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 THE CATHOLIC DOCTRINE 
 
 OF 
 
 AN HISTORICAL INQUIRY INTO ITS DEVELOPMENT 
 IN THE CHURCH. 
 
 With an Introduction on the Principle of 
 Theological Developments. 
 
 BY 
 
 HENEY NUTCOMBE OXENHAM, M.A., 
 
 TOHMEKLY SCHOLAR OF BA.LLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD. 
 
 " Non mors Bed yoluntas placuit sponte morientis." 
 
 S. BERNARD. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, AND 
 GREEN. 
 
 MDCCCLXV.
 
 T. AND G. 8HHIMPTON, OXFORD.
 
 StacR 
 Annex 
 
 5 
 
 TO THE RIGHT REVEREND 
 
 JOHN IGNATIUS VON DOLLINGER, D.D., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH, 
 PROVOST OF THE CHAPEL ROYAL, ETC., ETC., 
 
 Cfcisi Volume, 
 
 COMMENCED AT HIS SUGGESTION, 
 
 AND OWING MUCH TO OPPORTUNITIES OF INTERCOURSE 
 WITH HIM, 
 
 IS, WITH HIS PERMISSION, 
 
 INSCRIBED, 
 
 IN TOKEN OF GRATITUDE FOR MANY KINDNESSES, 
 
 AND WITH EVERY SENTIMENT 
 OF AFFECTIONATE ADMIRATION AND RESPECT. 
 
 1.127674
 
 PBEFACE. 
 
 THE scope of this Essay is not controversial, but his- 
 torical. It is designed to trace through the patristic, 
 scholastic, and later periods of theology the Catholic 
 doctrine on the Atonement of the Son of God, compar- 
 ing it also with the principal Reformed systems, to 
 some of which the author ventures to think that the 
 antipathy felt by many not irreligious minds towards 
 the whole idea of Atonement is in great measure due. 
 He has had, therefore, a certain undercurrent of prac- 
 tical aim, in showing that objections urged with more 
 or less reason against what are either doubtful excres- 
 cences or erroneous perversions of the doctrine do not 
 apply to it, as part of the Church's faith. But this 
 secondary purpose has never been allowed (he trusts) 
 to interfere with strict fidelity of statement in record- 
 ing the belief whether of individuals or communities.
 
 IT PREFACE. 
 
 References are in every case given to the "writers or for- 
 mularies under review, and their meaning is expressed, 
 as far as possible, in their own words. 
 
 Of authorities consulted, other than those forming 
 the direct subject of inquiry, the following deserve 
 special mention; for the Fathers of the first three 
 centuries, Bahr's Die Lehre der Kirche vom Tode Jesu 
 in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten (Sulzbach, 1832), 
 Thomasius' Origenes. Ein Beitrag zur Dogmengeschichte 
 des dritten Jahrhundcrts (Xiirnberg, 1837), Redepen- 
 ning's Origenes. Eine Darstellung seines Lebem und 
 seiner Lehre (Bonn, 1841); for the later patristic and 
 the scholastic period especially, and partly for the 
 Reformation, Baur's Die christliche Lehre von der Ver- 
 sbhnung (Tubingen, 1838);* for the patristic period 
 generally, Petavius De Incarnaiione Verbi, Thomassin 
 De Incarnationc Verlti Dei, Fabricius De Veritate Re- 
 ligionis Christiance, cap. 41 ; and for the Reformation 
 period Mohler's Symbolism (Robertson's Trans., Lon- 
 don, 1843), Bellinger's Die Reformation (Regensburg, 
 1848), vol. iii., and Newman's Lectures on Justifica- 
 tion (Oxford, 1840). Other authorities will be men- 
 
 * Baur's work requires to be read with caution. He is on the whole reliable 
 as a chronicler of opinions, but with a passion for systematizing, which some- 
 times leads him to give exclusive or disproportionate value to one side of a 
 writer's view, to the exclusion or neglect of others. This is particularly shown 
 in his treatment of the Fathers.
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 tioned, as they occur. The author desires further 
 to put on record his great personal obligations to 
 the kindness of Dr. Dollinger, both for many valuable 
 suggestions, and for allowing him the free use of his 
 extensive library. 
 
 It may be as well to observe, that the manuscript was 
 completed before he had an opportunity of referring 
 to Archbishop Thomson's Bampton Lectures on the 
 Atonement, which he had heard preached at Oxford 
 in 1853, but had not seen in print ; only two of them, 
 however the sixth and seventh deal in part, and 
 from the nature of the case very briefly, with the his- 
 tory of the doctrine. As a general rule, direct criti- 
 cism on contemporary literature has been purposely 
 avoided in this volume, as unsuitable to the character 
 of a work not meant to be controversial ; but it has 
 not therefore been composed in forgetfulness of what 
 living writers have said, or of the tone of the serial 
 press on the subject. The treatise is chiefly occupied 
 with recording the opinions of others ; so far as it ex- 
 presses his own, the author need scarcely add, that he 
 trusts it will be found to contain nothing out of har- 
 mony with the spirit and teaching of the Church. 
 
 Lent, 1865.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ON THE PRINCIPLE OF THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS . . . . . . ix 
 
 Not* to Introduction. The Atonement and the Immaculate Conception li 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PBELEMINAHY CONSIDERATIONS ON THE SUBJECT, AND THE METHOD OP 
 TBKATING IT. 
 
 General aspect of the question On the 'justice ' and ' wrath' of God, and the 
 'necessity' of Atonement On foreshadowings of Atonement in the human 
 mind, and in history On its method Its relation to the Incarnation, and to 
 Justification Right way of using testimony of Fathers and other authorities 
 Conclusion 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE ANTE-NICENE FATHEBS. 
 
 Unsystematic character of ante-Nicene writers Their way of treating the Atone- 
 ment. First Century Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius, Poly- 
 carp, Letter to Diognetus. Second Century Justin Martyr, Clement of 
 Alexandria, Claudius Apollinaris. Third Century Tertullian, Hippolytus, 
 Cyprian, Methodius. General summary of teaching of first three centuries 
 Theory of a ransom paid to Satan first clearly enunciated hy Irenaus 
 eystematized more fully by Origen 16
 
 CONTENTS. Til 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE LATER FATHERS AND SCOTUS ERIGENA. 
 
 The Atonement treated by later Fathers under two aspects, as a ransom to Satan, 
 and as a sacrifice to God Three ideas included in notion of a ransom to Satan; 
 his claim, the deceit practised on him, the necessity for compensation Illus~ 
 trated from the Fathers Uses of the theory Its difficulties Its Gnostic 
 origin and character Objections of Gregory Nazianzen and John of Damascus 
 The death of Christ viewed as a sacrifice to God Two ideas brought out in 
 controversies of fourth and fifth centuries, as to nature of sin and results of 
 hypostatic union in Christ No change in Divine mind Eelations of the death 
 of Christ to the Incarnation in patristic teaching compared with that of the 
 first Reformers Speculations of Scotus Erigena . . . . . . 39 
 
 Note to Chapter ///.On Strauss' Estimate of the Belief of the Early Church 67 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ST. ANSELJI AND TUB SCHOOLMEN. 
 
 Transition from patristic to scholastic era General characteristics of the latter 
 its division. First Period : The Cur Deus Homo an epoch in the his- 
 tory of Christian doctrine analysis of its contents remarks upon it 
 Abelaird Bernard Robert Pulleyn Richard and Hugh of St, Victor Peter 
 Lombard. Second Period, of more systematic Aristotelian scholasticism 
 Bonaventure Aquinas Duns Scotus Scotist and Thomist views of the In- 
 carnation compared their bearing on the doctrine of the Atonement 
 "Wicliffe, Raymund of Sabunde, Nicolas of Cusa . . . . . . 72 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 
 
 Socinian and Rationalist views of Atonement, how related to this Inquiry 
 Differences of Catholic and Protestant teaching on redemption chiefly shown 
 in different view of justification Brief statement of Catholic doctrine on 
 man's original state, the fall, and justification Lutheran doctrine on these 
 subjects Calvinistic doctrine, how far different and in what respects nearer the 
 Catholic Later Reformed systems a reaction from extreme Lutheran and 
 Calvinistic views Osiander Anabaptists Socinianism Arminianism 
 Quakerism Emmanuel Swedenborg Grotius' treatise on Satisfaction analyzed 
 remarks upon it Character of later German theology Dippel Generaj 
 remark on earlier Anglican divines Hooker, Pearson, Butler, Magee . . 108 
 
 Note to Chapter V. On Baxter's Vjiew of Imputation . . . . . . 146
 
 Till CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 
 
 General characteristics Examples of theological treatment of Atonement : 
 Tournely, Le Grande, Robbe Examples of devotional treatment : Massiot, 
 Plowden The Sacrifice of the Cross and the Eucharist German Catholic 
 theology in the 19th century, Kliipfel and Dobmayer Klee Giinther Baader 
 Pabst The dispute between Malebranche and Arnauld in 17th century 
 Future of theology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 
 
 Notes to Chapter VI. : 
 
 I. Recent Lutheran theology on the Motive of the Incarnation . . 1 74 
 17. On the Connection between the Sacrifice of the Cross and the 
 
 Eucharist ..178 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MOEAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMEKT IN RELATION TO MAN. 
 
 Summary to be gathered from what has gone before Reflections suggested by it. 
 The Passion 1 . a bond of sympathy and instrument of power : illustrations 
 2. the consecration of suffering into a means of grace 3. the great lesson of 
 self-sacrifice 4. and of Christian tenderness 5. the interpretation and cor- 
 rective of ideal aspirations 6. the pledge of Divine compassion Con- 
 clusion .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 182 
 
 Note to Chapter VII. On certain Contrasts of Christian and Heathen 
 
 Civilization.. 202
 
 INTRODUCTION
 
 IXTBODUCTIOX. 
 
 ON THE PRINCIPLE OF THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS. 
 
 IT can hardly be doubted, that one of the most important 
 theological questions of the day, on which many of our de- 
 tailed controversies will be found to hinge, and into which 
 they must ultimately be resolved, is that of developments in 
 Christian belief. From failing to recognize this great law of 
 revealed as of scientific truth, thousands are prejudiced against 
 dogmatic Christianity altogether, while others hold it with 
 but a feeble and uncertain grasp. Nor can we look with any 
 confidence for the return to unity of separated religious 
 bodies, while some rigidly adhere to the principle of a lifeless 
 and unfruitful tradition, and others insist on an exclusive ap - 
 peal to the bare letter of Scripture. This question will ac- 
 cordingly be found, if I mistake not, to lie at the root of half 
 our religious disputes, and some understanding upon it is an 
 indispensable preliminary for their appreciation or adjust- 
 ment. 
 
 There is of course a broad line to be drawn between matters 
 of faith, and of theological opinion, between what is put be- 
 
 t
 
 X THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 fore us as a portion of tlie revealed deposit, and what may be 
 reasonably, or probably, or piously believed as an inference 
 from it. But there are also theological inferences, which 
 come to be so clearly ascertained in the course of ages, that 
 they are at length fixed by authoritative decisions, and accepted 
 as part of the original revelation, which, though not explicitly 
 contained in the words of Apostles and Evangelists, is felt to 
 be involved in the general scope of their teaching, and to 
 supply the right key for its harmonious interpretation. 
 
 It is natural, then, to prefix to a work occupied with trac- 
 ing the history of a particular doctrine some observations on 
 this principle of growth and development in Catholic theology, 
 though all that can be attempted within our present limits is 
 to sketch out roughly some main outlines of thought on the 
 subject. And as the method of my Treatise is not contro- 
 versial but historical, so it will be my aim in this Introductory 
 chapter to speak as little controversially as the subject admits. 
 A statement of principles cannot be made too clear, but it is 
 never less persuasive than when thrown into a polemical shape. 
 Most earnestly would I desire to take for my motto in all that 
 I may say that noble maxim of Christian antiquity, which, 
 if not verbally stated in the works of St. Augustine, has ever 
 been held to express the mind of that great Saint and Teacher 
 in the Church of God ; In necessariis unitas, in duliis libertas, 
 in omnibus caritas. 
 
 The development of doctrine, it can hardly be needful to 
 observe, does not mean that there is a constant succession of 
 fresh revelations in the Church to supplement or to supersede
 
 INTRODUCTION. XI 
 
 the revelations of Christmas and Pentecost. Still less does 
 it mean, as others have objected, that Christian doctrine re 
 ceives, as time goes on, a series of fresh accessions, from the 
 admixture or fusion of heterogeneous elements. Let me 
 illustrate my meaning by an example. Supposing, as has 
 sometimes been maintained, that the invocation of Saints had 
 originally sprung from a gradual adoption of polytheistic prac- 
 tices, as the converted heathen began to multiply and domi- 
 nate in the Church, instead of being the natural outgrowth of 
 a deeper view of the Incarnation ; or suppose, as others have 
 urged, that the doctrine of the Trinity was imported from 
 Neo-Platonism into the Gospel ; that would, in either case, 
 be an accretion, but not a true development. What is meant 
 is simply this that the Christian revelation once, and once 
 for all, ' delivered to the Saints/ through the Incarnation of 
 the Eternal Word, and from the lips of His inspired servants, 
 though fully apprehended from the first for all necessary ends, 
 has grown, and was intended to grow, by degrees on the con- 
 sciousness of the Church, illumined by the abiding presence 
 of the Divine Comforter. 
 
 In the process of development, as in Scripture, in sacra- 
 ments, and in everything which concerns our relations with 
 the unseen world, there must be two factors, an earthly and 
 a divine.* The human element is here supplied by the 
 labours of theologians, the meditations of Saints, and even 
 by the external, perhaps antagonistic, speculations of men of 
 
 * On the combination of divine and human elements in the Church, see 
 Mohler's Symbolism, Pt. I. ch. v. sect. 36.
 
 Xll THE ATOXEiTEXT. 
 
 science, men of the world, heretics and unbelievers.* All 
 these last are in truth unconsciously serving a .common end, 
 as the Gibeonites of old were ' hewers of wood and drawers of 
 water ' to the chosen people, whom they hated or despised. 
 Those opposite tendencies of the Eastern and Western mind, 
 which have made ancient Greece the mistress of speculative 
 philosophy, and Rome the fountain of law even for modern 
 Europe, reappear in the history of Christian theology. To 
 the one it was given to investigate the revealed nature and 
 attributes of God, to the other His purposes and His gifts for 
 man. Thus, again, theology took its rise in the third century 
 at Alexandria, the centre alike of the Neo-Platonist revival 
 and of Gnosticism, and had something to learn from both ; 
 while afterwards, the accidental introduction, as men count 
 accident, of Aristotle's writings into mediaeval Europe by the 
 Crusaders, in an Arabian translation, was the immediate origin 
 of scholasticism, which, beginning with St. Anselin, shaped 
 through four centuries the whole theology of Christendom. 
 And thus, to use the words of a high authority, " gradually, 
 and in the course of ages, Catholic inquiry has taken certain 
 
 * I subjoin all the more readily the following apposite passage from the Com- 
 monilorium of St. Vincent of Lerins, as his famous quod semper, quod ubique, 
 quod ab omnibus, has been frequently, but most incorrectly, quoted, in opposition 
 to the theory of development altogether. "Xullusne ergo in Ecclesia Christi 
 profectus habebitur religionis ? Haleatur plane et maximus. Nam quis ille est 
 tarn invidus hominibus, tarn eiosus Deo, qui istud prohibere conetur r Sed ita 
 ul vere profectus sit ille Jidei, twn permntatio. Siquidem ad profectum pertinet 
 ut in semet ipsum unaquoeque res amplificetur ; ad pennutationem vero ut aliquid 
 ex alio in aliud transvertatur. Crescat igitur oportet, et niulto vehementerque 
 proficiat, tarn singulorum quam omnium, tarn unius hominis quam totius Ecclo- 
 sire, setatum et soeculorum gradibus, intelligentia, sapientia, scientia : sed in euo 
 dur.taxat genere, eodem scilicet dogmate, eodem sensu, eademque sententia.''
 
 INTRODUCTION. Xlll 
 
 definite shapes, and has thrown itself into the form of a science, 
 with a method and a phraseology of its own, under the intel- 
 lectual handling of great minds, such as St. Athanasius, St. 
 Augustine, and St. Thomas." As a matter of fact, there is 
 probably no single case where the process of doctrinal forma- 
 tion has not been more or less directly promoted by the ques- 
 tionings of heresy. Truth is struck out from the clash of con- 
 flicting opinions, to be fixed by theological science, and finally 
 ratified by the sentence of the Church.* And this brings us 
 to the second stage in the course of development. So far 
 many would agree with us, who will differ, when we come to 
 the divine or supernatural element in the process, which is 
 supplied in the Church by the continual guidance of the Holy 
 Ghost, and preserves her in the last resort from giving her 
 authoritative sanction to any development not in accordance 
 with the original revelation and the mind of God. Whether 
 that sanction be expressed through the medium of a Council, 
 as in the case of the 6p.oovaios, or directly ascertained through 
 
 * " There are those indeed who seem as though they would be glad to divest 
 themselves of the advantage of such decisions. They would rather fall hack on 
 the unreflecting simplicity of that early faith, which rested only on the single 
 facts of the Gospel. But this is to he ignorant, that the gradual expansion of 
 Christian doctrines was only the growth of the religious mind as, under the 
 moulding power of the Holy Ghost, it compared the individual truths with which 
 it had heen entrusted. Those truths must have resolved themselves into wrong 
 
 combinations if they had not been resolved into right ones Those who seek 
 
 to regain it (early simplicity of faith) hy throwing away what was earned hy 
 the religious impulse then given to the age, do hut restore the imbecility of child- 
 hood without its innocence." "Wilberforce's Doctrine of the Incarnation, p. 129. 
 This development during the early ages, as regards the formation of the Canon, 
 is traced by Mr. Westcott in his Bible in the Church (Macmillan, 1864), only he 
 does not seem to recognize the similar operation of the ' divine instinct ' of the 
 later Church.
 
 XIV THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 the sensusfidelium, as with the Athanasian Creed, or by the 
 voice of the Holy See, as with the recent definition of the Im- 
 maculate Conception, is immaterial to my present argument ; 
 nor need any question be raised here as to the proper organ of 
 its utterance ; I am simply concerned with the result. Such, 
 then, is a brief statement of the theory ; the chief objections 
 which have been urged against it will be noticed by and 
 by. My present object is rather to explain than to defend it. 
 First, then, I observe, what is obvious, that the gradual 
 development of Christian doctrine is analogous to the develop- 
 ment of Christian history. The grain of mustard seed, which 
 was to grow into a mighty tree, is emblematic alike of the reve- 
 lation of Christ, and of the Church He established with His 
 Blood. As the one was to expand from a ' hidden sect in the 
 bosom of Judaism,' like an unborn child in its mother's womb, 
 into a 'world-Church,' a 'world- kingdom,' coextensive with 
 the nations of the earth ; so too was the original deposit of 
 'facts, principles, dogmatic germs, and intimations, 'afterwards 
 summarized in the Apostles' Creed, not a mere ' lifeless pos- 
 session ready-made for all times to be taken care of,' but a 
 Krrjfia t'c del destined to expand, through the toil of successive 
 ages, and the corporate consciousness of the faithful enlight- 
 ened from on high, into all the majestic fulness and coherence 
 of Catholic theology.* There was to be a growth, incessant, 
 but with no break of continuity, continuo non vero per saltum, 
 alike in the Church's intellectual consciousness and her or- 
 
 Bellinger's Christenthum und Kirche in Her Ztit dtr Grundleyuny, pp. 
 162-164, 219-221.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XV 
 
 ganic life. Tlie office and authority of the Holy See were 
 recognized with growing distinctness, as the practical import- 
 ance of a visible centre of unity became apparent in the clash 
 of conflicting interests and diverse nationalities at work with- 
 in the common fold ; and so, too, successive theological contro- 
 versies were the providential means of bringing out in detail 
 the due * proportion ' and harmony of the faith. The fulness 
 of truth was wrapped up in the apostolic tradition, the world- 
 wide religion lay hid in the upper room at Jerusalem, as the 
 results of mathematical science are involved in its axioms, or 
 the oak is contained in the acorn. 
 
 And, next, we may trace a certain historical sequence in 
 the evolution of doctrines running parallel to the order of the 
 Creed. First, in the contest with Greek philosophy, the 
 doctrine of the Trinity had to be evolved and fixed, and this 
 mainly occupied the two first (Ecumenical Councils ; the four 
 next were engaged in formalizing and guarding the faith of 
 the Incarnation ; the first definition on the Eucharist occurs 
 in the seventh (787, A JD.) Later on, and in the West, the 
 subjective questions of grace and free will, first mooted by St. 
 Augustine, and their mutual relations in the justification of 
 man (involving the doctrine of ' merit,' so strangely misunder- 
 stood afterwards) presented themselves to the mind of the 
 Church ; as also the theology of the sacraments, in their nature, 
 number, and distinguishing characteristics. The results of 
 her judgment on all these points found a luminous exposition 
 in the Catechism and decrees of Trent, from which the later doc- 
 trinal symbols of the Greek Church do not materially differ. 
 It was in the subjective side of their theology that the strength
 
 XVI THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 of the Reformers chiefly lay. Luther desired to shift the 
 verdict from the Synod, and the lecture-room, and the cloister, 
 and to make his appeal direct to the hearts and experiences of 
 mankind. He questioned them, not of the nature or mission of 
 the Redeemer, but of how the sinner is made just before God. 
 The controversies of our own day turn principally on the last 
 division of the Creed, which deals with the Person and Offices 
 of the Holy Ghost, and concern more especially His inspira- 
 tion of Scripture, and His abiding Presence in the Church. 
 What the Protestant movement was to the sixteenth century, 
 that is the Rationalistic movement to our own. 
 > I observe further, that, if the principle of development be 
 denied, only two theories remain on which any positive 
 scheme of Christian doctrine can be maintained ; first, that 
 laid down by Chillingworth, and accepted in name, but re- 
 jected in practice, by nearly all Protestant communities, ' The 
 Bible, and the Bible alone, the religion of Protestants.' On 
 the actual results of this theory, when fairly carried out, I shall 
 have something to say, in another connection, hereafter. 
 Suffice it to remark here, that, when attempted to be reduced 
 to practice for corporate purposes, it is obliged to assume at 
 starting so much of the Catholic principle as will cover the 
 authenticity and inspiration of the Bible, and also some par- 
 ticular scheme of interpretation ; if either of these postulates 
 be denied, the theory falls to the ground as a basis for any 
 definite form of belief.* In the abstract, however, it is in- 
 telligible and coherent. The other theory in fact, though 
 
 * This inconsistency of Protestant systems is dwelt upon in Mackay's 
 Tubingen School and its An!eckn(s. London, 1863.
 
 IXTBODUCTIOX. xvii 
 
 not in words, admits the principle of development, but seeks 
 to limit its operation to the early ages. According to this 
 latter, we ought to accept not only the Bible, but the Catholic 
 creeds i. e., the Apostolic, Nicene, and Athanasian together 
 with the dogmatic decrees of the earlier Councils, and the 
 judgment of the early Church on the Canon of Scripture, re- 
 jecting all later developments, or as they would be called 
 ' innovations,' such as Purgatory or the Double Procession. 
 This principle is professed by the Church of England, and, 
 with more rigid consistency, by the Greek Church, and is 
 acted upon in various degrees, though disclaimed in theory, 
 by the principal Protestant communities of Europe. It has 
 an advantage over the former, or purely Bible theory, in pro- 
 viding, up to a certain point, a definite system of belief ; but 
 it is deficient in applicability to fresh circumstances, and in 
 internal coherence. For the question at once occurs, Where 
 are ice to draw the line ? Theological science cannot come to 
 & standstill, and if we are bound to accept the definitions of 
 Nice and Chalcedon, why are we to reject the decrees of later 
 Councils ? If the scnsus fidelium is enough to guarantee the 
 Athanasian dogmas, and (in the Anglican Church) the Filioque, 
 why is it inadequate to guarantee the Invocation of Saints, or 
 Purgatory ? The Holy Ghost, who guided the Church during 
 the earlier ages, cannot be supposed to have withdrawn His 
 illuminating gifts ; and, since the new forms and varied re- 
 sources of error are confined to no one particular period, so 
 neither should be the Church's capabilities for meeting them, 
 if need be, by fresh definitions, and a fuller exhibition of that 
 portion of revealed truth which happens to be assailed. "We
 
 XV111 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 can understand there being no development at all that is the 
 ' Bible only ' theory ; but it is not easy to understand (if I 
 may be allowed to borrow a political formula) development 
 with a principle of finality. We cannot, with the Danish 
 monarch of old, say to the rising spring tide, " Thus far shalt 
 thou come and no farther." If the stream once began to flow, 
 we clearly have a right to ask where it was dammed up, and 
 \chy. That this difficulty is something more than a mere 
 intellectual puzzle is shown by the fact, that both the Greek 
 and Anglican Churches have had to frame new formulas since 
 the division, and will appear further when we come to speak 
 of the modern rationalistic school. It may suffice to suggest 
 it here. 
 
 There have no doubt been those in other days, when history 
 was less studied and criticism almost unknown, who have 
 supposed, that all now taught as Catholic doctrine could be 
 discovered in the writings of the early Fathers. Such a 
 view is no longer held by any well-informed man. It is be- 
 coming daily clearer, that the real question is, not whether 
 such and such details of doctrine are or are not develop- 
 ments (for the Thirty-nine Articles, and the Confession of 
 Augsburg are no less a development than the Creed of Pius 
 IV.), but what are the right developments. This is quite 
 understood by Protestant divines in Germany of the more 
 orthodox, as well as of the rationalist school, no less than by 
 Catholic writers.* And it involves more than may at first 
 sight appear ; for if the radical principle be denied, we shall 
 
 See e.g. Thomasiua' work on Origen. Ein Beitrag fur Dogmen Geschichte 
 dti dritten Jahrhundtrti.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XIX 
 
 find ourselves, sooner or later, compelled to surrender, not 
 only later definitions, but almost every belief which discri- 
 minates Christianity from the higher forms of natural religion. 
 None who value any positive belief can afford to be mere 
 spectators, still less aggressors in the fray. Tiia res agitur 
 cum pt'oicimus ardct was never more surely verified than here. 
 It is Christianity itself that is at stake. 
 
 And now, as a principle is usually best understood by illus- 
 trations, I will proceed to exemplify in some crucial cases the 
 gradual expression of doctrine in the Church. 
 
 (1.) Let us suppose a Christian of the first, or second, or 
 third century to have been asked, " How many sacraments are 
 there?" He certainly would not have understood the drift 
 of the question. The word Sacrament was used by early 
 writers, as the corresponding term nvtrrfjpiov is used in the New 
 Testament, in a sense which includes indeed our conception of 
 a sacrament, but which includes a great deal more besides. 
 " This is a great mystery," or sacrament, says St. Paul, speaking 
 of Christian marriage ; but he also says, " Without doubt, 
 great is the mystery of godliness," speaking of the Incarna- 
 tion, and here again the Yulgate reads sacramentum pietatis. 
 There is perhaps nothing to which the early Fathers, es- 
 pecially St, Augustine, so frequently apply the term sacramen- 
 tum as the Incarnation. But, if our early Christian had been 
 made with great difficulty to comprehend the question ad- 
 dressed to him, he could only have replied, " I don't know." 
 The same sacraments were of course administered from the 
 first, and all are referred to in Scripture. Then as now
 
 XX THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 Christians were baptized, confirmed, absolved, communicated ; 
 then as now, there was marriage, and ordination, and the last 
 unction. But, just as for many ages doubtful or spurious 
 Gospels and Epistles were handed down alongside of the 
 genuine, and it was not till the end of the fourth century that 
 the Canon of either Old or New Testament began to be fixed 
 by dogmatic decree ; * so for centuries other rites were spoken 
 of under the common name of sacraments, some of which we 
 should now call ' Sacramentals ' while others, like the agape, 
 or the washing of the feet, have almost or altogether passed 
 awav ; and it was left for a later age to mark out seven, as 
 alone possessing by divine institution an inherent sacramental 
 grace. All were divinely ordained, and administered from 
 the beginning in the Church ; but it was only by degrees that 
 the full conception of their precise nature and number grew 
 upon her consciousness. To define two or seven is equally to 
 develope ; Peter Lombard was the first to specify an exact 
 number. There were many differences on the subject among 
 the earlier Keformers. It would not be difficult to trace out 
 similarly the history of the doctrine of the Eucharist, but it 
 would occupy more space than can be spared here.f 
 
 (2.) Let us turn to another illustration, afforded by the 
 cnltus of Saints and Angels. Of this no doubt abundant in- 
 timations 0wvdvra avi'iToiai may be found both in the Old 
 
 * St. Paul, St. James, and St. Jude, quote apocryphal books, some of which, 
 as the Revelation of Elias, are now lost ; some, as the Book of Enoch, still 
 survive. 
 
 t The stages of the process are exhibited with clearness and candour in the 
 late Archdeacon "Wilberforce's book on the Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXI 
 
 and New Testament, especially the latter, nor are there want- 
 ing clear testimonies in writers of the third and fourth cen- 
 turies of honour paid to Saints, especially martyrs, and invo- 
 cations addressed to them.* Still, and this is my point, it was 
 only by degrees that their position was adequately recognized. 
 In every one of the liturgies of which manuscripts remain to 
 us, among the prayers for the departed in the Canon are 
 found special petitions for the Blessed Virgin and the Saints. 
 Controversialists have sometimes explained these as prayers 
 for the increase of their ' accidental glory,' but the explanation 
 is obviously an afterthought. The very term ' accidental 
 glory/ and the idea it represents, came in centuries later with 
 the scholastic theology. It is better to say at once what is 
 certainly the case that the eye of the Christian worshipper 
 was not yet adjusted to the right focus for appreciating clearly 
 the position of the heavenly hierarchy in the economy of grace. 
 The importance of the question, from its bearing on the central 
 mystery of the Incarnation, was gradually brought out in sub- 
 sequent controversies, especially in, the Iconoclastic disputes 
 of the eighth century, f It was not till the fourteenth century, 
 that the enjoyment of the Beatific Vision by the Saints before 
 the day of judgment was denned by authority. 
 
 (3.) This leads me naturally to notice a somewhat kindred 
 development, and I do so the more readily because it has been 
 
 * Thomassin (De Incarn. xi. 6) thinks the early Church probably abstained 
 from any cultus of Angels through an oiKOVOjJiia., lest it should give occasion 
 for idolatry in converts from heathenism. But this reasoning from the disdplinn 
 arcani must not be pushed too far. 
 
 t The first objectors to images -were the Phantasiasts.
 
 XX11 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 selected as the reductio ad absurdum of the whole theory I 
 mean the Immaculate Conception. The reasons for defining 
 it at this particular time, and the nature of the denning au- 
 thority, are separate questions, which lie beyond the limits of 
 my present inquiry. But the doctrine itself is often objected 
 to as neither primitive, nor scriptural, nor reasonable, nor 
 devout ; sometimes as ascribing to the Mother the inalienable 
 
 s 
 
 prerogative of her Son.* Waiving the last point, which is 
 founded on a misconception of what is meant, let us see how 
 the case really stands, t The doctrine of original sin was 
 first distinctly laid down by St. Augustine in controversy with 
 the Pelagians in the fourth century, whence it is obvious that 
 Mary's exemption from the general doom could not be taught 
 earlier than that. But we may go further. St. Basil, St. 
 Cyril of Alexandria, and Origen do not scruple to affirm that 
 she sinned by want of faith at the Crucifixion ; St. Chrysos- 
 tom accuses her of ambition ; Tertullian of unbelief. To our 
 ears such language sounds shocking, and it would be shocking 
 to use it now, but we must remember that it did not appear 
 so at the time. On the other hand, St. Irenaeus contrasts 
 Mary's faith with Eve's incredulity, and St. Ambrose com- 
 
 * Even so calm and thoughtful a -writer as the Bishop of London goes out of 
 his way, in his Preface to a recent work on The Final Court of Appeal, to speak 
 of ' the idolatrous doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.' Yet supposing (for 
 argument's sake) that invocation of the Blessed Virgin is idolatrous, that practice 
 is quite independent of the belief in her Immaculate Conception, and existed for 
 centuries before any question on the latter subject was stirred in the Church. 
 Neither does the belief necessarily imply the practice. Adam and Eve were 
 certainly created ' immaculate,' yet we do not publicly invoke them. 
 
 t The patristic references in this and the following section are taken from 
 Petavius De Incarn. and De Trin.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XX111 
 
 mends her courage at the Cross. Soon afterwards St. Augus- 
 tine says that, out of reverence, he will make no mention of 
 her when speaking of sin, but he is referring to actual, not 
 original sin. Then came the Nestorian controversy, and the 
 Council of Ephesus. And here it is worth while to remark, 
 that much the same kind of arguments which are urged now 
 against what its opponents are fond of stigmatising as the 
 * new dogma' were urged by Nestorians and their allies then 
 against the new definition of 0eoro/coe. It was novel, it did not 
 occur in Scripture or the writings of the Fathers,* it savoured 
 of Eutychian heresy, and had therefore been denounced from 
 the pulpit of his metropolitan cathedral by the second Pa- 
 triarch in Christendom. It was certainly needless, and it 
 might be dangerous. Every one knew that Christ was God, 
 and that Mary was His Mother ; but the adoption of this new- 
 fangled formula might be taken to imply that she was the 
 mother of His Divinity, which was blasphemous, or that the 
 two natures were fused into one, which was heretical. The 
 term xp" T ~Koe which Nestorius was willing to accept, ex- 
 pressed all that was required, and was free from these grave 
 objections. So men argued then ; but experience has abund- 
 antly proved the necessity of the definition of Ephesus for 
 guarding the honour of our Lord's Divinity. And so the later 
 definition which our own days have witnessed is designed to 
 exhibit on the one hand the reality of original sin, and on the 
 other the spotless sanctity of that human flesh, hypostatically 
 united to the Godhead, which He took from His Mother's 
 
 This was urged, but was not strictly true. See Petav. De Inc., y. 15.
 
 XXIV THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 womb. Natural reason and natural reverence would combine 
 to tell us that such a belief was most congruous to the dignity 
 of the Incarnation ; but it shows the caution with which the 
 public ratification of developments is suffered to proceed, that 
 so many centuries should have intervened between its first 
 suggestion and its formal definition.* " The number of those 
 (so-called) new doctrines will not oppress us, if it takes eight 
 centuries to promulgate even one of them."f The disputes 
 between Franciscans and Dominicans on the motive of the 
 Incarnation had no doubt much to do with the ventilation of 
 the question; for it is obvious how much more readily the 
 Scotist theory adapts itself to the Immaculate Conception than 
 the Thomist, though I am of course far from denying that the 
 latter, which is still widely held in the Church, can be recon- 
 ciled with it. St. Bernard, St. Bonaventure, and St. Thomas, 
 in questioning the new development, simply represented the 
 conservative element which exists and always must exist in 
 the Church. It is natural and right that every fresh phase of 
 opinion, as it appears, should be challenged and put on the 
 defensive. " Quis novus hie nostris successit scdibus hospes ?" is 
 the inquiry it must expect to be greeted with. And it is 
 bound to justify itself at the bar of ecclesiastical public opinion 
 and theological science, before it can make any claim to direct 
 
 * It must be remembered that the belief in the Immaculate Natitity of the 
 Blessed Virgin has prevailed universally for centuries, and -was expressly 
 acknowledged by St. Bonaventure, and St. Bernard, though spoken of doubt- 
 fully by St. Anselm. A similar belief obtains, though not of faith, as to St. 
 John Baptist, and is indicated by the Feast of his Nativity being observed 
 in the Church. Cf. Luke i. 15. 
 
 t Newman's Apologia pro Vita Sua, p. 395. Longman, 1854.
 
 INTRODUCTION, XXV 
 
 authoritative sanction. There is, perhaps, no subject on which 
 the growth of doctrine has been so gradual as in all that con- 
 cerns the dignity of the Blessed Virgin in the Gospel dispen- 
 sation. And this accords with such passages of the Old Tes- 
 tament as are often considered to have a secondary reference 
 to her. We read, on the one hand, "And so I was established 
 in Sion, and in the holy city also I rested, and my power was 
 in Jerusalem. And I took root in an honourable people, and 
 my abiding place was in the fulness of the Saints." And 
 again, on the other hand, " I was exalted as the cedar on Le- 
 banon, and as the cypress tree on Mount Sion ; I was exalted 
 as a palm tree in Cades, and as a rose plant in Jericho. . . . 
 and I stretched forth my branches as the terebinth, and my 
 branches are of honour and of grace." (Ecclus. xxiv. 15, 16, 
 17, 18, 22.) Yet it still remains true, that Gabriel's saluta- 
 tion is the measure and the record of her greatness. The im- 
 portance of the question lies of course in its connection with 
 the doctrine of the Incarnation. It has no proper bearing on 
 particular views, moral or theological (such as some of St. 
 Liguori's referred to by Dr. Newman in the Apologia), about 
 her office or prerogatives in the Church. The glories of the 
 Mother are a reflection from the divinity of her Son, and every 
 crown that is wreathed for Mary's brow is laid at Jesus' feet.* 
 (4.) But we must not imagine, that the principle of develop- 
 ment applies only to the less fundamental doctrines of Christ- 
 ianity. It is most conspicuously illustrated in the case of 
 
 * For seme remarks on Mr. Blight's objections to the Immaculate Conception, 
 see Note at the end of Introduction.
 
