coming of the missionaries, but in the troubled times 
 of tribal warfare little progress was made. By 1838 three other 
 stations had been established at which elementary schools were 
 doubtless conducted. At one of these, Beersheba, there were 
 over 300 pupils by 1842. 
 
 In 1846 the need for catechists and Native preachers became 
 pressing, and a secondary school or seminary for the training 
 of Native ministers was founded. 
 
 In the troublesome years from 1848 to 1868 the work of the 
 Mission was curtailed by panic withdrawals of support from 
 Paris, and by the quarrels of Moshesh with the British and 
 the Boers. In 1865 a " central school " was established at 
 Morija for the training of catechists. In 1871 Basutoland came 
 under British control, and was placed for administrative pur- 
 poses under the Cape of Good Hope. In that year the number 
 of pupils enrolled in the several schools was 1876, as against 
 726 in 1864. 
 
 In 1868 the Mission established a secondary school for boys 
 at Morija, which in 1875 became a training school for teachers 
 to supply the new requirements of the Cape Education Depart- 
 ment. This school has become the chief training centre for 
 Basutoland. In 1873 a preparatory school for the training 
 school was established, but by reason of the progress made 
 by the ordinary primary schools this institution became un- 
 necessary, and was converted into the Bible school in 1880. 
 
 In 1878 an industrial school was established by the Mission 
 at Leloaleng, where a site and buildings were given by the 
 Government. In spite of its unsuitable location, this school has 
 done good work in turning out a number of fairly competent 
 carpenters and masons. 
 
 By 1880 the Mission had already eighty schools. A printing 
 press was set up at Morija, and school-books in Sesuto, as well
 
 68 
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 as religious books, were published. In 1882 a theological school 
 was established. 
 
 In 1884 Basutoland came under the direct administration of 
 the English Government. The grants in aid of Native educa- 
 tion which had been paid by the Cape Government were with- 
 drawn, but in 1885, when the new Government was settled 
 and the taxes were paid, the grants were resumed. The 
 number of pupils steadily increased from 2180 in 1884 to 4560 
 in 1888, and 7869 in 1892. 
 
 In 1904 Mr E. B. Sargant was sent by the High Commissioner, 
 Lord Selborne, to report on education in Basutoland. As a 
 result of Mr Sargant 's report, reforms and changes were intro- 
 duced into the system, the chief of which were : 
 
 (a) The establishment of an Education Department with the 
 
 necessary staff to administer education through the 
 three missionary societies. 
 
 (b) The constitution of a Central Advisory Board, consisting of 
 
 officials and representatives from the mission societies. 
 
 (c) The laying of emphasis on instruction in and through 
 
 the medium of the vernacular, and a strong (but not 
 entirely successful) attempt to foster Native arts and 
 crafts. 
 
 (d) A regrading of schools, and the delimitation of the nature 
 
 of the work to be attempted in each type of school. 
 
 The present system of education is obtained in other parts 
 of this study. In the following table the growth of Native 
 education in Basutoland is indicated : 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 attendance. 
 
 Amount 
 expended. 
 
 1908 
 
 9.279 
 
 p 
 
 1909 
 
 9,498 
 
 ? 
 
 1910 
 
 11,651 
 
 p 
 
 1911 
 
 13,417 
 
 9,804 
 
 
 
 (9 months only). 
 
 1912 
 
 15,271 
 
 J 4,657 
 
 I9U 
 
 17,070 
 
 16,771 
 
 1914 
 
 17-643 
 
 i8,544
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 69 
 
 Section 6. The General Situation of Native Education 
 at the Present Time 
 
 In the table on the following page a conspectus of the general 
 position of Native education in the year 1912 is given. The 
 year 1912 is chosen because that is the latest year for which 
 complete figures are available. The fact that in the Cape 
 Province Native children are not separated from other Coloured 
 children makes a satisfactory comparison of the situation in 
 the several provinces very difficult, but it has been possible 
 to obtain separate figures for the Transkeian Territories, where 
 the " Coloured " children are almost entirely Natives. The 
 way in which the table was derived is as follows : 
 
 (i.) Column i gives the four provinces of the Union and 
 Basutoland. It was felt that the Basutoland figures 
 should be included, as reference is frequently made 
 in this study to educational affairs in that country. 
 The figures for Basutoland are for the year 1913- 
 1914. 
 
 (ii.) Column 2 gives the Native population as determined by 
 the last census. 
 
 (iii.) In column 3 the estimated number of Natives between 
 the ages of seven and eighteen is given. 
 
 (iv.) Column 4 shows the number of children in average 
 
 attendance in 1912. 
 
 (v.) The figures in column 5 were obtained by finding what 
 percentage of the children who might be expected, 
 by reason of their age, to be at school, were actually 
 enrolled. 1 
 
 (vi.) Column 6 shows the anount of money expended on Native 
 education in each province. 
 
 1 In response to an inquiry as to the best method of calculating 
 the number of Native children of school age, Mr Joseph A. Hill, in 
 charge of the Division of Revision and Results of the United States 
 Bureau of the Census, writes: " I know of no way in which any very 
 exact or reliable computation can be made, but I should think that 
 the percentage of children from seven to eighteen years of age in the 
 total Negro population of the United States would furnish a fairly good 
 basis for an estimate. This percentage is 25-9, representing a little 
 over one-fourth of the total Negro population."
 
 70 
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 TABLE No. 2 
 
 A CONSPECTUS OF THE PRESENT STATE OF NATIVE EDUCATION IN 
 THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA AND BASUTOLAND, SHOWING THE 
 NUMBER OF NATIVE CHILDREN, THE AMOUNT OF THE GOVERN- 
 MENT GRANTS-IN-AID, AND THE AMOUNTS CONTRIBUTED BY THE 
 NATIVES IN DIRECT TAXATION FOR THE YEAR 1912 
 
 (O 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) 
 
 (5) 
 
 (6) 
 
 (7) 
 
 8) 
 
 (9) 
 
 (10) 
 
 Province. 
 
 ve population, 
 ensus 1911. 
 
 "c 
 S 
 
 age enrohnent, 
 1912. 
 
 ^ 
 
 penditure on 
 e schools, 1912. 
 
 diture per caput. 
 
 revenue derived 
 Native sources, 
 1912. 
 
 it age of revenue 
 ed from Native 
 es expended on 
 ive education. 
 
 iditure per caput 
 mber of persons 
 school age. 
 
 
 '-^ 
 
 ^ Q (IX 
 
 s 
 
 CH Q P 
 
 . 
 
 a 
 
 o _. 
 
 53 * o *-> 
 
 " 53 n 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 1 
 
 I ^ 
 
 
 
 5? 
 
 D 
 & 
 
 W 
 
 11 
 
 5* 
 
 |IP 
 
 fg 
 
 Cape, in- 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 only. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 only. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 eluding \ 
 Terri- j 
 
 1,982,588* 
 
 495,647* 
 
 I20,2I9t 
 
 24-9 
 
 83,320 
 
 13 10 
 
 304,073 
 
 27-4 
 
 3 4 
 
 tones J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cape 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trans- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 keian 
 
 889,946 
 
 222,261 
 
 59,008$ 
 
 26-5 
 
 . . 
 
 
 213,467 
 
 
 
 Terri- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tories. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Natal 
 
 953,389 
 
 238,347 
 
 17,852 
 
 7'5 
 
 14,170 
 
 15 10 
 
 274,447 
 
 5-2 
 
 I 2 
 
 Trans- 
 vaal J 
 
 1,219,845 
 
 304,961 
 
 14,743 
 
 4-8 
 
 13,961 
 
 18 ii 
 
 453,880 
 
 3-0 
 
 O II 
 
 Orange -i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Free I 
 State J 
 
 325,824 
 
 81,456 
 
 io,444 
 
 12-8 
 
 4,000 
 
 7 8 
 
 100,205 
 
 3'9 
 
 I O 
 
 Basuto- ) 
 land f 
 
 404,507 
 
 101,127 
 
 17,070] 
 
 16-8 
 
 16,771 
 
 19 8 
 
 161,41711 
 
 10-4 
 
 3 4 
 
 * Including Coloured. 
 
 t On roll ist September, including Coloured. 
 
 j On roll ist September. 
 
 On roll second half-year. 
 
 II Average attendance. 
 
 f The total revenue, including that from European sources.
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 71 
 
 (vii.) The per caput expenditure in column 7 is obtained by 
 
 dividing the figures in column 6 by the figures in 
 
 column 4. 
 (viii.) The estimated amount of public revenue derived from 
 
 Native sources (column 8) was obtained from the 
 
 Report of the Department of Native Affairs for 1912. 
 (ix.) In column 9 is shown that percentage of the revenue 
 
 derived from Native sources which is expended on 
 
 the education of Native children, 
 (x.) In column 10 is shown the amount of money which each 
 
 province is allotting to the education of each Native 
 
 child of school age, whether attending school or not. 
 
 The figures are obtained by dividing the figures in 
 
 column 6 by the figures in column 3. 
 
 In connection with this table the following facts are worthy 
 of special attention : 
 
 1. The comparatively liberal attitude of the Cape Province 
 towards Native education. 
 
 2. That part of South Africa in which there is the highest 
 percentage of children of school age actually attending school 
 is the Transkei, where a form of self-government with local 
 taxation for education obtains. 
 
 3. The highest per caput expenditure on education is in 
 Basutoland, where the Native people tax themselves for 
 education. 
 
 Section 7. Statistics of Native Education, 1912 
 
 In the following table are shown the nature and number 
 of educational institutions for Natives, their enrolment, and 
 the number and percentage of pupils in each standard of the 
 elementary schools. The figures are for 1912, the latest year 
 for which such details are available. The most important 
 developments since that date have been the establishment 
 of the South African Native College in the Cape Province, 
 and the increase to six of the number of training institutions 
 in Natal.
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 TABLE No. 3 
 
 SHOWING NUMBER OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS FOR NATIVES IN 
 1912, THEIR AVERAGE ENROLMENT, AND THE PERCENTAGE OF 
 PUPILS IN EACH STANDARD OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.* 
 
 
 Cape. 
 
 1 
 Natal. 
 
 Trans- 
 vaal. 
 
 Orange 
 Free 
 State. 
 
 Basuto- 
 land. 
 
 Colleges 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Training institutions . 
 Industrial schools and 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 } 
 
 departments . 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 ) 
 
 High schools 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Elementary schools . 
 
 i,68of 
 
 232 
 
 251 
 
 121 
 
 236 
 
 Pupils in training in- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stitutions 
 
 1,203 
 
 72 
 
 237 
 
 O 
 
 ) 
 
 Pupils in industrial 
 
 
 
 
 
 }6 3 i 
 
 schools . 
 
 1,034 
 
 p 
 
 27 
 
 46 
 
 ) 
 
 Pupils in high schools 
 
 56 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 Pupils in elementary 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 schools . 
 
 97,652* 
 
 18,172 
 
 14,954 
 
 10,444 
 
 20,211 
 
 
 No 
 
 Per 
 
 No. 
 
 Per 
 
 
 
 
 
 JL1*J. 
 
 cent. 
 
 
 cent. 
 
 
 
 
 Number and percent- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age below Standard I. 
 
 61,396 
 
 62-8 
 
 11,391 
 
 61-0 
 
 
 
 
 Number and percent- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age in Standard I. . 
 
 11,928 
 
 12-3 
 
 2,376 
 
 13-0 
 
 
 
 
 Number and percent- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age in Standard II. 
 
 9,950 
 
 10-3 
 
 1,619 
 
 8-8 
 
 
 
 
 Number and percent- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age in Standard III. 
 
 6,705 
 
 6-8 
 
 1,089 
 
 5-9 
 
 
 
 
 Number and percent- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age in Standard IV. 
 
 3,769 
 
 37 
 
 1,047 
 
 5'9 
 
 
 
 
 Number and percent- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age in Standard V. . 
 
 1,844 
 
 1-9 
 
 378 
 
 2'0 
 
 
 
 
 Number and percent- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age in Standard VI. 
 
 785 
 
 8 
 
 240 
 
 IT 
 
 
 
 
 Number and percent- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 age in Standard VII. 
 
 6 
 
 
 32 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 * Compiled from the 1913 Report of the Under Secretary of Education 
 for the Union and the British Government's Report on Basutoland 
 (Colonial Reports, No. 313). 
 
 t Including " Coloured " schools. 
 
 j The number of pupils, including " Coloured," present at inspectors' 
 examinations, 1912.
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 73 
 
 Section 8. The Missionaries and Their Work 
 
 It is said that a certain wise old Native chief divided 
 Europeans into two classes, viz., white men and missionaries. 
 The distinction is significant. To the thoughtful Native the 
 white man is the disintegrating force which has broken down 
 his tribal customs and sanctions, and has replaced them with 
 nothing but innumerable and vexatious governmental restric- 
 tions introduced for the benefit of the white man. On the 
 other hand, he knows the missionary to be his friend. It is the 
 missionary who educates his children, who writes his letters, 
 who cares for him in sickness and sorrow, who acts as a buffer 
 between him and the local storekeeper or Government official, 
 and whose motives are always altruistic. 
 
 It would be difficult to find a nobler record of heroism than 
 the history of missionary enterprise in South Africa. One 
 needs to know the life of the missionary from the inside, as the 
 writer has seen it, to appreciate the sacrifices made by these 
 devoted men and women. The isolation from society, the 
 absence of the amenities of life, the inevitable deprivation of 
 educational advantages for their children, the want of 
 sympathy often shown by Government officials and their 
 fellow -colonists, are but part of the price they pay for their 
 self-imposed devotion to the task of regenerating the Bantu. 
 That they have made mistakes the missionaries would be the 
 first to admit. No restrictions have been placed upon the 
 work of a missionary, with the result that a number of men, 
 unfitted by nature and training, or lack of training, have taken 
 up mission work. 1 
 
 In the early days the missionaries did not realise the necessity 
 for the stern measures which the colonists took to protect 
 themselves from Native aggression, and accused them (unjustly 
 in many cases) of inhumanity. 2 Some, in their zeal to preach 
 the gospel of liberty and the brotherhood of man, have failed 
 
 1 In the writer's opinion missionaries and teachers should be 
 required to take out a licence before being allowed to practise among 
 the Natives. It is highly desirable that the Government should know 
 who are educating the Native people. 
 
 * The rash charges made by such men as Vanderkemp and Philip 
 did much to create ill feeling between the colonists on the one hand 
 and the missionaries and Natives on the other.
 
 74 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 to realise the difference between a Native just emerging from 
 barbarism and a European with two thousand years of civilisa- 
 tion behind him. Many have prepared their charges for the 
 narrow life of the mission station rather than for that of the 
 larger world outside. They have branded as " sins " such 
 practices as smoking and snuff-taking, and the Native is per- 
 plexed when he finds decent white men ay, and sometimes 
 even clergymen indulging in these " sins." Many again have 
 thought that all that was necessary in the way of education 
 for the Native was an ability to read the Bible, and that a 
 Christian life would follow as a matter of course. Their 
 greatest mistake, however, was in breaking down all the 
 organisations and customs of the Native people without waiting 
 to discriminate between the good and the bad. Had they 
 studied Native life they would have found some good qualities 
 which would have served as a basis for the superstructure of 
 Christianity and European civilisation. 1 As it was, they often 
 destroyed what they were not able to rebuild, and left many of 
 the Natives in a worse state than they were before. 2 
 
 Reference should here be made to the harm done to mission 
 work by denominationalism. The jealousy and unedifying 
 quarrels of missionaries of different denominations have 
 brought their work into disrepute in many parts. Attempts 
 at proselytising are not unknown, and sometimes material 
 advantages are offered to Natives to induce them to join a 
 particular church. The overlapping of mission stations also 
 betrays the jealousy of the denominations. The writer knows 
 of a place where one Protestant denomination stepped over a 
 hundred miles of untouched country in order to establish a 
 station at a place where another Protestant denomination had 
 
 1 At the third Missionary Conference held at Bloemfontein in 1909 
 Dr W. C. Willoughby, then Principal of Tiger Kloof Native Institute, 
 made a strong plea for the retention of those Native beliefs and customs 
 which were not inimical to Christianity. From the discussion it would 
 appear that missionary opinion to-day is divided on the question. 
 
 * " Through the relaxation of one set of moral restraints before 
 the other set has been brought sufficiently into play there is a very 
 real danger that the Native boy will evade every sort of responsibility. 
 In this way, indeed, the name of Christian Native has too often become 
 a by-word with employers." (Sargant, address at South African 
 Society for the Advancement of Science, Johannesburg.)
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 75 
 
 been conducting a flourishing station for many years. When 
 remonstrated with by the writer, the missionary replied, " Yes, 
 but some of our people have gone to live up there." The 
 question has been brought up at Missionary Conferences, but 
 the evil still continues. 1 In connection with school work the 
 same evil exists. Complaints of poaching and even of touting 
 are often made to the Education Department in Natal. In 
 Basutoland Mr Sargant found three competing schools, all of 
 them unsatisfactory, at a single Government camp. Similar 
 trouble occurs in the private Negro schools in the United States. 
 Mr W. T. B. Williams, the field agent of the John F. Slater 
 Fund, cites fifty cases of duplication, illustrating the over- 
 lapping with a diagram ; 2 and Dr James H. Dillard, in com- 
 menting, says : 
 
 " The bare sight of the facts contained in this publica- 
 tion should be sufficient to lead to some action. What 
 stands in the way ? The main answer must be, denomi- 
 nationalism. Denominations in religion will probably 
 continue to exist as long as the thoughts and tastes of 
 
 1 The following spirited protest by Rev. E. Jacottet deserves 
 reproduction : " How can a Native Christian understand the real 
 differences of the various denominations ? How can he be even supposed 
 to understand them ? Instead of one Church, he is confronted by a 
 score of them. It means as many different organisations, all of them 
 generally modelled according to the most approved European or 
 American pattern. The Episcopalian regime, which is perhaps so 
 well suited to England, is to be saddled upon the poor Native, who 
 does not know who are Cranmer, Laud, or Pusey. The Presbyterian 
 system, which is said to have worked so great wonders in Scotland 
 and elsewhere, is imported wholesale. What do the Kafirs or Basutos 
 know about Knox or Chalmers ? Why should they be obliged to accept 
 a system which, for all we know, may be unsuited to their own minds 
 and ways of life, only because the course of history has made it prevalent 
 in Edinburgh or Geneva ? Because in the sixteenth century there 
 has arisen in Germany a great man of God called Luther, and in France 
 another great Christian called Calvin, who did not agree on some 
 minor theological points and thought a little differently about the 
 Lord's Supper, the Basutos and the Kafirs are to belong to different 
 Churches and to be kept for ever in separate ecclesiastical bodies, 
 foreign and perhaps hostile to each other. Why force upon the simple- 
 minded Native the consequences of a historical past which weighs 
 only too heavily upon the home Christian ? " (Quoted by Sargant, 
 Report on Native Education in South Africa, part iii. p. 53.) 
 
 * Duplication of Schools for Negro Youth.
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 men differ ; but when denominationalism leads to such 
 waste of money and effort as is shown in the efforts to 
 aid in providing education for the Coloured people of the 
 Southern States, it is the part of wisdom and true religion 
 to seek some basis of co-operation rather than to continue 
 in wasteful competition." 
 
 The following statistical summary will indicate the extent 
 of missionary activity in South Africa (the Union of South 
 Africa with Basutoland and Swaziland) : l 
 
 
 Protestant. 
 
 Catholic. 
 
 Missionary Work. 
 
 
 
 Missionary societies operating 
 
 52 
 
 6 
 
 European missionaries .... 
 
 1,589 
 
 2,463 
 
 Ordained Natives 
 
 401 
 
 
 Native workers (ordained and un- 
 
 
 
 ordained) 
 
 8,680 
 
 
 Principal mission stations 
 Sub-stations ...... 
 
 610 \ 
 4.79 / 
 
 258 
 
 Communicants 
 
 322,673 
 
 
 Baptised Christians .... 
 
 622,098 
 
 
 Native Christian adherents (all ages) 
 
 1,145,326 
 
 62,478 
 
 Amount of Native contributions . 
 
 137,689 
 
 
 Educational Work. 
 
 
 
 Societies 
 
 43 
 
 6 
 
 Theological and normal schools and 
 
 
 
 training classes ..... 
 
 4i 
 
 
 Boarding and high schools 
 Industrial schools and classes 
 
 43 } 
 16 J 
 
 299 
 
 Elementary schools .... 
 
 3.029 
 
 
 Enrolment, theological and normal 
 
 
 
 schools and training classes 
 
 964 
 
 
 Enrolment, boarding and high schools 
 
 5,433 } 
 
 
 Enrolment, industrial schools and 
 
 \ 
 
 17,893 
 
 classes ...... 
 
 I.I37 J 
 
 
 Enrolment, elementary schools 
 
 168,213 
 
 
 1 Compiled from the statistical tables in the World's Atlas of 
 Christian Missions, ign, the figures representing the position in the 
 years 1907, 1908, or 1909. The compiler of the statistics informs 
 the writer that the figures are now (1916) being brought up to date.
 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE AND NATIVE EDUCATION 77 
 
 The work of the missionaries has received ample, if some- 
 what tardy, recognition. The Report of the South African 
 Native Commission contains the following restrained but none 
 the less sincere remarks : 
 
 " To the Churches engaged in mission work must be 
 given the greater measure of credit for placing system- 
 atically before the Natives those higher standards of 
 belief and conduct. ... It does not seem practicable 
 to propose any measure of material support or aid to the 
 purely spiritual side of missionary enterprise, but the 
 Commission recommend full recognition of the utility 
 of the work of the Churches which have undertaken the 
 duty of evangelising the heathens." l 
 
 Mr P. A. Barnett, after criticising the attitude of the 
 Europeans towards Native education in general and mission- 
 aries in particular, says : 
 
 " In the meantime, while there are certain missionaries 
 who are not missionaries, and missionaries whose theology 
 is a two-edged and dangerous weapon, the country is 
 deeply in debt to many devoted men and lonely women 
 who live a hard life on poor rations in the wilderness, 
 trying to train the blacks to contribute their share to 
 civilisation. To help on the work so far as it is ' secular ' 
 is the privilege and duty of the Education Department." 2 
 
 Mr Maurice Evans, who regards the missionaries as one of 
 the three main forces acting upon the lives of the Native 
 people (the others being custom and unconscious white 
 influence), thus speaks of them and their work : 
 
 " Their work has gone far beyond the preaching of the 
 Gospel and such literary instruction as would enable their 
 disciples to read the Bible. They have entered into the 
 life of the people, have taught trades, encouraged thrift 
 and industry, made efforts to teach better methods of 
 agriculture, induced them to build better houses and use 
 furniture, and among the women have given instruction 
 
 1 Report, sections 288, 289. 
 
 2 Report of Superintendent of Education, Natal, 1904, p. 9.
 
 78 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 in house and laundry work and taught them some simple 
 industries. . . . The missionary stands to the Native for 
 religion, education ; for all help he may get to make his 
 life cleaner, more moral, and more in keeping with the 
 ideals of the white man at his best." 1 
 
 Lord Selborne takes up the cudgels on their behalf : 
 
 " Missionaries, like other people, make mistakes. 
 Natives have often been educated on unsound lines. But, 
 instead of the missionaries and the teachers being the 
 subjects of reprobation by their South African fellow- 
 whites, they, in fact, should be regarded as the people 
 who have saved the situation, because they are the 
 people who have taken far the most trouble, and who 
 alone have sacrificed themselves in order to ensure that 
 the education of the Native, inevitable from the moment 
 that he came into contact with the white man, should 
 contain something good." 2 
 
 Further evidence in support of missionary enterprise could 
 be adduced from studies of the Native question and from 
 official bluebooks. 3 The missionaries of South Africa are 
 working strenuously, and for the most part wisely, for the 
 uplift of the Native people. Ideals of efficiency and economy, 4 
 if not of gratitude for work nobly done, should compel us to 
 make use of this force in any efforts we may make to extend 
 or modify the system of Native education. 
 
 1 Black and White in South-East Africa, p. 97. 
 
 2 Address before the University of the Cape of Good Hope, p. n. 
 
 3 South African Native Affairs Commission Reports, section 339 ; 
 Natal Native Affairs Commission, 1906, section 85 ; Report of Select 
 Committee on Native Education, Cape, 1908; Report of Superintendent 
 of Education, Natal, 1914. Without exception the South African 
 Commissions on Native Affairs and on Native Education recommended 
 the use of missionary agencies in the uplifting of the Native people. 
 
 * " What the value of the missionary is to our work from a financial 
 point of view may be seen in the fact that while the average cost per 
 child inspected of the 2676 connected with mission work isl, 33. ad., 
 the average cost of the children at the Zwartkop [Government Indus- 
 trial] School is 22, i8s. 6d." (Minute on Native Education, Natal, 1889.)
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE 
 EDUCATION 
 
 IN the preceding chapter it has been shown that the present 
 system of Native education is almost entirely the product 
 of missionary enterprise. The different Governments have 
 supported the efforts of the missionaries by financial grants- 
 in-aid ; but these, although they have been steadily increased 
 of late years, are still insufficient for the needs of the schools, 
 and have been and are still supplemented by donations from 
 mission societies in South Africa and abroad. The erection 
 and equipment of buildings, the securing and payment of 
 teachers in a word, the responsibility for the maintenance of 
 the schools still devolves upon the missionary superinten- 
 dents. It might be expected, then, that the missionaries 
 would have a large share in the administration of Native 
 education, but as a matter of fact the control and administra- 
 tion of the system is almost entirely in the hands of the several 
 Departments of Education. 
 
 In Natal an attempt has been made to secure the co-opera- 
 tion of the missionaries by the formation of a Missionary Board 
 of Advice. In recommending the establishment of this Board, 
 the Natal Native Affairs Commission of 1906-7 said : 
 
 " Not being financially able to erect even a fair number 
 of central schools, the aid of the various missionary 
 societies is indispensable for the continuance of the work 
 of education, and, having regard to the work already 
 done and to their close and abiding connection with the 
 cause, the formation of a small Board of Advice, upon 
 which all the denominations might be directly or in- 
 directly represented, is strongly recommended. This 
 79
 
 8o THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 would be a graceful act of recognition of the services 
 rendered by these societies in the cause of education for 
 so many years, and be helpful in the settlement of general 
 principles and broad rules for the guidance of the Educa- 
 tion Department." 
 
 The Board of Advice meets with the inspectors of Native 
 schools and a representative of the Native Affairs Department 
 in a two- or three-day session every year. Criticisms of the 
 work of the Department are made, and present and future 
 policies discussed. The results of the deliberations are sub- 
 mitted to the Superintendent of Education. 
 
 The scheme has commended itself to the missionaries in 
 Natal, and the Missionary Boards in the other provinces are 
 urging the establishment of similar Boards. 1 
 
 There is a growing opinion in South Africa that such an 
 important undertaking as Native education, which is so vital 
 to the interests of the ruling class, should be a national under- 
 taking under Government control, and the missionaries 
 frequently complain that the amount of Government assistance 
 given at present is not proportionate to the extent of the control 
 exercised. 
 
 Government control over Native education is exercised 
 through the following agencies : 
 
 1. Financial grants-in-aid. 
 
 2. The certification of teachers. 
 
 3. Courses of study. 
 
 4. Inspection of schools and examination of pupils. 
 
 Section i. Government Grants-in-Aid 
 
 This system of financial grants-in-aid is a relic of the earlier 
 system of England, when education, at least so far as the 
 masses were concerned, was the work of philanthropic religious 
 agencies. In that country the two great educational societies, 
 the Nonconformist British and Foreign School Society and 
 the Church of England National School Society, which since 
 the beginning of the century had been educating the masses 
 by means of voluntary contributions, were in the year 1833, 
 after a long and bitter agitation, financially assisted by 
 1 For a criticism of the scheme see footnotes on pp. 83 and 264.
 
 THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 8l 
 
 Government grants-in-aid. This was the beginning in England 
 of the recognition of education as the function of the State. 
 This system, Church control with increasing financial assistance 
 and oversight from the State, continued until 1870, when the 
 first elementary schools, the so-called " board schools," 
 organised, supported, and supervised by the State, were 
 established. 
 
 The Native schools in South Africa are very much in the 
 position in which the English elementary schools were prior 
 to 1870. The general indifference of the ruling Europeans to 
 the question of Native education, the expense which would be 
 involved in undertaking the work as entirely a State function, 
 the difficulty of inducing European lay teachers to undertake 
 so difficult a task, and the fear of possible political complica- 
 tions, will account for the fact that they have not yet become 
 State institutions. 
 
 It is clear that for some time to come the State must continue 
 to make use of missionary enterprise, and it is to be hoped that 
 a close and friendly relationship between Native educational 
 institutions and the various religious bodies will always exist ; 
 but it is certain that it will ultimately be necessary for the 
 Government to take up the question of Native education as 
 a definite State function. 1 As evidence of the impending and 
 inevitable change we may refer to : 
 
 (a) The increasing demand for Native public and un- 
 
 denominational schools, 2 or schools controlled by 
 committees on which representative Natives have 
 a place, such as have already been established in 
 the Transkei. 3 
 
 (b) The active opposition by certain Natives to the pro- 
 
 posed South African Native College as a missionary- 
 controlled enterprise. 4 
 
 1 As far back as 1891 the Cape Education Commission, in recom- 
 mending that the State should assert its authority by making industrial 
 education compulsory, urged a greater measure of State control over 
 Native education : " Existing rights and agencies are to be interfered 
 with as little as possible, but we think it scarcely right that the Govern- 
 ment should leave the whole of this gigantic work to volunteers." 
 
 2 Cape Select Committee on Native Education, Evidence, sections 1390 
 et seq. See also Report of Native Affairs Department, 1911, p. 18. 
 
 3 Ibid., Report, sect. 7. 4 Ibid., Evidence, sect. 1691 et seq. 
 
 6
 
 82 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (c) The complaint of the Natives in Natal that the Govern- 
 
 ment has State schools for the Indians, but not for 
 them. 1 
 
 (d) The fact that the Churches, especially in the towns, 
 
 are wearying of the burden of Coloured education 
 because of the financial burden involved. 2 
 
 (e) The multiplying of Native schools of different denomina- 
 
 tions in the same town or place, where one public 
 school would serve the needs of all. 3 
 
 (/) The fact that the present system is breaking down in 
 the towns and that some measure of compulsion is 
 necessary to induce the Coloured people to send their 
 children to school. 4 
 
 Section 2. Government Certification of Teachers 5 
 
 The importance attached to the certification of teachers 
 is seen in the grant regulation, whereby a considerably higher 
 grant is paid for certificated than for uncertificated teachers. 
 While all the provinces are still compelled to employ uncertifi- 
 cated teachers, the tendency is to require all head teachers to 
 be certificated, and gradually to impose this requirement upon 
 assistants. The training institutions for Native teachers are 
 accordingly compelled to follow very closely the syllabus 
 prescribed by the various Education Departments, and the 
 methods advocated by the Departments' inspectors, if they 
 wish to secure their tale of passes at the end of the year. 
 While the officials who frame the regulations are no doubt 
 sometimes influenced by the opinions of the teachers in the 
 training institutions, no Government-recognised method 
 exists whereby the teachers and instructors in the training 
 institutions, the men and women who are primarily concerned 
 with the working of the syllabus, and who should know the 
 
 1 Natal Native Affairs Commission, 1906-7, Report, section 83. 
 
 2 Cape Education Commission, 1911, Evidence, section 7742, and 
 Report, section 56 (b). 
 
 3 Cape Select Committee on Native Education, 1911, Report, section 
 56 (b). 4 Ibid. 
 
 * No teachers' certificates are issued in the Orange Free State. 
 In Basutoland the examinations for the Cape Pupil Teacher Certificates 
 are taken.
 
 THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 83 
 
 special needs and limitations of the pupils, are consulted in 
 the preparation of the syllabus, or in the examination of the 
 candidates. 
 
 Some of the unfortunate results of this method of procedure 
 are pointed out later. 1 Here it is sufficient to say that in a 
 subject so new as Native education, where we all are feeling our 
 way, to neglect to avail ourselves of the experience of those who 
 come into such close contact with the problem is a peculiar 
 mark of ineptitude. 2 
 
 The principle of Government certification is sound, and 
 indeed necessary in South Africa. All that is pleaded for is 
 teacher-participation in the preparation of syllabuses, and in 
 the examination of candidates. 
 
 Section 3. Government Syllabuses 
 
 All the provinces and Basutoland issue syllabuses of instruc- 
 tion, which must be followed in the Native schools. 3 In the 
 Cape Province the syllabus is the same for Natives as for 
 Europeans, but ah 1 the other provinces and Basutoland issue 
 a special syllabus more or less suited to the Natives' needs. 
 These special syllabuses also emphasise the attitude taken by 
 the authorities towards education. The insistence on manual 
 training in the Transvaal, the provision made for instruction 
 in the vernacular in Natal, and the identity of the European 
 and Native syllabus in the Cape, reflect pretty clearly the 
 official attitude of the different provinces. 
 
 These syllabuses have been prepared by the officials of the 
 Departments without any direct representation of the views of 
 those who have to teach them. 4 In view of the fact that many 
 of the Native teachers are not competent to assist in the fram- 
 ing of a syllabus, there is not the same chance of co-operation 
 
 1 See p. 137 et seq. 
 
 * Such a body as the Missionary Board of Advice in Natal is not 
 sufficient. What is wanted is a meeting of the teachers, or of their 
 representatives, with the officials of the Department to discuss the 
 syllabus. The members of the Board of Advice are not necessarily 
 the teachers, and it is the teachers' co-operation which is needed. 
 
 3 The syllabus issued by the Orange Free State is not compulsory, 
 but its use is general throughout the province. 
 
 * The new (1916) Transvaal regulations were referred to the repre- 
 sentatives of certain mission societies.
 
 84 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 as in the case of the Teachers' Training Courses ; but had it 
 been thought necessary or desirable, competent committees 
 of advice could have been formed. 1 
 
 The Government also as a rule recommends or prescribes 
 the text-books to be used. 
 
 Section 4. Government Inspection and Examination 
 
 The system of the annual individual examination of pupils 
 by a Government inspector which obtains in the Cape, in Natal, 
 and in Basutoland is a relic of the English system of payment 
 by results. 2 
 
 When the elementary schools in England were managed by 
 the philanthropic societies, the grants paid by the Government 
 depended on the number of pupils who " passed " the examina- 
 tion of His Majesty's inspector. At the end of each year the 
 inspector came round to see if the conditions of grant had been 
 fulfilled, and to examine the children individually in the three 
 R's. The teacher's reputation and salary depended almost 
 entirely on his percentage of passes, so that he availed himself 
 of every artifice to secure a good result. The children were 
 
 1 E.g., each of the principal mission societies could have nominated 
 a competent man. 
 
 * In the Orange Free State a better system is contemplated. The 
 Draft Regulations state that promotions are in the hands of the 
 principals, who are also required to " make provision for advancing 
 as rapidly as possible scholars of more mature age who are backward 
 in their work," by reducing the curriculum to the more essential 
 subjects. 
 
 The duty of the inspector is "to test the efficiency of the school 
 by an inquiry into the organisation, the classification, and the methods 
 of instruction pursued, and also into the progress made by the pupils 
 as evinced by their exercise and examination books and by the results 
 of a general class examination. He will, however, if he deems it neces- 
 sary, hold in greater detail an individual examination, in order to 
 ascertain the condition of any of the classes. He will be asked to report 
 as to the thoroughness of the teaching, and as to the ability of the 
 pupils to apply to practical purposes the knowledge acquired. He shall 
 also satisfy himself that in the ordinary management of the school all 
 reasonable care is taken to bring up the children in habits of punctu- 
 ality, of good manners and language, of cleanliness and neatness, and 
 to impress upon them the importance of cheerful obedience to duty, 
 of consideration and respect for others, and of honour and truthfulness 
 in word and act." (Draft Regulations, 1 1, 12, 13.) The italics are ours.
 
 THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 85 
 
 coached and crammed in the type of question asked by the 
 particular inspector ; teachers and children were impressed 
 with the importance of the occasion, and in many cases the 
 teaching was directed solely towards the passing of the 
 inspector's examination. 
 
 This is the system which exists in the majority of the South 
 African schools to-day. Its inherent wrongness is that it 
 puts teacher and inspector in a wrong relation to one another. 
 There is a suspicion of espionage especially when the so- 
 called " surprise " visits are paid which is hurtful to education. 
 The objective of both teacher and inspector should be the same, 
 and the inspector, from his superior training, experience, and 
 knowledge, should take the attitude of friend and adviser, 
 and not that of detective. 
 
 The school conditions at an inspector's examination are not 
 normal. Teachers and pupils are in an unnatural state of 
 excitement ; the inspector is hurried, and perhaps out of sorts. 
 The Native, being more emotional than the European, suffers 
 greatly from the tense atmosphere. The time at the inspector's 
 disposal is all too short for anything like a thorough examina- 
 tion. The result is that the teacher's work for a year is often 
 inadequately estimated in a few minutes. To save time the 
 inspectors have printed test cards in arithmetic, and in some 
 cases in history, geography, and grammar. 1 The procedure at 
 a typical inspection in N atal is as follows : Notice has been 
 given. The children are in their best clothes. The schoolroom 
 has been washed out, perhaps for the first time that year. As 
 the inspector rides up he is saluted on all sides. After prayers 
 the inspector looks at the registers, and sits down at the table 
 with his schedules before him. " Standards I. and II., do 
 these arithmetic cards ; Standard III., do this composition ; 
 and Standard IV., this grammar." " Infants, draw me a hut 
 on your slates." " Primers, bring up your reading books and 
 read." The whole day is spent in this kind of work, the 
 inspector assiduously filling up his schedules, and the trembling 
 teacher standing idly by. At three o'clock the children are 
 dismissed to play, while the inspector adds up the marks and 
 decides on the passes and failures. Sometimes the inspector 
 consults the teacher about the pupils, generally not. At half- 
 1 Specimens of these cards are reproduced on p. 318 et seq.
 
 86 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 past four the children are reassembled. The inspector mounts 
 the platform, and in a voice of much solemnity reads the names 
 of those who have passed. " Hallelujah, praise God," 
 ejaculate some of the pupils who are among the passes. A sigh, 
 a click, sometimes a sob, from those who fail. At five o'clock 
 the inspector, thoroughly tired out, mounts his horse and 
 hurries on to the next mission station, where he will repeat the 
 performance next day. Of the advice or encouragement of 
 which the teacher stands in such need there is very little. 
 There is not time for that. 
 
 The system is wrong in principle and practice. It is wrong 
 to the inspector to require him to do such work ; it is wrong 
 to the teacher, who is relieved of a responsibility which should 
 be his, and who loses respect in the eyes of his pupils ; it is 
 wrong to the pupil, whose work is often misjudged. 1 
 
 While inspection is much the more profitable way of be- 
 coming acquainted with the work of a teacher or of a school, 
 examination should not be abolished altogether. To examine 
 a class is sometimes the only means of finding out its points 
 of strength and of weakness, the necessary bases for praise, 
 criticism, and advice; but this examination should be of the 
 class as a whole, and not of the individual members. The 
 teacher knows best which pupils should pass and which 
 should fail. Any mistakes he makes will become apparent in 
 the class examination, and will be properly censured. Pro- 
 motion is the teacher's privilege and his responsibility. 
 
 It may be argued that the teacher is not competent to make 
 promotions. To this it may be replied that there are hundreds 
 of Native teachers who are competent, and that many of the 
 others can be made competent by being required to shoulder 
 this responsibility. The inspector will be there to advise in 
 doubtful cases, and to prevent external pressure from being 
 brought to bear upon the teachers. 
 
 The present inviolability of the " standards " must be broken 
 
 1 It is not only the Native teachers and pupils who dread the visits 
 
 of the inspector. The following is the opinion of Miss , principal 
 
 of Training School : ' ' This session we have had one inspector 
 
 after another, and, as we cannot get away from them after school, the strain 
 is great. Sometimes there have been two in one week " (Report of 
 Mission, 1913, p. 14).
 
 THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 87 
 
 into, if education is going to progress. They do not deserve 
 the respect with which they are treated, since they are nothing 
 more than a convenient device to enable us to carry on mass 
 teaching. A standard represents the amount of work which 
 the framers of the curriculum (in the case of Native schools, 
 men not actually engaged in teaching) think can be accom- 
 plished by the average child within a certain period, generally 
 a year. In each standard there will then be a number of 
 children for whom the work is too much, or too difficult, and 
 a number for whom it is too little or too easy. If all remain 
 in the same standard for a year, the former will be overworked, 
 the latter will waste valuable time. How the standards over- 
 lap can be seen from the tables and diagrams in Chapter IX. 
 
 The object of all classification is to arrange that each pupil 
 is doing the work which best accords with his maturity, his 
 ability, and his needs. An exact accordance is impossible with 
 mass teaching, but the nearer we can get to it the better. 
 Nowadays the best schools in Europe and America are break- 
 ing away from the lockstep standard system, and are re- 
 grouping the children in accordance with their ability in 
 each subject. 
 
 This system, known as the " set " system, has long been in 
 use in England in the case of mathematics, and is now being 
 applied to other subjects, with the result that more and more 
 often the pupil is doing the best work of which he and she is 
 capable. To be sure, this system makes individual examina- 
 tion difficult, because the same pupil may be in three different 
 standards at the same time, and perhaps that is why it is 
 experiencing some difficulty in making an entrance into State 
 systems of education. Such a system in its entirety is frankly 
 impossible in our Native schools, and the nearest we can get at 
 present to a more suitable adjustment of the pupil to his work 
 is to allow the teacher to promote or demote as he thinks 
 necessary. 
 
 An immediate and complete break away from the present 
 system is not advised. After being brought up and trained in 
 a restrictive system, many of the teachers must be taught to 
 bear the responsibility, and the change must be gradual. Let 
 the inspectors furnish a list of those head teachers who, in their 
 opinion, are competent to make promotions. Let this list be
 
 08 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 published in the official Gazette, and let it be added to as more 
 teachers demonstrate their competence. Let the inspector 
 restrict himself more and more to class examination. If, after 
 careful inquiry, he finds cases of wrong classifications, the 
 teacher's right to promote might be withdrawn. 
 
 So far we have spoken of the inspector as examiner. While 
 examination is necessary, the inspector's main function should 
 be that of supervisor. 
 
 The chief function of supervision is to continue the training 
 of teachers. The need for adequate supervision in any system 
 of schools, if the system is not to stagnate, is generally con- 
 ceded, but the following special reasons make it imperative in 
 Native schools : 
 
 1. As will be pointed out later, 1 the training of Native 
 teachers, especially as regards practical school management, 
 has necessarily been defective. The work of the method- 
 master needs to be supplemented by the inspector or supervisor. 
 
 2. The isolation of teachers in Native schools renders 
 friendly intercourse and discussion with fellow-teachers and 
 recourse to libraries impossible. Too often the teacher is the 
 only educated person in the district. The inevitable tendency 
 towards mental and sometimes moral retrogression could be 
 checked by a sympathetic and understanding supervisor. 2 
 
 3. The newness of the subject of Native education, and our 
 inadequate knowledge concerning the needs and capacities of 
 the Native, make it very desirable that the opinions of super- 
 visors, the trained and experienced teachers who come into 
 daily contact with the actual teachers' problems of Native 
 schools, should be available in developing Native-school policy. 
 
 From what has been said before it is clear that the inspectors 
 have no time to undertake the work of supervision. As a 
 
 See pp. 139-145- 
 
 1 " The relative efficiency of these (Native) schools is proportional 
 to the amount of personal supervision the superintendents find it 
 possible to give them." (Inspector Mr White, Report of Transvaal 
 Education Department, 1912, p. 247.) 
 
 " These (trained teachers) leave the different training institutions 
 full of zeal and quite competent to give the necessary instruction, 
 but after one or two years' life in a Native stad there is a distinct 
 danger of deterioration, more especially as regards knowledge of 
 English.'' (Inspector Mr Mills, ibid., p. 226.)
 
 THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 89 
 
 practical solution of the question it is recommended that the 
 inspector continue to be the administrative and general super- 
 visory officer ; that he be required to visit and inspect his 
 schools at least once a year ; and that he confine his activities 
 to a general inspection, or (if need be) to class examinations. 
 The work of supervising the instruction or continuing the 
 training of the teacher, of introducing better methods, should 
 be relegated to a special corps of Native supervisors, chosen 
 from among the most successful teachers in the schools, each 
 of whom would be responsible to the inspector for the oversight 
 of a limited number of schools. 1 The reasons for suggesting 
 that the supervisor be a Native are that a chance for further 
 promotion is thereby afforded to Native teachers ; the relation- 
 ship between teacher and supervisor will be more cordial and 
 helpful when both are of the same race ; the practical difficulties 
 of lodgment for the Native supervisor will be less than for the 
 European inspector ; and the development of suitable forms of 
 industrial training in ordinary day schools can best be carried 
 out by Natives. 
 
 Section 5. Supervision in American Rural Negro Schools 
 
 In connection with the proposal to appoint supervisors in 
 the Native schools of South Africa, the success of a similar 
 movement in the Southern States of America is useful and 
 encouraging. 
 
 In 1908 a philanthropic lady, Miss T. Jeanes, left the sum 
 of 200,000 for the improvement of Negro Rural Schools. 
 These schools were for the most part taught by untrained 
 teachers, without any kind of supervision. The buildings were 
 generally one-roomed shacks, the equipment was very meagre, 
 the teachers were untrained and ill paid, and the school year 
 not more than six months. The trustees of the Jeanes Fund 
 thought that the best way of improving the conditions was 
 to appoint supervising teachers of industrial work. These 
 teachers are Negroes from the Negro universities, institutions, 
 and training colleges, such as Fisk, Atlanta, Hampton, and 
 Tuskegee. These teachers, although paid wholly, or in part, 
 
 1 The training of a selected group of teachers as supervisors might be 
 undertaken at the South African Native College (see infra, Chap. XV.).
 
 9O THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 by the Jeanes Fund, are selected by the county superinten- 
 dents, and work under their direction. Their duties are to 
 visit the schools, introduce suitable forms of industrial work, 
 advise the teacher with regard to her daily work, organise 
 parents' clubs, interest the Negro community in the schools, 
 and induce them to take steps for the improvement of educa- 
 tional facilities. The average annual salary paid to a Negro 
 supervisor was, in 1913, 72 for men and 65 for women, for 
 seven months' work a year. 
 
 The success of the plan was immediate and continuing. The 
 number of supervisors rose from 65 in 1908-9 to over 130 
 in 1912. The salaries of 109 of these teachers, amounting 
 to 7000, were paid by the Jeanes Fund. The salaries of 
 the others came from the funds of the States, which had 
 begun to realise the value of the work. The contributions 
 of the Negro people themselves were expended mainly on 
 building and equipments. The following extracts give some 
 account of the results of the work of these supervisors : 
 
 " Complete statistics are not at hand at the time of 
 writing, but the following record of work for the session 
 1912-13 in the State of Virginia is indicative of the 
 spread of the movement. Twenty-three supervising 
 industrial teachers were working in the Coloured schools 
 of 25 counties. Of the 591 Negro schools in these counties, 
 417 were visited regularly, and a total number of 2853 
 visits were paid by the 23 supervising industrial teachers. 
 One hundred and eighty-nine schools extended the term an 
 average of one month. Twenty new buildings were erected 
 costing 4762, and 15 buildings were enlarged at a cost 
 of 443. Forty-six buildings were painted and 81 white- 
 washed, and 102 sanitary outhouses were built. The 428 
 School-improvement Leagues raised in cash for new build- 
 ings, extending terms, equipment, and improvement, the 
 sum of 4532. This does not include labour or materials 
 given. The whole cost of the salaries and expenses of the 
 supervising teachers was less than 2000, so that as a result 
 of their efforts they have brought into the school funds of the 
 State more than twice the amount expended. 
 
 " These figures, however, but dimly estimate the value
 
 THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION QI 
 
 of the work done. It was the privilege of the writer 
 recently to visit Negro rural schools in three of the counties 
 of Virginia in company with Mr Jackson Davis and the 
 county superintendents of schools. The interest and 
 pride of parents and pupils alike in the schools, their belief 
 in the form of instruction given, and the co-operation of 
 the Whites, who are beginning to regard the Negro as an 
 asset and not as a burden to the country, were everywhere 
 apparent." l 
 
 " In regard to these supervising teachers, it is a sur- 
 prising fact how few have been found lacking in earnest- 
 ness, competency, and devotion to duty. They are 
 appointed by the county superintendent, work under his 
 direction and supervision, and are considered members of 
 his regular corps of teachers. With very few exceptions, 
 they have done their work with an intelligence and devo- 
 tion that deserve the highest admiration. It is hard for 
 us to realise the difficult conditions under which many of 
 them have to carry on their work in passing from school to 
 school. The mere problem of transportation is a difficult 
 one. In many instances they depend upon the kindness 
 of some patron of one school to take them on to the next. 
 Some counties have made an appropriation for the travel- 
 ling expenses. A few of the teachers own their team. 
 Many of them walk long distances to keep their appoint- 
 ments, carrying with them their bag of materials. Looking 
 over the whole range of noble pioneers and missionaries, 
 I do not find any to measure ahead of these humble 
 workers. When I think of their spirit I am not surprised 
 that their influence is being felt wherever they go, not only 
 in the schools, but in the churches and homes. I am not 
 surprised when I receive now and then a letter from some 
 county superintendent bearing testimony to their good 
 influence, and expressing appreciation of their work." 2 
 
 In the writer's opinion it is in the appointment of such 
 teachers that the chief hope for the betterment of our Native 
 schools in South Africa lies. 
 
 1 From an article by the writer in the Christian Express, April 1915. 
 1 Jeanes Fund : Report of President, 1914, p. 3.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 IN general the term " elementary " or " primary " education 
 is used in contradistinction to " secondary " or " higher " 
 education. It then implies an instruction in the elements of 
 knowledge, to be supplemented later on in higher institutions. 
 In the framing of curricula, this narrow connotation of the 
 term has been generally unfortunate, since the courses of study 
 in elementary schools have been based on the assumption that 
 the pupils would proceed to higher institutions, where the 
 " essentials " would be extended and supplemented to fit the 
 pupil for the life of the world outside. As a matter of fact, 
 however, it is only a very small percentage indeed of pupils in 
 any country who proceed beyond the elementary school, and 
 the chief problem confronting educators to-day is to frame an 
 elementary-school curriculum which will serve as a preparation 
 for the further education of those few who are able to proceed 
 to secondary schools, and at the same time serve as a well- 
 grounded basis of education for the vast majority of pupils 
 whose further education can only be received in the school of 
 life itself. The solution of the difficulty would appear to lie 
 in bringing the school into intimate relationship with real life, 
 in framing curricula in terms of present-day needs, and in 
 making school activities a replica of those of the world outside 
 so far as the development of the child enables him to com- 
 prehend and participate in them. 
 
 A glance at the table on p. 72 of this volume will show that 
 the number of pupils proceeding beyond the elementary-school 
 stage is less than 3 per cent., so that it is in the elementary 
 schools that all but a few of the Native children of South Africa 
 must be prepared for their future life. We need, then, to 
 
 92
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 93 
 
 examine the system of elementary education in some detail, 
 and to apply to each of its constituent parts courses of study, 
 teaching, supervision, and results criteria acceptable generally 
 to modern pedagogy, and applicable in particular to present- 
 day conditions in South Africa. 
 
 Section i. Criteria for the Instruction in Native 
 Elementary Schools 
 
 A. The Courses of Study. The courses of study must be 
 based upon the peculiar instincts, capacities, interests, past 
 and present experiences, and probable future of the pupils for 
 whom they are intended. They must represent in epitome the 
 present and, as far as can be foreseen, the future lives of the 
 people, and as such must be subject to change in respect 
 to both the exclusion of the useless old and the inclusion of 
 the necessary new. They must demonstrate clearly the well- 
 thought-out aims of the authorities, but these must be expressed 
 in terms sufficiently broad to allow supervisors and teachers 
 to adapt them to the needs of particular schools and pupils. 
 They must also take into account the agencies at present at 
 the disposal of the system; for to impose upon the poorly 
 equipped and ill-taught Native schools courses of study which 
 would be difficult of accomplishment in the infinitely superior 
 schools for European children, is but to court failure, or at most 
 shallow and superficial work. 
 
 In South Africa we find that the courses of study in Native 
 schools are either identical with those prescribed for the 
 European schools, or are abbreviated modifications of them ; 
 that no account has been taken of the peculiar characteristics 
 of the Native people ; that no adequate provision for the prob- 
 able life-work of the pupils has been made ; that they include 
 a good deal of matter which is useless as far as the Native is 
 concerned, while they omit certain very necessary subjects ; 
 and finally, that at least three of the five courses would be 
 difficult of accomplishment in the best schools for Europeans. 
 
 B. The Teaching. The primary function of teaching is to 
 supply stimuli which are meaningful to the child, necessary for 
 his growth, and based on sound moral and psychological 
 principles. This implies possession on the part of the teacher
 
 94 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 of real and useful learning, knowledge of child nature, and 
 freedom to adapt methods to suit the needs of individual 
 pupils. 
 
 To expect all these qualities in the Native teachers in the 
 present stage of the development of Native education in South 
 Africa is unreasonable; but we shall find that the system of 
 training teachers is not even tending in the right direction, but 
 is producing men and women ignorant of facts significant 
 for Native pupils, loaded with a mass of useless academic 
 knowledge, and unpractised in the handling of children. We 
 shall see also that even the competent teachers are bound 
 hand and foot by regulation, course of study, inspection, and 
 examination. 
 
 C. Supervision. The objects of supervision are to see that 
 the conduct of the school is in accordance with the governing 
 regulations in spirit, if not in letter ; to supplement the training 
 of the teachers by helpful and sympathetic criticism ; and to 
 bring to individual teachers the results of deeper study of 
 educational problems, superior training, and wider experience. 
 
 Adequate supervision is perhaps the strongest factor in the- 
 betterment of a school system. In the Native schools of South 
 Africa supervision in the full sense of the term is almost un- 
 known. There are no supervisors for Native schools, and the 
 European inspectors of schools, who might be expected to per- 
 form the functions of supervisors, are too busy with other 
 duties, even where they have the necessary sympathy and 
 qualifications for Native work. 
 
 D. The Results upon Pupils, Teachers, and the Public. The 
 results of an adequate system of elementary education upon 
 the pupils are a regular progression through the school in 
 accordance with their mental development, absence of an 
 excessive retardation and elimination, and an ability to adjust 
 themselves easily and readily to the responsibilities and 
 opportunities of the life after school. 
 
 The teachers show signs of professional growth, become more 
 and more capable of bearing responsibility, and remain longer 
 in the profession. The parents and the general public express 
 their approval by keeping the young people longer at school, 
 and by providing the necessary moral and financial support. 
 
 How far the Native schools fall short in these respects will
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 95 
 
 be shown by an elimination and retardation unique, so far as 
 the writer is aware, in school systems ; by an education which, 
 for the most part, unfits the recipients for their life-work; 
 and by a general mistrust of the system on the part of the 
 general public. 
 
 Section 2. The Origin and Development of the 
 Present System 
 
 We have seen that the system of Native education originated 
 in the religious zeal of missionaries in the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries. These devoted but unscientifically- 
 minded men and women could not be expected to observe 
 any of our fundamental principles. To them the original 
 make-up of the Bantu was wrong. Not only would the 
 missionary not make use of any of the Native's original 
 instincts and interests, but he would do his best to stifle these 
 as instigators to depravity. 1 Nor would he endeavour to help 
 the Bantu to adjust himself to the society in which he lived. 
 The Natives' life after death was his chief concern, and any 
 education given in this world was but in preparation for the 
 life in the world to come. In its origin, then, the system of 
 Native education was diametrically opposed to what are 
 commonly accepted to-day as the basic principles of education. 
 
 When the missionary teacher succeeded the mere evangelist 
 he followed the set which Native education had received. 
 In so far as he introduced new methods of teaching, these 
 were based on European tradition. The systems of literary 
 education which had been evolved in Europe were transplanted 
 to a people differing widely in original nature, in environment, 
 and in future opportunities. 2 
 
 When the time came for the different Governments to 
 support Native education, it became a condition of financial 
 support that the schools observe the Government codes of 
 instructions. Seeing that the Native schools were being 
 
 1 See p. 74 for notice of a reactionary movement. 
 
 " Too often in missionary and educational work among unde- 
 veloped races people yielded to the temptation of doing that which 
 was done a hundred years before, or is being done in other communities 
 a thousand miles away." (Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery, 
 p. 122.)
 
 96 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 conducted upon European lines, what more natural than that 
 the regulations governing the schools for European children 
 in South Africa should be imposed upon Native schools also ? 
 Where they were not imposed in their entirety they were 
 curtailed, but their spirit was based upon the principles of 
 education as carried on in England. These were the days 
 when education was being given grudgingly to the lower 
 classes, when it was considered that anything more than the 
 " three R's " would " spoil " the masses and unfit them for 
 their station in life. It was a time, too, when pedagogical 
 doctrine was harsh and narrow. The " faculty " psychology 
 was supreme. The purpose of education was to " train the 
 mind " ; the harder the subjects the better the mental 
 discipline ; to make things interesting was to " weaken the 
 moral fibre " of the pupils, and so on. How persistent these 
 pedagogical notions have been may be seen from the Govern- 
 ment regulations and syllabuses at present in operation in 
 the Native schools of South Africa, and from the views of 
 officials. 1 
 
 The system set in this narrow mould remained practically 
 
 1 To cite but two instances. In giving evidence before the Cape 
 Native Education Committee of 1908 the following exchange of views 
 took place between the Commissioners and one of the witnesses, an 
 inspector highly respected by both races for his work on behalf of 
 Native education. 
 
 Question. The fact is, you think any subject of that kind (English 
 history), although they (the Natives) may not be able to see its exact 
 practical bearing, has the effect that all true education should have, 
 of developing the mind ? 
 
 Answer. Quite so. I do not think the elementary school is the place 
 for beginning any special training for special walks of life. You want 
 in the elementary school merely to train the mind by all the means 
 you can employ in order to get a well-developed mind on all sides. 
 (Report, section 2556.) 
 
 Again, in the Report of the Inspector of Native Education, Natal, for 
 1889, appears the following statement : " I regard this [English grammar] 
 as a very important part of our school work ; not that it is important 
 that a boy should know that ox is a noun or that runs is a verb, but 
 these Natives are so wanting in powers of comparison or analysis that 
 the process of reasoning which has to be gone through to decide whether 
 ' that ' is an adjective or a pronoun, or to recognise the relations 
 to each other of the different parts of a sentence, is of the greatest 
 value as developing and strengthening their mind in its weakest but 
 most useful parts."
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 97 
 
 unaltered until a decade ago, when, as a result of the report 
 of the South African Native Affairs Commission of 1903-5, a 
 wider and more sympathetic interest in the Native Question 
 was taken by the public. To this must be added the move- 
 ment for reform initiated by the missionary bodies themselves, 
 the importation from overseas of highly skilled and experienced 
 educators consequent on the annexation of the Dutch 
 Republics, and changes in the staffs of some of the Education 
 Departments. 
 
 As a result steps have recently been taken in all the provinces 
 except the Cape to adapt the European system of education 
 to Native requirements. 1 In particular the courses of study 
 have been reduced in extent and complexity to suit the more 
 limited opportunities and capacities of the Natives. That the 
 result is still not satisfactory will be demonstrated in due 
 course. Here it is sufficient to say that all the systems, 
 except perhaps those of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, 
 are based either wholly or in part on European systems now 
 largely discredited, and have not been drawn up to meet the 
 special nature of the Native people. 2 
 
 1 The conservatism of the Cape Province, which retains to this day 
 the same course of study for Native as for European children, is probably 
 due to the great size of the province, the unequal geographical distri- 
 bution of the races, the more liberal treatment of the Native peoples 
 than in the other provinces, which induces the mistaken belief that 
 identity of curriculum is equality of opportunity, the mixed nature 
 of the children attending the Mission Schools, and the personnel of its 
 officials. The identity of curriculum has been often condemned by 
 Commissioners and other critics. The following excerpts are from the 
 Report of the Cape Education Commission, 1910-12: 
 
 " A rigid curriculum drawn up without regard to the Coloured 
 people no doubt fails to meet the case of some White children, but it 
 is hardly too much to say that it is bound to be a misfit for all 
 Coloured children. . . . There is a great deal to be said for elasticity 
 of curriculum in regard to Mission Schools. . . . Although they only go 
 to Standard IV., the Coloured children . . . are so far taught according 
 to precisely the same curriculum as is thought necessary for the child 
 of a Cabinet Minister and of a high ecclesiastic. The opinion that 
 this is a mistake is strong and growing. . . . Altogether, we have no 
 hesitation in recommending that in the Mission Schools, as in others, 
 departure from the curriculum should be allowed subject to the consent 
 of the inspector." (Report, section 56 (c).) 
 
 * Since the above was written a new syllabus for Native schools 
 has been introduced in the Transvaal.
 
 98 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Section 3. The Courses of Study 
 
 A. THE SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION AND THEIR PLACE 
 
 IN THE COURSES OF STUDY 
 
 On the opposite page will be found the subjects of instruc- 
 tion and their place in the courses of study. The divergence 
 of the views of the different provinces can be seen at a glance, 
 but the following points seem worthy of special comment : 
 
 1. The Use of the Vernacular. The arguments for and 
 against the use of the vernacular are discussed in another part 
 of this volume. 1 Here it will be sufficient to indicate the 
 current practice in the several provinces. In the Cape 
 Province the use of the vernacular as the medium of instruc- 
 tion in the lower classes is optional ; but as these classes are 
 generally not examined at all by the inspectors, or, if examined, 
 are examined in English, the option is not often acted upon, 
 particularly as a great number of Native parents do not wish 
 the children to " waste time," as they say, over the vernacular. 
 In the Transvaal it may be used " as far as practicable." 
 In the other provinces and in Basutoland the use of the 
 vernacular is obligatory. 
 
 2. Position of the English and Dutch Languages. As regards 
 the choice of the two official European languages the regula- 
 tions in Natal and Basutoland are silent, and it is the general 
 practice to learn English only. In the Transvaal the regula- 
 tions state that after the first three years either Dutch or 
 English may be used as a medium, in accordance with the 
 geographical situation and the particular environment of the 
 school. The Orange Free State regulations say that the 
 formal study of one of the two official languages shall be 
 commenced in the third year, and this language may be used 
 as a medium when it is so desired during the fifth and sixth 
 years. The second official language may be commenced in 
 the fifth year. 
 
 3. The Neglect of History. History is not included at all 
 in the Transvaal and Basutoland syllabuses, 2 and is optional 
 in the Orange Free State. In Natal the history taught is 
 
 1 See p. 226 et seq. 
 
 a In Basutoland, "tales from Basuto history" may be given in the 
 Vernacular Composition Course.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 99 
 
 entirely that of South Africa ; in the Cape it is the same as in 
 the European schools, i.e, English and South African. If we 
 are to develop a pride of race in the Natives, not only as a 
 preventative for miscegenation with the Whites, but as a basis 
 
 TABLE No. 4 
 THE SUBJECTS AND THEIR PLACE IN THE COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Cape. 
 
 Natal. 
 
 Trans- 
 vaal. 
 
 Orange Free 
 State. 
 
 Basutoland. 
 
 Vernacular 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 Reading 
 
 
 A to VII. 
 
 
 i to 4 
 
 Gr. i to St. VI. 
 
 Writing 
 
 
 A VII, 
 
 
 I 4 
 
 Gr. i St. IV. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 
 A VII. 
 
 
 I ,, 4 
 
 Gr. 2 St. IV. 
 
 Composition 
 
 
 A VII. 
 
 
 i 4 
 
 Gr. i St. VI. 
 
 Grammar 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. III. St. VI. 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reading 
 
 A to VII. 
 
 B to VII. 
 
 i to 7 
 
 3 to 6 
 
 St. I. St. VI. 
 
 Writing 
 
 A VII. 
 
 B VII. 
 
 i 7 
 
 3 * 
 
 St. II. St. VI. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 A VII. 
 
 B VII. 
 
 4 7 
 
 3 ,, 6 
 
 St. II. St. VI. 
 
 Composition 
 
 II. VII. 
 
 A VII. 
 
 i 7 
 
 I 6 
 
 St. I. St. VI. 
 
 Grammar 
 
 III. VII. 
 
 III. VII. 
 
 6 7 
 
 5 6 
 
 St. IV. St. VI. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 A VII 
 
 A VII. 
 
 i 7 
 
 I ., 4 
 
 Gr. i St. VI. 
 
 Algebra and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Geometry 
 
 
 V. VII. 
 
 
 
 , . 
 
 Geography in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 English 
 
 III. to VII. 
 
 II. VI. 
 
 4 to 7 
 
 Optional. 
 
 St. I. to St. VI. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Vern.) 
 
 History in 
 English 
 
 V. VII. 
 
 III. VII. 
 
 
 Optional. 
 
 
 Drawing . 
 
 A VII. 
 
 A VI. 
 
 i to 7 
 
 
 Gr. i to* St. VI. 
 
 Hygiene . 
 
 . . 
 
 I. VI. 
 
 i 7 
 
 Prescribed but 
 
 Gr. i St. VI. 
 
 
 
 
 
 not in detail. 
 
 (Vern.) 
 
 Sewing 
 
 A to VII. 
 
 A VII. 
 
 3 7 
 
 i to 6 
 
 Gr. i to St. VI. 
 
 Manual work . 
 
 II. VII. 
 
 V. VII. 
 
 3 7 
 
 No definite 
 
 No definite 
 
 
 
 
 
 scheme. 
 
 scheme. 
 
 Singing . 
 
 A VII. 
 
 A VI. 
 
 3 7 
 
 i to 6 
 
 Gr. i to St. VI. 
 
 Religious inst. 
 
 A VII 
 
 A VII. 
 
 i 7 
 
 i 6 
 
 Gr. i St. VI. 
 
 Object lessons 
 
 
 
 
 i 3 
 
 i 6 
 
 
 
 (i) The lowest class is Infant Class A in the Cape and Natal, Year i in 
 the Transvaal and Orange Free State, and Grade i in Basutoland. 
 (a) Vern. = vernacular, i.e. Kafir, Zulu, or Sesuto, as the case may be. 
 
 for the responsibilities of self-government, we cannot afford to 
 omit from our courses of study an account of the history and 
 institutions of the races of South Africa. 
 
 4. Manual Work. In connection with the inclusion of this 
 subject in the Cape syllabus, it should be borne in mind that
 
 100 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 the manual work prescribed is cardboard modelling in 
 Standards II. to IV., and woodwork in Standards V. to VII. 
 Few, if any, of the Native schools can afford to do the card- 
 board modelling, while it is only in the larger centres that the 
 instruction in woodwork is actually given. The whole 
 question of manual and industrial training is dealt with in 
 Chapter VIII. 
 
 5. Overburdening. The overburdening of the Natal course 
 of study is apparent. The inclusion of algebra and geometry 
 is unnecessary; and while none of the other subjects, except 
 perhaps English grammar in all but the last year, could be 
 safely excluded, a more even distribution, as in the Orange Free 
 State syllabus, would lighten the pupil's task. At present a 
 child in Standard I. is carrying fourteen, and one in Standard VI. 
 eighteen, subjects all the year round. 
 
 B. THE FORMAL NATURE OF THE SYLLABUSES 
 
 In addition to announcing the subjects of inspection, the 
 syllabuses of the Education Departments prescribe in more or 
 less detail what is to be taught under each subject. No 
 attempt is made to explain why these subjects are chosen or 
 the aims of the teaching, and no suggestions regarding approved 
 methods are offered. 1 For the most part the syllabuses consist 
 of bald statements of the facts which the children will be 
 required to reproduce at the annual examinations. Space 
 does not permit of a reproduction of the syllabuses in full, but 
 the following excerpts will sufficiently explain their nature : 
 
 i. English Reading for Second-Year Pupils 
 Cape. To read with ease from an infant reader containing 
 
 sentences composed of monosyllabic words. 
 
 Natal. To read the first six charts prepared by the American 
 
 Mission, and to translate them accurately. 
 
 Transvaal (Third Year). Reading from an infant primer 
 
 and reader. 
 
 1 In Basutoland a small booklet of instructions and suggestions is 
 published, and the Orange Free State syllabus contains some scattered 
 suggestions. These, however, do not deal adequately with any of the 
 questions. For an example of a useful and effective introduction to a 
 syllabus, see the remarks of the Director of Education for the Transvaal, 
 prefixed to the Transvaal Syllabus of Instruction for European Schools.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 101 
 
 O.F.S. To read clearly and intelligently a simple reading- 
 book. 
 
 Basutoland (Standard I.). To read intelligently from a 
 first reader. 
 
 2. Arithmetic for Standard IV. 
 
 Cape. Written : Addition, subtraction, multiplication, 
 and division of weights and measures. The principle involved 
 in the process known as " Practice," with easy exercises. 
 Easy " Proportion " exercises. Mental : The same as the 
 written work. Easy operations with very simple fractions 
 (halves, quarters, eighths, thirds, sixths, twelfths). 
 
 Natal. (a) Factors and multiples, (b) Addition, sub- 
 traction, multiplication, division, and reduction of weights 
 and measures, as follows : Avoirdupois, lineal, square, 
 capacity, and time, (c) Simple bills of parcels, (d) Addi- 
 tion and subtraction of fractions having the same denominator. 
 (e) Mental : Easy exercises on the work of the standard ; 
 the tables of the square and capacity measures. 
 
 Transvaal (Sixth Year). (a) Continuation of exercises 
 in the four rules as for the previous year, (b) Reduction : 
 ton, cwt. (=100 lb.), lb., oz., yd., ft., in. ; day, hour, minute, 
 second, (c) Making out short bills. 
 
 O.F.S. (Sixth Year). Decimals, percentages and interest, 
 volumes of rectangular solids, bills of parcels, practice. 
 (N.B. During the fifth and sixth years arithmetic should be 
 dropped in favour of the manual occupation.) 
 
 Basutoland. The same as for the Cape. 
 
 3. Geography for Standard V. 
 
 Cape. The seasons. Africa and Europe, including features 
 of coast-line, chief mountain ranges, chief rivers and their 
 basins, chief states or territorial divisions and their capitals ; 
 situation and chief industries of towns having over 250,000 
 inhabitants ; commercial relations with the Cape Province. 
 Map-drawing from memory. 
 
 Natal. To draw a map of Africa, and to be able to insert 
 the principal countries, with the capitals, the chief rivers, 
 lakes, mountains, and to tell to whom each country belongs. 
 To tell the countries, capitals, and principal features of Europe, 
 Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
 
 102 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Transvaal (Seventh Year). (a) Physical and political geo- 
 graphy of South Africa in fuller detail, (b) Position on the 
 map of the world of the British Colonies and of the principal 
 countries of the world. The characteristic features, climate, 
 and production of the larger colonies. 
 
 O.F.S. (not prescribed for any particular standard). The 
 geography of South Africa with special reference to that of 
 the Orange Free State, together with a general idea of the 
 main geographical features of the world. 
 
 Basutoland. Same as the Cape, omitting " commercial 
 relations with the Cape Province." 
 
 4. Grammar for Standard VI. 
 
 Cape. To analyse a complex prose sentence containing at 
 least two subordinate clauses, one of which may be subordinate 
 to the other, and to parse the words in it. To correct gram- 
 matical errors in a similar sentence. To tell the meanings 
 and use of the principal prefixes and suffixes. 
 
 Natal. (i) To analyse, and form simple compound and 
 complex sentences. (2) To learn (a) the formation and use 
 (i.) of the comparison of adjectives and adverbs, (ii.) of nouns, 
 verbs, adjectives, and adverbs from other words by common 
 prefixes and suffixes, and (iii.) of the complete conjugation of 
 verbs ; and (b) the use (i.) of words as nouns, and verbs and 
 adjectives or adverbs, and (ii.) of the correct preposition 
 after verbs. 
 
 Transvaal (First-Year Training College Course) . (a) Various 
 kinds of nouns, pronouns, and their inflections as far as this 
 is a help to correct speech and writing, (b) Conjugation of 
 transitive and intransitive verbs with pronouns and nouns 
 (indicative mood only). Exercises in the use of active and 
 passive forms. The whole aim to be not so much recognition 
 of distinctions as correct usage, (c) Analysis of the simple sen- 
 tence, with special reference to the correct use of preposition?. 
 
 O.F.S. (Sixth Year). Analysis and simple parsing. 
 
 Basutoland. As in Cape syllabus. 
 
 Section 4. Uniformity and Inflexibility in School Work 
 
 The average inadequately trained Native school teacher, 
 when confronted with the task of teaching his pupils on a
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 103 
 
 syllabus which is for the most part meaningless to them and 
 to himself, is generally at a loss what to do. To assist him in 
 the organisation of his school work, the Education Department 
 of the Province of Natal, which can claim the credit of having 
 given most thought to the administration of Native education, 
 issues in addition to the ordinary syllabus a " scheme of work " 
 and specimen time-table. The effect of this is to impose upon 
 the system a greater uniformity than that required by the 
 province-wide syllabuses of instruction. All the provinces 
 obtain a still further uniformity by the inspectors' examina- 
 tions, for in order to get through with his work the inspector 
 has to standardise his methods of examination. These 
 become known throughout his inspectorial district, and, since 
 the object of the year's work is to satisfy the inspector, his 
 practices are closely adhered to in the schools. In the Cape 
 and Natal, inspectors' test-cards are used. 1 From this lock- 
 step uniformity there is little hope of escape, since the teachers 
 are not regarded as competent to assume such responsibility. 2 
 To illustrate the methods by which this uniformity is 
 obtained, we reproduce (i) excerpts from the Natal schemes of 
 work for the infant classes and first four standards, and (2) time 
 allotments derived from the specimen time-tables in Natal. 
 Specimens of the test -cards used by the inspectors of Native 
 schools in Natal will be found in Appendix A. 
 
 i. Scheme of Work for Class A (the lowest class) for the 
 
 month of April 
 
 Zulu. (a) Read charts 4 and 5 and review 2. (b) Each 
 child to make at least two sentences about each of the pictures 
 
 1 For specimens of these test-cards see Appendix A. 
 
 * The draft regulations of the Orange Free State Education De- 
 partment form an honourable exception to the usual inflexibility and 
 uniformity. Section 17 reads : " While the schedules indicate the scope 
 of the work in each subject, they should be looked upon as suggestions 
 rather than as instructions to be rigidly followed in detail, and principals 
 are invited to propose schemes more or less on the same lines, and 
 suited to the peculiar requirements and circumstances of their respective 
 schools. Such suggested modifications should be submitted in detail for 
 the approval of the Department through the Inspector of Schools for the 
 District." Similar instances of liberal-mindedness and sound pedagogy 
 may be found throughout the Orange Free State regulations, which makes 
 it all the more to be regretted that the scheme has not become law.
 
 IO4 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 on English chart No. i. (c) Point from the blackboard and 
 charts the letters i and k, first separately, and then combined 
 with any of the vowels. 
 
 English. Learn the pronunciation and meaning of : tooth, 
 arm, hand, finger-nail, leg, foot, toe, roof, man, woman, wall, 
 I, we, see, and, saw, a, the. 
 
 Arithmetic. (a) Count in English and Zulu up to 5 forward 
 and backward, (b) Addition and subtraction, e.g. 2+1 + 13. 
 (c) Learn and write the x and = signs, and learn and do 
 with objects the following multiplications : 1x2=2, 2x2=4, 
 I X3=3, 1x4=4. (^) Mental: Learn coins id. and 3d. and 
 reduction from one to the other. 
 
 Writing. Continue as in preceding month, and practise 
 making e, o, a, u, v, w, and the figures i to 4. 
 
 2. Scheme of Work for Standard II. for the First Quarter 
 
 Zulu. (a) Read chapters 1-6. (b) Dictation, (c) Describe 
 orally and in writing (i) land, (2) water, (3) sun, (4) the cardinal 
 points, (d) Special drill on (i) the use of the punctuation 
 marks learnt, and (2) the breaking up of words into syllables 
 in the dictation and composition work. 
 
 English. (a) Read S.A. Reader II., lessons 1-4, 7, 8, 9, 
 and u, and review, (b) Translate literally and accurately 
 lessons i, 3, 4, and 9, and review, (c) Learn to spell the 
 words in the spelling lessons and to break up words of two, 
 three, and four syllables, (d) Make sentences orally with 
 new words in the translation lessons, (e) Write sentences 
 with the words of the first term, second year, in the infant 
 syllabus. (/) Special drill on the use of the " full stop " 
 and " interrogation mark." 
 
 Geography. (a) Definition of, and what geography teaches. 
 (b) The cardinal points. 
 
 Arithmetic. (a) To count in English up to 999, forward 
 and backward, (b) Addition and subtraction with figures 
 up to 999, and with problems. Multiplication and division 
 up to 12 times 12. (c) Money value up to L in simple mental 
 problems, (d) Mentally to divide numbers into halves and 
 quarters, (e) Multiplication tables up to 12 times 12. Easy 
 mental exercises on the four simple rules with numbers up 
 to 60.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IO5 
 
 3. Time Allotments in Minutes per Week 1 
 (i) Standard IV. Natal 
 
 Opening and closing exercises and roll call . . .125 
 
 Religious instruction 150 
 
 Correcting home work ....... 100 
 
 English and Zulu grammar . . . . .150 
 
 Reading and spelling and translation .... 125 
 
 English composition . . . . . . .100 
 
 Conversational English 75 
 
 History and geography . . . . . . 125 
 
 Drawing 25 
 
 Writing ......... 75 
 
 Arithmetic . 275 
 
 Drill -50 
 
 Teaching sub-standard children 75 
 
 Recesses 200 
 
 1650 
 
 (2) Second Term of Second Year (i.e. Highest Class of 
 Infants). Natal 
 
 Opening and closing exercises and roll call . . . 125 
 
 Religious instruction 150 
 
 English reading 250 
 
 Conversational English 75 
 
 Zulu reading 75 
 
 Oral Zulu composition 100 
 
 Printing 50 
 
 Writing and figuring 175 
 
 Arithmetic, mental and blackboard .... 200 
 
 Drawing 100 
 
 Correction of written work ...... 100 
 
 Drill ..... .... 50 
 
 Recesses . . . . . . . . 200 
 
 1650 
 
 1 Taken from suggested time-table issued by the Department. 
 How far these time-tables are followed in single-teacher schools is 
 uncertain, but the writer's experience is that they are exhibited to 
 satisfy the inspector and not for daily use.
 
 106 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Section 5. The Teaching 
 
 In the following chapter the work of the training institu- 
 tions for Native teachers is discussed. It will be found that 
 not more than 50 per cent, of the teachers in Native schools 
 have received any preparation for their work, and that the 
 training given to these is for the most part of a narrow and 
 formal nature, besides being deficient on the side of practice 
 teaching. Above all, the students have received no training 
 in the handling of the single-teacher school, the kind of school 
 they will in all probability be required to conduct. Confronted 
 with the real problem, the teachers take refuge in formal book- 
 work, the kind of work which keeps the pupil busy and is easy 
 of correction. 
 
 This formalism is encouraged by the nature of the curriculum 
 and inspectors' examinations, and the absence of helpful super- 
 vision. If we add to this the inadequate equipment of the 
 schools, and the absence of suitable text-books, we shall not 
 be surprised to find that the ordinary work of the Native school 
 is dull and formal to a degree. Indeed, as the writer has 
 listened to the teaching in Native schools he has realised that 
 it is only the Native's ignorance and his blind and almost 
 pathetic belief in the power of the white man's education which 
 induces him to send his children to the average Native school. 
 Parents less ignorant, pupils less docile, and a public less luke- 
 warm on the subject would have remonstrated long ago against 
 the travesty of teaching which is taking place every hour of 
 the day in the Native day schools of South Africa. 
 
 Section 6. The Supervision 
 
 The primary object of supervision is to increase the efficiency 
 of the teacher. The supervisor or inspector can best accom- 
 plish this by watching the teacher at work and then criticising 
 his lesson, by examining the children to see if the necessary 
 knowledge has been acquired or the necessary skill obtained, 
 and by taking part in teachers' meetings. To be effective, the 
 criticism of the supervisor should be constructive. It should 
 not only point out good and bad work, but explain why it is 
 good or bad, and where necessary indicate the way for improve- 
 ment. When it is necessary to examine a class in order to
 
 form a more correct estimate of the work of the teacher, the 
 examination should be based on the teacher's scheme of work, 
 and should discover if the points emphasised by the teacher 
 had been acquired by the pupils, even though these points did 
 not commend themselves to the supervisor. After the criticism 
 of the lesson, or after the examination, should come the discus- 
 sion with the teacher. This is the really helpful part of super- 
 vision, where the supervisor gets to know the teacher's aims, 
 difficulties, and troubles, and from his superior training and 
 greater experience is able to offer some helpful criticism and 
 suggestions. The discussion must not be omitted, for if the 
 visit was worth making it is worth discussion. If the super- 
 visor can subsequently hold a teachers' meeting to discuss some 
 broader issues, so much the better. 
 
 Supervision of this nature is practically unknown in the 
 Native schools of South Africa. There are no supervisors of 
 instruction in the schools, and even where there are inspectors 
 who are competent to perform this work satisfactorily and 
 sympathetically they have not the time. The short-handed- 
 ness of the inspectorates is the occasion of annual comment in 
 the superintendents' reports. In 1915 the average number of 
 schools per inspector was : 
 
 In the Cape Province 131 (European, Coloured, and Native) 
 
 In Natal . . . 100 (Native) 
 
 In the Transvaal . 66 (European, Coloured, and Native) 
 
 In Orange Free State 88 (European) 
 
 In Basutoland . . 142 (Native) 
 
 In the Cape and Transvaal Provinces the inspection, of 
 Native and European schools is undertaken by the same 
 officials, and when any schools have to be left unvisited these 
 are almost always the Native schools. In the Cape the work 
 is far too heavy for the number of inspectors employed, so 
 that many of the schools do not receive adequate inspections. 1 
 In 1914 there were 818 Mission and 971 Aborigines' Schools, of 
 
 1 In his 1912 Report, p. 4, the Superintendent-General says : 
 " Adopting the principle that there should be one inspector for every 
 100 schools, we see that with its present number of 4334 schools the 
 Cape Province should have 43 inspectors, whereas, even with the 
 three new men appointed this year, it has only 31." See also Report 
 for 1911 and other years.
 
 IO8 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 which only 736 and 865 respectively are recorded as having 
 been inspected. 
 
 In the Transvaal no exact figures are reported, but from the 
 inspectors' reports it is clear that many of the Native schools 
 are not inspected. 
 
 In the Orange Free State there is no systematic inspection 
 of the Native schools, though the inspectors have the right to 
 visit them. 
 
 In Natal the inspection of Native schools is undertaken by 
 a special staff of three inspectors, who devote all their time to 
 Native work. Except for the danger of narrowing and deaden- 
 ing subjective influence on the men themselves, this is certainly 
 the most effective system. 
 
 In Basutoland there are only 95 European children attend- 
 ing inspected schools, so that the inspectors devote all their 
 time to Native work. 
 
 Section 7. The Results 
 
 We have now to examine the results of a system of elemen- 
 tary education for Natives based wholly, or in part, on the 
 systems for European children, administered with much uni- 
 formity and inflexibility, and put into execution by partially 
 trained and inadequately supervised teachers. We shall 
 attempt to estimate in turn the results on pupils, teachers, 
 and the European and Native public. 
 
 A. The Elimination of Pupils. From the table on p. 72 it 
 will be seen that more than 60 per cent, of the pupils in Native 
 schools are in the sub-standards, and that the elimination of 
 pupils from the lower classes is very great. The same results 
 will be found in the following age-standard and time-in-school- 
 standard figures. Of every 100 pupils in the Native schools of 
 Natal, 62 are in the Infant Classes, 13 in Standard I., 9 in Stan- 
 dard II., 6 in Standard III., 6 in Standard IV., 2 in Standard 
 V., and i in Standard VI. This state of affairs represents a con- 
 siderable improvement on the position of former years. 1 The 
 reasons for this rapid elimination are : (a) the economic pressure 
 which causes the parents to send the young boys to work in the 
 towns, where there is a steady demand for the cheap Native 
 
 1 Cf. Report of the Superintendent of Education, Natal, 1910.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IOQ 
 
 " umfaan " ; x and (b) the unsuitability of the present system of 
 education. Many Native children, who at first come eagerly to 
 school, are disheartened by the meaningless tasks to which they 
 are set, and have no great difficulty in inducing their parents to 
 allow them to withdraw. As Mr E. A. Sargant pointed out in 
 animadverting on the unsuitability of the Basutoland curri- 
 culum, it is not surprising that the entry " Left school : tired " 
 should appear so often opposite the names of former pupils. 2 
 
 B. The Retardation of Pupils. The absence of an adequate 
 system of recording data regarding the progress of pupils in 
 Native schools makes it impossible to supply figures for all 
 the Native schools of South Africa, but age-standard,and time- 
 in-school-standard data were obtained from ten elementary 
 schools in Natal, eight in the Transkei, six in Basutoland, and 
 twelve in the Transvaal. The schools were selected at random, 
 and the figures may be regarded as typical of conditions in 
 Natal, the Transkeian territories, Basutoland, and the Trans- 
 vaal. The following explanations of the age-standard figures 
 are necessary for their proper interpretation : 
 
 (a) The ages of the pupils in many cases cannot be ascer- 
 tained with certainty. The educated Natives record 
 the date of birth of their children, but when an un- 
 educated Native is asked when his child was born, 
 he can only reply by reference to some contemporary 
 event, such as a season of drought or a great storm. 
 The school authorities are thus often compelled to 
 estimate the approximate ages of the pupils. 
 (6) In the present state of Native education it is impossible 
 to standardise the age of entry and the normal age for 
 each standard. Educated Natives generally send their 
 children to school between the ages of five and eight, 
 but the children of " raw " Natives are often kept at 
 home until the age of ten, eleven, or even later. The 
 entering age of seven to nine has been chosen as repre- 
 senting the mean, a conclusion which is supported by 
 the fact that it contains the largest group of entrants. 
 
 1 The preponderance of girls in Native schools is largely due to this 
 reason. Thus in 1915, out of 21,700 Native pupils in average attend- 
 ance in Natal, only 9144 were boys ; and of 17,083 in average attendance 
 in the elementary schools of Basutoland in 1914, only 5766 were boys. 
 
 1 Report on Native Education in S. Africa, pt. iii. p. 63.
 
 110 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 >O y 
 
 < 
 
 H 5 
 
 11 
 
 8,1 sr 
 
 |*| 
 
 ? 
 
 a a O 
 
 J-o 
 o J 
 
 u S 
 
 O * u 
 
 '*!'& 
 
 s- 
 
 111 
 
 -Is 
 
 a 
 
 Total. 
 
 Ol + M M f O * ^ 
 IO CO M CO M fx VO ^* 
 
 M 
 
 I* 
 
 s| 
 
 Ol M Op * CO Op Ol M 
 VDNvbcONOOMV 
 
 M- 10 10 10 vo ^ tx oo 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 i vo tx x 00 * to 
 
 R 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 5 a 
 
 4| 
 
 ^.vpOMwopovp 
 rxvoobfxw^ico 
 
 ^ CO CO CO * 
 
 P 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 tXOOOOMMVOVO 
 VO OO * IO CO *. M 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 4j 
 
 xco^-mvp ^w co 
 
 M 
 
 6 
 
 tX cT M W M 
 
 ? 
 
 Over 20. 
 
 OOOOMOMM 
 
 CO 
 
 19-20. 
 
 OOOOOMOm 
 
 VO 
 
 18-19. 
 
 OOitwOOcotx 
 
 2 
 
 17-18. 
 
 OMWOllOWJ 
 
 VO 
 
 16-17. 
 
 M M 
 
 5 
 
 15-16. 
 
 M N M 
 
 00 
 
 14-15- 
 
 ?^2!T?I^;?<' 
 
 to 
 
 I3-M- 
 
 IrtON'O OO ID M M 
 
 fft w w N m ^ i 
 
 8 
 
 M 
 
 12-13. 
 
 O>O\OOvOM 
 
 M 
 
 11-12. 
 
 CO vO D - ^ 
 
 m n M N M w 
 
 M 
 
 10-11. 
 
 CO N ; 
 
 J 
 
 9-10. 
 
 W O 00 M 
 
 tO -IO MM- 
 
 CO 
 
 * 
 
 8-9. 
 
 Ilo "co * : : : 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 7-8. 
 
 M 
 
 S :::::: 
 
 CO 
 
 6-7. 
 
 ?;:::::: 
 
 R 
 
 it 
 
 CO Q 
 
 < u j ri ' 5 5 > > 
 
 ^^'i'i'i' o '' 
 
 (/lC/l(/3t/5t/)C/5C/3c/l 
 
 

 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION III 
 
 2.8.9 I" 
 
 ir 
 
 sag 
 
 Sg5 
 
 IsS 
 
 8, 
 
 
 
 till 
 
 iii 5 
 
 O ** *3 ui 
 
 | III 
 
 'S 
 
 S 
 
 Total. 
 
 w (O 
 tO M 
 
 * * * Z 8 & 
 
 M 
 
 > -j 
 
 > 60 
 
 O " 
 
 #1 
 
 OS 
 
 x rs r o op in tx 
 
 VO 
 
 i 
 
 MMMtHOCOCNM- 
 
 ^*-iN ^GOoots^vo 
 
 f 
 
 "a 
 B <u 
 
 u 60 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 Ut -^ 
 
 v Cj 
 
 C~t v 
 
 ->oom^txM **o 
 
 I 
 N 
 
 toS'ffG'S'S 'J'S 
 
 6 
 
 *N^O>nM M Tf 
 HVOtOM MM * N 
 
 M 
 
 9 
 
 "a |> 
 D rt 
 
 | 
 
 MM M 
 
 vo 
 
 M 
 
 d 
 
 2 
 
 VO O- 
 
 VO to 
 
 M 01 eo o ON * 
 
 VO 
 
 Over 20. 
 
 :::::: M M 
 
 
 
 19-20. 
 
 M O 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 18-19. 
 
 ; M O M to 
 
 <n 
 
 17-18. 
 
 W 00 vo O 
 .... (4 
 
 to 
 
 16-17. 
 
 : H ,,. c 
 
 ^ 
 
 15-16. 
 
 - 
 
 VO O to 00 VO OO 1 
 - M M 1 
 
 1 
 
 14-15- 
 
 O m 
 
 in oo o M M vc I 
 
 
 
 I3-M- 
 
 00 O 
 
 M Cl 
 
 tx M in ix cT* ^ 
 to w 
 
 M 
 
 12-13. 
 
 <X M 
 
 M 
 
 tO M 
 
 * 
 
 11-13. 
 
 ft S 
 
 JX M 00 O 
 IO M H 
 
 S 
 
 IO-II. 
 
 m M 
 
 CO O 
 
 tx 00 
 
 M ... 
 
 to 
 
 9-IO. 
 
 O 
 
 ~F T 
 
 O O <O 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 
 8-9. 
 
 * 00 .... 
 
 * 
 
 7-8. 
 
 s s 
 
 >:::: 
 
 to 
 
 6-7. 
 
 in M ...... 
 
 
 
 5-6. 
 
 M" ...... 
 
 to ....... 
 
 to 
 
 of 
 
 S3 
 a 
 
 
 JS 
 
 1 
 
 Sub-Std. A. 
 Sub-Std. B. 
 
 ^ s s > > 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 a a a a a a 
 M K A M
 
 112 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 CQ 
 
 iJS-S 
 US 
 
 BJ 
 
 811 
 
 
 IBB 
 
 9ol 
 
 II! 
 
 - 
 
 a'o.a. 
 
 Total 
 
 M M tV * N >O 
 fN V> ^ tO V"> M 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 t^ 
 
 CO 
 
 I* 
 
 g 
 
 ft ** fO M CO O 
 "s OO O> OV 00 
 
 OO 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 * * O * M 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 | 
 
 O\ 00 VO vo to O 
 
 M M 
 
 to 
 
 I 
 
 * to 
 
 * 
 
 ii 
 
 f 
 
 <o oo o to * o 
 
 
 
 6 
 S5 
 
 -f O M N O 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 Over 20. 
 
 *s o to 
 
 is 
 
 19-20. 
 
 O H O O wi O 
 
 VO 
 
 18-19. 
 
 o * o to 
 
 & 
 
 17-18. 
 
 to ,0 * * 
 
 OO 
 
 16-17. 
 
 M 
 
 tx 
 
 to 
 
 15-16. 
 
 * * * to 
 
 R 
 
 14-15- 
 
 M M tO * ; 
 
 to 
 
 I3-M- 
 
 tx M tx OO 00 
 
 M 
 
 ro 
 
 ia-i 3 . 
 
 o * o w : 
 
 S; 
 
 11-12. 
 
 vo N. m ; 
 
 9 
 
 to-ri. 
 
 0\ O it O O 
 <o 
 
 
 
 9-10. 
 
 fO M M 
 
 8 
 
 8-9. 
 
 O rt 
 
 M 
 
 7-8. 
 
 ?3 * : : : : 
 
 O 
 
 6-7. 
 
 *::::: 
 
 * 
 
 5-6. 
 
 ::::: 
 
 10 
 
 "S^ 
 
 o . H > 
 2 -o -o -o -o 
 
 j { T! T3 -O T3 
 
 8 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 ,-; ,*2 ******* 
 
 O O C/> C/3 C/) C/5 
 
 1
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 113 
 
 Total. 
 
 M M OO C* O O 
 <O 10 1 to M 10 
 
 to 
 
 11 
 
 | 
 
 CO M M O\ O * 
 
 10 tx oo >o tx <o 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 oo co tx vo * v> 
 
 W VO tx O> 00 to 
 
 fO M M 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 }t 
 
 l| 
 
 S 3 2 1 ? ? ?f 
 
 w 
 
 6 
 
 tx OO w to O 1O 
 
 M 
 
 <0 
 
 It 
 
 *| 
 
 
 0\ 
 
 M 
 
 | 
 
 >o 10 o o o 10 
 
 OO M M 
 
 ft 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 Over 20. 
 
 14 M M tO tO 
 
 a 
 
 19-20. 
 
 M tO 
 
 oo 
 
 18-19. 
 
 to * o to m 
 
 'S 
 
 
 18. 
 
 
 tx 
 
 to 
 
 17- 
 
 M M 
 
 16-17. 
 
 M IH M 
 
 ?! 
 
 15-16. 
 
 * N tO 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 I4-I5- 
 
 >O tx O 10 O 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 13-14- 
 
 N 1O IO * M 10 
 
 
 12-13. 
 
 O ON M tX <X O 
 
 
 
 11-12. 
 
 a a a T s. - 
 
 
 10-11. 
 
 Tt" OO N O V) M 
 *O M N M 
 
 
 9-IO. 
 
 tx O* Ol tx M M 
 
 VO <O M 
 
 
 8-9. 
 
 * Ci to 
 
 >o 
 
 
 7-8. 
 
 OO M ' '. 
 
 
 6-7. 
 
 5 : : : : 
 
 
 5-6. 
 
 Ch . . . . 
 
 to ..... 
 
 
 , * 
 "8 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 (2 
 
 <J PQ -* -H 1 1 1-4 
 
 "U T3 *O tl 
 
 o o i b b ^ 
 *; ** a 3 3 
 
 Op C/3 T3 T3 *o T3 
 
 2 s B ^ 
 
 CO t/5 (/) C/5 </J to
 
 114 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 MM 2222 2222 <%"' 
 
 2S3 ^^ > //7/,'ffl7; "&% %j2% ^^i 
 
 221 
 
 22 2 
 
 ESS 
 
 ^55 
 ^S\i 
 "~7e 
 
 il 
 
 - 
 
 O 3 
 
 - a 
 
 IS 
 
 a ^ 
 
 * 
 
 o , 
 
 13 
 SttS 
 
 * 
 
 - 
 
 CUD " 
 
 II 
 
 ii 
 
 COM 
 
 1.2
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 115 
 
 These figures, then, cannot be regarded as absolutely accurate, 
 but they are sufficient to show the variability in age of the 
 pupils in the several standards, and to support a plea for liberty 
 to modify the course of instruction in the case of special pupils 
 or groups of pupils. Especially do they seem to indicate the 
 advisability of regrouping the pupils for such a subject as 
 industrial training. To require boys of fourteen and fifteen to 
 do the simple kindergarten manual occupations suitable for 
 infants of six and seven is obviously absurd. In this connec- 
 tion also the advisability of admitting old pupils to the sub- 
 standards might well be questioned. While it seems harsh to 
 refuse to admit children of fourteen and sixteen to the sub- 
 standards, it is a moot point whether it is not in the interests of 
 those children themselves, as it is certainly in the interests of 
 the class as a whole, to require them to devote themselves 
 entirely to industrial work, or, in the case of the larger insti- 
 tutions, to form a special class for academic studies. Such 
 pupils cannot expect to remain at school for more than a 
 year or two, and the work offered them in the sub-standards 
 is unsuitable. 
 
 The time-in-school-standard figures, which, in the absence 
 of official records, are based on figures supplied by the teachers 
 on a form issued by the writer, are very significant. The fact 
 that 67 per cent, of the pupils in Natal schools, 41 per cent, in 
 the Transkei, 54 per cent, in Basutoland, and 67 per cent, in 
 the Transvaal have repeated one or more standards, testifies 
 to the unsuitability of the syllabus, the poorness of the teach- 
 ing, and the rigour of the examinations. The extent of the 
 repetition in the case of the Natal schools is shown in fig. 4 
 (p. 121). Out of every 100 pupils, 5 have spent one year less 
 than the normal time to reach their present standard ; 27 have 
 spent the normal amount of time; while 39, 17, and n have 
 been retarded one, two, and three or more years respectively. 
 The effect of such excessive retardation is that a very large 
 number of pupils leave school, while those who remain do not 
 receive the instruction adapted to their ability, but they 
 help to swell the numbers of over-age pupils.
 
 116 
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 
 II 
 
 P 
 
 ij 
 
 -S^ 
 
 ** 2 
 
 il 
 
 ja*^ 
 
 ctf (^ 
 
 B! 
 
 "d 
 
 SB 
 a 
 
 T3 rt 
 
 _B 
 
 "S^l 
 
 11 
 
 115 
 
 sis 
 
 ii-sl 
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 M| 
 
 |i' s 
 
 <"? 6 
 
 <Z > o 
 
 H J= 
 OJ3 w 
 J?- 
 
 ^S'S- 
 
 ^ ? 3 
 
 !ft 
 
 i p, t 
 
 Total. 
 
 * .. 1 j 1 ; ; O ' 
 
 M 
 
 % 
 H 
 
 ! 
 
 || 
 
 n-1 f^ O M rx -t 
 
 inVwNvooow 
 N vo tx vo in vg moo 
 
 fv 
 
 vO 
 
 2 
 
 ^woo^otoin 
 ^^rOOOOvo O <O CO 
 
 (O M 
 
 GO 
 
 1 
 
 || 
 
 rsfop too fs to vo 
 V v-> ob vo 6 vo ob 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 ro *x M ^^o -^-oo 
 
 M 
 
 vo 
 to 
 
 o 13 
 
 < 
 
 11 
 
 O O Ovpopvpvp o 
 
 9* 
 
 o 
 
 OOOmvo^^O 
 
 V? 
 
 Over 12. 
 
 
 O 
 
 11-13. 
 
 ......*M 
 
 H 
 
 IO-II. 
 
 ...... ^ 
 
 VO 
 
 9-10. 
 
 : : : o M 
 
 VO 
 
 8-9. 
 
 M o M n oo o 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 7-8. 
 
 - w (NVOOO mool 
 o 
 
 in 
 
 oo 
 
 6-7. 
 
 M O 0> vo vo O * 
 
 VO 
 
 5-6. 
 
 m Z %$>$>< : 
 
 ^ 
 
 4-5- 
 
 m ? 8 % 3 2 : : 
 
 O 
 
 3-4- 
 
 o oo M m ^ 
 M M N rr> . . 
 
 z 
 
 *-3- 
 
 * TC M in M 
 
 >o o m M 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 r-2. 
 
 VO tN " | ' ' ' ', 
 
 M 
 
 O-I. 
 
 M ::::::: 
 
 S 
 
 P 
 
 n a 
 * <**''._;'' 
 
 <o_ cSS>> 
 
 <o i/j'O^'O'O'O'C 
 
 
 5 T i i i "I P 
 
 25252 
 di n S 9 II 
 
 |
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 117 
 
 S I 
 II 
 
 o 
 
 ?5 "^ 
 
 fr] Q 
 
 3 * 
 
 PQ 2 
 < wp 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 jj 
 
 T3 C8 
 JJfei 
 
 111 
 
 ui rt j 
 
 
 
 ib "H 
 
 S ill 
 
 
 fsil 
 
 S 1 ** o 
 S gS 
 
 11-3 
 
 o^i 
 
 ^| 
 111 
 
 tu 
 
 Total. 
 
 C* <OO\vO >OQ o* 
 MMoOOOVOtOOS 
 
 ro N w M M 
 
 M 
 
 1 * 
 
 mo\(oot<o*o<o M 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 sssssg,** 
 
 1 
 
 1 "^ 
 
 (NMtXH rr CO ip 
 
 KlVoM-lCnVVcV) 
 VO vo * <O f ^ 
 
 i 
 
 Z 1 
 
 |?^^In^^^ 
 
 tN 
 
 I* r 
 
 o o o o o n- 
 
 M w ro *O ts 
 
 
 
 ^ * 
 
 O O O M M tn^OO 
 
 CO 
 
 Over 12. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11-12. 
 
 
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 10-11. 
 
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 9-10. 
 
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 8-9. 
 
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 7-8. 
 
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 6-7- 
 
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 3-4- 
 
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 Total. 
 
 N oo >o x M 
 
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 0* fl* 
 
 x O >. w >O >O 
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 11 
 
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 Over 12. 
 
 
 
 
 
 11-12. 
 
 
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 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 9-10. 
 
 ; ; ; ; O 
 
 o 
 
 - 
 
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 7-8. 
 
 ; ; ; M * o 
 
 <r> 
 
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 en 
 
 5-6. 
 
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 <n 
 
 
 
 4-3- 
 
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 Totals. . .
 
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 Total. 
 
 S 3 a 3- 5 * 
 
 oo 
 
 it 
 
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 O VO O CT\ x to 
 
 
 
 
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 09 
 
 00 
 
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 Acceler- 
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 5 
 
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 11-12. 
 
 
 
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 9-10. 
 
 : : : : M : 
 
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 8-9. 
 
 ; M H M C. 
 
 S 1 
 
 7-8. 
 
 M <O W OO O 
 
 00 
 
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 120 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 22L 
 
 ^a 
 
 SB 
 
 I* 
 
 II 
 
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 13 
 
 CO nJ 
 
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 ca -a 
 
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 03 (0 * 
 
 I lai 
 
 <JQ 
 403 
 
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 o 

 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 121 
 
 FIG. 
 
 Total 2ys. lyr. 
 
 4. Showing the percentage of pupils accelerated and repeating 
 by years in 10 Native schools in Natal, chosen at random.
 
 122 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 C. Promotion and Non-Promotion of Pupils. Complete 
 statistics of the promotion and non-promotion of pupils in the 
 Native schools of South Africa are not available, but the writer 
 has succeeded in obtaining figures for a large number of schools 
 in the Province of Natal, which correspond almost exactly 
 with the general results in the Cape Province, and may be 
 taken as typical. For convenience the figures are arranged 
 in four groups : 
 
 i. The promotion and non-promotion of 2054 pupils in the 
 standards of 77 Native day schools, where the pupils only 
 proceed to Standard IV., and where the teachers are almost 
 always Natives. The promotions are made on the inspector's 
 annual examination. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Number 
 examined. 
 
 Number 
 promoted. 
 
 Number 
 non- 
 promoted. 
 
 Per cent, 
 non- 
 promoted. 
 
 I. 
 II. . 
 III. . 
 IV. . 
 
 Total . 
 
 868 
 
 So? 
 422 
 
 257 
 
 572 
 367 
 280 
 
 121 
 
 296 
 140 
 142 
 136 
 
 34-o 
 
 27-6 
 
 33-6 
 5 2 '9 
 
 2054 
 
 1340 
 
 7M 
 
 34'7 
 
 2. The promotion and non-promotion of 422 pupils in Native 
 boarding schools, where the pupils are received in Standards 
 IV., V., and VI. only, and where the teachers are partly Native 
 and partly European. The promotions are made on the 
 inspector's annual examination. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Number 
 examined. 
 
 Number 
 promoted. 
 
 Number 
 non- 
 promoted. 
 
 Per cent, 
 non- 
 promoted. 
 
 IV. . 
 V. . 
 VI. . 
 
 Total . 
 
 116 
 198 
 1 08 
 
 81 
 128 
 82 
 
 35 
 70 
 26 
 
 30-1 
 
 35-3 
 24-0 
 
 422 
 
 291 
 
 131 
 
 31-0
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 123 
 
 3. The promotion and non-promotion of 1263 pupils in the 
 infant classes of Native day schools where the teachers are 
 Natives. The promotions are made by the teachers themselves. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Number 
 examined. 
 
 Number 
 promoted. 
 
 Number 
 non- 
 promoted. 
 
 Per cent, 
 non- 
 promoted. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 C 
 D . 
 
 Total . 
 
 466 
 372 
 
 212 
 213 
 
 262 
 272 
 i?5 
 173 
 
 204 
 
 IOO 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 43-8 
 26-8 
 17-4 
 
 18-8 
 
 1263 
 
 882 
 
 38i 
 
 30-1 
 
 4. The percentages of non-promotion in the European and 
 Native schools of the Cape and Natal, compared with that for 
 the White and Coloured schools of certain cities of the United 
 States and the Philippine Islands. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Year. 
 
 European 
 or White. 
 
 Native or 
 Coloured. 
 
 Owensboro, Ky. 
 
 1914 
 
 7-8 
 
 9-1 
 
 Houston, Texas 
 
 1913 
 
 9-2 
 
 M-3 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 1913 
 
 12-2 
 
 18-2 
 
 Columbia, S.C. 
 
 1914 
 
 IO-I 
 
 18-6 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. . 
 
 
 2VI 
 
 21-9 
 
 Richmond, Va. . 
 
 1914 
 
 J 
 
 18-5 
 
 26-2 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 1913 
 
 21-7 
 
 28-7 
 
 Galveston, Texas . 
 
 1914 
 
 19-7 
 
 29.3 
 
 Natal 
 
 1914 
 
 ? 
 
 32-8 
 
 Cape 
 
 1912 
 
 {ilij} 
 
 /28- 7 
 \34-o II 
 
 Philippine Islands . 
 
 1913 
 
 
 
 45-0 
 
 Mission schools. 
 || Aborigines' schools. 
 
 * First-class schools, 
 t Second-class schools, 
 j Third-class schools. 
 
 Note. The percentage of non-promotion has been calculated on 
 the number presented for examination in the case of the Cape and 
 Natal, on the total enrolment in the case of Richmond and Baltimore, 
 and on the average attendance in the case of the other cities.
 
 124 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 These figures show that the percentage of non-promotion 
 in the Native schools of South Africa is greater than it is in 
 the White and Negro schools of the United States, 1 and also 
 that there is an entire lack of uniformity or graduation in the 
 percentage of non-promotions in the several standards. 
 
 With regard to the whole question, the evil effects of such 
 excessive non-promotion need to be pointed out : 
 
 (a) Many pupils who fail of promotion are disheartened 
 thereby, and tend to leave school without completing 
 the course. 
 
 (6) Those who remain at school increase the " over-ageness " 
 of the pupils, and add to the number of pupils who, by 
 reason of physical or mental maturity, should be doing 
 another kind of work at, perhaps, another kind of school. 
 
 (c) Non-promotion increases the congestion in the lower 
 classes and standards, which now contain more than 
 75 per cent, of the pupils. 
 
 The lack of uniformity or graduation in the promotion of 
 pupils in the different standards of the Natal schools is signifi- 
 cant. In a properly articulated system the requirements of 
 any one standard should not be higher than the requirements 
 of any other standard, and the normal rate of promotion should 
 be about 100 per cent. There will always be some pupils who, 
 by reason of late entrance or irregular attendance, will fail to 
 complete the requirements of the course, but their failures 
 should be compensated by the number of pupils who deserve 
 and receive double promotion. 
 
 The excessive non-promotion of pupils in the Natal schools 
 and the inequality of its distribution are due to some or all 
 of the following causes : 
 
 1 The only school system showing a greater percentage of non- 
 promotions which the writer has been able to discover is that of the 
 Philippine Islands, where the percentages of non-promotions (calculated 
 on the enrolment) for the last six years have been : 
 
 1907-8 ... 54 
 
 1908-9 ... 55 
 
 1909-10 . . -46 
 
 1910-11 . . -50 
 1911-12 . . .51 
 1912-13 . .45 
 
 These extraordinary figures are largely accounted for by the fact 
 that the sole medium of instruction is English a foreign tongue to 
 the natives of the Islands.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 12.5 
 
 1. An unsuitable and badly graduated course of study. 
 
 2. Teachers incapable of meeting the requirements of the 
 course of study and inspections. 
 
 3. The system of examination. 
 
 4. Over-size classes in the lower classes and standards. 
 
 5. " Over-age " and dull pupils. 
 
 6. Ignorance of English on the part of the pupils. 1 
 
 It is important to note that absence and irregular attendance, 
 which are the chief causes of non-promotion in European 
 schools, 2 are not responsible for the low rate of promotion in 
 the Native schools. The attendance at the Native schools in 
 Natal is very satisfactory, being 89 per cent, in 1914, as against 
 85 per cent in the European schools. 
 
 To secure the normal rate of promotion, 3 the following 
 conditions are necessary: 
 
 (a) A course of study adapted to the needs of different groups 
 
 of pupils within the same school and often within the 
 same standard. 
 
 (b) The distribution of the pupils in accordance with their 
 
 stage of advancement in each subject. 
 
 (c) The determination of the length of the course of study 
 
 by the length of time the children, as a matter of 
 fact, do remain at school, and not by a period 
 arbitrarily chosen. 
 
 (d) A new basis for promotion, viz. the ability of the pupil 
 
 to do the work of the class or standard ahead, not an 
 arbitrary assumption of what amount of information the 
 pupil ought to be able to reproduce at examinations* 
 
 1 In a recent investigation Dr Bachmann found that the inability 
 to use the English language was the main cause of non-promotion 
 in the New York schools. The difference in the percentage of pro- 
 motion in favour of pupils who were able to use the English language 
 over those who could not was 19' 94. Ignorance of English was most 
 disastrous to promotion in Grades 6, 7, and 8. (Bachmann, New York 
 Committee on School Inquiry, part ii., subdivision i., section F, iii., 
 p. 85.) * Ibid., p. 19. 
 
 3 The best opinion in the United States regards 8 per cent, as the 
 maximum rate of non-promotion. (Strayer, The Butte Survey, p. 28.) 
 
 * " If school officials, principals, and teachers can come to see 
 that the prime purpose of the elementary schools is to develop the 
 natural tastes and abilities of children, to arouse their imagination,
 
 126 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 To obtain these conditions in toto is at present impossible, but 
 the nearer we can approach to them the better. 
 
 D. Failures by Subjects. The number of pupils failing in 
 each subject sheds light on two important aspects of the course 
 of study : viz., the relative difficulty of the subjects, and their 
 importance in the eyes of the examiner. The following table 
 gives the failures in each subject of the Natal pupils referred to 
 above. A failure in one subject does not necessarily imply 
 a failure in the whole examination. The number of marks 
 required for a pass is 50 per cent, in reading and spelling, 40 
 in composition, 30 in arithmetic, 60 in writing, and 50 per cent, 
 of the aggregate. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Standards. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV.* 
 
 iv.t 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Number of pupils 
 Number of failures 
 Reading 
 Spelling 
 Translation . 
 
 395 
 1 08 
 
 85 
 162 
 
 254 
 
 46 
 
 33 
 109 
 
 257 
 
 72 
 
 22 
 135 
 
 1 86 
 87 
 9 
 80 
 
 116 
 35 
 
 19 
 
 j 
 
 5i 
 30 
 
 198 
 
 70 
 
 54 
 
 48 
 62 
 
 1 08 
 26 
 
 27 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 Composition 
 Grammar . . 
 
 158 
 
 4i 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 Arithmetic . 
 Writing 
 
 136 
 
 18 
 
 67 
 3 
 
 83 
 
 8 
 
 83 
 83 
 
 Day schools. 
 
 t Boarding schools. 
 
 In connection with these failures the following points deserve 
 special reference : 
 
 (i.) The absence of uniformity or graduation in the failures, 
 e.g. in composition and handwriting. 
 
 to stimulate their emotions, and to give them power to solve problems 
 and to meet practical situations in life, the question of the right of 
 children to advancement will not be based upon mastery of facts of 
 a grade, but upon the ability to do work which lies ahead. On such a 
 basis, teachers and principals would feel that they can advance a 
 much larger per cent, of children than they do at the present time." 
 (Ibid., p. 30.)
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 127 
 
 (ii.) The very heavy mortality caused by English spelling and 
 arithmetic. It is possible that this is due to the ease 
 with which these subjects can be examined. 
 
 (iii.) The apparently sudden stiffening of the requirements 
 in handwriting. The percentage of failures in this 
 subject jumps from i per cent, in Standard II. to 
 44-6 per cent, in Standard IV. 
 
 From these results it is a fair inference that either the require- 
 ments are badly graded or the examinations are hastily or 
 capriciously made. 
 
 E. The (insurability of the Instruction. If we agree that the 
 object of education is to enable the coming generation to adjust 
 themselves to the society in which they will live, we must admit 
 that the few pupils who survive the elementary curriculum in 
 Native schools are not adequately prepared for their future 
 lives. In South Africa the ruling European has decided that 
 the spheres of work of the two races shall be widely different, 
 for the present at any rate. Even though it did not approve 
 of the principle involved, any system of instruction which 
 failed to take into account that patent fact, and which gave 
 the Natives a literary and bookish education, as the present 
 system does, when the work which the Natives will be required 
 to do will be, for the most part, industrial and agricultural, 
 would be doing the Native more harm than good. 1 
 
 The education given at present cannot but have the effect 
 of causing the Native to despise manual labour and to incline 
 to the clerical occupations, which the European has decided 
 shall be reserved for those of his own race. That the present 
 system of education has not been provocative of more race 
 enmity must be largely attributed to its ineffectiveness. 
 
 1 Speaking of the education of the Basutos, Sir Godfrey Lagden, 
 late Governor of the Protectorate, expresses the following opinion, 
 which would be acceptable to many friends of the Natives : " The 
 system for a long time to come should be to give public instruction 
 of such a character only as will fit them for the common needs of their 
 peasant life. The true perspective of evolution may be lost by mis- 
 guided attempts to raise them." (Basutoland, vol. xii. p. 648.)
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION 
 
 THE term " higher education " is difficult of definition, but 
 for our purpose it is taken to include Native high schools and 
 colleges, theological schools, and training schools for teachers : 
 in short, all education other than that given in the elementary 
 schools, except industrial education, which is treated in a 
 separate chapter. 
 
 Section i. Native High Schools 
 
 In South Africa a public high school is understood to be an 
 institution which receives pupils after they have passed the 
 elementary-school stage (or earlier in Natal), and prepares them 
 for the school examinations of the Cape University. The 
 influence of the Cape University upon the secondary school 
 system of South Africa has been enormous. To nine-tenths of 
 the people of South Africa a secondary-school education means 
 preparation for the junior certificate, matriculation, or senior 
 certificate examinations of the University, and the mere ability 
 to pass its pupils in the matriculation examination has become 
 the recognised standard of efficiency of a secondary school. 1 
 
 While the rigorous examinations have no doubt served to 
 
 1 Even some of the Departments of Education seem* to hold this 
 narrow view. For example, every year in the reports of the Cape 
 Department, for the " attainments and progress of pupils " in secondary 
 schools the list of passes in the matriculation examination is pub- 
 lished, and the comparatively large number of passes in the Cape 
 Province is contrasted with the smaller number in the other provinces. 
 The 1911 Report proceeds: " It also deserves mention that while for 
 all candidates the proportion of passes is 58-7 per cent., that for the 
 candidates from the Cape high schools is 69-5 ; and that out of 
 36 first-class passes 30 were credited to Cape State-aided schools." 
 
 128
 
 I2Q 
 
 keep up a high standard of academic scholarship in the 
 secondary schools of South Africa, they have prevented the 
 introduction of more useful subjects into the schools, have 
 cramped teaching by their narrow syllabuses and regulations, 
 and, above all, have forced upon the country a wrong and 
 harmful conception of secondary education. The chief of 
 these examinations, the matriculation, which is designed as 
 an entrance examination for the comparatively few students 
 who are able to take up a University course, has become the 
 leaving-certificate examination for the high schools, and as 
 such dominates and cramps the course of study of thousands 
 who will never be able to proceed to the University. 1 
 
 It is probable that a secondary-school system based on the 
 examination requirements of the University is not altogether 
 satisfactory in the case of European pupils ; it is certain that 
 it is not what is needed for the Natives of South Africa. 
 
 While several Native institutions in South Africa prepare 
 their pupils on these lines, and occasionally succeed in passing 
 a few pupils through the examinations, there is only one separate 
 and recognised high school for Natives in South Africa : viz. the 
 College Department of Lovedale Institution, which is graded 
 as a first-class school by the Cape Education Department. 
 
 During the last six years the distribution of pupils has been 
 as follows : 
 
 
 1910. 
 
 IQII. 
 
 1912. 
 
 1913. 
 
 1914- 
 
 1915. 
 
 Form A (Standard VII.) 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 
 8 
 
 B 
 
 19 
 
 31 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 82 
 
 12 
 
 c 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 
 24 
 
 D 
 E 
 
 
 19 
 
 "} 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 {J 
 
 
 65 
 
 78 
 
 7 8 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 5 
 
 The College prepares pupils for the matriculation and junior 
 and senior certificate examinations of the Cape University. 
 
 1 The Cape University Calendar for 1914-15 contains the names 
 of over nine thousand students who have passed the matriculation 
 examination but who have not passed the intermediate examination 
 in Arts, the first examination of the University course proper. 
 
 9
 
 I3O THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The course comprises the usual matriculation subjects : English, 
 Latin, mathematics, a modern language (Dutch, Sesuto or 
 Sixosa), history, science, and, in addition, agriculture, handi- 
 craft, bookkeeping, and first aid. 
 
 In the somewhat narrow field of preparing pupils for the 
 Cape University examinations the College has not been very 
 successful. 
 
 The number of passes during the last ten years is as follows : 
 
 Examination?. 
 
 1904. 
 
 1905. 
 
 1906. 
 
 1907. 
 
 1908. 
 
 1909. 
 
 1910. 
 
 1911. 
 
 1912. 
 
 I913- 
 
 Matriculation 
 Senior certifi- 
 cate . 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 " 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 Junior certifi- 
 cate . 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 
 If these meagre results be compared with the good enrol- 
 ment in the classes, it seems safe to say that the Native has 
 not yet demonstrated his fitness for academic work of this 
 nature. 
 
 The chief reason which is given by the authorities of Love- 
 dale for the non-success of Native pupils at the matriculation 
 is that the students entering the College are so deficient in 
 English that they cannot understand the matter of the text- 
 books. They admit the unsuit ability of the examination 
 when they rightly point out that the standard of English 
 demanded from Native pupils at matriculation is higher than 
 the German and French demanded of European students at 
 the B.A. examination. 
 
 Section 2. Theological Institutions 
 
 It is not possible to give any exact figures of the number of 
 theological institutions and their students, as no return of these 
 is made in Government publications, but their number must 
 be considerable, since all the Protestant missionary societies 
 make use of Native evangelists and preachers, and hold it as 
 one of their chief functions to build up a Native ministry. 
 
 The Churches do not regard the Native ministry as a pro- 
 fession for which young Native students should be prepared.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION 131 
 
 They prefer to train earnest -minded men who have shown 
 themselves by their lives and abilities to be specially fitted 
 for this work. 1 Many of the men who are recommended 
 for admission to the theological institutions are middle-aged ; 
 at some (for example, Tiger Kloof) only married men are 
 accepted. The education possessed by these men varies 
 considerably, and special arrangements are generally made 
 at the institutions for their instruction in ordinary school 
 subjects. The subjects generally taught are Biblical instruc- 
 tion, Old and New Testament history, comparative religion, 
 the principal Christian doctrines, Church history, ethics and 
 exegesis of some books of the Bible. 2 Practice in preaching 
 and in the conduct of public worship are also given. 
 
 On the whole, the Churches have been fortunate in their 
 Native ministry. Although such men as Tiyo Soga are rare, 
 the average Native minister is a good, honest man, sincere in 
 his efforts to benefit his fellows, loyal to the Government, and 
 respected by Europeans and Natives alike. 
 
 Section 3. Training Institutions and Students 
 
 The necessity for Native training institutions follows as 
 a corollary to the necessity for Native education. Schools for 
 Native children will and should be staffed by Native teachers, 
 and it is of course necessary that these teachers be trained. 
 In 1915 the percentage of uncertificated teachers in the Native 
 schools was 49-02 in the Mission and 66*34 m the Aborigines' 
 Schools of the Cape Province ; 3 34-3 in Natal ; and 53-5 in the 
 Transvaal. 
 
 The extension of Native education is everywhere hampered 
 by the lack of trained teachers. The reports of the super - 
 
 1 Of the seven students at the Theological Department of Lovedale 
 Institution, four had been teachers for periods ranging from three to 
 twenty years, one had a few years of office training, one had just 
 completed the training-college course, and the seventh had served his 
 time as a carpenter after passing Standard VI. (Report, 1913.) 
 
 1 To illustrate the nature of the instruction given, the examination 
 questions set in 1915 in the diocese of Natal to Native candidates 
 for ordination are given in Appendix B. 
 
 8 Many of the uncertificated teachers in the Cape Province have 
 passed the first- and second-year pupil teachers' examinations, and have 
 thus had some training for their duties.
 
 132 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 intendents of the several Education Departments are constantly 
 referring to this need : 
 
 " Until a supply of Native teachers has been trained 
 at these institutions the grants made on behalf of the 
 schools themselves can bear no real fruit." (Report of 
 the Director of Education, Transvaal, 1910, p. 83.) 
 
 " In view of the large increase of new schools and the 
 many schools still waiting to be taken over by the Depart- 
 ment, the demand for certificated teachers is still in excess of 
 the supply, and will be for several years to come." (Report 
 of the Superintendent of Education, Natal, 1912, p. 15.) 
 
 There are only 27 training institutions for Native teachers 
 in South Africa, with an enrolment of 2312 students to supply 
 the needs of over 3000 Native and Coloured schools. 
 
 The following is a list of the State-aided training institutions 
 for Natives, together with their enrolments. 1 There are no train- 
 ing institutions for Native teachers in the Orange Free State. 
 
 CAPE. 
 
 Bensonvale (Wesleyan) . 104 
 Blythswood (United Free 
 
 Church of Scotland) . 108 
 
 Buntingville (Wesleyan . 61 
 
 Clarkebury (Wesleyan) . 66 
 Emgwali (United Free 
 
 Church of Scotland) . 57 
 Engcobo, All Saints (Church 
 
 of England) . . 76 
 
 Genadendal (Moravian) . 18 
 
 Healdtown (Wesleyan) . 164 
 Lovedale (United Free 
 
 Church of Scotland) . 188 
 
 Mvenyane (Moravian) . 90 
 St Matthew's (Church of 
 
 England) . . . 151 
 
 Shawbury (Wesleyan) . 102 
 
 Umtata (Church of England) 43 
 
 NATAL. 
 Adams (American Zulu 
 
 Mission) 73 
 
 * Including a number of industrial-school pupils. 
 
 Modderspruit (Church of 
 England) ... 67 
 
 Kwa Magwaza (Church 
 of England) . . 25 
 
 Umpumulo (Scandinavian) 45 
 
 Edendale (Wesleyan) . 66 
 
 Mariannhiil (Roman 
 
 Catholic) . . M 
 
 TRANSVAAL. 
 
 Kilnerton (Wesleyan) . 100 
 Bothsabelo (Lutheran) . 66 
 Lemana (Swiss Presby- 
 terian) . . .48 
 Pietersburg (Church of 
 England) . . . 141 
 
 BASUTOLAND. 
 
 Morij a (Paris Evangelical) 158 
 Thaba Morena (Paris Evan- 
 gelical) . . . 50* 
 Masite (Church of England) 21* 
 Roma (Roman Catholic) 296* 
 
 1 The figures are for 1914 for the Cape, 1917 for Natal, 1916 for the 
 Transvaal, and 1914 for Basutoland.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION 
 
 133 
 
 Not only is the supply of students in training institutions 
 not adequate to meet the demands of the schools, but it should 
 be borne in mind that many of these students do not intend 
 to take up teaching as a permanent calling in life. 1 In many 
 parts of the country the only possible way by which an 
 ambitious Native student can secure higher education is by 
 enrolling himself at a training institution. Many of the girl 
 students marry and give up teaching. Higher wages offered 
 in stores, on the mines, and in offices attract many of the 
 male students. 
 
 In the Transkeian territories the salaries in the Government 
 and Council-aided Native schools are 42 for certificated and 
 35 for uncertificated head teachers, and 34 and 30 for assist- 
 ants, with i, 43. a year good-service allowance to the former. 
 
 The salaries paid in the Native day schools of Natal are 
 as follows : 
 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Head teacher (male) . 
 
 &>o 
 
 ^4 
 
 >6 
 
 Head teacher (female) 
 
 56 
 
 ^24 
 
 $6 
 
 Assistant 
 
 ^36 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 In the Cape Province the Government grant to a fully 
 certificated teacher is 30 per annum, and to an assistant 
 15 per annum on an average. These average grants are 
 raised to 45 per annum and 22, los. by school fees and other 
 local contributions, but these latter sums are very difficult 
 to collect. 2 
 
 The inadequacy of these salaries becomes apparent when 
 it is realised that the lowest wage paid to Native labourers on 
 the Witwatersrand gold mines is from 503. to 6os. per month 
 in addition to rations and lodging ; while Natives taking up 
 
 1 Report of the Superintendent of Education, Natal, 1914. 
 
 1 See the evidence of Messrs Sihlali and Rubusana before the Cape 
 Native Education Commission, 1907, Report, sections 704, 1375 et 
 passim.
 