 XXVI THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 those two supreme verities on which all the rest depend the 
 Trinity and the Incarnation. We are reminded of this, as 
 regards the former doctrine, by two of the greatest names re- 
 spectively in Anglican and in Catholic theology Petavius 
 the Jesuit, and Bishop Bull. The Defensio Fidei Nicance has 
 won for its author a deservedly high reputation, and is quoted 
 respectfully by eminent Catholic divines. But in his contro- 
 versy with Petavius, though he may have the better of the 
 argument in some detailed instances, he has certainly failed to 
 make out his case as a whole.* All impartial judges, on either 
 side, are now agreed that Petavius is right as to the heterodox 
 language, implying often heterodox notions about the Holy 
 Trinity, which many ante-Nicene writers use. The fact that, 
 in an elaborate treatise on the Holy Ghost, written expressly 
 against heretics, St. Basil studiously refrains from giving Him 
 the name of God (which was first done by the Council of Alex- 
 andria in 363) would alone indicate this. So again, Justin 
 Martyr makes the Son inferior to the Father, in His divine 
 nature. Athenagoras and Theophilus of Antioch use language 
 about His Eternal Generation, which sounds thoroughly Sabel- 
 lian. Origen, who first brings out the reality of our Lord's 
 Human Soul, teaches also its preexistence, and the final ab- 
 sorption of His human nature into the divine ; Hilary and 
 Epiphanius deny the union of His divine nature with His 
 Body during the period between death and resurrection ; St. 
 Ambrose, relying on a mistaken reading of Col. ii. 15, also 
 
 Cf. infr. Note I. to Chap. III.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 denies its union with the Human Soul, though both are im- 
 plied in the Apostles' Creed. Many Fathers, both Greek and 
 Latin, in arguing with the Arians, treat the unity of Persons 
 in the Holy Trinity as specific rather than numerical. It 
 would be easy to multiply similar examples. The 6/zoou<noe of 
 Nice was fully as much an epoch in the development of doc- 
 trine, as the subsequent addition of Filioque to the Nicene 
 Creed. I need scarcely say, that early writers are equally 
 vague, to use the mildest term, on many other subjects. 
 Thus no Greek Father, before the Pelagian heresy, speaks of 
 grace in language that would necessarily discriminate it from 
 aids of the natural order ; all before St. Augustine are silent 
 or indistinct on the nature of original sin ; St. Anselm's Cur 
 Deus Homo is the first systematic attempt to explain the doc- 
 trine of Atonement in its relation to the divine attributes. 
 
 And here it may be well to guard against a possible mis- 
 conception. The growth, or even universal prevalence, of an 
 opinion in the Church is no necessary evidence of its truth.* 
 There are spurious as well as genuine developments. Opinions 
 have flourished for centuries, though without receiving any 
 authoritative sanction, and have passed away. Such, for in- 
 
 * Still less, of course, is the Church, as such, committed to the belief in any 
 particular miracle or miracles, however widely spread, and however strong may 
 be the evidence. It is worth while to remark this, when even so accomplished 
 and candid a writer as the Dean of Westminster speaks of the ' assumption of a 
 particular Church to direct the conscience of the world,' as standing or falling 
 with the truth of the tradition about Loretto (Stanley's Sinai and Palestine, 
 p. 443) ; and Lord Macaulay could use ' a believer in the blood of St. Januarius,' 
 as a synonyme for a Catholic. That miracles were to continue in the Church, and 
 cannot therefore be rejected wholesale on a priori grounds, though no point of faitb, 
 is a direct inference from such passages of the New Testament, as Mark xvi. 1 7, 
 18, John xiv. 12, Acts ii.* 17, tqq. t not to insist on Old Testament prophecies.
 
 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 stance, was the once universal belief in a millennial reign of 
 Christ on earth, founded on an expectation of His speedy re- 
 turn, which, for wise reasons doubtless, the Apostles were 
 suffered to entertain. It was not till this belief died out, that 
 room was left for the doctrine of Purgatory to occupy men's 
 thoughts. St. Paul had spoken of the fire that should try 
 every man's work, four centuries before the full significance 
 of his words began to be apprehended. We have the first 
 intimations of the doctrine, as now held, in St. Augustine's 
 De Doctrina Christiana, but stated only as a conjectural view. 
 So, again, as regards the state of the lost, St. Augustine felt 
 no scruple in consigning unchristened infants to endless tor- 
 ments. No theologian holds such an opinion now. In the 
 fifteenth century the Council of Florence defined, that those 
 who die in actual or only in original sin will be eternally, but 
 unequally, punished. Later theology teaches, that the punish- 
 ment of the latter consists solely in their not attaining to the 
 Beatific Vision, for which they have no capabilities, and is 
 consistent with the highest enjoyment of natural beatitude. 
 Balmez applies the same principle to the case of adults, espe- 
 cially among heathen nations, who die with their moral and 
 intellectual faculties feebly developed, and may be regarded 
 as children in character and responsibility. The extreme 
 predestinarian theory, into which St. Augustine was finally 
 driven in his controversy with the Pelagians, but which he 
 would probably have modified had he lived longer, remained 
 for twelve centuries a floating opinion in the Church ; it was 
 not till it had been formulized into a system by Jansenius,
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and had become the rallying cry of a powerful theological 
 party, that it was authoritatively condemned.* Another 
 opinion which has widely prevailed among Catholics, though 
 borrowed originally from Protestants, but which is now known 
 to be untenable, is a belief in the verbal inspiration of Scrip- 
 ture, first dogmatically laid down in the Formula Consensus 
 Helvetica in 1675, but previously maintained by the great 
 body of the Reformed. Biblical criticism is yet in its infancy, 
 and discoveries like that of the Codex Sinaiticus (now estab- 
 lished beyond dispute) may seriously affect it. Should the 
 controversies of our own day ultimately lead to some defini- 
 tion on the meaning and limits of inspiration, or the nature 
 of future retribution subjects on which the Church has 
 hitherto been silent this in its turn would open out fresh 
 sources of speculation in other directions. Thus, even a false 
 or imperfect development may have a relative importance, 
 and fulfil a providential office in the evolution of divine truth. 
 There are opinions, again, which prevail, and have prevailed 
 for centuries in the Church, but which have been expressly 
 excluded from a place among articles of faith. Such is the 
 very common belief in a material fire of Purgatory, which, 
 though frequently ranked by Protestant controversialists 
 among Catholic doctrines, was expressly declared, at the 
 
 * I am not, of course, forgetful of the controversy raised as to St. Augus- 
 tine's real meaning ; but there can be no doubt that the language of his later 
 writings gave, to say the least, very plausible support to such views as those of 
 Gotteschalk in the ninth century, and of the Jansenists afterwards. Sainte- 
 Beuve, in his History of Port Royal (vol. ii. p. 129), quotes 'one of the most 
 eloquent of the Catholic orators of our age,' as saying ; "II est vrai qu'il ne 
 pouvait s' empecher de croire que sur tout un ensemble de points le grand doc- 
 teur, tout grand qu'il etait, ayait pousse a 1'extreme et avait sans doute erre."
 
 XXX THE ATOXEMEXT. 
 
 Council of Florence, to be matter of opinion only, and has 
 never obtained in the East. 
 
 A further contrast must be drawn between development of 
 doctrine and development of practice, though there is, of 
 course, a close analogy between them. Here again my mean- 
 ing will be best explained by illustration. " Blessed are the 
 poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven," is the 
 statement of a principle of which the Franciscan or Cistercian 
 Orders were a natural and legitimate expression ; yet more than 
 a thousand years intervened between the utterance of those 
 words from the sun-crowned brow of Tabor and the time 
 when Francis of Assisi drew up his rule of ' holy poverty,' or 
 Bernard, in the flower and prime of youth, turned his back 
 on all the endearments of a happy home to bury himself in 
 the solitude of Citeaux. Or take the famous passage (Matt. 
 xix. 12), which contains in germ the idea of celibacy as a 
 Christian grace, and consider how gradual was its institution 
 as a rule of life. At the close of the fourth century, Pope 
 Siricius censured the marriage of the clergy in the Western 
 Church ; but though forbidden it was not made invalid till 
 the time of Gregory YIL, and in many parts of Europe, 
 especially in England and "Wales, it continued to be very com- 
 mon. So, again, sacramental absolution was ordained by our 
 Lord for the remission of post-baptismal sin ; but the rule of 
 annual confession was first laid down by the Lateran Council 
 in 1214, and accordingly from that time forth we find fre- 
 quent mention of ' confessors ' in royal or noble households, 
 whereas before 'chaplains' only had been spoken of. Kneel-
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ing at elevation in the Mass, and when the Blessed Sacrament 
 is carried to the sick, was not ordered till the close of the 
 thirteenth century, and the procession of Corpus Christi, first 
 instituted by Urban IV. in 1264, only came into general use 
 after the Council of Yienne in 1311, though the belief in the 
 Real Presence had, of course, prevailed all along. In the 
 early ages, again, it was customary for all the clergy to com- 
 municate at the bishop's mass ; the practice of every priest 
 saying his own mass afterwards became universal in the 
 "West, but the doctrine of the Holy Sacrifice remains un- 
 changed.* So far the analogy between doctrinal and practical 
 developments seems complete; but there is an important 
 distinction. A dogmatic development, once authoritatively 
 sealed by the judgment of the Church, can never pass away, 
 except as being merged in a higher and fuller realization of 
 the same truth. f But practical developments are from their 
 nature variable, though the principles they spring from are 
 
 * When daily celebration became general is a disputed point. The language 
 of Acts ii. 46 seems to imply that it was the custom of the Apostolic Church, 
 but Dr. Db'llinger understands the passage differently (Christenthum, p. 351^, 
 from there being no later evidence of such a rule for some centuries. Wilberforce 
 (Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist} argues the other way. Attendance at the Holy 
 Sacrifice on Sundays and festivals was undoubtedly of universal obligation from 
 the first. 
 
 f It is quite possible, of course, for the same theological language to be at one 
 time accepted, and at another rejected by the Church, according to the sense in 
 which it is understood, as happened with the term bp.oov(rioq. Thus again^ 
 St. Cyril's famous dictum, /uta <J>V<TIQ rov QC.OV Aoyou ffEffapK(^fj.trr), was 
 received by the fifth General Council, and is explained and defended at length by 
 Petavius in its orthodox acceptation, as used by the writer against Nestorius ; 
 but it was abused by the Eutychians in the service of their opposite heresy, and 
 could not safely be adopted in public teaching now. So the formula, ' One of the 
 Trinity suffered in the flesh,' was condemned by Popo Hormisdas, and accepted 
 by his successors, but in different senses. See Petav. De Incarn. v. 2, 3.
 
 XXX11 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 not. The religious consecration of virginity, as a state of life, 
 is a principle implied in the words of our Lord and His in- 
 spired Apostle, but particular rules about vows of celibacy 
 may vary with variations of time and circumstance. The 
 adoration of Christ in the Eucharist follows immediately from 
 the belief in His Presence, but the methods of external wor- 
 ship need not always be the same. Absolution and commun- 
 ion are divine ordinances, but special rules about the manner 
 and frequency of their ministration are left to the discretion 
 of the Church. The same practices may not be equally 
 adapted to every age and condition of society; and what the 
 Church has solemnly sanctioned at one time, she may, with 
 equal wisdom, alter or abrogate at another. Thus, rules 
 about fasting have varied according to time, climate, or other 
 circumstances. Communion in both kinds was expressly en- 
 joined by Pope Gelasius in the fifth century, in opposition to 
 a current heresy ; it began to be discontinued in the "West in 
 the thirteenth, and the later practice has lasted on, with cer- 
 tain exceptions, to our own day.* Daily Communion was 
 the ordinary practice of the Early Church, but by 1215 the 
 love of Christians had waxed so cold, that it was found neces- 
 sary to enjoin at least an annual reception under pain of sin. 
 I need scarcely say, that in our own day it would be thought 
 little short of scandalous for any one professing to lead a 
 
 * In the early ages, those who communicated at home, as was then very com- 
 mon, received iinder the form of Bread only ; infants were communicated imme- 
 diately after baptism with the chalice, as is still the custom of the Greek Church, 
 where also the viaticum is given to the dying under the form of Bread, dipped 
 in unconsecrated wine.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXX111 
 
 religious life to communicate so seldom. To take a different 
 case ; the whole legislation of the Church, as regards the 
 intercourse of Catholics with those without, was pretty well 
 revolutionized by the Council of Constance, acting under a 
 just appreciation of the altered conditions of European society. 
 These are but a few instances, selected almost at random, of 
 the various or seemingly contrary applications of a common 
 principle, according to the exigences of time and place, of 
 which Church history is full. The mystical Bride was not 
 only to be all ' glorious from within/ but also ' clothed in rai- 
 ment of many colours,' and it is no paradox to say that she is 
 ever changing while still the same. To her we may apply 
 the poet's words 
 
 " Mother of form and fear, 
 Dread arbitress of mutable respect." 
 
 A still closer analogy, in some respects, may be traced between 
 the development of doctrine and the growth of what are called 
 'special devotions' in the Church, which are themselves the 
 corollaries of doctrine.* 
 
 To revert to doctrinal developments ; this may seem the 
 place for saying something of the antecedent tests by which 
 their value is ascertained, but the subject is too wide to be 
 more than glanced at here. It is obvious, at first blush, that 
 every true development must be in harmony with the original 
 revelation, and the mind of God ; and thus any theory, for 
 
 f- This has been done in the case of one such devotion in Dalgairns' hook on 
 the Heart of Jesus, Richardson, 1854.
 
 XXXIV THE ATOXEMENT. 
 
 instance, which should trench on the Incarnation, or Divinity, 
 or mediatorial office of the Eternal Son, or, again, on the 
 moral principles of Christianity, would be at once self-con- 
 demned. It is clear, on the other hand, that no development 
 could be admitted, which should conflict with truths already 
 known from other sources, as from natural reason, science, or 
 history. God cannot contradict Himself. His word in reve- 
 lation must be in perfect accord with His word written in the 
 heart of man, or on the crust of the earth, or on the firma- 
 ment of heaven. Hence no development which should exalt 
 what are usually called the ' Evangelical virtues ' those first 
 introduced by Christianity to the exclusion or disparage- 
 ment of the so-called natural virtues those which Christi- 
 anity did not introduce, but most certainly adopted and 
 sanctioned could be a true one. There may have been 
 periods in the history of the Church when purity, humility, 
 and other virtues of the Gospel had almost come to be re- 
 garded, in some quarters, as a substitute for truth, virtue, 
 manliness, and other virtues of the natural order ; or, again, 
 when Manichean notions as to the impurity of matter were 
 implicitly, though not consciously, entertained. But these 
 could be no more than passing phases of opinion, and havo 
 never been absorbed into the texture of her inner life. Hence 
 again, as we observed just now, the theory of literal inspira- 
 tion, so dear to one large school of Protestants, is untenable, 
 being disproved by facts. I will mention but one other test, 
 which is implied in the very term development, and is ex- 
 pressly noticed by St. Vincent of Lerins, in the passage quoted
 
 IXTKODUCTIOX. XXXV 
 
 above, viz., that it means progress from less to more ; it must 
 be an accession to our knowledge, and must enlarge, not nar- 
 row, the boundaries of religious thought. The collective mind 
 of the Church, gazing from age to age at the orb of divine 
 truth, using all available appliances from without, and en- 
 lightened by the Spirit from within, grows continually in 
 wisdom as in strength, and her path is as the shining light 
 which increaseth continually unto perfect day. 
 
 This part of the subject may be fitly closed with the account 
 of the limits, within which the developing authority of the 
 Church is exercised, given by one eminently qualified to speak 
 on the subject ; " The great truths of the moral law, of natural 
 religion, and of Apostolical faith, are both its boundary and 
 its foundation. It must not go beyond them, and it must 
 ever appeal to them. Both its subject-matter, and its articles 
 
 in that subject-matter, are fixed It must ever profess to 
 
 be guided by Scripture and by tradition. It must refer to 
 the particular Apostolic truth which it is enforcing, or (what 
 
 is called) defining The new truth which is promulgated, 
 
 if it is to be called new, must be at least homogeneous, cognate, 
 implicit, viewed relatively to the old truth. It must be what 
 I may even have guessed, or wished, to be included in the 
 Apostolic revelation ; and at least it will be of such a character 
 that my thoughts readily concur in it, or coalesce with it, as 
 soon as I hear it."* It is of course implied here, as the author 
 expressly states elsewhere in reference to the Immaculate 
 Conception, that a ' new truth ' may not always be recognized 
 
 * Newman's Apologia pro Vita Sua, pp. 392, 393.
 
 XXXVI THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 till after ages of controversy, and may even for a time be 
 strenuously opposed. The divine illumination vouchsafed to 
 the Church does not supersede or anticipate the historical 
 development of her thought. 
 
 And now* before proceeding to consider objections, let me 
 notice, in passing, one or two practical corollaries which fol- 
 low from what has been said. First, it is clear that we have 
 no right to be hasty in rejecting new developments in theology 
 simply because they are new. Very often, indeed, the novelty 
 is of appearance only, and we are but welcoming ' old friends 
 with, new faces.' But, if not, let us remember that every 
 fresh definition, from the ofioovffios of Nicoca downwards, has 
 been branded in turn with the charge of novelty. It was 
 superfluous because it contained nothing new, or it was dan- 
 gerous because it did. But wisdom is justified of all her 
 children. If we choose to be startled or scandalized at what 
 we do not immediately comprehend, the course of theological 
 science will not therefore stand still for us, like the sun and 
 moon in the valley of Ajalon. 
 
 Neither, on the other hand, must we carp at scientific dis- 
 coveries, which seem to trench on received opinions. In such 
 cases it has been very common, first to say that the new theory 
 is untrue ; and then that it is dangerous to religion ; and when 
 at last it is proved to be both true and innocuous, that it is 
 unimportant, for every one knew it before. But this is 
 neither wise nor altogether honest. If there is a danger in 
 offending the prejudices of the ignorant, there is also a danger 
 of shaking the faith of the learned, when we insist on de-
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXVll 
 
 nouncing as irreligious what they perhaps know to be a 
 demonstrated fact. Noli cemulari. Either our opinion was 
 merely an opinion, and no part of revealed dogma at all, or 
 the alleged discovery will turn out to be only a conjectural 
 hypothesis, serviceable for the moment but destined to pass 
 away, or the two do not really clash. In any case, the cause 
 of truth is safe. A Catholic, firm in his belief, will have as 
 little desire to check the free course of science, as doubt that 
 its results will ultimately tend to the confirmation of faith. 
 He may indeed complain of random assertions, hasty general- 
 izations, of treating hypotheses as conclusions, and identify- 
 ing difficulties with disproof ; and no honest student of science 
 will quarrel with him for doing so.* When we remember 
 how it was once imagined, by friend and foe alike, that reve- 
 lation itself was at stake in the discussion of the solar system, 
 we can afford to smile at the ignorance, or the impatience, or 
 the unbelief, which welcomes or dreads, as the case may be, 
 in the results of geology or physiology, a probable death- 
 blow to our Christian faith. f 
 
 But I must hasten on to notice, in conclusion, two leading 
 
 * The office of the apologist is to trace from time to time the " Connection of 
 Science and Revealed Religion,'' as Cardinal Wiseman has so ably done, not to 
 contrast them as antagonistic systems. 
 
 t Supposing, for instance, the Darwinian theory of the ' origin of species,' were 
 ever to be recognized as a scientific truth (which I am very far from saying that 
 it will be), the Catholic doctrine of the Fall would remain untouched. . For after 
 all we must draw the line somewhere ; there must be a point in the series of animal 
 developments, where man, in the language of Scripture, ' became a living soul,' 
 unless the existence of the soul be denied altogether, and then would begin 
 those relations of the human soul with God comprehended under the terms 
 ' original justice,' and 'original sin.'
 
 XXXY111 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 objections, one of a theoretical, the other of a practical kind, 
 which are frequently urged against the principle of develop- 
 ment, though, in fact, they only require to be thoroughly 
 sifted to be conclusively disproved. 
 
 It is objected, then, often not without contemptuous acri- 
 mony, that to maintain a development of doctrine is a dis- 
 honour to revelation, and an implicit denial of the faith once 
 delivered to the Saints ; that Scripture can have no place in a 
 religion which is one thing yesterday, another to-day, and 
 may be a third quite different to-morrow ; and that it is an 
 accident, whether the journey lands us in the blasphemies of 
 Strauss, or the decrees of Trent. Now, if this is anything 
 more than a simple misconception of the whole question, suf- 
 ficiently met by the last quotation from Dr. Newman, it is not 
 only untrue, but the precise reverse of the truth. Instead of 
 development being a dishonour to revelation, so far as we are 
 capable of forming any a priori judgments on the subject, it 
 would be a great dishonour to revelation to deny it. If it is 
 certainly a law of the human mind in relation to every other 
 kind of truth, philosophical, moral, or scientific, that our 
 mental no less than our bodily muscles are developed by use, 
 it would be a primd facie objection to any professed system of 
 revealed truth, that it did not repay by a fresh accession of 
 knowledge the labour and attention bestowed upon it. Or 
 shall we say, that in the highest subject-matter of all the 
 mind is forbidden to energize, or must energize with no re- 
 sults ? While development is the law of all God's natural 
 dispensations, are we to predicate an exceptional stagnation
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXIX 
 
 of the kingdom of grace ? To imagine that theology, as wo 
 now possess it, sprang full-grown from the mind of the first 
 century, like Pallas from the head of Zeus, is but to transfer 
 to the moral what we have learnt to discard from our concep- 
 tions of the material world, a succession of miraculous cata- 
 clysms with another succession of supplementary miracles to 
 obliterate all traces of them. 
 
 But, perhaps, our opponents will join issue on the fact. 
 Let us therefore appeal to facts. And here I will not refer to 
 the obviously gradual education of the Gentile world, in God's 
 Providence, till the * fulness of time ' for the Incarnation had 
 arrived. I will appeal to the more decisive analogy of the 
 Old Testament dispensation. There, if anywhere, we might 
 expect the law of development to be suspended, for the com- 
 mandment, written on tables of stone, was a letter rather than 
 a spirit, and the Jewish Church, while possessing a divine 
 revelation, had no infallible authority. But was it so ? Most 
 surely not. Nowhere is the ' increasing purpose ' of revela- 
 tion more conspicuous than throughout the Old Testament dis- 
 pensation, from Patriarchs to Prophets, from Prophets to 
 writers later still. Not to insist here on the growing tone of 
 higher spirituality as we advance from the earlier to the later 
 books, as is seen in the marked change from the ritualism 
 of the Pentateuch to the more spiritual tone of the Canticles 
 or Isaiah, I will confine myself to what is strictly doctrinal. 
 We are all familiar with the argument of Warburton's famous 
 work on the Divine Legation of Moses, where he undertakes to 
 prove the inspiration of the Pentateuch from the absence of
 
 xl THE ATOXEMEXT. 
 
 any direct teaching contained in it of a future life. No im- 
 postor, he urges, would have neglected so powerful an engine 
 of influence as that belief supplies ; certainly all, with whose 
 history we are acquainted, have availed themselves of it. 
 Whatever becomes of his argument, the fact is beyond dispute. 
 But now turn from the Mosaic record to the Prophets, or the 
 Deutero- canonical books. Instead of the curse of sterility and 
 blessing of longevity, we read the praise of virginity, and the 
 happy lot of the man who ' being perfected in a short time 
 hath fulfilled many times,' and is ' taken from the midst of 
 iniquities, lest malice should change his understanding, or 
 guile deceive his soul.' Instead of old age being ' a crown of 
 glory,' we read, that 'venerable old age standeth not in 
 length of time, nor is computed by number of years, but 
 wisdom is the grey hair of man, and an unspotted life is old 
 age ' (Wisd. iv. 8, 9) and again, " The souls of the just 
 are in the hand of God, and there shall no torment touch 
 them. In the sight of the unwise they seemed to die, and 
 their departure was taken for misery, and their going away 
 
 from us for utter destruction, but they are in peace 
 
 We fools accounted their life to be madness, and their end 
 without honour. Behold how they are numbered among the 
 children of God, and their lot is with the Saints." Wisd. iii. 
 1, 2, 3, v. 4, 5. And so completely had this doctrine of a future 
 life become part of the national creed, that the Sadducees, who 
 denied it, and on that account rejected all the later books of 
 the Old Testament, were regarded, in the time of our Lord, as 
 little better than a sect of heretics. Nor let it be replied that,
 
 INTRODUCTION. ill 
 
 under the Old Law, the fount of inspiration never ran dry, but 
 was sealed up in the first century of our era. For, not to 
 dwell here on the partial inspiration which many have 
 ascribed to such men as St. Bernard, or Savonarola, or Thomas 
 a Kempis, we possess in the divine illumination of the Church 
 of all ages >/ fal i^\r]tria a surer guarantee against error 
 than could be found in the intermittent utterances of holy men 
 of old.* The same Spirit, who once ' spoke by the Prophets,' 
 abides for ever in the mystical Body of Christ. Now indeed, 
 as then, whenever some special crisis occurs, we need not 
 doubt that a special prophet or preacher of righteousness 
 will be raised up to meet it, from whose lips a fresh energy 
 may be caught for the enlightenment or regeneration of them 
 that come after. Thus, amid the collapse of ancient philoso- 
 phies, and fabrics of political greatness tottering to their 
 fall, the form of Socrates is revealed against the dark back- 
 ground of heathen antiquity clothed in the radiance of an ideal 
 purity, and, as he conquers by the sacrifice of his life the 
 right to teach a higher wisdom than as yet men cared to listen 
 to, giving dim surmise of a Higher Presence yet to come. 
 Thus, in the deep decline of the fifteenth century, with its 
 hideous moral depravities, and terrible burden of secret un- 
 belief, the white-robed monk of Florence stands forth, annealed 
 in martyr-flames, to bear witness to an outraged holiness, and 
 
 * The Hebrew Prophets discharged an office somewhat analogous to that of 
 the sensns fiddlum or public opinion of the Church among ourselves, standing to 
 the Levitical priesthood in the relation of the earnest and intelligent laity to 
 the clergy. This analogy, however, must not be pressed too far, as the ritual 
 and prophetic offices, separated under Judaism, are united in the Christian priest- 
 hood.
 
 xlii THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 give warnings, little heeded, of the judgments that were com- 
 ing upon the earth.* But it is our privilege, as contrasted 
 with our Heathen or Israelite forefathers, that we are not 
 mainly dependent on such exceptional interpositions raised up 
 for an emergency, but can assimilate the intellectual acquisi- 
 tions of every age as it passes, knowing how to separate the 
 dross from the genuine ore, to refuse the evil and choose the 
 good. If, then, all systems of ancient philosophy, so far as 
 they had any truth in them, contained not mere arbitrary 
 axioms, but germs to be developed in the thinking mind ; if 
 the light of divine inspiration, handed down through a long 
 line of Patriarchs and Prophets,, like the fire of a Greek torch 
 race, kindled more and more continually towards brighter day 
 there were little reason and less reverence in denying, that 
 the words of Christ and His apostles are instinct with a fulness 
 of divine life, with capabilities of infinite expansion, of which 
 our creeds and theologies are a true but inadequate expression, 
 which the science of eighteen centuries has fed upon but has 
 not exhausted. Who does not recognize the manifold teach- 
 ing of the Psalter, as its thunderous echoes roll from age to 
 age along the aisles of our stately Cathedrals, and its whispered 
 music cheers the lonely deathbed, and its tones of awful sup- 
 plication call ' out of the depths ' of human misery on that 
 divine compassion which watches over the Christian dead ? 
 The very form of the New Testament, which contains not 
 
 * Savonarola has often been claimed as a forerunner of Luther. It may he 
 worth while, therefore, to observe, that his writings, after a rigorous scrutiny at 
 Home, were pronounced entirely free from doctrinal error. St. Philip Neri had 
 a special reverence for him.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 dogmas but principles, narratives and letters instead of creeds, 
 is a stronger confirmation of our view. Its very ' half sen- 
 tences, its overflowings of language, admit of development ; 
 they have a life in them which shows itself in progress.' * 
 What more unlike in form than De Lugo's De Incarnatione, 
 and the Gospel of St. John ? Yet the great Jesuit does but 
 formulize the apostle's belief. It took centuries to draw out 
 the full significance of those few verses that are read in the 
 Gospel at the end of the Mass, as it took centuries to exhibit 
 all that was contained in the commission addressed to Peter, 
 on the shore of Gennesaret, " Feed My sheep." Consider, 
 again, all that is involved in the idea of personality, which, 
 though not new in itself, must have come almost like a new 
 revelation on St. Paul's Greek and Roman converts. The 
 heavenly message is addressed to the Church, like the words 
 of Christ to His blessed Mother in the temple of Jerusalem, 
 not merely to be received with devout acquiescence, but to be 
 laid up and pondered in the heart, to become the source of 
 growing knowledge, a seed springing up continually into 
 higher forms of life. 
 
 The second and last objection which I shall notice here 
 proceeds from a class of thinkers deserving of deep sympathy 
 and respect. They would say in effect that this theory, how- 
 ever plausible it may look on paper, is, after all, nothing but a 
 theory ; that, whatever intellectual difficulties may be started, 
 their own system holds water practically ; that the three 
 creeds, and the great verities of Christianity, have been accepted 
 by thousands who indignantly rejected all later ' additions ; ' 
 Newman's University Sermons, pp. 317, 318; see also pp. 337, 338.
 
 THE ATONE1TENT. 
 
 that the Bible, whatever criticism may object to its authenti- 
 city or inspiration, has, in fact, been to thousands a rule of 
 conduct, a guide in perplexity, an unfailing source of strength 
 in life and solace on the bed of death. The Greek Church, it 
 will perhaps be added, has never admitted the principle of 
 development, but has none the less maintained intact its 
 inheritance of orthodox belief. I have no wish to dispute the 
 facts, but they are no real objection to my argument. The 
 Eastern Church presents certainly the nearest existing 
 approach to a crystallized, or undeveloped form of Christ- 
 ianity ; and the explanation is not far to seek. Having 
 adopted the developments of the first eight centuries, and 
 kept clear of all later Western definitions, she has been able 
 thenceforward to maintain her status quo almost unchanged ; 
 but only because for the last thousand years, owing to cir- 
 cumstances it would take too long to specify here, she has 
 stood aloof from the whole course of European thought, and 
 has advanced neither in dogmatic nor moral theology, in 
 Biblical criticism, or historical research. Once bring her into 
 contact with the criticism, the questionings, the doubts of the 
 day, and she will be compelled either to advance or to recede, 
 either to sacrifice what she jealously retains, or to recognize 
 new applications of her ancient faith. There has been too 
 little temptation to fall into error, to suggest the necessity for 
 harmonizing truth.* In England there has of course been 
 
 * The Greeks, however, did put forth a confession of faith in 1643, in conse- 
 quence of the Calvinistic tendencies of Cyril Lucar, under the title of " Orthodox 
 Confession of Faith of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Church," which was 
 confirmed by the Synod of Bethlehem in 1672. With this may he compared the 
 English articles and formularies. The term transuhstautiation (ptrovaiuffis) was 
 adopted by the Synod of Bethlehem.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 more freedom of thought, but the strong conservative elements 
 of the national character have combined with the Catholic 
 elements of written or verbal tradition retained in the national 
 Church, and which discriminate her broadly from continental 
 Protestantism, to sustain in the hearts of the people a large 
 inheritance of orthodox feeling and belief. They have accepted 
 the Bible, and have (often unconsciously) accepted with it a 
 traditional interpretation of its meaning on many points, 
 partly because it has never occurred to them to question the 
 one or the other. And we may rejoice that it has been so. 
 But this period of unthinking acquiescence is rapidly passing 
 away. A School, long powerful in Germany, has, of late 
 years, made its way into England, which, from the far wider 
 interest felt in religious questions in this country, may be 
 expected to exercise a tenfold greater influence here over 
 popular Christianity. Of its more prominent members all 
 would wish to speak with that respect which their character, 
 their learning, and their abilities deserve ; in their generosity 
 of tone, and in some of their detailed opinions, they excel 
 many who profess a more orthodox belief. But there can be 
 no doubt that their teaching, logically carried out, would dis- 
 
 b 
 
 integrate the whole received system of Christianity, however 
 little they may contemplate such a result, or be prepared to 
 face it. And their line of argument can be met successfully 
 only by a bold and ungrudging assertion of the Catholic as 
 opposed to the rationalistic principle of development. For 
 the champions of dogmatic Christianity to ignore it, is as 
 though an astronomer should ignore the laws of motion, or a 
 physiologist the circulation of the blood. The Christ of the
 
 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 Gospels, they would tell us, was gradually formulized, through 
 the action of ecclesiastical dogmatism, into the Christ of later 
 theology, till we pass from the simplicity of the evangelical 
 narratives to the technical subtilties of the creeds.* " To 
 attribute," says the greatest writer in the well-known volume 
 of Essays and Reviews, " to St. Paul or the Twelve the abstract 
 notion of Christian truth which afterwards sprang up in the 
 Chnrch, is the same sort of anachronism as to attribute to 
 them a system of philosophy." This may be true, but when 
 the same writer goes on to suggest that the bfioovtnoe of Nice 
 was only a less misfortune to the Church than would have 
 been caused by an opposite decision, and we are justly bidden 
 to observe that the traditions of the first century, without any 
 notion of development, are an insufficient basis for the 
 theology of the nineteenth, we are practically reminded that 
 the same scythe which lops off the docti'inal ' innovations ' of 
 Trent is ready to include in its ruthless sweep the definitions 
 of Nica3a, and the Athanasian Creed. Nor let the mere Pro- 
 testant, who cares nothing for creeds and controversies, con- 
 sole himself with the fond belief that, at any rate, the cause 
 of ' Bible Christianity ' is safe.f One of the most brilliant, if 
 not the most profound, of living French writers, himself once 
 
 * An able sketch of the leading characteristics of the Tubingen School (sug- 
 gested by the Colenso controversy) will be found in an article by M. Edmond 
 Schoerer, in the Revue des Deux Mondts,tor March, 1863. 'Confessions d'un 
 Missionaire.' 
 
 t To quote M. Guizot's words, in his recently published Meditations on the 
 Christian Religion, " It is in fact the whole Christian Church, and not this or 
 that Christian Church in particular, which is at the present day the object of 
 attack in its fundamental principles. When the supernatural, the inspiration of 
 the Sacred Books, and the divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ are denied, the blow 
 falls upon all Christians, whether Catholics, Protestants, or Greeks/'
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 a Catholic believer, has lately taught us how possible it is to 
 accept nearly the whole framework of the Gospel narrative, 
 while rejecting, without even the poor compliment of refuta- 
 tion, the Divinity of Him of whom the Gospel speaks, written 
 though we had deemed it as with a sunbeam on every page. 
 Another writer of the same nation, the greatest of living 
 novelists, when describing his ideal of a Christian death-bed, 
 makes his hero expire, gazing indeed on the crucifix, to re- 
 mind him of the ' example of the Great Martyr,' but neglect- 
 ing the sacraments, as neither appreciating the reality of guilt 
 nor the need of atonement. A third has aspired to found not 
 only a philosophy, but a reb'gion and a Church, based on a 
 negation of theism, and of the future life. "Views similar in 
 tendency, though differing considerably in detail from each 
 other, have been advocated by such writers as Gregg and 
 F. Newman among ourselves, Emerson and Theodore Parker 
 in America. 
 