 134 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 domestic, commercial, or general service in Johannesburg or 
 working on the diamond mines at Kimberley receive con- 
 siderably more. 1 For these occupations, which call for no 
 school preparation, the supply of labour is not equal to the 
 demand. For the literate Native the openings are fewer, but 
 as assistant storekeeper, time-checker, lawyer's tout or inter- 
 preter, he will receive a much higher salary than he would as 
 an assistant teacher or principal of any but the largest schools, 
 and this without the long period of preparation at a training 
 institution. 
 
 Not only is the output of the training institutions inadequate 
 to supply the needs of the country, but the methods of training 
 leave much to be desired. As we have seen, only a very small 
 percentage of the students remain to complete the two- or 
 three-years course, so that the typical teacher in the Native 
 schools is the girl of nineteen or twenty years of age, who has 
 had one year of training after completing Standard VI. 
 (Standard IV. in the Transvaal) of the elementary school 
 syllabus. 
 
 Section 4. Methods of Training Teachers 
 
 The methods of training teachers differ in the several 
 provinces. The length of the period of training, the require- 
 ments for admission, the nature of the certificates, the current 
 enrolment figures, and the nature of the financial assistance 
 may be thus summarised : 
 
 Cape Province. A three-years course of training at an 
 approved training institution is the requirement aimed at, 
 but for the present acting teachers and students from other 
 institutions are admitted to the examinations. The admission 
 standard for the first -year course of training is Standard VI. 
 Candidates who have passed Standard VII. are admitted to the 
 second-year course, and those who have matriculated to the 
 
 1 Report of the South African Economic Commission, 1914, section 51. 
 In commenting on the inadequate salaries paid to teachers in the 
 Transkei, the Chief Magistrate says : " Native constables of the lowest 
 grade draw ^48 and uniform, and many unskilled labourers on the 
 roads and tanks 36. Teachers need more intelligence . . . than men 
 in the class mentioned ; their present salaries are grossly dispro- 
 portionate to the importance ... of their work." (Report, 1912, p. 24.)
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION 
 
 135 
 
 third-year course. The minimum age for admission to the 
 first -year course is fifteen. An examination called the pupil 
 teachers' examination is held annually by the Government 
 inspectors, and first- and second-year pupil teacher certifi- 
 cates are issued to successful candidates. Candidates who 
 successfully complete the three years' training receive third- 
 class teachers' certificates. 
 
 Comparatively few students complete the course of training, 
 as the following distribution table shows : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Pupil 
 teachers. 
 First year. 
 
 Pupil 
 teachers. 
 Second 
 year. 
 
 Pupil 
 
 teachers. 
 Third year. 
 
 Percentage of 
 third-year students 
 of total enrol- 
 ment. 
 
 1910 . 
 
 550 
 
 257 
 
 165 
 
 16-9 
 
 1911 . 
 
 619 
 
 293 
 
 210 
 
 18-7 
 
 1912 . 
 
 598 
 
 291 
 
 I 7 6 
 
 16-5 
 
 1913 
 
 555 
 
 360 
 
 189 
 
 17-1 
 
 1914 . 
 
 60 1 
 
 360 
 
 36 7 
 
 21-7 
 
 Financial assistance is received from the Government in 
 the form of (a) grants in aid of teachers' salaries, (b) main- 
 tenance grants for students. 
 
 Natal. One- and two-year courses of training for the third- 
 and second-grade teachers' certificate examinations respec- 
 tively are offered at the six Native resident training institu- 
 tions. 1 No " private study " or other outside candidates are 
 admitted to the examinations. Students must be fifteen years 
 of age or over, and must have passed Standard VI., to'enter the 
 training institution. The teachers " must be Europeans who 
 hold certificates for specialised professional training, and there 
 must be attached to or within easy reach of every training 
 institution one or more schools in which the student-teacher 
 will do practical work under the supervision of trained 
 instructors." 2 
 
 1 A third year in preparation for the first-grade teachers' certi- 
 ficate may be taken " if desired," but up to the present only three 
 candidates have availed themselves of this course. 
 
 - Section 4 of the Regulations.
 
 136 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The enrolment and distribution of the students during the 
 past four years have been as follows : 
 
 Voo, Ist Year 2nd Year 3 rd Year T^tol 
 
 Students. Students. Students. 
 
 1914 146 36 O 182 
 
 1915 127 55 o 182 
 
 1916 in 66 o 177 
 
 1917 203 81 o 284 
 
 Economic pressure and the want of sufficient inducement 
 to take the second and third years' work are the chief causes 
 of the elimination. Financial assistance is given through 
 (a) grants in aid of teachers' salaries, (6) a grant on the 
 average daily attendance, and (c) a bonus for each successful 
 student. 
 
 Transvaal. There are four Government -aided training 
 institutions offering a three-years course in preparation for the 
 Native teachers' certificates. To gain admission a student 
 must now be fifteen years of age, must produce a certificate of 
 character, and must have completed the seventh-year course 
 of the Native school code. Candidates are examined at the 
 end of each year by Government inspectors, and certificates 
 are issued. The certificates issued are of a provisional char- 
 acter, full certificates being only awarded to teachers holding a 
 provisional certificate on the completion of three years' satis- 
 factory service. Success in the industrial subjects of the 
 course is essential for certification. 
 
 The enrolment was 257 in December 1915, and at the 
 examination for certificates held in June 1915 the numbers 
 of the successful candidates in the first, second, and third 
 years' examinations were respectively 79, 69, and 52. 
 
 Financial assistance may be given in the form of (a) a special 
 grant for land and equipment ; (6) grants in aid of salaries of 
 the officer in charge of the boarding establishment, principals, 
 instructors, and industrial instructors ; and (c) bursaries to 
 students. 
 
 Orange Free State. The Orange Free State has no training 
 institutions for teachers. Students desiring to undergo a 
 course of training do so in Basutoland or in one of the other 
 provinces.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION 137 
 
 Basutoland. In Basutoland the system of training teachers 
 is the same as in the Cape, and the Cape pupil teachers' 
 examinations are taken. Most of the training of teachers is 
 done at the training institution of the Paris Evangelical 
 Mission Society at Morija, where in May 1914 there were 
 67 students taking the first-, 22 the second-, and 9 the third- 
 year course. 
 
 Section 5. The Courses of Study in Training Institutions 
 
 The courses of study are prescribed by the several Depart- 
 ments of Education, and form the bases of the examinations 
 for teachers' certificates. Much of the criticism of the courses 
 of study in elementary schools applies here also. In the Cape 
 Province and Basutoland the courses of study are the same 
 for the Native training institutions as for the European 
 Normal Colleges. 1 In Natal the courses of study are based 
 too closely on European lines. 
 
 For the most part, the courses have been drawn up by 
 Government officials who have had little or no experience in 
 Native work. Sometimes the missionaries have been con- 
 sulted, but no official recognition has been given to the views 
 of the teachers in the training institutions the men and women 
 who have to put the courses of study into action, and be 
 judged on the results of the examinations. The teachers in 
 these institutions are for the most part highly trained men and 
 women, and the failure on the part of the Education Depart- 
 ments to capitalise their experience is one of the strongest 
 criticisms against the present systems. 2 
 
 The subjects of examination, with the maximum marks 
 allotted to each, are as follows : 
 
 1 The only distinction between the course for Coloured pupil 
 teachers (the Junior Course) and that for European pupil teachers 
 (the Senior Course) is that the First- Year Junior Course is the same 
 as the Entrance Course for the Senior, the Second- Year Junior the 
 same as the First- Year Senior, and so on. 
 
 2 The Transvaal Education Department recently invited repre- 
 sentatives from the missionary societies to discuss a proposed new 
 syllabus for Native schools. This is not quite what is desired. Official 
 action is needed whereby the experience of the teachers in training 
 institutions may be put at the service of the Department.
 
 138 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 TABLE No. 13 
 
 SUBJECTS OF EXAMINATION 
 
 
 Cape and 
 Basutoland. 
 
 Natal. 
 
 Transvaal. 
 
 
 First 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 First 
 
 Second 
 
 First, second, 
 and third 
 
 
 year. 
 
 year. 
 
 year. 
 
 year. 
 
 year. 
 
 years. 
 
 School management . 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 no 
 
 no 
 
 yes 
 
 Practical teaching . 
 
 15 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Nature study . 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blackboard work 
 
 TOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Writing (not on black- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 board) . 
 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Manual training 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Physical exercises 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Reading . 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Recitation 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 Spelling . 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 5<> 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Composition 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Grammar and lan- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 guage . 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Translation 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 Arithmetic, written 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and mental . 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Algebra . 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 Geometry 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 Vernacular 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 
 
 no 
 
 no 
 
 no 
 
 Geography 
 
 50 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 History . 
 
 * 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Vocal music 
 
 * 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Taught as a class subject, not examined. 
 
 In connection with the above the following points should be 
 noticed : 
 
 i. The absence of instruction in science or nature study in 
 the Transvaal and Natal. Even in the Cape the subject does 
 not receive the recognition of being specifically examined. 1 
 
 1 " The inspection of nature-study work will for the present be 
 informal, but the papers on school management will include papers 
 upon it." (Regulations regarding the Training and Examination of 
 Teachers, 1914, p. 17.1
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION I3Q 
 
 (For reasons for the special value of nature study and science 
 in Native schools, see p. 280 of this volume.) 
 
 2. The low marks given for manual training, which in the 
 Cape receives considerably fewer marks than blackboard work 
 or geometry, and in Natal fewer than history or algebra and 
 geometry. 
 
 3. The neglect of the vernacular in the Transvaal and Natal. 
 It is curious to find the Cape insisting on a study of the ver- 
 nacular in the training schools, when it does not insist upon 
 it in the elementary schools ; while Natal, which emphasises the 
 vernacular in the elementary schools, is content with a short 
 translation paper in the teachers' examinations. 
 
 4. The inclusion of algebra and geometry in the already over- 
 burdened curriculum in Natal. The formal nature of the work 
 in these subjects can be seen from the examination paper on 
 p. 328. 
 
 Section 6. The Subjects of Instruction 
 
 The course of study is too heavy for one year's work. The 
 list might well be reduced by the omission of such subjects 
 as writing, translation, algebra, and geometry. Even then, 
 there are too many academic subjects to allow sufficient time 
 to be given to the professional side of the work. It is suggested 
 that the examination be divided into two parts, an academic 
 and a professional, and that these parts be taken separately 
 if desired. 1 
 
 The narrowing and restrictive nature of the syllabus is as 
 noticeable in the case of training institutions, with their trained 
 and certificated European principals and teachers, as it is with 
 the elementary schools taught by the untrained Native teacher. 
 The intention is, of course, to enable the teacher to know the 
 range of the examiner's questions, so that this may be com- 
 passed during the course of the year's work ; but, as a matter 
 of fact, the incentives to pass students are so strong 2 that the 
 teaching often degenerates into the cramming to which the 
 system lends itself. The following examples will show the 
 restrictive nature of the work in the subjects of (A) School 
 Management and Class Teaching (Cape, Natal, Transvaal), 
 and (B) Manual Training (Natal). 
 
 1 See p. 290 for an elaboration of this idea. 
 
 * Through the desire for bonuses, rivalry with other institutions, etc.
 
 140 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 A. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND CLASS TEACHING. 
 Cape and Basutoland. (Syllabus for Second-Year Junior.) 
 
 An observation lesson to a junior class on some plant in- 
 cluded in the nature-study course for the year (see below), or 
 on some animal, or some common object related to plant or 
 animal life (one of four original lessons, outline notes of which 
 must be submitted to the inspector) ; a lesson in reading, 
 oral composition, writing, or arithmetic. 
 
 Natal. (Syllabus for Third-Grade Certificate.) 
 
 (a) Theory. The methods of teaching the subjects of the 
 Native School Infant-Class Syllabus. Notes of lessons on, and 
 schemes of work for, the subjects. Elements of school hygiene 
 and of school management, including registers, returns, and the 
 monthly examinations of the infant classes. 
 
 (b) Practical. i. The production of at least five specimens 
 of notes of lessons given before the method teacher on the 
 work of the four infant classes, and showing the teacher's 
 criticisms on them. 
 
 2. The giving of a lesson before the inspector on any subject 
 from the Infant Class Syllabus, including spelling and (for girls 
 only) needlework. The list specifying the notes of lessons to 
 be prepared for this test will be issued a fortnight before the 
 examination. 
 
 3. The drawing up of time-tables for the work of the four 
 infant classes. The test of the drawing-up of time-tables 
 will be given at the time of the examinations in practical 
 teaching. 
 
 4. The teaching of physical exercises suitable for the infant 
 classes. Each training school may draw up its own scheme 
 and submit it for the inspector's approval. The Board of 
 Education " Syllabus of Physical Exercises " may be found 
 useful. 
 
 Transvaal. (Syllabus for Third Year.) 
 
 In view of the fact that the work in language, arithmetic, 
 and geography will be mainly of the nature of revision during 
 this year, more attention to the professional work will be 
 required.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION 14! 
 
 (a) Blackboard Work. To write words in text and medium 
 size, and a short continuous passage in small hand ; to work 
 out a specimen sum as a model for Standard III. 
 
 Use of the blackboard for the purpose of illustrating 
 lessons. 
 
 (b) The attendance of each student at the demonstration 
 school must extend over twelve weeks. The student should 
 gain experience of and should be able to pass a test in the 
 teaching of any of the subjects specified in the Native School 
 Code. He should be able to discuss orally methods of discipline 
 and the main principles to be observed in organising school 
 work, and in the ventilation and lighting of school build- 
 ings. He should be able also to draw up a plan of a lesson, to 
 construct a time-table, and keep all the records required in a 
 Native school. A short paper on the theory indicated above 
 will be set. 
 
 Practical. To show practical knowledge of the method of 
 teaching any of the subjects specified in the Code for Native 
 schools. 
 
 Written Work. Registers, simple notes of lessons, time- 
 tables, methods of discipline, construction of schools, including 
 ventilation and lighting. 
 
 B. MANUAL TRAINING FOR NATAL THIRD-GRADE 
 TEACHERS' CERTIFICATE 
 
 Boy Students 
 
 (a) An elementary theoretical knowledge of the planting and 
 cultivation of mealies, beans, potatoes, and cabbage, and the 
 raising of the seed of these products. 
 
 (b) i. To cultivate throughout the year a piece of ground 
 not less than 6 yards by 10 yards in size, with plants of each 
 item detailed above under (a). Of this piece, a plot 10 feet by 
 20 feet is to be cultivated on the system given in the Gardening 
 Syllabus for Native Day Schools. At one end of his garden each 
 student is to have a pit or an enclosure above ground made of 
 sticks, 2 feet by 2 feet by 4 feet in size, for the accumulation 
 of the rubbish collected during the February term. Adjoining 
 this pit or enclosure, room should be left for a second pit or 
 enclosure, to be made and filled in during the August term.
 
 142 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (This system will enable the student to make use of the manure 
 collected in the first pit towards the end of the year.) 
 
 2. To raise from seed two trees, and to take care of two other 
 trees, one of which requires to be a fruit tree, already planted. 
 
 (c) Brickmaking and elementary carpentry. (This will not 
 be required in 1914.) 
 
 Girl Students 
 
 (a) The theoretical knowledge required for the needlework 
 prescribed below under (b), and for teaching the sewing to 
 classes below Standard III. 
 
 (b) The needlework prescribed for the classes below Standard 
 III., and the preparation of a copy of the Teacher's Handbook 
 up to p. 70. 
 
 (c) The cultivation of a piece of ground 10 feet by 20 feet 
 in size, on the system suggested in the Gardening Syllabus for 
 Native Day Schools. One-third of the plot is to be planted with 
 flowers. 
 
 Section 7. The Methods of Instruction 
 
 Although the staffs of the training institutions are, for the 
 most part, thoroughly competent men and women, the systems 
 of inspection and examination in use compel them to teach 
 with the final examination in view, rather than to aim at turn- 
 ing out students well grounded in the essentials of teaching 
 and capable of growth. 
 
 The argument put forward for a very definite syllabus, and 
 for individual examination in Native schools, is that the 
 Native teachers are neither competent nor sufficiently self- 
 reliant to teach without definite instructions, or to make their 
 own promotions. To this it may be replied that the teachers 
 in their course of training are not taught to be self-reliant or 
 to use their judgment. 
 
 The teachers in the training institutions are not encouraged 
 to inculcate these virtues in their students. Success in the 
 Native teachers' examinations is generally in inverse ratio to 
 the breadth of the instruction. A serious defect in the system 
 of training is the lack of sufficient practising schools. The 
 scattered nature of the Native population makes it impossible 
 to establish a training institution in any place where a suffi- 
 cient number of classes can be formed to give the students
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION 143 
 
 adequate practice. Under these circumstances the practice of 
 the Transvaal authorities in deferring the issue of the final 
 certificate until after the student has demonstrated his ability 
 in actual practice is to be commended. The urgent need for 
 an adequate corps of supervisors to supplement the meagre 
 training in practical teaching will be realised. 
 
 A further criticism applies in particular to the training in- 
 stitutions in Natal. Because more than 60 per cent, of the 
 Native children at school are in the infant classes, and because 
 75 per cent, of the students in training only remain for the 
 first -year course at the training institutions, the attempt has 
 been made to restrict the theory and practice of teaching of 
 the first year to the methods of teaching infants. 1 
 
 The teaching of infants is admittedly more difficult than that 
 of children in the standards, and the special methods of infant 
 teaching need to be based on the general principles of all 
 teaching, which should therefore form the curriculum for the 
 first year's study of the theory and practice of education. 
 Again, as practised in the training institutions, and as required 
 in the examinations, the work degenerates into a series of 
 unorganised " hints " and " pattern lessons " which the 
 students copy down and learn by heart, without having any 
 knowledge of the fundamental principles of method on which 
 they must be based if they are to be worth anything. The 
 " hints " and " model lessons " are useful for examination 
 purposes, 2 but generally break down in actual practice, and 
 
 1 The extent to which this is carried can be seen by a reference to 
 the Syllabus in School Method for the Third-Grade Teachers' Certificate 
 set out on p. 140 of this volume. Cf. also examination paper on p. 327. 
 
 2 Since the teachers in the training institutions are judged and 
 partly paid by their success in passing pupils in the Government 
 teachers' examinations, they naturally make a study of past examina- 
 tion papers and teach their students how to answer such questions as 
 the following (taken from recent School Method papers) : 
 
 1. (a) Explain how you will teach " ba, be, bi, bo, bu" to children 
 
 who have just mastered Zulu Chart No. i. (b) According 
 to the syllabus, what " reading " is to be taught to the pupils 
 in the first term, second year ? (Third Grade, 1911.) 
 
 2. (a) Are " fractions " to be taught to the classes below Standard 
 
 I. ? If so, state how, and give a few illustrations, (b) Name 
 the arithmetic work you plan to teach Standard I., and then 
 set three different problems to test Standard I. at the end 
 of the year. (Ibid.)
 
 144 TH EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 then the young teacher has no knowledge of principles on 
 which to construct a scheme which will work in his school. 
 
 Section 8. The Examinations for Teachers' Certificates 
 
 The examinations for teachers' certificates consist of two 
 parts : the oral or practical, and the written or theoretical. 
 For the oral examinations, the inspectors visit the institutions 
 and examine the candidates in actual class-teaching, black- 
 board work, reading, recitation, etc. How far, if at all, the 
 examiner consults the master of method regarding the work 
 and ability of candidates, before passing judgment, depends 
 on himself. There is no official recognition of the master of 
 method, except in so far as the Natal syllabus calls for his 
 comments on the lessons given by the candidate during his 
 course of training. Any reformed scheme of examination must 
 require the active co-operation of the master of method, who 
 must know the candidate much better than the inspector, and 
 who, if he cannot be trusted to give an unbiassed judgment, 
 should not be allowed to train teachers. 
 
 The question papers set for the written examinations are, as 
 a rule, far from satisfactory. In the Cape and Basutoland 
 the same questions which are prepared for European students, 
 with their infinitely better instruction and training, are given 
 to the Native candidates. In the Transvaal, formalism is 
 rampant. Long (and to the Native) meaningless sums in 
 
 3. (a) Explain how you would teach " ba " on Chart No. 2. (b) 
 
 Make a scheme of the reading work to be taught during the 
 whole term to the pupils in the second term, first-year class. 
 (Third Grade, 1912.) 
 
 4. Detail the " arithmetic work " as you plan to teach it during 
 
 the first five months of the year to (i.) first Term, second-year 
 class, and (ii.) Standard I. (Ibid.) 
 
 5. Set one " writing " copy for each of the four infant classes, 
 
 and then mention (i.) the important points to be attended 
 to by a teacher in giving writing lessons, and (ii.) the distances 
 required between the lines on the slates. (Ibid.) 
 In preparation for such questions as these the students learn by 
 heart the syllabus, " Scheme of Work," and " Suggested Time-tables" 
 issued by the Department, and answers prepared by the teachers. 
 One able teacher admitted to the writer the wrongness and futility 
 of these practices, but added, " We must pass our students if we want 
 to hold our positions."
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION 145 
 
 arithmetic ; definitions, parsing, and " formation of plurals and 
 feminines " in English grammar ; definitions and " countries 
 and capitals" in geography, abound. In Natal the papers 
 are equally formal and more restrictive. Specimen examina- 
 tion papers are reproduced in Appendix C to justify these 
 criticisms. 
 
 Apart from the inadequacy of such questions as tests for 
 teachers who are going out to teach in Native schools in South 
 Africa in the twentieth century, their restrictive effect on the 
 teaching in the training institutions is harmful. The teachers 
 in these institutions know that their work will be judged by 
 their ability to pass students through such examinations. 
 They would be more than human if they did not shape their 
 teaching to the examination ends. 1 
 
 1 Even if they attempted to depart from this narrow procedure, 
 their students would probably not follow them. The principal of a 
 training institution informed the writer that when he attempted to 
 add a useful subject to the curriculum his students objected. They 
 admitted its usefulness in their lives, but refused to accept it, " because 
 it would not be examined by the inspector." 
 
 10
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 
 
 ON the necessity of industrial training for the Natives of 
 South Africa there is remarkable unanimity. Government 
 commissions and officials, missionaries, students of the Native 
 Question, and the general public all agree that industrial 
 training should be made a chief end of Native education. 
 
 In the Ordinance (No. 2 of 1856) authorising the establish- 
 ment of schools for the Natives of Natal it is expressly stated 
 that " in every school to be established or supported by public 
 funds, . . . religious education, industrial training, and in- 
 struction in the English language shall form a necessary part 
 of the system to be pursued therein." 
 
 The South African Native Affairs Commission of 1903-5 
 recommends " that special encouragement by way of grants- 
 in-aid be given to such schools and institutions as give efficient 
 industrial training." x The 1908 Select Committee on Native 
 Education of the Cape of Good Hope says : " The extreme 
 importance of manual training for all Native pupils has 
 been repeatedly insisted upon. . . . The manual training of 
 Native boys is thus altogether lacking in many cases, and the 
 undesirability of this cannot be too strongly emphasised." 2 
 The able and exhaustive report of the Cape Education Com- 
 mission of 1912 says : " No less important is it that manual 
 work should bulk large in the education of the Coloured 
 people. It is necessary to all. It is particularly necessary 
 to the Coloured people, whose minds cannot be really awakened 
 except through intelligent industry. . . . There is general 
 consent on this subject. . . . There need be no difficulty 
 
 1 Report, section 342 (b). The Natal Native Affairs Commission of 
 1906-7 also advocates industrial education. 
 " Report, section 12 et passim. 
 
 146
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 147 
 
 in carrying this out if it is laid down that every school must 
 devise some scheme of manual instruction which will commend 
 itself to the inspector." l 
 
 The Superintendents of Education of the several provinces 
 have all emphasised the importance of industrial training, 
 either in their reports or in the curriculum of their schools. 2 
 The late Superintendent of Education for Natal, Mr P. A. 
 Barnett, in regretting that the industrial jealousy of the 
 Europeans militated against the spread of this very necessary 
 form of education, writes : " The Native schools are driven 
 back for curriculum very largely on that kind of teaching which 
 is given cheaply ; and whereas it is of the most vital import- 
 ance to South African civilisation that the Natives should 
 be encouraged and taught to use their hands, we are constrained 
 to make our teaching bookish just in order to find the necessary 
 means for evoking their intelligence." 3 
 
 Mr. E. B. Sargant, when acting as Education Adviser to 
 the High Commissioner for South Africa, strongly advocated 
 manual training for Natives, and particularly the introduction 
 of Native crafts into the curricula of all Native schools. 4 
 
 The more experienced and thoughtful missionaries have 
 consistently advocated and, as far as their means allowed 
 them, practised industrial education. Their point of view is 
 admirably expressed by the Rev. James Henderson, Principal 
 of Lovedale Institution : "I should like to make it quite clear 
 that I consider industrial training should be compulsory in 
 all the Native schools, that a portion of the day should be set 
 apart in the institutions for industrial training, and that 
 that time should be uniform for all institutions. I consider 
 also that a serious effort should be made to devise means 
 whereby industrial training could be given in ordinary village 
 schools." 5 The Rev. W. C. Willoughby of Tiger Kloof Native 
 Institution is even more emphatic : " It would possibly be an 
 expensive thing, but I should like to see an arrangement 
 
 1 Report, section 56 (c). 
 
 '* E.g. see Report of Superintendent of Education, Natal, 1913 and 
 1014, and Report of Director of Education, Transvaal, 1912, p. 93. 
 
 3 Report of Superintendent of Education, Natal, 1904, p. 9. 
 
 4 Report on Native Education in South Africa, part iii. pp. 25-32. 
 
 5 Report of the Cape Select Committee on Native Education, 1908, 
 section 2353.
 
 148 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 whereby every individual student in Standard II., or above, 
 should take one hour of some sort of manual labour for every 
 hour's bookwork. I think he would do very nearly as much 
 bookwork, and he would use his brain in a way he is not likely 
 to do in the mere study of books." l 
 
 In addition to this advocacy of industrial education by 
 public commission and professional educators, we find strong 
 pleas for this type of education made by earnest non-pro- 
 fessional students of the Native Question, such as Mr Maurice 
 Evans, who founds his argument on economic and sociological 
 bases, 2 and Mr Dudley Kidd, who believes that manual and 
 industrial training would be beneficial to the mental develop- 
 ment of the Native : " The training should be largely industrial. 
 While book education seems in too many cases to close the 
 mind, or to open it in a distorted fashion, industrial work has 
 an excellent effect. ... It is striking to notice how contact 
 with physical things opens the mind. The Kafirs who work 
 in iron (I refer to the tribal blacksmiths) are by far the most 
 intelligent of the Natives. . . . The Kafirs who are educated 
 chiefly by books do not seem to lose their crudity in the way 
 Natives do when they are taught by industrial methods." 3 
 
 Evidence of the support of industrial training by the ordinary 
 citizen is seen in the approval of the methods of the Trappists, 
 who specialise in industrial education, in letters and opinions 
 expressed in the South African press, and in the evidence 
 given before various commissions. 
 
 The attitude of the Natives themselves on the question of 
 industrial training is undergoing a change. In the past there 
 has been a disposition to regard book learning and education 
 as synonymous ; and although this view still obtains, it is being 
 modified considerably in the case of the better -educated 
 Natives. This conception of education can be easily explained. 
 To the Native in South Africa falls the heavy work of the 
 community, the digging and carrying, the pushing and lifting, 
 while the white ganger merely superintends and directs. It 
 is but natural that the Native should envy the lot of the 
 
 1 Report of the Cape Select Committee on Native Education, 1908, 
 section 1183. 
 
 * Black and White in South-East Africa, pp. 120, 121, 151 et passim. 
 3 Kidd, Kafir Socialism, p. 187.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 149 
 
 (seemingly) idle white man. This envy, coupled with the 
 fact that in his natural state the male Native does little or no 
 manual work, and the bookish education of the schools, have 
 tended to make the " school " Native despise manual occupa- 
 tions, and to hope that through the white man's education 
 he may escape the burden of manual labour. 1 The view that 
 manual work is not "gentlemanly" is of course universal 
 with the ignorant and semi-educated of all races, and it is not 
 to be wondered at that it is particularly potent with the South 
 African Native. Booker Washington found the same spirit 
 among the Negroes of the United States, and his classic ex- 
 ample of the Negro young man studying French amid squalid 
 surroundings must be familiar to my readers. 2 
 
 It is encouraging to find, however, that this view is losing 
 ground. The Native is beginning to realise that the openings 
 for employment for merely book-learned Native men and 
 women are few. The tendency to close all clerical occupa- 
 tions to Natives makes teaching almost the only non-manual 
 vocation open to them. That profession, however, is poorly 
 remunerated, and the more thoughtful Natives are beginning 
 to realise that it will be necessary for them to earn their bread 
 by " working with the hands." In some parts the improved 
 nature of the homesteads required by educated Natives is 
 encouraging young men to take up industrial work. 
 
 The writer recently interrogated an intelligent class of 
 Standard VII. pupils as to their future vocations. Of the 
 fourteen boys, seven expected to become farmers, three intended 
 to take up teaching, while the law, carpentry, storekeeping, 
 and clerical employment were the chosen vocations of the 
 remaining four. Of the six girls, three hoped to become 
 dressmakers, two nurses, and one a teacher. While too much 
 reliance cannot be placed upon school pupils' choice of voca- 
 
 1 " The demand for more time to be given to elementary industrial 
 work is not at all popular with the parents, who say that if work is 
 what the children are to do, they will find it for them at home." 
 (Report of the Inspector of Native Education, Natal, 1892.) 
 
 * " One of the saddest things I ever saw was a young man, who had 
 attended some high school, sitting down in a one-room cabin with 
 grease on his clothing, filth all around him, and weeds in the yard and 
 garden, engaged in studying a French grammar." (Up from Slavery. 
 P I54-)
 
 150 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 tions, it is interesting, in view of the widespread opinion that 
 the educated Native will not return to the land, to note the 
 large percentage of boys who hoped to become farmers. This 
 opinion, like so many current theories regarding the Native, 
 does not take into account his common sense. 
 
 Attracted at first towards clerical employment, the educated 
 Native is beginning to see that this work is to be largely a 
 preserve for the white youth, and that he must take up some 
 manual occupation if he wishes to make a good living. At 
 present such forms of manual labour as carpentry, blacksmith- 
 ing, and bootmaking are the most popular; but when the 
 Natives realise, as they soon must, that these callings can 
 only take a limited few, they will turn to farming, which is the 
 field that offers the greatest scope for them, and which is the 
 hereditary occupation of their race. 1 
 
 They will only be willing to prepare themselves for farming, 
 however, when they see that the nature of the country in which 
 they live and the conditions of land tenure will enable them 
 to make this a profitable occupation. The impossibility of 
 getting Natives to take up agricultural work in a district 
 which is not suited for that kind of farming is well brought 
 out by the Rev. W. C. Willoughby, who pointed out that it 
 would be an expensive matter to make spade-work the manual 
 training of the pupils in arid Bechuanaland, because it would 
 be necessary to employ policemen to bring the pupils to 
 school ! 2 
 
 We proceed now to show the extent of the manual training 
 provided both in separate institutions and in the ordinary 
 
 1 " The Bantu have not yet as a people fully awakened to their 
 need of industrial training, and for a long time the bright candidates 
 passed by the doors of the workshops in search of positions as teachers 
 and interpreters, and in employment with Europeans. But the vital 
 importance of their keeping hold of their land and developing it is 
 at last being brought home to them, and the higher type of candi- 
 date now offering for the workshops, and the numbers, far beyond 
 our accommodation, seeking admission to them, and their readiness 
 to pay for the benefit, point to a change of attitude for the better, 
 which should be thankfully noted." (Rev. J. Henderson, Principal 
 of Lovedale Institution, in International Review of Missions, vol. iii. 
 (1914), p. 342.) 
 
 - Report of the Cape Select Committee on Native Education, 1908, 
 section 1186.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 151 
 
 schools, and to consider the reason why this provision is 
 inadequate. 
 
 Section i. The Provision for Industrial Training in 
 Special Schools 
 
 To meet the generally admitted need for the industrial 
 training of Natives there exist in South Africa to-day some 
 40 State-aided industrial schools and departments, with an 
 enrolment of approximately 1800 students. In addition to 
 this there are several unaided institutions conducted rather as 
 commercial undertakings than as training institutions. 
 
 The number of individual Native pupils and the number 
 taking each industry in the Cape Province in 1914 was as 
 follows : l 
 
 Girls 
 Number of institutions 
 
 and departments 
 Number of pupils 
 Cookery 
 Dressmaking 
 House-work 
 Laundry-work . 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 ii 
 
 394 
 286 
 
 2 
 
 276 
 164 
 
 6 
 
 Boys 
 Number of institutions 
 
 and departments 
 Number of pupils 
 Blacksmiths 
 Bookbinders 
 Carpenters . 
 Farmers . . . 
 Gardeners . 
 House -work 
 Masons 
 
 Printers . . ; 
 Shoemakers . 
 Tailors 
 
 Waggon-makers . 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Section 2. The Financial Support of Industrial 
 Institutions 
 
 We summarise below the rates of grants paid in the 
 several provinces on behalf of industrial work. 2 The actual 
 
 1 The Cape is the only province publishing these details. The 
 figures include Coloured as well as Aborigines. In the case of the 
 girls' schools there is considerable duplication ; the girls who take 
 cookery generally taking house-work and laundry-work as well. 
 
 - See pp. 241 et seq.
 
 152 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 amount of money paid cannot be determined from the 
 published reports. In the Cape Province the sum of 2334 
 was expended on Native industrial institutions in 1912, but 
 this obviously does not include the expenditure on equipment, 
 or the amount paid in maintenance grants. 
 
 In Natal the report states that in 1914 the Government 
 grant-in-aid for industrial work amounted to approximately 
 6 5 o. 
 
 In the Transvaal it is not possible to tell from the reports 
 what amount has been expended on industrial education. 
 In the Orange Free State no grants are paid for industrial 
 work, but the Government maintains a special industrial 
 school for Native girls at Moroko. The average enrolment 
 for the years 1913 to 1915 was 45-8, and the cost of the school 
 to Government in 1915 was 790. 
 
 The existence of these regulations shows that the Depart- 
 ments of Education recognise the necessity for manual training. 
 That the amounts appropriated for this work are not nearly 
 sufficient has been frequently pointed out by the Superintend- 
 ents and Directors of Education. Thus, in his report for 
 1912 the Superintendent of Education for Natal refers to the 
 question of financial support : " The education of the Native 
 goes forward apace, although the Government subsidy is merely 
 a drop in the ocean, ... a paltry sum of 15,000 for the 
 education of approximately 200,000 children." x 
 
 In the Report for 1914 the lack of funds is again commented 
 upon : " Want of money is the only obstacle in the way of 
 developing manual training. The matter, however, must 
 sooner or later be seriously dealt with, and there are two 
 branches of industrial work which deserve immediate attention 
 and financial support from the State." 2 
 
 Section 3. Industrial and Manual Training in 
 Elementary Schools 
 
 It will have been noticed that with three minor exceptions 
 the grants for industrial training are reserved for special 
 
 1 Report, 1912, p. 14. 
 
 2 Report, 1914, p. 9, cf. also evidence of the Superintendent-General 
 before Cape Select Committee on Native Education, 1908.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 153 
 
 institutions. 1 At first sight it seems reasonable enough that 
 industrial training should only be undertaken at special insti- 
 tutions, and that manual training should be regarded as an 
 integral part of the ordinary curriculum, but a little reflec- 
 tion should convince us of the inapplicability of this view to 
 Native schools. In the first place, the number of pupils in 
 Standards IV. and higher is so small that less than i per cent, 
 of the pupils in Native schools are receiving anything like 
 adequate industrial training. In the second place, the use 
 of the separate terms, industrial training and manual training, 
 is unfortunate, in that it implies a distinction between the 
 two forms of training which does not in fact exist. It fosters 
 the idea that in manual training the process is the only thing 
 that counts, and the product is nothing ; hence the formalism 
 and futility of much of our manual training. 
 
 For Native children, at any rate, the manual work should 
 be valuable in itself, and the product intrinsically useful and, 
 if possible, marketable. The immaturity of the pupils in 
 European elementary schools, which makes it difficult to 
 carry out this fundamentally sound principle, does not apply 
 in the case of the Natives. 
 
 We find several attempts made to introduce manual train 
 ing into the Native day schools. 
 
 Caj>e. In the elementary -school course of the Cape Educa- 
 tion Department, which is followed by both European and 
 Native children in the elementary standards, cardboard model- 
 ling is recommended for Standards II., III., and IV., and 
 woodwork is prescribed for Standards V., VI., and VII., and 
 for the training institutions. Seeing, however, that only a few 
 selected Native schools are permitted to undertake work beyond 
 Standard IV., and that the cost of the apparatus for card- 
 board modelling is prohibitive for Native schools, it is only 
 the few boys above Standard IV. (approximately 8 per cent.) 
 
 1 The exceptions are : 
 
 (a) The grant paid for special teachers of needlework in the Native 
 
 elementary schools of the Cape Province. 
 (6) The grant towards the salary of an industrial teacher in the 
 
 elementary schools of the Transvaal. 
 (c) The grant on the threepence-for-threepence basis in the Natal 
 
 elementary schools.
 
 154 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 who receive any training in manual work. Sewing is pre- 
 scribed for all the girls. 
 
 Natal. No manual or industrial training is prescribed for 
 the boys in standards below Standard V., although, as a matter 
 of fact, school gardens are maintained at many of the schools. 
 In Standards V., VI., and VII. five hours of manual work 
 per week are required. The subjects generally taken are 
 gardening and carpentry. Approximately 4 per cent, of the 
 pupils are receiving this instruction. Sewing is required of 
 the girls in all the standards. 
 
 Transvaal. In the new syllabus for Native schools in the 
 Transvaal special emphasis is laid on manual training. Half 
 the school time must be devoted to " training " as distinct 
 from " instruction," and manual work forms a very important 
 part of the " training." Definite instruction in manual 
 training begins in the third-year course and continues through- 
 out the primary school. Sewing and domestic work are 
 required of the girls, while the work of the boys first takes 
 the form of gardening, rudimentary agriculture, basket -making, 
 mat -weaving, brickmaking, the use of carpenter's tools, and 
 then extends to such occupations as road-making, tree-planting, 
 leading water, etc. 
 
 Orange Free State. In the draft permissive code of the 
 Orange Free State Department a full course in needlework is 
 prescribed for the girls. With regard to the boys the schedule 
 runs : " No scheme is laid down for manual occupation, as 
 this must vary with the environment of the school. Wherever 
 possible, trees should be planted round the school grounds, 
 and vegetable or flower gardens should be laid out. These 
 should be looked after by the bigger boys of the school." 
 
 Although these regulations exist on paper, they are often 
 evaded in practice. Some of the forms of manual training 
 are too expensive, others are unsuitable owing to the locality 
 of the school, and all suffer from lack of constant and adequate 
 supervision. 
 
 In all the Native training institutions provision is made 
 for the industrial training of the students. The courses 
 include cookery, laundry -work, sewing for girls, and carpentry, 
 building, and agriculture or gardening for boys. No special 
 provision, however, except in the case of sewing, is made for
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 155 
 
 the instruction of students in manual occupations which can 
 be carried out in the ordinary Native day school. 
 
 Section 4. The Objections to Industrial Training 
 
 The inadequacy of the provision for manual and industrial 
 training is obvious, and it is now our task to attempt to 
 discover why so little practical support has been given to 
 these subjects when their importance has been generally 
 conceded. 
 
 The reasons, in the order of their importance, appear to be : 
 
 A. The high cost of manual and industrial training. 
 
 B. The opposition of the white industrial classes. 
 
 C. The attitude of the missionary teachers. 
 
 D. The opposition of the Natives themselves. 
 
 A. The High Cost of Industrial Training. While the con- 
 notation of the term "industrial training" is restricted to 
 training in such subjects as carpentry, blacksmithing, waggon- 
 making, and other European mechanical crafts.it isclear that the 
 cost of provision of this type of education even to a very small 
 percentage of the Native pupils would be prohibitive. In- 
 dustrial education in this sense is admittedly the most expensive 
 type of education in view of the initial cost and maintenance 
 of the plant, the wear and tear on apparatus at the hands of 
 learners, the use and misuse of material, and the unmarket- 
 able nature of the usual products. Such forms of industrial 
 training can only adequately be carried on in certain chosen 
 centres, and to attempt to carry it to the ordinary day school 
 would be as impossible as it is undesirable. South Africa does 
 not as yet need a superabundant supply of black skilled labour. 1 
 
 There is only a very limited amount of industrial work at 
 present required by the Native population itself, and it would 
 be highly undesirable to flood the towns with numbers of black 
 skilled workmen. Such a proceeding would only precipitate 
 race conflict. If, however, the term " industrial training " be 
 extended to include training in such subjects as agriculture, 
 
 1 "... Nor must it be forgotten that the great demand in South 
 Africa at present is for the unskilled or partially skilled Native 
 labourer." (The South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903-5, 
 Report, section 343.)
 
 156 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 the manipulation of common tools, and instruction in Native 
 crafts and occupations, it can be shown that a considerable 
 extension of such training would be made with little cost to 
 the State and with the greatest benefit to the Native people. 
 
 B. The Opposition of the White Industrial Classes. That 
 the white industrial classes would not view with satisfaction 
 the education of the Natives in industrial arts can easily be 
 understood. Any considerable influx of skilled Native artisans 
 into the towns and their employment by Europeans would 
 result in a considerable fall in wages. The Native, with a 
 lower standard of living, can work for considerably less than 
 the white artisan. The industrial classes have watched the 
 movement of Native education very closely, and on more than 
 one occasion have made their influence felt. 1 It was formerly 
 the practice of the industrial schools of Natal to dispose of 
 their products by sale to the public, but in 1898 pressure was 
 brought to bear upon the Government, with the result that 
 no State-aided institution in Natal has since been allowed to 
 sell its industrial products in the open market. At Lovedale, 
 the most important Native training centre in South Africa, 
 special precautions against competition with the Whites are 
 taken. All articles manufactured in the workshops are sold 
 at standard prices, and the institution does not compete for 
 open contracts. The result is that in some of the industrial 
 departments at Lovedale there is not enough work to keep the 
 apprentices busy. 2 
 
 1 The white man's attitude is often beautifully illogical. His idea 
 of Native education is that the Native should be taught to work ; and 
 when the missionary teaches the Natives how to work, the European 
 brings up the charge of unfair industrial competition. 
 
 * A better feeling would appear to be beginning to prevail in the 
 Southern States of America. The Superintendent of Schools in 
 Columbus, Georgia, where industrial training is the staple of the cur- 
 riculum of the Negro schools, speaks of the " cordial and peaceful 
 relations " which exist between the races in the town, and reports 
 with gratification the following declaration from the chief organisation 
 of industrial workers, the State Federation of Labour: "They (the 
 Negroes) are human beings. Whatever will tend to make better citizens 
 of themselves benefits not only the black race, but the white race. 
 The best white people in the South hold forth a helping hand to this 
 people in things material and moral. This is as it should be." (Report, 
 1914, p. 8.)
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 157 
 
 While this jealousy of the European industrial classes 
 towards the industrial training of the Natives can be easily 
 understood, it appears to rest on insufficient grounds. In the 
 first place, the training institutions strain every nerve to 
 induce their apprentices to return to their own people on the 
 completion of their apprenticeship. The Principal of Love- 
 dale, in giving evidence before the South African Economic 
 Commission of 1914, said : " Our object in every case is to 
 make them a lever for the uplifting of their own people. The 
 pupil who goes out from us to a European centre is a direct loss 
 to his own people, and we consider that what we have spent upon 
 him at Lovedale for the purpose I have stated has been a 
 direct loss, and that we have missed our objective." l In the 
 second place, it has not been made clear that the Natives who 
 are competing with the Whites received their training at any 
 Native institution. On the other hand, there is evidence to 
 show that the Natives practising skilled trades have been 
 unwittingly trained by the white workmen themselves. 2 
 
 Thirdly, it is doubtful if the Native will ever become the 
 serious competitor of the skilled white workman, or if he 
 possesses the necessary skill, perseverance, and desire to become 
 really expert in a trade. Evidence both from South Africa 
 and the United States seems to prove that in trades the mass 
 of the Natives do not advance beyond a certain point. Dr 
 A. W. Roberts, a teacher of over thirty years' experience among 
 the Natives, holds that the white men need not have the 
 slightest fear of Native competition in industries, either now 
 or in the future. He admits, as we all must do, that a few 
 exceptional Natives will attain to the white man's skill, but 
 denies that the people as a race can. Their mental and 
 physical limitations, their heredity and tradition, stand in 
 their way, and the Natives do not believe in themselves as 
 the white man does. 3 The Rev. W. C. Willoughby speaks 
 
 1 South African Economic Commission, Report, section 57. At 
 the famous American industrial institutions for Negroes, Hampton and 
 Tuskegee, it is the purpose of the foundations that the students should 
 return to work among their own people. (Cf. Booker Washington, 
 Up from Slavery, pp. 159 et seq.) 
 
 2 See evidence of Mr Gibbs of Lovedale quoted in the Report of the 
 Economic Commission, section 57. 
 
 3 South African Economic Commission, 1914, Report, section 57.
 
 158 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 of his Native apprentices at Tiger Kloof in much the same 
 terms : " They are very quick to learn up to a certain point, 
 but when you get to the point needing more care and exactness 
 a certain number are quite unable to appreciate it. About 
 one-third seem to stick at that point. They can all do a 
 certain amount of rough work, and then in anything a little 
 finer you lose about a third of your class as far as advance is 
 concerned." l 
 
 The South African Economic Commission of 1914 found 
 that the position of the Natives was negligible as far as skilled 
 trades were concerned. They confined themselves almost 
 exclusively to unskilled work, and had to rely on Whites for 
 direction and initiation. Even the Natives who had it in 
 them to become expert seldom acquired experience by per- 
 severing for a sufficiently lengthy period. Very few even of 
 the exceptional Natives ever got beyond the lower rungs of 
 the industrial ladder, leading from unskilled work to the fully 
 skilled, and they did not seriously attempt to compete with 
 white artisans. The very few skilled Natives experienced 
 great difficulty in securing employment, except perhaps in 
 remote country districts. The amount of skilled labour required 
 by their own people in tribal districts was very small indeed. 
 In the extension of local self-government, and the service of 
 Native councils (as in Basutoland and the Transkei) lay the 
 best ground of hope for the educated Native. While holding 
 the view that in the future a natural outlet for the talents of the 
 skilled and educated Native would be furnished by the develop- 
 ment of his own people, the Commission was of opinion that 
 there should be no legal barriers to prevent Natives or others 
 of the non-white population from engaging in any work above 
 the grade of unskilled. 2 
 
 1 Report of the Cape Select Committee on Native Education, section 
 1028. In his interesting account of Tiger Kloof, Dr Willoughby says 
 in connection with this point: " It will be many generations before 
 the African artisan can become skilled in the European sense. He 
 lacks initiative, persistence of purpose, sense of fitness, and what one 
 may call an industrial conscience ; and these qualities cannot be 
 rapidly evolved. He can be taught to do many things to the satis- 
 faction of his own people (whose weaknesses are similar to his own), 
 and for the general uplift of his own race it is important that he should 
 learn" (p. 67). 
 
 2 South African Economic Commission, Report, section 57.
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 159 
 
 While there is little chance of competition between Europeans 
 and Natives with regard to skilled labour, competition in 
 unskilled work is almost inevitable in the future. The lower 
 wage which the Native will work for appeals to Europeans 
 of limited means, especially in times of financial depression. 
 The only really satisfactory solution of this question lies in 
 taking steps to train the European youth to be the skilled 
 workman, by the establishment of technical institutes, trades 
 schools, etc., and to accept it as inevitable that the unskilled 
 labour in South Africa will in the future be performed by the 
 Black and Coloured people. 1 
 
 C. The Attitude of the Missionaries. A third reason for the 
 neglect of manual and industrial training in Native schools 
 is due to the want of appreciation of those forms of education 
 on the part of the earlier missionaries who formed the mould 
 in which Native education has since run. 2 
 
 As has been already pointed out, the earlier missionaries 
 were not teachers, but high-minded, self-sacrificing evangelists, 
 whose primary object was to enable the Natives to read and 
 understand the Bible. The content of the education which 
 they gave was entirely literary. They took over from the 
 schools which they had attended in Europe the reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic which they themselves had studied in 
 their young days, and could not, of course, be expected to 
 appreciate the value of manual training, which had found no 
 place in their curriculum. Hence a purely academical course 
 of study became traditional for the Native school. The later 
 
 1 An interesting incident regarding the relationship of white and 
 black workmen took place lately in a large South African town. The 
 Town Council permitted the employment of Native workmen to paint 
 the poles which carry the overhead electric tramcar wires. On a 
 protest being made the blacks were dismissed, and unskilled out-of- 
 work white men employed. The latter, however, on being informed 
 of the danger from live wires, refused to paint the upper parts of the 
 poles, so the Natives were reinstated, and one had the amusing spec- 
 tacle of seeing Whites doing the simple painting of the trunks of the 
 poles, while the Natives up aloft performed the more intricate and 
 dangerous work. 
 
 2 " There are workers in the (mission) field, for instance, who con- 
 scientiously believe that it is no part of their high vocation to instruct 
 children in the work of clearing a mealie field or of mixing clay for 
 brickmaking." (Report of Cape Education Commission, 1891.)
 
 l6o THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 missionaries naturally followed in the lines of their predecessors. 
 Some of these were cognisant of the growing importance of 
 manual work in European education, but felt that the school 
 life of the average Native child was so short that there was no 
 time for more than instruction in the three R's, unmindful of 
 the facts that this instruction was too divorced from their 
 actual experience to be of any permanent value, and that 
 manual work assists mental work to a considerable extent. 
 A third reason for the attitude of the missionaries in the past 
 was the desire to induce the Natives to abandon their original 
 habits and customs, and to take on European civilisation as 
 quickly as possible. From missionaries actuated by that 
 motive any respect for Native crafts, and any introduction 
 of them into school work, could not be expected. 
 
 These, however, were the views of the missionaries of the 
 past. As has been pointed out in the earlier portions of this 
 chapter, the modern missionary joins with other thoughtful 
 students of education and of Native policy in emphasising 
 the importance of manual and industrial training. 
 
 D. The Opposition from Natives. The disinclination of the 
 Natives themselves for manual and industrial education in 
 school is due largely to three causes. 
 
 The Native is naturally indolent, and his ideal of life is one 
 of ease. Circumstances have made him the hewer of wood 
 and the drawer of water for the white man. The white man 
 does not work with his hands. He is a " gentleman." The 
 Native believes that it is education which has made the white 
 man what he is. When he goes to school any attempt to make 
 him do manual work is regarded as a subtle attempt on the 
 white man's part to prevent him from achieving his ideal. 1 
 A second reason is that the Native sees no connection between 
 the manual work taught in schools and his past or future life. 
 Why should he learn to grow vegetables or flowers when he 
 never bothered about them before he came to school, and does 
 not mean to take up market-gardening after he leaves ? A 
 
 1 Cf. Booker Washington's story of the old darkle who suddenly 
 stopped work in the cotton-field, and, looking towards the skies, said, 
 " O Lawd, de cotton am so grassy, the work am so hard, and the sun 
 am so hot that I believe this darkie am called to preach." (Up from 
 Slavery, p. 160.)
 
 THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING l6l 
 
 third reason is a false sense of pride. The educated Native is 
 sometimes inclined to despise the occupations by which his 
 uneducated brethren have to make their living. He is ashamed 
 to dig and to carry. The attractions of clerical employment 
 are very strong with him, as with all semi-educated people, and 
 he turns eagerly to the school studies which will fit him for 
 the " gentlemanly occupation." 1 
 
 1 A similar attitude is taken up by some of the Negroes in the 
 Southern States. To the Southern Negro manual labour is still 
 associated with the condition of slavery. Those who have had to 
 earn their living by manual labour wish their children to escape the 
 same degradation, and insist that their children be given a " book" 
 education. 
 
 II
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE 
 PUPILS COMPARED 
 
 To support further the contention that the present courses of 
 study for Native pupils are unsuitable, the writer, in 1915 and 
 1916, gave tests in writing, composition, and arithmetic to a 
 number of pupils in certain long-established, permanent, and 
 reputable Native schools in Natal. For the purpose of com- 
 parison, the same tests were given to pupils in certain similar 
 European and Indian schools. For a proper interpretation of 
 the results the following facts should be borne in mind : 
 
 1. The teaching and supervision of the Native schools are 
 less efficient than they are in the European and Indian schools. 
 
 2. In spite of this, the course of study attempted in the 
 Native schools, in so far as the subjects or parts of subjects 
 tested are concerned, is as comprehensive and as difficult as 
 that of the European schools. 
 
 3. In the case of English composition, the code requirements 
 are almost the same, in spite of the fact that the Native children 
 do not speak English at home, and are taught chiefly through 
 the medium of the vernacular for the first two years (Sub- 
 standards A, B, C, and D). 
 
 4. The normal time in school for European and Native 
 pupils is the same, viz. two years in the sub-standards, and a 
 year in each of the standards. The average ages for entry, 
 however, are six to eight in the case of Europeans, and seven 
 to nine, or even later, in the case of Natives. 
 
 5. The exact ages of a number of the Native pupils cannot 
 be ascertained, but the ages used in the following table are 
 those given by the pupils themselves, and accepted by the 
 authorities. 
 
 162
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 163 
 
 6. The tests used are standardised tests designed on scien- 
 tific principles, and of proven utility in measuring class-room 
 achievement. A full explanation of the way they were devised 
 cannot be given here, but particulars can be found in the works 
 referred to. 
 
 7. The tests were given under strictly denned conditions by 
 thoroughly reliable European principals and superintendents, 
 and can be regarded as entirely trustworthy. 
 
 8. As it was not possible to test all the pupils in the schools, 
 a random selection of pupils from each standard was made. 1 
 
 Section i. The Ages of the Pupils Compared 
 
 The following table (No. 14) gives the distribution of the 
 ages of the European and Native pupils who underwent the 
 tests. The median ages of the Natives will be seen to be two 
 and a half years in excess of those of the Europeans. This is 
 due partly to late entrance, and partly to excessive non-pro- 
 motion. The educational significance of the facts disclosed 
 is that in the case of the Natives no recognition has been made 
 of the physical, mental, and emotional changes accompanying 
 pubescence. Although definite evidence is wanting, it is 
 generally believed that the onset of pubescence takes place 
 earlier in Natives than in Europeans. In any case, we see that 
 in all standards pre-pubescent, pubescent, and post-pubescent 
 pupils are grouped together in the same classes, are working in 
 the same course of study, are taught by the same methods, 
 and are subject to the same kind of disci pline. As will be 
 argued later, the alleged arrest of mental development of 
 pubescent and post-pubescent pupils is probably due largely to 
 the neglect of the significance of pubescence and the imposition 
 of uniform subjects of study and methods of teaching on all 
 pupils alike. 
 
 At the present stage of development of Native education in 
 
 1 The results in each test have been compared with results obtained 
 in certain school systems of the United States, where similar tests 
 and the same methods of scoring have been used. In view of the 
 fact that the pupils in South Africa spend two years in the infant 
 classes, as against the one kindergarten year of American children, 
 the South African " standard " has been regarded as one year in advance 
 of the American " grade."
 
 164 
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 South Africa, adequate remedies for these conditions is frankly 
 impossible. Something can, however, be accomplished if 
 officials will recognise the existence of these conditions in their 
 inspections and examinations, and allow and encourage the 
 teachers to modify the course of study and use special methods 
 of teaching in the case of special pupils and groups of pupils. 
 
 TABLE No. 14 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE PUPILS TESTED BY AGES 
 
 Standard 
 ages. 
 
 *3 
 $1 
 
 3 P< 
 
 fc-3 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 2O 
 
 and 
 over 
 
 1.- 
 
 'O 6f 
 
 ja 
 
 III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 European 
 
 116 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 41 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n-3 
 
 Indian . 
 
 53 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 
 13-1 
 
 Native . 
 
 93 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 14-1 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 European 
 
 87 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 M 
 
 19 
 
 H 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 
 12-7 
 
 Indian . 
 
 A A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 IA 
 
 g 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 I V7 
 
 Native . 
 
 TT 
 II 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 J 
 
 
 y 
 
 ii 
 
 *T 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 J 
 II 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 'J / 
 15-2 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 European 
 
 92 
 
 . . 
 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 13-2 
 
 Indian 
 
 30 
 
 . . 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 M 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 I 4 -I 
 
 Native . 
 
 9 8 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 M 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 15-5 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 European 
 
 86 
 
 
 I 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 4 -I 
 
 Indian 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 TC-2 
 
 Native 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Q 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 17 
 
 IO 
 
 4. 
 
 2 
 
 *-J 
 
 l6"> 
 
 
 y*\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 * / 
 
 
 f- 
 
 
 * fcj 
 
 Section 2. The Test in Writing 
 
 The Teaching of Writing. The teaching of writing is begun 
 in the first year of school in the case of Europeans, Indians, 
 and Natives. The method employed is to set " copies " on the 
 blackboard. The European children begin with letters and 
 proceed rapidly to words, but the Native children spend a 
 good deal of time writing the constituent parts of letters.
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 165 
 
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 166 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
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 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 167 
 
 The letters and parts of letters to be taught in each class are 
 prescribed in detail in the Native course of study. The 
 European children use paper and pen or pencil, but the Natives 
 do the greater part of their writing on slates. Copybooks are 
 used in both sets of schools. Writing continues to be a 
 separate subject of instruction throughout the Native and 
 Indian schools, but is dropped in Standard V. in the case of 
 the European schools. The subject is considered of the highest 
 importance in the Native and Indian schools, 60 per cent, being 
 the inspector's passing mark for the subject in Native schools. 
 In the European schools good writing is insisted upon, but the 
 subject occupies a more subordinate position. 
 
 The Nature of the Test. The teachers placed the sentence, 
 " Natal is the most beautiful province of South Africa," on 
 the blackboard, and the children copied it in their best hand- 
 writing as often as they could in five minutes. The papers 
 were scored by the writer, and from two to four helpers, on the 
 Thorndike scale for measuring handwriting. 1 The average 
 judgment of the judges was taken as the correct score. For 
 several reasons the scale is graded on the basis of form 4 to 18, 
 but for an interpretation of the table (No. 15) on the following 
 page, it may be taken that 4 means almost o and 18 means 
 approximately 100. 
 
 The Educational Significance of the Results. The following 
 inferences may be made from the results : 
 
 1. In spite of the importance attached to handwriting in the 
 Native schools, the work is not much better than it is in the 
 European schools, where the subject is of minor importance 
 only, and not as good as it is in the Indian schools. 
 
 2. The commonly accepted opinion that Native pupils are 
 better than Europeans in the mechanical subjects, such as 
 writing and " straightforward " arithmetic, is not borne out 
 by these results, though the excellence of the Indians is 
 noticeable. 
 
 3. Very little improvement takes place in the writing of 
 Europeans, Indians, or Natives after Standard III. The advis- 
 ability, therefore, of spending much time in the formal teach- 
 
 1 Thorndike, E. L., A Scale of Handwriting for Grades 5 to 8. Teachers' 
 College, New York, U.S.A. For a full explanation of how the scale 
 was derived see Teachers' College Record, March 1910.
 
 TABLE No. 15 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES ON HANDWRITING OF 372 EUROPEAN, 
 139 INDIAN, AND 407 NATIVE PUPILS, BY STANDARDS * 
 
 Score. 
 
 European. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Native. 
 
 TTT 
 
 TV 
 
 V 
 
 VT 
 
 TTT 
 
 TV 
 
 V 
 
 VT 
 
 TTT 
 
 TV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 5 
 9 
 
 22 
 13 
 29 
 26 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 7 
 27 
 28 
 25 
 13 
 5 
 
 3 
 13 
 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 
 13 
 6 
 
 8 . 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 10 . 
 
 ii . 
 
 12 . 
 
 13 . 
 14 . . 
 
 15 . . 
 
 16 . . 
 
 17 . 
 
 5 
 13 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 2 
 I 
 
 4 
 5 
 20 
 
 32 
 
 38 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 15 
 
 37 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 10 
 36 
 32 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 12 
 IO 
 
 9 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 
 6 
 9 
 
 17 
 4 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 ii 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 8 
 5 
 
 ii 
 15 
 
 22 
 IO 
 9 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 Median . 
 
 79 
 12-9 
 
 116 
 12-9 
 
 8 7 
 13-8 
 
 90 
 13-9 
 
 46 41 
 13-4 |i 4 -2 
 
 30 
 13-8 
 
 22 
 I4'3 
 
 80 
 12 2 
 
 117 
 13-4 
 
 109 
 13-6 
 
 101 
 14-6 
 
 * Comparative standing by median scores in handwriting of Natal schools and certain 
 school systems in the United States : 
 
 
 Grade 4 
 
 Grade 5 
 
 Grade 6 
 
 Grade 7 
 
 School. 
 
 or 
 
 Standard 
 
 or 
 Standard 
 
 or 
 Standard 
 
 or 
 Standard 
 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Butte, Montana . 
 
 8-8 
 
 8-9 
 
 n-6 
 
 XX-2 
 
 Connersville, Indiana . 
 
 10-0 
 
 10-3 
 
 117 
 
 11-7 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah . 
 
 10-7 
 
 xi-i 
 
 11-3 
 
 12-2 
 
 European schools, Natal 
 Native schools, Natal . 
 
 12-9 
 
 12-2 
 
 12-9 
 13-4 
 
 13-8 
 13-6 
 
 I3'9 
 14-6 
 
 Indian schools, Natal . 
 
 13-4 
 
 14-2 
 
 13-8 
 
 14-3
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 169 
 
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 I7O THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
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 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 17! 
 
 ing of writing in the higher standards may be questioned, 
 particularly in view of the short school life of the average 
 Native pupil. 
 
 4. The very considerable overlapping of efficiency in the 
 several standards shows that there are a number of pupils in 
 the lower grades who are writing as well now as they ever will. 
 For these further formal instruction in penmanship is a waste 
 of time. 
 
 Section 3. The Test in Composition 
 
 The Teaching of Composition. English is a foreign language 
 to all but a negligible fraction of the Native and Indian children 
 entering school. Oral instruction begins with the naming of 
 objects in the first year in the Native schools, and is continued 
 throughout the course. Written composition begins in the third 
 year (Standard I.) with the writing of sentences. Connected 
 composition begins in Standard III., and is continued through 
 the course. In the European and Indian schools the same 
 general procedure is followed, but the work is begun earlier. 
 
 The Nature of the Test. The pupils were instructed to 
 write a composition on " How I would spend 5." The 
 time limit was thirty minutes. The results were scored by 
 from two to five competent judges on Thorndike's Pre- 
 liminary Extension of the Hillegas Scale for the Measurement of 
 Quality in English Composition by Young People. 1 The follow- 
 ing specimens will illustrate the scale of scoring. The scale 
 ranges from o to 10 : 
 
 Sample A, rated at o. Written by Native girl, aged 13, in 
 
 Standard III. 
 
 I am divided by 2d if spend with saiy is 2d and Drived 
 five shillings but or divid is 2d and take 5 to divid by 
 is 2d from take five shillings and divided. And wanderful 
 to be 2d or five shillings. 
 
 Sample B, rated at i. Written by Native girl, aged 14, in 
 
 Standard IV. 
 
 I would spend it with buy a dress and Books, for school 
 and Slates, and buy something for me and buy my exercise 
 
 1 The way in which the scale was devised is explained in Hillegas' 
 Scale for the Measurement of Quality in English Composition by Young 
 People, Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1912.
 
 172 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Book or give my sister some other and buy sheep, Goats, 
 and Cattle. 
 
 Sample C, rated at 2. Written by Native boy, aged 17, in 
 
 Standard IV. 
 
 I could spend 5 if I like by going to Durban. I could 
 buy two pairs of boots, at 7/6 each. But if I like to run on 
 Motor-car I could run. I could send a little sum of my 
 money to my friend, who is poor. In taking care for myself 
 I could (many) buy many clothes for me. But I could 
 left Durban, for Johannesburg. Because I never be there 
 in my life. By the money remained from Durban to 
 Johnnesbueg. I could pay a lot of bad troubles, which 
 troubling me. 
 
 Sample D, rated at 3. Written by European boy, aged n, 
 
 in Standard IV. 
 
 Once I was given 5 by a man, and I thought to myself 
 how I should spend it, so I told my -nay- mother to put 3 
 in the Bank. With the other 2 I should have bought a 
 bycel. and a suit of Clothes. Soon I should have bought 
 a hat. Then my money was all finished least it should 
 have, so I told my father to take 2 out of the Bank, till 
 all my money was finished. Then I should have bought no 
 more but me like a silly should have bought a pair of boots 
 and a pair of stocking and a pair of slippers but I had no 
 more money and could not buy them till I had some more 
 money to do it with. 
 
 Sample E, rated at 4. Written by European boy, aged 12, 
 
 in Standard IV. 
 
 With 5 I should go into a hotel, and have my dinner, 
 and go to the Theatre, to see the performances. I should 
 put 2 in the bank, and go to Isipingo for two days holiday. 
 I should go all round the bay, in a motor boat. I should 
 then go to the Transvaal in a motor car, and dig for 
 gold, with my uncle. I should buy a present for my 
 mother, and I should also treat her to a concert, or a ball 
 and give her, tfee- a happy times worth. I should think 
 my money, would all be gone, by the time I had anything 
 else to do with it. But I should have been content with 
 what I had done with it.
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 173 
 
 Sample F, rated at 5. Written by European girl, aged n, 
 in Standard V. 
 
 A great friend of mine gave me a present of 5. 
 
 I went down town to spend it. 
 
 I bought some useful A for my mother which cost me 
 2. I also gave i towards the comforts for the soldiers. 
 
 I saw marked upon a board. " Belgian Relief R Fund." 
 Fortunately I had some, to give, and I went inside the 
 shop and handed to a man, behind the counter i. 
 
 Now I have i left. On my little cousin's birthday I 
 would like to take her to the beach, and to Zoo in the 
 afternoon. When her birthday came, I took her to the 
 beach and several other places, and in the afternoon she 
 told me that she enjoyed herself very much. 
 
 Having a few shillings left I bought him several things 
 that he wanted. 
 
 Sample G, rated at 6. Written by European girl, aged 15, 
 
 in Standard V. 
 
 if I had 5 I would put i in the bank for Xmas and 
 would put io/ away for mother's birthday and the remain- 
 ing 3-10 I would spend different ways. First I would 
 send both my father, and brother at the front a huge 
 hamper of fruit which would cost i. Then I would buy 
 mother a navy blue dress that she fancied so much in 
 Harvey Greenacre's window yesterday which would cost 
 1-10. With the remaining money I would buy my sister 
 & I some silk for two best dresses. Mine I would like 
 made with a gathered skirt at the back and quite plain 
 at the front ; the blouse I would like cut the Raglin sleeve 
 with pale blue bead buttons right down the front, to the 
 edge of the skirt. With a pale blue ribbon round the waist 
 and the same kind of buttons down the front, with a flop 
 hat to match. 
 
 Sample 6, rated at 7. Written by European boy, aged 12, 
 
 in Standard V. 
 
 I was highly pleased with myself when father gave me 
 for a birthday present, a crisp 5 note. 
 
 " Do good with it my son," he said, as I left the little 
 cottage, which I called home. As I walked towards my
 
 174 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 destination, I noticed a poor farmer trying in vain to 
 sell his goods. I immediately walked towards his little 
 vegatable stall, and bought a dozen eggs. Noting a widow, 
 surrounded by a number of little children, crying for food, 
 I at once gave her my eggs, and gave each child six-pence. 
 My sister Lottie, was crying when I reached home. 
 " What is the matter ? " I asked her. " Willie has broken 
 my new doll," she answered. " Never mind, I will buy 
 you another one." exclaimed mother. " No ! " I said, 
 "It is my birthday, and I shall buy it." Mother tried 
 her best to be the buyer. " It costs 4 " she said. But 
 I was determined, and the following day, Lottie was the 
 proud owner of a large doll. 
 
 The results of the test are as follows : 
 
 TABLE No. 16 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF COMPOSITION SCORES OF 371 EUROPEAN, 
 139 INDIAN, AND 402 NATIVE PUPILS, BY STANDARDS * 
 
 
 European. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Native. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 24 
 69 
 18 
 5 
 
 V. 
 
 28 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 VI. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. VI. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Rated at 
 o . 
 i . 
 
 2 . . 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 . . 
 
 7 
 8 . . 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 38 
 
 4 
 I 
 
 26 
 52 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 's 
 
 24 
 8 
 i 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 9 
 3 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 45 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 's 
 
 45 
 39 
 15 
 10 
 i 
 
 16 
 59 
 15 
 19 
 
 32 
 59 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 Median . 
 
 79 
 
 4'i 
 
 116 
 4'5 
 
 87 
 
 5'3 
 
 89 
 5'4 
 
 46 
 4'i 
 
 4i 
 4'5 
 
 3 
 5'2 
 
 22 
 
 5'i 
 
 75 
 
 2-8 
 
 118 
 3'2 
 
 109 
 3'7 
 
 101 
 
 4'3 
 
 * The comparative standing by median scores in composition of Natal schools and certain 
 school systems in the United States : 
 
 School. 
 
 Grade 4 or 
 Standard III. 
 
 Grade 5 or 
 Standard IV. 
 
 Grade 6 or 
 Standard V. 
 
 Grade 7 or 
 Standard VI. 
 
 Butte, Montana . 
 Salt Lake City, Utah . 
 European schools, Natal 
 Indian schools, Natal . 
 Native schools, Natal . 
 
 2-3 
 
 2-9 
 4'i 
 4'i 
 2-8 
 
 2-8 
 3'i 
 4'5 
 
 4'5 
 
 3'2 
 
 3'4 
 3'8 
 5'3 
 
 5'2 
 
 3-7 
 
 3'7 
 4'4 
 5'4 
 5'i 
 4-3
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 
 
 175 
 
 S 
 
 to 
 
 N 
 
 vn Q 
 
 
 
 JQ 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 J *C 
 
 rj jj 
 
 S 
 
 S
 
 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
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 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 177 
 
 The Educational Significance of the Results. As was to be 
 expected, the achievement of the Native pupils ranks consider- 
 ably below that of the Europeans. The difference would 
 probably have been greater had a more suitable subject been 
 chosen. Too often the composition was but an enumeration 
 of articles which could be bought with the money. To this 
 cause must also be attributed the absence of variability. The 
 writer's personal experience is that the Natives are much less 
 variable than Europeans or Indians. Under the circumstances 
 inferences from this test are unsafe. It might be pointed out, 
 however, in passing, that several of the Native pupils wrote 
 two compositions, one in English and the other in Zulu, and 
 that the compositions in the vernacular were superior to those 
 in English. 
 
 Section 4. The Tests in Arithmetic 
 
 The Teaching of Arithmetic. In European, Indian, and 
 Native schools arithmetic is regarded as the most important 
 subject. The work in the Native schools is more formal 
 than that in the European and Indian schools, owing to the 
 fact that the teachers in the former are less skilled. As 
 regards the work in the four simple rules here tested, the 
 Natives should be in a better position than the Europeans, 
 if early introduction and much practice are the factors deter- 
 mining success. Long sums in addition, subtraction, multi- 
 plication, and division, which often are given for " busy " 
 or " seat " work, retain their place in Native schools, whereas 
 they have disappeared from most of the European schools. 
 
 The Nature of the Tests. The tests used were the Courtis 
 Standard Tests in Arithmetic, Series B, in the four simple 
 rules. 1 The peculiar excellence of these tests lies in the fact 
 that there are exactly the same number of processes in each 
 sum of a given kind. The tests are therefore useful in showing 
 how the pupils vary in the several standards and among them- 
 selves, since the child who works ten examples in the given 
 time has achieved twice as much as the child who works five. 
 
 The tests are printed on paper and handed to the children. 
 The instructions are clearly given, and all that the children 
 have to do is to write down the answers. 
 
 1 S. A. Courtis, Standard Tests, 82 Eliot Street, Detroit, Mich. 
 
 12
 
 178 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The following instructions and specimens will best illustrate 
 the nature of the tests : 
 
 A ddition 
 
 You will be given eight minutes to find the answers to as 
 many of these addition examples (24) as possible. Write the 
 answers on this paper directly underneath the examples. You 
 are not expected to be able to do them all. You will be marked 
 for both speed and accuracy, but it is more important to have 
 your answers right than to try a great many examples. 
 
 927 297 136 486 384 176 277 837 
 
 379 
 
 925 
 
 340 
 
 765 
 
 477 
 
 783 
 
 445 
 
 882 
 
 756 
 
 473 
 
 988 
 
 524 
 
 881 
 
 607 
 
 682 
 
 959 
 
 837 
 
 983 
 
 386 
 
 140 
 
 266 
 
 200 
 
 594 
 
 603 
 
 924 
 
 315 
 
 353 
 
 812 
 
 679 
 
 366 
 
 481 
 
 118 
 
 no 
 
 661 
 
 904 
 
 466 
 
 241 
 
 851 
 
 778 
 
 781 
 
 854 
 
 794 
 
 547 
 
 355 
 
 796 
 
 535 
 
 849 
 
 756 
 
 965 
 
 177 
 
 192 
 
 834 
 
 850 
 
 323 
 
 157 
 
 222 
 
 344 
 
 124 
 
 439 
 
 567 
 
 733 
 
 229 
 
 953 
 
 525 
 
 Subtraction 
 
 You will be given four minutes to find the answers to as 
 
 many of these subtraction examples (24) as possible. Write 
 
 the answers on this paper directly underneath the examples. 
 
 You are not expected to be able to do them all. You will be 
 
 marked for both speed and accuracy, but it is more important 
 
 to have your answers right than to try a great many examples. 
 
 115364741 67298125 9 20 57352 113380936 
 
 80195261 29346861 42689037 42556840 
 
 Multiplication 
 
 You will be given six minutes to work as many of these 
 multiplication examples (25) as possible. You are not 
 expected to be able to do them all. Do your work directly 
 on this paper ; use no other. You will be marked for both 
 speed and accuracy, but it is more important to have your 
 answers right than to try a great many examples. 
 
 8246 3597 5739 2648 9537 
 
 29 73 85 46 92
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 179 
 
 Division 
 
 You will be given eight minutes to work as many of these 
 division examples (24) as possible. You are not expected to 
 be able to do them all. Do your work directly on this paper ; 
 use no other. You will be marked for both speed and accuracy, 
 but it is more important to have your answers right than to 
 try a great many examples. 
 
 25)6775 94)85352 37)9990 86)80066 
 
 The performances of the pupils are recorded and illustrated 
 in the following tables and figures : 
 
 TABLE No. 17 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUMBER OF EXAMPLES CORRECTLY WORKED 
 IN THE GIVEN TlME BY 379 EUROPEAN, 149 INDIAN, AND 399 
 NATIVE PUPILS, IN THE SEVERAL STANDARDS 
 
 ADDITION. 
 
 No. of 
 
 examples 
 
 European. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Native. 
 
 correctly 
 worked. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
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 i 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 II 
 
 18 
 
 2O 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 .5 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 ii 
 
 ii 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 ,5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 ii 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
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 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
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 9 
 
 3 
 
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 10 
 
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 10 
 
 
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 6 
 
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 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 87 
 
 90 
 
 86 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 93 
 
 114 
 
 9 8 
 
 94 
 
 Median 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 scores . 
 
 3-8 
 
 4'5 
 
 5'7 
 
 7-0 
 
 3'7 5'3 
 
 5'3 
 
 6-7 
 
 1-8 
 
 2-8 
 
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 3-2
 
 180 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 TABLE No. 1 8 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUMBER OF EXAMPLES CORRECTLY WORKED 
 IN THE GIVEN TlME BY 379 EUROPEAN, 149 INDIAN, AND 399 
 NATIVE PUPILS, IN THE SEVERAL STANDARDS 
 
 SUBTRACTION. 
 
 No. of 
 
 European. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Native. 
 
 examples 
 
 
 
 
 correctly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 worked. 
 
 111. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
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 10 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
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 i 
 
 
 
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 7 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
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 16 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 IO 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 IO 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 IQ 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 IO 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
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 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
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 3 
 
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 3 
 
 
 
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 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
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 12 
 
 
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 4 
 
 
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 13 
 
 
 
 
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 4 
 
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 15 
 
 
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 18 
 
 
 
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 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 8 7 
 
 90 
 
 86 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 93 
 
 114 
 
 9 8 
 
 94 
 
 Median 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 scores . 
 
 4'3 
 
 5-8 
 
 6-9 
 
 7-8 
 
 5'4 
 
 6-3 
 
 8-0 
 
 10-3 
 
 3'2 
 
 4-8 
 
 6-7 
 
 7'5
 
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 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 185 
 
 TABLE No. 19 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUMBER OF EXAMPLES CORRECTLY WORKED 
 IN THE GIVEN TlME BY 379 EUROPEAN, 149 INDIAN, AND 399 
 NATIVE PUPILS, IN THE SEVERAL STANDARDS 
 
 MULTIPLICATION. 
 
 No. of 
 
 European. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Native. 
 
 examples 
 
 
 
 
 correctly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 worked. 
 
 TTT 
 
 TV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 Ill 
 
 TV 
 
 V 
 
 VT 
 
 TTT 
 
 TV 
 
 V 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 18 
 
 3i 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 IO 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 IO 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 M 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 Ii 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 ii 
 
 ii 
 
 i 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 
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 2 
 
 ii 
 
 
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 3 
 
 
 
 
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 10 
 
 
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 9 
 
 8 
 
 
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 6 
 
 3 
 
 
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 12 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 87 
 
 90 
 
 86 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 93 
 
 114 
 
 9 8 
 
 94 
 
 Median . 
 
 2-3 
 
 4-2 
 
 6-2 
 
 7-6 
 
 2-7 
 
 4-8 
 
 4'9 
 
 8-7 
 
 1-2 
 
 2-5 
 
 4'i 
 
 4'9
 
 l86 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
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 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 187 
 
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 l88 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 TABLE No. 20 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUMBER OF EXAMPLES CORRECTLY WORKED 
 IN THE GIVEN TlME BY 379 EUROPEAN, 149 INDIAN, AND 399 
 NATIVE PUPILS, IN THE SEVERAL STANDARDS 
 
 DIVISION. 
 
 No. of 
 
 European. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Native. 
 
 examples 
 
 
 
 
 correctly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 worked. 
 
 III. IV. 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 Ill 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
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 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 i 
 
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 72 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 ii 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 O 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
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 5 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 ii 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
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 6 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
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 i 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 II 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
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 7 
 
 ii 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
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 10 
 
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 4 
 
 6 
 
 
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 Total . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 87 
 
 90 
 
 86 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 93 
 
 114 
 
 98 
 
 94 
 
 Median . 
 
 i'3 
 
 3'i 
 
 5-8 
 
 8-5 
 
 2-2 
 
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 5-6 
 
 8-7 
 
 0-8 
 
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 5'8
 
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 14 
 
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 17 
 
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 STANDARD V. STANDARD VI. 
 
 FIG. ii. Showing in percentages the distribution of examples correctly 
 worked in division.
 
 IQO THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 TABLE No. 21 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE STANDING BY MEDIAN SCORES IN THE FUNDA- 
 MENTALS OF ARITHMETIC OF NATAL SCHOOLS AND THOSE OF 
 CERTAIN SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Addition. 
 
 
 Multiplication. 
 
 Grade 5 
 
 Grade 6 
 
 Grade 7 
 
 
 Grade 5 
 
 Grade 6 
 
 Grade 7 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 Std. IV. 
 
 Std. V. 
 
 Std. VI. 
 
 
 Std. IV. 
 
 Std. V. 
 
 Std. VI. 
 
 3'9 
 
 4-6 
 
 5'4 
 
 Detroit. 
 
 3-8 4'8 
 
 6-0 
 
 3'7 
 
 4'9 
 
 5-6 
 
 Boston. 
 
 3'3 4-8 
 
 5'i 
 
 3'9 
 
 4'4 
 
 4'7 
 
 Other cities. 
 
 3-6 4-5 
 
 5-2 
 
 2-9 
 
 3'4 
 
 3-8 
 
 Butte. 
 
 4'i 
 
 5-o 
 
 6-5 
 
 4'i 
 
 6-4 
 
 6-9 
 
 Salt Lake City. 
 
 4'3 
 
 5'3 
 
 7-1 
 
 4'5 
 5'3 
 
 5-7 
 5'3 
 
 7-o 
 6-7 
 
 Europeans, Natal. 
 Indians, Natal. 
 
 4-2 
 4-8 
 
 6-2 
 
 4'9 
 
 7-8 
 8-7 
 
 2-8 
 
 3- 
 
 3'2 
 
 Natives, Natal. 
 
 2'5 
 
 4'i 
 
 4'9 
 
 Subtraction. 
 
 
 Division. 
 
 Grade 5 
 
 Grade 6 
 
 Grade 7 
 
 
 Grade 5 
 
 Grade 6 
 
 Grade 7 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 Std. IV. 
 
 Std. V. 
 
 Std. VI. 
 
 
 Std. IV. 
 
 Std. V. 
 
 Std. VI. 
 
 5'5 
 
 6-2 
 
 7-3 
 
 Detroit. 
 
 2-7 
 
 4'4 
 
 7-1 
 
 4'9 
 
 6-3 
 
 6-9 
 
 Boston. 
 
 2-0 
 
 3'3 
 
 5'i 
 
 4-5 
 
 6-1 
 
 7-8 
 
 Other cities. 
 
 2-3 
 
 4'3 
 
 5-8 
 
 3-9 
 
 3'4 
 
 3-8 
 
 Butte. 
 
 3-6 
 
 4'3 
 
 7-2 
 
 5-2 
 
 7-8 
 
 8-8 
 
 Salt Lake City. 
 
 3-0 
 
 5-5 
 
 7-7 
 
 5'8 
 
 6-9 
 
 7-8 
 
 Europeans, Natal. 
 
 3'i 
 
 5-8 
 
 8-5 
 
 6-3 
 
 8-0 
 
 10-3 
 
 Indians, Natal. 
 
 4'4 
 
 5-6 
 
 8-7 
 
 4-8 
 
 6-7 
 
 7-3 
 
 Natives, Natal. 
 
 2-4 
 
 3'4 
 
 5-8 
 
 Section 5. Speed and Accuracy 
 
 The tests in the fundamentals of arithmetic afford us an 
 opportunity of gauging the relative quickness of the three 
 races in the mental processes involved. In the following 
 table speed represents the median number of examples com- 
 pleted in the given time, and accuracy the percentage of 
 examples worked correctly. The quickness of the Indians 
 and the comparative slowness of the Native pupils are most 
 marked.
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS 
 
 TABLE No. 22 
 
 COMPARING THE SPEED AND ACCURACY OF EUROPEAN, INDIAN, AND 
 NATIVE PUPILS IN THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS OF ARITH- 
 METIC 
 
 
 Addition. 
 
 Subtraction. 
 
 Multiplica- 
 tion. 
 
 Division. 
 
 Speed 
 
 Accu- 
 racy. 
 
 Speed 
 
 Accu- 
 racy. 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Accu- 
 racy. 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Accu- 
 racy. 
 
 
 
 Per 
 
 
 Per 
 
 
 Per 
 
 
 Per 
 
 III. 
 
 
 cent. 
 
 
 cent. 
 
 
 cent. 
 
 
 cent. 
 
 European 
 
 6-2 
 
 61 
 
 6-0 
 
 72 
 
 4-6 
 
 50 
 
 2-6 
 
 50 
 
 Indian . 
 
 5'7 
 
 58 
 
 6-3 
 
 78 
 
 4'3 
 
 5i 
 
 2-3 
 
 61 
 
 Native . 
 
 3'4 
 
 53 
 
 5-o 
 
 64 
 
 2-8 
 
 43 
 
 2-3 
 
 35 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 European 
 
 6-4 
 
 70 
 
 7-2 
 
 80 
 
 5-8 
 
 72 
 
 4'3 
 
 72 
 
 Indian 
 
 7-0 
 
 69 
 
 7-8 
 
 83 
 
 6-2 
 
 69 
 
 5'3 
 
 81 
 
 Native . 
 
 3'9 
 
 72 
 
 6-3 
 
 76 
 
 4-0 
 
 62 
 
 4'i 
 
 59 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 European 
 
 8-3 
 
 69 
 
 8-5 
 
 81 
 
 8-1 
 
 77 
 
 7-0 
 
 83 
 
 Indian . 
 
 7-0 
 
 69 
 
 9'4 
 
 79 
 
 7'4 
 
 64 
 
 6-8 
 
 77 
 
 Native . 
 
 4'4 
 
 68 
 
 8-0 
 
 84 
 
 4'9 
 
 84 
 
 4'5 
 
 75 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 European 
 
 9-7 
 
 72 
 
 IO-2 
 
 76 
 
 9-7 
 
 80 
 
 9'3 
 
 91 
 
 Indian 
 
 9-8 
 
 75 
 
 12-7 
 
 76 
 
 IO'O 
 
 73 
 
 9'9 
 
 81 
 
 Native . 
 
 5'i 
 
 63 
 
 9'5 
 
 79 
 
 6-1 
 
 80 
 
 6-3 
 
 92 
 
 Section 6. The Educational Significance of the Results 
 in Arithmetic 
 
 The tests in the fundamental operations of arithmetic are 
 probably the best criteria of the comparative efficiency of the 
 three races in school subjects, inasmuch as the subject is con- 
 sidered of prime importance in both types of schools, and 
 the differentiating factor of language is not here operative. 
 
 It will be noticed in the first place that, although the Native 
 pupils are very much slower than the Europeans, they are 
 not quite so accurate. This goes to confirm the belief that 
 " sureness " is not a necessary corollary to " slowness," and 
 is in keeping with the common opinion that the South African
 
 IQ2 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Native is slower than the European in all types of activity, 
 and is satisfied with a considerably less degree of completeness 
 and exactness. 1 In school practice it points to less stringent 
 requirements from Native pupils than from Europeans in 
 both teaching and examination. 
 
 The fact that the Native child is from 30 to 100 per cent, 
 slower than the European child in working arithmetical 
 examples is very significant. The slowness of the South 
 African Native has become proverbial, and in their political, 
 social, and domestic dealings with the Natives the greatest 
 mistakes made by the Europeans have been in neglecting 
 to make allowance for the slowness of the Native people. We 
 have seen how the early missionaries attempted to proceed 
 too rapidly with their work among the Natives ; and to this day 
 one of the most difficult problems confronting the missionary 
 is to prevent retrogression. Similar mistakes have been 
 made, and are still being made, in educational work among 
 the South African Natives. Until we realise that our educa- 
 tional programme must be based upon the peculiar character- 
 istics of the people we are doomed to disappointment. The 
 absurdity of imposing the same curriculum upon the children 
 of both races is apparent. The curriculum for Native pupils 
 must be different from that of the Europeans ; and where 
 the subjects are the same, considerably less in the way of 
 achievement must be expected from the slower race. 
 
 A third fact of great significance is the greater variability 
 of the Europeans in their arithmetical achievements. While 
 the Natives vary more than the Whites in their ages, they are 
 much more uniform in their achievements. This fact is of 
 much importance for the probable future of the races, and 
 points to the continued dominance of the European. 2 
 
 Section 7. Conclusions 
 
 Our investigation into the comparative achievements of 
 European, Indian, and Native pupils leads to the following 
 conclusions : 
 
 1 See Report of the Cape Select Committee on Native Education, 1908, 
 section 1028. 
 
 2 See Thorndike, Educational Psychology, vol. iii., chaps, ix. and x., 
 for a treatment of the significance of variability.
 
 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EUROPEAN AND NATIVE PUPILS IQJ 
 
 1. The Native pupils tested were from two to three years 
 older than the Europeans of the same standards, and from 
 three to five years older in physical maturity. No allowance 
 has been made in curriculum, methods, or discipline for the 
 physical, mental, and emotional differences between pre- 
 pubescent and pubescent or post-pubescent children. This 
 would probably account largely for the so-called arrested 
 mental development of pubescent and post-pubescent Native 
 pupils. The only remedy available at present, when Native 
 pupils enter school at such different ages, is to encourage 
 teachers to modify curriculum and methods to suit these 
 pupils, and to advance them as rapidly as possible. 
 
 2. There is a considerable amount of overlapping in the 
 several standards of European, Indian, and Native schools. 
 Where it is not possible to regroup pupils in accordance with 
 their standard of achievement in each subject, they should 
 be allowed to devote their time to work in other subjects. 
 
 3. The formal teaching of handwriting is of little value in 
 and after Standard IV. The high standard already achieved 
 could be maintained by insistence on good writing in all 
 subjects, and the time thus saved might be devoted to other 
 subjects. This is of prime importance because of the short 
 school life of Native pupils. 
 
 4. In arithmetic the Native pupils are very much slower, less 
 accurate, and less variable than the Europeans. This fact 
 has important bearing on the curriculum, which should be 
 considerably simpler than that of the European pupils.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 PART I. THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
 NATIVE 
 
 DR JOHN ADAMS, in his brilliant and entertaining study of 
 the psychology of Herbart, 1 points out that when " the master 
 teaches John Latin," it was formerly only considered necessary 
 to know Latin, but that nowadays the master must know John. 
 So with us. If we hope to build up a satisfactory system of 
 Native education in South Africa we must first know the 
 Native. 
 
 The importance of psychology in education is twofold. 
 On the one hand, it is one of the basal subjects, and, along with 
 biology, sociology, and philosophy, provides us with a mass 
 of rationalised knowledge on which a system of education 
 must be founded. On the other hand, it becomes a pro- 
 fessional subject, and, by explaining how the mind develops 
 and acts, shows the educator how to bring about those 
 mental changes in knowledge and character which we call 
 education. 
 
 The study of child psychology derived from observation of 
 experiments with Caucasian children has given us sufficient 
 reliable data regarding the mental processes and development 
 of young children on which to base a system of education; 
 but when we seek to make use of that data in preparing a 
 system of education for the Bantu child, we are confronted with 
 a serious difficulty. Is the psychology of the Bantu child 
 the same as that of the Caucasian ? 
 
 1 Herbartian Psychology, chap. ii. 
 194
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION IQ5 
 
 Section i. General Studies in Racial Psychology 
 
 The scientific study of racial psychology is still in its infancy. 
 Generalisations from individual cases or from the observations 
 of travellers are at least as old as Herodotus, but the first 
 real attempts to apply objective and quantitative methods to 
 the questions of race psychology were those of the Cambridge 
 Anthropological Expedition to the Torres Straits in 1891. 1 
 The next important study was that conducted by Professor 
 R. S. Woodworth at the St Louis Exposition in I904. 2 In 
 both cases the qualities tested were motory and sensory 
 processes, and some of the simpler and higher mental pro- 
 cesses. The conclusions arrived at by the two studies are in 
 general agreement. The widespread notion that uncivilised 
 peoples are more acute in vision and hearing is not borne out 
 by the results. Primitive people appear to be superior to 
 Europeans in their sense of touch, but inferior in their sense 
 of pain. The sense of smell is about the same in all races. 
 In accuracy in tapping marked differences were noted, and in 
 the " form-board " test (i.e. fitting differently shaped blocks 
 into their proper grooves) the races experimented upon 
 seemed to divide into two groups of widely different ability. 
 The reader is referred to the reports themselves for details. 
 All we can do here is to give the general conclusions that there 
 is very little difference between races in sensory and motor 
 processes and the simpler mental activities, but that there 
 are apparently wide differences in general intelligence in the 
 higher mental processes. 
 
 Section 2. Studies of School Children of Different Races 
 in the United States 
 
 While there is a pressing need for further experimenta- 
 tion along the lines of these studies, our present interest is to 
 discover what mental differences (if any) exist between 
 European and Native school children. The writer believes 
 that the experiments reported below are the only ones which 
 have been made on the Native children of South Africa, but 
 
 1 Reported in the Report of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition. 
 - Reported in Science, February 1910, " Racial Differences in Mental 
 Traits."
 
 196 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 three studies which have been made in the United States on 
 the comparative intelligence of White and Negro children are 
 interesting and suggestive. 
 
 In 1913 Dr Marion J. Mayo endeavoured to find out the 
 differences in mental capacity between White and Negro pupils 
 as far as this capacity is exercised in school work. 1 His method 
 was to compare the school marks of the 150 White and the same 
 number of Coloured 2 pupils in the high schools of the city of 
 New York, where both sets of pupils attend the same schools, 
 pursue the same branches of study, are measured by the same 
 standards, and have received the same kind of previous 
 school training. The results are summarised by Professor 
 Thorndike as follows : 3 
 
 1. On the average Coloured pupils are seven months older 
 than the Whites, only 36 per cent, of them being as young as 
 the median White. 
 
 2. The Coloured pupils continue longer in the high school. 
 
 3. In achievement in the different studies they are some- 
 what, but not very much, inferior to the Whites. The general 
 tendency is for only three-tenths of them to reach the median 
 record for Whites. 
 
 4. The difference is greatest in the case of English, in which 
 only 24 per cent, of the Coloured pupils reach or exceed the 
 median for Whites. 
 
 5. The coloured pupils are perhaps a little less variable 
 than the whites. 
 
 In 1913 Professor W. H. Pyle began a series of experimental 
 studies on the mentality of the Negro. The investigations 
 are not yet completed, but the results attained so far are 
 interesting and suggestive. 4 
 
 The tests were four tests of memory, two tests of quickness 
 
 1 " The Mental Capacity of the American Negro," Columbia Contribu- 
 tions to Philosophy and Psychology, vol. xxii., No. 2. 
 
 8 " Coloured " includes both pure Negroes and Mulattoes. Dr Mayo 
 was compelled, through difficulties of classification, to abandon his 
 attempt to separate the Coloured pupils into sub-groups on the basis 
 of the degree of race mixture. 
 
 3 Educational Psychology, vol. iii. p. 208. 
 
 4 An account of the results so far obtained are presented by Professor 
 Pyle in the March 1915 number of School and Society, vol. i., No. 10.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 197 
 
 of learning, four tests of association, two word-building tests, 
 and one ink-blot test. The tests were particularly suitable 
 in that they are largely tests of natural ability and not of the 
 results of school training. The whole number of pupils tested 
 was 408. The results are grouped under ages ; but since the 
 number of some ages examined was not great enough for 
 reliability, Professor Pyle finds the averages of attainment 
 in each test, and regards these as the most reliable index for 
 comparison. 
 
 TABLE No. 23 
 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Logical memory, immediate 
 
 23-5 
 
 19-4 
 
 25-3 
 
 19-9 
 
 Logical memory, permanent 
 
 10-8 
 
 9'5 
 
 11-7 
 
 9-3 
 
 Rote memory, concrete 
 
 37'4 
 
 29-3 
 
 39-o 
 
 32-4 
 
 Rote memory, abstract 
 
 3i-4 
 
 19-7 
 
 32-8 22'9 
 
 Substitution, symbol digit 
 
 19-4 
 
 9-6 
 
 22-4 10-8 
 
 Substitution, digit symbol 
 
 18-5 
 
 8-2 
 
 21-5 9'4 
 
 Controlled association, opposites 
 
 12-3 
 
 5'5 
 
 13-4 7'2 
 
 Controlled association, genus 
 
 
 
 
 species . . . 
 
 8-7 
 
 2-2 
 
 9-8 3-6 
 
 Controlled association, part 
 
 
 
 
 
 whole ... 
 
 IO-I 
 
 4'2 
 
 10-3 
 
 4-8 
 
 Free association 
 
 32-0 
 
 26-0 
 
 35'4 
 
 30-0 
 
 Word-building, a, e, o, b, m, t . 
 
 10-8 
 
 5'2 
 
 I2'O 
 
 5'9 
 
 Word-building, a, e, i, r, 1 p 
 
 n-3 
 
 6-0 
 
 13-0 
 
 5'i 
 
 Cancellation, " A " test 
 
 12-8 
 
 12-6 
 
 14-6 
 
 15-8 
 
 Ink blots ... 
 
 8-5 
 
 6-9 
 
 8-9 
 
 6-5 
 
 The conclusions arrived at by Professor Pyle may be sum- 
 marised as follows : 
 
 1. The marks indicating the mental ability of the Negro 
 are about two-thirds of those of the Whites. About one-fifth of 
 the Negroes are equal or superior to the average of the Whites, 
 while three-fourths of the Whites are equal or superior to the 
 average of the Negroes. 
 
 2. In both races the girls are superior to the boys, but there
 
 -.Whites BOYS 
 
 Negroes 
 
 RLS 
 
 r\ 
 
 Bi 
 
 i*j 
 
 Eg 
 
 a c 
 
 8j 
 
 6 
 
 t! 
 
 5JS 
 
 K 
 
 ,.p . o K 
 
 ay GJO a 
 
 l! II |l 
 
 II ll i! 
 
 w t/3-3 ols 
 
 i H 
 
 H O 
 B'-S 
 
 ^2 
 
 lii 1 
 
 90 
 |w 
 
 ^< 
 
 gw 
 
 ^< 
 
 FIG. 12,- Showing comparative scores of Whites and Negroes 
 in tests of mental ability (after Pyle).
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 199 
 
 is greater difference between Negro boys and girls than there 
 is between White boys and girls. 
 
 3. With increasing age there is a tendency for the difference 
 between Whites and Negroes to become less. 
 
 4. If the Negro children are separated into two groups 
 according to social position, it is found that Negro boys of 
 the better social class have about four-fifths of the ability of 
 White boys, and Negro girls of the better social class have an 
 ability which is three-fourths that of the White girls. 
 
 5. The superiority of the Negroes of the better social class 
 may be due to their superior environment and conditions of 
 life, or to the fact that they have White blood in them. 
 
 In 1915 Louise F. Perring endeavoured to find out how the 
 Negro compared with the White child in taking up the White 
 child's course of study. 1 The study was made in a school in 
 Philadelphia where the Negroes form about 40 per cent, of 
 the school population. The Negro children are not segregated, 
 but are taught in the same classes and by the same teachers, 
 use the same text-books, and are subject to the same super- 
 vision and discipline as the other children. Miss Perring used 
 as the basis for her comparisons (a) the percentage of retarda- 
 tion of each race, (b) the extent of the retardation. The 
 number of children studied was 417 Whites and 175 Negroes. 
 Of the Whites 77 boys and 77 girls were in the Grammar 
 Grades (our Standards IV.-VII.), and 143 boys and 120 girls 
 in the Primary Grades (our Standards I.-III.). Of the Negroes 
 17 boys and 28 girls were in the Grammar Grades, and 53 boys 
 and 77 girls in the Primary Grades. The percentages of 
 retardation were as follows : 
 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. Totals. 
 
 Gram- 
 
 Prim- 
 
 Gram- 
 
 Prim- 
 
 Gram- 
 
 Prim- 
 
 
 mar. 
 
 ary. 
 
 mar. 
 
 ary. 
 
 mar. 
 
 ary. 
 
 White . 
 Negro . 
 
 37-6 
 52'9 
 
 32-8 
 34-5 
 
 29-8 
 37'i 
 
 29-1 
 59'7 
 
 33'7 
 55-5 
 
 31-1 
 59'2 
 
 Study reported in the Psychological Clinic, May 1915.
 
 200 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The extent of the retardation was as follows : 
 
 Extent of 
 retardation. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Prim- 
 ary. 
 
 Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Prim- 
 ary. 
 
 Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Prim- 
 ary. 
 
 V 
 
 P 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 v , o 
 
 V 
 
 o 
 
 ID 
 
 | 
 
 8 
 fc 
 
 i 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 2 
 I 
 
 W 
 & 
 
 1 
 
 & 
 6 
 fc 
 
 17 
 6 
 
 & 
 
 
 fc 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 7 
 
 Bg 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 b 
 
 fc 
 
 "24 
 
 
 
 Retarded i year 
 2 years 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 25 
 13 
 
 7 
 i 
 
 13 
 9 
 8 
 o 
 o 
 
 7 
 5 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 18 
 15 
 
 7 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 39 
 10 
 
 2 
 I 
 
 IO 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 45 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 15 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Miss Perring shows that the non-promotion of the Negroes 
 is not due to poorer physical condition, by publishing figures 
 from the medical record of these pupils. The average number 
 of defects per pupil was -54 and '69 in the case of the Grammar 
 and Primary Grade White pupils, and only -51 and '40 in the 
 case of the Negro pupils. On an average the Negro pupils 
 were '6 and -7 years older than the Whites in the Grammar and 
 Primary Grades respectively. Miss Perring's conclusion is 
 that we are justified in saying that the Negro boy or girl is not 
 getting what he ought to get in our schools, arranged as they 
 are on a basis of European tradition. Whether the Negro 
 has or has not a less keen intellect than the Caucasian is beside 
 the point. His mind is evidently not like the mind of those 
 with whom he is associated in the present investigation, which 
 was as fair to him as possible. If we are going to give the 
 Negro eight years of education in not over ten years, it must be 
 a different sort of education from that which we try to instil 
 into the minds of White children. To be sure, we only 
 measurably succeed with the latter, and in so far as we faU 
 our method and our materials are probably wrong ; but they 
 are probably twice as far wrong when we attempt to force 
 them upon the Negro.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 2OI 
 
 Section 3. A Study of School Children of Different Races 
 in South Africa 
 
 In 1915 and 1916 the writer applied Professor Pyle's tests to 
 328 European, 176 Indian, and 281 Native children in Govern- 
 ment and Government-aided schools in Natal. 1 The children 
 consisted of both boys and girls, and were selected at random. 
 The following tests were used : 
 
 1. Logical Memory. The object of this test is to determine 
 the child's immediate memory for ideas. Whipple's story 
 " The Marble Statue " was used. The piece was read slowly and 
 distinctly to the pupils, who were then required to reproduce 
 as much as they could remember. The time of reproduction 
 was not limited, except that when each child had written all 
 that he or she could recall, the papers were taken up. One 
 point was given for each idea correctly reproduced. 
 
 2. Rote Memory, Concrete. The object of this test is to 
 determine the immediate memory of the pupil for unrelated 
 impressions. Six groups of concrete words containing 3, 4, 5, 
 6, 7, and 8 words respectively (e.g. cat, tree, coat, mule, bird, 
 cart, glass, etc.) were read to the pupils, group by group, and 
 the children were required to reproduce them on paper. 2 A 
 word remembered at all counts one point ; if in its proper 
 place, two points. The possible score is 66 points. 
 
 3. Rote Memory, Abstract. The same as the above, except 
 that the words represent abstract ideas (e.g., good, black, fast, 
 clean, tall, round, hot, etc.). 2 
 
 4. Substitution, Symbol Digit. This is a test of quickness of 
 learning, and represents the speed with which a person can 
 build up new associations. Each pupil was supplied with a 
 sheet containing forty numbers of five digits each. At the top 
 of the sheet is a key giving a symbol (e.g. A x =) for each digit, 
 and the pupils are required to substitute symbols for digits. 
 The time allowed was eight minutes for Standards up to 
 Standard III. inclusive, and five minutes for Standards IV. and 
 over. The scores are reduced to the number of substitutions 
 made per minute. 
 
 5. Substitution, Digit Symbol. A similar test to No. 4, except 
 
 1 Pyle, W. H., The Examination of School Children, 1913, New York, 
 The Macmillan Co. 
 
 * The words chosen were such as would be familiar to all pupils.
 
 202 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 that the child was given the symbols and required to substitute 
 the equivalent digits. The symbols are different from those 
 in test 4. 
 
 6. Word-building with the Letters a, e, o, b, m, t. This is a 
 test of ingenuity, involving memory, attention, and association. 
 The pupil is required to build as many real English words as he 
 can in five minutes, with these letters only. The words need 
 not contain all the letters. 
 
 7. Word-building with the Letters a, e, i, r, I, p. A similar 
 test to No. 6. 
 
 8. Free Association. This test determines the rapidity of 
 flow of the pupil's ideas, when no limitation is put upon the 
 flow. The children were given the word " dog," and instructed 
 to write down as fast as possible all the other words which came 
 into their minds. The time allowed was three minutes. 
 
 9. Controlled Association, Opposites. The object of the 
 association tests is to ascertain the extent of the flow of ideas 
 when subjected to certain limitations. The processes involved 
 are similar to those involved in solving a real life problem, 
 where our thoughts are controlled by limiting factors. The 
 opposites test consisted of twenty words (north, out, black, 
 etc.), to each of which the pupils were to write the word con- 
 taining an opposite idea. The time limits were sixty seconds 
 for pupils in Standards I.-III., and forty-five seconds for pupils 
 in Standards IV. and over. The scores are reduced to speed 
 per minute. 
 
 10. Controlled Association, Genus, Species. This test is 
 similar to No. Q, except that the twenty words represent class 
 names (e.g. mountain, city, weed), and the pupils were required 
 to name an example or species under each class. Time limit 
 and method of scoring as in test No. 9. 
 
 11. Controlled Association, Part, Whole. Each of the twenty 
 words represented a whole (e.g. window, leaf, pillow), and the 
 pupils were required to write down a word which named a part 
 of it. Time limits and method of scoring as in test No. 9. 
 
 12. The Cancellation Test. The pupils were required to 
 cancel the a's in a printed sheet containing all the letters of 
 the alphabet, placed together in no definite order. The score 
 is the number of a's marked per minute. The time limits 
 were two minutes in Standards I.-III., and ninety seconds in
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 203 
 
 Standards IV. and over, but the scores were reduced to the 
 number of a's marked per minute. This test determines quick- 
 ness of perception, discrimination, and quickness of reaction. 
 The results in average scores for each age-group are as 
 follows : 
 
 TABLE No. 24 
 
 SHOWING THE AVERAGE SCORES OF EUROPEAN, INDIAN, AND 
 NATIVE PUPILS IN CERTAIN TESTS 
 
 Ages . . 
 
 
 
 9- 
 
 10. 
 
 II. 
 
 13. 
 
 13- 
 
 14- 
 
 15- 
 
 16. 
 
 17- 
 
 18. 
 
 Aver, 
 age. 
 
 
 European . 
 
 3 
 
 4t 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 
 Number of cases. 
 
 Indian 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 29 24 
 
 39 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 
 Logical memory. 
 
 European . 28-1 
 
 30-6 
 
 36-3 
 
 37-o 
 
 37-0 
 
 43-o 
 
 42-7 
 
 40-9 
 
 42-9! 38-7 
 
 37-7 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 5-0 
 
 5-9 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-0 
 
 5-2 
 
 4-3 
 
 4-1 
 
 4-0 
 
 4-5 6-0 
 
 
 
 Indian 
 
 17-1 
 
 18-3 
 
 21-3 
 
 17-0 
 
 24-6 
 
 26-9 
 
 31-2 
 
 27-2 
 
 39-0 132-0 
 
 25-5 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 7-8 
 
 9-2 
 
 10-1 
 
 8-3 
 
 S-3 
 
 9-0 
 
 8-4 
 
 J0-2 
 
 2-0 i 3-0 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 10-2 
 
 8-2 
 
 13-5 
 
 9-0 
 
 19-9 
 
 21-5 
 
 28-8 
 
 35'9 
 
 39-8 137-2 
 
 22-2 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 3-1 
 
 3-6 
 
 7-1 
 
 3-9 
 
 9-1 
 
 7-8 
 
 8-2 
 
 6-7 \ 7-7 j e-0 
 
 
 Rote memory, 
 
 European . 
 
 35-9 
 
 42-4 
 
 47-5 
 
 47-2 
 
 49-9 
 
 53-4 
 
 56-1 
 
 55-3 51-7 
 
 53-1 
 
 49-2 
 
 concrete. 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 4-2 6-2 
 
 4-3 
 
 4-6 
 
 5-4 
 
 5-1 
 
 7-0 
 
 6-3 3-6 7-8 
 
 
 
 Indian 
 
 32-3 347 
 
 35-1 
 
 33-9 
 
 4-13 
 
 39'9 
 
 43-7 
 
 42-5 44'5 44-0 
 
 39.3 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 6-1 6-5 
 
 5-1 
 
 5-4 
 
 4-9 
 
 5-0 
 
 4-4 
 
 4-4 
 
 1-5 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 25-0 21-5 
 
 28-5 
 
 24-5 
 
 33-7 
 
 37-2 
 
 42-2 
 
 45-i 
 
 45-2 
 
 47-4 
 
 35-o 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 7-2 4-7 
 
 7-4 
 
 6-2 
 
 S-3 
 
 5-8 
 
 5-2 
 
 4-9 
 
 4-7 
 
 3-7 
 
 
 Rote memory, 
 
 European . 
 
 35-0 137-9 
 
 43'i 
 
 44'3 
 
 45-a 
 
 52-7 
 
 57-4 
 
 54-2 
 
 52-5 54-7 
 
 47-7 
 
 abstract. 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 5-4 
 
 6-3 
 
 6-1 
 
 4-1 
 
 5-0 
 
 5-1 
 
 7-3 
 
 8-1 
 
 3-71 8-4 
 
 
 
 Indian 
 
 30-6 
 
 32-0 
 
 31-9 
 
 32-6 
 
 37-5 
 
 40-5 
 
 41-1 
 
 43-6 
 
 44-5 38-5 
 
 37'3 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 7-3 
 
 6-6 
 
 6-9 
 
 5-6 
 
 5-7 
 
 -9 
 
 6-9 
 
 9-5 
 
 2-5 5-5 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 2O'O 
 
 19-4 
 
 26-7 
 
 23-5 
 
 3i-7 
 
 34-8 
 
 35-o 
 
 45-7 
 
 45-1 ! 37'5 
 
 31-8 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 6-0 
 
 6-1 
 
 7-4 
 
 6-8 
 
 8-0 
 
 6-1 
 
 7-0 
 
 5-1 
 
 4-9 10-4 
 
 
 Substitution, 
 
 European . 
 
 23-4 
 
 2O-O 
 
 18-5 
 
 17-6 
 
 21-4 
 
 27-2 
 
 29-3 
 
 27-1 
 
 28-3 25-6 
 
 23-8 
 
 symbol digit. 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 9-1 
 
 6-7 
 
 4-4 
 
 3-3 
 
 4-1 
 
 3-8 
 
 6-1 
 
 M 
 
 3-3 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 
 Indian . ; 3-0 
 
 IO-2 
 
 14-1 
 
 n-8 
 
 17-8 
 
 18-3 
 
 19-2 
 
 23-5 
 
 13-9 
 
 17-4 
 
 14-9 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 6-7 
 
 4-9 
 
 5-5 
 
 6-2 
 
 4-A 
 
 3-f 
 
 2-8 
 
 4-5 
 
 0-1 
 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 5-5 
 
 4-7 
 
 7'3 
 
 5-6 
 
 1 1-9 
 
 14-8 
 
 15-1 
 
 19-8 
 
 2O- 1 22-1 
 
 14-9 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 1-9 
 
 2-3 
 
 4-6 
 
 o 
 
 6-1 
 
 4-7 
 
 4-5 
 
 5-0 
 
 3-1 5-6 
 
 
 Substitution, 
 
 European . 
 
 I4'4 
 
 19-2 
 
 18-0 
 
 19-0 
 
 23-4 
 
 30-2 
 
 29-8 
 
 30-1 
 
 29-2 
 
 28-8 
 
 24-2 
 
 digit symbol. 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 4-3 
 
 4-2 
 
 2-9 
 
 3-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 <<? 
 
 4-1 
 
 5-0 
 
 3-0 | 6-2 
 
 
 
 Indian 
 
 9'3 
 
 n-8 
 
 14-6 
 
 12-2 
 
 16-2 
 
 2O-O 
 
 21-3 
 
 24-8 
 
 19-5 
 
 19-7 
 
 16-9 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 5-3 
 
 3-8 
 
 4-4 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-2 3-1 
 
 4-4 
 
 4-5 
 
 0-1 
 
 0-3 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 3-x 
 
 4-0 
 
 4'l 
 
 3-5 
 
 8-9 10-5 
 
 15-8 
 
 20-0 
 
 19-1 
 
 19-2 
 
 10-8 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 1-1 
 
 2-2 
 
 3-1 
 
 2-1 
 
 4-6 
 
 4-7 
 
 1-1 
 
 *J 
 
 vJ 
 
 6-1 
 
 
 Word-building, 
 
 European . 
 
 9'3 
 
 8-7 
 
 ii'i 
 
 10-8 
 
 n-5 
 
 13-6 
 
 13-4 
 
 13-3 
 
 16-2 
 
 15-0 
 
 12-2 
 
 A, E, O, B, M T. 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-3 2-5 
 
 2-2 
 
 4-2 
 
 2-5 
 
 3-3 
 
 3-1 
 
 2-8 
 
 2-7 
 
 
 
 Native . 
 
 6-2 
 
 8-6 1 8-2 
 
 7-7 
 
 IO-O 
 
 13-1 
 
 I2-O 
 
 14-5 
 
 14-0 
 
 17-0 
 
 II-I 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 2-8 
 
 2-8 
 
 3-1 
 
 S-3 
 
 3-0 
 
 6-6 
 
 6-8 
 
 2-3 
 
 1-0 
 
 J-0 
 
 
 
 Indian . 4-5 
 
 2-4 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-0 
 
 4-6 
 
 6-1 
 
 8-6 
 
 10-5 
 
 ii-i 
 
 II-2 
 
 5'5 
 
 
 A.D. . . 1-3 
 
 I 
 
 1-0 1-6 
 
 w 
 
 J-8 
 
 2-5 
 
 3-6 
 
 2-<J 
 
 2-8 
 
 3-7 

 
 204 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 TABLE No. 24 continued 
 
 Ages . 
 
 
 9- 
 
 10. 
 
 ii. 
 
 12. 
 
 *3- 
 
 14. 
 
 15- 
 
 16. 
 
 17- 
 
 18. 
 
 Aver- 
 age. 
 
 
 European . 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 44 
 
 31 
 
 17 
 
 
 Number of cases. 
 
 Indian 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 ij 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 
 Word - building, 
 
 European . 
 
 6-6 
 
 7-7 
 
 10-8 
 
 10-5 IO'8 
 
 16-2 
 
 15-6 I5'i 
 
 22-2 
 
 16-5 
 
 13-2 
 
 A,E,I,R,L,P. 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 1-5 
 
 2-4 
 
 3-0 
 
 2-8 2-5 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-9 3-4 
 
 4-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 
 
 Indian 
 
 6-0 
 
 7-5 
 
 7-1 
 
 6-2 9-9 
 
 10-8 
 
 12-0 
 
 12-2 
 
 13-5 
 
 12-5 
 
 9-8 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 3-1 
 
 3-1 
 
 3-1 
 
 2-1 2-8 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-1 
 
 0-5 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 2-5 
 
 i-5 
 
 3-0 
 
 2'9 I 3'3 
 
 5-6 
 
 7-8 ro-8 
 
 12-5 
 
 13-8 
 
 6-4 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 0-7 
 
 0-6 
 
 7-2 
 
 1-3 I 1-5 
 
 2-1 
 
 3-1 2-7 
 
 3-6 
 
 3-4 
 
 
 Free association. 
 
 European . 
 A.D. . 
 
 23-6 
 6-4 
 
 28-3 
 6-1 
 
 28-6 
 5-2 
 
 37-8 43-4 
 7-0 6-8 
 
 46-2 
 77-3 
 
 54'3 50-1 
 8-6 16-0 
 
 44- T 
 
 7-9 
 
 22-0 
 
 40-6 
 
 
 Indian 
 
 25-4 
 
 28-1 
 
 29-8 
 
 29-9136-8 
 
 44-8 
 
 44-8 46-7 
 
 57-5 
 
 55-5 
 
 39.9 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 8-8 
 
 6-3 
 
 8-7 
 
 7-6 8-2 
 
 9-6 
 
 10-2 1-8 
 
 2-5 
 
 16-5 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 ao-o 
 
 18-8 
 
 20-3 
 
 22-1 29-4 
 
 3i-7 
 
 34-6 35-1 
 
 35-o 
 
 34-6 
 
 28-2 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 4-8 
 
 7-3 
 
 5-4 
 
 8-5 
 
 S-ff 
 
 7-8 
 
 4-9 
 
 9-1 
 
 12-9 
 
 7-6 
 
 
 Controlled 
 
 European . 
 
 8-6 
 
 6-4 
 
 9'5 
 
 to-6 
 
 12-4 
 
 19-0 
 
 20-2 
 
 20-9 
 
 ai-5 
 
 21-3 
 
 15-0 
 
 association, 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 2-3 
 
 4-4 
 
 1-6 
 
 1-7 
 
 3-7 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-4 
 
 4-J 
 
 2-6 
 
 4-1 
 
 
 opposites. 
 
 Indian 
 
 3'9 
 
 4-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 5-5 
 
 6-9 
 
 7-3 
 
 u-6 
 
 12-0 
 
 I2-O 
 
 7-1 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-3 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-5 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-3 
 
 2-9 
 
 3-0 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 0-8 
 
 i'3 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-7 
 
 4-5 
 
 5-8 
 
 8-6 
 
 9.9 
 
 9'9 
 
 I2-I 
 
 5'7 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 0-2 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-0 
 
 0-7 
 
 2-4 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-2 2-0 
 
 6-1 
 
 3-2 
 
 
 Controlled 
 
 European . 
 
 2-6 | 2-O 
 
 3-8 
 
 5'i 
 
 6-6 
 
 12-8 
 
 12-3 n-5 
 
 II-O 
 
 12-2 
 
 8-0 
 
 association, 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 1-3 \ 1-1 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-7 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-0 4-7 
 
 2-5 
 
 5-7 
 
 
 genus species. 
 
 Indian 
 
 2-4 i 2-7 
 
 4-0 
 
 3'4 
 
 5-6 
 
 7-6 
 
 8-5 10-1 
 
 12-5 
 
 12-5 
 
 6-9 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 Native 
 
 1-1 
 
 0-8 
 
 1-3 
 
 0-8 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-4 
 
 2-7 
 i'5 
 
 2-5 [ 3-0 
 3-5 ! 4-8 
 
 2-3 | 2-S 
 7-6 9-7 
 
 0-5 
 7-9 
 
 3-5 
 10-6 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 0-1 
 
 0-1 
 
 1-3 
 
 0-6 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-4 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-4 
 
 3-1 2-9 
 
 
 Controlled 
 
 European . 
 
 7-6 
 
 5-4 
 
 7-7 
 
 8-4 
 
 IO-I 
 
 n-3 
 
 IO-I 
 
 8-3 
 
 8-0 10-7 
 
 8-8 
 
 association, 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 2-6 
 
 1-9 
 
 1-7 
 
 2-3 
 
 3-0 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-9 
 
 6-1 
 
 5-2 2-5 
 
 
 part whole. 
 
 Indian 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-8 
 
 2-9 
 
 5-9 
 
 6-0 
 
 6-2 
 
 7-2 
 
 7-5 7-5 
 
 5'4 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-0 
 
 7-9 
 
 1-6 
 
 7-9 
 
 2-5 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-1 
 
 0-5 i-5 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 i-o 
 
 1-6 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-0 
 
 3-0 
 
 3'4 
 
 4'4 
 
 5-7 
 
 6-2 6-1 
 
 3-6 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 0-5 
 
 0-7 
 
 0-7 
 
 7-5 
 
 1-3 
 
 7-4 
 
 7-6 
 
 7-7 
 
 l-9\ 1-6 
 
 
 Cancellation. 
 
 European . 
 
 8-3 
 
 II'O 
 
 12-9 
 
 14-9 
 
 16-8 
 
 18-0 
 
 17-7 
 
 21-0 
 
 20-5 121-5 
 
 16-3 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-1 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-1 
 
 4-0 
 
 4-0 3-5 4-6 
 
 
 
 Indian 
 
 II-2 
 
 9'3 
 
 9-7 
 
 8-4 
 
 12-8 
 
 n-6 
 
 13-3 
 
 I r >-2 ] I4'2 
 
 16-5 
 
 12-3 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 3-6 
 
 3-1 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-2 
 
 4-4 
 
 4-2 
 
 3-9 
 
 ;-5; 7-2 7-5 
 
 
 
 Native 
 
 10-9 
 
 9.9 
 
 10-7 
 
 2-1 
 
 i5'7 
 
 15-6 
 
 14-9 
 
 20-1 18-8 20-4 
 
 I3'9 
 
 
 A.D. . 
 
 2-1 
 
 7-9 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-8 
 
 3-9 
 
 2-5 
 
 4-3 
 
 4-3 4-2 
 
 3-9 
 
 
 Note. The A.D. or Average Deviation is the arithmetical mean of the separate deviations 
 of a series of measurements from their mean. 
 
 Any conclusions to be drawn from these results should be 
 considered in the light of the following facts : 
 
 (a) For reasons already stated the ages of the Native and 
 Indian pupils are often approximations only.
 
 60 
 55 
 50 
 45 
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 2O5 
 
 European Indian = Nati ve __ 
 
 30 
 25 
 
 15 
 10 
 5 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 s 
 
 li 
 
 (/5-B 
 
 l m . 
 
 5 
 
 lr 
 
 &< 
 
 9** 
 Sw 
 l< 
 
 fil 
 
 ii 
 
 o & 
 
 a o 
 
 -25 
 a s 
 
 II 
 
 FIG. 13. Showing the average scores of 328 European, 176 Indian, 
 and 281 Native School children in certain mental tests.
 
 206 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (b) The [tests in logical memory and in controlled associa- 
 tions were more difficult for the younger Native and Indian 
 pupils, because of their comparative unfamiliarity with the 
 English language. 
 
 (c) In three instances, viz. Native pupils of nine years of age 
 and Indian' pupils of seventeen and eighteen, the scores are 
 unreliable because of the fewness of the cases. 
 
 With these reservations we may deduce the following general 
 conclusions : 
 
 1. Native school pupils of all ages are less efficient in all 
 the mental processes involved in these tests than European 
 and Indian pupils. Roughly speaking, they are only 50 per 
 cent, as efficient as the Europeans, and 75 per cent, as efficient 
 as the Indians. 
 
 2. The Native pupils are very much slower in their thinking 
 than the Europeans and Indians. In this respect the results 
 support the conclusions derived from a consideration of the 
 tests in arithmetic (see ante, p. 190), and are in agreement 
 with the experience of teachers of Native children. 
 
 3. The alleged superiority of the Native in rote memory is 
 not supported by these tests, although it is certain mere 
 memorising of facts plays a more prominent part in Native 
 schools than it does in European and Indian schools. 
 
 4. In these tests the scores of the Native pupils of twelve 
 years of age are in all cases less than those of Native pupils of 
 eleven years of age. This may be due to the onset of the 
 pubertal period, which is generally considered as from twelve 
 to fourteen years of age in the case of Natives. If so, the 
 rapid recovery at thirteen years of age and the continual 
 increase of efficiency up to seventeen should be noticed. 
 
 5. The inferiority of the Native to the Indian pupils, whose 
 mother tongue also is not English, would point to an inferiority 
 deeper than that of mere language ability. 
 
 6. The results of these tests are in general accord with those 
 of Professor Pyle in his experiments with American Negro 
 pupils, though the superiority of the Europeans is more marked 
 than that of the Whites in the United States. 
 
 Our tentative judgment would therefore be that the Native 
 pupil is at present distinctly inferior to the European and
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 207 
 
 Indian in those mental qualities involved in school work, but 
 that the inferiority is not so great as has been commonly 
 believed. A common course of study for Europeans and 
 Natives is unsound on psychological as well as social and 
 economical grounds. 
 
 Section 4. Sex Differences 
 
 The following table gives the scores of pupils by sexes. In 
 the ca^e of the Indian pupils no girls were tested, since it is 
 not customary for Indian girls to attend school. 
 
 TABLE No. 25 
 
 Age. 
 
 Race. 
 
 Sex. 
 
 Logic memory. 
 
 Rote memory, 
 concrete. 
 
 Rote memory, 
 abstract. 
 
 1 
 
 1* 
 
 !* 
 e/j 
 
 41 
 
 Q 
 
 ij 
 
 Word- 
 building, 
 
 Free 
 association. 
 
 Opposites. 
 
 Genus 
 species. 
 
 <u 
 "3 
 
 JA 
 1 
 
 Cancellation. 
 
 Age 18. 
 
 European. 
 
 Boys 
 
 No 
 
 cas 
 
 es ta 
 
 ken. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (J 
 
 Girls 
 
 387 
 
 53-i 
 
 54-7 
 
 25-6 
 
 28-8 
 
 IS'O 16-5 (49-2 
 
 21-3 
 
 12-2 
 
 10-7 
 
 21-5 
 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Boys 
 
 32-0 
 
 44-0 
 
 38-5 
 
 17-4 
 
 19-7 
 
 17-0 
 
 12-5 
 
 55'5 
 
 I2-O 
 
 12-5 
 
 7-5 
 
 12-5 
 
 
 Native. 
 
 Boys 
 
 35'5 49'2 
 
 47-1 
 
 19-6 
 
 12-2 
 
 II-O 
 
 12-6 
 
 32-4 
 
 II-2 
 
 9-7 
 
 6-2 
 
 19-3 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 38-2 
 
 46-1 
 
 47-8 
 
 24-0 
 
 21-5 
 
 13-7 
 
 14-7 
 
 36-2 
 
 12-8 
 
 II-2 
 
 6-1 
 
 2I-I 
 
 Age 17- 
 
 European. 
 
 Boys 
 
 46-5 53-5 
 
 31-5 
 
 26-2 
 
 35-2 
 
 9-5 
 
 14-5 
 
 46-0 
 
 22-O 
 
 9'9 
 
 7-5 
 
 14-0 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 Girls 
 
 42-651-3 
 
 52-8 
 
 28-4 
 
 28-8 
 
 16-6 ji6-4 
 
 43-8 
 
 21-4 
 
 "5 
 
 8-0 
 
 2I-O 
 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Boys 
 
 39-0 44'5 
 
 44'5 
 
 13-9 
 
 19-5 
 
 14-0 13-5 
 
 57-5 
 
 I2-O 
 
 12-5 
 
 7-5 
 
 14-2 
 
 
 Native. Boys 
 
 39'4 
 
 44'4 
 
 44'2 
 
 19-1 
 
 18-3 
 
 10-3 ii-i 33-9 
 
 8-1 6-2 
 
 6-1 
 
 17-9 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 40-6 
 
 47-1 
 
 47-3 
 
 22-4 
 
 20-9 
 
 13-2 
 
 15-8 37-4 
 
 13-9 
 
 11-9 
 
 6-5 
 
 21-0 
 
 Age 16. 
 