 Let it be well remembered that opinions of this kind, and 
 I have but cursorily noted their bearing here, are steadily on 
 the increase, that they have already gained the public ear, and 
 meet with something more than acquiescence from the rising 
 intellect of the day. What future may be in store for the 
 Church, or for the world, I know not, nor do I presume 
 to meddle with vexed interpretations of prophetic lore. 
 There are those who deem the reign of Antichrist is at hand. 
 Be this as it may, in one sense he is always near, and it needs 
 no prophet's eye to discern to-day on the spiritual horizon 
 many of the predicted signs of his coming, written so that he
 
 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 who runs may read. If, indeed, the rival hosts are marshalling 
 now for the last great conflict, it gives to the controversies of 
 the present a deeper and more solemn significance. I am far, 
 of course, from forgetting how much there is in the religious 
 temper of the day to encourage as well as to alarm us, distin- 
 guishing it most honourably from many former periods of 
 Christian history. Our very scepticism is other than it was. 
 "We have little now of the coarse exultant blasphemy of Tom 
 Paine and Voltaire ; there is a tone of diffidence, almost of 
 sadness, in avowedly infidel literature, and those who doubt 
 seem loath, not eager, to disbelieve. They share the feeling 
 expressed by our representative poet, of ' an infant crying for 
 the light.' On the other hand, a conscious or unconscious 
 yearning for unity is gaining ground among those estranged 
 by centuries of strife, and there is a growing conviction that 
 the unprofitable bitterness of mere negative controversy is 
 treason against the majesty of truth.* Ours is an age of un- 
 certain and conflicting tendencies, powerful alike for good or 
 for evil, suggesting the gravest anxieties, yet brightened with 
 the dawning promise of a second spring. One thing, at any 
 rate, is clear enough that we are on the eve of a crisis, such 
 as for the last three centuries the Church has not witnessed. 
 The Reformation was but the first act of a drama which has 
 yet to be played out ; and it may be expected that our own 
 age will see questions stirred more searching even than any 
 
 * The existence of a ' deep and all-possessing desire for unity ' is insisted on 
 with startling emphasis in Mr. Maurice's 'Few "Words on the Pope's Encyclical' 
 in Macmillan's Magazine for Feb. 1865. His testimony is not the less significant, 
 because it is not easy to grasp his idea of the right use to be made of it.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 that were mooted then. Nitllum tempus occurrit Ecclesice. 
 But it is of the last importance that, at this supreme crisis of 
 her history, her children should be closely united, and well 
 equipped to meet the coming foe, not with the blunted or 
 misshapen implements of a ruder warfare and a coarser age, 
 but with weapons forged and polished fresh in the armoury of 
 wisdom, of justice, and of truth. Once, in the iconoclastic 
 controversy, Christian art and civilization sued for admission 
 before the portals of the Eastern Church, and were rejected ; 
 and she sank for awhile into a sterile petrifaction of her former 
 self. John of Damascus, in the eighth century, was her last 
 theologian. The Renaissance stood before the gates of Rome, 
 and was admitted. The Reformation rent half Europe from 
 her obedience, and resulted in the decrees of Trent. Science, 
 philosophy, and criticism are knocking at our doors to-day. 
 We must accept or reject them, and to reject their aid is to 
 hand them over to the service of error. Now, as ever, the 
 Church must go forth to conquer in the might of that Gospel 
 which she, and she alone, is divinely commissioned to pro- 
 claim ; but now too, as ever, like a good householder, she 
 must bring forth from her treasures things old and new. 
 
 Truth, indeed, like Him whose voice she is, is one and in- 
 divisible, and knows, ' in her deep self/ nothing ' of transient 
 form.' Yet the shadow varies, though the substance cannot 
 change ; the earthly reflection grows from age to age, but the 
 "Word of the Lord ' endureth for ever in heaven.' The whole 
 revelation of God, all spiritual truth that has been or shall be 
 known on earth from the beginning to the day of doom, was 
 latent from the first in the Church's spiritual consciousness,
 
 1 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 but it existed there as the universe, visible or invisible, ex- 
 isted before creation an unbreathed music, an unspoken 
 poetry, deep within the Heart of God. One by one, in their 
 fulness and their detail, its manifold glories were to dawn on 
 her inner apprehension, and become part of her organic life, 
 as the stars are painted one by one on the darkening azure of 
 the sunset sky. There can be no stint to her growing know- 
 ledge, no stay in the kindling path of her divine illumination, 
 till the fires of Pentecost are quenched in the brightness of 
 the everlasting sunshine. It may be said that all the articles 
 of the creed are summed up in its opening clause, Credo in 
 unwn Deum, as all musical tones are summed up in the seven 
 notes of the scale. His omnipotence is the origin of creation ; 
 the Incarnation and the Passion are the expression of His 
 boundless love ; justification is the work of His wisdom ; His 
 mercy is the measure of our endless beatitude ; His justice is 
 revealed in the fiery chastisement of sin. And so it would 
 scarcely be too much to say, that the whole circle of revealed 
 truths is wrapped up in the very letter of the Scriptural re- 
 cord, but then that record (if I may be pardoned a homely 
 simile) is like the handkerchief written over with sympathetic 
 ink, which must be held to the fire for the characters to come 
 out to view ; or as the faculties nascent in the human mind, 
 which require to be elicited by influence from without, and 
 fixed by mental analysis ; or rather, let me say, it is like the 
 dry bones in the valley of the Prophet's vision, which await 
 the breath of that Spirit who inhabits and illuminates the 
 Church, to quicken the dull clay with power from on high, 
 and make it a living soul.
 
 li 
 
 NOTE TO INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE ATOXEMEXT AXD THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. 
 
 IT is a very common, bat very ignorant, objection to the doctrine 
 of the Immaculate Conception, that it places the Blessed Virgin 
 beyond the need of redemption ; and I have even known of sermons 
 being preached against it on the text, ' ily spirit hath rejoiced in 
 God my Saviour.' Those who so argne can never have read the 
 decree of Dec. 8, 1854, which expressly affirms, "that the most 
 Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instant of her conception, by a 
 singular privilege and grace of God, in virtue of the merits of Jesus 
 Christ the Saviour of the human race, was preserved exempt from all 
 stain of original sin."* Nor is it more to the purpose to object, as 
 is also frequently done, that her conception was not, like that of our 
 Divine Lord, miraculous. An Oxford writer, of deserved theological 
 reputation, seems almost to think it a sufficient disproof of the 
 doctrine to quote some words from a sermon of St. Leo's, to the 
 effect that Christ alone was born innocent, because His birth alone 
 was not through the ordinary laws of generation.! But that is not 
 the point. Without entering here on the vexed question of the 
 manner of its transmission, it is obvious that original sin affects 
 directly the soul, not the body. And the soul is created immediately 
 by God, though its creation is dependent on certain physical ante- 
 cedents. The body of the Blessed Virgin (as in all probability our 
 Lord's also) was subject to the conditions of infirmity introduced 
 by the Fall.j But we hold that her soul was, by a special grace 
 
 * Bishop TJllathorne's Immaculate Conception, p. 198. Richardson 1855. 
 
 f Bright's Sermons of St. Leo with Notes. Note 1. Masters. 
 
 J Her death therefore is no argument against her sinlessness, as is urged by 
 the clever but very one-sided author of Qiielques Mots sur les Communions 
 Occidentals, p. 84. Leipzig, 1855. Cf. Encort Quelques Mott, p. 29. 
 Leipzig, 1858.
 
 Hi THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 and for the merits of her Son, perfectly sanctified at the moment 
 of its creation, as ours are in the sacrament of baptism. It is, 
 further, a pious and universal belief (though not matter of faith) 
 dating at latest from the time of St. Augustine, that she was pre- 
 served through life by a special grace from all defilement of actual 
 sin. To call such a belief derogatory to the grace of God, or the 
 merits of our Redeemer, is unmeaning. Rather it commends itself 
 to the instinctive feelings of a religious mind. And accordingly we 
 find the great English poet of the last generation exclaiming : 
 
 " Mother, whose virgin bosom was uncrost 
 By slightest shade of thought to sin allied, 
 Woman above all women glorified, 
 Our tainted nature's solitary boast."* 
 
 It is of course true, as Mr. Bright observes, that St. Leo ' knew 
 nothing of the Immaculate Conception,' as it is true, in the same 
 sense, that a host of early Greek fathers ' knew nothing ' of the 
 doctrine of original sin. But it is a confusion of thought to suppose 
 that he intended to contradict an opinion not brought into debate in 
 his day. There were later writers, as St. Bernard, who did oppose 
 it, partly from misapprehension of its precise meaning, partly on 
 grounds proved, after being sifted through some eight centuries, to 
 be inadequate. Arguments of this kind are two-edged swords. 
 Those at least who defend the present form of the Nicene Creed 
 (and I know of but one Anglican divine who declines to do so) 
 may be expected to remember for how many centuries the definition 
 Filioque was unknown, and what high authorities have rejected it. 
 
 I have had occasion more than once in the course of this volume 
 to point out, that the Scotist view of the Incarnation, which naturally 
 allies itself with the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, is most 
 accordant with the general spirit of patristic teaching, though not 
 expressly maintained by any early writer. The whole doctrinal 
 question is elaborately discussed in Passaglia's De Immaculato Deiparce 
 temper Virginis Conceptu Commentarius, 3 vols. folio; and is exhibited 
 in a more concise and popular form, but with great lucidity of state- 
 ment, in the Bishop of Birmingham's book already referred to. 
 
 * Wordsworth's Ecclesiattical Sonnets.
 
 THE ATONEMENT.
 
 THE ATONEMENT 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ON THE SUBJECT, 
 AND THE METHOD OF TREATING IT. 
 
 THAT Jesus died, the Just for the unjust, to redeem 
 mankind from the bondage of corruption, and restore 
 the broken communion between earth and heaven, is, 
 and ever has been, a fundamental verity of the Chris- 
 tian faith. From that uplifted cross, for eighteen cen- 
 turies, He has been drawing all men by the ' cords of 
 Adam' to Himself. Round the altars where that one 
 true Sacrifice, offered once in blood on Calvary, is pre- 
 sented perpetually in a bloodless mystery, from, the 
 rising to the setting of the sun, has been gathered 
 through, those eighteen centuries of her chequered his- 
 tory the faith, the penitence, the devotion of the 
 Church He purchased by that greatest pledge of love. 
 Yet, even as then among the spectators of the cruci- 
 fixion there were some who worshipped and some who 
 doubted, and its stillness was broken by the question- 
 ings, or the jests, or the mockeries of those for whose 
 
 A
 
 2 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 sake it was endured, so it has been till now. And 
 especially has this been the case since the fierce con- 
 troversies of the Eeformation period involved the whole 
 subject in the confusions of a theological warfare, 
 where men darken counsel with many words, and 
 strive rather for a party triumph than for simple 
 truth. Forgetting or greatly underrating, for the 
 most part, the significance of the Incarnation as the 
 centre-point of all Christian belief, the first leaders of 
 the movement in the sixteenth century dragged for- 
 ward into disproportionate prominence, and often 
 in connection with an erroneous theory of 'imputa- 
 tion,' one side and one only of that divine mystery, 
 namely, the doctrine of the Atonement. And hence 
 there has grown up in many quarters a way of looking 
 at that doctrine, and speaking of it, full of difficulties 
 to the devout believer, and offering abundant oppor- 
 tunities for the cavils of the sceptic. It has been so 
 stated as to cloud our most primary conceptions of the 
 attributes of God ; and to imply, or seem to imply, a 
 division of will between the Persons of the undivided 
 Trinity, in whom being and will are one. And so men 
 have come to complain that they cannot believe in a 
 justice which strikes the innocent, while it spares the 
 criminal ; that they cannot understand a love which 
 waits to forgive till it has exacted rigorous compensa- 
 tion; or recognize the holiness of that displeasure 
 against sin which is content to exhale in displeasure 
 against the Sinless One. Such objections may often 
 be urged in a tone of mockery, or disbelief; but it is 
 not always so. It will not then, I trust, be an un- 
 profitable task to show that the doctrine of atonement 
 held and taught from the beginning in the Catholic
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 3 
 
 Church is open to no such criticism. An investigation 
 of her teaching, as laid down by the Fathers and later 
 theologians who are the accredited interpreters of her 
 mind, will show that the opinions fairly open to objec- 
 tion are no part of it, but are either those of particular 
 writers or schools only ; or such as have prevailed for 
 a season and then passed away, like the notion of a 
 ransom paid to the evil one ; or were put forward from 
 the first with an heretical animus, and have never 
 found a home within her pale ; or. are the doctrines of 
 those who have formally renounced her creed. Mean- 
 while a few words may be said here, by way of preface, 
 in reference to some common misapprehensions on the 
 subject. 
 
 First, then, it must be always borne in mind that 
 in speaking of the avenging justice, or the wrath of 
 God, we mean by such language, which is necessarily 
 more or less metaphorical, simply to express His holi- 
 ness, in relation to fallen man. Kighteousness is the 
 best equivalent in our language for the theological 
 term justifia, which has a far wider scope than is as- 
 cribed in ordinary usage to the- English word justice, 
 or giving everyone his due, though it of course in- 
 cludes it.* It is not that we have done an injury to 
 God for which He requires a quid pro quo, as in a case 
 of injustice between man and man, or that He is angry 
 as though we had defrauded Him, as when Christ is 
 said, in a hymn of Dr. Watts's, to have ' smoothed the 
 
 * ' Justice,' in its narrower sense, as applied to the Incarnation, is generally 
 used by the Fathers in reference to Satan. Thus e.g. St. Augustine says, "Non 
 autem diabolus potentia Dei, szAjustitia supcrandus fuit." (De Trin. xiii. 13.) 
 On the other hand he says, soon afterwards, " Quid enimjustius quam usque ad 
 mortem Crucis pro justitia perseverare r" (ib. c. 14.) where obviously 'what 
 greater evidence of righteousness or holiness?' is meant.
 
 4 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 angry Father's face ;' it is no such unworthy and an- 
 thropomorphic conception as this that we mean, when 
 we speak of a satisfaction to His justice, or a sacrifice 
 to appease His wrath. It is the perfect holiness of 
 God, which is one with Himself, that is outraged by 
 sin, and then becomes what is frequently called in 
 Scripture His indignation or anger, and expresses it- 
 self in the chastisement of the sinner. It is that holi- 
 ness which is satisfied by the spotless sacrifice of His 
 Son ; l not,' as St. Bernard says, ' His death, but His 
 will in voluntarily dying.' "We need not doubt that 
 He might, had He so willed, have pardoned us on our 
 repentance, without any sacrifice at all ; but He pre- 
 ferred a method of reconciliation which established 
 alike His holiness and His love. We had fallen away, 
 not by any arbitrary external accident, but by a moral 
 perversion of our will ; and He therefore chose to re- 
 deem us through a moral act, through the perfect 
 oblation of a will obedient to His own. It was a con- 
 sequence of the Fall, and it is so still, that obedience 
 could only be exercised through suffering; that the 
 right to benefit mankind could only be purchased 
 through enduring their persecution * : and Jesus sub- 
 mitted for our sakes to that law which was the fruit 
 of our sin, and which, while He has not repealed it, 
 for all who love Him He has turned from a curse into 
 a blessing. As others suffer for our sins, so also do 
 they benefit by our suffering for righteousness' sake. 
 It would be superfluous to illustrate this in detail from 
 the familiar history of the Jewish, or the Christian 
 Church. We know full well how the shadow of His cross 
 
 * 1 Tim. iii. 12.
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 5 
 
 has more or less deeply fallen on all who prefigured Him 
 under the Old Law, on all who have been preeminent 
 as His followers under the ISTew ; making them, after 
 their measure and degree, partakers of His sufferings. 
 That was no unmeaning record inscribed on the lu- 
 minous cross which converted the first Christian em- 
 peror to the obedience of faith : In hoc signo vinces. 
 It sums up in four short words the work of the Re- 
 deemer, and the mission of His earthly Church. On 
 that I need not dwell. 
 
 It is more to the purpose to observe, that, even 
 without the limits of His visible kingdom, the same 
 principle had been perceived and exemplified. The 
 well-known passage in Plato's Republic,* which 
 sounds almost like an echo of inspired prophecy in 
 its thrilling description of the perfectly righteous 
 man, whom, because of his righteousness, his fellows 
 will scourge and crucify, is in fact but a summary of 
 the whole experience of mankind. Of the two most 
 religious heathen of whom history tells us, it is re- 
 markable that one was a persecutor and the other a 
 martyr. Socrates died, because he would not purchase 
 safety at the price of his convictions of truth; and his 
 words before his judges, " I must obey God rather 
 than you," are the key-note of his character and his 
 life. Marcus Aurelius, who, if he had been a Chris- 
 tian, would surely have been a Saint, was born into a 
 corrupted atmosphere, and brought himself to believe 
 it a duty to the Empire to persecute the Church. But, 
 if his position exempted him from suffering at the 
 hands of others, his Meditations contain abundant evi- 
 
 * Plat. Rep. ii. 65, 66 ; rf. Isaiah liii.
 
 6 nb AlONEMENT. 
 
 dence of inward struggles, and leave us no room to 
 doubt that he would more willingly have borne, had 
 it been his lot, that oppression which he unwillingly 
 consented to inflict. To die for mankind, like Pro- 
 metheus, who so strangely combines the characters of 
 a rebel and a redeemer, the Miltonic ideal of Paradise 
 Lost and Eegained ; or for one's country, like the popu- 
 lar heroes of Eoman and Athenian legend ; or for the 
 sacred duties of kinship, like Antigone ; or for one's 
 friend, like Nisus for the young Euryalus in the JEneid, 
 was the highest ideal of Pagan virtue.* And it fore- 
 shadowed, however imperfectly, a higher truth. It 
 was, far more than the usage of animal sacrifice, so 
 often quoted, the genuine though unconscious witness 
 of the natural conscience, that " without shedding of 
 blood there is no remission.'' For sacrifice, apart from 
 direct revelation, was little more at best than the rude 
 expression of a want dimly felt. It told, indeed, of 
 sin, but it might mean, like the ring of Polycrates, 
 that too much happiness is not safe for man; or it 
 might be the mere unreasoning fear of a superior 
 power, or the perplexed sense of obligation to a 
 law imperfectly fulfilled; or it might be degraded 
 to the horrible conception of human sacrifice, as an 
 offering acceptable to the Deity. It scarcely touches 
 the moral element, in the death of Christ. Oblatus 
 est quia Ipse voluit ; " He was obedient even unto 
 death." And, accordingly, the Fathers regard even 
 the Jewish ritual of bloody sacrifice chiefly as a 
 temporary concession to human infirmity, ordained 
 
 * Origen (Contra Ctlsum) uses this analogy. Whether the usage of animal 
 sacrifice was originally derived from revelation or from natural instinct, is a 
 further question, not touched upon here.
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 7 
 
 through Moses, to withdraw the people from the ser- 
 vice of devils ; depreciated by the Prophets, to remind 
 them of its intrinsic worthlessness. The mystic offer- 
 ing of Melchisedeck is, in patristic theology, the greaf 
 type of the sacrifice of Christ. 
 
 It will not of course be imagined for a moment, thai 
 I suggest these illustrations as more than illustrations, 
 or as in any sense adequate parallels of that which 
 they nevertheless serve to adumbrate. So much at 
 least they may prove in reply to objections, that there 
 is no prima facie incongruity in the doctrine of re- 
 demption, from its having to be wrought out by the 
 Eedeemer's death. Christianity has not contradicted 
 but endorsed the presentiments of natural religion, 
 when it teaches by the acts, even more than by the 
 words, of its Founder, that self-sacrifice for the good of 
 others is the measure of our perfection, our highest 
 law of life. "Pain," it has been truly said, " is the 
 deepest thing we have in our nature, and union through 
 pain has always seemed more holy and more real than 
 any other." By those ' cords' of the first Adam 
 the second bound us to Himself. Even those who 
 believe Him not have owned their power ;* how much 
 more those who love Him ! Would such a life as that 
 of Eugenie de Guerin, to take no extreme case, be con- 
 ceivable without the Passion ? 
 
 It is further evident that if our redemption was to 
 be not simply conceded, but purchased by toil and 
 sacrifice, it could not be won by the redeemed them- 
 
 * Thus Renan (Vie de Jesus, p. 77) : " His religion will for ever grow young 
 again. ///* sufferings will soften the best hearts ; all ages will proclaim tha' 
 among the sons of men there has not been born a greater than Jesus." Simile 
 expressions abound in the book.
 
 8 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 selves. Prophets and just men under the Old Law did 
 and suffered much, to bear testimony to the truth ; but 
 their obedience, like their testimony, was imperfect. 
 They were lifted up from the earth, but they did not 
 draw all men to themselves. He alone could offer to 
 the Creator a perfect oblation of the human will, to 
 whom holiness belonged of inherent right. If men 
 were to be delivered from their i vain conversation,' 
 from that thraldom of sense by which the corruptible 
 body pressed down the incorruptible spirit, not merely 
 by external teaching or threats of future judgment, 
 but by the living witness of a nature identical with 
 their own, yet with every motion of flesh or spirit 
 brought into subjection to a higher law, then He 
 alone could deliver them who was perfect man, yet 
 1 did no sin.' And if the very method of deliverance 
 was to be a measure of the ultimate consequence and 
 tendencies, because a measure of the true character of 
 sin, of the real and living energy of that evil principle 
 from which men required to be set free, then He could 
 only deliver them through submitting to their injus- 
 tice, through bearing in His own body that death 
 which was itself the culminating act and typical ex- 
 pression of their sin.* It is no answer to this to say, 
 that we might have been delivered without any sacri- 
 fice at all. I have already admitted that, so far as we 
 know, it is so ; what I am urging now is that, if there 
 was to be a sacrifice, we can conceive but one, because 
 
 * Thus the account of the atonement given hy an estimable Protestant writer 
 of our own day (the late Rev. F. W. Robertson) that Christ ' bore our sins,' 
 because the collective -vr ickedness of mankind spent itself upon Him in the Pas- 
 sion, is true as far as it goes, but not the whole truth. A somewhat similar ex- 
 planation of the doctrine is given by the Rev. J. Llewellyn Davies, in the Preface 
 to his Sermont on the Work of Christ.
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 9 
 
 one alone is perfect. And it is in this sense, as we 
 shall see, that those Fathers are to be understood who 
 speak of the sacrifice of Christ being necessary. They 
 always imply, what most of them expressly state, as 
 do also the great majority of scholastic writers, that 
 God might have delivered us by some other means ; 
 but they affirm that no other sacrifice could be ade- 
 quate.* St. Anselm was the first to lay down a law 
 of absolute necessity, and he does so on the professed 
 ground, usually held to be untenable, that it was the 
 most fitting means of effecting our reconciliation, and 
 therefore God was bound to adopt it. 
 
 And here it may be well to repeat more distinctly, 
 what was implied just now, that the satisfaction or 
 atonement of Christ, with which we are at present 
 concerned, is part, and part only, of the great work 
 wrought out through the ' sacrament,' or as the Greek 
 Fathers are wont to call it, l economy' of the Incar- 
 nation. " The Word was made Flesh." That is the 
 mystery which is the life and light of the Church, the 
 centre of her worship and kernel of her creed; the 
 mystery which angels desire to look into, and which 
 sinners are permitted to adore in the abiding miracle 
 of the Eucharist. Theologians usually make a three- 
 fold division of the causes or motives of the Incarna- 
 tion.f As one motive they assign the glory of God, 
 
 Petav. De Licarn. ii. 13. In the words of a modern theologian, whose 
 loss we are still deploring, " It was no necessity which drove God to the re- 
 demption of the world by the Precious Blood. He might have redeemed it in 
 unnumbered other ways. There is no limit to His power, no exhaustion to His 
 
 wisdom The shedding of His Blood was part of the freedom of His love. 
 
 It was, in some mysterious reality, the way of redemption most worthy of His 
 blessed majesty, and also the way most likely to provoke the love of men." 
 Faber's Precious Blood (Richardson, 1860), pp. 27, 28. 
 
 t Ib. ii. 5. 
 
 B
 
 10 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 in the manifestation of His attributes of power, sanc- 
 tity, wisdom and goodness, which broke forth in the 
 Person of Jesus, through their veil of flesh. A second 
 motive is the benefit of man, and that in three Avays : 
 by redemption and sanctification, by teaching, and by 
 example ; and a third is the triumph over Satan. It is 
 clear at first blush that all these motives, except the 
 last, would have held good, under certain modifications, 
 if men had never sinned. And accordingly one great 
 school of theologians in the Church, whose theory 
 receives a fresh sanction from the recent definition of 
 the Immaculate Conception, and is also the most natural 
 inference from the spirit if not the letter of patristic 
 teaching, hold that if there had been no Fall, the Second 
 Person in the Trinity would yet have taken our nature 
 upon TTim, and become our Brother. He would have 
 come, of course, other than He actually came. He 
 would not have come in a corruptible body; He would 
 not have come to die. But He would have been, as 
 now, our Teacher, our Pattern, our Mediator, the Se- 
 cond Adam, and Source of Grace ; we should still have 
 seen mirrored in His perfect Humanity the mind of 
 God.* And thus, while the Incarnation formed part 
 of the Divine purpose from the beginning, and the 
 predestined Manhood of the Eternal Son was the arche- 
 type and model on which ours was formed, the Pas- 
 sion, so to say, was an afterthought, added because of 
 transgressions ; it was not the original motive of the 
 decree, out affected the manner of its fulfilment. 
 Whether or not, however, this theory be accepted 
 and it certainly seems most in accordance with the 
 
 * On the Mediation of Christ, as necessarily involved in the very fact of tha 
 Incarnation, see Wilberforce'sDo<tfno/?Ae Incarnation, ch. rii.
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 11 
 
 tradition of the Church, and with what revelation would 
 suggest to us of the love of God it remains equally 
 certain, that the Incarnation had objects not necessarily 
 connected with the Fall, and even as regards our pre- 
 sent fallen state had further ends besides that of satis- 
 faction. Some of these are elaborately worked out by 
 writers strongly opposed to the view referred to, such 
 as Thomassin, who devotes the greater part of his first 
 book on the Incarnation to setting forth the exhibition 
 in the Person of the God-Man of the eternal law and 
 the Divine attributes. The mediatorial office of Christ 
 includes, besides and even before the notion of inter- 
 cession and sacrifice, that of reconciliation, or ' making 
 peace,' on which Scripture so constantly dwells, unit- 
 ing man with God, giving peace from the internal 
 conflict of passion in the human soul, and joining to- 
 gether those who arc no more strangers and foreigners, 
 Jew or Gentile, Greek or barbarian, but united in His 
 one family, of whom all fatherhood in heaven and on 
 earth is named.* 
 
 It may be as well to add here, though for theo- 
 logical readers the remark would be superfluous, that 
 the notion of ' imputation,' in the sense of a transfer, 
 by a kind of juridical fiction, of our sins to Christ, and 
 His Kighteousness to His members, was first started 
 in the sixteenth century, and must be kept quite dis- 
 tinct from the doctrine of atonement, on which it has 
 been engrafted. It differs widely from the teaching 
 of the Church on righteousness not imputed but im- 
 parted, which is expressed by the Council of Trent in 
 language borrowed from St. Augustine, to the effect 
 
 * Ptav. D* Inc. xii. 6, 7.
 
 12 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 that in crowning our merits God crowns His own 
 gifts.* The Passion of Christ was not to be the sub- 
 stitute for our personal obedience, but the source of it. 
 To justify is to make, not simply to account men just. 
 
 Once more, there is no hint in any Father, except 
 St. Augustine and Fulgentius, of the notion that Christ 
 died for some, or for the elect only, not for the whole 
 race of mankind. There arc no doubt traces of such a 
 view to be found in St. Augustine's later writings, 
 during the Pelagian controversy; and he was the first 
 to explain St. Paul's words (Eom. ix. 21) of the 'mass 
 of perdition' (<t>vpapa) from which only the predestined 
 would be taken out. This idea of Christ dying for a 
 chosen few re-appears, to support an argument which 
 is however complete without it, in one passage of Abe- 
 lard; it found distinct expression later, among the 
 Reformed in the heresy of Calvin, among Catholics 
 in the heresy of Jansenism. That God is no respecter 
 of persons, but wills all men to be saved, and that 
 Christ died for all, is, on the other hand, the constant 
 teaching of the Church. 
 
 This leads to a further remark, which must be borne 
 in- mind throughout the ensuing examination of the 
 writings of Fathers, Schoolmen, and later Catholic theo- 
 logians. While the 'unanimous consent of the Fa- 
 thers,' so far as it embodies the faith of the universal 
 Church, is affirmed by the Council of Trent (Sess. vi.) 
 to be an authoritative rule for the interpretation of 
 Scripture, the individual opinions of any or even all 
 of them can never constitute more than a strong prima 
 
 * Cone. Trid. Sess. vi. cap. 16; cf. Can. 11, 12, where the imputation of 
 Christ's merits is denied to be the cause of our justification.
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 13 
 
 facie presumption in favour of the view adopted. And 
 as regards later writers also, we may expect to find 
 much variety in their way of handling points not de- 
 fined by authority, and shall gain light from their very 
 differences. To use the words of the great leader of 
 the Catholic revival in Germany, " For a time even a 
 conception of a dogma, or an opinion may be tolerably 
 general, without however becoming an integral portion 
 of a dogma, or a dogma itself. There are here eter- 
 nally changing individual forms of an universal prin- 
 ciple, which may serve this or that person, or a par- 
 ticular period for mastering that universal principle 
 by way of reflection and speculation, forms which may 
 possess more or less of truth, but whereon the Church 
 pronounces no judgment ; for the data for such a deci- 
 sion are wanting in tradition, and she abandons them 
 altogether to the award of theological criticism." This 
 is said with special reference to " Augustine's and 
 Anselm's exposition of original sin, and the theory of 
 the latter respecting the vicarious atonement of Christ."* 
 The Church of God was to be ' clothed in raiment of 
 many colours' fcircumamicta varietatibusj , and unity 
 in diversity is among her predicted glories. The dif- 
 ferent and even mistaken or imperfect aspects under 
 which the same truth may present itself to different 
 minds do but serve to bring out the more clearly, in 
 the long run, its vital unity and coherence, j- It must 
 be remembered, too, as one reason why this particular 
 
 * Mb'hler's Symbolism, Eng. Tr. vol. i. p. 11. 
 
 f- . " Dass abcr in dieser nur durch Irrthiimer hindurch der Weg 7ur Wahrheit 
 fiihre, ist ein Gesetz, welches in der Zukunft eben so gelten wird, wie es in 
 der Vergangenheit sich bewahrt hat." Die Vergangenheit und Gegenwari der 
 kathohschen Theologie, von J. von Dollinger. Regensburg, 1863.
 
 14 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 doctrine of the atonement has not been so fully treated 
 as many others by Catholic writers, that it never 
 formed the subject of any specific heresy before the 
 Eeformation, and did not even then become a promi- 
 nent topic of controversy, partly from internal differ- 
 ences among the Reformers themselves about it, partly 
 from the more immediate practical interest at the time 
 of questions about Church authority and the Sacra- 
 ments. We shall have occasion, however, to notice 
 the treatment of the question by the leading Protestant 
 divines, with the earliest of whom it acquired a new 
 shape and significance, and became a fruitful source of 
 misconceptions. 
 
 Thousands and tens of thousands, I know, have 
 knelt in loving adoration before the Crucified, who 
 never attempted to reason about the crucifixion ; they 
 felt what it meant, though they could not put their 
 meaning into words, or were content to use such words 
 only as those of a popular English hymn : 
 
 " I cannot understand the woe 
 
 "\Vhich Thou wast pleased to bear; 
 O dying Lamb, I do but know 
 Thai all my hopes are there." 
 
 Far be it from us to blame them. Doubtless there 
 is more to be learnt from the crucifix than all the wis- 
 dom of all the theologians can teach us. Yet the 
 mysteries of revelation were given to be food for the 
 intellect, as well as for the heart ; and, moreover, the 
 questionings of heresy which have fixed the form, have 
 troubled the unconscious simplicity of our early faith. 
 Such scriptural statements as that "the good Shepherd 
 giveth His life for the sheep," or that "the Son of
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 15 
 
 Man came to give His life a ransom instead of many," 
 or that u we have redemption through His blood, the 
 forgiveness of sins," or that " God having sent His 
 own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh, and for sin, 
 condemned sin in the flesh," or that "as in Adam all 
 die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive;" "as 
 by one man's disobedience the many were made sin- 
 ners, by the obedience of One the many shall be made 
 righteous :"* these and the like passages contain a 
 depth and richness of meaning which no meditation 
 can exhaust ; but they also suggest many difficult 
 questions which successive writers and schools, as well 
 within as without the Church, have variously an- 
 swered. Such an inquiry as the present is not, there- 
 fore, a needless -one. Only let us never forget, amid 
 the maze of theological speculations, the one grand les- 
 son of the Passion, Amor meus crucifixus est. 
 
 * John x. 11 ; Matt. xx. 28; Eph. i. 7; Col. i. 14; 
 Rom. viii. 3; 1 Cor. xv. 22 ; Rom. v. 19.
 
 16 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ANTE- NICENE FATHERS. 
 
 As a general rule, the rise of successive heresies is 
 the occasion and measure of dogmatic statements of 
 the faith. We do not, therefore, look in the Ante- 
 Kicene Fathers for any elaborate discussion of ques- 
 tions not yet brought into controversy. Even on the 
 central doctrines of the Trinity and the Incarnation, 
 we know how halting and inadequate, to use the 
 mildest terms, their language frequently is, before the 
 Arian, Sabellian, Monophysite, and Nestorian heresies 
 had forced out into bolder relief the contrary defini- 
 tions of the Church, as has been conclusively shown 
 by Petavius, and not disproved though disputed in 
 the Defensio Fidei Nicence of Bp. Bull.* Neither, again, 
 
 * Petav. De Trin. i. 3-5. No candid critic in the present day would deny 
 the substantial correctness of Petavius's estimate. If he errs, it is rather in ex- 
 aggerating than in depreciating the accuracy of theological statement in the early 
 Greek Fathers, especially as regards the doctrines of grace. It is no disparage- 
 ment to the general merits of the Defensio to say that the learned author has 
 sometimes allowed himself to become too much of a special pleader, a common 
 fault of his day among theologians. A recent Anglican writer observes : "lam 
 bound to state candidly, that, while I sympathize with the intention of Bull, I 
 incline practically to the judgments of Petavius. It requires a thorough-going 
 advocate to accept Bull's expurgated edition of Ante-Xictne theology." Owen's 
 Introd. to the Study of Dogmatic Theology, London, 1858.
 
 THE AXTE-XICEXE FATHERS. 17 
 
 can we reasonably expect to find in earlier writers that 
 precision of theological statement which only came 
 into vogue when theology, partly in the conflict with 
 error, partly through the influence of Greek philoso- 
 phy at Alexandria, began to be formed into a science. 
 On the subject of the atonement, the Ante-Nicene 
 Fathers do not, with the exception of Irenseus and 
 Origen, propound any definite theory. The word 
 ' Satisfaction' they never use, or use, if at all, of the 
 satisfaction of the penitent, not of Christ ;* nor was 
 the idea, as afterwards explained, familiar to them. 
 But they speak, in connexion with the Incarnation, 
 and in general terms, often borrowed directly or indi- 
 rectly from the language of Scripture, of the suffer- 
 ings, the death, the blood, the obedience, and the 
 sacrifice of Christ, as being offered for us, and being 
 the means of our redemption. It is from passages of 
 this kind that we must gather their teaching on the 
 subject ; and, to present a clear and consistent view of 
 it, a fuller employment of detailed references and quo- 
 tations will be needful than in the case of more sys- 
 tematic writers, whose opinions can be fairly summed 
 up in an analysis. I will do my best, however, to 
 avoid burdening the reader with more of lengthened 
 quotations than is really requisite, and to select such 
 passages only as will in each case give a fair and 
 adequate specimen of the writer's method of handling 
 the question. We shall afterwards be in a position to 
 draw some inferences, as to the general drift of patristic 
 teaching as a whole, and its relations to later theology. 
 
 * It is used in this sense by Tertullian and Cyprian. There is no word for it 
 in the Greek. 
 
 C
 
 18 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 First in order come the apostolic Fathers, St. Clem- 
 ent of Rome, Barnabas, Hennas, St. Polycarp, and St. 
 Ignatius ; but their writings will not detain us long. 
 
 "We have two Epistles of Clement, to the Church at 
 Corinth, on practical disputes which had arisen there, 
 only dealing quite incidentally with any questions of 
 doctrine. He is distinct in asserting, that the blood of 
 Christ is the means of bestowing on us redemption and 
 grace, and that by the will and through the love of 
 God. " In love the Master received us ; through the 
 love He had for us Christ our Lord gave His blood 
 for us, by the will of God, and His flesh for our flesh, 
 and His soul for our souls." And again, " Let us 
 look then to the blood of Christ, and behold how pre- 
 cious is His blood to God, since it was shed for our 
 salvation, and has procured for the whole world the 
 grace of repentance."* Clement makes the scarlet 
 cord let down by Rahab a type of the blood of Christ ; 
 and speaks of Him as our High Priest, according to 
 the constant usage of the Fathers. The universality 
 of redemption, and the death of Christ as the source of 
 grace, are here clearly laid down. 
 