 European. Boys 
 
 46-0 
 
 58-0 
 
 53-o 
 
 29-0 
 
 33-7 
 
 14-6 
 
 16-8 Uo-7 
 
 21-0 
 
 11-4 
 
 10-6 
 
 18-5 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 39-6 
 
 54-2 
 
 54-3 
 
 26-5 
 
 28-7 
 
 13-0 
 
 14-6 152-2 
 
 20-9 
 
 n-4 
 
 7-6 
 
 21-5 
 
 
 Indian. ' Boys 
 
 27-2 
 
 42-5 
 
 43-6 
 
 23-5 
 
 24-8 
 
 H-5 
 
 12-2 
 
 46-7 
 
 n-6 
 
 10- 1 
 
 7-2 
 
 16-2 
 
 
 Native. Boys 
 
 37-4 
 
 45-8 
 
 45-5 
 
 22-1 
 
 20- 1 
 
 10-8 
 
 10-2 
 
 31-7 
 
 9-2 
 
 8-3 
 
 6-0 
 
 17-6 
 
 
 ] Girls 
 
 34-1 
 
 44'3 
 
 46-0 
 
 21-6 
 
 19-9 
 
 10-5 
 
 "5 
 
 38-7 
 
 10-7 
 
 ii-i 
 
 5-3 
 
 22-8 
 
 Age 15. 
 
 European, i Boys 
 
 49'5 
 
 55-5 
 
 56-3 
 
 30'6 
 
 33-2 
 
 15-0 
 
 18-5 
 
 49-3 
 
 23-2 
 
 13-7 
 
 14-2 
 
 17-1 
 
 
 1 Girls 
 
 40-3 
 
 55-8 
 
 58-2 28-2 
 
 27-1 
 
 12-2 
 
 13-3 
 
 58-1 
 
 18-0 
 
 II-2 
 
 7-0 
 
 18-1 
 
 
 Indian. Boys 
 
 31-2 
 
 43-7 
 
 41-1 19-2 
 
 21-3 
 
 I2-O 
 
 I2-O 
 
 44-8 
 
 7-5 
 
 8-5 
 
 6-2 
 
 13-3 
 
 
 Native. ! Boys 
 
 23-4 
 
 42-0 
 
 38-31177 
 
 15-5 
 
 8-3 
 
 6-7 
 
 31-8 
 
 7-6 
 
 6-0 
 
 4-7 
 
 17-6 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 29-6 
 
 42-7 
 
 38-7 
 
 20-5 
 
 16-4 
 
 9-2 
 
 10- 1 
 
 39-8 
 
 10-5 
 
 10-7 
 
 3-8 
 
 19-7 
 
 Age 14. 
 
 European. , Boys 
 
 42-4 
 
 54'3 
 
 52-3 
 
 28-4 
 
 32-6 
 
 12-4 
 
 15-0 
 
 44-6 
 
 22-8 
 
 13-7 
 
 14-3 
 
 16-3 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 43-5 
 
 53-4 
 
 53'0 
 
 26-4 
 
 28-6 
 
 14-3 
 
 15-5 
 
 47-3U6-5 
 
 1 1 -8 
 
 9'4 
 
 18-7 
 
 
 Indian. Boys 126-9 
 
 39-9 
 
 40-5 18-3 
 
 2O-O 
 
 13-1 10-8 
 
 44-8 6-9 
 
 7-6 
 
 6-0 
 
 n-6 
 
 
 Native. Boys 25-1 
 
 39'5 
 
 37-5 
 
 16-6 
 
 12-2 
 
 6-7 
 
 6-3 
 
 31-1 
 
 5-8 
 
 5-8 
 
 4-0 
 
 15-4 
 
 
 ; Girls 
 
 17-1 
 
 34-2 
 
 3i-4 
 
 12-9 
 
 8-2 
 
 5-4 4'7 
 
 32-5 
 
 5-6 
 
 3-6 
 
 27 
 
 15-8 
 
 Age 13. 
 
 European. 
 
 Boys 
 
 33-o 
 
 52-0 
 
 44-5 
 
 2I-I 
 
 21-2 
 
 13-0 
 
 ii-3 
 
 42-3 
 
 12-0 
 
 6-2 
 
 10-7 
 
 16-6 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 39-0 
 
 48-9 
 
 45-5 
 
 22'3 
 
 24-4 
 
 10-7 10-5 
 
 43-8 
 
 12-8 
 
 6-5 
 
 9-6 
 
 16-9 
 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Boys 
 
 24-6 
 
 4i-3 
 
 37-5 
 
 17-8 
 
 16-1 
 
 IO-O 
 
 9-9 
 
 36-8 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-6 
 
 5'9 
 
 12-8 
 
 
 Native . Bovs 
 
 16-6 
 
 30-9 
 
 28-6 
 
 10-9 
 
 8-3 
 
 4.3 3.9 
 
 27-8 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-4 
 
 2-3 
 
 14-2 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 9'3 
 
 24-0 
 
 25-0 8-5 
 
 5-8 
 
 3-7 
 
 3-0 
 
 16-0 
 
 3-7 
 
 i-5 
 
 3-2 
 
 12-0
 
 208 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 TABLE No. 25 continued 
 
 Age. 
 
 Race. 
 
 Sex. 
 
 memory. 
 
 memory, 1 
 icrete. 
 
 memory, 
 stract. 
 
 1 
 11 
 
 *! 
 
 , no 
 
 d a 
 
 1 
 
 it 
 
 a 
 .2 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 igj 
 
 i's 
 
 V 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 ellation. 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 | 
 
 w 
 
 3 
 
 ?'3 
 jz 
 
 ^.a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 c$& 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 K! 
 
 (6 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 cu 
 
 CJ 
 
 Age 12. 
 
 European. 
 
 Bovs 
 
 36-0 
 
 49-6 
 
 47-0 
 
 15-7 
 
 16-5 
 
 10-9 
 
 n-8 
 
 36-6 
 
 II'O 
 
 5'3 
 
 9-6 
 
 14-0 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 Girls 
 
 37-6 
 
 457 
 
 42-9 
 
 19-1 
 
 20-5 
 
 io-7 
 
 9-6 
 
 38-5 
 
 10-2 
 
 4'9 
 
 7-5 
 
 15-4 
 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Boys 
 
 17-0 
 
 33'9 
 
 32-6 
 
 ii-8 
 
 I2'2 
 
 7.7 
 
 6-2 
 
 29-9 
 
 4-0 
 
 3'4 
 
 2-9 
 
 8-4 
 
 
 Native. 
 
 Boys 
 
 n-3 
 
 24-0 
 
 24-1 
 
 7-3 
 
 5-o 
 
 4-0 
 
 3'7 
 
 25-2 
 
 1-8 
 
 1-7 
 
 1-7 
 
 18-5 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 7-6 
 
 23-5 
 
 22-1 
 
 4-1 
 
 2'I 
 
 2'2 
 
 1-8 
 
 19-3 
 
 1-6 
 
 i-i 
 
 2-3 
 
 6-2 
 
 Age ii. 
 
 European. 
 
 Boys 
 
 34-8 
 
 47-8 
 
 42'5 
 
 !8' 4 
 
 17-8 
 
 II-6 
 
 n-6 
 
 36-6 
 
 9-8 
 
 2-9 
 
 8-1 
 
 n-7 
 
 
 _ 
 
 Girls 
 
 37-7 
 
 47'4 
 
 43-6 
 
 18-6 
 
 18-2 
 
 10-7 
 
 9'3 
 
 39'4 
 
 9'3 
 
 4'2 
 
 7-4 
 
 13-6 
 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Boys 
 
 21-3 
 
 
 31-9 
 
 14-1 ii4'6 
 
 8-2 
 
 7-1 
 
 29-8 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-8 
 
 9'7 
 
 
 Native. 
 
 Boys 
 
 7-1 
 
 22'I 
 
 20-7 
 
 4'9 
 
 1-8 
 
 1-4 
 
 i -3 
 
 14-6 
 
 1-4 
 
 2-3 
 
 1-6 
 
 IO'O 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 19-2 J3I-I 
 
 29-1 
 
 12-7 
 
 9-2 
 
 6-0 
 
 5-o 
 
 23-2 
 
 2-4 
 
 2-4 
 
 2-8 
 
 I2'O 
 
 Age 10. 
 
 European. 
 
 Boys 
 
 30'2 J45-4 
 
 38-7 
 
 21'8 
 
 20-5 
 
 9-6 
 
 8-5 
 
 25-9 
 
 6-7 
 
 2-2 
 
 6-6 
 
 II'I 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 30-6 39-6 
 
 37-o 
 
 18-6 
 
 18-9 
 
 7-8 
 
 6-9 
 
 30-6 
 
 6-7 
 
 2-1 
 
 5-3 
 
 10-8 
 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Boys 
 
 18-3 34'7 
 
 32-0 
 
 IO-2 
 
 ii-8 
 
 8-6 
 
 7-5 
 
 28-1 
 
 4-0 
 
 2-7 
 
 3-8 
 
 9'3 
 
 
 Native. 
 
 Boys 
 
 6-5 17-4 
 
 14-0 
 
 3'4 
 
 3-8 
 
 J'4 
 
 1-2 
 
 12-1 
 
 I'O 
 
 0-8 
 
 
 8-5 
 
 
 .. 
 
 Girls 
 
 7-6 
 
 19-3 
 
 21-2 
 
 5-6 
 
 4-2 
 
 2-6 
 
 1-6 
 
 18-3 
 
 i'3 
 
 0-7 
 
 1-6 
 
 "5 
 
 Age 9. 
 
 European. 
 
 Boys 
 
 29-0 
 
 36'5 
 
 37-6 
 
 25-5 
 
 17-6 
 
 9'5 
 
 7-6 
 
 2I-O 
 
 9'3 
 
 2-4 
 
 8'8 
 
 8-5 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 Girls 
 
 27-0 34-5 
 
 32-0 
 
 20-1 
 
 6-8 
 
 9-1 
 
 5'5 
 
 26-5 
 
 7'7 
 
 3-0 
 
 6-2 
 
 8-1 
 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Boys 
 
 17-1 32-3 
 
 30-6 
 
 8-8 1 9-2 
 
 6-2 
 
 6-0 
 
 25-4 
 
 3-9 
 
 2-4 
 
 3-5 
 
 II-2 
 
 
 Native. 
 
 Boys 
 
 4-4 17-0 
 
 ii-6 
 
 5-o 
 
 2-8 
 
 4-0 
 
 1-6 
 
 14-8 
 
 I'O 
 
 0-8 
 
 I'O 
 
 IO'2 
 
 
 " 
 
 Girls 
 
 I0'0 21'0 
 
 20-0 
 
 6-3 
 
 3-4 
 
 2'O 
 
 i-o 
 
 16-0 
 
 0-3 
 
 0-6 
 
 I'O 
 
 io-5 
 
 An analysis of the foregoing table shows that in the 108 tests 
 in which European boys and girls were compared, the boys 
 were superior in 62 and the girls in 44 ; whereas in the 120 tests 
 in which the Native pupils were compared, the boys were more 
 efficient in 44 and the girls in 75 cases. In the case of the 
 Native pupils, the girls of nine, ten, eleven, fifteen, sixteen, 
 seventeen, and eighteen are markedly superior to the boys, 
 but at the ages twelve, thirteen, and fourteen the boys are 
 very much better than the girls in the mental qualities under- 
 lying these tests. 
 
 Although it is unsafe to dogmatise, it seems hard to resist 
 the tentative inference that at the pubertal period (twelve to 
 fourteen), the Native boys are mentally more efficient than 
 the girls, but that after that period the boys lose interest in 
 their school studies and are surpassed by the more docile girls. 
 These sex differences, which are supported by the experience 
 of missionaries, would point to a more meaningful and therefore 
 more interesting course of study for adolescent Native boys.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 20Q 
 
 PART II. THE THEORY OF THE ARREST OF 
 MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE NATIVE 
 
 Section i. The Theory Stated 
 
 We have now to endeavour to ascertain if the intellectual 
 processes develop in the Native child much as they do in the 
 European, and if that development is a continuous process, the 
 mental power becoming stronger as the child's experiences 
 increase. In attempting to enumerate an order of develop- 
 ment, it must not be assumed that the processes can be 
 separated from one another by definite intervals of time. 
 Nature does not work in such a simple fashion, and the stages 
 of development merge into one another; but it is generally 
 accepted that at certain periods of the child's life certain 
 intellectual processes are more dominant than others. The 
 earliest process is undoubtedly sensation, and the last, reasoning 
 and judgment. The order of development of the others is 
 roughly sensation, perception, memory, imagination, concep- 
 tion, judgment, and reasoning. In the case of the European, 
 we educate him at first through his senses, while with the adol- 
 escent we rely chiefly upon his reason. As we grow older we 
 cease to rely upon sensation, and more and more on judgment 
 and reasoning, so that in adult life we tend to rely almost 
 entirely upon reason. 
 
 In the case of the Bantu people, the weakness of the higher 
 mental powers, compared with the strength of the earlier pro- 
 cesses of sensation and memory, coupled with a lessening of 
 these earlier powers more noticeable than in the case of Whites, 
 has led to the generally accepted hypothesis that there is a 
 marked arrest in the mental development in the Negro. This 
 arrest, occurring for the most part in the early stages of adol- 
 escence, has induced the further hypothesis that the arrest 
 takes place at, or shortly after, the pubertal period. The 
 wide extent of this belief among colonials and others who have 
 had dealings with the Negro peoples, and the necessity for 
 taking cognisance of it, if it be true, in any schemes of educa- 
 tion, warrant us in dealing with the subject at some length. 
 
 The questions, then, confronting us are : 
 
 i. Is this alleged arrest of development a fact ?
 
 2IO 
 
 2. If so, is it peculiar to the Bantu people, or is it shared by 
 children of other races ? 
 
 3. If it is so, what are the causes ? 
 
 4. Are they permanent or removable ? and 
 
 5. What effect would the fact have on our system of Native 
 education ? 
 
 Section 2. Evidence in Support of the Theory of 
 Arrested Development 
 
 That arrested mental development occurs among individual 
 Natives, just as it does among individual Europeans, will be 
 generally conceded ; but there are many who hold that mental 
 arrest is characteristic of the Negro peoples. Among those 
 who maintain that there is a more or less clearly marked arrest 
 we find ethnologists, experienced observers of the Natives, 
 travellers, educators, and the general public. 1 
 
 1. Ethnologists " The Negro children were sharp, intelli- 
 gent, full of vivacity, but on approaching the adult period a 
 gradual change set in. The intellect seemed to be clouded, 
 animation giving place to lethargy, brightness yielding to 
 indolence." z 
 
 2. Experienced Observers. " Deprived of all extraneous aid, 
 a Bantu child is able to devise means for supporting life at 
 a much earlier age than a European child. But while the 
 European youth is still developing his powers, the Bantu 
 youth, in most instances, is found unable to make further 
 progress. His intellect has become sluggish, and he exhibits 
 a decided repugnance, if not an incapacity, to learn anything 
 more. The growth of his mind, which at first promised so 
 much, has ceased just at that stage when the mind of the 
 European began to display the greatest vigour." 3 
 
 3. Travellers. " Tiyo Soga [a famous Native missionary 
 and teacher] was taken to Scotland, and was shielded from 
 kraal influence until long after puberty. He continued to 
 develop in mental vigour long after that period, and did not 
 
 1 Evidence from South Africa is used wherever available. 
 
 2 Manetta, quoted by Joyce in Encyclopedia Britannica, eleventh 
 edition, art. "Negro." Joyce and Keene support this view. 
 
 3 Dr Theal, late Historiographer- Royal of the Cape Colony, in History 
 and Ethnography of South Africa before 1795, vol. i. p. 170.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 211 
 
 dwindle in capacity as do nearly nine-tenths of the Kafirs." * 
 " The (Native) children are smart and intelligent. . . . 
 But just when we hope to produce a good result the mental 
 development seems to become arrested, and the children return 
 at puberty to the kraal and disappoint all our hopes." z 
 
 4. Educators. "With regard to such [clever] Native 
 students there is a considerable body of testimony to show 
 that quite a large proportion ultimately reach a stage at which 
 they seem to be unable to make any further advance. To all 
 appearances their faculties become dulled, and a state of mental 
 apathy ensues, which makes it unprofitable for them to remain 
 at school." 3 
 
 A number of teachers in Native schools have expressed their 
 opinion to the writer that while it is a pleasure to teach the 
 young Native child, there is no more dispiriting work than 
 to have to prepare the very willing but distinctly dull-witted 
 adolescent for Departmental examinations. 
 
 5. General Public. Many employers of Native labour, 
 particularly the housewives who employ Natives of varying 
 ages, contrast the quickness and ability to learn new things 
 
 1 Dudley Kidd, a much-travelled and experienced missionary, in 
 Kafir Socialism, p. 237. 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 176. Notice Mr Kidd's inconsistency. From the first 
 extract we would infer that it was the kraal influence which was 
 responsible for the alleged arrested development, but from the second 
 we see the arrest takes place before the Native returns to his kraal. 
 
 3 Mr E. B. Sargant, late educational adviser to the High Commis- 
 sioner of South Africa, in Report on Native Education in South Africa, 
 vol. iii. p. 60. Sir Thomas Muir, Superintendent-General of Education 
 in Cape Province, in giving evidence before the Cape Select Committee 
 on Native Education, said : "If you compare a White boy and a 
 Coloured boy from the ages of twelve onwards you will find that a 
 White boy goes on growing mentally, whereas a Coloured boy seems for 
 a while almost to come to a stop." 
 
 Dr Philips, Superintendent of Schools in Birmingham, Ala., U.S.A., 
 holds the same view: " The Negro child prior to the age of puberty 
 may learn as well as the White child, and in so far as he exercises the 
 physical senses, the motor powers, the memory, the imaginary power, 
 and the faculty of imitation, may even excel. But after that, arrested 
 development prevents the fulfilment of early promise, and the incapa- 
 city to exercise effectively the reflective, the reasoning, and the executive 
 powers is everywhere in evidence." (Journal of Southern Educational 
 Association, 1908.) The speaker reiterated his views at the 1911 
 meeting.
 
 212 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 of the Native " umfaan " with the slowness and stupidity 
 (from their point of view) of the " Kafir boy " of from seventeen 
 to twenty-five. 
 
 Section 3. Evidence in Rebuttal of the Theory of 
 Arrested Development 
 
 In opposition to the views expressed above, we have much 
 evidence of a similar nature to the effect that arrested mental 
 development is not a peculiar characteristic of the Natives. 
 
 In 1914 the writer sent a questionnaire to forty-eight ex- 
 perienced missionary teachers and superintendents throughout 
 South Africa, which, inter alia, asked for an expression of their 
 experience in the matter of the theory. The thirty-two replies 
 received may be classified as follows : 
 
 Eight believed that it was characteristic of the Native for 
 an arrest of development to take place at about the age of 
 puberty. 
 
 Seven had noticed the arrest in some cases. 
 
 Nine were of opinion that arrested development was no more 
 noticeable in the case of Natives than it was in the case of 
 Europeans. 
 
 Eight were emphatic in declaring that no arrest of develop- 
 ment took place. 
 
 A few of the replies are quoted to illustrate the different 
 views held. 1 
 
 (a) " There does seem to be an arrest of development 
 at the age you mention. A large number of girls become 
 heavy and inert, and seem unable to make the necessary 
 effort to improve themselves mentally. Amongst those 
 who persist beyond this stage ' mental saturation ' seems 
 to take place about the age of twenty-one, for after that 
 age very few girls are able to learn anything." 
 
 (b) "A few, at varying ages, give evidence of such 
 mental saturation that they are unable to proceed further. 
 Proof : repeated failure to pass certain examinations. As 
 a rule they are good students, though slower than 
 
 1 The names of the writers are not published, but the replies have 
 been placed on file at the Education Office, Durban, where they may 
 be referred to.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 213 
 
 Europeans, because dealing with matters with which they 
 have had little previous acquaintance." 
 
 (c) " It does not appear that there is sufficient evidence 
 to support the statement. Something may be said for the 
 contention that the typical Native and the typical peasant 
 of Europe stand much on a par in respect to their power 
 of general intelligence, and it is a question as to whether 
 the percentage of pupils from among the school-going 
 Natives going beyond the standards which fit the scholar 
 as a wage-earner is not as large as that of other countries. 
 It may be that we are looking for special reasons in the 
 case of the Native, when the world view would help us 
 to overcome many of our difficulties. The mass of pupils 
 do not look beyond the requirements of the moment. 
 
 " In the Transvaal our scholars, beyond the school 
 standards, come to us at the age of from fifteen to thirty, 
 many of them after some years of house or mine work, and 
 some of them after earning money for the school fees. 
 About one-third of those entering the normal course are 
 able to pass through and gain the certificate ; but the other 
 two-thirds do well on the industrial side, and if we were 
 able to offer a course which met the requirements of 
 such pupils, the results would be very satisfactory. 
 
 " Our experience is that many, who failed to gain the 
 technical qualification, in actual contact with life develop 
 in such a way that they stand far above some of their own 
 year who have easily passed the qualifying examinations." 
 
 (d) "As far as my observation goes and this covers 
 an experience of more than thirty years I should be slow 
 to suggest that there is an arrest of mental development 
 at the age of puberty. If there is any arrest at all, it is 
 due rather to the restricted and oppressed environment 
 in which they live than to any physical cause. Given an 
 enlarged environment a wider sphere of activity and 
 mental development will continue. It is all a question 
 of opportunity, as individual cases amply show. In no 
 sense do I think their physical development differs from 
 that of Europeans." 
 
 (e) " In my opinion and the opinion of my staff it is 
 impossible to dogmatise on this subject, but there seem
 
 214 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 no grounds for supposing that Natives differ from 
 Europeans in this respect. Girls as well as boys develop 
 mentally both before and after puberty at about the same 
 rate, if they are well and scientifically taught. But there 
 is no doubt that the Native with several generations of 
 civilisation behind him is capable of more rapid mental 
 development than the child of raw parents." 
 
 (/) "The alleged arrest of development is not a fact. 
 Proofs : it is necessary to give names of South African 
 Natives, some of whom continued their school until they 
 were about thirty years of age. In fact, most Natives 
 obtain their education after puberty. Dr W. B. Rubusana, 
 J.L. Dube, Saul Msane, Pixley Seme, Dr Mahlangeni, M.D., 
 F.R.C.S.L., Rev. James Tartsi, B.D., etc. ; ladies, Miss 
 Gabatshane, Mrs Maxeke, Miss Kakaza, and Mrs C. L. 
 Dube ; all these have done creditable work in their classes 
 abroad. There are hundreds of names I could quote you, 
 but I believe these are sufficient. My eighteen years' 
 experience as a teacher and student supports my proofs. 
 Some of these men are between forty and sixty years of 
 age, and yet their minds are still developing." 
 
 (g) " No, emphatically, no ! I have been in Native 
 work thirteen years, of which eight years have been spent 
 
 at S Mission, at which I have had good opportunities 
 
 of testing this oft-repeated assertion. In the reading of 
 literature dealing with Native races, this was one of the 
 so-called facts which attracted my early attention. I have 
 been on the alert to discover instances in support of it, or 
 otherwise. The conclusion I have reached is, that as a 
 general statement it is false, although individual cases 
 may be cited to the contrary. 
 
 " Our Normal Department is for girls only. The ages 
 of the students entering upon the course range from 
 fourteen to twenty years. In every case, without excep- 
 tion, the age of puberty has been reached." 
 
 (h) " There is, I think, a great deal of what one might 
 call ' cant ' written and spoken about Natives, and one 
 of the doctrines of this cant is about Native boys and 
 girls at the age of puberty. At the age of puberty, on 
 general grounds, we should expect that pupils would show
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 215 
 
 increased mental activity and greater capacity for re- 
 sponsibility. Now, it is impressed upon us, as if it were 
 an established fact, that the average Native at that age 
 goes back that that is the critical period of his develop- 
 ment, and in the great majority of cases it is the point at 
 which his advancement ceases. A recent writer has spoken 
 upon this degeneration at puberty as the critical fact in 
 Native educational work ; in fact, I think he said it 
 is the critical fact in the Native question. Now, this 
 degeneration at puberty is not an established fact. Ex- 
 perienced men I have come in contact with do not recognise 
 that there is this break in development at puberty. What 
 does happen is that in European and Native schools I 
 am not aware in Native schools any more than in European 
 schools there is a small percentage of pupils who from that 
 date do not make normal progress, but I do not think the 
 number is any greater in Native schools than in European 
 schools. What does occur in Native schools is this : 
 When pupils and this is a much more serious problem 
 in the newer fields than in districts of the country which 
 have been long under the influence of civilisation begin 
 school work at the age of ten or twelve they are liable to 
 come to a dead-stop later on, and probably more so 
 beginning later on ; it is more marked with pupils begin- 
 ning, in many cases, after puberty. In these new fields 
 we have grown-up men and grown-up women coming for 
 education. Now, what has repeatedly been the experience 
 in regard to these is that when education has been pressed 
 with these people grown beyond mere boyhood or girlhood 
 there has been a liability to mental trouble ; the pupils 
 become saturated and incapable of mental effort, and in 
 some cases a form of temporary insanity appears." l 
 
 The preponderance of evidence against the theory induced 
 the Cape Select Committee on Native Education to report as 
 follows : 
 
 " Your Committee find that the belief in the inability of 
 the Native to develop at a normal rate beyond a certain 
 
 1 Report of Cape Select Committee on Native Education, 1908, sect. 2339. 
 The witness referred the writer to this as the expression of his opinion.
 
 2l6 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 stage is not supported by facts, and that any definite 
 assertion as to the capacity or limits of the Native mind 
 must at present be regarded as a deduction from in- 
 sufficient evidence." 
 
 Section 4. The Evidence from Experiments 
 
 So far the evidence for and against the theory is the result 
 of empirical observation by more or less competent observers. 
 The need for a more scientific criterion is apparent. 
 
 In 1915 and 1916 the writer tested a number of European, 
 Indian, and Native pupils in schools in Natal in handwriting, 
 composition, and the fundamentals in arithmetic. 1 The results 
 were as follows : 
 
 TABLE No. 26 
 
 
 
 Median scores. 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 Standard. 
 
 T3 (SO 
 
 be 
 
 , o 
 
 d 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Writin 
 
 c o 
 
 5 ' 
 
 s l 
 
 Additic 
 
 11 
 
 3 *" 
 C/3 
 
 II 
 
 P ! 
 
 S 
 
 _o 
 '33 
 
 S 
 
 III. European . 
 
 n-3 
 
 12-9 
 
 4'i 
 
 3-8 
 
 4'3 
 
 2-3 
 
 i-3 
 
 Indian 
 
 13-1 
 
 13-4 
 
 4-1 
 
 3'7 
 
 5'4 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-2 
 
 Native 
 
 I3'i 
 
 12-2 
 
 2-8 
 
 1-8 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 0-8 
 
 IV. European . 
 
 12-7 
 
 12-9 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 5-8 
 
 4-2 
 
 3-i 
 
 Indian 
 
 13-7 
 
 I 4 -2 
 
 4'5 
 
 5'3 
 
 6-3 
 
 4-8 
 
 4'4 
 
 Native 
 
 15-2 
 
 
 3'2 
 
 2-8 
 
 4-8 
 
 2-5 
 
 2-4 
 
 V. European . 
 
 13-2 
 
 13-8 
 
 5'3 
 
 5'7 
 
 6-9 
 
 6-2 
 
 5-8 
 
 Indian 
 
 14-1 
 
 13-8 
 
 5-2 
 
 5'3 
 
 8-0 
 
 4'9 
 
 5-6 
 
 Native 
 
 15-5 
 
 13-6 
 
 3'7 
 
 3-0 
 
 6-7 
 
 4-1 
 
 3'4 
 
 VI. European . 
 
 14-1 
 
 13-9 
 
 5'4 
 
 7-0 
 
 7-8 
 
 7-8 
 
 8-5 
 
 Indian 
 
 15-2 
 
 14-3 
 
 5-1 
 
 6-7 
 
 10-3 
 
 8-7 
 
 8-7 
 
 Native 
 
 16-5 
 
 14-6 
 
 4'3 
 
 
 7'5 
 
 4'9 
 
 5-8 
 
 The progressive improvement in the work of European, 
 Indian, and Native pupils will be noticed. So far as these 
 Native pupils are concerned, it will be noticed that there is 
 
 1 See ante, p. 177 et seq.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 217 
 
 no marked arrest. If it is objected that the Native pupils are 
 a selected group in so far as they represent the survival of the 
 fittest, the same objection must be urged against the European 
 children, for in a recent study it has been shown that in the 
 year 1914, of the 213 boys who left the Government elementary 
 schools of Durban, 69, or 32 per cent., left before reaching 
 Standard V., and 164, or 77 per cent., left before reaching 
 Standard VI. 1 
 
 A more serious objection against the use of these figures 
 would be that the majority of the Native pupils have already 
 reached the age of puberty, so that these results only show 
 that there is no evidence of mental arrest in post-pubescent 
 Native pupils. We have therefore to discover if the pre- 
 pubescent pupils show any marked superiority over the 
 pubescent and post-pubescent. 
 
 For reasons already stated, 2 the tests in the fundamentals 
 of arithmetic are the best of these tests in mental ability, as 
 evinced by school achievements. If we classify the European 
 and Native pupils according to age, we have the following 
 median scores : 
 
 TABLE No. 27 
 
 Age of pupils . 
 
 9 
 
 IO II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 M 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 2O 
 
 Europeans : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of cases 
 
 16 
 
 52 
 
 74 
 
 61 
 
 87 
 
 63 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Addition 
 
 3'9 
 
 4'7 
 
 4'3 
 
 4'9 
 
 5-8 
 
 4'9 
 
 6-4 
 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 Subtraction . 
 
 4-6 
 
 4' 2 5'3 
 
 5'7 
 
 6-5 
 
 5'9 
 
 6-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Multiplication 
 
 4'5 
 
 3'7 3'6 
 
 5'3 
 
 5'2 
 
 4'9 
 
 7-0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Division 
 
 0-9 
 
 2-9 
 
 2-7 
 
 4'i 
 
 4'9 
 
 6-6 
 
 7'4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 Indians : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of cases 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 3i 
 
 3i 
 
 38 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Addition 
 
 2-6 
 
 4'5 
 
 4'3 
 
 3'7 
 
 5'5 
 
 4-6 
 
 8-1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Subtraction . 
 
 5-8 
 
 6-5 
 
 6-1 
 
 6-2 
 
 7'5 
 
 6-9 
 
 8-7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Multiplication 
 
 3-6 
 
 2-9 
 
 3'5 
 
 3'5 j 5-o 
 
 4'3 
 
 5'9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Division 
 
 4-2 
 
 3'4 
 
 3-6 
 
 3'7 1 5'4 
 
 3-8 
 
 7-1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Narbeth, Some Notes upon Technical Education, p. 45. 
 See ante, p. 191.
 
 2l8 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 TABLE No. 27 continued 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age of pupils 
 
 9 
 
 IO 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 Natives : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of cases 
 
 5 
 
 IO 
 
 21 
 
 56 
 
 82 
 
 73 
 
 59 
 
 39 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 
 Addition 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-8 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-9 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-9 
 
 VQ 
 
 2-6 
 
 2'O 
 
 V 8 
 
 2-8 
 
 
 Subtraction . 
 
 5-6 
 
 3'9 
 
 4-7 
 
 V8 
 
 4'9 
 
 7-0 
 
 6-1 
 
 7"> 
 
 5'i 
 
 V4 
 
 4-2 
 
 . . 
 
 Multiplication 
 
 1-9 
 
 i-3 
 
 2-7 
 
 1-6 
 
 2-2 
 
 3'9 
 
 3'7 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-4 
 
 3'3 
 
 VI 
 
 
 Division . 
 
 2-2 
 
 0-9 
 
 2-O 
 
 0-9 
 
 2-1 
 
 4'i 
 
 4-0 
 
 4'8 
 
 37 
 
 3'4 
 
 1-9 
 
 
 While some of the results in the above table are invalidated 
 by reason of the fewness of the pupils of certain ages for whom 
 scores are available, the drop in the median score of European 
 pupils aged fourteen, and of Native pupils aged thirteen, is 
 worthy of notice. It may be that this decrease in efficiency 
 is due to the onset of puberty. If so, it should also be noticed 
 that the decrease in efficiency is common to pupils of both races, 
 and is not characteristic of the Natives only. It will also be 
 seen that the older pupils recover themselves quickly and 
 progress steadily until we come to the superannuated Native 
 pupils of eighteen, nineteen, and twenty. 
 
 Section 5. The Reasons for the Lack of Progress in 
 Older Native Pupils 
 
 If, then, the results of our experiments prove that an arrest 
 of mental development is not a racial characteristic of the 
 Natives, how are we to account for the undoubted mental 
 slowness and sluggishness of many of the older pupils in our 
 Native schools ? Four reasons have been put forward : 
 
 I. A Physical Development different from that of Europeans. 
 Although it is popularly held that there are marked differences 
 between the size, structure, and development of the brain of 
 the European and that of the Negro, the researches of anato- 
 mists conflict on the question l ; and even if these differences 
 exist, it has yet to be proved that they have any direct bearing 
 on mental ability. At any rate, until more accurate means of 
 
 1 See Mayo, The Mental Capacity of the American Negro, p. 56 et seq., 
 for an account of the conflicting views.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 measurement have been discovered, and more unanimity of 
 scientific opinion has been obtained, we cannot rely on the 
 anatomical evidence at present available. 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 fc- 
 
 < 
 
 p< 
 
 
 8 ? 
 
 S '+3 
 cj 
 
 5? 
 
 a g<S 
 S o 
 
 CL 
 O 
 
 * GO O 
 rt '*"' 
 
 M ai ^ 
 
 II. Obsession of Sex Instinct. In a previous part of this 
 study it has been shown that sex talk and sex indulgence
 
 220 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 occupy a large place in the lives of the uncivilised Natives. 1 
 The same phenomenon is noticed in the case of all primitive 
 peoples, and instruction in sexual matters forms a prominent 
 part in the initiatory rites of savage peoples. 2 A great many 
 missionaries who deal with Native pupils believe that the sex 
 impulse is stronger among adolescent Natives than among 
 Europeans. At some training institutions extraordinary pre- 
 cautions are taken to keep the sexes apart, and all the super- 
 intendents consulted by the writer are emphatic on the 
 necessity for constant watchful supervision to prevent out- 
 breaks of immorality. 
 
 The inference that the strength of the sex impulse is a 
 sufficiently distracting influence to account for the alleged 
 arrest of development is held by a number of missionary 
 teachers. 3 More exact evidence is wanting, but the writer's 
 personal opinion, derived from observation and discussion with 
 missionaries and other close observers of the Native, is that 
 the sex instinct is stronger in adolescent Natives than in the 
 Europeans of South Africa ; that it occupies a very consider- 
 able share of the Natives' attention owing to the absence of 
 other distracting thoughts ; and that a certain amount of list- 
 lessness and indifference to study of adolescent Native pupils 
 is due to the fact that the school studies are not sufficiently 
 real and attractive to counteract the animal impulses of that 
 stage of development. 
 
 III. Mental Saturation. In his Report on Native Education 
 
 1 See ante, p. 27. 
 
 * See Stanley Hall's Adolescence, vol. ii. p. 232 et seq., for details. 
 
 3 " The immoral practice known as ' ukuhlobonga," which is almost 
 universally carried on between young people arriving at the age of 
 puberty, would, in my opinion, account for the arrest of mental 
 development." (Principal of M School.) 
 
 " I certainly think that obsession by sex instinct plays a large part 
 in this [arrest of development]." (Principal of U School.) 
 
 " When it is remembered that for generations back the Native 
 tribes of South Africa have attached great importance to the age of 
 puberty, and emphasised it by the custom of circumcision for boys 
 and the corresponding rite amongst girls (these practices being accom- 
 panied by instruction of a lascivious kind in sexual matters), it is 
 not to be wondered at if a certain obsession of the sex instinct accom- 
 panies this time of life." (Missionary Superintendent at J .) 
 
 " As a rule the Native youth has his mind more taken up with sexual 
 matters than a European." (Principal of U Training Institution.)
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 221 
 
 in South Africa, certainly the most thorough and thoughtful 
 consideration of the question of Native education which has 
 yet appeared, Mr E. B. Sargant discusses at some length the 
 causes of this arrest of mental development, which he assumes 
 to be a fact in the case of a large proportion of the clever 
 Native students who correspond to the youths in European 
 schools capable of winning scholarships and of taking dis- 
 tinguished positions among their fellows in general studies. 
 To this arrest Mr Sargant gives the name " mental saturation." 
 This is unfortunate, since it conveys the impression that the 
 mind is something which can absorb a certain amount of know- 
 ledge and no more, whereas Mr Sargant appears to mean no 
 more than that there is a limit to the amount of second-hand 
 information which a pupil is able or willing to receive. We 
 may summarise Mr Sargant 's conclusions as follows : 
 
 1. Mental saturation is not peculiar to Natives, but is found 
 also, though not to the same extent, in European pupils who 
 fail to fulfil the expectations aroused by their earlier scholastic 
 achievements. 
 
 2. In European pupils the arrest of development " is due 
 mainly to a forcing process, popularly called cramming, which 
 attempts to fill the mind of the young pupil with the results 
 of other persons' experiments without any proportionate 
 appeal to his own experience." While the experiences are 
 simple the pupil is able to absorb them, but when the subjects 
 of study increase the " pupil finds himself in need of an 
 important faculty which can only be sufficiently cultivated 
 through a first-hand acquaintance with facts : namely, the 
 power to arrange and to compare experiences, and to assign to 
 them their proportionate value, in order that some may be 
 rejected entirely, while others are grappled and linked together 
 so firmly as ultimately to form part of that disciplined mental 
 equipment which is always at command when new facts are 
 encountered and their true place and value has to be deter- 
 mined." 
 
 3. Native pupils are more subject to cramming with other 
 people's experiences than are Europeans. " The Native, 
 through which an appeal can be made to the child's own know- 
 ledge, is abandoned at the earliest opportunity for the English 
 language. English itself is taught through books which cannot
 
 222 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 be understood without a knowledge of social conditions alto- 
 gether beyond the reach of the Native child, and in most cases 
 of his teacher also. Arithmetic is made as unpractical as 
 possible, and becomes a series of mechanical operations some- 
 times incapable of verification in the present economic condi- 
 tions of the Native tribes. No advantage is taken of any of 
 the admirable Native industries to prepare the child's hand 
 and eye for further manual occupations of a higher order. 
 Thus it is not surprising that . . . there should be a frequent 
 entry made by teachers against the names of their former 
 scholars, ' Left school, tired.' " l 
 
 4. In the case of both Europeans and Natives, where the 
 arrest of mental development occurs it is caused by " a want 
 of regard for the natural processes by which knowledge is 
 acquired, a tendency to press upon the unfortified mind a mass 
 of mere results which it is incapable of its own motion of placing 
 in relation to other events and of utilising subsequently ; in 
 fine, an examination system which encourages the teacher to 
 sacrifice every future quality of learning to mere imitative 
 achievement in the present. The same causes leading to 
 mental atrophy are at work, but they operate in one case 
 with immensely greater force than in the other." 
 
 5. When we have the same cause operating in the same way 
 upon both Europeans and Natives, "it is better reasoning to 
 draw the conclusion that the two types are similar to each 
 other in this particular respect, than to make an otherwise 
 unverified assumption that the difference of degree in the 
 effect produced rests upon entirely different types of beings, 
 characteristics which are practically permanent and must for 
 ever separate them from one another." 
 
 Without necessarily subscribing to Mr Sargant's psychology, 
 it must be admitted that he offers a most reasonable explana- 
 tion of the phenomenon. The curriculum of the Native schools 
 is either wholly or in part that of the Europeans ; the subjects 
 taught are generally outside the experience of the pupils ; and 
 the medium of instruction is for the most part a foreign tongue. 
 
 1 Mr Sargant might have further pointed out that geography is made 
 a matter of memorising definitions and of learning capes and bays, 
 while history often consists of memorising dates and the names of 
 Cape Governors.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 22$ 
 
 A system of individual examination has encouraged the learn- 
 ing by heart of reproducible information. It is not surprising 
 that the Native fails when demands are made upon him for 
 consideration of the relative values of items of information, 
 for organising his knowledge, for reasoning, and for the applica- 
 tion of what he has learned to other fields. 
 
 IV. The Operation of the Law of Effect. A fourth, and in 
 the writer's opinion the chief, reason for the apparent arrest 
 of development is to be found in the original nature of man. 
 All human and animal learning is conditioned by two laws 
 the law of exercise, and the law of effect. The law of exercise 
 is that where there is a modifiable connection between a 
 situation and a response, the oftener that connection is made, 
 the more the strength of the connection is increased. The 
 oftener I hit the nail with the hammer, the more likely I am 
 to hit and not to miss. But that is not enough. If I want to 
 be successful in hitting the nail, I must want to hit it ; I must 
 find more satisfaction in hitting the nail than in just hitting. 
 In other words, the law of effect must operate. " The law of 
 effect is : when a modifiable connection between a situation and 
 a response is made, and is accompanied by a satisfying state of 
 affairs, that connection's strength is increased ; when made, 
 and accompanied by an annoying state of affairs, its strength 
 is decreased." x 
 
 Our educational practice in the past has suffered by our 
 neglect of the law of effect. We have believed that "Practice 
 makes perfect," whereas it is only practice with appreciated 
 purpose or satisfaction which makes perfect. Mere knocking 
 of the balls with a cue will not make me a good billiard player. 
 I must want to do something with the balls ; and if I want to 
 become an expert player, I must get more satisfaction when 
 my ball goes into the pocket or knocks another ball than when 
 it simply rolls up the table. 
 
 In our education of the Natives we have neglected the law 
 of effect. We have forced the Native child through a course 
 of study the purpose of which he can only dimly conceive. We 
 have taught him subjects foreign to his experience, and in a 
 language which he cannot understand. At first, he comes to 
 
 1 Thorndike, Educational Psychology, vol. ii. p. 4. (The italics are 
 the present writer's.)
 
 224 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 school eager to receive the education which he thinks has made 
 the white man his master. For a few years the pressure 
 brought upon him by his teachers, inspectors, and, in some 
 cases, his parents, induces him to continue ; but then at the 
 period of adolescence, when he begins to feel himself a man, 
 when the method of school discipline becomes less formidable, 
 and when he wants to know the why and wherefore of things, 
 he sees no meaning in his school work. He finds no satisfaction 
 in doing the tasks given him. Other interests, e.g. those of 
 sex indulgence or of town life, clamour for satisfaction. No 
 wonder that he becomes listless in his school work, fails to 
 satisfy those in authority, and either leaves school or remains 
 there unwillingly. 1 
 
 The operation of the law of effect will also account for those 
 Natives who do not exhibit the so-called arrested development. 
 The Sogas, the Semes, the Dubes, and the other Natives who 
 have shown no signs of arrested development did find some 
 meaning and satisfaction in their school work which encouraged 
 them to proceed with their studies. 2 
 
 Section 6. Conclusion 
 
 Our study of the psychology of the Native leads us to the 
 following conclusions : 
 
 I. In the mental tests so far devised, and still more in 
 school achievements, the Native is considerably inferior to the 
 
 1 In an article in the Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xv. p. 231, Dr 
 C. Ward Crampton recommends the following special provisions for 
 adolescent school pupils : 
 
 (1) Children who mature in the lower grammar grades should be given 
 the opportunity to obtain such form of instruction in the elementary 
 school as will directly prepare them for immediately taking a part in 
 active life. 
 
 (2) Where mature and immature children are now brought together 
 in the same class in the elementary or high school, they should be 
 separated into different classes, so that the pedagogical, ethical, and 
 social treatment to which they are subjected may be better adapted 
 to their disparate and distinct requirements and abilities. 
 
 * In this connection it is interesting to note that almost all the 
 writer's correspondents who are convinced that an arrest of develop- 
 ment takes place attribute it wholly or in part to poor teaching. 
 Several correspondents state that pupils who showed signs of arrested 
 development in academic work made excellent progress in manual work.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 22.5 
 
 European, but there is no evidence that this inferiority will be 
 permanent. The spread of civilisation, selective breeding, 
 improved environment, and better teaching will undoubtedly 
 tend to lessen the mental differences between Europeans and 
 Natives. 
 
 2. The so-called arrest of mental development at the age 
 of puberty is clearly not a racial characteristic, though it is 
 undeniably true that at about that period a larger number of 
 Native pupils than European pupils do become listless and 
 indifferent in their school studies, and fail to make the progress 
 hitherto sustained. 
 
 3. This failure to progress is due principally to a course of 
 study and methods of teaching which fail to give the pupils 
 the satisfaction necessary to evoke their continued efforts. 
 
 4. The unsatisfyingness of ordinary school work is over- 
 poweringly strong at about the age of puberty, when the pupil 
 is no longer subservient to the ordinary school discipline, when 
 he begins to think about the meaning of his school studies and 
 to form plans for his future, and when other satisfiable interests 
 begin to appear. 
 
 If our conclusions are correct, their significance for Native 
 education is very great. They would encourage us to con- 
 tinue in our efforts to educate the Natives so that this great 
 mass of people may become a benefit, and not a hindrance, 
 to South Africa. For many years to come, separate courses 
 of study, as well as separate schools, for the Natives will be 
 necessary. The courses of study should take account of the 
 peculiar experiences of the Natives, and the teaching, in the 
 earlier stages at least, should be through the vernacular. 
 From the beginning the education given should be meaningful 
 to the Natives, and to this end should lead up to the future 
 occupations open to them. Above all, it teaches us that the 
 kinds of schools, the subjects of instruction, and the methods 
 pursued can never be permanent, but must change with the 
 advance of civilisation among the Native people.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION (continued) 
 
 THE prime basis for the reconstruction of a system of Native 
 education, viz., the mentality of the Bantu, has been discussed 
 in the preceding chapter. Two further fundamental considera- 
 tions must now be discussed before we can proceed to the task 
 of proposing a reformed scheme of administration and instruc- 
 tion. These are 
 
 (A) The question of the position of the vernacular languages. 
 South Africa has already two official languages, English and 
 Dutch. The languages spoken by the Natives may be resolved 
 into three main groups, viz., Thonga, Sesuto, and Zulu-Kafir. 
 What shall be our attitude towards the vernaculars ? Shall 
 we attempt to perpetuate them, or shall we attempt to induce 
 the coming generations of Natives to speak either one or both 
 of the European languages ? 
 
 (B) The questions involved in the establishment of agri- 
 culture as a Native industry. It can easily be shown that 
 farming is the most suitable vocation for the Natives, both in 
 their own interests and in the interests of the governing 
 Europeans ; but good farming presupposes a satisfactory system 
 of land tenure, which does not yet exist in South Africa as 
 far as the Natives are concerned. Before we can induce the 
 Native to farm, we must assure him that he will have definite 
 right to his land, that he will be able to reap where he has sown, 
 and that there will be a market for his products. 
 
 PART III. THE POSITION OF THE VERNACULAR 
 LANGUAGES 
 
 As we have already seen, 1 the courses of study of the several 
 provinces show considerable differences with regard to instruc- 
 tion in and through the vernacular languages. 
 1 See pp. 98 and 138. 
 226
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 227 
 
 In the Cape Province the use of the vernacular, although not 
 so stated in the regulations, is permissive in Native schools. 1 
 Seeing, however, that few of the inspectors make use of the 
 vernacular in their examinations, and that the parents generally 
 regard its study as a waste of time, we may assume that its 
 use is by no means general. 
 
 In Natal, Zulu is the medium of instruction in the lower 
 classes, and a medium of instruction for certain subjects 
 throughout the school course. 
 
 In the Transvaal the use of the vernacular is permissive as 
 in the Cape Province. 
 
 The Orange Free State prescribes the " mother-tongue of the 
 majority of the pupils " as the medium of instruction during 
 the first four years. 
 
 In Basutoland the vernacular is both the medium and subject 
 of instruction throughout the whole course. The subjects 
 hygiene and geography are taught in Sesuto, and the position 
 of English is decidedly that of the foreign language. 
 
 As the subject is of fundamental importance for the framing 
 of regulations and the drawing up of courses of study, it 
 deserves treatment in some detail. 
 
 Section i. Different Views on the Use of the Vernacular 
 in Schools 
 
 On the whole question of the position of use of the vernacular 
 in Native schools, we have three schools of thought. 
 
 i. In the first place, there are the Natives themselves, who 
 do not, as a rule, desire instruction in the vernacular for their 
 children. They realise the value of English and Dutch, the 
 languages of the ruling race, and wish their children to begin 
 the study of these as soon as possible. It is becoming in- 
 creasingly difficult to induce them to learn their own language 
 first. This tendency is the more marked in schools under 
 Native control, and it is very probable that, if the management 
 of the schools were handed over to the Natives themselves, 
 instruction in the vernacular would cease. 2 
 
 1 Muir, Evidence before Cape Select Commission on Native Education, 
 section 358. 
 
 " The less the Native idiom is taught, and the more rapidly English 
 is introduced, the better they (i.e. the Christianised Natives of Basuto-
 
 228 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 2. The second school of thought consists of Europeans who 
 are of opinion that since there are at least three different 
 Native languages in South Africa, Thonga, Sesuto, and Zulu- 
 Kafir, and since these languages have no commercial or literary 
 value, time spent on instruction in the vernaculars is largely 
 wasted. All sources of new information are English or Dutch, 
 and the sooner the child commences the study of these 
 languages the better. 
 
 This view is shared by a considerable number of educators 
 in the polyglot portions of the British Empire, who, realising 
 the short school life of the child, and recognising the unifying 
 power of a common language, 1 and the necessity for inducing 
 pupils to think in English if they are to know English, would 
 make little use of the vernacular. The conclusions of Dr 
 Norman F. Black of Regina, Canada, who has made a special 
 study of the question, represent the views of this school of 
 thought : 
 
 " English must be the dominant subject in all ele- 
 mentary schools. If, however, the parents desire taught 
 another language of acknowledged practical value, the 
 writer would favour granting their request. . . . The 
 teaching of reading and writing in the vernacular should 
 in all cases be postponed until the child has completed 
 the work of Grade I. at least, and, so far as possible, the 
 reading matter used in the mother-tongue lessons should 
 be of a character to increase the pupil's intelligent interest 
 in and love for the land in which he dwells and the flag 
 that flies over it. In all elementary schools receiving State 
 aid, the language of instruction should be English, except 
 in teaching the mother-tongue itself, and possibly in con- 
 ducting moral and religious instruction where this is 
 made a recognised subject of formal study." (English 
 for the Non-English, p. 78.) 
 
 land) are pleased." (Sargant, Report on Native Education in South 
 Africa, part iii. p. 4.) 
 
 " I do not think the scholars would attend and pay fees if we did 
 not teach English." (Willoughby, Evidence before the Cape Select 
 Committee on Native Education, section 1158.) 
 
 The same opinion has been given to the writer by missionaries in 
 the Cape and Natal. 
 
 1 Cf. the insistence on English in the public schools of the United States.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 22Q 
 
 3. The third school of thought consists of South African 
 officials and politicians, 1 missionaries, 2 and educators, 3 who 
 base their arguments for the retention of the vernacular on 
 political and pedagogical grounds. As this is the opinion most 
 prevalent to-day, it is necessary to examine the grounds on 
 which it is based. 
 
 Section 2. The Case for the Vernacular 
 
 i. The Politician's Point of View. The argument advanced 
 by the politician for the retention of the vernacular is that it 
 will prove a desirable separating factor between the White and 
 Black races. The chief want of the educated Native is pride 
 of race. If we take away from him, they say, or rather allow 
 him to forget, his Native tongue, the last shreds of his nation- 
 ality will disappear, and the danger of assimilation through the 
 Native's desire to be like the European will be increased. 4 
 Further, either with or without segregation some form of local 
 self-government for Natives seems bound to come. In the 
 conduct of such self-government it will be necessary to have 
 a common medium of communication, and this, for many 
 years to come at least, wiU be the Native language. 
 
 The argument that identity of language is an assimilating 
 force will be conceded, though its potency is not nearly so great 
 as identity of religion or of nationality. A common religion 
 is the force which binds the Jews of different nationalities 
 together, but the possession of a common language or patois 
 Hebrew (Yiddish) makes the alliance closer. On the other 
 hand, racial and national differences may exist in spite of 
 
 1 E.g. the members of the South African Native Affairs Commission, 
 which consisted of representatives from the Cape, Natal, Transvaal, 
 Orange Free State, Basutoland, and Rhodesia. 
 
 2 Out of sixty-five of the most experienced missionaries in South 
 Africa who replied to a recent letter of inquiry on this point, no less 
 than sixty-two expressed their opinion that in Native schools the 
 medium of instruction should be the vernacular. (See The Christian 
 Express, August i, 1908, p. 115.) 
 
 3 " Almost all the witnesses, whether teachers, inspectors, or members 
 of School Boards, are in favour of the principle that the mother - 
 tongue should be used as a medium in the lower standards." (Cape 
 Education Commission, 1911, Report, section 40.) 
 
 4 " When a Native talks Kafir he is a man ; when he talks English 
 he is a caricature," is a common remark in South Africa.
 
 230 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 identity of language. The German-speaking Pole is a Pole 
 and not a German. The Russian Jew is a Jew first and a 
 Russian afterwards. In the United States the possession of a 
 common language English does not bridge the race differ- 
 ences between the Negro and the White man. As Professor 
 Margoliouth says: "Of the various ties which bind human 
 beings together, that of common language seems to possess no 
 great strength. Other bonds protect it, rather than it them. 
 Where in the same city different languages are spoken in 
 different quarters, the quarters are not isolated because the 
 inhabitants speak different languages, but they speak different 
 languages because they are isolated." * 
 
 More is to be said for the second argument, for the educated 
 Natives from among whom the councillors and officials in any 
 scheme of local self-government should be chosen must cer- 
 tainly know the language of the people. Already deterioriation 
 in the spoken and written Kafir and Sesuto of educated Natives 
 is noticeable. 2 
 
 2. The Missionary's Point of View. To the missionary the 
 Native school is not primarily a place at which a boy or girl can 
 be prepared for his or her future occupation only, but the place 
 where the Native can also be trained in the principles of the 
 Christian religion and the Christian virtues, with the definite 
 view that the man or woman so trained will go back again to 
 the Native people and let his light shine among them. The 
 elevation of the whole of the Native people through selected 
 individuals is their object, and they recognise that the spread 
 of civilisation must be largely through the efforts of their ex- 
 pupils. It is therefore indispensable that the educated and 
 civilised pupil should know the vernacular, and that he should 
 not lose this bond of sympathy with his own people. 
 
 3. The Educator's Point of View. It is the missionary educa- 
 tors, however, the men and women who live and labour among 
 the Native people, who make the strongest plea for vernacular 
 instruction. So insistent and (in the writer's opinion) so 
 
 1 See his interesting article on " Language as a Consolidating and 
 Separating Influence," in Papers on Inter-Racial Problems communi- 
 cated to the First Universal Races Congress, pp. 57-61. 
 
 1 Cf. Inspector Mr Bennie's evidence before the Cape Select Com- 
 mittee on Native Education, section 2385 et passim. Letters appearing 
 in the Native press abound in elementary grammatical errors.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 231 
 
 pedagogic ally sound has been their attitude, that the Cape 
 Select Committee on Native Education was induced to recom- 
 mend that the vernacular should be the medium of instruction 
 up to Standard III., that subsequently English should be the 
 medium as far as practicable, but that religious instruction 
 should, where desired, be through the medium of the verna- 
 cular, and that both English and the vernacular should be 
 taught as languages throughout the school course. 1 
 
 The chief pedagogical arguments in favour of vernacular 
 instruction, at least in the lower classes, are : 
 
 (a) Using language in its broadest sense to include gestures, 
 pictures, movements of the body, etc. in short, anything used 
 as a sign, we may say that language is necessary for think- 
 ing, for to be able to think about things, those things must 
 have a meaning, and meanings are embodied in language. 
 Language is then the instrument, and indeed the chief subject, 
 of school work. To secure good thinking, which is the primary 
 object of intellectual education, the meaning of the thing to 
 be thought about in other words, the comprehension of the 
 language used is indispensable. If we ask young Native 
 children to do thinking about facts so novel to them as those 
 of European civilisation, and in a tongue so foreign as English, 
 we are asking for the impossible, and if we attempt to insist, 
 as we do under our present system, we receive words instead 
 of thoughts. 2 The defects of verbalism and parrot-like 
 memorising so frequently commented upon by the inspectors 
 are chiefly due to the too early insistence upon English as the 
 medium. As Mr Sargant points out, the facts of modern 
 European civilisation, just as those of religion, are too novel 
 and foreign to the Native to be capable of presentation through 
 a foreign tongue. 3 
 
 1 Report, section 6. 
 
 * " A teacher who has never seen the sea with its tides and its ships, 
 nor a large river, nor a great manufacturing town, nor any industry 
 prosecuted on a large scale, attempts to teach geography in English, 
 a language which it would be a stretch of courtesy to say he under- 
 stands, to a class ignorant of the language he is trying to use." (From 
 an article in The Christian Express, June i, 1908.) 
 
 3 Report on Native Education in South Africa, part iii. p. 6. Cf. 
 also an article by a Native teacher in The Christian Express of August i , 
 1908.
 
 232 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (b) The object of making English the medium is, of course, 
 to teach English ; but this results in laying undue emphasis 
 upon one subject, albeit a very important one, of the curri- 
 culum. The function of education is to create situations, the 
 responses to which will result in the acquirement of habits, 
 knowledge, and tendencies to action, which are in the best 
 interests of the person or people to be educated. A knowledge 
 of English is very desirable for the Native, not only for its 
 immediately practical value as a means of intercourse with 
 the ruling race, but as a means whereby the Native can acquire 
 additional knowledge as a basis for future and more adequate 
 reactions. But concurrently with this process in linguistic 
 ability must proceed a knowledge of real things, so that the 
 thought process may not be divorced from reality. Other 
 matters, such as the formation of good habits and ideals of con- 
 duct, are of paramount importance, but these cannot receive 
 adequate attention if English dominates the curriculum. 
 
 (c) The serious elimination of pupils from Native schools and 
 the high percentage of failures in the departmental examina- 
 tions are largely due to the insistence upon English as the 
 medium. Pupils who fail at the inspector's examination are 
 naturally inclined to leave school, 1 while even those who 
 survive become " tired " of a curriculum which, because of its 
 reference to foreign things in a language imperfectly under- 
 stood, makes no appeal to them. 2 
 
 (d) Granted that a time may come when it will be possible and 
 desirable to use English entirely as the medium of instruction, 
 that time is not yet. The present disabilities under which 
 the Native schools labour the inadequate financial support, 
 the wretched buildings and equipment, and the ill-prepared 
 teachers are sufficient obstacles to education without adding 
 to their number by requiring the use of a medium which neither 
 teacher nor pupil understands. 
 
 1 " A good many, of course, never go beyond the first standard, 
 just because the medium of instruction is English ; whereas if they 
 commenced in their own language, the probabilities are before finishing 
 a year or so they would be able to pass the third standard in Kafir." 
 (Rev. S. P. Sihlali, Native missionary, Evidence before Cape Select Com- 
 mittee on Native Education, 1908, section 942.) 
 
 * Cf. Sargant, Report on Native Education in So-nth Africa, part iii. 
 p. 62 et seq.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 233 
 
 Section 3. The Ultimate Supremacy of the European 
 Language 
 
 While the arguments in favour of instruction in and through 
 the vernacular are strong enough to control our practice, the 
 writer's personal conviction is that the Bantu languages cannot 
 live. The practical value of English and Dutch, both as means 
 of intercourse and as bases for further education, the un- 
 willingness of the Europeans to learn the Native languages, 1 
 the absence of a Native literature, and the improved methods of 
 teaching English, will prevail ; and despite the efforts of Bantu 
 scholars, who point out the beauty and euphony of the lan- 
 guages, the completeness and regularity of their grammars, 
 and their ability to keep pace with the spread of civilisation 
 by adopting technical and other terms from the English, the 
 Native tongues must give place to the more practical European 
 languages. 
 
 Apart from sentiment, there is no reason for wishing the 
 Bantu languages to survive. They have served their purpose. 
 They are not capable of expressing the ideas which the new 
 European civilisation has brought to the country. They are 
 hopelessly clumsy and inadequate on the mathematical and 
 scientific sides. 2 Besides this, languages are instruments of 
 communication, and it will be to the interest of South Africa 
 not to perpetuate another language. For the present, however, 
 instruction in the vernacular will be necessary for those who 
 intend to become teachers, and the use of the vernacular as a 
 medium will be necessary where the children come from Bantu- 
 speaking homes. As a working rule it is suggested that the 
 vernacular be the chief medium of instruction for the first two 
 years, that it share with English or Dutch the position of 
 medium for the next three, but that after that English or Dutch 
 become the medium. 
 
 1 The Dutch almost invariably address their Native servant in 
 Dutch, while the majority of the English people use a " kitchen Kafir," 
 a feeble mixture of Kafir and English. 
 
 8 Even strong advocates of the Kafir medium admit its clumsiness 
 in arithmetic. It is certainly cumbersome to have to express 555 by 
 " amakulu, amahlanu anamashumi amahlanu anesihlanu," while it is 
 not possible to express in Zulu large numbers, such as a hundred 
 thousand, or low fractions.
 
 234 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 This rule should, however, be subject to change where the 
 teacher is especially competent in English, and where the 
 children have considerable opportunity (e.g. in towns) of 
 speaking English or Dutch. 
 
 PART IV. AGRICULTURE AS A NATIVE INDUSTRY 
 
 In our consideration of the present system of industrial 
 education in the Native schools of South Africa we showed 
 that, in spite of the unanimous opinion that the education of 
 the Natives should be largely industrial, a very small percentage 
 of the Natives were, as a matter of fact, receiving industrial 
 training. The reasons for this were the high cost of the 
 necessary equipment, the opposition of the White industrial 
 classes, and the apathetic and even hostile attitude of some 
 missionaries and the Natives themselves towards the subject. 
 It was there pointed out that only the first two objections 
 could be regarded as worthy of serious consideration, and that, 
 after all, the fear of competition evinced by the Europeans was 
 to a large extent unfounded. The valid objections towards a 
 general system of industrial training are therefore founded on 
 the cost of the necessary equipment and the limited demand 
 for skilled labour. Both these objections fall to the ground, 
 however, if we extend the term " industrial training " to 
 include instruction in agriculture and the Native arts and 
 crafts. 
 
 As far as we can at present foresee, agriculture must become 
 the chief industry of South Africa. Our mineral wealth must, 
 in the course of time, become exhausted, and the isolation of 
 South Africa must prevent it for many years from becoming a 
 great manufacturing and industrial country in the sense in 
 which Great Britain, Germany, and the United States are 
 industrial countries. On the other hand, South Africa's 
 opportunities in agriculture and stock-raising are very great. 
 The country's farming resources are only now becoming known, 
 and, with the discovery of remedies for the numerous plagues 
 and diseases which periodically ravage the country, the 
 agricultural prospects of South Africa are very bright. If, how- 
 ever, these prospects are to be fully realised, the four million 
 Native rural inhabitants must be taught to be good farmers.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 235 
 
 In the past the Native has made little use of the land. So 
 long as he could obtain sufficient grazing for his cattle, and a 
 small patch of land for cultivation, he was content. As a 
 stock-farmer the Native has not been very successful, and he is 
 probably the worst agriculturist in the world. Although agri- 
 culture is the hereditary occupation of the people, it has never 
 been practised on a large scale. On the contrary, each " raw " 
 Native produces just enough to satisfy the needs of his family. 
 Agriculture is followed as a means of sustenance and nothing 
 more. Indeed, since the coming of the White man the Native 
 does not produce even enough to satisfy his own wants, but 
 buys mealies from the White storekeeper. He rarely looks 
 beyond the immediate present. His wives cultivate just 
 enough land to bear the amount of food required. If anything 
 occurs to spoil the crop, be it drought or a visitation by locusts, 
 there will not be enough food. Then if our Native does 
 not succeed in begging food from his neighbours, he will have 
 recourse to the natural roots and fruits of the bush. If these 
 fail, he faces starvation. Some primitive methods, to be sure, 
 are taken to store the crops when reaped, but the Native rarely 
 plants enough to allow for a bad year. Even to-day the supply 
 of Native labour for the mines, the farms, the stores, and 
 domestic service varies with the goodness or badness of the 
 harvest, for in bad years the Native is compelled to leave home 
 to work for food for himself and his family, whereas in a good 
 3^ear he can bask in the sunshine at home. 
 
 It would be difficult to imagine a more haphazard and waste- 
 ful method of cultivation than that practised by the Natives. 
 On the slopes of the hill, on which the Native kraal stands, 
 small irregular pieces of land are turned over by the hoe, or in 
 a few cases thinly ploughed up. Here the seeds are sown, and 
 the natural fertility of the land produces a fair crop. This 
 same plot of land is cultivated in succeeding years, and as no 
 system of fertilising is practised, it soon becomes worn out and 
 will grow nothing but weeds. Then another piece of virgin land 
 is selected, and the same process is repeated. Since the bush 
 land is generally the most fertile because of the accumulation 
 of leaf-mould, which acts as a natural fertiliser, the bush is often 
 fired, and small plots of land there cultivated in the same way. 
 No attempt at irrigation is made, though this would often be
 
 236 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 possible ; and no attempt is ever made to restore fertility to 
 the soil. The adherence to these wasteful ancestral methods 
 of cultivation in the face of European example is astonishingly 
 strong. A Native will work for years with a European farmer ; 
 will become so thoroughly conversant with the White man's 
 method of farming that he can safely be left to till the land 
 and sow the crops in his master's absence ; he will see that on 
 the European plan four times as much grain can be obtained ; 
 yet when he goes back to his kraal, he will still practise his 
 old methods of agriculture. If he is reminded of the example 
 of the White man, and asked why he does not follow it, he will 
 reply simply, " That is the White man's way : I am a Native." 
 This improvidence, this being satisfied merely to meet the 
 requirements of to-day, is so deep-rooted in the Native, that 
 it is almost hopeless to expect to improve the present genera- 
 tion. There are signs, however, that an improvement in his 
 methods of agriculture must come. The wants of the Natives 
 are increasing, and the amount of land available for them is 
 hardly sufficient to support them with their present primitive 
 methods of agriculture. The Native will be compelled by 
 economic pressure to adjust himself to a new and better method 
 of agriculture ; it is in the interests of both races that he should 
 become a better producer, so that it is clearly the duty of school 
 authorities to prepare the coming generation for the new order 
 of things. 
 
 To enable the schools to induce the educated Natives to 
 return to the land, an improvement in the system of Native 
 land tenure is necessary. The " raw " Native clings tenaciously 
 to his tribalism with its communal occupation of land ; but 
 one of the first effects of education is to make the Native 
 individualistic, and with individualism comes greater industry, 
 enterprise, and progress. 
 
 Industry, enterprise, and progress in agriculture depend on 
 a reasonable security of land tenure, and until the educated 
 Native can be convinced that he will be freed from the more 
 or less arbitrary decisions of a raw Native chief, and that he 
 will be able to lead the new life which has been opened out 
 to him by education, it will be difficult to induce him to 
 turn to agriculture as a permanent means of earning a 
 livelihood.
 
 THE BASES OF RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 237 
 
 Four systems of Native land tenure exist in South Africa / 
 
 (a) Communal occupation of public land reserved for 
 
 Natives in locations and mission reserves. 
 
 (b) Squatting on public lands. 
 
 (c) Purchase and leasing of private lands. 
 
 (d) Individual tenure of public land reserved for Natives, 
 
 as in the Transkei. 1 
 
 An adequate treatment of the history and merits of these 
 systems is outside the scope of the present work. 2 It is 
 sufficient to point out here that under the first two systems 
 there is not sufficient security of tenure to induce educated 
 Natives to take up agriculture as a permanent vocation. Of 
 the two latter systems, that of permitting Natives to acquire 
 land from individuals by purchase or lease presents such social, 
 economic, and administrative difficulties as to make it un- 
 desirable except in areas defined by Government, and under 
 conditions which prevent communal occupation. 3 
 
 We are left, then, with the form of land tenure which in their 
 present state of development is most suitable for the Natives 
 and most desirable from the European's point of view the 
 allocation by the Government of small plots of ground to indi- 
 vidual Natives to be held subject to good behaviour, and the 
 payment of an annual rental. This system, under the name of 
 the Glen Grey Act, has been in operation in a part of the Cape 
 
 1 The distribution of Natives as regards the nature of their land 
 tenure is as follows : 
 
 
 
 Townships 
 
 
 
 Province. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 and 
 
 Private 
 
 Crown 
 
 Mission. 
 
 
 
 municipal 
 
 lands. 
 
 lands. 
 
 reserve. 
 
 
 
 areas. 
 
 
 
 
 Cape proper 
 Cape Transkei . 
 
 343,756 
 846,994 
 
 102,970 
 8,620 
 
 190,487 
 41,893 
 
 13,902 
 
 16,565 
 5,251 
 
 Natal and Zululand . 
 
 426,936 
 
 27,339 
 
 486,098 
 
 81,810 ; 27,026 
 
 Transvaal 
 
 299,658 
 
 25,445 
 
 550,318 
 
 59,140 17,458 
 
 Orange Free State 
 
 14,600 
 
 53,585 
 
 211,951 
 
 
 i,537 
 
 (South African Bluebook on Native Affairs, 1910, p. 360.) 
 
 2 For a full account see the Report of the South African Native Affairs 
 Commission, 1903-5, sections 75-210. 
 
 3 See sections 191-193 of the Report.
 
 238 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Province since 1894, and has proved very successful. 1 In 1910 
 a Government Commission was appointed to inquire into the 
 general working of the system of individual land tenure. The 
 report is distinctly favourable, and concludes on the following 
 optimistic note : " Generally the Native people are rising in 
 the scale of civilisation ; they are advancing intellectually, and 
 by their loyalty, their obedience to the law, their large share 
 in the industrial life of the country and their direct and indirect 
 contributions to the public revenue, they are responding 
 worthily to the generous policy of this colony in the administra- 
 tion of Native affairs." 2 
 
 The trend of competent opinion in South Africa is to-day 
 in the direction of extending cautiously, but surely, the system 
 of individual ownership. 3 Without it we shall not succeed in 
 inducing the Native to take up farming, the occupation most 
 in keeping with his nature and view of life, and one that he 
 can pursue without entering into competition with the 
 European. 
 
 1 The principles involved in the Glen Grey Act are : 
 
 (1) Individual title to land. 
 
 (2) Recognition of law of primogeniture. 
 
 (3) Local self-government. 
 
 (4) Power to levy taxes and vote expenditure. 
 
 2 Quoted by Evans, Black and While in South-East Africa, p. 255. 
 
 3 For example, the South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903-5, 
 passed the following resolution : " Recognising the attachment of the 
 Natives to, and the present advantages of, their own communal or 
 tribal system of land tenure, the Commission does not advise any 
 general compulsory measure of subdivision and individual holding 
 of the lands now set apart for their occupation ; but recommends 
 that movement in that direction be encouraged, and that, where the 
 Natives exhibit in sufficient numbers a desire to secure and a capacity 
 to hold and enjoy individual rights to arable plots and residential 
 sites on such lands, provision should be made accordingly under well- 
 defined conditions " (section 147).
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 
 
 IN the last analysis provision for education resolves itself into 
 a question of finance. Education costs money, and as more 
 and greater responsibilities devolve upon the school an increas- 
 ing amount of financial support is necessary. Before the 
 matter of education became a State function, its financial 
 support was derived from private, Church, or State charities, 
 but nowadays the funds for education are derived from public 
 taxation. These are generally obtained by a form of direct 
 taxation for educational purposes, as in the case of England, 
 Germany, the United States, and most other countries enjoying 
 local self-government. In South Africa, however, almost all 
 the funds for education are derived from the general revenue of 
 the Union, but are expended by the Provincial Councils. 1 This 
 is not the place to enter into a general discussion of the relative 
 merits of the two forms of obtaining financial support for educa- 
 tion ; but when dealing with a people like the Natives, who 
 cannot be expected to understand the principles involved in 
 taxation, it would seem to be desirable to let the Native know 
 as clearly as possible why he is being taxed. If we can point 
 out to the Native the material benefits in the form of schools, 
 roads, bridges, etc., which he as an individual enjoys as the 
 result of taxation, we shall appeal to something which he can 
 understand and appreciate more than if we attempt to explain 
 the principles of State taxation. The most progressive Natives 
 in South Africa are those of the Transkei, where a form of 
 local self-government, with local taxation for educational and 
 other specific services for the benefit of the Native, obtains. 
 
 1 In the Cape Province each School Board is empowered to levy 
 a rate not to exceed one-eighth of a penny in the pound for school 
 purposes, and in parts of the Native Territories and in Basutoland 
 the Natives tax themselves directly for educational purposes. 
 
 239
 
 240 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The system of local self-government, however, is but in its 
 infancy, and for many years to come the funds for Native 
 education must be derived from the general revenue of the 
 Union. In the past and at present Native education is sup- 
 ported by special grants-in-aid. The system was derived from 
 that in vogue in England when the elementary schools were 
 being conducted by religious and philanthropic agencies. If 
 there was any principle underlying the system, it was that the 
 education of the masses was primarily the function of the 
 Churches. Even when the State began to recognise its duty 
 in the matter of public education, it was felt that the Churches 
 were the best agencies for carrying it out. 
 
 In the following pages we have attempted first to summarise 
 the systems of State aid to Native education in the several 
 provinces and Basutoland, and then to examine the other 
 sources of revenue for Native education. We have then tried 
 to demonstrate that Native education is not receiving the share 
 of financial support to which it is entitled ; finally, a basis for 
 the furnishing of Government support to Native education 
 has been proposed, and a system of grants-in-aid suggested. 
 
 Section i. The Present System of Government 
 Grants-in-Aid 
 
 The basis on which Government grants in aid of Native 
 education are paid in the several provinces and in Basutoland 
 are as follows : 
 
 (A) CAPE PROVINCE 
 The following grants may be paid : * 
 
 I. Mission Schools 2 
 
 i. A grant not to exceed 75 per annum for the principal 
 teacher, and not to exceed 45 per annum for each assistant 
 
 1 All grants are contingent on the money being voted by the 
 Legislature. 
 
 2 A distinction is made between the grants paid to Mission Schools 
 and to Aborigines' Schools. Mission Schools are schools for the Coloured 
 people of the province proper, and Aborigines' Schools are schools 
 for the Native population of the Transkeian Territories. The Mission 
 Schools are attended by "Coloured" (mulatto) children as well as by 
 Natives.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 24! 
 
 teacher. This grant is solely in aid of teachers' salaries, and 
 must be supplemented by a local contribution of zos. for every 
 i of grant. 
 
 2. A grant not exceeding 50 per annum may be made 
 towards maintaining an industrial class in connection with a 
 mission school. 
 
 3. A grant in aid of rent. 
 
 II. Aborigines' Schools 1 
 
 1. An annual grant in aid of the salary of the teacher, 
 varying from a maximum of 100 for the principal and 40 
 for the assistant teacher in an institution to a maximum of 
 40 for the head teacher and a lesser grant for the assistant 
 in an ordinary school. In those parts of the Transkeian 
 Territories which fall under the Glen Grey Act, these grants 
 are supplemented by grants from the Transkeian General 
 Council, to the extent of 50 per cent, in the case of assistants, 
 and 75 per cent, in the case of principal teachers. 
 
 2. A grant in aid of the apprenticeship of boys and girls who 
 enter into an agreement with the authorities of the institution 
 with which they are connected to serve in certain trades. 2 
 These maintenance grants, as they are called, are 15 per annum 
 for boys and 10 per annum for girls. 
 
 3. A grant of 10 or 12 per annum in the case of boarders 
 other than apprentices. 2 
 
 4. A grant not exceeding 120 per annum in aid of the salary 
 of the trade instructor of apprentices. As a rule, not more 
 than two departments in a school may receive this grant, and 
 there must be fifteen apprentices in each trade department 
 receiving the grant. 
 
 1 A distinction is made between the grants paid to Mission Schools 
 and to Aborigines' Schools. Mission Schools are schools for the Coloured 
 people of the province proper, and Aborigines' Schools are schools 
 for the Native population of the Transkeian Territories. The Mission 
 Schools are attended by " Coloured " (mulatto) children as well as by 
 Natives. 
 
 - The number of apprentices and boarders for whom grants are 
 available is strictly limited. The regulations require that the whole 
 number of boarders and apprentices in a school should consider- 
 ably exceed that of those to whom maintenance grants are paid. 
 (Reg. No. 51.) 
 
 16
 
 242 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 5. A grant not exceeding 30 in aid of purchase of tools, 
 fittings, and materials for the trade departments. 
 
 6. An annual allowance of 50 for the expenses of an indus- 
 trial department not in receipt of the foregoing allowances, or 
 attached to a Native day school. 
 
 7. A grant in aid of rent to training schools and industrial 
 institutions in the case of new buildings erected in accordance 
 with plans approved by the Department, vested to the satis- 
 faction of the Department, and used in perpetuity for educa- 
 tional purposes only. 
 
 (B) NATAL PROVINCE 
 The following grants-in-aid may be paid : 
 
 I. Training Schools for Teachers 
 
 1. Half the amount of the salaries of the necessary teaching 
 staff, provided that the amount payable by the Government 
 under this clause shall not exceed 300 per annum. 
 
 2. 3 per student per annum calculated on the average 
 attendance. 
 
 3. 2 for every student who obtains a teacher's certificate 
 at the end of the year. 
 
 II. Boarding Schools 
 
 1. Class A (containing only pupils above Standard IV.). 
 Half the amount of the salaries of the necessary teaching staff, 
 provided that the amount payable by the Government under 
 this clause shall not exceed 200. 
 
 3 per pupil per annum calculated on the average daily 
 attendance. 
 
 2. Class B (boarders only). 
 
 2os. per annum for pupils up to Standard I., calculated 
 
 on average attendance. 
 305. per annum for pupils in Standards II. and III., 
 
 calculated on average attendance. 
 405. per annum for pupils in Standard IV., calculated 
 
 on average attendance. 
 6os. per annum for pupils over Standard IV., calculated 
 
 on average attendance.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 243 
 
 3. Class C (boarders and day pupils). 
 
 25s. 1 per annum for every pupil below Standard I., on 
 
 average daily attendance. 
 305. 1 per annum for every pupil in Standards I. and II., 
 
 on average daily attendance. 
 40s. 1 per annum for every pupil above Standard II., on 
 
 average daily attendance. 
 
 In all boarding schools a special grant not to exceed 2 per 
 pupil per annum for approved industrial work, for not less than 
 ten hours per week. 
 
 III. Day Schools 
 
 1. 175. per pupil, subject to reduction if an uncertificated 
 teacher is employed. 
 
 2. A bonus of 4 to the principal, 2 to each certificated 
 teacher assistant, and i to each uncertificated assistant if the 
 school is graded " excellent." 
 
 3. An industrial grant of 3d. per annum will be allowed for 
 every pupil on the roll who pays 3d. per year into the " Indus- 
 trial Training Fund " at the school. 
 
 (C) TRANSVAAL 2 
 
 The following grants may be made : 
 
 I. Training Institutions 
 
 1. An initial grant not exceeding 300 for equipment. 
 
 2. Grants, to be expended only on salaries for teachers, on 
 the pound-for-pound system as follows : 
 
 (a) A grant not exceeding 100 for the officer in charge 
 
 of the boarding establishment. 
 (6) A grant not exceeding 250 on behalf of the chief 
 
 officer of the institution or department thereof. 
 
 To obtain a grant for the chief officer, at least 
 
 one other instructor must be employed. 
 
 1 Grants will be reduced by 53. each if uncertificated teachers are 
 employed. Similar reduction if accommodation and equipment are 
 not as required. 
 
 1 For new scale of grant proposed see Appendix F.
 
 244 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (c) A grant not exceeding 200 on behalf of each 
 
 assistant instructor. To obtain a grant for two 
 instructors there must be more than thirty 
 students, for three instructors there must be 
 more than sixty students, and for more than 
 one hundred students, or separate departments 
 for men and women. 
 
 (d) A grant not exceeding 100 for each manual- 
 
 training instructor, the number of instructors 
 to be limited as above. 
 
 (e) Bursaries at a rate not exceeding 10 for each 
 
 Native student who signs an agreement to teach 
 for three years in a Government-aided institution. 
 
 II. Industrial Schools. (" To train boys for crafts and 
 
 occupations connected with farming, and to train girls 
 and boys for household work and domestic occupations 
 generally." Regulations, section 8.) 
 
 1. A maintenance grant of 10 per annum for each approved 
 and indentured pupil, who must have passed Standards III. 
 (if a boy) and II. (if a girl). 
 
 2. Grants in aid of salaries of teachers. 
 
 (a) Not exceeding 50 per annum for each qualified 
 
 male teacher, 
 
 (b) Not exceeding 30 per annum for each qualified 
 
 female teacher. 
 
 (c) Not exceeding 150 per annum for each European 
 
 teacher. 
 
 3. An initial grant not exceeding 100 for equipment for 
 approved institutions. 
 
 III. Ordinary Native Schools. (" In no case shall the full 
 grant be payable unless industrial education of a satis- 
 factory character is given.") 
 
 i. Grants in aid of salaries of teachers 
 
 (a) Not exceeding 20 per annum for every uncertifi- 
 
 cated teacher. 
 
 (b) Not exceeding 40 per annum for provisionally 
 
 certificated teacher.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 245 
 
 (c) Not exceeding 50 per annum for full certificated 
 
 teacher. 
 
 (d) Not exceeding 70 per annum for European 
 
 teacher. 
 
 (e) Not exceeding 20 per annum for industrial 
 
 teacher. 
 
 (N.B. The number of teachers for whom grants will 
 be paid is one for every thirty pupils, " provided that the 
 number enrolled exceeds any multiple of thirty by not less 
 than ten, grants may be paid in respect of an additional 
 teacher.") 
 
 IV. Special Instruction Courses for Teachers l 
 
 1. A grant not exceeding 36 in all, or 93. per hour for each 
 competent instructor. 
 
 2. Payment at the rate of 93. per hour for approved com- 
 petent instructors in industrial work. 
 
 3. A grant at the rate of 305. per caput as subsistence 
 allowance for each teacher in regular attendance. 
 
 4. A grant not exceeding 20 for every thirty teachers in 
 attendance, for books and other school material needed in 
 the course. 
 
 (D) ORANGE FREE STATE 
 
 The annual vote of 4000 for Native education is allocated 
 (half every six months) among the various mission organisa- 
 tions conducting Native schools. The allocation is based on 
 the attendance returns, furnished by the mission organisations. 
 In 1913 the allocation was at the rate of 33. 6d. per pupil 
 enrolled. 
 
 (E) BASUTOLAND 
 
 I. The total grant to each mission will be calculated on the 
 total average attendance of pupils in all its day schools and 
 
 1 " At least until such time as a better-qualified type of Native 
 teacher has been produced in the training institutions, courses of in- 
 struction extending over a period of about four weeks may be held 
 periodically, in cases where not less than thirty acting teachers present 
 themselves, and where adequate provision is forthcoming for class-room 
 purposes, and the accommodation of instructors and teachers." 
 (Regulations, section 26.)
 
 246 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 institutions which are on the official list. It will be calculated 
 at the rate of not less than 155., or more than i8s., per unit of 
 attendance. 
 
 II. The sum of money constituting the difference between 
 the total grant and the sum payable to each school for its 
 day schools and institutions will be allocated in the form of 
 grants for special purposes, to be decided by the Department 
 in conjunction with each central mission authority, at the 
 beginning of each financial year. 
 
 III. Grants to Elementary Schools, as follows : 
 
 
 Average 
 attendance. 
 
 Grant. 
 
 Third class 
 
 20- 25 
 
 16 Per annum. 
 
 
 25- 45 
 
 20 
 
 Second class 
 
 45- 60 
 
 ^4+8 
 
 
 60- 70 
 
 28+8 
 
 First class . 
 
 70-100 
 
 34+12+8 
 
 
 100-150 
 
 34+12+8+8 
 
 
 over 150 
 
 8 for each addi- 
 
 
 
 tional fifty 
 
 
 
 pupils in at- 
 
 
 
 tendance ,, ,, 
 
 IV. Head teachers of first-class schools receive a bonus of 3 
 per annum after five years' service, and an extra bonus of 3 
 per annum after ten years' service. 
 
 Section 2. Other Sources of Financial Support 
 
 In addition to these Government grants-in-aid, which have 
 been, and must continue to be, the chief source of income, funds 
 for the maintenance of Native education are obtained from 
 four other sources : 
 
 (a) The Union Government. 
 
 (b) The Native Councils in the Transkei and Pondoland. 
 
 (c) The Native parents, through school fees, taxes, and 
 
 contributions. 
 
 (d) European philanthropists in South Africa and 
 
 overseas.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 247 
 
 (a) Since 1915 the Union Government has made a direct 
 grant of 600 per annum to the Inter-State Native College. 
 It also provides the funds for the grants-in-aid which are 
 distributed by the Provincial Councils. 
 
 (b) In the Transkeian Territories the grant in aid of teachers' 
 salaries made by the Cape Government, which varies from 12 
 per annum for an uncertificated assistant up to 40 for a 
 certificated head teacher, is supplemented by grants from the 
 Transkeian General Council to the extent of 50 per cent, of the 
 Education Department grant in the case of assistants, and 
 75 per cent, in the case of head teachers. In addition to this, 
 teachers in these cases participate in the benefits of the 
 Teachers' Good Service and Pension schemes. This system of 
 supplementing from general revenue the amounts raised by local 
 taxation for educational purposes is working very satisfactorily, 
 and its gradual extension to other districts is recommended. 
 
 (c) Fees. School fees are required in all the Native schools 
 except those situated in the Native territories and in the 
 reserves, where the Natives pay a special tax which is expended 
 on education, roads, and other services for their benefit. 
 
 The school fees vary from threepence a month in the infant 
 classes to two and three shillings in the higher standards. The 
 amount collected in fees in the day schools depends largely 
 on the activity of the teachers and missionary superintendents. 
 That these fees can be collected if sufficient trouble be taken 
 is shown by the satisfactory amounts received by such an 
 active organisation as the American Zulu Board in Natal, 1 
 but that the Natives will avoid paying if they can is evidenced 
 by the frequent complaints of missionaries and teachers. 2 
 
 The present state of affairs is unsatisfactory, and the in- 
 equality of burden apparent. As was pointed out to the Cape 
 Committee on Native Education, in the Ciskeian mission and 
 aborigines' schools the teacher has often to wait for his salary 
 until the missionary has rounded up the parents and extracted 
 the fees. Again, when money is required to enable the school 
 
 1 See Report of American Zulu Mission, 1914, and also the chart 
 infra, p. 249. 
 
 * See, for example, the evidence of Messrs Schlali and Rubusana 
 before the Cape Committee on Native Education, 1908, sections 704-714, 
 1395-1404 et passim.
 
 248 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 to meet the requirements of the Department, it is the Christian 
 Native who is mulcted, and, although the heathens may be 
 sending their children to school, they escape payment. The 
 position is worse in Natal, where the income of the school 
 depends entirely on the average daily attendance, for the 
 missionary cannot expel defaulters without reducing the 
 amount of his grant. 1 The financial uncertainty is the bugbear 
 of the missionary, and it is clear that a more satisfactory 
 scheme must be devised. 2 
 
 TABLE No. 28 
 
 THE INCOME OF THE NATIVE SCHOOLS OF NATAL FROM ALL SOURCES 
 FOR THE YEARS 1905-1914, COMPILED FROM THE ANNUAL REPORTS 
 OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 Year. 
 
 Government 
 grant. 
 
 Amount contri- 
 buted by Natives 
 in fees, etc. 
 
 Amount contri- 
 tributed by 
 Europeans. 
 
 1905 . 
 1906 . 
 
 s. d. 
 6,334 I2 I0 
 7.035 13 7 
 
 s. d. 
 
 2475 3 7 
 2479 2 4 
 
 s. d. 
 9,845 16 3 
 5,018 8 9 
 
 1907 . 
 1908 . 
 1909 . 
 
 7.332 o 9 
 7.599 19 3 
 8,913 12 6 
 
 2247 ii 7 
 
 2884 12 
 2773 12 IO 
 
 10,130 3 3 
 10,063 3 9 
 5,547 5 4 
 
 1910 . 
 1911 . 
 1912 . 
 
 10,341 5 I 
 ",773 9 10 
 14,169 15 3 
 
 3293 o 4 
 3504 1 8 9 
 5308 o 3 
 
 5,230 I 4 
 4,987 14 ii 
 5,582 6 3 
 
 1913 . 
 1914 . 
 1915 
 
 17,002 3 4 
 21,889 18 6 
 21,587 6 I 
 
 4729 O 2 
 6138 14 I 
 6941 2 2 
 
 7,137 14 * 
 7,726 6 o 
 8,011 18 i 
 
 (d) The fourth source of income is the contributions from 
 missionary societies and other philanthropic bodies in South 
 Africa and elsewhere. Recognising that Christianity and edu- 
 cation must go hand in hand, these societies have regarded the 
 extension of education as a legitimate charge against missionary 
 
 1 When an exasperated missionary does take this extreme course 
 of dismissing pupils he often has the satisfaction of seeing them re- 
 ceived gladly and without payment by his denominational rival on 
 the other side of the river I 
 
 - \ suggested scheme is outlined infra, p. 258.
 
 o/e/ 
 
 soei 
 
 1-061 
 
 9061 
 
 3LUO3UI jo 
 
 9O6I
 
 250 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 funds. While this willingness to support Native education 
 still obtains, 1 there is a distinct tendency on the part of many 
 overseas missions to place the responsibility of continuing the 
 education of the Native on the people of South Africa them- 
 selves, and to restrict their expenditure mainly to religious 
 purposes. The amounts contributed by the missionary societies 
 vary in different years. In Tables 28 and 29 the income of 
 the Native schools in Natal (the only province publishing 
 this information) from all sources is indicated and represented 
 graphically. The figures under " Fees " and " Amount con- 
 tributed by Europeans " are supplied by the missionaries. 
 
 Section 3. The Comparative Expenditure on European and 
 Non-European Education 
 
 An attempt is here made to compare the amounts expended 
 by the Union of South Africa on the education of Natives and 
 Europeans. The figures used are the Census returns of 1911, 
 and the figures for 1912 published in the Report of the Union 
 Under-Secretary for Education, 1913. For a comprehension of 
 the table the following explanations are necessary : 
 
 (a) The number of persons of school age is estimated at 
 
 25 per cent, of the population. 2 
 
 (b) Owing to the fact that statistics regarding the three kinds 
 
 of Coloured people Natives, Asiatics, and Coloured 
 proper are only kept separately in the returns of one 
 province (Natal), it has been necessary to make com- 
 parison between Europeans and non-Europeans. 
 
 We find, then, that the comparative State expenditure on 
 the maintenance of education is 4, I2S. 8d. for each European, 
 and 2S. id. for each Coloured person of school age : in other 
 words, the State spends forty-five times as much on the main- 
 tenance of education for a European as it does on the education 
 
 1 For example, the United Free Church of Scotland Foreign Missions 
 Committee has recently given property and money to the value of 
 10,000 to the South African Native College. 
 
 * This percentage, which has the sanction of custom, is supported 
 by the Census returns of the United States, which give the percentage 
 of children between the ages of seven and eighteen as 25-9 per cent, 
 in the case of Negroes.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 
 
 251 
 
 for a Coloured person. This, however, does not take into 
 account two important facts : 
 
 (a) The above figures do not include the interest on the 
 money expended in school buildings and equipment. 
 This amount, which cannot be less than 200,000 
 per annum, has been expended almost entirely on 
 European education. 
 
 TABLE No. 29 
 
 
 European. 
 
 Non- 
 European. 
 
 i. Population .... 
 
 1,276,242 
 
 4,697,152 
 
 z. Persons of school age, i.e. 25 per 
 
 
 
 cent, of i 
 
 319,060 
 
 1,174,285 
 
 3. Average enrolment, 1912 . 
 
 190,329 
 
 175.030 
 
 4. Estimated percentage of persons 
 
 
 
 of school age actually at school 
 
 59'7 
 
 14-9 
 
 5. Number of State schools * 
 
 i,325 
 
 26 
 
 6. Number of State-aided schools . 
 
 3-043 
 
 2,374 
 
 7. Estimated proportionate expen- 
 
 
 
 diture : 
 
 
 
 (a) Administration 
 
 48,187 
 
 2,536! 
 
 (b) Inspection 
 
 57.446 
 
 6,382: 
 
 , (c) Teachers' salaries 
 (d) Training of teachers, in- 
 
 1,189,4931 
 
 155,889 
 
 cluding bursaries . 
 
 103,504] 
 
 
 (e) Trades and industrial 
 
 
 
 school, home industries 
 
 42,202 
 
 ? 
 
 (/) Conveyance of pupils to 
 
 
 
 school .... 
 
 1,010 
 
 . , 
 
 (g) Indigent grants and free 
 
 
 
 meals .... 
 
 18,425 
 
 
 (h) Superannuation of teachers 
 
 17,878 
 
 286 
 
 Total . 
 
 1,478,145 165,093 
 
 8. Per caput expenditure on num- 
 
 ! 
 
 ber of children of school age . 
 
 4, las. 8d. o, 23. id. 
 
 * I.e. erected and maintained entirely by Government. 
 
 t Estimated at 5 per cent, of total cost. 
 
 j Estimated at 10 per cent, of total cost. 
 
 Estimated from the number of Native names in the Cape Report.
 
 252 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (b) The term "Coloured" includes Asiatics and Coloured 
 people proper as well as Natives. From the reports of 
 the Cape Province the amount of money spent on each 
 class separately is not shown, but from the Natal and 
 Transvaal figures it is clear that the Asiatics and 
 Coloured people proper are much more liberally 
 treated than the Natives. Thus in Natal the com- 
 parative figures were : 
 
 Total Cost 
 
 grant-in-aid. per caput. 
 i s. d. 
 
 1,399 Coloured children . . 5,322 = 3 12 2 
 
 4,418 Indian children . . . 7,283 = I 13 n 
 
 18,172 Native children . . . 15,014 = o 16 5 
 
 A conservative estimate of the differential treatment afforded 
 to the two races would be that the State spends fifty times as 
 much on the education of each European as it does on the 
 education of each Native. 1 
 
 Section 4. Does Native Education receive its Fair Share 
 of Financial Support? 
 
 We have already shown that the amount of financial assist- 
 ance afforded to Native education is inadequate. The next 
 question is whether or not the Natives are receiving their 
 fair share of financial support. The obvious basis of compari- 
 son is the amount contributed by the Europeans and Natives 
 to general revenue, and the amount expended on the education 
 of each race. 2 At the outset it should be stated that the 
 
 1 " In 1913 Native education was responsible for 2-4 per cent, of the 
 total bill for education, a proportion which cannot be said to err on 
 the side of liberality." (Third Report of the Council of Education, 
 Transvaal, p. 15.) 
 
 2 It may be objected that other services, such as expenditure on 
 police, justice, railways, roads, bridges, etc. etc., should be taken into 
 consideration; but it must be remembered that the benefit of these 
 services is enjoyed by Europeans and Natives alike. While it is no 
 doubt true that a large proportion of (say) the expenditure on police 
 is necessitated by the presence of the Natives, it is equally certain 
 that the expenditure on railways, roads, and bridges, even in Native 
 territories, is for the benefit of the European.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 253 
 
 greater part of the Native contribution to revenue is through 
 direct taxation, while almost half of the European contribu- 
 tion is raised through indirect taxation. 
 
 The manner in which the items of revenue are distributed 
 in the official returns, and the impossibility of estimating the 
 Natives' contribution to revenue through customs and excise 
 duties, makes it difficult to do more than estimate roughly 
 the contributions of each race to revenue. Mr W. B. Worsfold, 
 who has attempted to separate the contributions of each race, 
 estimates that in 1912 the actual as opposed to the nominal 
 taxation of the two races was 9,500,000 for Europeans, and 
 1,500,000, for Natives. 1 If we accept these figures, we find 
 that 1,278,025 Europeans contributed 9,500,000, or 7, 8s. 8d. 
 per head, whereas 4,061,082 Natives contributed 1,500,000, 
 or 75. 4d. per head : that is, each European contributed in 
 actual taxation twenty times as much as each Native. Coming 
 back to our original question, we believe there are few who 
 will be bold enough to assert that it is equitable that because 
 each European is taxed twenty times as much as each Native, 
 he should receive educational opportunities fifty times as 
 great. 
 
 Even if it could be shown that other advantages enjoyed by 
 the Native make up for the comparatively small amount of 
 State money expended on his education, that would not absolve 
 the State from the responsibility of improving and extending 
 education ; for, as we have already pointed out, not only is it 
 the clear duty of the European to educate the Native, but it 
 is indispensable to his interests, if not actually necessary for 
 his survival, that he do so. 2 
 
 1 Worsfold, The Union of South Africa, p. 406. The reader who 
 wishes to know how these figures are derived is referred to Mr Worsf old's 
 book. 
 
 2 Speaking of school conditions in Montgomery County, Maryland, 
 U.S.A., the investigators (one of whom was an expert from the Bureau 
 of Education) say : " It is probably true that the county is expending 
 upon the Negro schools an amount as great as is paid by the Negro 
 population in direct taxes. It is becoming a recognised principle of 
 economy, however, that the responsibility of a city, county, or State 
 to its people or to any part of them for the best interests of all the 
 people in the political unit cannot be measured in terms of the direct 
 taxes paid." (" An Educational Survey of a Suburban and Rural 
 County," U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1913, No. 32.)
 
 254 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Section 5. The Basis of Government Financial Support 
 
 A reference to the various systems of financial support for 
 Native education l will not only show how the several provinces 
 differ in respect to the amount and nature of their grants-in- 
 aid, but will also indicate the absence of any settled principles 
 on which their financial regulations are based. In some cases 
 the grants are survivals of older systems, when conditions were 
 simpler than they are to-day, and in others they have obviously 
 been drawn up as more or less temporary expedients. 
 
 It seems desirable that certain fundamental principles of 
 Government financial assistance should be formulated, and 
 that the nature and amounts of the grants paid should be based 
 on these principles. The fundamental principles may be 
 summarised as follows : 
 
 1. The education of the South African Natives is the duty of 
 the State, and the expense involved must be regarded as a legitimate 
 charge against State funds. In the past the expense of Native 
 education has been met to a considerable extent by donations 
 from mission societies and from other philanthropic agencies ; 2 
 and while it is highly desirable that contributions from these 
 sources should continue,it is obvious that theymust be regarded 
 as supplementary, and not as a regular source of income for 
 the maintenance of such a system of education as the State by 
 its regulations, syllabuses, etc., regards as necessary for the 
 Native people. The Union of South Africa should be too 
 proud to depend upon charity for the performance of its 
 recognised duty. 
 
 2. State funds should only be expended for the secular instruc- 
 tion of the Native people. While it may be necessary for the 
 present and in the future to make use of missionary agencies, 
 it must be a matter of principle that every penny of State 
 
 1 See above, pp. 248-9 et sea. 
 
 * The income of Lovedale Training Institution for the three years 
 1905-1908 was derived from the following sources : 
 Average total annual Government contribution . . ^2403 18 5 
 ,, ,, contribution from school fees . 5128 15 2 
 ,, ,, ,, from other sources . 5831 5 8 
 
 (Appendix to Report of Cape Committee on Native Education, p. viii.) 
 See also p. 248 of this volume.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 255 
 
 money be spent upon the schools, and it should be the right 
 and duty of the Department of Native Education to satisfy 
 itself that this is being done. 
 
 3. The Natives themselves must share in the cost of Native 
 education. It should be a principle of policy that the Natives 
 should, to a large and increasing extent, pay for their education. 
 This payment should be made by means of (a) contributions 
 to general revenue ; (b) taxation for education ; and (c) school 
 fees. Steps should be taken to estimate more accurately the 
 amount of money contributed to general revenue by the 
 Natives. The principle of direct taxation for education is 
 sound, and should be extended wherever possible. 1 Where 
 special taxation for education is impossible, Native pupils 
 should be required to pay school fees, and it should be a con- 
 dition of Government financial assistance that these fees are 
 regularly paid. 2 
 
 Section 6. The Nature of the Government Grants 
 
 The best way to determine the purposes for which Govern- 
 ment grants-in-aid should be paid is to consider the needs of 
 the missionary who is about to open a school. 
 
 i. The School Site. The first need is the land for a school 
 site. When the proposed school is to be located on an area 
 reserved for Natives or on Crown lands there is no difficulty. 
 A site will be granted by the Government. In towns it is 
 generally possible to obtain a grant of land from the munici- 
 pality. When the school is on land belonging to a private 
 individual or corporation, the advisability of establishing a 
 school should be largely determined by the nature of the 
 Natives' occupancy of the land. If the tenancy is of a per- 
 manent nature, the owner will probably be persuaded that it 
 is to his advantage to grant a site for school purposes. In any 
 case, the possession of a school is of such direct and obvious 
 benefit to the Natives concerned that it does not seem necessary 
 to make provision for Government financial assistance towards 
 
 1 Taxation for education will only be possible for the present in 
 those parts of the country where a system of local self-government can 
 be introduced. 
 
 2 Missionary superintendents should, however, be allowed to accept 
 a certain proportion of free pupils.
 
 256 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 the purchase of a school site. The suitability of the site, 
 especially for the teaching of agriculture, is a more difficult 
 matter ; but when it is pointed out that the Government is 
 prepared to assist towards the cost of the building if erected 
 on a suitable site, this difficulty can generally be overcome. 
 If a suitable site cannot be obtained without extra cost, this 
 cost should be borne by the people who are themselves going 
 to benefit from the improved school, i.e. the Natives themselves. 
 
 2. Buildings. The expense involved in the erection of the 
 necessary school buildings is the first financial difficulty con- 
 fronting the missionary. Building material is by no means 
 cheap in South Africa, and the expense is increased by the 
 difficulties of transport. A plan which has worked satis- 
 factorily in Natal is for the Government to contribute one- 
 third of the cost of the building up to a stated maximum, on 
 condition that : (a) an approved site of at least five acres of 
 land is vested for school purposes in the name of the Minister 
 of Education or approved trustees ; (b) the applicants enter 
 into a bond to conduct a school satisfactorily for ten years, 
 and in the event of the school being closed before that period, 
 to repay to the Government 10 per cent, of the grant for each 
 year or part of a year during which the school has not been 
 conducted ; (c) the plans are approved by the Department of 
 Education, and adequate provision made for a water supply, 
 sanitary arrangments, and accommodation for the teachers ; 
 and (d) that the building erected is properly insured. If this 
 plan is adopted, the balance of the money could be provided 
 by the mission society and the Natives themselves. Here is 
 an excellent way to make use of voluntary contributions, as 
 the building may well be used as a church or community centre, 
 provided always that it has been planned primarily as a school. 1 
 
 3. Equipment. Another expenditure in which the Govern- 
 ment should share is that for the necessary equipment. A 
 grant of one-third of the cost of the necessary and approved 
 furniture and apparatus would be reasonable, and the Inspector 
 of Schools would satisfy himself that adequate care was being 
 
 1 The Department of Native Education might well distribute ap- 
 proved plans of school buildings, with specifications and an estimate 
 of cost, among missionary superintendents, Native councils, and others 
 interested.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 257 
 
 taken of it. 1 The manufacture of the special type of school 
 furniture suitable for Native schools would be a very suitable 
 undertaking for Native industrial schools. 
 
 4. Teachers. The principal item of expenditure is, of course, 
 the payment of teachers' salaries ; and here the Government 
 contribution should be greater. In suggesting two-thirds of 
 the salary paid to the teacher up to certain stated limits, 
 varying with the importance of the school and the qualifications 
 of the teacher, the writer has been influenced by the follow- 
 ing considerations : The maximum Government grants, 
 together with the capitation grant, are almost, if not entirely, 
 sufficient to pay the customary salary of the grade of teacher 
 employed. The balance of the salary, if any, will be met from 
 school fees, which will also be sufficient to pay for consumable 
 apparatus. There will be funds then for some kind of teacher 
 for every school. The better qualified the teacher and the 
 more effective the collection of school fees, the larger the 
 amount of the Government grant. 2 
 
 5 . Capitation Grants. To encourage regularity of attendance, 
 yet not to penalise the teacher for events outside his control, a 
 capitation grant, payable on the average daily attendance, and 
 increasing in value with the grade of the school, is proposed. 3 
 
 6. Boarding Grants. The expense of conducting boarding 
 schools, which are rendered necessary by the scattered nature 
 of the Native population and the necessity for consolidation 
 of schools for other than elementary work, is one which should 
 be shared by the Government. The proposed grant of forty 
 shillings per annum on behalf of boarders in intermediate and 
 
 1 The Department of Native Education would generally have in 
 stock a quantity of substantial but old-fashioned furniture discarded 
 by the European schools. Much of this would be very suitable for 
 Native schools, especially if the school is used as a church or community 
 centre. 
 
 1 This is a more satisfactory arrangement than that obtaining in 
 Natal, where the grant in elementary schools is paid solely on the 
 average daily attendance. There bad weather, epidemics, strict 
 discipline often render the payment of the teacher's salary a precarious 
 matter. 
 
 1 The superiority in attendance of the Natal Native schools over 
 the Cape Mission and Aborigines' schools (89 per cent, as against 82 
 and 83 per cent.) is due to the existence of the capitation grant system 
 in Natal. 
 
 17
 
 258 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 high schools is not much, but for the more definitely specialised 
 and perhaps more useful vocational training higher grants are 
 offered. The rate of grant proposed for teachers is designed 
 to meet one-quarter of the students' living expenses for the 
 first year, one-half the second year, and the whole the third 
 year. To encourage apprentices to indenture themselves, the 
 whole of their boarding expenses will be paid. 
 
 Section 7. Proposed Government Grants-in-Aid 
 
 The Government grants in aid of Native education shall be 
 paid in accordance with the following schedule : l 
 
 (A) ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 1. Building Grant. A grant in aid of necessary and approved 
 new buildings, limited to one-third of the cost of such up to a 
 maximum Government contribution of . . . . 50 
 
 2. Equipment Grant. A grant in money or in kind in 
 aid of necessary and approved equipment, limited to one- 
 third of the cost of such up to a maximum Government con- 
 tribution of . 20 
 
 3. Grants in aid of Teachers. Two-thirds of the salary paid 
 to each necessary and approved full-time teacher. The grades 
 of teachers and the maximum Government grant to be paid 
 on behalf of each are as follows : 
 
 (a) Head teacher holding a first- or second-class 
 
 teacher's certificate 36 
 
 (b) Head teacher holding a third-class teacher's 
 
 certificate 24 
 
 (c) Head teacher (uncertincated) 18 
 
 (d) Assistant teacher . . . . . .16 
 
 (e) Pupil teacher 10 
 
 4. Capitation Grants. A capitation grant, to be based on the 
 average daily attendance, will be paid on behalf of each pupil 
 at the rate of four shillings per annum. In "standard" 
 schools and in " superior " schools the rate will be increased to 
 six shillings and eight shillings respectively. 2 
 
 1 For an explanation of the several types of schools proposed, see 
 infra, p. 273 et seq. 
 
 * For the meaning of these terms see Appendix D.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 259 
 
 (B) INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS 
 
 1. Building Grant. A grant in aid of necessary and approved 
 new buildings, limited to one-third of the cost of such up to a 
 maximum Government contribution of ... 100 
 
 2. Equipment Grant. A grant in money or in kind in 
 aid of necessary and approved equipment, limited to one-third 
 of the cost of such up to a maximum Government contribu- 
 tion of 40 
 
 3. Grants in aid of Teachers. Two-thirds of the salary paid 
 to each necessary and approved full-time teacher. The grades 
 of teachers and the maximum Government grant to be paid on 
 behalf of each are as follows : 
 
 (a) Native head teacher holding a first-class 
 certificate, or certificated European head 
 teacher 64 
 
 (6) Native head teacher holding a second-class 
 certificate, or uncertificated European head 
 teacher . . . . . . . 48 
 
 (c) Assistant certificated 24 
 
 4. Capitation Grant. A capitation grant, to be based on the 
 average daily attendance, will be paid on behalf of each pupil 
 at the rate of twenty shillings per annum in the case of a 
 " standard " school, and thirty shillings in the case of a 
 " superior " school. 
 
 5. Boarding Grant. A maintenance grant at the rate of 
 forty shillings per annum for each boarder in residence the 
 whole school year. 
 
 (C) HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 1. Building Grant. A grant in aid of necessary and ap- 
 proved new buildings, limited to one-third of the cost of such 
 up to a maximum Government contribution of . . 200 
 
 2. Equipment Grant. A grant in money or in kind in aid of 
 necessary and approved equipment, limited to one-third of the 
 cost of such up to a maximum Government contribution 
 of 80 
 
 3. Grants in aid of Teachers. Two-thirds of the salary paid 
 to each necessary and approved full-time teacher. The grades
 
 260 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 of teachers and the maximum Government grant to be paid on 
 behalf of each are as follows : 
 
 (a) European head teacher holding the necessary 
 
 academic and professional qualification . 150 
 
 (b) Native assistant holding a first-class certi- 
 
 ficate, or certificated European assistant . 56 
 
 (c) Native assistant holding a second-class certi- 
 
 ficate, or uncertificated European assistant 36 
 
 4. Capitation Grant. A capitation grant, to be based on the 
 average daily attendance, will be paid on behalf of each pupil 
 at the rate of sixty shillings per annum. 
 
 5. Boarding Grant. A maintenance grant at the rate of 
 forty shillings per annum for each boarder in residence the 
 whole school year. 
 
 (D) TRAINING INSTITUTIONS 
 
 1. Building Grant. A grant in aid of necessary and ap- 
 proved new buildings, limited to one-third of the'cost of such 
 up to a maximum Government contribution of . . 300 
 
 2. Equipment Grant. A grant in money or in kind !in aid 
 of necessary and approved equipment, limited to one-third 
 of the cost of such up to a maximum Government contribution 
 
 of 75 
 
 3. Grants in aid of Instructors. Two-thirds of the salary 
 paid to each necessary and approved full-time instructor. The 
 grades of instructors and the maximum Government grant to 
 be paid on behalf of each are as follows : 
 
 (a) European principal academically and professionally 
 
 qualified 200 
 
 (b) Assistant instructor 1 academically and profession- 
 
 ally qualified 120 
 
 1 No grant will be paid unless there is at least one assistant instructor 
 in addition to the principal. Grants for additional assistant instructors 
 will be paid as follows : 
 
 For two assistant instructors when the enrolment is from 30 to 59 
 three ,, 60 to 99 
 
 four 100 to 150 
 
 and an additional instructor for each 50 students.
 
 THE FINANCING OF NATIVE EDUCATION 26l 
 
 4. Capitation Grant. A capitation grant, to be based on the 
 average daily attendance, will be paid on behalf of each pupil 
 at the rate of 3 per annum. 
 
 5. Boarding Grant. A maintenance grant will be paid for 
 each student who completes 1 the courses of study. The rates 
 will be : 
 
 (a) For first-year students 3 
 
 (b) For second-year students .... 6 
 
 (c) For third-year students . . . .12 
 
 provided that before the grant be paid the applicant bind him- 
 self to teach in a Government-aided school for a period of two 
 years in the case of a holder of a third-class certificate, three 
 in the case of the holder of a second-class certificate, and five in 
 the case of the holder of a first-class certificate. 
 
 (E) INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 
 
 1. Building Grant. A grant in aid of necessary and ap- 
 proved new buildings, limited to one-half of the cost of such up 
 to a maximum Government contribution of 300 in any one 
 year, or 1000 in all to any one institution. 
 
 2. Equipment Grant. A grant in aid of necessary and ap- 
 proved equipment, limited to one-half of the cost of such up to 
 a maximum Government contribution of 100 in any one year, 
 or 300 in all to any one institution. 
 
 3. Grants in aid of Instructors. Two-thirds of the salary 
 paid to each necessary and approved full-time instructor. The 
 grades of instructors and the maximum Government grant to 
 be paid on behalf of each are as follows : 
 
 (a) European principal properly qualified . . 200 
 
 (b) Assistant properly qualified 2 ... 120 
 
 1 I.e. attends regularly and receives satisfactory reports. Boarding 
 grants will not be paid for students repeating a course. 
 
 1 No grant will be paid for an assistant unless there are at least 
 fifteen trade students (including at least five apprentices) who are taking 
 the trade or trades taught by such instructor. 
 
 As a rule grants will not be paid for more than three assistants 
 at any one institution.
 
 262 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 4. Capitation Grant. A capitation grant, to be based on the 
 average daily attendance, will be paid on behalf of each pupil 
 at the rate of 3 per annum. 
 
 5. Boarding Grant. A maintenance grant of 12 per annum 
 will be paid for each properly indentured apprentice who suc- 
 cessfully completes the prescribed courses. 
 
 For industrial school students, other than apprentices, the 
 rate of grant for high school boarders will be paid.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 PROPOSED ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE 
 EDUCATION 
 
 As we have shown, the administration of Native education 
 has hitherto been conducted solely by the Education Depart- 
 ments. While we agree that the Departments, as voicing the 
 views of the State, must have the greatest share and the final 
 word in administration, yet in order to arouse a general interest 
 in the education of Natives, and in view of the fact that the 
 State does not assume the total responsibility for Native educa- 
 tion in the same way it does for European education, official 
 recognition should be given to the two other administrative 
 factors in Native education, viz. the missionaries and the 
 Native councils. 
 
 Section i. The Three Factors in Administration 
 
 (A) The State. The right of the State to predominance will 
 be readily admitted. Education has become a State function 
 in all civilised countries, as these have come to realise that 
 their very existence depends upon it. In a country such as 
 South Africa, where only a fraction of the population is carrying 
 on the Government, the need for State paramountcy becomes 
 all the greater. So much so, that in the writer's opinion the 
 time has come to require the State licensing of all schools. At 
 present it is possible for anyone to open a school for Natives 
 without notifying the authorities. Not only is there a great 
 deal of incompetent teaching being carried on, but it is quite 
 possible for political doctrines at variance with those of the 
 ruling classes to be taught in such schools. The State rightly 
 requires the licensing of physicians and lawyers ; in the interests 
 
 263
 
 264 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 of the community it should exercise an oversight over the 
 activities of teachers, and especially of teachers in Native 
 schools. It is not intended that the activities of private schools 
 should necessarily be restricted. The object of the licence is 
 that the State should know who are engaged in teaching 
 Natives, and that the schools should be open to the inspection 
 of Government officials. 
 
 (B) The Missionaries. The existence of a system of Native 
 education is due to the missionaries. They are to-day, and 
 must for some time continue to be, the agency which is carrying 
 on the work ; they are charged with certain duties by the 
 State, and yet they have no share in the administration of 
 Native education. 1 It is in the interest of all concerned that 
 definite recognition should be given to the missionaries. This 
 could be effected in two ways : (a) by the establishment of a 
 Missionary Board of Advice ; and (b) by the recognition of 
 certain missionary superintendents as managers of Native 
 schools. 
 
 (a) The Missionary Board of Advice. This Board of Advice 
 should be composed of representatives from the chief missions, 
 who should meet in conference annually with the Chief 
 Inspector of Native Schools, the Inspectors of Native 
 Schools, and a representative from the Department of Native 
 Affairs. 
 
 The functions of this body should be purely advisory, and 
 the result of their deliberations should be transmitted to the 
 Superintendent of Education to be published in extenso in his 
 annual report. 2 
 
 1 Except in Natal and Basutoland, where there are Advisory Boards 
 of representative missionaries. 
 
 The danger in the appointment of Advisory Boards is that such 
 boards are tempted to interfere in administration. The powers and 
 duties of the boards should be clearly denned. Their function is 
 to be purely advisory, to meet with the officials of the Department 
 of Native Education to discuss critically the policy of the Depart- 
 ment, and to offer suggestions for its improvement. The result of the 
 deliberations are forwarded to the Superintendent of Education and 
 are printed in his report. If the missionary members of the Board 
 of Advice are not satisfied with the actions of officials or with the 
 treatment afforded to their recommendations, they can lay their com- 
 plaints before Parliament. The meetings of the board are not the 
 place for discussion of such matters.
 
 PROPOSED ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 265 
 
 (b) The Missionary Superintendent. Certain of the mission- 
 aries should be recognised as missionary superintendents or 
 managers of Native schools, with specified duties, powers, and 
 rights. 1 
 
 To simplify the administration, no manager should, as a rule, 
 be recognised who is in charge of fewer than ten or more than 
 a hundred schools. The manager would be responsible to the 
 Education Department, through the District Inspector of 
 Native Schools, for the appointment and payment of teachers, 
 and for seeing that the regulations of the Department were 
 carried out ; but to avoid friction resulting from dual control, 
 questions of curriculum, method, and the teaching generally, 
 should be referred to the inspector. 
 
 All grants in aid of Native schools should be paid to him, and 
 he should be required to submit his accounts for audit by an 
 official appointed by the Government. He should be required 
 to visit all the schools under his management at least twice 
 a year. 
 
 (C) The Native Councils. Wherever a form of local self- 
 government has been given to Natives, some share in the ad- 
 ministration of Native education through representation on 
 the Governing Council has followed as a matter of course, and 
 the practice is working satisfactorily. 2 Seeing, however, that 
 these councils are but learning the art of government, it is 
 desirable that there should be on them a European official or 
 missionary, 3 and that, in any case, their proposals regarding 
 education should be subject to the revision of the Department 
 administering Native education. 
 
 The comparative want of finish in the work done, and in- 
 efficiency in the administration of institutions conducted by 
 Native missionaries, has induced a feeling that supervision by 
 a European missionary should be made a condition of Govern- 
 ment assistance. The writer does not share that view. The 
 Native must learn to stand by himself; he must ultimately 
 
 1 This was strongly advocated by the Cape Native Education Com- 
 mission. See section 7 of the Report. 
 
 * See Evidence of Cape Native Education Commission, section 680 
 et seq., and Report, section 7. 
 
 The presence of a European seems to be necessary to prevent 
 the meetings from degenerating into ineffective debating societies.
 
 266 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 administer his own local affairs ; and a beginning in Native 
 administration of schools must some time be made. The 
 cautious extension of power to approved Native missionaries 
 and Native councils must be part of our scheme of Native 
 self-government. 
 
 Section 2. The Department of Native Education 
 
 (A) Special Staffs for Native Education. Natal is the only 
 province which maintains a separate department for Native 
 education. In that province there are three inspectors solely 
 for Native schools. In the other provinces the same officials 
 inspect both European and Native schools. In Basutoland, 
 of course, in view of the paucity of Europeans, the inspection 
 of Native schools is the chief function of the Department 
 of Education. 
 
 If efficient and sympathetic supervision of Native schools is 
 necessary, a separate department of Native education, or at 
 least a separate set of officials, as in Natal, seems also to be 
 necessary. Elsewhere in this volume J we have shown that 
 the supervision of Native schools in all the provinces is in- 
 adequate. The position in Natal is the least unsatisfactory, 
 owing to the separate staff, for in the other provinces, where 
 the same official has to supervise both European and Native 
 schools, it is almost impossible that the Native schools should 
 not be neglected. A further argument for separate officials is 
 that the inspection of Native schools requires special qualifica- 
 tions. In addition to the hardships of a country school 
 inspector's life in South Africa, the inaccessibility of the schools, 
 the length of the journeys, the long absences from home, the 
 want of comfort at the country hotels and stores, there is in 
 Native work the constant dealing with a backward people, the 
 very elementary character of the work, and the monotony of 
 doing the same work every day. The inspection of Native 
 schools should only be undertaken by enthusiastic educators in 
 full sympathy with the Native people, and, if possible, imbued 
 with something of the missionary spirit. The strongest argu- 
 ment, however, for separate inspectors for Native schools is 
 
 1 P. 1 06.
 
 PROPOSED ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 267 
 
 the necessity for a knowledge of the Native language and 
 customs. Under our reformed scheme of supervision, one of 
 the most important functions of the inspector of Native schools 
 will be to hold meetings with Native chiefs and headmen, and 
 to secure their co-operation with the schools. For this a know- 
 ledge of the Native language and customs is necessary. 
 
 (B) The Officials of the Department. The Department of 
 Native Education should consist of a Chief Inspector of Native 
 Schools directly responsible to the Superintendent or Director 
 of Education, district inspectors of schools, Native super- 
 visors, and the necessary clerical staff. 
 
 (a) Chief Inspector. The Chief Inspector of Native Schools 
 should be the chief administrative officer, and might also have 
 the supervision of all training colleges and higher institutions 
 in the province. Under him would be the district inspectors 
 of Native schools. 
 
 (b) District Inspectors. The number of these would depend 
 on the number of schools. Under the present system of indi- 
 vidual examination, the maximum number of schools which 
 should be allotted to an inspector is 100, according to the 
 opinion of the Superintendent-General of the Cape. 1 As there 
 are not less than 2500 Native and Coloured schools in South 
 Africa, and as these are so widely scattered, considerably more 
 than 25 special Native school inspectors would be required. 
 
 Under a reformed system in which the inspector would 
 content himself with a general oversight of the schools in the 
 district, leaving the personal contact with pupils in the ele- 
 mentary schools to the Native teachers and supervisors, and 
 making use of the co-operation of the missionary managers, 
 an inspector could probably efficiently administer 150 schools. 
 As a working basis we may then conclude that in addition to 
 the Chief Inspector, an inspector of Native schools for every 
 150 schools would be necessary. 
 
 (C) Supervisors. Acting under the general directions of the 
 district inspectors of Native schools would be the corps of 
 Native supervisors. The duties of these officials would be 
 to visit the schools in turn, improving the instruction and 
 bringing inspiration and knowledge of new methods to the 
 teachers. A knowledge of the industrial training possible in 
 
 1 Report, 1912, p. 4.
 
 268 
 
 elementary day schools would be a necessary qualification for 
 supervisors. One supervisor for every 50 Native schools would 
 be necessary. 
 
 In view of the reduction in the number of inspectors, and 
 the comparatively low price at which Native supervisors can be 
 obtained, the increase in cost of this system would not be very 
 great, while the gain in efficiency would be immeasurable. 1 
 
 Section 3. The Functions of the Department of 
 Native Education 
 
 The Department of Native Education will be the chief ad- 
 ministrative and executive body to carry out the general policy 
 of the State with regard to Native education. The determina- 
 tion of the general policy should be the duty of Parliament ; 
 the rules and regulations for the general conduct of Native 
 education should represent the combined knowledge and 
 experience and skill of the Superintendent of Education, the 
 officials of the Department of Native Education, and the 
 Missionary Board of Advice. In the preparation of syllabuses 
 the officials of the Department of Native Education should 
 consult with a committee of principals of Native training 
 colleges and institutions, to be selected jointly by the Advisory 
 Board and the Chief Inspector of Native Schools. In this way 
 all the parties concerned will be represented in the preparation 
 of the scheme of Native education. The administration and 
 execution of this scheme, when completed, should be the sole 
 task of the Department of Native Education. Included in the 
 Department's functions will be the licensing and certification 
 of teachers in public and private schools ; the requirement of 
 uniform records and reports from all educational institutions 
 for Natives, both State and private; the classification and 
 standardisation of schools ; the delimitation of the spheres of 
 action of State-aided schools in cases of unnecessary over- 
 
 1 Under present system of individual examination One district in- 
 spector per 100 schools for 2500 schools at ^400 per annum =^10,000. 
 
 Under proposed system of inspection and supervision One district 
 inspector per 150 schools for 2500 schools at ^400 per annum = ,6800. 
 One supervisor per 50 schools for 2500 schools at 120 per annum = 
 6000. Total, ^12,800.
 
 PROPOSED ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 269 
 
 lapping ; the determination, subject to the approval of Parlia- 
 ment, of the nature and amounts of grants-in-aid ; the framing 
 of minimum requirements regarding building and equipment ; 
 the preparation and publication of a syllabus of instruction, 
 and of handbooks for use in Native schools ; the allowance of 
 modifications of the syllabus on good cause shown ; the pre- 
 paration of estimates and reports for Native education ; the 
 publication of text-books for use in Native schools ; and any 
 other functions which may be assigned to it by the Superinten- 
 dent of Education. 
 
 Section 4. The Powers and Duties of the Chief Inspector 
 of Native Schools 
 
 The Chief Inspector of Native Schools should be the chief 
 executive officer of the Department of Native Education, and 
 should carry into effect the policy of the Department. He 
 should be responsible to the Superintendent of Education for 
 the proper administration of his department. He should select 
 and nominate for appointment all inspectors of Native schools 
 and supervisors, and have general supervisory control over 
 them. He should authorise the appointment of all principals 
 and teachers recommended by the missionary superintendents 
 and approved by the district inspectors. He should prepare 
 and publish courses of study, and rules and regulations, and 
 also periodical bulletins of information for Native teachers. 
 He should conduct the examinations for teachers and recom- 
 mend the issue of certificates. He should be responsible for the 
 inspection and supervision of all training institutions, industrial 
 and other secondary schools. He should hold conferences 
 with the inspectors of Native schools and the Mission Board of 
 Advice, and should prepare a full report, with figures and tables, 
 for the annual report of the Superintendent of Education. 
 
 Section 5. The Powers and Duties of the Inspectors 
 of Native Schools 
 
 The inspector of Native schools should be the executive 
 officer of the Department of Native Education in the district 
 to which he is appointed, and should be responsible to the
 
 270 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Chief Inspector of Native Schools for the administration of 
 education in his district. He should visit all the schools in 
 his district at least once a year, and report to the Chief Inspector 
 on their, efficiency, as shown by their condition, organisation, 
 classification of pupils, methods of instruction, and attainments 
 of pupils. He will conduct general class examinations, but the 
 promotion of pupils will be the duty of the principal. He 
 should hold teachers' meetings, and also confer with the 
 missionary superintendents, missionaries, magistrates, chiefs 
 and other representative Natives regarding the extension of 
 education. He should be responsible for the work of the Native 
 supervisors in his district. He should submit an annual report 
 to the Chief Inspector on the work of his district, and make 
 recommendations for the improvement of the system. No one 
 should be appointed an inspector of Native schools who does 
 not possess a working knowledge of the language, hold a 
 teacher's certificate, and have had at least two years' experience 
 of teaching. 
 