 Let us turn to the General Epistle of Barnabas , which, 
 though not by the apostle of that name, nor indeed a 
 writing of the first century, appeared early in the 
 second, at Alexandria. We read, in the seventh chapter, 
 of Christ offering the vessel of His soul (i. e. His body) 
 as a sacrifice for our sins ; and of Isaac's sacrifice as a 
 type : the writer also dwells, as do others afterwards, 
 on the type of the two goats, one of which was sacri- 
 ficed, and the other made a scape-goat, being ac- 
 
 * Clem. Rom. Ep. ad Cor. 1. xlix. 7.
 
 THE ANTE-NICENE FATHERS. 19 
 
 cursed, as Christ was accursed, by the people, not by 
 God. He speaks again of Christ suffering, that the 
 strokes inflicted on Him may give life to us, and " that 
 we may be sanctified by the remission of sins, that is, 
 the sprinkling of His blood," of which the blood of 
 the Passover was a figure. In one passage of chapter 
 fourteenth we seem to have the first notice of the con- 
 quest over Satan, where it is said, in manifest allusion 
 to Col. i. 13, "He ransomed from darkness our souls, 
 given Over to death and lawless wanderings ;" but of 
 this theory we shall have to speak later. 
 
 The Shepherd of Hermas, which used at one time to 
 be ranked with the Xew Testament Scriptures, con- 
 tains but a single reference to the redemption wrought 
 by Christ, occurring in a parable about a vineyard, 
 representing the people of God, where His Son is set 
 to work as a servant, and is said to have 'laboured 
 much and suffered much that He might do away their 
 sins,' and afterwards to have t pointed out to them 
 the way of life by giving them the law, received from 
 His Father ;' * thus connecting the forgiveness of sins 
 especially with His obedience and His teaching. 
 
 In the Epistles of Ignatius there are several refer- 
 ences, in general terms, to the sufferings of Christ for 
 us. In the Epistle to Smyrna the writer says : 
 " Christ suffered for us (& V"c) that we might be 
 saved, and suffered really;" and he calls the Eucharist 
 " that flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ which suffered 
 for (vp) our sins, which the Father in His goodness 
 raised, "f In the account of his martyrdom there is 
 
 * Pastor, lib. iii, Sim. 5. 
 f Ignat. Ep. ad S-myni. i. 7. Ep. ad Ephcs. i.
 
 20 THE ATiiXKMKXT. 
 
 a distinct reference to the triumph over Satan by the 
 Cross of Christ, as alluded to by St. Paul,* when he 
 is made to speak of our Lord as " Him that crucified 
 my sin with him ivlto iii rental it, and condemned all 
 demoniacal error and wickedness, putting it under the 
 feet of those who carry Him in their heart." He also 
 calls Christ a High Priest. 
 
 The last apostolic Father to be noticed here is St. 
 Polycarp. In his Epistle to the Philippians, he says 
 that Christ ' persevered even unto death for our sins, 
 whom God raised, having loosed the pains of Hell ;' 
 and again, in language moulded on St. Peter's, says : 
 " He bore our sin in His own body to the tree, who 
 did no sin, neither was guile found in His mouth, but 
 He endured all for our sakes, that we might live in 
 Him;"f thus connecting the gift of life with His 
 sufferings for us. Further on he calls Christ ' the 
 eternal High Priest.' 
 
 One more document of the first century may be 
 quoted : the E2mtU to Diognetus, which has been 
 erroneously ascribed to Justin Martyr. It contains 
 a passage of importance, as showing that the writer 
 had no notion of that divergence of will between the 
 Persons of the Holy Trinity, which has sometimes 
 been so strangely imported into the doctrine of the 
 Atonement ; as though the mind of the Father towards 
 us were actually changed by the Sacrifice of Christ. 
 I will give it in full, translating from the Greek. 
 " God, the Master and Maker of all things, who cre- 
 ated all things and disposed them in order, was not 
 only a Lover of man, but also long-suffering ; and He, 
 
 * Col. ii. 15; cf. Hcb. ii. 14. 
 t Polycarp. Ep. ad Phil, i. 8.
 
 THE AXTE-NICENE FATHERS. 21 
 
 indeed, was always such, and will be, gracious and 
 good, and without anger (ao'pyr/roe), and true; and He 
 alone is good, and conceived the great and ineffable 
 design which He communicated only to His Son." 
 And again : " When our iniquity was full, and it was 
 perfectly manifest that punishment and death were the 
 
 expected recompense He did not hate or repulse 
 
 us, or think evil of us, but was long-suffering and 
 bore with us, and took our sins upon Him (ai/eSeforo) ; 
 He Himself gave up His Son as a ransom for us, the 
 Holy for the unholy, the Sinless for the sinful, the 
 Eighteous for the unrighteous, the Incorruptible for 
 the corruptible, the Immortal for the mortal. For 
 what else but His righteousness could cover our sins ? 
 by whom could we, the lawless and impious, be justi- 
 fied, but only by the Son of God ? sweet change ! 
 O unsearchable work ! unexpected benefits ! that 
 the wickedness of many should be covered by one 
 Eighteous One, the righteousness of One justify many 
 sinners !" I will merely observe, to preclude a pos- 
 sible misconception, that it would be to ignore the 
 whole tenor of patristic theology, if we supposed the 
 imputation theory was intended in the concluding 
 words. It is clearly a real change in ourselves that is 
 spoken of, from sin to holiness, through the imparted 
 grace of Christ. 
 
 St. Justin Martyr, the great Christian apologist of 
 the second century, is naturally led in his dispute with 
 the Jew Trypho to enlarge on the death of Christ. He 
 does not, however, construct any systematic theory on 
 the subject ; but his statements are important as inci- 
 dentally contradicting some later theories. He speaks 
 generally of Christ being incarnated, ' that He might
 
 22 THE ATOXEMEXT. 
 
 be partaker of our sufferings, and heal them ;' but, in 
 commenting on the great prophecy of the Passion 
 (Is. liii.), he does not, like Luther afterwards, explain 
 " the discipline of our peace was upon Him," * of Christ 
 being punished by God Tor our sins ; and, so far from 
 explaining Gal. iii. 13, of the curse of God resting 
 upon Christ, he says expressly that it was by the Jews 
 He was accursed : " Ye maintain that He was rightly 
 crucified, and an enemy of God and accursed, which is 
 a work of your unreasonable judgment." And, again, 
 more definitely : " The curse of the law lies upon cru- 
 cified men, but the curse of God does not lie upon 
 Christ, through whom He saves those worthy of curse;" 
 and the Jews are reproached with calling Him ac- 
 cursed whom God willed to take our curses upon Him, 
 meaning to raise Him from the dead. There are other 
 passages to the same effect; and the example of the 
 scape-goat is explained, as by Barnabas before and 
 Tertullian afterwards, of the curses of the people being 
 laid upon Christ. Justin frequently alludes, as do 
 nearly all writers after Ignatius, to the conquest over 
 Satan as a consequence of the Passion, and in one pas- 
 sage, where he speaks of Christ having acquired pos- 
 session of men (KT^a^vog) by blood and the ' mystery 
 of His Cross,' he may even seem to hint at the view of 
 a price paid to Satan, which we shall have to notice 
 later, in dealing with Irena3us and Origen. He speaks 
 of the restoration of our fallen nature through Christ, 
 who suffered ( to deliver us from the wickedness in 
 which we were born,' and of His blood ' delivering 
 
 * In the Scptuagint, where Justin uses -rrat^eia e'tprji'i]Q iiputr- disciplina 
 pacis nostrse, Vulg. The references are to the Dialogue against Trypho, and the 
 Apologia.
 
 THE ANTE-NICENE FATHERS. 23 
 
 those who believe on Him,' quoting the usual types of 
 the Paschal sprinkling and Kahab's scarlet thread; 
 and calls Him ' a chosen Priest, and eternal King,' 
 fulfilling the type of Melchisedec. 
 
 Clement of Alexandria may be regarded as the fore- 
 runner of that great theological school, taking its name 
 from his native city, of which Origen was properly the 
 founder. He does not, however, speak on this question 
 with any special fulness or precision, and adds little to 
 what had already been said by others. The sufferings 
 of Christ are attributed to His exceeding love for man ; 
 He is l a Sacrifice acceptable to God ; '* and is else- 
 where called ' the Passover sacrificed (raXXtepsueae) by 
 the Jews.' The conquest over the serpent, whose form 
 is taken to symbolize sensual pleasure, is spoken of in 
 language which deserves to be quoted: "How did 
 pleasure prevail? Man, who had been set free by 
 simplicity, was found bound to sins ; the Lord wished 
 to release him again from his chains ; and being bound 
 to flesh (a Divine mystery), in this He overcame the 
 serpent, and took captive the tyrant and death, and, 
 what is strangest, with hands stretched out [on the 
 cross] showed man set free who had been led astray 
 by pleasure, and chained to comiption. mystical 
 wonder ! The Lord lay down, and man rose ; and he 
 who was cast out of Paradise receives heaven, a greater 
 prize than his obedience could have won."f The last 
 words, which sound like an echo of the felix culpa 
 chanted in the Paschal anthem, are the earliest distinct 
 intimation, so far as I am aware, of our having gained 
 more by the Incarnation than we had lost by the Fall. 
 
 * Clem. Alex. Strom, 7, Pcedag. 5. 
 t Ib. Protr. 69.
 
 24 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 It will be observed, that the obedience of Christ is the 
 point here chiefly dwelt upon, and to which the victory 
 over the evil one and our redemption is ascribed. Else- 
 where the writer says that He ' changed the sunset to 
 the sunrise, and by His cross turned death into life ;'* 
 and again (Peed. 2.) : " The blood of the Lord is two- 
 fold, the fleshly by which we were redeemed from 
 corruption, and the spiritual by which we were 
 anointed ;" and, lastly, Jesus is said to pray for men 
 as the Great High Priest of God. 
 
 Some fragments only remain of Claudius Apollinaris, 
 Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia in the second century. 
 
 He calls our Lord, " the Great Sacrifice, the Son of 
 God instead of the Paschal Lamb, who was bound and 
 bound the strong one (Satan), who was judged being 
 Judge of quick and dead, who was delivered into the 
 hands of sinners to be crucified, who poured from His 
 side the two things which cleanse, water and blood, 
 mind and spirit" (\6yov mt TTJ^CI). This accords, as far 
 as it goes, with contemporary writers, but obviously 
 the passage is rather rhetorical than dogmatic. 
 
 There is nothing specially bearing on our subject in 
 the writings of the apologists Tatian, Athenagoras, and 
 Theophilus. And so we pass from the second to the 
 third century, and from the Eastern to the "Western 
 Church. I have purposely passed over Irena^us, whose 
 treatment of the question shall be examined with Ori- 
 gen's, to which it bears a close resemblance, at the end 
 of this chapter. 
 
 "We come thus to Tertullian, the great Latin writer 
 
 * ov-og ri)v Zvaiv ti'c arciTv\)}v nert'iyayfr, Kal TOV Qavarov fi'c
 
 THE AXTK-XICEXE FATHERS. 25 
 
 of the early part of the third century. And it may be 
 worth observing, that, from his having before his con- 
 version been famous as a jurist, he, if any one, would 
 be likely to put forward the juridical theory of satis- 
 faction, which at a later period commended itself so 
 strongly to the legal mind of Grotius. That he does 
 not even allude to it, is a crucial evidence of its being 
 as yet unknown. And this is made clearer by his 
 frequently using, and being the first to use, the word 
 satisfaction ; but always, as has been already stated, 
 in reference to the acts of the penitent, not the work 
 of Christ. On the other hand, in disputing with the 
 Jews, he is careful to explain Gal. iii. 13, like Justin 
 Martyr, of the curses laid on Christ by His people, not 
 by God. He insists, that those hung on a tree are 
 said in Deuteronomy to be cursed only on account of 
 the sins for which they are hung there, which cannot 
 of course apply to Christ, ' who spoke no guile, and 
 displayed all righteousness and humility.'* He says 
 that Christ was made ' a sacrifice for all nations, be- 
 ing led as a sheep to the slaughter,' quoting also the 
 types of Isaac, and the scape-goat, which latter he 
 explains in the same sense as Barnabas and Justin had 
 done before him. Moses, stretching out his arms 
 during the battle against Amalek, is given as a type 
 of Christ's triumphs over Satan, and also the brazen 
 serpent. The Origenist notion of a ransom paid to 
 Satan is perhaps hinted at when it is said, " The Lord 
 
 * Tertul. Contra Judaos 10. He elsewhere says (Contra Prax.) that the 
 apostle would have 'blasphemed' had he called Christ cursed in any other sense. 
 On the other hand, Luther remarks, with characteristic bluntness, "Every one 
 hung on the tree is cursed of God : Christ was hung on the tree, therefore Christ 
 is cursed of God." 
 
 D
 
 26 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 redeemed him from the angelic powers who hold the 
 world, the spiritual things of wickedness, the darkness 
 of this world, from eternal judgment and perpetual 
 death ;" but it may be merely a reference to Eph. vi. 
 12. The bestowal of a new life and restoration of the 
 lost image of God, through the crucifixion, is clearly 
 laid down : " What plainer than the sacrament of this 
 
 wood that what had perished in Adam might be 
 
 restored by the tree (cross) of Christ." His obe- 
 dience, persevering to the last moment of life, is dwelt 
 upon, and His being * the Pontiff of the uncircumcised 
 priesthood, after the order of Melchisedec.'* 
 
 There is not much of special importance for our sub- 
 ject in the writings of Hippolytus. He speaks of 
 Christ's priesthood, and sacrifice of Himself as a sweet- 
 smelling savour to God ; of His perfect obedience and 
 fulfilling all the righteousness of the law ; of His en- 
 during the cross by the consent (<rvyxw|0>/<r) of God ; of 
 His priesthood and royalty. Two passages may be 
 given here. The first seems to point to Irenasus' 
 theory : " For this cause the God of all things became 
 man, that by suffering in passible flesh He might ran- 
 som our whole race, which was sold to death; and, 
 working marvels through the instrumentality of the 
 flesh,. by His impassible Godhead, might bring it back 
 to His pure and blessed life, from which it had fallen 
 by obeying the Devil."f The other passage is a com- 
 ment on Prov. ix. 1 : " He has given us His divine 
 flesh and precious blood to eat and drink, for the re- 
 mission of sins." 
 
 St. Cyprian's treatment of the question follows Ter- 
 
 * Ib. 13, 14, 10. DeFuya, 12. Contr. Jud. 13. Contr. Marcion, iv. 42, v. 9. 
 f Hippol. De TAeol. et Incarn. II.
 
 THE AXTE-XICENE FATHEKS. 27 
 
 tullian's more closely than that of any other writer. 
 There is no attempt to theorize ; the word satisfaction 
 is used, as by Tertullian, of the penitent, not of Christ. 
 The following passage expresses the writer's general 
 view of the work of redemption : " This grace Christ 
 imparts, this gift of His mercy He bestows by subdu- 
 ing death through the triumph of the cross, redeeming 
 the believer by the price of His blood, reconciling 
 men to God the Father, giving life to the mortal by 
 heavenly regeneration." He speaks elsewhere of our 
 sins being * cleansed by the blood and the sanctifica- 
 tion of Christ;' of His eternal priesthood after the 
 order of Melchisedec, and of His earthly priests 
 representing Him, and ' offering a true and full sacri- 
 fice in the Church to God the Father,' in allusion to 
 Prov. ix.* He quotes Moses prevailing over Amalek 
 as a type of our Lord's victory over Satan, and repeat- 
 edly speaks of our being redeemed and vivified by His 
 blood. 
 
 One passage shall be quoted here from the Homily 
 on the Cross, by Methodius, bishop of Tyre, who was 
 martyred in the Diocletian persecution. It speaks of 
 the victory over Satan as achieved through Christ's 
 obedience unto deaih, and His arming us to overcome 
 him in our own persons. " For this cause chiefly was 
 the cross introduced, being set up as a trophy and 
 terror against iniquity, that from henceforth man 
 might be no more subject to wrath, having conquered 
 back ( avaira\aicravra ) what he had lost by disobedience, 
 and having lawfully overcome the powers below, and 
 been made free of all debt by the gifts of God. For 
 
 * Cypr. Ad Demetrium. Ib. Epist. 63.
 
 28 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 this the first-bora Word of the righteous God, having 
 armed man, in whose nature He tabernacled, put down 
 the powers which had enslaved us, through the form 
 of the cross, as has been said, and with outstretched 
 hands set free man who was in the bondage of cor- 
 ruption."* 
 
 Before proceeding to notice the special theories of 
 IrenaBus and Origen, the only writers of this early 
 period who can strictly be said to have constructed 
 any theory on the subject, we may pause to sum up 
 briefly the main points of teaching on Christ's work 
 of redemption to be gathered from the patristic litera- 
 ture of the first three centuries as a whole. And first, 
 as to what it does not contain. There is no trace, as 
 we have seen, of the notion of vicarious satisfaction, 
 in the sense of our sins being imputed to Christ and 
 His obedience imputed to us, which some of the Re- 
 formers made the very essence of Christianity; or, 
 again, of the kindred notion that God was angry with 
 His Son for our sakes, and inflicted on Him the pun- 
 ishment due to us ; nor is Isaiah's prophecy interpreted 
 in this sense, as afterwards by Luther ; on the contrary 
 there is much which expressly negatives any such 
 views. There is no mention of the justice of God, in 
 the forensic sense of the word; the Incarnation is in- 
 variably and exclusively ascribed to His love ; the term 
 satisfaction does not occur in this connection at all, 
 and where Christ is said to suffer for us, lirep (not <Wt) 
 is the word always used.-j- It is not the payment of a 
 
 * Horn, de Cruce Fragm. 1. 
 
 t We shall find the two, however, used interchangeably in one passage of 
 Irenaeus, as they are also by St. Paul in 1 Timothy ii. 6: avriXvrpov vxtp 
 Cf. Matt. xx. 28. Mark z. 45.
 
 THE AXTE-NICEXE FATHERS. 29 
 
 debt, as in the Cur Dem Homo, but the restoration of 
 our fallen nature that is prominent in the minds of the 
 writers, as the main object of the Incarnation. They 
 always speak, with Scripture, of our being reconciled 
 to God, not of God being reconciled to us. On the 
 other hand, they are far removed from the modem 
 Socinian or Eationalistic view, which sees in the death 
 of Christ only an attestation of His teaching, or an ex- 
 alted model of heroic virtue, or a practical evidence of 
 the love of God. They ascribe, with one voice, a real 
 and most vital efficacy to the ' sacrifice' of Calvary in 
 restoring us to life and immortality, but without at- 
 tempting any precise explanation of how the result is 
 brought about. The obedience of Christ is emphati- 
 cally dwelt upon, as an integral part of His redeeming 
 work, but a special virtue is assigned to His ' death,' 
 and His 'blood,' the latter being occasionally, as by 
 Hippolytus and Irena?us, mentioned in connection with 
 the Eucharistic chalice. His abiding priesthood in 
 heaven is continually dwelt on, while some, as Cyprian, 
 insist also on its earthly realization, through the min- 
 istry of His appointed representatives. Barnabas and 
 Ignatius are the first to speak of His conquest over 
 Satan, which assumes an increasing prominence in sub- 
 sequent writers. In the hands of two it becomes the 
 basis of a distinct theory of satisfaction, and to these 
 we must now turn our attention. 
 
 St. Ireneeus treats the question mainly in connection 
 with two passages of the New Testament : Eom. v. 19, 
 " As by one man's disobedience the many were made 
 sinners, so by the obedience of One shall the many be 
 made righteous," and Hebrews ii. 14, where ' destroy- 
 ing him that hath the power over death, that is the
 
 30 THE ATOXEMEXT. 
 
 Devil' is set forth as the object of the Incarnation. 
 And he accordingly makes the work of redemption 
 consist principally in two points : the restoration of our 
 corrupted nature through the gift of a new principle of 
 divine life, and the triumph over Satan. It is in the 
 exposition of the second point that his teaching goes 
 beyond that of his contemporaries, and contains the 
 first explicit statement of an opinion which continued 
 for a thousand years to influence Christian theology, 
 till it was finally sifted and discarded by Anselm (who 
 has been followed by later writers, with a few excep- 
 tions) on the obvious ground, that, though we had 
 justly incurred punishment at the hands of the Evil 
 One, he could have no right over us but by the per- 
 mission of God.* The original suggestion of this 
 theory came from the Gnostic heresy. Ireneeus as- 
 cribed to the Evil Spirit that power over men, as their 
 seducer, which Gnosticism gave him as their Demi- 
 urgus or Creator. They had voluntarily placed them- 
 selves under the Devil's power; and, though God 
 might have delivered them by force, it was more ac- 
 cordant with justice to compensate, by a perfect obe- 
 dience, that original disobedience from which all his 
 rights over them were derived. I will extract, at 
 length, the passage in which Ireneeus introduces his 
 view. 
 
 " The powerful Word and true Man reasonably re- 
 deeming us by His blood, gave Himself a ransom for 
 those who had been led into captivity. And since the 
 apostacy (i. e. Satan) unjustly ruled us, and when we 
 belonged by nature to Almighty God, alienated us 
 
 * Quamvis enim homo juste a diabolo torqueretur, ipsc tamcn ilium injuste 
 torquebat. Anselm. Cur Dnm Homo, i. 7.
 
 THE ANTE-NICENE FATHERS. 31 
 
 against nature, and made us his own disciples, the 
 Word of God, being all-powerful and not wanting in 
 justice, dealt justly even with the apostacy itself, buy- 
 ing back from it that which was His own ; not vio- 
 lently, as he (Satan) had first gained dominion over us, 
 by snatching greedily what did not belong to him, but 
 by persuasion [by a method which convinced Satan 
 his rights were at an end*] as it became God to receive 
 what He willed by persuasion and not by force, so that 
 neither might justice be violated, nor God's ancient 
 creation perish. The Lord, therefore, redeemed us by 
 His own blood, and gave His soul for (un-ep) our souls, 
 and His flesh for (avri) our flesh, and poured out the 
 Spirit of the Father for the union and communion of 
 God and man, bringing down God to men through the 
 Spirit, raising men to God through His Incarnation, 
 and firmly and truly giving us incorruption in His 
 advent, through communion with God."f For this 
 redemption from Satan's mastery there was required a 
 perfect obedience ; i compensating our disobedience 
 through His obedience;' and hence in one passage 
 Irena3us says, the price of our disobedience in Adam 
 was paid by Christ's obedience in the Three Tempta- 
 tions ; a statement which, I think, stands alone in 
 'patristic literature.^: This perfect obedience could 
 only be rendered by Him who was both God and man : 
 " For if Man had not conquered the adversary of man, 
 he would not have been justly conquered. And, again, 
 
 * This seems to be the obvious meaning, and not, as some understand it, ' by 
 persuading men.' 
 
 t Lib. v. 1. 
 
 % Et tertio itaque vincens eum de reliquo repulit a semet ipso quasi legitime 
 victum ; et soluta est ea quafuerat in Adam proecepti pravaricatio, per prceceptum 
 legis quod servavit Filius hominis, non transgrediens praeceptum Dei. Ib. 21.
 
 32 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 if God had not given salvation, we should not have 
 had it securely ; and unless man were united with God 
 we could not partake of incorruption."* Hence the 
 Incarnation was necessary, that a perfect obedience 
 might be offered, but the obedience of a man. Yet 
 this obedience was not the means but the condition 
 only of redemption ; that had to be won by the Re- 
 deemer's death.-j- But how the Devil, to whom this 
 death is ascribed, came to accomplish an act so fatal 
 to himself; whether, as the Gnostics hold, from being 
 deceived as to who Christ really was, or not ; and again, 
 what exactly was the connecting link between the 
 Redeemer's conflict with Satan and His death, and 
 how this last brought about our redemption all this 
 Irenseus leaves unexplained. He certainly regards 
 Christ's death not as a punishment inflicted by God, 
 but as the work of Satan, and temporal death itself 
 rather as a blessing than a curse, introduced at the 
 fall of man, to limit his opportunities of sin.J On our 
 deliverance from death, and him who has power over 
 it, follows the restoration of our corrupted nature : " In 
 His incarnation and manhood He recapitulated in Him- 
 self the long series of mankind that we might re- 
 cover in Christ what we had lost in Adam, being made 
 after the image and similitude of God." There is no 
 
 * Lib. iii. 18. 6. Cf. also v. 1. outie yap ijv a\t]6u>G aapKa KO.I alfia 
 iff^rjKiVQ, cC &v iip.dc t^riyoparrarot el p.ii Ttjv ap^aiav TT\UOIV TOV 'Adap, 
 fig tavrov avciK(j>a\ai(i}ffaro. 
 
 t Pro nobis mortuus est et sanguine Suo nos redemit. iii. 16.9. 
 
 J Prohibuit autem ejus transgressionem, interponens mortem, et cessare faciens 
 peccatum, finem inferens ei per carnis resolutionem, quae fieretin terra, iii. 23, 6. 
 
 iii. 18. 1. Cf. v. 16, 1. There is an allusion to the distinction drawn be- 
 tween the image and likeness of God ; the former representing the perfect type of 
 humanity (or what the schoolmen call the ' integrity of nature'), the latter the 
 superadded gift of grace, or ' original justice.' (See Clem. Alex. Strom, ii. 180,
 
 THE ANTE-XICENE FATHERS. 33 
 
 need to dwell on those aspects of the author's teaching 
 which are shared by his contemporaries. 
 
 Where Irenreus had left the question in the second 
 century, Origen, who, notwithstanding his eccentrici- 
 ties, is justly styled the ' Father of theology,' took it 
 up in the third ; and what before had been an uncer- 
 tain and fragmentary hypothesis assumes, under his 
 creative touch, shape and consistency. With his pe- 
 culiar views on the preexistence and successive metem- 
 psychoses of souls, on the final absorption of all bodily 
 natures (including apparently our Lord's)* into the 
 Divine essence, the extension of the efficacy of redemp- 
 tion to the whole creation in heaven and earth, and 
 the cnroKaraffTatriG, ox ultimate restitution of all fallen 
 spirits, human or angelic, we need not here concern 
 ourselves. Nor is it necessary to dwell on those parts 
 of his teaching about redemption which do not mate- 
 rially differ from what has been already noticed in 
 previous or contemporary Fathers. And in dealing 
 with so voluminous a writer it will, of course, be im- 
 possible to point out all, or nearly all, the passages 
 bearing on our more immediate subject ; it must suffice 
 to refer to such critical statements as supply an ade- 
 quate exhibition of his manner of handling it. 
 
 Origen regards the redeeming work of Christ, as a 
 whole, under five aspects. It includes His teaching, 
 as the revelation of absolute truth; His works, as 
 cleansing the temple, and especially His miracles, to 
 
 and the Fathers passim.) There is also a reference to the idea of Christ's pre- 
 destined humanity being the image on which ours was modelled. ' Ad imagine m 
 Dei fecit hominem, scilicet Christi.' Tertull. adv. Prax. 12. cf. Petav. De Trin. 
 Ti. 6. 
 
 Orig. De Princip. iii. 6, 1. ; ii. 3, 3. 
 
 E
 
 34 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 which a symbolical meaning is attached; His life as 
 the great Example ; His sufferings and death, to which 
 is ascribed a threefold efficacy, in our redemption from 
 the power of Satan, our reconciliation with God, and 
 the purification of our corrupted nature ; and, lastly, 
 His continual priesthood in heaven, which is constantly 
 and emphatically dwelt upon, and whereby He who on 
 earth poured out His material blood for us, is said * to 
 offer the vital virtue of His body as a kind of spiritual 
 sacrifice.'* Origen's views under the fourth head, as 
 to the efficacy of Christ's death, are what contain the 
 specialities of his theory on the atonement. He con- 
 siders that death a necessity, both for our ransom from 
 Satan and as a Sacrifice for sin. 
 
 Let us take each point in order. It was left unex- 
 plained by IrenaBus how the Evil One came to under- 
 mine his own kingdom by procuring the death of 
 Jesus; in Origen's system this is clear enough. It 
 was, in fact, but part of that great conflict between 
 good and evil, of which this world had from the first 
 been the theatre, and which found its consummation 
 in the death of Christ. From the Fall onwards, the 
 dragon and his angels had fought with man, and had 
 seemed to prevail against him. Again and again pro- 
 phets and righteous men had risen up, to bear witness 
 for truth and holiness ; and again and again the world, 
 at the instigation of Satan, had crucified its bene- 
 factors. But he had overreached himself. The fathers 
 slew the prophets, and the children built their sepul- 
 chres ; the blood of the martyrs became the seed-plot 
 
 * Ib. InJoann. i. 2: lavrov yap tuayytXi'^frcu 6 vtof rov -Stow. Horn, 
 in Matt. xvi. 20 ; xii. 36. Contr. dels. i. 68. Horn, in Rum. iii. 7-21. Horn, 
 in Levit. i. 3.
 
 THE ANTE-NICENE FATHEES. 35 
 
 of the Church. "Within and without the immediate 
 sphere of divine revelation this contest had been car- 
 ried on.* The crisis came at last, and once more the 
 Evil One deceived himself. He had obtained rights 
 over men : a price, an equivalent (dvraXXay^a) was due 
 to him, to free them from his power ; and they had 
 none to pay. " Man has nothing to give as an equiva- 
 lent for his soul;" and therefore, "One alone was able 
 to pay a price for our lost soul, He who bought us 
 with His own precious blood." j- Origen sometimes 
 speaks of this as a kind of bargain with Satan ; but he 
 does not mean, as we shall see, that the bargain was 
 made or accepted willingly. To the question suggested 
 by Matt. xvii. 22, By whom was the Lord given into 
 the hands of men? he replies, "Not all gave Him up 
 with the same design. God delivered Him out of love 
 for the human race (Eom. viii. 32). But others de- 
 livered Him up with evil intent, each according to his 
 own wickedness; Judas for avarice, the priests for 
 envy, the Devil from fear, lest by His teaching the 
 human race should be snatched out of his hands, not 
 perceiving that the human race was to be still more de- 
 livered by His death than it had been by His teaching and 
 miracles "$ Here and elsewhere Origen expressly 
 asserts what Irenseus had left doubtful, that Satan was 
 deceived, and thought by slaying our Lord to get pos- 
 
 * See Contr. Cels. i. 31 j viL 17; viii. 44. 
 
 t Cf. Tom. in Matt. xiii. 581. Origen speaks sometimes of Christ's blood as 
 the price paid, sometimes of His Soul, the reality of which he was the first to 
 bring prominently forward. But he here distinguishes, in what sense is not very 
 clear, the Soul of Christ from His Spirit, which He commended into the hands 
 of His Father. He certainly does not mean by soul, as Thomasius thinks ( Ori- 
 ffines, p. 223), the blood or physical life, for he speaks expressly of its going down 
 to Hades. Tom. xvi. 8. 
 
 t Tom. xxxv. 75.
 
 36 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 session of His soul, and secure the empire over man 
 which he thus by his own act unwittingly dissolved ; 
 for the Soul of Jesus he could not hold in Hades (Ps. 
 xv. 11). This deceiving of Satan is even directly 
 ascribed to God, who thereby used him as the blind 
 instrument for destroying his own power,* but by 
 what means he was thus deceived, and how again this 
 delusion on his part agrees with the idea of a price 
 paid and a bargain struck with him, is left as yet 
 unexplained. 
 
 The death of Christ is further viewed by Origen as 
 an atoning sacrifice, and is in this sense, too, declared 
 to be necessary. " It was necessary that a victim 
 should be provided for sin." f The question has been 
 raised, whether he taught the theory of vicarious 
 satisfaction, as afterwards understood. There are cer- 
 tainly scattered through his writings expressions, which 
 might at first sight seem like anticipations of such a 
 view ; and he explains the famous prophecy (Is. liii. 5), 
 ' the discipline of our peace was upon Him,' unlike 
 earlier writers, of the ' chastisement due to us for our 
 discipline and recovery of peace being laid upon ' 
 Christ, not, however, as a retributive punishment, but 
 a remedial chastisement. J That chastisement, inflicted 
 by the hands of men, he invariably ascribes not to the 
 wrath or vindictive justice, but to the love of God for 
 men. Christ suffered, indeed, in our place, and for 
 our deserts; but it was because His suffering had 
 
 
 
 In Matt. Tom. xiii. 9. 
 
 t In Num. Horn. xxiv. 1. Cf. Tom. in Joann. xxviii. 393. 
 
 \ Tom. in Joann. xviii. 1. KoXaaiQ no^ 7rotVj. That Origen did not hold 
 the theory of vicarious punishment is quite clear. Compare Redepenning'a 
 Origenes, vol. ii. p. 408, sqq., and Bahr'a Lehre der Kirche vom Tode Jew 
 (Sulibach, 1832), pp. 123-128, and 161-154, with the passages quoted.
 
 THE AXTE-XICEXE FATHERS. 37 
 
 become the only means of securing our reformation, 
 and thus delivering us from eternal death.* His 
 sacrifice resembled in kind, though it transcended 
 infinitely in degree, the sacrifices of those who have 
 prefigured or imitated Him. in laying down their life 
 for their fellows. As the first-born of Egypt died 
 that Israel might be saved; as apostles and martyrs 
 have sealed their testimony with their blood ; so, but 
 far more perfectly, He who alone was sinless laid down 
 His life for sinners, the one true and sufficient sacrifice 
 of obedience to the will of God.f He suffered at sin- 
 ners' hands that temporal death, which had been under 
 the Law the penalty of sin, but which, since He has 
 consecrated by enduring it, is changed into a salutary 
 penance, to be willingly, nay thankfully, accepted in 
 conformity with His example, and as the path to eternal 
 life.;}: Wherein consists the especial connection between 
 His obedience to God and the sacrifice of the cross, and 
 how it is reconciled with that other necessity of a satis- 
 faction to Satan, or how again the sinless soul of Jesus 
 could be a price paid to the Evil One these are diffi- 
 culties which Origen does not solve. But he clears up 
 much which had been left undetermined by Irenreus, 
 and gives to the death of Christ, as the great act of 
 obedience, and culminating point in that struggle of 
 good against evil which had marked all along the his- 
 tory of mankind, a deeper moral significance than is 
 exhibited by any previous writer. 
 
 To our former summary of the teaching of the first 
 three centuries we must now add the full and distinct 
 
 * Sertn. in Matt. 904. Tom. in Joann. xxviii. 393. 
 f Tom. in Matt. xii. 546. In Joann. xxviii. 393. 
 Horn, in Levit. xiy. 4. Serm. in Matt. 912.
 
 38 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 enunciation of what before had been intimated or im- 
 plied, but never systematically expounded : the neces- 
 sity or quasi-necessity of satisfying Satan's claim, as a 
 matter of justice ; or, to use the language employed by 
 those who maintain this opinion, of a ransom being 
 paid to him for the souls of men. The necessity of a 
 sacrifice to God is also dwelt upon by Origen, but its 
 grounds are left undeveloped, though clearly not under- 
 stood in the sense of St. Anselm. The perpetual priest- 
 hood of Christ in heaven, which occupies a prominent 
 place in nearly all the writings we have examined, is 
 even more emphatically insisted upon by Origen. And 
 this deserves to be remembered, because it is a part of 
 the doctrine which has been almost or altogether drop- 
 ped out of many Protestant expositions of the atone- 
 ment, whereas those most inclining among Catholics 
 to a merely juridical view of the subject have never 
 been able to forget the present and living reality of 
 a sacrifice constantly kept before their eyes, as it were, 
 in the worship which reflects on earth the unfailing 
 liturgy of heaven.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE LATER FATHERS AND JOHN SCOTUS ERIGENA. 
 
 As we pass from the third to the fourth century, from 
 the age of persecutions and apologies to the age of 
 controversies and councils, of systematic theology and 
 definite creeds, a change comes over the whole litera- 
 ture of the Church. It becomes at once fuller, and in 
 some sense more exact. The number of writers is 
 multiplied, both in East and West, and their works 
 grow more voluminous. We can no longer examine 
 in detail the statements of each Father, as during the 
 earlier centuries, nor is there the same reason for doing 
 so. Throughout the whole period, from the fourth 
 century to the time of St. Anselm, two tendencies, 
 divergent but not necessarily contradictory (for both 
 often appear in the same writer) manifest themselves 
 in the treatment of the question before us, and the 
 passages bearing on it may accordingly be grouped 
 under one or other of two classes. We have found 
 both these lines of thought exhibited in Origen's theo- 
 logical system; succeeding writers were occupied in 
 their development. 
 
 First and chiefly, we have seen that Origen regards 
 the death of our Lord as a ransom paid for our deliver-
 
 40 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 ance from the power of Satan; and the three ideas 
 involved in this theory, and expressly insisted on by 
 him of an actual right over us acquired by the Devil 
 through sin, which could not justly be rescinded with- 
 out some adequate compensation ; of the deceit prac- 
 tised upon him, by which he was made the instrument 
 of his own discomfiture ; and of the necessity for the 
 death of Christ as the only sufficient ransom form 
 the basis of its treatment by later Fathers, who labour 
 to harmonize what had seemed inconsistent, and to 
 clear up what was left uncertain in the original state- 
 ment. It was shown, on the other hand, that Origen 
 like his predecessors taught, that our Lord's death was 
 a sacrifice offered to God, though he does not explain 
 why this sacrifice was needed, or how it was at the 
 same time a satisfaction to the Devil. This view also 
 is developed in the writers who followed him ; but the 
 notion of a ransom paid to Satan continues to be the 
 common explanation of the necessity for CJirist's death 
 till Aiiselm's time, finding indeed its last express 
 utterance in Peter Lombard. We may proceed, there- 
 fore, to examine the patristic literature of this period as 
 treating the question under these two opposite aspects, 
 of a satisfaction to Satan and a sacrifice to God ; not 
 taking each writer separately, but using the testimony 
 of all so far as it bears on our subject. John Scotus 
 Erigena, who stands alone in the ninth century, 
 isolated alike in character and in date from the Fa- 
 thers who preceded and the Scholastic writers who 
 followed him, I reserve for separate notice at the end 
 of the chapter. 
 
 Foremost among the Greek Fathers of the period 
 before us stands Gregory Nyssen, foremost among the
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. - 
 
 Latin stands a name, which, is to Christian theology 
 what Plato and Aristotle are to the philosophy of the 
 ancient world, a name never to be mentioned without 
 admiration and reverence though even to the greatest 
 of human teachers we may ascribe no infallibility 
 Augustine, Bishop of Hippo. It is these two writers, 
 and especially St. Augustine, whom we shall find, here 
 as elsewhere, the most prominent though by no means 
 the solitary exponents of the theology of their age. 
 If I make special mention after them of Gregory 
 Xazianzen, Athanasius, Gregory the Great, and St. 
 Leo, in connection with our present subject, it is by 
 no means to the exclusion of other ami still memorable 
 names. Let us proceed, then, first to investigate their 
 view of the atonement as a ransom paid to Satan, in- 
 cluding the three ideas of his claim to a payment, the 
 delusion under which he accepted or rather extorted 
 it, and its necessity. 
 
 1. It was Origcn's argument, that Satan had acquired 
 an actual right over men through the Fall, for which 
 the Soul or Blood of Jesus was the only adequate ran- 
 som. That right is admitted more or less distinctly 
 by all subsequent Fathers, and while some, as St. Leo, 
 call it l tyrannical,' they do not deny it to be just.* 
 Peter Lombard, indeed, the latest advocate of the 
 theory, distinguishes between the justice of our bond- 
 age and the injustice of our task-master ; but he lived 
 after St. Anselm had pointed out the distinction, and 
 made it a ground for rejecting the whole scheme.-)* 
 So late as the eighth century, the last Greek theologian, 
 
 * Leo Serm. xxii. 3. Jus tyrannicum vindicabat, nee injusto dominatu 
 premebat. 
 
 t Pet. Lomb. Sent. Lib. iii. Dist. 19. 
 
 F
 
 42 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 John of Damascus, though, as we shall see by and by, 
 not ignorant of its difficulties or willing to accept it in 
 its entirety, asserts expressly that the tyrant would 
 have had ground for complaint, if after having himself 
 -conquered man he had been violently robbed of his 
 prize by God.* The same view is expounded at length 
 by St. Augustine, St. Gregory Xyssen, St. Gregory 
 the Great, Theodoret, and others, on the ground that, 
 as we had voluntarily placed ourselves under Satan's 
 dominion, we could not justly be delivered from it 
 without an equivalent being paid, j- And that equiva- 
 lent, they declare with one voice, was the Blood of 
 Christ. '"The price is the Blood of Christ," says St. 
 Augustine, who may speak for all the rest.J It is in 
 this sense, and not with any notion of our sins being 
 imputed to Him, that they understand His death as 
 vicarious, and His being made a curse for us. We 
 were given in pledge, St. Ambrose says, to an evil 
 creditor, and Christ ' is not unjustly said to be made 
 in, since He was offered for sin ;' and so St. Augus- 
 tine, " By receiving the punishment, and not the sin, 
 He destroyed both sin and punishment ;" St. Athana- 
 sius, "Seeing the impossibility of our paying an equiva- 
 lent penalty, He took it on Himself;" and Eusebius, 
 " He took the curse upon Him, being made a curse 
 for us ; for what else is this than a ransom for our 
 souls (CUTI^UXO*) ?" "This solution of the evil was left," 
 says Proclus, "for neither man nor angel would suffice ;" 
 and Gregory the Great, " The Father being just dis- 
 
 * De Fid. Orth. iii. 18. 
 
 t Aug. De Lib. Arl>. iii. 10. Greg. Nyss. Or. Cat. xxiii. Greg. Mag. Mor. 
 xvii. 28. Theod. De Prov. Of. x. 
 
 * Enarr. in Pi. 95.
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 43 
 
 poses all things justly, punishing the Just One ;"* but 
 this language of God punishing the Son is rarely met 
 with, however it be explained. They add that the 
 payment greatly exceeded the debt ; it was not only a 
 full equivalent for all other things together, it was, 
 as Gregory Xyssen says, a higher and greater dis- 
 charge.f God did more than justice to the Evil One, 
 " The adversary," says St. Ambrose, " rated us at a low 
 price, as slaves, but the Lord ransomed us for a great 
 price, as being made after His image and likeness. "J 
 But why, it may be asked, was this particular kind of 
 ransom required ? The answer, already suggested by 
 Origen, seems to be this. Man had voluntarily suc- 
 cumbed in his conflict with Satan ; and the tyrant could 
 claim dominion over him till he had slain one perfectly 
 righteous, free from actual, and, as St. Augustine is 
 careful to add, original sin, and who had foiled him 
 by the use of that same free-wilt which man had per- 
 verted to his ruin. Many righteous men he had in 
 past times striven against and slain, but none, even the 
 holiest of them, were perfect. One alone could suc- 
 cessfully contend with him ; and here we see Irenrcus' 
 view of the Temptation illustrated. One alone could 
 suffer a wholly unmerited punishment, who as God 
 was sinless, and as man could die. In the words of 
 St. Leo, the great doctor of the Incarnation : " Though 
 in the sight of the Lord, the death of many saints was 
 
 * Amb. De Tiry. iii. ad Jin. In Ep. ad Cor. ii. 5. Aug. Senn. xxxvii. f 
 Luc. Ath. In Pass, et Cmce Dei. Euseb. De Dem. Ep. x. 1. Procl. Const. 
 Horn. De Christ Nat. Greg. Moral, iii. 13. 
 
 t Basil. Horn, in Ps. xlviii. The references to Greg. Xyss., where it is not 
 otherwise stated, are to his Calechetics, ch. 25-28. 
 
 J Ambr. In Luc. vii. 2. 
 
 ( Greg. Mag. In Luc. i., Hon-. xvi. 2. Cf. supr. p. 31.
 
 44 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 precious, yet the killing of no innocent man was the 
 propitiation of the world; the just received crowns, 
 but did not bestow them ; from the fortitude of the 
 faithful came examples of patience, not gifts of righte- 
 ousness."* 
 
 2. But how came the price to be accepted, if Satan 
 had the option of refusing it ; or, rather, why did he 
 violently extort what deprived him for the future of 
 his empire over the souls of men ? To this question 
 Origen had not scrupled to answer, that Satan was 
 deceived, and deceived by God; and here he is fol- 
 lowed by all succeeding writers. But hoiv this was 
 done Origen did not explain. They do ; and their 
 explanation is a startling one. He was deceived, they 
 say, by means of the Incarnation, and they sometimes 
 even speak as if the main object of the Incarnation was 
 to deceive him. K^o one is more explicit on this point 
 than Gregory Nyssen, who dwells on the t skill and 
 cunning' of the arrangement. f The human nature of 
 Christ was the veil to shroud His divinity; according 
 to Gregory the Great, it was the bait whereon the Evil 
 One was to be caught and pierced, as a fish on the 
 hook ; it was a net to catch the bird in, according to 
 Isidore of Seville; the Cross, adds Peter Lombard, 
 was a mousetrap, baited with His blood.J One pas- 
 sage shall be quoted from Gregory Xyssen, where this 
 view is stated in full : "It was impossible for him 
 (Satan) to look on the bare form of God without see- 
 ing in Him something of flesh, which he had already 
 subdued through sin. For this cause the Godhead was 
 
 Leo. De Pass. Strm. xii. 
 
 | GOfyoV KCLl Tf)(VlKl)V 7V/C OlKOVOfJiiaQ. 
 
 \ Greg. Mor. xxxii. 7. laid. SOT. Sent. i. 14. Pet. Lomb. Sent. iii. 19.
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 45 
 
 veiled in flesh, that looking on Him according to what 
 was of kindred nature (on His humanity) he might 
 not dread the approach of superior power, and after 
 perceiving His power quietly shine out more and more 
 through His miracles, might think He was rather to 
 be coveted [as a victim] than to be dreaded." St. Leo 
 speaks in much the same sense.* Xot that Satan was 
 supposed to be ignorant that Christ was the Son of 
 God, or that He was incarnated for our redemption, 
 but ignorant of the means destined to accomplish it, 
 and therefore supposing that, if he could kill the Ke- 
 deemer, he could also retain Him in his power, and 
 frustrate His design, f It is obvious that this view is 
 very difficult to reconcile with that of a bargain struck 
 and price paid, which yet is equally maintained by 
 Gregory Xyssen under the term used before by Origen 
 (dj'mXXay/ja). Others, as Gregory the Great and Leo, 
 dwell less on this aspect of the matter and insist more 
 exclusively on the deception. It was necessary, for 
 this end, that Christ should be born (His miraculous 
 birth Satan knew not) and pass through the ordinary 
 stages of childhood, youth, and manhood, as the intro- 
 duction to His Crucifixion, by which Satan finally 
 overreached and defeated himself. On the difficulties 
 of this theory something shall be said presently. 
 Meanwhile let us pass to the third point included 
 in it. 
 
 3. All, from IrenaBus downwards, who have advo- 
 cated the notion of a payment made to Satan, state or 
 imply that it was necessary as a matter of justice. 
 But was the necessity an absolute one ? The Fathers 
 
 * Leo Serm. xxii. 4. t Greg. Moral, ixxiii. 7.
 
 46 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 are unanimous in replying that it was not ; and when 
 they speak of it as necessary, they must be understood 
 as meaning that it was necessary, if an adequate price 
 were to be paid at all. Gregory Xyssen asks why 
 God does not of His own mere will do what He pur- 
 poses, and answers that we cannot tell. Gregory Xa- 
 zianzen says, that, as He made all things by His word, 
 He might have saved us by His will ; Athanasius, 
 that He might by a mere word have loosed the cur.se ; 
 Theodorct, that He might have dissolved the power 
 of death by His will only. Gregory the Great, St. 
 Leo, and St. Cyril of Alexandria say the same.* St. 
 Augustine is even more outspoken : " They are fools 
 who say, the wisdom of God could not otherwise deliver 
 man than by taking human nature and being born of a 
 woman, and suifering all things at sinners' hands ; but 
 if He did otherwise, your folly would be equally dis- 
 satisfied." He says elsewhere that the method chosen 
 was good and congruous to the Divine dignity, and no 
 other could be more convenient, but that others might 
 have been found.f It was this congruity, as matter 
 of justice towards Satan, that led God, according to the 
 Fathers, to choose the method He did choose; some 
 add, as Athanasius and Augustine, that it was also 
 chosen as the most beneficial to man. This then is 
 what they mean by speaking, in this connection, of a 
 necessity for the Incarnation and the Cross. 
 
 As I began the account of this theory with a quota- 
 tion from its first author in the Church, Irenaeus, it 
 
 * Greg. Xyss. Or. Cat. \ 7. Greg. Xaz. Or. 9. Ath. Contr. Arian. Or. ii. 68. 
 Theod. Contr. Greecos Lisp. 6. Leo Serin, i. De Nativ. Greg. Moral, xx. 26. 
 Cyril Alex. De Incarn. See for other authorities Petav. De Incarn. ii. 13. 
 
 t Aug. De Agone Christi, 10. Ib. De Trin. xiii. 10.
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 47 
 
 may be closed with the following passage from its 
 latest advocate, Peter Lombard: "He was made, 
 therefore, mortal man, that by death He might conquer 
 the Devil. For unless He were man who overcame 
 the Devil, man would seem to be violently, not justly 
 delivered from him to whom he had voluntarily sub- 
 jected himself. But if man overcame him, he clearly 
 lost all right over man, and, for man to conquer, God 
 must be in him to make him free from sin. For if he 
 were mere man, or an incarnate angel, he might easily 
 sin, as we know both natures have fallen by them- 
 selves. Therefore the Son of God assumed a passible 
 humanity, in which He tasted death for us, and by 
 which He opened heaven to us, and redeemed us from 
 the service of the Devil, that is from sin (for the Devil's 
 service is sin) and from punishment."* 
 
 It is obvious to remark, that this method of regard- 
 ing the Passion and death of Christ brings out certain 
 aspects of truth with conspicuous clearness. It ex- 
 hibits that mighty contest between good and evil 
 which has been waged incessantly, since the mystery 
 of iniquity began to work, in the world, in the Church, 
 and in each separate soul, but which reached its cul- 
 minating point when the Tempter strove with the 
 human Soul of Jesus, through every avenue of sense 
 or spirit, through the lust of the flesh, the lust of the 
 eye, and the pride of life, and prevailed not. All 
 possible malice of all possible temptations was gathered 
 up and concentrated in that last bold act of rebellion, 
 and all was staked upon the issue. If the Evil One 
 conquered then, he conquered all ; if he failed, all was 
 
 * Pet. Lomb. Sent. iii. 19.
 
 48 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 lost. The pledge of our victory was assured when the 
 Soul of the Kedeemer passed beneath his fiery touch, 
 shrinking, indeed, in all but intolerable anguish no 
 tongue may utter, no heart of man conceive, from that 
 close approach of defilement, yet passed unscathed, as 
 the three Holy Children through the fiery furnace of 
 Babylon. Till then he had seemed to triumph; the 
 righteous suffered, and their blood was spilt upon the 
 earth. They were scourged, or stoned, or sawn asun- 
 der, or burnt, or crucified, and the world was glad at 
 their departure. In the fulness of time God sent His 
 Son, who did no sin, neither was guile found in His 
 mouth, and because of His perfect holiness men rose 
 up against Him and slew Him ; but His death was the 
 life of the world. The woman's Seed had crushed the 
 serpent's head. The representative wickedness of man- 
 kind, all the darkest sins that stain our corrupt hu- 
 manity, were collected, during that Paschal week, 
 within the circle of the apostate city. Pride, im- 
 purity, hypocrisy, cowardice, cruelty, falsehood, the 
 bitterness of malice, the meanness of jealousy, the 
 devilish hatred of superior goodness all were there. 
 There was the incestuous Herod, the coward judge 
 who bartered right for interest, the traitor apostle, the 
 hypocritical priesthood, the frenzied, fanatical multi- 
 tude. There was the horrible determination to put 
 down an opponent by foul means, if not by fair; if 
 evidence were wanting, false witnesses could be pur- 
 chased ; if violence were dangerous, the end could be 
 attained by fraud. The odium of judicial murder 
 could be thrown on the Gentile, but the voice was the 
 voice of the Jewish Sanhedrim, though a Roman go- 
 vernor pronounced the sentence, and Eoman soldiers
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 49 
 
 fulfilled it.* If, then, that crowning iniquity could 
 be pardoned and it is a pious tradition in the Church 
 that all who had a hand in crucifying Jesus are now 
 before His throne in heaven none need despair of 
 forgiveness. In the redemption of His murderers we 
 read the promise of our own. 
 
 With sacrifice the tale of our misery had begun, and 
 with sacrifice it was to end. In the dim twilight of 
 human history, when sin was first breaking in on that 
 fair creation, which the All-Merciful had blest because 
 it was very good, there is revealed the form of a mother, 
 struck with anguish, weeping over the fierce iniquity of 
 her first-bom and the beautiful corpse of her Martyr- 
 boy, martyred, it would seem, in that very act of sacri- 
 fice which is the creature's rightful homage to his Maker 
 and his God. Thousands of years rolled by, and another 
 Mother, pierced with the sword of sorrows, stood beneath 
 the noonday starlight on the mount of death, where the 
 blood that speaks better things than the blood of Abel 
 flowed, and the cry rose up from the darkened cross, 
 whose echo dies not day nor night before the throne 
 in heaven, and the altars of the earthly Church : 
 1 Father forgive, they know not what they do.' Hence- 
 forth the law of suffering, to which the Incarnate Son 
 had voluntarily submitted, was turned from a curse 
 into a beatitude ; self-sacrifice became the royal road 
 of redemption, the baptism of blood was for remission 
 of sin. The kingdom of Satan, like the kingdom of 
 God, is within us, and he is then most near the sons 
 of God when they come to present themselves before 
 the Lord. Therefore He came, in whom alone the 
 
 * Sta %etf)u>i> avofJLbiv irpoaTrriZavrEC avelXere. Acts ii. 23.
 
 50 THE ATOXEMENT. 
 
 prince of this world could have no part nor lot, to 
 break the chains of that bondage of corruption, and bid 
 the slave go free. 
 
 In this sense, the speculations of the Fathers on 
 the relation of the Incarnation to the Evil One have 
 left an abiding heritage to the Church. But, on the 
 other hand, the theory of a ransom, if literally un- 
 derstood, is beset with difficulties, both intellectual 
 and moral, of the gravest kind. First, it is not co- 
 herent; for how can the notion of Satan being de- 
 ceived, which forms an integral portion of it, be 
 reconciled with the notion of a bargain struck and a 
 price paid to satisfy a claim of justice ? If he was 
 tricked into forfeiting his just rights by grasping at 
 rights where he had none, how is compensation made 
 to him ? Then, again, how can the blood, or soul, or 
 death of the Redeemer be an equivalent to him at all 
 for the empire which he lost, when it gave him no real 
 power over Him who died only to rise again from the 
 dead, whose soul was not left in Hades, and whose 
 flesh knew no corruption ? And if the theory labours 
 under these logical difficulties, the moral and religious 
 objections are still more serious. What is meant by 
 God deceiving the Devil, and by the parallel so elabo- 
 rately drawn by many writers between the deceit 
 which ruined man and the deceit which redeemed him ? 
 When, for instance, Gregory K"yssen says, that the 
 one -wrought his deceit for the corruption of our nature, 
 but the Just and Good and Wise used the counsel of 
 deceit for the salvation of that which was corrupted,* 
 
 * He proceeds, ov fiorovrov drroXwXora ia TOVTWV fvp-/Erwy t 'a\\a KOI 
 CLVTOV TQV curwXtiav mad 'iip.u>v ivepyijaavra, which seems to implj his 
 agreement iu Origen's belief of the restoration of the fallen angels.
 
 TILE LATER FATHERS. 51 
 
 is not this like saying, that the end justified the means, 
 that deception was the chosen instrument of the God 
 of truth ? To this a modern writer, viewing the whole 
 question from the independent standpoint of impartial 
 unbelief, adds a further observation, that the Incarna- 
 tion being thus introduced for an illusory purpose is 
 in danger of being itself regarded as a phenomenal 
 illusion, and the Docetic heresy brought back by a 
 sidewind into the Church.* That, however, seems an 
 over-refinement of criticism. Those who insist most 
 strongly on this object of the human nature of the 
 Redeemer, insist also on the necessity of His actual 
 death, which required a real, not merely a phenomenal, 
 body ; not to repeat here an observation made before, 
 in a different connection, that the Fathers recognize 
 many other objects of the Incarnation which certainly 
 involve its reality. It is more to the purpose to re- 
 mark, what indeed did not escape the notice of many 
 advocates of the theory, that there is something shock- 
 ing to natural reverence in the blood of the Holy One 
 becoming the prize of Satan. More than that, the 
 whole theory carried with it the original sin of its 
 Gnostic parentage. The essentially dualistic notion 
 of two independent powers, set over against one 
 another, of a kingdom of light and a kingdom of 
 darkness, with jurisdictions mutually limited by con- 
 flicting claims, lies inevitably at the root of any system 
 which treats evil as other than a temporary and acci- 
 dental interruption of the divine order, or ascribes to 
 the Evil Spirit rights of whatever kind, and though 
 acquired by the voluntary and disgraceful submission 
 
 * Baur Von der Ycr*'f>l\nnng, pp. 82, 83.
 
 52 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 of his captives, as against the supremacy of Him who 
 is infinite in holiness as in power and love. An unjust 
 victory could confer no claims, nor wrong because it 
 was successful become the ground of an immoral right. 
 This radical flaw of the whole system had not been 
 unfelt from the first, while its inadequacy as an ex- 
 planation of the great mystery of redemption had pre- 
 vented it from ever being held alone. We haA^e seen 
 that Origen combined with it the idea of a sacrifice 
 offered to God, though without attempting to harmon- 
 ize the two, which indeed was scarcely possible. Xor 
 was this idea ever lost sight of by succeeding writers. 
 It is suggested, in antagonism to the dominant theory, 
 as early as the fourth century, by Gregory Xazianzen. 
 To the question, To whom was Christ's blood paid as a 
 ransom ? he replies ; " If to the Evil One, shame upon 
 the insult, that the robber should not only receive a 
 ransom from God, but receive God Himself, a payment 
 so much exceeding in value his own tyranny, on ac- 
 count of which it was just that we also should be 
 spared. But if it was paid to the Father, first how ? 
 For it was not by Him we were held captive. And 
 next, for what reason should the blood of His only -be- 
 gotten Son please the Father, who would not receive 
 Isaac when being offered up by his father, but changed 
 the victim and gave a ram instead of the human sacri- 
 fice ? Or is it clear that the Father receives it, without 
 having as/ced or needed it, but on account of the dis- 
 pensation (oiWo/u'av) and its being fit that men should 
 be sanctified by that which is mortal in God, that He 
 might deliver us Himself, having conquered the tyrant 
 by violence, and bring us back to Himself through the 
 mediation of His Son, who disposed this too to the
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 53 
 
 honour of the Father, to whom He seems to concede 
 all things ?"* This was to assert, that a sacrifice was 
 presented to the Father, but to reject particular theo- 
 ries about it as doubtful or superfluous. And, accord- 
 ingly, the writer says elsewhere, that it is a point on 
 which we are free to speculate, for though not without 
 advantage to hit the mark, it is not dangerous to miss 
 it.f Four centuries later, John of Damascus, who 
 repeats almost the very words of Gregory as to the 
 price being paid to the tyrant, though in an earlier 
 chapter of the same book he had acknowledged a cer- 
 tain claim of justice on Satan's side, decides, against 
 Gregory, that the i ransom' was paid to the Father 
 because we had sinned against Him.J It is remark- 
 able that Gregory, while discarding the idea of a pay- 
 ment to Satan, yet retains one of the strangest features 
 of that theory, saying, that he who had deceived us 
 with the hope of Godhead was himself deceived by the 
 veil of flesh. 
 
 This idea of a sacrifice offered to the Father (or 
 rather to the whole Trinity) is stated or implied by 
 the great body of patristic writers, though not made 
 the basis of any particular scheme of satisfaction, and 
 usually held in connection with that of a ransom paid 
 to Satan. St. Athanasius speaks of Christ offering a 
 sacrifice for all ; St. Augustine traces out the essential 
 obligation of sacrifice, even antecedently to the con- 
 viction of sin, as the outward expression of the su- 
 preme homage (\arpela) due to God; Eusebius refers 
 to the sacrifice of Abel, which he says was accepted in 
 
 * Greg. Naz. Or. 42. t Ib. Or. 33. 
 
 \ De Fid. Orth. iit. 27. Cf. supr. p. 42. 
 
 Fulgent. Contr. Arian, ii. 4. Cf. Ans. Cur Deus Homo, ii. 18.
 
 54 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 preference to Cain's because it was an animal sacrifice ; 
 St. Cyril of Alexandria says, " This was the goat sent 
 alive into the wilderness, the goat that was offered to 
 the Lord as a victim for the propitiation of sins, and 
 made a true propitiation for the peoples who believe 
 on Him ;" St. Leo speaks of an offering to God, though 
 he dwells chiefly on the necessity of a ransom from the 
 power of the Evil One ; St. Gregory the Great says, 
 that the Son of God offered a sacrifice for us, and 
 insists that a victim for man must himself be man, but 
 to cleanse them from sin must be sinless.* The only 
 attempt, if such it can be called, to mediate between 
 these theories is in the view dwelt upon in Athanasius' 
 treatise on the Incarnation, of a sinless victim being 
 needed to undergo the sentence of death, incurred by 
 man, as an obligation or kind of debt, at the Fall, and 
 from which God could not otherwise release Hiin with- 
 out being untrue to His own word. The writer some- 
 times speaks of an equivalent (KaraXX^Xov), sometimes 
 of a debt owed (otyeiXontvov davaTu) or a full satisfaction 
 to death ; and he thus illustrates the two natures of 
 our Lord, who must be man to die, and more than man 
 not to be under the obligation of dying. The Word is 
 said to take to Himself a body, which partaking of 
 the common nature of all may be fit to die in the place 
 of all, but through the indwelling Word may remain 
 incorruptible.']' The same view is expressed by St. 
 Ambrose, when he says our Lord underwent death, that 
 
 * Eus. De Dem. Ev. i. 10. Aug. De Civ, Dei, x. 19. Contr. Faust, xx. et 
 passim. Cyril In Lev. x. Greg. Mag. Mor. xvii. 46. 
 
 t Ath. De Inc. 9. TO ^vvaptvov airoQavtiv tavrv Xa/i/3avft owfja, ti'a 
 TOVTO TOV iirl iravrtav \6yov ptraXafiov arrl irnvrwv ixavov yirr)rai TU> 
 
 \6yov a<f>6aprot
 
 THE LATEIt FATHERS. OO 
 
 the sentence might be fulfilled and the decree satis- 
 fied.* 
 
 At the root of all these theories, whether of a ran- 
 som paid to Satan, or a sacrifice to God, or a fulfilment 
 of the sentence pronounced on Adam's sin, lay two 
 ideas, which became afterwards the two factors of the 
 scholastic theory of satisfaction, and which were 
 brought into prominence by the controversies of the 
 fourth and fifth centuries, in the East on the God- 
 head and Incarnation of the Eternal Son, in the West 
 on the extent of man's natural faculties and the doc- 
 trines of grace. These are, on the one hand, the infi- 
 nite value of the human acts and sufferings of the 
 Redeemer, through the hypostatic union; on the other, 
 the exceeding sinfulness of sin, and the need of Divine 
 grace to supplement the weakness of a corrupted will. 
 The latter point assumed a new importance and dis- 
 tinctness in Augustine's controversy with the Pe- 
 lagians. Athanasius, in his first and second Orations 
 against the Arians, is led constantly to argue, that only 
 One who is Himself God could mediate between God 
 and man, could restore to us the holiness we had lost, 
 make us partakers of the Divine nature, sons of God, 
 and heirs of eternal life. A mere man, he urges, 
 might have preached forgiveness, he could not have 
 really removed the barrier between man and God. St. 
 Cyril, in his tenth anathema, is still more explicit ; he 
 says again ; " One would not have been equivalent to 
 all, had He been mere man ; but if He is understood to 
 be God incarnate and suffering in His own flesh, the 
 
 * Amhr. De Fug. Sac. ut implereter sententia et satisfieret judicato. Here we 
 have the word ' satisfy,' hut in reference to the sentence pronounced on Adam, 
 not to the justice of God.
 
 56 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 ivhole creation /-s- little as compared to Him;" as little, 
 says St. Chrysostorn, as a tiny drop to the boundless 
 ocean. His namesake of Jerusalem says similarly, 
 that the iniquity of sinners was not so great as the 
 righteousness of Him who died for them, who was not 
 mere man or angel, but Incarnate God.* Thus the 
 whole doctrine of Redemption was seen to hinge on a 
 right belief about the Person and nature of the Re- 
 deemer, and therefore also about the Holy Trinity. 
 Only One, who was God and man, could bring man 
 again into communion with God. But it is rather His 
 assumption of our nature in all its fulness than His 
 death alone, that the Fathers dwelt upon. He is the 
 representative Man, the Second Adam, the Head of the 
 Body, who recapitulates in' Himself, as they are fond 
 of expressing it, the whole human race, and imparts 
 to them, through the union of their nature with His, 
 a new principle of life, in whose death all die, in whose 
 resurrection all are made alive. This is Athanasius' 
 great argument against the Arians; so, too, St. Au- 
 gustine says, " That nature was to be assumed which 
 had to be delivered." Hilary of Poitiers had said be- 
 fore him ; " He took on Himself the nature of all flesh, 
 by which, being made the True Yine, He contains in 
 Himself the race of all the progeny of flesh," that is, 
 He is to the new creation what Adam was to the old. 
 And St. Leo says, after him, that the Son of God is 
 one and the same Christ in all His saints, that on the 
 cross is celebrated the oblation of human nature. 
 
 Ath. Contr. Arian. i. 19, 37, 49; ii. 14, 20, 68, 69, 70, 77. 
 Cyril Alex. De Recta Fide. Ib. Contr. Nettor. iii. 2. Chrys. Hem. x. in Ep. 
 ad Rom. Cyril Hier. Cat. xiii. 33. 
 f Aug. Dt Vera Pel. SO. Hil. De Trin. ii. 24. Leo Strm. Ixyi. 4. De
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 57 
 
 Enough has been said to show, from what point of 
 view the Fathers were wont to regard the Redeemer's 
 office and work, and that their whole teaching hinged 
 on a right understanding of His consubstantiality with 
 the Father by virtue of His Eternal Generation, and 
 with us by His Conception in Mary's womb. In bring- 
 ing out the need of a reconciliation between God and 
 man, divided by sin, and the infinite dignity of the 
 Person of Christ, they laid a basis for future specula- 
 tion on the atonement ; but their own theories, whether 
 of a ransom paid to Satan, or a sacrifice offered to God 
 upon the Cross, were kept subordinate to their reiter- 
 ated and many-sided exhibition of the assumption of 
 our nature by the Incarnate Word, the Corner Stone 
 who makes both one, the Man whom holy Job sought 
 and found not, who could arbitrate between him and 
 his Maker, because He laid His hand on both.* The 
 Incarnation itself they regard as ' a kind of perpetual 
 sacrifice,' in which the whole human family is offered 
 up to God, and this begins from the first moment of 
 the Conception. " By the mystery of His humanity," 
 Bays Gregory the Great, "He offers an everlasting 
 sacrifice."']' He is Priest and Temple, Altar and Victim, 
 all in One. 
 
 But they never imagined, let it be distinctly re- 
 peated, that the Incarnation or the Cross effected a 
 
 Pass. iv. It is a strange perversion of this idea when Strauss says, " True phi- 
 losophy substitutes for Jesus the abstract term Humanity. Humanity dies, rises 
 again, and ascends up on high. The individual Jesus is of little moment, saving 
 in so far as He may have served to bring out the idea." We may reply, in the 
 words of Rousseau, L'inventeur en ser ait plus etonnant que le heros. (Emile, 54. 
 4.) 
 
 * Job ix. 33. 
 
 t Greg. Mor. i. 19. See Thomass. De Inc. x. 8, 9, and the passages there 
 quoted. 
 
 H
 
 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 change in the mind of God toward us. The sacrifice 
 of Calvary, however explained, they looked upon as 
 part of an eternal purpose, not a device to avert His 
 anger, but the utterance of His unfailing love. The 
 Lamb was slain from the foundation of the world, 
 though offered once for all in blood on the Cross, 
 offered continually till time shall be no more, in the 
 heavenly Jerusalem, and on the altars of the earthly 
 Church. I quoted a writer of the first century, who 
 lays down this principle. Let me add here the testi- 
 mony of the greatest doctor of his own or any age of 
 Christian history. The passage is too remarkable to 
 be curtailed; "What means this, 'reconciled by the 
 death of His Son ?' Is it, that when the Father was 
 angry with us He looked on the death of His Son for 
 us and was appeased? Had the Son, then, been so 
 completely appeased already, that He even vouchsafed 
 to die for us, but was the Father still so incensed that 
 He would not be appeased unless the Son died for us ? 
 And what is it, which the same teacher of the Gentiles 
 says elsewhere ; l What then shall we say to these 
 things ? If God be for us, who is against us ? He, who 
 spared not His own Son but delivered Him up for us 
 all, how has He not with Him given us all things ?' 
 Would the Father, unless He had been already ap- 
 peased, deliver up His Son for us, not sparing Him ? 
 Do not these statements seem to contradict each other? 
 In the former the Son dies for us, and the Father is 
 reconciled to us by His death ; but in the latter the 
 Father, as though He first loved us, Himself does not 
 spare His Son for our sakes, Himself delivers Him up 
 to death for us. But I see that the Father loved us 
 before also, not only before the Son died for us, but
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 59 
 
 before He created the world, as the Apostle himself 
 testifies, saying, 'As He has chosen us in Him before 
 the creation of the world.' Xor was the Son delivered 
 up, for us as it were, unwillingly when the Father 
 spared Him not, since it is said of Him also, 'who 
 loved me, and gave Himself for me.' The Father 
 therefore, and the Son, and the Spirit of Both, work 
 all things at the same time, equally and harmoniously; 
 yet we are justified in the blood of Christ, and recon- 
 ciled to God through the death of His Son." This 
 shows how little a change in the Divine mind, or a 
 division of will in the Persons of the Trinity was 
 thought of. "One," says St. Leo, "is the kindness 
 of their mercy as the sentence of their justice, nor is 
 there any division in action where there is no diversity 
 in will." And Cyril of Alexandria almost repeats the 
 very words, already quoted, from the Epistle to Diog- 
 natus : " God was and is good by nature, ever full of 
 mercy and pity, and did not become this in time, but 
 was shown to be such towards us."* It was we who 
 changed; His mercies had not failed. With Him, 
 who knows no shadow of vicissitude, the grace of re- 
 demption was involved in the prevision of sin. 
 
 And now we are in a position to answer the ques- 
 tion which may perhaps have occurred to the reader, 
 as to why we find so little of definite theory on the 
 Atonement among the Fathers, while one view very 
 prevalent then has since completely passed away, and 
 a great writer even says it is a matter on which we 
 need not have any theory at all. Was their faith in 
 Christ uncertain, or were they ashamed of the foolish- 
 
 * Aug. De Trin. xiii. 11. Leo Serm, iii. De Pent. Cyr. Alex. adv. Nestor. 
 iii. 2.
 