 Section 6. The Powers and Duties of Supervisors 
 
 The supervisor of Native schools should be a Native of 
 unimpeachable character, executive ability, tact, and sympathy. 
 He should hold a teacher's certificate and should have demon- 
 strated his ability as a teacher in an elementary school. He 
 should also have a competent knowledge of the industrial 
 training possible in an elementary Native school. He will be 
 required to visit the schools in his supervisory district at least 
 twice a year, spending a day or two at each school to hold 
 teachers' meetings, to assist the teachers in the organisation 
 of their schools, to criticise the teaching constructively, to 
 give model lessons, to improve the method of teaching, to 
 introduce suitable manual and industrial training, and generally 
 to foster the development of the schools in every way. 1 The 
 supervisor will also interview Native chiefs, headmen, and 
 clergymen, and will urge the establishment of new schools. 
 At the beginning of each week he will forward to the district 
 
 1 He must be made to understand clearly that he is not an inspector, 
 and he must be strictly non-denominational in his relation to the schools.
 
 PROPOSED ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 271 
 
 inspector of Native schools his itinerary, and at the close of 
 the week will give an account of his activities. 
 
 Section 7. The Reorganised System of Administration 
 
 At present the control of all Government-aided schools for 
 Natives, except the recently established Inter- State Native 
 College, is in the hands of the Provincial Councils. How long 
 this arrangement will continue cannot be foreseen, but in the 
 following resume of the proposed reorganisation an attempt has 
 been made to provide for the possibility of Native education 
 being taken over by the Union Government. 
 
 At the head of the sytem comes the Union or Provincial 
 Legislature, representing the European section of the South 
 African people, who must in the last analysis control Native 
 education. The executive power of the Legislature is vested 
 in the Minister of Education in the case of the Union Govern- 
 ment, or in the Executive Committees in the case of the Pro- 
 vincial Councils. Under and in close touch with the Minister 
 or Committee is the permanent head of the Department of 
 Education the Superintendent of Education. The Super- 
 intendent of either the Union or Provincial Departments will 
 delegate the control of the Department or Division of Native 
 Education to a Superintendent or Chief Inspector of Native 
 Schools, who will be responsible to him for the carrying out 
 of the policy of the Legislature with regard to Native education. 
 Under the Superintendent or Chief Inspector of Native Schools 
 will be the district inspectors of Native schools, and, in the 
 case of a Union system, the inspector of Native secondary 
 schools. 1 
 
 The district inspectors will be responsible to the Chief 
 Inspector for the administration of the system of Native 
 primary education and the inspection of schools. They will 
 be assisted by Native supervisors in the case of the elementary 
 schools, but will themselves undertake the supervision of the 
 intermediate schools. The missionary superintendents and 
 the Native councils should be responsible to the district in- 
 
 1 In a provincial system inspectors of Native secondary schools 
 will not be necessary, the duties of this office being carried out by 
 the Chief Inspector of Native Schools himself.
 
 272 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 spector for the carrying out of the functions allotted to them 
 by the Department or Division of Native Education in so far 
 as they relate to elementary and intermediate schools ; in 
 matters pertaining to secondary education they will be an- 
 swerable to the inspector of secondary schools or to the Chief 
 Inspector. 
 The relationship of the different officials and parts of 
 
 FIG. 1 6. Showing the relationship of the different officials and parts 
 of the proposed system. 
 
 the system is shown on the accompanying diagram. To 
 facilitate administration, communications should ordinarily 
 pass as there shown, but it should always be competent 
 for any parent, teacher, missionary, Native council, or Govern- 
 ment official to refer any matter direct to the Chief Inspector, 
 the Superintendent of Education, or to the Minister of 
 Education.
 
 PROPOSED ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 273 
 
 It remains to speak of the position of the three independent 
 or semi-independent bodies included in our scheme : 
 
 (a) The Council of the Inter- State Native College should 
 come under the control of the Superintendent of Education, and 
 should include a representative from the Union Department of 
 Education under a Union system, or one from each of the con- 
 tributing Provincial Departments in the case of a provincial 
 system. 
 
 (6) The Missionary Board of Advice should include the Chief 
 Inspector of Native Schools, district inspectors of Native 
 schools (one from each province in the case of a Union system, 
 or all in the case of a provincial system), and a representative 
 from the Department of Native Affairs. 
 
 (c) The Committees of Teachers in Native Schools should for 
 the present consist of experienced teachers in Native schools 
 and institutes, half to be chosen by the Missionary Board of 
 Advice, and half by the Department of Native Education. 
 These committees should not only consider such matters as are 
 laid before them by the Department of Native Education, but 
 should be allowed and encouraged to approach the Department 
 on matters affecting the curriculum and methods of Native 
 education. 
 
 , Section 8. The Reorganised School System 
 
 As we have already shown, there exist to-day the following 
 types of Native schools : elementary day schools, elementary 
 and secondary boarding schools, a high school and high 
 school classes, industrial schools, and training institutions. 
 The nomenclature varies in the several provinces, and there is 
 a good deal of overlapping. 
 
 Before attempting to propose a reorganised scheme, it is 
 necessary to differentiate between primary and secondary 
 education. 
 
 The purpose of primary education is to develop in the child 
 such habits, interests, and character, and to supply him with 
 such knowledge and skill, that his " set " may be in the direction 
 approved by society, and that he may possess a right and sound 
 foundation on which to build the further education which he 
 must receive in the world or in the school. It is a period when 
 
 18
 
 274 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 the school should seek to give the knowledge and skill which 
 are needed by all of the children for whom it is established, 
 when likenesses rather than differences should be stressed, and 
 when specialisation is untimely. Broadly speaking, elementary 
 education may well be uniform for all pupils. 
 
 Secondary education is the conscious development in schools 
 and institutions of the habits, interests, character, knowledge, 
 and skill of the pupils in the light of their physical and mental 
 maturity, their individual differences and capacities, and their 
 future occupations, all conditioned by the opportunities and 
 needs of the society into which they will enter. It should take 
 place at the period when the physical, mental, and spiritual 
 changes are occurring, and when the pupils begin to show 
 particular aptitudes and inclinations. Secondary education, 
 then, should be specialised to a greater or less extent. 
 
 In the case of our Native children the society which is 
 directing their destiny through education is at present, and 
 must for a long time continue to be, composed of members of 
 another race. It will be many years before the Native people 
 are competent to condition the development of their children. 
 This tremendous responsibility has been, and must continue 
 to be, assumed by the Europeans, and throughout this 
 study the writer has attempted to bear that patent fact 
 in mind. 
 
 What kind of schools, then, are necessary for the develop- 
 ment of the Native people in present-day South Africa ? 
 
 (A) ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 The necessity for elementary schools has been recognised, as 
 is shown by their establishment, Government recognition, and 
 support throughout the country. Two kinds of elementary 
 schools are needed the small rural elementary school proper, 
 and the central consolidated or intermediate school. 
 
 (a) The Elementary School. The one- or two-teacher 
 elementary rural school is necessary to supply the elements of 
 education to the mass of the people; but because of the scattered 
 nature of the population, these schools will generally be small, 
 poorly staffed, and inadequately equipped. They can do little 
 more than teach the three R's and a few forms of manual or
 
 PROPOSED ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 275 
 
 industrial education. The course of study for the normal child 
 should therefore not extend over five years, i.e. one year in the 
 infant class and four in the standards. 
 
 (b) The Intermediate Schools. Instead of allowing the 
 elementary rural school to attempt more than it can possibly 
 accomplish, it will be necessary to establish intermediate 
 schools at convenient centres to which the pupils from the 
 elementary rural schools may be drafted after they have com- 
 pleted the work of Standard IV. For the most part these 
 schools should be boarding schools, for it is highly desirable 
 that for the present, at anyrate, young Native boys and girls 
 should be brought into a better atmosphere than that of the 
 average " raw " Native home. At the intermediate school 
 the work of the elementary school will be continued ; but with 
 the larger and better-trained staff, and the more adequate 
 apparatus, a more complete programme both on the academic 
 and industrial sides can be accomplished. For some of the 
 older and bigger boys and girls it might be better if they passed 
 direct from the elementary school to the industrial school. 
 
 (B) SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 The purpose of these schools is to offer some specialised 
 training for the future vocations of Native pupils. As the 
 opportunities and needs of the people increase, the number 
 of these schools will have to be increased, but for the 
 present only three types of secondary schools appear to be 
 necessary. 
 
 (a) Training Institutions for Teachers. To supply the schools 
 with trained teachers a plentiful supply of training institutions 
 is needed. A three-years course should be offered, but to meet 
 the pressing demand for teachers, and the economic necessities 
 of the students, the course for each year should be fairly well 
 rounded off, so that those students who are compelled to leave 
 at the end of the first or second year should have a knowledge 
 of the elements of teaching. To enable this to be done, the 
 work of the first year at the training institution should be 
 largely professional, the academic part of the work having 
 been almost completed in Standard VI. of the intermediate 
 school.
 
 276 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (b) High Schools. The three-year high school course should 
 be designed for the following types of students : 
 
 (i.) Those who, by reason of their immaturity, are not able 
 to take up the hard physical work of the trades school, 
 or to enter the training institutions. 
 
 (ii.) Those who wish to be prepared for entrance to the Inter- 
 State Native College, particularly on the academic 
 side. 
 
 (iii.) Those who wish to be prepared for the lower ranks of 
 clerical employment. 
 
 (iv.) Those who, for any other reason, wish to continue a wider 
 general education. 
 
 (c) Industrial Schools. These special schools will offer one-, 
 two-, and three-year courses in any or all of the following trades 
 and industries : farming, carpentry, cabinetmaking, black- 
 smithing, waggonmaking, masonry, brickmaking, shoe and 
 harness making, tailoring, cookery, laundry work, dress- 
 making, millinery, and any of the occupations in which Natives 
 may participate. The object of the trades school is to train 
 apprentices and others for special vocations. The period of 
 instruction will vary in the case of the different occupations. 
 Apprentices, of course, must remain to complete the period of 
 their apprenticeship; but while the other students will be 
 induced in every possible way to complete their course, it 
 should be recognised that some will be compelled to leave 
 earlier, and provision should be made accordingly. 
 
 For social and economic reasons it is highly desirable that 
 the three kinds of secondary institutions should be conducted 
 at one and the same institution. All branches of secondary 
 education deserve the same honourable treatment ; the in- 
 dustrial students should receive the same recognition as the 
 student -teachers, and the teachers should feel that they are as 
 good as the high-school pupils. The student-teachers and the 
 high-school students will make use of the industrial workshops 
 for their manual training, and the industrial students will use 
 the classrooms at night for their academic continuation work. 
 To encourage this socialised conception of secondary education, 
 it is suggested that only institutions with the three kinds of
 
 PROPOSED ADMINISTRATION OF NATIVE EDUCATION 277 
 
 secondary work should be officially recognised by the honour- 
 able title of " Native Institutes." 
 
 (C) THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 1 
 
 The apex of the system of Native education is the South 
 African Native College. No system of Native education can be 
 satisfactory either to the Europeans or Natives of South Africa 
 which does not hold out to the Native boy or girl in the infant 
 class the opportunity of progressing through the various stages 
 up to the institution of collegiate rank at which he may be 
 prepared for the professions or for the higher forms of industrial 
 and technical work. 
 
 The accompanying diagram will illustrate the progression of 
 a pupil from the infant class to the college. An attempt has 
 been made to co-ordinate the schools, but at the same time 
 the nature of the work of each has been designed so that the 
 pupil who is compelled to leave any of the schools permanently 
 may find himself endowed with a certain definite amount of 
 knowledge and skill, and prepared to take up some form of 
 honourable employment. 
 
 To make such a system of Native education possible, not 
 only are Government recognition and Government assistance 
 necessary, but means must be devised whereby the poor but 
 deserving Native boy may progress from grade to grade, and 
 from school to school, by means of bursary, loan, or by " work- 
 ing his way through." 2 The nucleus of such a co-ordinated 
 
 1 For a fuller treatment of this important subject see p. 296. 
 
 * One of the most praiseworthy features of the American system of 
 education is the provision made by high-school and college authorities 
 whereby a poor but deserving student is enabled to support himself 
 either by a loan or, more commonly, by working at some employment 
 part time. Most of the colleges maintain a bureau to find employment 
 for such students. Many of the writer's fellow-students at Columbia 
 University partly supported themselves by waiting at restaurants, 
 tending house furnaces, coaching backward pupils, acting as nurse- 
 girls, and similar part-time jobs. At Hampton and Tuskegee no 
 student is refused on the score of poverty. Any student who can 
 satisfy the entrance requirements may work his way through by doing 
 manual labour during the daytime at a fixed rate of remuneration 
 to pay for his board and by receiving his education at nights. The 
 writer recently met some South African Natives at Tuskegee who 
 were thus working their way through.
 
 278 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 scheme of Native elementary and secondary education already 
 exists in all the provinces but the Orange Free State, and the 
 
 FIG. 17. Showing proposed reorganisation of the system of 
 Native schools in South Africa. 
 
 recently established South African Native College at Lovedale 
 crowns the system. What are now needed are definition of the 
 function of each type of school, a standardised nomenclature, 
 and Government recognition.
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 PROPOSED COURSES OF STUDY 
 
 IN accordance with the principles already laid down, the 
 determination of the detailed courses of study should be the 
 joint work of the officials of the Education Department and 
 of representative teachers actually engaged in Native work. 
 All that the writer has attempted to do in the following pages 
 is to outline a scheme which will make provision for certain 
 fundamental considerations. 
 
 1. Completeness. The course of study in each type of school 
 will represent a definite amount of training and knowledge, 
 which, while leading up to the work of the school of higher 
 grade, will offer a well-rounded- off course for those pupils who 
 are unable to proceed further. 
 
 2. Utility. The subjects chosen have been included because 
 of their definite and demonstrable utility. No subjects have 
 been included because of their traditional or disciplinary value. 
 Throughout the criterion has been, " Is this training or know- 
 ledge which will definitely function in the life of the pupil ? " 
 
 3. Grading. An attempt has been made to grade the work 
 so that the standards are of equal difficulty. It is expected 
 that the elimination of subject-matter of traditional value only, 
 and especially the reduction of the work required of the lower 
 classes, will reduce the present excessive amount of retardation 
 through non-promotion. 
 
 4. Applicability. The requirements throughout have been 
 determined by the nature of the educational machinery at 
 present available. No new subjects of study have been in- 
 cluded, nor should any of the requirements be beyond the 
 capabilities of the average teacher in the average Native 
 school. 
 
 279
 
 280 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 5. Temporary Nature. These courses of study, and indeed 
 all courses of study, have temporary value only. Further 
 experience with Native education as reported by supervisors 
 and teachers' committees, the changing educational needs as 
 they are determined by the changing social conditions of the 
 Natives, a more abundant supply of better-trained teachers, 
 will render any course of study unsuitable in less than a decade. 
 
 6. Recognition of the Vernacular. The vernacular is officially 
 recognised and prescribed in all parts of the course. In the 
 Sub-Standard and Standard I., which we may call the Ver- 
 nacular Period, the mother-tongue is the chief subject and 
 medium of instruction ; in Standards II., III., IV., the Mixed 
 Period, both the vernacular and English or Dutch are used ; 
 but in Standards V. and over, the English or Dutch Period, the 
 non-mother-tongue is the chief subject and medium, though the 
 use of the vernacular never ceases entirely. 
 
 Section i. The Elementary School Course of Study 
 
 This course of study, which is planned for five years, but 
 which may be taken in less time by the brighter and better- 
 taught pupils, is designed for the special needs of that large 
 number of pupils who will not be able to proceed further with 
 their studies. The pupil who completes the course should be 
 able to speak, read, and write his Native language well. He 
 should also be able to carry on an ordinary conversation in 
 English or Dutch, write a simple letter correctly in one of these 
 languages, and read a simple book. He will know enough 
 arithmetic to be able to make his simple purchases and sales 
 at the country store correctly. The work in nature study 
 should give him a general knowledge of the commoner wild 
 and domestic animals, and of the way in which the articles of 
 his diet and clothing are manufactured. It will also teach him 
 the origin of simple natural phenomena, such as thunder, 
 lightning, the seasons, etc., so that he may not attribute these 
 to spirit agencies. The course in practical hygiene will show 
 him how to take care of his health. His geographical know- 
 ledge will extend as far as the topography of South Africa. In 
 history he will have been taught the elements of the history 
 of South Africa, together with an outline of the rights and
 
 PROPOSED COURSES OF STUDY 28l 
 
 duties of Natives. The course in industrial training should 
 have taught him the simpler Native crafts, the useful European 
 art of sewing, and the elements of practical agriculture, while 
 proving that there is nothing lowering in manual work. 
 
 The subjects suggested and their location in the course of 
 study are indicated in the syllabus on pp. 282, 283. 
 
 In connection with this proposed syllabus the following 
 points may be noted : 
 
 1. The course of study in religious and moral training should 
 be drawn up by a committee of the Advisory Board. It 
 should not be impossible for the several denominations to 
 devise a common non-doctrinal syllabus, at least for the 
 elementary schools. 
 
 The great advantage in a common syllabus is that the 
 subject of religious and moral training might then receive 
 official recognition, and could become a subject of inspection 
 and examination. At present the Government inspectors do 
 not deal with the subject of religious instruction, with the 
 result that the teacher is apt to neglect it in favour of the 
 other subjects. Missionaries report that this important subject 
 is often neglected because it is not formally examined by the 
 inspectors. Instruction and examination in religious and 
 moral instruction should be conducted in the vernacular. 
 
 2. There are at present no suitably graded reading books in 
 Zulu and Kafir ; but once the vernacular is given official recog- 
 nition, the publishers will be prepared to supply suitable books. 
 In view of the fact that the vernacular readers will be the only 
 books used by a large number of pupils, it is important that 
 the greatest care should be taken in its preparation. A mere 
 story reader is not wanted. An inspirational, informative 
 reader dealing with South African topics, intelligible and 
 interesting to the Natives, is what is needed. 
 
 3. The nature of the English or Dutch and the vernacular 
 grammar taught should be different. The latter might be 
 analytical and corrective, the former should be constructive 
 and instructional. 1 
 
 1 The difference may be illustrated thus : what is wanted for the 
 vernacular is a grammar similar to the Latin grammars in use to-day. 
 For English and Dutch a book of the " Language Lesson type " is 
 needed.
 
 282 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
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 T)"a l^'ST-jodiS 
 
 li^. fipiitj 
 
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 llill^lill s 
 
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 284 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 4. In English spelling, which, as we have seen, is a great 
 stumbling-block, the words in the ordinary English readers are 
 altogether unsuitable. The pupil needs only to be able to 
 spell the words he will have to write. Lists of common words, 
 and especially those used in letter-writing, should be prepared 
 and prescribed. The same practice should be followed in the 
 case of Dutch. 
 
 5. The greatest importance should be attached to oral com- 
 position or speech exercises in English or Dutch. To attempt 
 to teach English or Dutch through the medium of formal 
 grammar is a waste of time. The method used should be the 
 so-called " Reformed Method," as illustrated in the text-books 
 of the Gouin or Berlitz series. 1 
 
 6. The necessary information for the instruction in Native 
 study and hygiene, with suggestions as to the methods to be 
 employed, must, for some time at least, be supplied by the 
 Department of Native Education. The best channel through 
 which this information could be conveyed would be by the 
 monthly official educational journal. 2 
 
 7. The syllabus in industrial training is suggestive only. 
 The nature of the instruction will depend so much on the 
 locality in which the school is situated that each school should 
 be required to submit its own scheme for the approval of the 
 district inspector. A period of from thirty to sixty minutes 
 in industrial training per diem should be required of all 
 elementary schools. 
 
 Section 2. The Intermediate School Course of Study 
 
 The Intermediate Schools, which will generally be centrally 
 situated boarding schools, are intended to continue the work 
 of the elementary schools. They will, however, be able to 
 attempt a more ambitious programme, since the pupils will be 
 a more selected group, the teachers will be more competent, 
 and the equipment will be better. 
 
 1 The excellent system employed in the schools of the Fourth 
 District, Manila, Philippine Islands, is reproduced in Appendix C of 
 English for the Non-English. 
 
 1 One of the duties of the Department of Education will be to publish 
 monthly a journal which will contain official announcements and articles 
 on educational topics. The same journal could be used for both 
 European and Native teachers if necessary.
 
 PROPOSED COURSES OF STUDY 
 
 285 
 
 INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Standard V. 
 
 Standard VI. 
 
 Religious and 
 
 Daily instruction in vernacular on special syllabus. 
 
 
 moral training 
 
 
 j f Reading 
 
 Vernacular reading once a week. 
 
 Composition . 
 
 Themes and letters. Trans- 
 
 Themes and letters. Trans- 
 
 - 
 
 
 lation. 
 
 lation. 
 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Accidence and simple 
 
 Accidence and syntax. 
 
 > 
 
 . 
 
 syntax. 
 
 
 
 Reading 
 
 Readers III. and IV. 
 
 Readers V. and VI. or Con- 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 tinuous Reader. 
 
 's 
 
 Spelling 
 
 From lists. 
 
 From lists. 
 
 Q 
 
 Speech and 
 
 Conversation on matter of 
 
 Conversation as before ; de- 
 
 X ' 
 
 composition 
 
 reading books, current 
 
 bates, themes, and letter- 
 
 "ft 
 
 
 events. Themes and 
 
 writing. 
 
 m 
 
 
 letter-writing. 
 
 
 & 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Language Lessons III. and 
 
 Analysis and synthesis, cor- 
 
 
 > 
 
 IV. 
 
 rection of sentences, use 
 
 
 
 
 of words. 
 
 Drawing 
 
 In connection with manual work. 
 
 Singing 
 
 The Elementary School Course continued and extended. 
 
 
 
 Part songs. The school choir. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Square measure and simple 
 
 Household bookkeeping, 
 
 
 
 mensuration, bills of par- 
 
 percentages, simple 
 
 
 
 cels, addition, subtrac- 
 
 interest, insurance. 
 
 
 
 [tion, multipli cation, and 
 
 
 
 
 division of fractions 4, 
 
 
 
 
 i, i, i : 
 
 
 Geography 
 
 Descriptive geography of 
 British Empire. 
 
 Detailed geography of 
 South Africa, physical 
 
 
 
 
 and industrial. 
 
 History 
 
 The story of the British 
 
 History of South Africa, 
 
 
 
 Empire. 
 
 with special reference to 
 
 
 
 
 past and present history 
 
 
 
 
 and condition of Natives. 
 
 Nature study 
 
 Origin and manufacture of 
 
 Principles of physical geo- 
 
 and science. 
 
 articles of food, clothing, 
 
 graphy, general ele- 
 
 
 
 furniture. The physics, 
 
 mentary science. 
 
 
 
 chemistry, andmechanics 
 
 
 
 
 of everyday life. 
 
 
 Hygiene 
 
 Outlines of physiology. First aid to the injured. (l<or 
 
 
 
 Girls.) Proper treatment of infants. 
 
 
 Agriculture . 
 
 Cultivation of gardens, food plots, manuring, draining, 
 
 g 
 
 
 choosing seed, local market prices, pruning ofifruit 
 
 5 
 
 
 trees, care of animals. 
 
 r 
 
 G 
 
 Industrial 
 
 (Boys.) Manipulation of tools, woodwork, mending 
 
 1 
 
 work. 
 
 chairs and other furniture. (Girls.) Canning fruit, 
 
 
 
 jam making, domestic work, sewing, and dressmaking.
 
 286 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 It should be borne in mind that an intermediate school is 
 not a secondary institution, and does not offer anything in the 
 way of specialised training. The only specialisation which could 
 be undertaken by the pupils from the elementary schools is indus- 
 trial work, and that is provided for in the industrial schools. 
 
 The principles followed in the framing of this curriculum are 
 the same as those used in the elementary school course of study. 
 The vernacular is retained for religious and moral instruction, 
 and is taught as a subject of instruction, but the medium in 
 general use is now English or Dutch. A good deal of English 
 or Dutch reading is attempted, two ordinary reading-books 
 being completed in each year. Spelling is taught from the 
 prepared lists of words most frequently needed by pupils. 
 Speech and oral composition are emphasised, and the grammar 
 continues to be constructive. 
 
 Writing has been dropped as a special subject of instruction 
 since the maximum school efficiency has probably been attained 
 and the time thus saved devoted to other work. Arith- 
 metic is still thoroughly practical, and need not occupy more 
 than two-thirds of the time previously devoted to it. 
 
 Nature study now splits into two parts : (a] a course in 
 physical geography designed to explain natural phenomena ; 
 and (b) a course on the nature and origin of the foodstuffs, 
 clothing, and furniture, etc., found in the home of an educated 
 Native : the object being to interest the pupils in these aspects 
 of the new civilisation, and to make them more discriminating 
 purchasers. 
 
 The geography for Standard V. is the topography of the 
 British Empire, an account of the different peoples who com- 
 prise it, and an account of the objects of exchange between 
 the several parts. In Standard VI. we turn back again to an 
 intensive study of our own country, and consider its physical 
 features, agricultural and industrial achievements and pro- 
 spects. The trade relations of South Africa with other countries 
 receive special consideration. 
 
 History is closely correlated with geography. In Standard 
 V. it consists of an account of the chief historical events con- 
 nected with the founding of the Empire ; and in Standard VI. 
 a course in South African history with special reference to the 
 past and present condition of the Native peoples is suggested.
 
 PROPOSED COURSES OF STUDY 287 
 
 In hygiene a course in elementary physiology with special 
 reference to personal and public health is given, and physical 
 exercises to counteract the natural sluggishness of the people 
 are continued. 
 
 Industrial work consists of agriculture, gardening, wood- 
 work, sewing, dressmaking, and domestic work. As inter- 
 mediate schools will generally be located at important centres of 
 Native education, ample opportunity for industrial work will be 
 found in the shops of the industrial schools. 
 
 Section 3. The Native High Schools 
 
 The Provincial Native High Schools will consist of several 
 departments, e.g. : l 
 
 (A) The Academic Department, offering preparation for the 
 entrance examinations of the South African Native College. 
 
 (B) The Commercial Department, preparing students for 
 positions as clerks, bookkeepers, and storekeepers, and at the 
 same time preparing students for admission to the Commercial 
 Department of the Native College. 
 
 (C) The Industrial Department, preparing students for posi- 
 tions as mechanics, nurses, housekeepers, etc., and also making 
 provision for those students who wish to proceed to the South 
 African College. 2 
 
 Each department will follow its own specialised curriculum. 
 
 (A) THE ACADEMIC DEPARTMENT 
 
 The course of study in the Academic Department will be 
 based on the requirements of University examinations. While 
 the syllabuses of the University junior certificate and the 
 matriculation examinations are not suitable for Native students, 
 
 1 A little duplication with the work of the South African College is 
 unavoidable, since there will be a number of students requiring special- 
 ised training who will be unable to proceed to the central institution. 
 There is no reason why pupils from the commercial and industrial 
 departments of the high school, who proceed to the College, should not 
 take their place with the second-year students, if their previous training 
 has been adequate. 
 
 1 The number of these departments can be increased as the need 
 arises. Departments for agriculture and household arts will soon be 
 needed. To obtain Government recognition and support, a Native high 
 school will not be required to offer courses in all departments.
 
 288 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 the great importance attached to these examinations in South 
 Africa makes it impossible to avoid them, and the only way 
 to improve the course of study in the Academic Department 
 of the Native high schools is to endeavour to persuade the 
 University authorities of the unsuitability of the studies, and 
 induce them to offer optional subjects of more practical value, 
 and to arrange their questions in such a way that a narrow 
 method of preparation and cramming may not be necessary. 
 
 The course of study will be based on the requirements of the 
 junior certificate examination, which will be the chief qualify- 
 ing examination for entrance to the Academic Department of 
 the Inter-State Native College. The subjects of that examina- 
 tion are : 
 
 Group I. 
 English (two papers) 
 
 or Dutch (two 
 
 papers). 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Group II. 
 
 Englishl if not taken 
 
 Dutch /under Group I. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 History. 
 
 French. 
 
 German. 
 
 Kafir (Xosa or Zulu). 
 
 Sesuto. 
 
 Group III. 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Physics. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 Elementary 
 
 physical 
 
 science. 
 Botany. 
 
 Candidates are required to take the two subjects in Group I., 
 and not less than three or more of the subjects in Groups II. 
 and III. When three subjects are taken from Groups II. and 
 III., two must be selected from one group and one from the 
 other group. When four subjects are taken from Groups II. 
 and III., two may be selected from each group, or one may be 
 selected from Group III. and three from Group II., provided 
 that one of the three subjects taken in Group II. is either Latin 
 or Greek or history. 
 
 (B) THE COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 
 The course of study will consist of the following subjects : 
 
 English. Bookkeeping. 
 
 Dutch. Business methods. 
 
 Commercial geography. Shorthand. 
 
 Arithmetic. Typewriting.
 
 PROPOSED COURSES OF STUDY 289 
 
 (C) THE INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENT 
 The subjects of study will be : 
 
 English or Dutch. Building construction. 
 
 Mathematics. Design. 
 
 Science. Manual training. 
 
 Mechanical drawing. Agriculture. 
 
 Section 4. The Training Institution 
 
 The Training Institution will offer a three-years course lead- 
 ing to the Native teachers' first-class certificate. Efforts will be 
 made by means of bursaries and higher salaries to induce the 
 students to complete the three-years course of training, and 
 at a later date the complete course may be made compulsory ; 
 but it must be frankly recognised that the pressing need for 
 teachers with even a modicum of training is so great, and the 
 financial condition of the students such, that it will be necessary 
 for a considerable number of the students to leave the training 
 institutions at the end of the first or second year. Provision 
 for these has accordingly been made in the following scheme. 
 
 Three grades of teachers' certificates will therefore be issued, 
 the third, second, and first for the satisfactory completion 
 of one, two, and three years' training respectively. Teachers 
 who leave the Training Institution at the end of the first year, 
 and are unable to return, will be encouraged to continue their 
 studies privately and at vacation courses for the higher certifi- 
 cates, but at least one year's study at an approved institution 
 should be a requisite for the issue of any certificate. 1 
 
 1 The following clause from the regulations governing the second- 
 class teachers' certificate examination will show how the interests 
 of these students have been cared for : 
 
 The following classes of candidates only are eligible to sit for the 
 examination : 
 
 (a) Candidates from recognised training colleges who have com- 
 
 pleted at least one year's training after having passed both parts 
 of the Native teachers' third-class certificate examination, and 
 who are recommended by the principals of such training colleges. 
 
 (b) Teachers in Government-inspected schools who have passed both 
 
 parts of the Native teachers' third-class certificate examination 
 from a recognised training college, and who have taught for two 
 years in a Government-inspected school to the satisfaction of the 
 district inspector. Such teachers will be required to forward 
 with their application form a recommendation from the district 
 inspector that they be allowed to sit for the examination. 
 
 19
 
 290 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 The drafting of the regulations and the preparation of the 
 syllabus of examination are matters in which the Committee 
 of Teachers in Training Institutions should be consulted ; but 
 the following draft regulations for the third-class certificate 
 will illustrate the writer's point of view. Similar but more 
 advanced courses will be presented for the second- and first- 
 class certificate examinations. 
 
 REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE NATIVE TEACHERS' THIRD- 
 CLASS CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION 
 
 1. The examination for the Native teachers' third-class 
 certificate is held annually in December. The date is stated 
 on the School Calendar, which is issued by the Education 
 Department annually in January. 
 
 2. Only candidates from recognised training colleges, who 
 have completed at least one year's training, and who are recom- 
 mended by the principal of such training colleges, are eligible 
 for the examination. 1 
 
 3. Entries must be made on the prescribed form, which may 
 be obtained on application to the Superintendent of Education. 
 
 4. Ah 1 entries must be sent in to the Superintendent of Edu- 
 cation not later than the last day of February. 
 
 5. The examination consists of two parts Part I., Academic; 
 Part II., Professional. Candidates are allowed to take the two 
 parts of the examination separately, but in that case Part I. 
 must be taken first. 2 
 
 6. Candidates who satisfy the examiners in both parts of the 
 examination will receive a provisional third-class certificate, 
 which will be exchanged for a final third-class certificate on 
 
 1 This secures the co-operation of the teachers in the training in- 
 stitutions, who must know the candidates much better than the 
 examiners, and who will not present candidates who they know do not 
 deserve to pass, as is sometimes done under the present system. 
 
 2 The one year at the training institution is too short a period for 
 much academic work. There is no reason why the academic work 
 required should not be begun in the high school by the brighter 
 pupils. This applies particularly to the pupils who are too young 
 to take up professional work. Most of the time in the training insti- 
 tution will be required for professional work and practice teaching 
 if the students are to profit much from their one year's training.
 
 PROPOSED COURSES OF STUDY 2QI 
 
 the completion of one year's teaching in a Government-aided 
 school to the satisfaction of the missionary superintendent 
 and the district inspector. No candidate can receive a final 
 certificate until he or she is eighteen years of age. No certifi- 
 cate will be issued for Part I. of the examination. 
 
 7. Holders of final certificates must produce their certifi- 
 cates for endorsement by the district inspector once in every 
 two years. The following endorsements will be used : Excel- 
 lent Good Fair Unsatisfactory. The endorsement " Un- 
 satisfactory " appearing twice will disqualify the holder from 
 employment in a Government-aided school. 
 
 8. To satisfy the examiners, candidates must obtain the 
 minimum number of marks in the obligatory subjects (see 
 schedule below), and must in addition obtain 40 per cent, of 
 the aggregate number of marks. 1 
 
 9. The subjects and standard of examination are as 
 follows : 
 
 Part I. 
 
 (i.) English (two hours) : 
 
 Section A. Questions on the matter of a prescribed 
 book. 
 
 Section B. (a) Paraphrasing of a simple prose 
 passage ; (b) analysis and synthesis ; (c) correc- 
 tion of sentences to test knowledge of accidence, 
 syntax, and the proper use of words ; (d) the 
 making of sentences illustrating the use of specific 
 words. 
 
 Section C. An oral test of the candidates' ability to 
 speak the language correctly and fluently. 
 
 (ii.) Composition (one hour) : A letter and an essay, 
 (iii.) Dictation (half an hour) : A piece of about 15 lines 
 
 selected from a Standard VI. reader, and 20 words 
 
 from the school spelling-lists, 
 (iv.) Handwriting : To be judged from the dictation paper, 
 
 and in addition tests in text, half-text, and figure 
 
 writing and printing. 
 
 1 In awarding marks the examiners will take into account the year's 
 work of the students as shown in the quarterly examinations conducted 
 by teachers of the training colleges.
 
 2Q2 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (v.) Zulu (two hours) : (a) Accidence and simple syntax ; 
 (b) translation from Zulu of (i.) some detached 
 sentences, (ii.) a simple continuous passage ; (c) 
 translation into Zulu of (i.) some detached sentences, 
 (ii.) a simple continuous passage ; (d) a composition 
 of about 100 words in length. 
 
 (vi.) History (one hour) : The outlines of South African 
 history; civics. 
 
 (vii.) Geography (one hour) : Man and his markets, an ele- 
 mentary course in human and industrial geography, 
 (viii.) Nature Study : 
 
 (A) Plant and animal studies : the keeping of 
 
 nature calendars, and direct observational and 
 simple experimental work. 
 
 (B) The elements of physical geography. 
 
 (ix.) Arithmetic (two hours) : Notation and numeration ; 
 simple and compound rules ; weights and measures 
 (avoirdupois, lineal, square, capacity, and time) ; 
 reduction ; prime and composite numbers ; simple 
 decimal and vulgar fractions ; bills ; simple propor- 
 tion ; easy percentages and simple interest ; easy 
 mensuration of rectangles, parallelograms, and 
 triangles. 
 
 (x.) Mental arithmetic (half an hour) : Easy questions on 
 the above, together with questions involving the use 
 of shortened methods. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 (xi.) School method (two hours) : 
 
 (a) The reasons for and the methods of teaching the 
 
 subjects of the Native school syllabus up to 
 and inclusive of Standard IV. 
 
 (b) The Departmental rules and regulations govern- 
 
 ing the conduct of Native schools, including 
 the correct use of admission book, register, 
 log-book, etc. 
 
 (c) An inspection of the notes-of-lessons book kept 
 
 by the candidate, such notebook to contain 
 full notes of at least six lessons, including one
 
 PROPOSED COURSES OF STUDY 2Q3 
 
 for each class or standard given before the 
 supervising teacher. 1 These notebooks are to 
 be submitted to examiners on the occasion of 
 the examination in practical teaching. 
 
 (xii.) Practical Teaching : The candidate will be required to 
 teach a class of at least ten pupils to the satisfaction 
 of the examiner. The examiner will choose one of 
 the lessons from the book submitted (see (xi.) (c) 
 above), and will also require the candidate to give an 
 additional lesson or lessons. 
 
 (xiii.) Blackboard Work (half an hour) : The candidate will 
 be required to demonstrate his ability to use the 
 blackboard by : (a) rapid writing ; (b) setting a copy 
 for writing ; (c) setting out a sum ; (d) drawing maps 
 and plans from copies ; (e) setting a copy for drawing 
 for pupils up to and inclusive of Standard IV. 
 (xv.) Drawing (one hour) : (a) A simple freehand copy ; 
 (b) a simple object or collection of objects (e.g. a cup 
 and saucer, a spray of leaves, etc.). 
 (xvi.) Singing. 
 (xvii.) Manual training (two hours) : 
 
 (A) For all candidates : 
 
 (a) The candidate will be required to manu- 
 
 facture any of the objects prescribed for 
 the manual training of the elementary 
 schools ; 
 
 (b) To produce ten articles manufactured 
 
 by the candidate in the course of his 
 training. The articles must be shown 
 to the examiner at the time of the 
 examination in practical teaching. 
 
 (B) For boy candidates : 
 
 Simple carpentry, including the use and care 
 of tools. The candidate will be required to 
 make any of the objects prescribed in the 
 
 1 The object of this is again to find out what the Master of Method 
 in the training institution thinks of the candidate's ability as a teacher. 
 At present, owing to the large number of students at the training institu- 
 tions and the paucity of practising schools, six formally criticised 
 lessons is all that can be required of candidates.
 
 294 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 elementary school course of study, and to pro- 
 duce in addition the useful articles (with the 
 related drawings) manufactured by him during 
 the course of his preparation. 
 (C) For girl students. Needlework. 
 
 (a) A theoretical and practical knowledge of 
 
 the needlework prescribed for Native 
 schools up to and inclusive of 
 Standard IV. 
 
 (b) A practical test in the teaching of needle 
 
 work. 
 
 (xviii.) Elementary Agriculture : The teacher of agriculture 
 at each training college will be required to present 
 for the approval of the Superintendent of Education, 
 not later than the last day of April of each year, in 
 triplicate, a scheme in practical elementary agri- 
 culture for (a) boy and (b) girl students. At the 
 time of the examination in practical teaching the 
 examiner will assess the value of the work as a whole, 
 and the teacher of agriculture will be required to 
 allot marks to each individual student for his or her 
 work throughout the year. 
 
 For girls. Elementary domestic science. 
 
 Section 5. The Industrial Schools 
 
 In the industrial schools courses for apprentices and others 
 will be offered in any or all of the following trades and occupa- 
 tions : Blacksmithmg, bookbinding, carpentry, farming, 
 gardening, housework, masonry, printing, shoemaking, tailor- 
 ing, waggon-making, and any others for which a demand may 
 arise. 
 
 The training will be thoroughly practical, the object being 
 to train competent practical mechanics, farmers, domestic 
 servants, and homemakers. The industrial school will differ 
 from the industrial department of the high school in that 
 the latter offers the theoretical knowledge required for a proper 
 understanding of the trade and necessary for those who intend 
 to take the higher positions in industries, while the former aims 
 at turning out the rank-and-file of industry, the semi-skilled
 
 PROPOSED COURSES OF STUDY 
 
 295 
 
 workmen who will be competent to do the rough work at 
 present required by the Natives, but who must work under 
 close direction if anything more ambitious is to be attempted. 
 
 SCHEDULE OF MARKS 
 PART I 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 English, section A ... 
 English, section B 
 English, section C 
 Composition .... 
 Dictation ..... 
 Handwriting .... 
 Zulu 
 
 ii 
 I* 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 IOO 
 
 150 
 
 50 
 
 IOO 
 
 50 
 25 
 
 2OO 
 
 5 
 25 
 33 
 20 
 
 i5 
 66 
 
 History and civics 
 Geography .... 
 Nature study .... 
 Arithmetic .... 
 
 If 
 
 I* 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 50 
 66 
 
 Mental arithmetic 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 Aggregate for Part I., 1275. Minimum required for a pass, 510. 
 
 PART II 
 
 School method .... 
 
 2 
 
 2OO 
 
 66 
 
 Practical teaching 
 Blackboard work 
 Drawing ..... 
 Singing 
 Manual work .... 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 IOO 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 2OO 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 66 
 
 Elementary agriculture \ 
 
 or r ' ' 
 Domestic Science J 
 
 
 150 
 
 50 
 
 Aggregate for Part II., 800. Minimum required for a pass, 320. 
 
 The marks for manual work will be subdivided as follows : 
 
 Native crafts, 50. Carpentry and needlework, 100. 
 
 In connection with the industrial schools, evening schools of 
 a continuation character will be conducted. The students who 
 are working at their trades all day will be instructed at nights 
 in the essentials of an elementary education.
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 
 
 Section i. The History of the Movement for Higher 
 Education 1 
 
 THE idea of the establishment of an institution for the higher 
 education of Natives has been long in the minds of missionaries 
 and educators in South Africa. The first step towards the 
 realisation of the idea was taken in 1841, when Lovedale 
 Institution was opened as a seminary of higher learning, and 
 a College Department, which has been continually in existence 
 up to the present day, was established. The great pro- 
 tagonist of the movement was the late Dr Stewart, the famous 
 and revered Principal of the institution at Lovedale, who more 
 than any other man has fostered the progress of education 
 among the South African Natives. 
 
 In 1872 the course of study in the College Department 
 included history, English literature, mathematics, mental and 
 moral philosophy, political economy, Latin, and Greek. This 
 course was taken both by Europeans as well as by a few 
 Natives, and some of the most distinguished European states- 
 men in South Africa received their education at Lovedale, 
 which at the time was offering a more complete course than was 
 to be found in other parts of the Eastern Province of the Cape 
 Colony. Few of the Natives remained to complete the course, 
 
 1 The sources from which this account has been derived are : (a) The 
 minutes of a Conference of Representatives of the money guaranteed 
 towards the founding of the Inter-State Native College, held in the 
 Chamber of Commerce, King William's Town, October 2, 3, 4, 1907. 
 (b) The account of the Convention of Representative Natives from all 
 parts of South Africa to discuss the present position of the scheme, 
 held at Lovedale on July i, 2, 3, 1908, as reported in The Christian 
 Express, August 1908. (c) The prospectus of the College. 
 
 296
 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 2Q7 
 
 but the influence of the training received there was all for good, 
 and many of the most influential and respected leaders of the 
 Native peoples owe much to this institution. 
 
 Although the idea received the support of such men as Sir 
 George Grey and Sir Langham Dale, the Government did not 
 think the time was ripe for anything more than the establish- 
 ment of a State-aided and State-controlled school for Natives 
 at Lovedale, and Natives desirous of more than what was 
 offered in an institution of this nature were compelled to pro- 
 ceed overseas for their further education. The comparative 
 non-success of the State-controlled high school is evidenced 
 by its results in the University examinations, 1 and by the 
 admission of the present Principal of Lovedale, who, at the 
 Native Convention held at Lovedale in 1908, declared that the 
 present situation was one of miserable failure at Lovedale. 
 Out of sixty or seventy young men who had joined the school 
 higher classes that year, not so many as five would ever reach 
 even matriculation, and of course matriculation was only the 
 beginning of a University course ; not one of them could hope 
 to reach the true goal. That was not due to lack of ability 
 on the part of the pupils, nor to want of application. It was 
 not due to want of effort on the part of the teachers. Class 
 work was an increasing drive from opening to closing day. The 
 extraordinary efforts made by many of the pupils were 
 pathetic, but they were mostly in vain. The pupils' educa- 
 tional career was wrecked before they reached the College 
 Department, and the College classes themselves were of the 
 nature of a forlorn hope. 2 
 
 The next landmark in the history of higher education for 
 Natives was the publication in 1905 of the famous Report 
 of the South African Native Affairs Commission of 1903-1905. 
 Section 347 of the Report reads as follows : 
 
 1 See ante, p. 130. 
 
 1 Reported in The Christian Express, August i, 1908. Mr Henderson 
 attributes the non-success of the College Department to the unsym- 
 pathetic attitude of the Cape Education Department. The writer's 
 opinion is that the state of affairs so truly described by Mr Henderson 
 is due to the imposition of a hard-and-fast curriculum, designed for 
 European pupils, upon the children of another race differing in 
 environment, institutions.'mental development, and future occupations.
 
 2Q8 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 " The Commission has received much evidence pointing 
 to the necessity for some improvement in the facilities for 
 the methods of higher education for Natives, who them- 
 selves are strongly desirous of such advanced instruction, 
 and setting forth the view that it is the duty, and should 
 be the policy, of the South African States to provide such 
 opportunities. The evidence of education officers is to 
 the effect that the supply of Native teachers is far from 
 equal to the demand, and that many of those whose 
 services are available are of inferior attainments. The 
 Commission is impressed with the advisability of establish- 
 ing some central institution or Native college which might 
 have the advantage of the financial support of the different 
 colonies and possessions, and which would receive Native 
 students from them all. The immediate advantages of 
 such a scheme appear to be, the creation of adequate 
 means for the efficient and uniform training of an increased 
 number of Native teachers, and the provision of a course 
 of study in this country for such Native students as may 
 desire to present themselves for the higher school and 
 university examinations." 
 
 The promoters of the scheme were much impressed with the 
 unanimity of opinion displayed by the members of the Com- 
 mission, who represented all the colonies in South Africa, 
 Rhodesia, and Basutoland, and lost no time in launching the 
 scheme. In October 1905, on the initiative of Dr Stewart, a 
 meeting of the leading Natives of King William's Town district 
 was called, at which an executive committee was formed to 
 bring before the Natives of South Africa the recommendations 
 of the Native Affairs Commission. To test the opinion of the 
 Natives of South Africa, a great convention was held at 
 Lovedale on December 28 and 29, 1905, at which 152 Natives, 
 representing 65 districts and countries, were present. The 
 Convention was unanimous in supporting the scheme, and it 
 was suggested that Lovedale should be acquired for the site 
 of the College, and that the Natives should endeavour to 
 collect a sufficient sum of money to found the institution. 
 The executive committee was empowered to carry out the 
 project, and to negotiate with the Governments and Churches.
 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 2QQ 
 
 As the result of an active propaganda, moral and financial 
 support was received from the Natives, the Churches, and 
 Europeans. The Basutoland Natives, through their chiefs, 
 promised 6000, on condition that the scheme was supported 
 by at least one of the self-governing colonies of South Africa. 
 The Transkeian General Council gave 10,000 unconditionally, 
 and friends of the scheme in Scotland 15,000 on certain con- 
 ditions. These, with other contributions from European and 
 Native sources, led the promoters to believe that they would 
 have a capital sum of between 40,000 and 50,000 with which 
 to start the College. 
 
 In 1908 additional but carefully guarded support was given 
 to the scheme by the Report of the Cape Select Committee 
 on Native Education, which says with reference to the pro- 
 posed College : 
 
 " The establishment of a Native College has been recom- 
 mended, partly in order to provide for the higher educa- 
 tion of Natives, and partly to prevent Natives from going 
 out of the country in search of it. The evidence shows 
 that upwards of a hundred South African Natives have in 
 recent years gone to colleges in the United States and 
 elsewhere ; that there may be some opening for Natives 
 with a college education as professional men among their 
 own people, and as headmen ; and that there is a demand 
 for higher education, but that it is not large. It also 
 appears that many Natives enter the normal course solely 
 because there is no alternative course beyond the element- 
 ary standards. Your Committee regard this as undesir- 
 able, since the normal course is designed only for training 
 teachers. In view of all the circumstances, they consider 
 that the demand for higher education should not be 
 artificially stimulated, but that when shown to be genuine 
 it should not be refused, and recommend that after 
 Standard V. there should, where necessary, be alternative 
 courses (leading up to secondary, normal, and industrial 
 work) ; that the scale of fees be similar to those of the 
 fees charged in European colleges ; that grants for 
 secondary and higher work be made to the Native College 
 on terms similar to those on which grants were made to
 
 300 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 other colleges in the earlier days of higher education in 
 South Africa ; that the Government be adequately repre- 
 sented on the governing body of the Native College ; that 
 the work up to and including the matriculation course be 
 subject to the usual Government inspection ; that manual 
 training be an integral part of the College course, and that 
 the university standard of work be strictly maintained." 
 (Section 18.) 
 
 In the same year a Convention of representative Natives 
 was held at Lovedale, where the outlines of the scheme were 
 again discussed. At this meeting it was announced that for 
 certain reasons the proposal to purchase Lovedale as the 
 nucleus for the College had been given up, and it was now 
 proposed to establish the College at Fort Hare, about a mile 
 from Lovedale. 1 The Convention was a success, and the pro- 
 spects for the College were bright, but the Governments of 
 the several colonies did not come forward with the necessary 
 financial support. The question of the union of the four 
 colonies was under consideration, and there was a tendency 
 to relegate matters affecting Native policy to the new Govern- 
 ment. The promise of financial support from Basutoland was 
 accordingly withdrawn, and many of the Native promises of 
 contributions proved to be nothing but promises. Many of 
 the promises of support from Europeans, which had been condi- 
 tional on adequate support from the Natives, were also with- 
 drawn. The net result has been that at the time of writing 
 the capital of the College is not more than half of the 50,000 
 expected. 2 The Executive Committee determined to open 
 the College on a less ambitious scale, and in July 1915 the 
 College opened with a class preparing for the Cape matricula- 
 tion, a class in agriculture, and a class in theology. 
 
 1 The writer believes that a serious mistake was here made. The 
 arguments that the grant of ^15,000 from the United Free Church 
 of Scotland was inclusive of the value of the Fort Hare site, and that 
 if the present work at Lovedale ceased there would be one important 
 institution the less to support the new College, do not outweigh the 
 advantages of having Lovedale with its traditions, equipment, and 
 many-sided activities as the nucleus of the new College. 
 
 1 Included in this is an appropriation of 600 from the Union 
 Government.
 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 3OI 
 
 Section 2. The Objections to the Scheme 
 
 That there are objections to the proposed scheme is evidenced 
 by the guarded report of the Cape Select Committee on Native 
 Education, 1908, and by the withholding of the promised 
 subscriptions. 
 
 Neglecting the objections of those who withdrew their 
 support because of the proposed location of the College at 
 Lovedale instead of in the Transkei, and the seemingly un- 
 avoidable odium theologicum which prevents some religious 
 organisations from sending their pupils to an inter-denomina- 
 tional school, we may summarise the objections under two 
 heads : (A) Political, and (B) Educational. 
 
 (A) POLITICAL OBJECTIONS 
 
 The fear of ultimate Black supremacy, which looms large 
 in the eyes of many of the European inhabitants of South 
 Africa, has made them inclined to scrutinise closely any 
 attempts at the higher education of the Natives. This fear, 
 natural enough in a country where the Whites are so greatly 
 outnumbered, has been fostered in the past by Native wars 
 and rebellions, and more latterly by the appearance in South 
 Africa of more or less secret religious and political organisations 
 among the Natives, which are supposed to be preaching the 
 doctrine of independence for the Negro peoples, or " Africa for 
 the Africans." 
 
 What basis of fact there is for the existence of a widespread 
 " Ethiopian Movement," as it is called, in South Africa, is 
 difficult to say. It is certain that there have been several 
 secessions of Christian Natives from the European-controlled 
 missionary societies, such as that of Rev. J. M. Dwane in 1894 ; 
 but it is not apparent that there was anything more in these 
 than the natural desire of a growing people to be free from 
 the apron-strings of European control. It is also certain 
 that this movement was fostered by Negro missionaries from 
 the United States, connected principally with the African 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, and that the political opinions 
 of these men regarding Native questions were not in har- 
 mony with the views of the European Government in
 
 3O2 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 South Africa. 1 The appearance, again, within recent years 
 of Native political associations founded and officered by 
 educated Natives has not tended to allay the suspicions of 
 the Europeans that higher education and political aspirations 
 are indissolubly connected. When, therefore, the proposal 
 for an Inter-State Native College was so enthusiastically 
 taken up by the South African Natives, there was a distinct 
 feeling among a large section of the Europeans that this 
 movement was due, in a considerable part, to the teachings 
 of " Ethiopianism." 
 
 The writer's opinion is that there is a distinct connection 
 between education and movements towards social and political 
 improvement. This has proved to be the case in France and 
 England, and is to-day apparent in Russia. South Africa can 
 be no exception. To deny the Natives education for fear of 
 the appearance of these movements would be fatal if it were 
 possible. As we have attempted to show in an earlier part of 
 this study, the safety of the European lies in the provision 
 of suitable educational facilities for the Natives, and any 
 legitimate demands of the Natives for further education 
 must be met. 2 
 
 (B) EDUCATIONAL 
 
 A further set of objections towards the establishment of an 
 Inter-State Native College came from those who felt that the 
 Native was not yet ready for higher education, and that the 
 alleged demand was not real but had been artificially fostered. 
 
 The upholders of this view point to the non-success of Native 
 students at the Cape University examinations. As we have 
 already shown, the number of passes from Lovedale during 
 the period 1904-1913 was 12 in the matriculation, 5 in the 
 senior certificate, and 60 in the junior certificate. During 
 the seventeen years from 1892-1908, the number of Native 
 
 1 To this is due largely the objection which the Europeans in South 
 Africa hold towards the education of South African Natives in the 
 United States, which in turn is a reason why Government Commissions 
 have urged the establishment of an institution of higher learning for 
 Natives within the confines of South Africa. 
 
 1 In this connection it will be remembered that in the Natal 
 Native Rebellion of 1906 the educated Natives remained loyal to the 
 Government.
 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 303 
 
 pupils who passed the school higher examination was exactly 
 50, or an average of 3 per annum. During the same period 
 the number of individual students in the class preparing for 
 this examination was 233. That means that out of every five 
 candidates preparing for this examination, which is a school 
 and not a university examination proper, one passed and the 
 remaining four either failed or abandoned the course. Even 
 the Principal of Lovedale himself could not but admit that the 
 present situation was one of miserable failure at Lovedale. 
 
 Figures such as these cause a certain section of the people 
 of South Africa, and among them educationists well disposed 
 towards the Natives, to declare that " the Native must not 
 merely express his desire after, but more satisfactorily prove 
 his fitness for, higher education, before the States of South 
 Africa can undertake the outlay for the establishment and 
 support of the proposed college. They cannot justly be ex- 
 pected to provide for the exceptions ; they must first make 
 due provision for the needs of the mass." l The conclusion, 
 therefore, seems unavoidable that if we are to judge of the 
 capacity of the Natives for higher education by their ability 
 to pass the examinations of the Cape University, and if we 
 mean by higher education only the courses presented by the 
 University, then the Native is certainly not yet ready for 
 higher education. 
 
 The weakness of this argument lies in its premises. Two 
 questions arise at once : (a) Are the school and entrance 
 examinations of the University a fair test of ability for higher 
 education ? and (b) Must we restrict the term " higher educa- 
 tion " to the existing courses of the University ? To both of 
 these contentions the writer would dissent, in part as far as 
 European pupils are concerned, and entirely as far as Natives 
 are concerned. 
 
 (a) Are the school and entrance examinations of the University 
 a fair test of ability for higher education ? In the year 1909, of 
 the 2336 candidates who sat for the school higher examination, 
 1661, or 71-1 per cent., passed ; and of the 1520 who entered for 
 the matriculation or university entrance examination, 891, 
 
 1 Rev. J. du Plessis, General Mission Secretary, Dutch Reformed 
 Church, Appendix to Report of the Cape Select Committee on Native 
 Education, p. xvii.
 
 30.J THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVVE 
 
 or 58-5 per cent., passed. All but a negligible few of these candi- 
 dates were Europeans. Would it be fair to contend that out 
 of every 10 candidates, who, after satisfactorily completing the 
 elementary curriculum and three or four years of the high 
 school course, sat for the school higher, only 7 were fit to 
 prepare for the matriculation, and that, after spending two 
 more years at the high school, only 4 of these 7 were fit to 
 proceed to a university college ? Candidates for the matricu- 
 lation examination are a highly selected group, and it is hard 
 to believe that not more than 58-5 per cent, of these are fit for 
 college. Rather than to say outright that only a little more 
 than half of our sixth-form boys and girls are fit for higher 
 education, would it not be better to examine a little more 
 closely the selective power of the courses of study and 
 examinations of the university ? 
 
 As far as Native pupils are concerned the university ex- 
 aminations are altogether unsuitable. For the matriculation 
 the compulsory subjects are Latin, mathematics (arithmetic, 
 algebra, and geometry), English or Dutch, a second modern 
 language (English, Dutch, French, German, Portuguese, Kafir, 
 Sesuto, or Sechuana), a science (physics, chemistry, element- 
 ary physical science, botany, zoology, elementary natural 
 science), and either Greek or history. The subjects generally 
 selected by Natives are Latin, mathematics, English, Kafir, 
 physics or chemistry, and history. It is impossible to enter 
 into the details of the requirements under each subject, but it 
 is generally conceded that the examination is difficult and that 
 a high standard of attainment is required. 1 
 
 The utility or interest of these subjects for Natives can well 
 be questioned ; the absence of such subjects as manual training, 
 drawing, practical mathematics, civics, will be noticed ; but the 
 greatest disability is that the preparation and examination of 
 Native pupiMs conducted on what is to them a foreign language. 
 The Principal of Lovedale is undoubtedly right in attributing the 
 failure of his pupils largely to their poor knowledge of English. 2 
 
 1 This is borne out by the fact that the annual percentage of failures 
 on the part of European pupils is from 35 to 50 per cent. 
 
 1 It is interesting to note that Mr Henderson is speaking chiefly 
 of boys from schools in the Cape Province, where English is the medium 
 of instruction from the sub-standards.
 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 305 
 
 Not only do the pupils have the greatest difficulty in under- 
 standing the subjects which must be taught through the medium 
 of English, but in the examination itself they are required to 
 possess a knowledge of English which to them is as difficult 
 as the B.A. standard in German and French is to the 
 English-speaking student. The same peculiar difficulties 
 confront Native pupils in the school higher (the present 
 junior certificate) examination. We cannot therefore safely 
 conclude that failure to pass the Cape University examina- 
 tions is in itself proof of the Native's incapacity for higher 
 education. 
 
 (b) Must the term " higher education " be restricted to the exist- 
 ing courses of the university P The restrictive dominance of the 
 university over secondary education has already been referred 
 to, and to-day higher education and university courses have 
 become synonymous in South Africa. Yet there are already 
 existing courses of higher education which do not come under 
 the control of the university. The South African College at 
 Cape Town conducts medical and higher technical classes 
 which are independent of the university. Stellenbosch has 
 theological courses, and Cape Town and Durban engineering 
 courses which are of university standard, but which are un- 
 controlled by the Cape University. There is, then, no necessity 
 to have university control in order to offer courses in higher 
 education, and the sooner this is fully recognised the better 
 for education in South Africa. 
 
 There is nothing to prevent the South African Native College 
 from offering courses in higher education other than those 
 examined by the university ; and in view of the admitted un- 
 suitability of the university courses for Native students it 
 should be the endeavour of the College authorities to avoid the 
 university courses as far as possible, at any rate until such 
 time as the university offers courses of study suitable for 
 Natives. To escape university control altogether is impossible, 
 for the glamour of the university's certificate has affected the 
 Natives, and to attract students it will be necessary to offer 
 at least one course leading towards the B.A. degree. The 
 objections of those who hold that in the absence of university 
 control a proper standard will not be maintained can be met 
 by the appointment of a representative body of examiners 
 
 20
 
 306 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 consisting of the College instructors and outside educationists 
 of recognised standing. 
 
 Sections. The Need for the College 
 
 So far the arguments used in favour of the College have been 
 negative. It would appear as if the Europeans in South Africa 
 said, " We cannot help giving the Natives facilities for higher 
 education, for unless we provide an institution the Natives 
 will proceed overseas and return with ideas detrimental to 
 our interests." 
 
 A much more potent argument in favour of the College is 
 that through its work the whole Native people, and not only 
 the few who study there, can be uplifted. The tendency among 
 the educationists to-day is to neglect the gifted pupils and to 
 devote then: time to the children of average attainments. 1 We 
 forget that the civilisation which we enjoy is not the carefully 
 worked out efforts of thousands of individuals, but the work 
 of the few, the Harveys, Arkwrights, Stevensons, Bessemers, 
 Hudsons, Darwins, Edisons, and Marconis. Through the 
 efforts of such men we have advanced by leaps and bounds. 
 The progress of a nation is largely the result of the efforts of 
 the great men of its own and other races. The South African 
 Native Question must, to a large extent, be solved by the 
 Natives themselves through the efforts of their leaders ; and if 
 the European section of the community is wise, it will hasten 
 the day of this solution by affording the very best education 
 in its power to the talented few, who will not only be able to 
 transfer to their own people the results of European civilisation, 
 but will, by their example, influence, and studies, effect a rapid 
 uplift of the Native people. 
 
 Section 4. A Suggested Scheme 
 
 It is now proposed to indicate shortly the nature of the 
 institution of higher education which we believe would be in 
 the interests of both races in South Africa. The topics dealt 
 
 1 This is a common fault of democracies, and is fostered in our 
 South African educational world by the systems of Government and 
 university examinations.
 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 307 
 
 with will be control, location, entrance requirements, and 
 departments of study. 
 