 60 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 ness of the Cross ? The answer is not far to seek. To 
 them, as to the Church in all ages, it was not the 
 Atonement but the Incarnation which was the centre 
 of Christian faith as of Christian life ; the Incarnatm 
 was the key-note of their creed. The difference be- 
 tween their way of looking at the matter and that 
 which came in with the Reformation may be shortly 
 described as follows. By the Reformers, the incarna- 
 tion and earthly life of Christ is regarded only, or 
 chiefly, as the necessary introduction to His atoning 
 death; while the Fathers see in His death, not an 
 isolated act, or even an isolated sacrifice, but the 
 natural consummation of that one great act of self- 
 devotion, whose unbroken energy stretched from the 
 Conception to the Cross. The blood that flowed on 
 Calvary was indeed the price of redemption, but it 
 could not be thought of apart from the Redeemer's 
 life ; it was not so much the blood as the will of Him 
 who shed it, that was the real oblation ;* His work of 
 mediation was summed up but not exhausted in the 
 act of dying ; He was anointed for His priesthood in 
 Mary's womb ; He is still a Priest in Heaven. In all 
 the stages of that life, as in the closing sacrifice, the 
 believer was to be associated, I might almost say iden- 
 tified, with his Lord ; l on the Cross was celebrated 
 the oblation of our common humanity,' as the faithful 
 unite the oblation of themselves with the abiding sacri- 
 fice of the altar. Their whole life was to be, like His, 
 an act of life-long crucifixion, but also a risen life, for 
 all rise with Him. Over all that touched His Person 
 the Church kept jealous watch, for in Him she lived 
 
 * Thus St. Bernard said afterwards, in reply to Abelaird, " Non mors sed vo- 
 luntas sponte morientis plaucit."
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 61 
 
 and moved and had her being, and on Him through 
 successive ages was fixed her deepening gaze. He 
 had assumed man's nature, with all its sinless infirmi- 
 ties, and by the very act of assuming had restored it, 
 and bridged over the chasm which divided the creature 
 from his Creator. In that nature He died for us. 
 Fathers and doctors might well be suffered to use their 
 own judgment in explaining the efficacy of His death, 
 or to abstain from explanations, so long as the truth 
 of His Person and natures, on which all its efficacy 
 rested, was held fast. And in this the Church did but 
 carry out the intimations of Scripture, which does not 
 dwell exclusively on the death of Christ, but exhibits 
 in the four Gospels the facts and words of His earthly 
 ministry. When, for instance, we read; " For this 
 end hath the Son of God appeared, that He may destroy 
 the works of the Devil," it is rather His life than His 
 death that is referred to. By His victory over the 
 Tempter, by His miracles of mercy, by His perfect 
 obedience, by His pure teaching, by the vocation of 
 His Apostles, by the institution of His Church, no less 
 than by the crowning act of self-devotion on Calvary, 
 He broke the power of the Evil One. When, again, 
 He says of Himself, " I am come that they may have 
 life, and that they may have it more abundantly," He 
 speaks not so much of the forgiveness of sin as of the 
 engrafting in our nature of a new principle of life 
 through union with His own, who took root, according 
 to the Prophet's saying, as a tender plant in the dry 
 and thirsty soil of our corrupted humanity. It was 
 when all this was coming to be forgotten, when the 
 Incarnation itself was thrust into the background, the 
 sacraments which are its application slighted, and the
 
 62 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 Sacrifice of the Altar which perpetuates it reduced to 
 a symbolic form, that theories about the Atonement 
 were made into articles of a standing or falling Church, 
 and became, for those who had lost the true key for 
 interpreting it, a source of manifold misconceptions. 
 When the life of Jesus was treated as a biographical 
 record, men began to wrangle about the meaning of 
 His death. 
 
 I make no apology for closing this summary of pa- 
 tristic teaching with words which express its spirit far 
 better than any I could hope to use myself; " The 
 Son of God then took our nature upon Him, that in 
 Him it might do and suffer what in itself was impos- 
 sible to it. What it could not effect of itself, it could 
 effect in Him. He earned it about Him through a 
 life of penance. He carried it forward to agony and 
 death. In Him our sinful nature died and rose again. 
 When it died in Him on the Cross, that death was its 
 new creation. In Him it satisfied its old and heavy 
 debt ; for the presence of His divinity gave it trans- 
 cendent merit. His presence had kept it pure from 
 sin from the first. His Hand had carefully selected 
 the choicest specimen of our nature from the Virgin's 
 substance ; and, separating from it all defilement, His 
 personal indwelling hallowed it and gave it power. 
 And thus, when it had been offered upon the Cross, 
 and made perfect by suffering, it became the first-fruits 
 of a new man ; it became a divine leaven of holiness 
 for the new birth and spiritual life of as many as should 
 receive it."* 
 
 From the death of Gregory the Great, ' the last of 
 the Fathers,' at the beginning of the seventh century, 
 
 * Newman' Paroch. Serm. vol. vi. p. 86.
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 63 
 
 till Anselm came forward, at the close of the eleventh, 
 as the pioneer of scholasticism, the theology of Western 
 Christendom slept, it has been said, her winter sleep 
 a sleep disturbed rather than broken by the strange appa- 
 rition in the ninth centnrv of John Scotus Erigena, one 
 
 V 
 
 of the most original thinkers of his own or any age, as 
 of one born out of due time. He belongs, however, 
 more to the preceding than the subsequent period, and 
 must therefore be noticed here. Christian theology, 
 as has been observed before, took its rise at Alexandria, 
 the home of Neo-Platonism, in the third century; its 
 later scholastic form was based on the study of the 
 other great master of ancient philosophy, Aristotle. 
 Erigena, who drew his inspirations chiefly from Maxi- 
 mus, the last but one of the Greek theologians, and 
 the works composed during the fifth century under the 
 name of Dionysius the Areopagite, is the latest and 
 most systematic exponent of a Platonic theosophy of the 
 Gospel. With the part he took in the controversies of 
 his own day on predestination and the Eucharist we 
 need not meddle here. Nor can I profess to do more 
 than give a brief sketch of his teaching on sin and 
 redemption, as gathered from his five books on the 
 Division of Nature* It would be beyond my present 
 scope to enter into any lengthened discussion of it, or 
 to trace its connection in detail with other parts of his 
 system, which in regarding the Divine nature as in- 
 comprehensible alike to itself and to every created 
 intellect, as not something but nothing because ex- 
 ceeding everything, not itself being, but the source of 
 being to others,f is not easy to reconcile with God's 
 
 * De Divisions Naturarwn, lib. v. Diu Desiderati. Oxon. 1681. 
 t Ib. ii. p. 78.
 
 64 THE ATOXEMEXT. 
 
 revelation of Himself, as Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. 
 His explanation of the fall and restoration of man, 
 translated into the simplest language it will bear, 
 may be stated thus. The Creator is properly one with 
 His creation, for He contains in Himself the primordial 
 ideas or archetypes on which it is formed ; man, His 
 chief work, is the middle point of creation, combining 
 in himself the opposite poles of creaturely existence, 
 the sensible and the intellectual.* He fell, not in time 
 and in the earthly paradise, but in himself, and before 
 the temptation of the Devil, for it is incredible that 
 had he ever stood in contemplation of eternal peace, he 
 should have fallen at alLf By this fall he not only 
 lost his original union with God, but suffered an in- 
 ternal division in himself into male and female, which 
 was healed by the resurrection of Christ, who rose, not 
 in bodily sex but simply as man, for in Him is neither 
 male nor female. $ Man retained, however, in his fall 
 the mind, in which chiefly consists the image of the 
 Creator, and by which we understand Him, and did 
 not wholly desert the Author of his existence, for in 
 Him we live and move and have our being. But 
 there was need of reconciliation. Therefore the Word 
 of God took upon Him human nature, and in doing so 
 took upon Him the nature of every created substance, 
 visible or invisible, that He might save and restore all 
 
 * Ib. ii. p. 48. 
 
 t Ib. iv. p. 196. Datur intelligi quod homo prius in se ipso lapsus est quam 
 a diabolo tentareter, non enim credibile est eundem hominem et in contemplationo 
 seternae pacis stetisse, et suadente femina, serpentis veneno corrupta corruisse. 
 
 J Ib. ii. p. 49, cf. p. 52. Adunatis totius creaturae quae in primo homine 
 fieret si non peccaret, in Christo resurgente ante omnes per omnia facta. Non 
 enim in sexu corporeo sed in Lomine tantum surrexit ex uioituis, in ipso enim 
 nee masculus nee femina erat. 
 
 Ib. ii. p. 48, v. p. 230.
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. G-5 
 
 by saving and reuniting after an ineffable manner the 
 outward products to their original causes or archetypes, 
 which existed eternally and immutably in His own 
 divine nature ; and thus, by His incarnation, He gives 
 to men redemption, and to angels knowledge of Him- 
 self, for before the incarnation or theophany He was 
 incomprehensible to all created natures alike. The 
 restoration of man is fulfilled in His death, for the dis- 
 solution of the body is the end of our destruction, and 
 is rather a benefit than a penalty, though it be the 
 penalty of sin, and is not to be regarded as the perish- 
 ing of our substance, but as a wonderful and ineffable 
 return into the former state which man had lost by sin, 
 that state of pure contemplation in which nothing re- 
 mains but what is spiritual and intellectual, for the 
 substance of the body is itself intellectual.* 
 
 The Platonic element in this scheme is obvious 
 enough. "We have the 'ifeat and the $aiv6p.fva. The 
 Word of God is incarnated in visible form to reunite 
 the ideal with the actual, the One with the many, the 
 figures traced on the wall of the earthly cave with the 
 eternal archetypes whose reflection they are, but from 
 which they have been unnaturally divorced by sin. 
 The Incarnation and Eesurrection are dwelt upon al- 
 most to the exclusion of the Passion, and the death of 
 the corruptible body is felt to be not so much a pun- 
 ishment as a release, the rending asunder of the ma- 
 terial veil interposed between the spirit of man and 
 the spirit of God. Erigena's theory exhibits forcibly 
 the abnormal division between man and his Maker, 
 wrought by sin, and the need of One who shares the 
 
 Ib. v. p. 252, 232. 
 I
 
 66 THE ATOXEMEXT. 
 
 natures of both to beconie the Repairer of the breach. 
 But it is not equally easy to connect all its details 
 with the doctrines of the Gospel. He has rather gal- 
 vanized than revived the Alexandrian theology in this 
 last attempt to harmonize faith with reason through 
 the forms of Neo-Platonism, and in his own day he 
 found few to understand or appreciate him. For two 
 centuries yet the trance of theological science remains 
 unbroken ; but sleepers dream before their awakening.
 
 67 
 
 NOTE TO CHAP. III. 
 
 ON STRAUSS' ESTIMATE OF THE BELIEF OF THE 
 EAELY CHURCH. 
 
 Iy a section on the ' Christology of the Orthodox System,' at the 
 conclusion of his original work on the Life of Jesus (Das Leben Jesu. 
 Tubingen, 1837), Strauss, after insisting that the outlines of that 
 system are to be found in the New Testament, and have their roots 
 in the conviction of Christ's resurrection, had taken occasion to 
 describe, with that eloquence which is always at his command when 
 he chooses to employ it, the belief of the early Church in her Lord. 
 He stood, like Balaam, to gaze on the armies of Israel, and his 
 tongue was constrained to bless the faith which he has made it 
 the labour of a lifetime to uproot. My object in referring to the 
 statement here is to observe, that it substantially endorses the view 
 of patristic theology taken in this volume. And since there is a 
 lesson to be leai-nt from the utterances of ' Saul among the pro- 
 phets,' and the book is not familiar to the majority of English 
 readers, it may be worth while to translate the passage here, pre- 
 mising that some of its native force must inevitablj* evaporate in 
 the process. 
 
 " How full of blessing and elevation, of encouragement and com- 
 fort, were the thoughts the early Church derived from this concep- 
 tion of her Christ ! Through the sending of the Son of God into 
 the world, and His delivery to death for it, heaven and earth are 
 reconciled (2 Cor. v. 18, sqq., Ephcs. i. 10, Col. i. 20); through His 
 supreme oblation the love of God is guaranteed to men (Rom. v. 8, 
 viii. 31, sqq., 1 John iv. 9), and the most joyful hope opened to 
 them. Since the Son of God has become Man, men are His brethren, 
 and, as such, children of God, and joint heirs with Christ of the
 
 68 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 treasure of Divine beatitude. (Rom. viii. 16-29.) Their slavish estate 
 under the law has ceased, and love has come into the place of the 
 fear of punishment threatened hy the law. (Eom. viii. 15, Gal. iv. 
 1, sqq.} Believers are redeemed from the curse of the law, inas- 
 much as Christ has given Himself up for them, by enduring that 
 death on which the eurse of the law was laid. (Gal. iii. 13.) Now 
 we have uo longer the impossible task of fulfilling all the require- 
 ments of the law (Gal. iii. 10, sqq.'] a task none have accomplished 
 (Rom. i. 18, iii. 20), and, owing to the sinfulness of nature, none 
 can (Kona. v. 12, sqq.}; which only entangles more deeply those 
 who attempt it in the misery of an internal conflict with themselves. 
 (Rom. vii. 7, sqq.} He who believes in Christ, and trusts to the 
 atoning power of His death, is pardoned by God ; he who surrenders 
 himself to God's free grace is justified before Him by grace, not 
 through any works or performances of his own, whence all self- 
 righteousness is excluded. (Rom. iii. 31, sqq.} And, since the Mo- 
 saic law can no longer bind the believer who has died to it with 
 Christ (Rom. vii. 1), since His eternal and all-sufficient Sacrifice 
 has superseded the Jewish sacrifices and priesthood, the wall of par- 
 tition which divided Jew from Gentile is broken down. The Gen- 
 tiles, estranged from the old theocracy, left 'without God and with- 
 out hope in the world,' are called to share in the new covenant of 
 God, and a free approach provided for them to their heavenly Father. 
 Thus the two great divisions of mankind, once at enmity with each 
 other, are now at peace, members of the body of Christ, which is 
 the spiritual edifice of His Church. (Eph. iii. 11, sqq.} But that 
 justifying faith in the death of Christ is in very deed a dying with 
 Him a death, that is, unto sin ; and as He rose from death to a new 
 and immortal life, so shall they that believe on Him rise from the 
 death of sin to a new life of righteousness and holiness ; they shall 
 put off the old man and put on the new. (Rom. vi. 1, sqq.} Christ 
 Himself stands by to aid them with His Spirit, who fills those He 
 inspires with spiritual might, and frees them more and more con- 
 tinually from the bondage of sin. (Romans viii. 1.) Nay, more ; those 
 in whom that Spirit dwells will be quickened in body as well as 
 soul ; for when the course of this world is ended, God through 
 Christ will raise their bodies as He has raised the body of Christ. 
 (Rom. viii. 11.) Christ, whom the bonds of death and Hades could 
 not hold (Acts ii. 24), has conqiiered both for us, and released 
 believers from fear of those chiefest powers of mortality. (Rom. viii.
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 69 
 
 38, sqq., 1 Cor. xv. 55, sqq., Heb. ii. 14, sqq.) His resurrection, 
 which gives to His death its atoning power (Rom. iv. 25), is also 
 the pledge of our resurrection and future life in Him, when He 
 shall return to take His own to the joys of His Messianic kingdom. 
 ( 1 Cor. xv. ) Meanwhile we are assured, that in Him we have an 
 Intercessor with God, who knows our need of help and forbearance, 
 because He knows by experience the infirmity of our nature, with 
 which He has clothed Himself, and in which He was ' tempted in 
 all points, yet without sin.' " (Leben Jesu, vol. ii. p. 695-7.) 
 
 Strauss goes on to argue, chiefly from Eom. i. 3, 4, viii. 34, 1 Tim . 
 iii. 16, and the baptismal formula, that ' the Church of the early cen- 
 turies' had abundant materials for constructing ' the so-called rule 
 of faith' comprised eventually in the Apostles' Creed, of which the 
 Incarnation o \6-yos aapt, kyivtro was the groundwork, and that 
 she was fully justified in excluding as they arose the successive 
 heresies, from the Ebionite to the Monothelite, which directly or in- 
 directly contradicted that faith. 
 
 In his new Life of Jesus (Das Leben Jestt fur das deutsche Volk 
 learleitet. Leipzig, 1864), addressed this time not to a learned but 
 a popular audience, ' as Paul turned to the Gentiles when the Jews 
 rejected his gospel,' the concluding Dissertation from which my ex- 
 tract is taken docs not occur. But the Preface contains a general 
 endorsement of the contents of the former work. The author still 
 regards the Christology' of the Church that is, the whole Chris- 
 tian doctrine of the Incarnate "Word as the product of several 
 'Groups of Myths' (twelve are here given, ranging from the Con- 
 ception to the Ascension), whose formation must, however, be so far 
 distinguished from that of the Greek, or rather Aryan, mythology 
 as explained by recent writers, such as Professor Max iliillcr and 
 the Rev. G. "W. Cox, that they do not originate in observations of 
 natural phenomena, but have a nucleus of historical fact. For the 
 personal existence of Christ, which seemed to be left uncertain by 
 the language of the earlier work (Introd. sect. 15) is here expressly 
 affirmed, in accordance with Baur's system ; though it is rather to 
 the first Christian teacher?, especially St. Paul, than to Himself that 
 the form of religion which bears His name is to be attributed. There 
 are ' few great men of history of whom we know so little as of 
 Jesus' (p. 621). "The Christian Church in its earliest form, as it 
 appears in the Is"ew Testament, was already the result of, so many 
 other factors besides the Person of Jesus, that any inference from it
 
 70 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 [i. e. from its belief] to Him is in the highest degree unsafe" (p. 623^. 
 " It may even be questioned whether, if He had re-appeared on earth 
 about the time of the destruction of Jerusalem (70 A.D.) He would 
 have recognized Himself in the Christ then preached in the Church" 
 (p. 623). "Little of His real history can now be certainly ascer- 
 tained ; what is certain is, that those supernatural acts and events 
 whereon the faith of the Church has principally fastened, never oc- 
 curred at all."* Strauss admits, with Spinoza, that the Divino 
 wisdom which is the eternal Son of God 'was remarkably fin aus- 
 gezeichneter WeiseJ manifested in Jesus Christ'; but His example 
 can only be considered a partial and one-sided model,f and the great 
 work of future theology is to discriminate ' the ideal from the his- 
 torical Christ,' and thus convert ' the religion of Christ into the reli- 
 gion of humanity' (pp. 624-26). Strauss hails in Eenan a fellow- 
 labourer in the same cause, with whose book his own ' shakes hands 
 across the Rhine,' though he considers the Vie de Jesus by no means 
 free from grave errors, especially, as we learn elsewhere (p. 37), in 
 ascribing an undue and suicidal authority to the narrative portion of 
 St. John's Gospel. 
 
 The distinctions between the old Christianity, which the author 
 desires to supplant, and the new religion to be substituted for it, are 
 thus summarized in the Preface. " As long as Christianity is re- 
 garded as something given to mankind from without, Christ, as One 
 come from heaven, His Church as an institution for the purification 
 of men from sin through His Blood, the religion of the Spirit is itself 
 unspiritually conceived of, and Christianity as Judaical. When it 
 is understood, that in Christianity mankind has only become more 
 deeply conscious of itself than before, that Jesus is only the man in 
 whom this deeper consciousness first came forth, as a power dcter- 
 
 * Has there not sometimes been a tendency among orthodox writers to dwell 
 too exclusively on the miracles as proofs of power? They are surely represented 
 in the Gospels primarily as exhibitions, so to say, of the character of God, as 
 revelations of divine love. This is noticed, I believe, in the Bp. of Algiers' Ob- 
 servations on Kenan's book, which I only know, however, from extracts. 
 
 f Elsewhere (pp. 37, 38), it is argued at lengtb, that so long as Christ is viewed 
 as a mere man He cannot be held to represent the perfect ideal of humanity. The 
 criticism is intended for Keim, a German writer, but has its obvious application 
 to Renan also. I may add, that the charge of ' cold-bloodedness' brought against 
 the first Leben Jesu is equally applicable to the second. It has none of that glow 
 of sympathy which gives to the Vie dt Jesus its seductive charm. It is not bread 
 but a stone.
 
 THE LATER FATHERS. 71 
 
 mining His whole life and being, that we can only be cleansed from 
 sin by entering into this idea, by taking it, as it were, into our own 
 blood, then for the first time will Christianity be really understood 
 in a Christian sense." (Pref. p. 18.) And again : " The constitution 
 of the Church is only the form in which you preserve the contents 
 of Christianity; and to know what form is best adapted for that pur- 
 pose, you must know what it is you have in Christianity, whether 
 it is something natural or supernatural. And you can so much the 
 less leave this question undecided, because a supernatural religion 
 with mysteries and means of grace brings with it as its legitimate 
 sequel (folgerichtigj an order of priests standing over the community. 
 He ivTio wishes to get rid of the clergy from the Church, must first get 
 rid of the supernatural (das Wunder) from religion" (ib. p. 19).* 
 In the body of the work (pp. 575, 576), while of course denying that 
 the Old Testament prophecies really refer to the death of Christ, as 
 'a death of atoning sacrifice' feines siihnenden OpfertodesJ the suf- 
 ferer spoken of being some pious contcmporaiy or the ' collective 
 servant of Jehovah' Strauss expressly asserts, that such was never- 
 theless the belief, and the ' natural ' belief, of the first converts from 
 Judaism. On the whole then, I conceive, we shall not be wrong in 
 assuming, that the view of Christianity, as a supernatural and sacra- 
 mental religion, centred in the Person of a crucified and risen Lord, 
 who 'was delivered for our sins,' as an atoning Sacrifice, and 'was 
 raised for our justification,' to send down the Spirit who dwells in 
 the Church and in its individual members as the Source of truth and 
 grace, is still considered by Strauss a perfectly legitimate develop- 
 ment, to say the least, of the Gospel preached within less than half a 
 century of the death of Christ, and while His Apostles still ruled 
 the Church : or, in other words, those who accept the Evangelical 
 records of the life of Christ, and the comment on them contained in 
 St. Paul's Epistles (or even in those four whose genuineness the 
 Tubingen School does not dispute)! will find the Catholic creeds the 
 most natural expression of their belief. 
 
 * The italics are the author's. 
 
 f Romans, Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians.
 
 72 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 
 
 THE transition from the period we have been hitherto 
 considering to the scholastic era is a more complete 
 change than can easily be expressed. We seem to 
 have passed from a world of realities to a world of 
 abstractions, where the forms of language .or of logic 
 have taken the place of substantive ideas. The Fathers 
 stand to the Schoolmen something in the relation of 
 Plato to the Alexandrian Neo-Platonists, or Aristotle to 
 his Latin copyists of the days of the Empire. The 
 very difference of name, l Fathers' and 'Doctors,' 
 serves to mark their difference of position. The whole 
 patristic age was a life and death struggle with ene- 
 mies of the faith, first with heathenism, then with 
 heresy; it was no time for subtle distinctions, and 
 ingenious outreasoning of artificial objections by 
 equally artificial replies. The Fathers were engaged 
 in building up and developing the fabric of Catholic 
 dogma, chiefly on the Trinity and Incarnation, against 
 opposite errors, and bringing home the truths of Chris- 
 tianity to the conscience and convictions of a corrupt 
 but highly civilized world. Through the whole scho- 
 lastic period there were no great doctrinal controversies.
 
 ST. AXSEL3I AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 73 
 
 The Church's foes were of her own household, not the 
 heretic or the sophist, but the fierce half-converted 
 barbarian, or the mail-clad baron, who professed alle- 
 giance to her laws. The eleven general Councils, from 
 the first of Lateran to that of Florence, were occupied 
 with disciplinary questions, as of investitures, or heal- 
 ing the schism of the anti-popes, or suppressing the 
 Templars, and only indirectly, when at all, concerned 
 with doctrine, as in the discussion of the Double Pro- 
 cession and Purgatory at Florence, with a view to the 
 reconciliation of the Greeks. The Schoolmen, accord- 
 ingly, were not employed, like the Fathers, in elabor- 
 ating and fixing particular dogmas, but in reducing 
 the whole existing body of doctrine to what they con- 
 sidered a rational and consistent intellectual system. 
 Their ambition was to construct a philosophy of belief. 
 With a few like Abelaird, this meant testing the doc- 
 trines themselves by a philosophical standard, and 
 accepting nothing as matter of belief which could not 
 be comprehended by the reason. With the majority it 
 meant educing from the received creed of the Church, 
 illustrated latterly by the physical and metaphysical 
 principles of Aristotle, and with the aid of definition 
 and syllogism, a kind of cyclopedia of revealed and 
 ethical truth. They wrote for the learned few, who 
 alone could understand their language and method ; 
 whereas Sermons and Homilies held a prominent place 
 in patristic literature. St. Chrysostom, St. Ambrose, 
 St. Augustine, and St. Leo were among the greatest 
 preachers of the Church. 
 
 The scholastic age, of which St. Anselm is the pio- 
 neer, attained its zenith in the thirteenth century with 
 the seraphic and angelic doctors, as they are called,
 
 74 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 Bonaventure and Aquinas, and may be said to last till 
 the Keformation, though it has no great names to show 
 after the close of the fourteenth century. That was a 
 period when history, criticism, and philosophy were 
 almost unknown. Latin was the common tongue of 
 the learned, and for the most part they understood no 
 other, except their own. They had little knowledge 
 of the past experience of the Church, and little antici- 
 pation of her future.* All this was a serious draw- 
 back to theological study. On the other hand, the 
 whole speculative intellect of Europe was concentrated 
 upon it, for as yet it had no rival in the world of 
 thought ; and this could not but lead to a great ex- 
 pansion and development of theological ideas within a 
 certain range, and be productive of permanent results. 
 But it followed also from so large an expenditure of 
 intellectual energy on so narrow a field, and from the 
 onesidedness of its analytical method, that many tri- 
 fling or incongruous questions would be mooted, there 
 would be much mere playing with edged tools, and 
 many an elaborate edifice would be reared on the sand, 
 
 V / 
 
 which the advancing tide of sounder knowledge must 
 inevitably sweep away. Still, with whatever short- 
 comings, it cannot be denied that scholasticism is an 
 important chapter in the history of the human mind, 
 and one which requires to be studied in tracing the 
 development of doctrine. If the then condition of 
 European society imposed restrictions on the progress 
 of theological science, which were not the fault but the 
 
 * Peter Lombard, the Master of the Sentences, Gratian, the compiler of the 
 Decretal, and Peter Comestor, who -wrote an Ecclesiastical History from the 
 Creation to the birth of Christ, authors of the second half of the twelfth century, 
 were long regarded, according to Fleury, as forming a complete theological 
 library.
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 75 
 
 misfortune of its votaries, if many who pursued it were 
 little better than triflers or sophists, we must never 
 forget that it also commanded the service of the acut- 
 est intellects, and the devotion of the most saintly 
 hearts. The Summa of St. Thomas is no mean per- 
 formance, though much of the Aristotelian philosophy 
 on which it is based may have since become obsolete, 
 and he has made lasting contributions to the science 
 of Christian Ethics ; whatever, again, may be thought 
 of the supplementary details of St. Bona venture's Life 
 of Christ, none will dispute the spirit of ardent piety 
 which breathes in every page. 
 
 For our present purpose it will be convenient to 
 divide scholastic theology into the earlier and more 
 unsystematic period, which is about coextensive with 
 the twelfth century, and includes the names of Anselm 
 and his immediate followers, Abelaird, St. Bernard, 
 Hugh and Eichard of St. Victor, Eobert Pulleyn and 
 others; and the later period, when it took a more 
 systematic shape, and numbers among its celebrities 
 Alexander of Hales, Bonaventure, Aquinas, Duns Sco- 
 tus, and Wicliffe, branching out into the two great 
 schools since known as the Scotist and Thomist, and 
 of which the Franciscan and Dominican Orders are the 
 traditional representatives. 
 
 Few names are so dear to the student of ecclesi- 
 astical history, especially if he be an Englishman, as 
 that of the great and good archbishop of Canterbury, 
 who is the model at once of a recluse and of a ruler, a 
 student in the cloister and a hero in the strife. He 
 surely was no common man who fought out, almost 
 single-handed, the great battle of investitures in Eng- 
 land, who confronted by mere force of saintly character
 
 76 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 the brute strength of the rough-handed Rufus, and 
 foiled the cunning king-craft of his courtly successor 
 by no other weapons than the nobleness of Christian 
 simplicity. The injustice he met with in life has been 
 atoned by an exceptional unanimity of posthumous 
 homage. The name of Anselm comes down, through 
 twenty generations, wreathed with a halo time has not 
 dimmed ; his memory is honoured, the very prayers he 
 composed are still repeated, by many even of those who 
 do not accept his creed. A modern author calls him 
 'the profoundest and most original writer that had 
 appeared in the Latin Church since St. Augustine,'* 
 and certainly the appearance of the Cur Dem Homo 
 forms an epoch in the history of doctrine, as regards 
 the Atonement. The theory, which had prevailed for 
 nearly a thousand years in the Church, of a ransom 
 paid to Satan by the death of Christ, and on which 
 the -Fathers had grounded its necessity, is here for the 
 first time expressly and unreservedly rejected. There 
 is no minute discussion of details ; it is repudiated on 
 the broad principle, so strangely overlooked before, that 
 it contradicts the omnipotence or the goodness of the 
 Creator to suppose, that He can recognize any right of 
 evil and injustice in that universe which is His own. 
 It is not denied that there was a certain fitness in the 
 Devil being overcome by the wood of the cross, as he 
 had overcome men by the wood of the tree of life, just 
 as there is a fitness in the Eedeemer being born of a 
 woman, as the first man was deceived by a woman ; 
 
 * Essays and Reviews, by R. W. Church (London, 1854), p. 125, where an 
 admirable sketch of St. Anselm's career in England may be found. Is it vain 
 to hope that the gifted author of this interesting volume will give us some fur- 
 ther results of his singular capabilities for the illustration of mediaeval Church 
 history ?
 
 ST. AXSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 77 
 
 but these ' congruities' are ' a kind of pictures' that 
 may be offered for the persuasion of unbelievers, not 
 the ground of any solid theory. We belonged not to 
 the Devil, but to God ; and the i handwriting against 
 us' was not, as Leo had imagined, a compact with 
 Satan, but the decree of God who allowed him to 
 punish us when we became the slaves of sin. " There 
 was no need for God to come down from heaven to 
 overcome the Evil One or to make a compact with him 
 for the delivery of man ; but God required of man that 
 he should overcome the Devil, and satisfy by righte- 
 ousness the God he had offended by sin. For God 
 owed nothing to the Devil except punishment, nor 
 man anything but to conquer him by whom he had 
 been overcome ; whatever^ was required of man he 
 owed to God, not the Devil."* But Anselm at the 
 same time insisted, not only on the congruity but the 
 absolute necessity of man's redemption, and on the 
 death of Christ as the only possible means of effecting 
 it, innovating in both respects on the teaching of 
 former theologians. His explanation of the positive 
 side of his system is scattered over the two books of 
 the Cur Deus Homo, mixed up with incidental notices 
 of many collateral questions, as of the primitive state of 
 man, the bodily resurrection, the relations of human 
 redemption to the fall of the angels, and the fitness of 
 Christ's birth of a virgin. We must confine ourselves 
 here to a statement of the theory itself, as he has laid 
 it down.-f 
 
 * Cur Deus Homo, xi. 19, ad fin. Cf. i. 7, throughout, also 3 and 4. 
 
 f It would be troublesome and confusing to the reader to give separate refer- 
 ences for each statement. They shall be given where there is any special ground 
 for it. The chapters from which the system is chiefly to be gathered are I. 1 1 , 
 12, 13, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25 ; II. 4, 5, 6, 11, 14, 19, 20.
 
 78 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 It is impossible that mankind, as a whole, should 
 fail to attain the end for which they were created, 
 because it is inconsistent with the being of God to 
 suffer any rational nature to perish completely, and 
 thus fail to perfect the work He has begun.* Xot 
 that in speaking of necessity, though absolute, we are 
 to view it as a power external to Him, like the fcrfycq 
 of Greek mythology which limited and constrained the 
 will of Zeus. Rather it is improperly called necessity, 
 for it is part of His own nature, it is that immutability 
 which belongs to His holiness, that supreme justice 
 which is one with Himself, f But man has forsaken 
 his true end by sin, and can only be restored to it by 
 redemption. By sin he has robbed God of what was 
 due to Him from human nature, and has, so far as 
 was possible, deprived Him of a part of His honour 
 (Deum exhonoratj; he has committed an evil which, if 
 not actually infinite, is yet so great that the preserv- 
 ation of the universe would be too dearly purchased 
 by the commission of any the slightest sin. And there- 
 fore he has incurred a debt, which can only be paid by 
 something greater than the whole universe, greater 
 than all that is outside God. But he has nothing to 
 
 * The author adds a reason, borrowed from St. Augustine, that men were 
 created to supply the place of the fallen angels (i. 16-18), hut this is immaterial 
 to the coherence of his system. The necessity of man's restoration is maintained 
 on independent grounds. 
 
 t Ih. ii. 5. Quae scilicet necessitas non est aliud quam immutabilitas hones- 
 tatis ejus, quam a se ipso et non ab alio habet, et idcirco improprie dicitur neces- 
 sitas. Cf. i. 13. Summa justitia qua3 non est aliud quam Ipse Deus. Cf. also 
 ii. 18. a. 
 
 + In one place it is called ' infinitum,' but as being so great that it could not 
 lawfully be committed to preserve an infinite number of worlds from destruction. 
 ii. 14. 
 
 Cf. Ans. De Concep. Virg. et Pec. Orig. 21. Deus non exigit ab ullo pecca- 
 tore plus quam debet, sed quoniam nullus potest reddere quantum debet, solus 
 Christus reddidit pro omnibus plus quam debetur.
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 79 
 
 pay it with himself, for all that he has and is he owes 
 to God as his Creator, without any reference to the 
 compensation of sin. And this very inability to pay 
 the debt is not an excuse, but is itself a sin, being 
 caused by his own fault, and therefore is not a ground 
 of free forgiveness. K"or, indeed, is free forgiveness 
 possible. God cannot suffer anything to mar the per- 
 fect order of His kingdom. The sinner must either 
 make adequate satisfaction to God, according to the 
 measure of his sin, or endure the penalty. This satis- 
 faction, to be equal to the sin, must be greater than 
 anything outside God; and therefore only God can 
 supply it ; but it must be paid by man, or it is not 
 man's satisfaction. " The debt was so great that none 
 but God could pay it, and none but man owes it, there- 
 fore One must pay it who is God and man." Hence 
 the necessity for the Incarnation. But the Incarnation 
 would not suffice of itself. The perfect obedience of 
 Christ, as Man, could be no satisfaction for sin, for 
 obedience is due to God from every rational creature. 
 But His death was not due, for death is an obligation 
 incurred by sin; and His death accordingly, as a 
 voluntary offering, is the sufficient and only possible 
 satisfaction, which not only equals, but infinitely ex- 
 ceeds, the payment owed for the sins of the whole 
 world. For this death, freely offered, He deserved a 
 recompense from the Father. But He needed none 
 for Himself, and could receive nothing that was not 
 already His. He claimed, therefore, and justly re- 
 ceived from the Father, as a reward, the salvation of 
 those for whom He died. And thus mercy and justice 
 are reconciled. For what more merciful than that the 
 Father should say to the sinner, who has nothing
 
 80 THE ATOXEMEXT. 
 
 whereby to ransom himself from eternal punishment, 
 * Eeceive My only-begotten, and give Him for thyself,' 
 and the Son say, ' Take Me and ransom thyself ?' 
 What more just than that He who receives a payment 
 far exceeding the debt should remit the debt ? 
 
 Such is a summary of the Anselmic theory of satis- 
 faction. Its. whole force hinges on the assumed im- 
 possibility of any incongruity finconvenientiaj being 
 tolerated by God. Deum non decet aliquid in reyno suo 
 inordinatum dimittcre. Both in its negative and posi- 
 tive aspects it differs widely from the patristic concep- 
 tion of the subject. The necessity for the death of 
 Christ becomes for the first time absolute, not indeed 
 any longer as a compensation due to Satan for the 
 power over men acquired by their sin, which he was to 
 lose by their redemption, but as a satisfaction to God 
 for the honour of which sin had robbed Him. Not 
 that Christ's death is regarded by Anselm, any more 
 than by earlier writers, as a punishment inflicted on 
 Him by the Father for our sins, but as a voluntary 
 payment of the debt incurred by us when we could not 
 pay it ourselves. It was essential to the justice or 
 holiness of God, that sin should be either punished or 
 atoned. Only the God-man could make adequate re- 
 paration, and He only by His death, for that alone He 
 did not, in His human nature, owe to God. 
 
 It is obvious that the Cur Deus Homo, if taken, as 
 the title might seem to imply, for an exhaustive ac- 
 count of the objects of the Incarnation, would be a 
 strikingly defective one ; and there are, in fact, many 
 indications in the book itself that such was not the 
 intention of its saintly author. "We cannot doubt that 
 he, like those before him, saw more, far more, in that
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 81 
 
 mystery of love than the mere payment of a debt. But 
 even in the restricted sense, which it is clearly meant 
 to bear, of an explanation of the death of Christ, his 
 argument is open to very serious criticism. With the 
 negative side of his theology, his rejection of Satan's 
 supposed rights, we certainly need not quarrel, and here 
 his judgment has been fully endorsed by the common 
 instinct of the later Church. But, as regards his posi- 
 tive theory, even admitting the assumed premisses 
 (contradicted as they are by the whole course of pre- 
 vious theology), of a debt incurred to God which it is 
 absolutely impossible for Him freely to remit, the ac- 
 count given of the payment is, in more than one point, 
 at issue with itself. I pass over the extreme difficulty 
 of admitting a necessity, though explained as part of 
 the divine nature, which seems to limit omnipotence, 
 and goes far to assimilate the external operations to 
 the immanent acts of God. But the statement of a 
 necessity for the Incarnation is obviously inconsistent 
 with making it also a free exhibition of love. For if 
 God's honour necessarily required reparation, and only 
 one was possible, then it was not for our sakes, but for 
 His own, that He sent His Son into the world to die. 
 Nor can it be replied that, according to Anselm's 
 teaching, the honour of God is not really increased or 
 diminished by anything external to Him, and cannot, 
 therefore, be affected in itself by sin ; for it is distinctly 
 said to be essential to His honour that the order of the 
 universe should be preserved, and that this can only 
 be done by the punishment of the sinner, or by an 
 equivalent for the sin.* That order, as we have seen, 
 
 * See especially Cur Detu Homo, i. 13, 14. 
 L
 
 82 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 is broken if His object in the creation of man is frus- 
 trated, and therefore adequate satisfaction is an internal 
 necessity of His own nature. The author's only attempt 
 to meet this difficulty in fact admits its force.* When 
 it is urged, that God in creating man foresaw both his 
 fall and his redemption, but did not therefore shrink 
 from the obligation He voluntarily assumed in creating 
 him, this of course may show that creation was an act 
 of love, but it implies that creation once premised, the 
 Incarnation was an act of necessity. It was at least 
 not a separate act of love. There is another inconsist- 
 ency to be noticed. It is essential to the theory, that 
 the death of Christ should be something He did not 
 oive to God. But if satisfaction for sin was absolutely 
 necessary for the divine honour, and His death alone 
 could supply it, it follows, surely, that, as Man, He was 
 morally bound to die, and thus His death ceases to be 
 a voluntary oblation. This difficulty is more than 
 once indirectly touched upon, but is never really 
 answered, f 
 
 There was reason for dwelling thus at length on the 
 argument of the Cur Dens Homo, because its author 
 is the founder, or rather harbinger, of the whole scho- 
 lastic method, and is also the first to explain the death 
 of our Lord by a theory of satisfaction which refers it 
 immediately, not to the rights acquired by the Evil One, 
 but to inherent necessities of the divine nature. The 
 principal succeeding writers of this first period may be 
 considered according to their relations, whether of 
 agreement or difference, with him. Conspicuous among 
 them stand the names of Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, 
 
 * Ib. ii. 5. 
 
 t Ib. i. 9. ii. 18, b. See on this point Petav. De Incarn. ix. 8.
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 83 
 
 ' the last of the Fathers,' as he has been not unaptly 
 designated, and Abelaird, who may with equal pro- 
 priety be termed the first of the Schoolmen. The 
 positive side of the Anselmic system is rejected by 
 both. Abelaird' s exposition of the grounds of the 
 Incarnation and sufferings of Christ is given in his 
 Commentary on the Romans, chiefly with reference to 
 the famous passage (Eom. iii. 26), that God ' might be 
 just, and justify the believer in Jesus.'* He not 
 only assents to Anselm's denial of all rights in the 
 Devil, but goes beyond him, urging, that man would 
 rather have a right to punish the seducer, who had 
 betrayed him by a promise of immortality he had no 
 power to fulfil. The elect alone, it is added, were 
 released by Christ, and they never belonged to Satan 
 in this world or the next, which is proved by a strange 
 application of the parable of Dives and Lazarus. More- 
 over, if no injustice was done to the Devil by the 
 assumption of a sinless humanity, how could injustice 
 have been done him by the far lesser grace of a free 
 forgiveness ? Some other reason must be found. To 
 Anselm's view of an all but infinite debt, and the need 
 of a corresponding equivalent, Abelaird replies, that 
 Adam's sin, however great, could not be atoned by the 
 yet greater crime of those who murdered Christ. And 
 further, as Gregory Nazianzen had said before him, how 
 could the blood of an innocent Yictim be an acceptable 
 ransom to God, to whom, if to any one, the ransom 
 must be paid ? Abelaird therefore seeks the ground 
 
 * This verse has been sometimes taken to imply the necessity of Christ's sacri- 
 fice, as a matter of justice, for our forgiveness. But if so, -we must read naiirep 
 instead of KOI. It clearly means, ' that He who is holy might bestow sanctifica- 
 tion on believers.'
 
 84 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 of the Incarnation, not in the justice, but the love of 
 God, who might indeed have pardoned us without it, 
 but selected this means as the most effectual for elicit- 
 ing our love. The spectacle of Christ's spotless life, 
 and obedience even unto death endured for us, was the 
 most persuasive argument for withdrawing us from 
 the service of sin, and making us meet to receive His 
 grace. He is said, therefore, to have died for us, be- 
 cause in His Crucifixion He bore the penalty of our 
 gins, and by His death drew us to Himself, commend- 
 ing His charity towards us by dying for us while we 
 were yet sinners, and implanting love in our hearts 
 through faith in Him. This includes the case of the 
 old Patriarchs, who looked for His coming, though it 
 applies still more to those who have lived since, as it 
 is written, that ' those who went before and those who 
 came after cried Hosanna to the Son of David.' And 
 thus by grace we are pardoned on our repentance, its 
 defects being supplied by the intercession of Christ, 
 who, as Man, is bound by the law of charity to pray 
 for us, and whose prayer, from His perfect holiness, 
 cannot but be heard. Hence the need for His Incar- 
 nation. This theory places the ultimate grounds of 
 the Atonement, not in the nature of God but of man, 
 who required such a revelation of divine charity to 
 recall him from sin. 
 
 St. Bernard,* I need scarcely remind the reader, 
 was engaged in frequent controversy with Abelaird, 
 chiefly about the doctrine of the Trinity, on which his 
 
 Morison's Life and Times of St. Bernard (London, 1863) gives a very 
 interesting biography of him, about half consisting very properly of translations 
 from his Letters. The author does not dwell at any length on his character as a 
 theologian, and is evidently not so familiar with that part of the subject.
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 85 
 
 language was, to say the least, difficult to reconcile 
 with orthodox belief. It was natural, therefore, that 
 on other subjects also his teaching should be re- 
 ceived with suspicion. St. Bernard attacks his ex- 
 planation of the Atonement mainly, as he assailed the 
 belief in the Immaculate Conception, on account of its 
 novelty, and as contravening the testimony of the 
 ancient Fathers on the rights of Satan, a charge which 
 it shared with St. Anselm's. To Abelaird's objection 
 about the murderers of Christ -he replied, in words 
 already quoted, that it was not His death, but His 
 voluntary acceptance of it, that was pleasing to the 
 Father. He did not, however, any more than his 
 opponent adopt the Anselmic theory of a debt incurred 
 to God which could only be paid by the death of His 
 Son. On the contrary, he falls back on the older 
 opinion, which both Anselm and Abelaird had rejected, 
 of the claim of Satan, to whom therefore the price was 
 paid ; though he so far modifies it as to admit, that it 
 was only by divine permission the Devil could have 
 any rights. He adds, that Christ made satisfaction as 
 the Head of the Body, representing its members. The 
 work of salvation includes three things ; the humility 
 by which God emptied Himself, the love which perse- 
 vered even unto death, the l sacrament of redemption' 
 by which in dying He destroyed death. This last 
 Abelaird is accused of denying by denying the rights 
 of Satan, and of making the teaching and example of 
 Christ the sole benefits of the Incarnation.* But he 
 had not said so, and he distinctly asserts in his Apology, 
 that * the Son of God was incarnate to deliver us from 
 the bondage of sin and yoke of the Devil, and to open 
 
 * Bern. Ep. 190 ad Innoc.
 
 86 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 to us by His death the gate of eternal life.' And St. 
 Bernard himself, in this very Epistle, distinctly denies 
 any absolute necessity for the method of redemption 
 chosen, and suggests a reason for it not so very unlike 
 Abelaird's. " Perhaps that method is the best, whereby 
 in a land of forgetfulness and sloth we might be more 
 powerfully and vividly reminded of our fall, through 
 the so great and so manifold sufferings of Him who 
 repaired it." Elsewhere, when not speaking contro- 
 versially, he says still more plainly; " Could not the 
 Creator have restored His work without that difficulty ? 
 He could ; but He preferred to do it at His own cost, 
 lest any further occasion should be given for that worst 
 and most odious vice of ingratitude in man.*" What is 
 this but to say with Abelaird, that He chose the In- 
 carnation as the most effectual method for eliciting His 
 creature's love ? 
 
 Our countryman, Robert Pulleyn, | a teacher at 
 Oxford and contemporary of St. Bernard and Abe- 
 laird, follows the latter, whose intimate friend he was, 
 both in adopting Anselm's denial of the claims of Satan, 
 and in rejecting the notion of an absolute necessity for 
 the death of Christ, whose sufferings he views as giv- 
 ing us an example of patience and steadfastness, and 
 as being, in some sense not accurately denned, requisite 
 for our redemption. He offered His blood, not as a 
 ransom to the Evil One, which would be a renunciation 
 of His Godhead, but as a sacrifice to the Father. 
 
 Bern. Serm. xi. m Cant. 
 
 t R. Pulleyn Sententiarum Libri viii. His wide divergence from the old 
 theory is marked hy his representing the dream of Pilate's wife as sent by the 
 Devil, to hinder the death of Christ. Satan, therefore, was neither compensated 
 nor deceived. Pulleyn was distinguished for Biblical learning. See Newman's 
 Office and Work of Universities (Longman, 1856) p. 258.
 
 ST. ANSELM AXD THE SCHOOLMEN. 87 
 
 Hugh of St. Victor, another writer of the same date, 
 tries to harmonize all the previous systems. He re- 
 cognizes in Satan a certain right of dominion acquired 
 over man, though not any rights as against God. From 
 this dominion man cannot free himself, except by God's 
 assistance ; but and here the Anselmic notion comes 
 in God was Himself angry with man, and required 
 to be propitiated by a perfect obedience to compensate 
 Adam's apostasy, and by an adequate punishment to 
 atone for the dishonour done to Himself. Man had 
 neither to offer : therefore, what man owed, God gra- 
 tuitously supplied in the Incarnation and death of His 
 Son. Yet the author expressly denies any absolute 
 necessity, and gives a reason for the Incarnation else- 
 where, differing little if at all from Abelaird's, viz. 
 that Christ gave us in His Passion a motive of love, 
 in His resurrection a pledge of immortality, l that He 
 may be the Way by His example, the Truth by His 
 promises, the Life by His reward.'* Eichard of St. 
 Victor has sometimes been represented as accepting in 
 its entirety the argument of the Cur Dens Homo, which 
 he has undoubtedly made great use of in his treatise 
 on the Incarnation. But his language does not imply 
 anything more than that the death of Christ was neces- 
 sary, if an adequate satisfaction were to be made at all. 
 He says it was required for full satisfaction, that ' there 
 should be as great humility in the expiation as there 
 had been presumption in the sin ;' but this does not 
 exclude other methods of satisfaction, or free forgive- 
 ness.-j* 
 
 * Hug. de S. Viet. De Sacrum. 4, 10. 
 
 t Sine satisfactione hominem ad plenum reparari non posse, ad plenitudinem 
 autem satisfactions oportuisse, ut tanla esset humiliatio in expiatione quanta 
 fuerat praesumptio in prsevaricatione. Rich, S. Viet. JDt Inc. Verbi, 8.
 
 88 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 The last writer of the twelfth century to be noticed 
 here is Peter Lombard, Bishop of Paris, the ' Master 
 of the Sentences.' That he retained the Patristic 
 theory of the Devil's rights we have already seen (in 
 chap, in.), and his statement of it needs not to be re- 
 peated here. It was natural that, as a compiler of the 
 opinions of the Fathers, he should do so. Yet in his 
 hands it had lost much of its old technical meaning, 
 and even where most distinctly stated, as in the passage 
 quoted above, seems little more than a way of express- 
 ing our release from the power of sin. Thus he says, 
 that Christ came into the strong man's house, that is 
 into our hearts where the Devil ruled, "and so by 
 Christ's blood, who pays that He had not taken, we 
 are redeemed from sin, and thereby from the Devil. For 
 he did not hold us, except by the bonds of our sins ; 
 those were the captive's chains." Here the idea re- 
 ceives a nobler and more spiritual interpretation. The 
 writer also includes in our release from Satan our 
 release from a debt or penalty incurred, in so far as 
 Christ bore in His body the chastisement of our sins, 
 and won for us by His cross a plenary remission in 
 baptism, a partial remission in penance, of the temporal 
 chastisements of sin. For thus overcoming Satan's 
 power the incarnation of the God-man is required, who 
 alone is sinless.* Elsewhere he says, that God had 
 decreed not to admit us to His presence till there had 
 been found as great humility in man as there had been 
 pride in our first father; and this perfect sacrifice 
 Christ alone could bring. He is careful to add, that 
 God might have found other ways to save us.f But 
 
 * Pet. Lomb. Stnt. iii. 19, A. D. t Ib. iii. 18, E.
 
 ST. AXSELM AXD THE SCHOOLMEN. 89 
 
 wliere the < Master' speaks out most clearly the posi- 
 tive side of his theology, it is substantially accordant 
 with Abelaird's, in placing the need of reconciliation 
 on the side of man, not of God. " The death of Christ 
 justifies us by exciting His love in our hearts." And 
 he pointedly insists, as was natural in a student of 
 antiquity, on the principle which Cyril, Augustine, 
 Leo, and other Fathers had laid down before him, that 
 we are not to understand the Atonement as though a 
 change were effected in the mind of God, and He 
 began to love, when He had before hated us, as one 
 enemy is reconciled to another. "We were reconciled 
 to God, when He already loved us. For He did not 
 begin to love us from the time ive tvere reconciled to Him 
 l)ij His Son's Mood, but before the world, and before 
 we existed. How then were we reconciled to God 
 when He loved us ? On account of sin we were at 
 enmity with Him, who had love toward us, even while 
 we showed our enmity against Him by working ini- 
 quity Christ, therefore, is called a Mediator, be- 
 cause standing between men and God He reconciles 
 them to God. But He reconciles them, by taking from 
 the sight of God what offends in man, that is, by de- 
 stroying sins which offended God and made us His 
 enemies." And again; "He reconciled all believers 
 by His death to God, since all were healed of their 
 iniquity who by believing loved the humility of Christ, 
 and by loving imitated it."* 
 
 So far, then, the positive side of St. Anselm's theory 
 finds no support from succeeding writers. His rejec- 
 tion of the Devil's claim is gradually adopted, though 
 
 Ib. iii. 19, A, F, G. 
 
 M
 
 90 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 not without occasional protest. But his notion of an 
 absolute necessity on God's part for the Incarnation 
 and death of Christ is repudiated alike by all. Peter 
 Lombard and Hugh of St. Victor, who in language seem 
 at times to come nearest to him, are in fact the most 
 widely removed from him. 
 
 In passing from the twelfth to the thirteenth century 
 we approach the more systematic period of scholasti- 
 cism, based on a study of Aristotle, and occupied, in 
 great part, in drawing up elaborate commentaries on 
 the Sentences of Peter Lombard, expanding them 
 into an interminable series of wire-drawn and often 
 unprofitable distinctions. It would, of course, be im- 
 possible to examine in detail this voluminous litera- 
 ture. But before proceeding to compare the two great 
 leaders of the opposite schools of Scotists and Thomists, 
 it will be well to take as a specimen one of the princi- 
 pal Commentators, and analyse his treatment of the 
 question before us. No better or more favourable 
 example can be selected than St. Bonaventure, who 
 follows to a great extent the system of St. Anselm, but 
 deserts him in the point essential to its internal cohe- 
 rence, the theory of an absolute necessity. He con- 
 siders the question under six different heads.* 1. Was 
 it fitting for human nature to be restored ? which is of 
 course answered in the affirmative. 2. Was ' satisfac- 
 tion' the most fitting method of restoring it? 3. Could 
 a mere creature make satisfaction for the whole human 
 race? 4. Could any man, assisted by grace, make 
 satisfaction for himself? 5. Ought God to have ac- 
 cepted the method of satisfaction by Christ's Passion ? 
 
 * S. Bonav. Opp. torn. v. (Lugd. 1688) in lib. iii. Sent. Dist. 20.
 
 ST. AXSELM AXD THE SCHOOLMEN. 91 
 
 6. Could He have saved the human race by any other 
 method ? 
 
 Let us take in order the replies given to these 
 last five questions. 2. What method is most fit- 
 ting must be considered in reference to the righte- 
 ousness, omnipotence, wisdom, and majesty of God. 
 Tested by this standard, the method of satisfaction is 
 declared to be most consistent with His justice and 
 mercy ; His justice in requiring, His mercy in Himself 
 supplying it ; it is also most suitable for men, that they 
 should procure their restoration through the means of 
 satisfaction and merit, repairing by endurance of pun- 
 ishment the dishonour done to God by sin. It is then 
 added, in reply to objections, that it would not be 
 more fitting for God to display His mercy by a free 
 forgiveness, because His mercy does not exclude His 
 justice ; that it is not to meet any want in God that 
 satisfaction, any more than obedience, is required, but 
 from regard to us ; that it cannot be said He would 
 have shown His omnipotence more fully by pardoning 
 with a mere word, for in this work it was most essen- 
 tial to reveal His goodness and His justice ; that mere 
 forgiveness would not have been so constraining a 
 claim on our thankfulness and love, because it is a far 
 greater thing to die for men than only to forgive them ; 
 nor "would it have set us a better example, for punish- 
 ment belongs to God though not to man, and moreover 
 by satisfaction God gave us a more perfect model; 
 lastly, ^hat it is a property of the Highest Good to 
 employ, where possible, the cooperation of the creature 
 in His noblest works, and this was possible in redemp- 
 tion though not in creation. 
 
 3. The next question is a favourite one with the
 
 02 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 Schoolmen. Could any mere creature make satisfac- 
 tion for the whole human race ? The author replies 
 by dividing satisfaction into that made for the injury, 
 and that made for the loss. It is clear that no mere 
 creature could make satisfaction for the injury done to 
 God, on account of His greatness. But neither could 
 he for the loss. !N"o mere man could give an equivalent 
 to God for the loss He suffered by Adam's sin, which 
 extended over the whole race. Still less could a crea- 
 ture of some other order of being, as an angel, do so, 
 for his satisfaction could have no relation to the sin of 
 man. 4. As to whether a mere man, with the assist- 
 ance of grace, could make satisfaction for his own sins, 
 it is replied that he might make a partial, but not a 
 plenary, satisfaction for actual, none for original sin ; 
 because original sin involves depravation not only of 
 will but of nature. For this last none could make 
 satisfaction who was not himself free from it, and who 
 did not possess grace to be the Second Adam, or Head 
 of the renewed race fgraUam communem hoc est yratiam 
 CapitisJ. Hence Christ alone could atone for original 
 sin, and He by doing so won grace for men, whereby 
 they are enabled to make satisfaction for their own 
 actual sins. His Passion, therefore, acts more fully in 
 the sacrament of baptism, which remits original, than 
 in the sacrament of penance, which remits actual sin. 
 
 5. To the fifth question Bonaventure answers, that 
 the most fitting method of satisfaction for God to ac- 
 cept was the Passion and Death of Christ, because it 
 is the noblest that can be conceived, and that on four 
 grounds. It was the most acceptable for appeasing 
 God, the most suitable for curing the disease of sin, 
 the most effectual for attracting the human race, and
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 93 
 
 the wisest for overcoming the enemy of man. It was 
 the most pleasing to God, because, as Anselm said, 
 the hardest, and therefore most precious free-will 
 offering man can make in token of entire self-sacrifice 
 is voluntary death. As man had sinned through pride, 
 lust, and disobedience, the fittest cure was humility, 
 pain, and fulfilling of the divine law. In no other 
 way could God so effectually elicit the love of men 
 as by dying for them on the Cross ; and without win- 
 ning their love He could not save them, for He would 
 not force their free-will. Finally, as Satan overcame 
 man by treachery, so Christ overcame Satan by pru- 
 dence, ' drawing Leviathan with a hook.' Objections 
 are then stated and answered. It may be said that 
 Christ's life is more precious than His death ; but the 
 greatest satisfaction is the most painful, and to be 
 willing to die for God's honour is a more heroic act 
 of perfection and charity than to be willing to live for 
 it. It may be objected again, that the sin of Adam 
 cannot be atoned by the greater sin of the murderers 
 of Christ. But the Atonement is made by Him, not 
 by His murderers ; and it is a conspicuous evidence of 
 Divine wisdom to draw good out of evil, nay, to draw 
 the highest good. If it is further urged, that Christ 
 should then have suffered twice, once for Adam's sin, 
 once for the greater sin of those who slew Him, it is 
 replied, that the merits of His sufferings exceed infi- 
 nitely the guilt of the traitor Judas, of the Jews who 
 instigated His death, and the Gentiles who accom- 
 plished it. 
 
 6. The last question concerns the necessity of this 
 method of satisfaction. And here Bonaventure is in 
 direct collision with Anselm. He admits, indeed, that
 
 94 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 on man's side no other method was possible, but with 
 God all things are possible. To the objection, that no 
 method but satisfaction consists with the divine justice, 
 and that only the death of the God-man could make 
 adequate satisfaction, he replies, first, that God might, 
 had He so willed, have saved us by way of mercy and 
 not of justice, and still nothing would have been left 
 disordered (inordinatumj or even unpunished in the 
 universe, for sin brings its own punishment with it ; 
 secondly, though Christ's death was the most fitting 
 satisfaction, any, the very slightest, suffering of His 
 would perhaps have been sufficient, as it is written, 
 'with Him is plenteous redemption' (Ps. cxxix. 7.) 
 St. Bonaventure concludes by expressing his 'firm 
 belief,' that the human race could have been delivered 
 by other methods, but will not pronounce whether or 
 not it could have been otherwise redeemed. ,* No one 
 will be disposed to quarrel with the conclusion, but it 
 is not very easy to reconcile with all that has gone 
 before. If penal satisfaction were so demonstrably the 
 method most becoming the attributes of God and the 
 condition of man, it is difficult to conceive any other 
 being adopted ; and if sin would in any case have ade- 
 quately punished itself, the argument for a penal satis- 
 faction being requisite is undermined. The Cur Dens 
 Homo is more consistent here. 
 
 Alexander of Hales, and Albert the Great come 
 nearer to Anselm's view. Alexander begins, it is 
 true, by admitting that according to that justice which 
 
 * De liberatione cnim firmiter credo, quod alio modo potuit liberari, de redcmp- 
 tione vero ncc nego nee audeo affirmarc, quia temerarium est, cum de divina 
 potentia agitur, terminuni praefigere ei, Ampliua enini potest quam noa possu- 
 mus cogitare.
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 95 
 
 is identical with His essence, and therefore with His 
 power, God could have saved man without satisfaction, 
 though according to that justice which goes by con- 
 gruity of merits He could not. But the admission 
 does not go for much. For he afterwards decides, 
 with Anselm, that had God used His absolute power 
 to pardon man, He would have left something dis- 
 ordered (inordinatumj in His kingdom, which is as 
 impossible as for Him to do evil ; and no satisfaction 
 could be adequate but that of the God-man.* Albert 
 the Great comes to a similar conclusion, on the ground 
 that original sin could only be remitted through One 
 who was the second Head of the race, and, as it would 
 be monstrous to have two heads in the natural order, 
 the second must be in the supernatural order ; or, in 
 other words, must be Christ, who, as God, can alone 
 impart grace to the mystical body.f 
 
 We come now to the founders of the two great 
 schools of Thomists and Scotists, which have existed 
 from that day to this in the Church ; and we shall find 
 them differing, as on other points, so also in their view 
 of the Atonement, a difference partly grounded on their 
 opposite views of the motive of the Incarnation. "With 
 the Thomist doctrine of grace, and all the controversies 
 that have been raised upon it, we are not concerned 
 here. The reasoning of Aquinas on the Atonement is 
 contained in four Questions of the Summa, from, which 
 I will extract the points most deserving of notice.^: 
 He treats in order the sufferings of Christ, their effi- 
 cient cause, and their results. As regards the question 
 
 * Alex. Hales Summa, Pars iii. Q. i. 4, 7. 
 f Alb. Magn. Comment, in Sent. iii. 20, art. 7. 
 J Summa D. Thorn. Aq. Pars iii. Q. 46-49.
 
 96 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 of necessity, taking the Aristotelian division of internal 
 necessity, and external coaction, he denies that in either 
 of these senses the Passion was necessary. It was only 
 necessary, assuming the prevision and predestination of 
 God to redeem man in that manner, and in no other ; 
 nor would He have acted against justice in forgiving 
 without any satisfaction offences committed only against 
 Himself. He was not (as Grotius afterwards repre- 
 sented the case) in the position of a civil ruler who 
 cannot lawfully remit the penalty of offences com- 
 mitted, not against himself personally, but against the 
 common weal. At the same time, however, the Pas- 
 sion of Christ was the most suitable method of redemp- 
 tion, as revealing the love of God, giving us an example 
 of obedience and all other virtues, and a strong incite- 
 ment to purify ourselves from sin after being redeemed 
 at so great a price. Moreover Christ not only freed 
 us from sin, but won for us grace and glory, and it was 
 fitting that by death He should overcome the power 
 of death ; but His death need not have been a violent 
 one. The greatness of His pains, above all others in 
 this life, is inferred from His suffering at the hands of 
 such various classes of persons, such various kinds of 
 pain, in soul and body, and in every part of His body, 
 and from the peculiar capabilities for suffering of His 
 mental and bodily organization, as it is written ; Ego 
 in flagella paratus sum. The manner in which His suf- 
 ferings take effect on us is fourfold ; by merit, satisfac- 
 tion, sacrifice, and redemption. As Head of the 
 mystical Body, He imparts to all His members the 
 grace He has merited for them. His satisfaction for 
 the same reason is applicable to them, and is not only 
 sufficient but superabundant, from the greatness of His
 
 ST. AXSEL3I AND THE SCHOOLilEX. 97 
 
 dignity, His sufferings, and His love. Satisfaction is 
 defined, as giving to the offended party something he 
 loves as much as he hates the offence, or more. The 
 Passion of Christ is also the most perfect sacrifice, that 
 is, the highest act of homage ever offered to God, of 
 which the Jewish sacrifices were types. Lastly, it 
 ransoms us from the bondage and punishment of sin. 
 Under all these four aspects the Passion of Christ 
 benefits us, and its fruits are applied to us by faith, 
 not a dead faith, but faith working by love (fides for- 
 mataj, and through the sacraments. In baptism we 
 are conformed to the image of His death by dying to 
 original sin ; we must be conformed to Him by acts of 
 penance for sins committed after baptism, but such 
 acts gain all their efficacy from His superabundant 
 satisfaction, for no mere man can satisfy adequately 
 for himself. His Passion, then, has reconciled us to 
 God, both as being the most acceptable sacrifice, and 
 as removing the sin which caused our separation, and 
 thus it has opened to us the gate of heaven. The idea 
 of a vicarious satisfaction seems to be more prominently 
 exhibited here than before, and the means of applying 
 Christ's merits through a living faith, and the sacra- 
 ments of faith, is more explicitly and fully laid down. 
 Before making further comment, it will be well to state 
 briefly the Scotist theory, that we may be in a position 
 to compare the two. 
 
 In his Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lom- 
 bard, Duns Scotus contradicts much of the Thomist, 
 and the whole Anselmic view of satisfaction.* The 
 merit of Christ, as depending on His finite human 
 
 * Joann. Duns Scoti In Sent. Pet. Lomb. iii. 19, 20. 
 H
 
 98 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 nature, is itself finite, and has no inherent claim to be 
 accepted by God, as infinite. But the value of meri- 
 torious acts is measured by God's acceptance, not His 
 acceptance by their value, as the goodness of creatures 
 depends on His love, not His love on their goodness. 
 And there is a certain congrmty) from the dignity of 
 Christ, which there would not else be, in God accepting 
 His merits for any, even infinite, number of persons to 
 whom they may be applied. His Passion, therefore, 
 suffices for so many, and so great sins, as God is pleased 
 to accept it for. But neither is it true, that sin is for- 
 mally in its own nature an infinite evil, though in a 
 certain sense it may be so called fsortitur qiiamdam 
 denominationem extrinsecanij ', as being a departure from 
 the infinite Good, just as the love of a Saint or of the 
 archangel Michael may be called infinite, from its being 
 directed to an infinite object. It follows, that the pun- 
 ishment due to mortal sin is in no other sense infinite, 
 than as being of infinite duration, so long as the will 
 remains fixed in sin; God might, without injustice, 
 punish it for a single day only, and then annihilate 
 the soul. There was no necessity either for the restor- 
 ation of the human race at all, or for the method of 
 restoring it by the satisfaction of Christ, except as 
 consequent on divine predestination, for all God's 
 external operations are free.* Adam might have made 
 satisfaction for his sin by a greater act of love ; nor is 
 it true to say, with Anselm, that the sin was infinite, 
 and the love offered in reparation must be infinite too. 
 
 * See Faber (Precious Blood, p. 225). " It (the Precious Blood) is a magni- 
 ficent price for sin, because it is infinite ; and sin is only infinite by a figure of 
 speech, or an invention of the mind. We did not therefore require an infinite re- 
 demption ; though on the side of God'g sanctity there may have been a propriety, 
 looking to us like a necessity, for an infinite expiation."
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 99 
 
 The act of conversion to God is not in its formal na- 
 ture greater than all creatures, nor was even the love 
 of Christ. A good angel, or a mere man conceived 
 without sin by the power of the Holy Ghost, could 
 have made satisfaction for the whole race, had God 
 chosen to accept it ; nor will Anselm's objection hold 
 good, that we should have been more bound to him 
 than to God, for all his merit would have been derived 
 from God, as is all the merit of the Blessed Virgin 
 and the Saints. Christ suffered for righteousness' sake, 
 seeing the sins of the Jews and their ill regulated and 
 perverted affection for their law, so that they sacrificed 
 its moral to its ceremonial precepts ; " wishing, there- 
 fore, to withdraw them from error by His works and 
 discourses, He preferred dying to keeping silence, for 
 then the Jews had to listen to the truth, and thus He 
 died for righteousness' sake." He offered His Passion 
 to the Father for us, and we are not the less, but the 
 more indebted to Him. for doing so, since He might 
 have redeemed us without it. It is clear how this 
 part of the Scotist system, which was substantially 
 adopted by the Franciscan William Occam and the 
 Nominalist school generally, cuts at the roots of the 
 Thomist, and still more of the Anselmic conception of 
 the question. For an infinite merit it substitutes a 
 voluntary acceptance, while the denial of an infinite 
 debt removes any plea for the necessity of an infinite 
 satisfaction. There are certainly parts of the scheme 
 which are difficult to reconcile with the inherent dis- 
 tinction of good and evil, and look as if morality had 
 no independent existence, but were an arbitrary crea- 
 tion of the Divine will. Nor is it consistent with the 
 reality of the hypostatic union to ascribe an only finite
 
 100 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 character to the human, or, as they are sometimes 
 called, ' theandric' actions of the God-man.* At the 
 same time, the Scotist view, as a whole, is more con- 
 sistent than the Thomist, which rejects the necessity 
 of the sufferings of Christ, while laying so predomi- 
 nant a stress on the idea of satisfaction. 
 
 But there was in fact another, and far more funda- 
 mental, difference between the i subtle ' and ' angelic ' 
 doctors, in their way of regarding the Atonement, 
 which, if it did not at the time exercise so perceptible 
 an influence over their modes of expression, could not 
 but make itself in the long run more deeply felt ; for 
 it materially affected the relative importance and bear- 
 ings of the whole question. I refer to their opposite 
 views of the primary motive of the Incarnation. This, 
 according to Aquinas, was the redemption of fallen 
 man. If there had been no sin, Christ would not have 
 come in the flesh ; in the prevision of His conception 
 was included the prevision of His cross. Against this 
 Duns Scotus urges, that His human nature was pre- 
 destined antecedently to the Fall, and was the model 
 on which ours was formed ; and that Christ would, in 
 any case, have come to be the Second Adam and Head 
 of the mystical body.j* He considers this view most 
 congruous to the honour of God ; most accordant with 
 the testimony of Scripture, especially in such passages 
 as the first chapters of the Epistles to the Ephesians 
 and Colossians, and not inconsistent with the language 
 of the Fathers, who need not mean more, when they 
 
 * The Bull of Clement VI. Unigcn'tus (1343) implicitly condemns this por- 
 tion of Scotus' system. 
 
 t Joann. Duns Scoti Summa, Pars III. Quaest. i. Art. 3. (Opp. torn. iv. Rome, 
 1737.)
 
 ST. ANSEL3I AXD THE SCHOOLMEN. 101 
 
 seem to contradict it, than that Christ would not have 
 come in a passible body, if we had not sinned. 
 
 To enter on a detailed discussion of the scriptural 
 argument would be out of place here. It is sufficient 
 to observe, that the line of interpretation suggested by 
 Scotus certainly opens out to us a deeper meaning in 
 many passages of Holy Writ, both in the Old and New 
 Testament ; while such statements as that of our Lord 
 Himself, that He is come 'to seek and to save that 
 which is lost,' and the noble supplication of the hymn 
 founded upon it,* miss none of their constraining force, 
 even if it be true that He would have come to be our 
 Brother, though we had needed no redemption. As 
 regards the Fathers, an opinion has already been ex- 
 pressed, that the Scotist view of the Incarnation is 
 most consistent with the general spirit of their teach- 
 ing ; but the question never came directly before them 
 for adjudication. The greater number of passages 
 quoted by advocates of the opposite side, such as 
 Thomassin and Petavius, though not all of them, may 
 be understood as stating the purposes for which Christ 
 actually did come, after we had fallen, or as referring 
 to the altered conditions under which He came, in a 
 corruptible body, or as meaning that but for our sins 
 He would not have died on the cross. Neither, in- 
 deed, if it could be shown that some or most of the 
 Fathers express or imply the converse of an opinion, 
 which in their day had never been put forward, would 
 it at all follow that the opinion was not in fact a legiti- 
 mate development of their belief. What is certain is, 
 
 * " Recordare, Jesu pie, " Quaerens me sedisti lassus, 
 
 Quod sum causa Tuae vise, Redemisti crucem passus ; 
 
 Ne me perdas ilia die. Tantus labor non sit cassus."
 
 102 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 that they attach to the * sacrament ' or ' economy ' of 
 the Incarnation, considered in itself and apart from 
 the Passion, a significance quite disproportionate to 
 what it bears in many later schemes of doctrine. And 
 more, "while most of them regard the death of Christ as 
 a ransom paid to Satan, none hold such a payment to 
 have been necessary for our redemption. The An- 
 selmic notion of its exclusive, or almost exclusive 
 object being the discharge of a debt to God, incurred 
 by sin, and still more the Lutheran idea of a literal 
 punishment of our sins inflicted vicariously by the 
 Father on His spotless Son, are foreign to their whole 
 habit of thought. On the contrary, their way of look- 
 ing at the matter seems to imply a belief, that in any 
 case the predestined method for perfecting our nature, 
 and bringing us into full communion with God, was 
 the Incarnation of His Son. We have seen, again, how 
 some of the greatest Fathers, like St. Augustine, are 
 specially careful to point out the priority of the idea 
 of sacrifice to the idea of sin, and in this they are fol- 
 lowed by later Catholic divines. Sacrifice is the spon- 
 taneous expression of the homage due from the creature 
 to his Creator, and the purest Heathen sacrifices were 
 those which simply expressed this idea. Sin impressed 
 on it, as on all human acts of devotion, an additional 
 character of reparation. But from the beginning it 
 was not so. If man had never fallen, the most perfect 
 sacrifice would still have been offered to the Eternal 
 Father in the human life, though not in the death, of 
 Jesus ; for it is the will that consecrates the outward 
 act. Oblatus est quia Ipse voluit. To repeat once 
 more the memorable words of St. Bernard, Non mors 
 sed voluntas sponte morientis placuit. Without the Fall
 
 ST. AXSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 103 
 
 there would have been no Passion ; perhaps, but only 
 perhaps, there would have been no Eucharist. The 
 earliest recorded type of communion is the tree of life 
 in Paradise, the great prefigurement of the Christian 
 sacrifice is the bloodless offering of Melchisedec, and 
 that was not a sacrifice for sin. It is anyhow beyond 
 dispute, that the Incarnation need not presuppose the 
 Fall. 
 
 A few words will suffice to indicate the bearing of 
 the Scotist theory, which, though by no means univer- 
 sally accepted, has obtained the general suffrage of the 
 later Church, on our way of regarding the Atonement. 
 The very title of the Cur Deus Homo loses its meaning 
 in the sense in which the author applied it. Theories 
 about ransom and satisfaction, though not therefore 
 rejected, sink into subordination to a higher truth, 
 when the Incarnation is no longer looked upon as a 
 merciful after-thought, to remedy man's corruption and 
 make reparation to the wounded majesty of God, but 
 as the fulfilment of an eternal purpose, modified in- 
 deed, but only modified, by sin into a deeper act of love. 
 Bethlehem and Calvary are transfigured with a more 
 exceeding brightness, yet the brightness of a sunshine 
 all our own, when they are seen to reveal, under the 
 conditions of time, and the pathetic incidents suited to 
 our fallen state, the unutterable yearning of a Love 
 which knows no change, to win our hearts, and make 
 our natures His. 
 