 (a) Control. The proper authority to control the Native 
 College is undoubtedly the Government. If, as we have 
 attempted to show, the prosperity of both races, and certainly 
 the safety of the Europeans, depends on the Government- 
 controlled education of the mass of the Native people, a fortiori 
 the control of the education of the future leaders of that race 
 should be in the hands of the Government. The absence of 
 any settled policy with regard to the Natives has, however, 
 prevented any of the states from undertaking the duty and 
 seizing the opportunity. The following extract from the 
 official Gazette of April I, 1906, represents the attitude towards 
 the education of the Native people of the Cape Government, 
 which has always been more liberal than any of the other 
 Governments in its treatment of the Natives : 
 
 " The Native population is the problem of Africa ; and 
 the crux of that problem, if it is rightly considered, is the 
 question of the proper educational policy to pursue. In 
 Cape Colony this question was never formally dealt with. 
 The early missionaries, who, of course, were not educa- 
 tionists, felt first the need for teaching reading to the 
 children of their converts, and, having begun this, added 
 in time a little of the other R's. As for the State, it may 
 be said to have simply refrained from interfering. As a 
 consequence of this policy of drift two general principles 
 came to regulate State action in this matter : first, that 
 all Native schools should be under the management of 
 one of the missionary societies ; second, that the instruc- 
 tion given should follow the lines of the elementary course 
 prescribed for European schools, but that no assistance 
 should be given in aid of the work higher than the Fourth 
 Standard, except in the case of candidates preparing for 
 the teaching profession." 1 
 
 With such views held by those in authority, a Native College 
 directed and financed by the Government was obviously im- 
 possible, and it is to the credit of the promoters of the College 
 
 1 Quoted in The Christian Express, August i, 1908.
 
 308 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 that they proceeded with the scheme and did not follow the 
 usual South African practice of waiting for the Government 
 to take the initiative. None of the provinces has contributed 
 to the scheme, but in 1915 the Union Government appropriated 
 600 for the College, and secured two representatives on the 
 Governing Council. This move rectifies partially what was 
 an initial blunder, but steps should be taken to secure for the 
 Government a much larger say in the policy of the institu- 
 tion. This could perhaps be done by each of the provinces 
 contributing towards the funds of the College, and thus secur- 
 ing representation. Since the establishment of the College 
 will relieve the provinces of the necessity of conducting similar 
 institutions, it also would seem the part of economy for them 
 to support the College. 
 
 (b) Location. As has already been pointed out, in our 
 opinion a mistake was made in not securing Lovedale itself 
 as the nucleus for the College. However, the mistake is not 
 irremediable. Fort Hare is but a mile or two from Lovedale, 
 and it will still be possible, at a little inconvenience, for the 
 students at Fort Hare to make use of the workshops at 
 Lovedale. 1 
 
 (c) Entrance Requirements. For the academic department 
 of the College the possession of the matriculation or senior 
 certificate, or the passing of a special examination after a two- 
 years high-school course, is being required for admission. 2 The 
 requirement of university school certificate is unfortunate, but 
 unavoidable unfortunate because it will set many Natives in 
 the provinces working on an unsuitable curriculum, 3 unavoid- 
 ablebecause of the hold which the universityexamination system 
 has on South Africa. For the other departments of the College 
 the condition for entrance should be, not the possession of a 
 
 1 As a matter of fact, that is being done. Until 1916, at any rate, 
 the agricultural work of the College will be conducted at Lovedale. 
 
 1 Until 1918 certain teachers' certificates, and until 1920 the Cape 
 junior certificate, will be recognised for admission. Applicants for 
 the agricultural course are specially considered. 
 
 1 It is all the more unfortunate because many of the Natives 
 who start preparing for the junior certificate examination will leave 
 school without completeing the course. As we have already seen, 
 of the 233 individuals who entered the junior certificate class, only 
 50 succeeded in passing the examination.
 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 309 
 
 certain amount of reproducible information, as in the university 
 school examinations, but the ability to profit by the instruction 
 offered. 1 To this end the College authorities should examine 
 the courses of study of the several provinces, and decide on 
 the standard from which admittance to the College could be 
 obtained. The College should not set up an entrance examina- 
 tion of its own, for that would interfere with the courses of 
 study in the provincial schools. 
 
 (d) The Departments of the College. A good deal of the 
 criticism of the proposed College is due to the fact that its 
 academic side has been emphasised to the exclusion of the 
 other and more practical sides. The object of the promoters 
 was to establish a college with theological, agricultural, teacher- 
 training, and academic sides. 2 
 
 The writer would suggest the addition of commercial and 
 industrial departments. 3 If it could be made clear to the 
 Europeans that the College aims at a practical education, one 
 that can actually be made use of by the Native, the institution 
 would receive much more support. Mr E. B. Sargant ex- 
 pressed the feelings of White South Africa when he said : " But, 
 before all, its aims should be practical; all higher education 
 without any definite outcome must be discouraged. Natives 
 who do not soon find a market for their knowledge and skill 
 tend to revert to the habits and mode of life of their ancestors, 
 and the discontent that may be thus introduced among their 
 neighbours and kin is not easily overestimated. Therefore 
 such a college should not begin by attempting any ambitious 
 programme of study." 4 Further, the College should not 
 restrict itself to what is commonly called professional work. 
 The setting up of a distinction between manual and professional 
 work has done much harm to European education ; it would 
 be more harmful still in Native education where the Native is 
 already too ready to despise manual occupations. 
 
 1 This is actually the case for students entering the agricultural 
 course. 
 
 ' Up to the present only Arts and agricultural courses have been / 
 provided. 
 
 ' A commercial course is arranged for in the prospectus. 
 
 * From an address before the South African School of Mines, 
 Johannesburg.
 
 3IO THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Section 5. Successful Institutions for the Higher Education 
 of Negroes in the United States 
 
 In 1915 the writer investigated school conditions among the 
 Negroes in the Southern States of the United States of America. 
 All types of Negro schools were visited, but reference is here 
 made to the two types of higher educational institutions 
 the Negro universities, and the normal and agricultural in- 
 stitutes of the type of Hampton and Tuskegee. 
 
 (a) Negro Universities. The Negro universities l serve a 
 very definite and useful purpose. The social conditions of 
 the Negroes in the United States are such that there is a 
 constantly increasing demand for Negro preachers, high-school 
 and college teachers, lawyers, doctors, dentists, pharmacists, 
 and other professional men. These demands the Negro uni- 
 versities are supplying ; and although many of the institutions 
 do not deserve the name of university, and the standards 
 required for graduation are considerably lower than those of 
 the White colleges and universities, the services rendered by 
 their graduates to the Negro people are very valuable. The 
 Negro university is giving the American Negro the kind of 
 professional service he wants and needs, and in doing so 
 sets us an example in South Africa. Instead of aiming at a 
 university standard which is difficult for the Europeans and 
 almost impossible for the Natives to attain, we need to meet 
 the present requirements of the Native people ; and as these 
 increase in number and in the degree of skill required, the courses 
 of instruction could be changed accordingly. The work of the 
 Negro universities is almost entirely academic and professional. 
 The need for such institutions has not yet made itself felt in 
 South Africa, and we should take cognisance of the danger (so 
 apparent in India and Egypt) of educating any considerable 
 number of individuals beyond the requirements of their race. 
 
 (b) Normal and Agricultural Institutes. The inclusion of 
 Hampton and Tuskegee under this heading does not do justice 
 to the scope of these institutions. Much more than normal 
 and agricultural work is attempted and accomplished, as the 
 
 1 According to the Negro Year-Book, 1914-1915, there are 57 
 universities and colleges for Negroes in the United States, with an 
 enrolment of 21,409 students.
 
 THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE COLLEGE 311 
 
 writer has satisfied himself by personal observation. Tuskegee 
 Institute, for example, offers the following courses : 
 I. The Academic Department : 
 
 1. Day preparatory courses. 
 
 2. Night-school continuation courses. 
 
 3. Advanced courses (English, mathematics, book- 
 
 keeping, drawing, economics, history, geography, 
 science, physical training). 
 
 4. Teachers' professional courses. 
 
 5. Special courses (vocal and instrumental music, 
 
 public speaking). 
 II. Bible Training School. 
 
 III. Department of Mechanical Industries : Architectural 
 
 drawing, mechanical drawing, carpentry, wood-turning, 
 sawmilling, carpentry repair, brickmasonry, plastering 
 and tile-setting, tinsmithing, house and sign painting, 
 coach and furniture painting, plumbing and steam- 
 fitting, wheelwrighting, blacksmithing. horse-shoeing, 
 harness-making and carriage-trimming, shoemaking, 
 machine-shop practice, steam engineering, founding, 
 automobile repairing, applied electricity, tailoring, 
 printing, brickmaking, butchering, and baking. 
 
 IV. Department of Women's Industries: Sewing, dressmak- 
 
 ing, ladies' tailoring, millinery, cooking, laundry, soap- 
 making, domestic training, mattress-making, basketry, 
 broom-making, child nursing and nurture, gardening. 
 V. Hospital and Nurse Training School: Nursing, chemistry, 
 anatomy and physiology, materia medica and thera- 
 peutics, massage, hygiene, bacteriology. 
 
 VI. Department of Agriculture : Theoretical and practical 
 
 agriculture, landscape gardening, fruit-growing, can- 
 ning, dairy husbandry, dairying, care and management 
 of horses and mules, veterinary science, poultry-raising. 
 
 VII. Department of Research : Consulting chemist and ex- 
 
 periment station. 
 
 VIII. Department of School Extension : Farmers' conferences, 
 farm demonstration work, mothers' meeting, settle- 
 ment work, ministers' association, town night-school, 
 rural school extension, rural school libraries, teachers' 
 conferences.
 
 312 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Hampton and Tuskegee do not offer academic courses leading 
 to degrees, because these are supplied by other institutions ; 
 but there is no other reason why a college course should not 
 be added. Indeed, Tuskegee and Hampton would be very 
 desirable places in which to establish college courses for 
 Negroes. There the academic students would see the practical 
 application of many of their studies, and would be taught to 
 respect manual labour. 
 
 Much more valuable, however, than all the courses offered 
 is the spirit which animates the work at Hampton and Tuskegee. 
 A visitor to these institutions feels the presence of an unseen 
 force pervading all the work. The spirit does not bear analysis, 
 but it shows itself in the respectful but dignified bearing of the 
 pupils, the earnestness and thoroughness of their work, and the 
 uprightness and usefulness of their after lives. 1 This spirit is 
 not born in a day. It is the combined product of the high 
 ideals of the founders, the devotion of the teachers, the suit- 
 ability of the instruction, all tempered with the spirit of religion 
 and social service. 
 
 Lofty ideals, devotion to duty, and the spirit of religion we 
 have in our South African missionaries in abundance. It 
 remains to inculcate among our Native students the ideals of 
 social service, and to frame our courses of study, untrammelled 
 by tradition and outside authority, on the present needs of the 
 South African Natives. 
 
 1 " The articles of the Hampton creed may be, I suppose, summed 
 up in three words : it is a school of labour, and of love, and of life. 
 Its religion is first a gospel of work, and then a gospel of service, and 
 finally a gospel of consecration. Its education is first of the will to 
 labour, then of the heart to love, and then of the soul to live. Its 
 salvation is first from idleness, and then from selfishness, and then 
 from lifelessness." (" Founders' Day at Hampton," an address by 
 Francis Greenwood Peabody.)
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 A. Official Reports regarding Native Affairs in 
 South Africa 
 
 1. Report of the South African Affairs Commission, 1903-5. 
 Cape Town : Cape Times Limited. (This valuable document 
 has become a locus classicus on Native matters. All the colonies, 
 Rhodesia, and Basutoland were represented. The Commission 
 held 169 sittings in seventeen centres, and examined 256 witnesses. 
 The report itself is a model of clearness and succinctness.) 
 
 2. Report of the Natal Native Affairs Commission, 19067. 
 London : His Majesty's Stationery Office. (Outspoken criticism 
 of the administration of Native affairs by the Government of 
 Natal. Gives cause of 1906 Rebellion. Valuable as giving clear 
 expression to Natives' grievances.) 
 
 3. Report of the Select Committee of the House of Assembly of 
 the Cape of Good Hope, Native Education, 1908. Cape Town : 
 Cape Times Limited. (Limited to education in the Cape Pro- 
 vince, but valuable as giving the opinion of experienced educators.) 
 
 4. Report of the Education Commission of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 1913. Cape Town : Cape Times Limited. (Fullest and most 
 scientific Government report on education issued in South 
 Africa. Deals mainly with system of European education, but 
 has a chapter on the education of the Coloured people.) 
 
 5. Report of the Education Commission of the Colony of Natal, 
 1909. Pietermaritzburg. (Useful as representing views of thought- 
 ful laymen. Recommends establishment of two Government in- 
 stitutions for the training of the sons of Native chiefs.) 
 
 6. Report of the Under Secretary of Education of the Union of 
 South Africa, 1913. Cape Town : Government Printers. (The 
 best statistical summary of the position of Native education.) 
 
 7. Education Department, Natal : Reports of the Superintendent 
 of Education. Pietermaritzburg : Government Printers. (Each 
 report contains a chapter on Native education. Statistical in- 
 formation incomplete.)
 
 314 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 8. Education Department, Cape Province : Reports of the Super- 
 intendent-General of Education. Cape Town : Government 
 Printers. (No adequate treatment of Native education. Statis- 
 tical information incomplete.) 
 
 9. Education Department, Transvaal : Reports of the Director 
 of Education. Pretoria : Government Printers. 
 
 10. Education Department, Orange Free State : Reports of the 
 Director of Education. Bloemfontein : Government Printers. 
 
 u. Basutoland : Colonial Reports. London: His Majesty's 
 Stationery Office. 
 
 12. Report of the Commission of the Union of South Africa 
 appointed to inquire into Assaults on Women, 1913. Cape Town : 
 Government Printers. (Very valuable as showing social condi- 
 tion of Natives employed in towns.) 
 
 13. Report of the Economic Commission of the Union of South 
 Africa. Pretoria : Government Printers. (Chairman, Professor 
 S. J. Chapman, Professor of Political Economy, University of 
 Manchester, England. Very valuable as showing condition of 
 Native labourers in the mining centres. Discounts fear of econo- 
 mic competition between Europeans and Natives.) 
 
 14. Bluebook on Native Affairs, 1910. Cape Town : Govern- 
 ment Printers. (A useful compendium showing the position of 
 Native affairs in each province at the time of Union.) 
 
 15. Reports of the Native Affairs Commission of the Cape Colony, 
 1910. Cape Town : Government Printers. (Valuable as showing 
 satisfactory working of Glen Grey Act. Recommends its exten- 
 sion to the Cis-Kei.) 
 
 1 6. Annual Reports of Native Affairs Department, Union of 
 South Africa. 
 
 17. Annual Reports of Department of Native Affairs, Colony of 
 Natal. 
 
 18. Proceedings of Transkeian Territories General Council, 
 Session 1913 ; Annual Reports and Accounts, 1912 ; and Estimates 
 of Revenue and Expenditure, 1913-14. Umtata : The Territorial 
 News Limited. 
 
 19. Proceedings of Pondoland General Council, Session 1913; and 
 Estimates of Revenue and Expenditure, 1913-14. Umtata: The 
 Territorial News Limited. 
 
 B. General Works on the Native 
 
 i. EVANS, MAURICE S., Black and White in South-East Africa. 
 London : Longmans, Green & Co. (The best general account of 
 the Native problem by a Colonial who has made the Natives his
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 315 
 
 life-study, and who has had exceptional opportunities of learn- 
 ing their point of view. Constructively critical of European 
 policy.) 
 
 2. KIDD, DUDLEY, The Essential Kafir. London : A. & C. 
 Black, 1904. (A general account by a missionary observer. 
 Illustrated with excellent photographs.) 
 
 3. KIDD, DUDLEY, Kafir Socialism and the Dawn of Indi- 
 vidualism. London : A. & C. Black. (An introduction to the 
 study of the Native problem.) 
 
 4. KIDD, DUDLEY. Savage Childhood : a Study of Kafir Child- 
 ren. London : A. & C. Black. 
 
 5. LAGDEN, Sir GODFREY Y., The Basutos : the Mountaineers 
 and their Country, being a Narrative of Events relating to the Tribe 
 from its formation early in the 19th century to the present day. 
 2 vols. London : Hutchinson & Co. (The authoritative work 
 on the people.) 
 
 6. THEAL, GEORGE McCALL, History and Ethnography of Africa 
 south of the Zambesi, 1505-1795. 5 vols. London : Swan 
 Sonnenschein & Co., 1907. (The authoritative history of South 
 Africa, by the late Cape Historiographer.) 
 
 7. CALDECOTT, A. E., The Government and Civilisation of the 
 Native Races of South Africa. Cape Town : Saul Solomon & Co. 
 (The prize essay for the Chancellor's Gold Medal, 1883. A learned 
 and philosophical essay advocating spread of Christianity and 
 education.) 
 
 C. Books, Pamphlets, and Articles on Native Education 
 
 1. SARGANT, E. B., Report on Native Education in South Africa : 
 Part III. Education in the Protectorates. London : Longmans, 
 Green & Co. (Mr Sargant was educational adviser to Lord Milner 
 when the latter was High Commissioner of South Africa, and was 
 engaged in reconstruction work in the Transvaal and Orange 
 River Colonies after the war. Mr. Sargant paid an extensive 
 visit to the territories, interviewed European missionaries and 
 Native chiefs, inspected schools and institutions, and in this 
 volume summarises his conclusions and advocates a policy. The 
 opinions of a shrewd and trained educationist. Wanting in 
 statistics and sources of evidence, but undoubtedly the best 
 existing account of Native education.) 
 
 2. SARGANT, E. B., Report on Education in Basutoland, 1905-6. 
 London : Longmans, Green & Co. (A companion volume to the 
 above.) 
 
 3. SARGANT, E. B., Native Education : a Paper read before the 
 Educational Section of the South African Association for the Ad-
 
 3l6 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 vancement of Science. (A short outline of the present position, 
 with suggestions for a constructive policy.) 
 
 4. LE ROY, Rev. A. E., The Educated Zulu : Fact v. Theory : 
 a Paper read before the South African General Missionary Con- 
 ference, Johannesburg, July 9, 1906. Dundee, Natal : The 
 Ebenezer Press. (A study of prison statistics and employers' 
 reports to test the truth of theory that education renders the 
 Natives criminal and unfit for work. Valuable as being the only 
 scientific contribution to the subject of Native education.) 
 
 5. MORAVIAN MISSION, Proposal of a New System of Native 
 Education : a Paper written by order of the Moravian Missionaries 
 in the Eastern Province and Native Territories. Genadendal 
 Printing Works. (A plea for a reformed course of study and 
 system of examination based on many years' experience of the 
 present system in the Cape Province.) 
 
 6. TATHAM, F. S., The Race Conflict in South Africa : An In- 
 quiry into the General Question of Native Education. (The writer's 
 conclusions are that " education, pure and simple, ought to be 
 withheld from him [the Native]." ... " Force him to work as 
 an agricultural labourer." ..." The establishment of agri- 
 cultural schools with a view to encourage the culture of the soil 
 would be of more lasting and telling effect than all the book learn- 
 ing and training in handicrafts which could be given them.") 
 
 D. Works on the American Negro 
 
 1. Du Bois, WILLIAM EDWARD BURGHARDT, editor : 
 
 The Negro American Artisan. 
 
 The Negro American Family. 
 
 The Negro Church. 
 
 The Negro in Business. 
 
 The Negro Common School. 
 
 The College-bred Negro. 
 
 Economic Co-operation among Negro Americans. 
 
 Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans. 
 
 The Health and Physique of the Negro American. 
 
 Some Notes on Negro Crime. 
 
 (A series of monographs prepared at Atlanta (Negro) Univer- 
 sity, and published by the University Press. The most reliable 
 source of information for facts regarding the American Negro.) 
 
 2. BAKER, RAY S., Following the Colour Line. New York : 
 Doubleday, Page & Co., 1908. 
 
 3. MILLER, KELLY, Race Adjustment. New York : The Neale 
 Publishing Co.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 317 
 
 4. ODUM, HOWARD W., Social and Mental Traits of the Negro. 
 New York, 1910. 
 
 5. THOMAS, WILLIAM H., The American Negro. New York, 
 1901. (A pessimistic outlook on the future of the race by one of 
 its own members.) 
 
 6. OVINGTON, MARY WHITE, Half a Man : the Status of the 
 Negro in New York. New York : Longmans, Green & Co., 1911. 
 
 7. Du Bois, WILLIAM BURGHARDT, The Philadelphia Negro : a 
 Social Study. Philadelphia : published for the University. 
 
 8. MURPHY, EDGAR G., The Basis of Ascendancy. New York : 
 Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. (" A discussion of certain prin- 
 ciples of public policy involved in the development of the 
 Southern States." A statesmanlike discussion of such questions 
 as Race Aggression, Repression, Negro Race Integrity, Coercion, 
 etc. Perhaps the most philosophical consideration of the Race 
 Question in America.) 
 
 9. MURPHY, EDGAR G., The Present South. New York : Long- 
 mans, Green & Co., 1904. (" A discussion of certain of the educa- 
 tional, industrial, and political issues in the Southern States.") 
 
 10. WASHINGTON, BOOKER T., Up from Slavery. New York : 
 Doubleday, Page & Co. 1907. (Booker Washington's famous 
 autobiography. ) 
 
 n. WASHINGTON, BOOKER T., Working with the Hands. New 
 York : Doubleday, Page & Co., 1904. (An account of the early 
 work at Tuskegee, and a strong plea for industrial education.) 
 
 12. WASHINGTON, BOOKER T., My Larger Education. New York : 
 Doubleday, Page & Co. (An account of Mr Washington's world tour 
 and speeches.) 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. WORSFOLD, W. BASIL, The Union of South Africa. London : 
 Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, 1912. (An authoritative account of 
 the position of the country at the Union by a distinguished South 
 African journalist.) 
 
 2. HOSKING, W. W., The South African Year-Book, 1914. 
 London : George Routledge & Sons. (The first issue of what 
 promises to be a most useful compendium.) 
 
 3. BOARD OF EDUCATION, LONDON, Special Reports on Educa- 
 tional Subjects. Vol. 5. (This volume contains the authoritative 
 history of education in the Cape Province.) 
 
 4. WORK, MONROE N., ed., Negro Year-Book, 1914-1915. Pub- 
 lished by the Negro Year-Book Publishing Co., Tuskegee Institute, 
 Ala. (" An annual encyclopaedia of the Negro." Inaccurate and 
 biased as far as South African items are concerned.)
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 APPENDIX A 
 
 SPECIMENS OF THE TEST CARDS USED FOR THE 
 INSPECTION OF NATIVE SCHOOLS IN NATAL AND 
 THE CAPE 
 
 (i) English Grammar for Standard IV. (One hour) 
 
 1. Analyse : The five small boys caught the horse easily. 
 
 2. (a) Break up the following words into syllables : sentences, 
 porridge, impossible, crocodiles, (b) Write four words with three 
 syllables each. 
 
 3. (a) Write two sentences showing two commas in each. 
 
 (b) What is the punctuation mark (') called ? When is it used ? 
 Give an example. 
 
 4. (a) Write one sentence containing two pronouns, (b) Write 
 a suitable noun after each of the following adjectives : thick , 
 ferocious , next , fertile , ripe , tardy 
 
 (2) History for Standard IV. (One hour) 
 
 1. Write a short essay on Vasco da Gama. 
 
 2. (a) To what tribe did Tshaka belong ? (b) Explain how he 
 became chief of the Umtetwa. 
 
 3. (a) What took place (i) on December 16, 1838, and (2) on 
 January 22, 1879 ? (b) What caused the rebellion of the Hlubi 
 tribe ? 
 
 4. Say what you know about (a) Gert Maritz, (b) Sikunyela, 
 
 (c] Ndongeni. 
 
 (3) Geography for Standard V. (One hour) 
 
 i. Of what countries are the following towns the capitals : 
 Berne, Christiania, Vienna, Rome ?
 
 APPENDIX A 319 
 
 2. (a) What mountain range contains the highest peak in 
 Europe ? (b) Name three large rivers in Australia. 
 
 3. Where is Tasmania ? Name two of its chief towns. 
 
 4. What and where are : Kingston, Hong Kong, Perth, 
 Toronto, Hudson, Himalaya ? 
 
 5. Draw a map of Africa and show on it only : Nile, Cameroon, 
 Tchad, Bon, the boundaries of the Union of South Africa. 
 
 (4) Grammar for Standard VI. (One hour) 
 
 1. (a) Name three ways of forming the plural of nouns, and 
 give an example of each, (b) What is the meaning of gender ? 
 Classify the following words in their correct genders : " princess," 
 " syllabus," " chicken," " soldiers." 
 
 2. (a) What is the difference between " finite " and " infinite " 
 verbs ? (b) Write three sentences to illustrate the use of three 
 different " moods," and say what moods the verbs are in. 
 
 3. (a) Name the prefix, and give its meaning, in these words : 
 " forbid," " antecedent," " bicycle." (b) Name two suffixes, give 
 their meaning, and examples of each in a sentence. 
 
 4. (a) Analyse : " Therefore, I beg you, listen to what I have 
 to say." (b) Parse the words in italics. 
 
 (5) Arithmetic for Standard VI. (One hour) 
 
 1. If ^350 amount to ^397, 53. in three years, what was the 
 rate per cent. ? 
 
 2. A cyclist rode 37 miles 3 furlongs in 2 hours 50 minutes : 
 (a) Find his average rate per hour, (b) Find his average time 
 per mile. 
 
 3. Find the cost of painting the four sides and bottom of 
 a tank 3^ yards long, 4 feet wide, and 6 feet deep, at 4d. per 
 square foot. 
 
 4. Make out and receipt a bill, deducting 10 per cent, for cash, 
 for : 56 Ib. of sugar @ 7d. for 4 Ib. ; 2 J dozen packets arrowroot 
 @ 8 Jd. per packet ; 25 pots marmalade @ 33. 6d. per dozen pots. 
 
 (6) Arithmetic for Standard IV. (Cape) 
 
 1. Divide 24 tons 12 cwt. 72 Ib. by 16. 
 
 2. Find by " practice " the value of 621 articles at i6s. 7jd. 
 each. 
 
 3. Multiply 5 acres 3 roods 1080 square yards by 70. 
 
 4. If 91 pairs of boots cost ^126, find the cost of i dozen and 
 i pairs.
 
 320 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 5. A boy's step is 27 inches, and he takes 120 steps a minute. 
 How far does he walk in one hour ? (Give your answer in miles 
 and yards.) 
 
 (7) Arithmetic for Standard VI. (Cape) 
 
 1 . Simplify without converting decimals into vulgar fractions : 
 
 0-0625 
 4-63-2-I25 + 6-75XO-02- ^- 
 
 2. Find, correct to the nearest penny, the value of 26-094 X i -62. 
 ' 3. Sugar is bought at 20, i6s. 8d. per ton, and sold at 2^d. per 
 
 Ib. (English weight). Find the gain per cent. 
 
 4. What will it cost to cover the floor of a room 18 feet long 
 and 1 6 feet broad, with carpet 2 feet 6 inches wide, and worth 53. 
 a yard. 
 
 5. A man invests ^4000 in four sums of 800, ^900, /noo, and 
 ^1200 to produce 2^, 3, 3^, and 3^ per cent., respectively, per 
 annum. Find what would be the increase in income if the whole 
 had been invested to produce 3$ per cent, per annum. 
 
 APPENDIX B 
 
 EXAMINATION OF NATIVE CANDIDATES FOR DEACON'S 
 ORDERS, 1916, DIOCESE OF NATAL 1 
 
 Epistle to the Romans 
 
 1. Who were the Romans ? What led St Paul to write an 
 epistle to the Romans ? 
 
 2. How came there to be a Christian Church in Rome ? 
 
 3. How does St Paul say that the judgment of God will punish 
 Jew and Gentile alike ? 
 
 4. Why does St Paul especially speak of this faith of Abraham 
 as an instance of what our faith may do for us ? 
 
 5. Show the difference between " works of the flesh " and 
 " works of the spirit." 
 
 6. How does St Paul answer this question, " Hath God cast 
 away his people ? " 
 
 1 These questions indicate the nature of the theological examinations 
 which Native candidates are required to pass (see ante, p. 130). Five 
 students took this examination, and their average mark is given at the 
 end of each paper.
 
 APPENDIX B 321 
 
 7. Show how in Chap. 14 the Romans are warned not to judge 
 uncharitably those whose religious customs are not exactly the 
 same as their own. 
 
 8. Explain : 
 
 (a) Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven and 
 
 whose sins are covered. 
 
 (b) So by the obedience of one shall many be made 
 
 righteous. 
 
 (c) Whom he did predestinate, them he also called ; and 
 
 whom he called, them also he justified ; and whom he 
 justified, them also he glorified. 
 
 (d) Be not wise in your own conceits. 
 
 (e) But now I go unto Jerusalem to minister unto the 
 
 saints. 
 
 Average marks gained, 67. 
 
 Isaiah 40-65 
 
 1. Show how the victories of Cyrus helped to prepare for the 
 return of the Jews to their country. 
 
 2. What does the prophet mean when he speaks of the " servant 
 of Jehovah " ? 
 
 3. Why does the prophet begin his prophecy with these words : 
 " Comfort ye, comfort ye, my people, saith your God " ? 
 
 4. Explain : For your sake have I sent to Babylon, and have 
 brought down all their nobles, and the Chaldeans, whose cry is in 
 the ships. 
 
 5. What does the prophet say about idols that have been made 
 (a) by a workman in iron ; (b) by a workman in wood ; (c) the 
 downfall and removal of the idols of Babylon ? 
 
 6. Explain : 
 
 (a) He shall see of the travail of his soul and shall be 
 
 satisfied. 
 
 (b) And the Gentiles shall come to thy light and kings to 
 
 the brightness of thy rising. 
 
 (c) I have set watchmen on thy walls, O Jerusalem, which 
 
 shall never hold their peace day nor night. 
 
 (d) I have trodden the winepress alone, and of the people 
 
 there were none with me. 
 
 (e) For the child shall die an hundred years old. But the 
 
 sinner being an hundred years old shall be accursed. 
 
 Average marks gained, 72. 
 21
 
 322 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Church History to 325 
 
 1. Show how the Church began to spread even before the con- 
 version of St Paul. 
 
 2. Describe the first persecution of Christians in Rome. 
 
 3. Give an account of either St Ignatius or St Polycarp. 
 
 4. What do you know about the services of the early Church ? 
 
 5. Explain the heresies of (a) Montanism ; (b) Gnosticism. 
 
 6. What causes led to the calling of the First General Council ? 
 Who summoned the council ? Who presided over the council ? 
 
 Average marks gained, 81. 
 
 XXXIX Articles 
 
 1. Distinguish the XXXIX Articles from the " Articles of the 
 Christian Faith " mentioned in the Catechism. 
 
 2. When and by whom were the Articles drawn up ? What 
 were their number at first ? Give an account of changes made 
 until they became 39. 
 
 3. Explain these words in Article 3 : " So also it is to be 
 believed that he went down into hell." 
 
 4. What sacred books do we read " for example of life and in- 
 struction of manners " ? Mention two days in the year when parts 
 of such books are read. 
 
 5. What does the Article, " Christ alone without sin," say about 
 the sinlessness of Christ ? 
 
 6. What does Article 19 mean by these phrases : " visible 
 church," "Sacraments duly ministered according to Christ's ordi- 
 nance," " faithful men " ? 
 
 7. Explain these words in Article 28 (of the Lord's Supper) : 
 " And the means whereby the Body of Christ is received and eaten 
 in the Lord's Supper is faith." 
 
 8. What kind of swearing is forbidden by Article 39, and what 
 kind of swearing does it allow ? 
 
 Average marks gained, 78. 
 
 Prayer Book 
 
 1. Explain what these parts of the Prayer Book are : (a) 
 Kalendar, (b) Preface, (c) Tables of Lessons. 
 
 2. On what six days in the year are special Psalms appointed 
 in the Prayer Book ? 
 
 3. Give the rule for finding Easter in any particular year. 
 
 4. Why is the Lord's Prayer sometimes set out in the Prayer 
 Book with the words at the end, " For Thine is the Kingdom," 
 etc., and sometimes without them ?
 
 APPENDIX B 323 
 
 5. Why are the Psalms called the Psalms of David ? How 
 often are the Psalms said in the course of a year ? 
 
 6. What is a collect ? When is the collect for a Sunday first 
 said ? 
 
 7. What do these words mean in connection with the Holy 
 Communion : epistle, comfortable words, preface, prayer of 
 humble access, prayer of consecration ? 
 
 8. On what days does the Prayer Book say baptisms should 
 take place ? At what point in morning and evening prayer are 
 children baptised ? 
 
 9. Explain : 
 
 (a) Cherubim and seraphim continually do cry. 
 
 (b) Sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving. 
 
 (c) Nothing doubting but that favourably alloweth this 
 
 charitable task of ours in bringing this infant to this 
 Holy Baptism. 
 
 Average marks gained, 87. 
 
 Creeds 
 
 1. What does the word " creed " mean ? Mention any short 
 confessions of faith you remember in the New Testament. 
 
 2. State what you know about the Nicene Creed. Is the Nicene 
 Creed in the service of Holy Communion the same creed exactly as 
 was drawn up at Nicaea in 325 A.D. ? 
 
 3. How does the world as we see it, apart from the Bible, tell 
 us of the existence of God ? 
 
 4. Give an account of our Lord's Resurrection. What two 
 Christian customs in general use to-day are special witnesses to 
 our Lord's Resurrection ? 
 
 5. "I believe in ... the forgiveness of sins." How does God 
 declare His forgiveness of sins in His Church to-day ? 
 
 6. " Above all things it is necessary that we hold the Catholic 
 Faith." What do we mean by (a) "A Catholic," (b) " the Catholic 
 Church," and (c) " the Catholic Faith " ? 
 
 7. Explain : 
 
 (a) Commonly called the creed of Athanasius. 
 
 (b) Inferior to the Father as touching his manhood. 
 
 (c) Yet they are not three Gods, but one God. 
 
 (d) They that have done good shall go into everlasting 
 
 life, and they that have done evil into everlasting 
 fire. 
 
 Average marks gained, 80.
 
 324 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 History oj the Church of England 
 
 1. What part did each of these men take in building up the 
 Church of England : St Augustine of Rome, St Aidan of Scot- 
 land, Theodore the Greek ? 
 
 2. What were the Constitutions of Clarendon ? Why was it 
 necessary to draw them up ? 
 
 3. What do you mean by the Reformation ? Mention some 
 great change brought about at the Reformation ? 
 
 4. Show how at the first the Puritans were different from 
 modern dissenters. What did they especially object to in the 
 Church's system of worship ? 
 
 5. When and under what king was the Society for the Propa- 
 gation of the Gospel founded, and the Society for Promoting 
 Christian Knowledge ? Note any ways in which these bodies 
 help the Church in Natal to-day. 
 
 6. What do you know about John Wesley and the Wesleyan 
 Revival ? 
 
 7. Who are the leaders of the Oxford Movement ? Mention 
 some results of the Oxford Movement. 
 
 Average marks gained, 64. 
 
 Bible, General, Part I. (O.T.) 
 
 1. Give a life of Abraham, and show how God's promises to 
 him were fulfilled. 
 
 2. Describe the giving of the Law on Mount Sinai. 
 
 3. Who was Balaam ? What did he prophesy ? What was 
 his end ? 
 
 4. What happened to the five kings who made war against 
 Gibeon ? 
 
 5. What is meant in the Old Testament by the word " judge " ? 
 Give a short account of one of the judges. 
 
 6. (a) How was David anointed ? (b) How did he become 
 king ? (c) How did he become king in Jerusalem ? 
 
 7. Describe the call of Elisha. 
 
 8. What book was discussed in the Temple in the time of King 
 Josiah ? 
 
 9. How was it that the Jews were allowed to come back from 
 exile ? 
 
 10. Explain these : Passover, Tabernacle, city of refuge, Baal, 
 Levite, Philistine. 
 
 Average marks gained, 79.
 
 APPENDIX B 325 
 
 Bible, General, Part II. (N.T.) 
 
 1. Give a list of the twelve apostles. Give a short life of St 
 Peter and of St James, the brother of John. 
 
 2. What is meant by the " Sermon on the Mount " ? Give 
 the teaching of the Sermon on the Mount on (a) almsgiving, 
 (b) murder, (c) adultery, (d) prayer. 
 
 3. What is a parable ? Give in your own words and explain 
 the parable of the " Unmerciful Servant," or the parable of the 
 " Talents." 
 
 4. Describe the burial and resurrection of our Lord. 
 
 5. What does the word " deacon " mean ? Give an account of 
 the call of the first deacons. 
 
 6. Write down something that happened to St Paul at the follow- 
 ing places : Troas, Ephesus, Caesarea, Corinth. 
 
 7. What Epistles of St Paul were written after he was set free 
 for the first time ? 
 
 8. What important doctrines are specially treated by St Paul 
 in (a) the Epistle to the Romans, (b) the First Epistle to the 
 Corinthians ? 
 
 9. What does the " New Testament " mean ? In what language 
 were the books of the " New Testament " first written ? 
 
 Average marks gained, 75: 
 
 Constitution and Canons 
 
 1. What does the word " province " mean when used of a 
 church ? Mention other provinces of the English Church besides 
 the Province of South Africa. 
 
 2. Mention the name of the Archbishop of Cape Town. Where 
 does he live ? How many diocesan bishops does he rule over ? 
 
 3. What is Provincial Synod ? How are the members of Pro- 
 vincial Synod chosen ? 
 
 4. What is meant by a vestry ? Who go to the vestry 
 meetings ? What is done at vestry meetings ? 
 
 5. If the bishop of a diocese leave his diocese or dies, how is 
 a new bishop appointed ? 
 
 6. What is meant by the " Provincial Clergy Widows' and 
 Orphans' Fund " ? What payment have the clergy to make to 
 this fund ? 
 
 7. If a man's wife died and he asked you to marry him to his 
 dead wife's sister, what do the canons say you ought to reply ? 
 
 Average marks gained, 87;
 
 326 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 APPENDIX C 
 
 SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS FOR NATIVE 
 TEACHERS' CERTIFICATES 
 
 A. CAPE 
 
 1. When I am forgotten, as I shall be, 
 
 And sleep in dull cold marble, where no mention 
 Of me must be heard of, say I taught thee ; 
 Say, Wolsey, that once trod the ways of glory, 
 And sounded all the depths and shoals of honour, 
 Found thee a way, out of his wreck, to rise in : 
 A sure and safe one, though my master missed it. 
 Mark but my fall. 
 
 (a) Give a general analysis of the above passage. 
 
 (b) Explain the use of the infinitive to rise, and of the word 
 but in the last line. (13) 
 
 2. (a) What auxiliary verbs and what parts of the principal 
 verb are used to form the passive voice, the perfect tense, the 
 progressive form and the emphatic form of an English verb ? 
 
 (b) How would you parse the word reading in each of the 
 following sentences : 
 
 (1) He excels in reading poetry. 
 
 (2) By the reading of good literature we are improved. 
 
 (3) I heard someone reading aloud. (9) 
 
 3. (a) What is the force of the prefix in infinite ? Show by three 
 or four examples how it is changed in composition, and give, with 
 examples, the corresponding prefixes in old English and Greek. 
 
 (b) What are the force and derivation of the suffixes in head- 
 long, honorary, asterisk, and songster ? 
 
 (c) Break up two of the following three words into their parts, 
 giving the derivation and meaning of each part : sympathetic, 
 colloquial, beggarly. 
 
 (d) Write short sentences to show the use of compliment and 
 complement, or of assent and ascent. (12) 
 
 4. Put into indirect speech the following advice given by Wolsey 
 to Cromwell : 
 
 Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace, 
 
 To silence envious tongues. Be just and fear not : 
 
 Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, 
 
 Thy God's, and truth's ; then if thou fall'st, O Cromwell, 
 
 Thou fall'st a blessed martyr! (5)
 
 APPENDIX C 327 
 
 5. Correct where necessary, giving your reason in each case : 
 
 (a) Now, children, put out your foot, like I do. 
 
 (b) If I was in your place, I would not go. 
 
 (c) I have never seen such a storm as we had last week, 
 
 Or, 
 
 State what were the periods of English history during which 
 Latin words came, directly or indirectly, into the English language, 
 and give one or two examples of words introduced during each 
 period. (6) 
 
 English Dictation 
 
 Philosophy has rescued the old myths from ridicule ; their ex- 
 travagances, even the most grotesque of them, can now be seen 
 to have their root in an idea, often a deep one, representing 
 features of natural history or of metaphysical speculation, and 
 we do not laugh at them any more. In their origin they were 
 the consecration of the first-fruits of knowledge, the expression of 
 a real reverential belief. Then time did its work on them ; know- 
 ledge grew, and they could not grow ; they became monstrous 
 and mischievous, and they were driven out by Christianity with 
 scorn and indignation. But it is with human institutions as it 
 is with men themselves ; we are tender with the dead when their 
 power to hurt us has passed away. 
 
 B. NATAL 
 
 School Method for Native Teachers' Third-Grade 
 Certificate, 1913 
 
 1. Which is the first " letter " to be taught in writing to the 
 children in Class A ? Give three examples of the longest com- 
 bination of letters the Class A pupils should be able to write at 
 the end of the term. 
 
 2. Explain fully how you will teach (a) " You saw a boy " as 
 an English conversational lesson, and (b) the first reading lesson 
 from English Chart No. i. Mention the class to which the 
 lesson would be given. 
 
 3. (a) In which class is spelling to be taught ? Describe the 
 best methods of teaching spelling in the infant department. 
 
 (b) Explain briefly and illustrate how tables should be taught, 
 taking 4x3 and 3 x 4 as your examples. 
 
 4. (a) Make a full scheme of the arithmetic work to be taught 
 to Class B during each of the five months.
 
 328 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (6) Set three sums to test Class B at the end of the term for 
 promotion. 
 
 (c) Explain if you see anything wrong in setting the following 
 sum to test Class D at the end of the term : 
 
 18 7 + 11+6x3. 
 
 5. (a) Give a short illustration of how Zulu composition is to 
 be taught to pupils in Class D. 
 
 (b) Describe briefly how you will teach the drawing of a hut. 
 
 6. Draw up a time-table for 39 pupils in the four infant classes 
 for Mondays. 
 
 7. (a) Name the registers a head teacher has to keep. 
 
 (b) (i) How often are the infant classes to be examined ? 
 (ii) When are pupils to be promoted from Class C to D ? (iii) 
 How can a teacher find the average attendance for a quarter ? 
 
 Algebra and Geometry for Third-Grade Certificate, 1913 
 
 1. (a) Explain what is meant by a negative quantity, and give 
 a practical illustration in support of your answer. 
 
 (b) In the expression ax-\-by c, which letters are generally 
 considered as denoting the known values ? 
 
 (c) Write the following in another correct way: (i) a x a X a x a; 
 (ii) 3X3aX3- 
 
 2. (a) Add together 4a+5 30+6070. 
 
 (b) Find the sum of 20 30+40 70. 
 
 (c) Add together x z , xy, y*. 
 
 (d) Add together 25^ 15*7+7; i^p ioq+^r; + 20^ 
 -r + s. 
 
 3. (a) Subtract from 8#* + 7# 9 the difference of the quanti- 
 ties 7# z 9# 5 and 8x* + n# + i2. 
 
 (b) (i) Explain why a (i c) and a b cdo not mean the 
 same thing, (ii) Find their respective values when a =12, 6=9, 
 and c = i . 
 
 (c) In a class there are / children 8 years and 2 months old, 
 m children 8 years and 6 months old, and n children 7 years and 
 5 months old. What is the average age ? 
 
 4. (a) What is meant by : (i) obtuse angle ; (ii) supplement- 
 ary angle ; (iii) isosceles triangle ; (iv) quadrilateral ? 
 
 (b) (i) Define an axiom. State any two axioms, (ii) Write 
 down the symbols which may be used for because and right angle. 
 
 5. In A ABC, AB = AC. Prove (i) that <ABC=<ACB, and 
 (ii) if AB, AC be produced to D, E respectively, that <DBC= 
 <ECB. 
 
 6. With centres A and B two circles are drawn intersecting in C
 
 APPENDIX C 329 
 
 and D. If AB and CD meet at E, prove that the triangles AEC, 
 AED are equal in all respects. 
 
 Drawing for Third-Grade Certificate, 1911 
 (The drawing is to be done with a pencil or pen, and without a ruler) . 
 
 1. (a) Draw four straight lines (about 2 inches long) in three 
 different directions. 
 
 (b) Explain how you will set about to teach the children to 
 draw" straight " lines. 
 
 2. How will you teach the drawing of " the face of a book " ? 
 What points will you give special attention to ? 
 
 3. Draw a " door," and then write brief notes of a lesson on it. 
 
 Grammar for Second-Grade Certificate, 1910 
 
 1. (a) Explain the meaning of monosyllable, sentence, analysis, 
 (b) Correct and punctuate : What what have he done Well it 
 
 cannot be help now we must try again to-morrow. 
 
 2. (a) What is the difference between " relative " and " in- 
 terrogative " pronouns ? Give sentences as examples. 
 
 (b) Name the possessive and objective cases, singular and 
 plural, of "I, she, it." 
 
 3. (a) Form adverbs from like, day, some, in a sentence. 
 
 (b) What is the imperative mood oi" am" ? 
 
 (c) Name four different suffixes, give their meaning, and 
 write a sentence with each word. 
 
 4. Write a letter to Mr Robert Plant, Maritzburg, and tell him 
 what the word " have " can be in grammar. 
 
 5. Analyse and parse the words underlined. 
 
 Lives of great men all remind us 
 
 We can make our lives sublime, 
 And, departing, leave behind us 
 
 Footprints on the sands of time. 
 
 C. TRANSVAAL. (Old Syllabus) 
 Geography for Native Teachers' First-Year Certificate, 1913 
 
 1. Explain the following geographical terms : cape, lake, 
 plateau, mountain, river basin. (15) 
 
 2. (a) What is meant by a continent ? 
 
 (b) Name the continents. 
 
 (c) What are the divisions of a continent called ? (10) 
 
 3. (a) What oceans wash the shores of the continent in which 
 you live ?
 
 33O THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 (b) Give the names of the oceans around the North and 
 South Poles ? 
 
 (c) What are the proportions of land and water on the earth ? 
 
 (10) 
 
 4. (a) Name three important rivers of the Transvaal. State 
 where their source is. Of what rivers are they tributaries ? 
 
 (b) Name three mountain ranges in the Transvaal, and state 
 as nearly as you can in what part they are. (15) 
 
 5. Draw a map of South Africa and mark the position of the 
 Transvaal. (20) 
 
 6. Give the names and positions of : 
 
 (a) Two towns of the Transvaal connected with the gold- 
 mining industry ; 
 
 (6) Two towns of the Transvaal connected with the coal- 
 mining industry ; 
 
 (c) Two towns of the Transvaal connected with the diamond- 
 mining industry. (15) 
 
 7. (a) When you walk towards a mountain which is a long way 
 off, you see the top before you see the bottom. Why is this ? 
 
 (b) How many miles would you have to travel to go once 
 round the world ? (5) 
 
 N.B. Ten marks will be allotted for neatness and style. 
 
 Arithmetic for Second-Year Certificate, 1913 
 
 1. (a) Convert { into an equivalent fraction having 208 for its 
 denominator. 
 
 (b) Write down three common measures of 24 and 60. 
 
 (c) What is the largest sum of money which is contained 
 an exact number of times in both i and us. 4d. ? (16) 
 
 2. How often must 4 be added to 16 that the sum may be 
 128? (14) 
 
 3. Find the value of f of 3f+7f guineas + | of J of 6f half- 
 crowns. (15) 
 
 4. Make out a bill for : 
 
 | cwt. salt @ ifd. per Ib ; 
 
 39 Ib. starch @ gjd. per Ib. ; 
 
 12 \ pints vinegar @ is. 8d. per gall. ; 
 
 J gross packets matches @ I3^d. for 3 packets ; 
 
 5j Ib. cheese @ id. per oz. (15) 
 
 5. Simplify ^7of\ f 'ti of 3 guineas. (15) 
 
 / f 01 34 3s 
 
 6. Find by practice the weight of 560 miles of wire, when i mile 
 weighs 2 tons n cwt. 48 Ib. (15)
 
 APPENDIX C 331 
 
 7. If 42 boys can write 180 pages in an hour, how many more 
 boys would be required to write the same in 45 minutes. (15) 
 
 8. If a labourer receives 2, 53. 6d. for 5 days' work, find how 
 much he will receive in a year if he is absent from work 13 days 
 besides Sundays. (15) 
 
 English Grammar for Second- Year Certificate, 1913 
 
 1. Analyse the following sentences : 
 
 (a) The sound of bells came softly from the distant kraals. 
 
 (b) Give me three shillings instantly. 
 
 (c) The birds singing in the trees made very pleasant music. 
 
 (d) There are, on the lonely veld, few pleasant trees or 
 shrubs. (18) 
 
 2. Parse the words underlined in question No. i. (12) 
 
 3. Give the feminine form of each of the following nouns : 
 horse, bull, ram, man, boy, drake, prince, king. (8) 
 
 4. Correct the following sentences : 
 
 (a) Men like you and I cannot always agree. 
 (6) He was the happiest child of the two. 
 
 (c) The bell has rang three times since six o'clock. 
 
 (d) The new teacher have come at last. 
 
 (e) Sit the book on the desk at once. (15) 
 
 5. Change the following simple sentences into complex ones, 
 without altering the meaning : 
 
 (a) The window being raised the paper blew out of the room. 
 
 (b) He came to the people in the market-place. 
 
 (c) He is riding a beautiful white horse. (9) 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 ORDINARY, STANDARD, AND SUPERIOR SCHOOLS 
 
 To foster a proper sense of pride in the schools, and to recognise 
 the efforts of the more progressive missionaries, Native com- 
 munities, and teachers, a plan of grading schools, which has 
 worked admirably among rural communities in some parts of the 
 United States, might well be followed in South Africa. 
 
 Any elementary or intermediate school which can meet the 
 minimum requirements of the Department of Native Education 
 in respect of site, building, equipment, qualifications of teachers, 
 and progress of pupils, might be regarded as an " ordinary "
 
 332 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Native school. A school which is able to supply more than meet 
 these minimum requirements might be regarded as a " standard " 
 school, and would then become entitled to a higher rate of 
 capitation grant, while a school excellent in all these respects 
 would be graded as a " superior " school, and would receive the 
 higher rate of capitation grant. 
 
 In addition to the increased rate of capitation grant, a device 
 which would encourage all concerned would be to supply a plate 
 
 engraved STANDARD SCHOOL or 
 
 SUPERIOR SCHOOL 
 
 to the schools which had earned them. After the Native super- 
 visor has reported, and the inspector has satisfied himself that 
 the school has deserved such recognition, the inspector would 
 personally visit the school, arrange for a function, and, in the 
 presence of parents, teachers, and pupils, declare the school a 
 " standard " or " superior " school, and have the plate affixed to 
 the door of the schoolhouse. 
 
 This device should not be despised because of its simplicity. 
 It is a recognition of effort which would appeal strongly to the 
 Native, and would almost certainly be as successful in South Africa 
 as it has been in the United States. 1 A suggested outline of the 
 requirements for each grade of school follows. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR A "STANDARD" SCHOOL - 
 i. Grounds 
 
 1. Ample playground, fenced in. 
 
 2. Good approaches to the school building. 
 
 3. Grass cut regularly, and cleared space round the school. 
 
 4. Two well-kept, widely separated outhouses. 
 
 5. Trees planted and properly tended, and (where possible) a 
 school garden. 3 
 
 2. The School Building 
 
 6. Approved building, in good repair and painted. 
 
 7. Well lighted and ventilated. 
 
 8. At least one blackboard for every two classes or standards. 
 
 9. Floor and interior clean and tidy. 
 
 1 For a report on its success in Illinois see The Twelfth 'Year-Book of 
 the National Association for the Scientific Study of Education, p. 65. 
 
 * Suggested by the plan in use in Illinois, U.S.A. 
 
 3 Suitable trees and flower seeds will be supplied free on application 
 to the Department of Native Education.
 
 APPENDIX D 333 
 
 3. Furnishings and Supplies 
 
 10. A seat and desk for each child. 
 
 1 1 . Good teacher's table and chair. 
 
 12. Set of maps and globe. 
 
 13. Necessary English and Zulu reading charts. 
 
 4. Organisation 
 
 14. School well organised. 
 
 15. Pupils well classified. 
 
 1 6. Registers and other records properly kept. 
 
 17. Good time-table regularly observed. 
 
 1 8. Regular attendance and good discipline. 
 
 19. Satisfactory industrial work. 
 
 5. The Teachers 
 
 20. Fully staffed. 
 
 21. Certificated head teacher. 
 
 22. Favourable reports from supervisors and inspector. 
 
 23. Receiving Government maximum grant. 
 
 6. The Children 
 
 24. Clean and tidy. 
 
 25. Making good progress. 
 
 26. Each child with all the prescribed text-books and writing 
 materials. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR A "SUPERIOR" SCHOOL 
 i. Grounds 
 
 i. Grounds ample for play, and for school gardens or farm, 
 properly fenced. 
 
 2. Good approaches, hardened where necessary. 
 
 3. Grass cut regularly, and cleared space round the school. 
 
 4. Well or cistern for drinking and washing. 
 
 5. Two well-kept, widely separated outhouses. 
 
 6. Trees planted and properly tended, and, wherever possible, 
 a school garden. 
 
 2. The School Building 
 
 7. Approved building, in good repair and painted. 
 
 8. At least two separate classrooms. 
 
 9. Properly lighted (i.e. from one side or from one side and 
 the rear). 
 
 10. Good ventilation and adjustable windows.
 
 334 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 1 1 . Boarded floor kept clean and tidy. 
 
 12. At least one blackboard for every two classes or standards. 
 
 3. Furnishings and Supplies 
 
 13. Seats and desks of assorted sizes for all children. 
 
 14. A good table and chair for each teacher. 
 
 15. A good bookcase. 
 
 1 6. At least thirty library books, some for children of each 
 standard. 
 
 17. Writing materials for class work. 
 
 18. A separate examination book for each child in and above 
 Standard II. 
 
 19. Two good wall-pictures. 
 
 20. Set of maps and a good globe. 
 
 21. Adequate drinking and washing arrangements. 
 
 4. Organisation 
 
 22. School well organised. 
 
 23. Pupils well classified. 
 
 24. Registers and other records properly kept. 
 
 25. Good time-tables regularly observed. 
 
 26. Adequate provision for instruction in elementary agri- 
 culture, or other industrial work, for boys, and sewing and domestic 
 work for girls. 
 
 5. The Teachers 
 
 27. School fully staffed. 
 
 28. Head teacher and at least one other member of the staff 
 certificated. 
 
 29. Favourable reports from supervisor or inspector. 
 
 30. Receiving Government maximum grant-in-aid. 
 
 6. The Children 
 
 31. Clean and tidy. 
 
 32. Regular in attendance and diligent. 
 
 33. Possessing all the prescribed text- books and necessary 
 writing materials. 
 
 34. Making " excellent " progress.
 
 APPENDIX E 335 
 
 APPENDIX E 
 MAIZE COMPETITIONS FOR NATIVE SCHOOLS 
 
 A VERY effective method of fostering an interest in agricultural 
 pursuits would be the establishment of maize and gardening com- 
 petitions for individual students in training institutions and board- 
 ing schools, and for elementary day schools. Some such condi- 
 tions as the following might be set up. 1 
 
 Maize Competitions for Students in Training 
 Institutions and Boarding Schools 
 
 1. A competition open to all male students in Government- 
 aided Native training colleges and institutions will be held in 
 the month of June in each year. 
 
 2. The amount of ground used shall be one quarter of an acre 
 for each boy. 
 
 3. All the work except the ploughing must be done by the 
 student. Seed will be supplied by the Department if desired. 
 
 4. Students must keep a record of the time spent in doing the 
 work, and of the expenditure (if any) for seed, fertiliser, etc. 
 
 5. The maize grown on the half acre shall be the property of 
 the student whether it wins a prize or not, and will, if desired, be 
 purchased by the Department at current local rates. The decision 
 of the Department as to the current local rate shall be final. 
 
 6. The following prizes will be awarded by the Department : 
 
 s. d. 
 
 One First Prize of ^5 . . .500 
 
 Five Second Prizes of 2, los. . . 12 10 o 
 Ten Third Prizes of i . . . .1000 
 Fourteen Consolation Prizes of zos. 700 
 
 34 10 o 
 
 7. The following basis shall be used in awarding the prizes : 
 
 Per cent. 
 Greatest yield per acre . . . . -5 
 
 Best showing of profit 30 
 
 Best written account of history of crop . . 20 
 
 Total . . .100 
 
 1 The conditions are based on those of the well-known Corn Clubs 
 in the United States.
 
 336 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 Gardening Competition for Female Students 
 
 1. A competition open to all female students in Government 
 and Government-aided training colleges, institutions, and 
 boarding schools will be held in the month of December of each 
 year. 
 
 2. The amount of ground used shall be an eighth of an acre 
 for each girl. 
 
 3. The crops sown shall include at least three of the following : 
 beans, ground nuts, amadumbi, sweet potatoes, round potatoes, 
 amabeli, pumpkin. 
 
 4. All the work except the ploughing must be done by the 
 student. 
 
 5. An allowance of 53. per candidate will be paid to the prin- 
 cipal of the institute for seed. 
 
 6. Students must keep a record of the time spent in doing the 
 work, and of the expenditure (if any) for seed, fertiliser, etc. ' 
 
 7. The crops produced on the quarter acre shall be the pro- 
 perty of the student whether she wins a prize or not. 
 
 8. The following prizes will be awarded by the Department : 
 
 One First Prize of ^3 3 
 
 Five Second Prizes of 2 10 
 
 Ten Third Prizes of i 10 
 
 Fourteen Consolation Prizes of i os. ... 7 
 
 30 
 
 9. The following basis shall be used in awarding the prizes : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Best crop 50 
 
 Best showing of profit 30 
 
 Best written account of history of crop . . 20 
 
 Total . . . 100 
 
 N.B. In awarding the prizes the judges may take into account 
 (a) age of competitor, (b) relative native fertility of ground, (c) 
 local seasonal conditions. 
 
 Maize Competitions for Native Day Schools 
 
 1. A competition open to all Government-aided Native day 
 schools will be held in June of each year. 
 
 2. The amount of ground cultivated shall be not less than one 
 and a half acres.
 
 APPENDIX E 337 
 
 3 . All the work except the ploughing must be done by the pupils. 
 Sufficient seed for the amount of ground cultivated will be for- 
 warded by the Department to the nearest railway station. 
 
 4. The teacher must keep a record of the time spent in doing 
 the work, and of the expenditure (if any) for seed, fertiliser, etc. 
 
 5. The maize grown on the plot shall be the property of the 
 pupils whether it wins a prize or not. The grantee of the school 
 shall arrange for the sale of maize, and the products shall be used 
 for the direct benefit of the pupils, e.g. in school prizes, pictures, 
 or sports apparatus. 
 
 6. Each school wishing to enter for the competition shall nomi- 
 nate for the approval of the Department a trustworthy person to 
 supervise the weighing of the produce of the plot, and to submit 
 to the Department the certificate of weight, etc. 
 
 7. The following prizes will be awarded : 
 
 I s. d. 
 
 One First Prize of 5 . . .500 
 
 Five Second Prizes of 2, IDS. . . 12 10 o 
 Ten Third Prizes of i . . . .1000 
 
 27 o o 
 
 8. The following basis shall be used in awarding the prizes : 
 
 Per cent. 
 Best crop ........ 50 
 
 Best showing of profit . . . . .30 
 
 Best written account of history of crop (ten 
 accounts required) . . . . . . 20 
 
 Total . 100 
 
 APPENDIX F 
 
 PROPOSED SCALE OF GRANTS TO NATIVE 
 INSTITUTIONS IN THE TRANSVAAL 
 
 The following scale of grants-in-aid recommended by the 
 Transvaal Council of Education awaits the endorsement of the 
 Legislature : 
 
 22
 
 338 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 I. Training Institutions 
 
 1. A grant for land or buildings. 
 
 2. Grants for general equipment, consisting of 
 
 (a) An initial or development grant not exceeding ^300. 
 
 (b) An annual grant not exceeding 53. for each pupil 
 
 enrolled. 
 
 3. Grants for industrial equipment, consisting of 
 
 (a) An initial or development grant not exceeding 100. 
 
 (b) An annual grant not exceeding 53. for each pupil 
 
 enrolled. 
 
 4. Salary grants for teachers on the for principle. 
 
 (a) A grant not exceeding 100 per annum for the officer 
 
 in charge of the boarding establishment. 
 
 (b) A grant not exceeding ^250 per annum for the prin- 
 
 cipal. 
 
 (c) A grant not exceeding 200 per annum for each 
 
 assistant. 
 
 5. Salary grants for teachers not on the for principle. 
 
 (a) A grant not exceeding 200 per annum in the case of 
 
 a man, and 150 in the case of a woman, for a 
 whole-time industrial teacher. 
 
 (b) A grant at the discretion of the Director of Education 
 
 for a part-time industrial teacher. 
 
 6. Bursaries not exceeding 10 per annum on behalf of each 
 Native student who makes satisfactory progress, and who signs 
 an agreement to teach in a Government-aided institution for 
 three years. 
 
 II. Industrial Schools 
 
 1. A grant for land or buildings. 
 
 2. Grants for equipment, consisting of 
 
 (a) An initial or development grant not exceeding 100. 
 
 (b) An annual grant not exceeding 55. for each pupil 
 
 enrolled. 
 
 3. Salary grants for teachers 
 
 (a) A grant not exceeding ^200 per annum in the case of a 
 male and 150 per annum in the case of a female 
 European teacher.
 
 APPENDIX F 339 
 
 (b) A grant not exceeding 50 per annum in the case of 
 a male and ^30 per annum in the case of a female 
 Native teacher. 
 
 4. Bursaries not exceeding 10 per annum on behalf of each 
 Native pupil whose admission is approved. 
 
 III. Primary Schools 
 
 1 . Grants for general equipment 
 
 (a) An initial or development grant not exceeding 5. 
 
 (b) An annual grant not exceeding 53. for each pupil 
 
 enrolled. 
 
 2. Grants for industrial equipment 
 
 (a) An initial or development grant not exceeding 5. 
 
 (b) An annual grant not exceeding 23. for each pupil 
 
 enrolled. 
 
 2. Salary grants for teachers 
 
 (a) A grant for a properly qualified European principal 
 
 or assistant for industrial work, of the amount 
 paid for similarly qualified teachers in European 
 schools. 
 
 (b) A grant not exceeding 84 per annum for an approved 
 
 European assistant. 
 
 (c) A grant of ^48 per annum, rising by annual increments 
 
 of ^4 to 60 per annum, for a fully qualified Native 
 assistant. 1 
 
 (d) A grant of 36 per annum, rising by annual increments 
 
 of ^4 to ^48 per annum, for a provisionally qualified 
 Native assistant. 
 
 (e) A grant of 16 per annum, rising by annual increments 
 
 of 2 to 24 per annum, for an unqualified Native 
 assistant. 
 
 (/) A grant to be fixed by the Director of Education for 
 a part-time industrial teacher. 2 
 
 1 Grants for assistants are paid as follows : 
 
 (a) For the first assistant when the average attendance is from 
 
 thirty-five to sixty-nine. 
 
 (b) For the second assistant when the average attendance is from 
 
 seventy to ninety-nine. 
 
 (c) For the third and succeeding assistants when the average 
 
 attendance has increased by thirty. 
 
 2 In all schools " training " (i.e. religious, moral, physical, and in- 
 dustrial training) must occupy at least half the school time.
 
 340 THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIVE 
 
 IV. Special Instruction Courses for Teachers 
 already in the Service l 
 
 (a) A grant at the rate of gs. per hour, and not exceeding 36 
 in all, for each approved instructor. 
 
 (6) A grant at the rate of 303. on behalf of each teacher in 
 regular attendance at the course. 
 
 (c) A grant for books and material. 
 
 1 These short courses, lasting about four weeks, are held periodically 
 for the benefit of teachers already in the service. 
 
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