 The full extent of the difference between these two 
 theories did not, as has already been remarked, make 
 itself felt at once. We sometimes find St. Thomas 
 using language that would seem rather to belong to
 
 104 THE ATOXEMENT. 
 
 the opposite school,* nor is it to be imagined, that so 
 great a mind as his would rest in any exclusive system. 
 In their view of the satisfaction of Christ the Nominal- 
 ists and Franciscans for the most part followed Duns 
 Scotus, while the Dominicans naturally ranged them- 
 selves under the banners of Aquinas, but not without 
 exceptions or modifications on either side. Thus the 
 Dominican Durandus of St. Pacian denies that Christ 
 satisfied in strict rigour of justice, because all He had, 
 as Man, was already owed to God ; Kaymund Lully, 
 the Franciscan, goes beyond, or rather against Scotus, 
 in maintaining the necessity of the Incarnation, assum- 
 ing the creation of man, as the perfection and crown of 
 human nature. But we need not examine in detail 
 the later scholastic writers, who add little new to what 
 the great masters had said before them. It is worth 
 while to observe that Wicliffe, the precursor of the 
 Reformation, recurred to the Anselmic view of an ab- 
 solute necessity for the Incarnation, as the only ade- 
 quate satisfaction for Adam's sin, though his argument 
 differs in some respects from that of the Cur Deus 
 Homo.^ He gives a strange reason why Satan cannot 
 be saved. As it was needful for the Second Person of 
 the Trinity to be incarnated for man's redemption, who 
 had sinned against the Wisdom of God, the Third Per- 
 son must have been incarnated for the redemption of 
 Satan, who had sinned the sin against the Holy Ghost, 
 which is therefore unpardonable, because no such In- 
 carnation can possibly take place ! 
 
 Thus, e. g. he calls our Lord, 'similitude exemplaris totius naturae.' Summa, 
 Pars III. Quaest. i. Art. 8. 
 
 t John Wicliffe Trialog. iii. 24, 25. De Inc. et Morte Christi. He considers 
 all God's external operations, and the Incarnation among them, absolutely ne- 
 cessary.
 
 ST. AXSEL3I AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 105 
 
 To sum up the Scholastic period ; we have found, at 
 its commencement, the idea of an absolute necessity 
 for the Incarnation and death of Christ, as the only 
 possible means of restoring fallen man, put forward for 
 the first time by Anselm, but very generally rejected 
 by subsequent writers of whatever school. On the 
 other hand, the doctrine of satisfaction first distinctly 
 enunciated by him becomes the subject of elaborate 
 discussion, and branches out eventually into the two 
 opposite theories of a superabundant satisfaction which 
 had an inherent claim to be accepted, and a satisfaction, 
 sufficient indeed, but relying for its efficacy on a free 
 acceptance from the mercy (not the justice) of GrodL 
 Meanwhile, underlying these notions, two opposite 
 views of the motive of the Incarnation develope them- 
 selves, destined to exercise an influence on the course 
 of later theology, which only the next great epoch in 
 Church history will adequately reveal. We shall .then 
 find the more rigid and technical notion of satisfaction, 
 already adopted by Wicliffe, assuming a critical im- 
 portance in the Lutheran and Calvinistic systems, 
 where the Scotist view of the Incarnation could have 
 little meaning, while as that view gradually spreads 
 among Catholic theologians, the broader and nobler 
 idea of sacrifice predominates within the Church. 
 
 Two writers of the fifteenth century may be briefly 
 noticed in conclusion, who, though following to a 
 great extent scholastic opinions, can hardly be reckoned 
 among the Schoolmen, because their method is entirely 
 different the Spanish Iteymund of Sabunde, and Car- 
 dinal Nicolas of Cusa. The former has composed a 
 Theologia Naturalis (which I need hardly remind the 
 reader does not mean what we understand by * Natural 
 
 o
 
 106 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 Theology') designed to exhibit in detail the conformity 
 of Christian doctrine with our natural anticipations, and 
 the eternal fitness of things. His results do not greatly 
 differ from those of St. Thomas ; but he follows the 
 reasoning, and not unfrequently uses the language, of 
 the Our Dens Homo, rather than of the Summa. Man 
 owed to God a natural debt of perfect obedience as His 
 creature, and since the Fall he owes a second debt of 
 satisfaction for sin. Merit is measured by the person 
 towards whom an act is done ; and as obedience to God 
 deserved an infinite recompence, the enjoyment of 
 Himself, disobedience incurred an infinite debt. This 
 no man could pay, being himself involved in the guilt, 
 and no angel, who himself is finite; God alone can 
 pay what only man owes, therefore He who pays must 
 be God and man. To restore man, against the resist- 
 ance of his corrupt will, is a greater work than to 
 create him out of nothing. But all the requisite con- 
 ditions meet in Christ. His death is necessary, because 
 that alone He does not owe as man to God ; but He 
 cannot kill Himself, and must therefore endure it at 
 the hands of others, whose sinful life is rebuked by the 
 unfailing holiness of His teaching and example, and 
 whom Satan instigates to slay Him. The merit of His 
 acts is doubly infinite, both from His own nature and 
 from that of God, to whom they are offered, but He 
 needs and can receive no reward for Himself, and 
 therefore accepts as His reward our redemption ; and 
 thus mercy and justice are reconciled. His death was 
 necessary for the satisfaction of sin, and it is against 
 the wisdom of God for all mankind to perish. There 
 is much in this to remind us of St. Anselin, but the 
 .treatment is partly different, and there is no such
 
 ST. ANSELM AND THE SCHOOLMEN. 107 
 
 stringent statement of the absolute necessity of satis- 
 faction.* 
 
 Nicolas of Cusa has not written a system of Theology, 
 but he deals with several detached questions, partly 
 metaphysical, partly theological. In speaking of the 
 'mystery of Christ's death' he dwells chiefly, like the 
 Fathers, on His human nature containing in itself that 
 of all men, and thus atoning for all, as all are baptized 
 into His death, and united with Him in His resurrec- 
 tion. Elsewhere he refers with approval to the Cur 
 Dens Homo, though somewhat modifying its state- 
 ments. But he does not treat the question at length, 
 or in a systematic way.-f 
 
 * Raim. de Sabund. Theol. Nat. Solisb. 1852, Pars vi. pp. 412, sqq. 
 t Nic. de Cus. Opp. Basil. De Doct. Ignor. iii. pp. 50, 51. Exercit. iii. 418, 
 419.
 
 108 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 
 
 WE have now reached the period of the Beformation, 
 and it therefore becomes necessary to exhibit at some 
 length the views of the Atonement put forward by the 
 various Protestant leaders, in so far as they are based 
 on an acceptance of the traditional belief of Christen- 
 dom about the Person of our divine Lord. Where that 
 is rejected, as by the Socinians and later Rationalists, 
 the terms for a comparison are wanting, and we should 
 be led aside from our proper subject into the wide 
 question of the limits and nature of revelation. More- 
 over Socinianism, like its Arian prototype, has never 
 been able to construct a theology for itself, as was sor- 
 rowfully confessed not long since by its greatest repre- 
 sentative in this country, whose own published Ser- 
 mons, I may venture to add, sufficiently attest its 
 failure to satisfy such minds as his.* v On the Socinian 
 
 * " I am constrained to say, that neither my intellectual preference nor my 
 moral admiration goes heartily with the Unitarian heroes, sects, or productions 
 of any age. Ebionites, Arians, Socinians, all seem to me to contrast unfavour- 
 ably with their opponents, and to exhibit a type of thought far less worthy on 
 the whole, of the true genius of Christianity. I am conscious that my deepest 
 obligations are in almost every department to icriters not of my own creed. In 
 philosophy I have had to unlearn most that I had imbibed from my early text 
 books, and the authors most in favour with them. In Biblical interpretation I
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 109 
 
 view, the benefits of Christ's incarnation are necessarily 
 limited to His proclamation of the divine promises, the 
 perfect example of His life, and still more of His death, 
 and His pure utterance of the moral and spiritual law; 
 and they even included in this last His revelation of 
 the Lord's Prayer, forgetting that it was already in use 
 among the Jews. His teaching and example were 
 guaranteed by His death and resurrection, which also 
 gave a pledge of ours, and He is henceforth to be 
 adored as a glorified Man, our King and High Priest in 
 heaven.* But there could be no room for a real me- 
 diation between man and God, where there was no 
 real union of the divine and human natures in the 
 Person of the Incarnate Word. The specific objections 
 of Socinus, however, are mainly directed against the 
 moral and theological aspects of the system originated 
 by the earlier Reformers, as to satisfaction, imputed 
 righteousness, and justification by faith ; and are, many 
 of them, perfectly just. We shall have occasion to 
 refer to them again in this connection by and by.f 
 
 It has been already observed, that there was little 
 of direct controversy raised between Catholic and Pro- 
 testant writers on the doctrine of the Atonement, nor 
 
 derive from Calvin and Whitby the help that fails me in Crell and Belsham. In 
 devotional literature and religious thought I find nothing of ours that does not 
 pale hefore Augustine, Taylor, Pascal. And in the poetry of the Church it is 
 the Latin or German hymns, or the lines of Charles Wesley or of Keble, that 
 
 fasten on my memory and heart, and make all else seem poor and cold I 
 
 cannot help this. I can only say I am sure it is no perversity ; and I helieve 
 tho preference is founded on reason and nature, and is already widely spread 
 among us." Martineau's Letter to Macdonald (London, 1859), quoted in Chris- 
 tian Remembrancer, Jan. 1864, pp. 204, 205. 
 
 * See Mohler's Symbolism, vol. ii. p. 335, sqq. (Robertson's Translation.) 
 t Socinus' system on the Atonement is to be gathered from his Prcelect. 
 Theol., Sreviss. Instit. Christ. Xeliy., Eefut. Sent. Vulg. de Satisf. Christi, and 
 De Jesu Christo Serratore.
 
 110 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 did any fresh definitions on the subject emanate from 
 the Council of Trent. The Tridentine Catechism, though 
 not possessing direct dogmatic authority,* is universally 
 accepted and used in the Church, as containing a clear 
 and luminous exposition of Christian doctrine on the 
 Creed, Sacraments, Decalogue, and Lord's Prayer. In 
 commenting on the fourth article of the Apostles' Creed, 
 it recounts the ' benefits merited for us by the Passion 
 of Christ,' which are summed up under the four heads 
 of a full and entire satisfaction offered ' after a certain 
 admirable manner' to the Father, a most acceptable 
 sacrifice to God, a redemption from our vain conversa- 
 tion, and a bright example of patience, humility, 
 charity, obedience, meekness, and constancy even unto 
 death. f !No explanations are added of questions dis- 
 puted among the Schoolmen, or stirred at the Eeform- 
 ation. The expression on which some of the Eeformcrs 
 so strenuously insisted, that the death of Christ recon- 
 ciled God to us, is not used at all in the Catechism, 
 which confines itself to stating, in the language of 
 Scripture, that He reconciled us to God.J But if no 
 issue was raised on what may be called the objective 
 side of the doctrine of Atonement, its subjective side, 
 or, in other words, the doctrines of original sin and 
 justification, formed, I need hardly say, matter of pro- 
 longed and vigorous controversy, and elicited from the 
 
 * When the controversy on grace and freewill (De Auxiliis] was under dis- 
 cussion before the Roman tribunals, the Jesuits protested against the Catechix- 
 mus ad Parochos being appealed to as having a symbolic character, and their 
 objection was admitted. Cf. Mohler Symb. v. i. pp. 18-20. But it possesses the 
 highest sanction as a Catechetical manual. 
 
 t Cat. ad Par. Paro. i. c. 5. Q. 15. 
 
 J Ib. i. 1. 3. The jlug&burqh Confession (Art. 3) says, ' ut reconciliarct nobis 
 atrem,' language which is of course capable of various interpretations.
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. Ill 
 
 Council of Trent a full and elaborate statement of doc- 
 trine. Part of the fifth, and the whole of the sixth 
 Sessions were occupied with this subject. It is here 
 accordingly that we must look for the specialities of 
 the Reformed systems, and it is in this connection, in 
 accordance with their exclusively subjective spirit, that 
 they treat the Atonement ; but of course differences on 
 the one point imply differences on the other too.* The 
 imputation, for instance, of our sins to Christ, and His 
 righteousness to us, are only opposite sides of the same 
 idea.f 
 
 The two great Confessions inaugurated by Luther 
 and Calvin are agreed in their rejection of the Catholic 
 doctrine on the primitive state of man, the Fall, justi- 
 fication, and the need of personal satisfaction for per- 
 sonal sin, which implies, under whatever name, the 
 notion of a purgatory. But they differ in some respects 
 from each other, and therefore require separate ex- 
 amination. We will afterwards notice the later Pro- 
 testant developments, which had their origin, for the 
 most part, in a recoil from the extreme views of Luther 
 and Calvin, and manifest, amid many grave errors, a 
 decided tendency on these points to recur to a healthier 
 tone, as is shown even in the Socinian protest against 
 Luther's illogical ascription to faith of a merit he 
 denies to obedience.^ 
 
 * Luther accordingly, in the Smalcaldic articles, classes not only justifying 
 faith, hut ' redemption' among the doctrines at issue between Protestantism and 
 ' the Papacy, the Devil, and the world.' 
 
 t Our view of the Atonement is of course necessarily determined by our view 
 of original sin. It is with perfect consistency, therefore, that an able Reviewer 
 of Xewman's Apologia in the Westminster Review for Oct. 1864, after asserting 
 that ' man has undergone no terrible aboriginal calamity,' adds, ' there has been 
 .... no need for a Sacrifice of Blood.' 
 
 J Socin. Dejcsu Chr. Servatore, iv. 11. ' Quasi vero major dignitasin ista fide, 
 quam in hac obedientia reperiatur,' et sgq.
 
 112 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 For understanding rightly the point of departure of 
 the Beformed systems, it is necessary to indicate their 
 relations to the Catholic doctrine on the state of inno- 
 cence and the Fall, for here the root of all further dif- 
 ferences will be found to lie. I must, therefore, before 
 proceeding further, claim my readers' indulgence for 
 what I fear they may consider a somewhat dry and 
 technical exposition of doctrine ; it shall be made as 
 brief as is consistent with clearness of statement. 
 
 That God 'made man upright' was agreed on all 
 hands ; but Catholic theology distinguished between 
 that integrity of nature, in which Adam was created 
 after the image of God, with the body subject to the 
 mind, and all the inferior faculties and instincts under 
 perfect controul of the reason, and that gift of super- 
 natural grace (originalis justitiaj superadded as a croAvn 
 to the endowments of his unfallen nature, which raised 
 him to communion with his Maker, and fitted him to 
 be the heir of a blessed immortality. This gift, called 
 in Scripture 'the likeness of God,' was held to be 
 bestowed on man at his creation, or shortly after- 
 wards a point left open purposely by the Council of 
 Trent but must in either case be carefully distin- 
 guished from the perfection of nature.* By sin man 
 
 * Scholastic theology distinguishes a state of pura natura as possible, though 
 never actual, in which our various natural faculties would exist, hut without 
 being duly harmonized ; the state of Integra natura in which many suppose Adam 
 to have been actually created and to have awhile remained, where all the lower 
 faculties are perfectly under controul of the reason, and the soul is capable of 
 knowing and loving God ; the state of originalis justitia to which man was su- 
 pernaturally raised by grace, either at or after his creation, whereby he became 
 holy and pleasing to God ; the state of lapsa natura, when this gift is lost, and 
 the natural faculties disordered ; and, lastly, the state of redempta natura, where- 
 in grace is restored, but the conflict between the higher and lower faculties 
 (concupiscentia) remains, making us liable to sin. Bp. Bull defends at length
 
 THEORIES OF TIIE REFORMATION PERIOD. 113 
 
 lost this gift of original righteousness, and marred, 
 though, he did not lose, his natural faculties for good. 
 He was deprived of his supernatural and wounded in 
 his natural powers ; or, to adopt the language of Bel- 
 larmine, he lost the similitude, but retained the image 
 of God. Original sin consists, formally in the loss of 
 that supernatural gift, materially in the disorder of his 
 natural faculties which followed on its withdrawal, 
 and, as some maintain, would have occurred sooner or 
 later, had the gift never been bestowed. This disorder, 
 or ' concupiscence,' is not itself sinful, being involun- 
 tary, but is certain, when uncontrouled by grace, to 
 lead men into sin (James i. 15). Freewill was im- 
 paired, but not destroyed, and man was therefore able 
 to cooperate with grace when offered, but unable of 
 himself to do any acts pleasing to God, and deserving 
 eternal beatitude. This deprivation of supernatural 
 grace, with its moral and natural consequences, imply- 
 ing further the loss of his claim to supernatural beati- 
 tude, our first parent transmitted to his posterity; but 
 not, of course, his personal guilt, or, as was strangely 
 imagined by the Eeformers, any positive evil quality 
 and they could only be restored by the merits of Christ 
 to the state of grace which he had forfeited. Man 
 cannot merit or obtain restoration for himself, but he 
 can and must cooperate freely with the grace of God 
 calling him to repentance, and this is sometimes termed 
 in scholastic language l merit of congruity.' On his 
 true repentance he is forgiven, and with remission of 
 sin the love of God is infused into his heart, and he is 
 thus not only accounted but made righteous, and en- 
 
 the Catholic doctrine of the 'Primitive State of Man' with copious extracts from 
 the Fathers.
 
 114 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 abled to do works pleasing to God and deserving eter- 
 nal life. Justification and sanctification are different 
 names for the same thing, accordingly as it is viewed 
 in its origin or its nature, except that, in ordinary lan- 
 guage, justification is used for the initial act on the 
 part of God in a process of which sanctification, in its 
 fullest sense, is the gradually accomplished result ; 
 they stand to each other in the spiritual life, as birth 
 in the natural life to the gradual advance to maturity. 
 The sinner is justified, not by a bare acquittal, or by 
 some juridical fiction of a transfer of Christ's merits, 
 as though they were his own, but by the gift of inhe- 
 rent righteousness, or indwelling of the Holy Ghost, 
 bestowed (primarily in baptism) for the merits of 
 Christ. That gift though not o/him is in him, and he 
 is thereby also sanctified, not in name but in reality. 
 Hence all merit, properly speaking, is ultimately de- 
 rived from that of the Redeemer, and in crowning our 
 merits God crowns His own gifts.* 
 
 And now let us turn to the Lutheran idea of the 
 primitive state of man and of original sin, which shall 
 be described, as concisely as the case admits, before 
 we proceed to notice the views of the Atonement based 
 upon it in the Protestant formularies, f Luther denied 
 
 * The reader may consult for a fuller account Canones Cone. Trid. Sess. vi. ; 
 especially cap. 7. Mobler's Symbolism, vol. i. ch. 1-3 ; and the appendix to Ne-w- 
 man's Lectures on Justification (2nd ed. London, 1840), where the views of several 
 writers, as well Catholic as Protestant, are given and discussed. It is a strange 
 misapprehension when a modern German writer (Baur von Der Versohnung, 
 pp. 350, 35 1 ) insists that the Catholic Church hefore the Reformation always taught 
 an independent and coordinate merit of man in the work of justification. The 
 Church, then as now, taught the cooperation of the human will in the process, 
 and the reality of human merit in the works of those already justified, which 
 are wrought by grace, and therefore are acceptable to God. 
 
 t The main authorities for the Lutheran doctrine, besides of course the writ- 
 ings of the chief Lutheran divines, are the Augsburg Confession (1530) with
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 115 
 
 the supernatural character of man's original sanctity, 
 and considered it part of the essence of human nature, 
 wherein both the capabilities and the acts of virtue are 
 implanted by God. It followed, of course, that there 
 could be no real freedom of will, since our acts are 
 simply God's, and Luther accordingly asserts this in 
 the strongest terms in his work, De Servo Arbitrio, 
 expressly sanctioned by the Formulary of Concord ; so 
 also did Melancthon at first, though on this, as on other 
 points, he afterwards recoiled from his master's teach- 
 ing. As original righteousness was part of man's 
 nature, he lost an integral part of his nature at the 
 Fall. In the strange language of the Augsburg Con- 
 fession, he is ' born with sin, without fear of God or 
 confidence in Him ;' in the language of the Formulary 
 of Concord, he had lost all, even the slightest, capacity 
 and aptitude, and power in spiritual things ; he had 
 lost the natural faculty of knowing God, and the will 
 of doing anything whatever good; he could neither 
 begin, nor operate, nor cooperate, more than a stock or 
 a stone; he had not the smallest spark of spiritual 
 powers, and the image of God, or the whole spiritual 
 part of his nature, was utterly obliterated. These 
 statements, and they might be multiplied indefinitely, 
 seem strong enough, but this is not all. For that 
 
 llelancthon's Apology, Luther's Smalcaldle Articles (1537), the Formulary of 
 Concord (1577) including the Epitome and Solid Declaration, and Luther's two 
 Catechisms, called the ' Bible of the Laity,' to -which may perhaps be added Me- 
 lancthon's Loci Thcologici, as containing a clearer and more consistent exposition 
 of Lutheran tenets than is always to be found in the works of the Reformer him- 
 self. Where no reference is given, my statements of Lutheran doctrine are de- 
 rived from these sources. It need hardly be observed, that many of the more 
 repulsive features of the Lutheran system have practically dropped out of the 
 religious belief of those who still accept its formularies. Some evidence of thit 
 will be given further on in the volume.
 
 116 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 positive part of his nature which man had lost there 
 was substituted a positive quality of sin, whatever that 
 may mean. Sin, according to Luther, is of the essence 
 of man. Original sin, transmitted from father to son, 
 is not, as the Church taught, the loss of supernatural 
 grace with the consequent disorder of natural faculties ; 
 it is not even simply the loss of an integral portion of 
 human nature; it is something bom of father and 
 mother the clay of which we were formed is damna- 
 ble, the fcetus in the womb is sin, man with his whole 
 nature and essence is not only a sinner but sin. Such 
 are the expressions of Luther, endorsed by Quenstedt. 
 Melancthon and the Formulary are equally explicit. 
 Man receives from his parents a congenital evil force, 
 a native impulse to sin; there is substituted in the 
 place of the image of God an ' intimate, most evil, 
 most profound, inscrutable, ineffable corruption of our 
 whole nature, and all its powers,' which is implanted 
 in the intellect, heart, and will ; man is wholly evil. 
 Actual sin is not distinct from original, but is one 
 phase of it, for original sin is an ' actual corrupt cu- 
 pidity.' Concupiscence is not simply the result of dis- 
 ordered faculties, but a positive evil quality, and is 
 itself sin. The results of this view, as regards the 
 whole condition of the Heathen world, and the gradual 
 preparation of mankind for the Incarnation, on which 
 both Scripture and Fathers so strongly insist, contra- 
 dict of course alike the witness of history and the 
 instincts of our moral nature. And these consequences 
 are openly proclaimed. The kingdoms of this world 
 have become the kingdom of the Devil, and of his 
 angels. Heathen virtues are scarcely even l splendid 
 vices.' Melancthon calls them ' shadows of virtues ;'
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 117 
 
 he says, that all men's works and all their endeavours 
 are sins; the constancy of Socrates, the chastity of 
 Xenocrates, the temperance of Zeno, l are vices ' ; and 
 with perfect consistency he denounces the study of 
 Aristotle and Plato. Calvin clenches the matter by 
 observing, that from man's corrupted nature comes 
 only what is damnable.* 
 
 That Luther and his associates were laudably de- 
 sirous to exhibit the depths of human sin and di- 
 vine compassion, and that they failed to appreciate 
 the real drift of their teaching, I am quite ready 
 to believe. But we cannot wonder if the intellect 
 and conscience of mankind, in its recoil from so hor- 
 rible and repulsive a system, was tempted into the 
 opposite extreme of denying the very existence of 
 original sin. It is obvious what bearing this doctrine 
 must have on that of justification. Man cannot coope- 
 rate, for he has no freewill, and no natural faculties 
 for good ; the whole work must be something external 
 to himself. And so it is. Terrified by the preaching 
 of a law he is powerless to obey, he listens to and 
 grasps at the merits of Christ, whom he apprehends 
 by faith (that is by a ' fiduciary apprehension,' accord- 
 ing to Gerhard), and thus he is justified. His repent- 
 ance, such as it is, is founded on fear, not on love. 
 Obedience, indeed, and sanctification ought to follow, 
 but justification is distinct from these results, and in- 
 dependent of them. Justification, according to the 
 Formulary r , is simply acquittal from sin and its eternal 
 penalties ' on account of the righteousness of Christ, 
 which is [not imparted but] imputed to faith,' and that, 
 while by reason of their corrupt nature men still remain 
 
 * Calvin. Inst. ii. S.
 
 118 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 sinners ; for original sin is not extirpated, but only 
 weakened in the regenerate, being part of their nature, 
 and concupiscence, even when resisted, is itself sin. 
 The justified do so much good and for so long only as 
 the Spirit of God impels them. It is admitted in words, 
 that men may resist the Spirit, though they cannot co- 
 operate; but the distinction is unmeaning, for God 
 draws all and only those whom He intends to convert. 
 From this view of original sin and justification the 
 Lutheran view of the Atonement is a logical sequence, 
 and it has been already in part anticipated. That 
 righteousness of Christ, which of mere grace is im- 
 puted to the believer, is described in the Formulary, as 
 'the obedience, Passion, and resurrection of Christ, 
 whereby He satisfied the law for us, and expiated our 
 sins.' On account of this whole obedience in act and 
 suffering, and through faith (fiduciaj, God remits our 
 sins, accounts us (reputatj just, and rewards us with 
 eternal life. For this the Incarnation of Christ was 
 required, because His divinity alone could not dis- 
 charge the office of Mediator, nor could humanity 
 alone satisfy the eternal and immutable justice of God. 
 The absolute necessity of an infinite satisfaction for an 
 infinite debt .was borrowed from St. Anselm's system, 
 but in many points the Lutherans both exceeded and 
 changed it. They derived from Catholic tradition the 
 infinite value of the Redeemer's acts through the com- 
 municatio idiomatum* and the value of His obedience 
 
 * There was, however, a certain difference here. Catholic theology teaches 
 that our Lord is Mediator, as the God-man, but by virtue of acts done in His 
 human nature only ; the Lutherans made Him Mediator by virtue of both natures ; 
 while Stancarus said He was Mediator only as Man, a view which Bellarmine 
 justly censured as Nestorian. Cf. Pet. De Incarn, xii. 3, 4. See Bellarm. Disp. 
 torn. i. Dt Christo, v. 1.
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 119 
 
 as well as His death ; but this last idea received in their 
 hands, as we have seen, a startling but very character- 
 istic development. The obedience of Christ was the 
 substitute for ours. According to Chemnitz (one of the 
 compilers of the Formulary so often quoted), God could 
 not and would not pardon us without the intervention 
 of some real righteousness ; but this it is impossible, on 
 Lutheran principles, for man himself to offer, and 
 therefore ' the law is transferred to the Mediator.'* 
 Quenstedt is even more explicit, when he says, that 
 Christ made satisfaction for sinners in two ways, by 
 fulfilling the law in their place, and by enduring the 
 curse and penalty of the law. It was not, as had often 
 been taught before, that His obedience was an accept- 
 able sacrifice to God, and gave its meaning and efficacy 
 to His death, but that it was accepted by Him instead 
 of ours , which, with a nature so hopelessly corrupted, 
 we could never pay ourselves. His death was now, 
 moreover, for the first time viewed as a vicarious 
 punishment, inflicted by God on Him instead of on us. 
 He was punished and accursed of God, in our place. 
 Quenstedt maintains against the Schoolmen, that for 
 God to pardon us without satisfaction is against His 
 nature, His veracity, His sanctity, and His justice; 
 yet He explains, that ' by a certain kind of relaxation 
 of the law,' anotherj?<?rs0ra is substituted for the debtor; 
 or, in other words,ohough it is matter of indispensable 
 justice to punish the sin, it is immaterial whether or 
 not the punishment be endured by the sinner, fj It 
 was but the natural and logical inference from this 
 
 * Facta igitur est translatio legis in Mediatorem. Clem.'Jocf Tt^olog,\\. 313. 
 Cf. Thomasius Dogmat. de Obed. Christi Acliva Hist., Erlang. 1846. 
 
 t Quenstedt Theol. Didact. Polem, (Wittemberg, 1669), pp. 327, 351, 354.
 
 120 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 strange notion of vicarious substituted punishment, 
 that Christ endured in His Passion the pains of Hell ; 
 and this blasphemous corollary is distinctly put for- 
 ward by Quenstedt, Gerhard, and Calvin, as a neces- 
 sary part of the idea of satisfaction. AVell might Bel- 
 larmine call it a new and unheard-of heresy !* It is 
 not too much to say, that the Lutheran view of the 
 Atonement, with whatever occasional similarities of 
 language, is a complete innovation on that previously 
 held in all its essential points, and that in a sense 
 directly calculated to discredit the whole doctrine in 
 the eye both of reason and religion, t . 
 
 Calvin, who in some points was/ greatly Luther's 
 inferior, was his superior in learning and in clearness 
 of mind ; and, accordingly, the system he founded has 
 for the most part a rigid logical coherence in which 
 the Lutheran is strikingly deficient. We have seen 
 that absolute predestination was really involved in 
 Luther's denial of freewill, but he shrunk from press- 
 ing this inference, and his followers expressly repudi- 
 ated it ; nor is it ever fair to make a writer responsible 
 even for a logical inference from his principles, which 
 he disclaims. Calvin, however, with more consistency 
 
 * Frank, a modern Lutheran divine, in a tract, De Satisfact. Christi (Erlan- 
 gen, 1859), argues against this inference. But cf. Quens*. ut supr. p. 354, Ger- 
 hard Loci Theol. xvii. 2, 64. Calvin. Inst. Eel. Chr. ii. 16, 10. Bellarm. De 
 Christo, iv. 8. 
 
 t It does not fall within the province of this Inquiry to compare Luther's doc- 
 trine with St. Paul's, on which it was professedly founded. Some striking points 
 of contrast between the Apostle's and the Reformer's way of looking at the mat- 
 ter will he found in the Dissertation ' On Righteousness hy Faith,' in Jowett's 
 Epistles of St. Paul (London, Murray, 1855), vol. ii. pp. 446, 447. I may he par- 
 doned for adding, that the author seems to me to have somewhat misconceived 
 the Catholic doctrine of justification, which he, rather oddly, ' sums up in the 
 formula of justification hy works.' See also Newman's Lectures on Justification, 
 pp. 386, 387.
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 121 
 
 asserted the irresistible efficacy of grace, and the abso- 
 lute predestination of the elect, with its inevitable 
 correlative, the absolute reprobation of all who are not 
 elect. From this it follows, even if denied in words, 
 that God is the Author of sin. Calvin expressly 
 maintains, that man commits sin ' by the just impulse 
 of God,' and that the Fall was not simply foreseen, 
 but predestined by Him. Beza adds, that He creates 
 certain men in order that they may be the instruments 
 of sin, and Zwingle defends this doctrine on the ground 
 that, as the law is not made for the just, God is above 
 law, and therefore breaks none in causing men or 
 angels to transgress, *as when He was the Author of 
 David's adultery.* The object and justification of 
 this predestining of evil is, that He may manifest 
 His mercy in the gratuitous salvation of the elect, His 
 justice in the damnation of the reprobate. But the 
 wilfulness of Adam's sin is maintained, as in the 
 Lutheran system, by the distinction (which in this 
 case is certainly without a difference), between neces- 
 sity and coaction. Calvin, however, approaches more 
 nearly than Luther to Catholic language, if not to 
 Catholic belief, about original sin. The Divine image 
 in man, though grievously deformed, was not utterly 
 destroyed by sin; some sparks of religious knowledge 
 survived among the Heathen, but then this is per- 
 versely said to be allowed, in order that they might 
 not have the excuse of ignorance, and might be con- 
 demned out of their own mouth ! The will had a cer- 
 tain, though very subordinate, part in the work of 
 regeneration, and the beginnings of repentance were 
 
 * Calvin Inst. iv. 18, 2, iii. 24, 3. Beza Aphor. 22. Abaters. Column. Hesh, 
 eontr. Calvin. Zwingl, de Prov. 5. 
 
 Q
 
 122 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 due rather to the preaching of the Gospel than the 
 terrors of the law. In this point, again, Calvin's 
 teaching is an improvement on- that of the earlier Re- 
 former. Both Id rula of conversion find their proto- 
 type in Scripture, but the comparison is not in favour 
 of the Lutheran view. There are two forms that hover 
 in an agony of repentance round the closing scenes of 
 the Redeemer's earthly ministry ; one represents the 
 remorse of terror, the other the contrition of love. 
 Both repented, but both were not forgiven. Ere the 
 blood of Judas was dry on the field of Aceldama, the 
 soul of the pardoned robber was sunflushed with the 
 brightness of the uncreated Vision, and sphered within 
 the emerald of the rainbow that circles the everlasting 
 throne. 
 
 If we except his predestinarian doctrine, that Christ 
 died only for the elect, and the subjective assurance of 
 salvation on which He insists more consistently than 
 Luther, Calvin's language on the Atonement comes 
 much nearer on the whole than Luther's to that of 
 Catholic theology. The value of Christ's death is de- 
 rived, with St. Bernard, from its voluntary character. 
 The new ideas of a substituted obedience and punish- 
 ment are, however, retained in their fulness, and Cal- 
 vin seems to regard the condemnation and execution 
 of Christ by a regular legal tribunal essential for this 
 end. He expressly asserts, that our obligation of pun- 
 ishment and the curse of sin was transferred to the Son 
 of God, and does not, as we have already seen, shrink 
 from the terrible consequence of this view, that He 
 suffered in His descent into Hell the actual torments 
 of the damned.* On the other hand, Calvin denies 
 
 Calvin Inst. i. 15, 4; 12, 18 j ii. 3, 6; 16, 5. Hsec nostra absolutio est
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 123 
 
 the absolute necessity of the Incarnation, but regards 
 it as the best method for restoring fallen man, and 
 even maintains, that if we had never fallen, the media- 
 tion of the God-man would have been needed to bring 
 us into intimate communion with God, and make us 
 His children. He, moreover, in his treatise on the 
 Sacraments, ascribes a life-giving power to the flesh 
 of Christ, not only as having suffered for us once, but 
 as still infusing life, derived from the fountain of God- 
 head, into those who are engrafted in His mystical 
 body. This is said partly in connection with the Eu- 
 charist,, on which Calvin held a much higher belief 
 than Zwingle's. And he even admits, in one passage, 
 in replying to Osiander, who taught a higher doctrine 
 than his own, that l we participate in the righteous- 
 ness of Christ, not by an external imputation, but 
 because we put on Christ, and are inserted into His 
 body, and He has vouchsafed to make us one with 
 Himself.'* So far, then, Calvin's system is a reaction 
 in the Catholic direction. With his distinctive theory 
 of absolute predestination we are not further concerned 
 here. It may suffice to observe, that in not shrinking 
 from the full statement of what it implies, he shows 
 more consistency, let me add more reverence also, than 
 do those who put forward one side of the doctrine, 
 while seeking through some paltry trick of language 
 to veil its naked deformity by concealing the other. 
 But this is all that can be said for him. The more 
 thoroughly the dogma itself is realized, the more 
 
 quod in caput Filii Dei translatus est reatus qui nos tenebat pcenae obnoxios .... 
 Peccati vim abolebat Pater, cum in Christi carnem iranslata est efus tnaledictio. 
 Ib. ii. 16, 6, 7. Cf. ii. 16, 10. 
 
 * Ib. ii. 12, 1 ; iii. 11, 10. Defens. Orth. Doct. de Sacram. Opp. t. riii. p. 658.
 
 124 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 clearly will it be seen to be subversive of the first 
 
 principles of morality, and therefore of theism. 
 ^ ^ << "* 
 
 A writer, whose name has just been mentioned, 
 Osiander, deserves a passing notice here. Though 
 himself a professed Lutheran, and not the founder of 
 any new system or sect, he was one of the first to pro- 
 test against Luther's characteristic tenet, that justifica- 
 tion means, not ' really and truly to make just, but only 
 to account and pronounce a man just,' which he calls 
 a forensic and sophistical theory, contrary to Scripture 
 and verging on blasphemy. :For this the strict Luthe- 
 rans accused him of trampling under foot the Passion 
 ^nd death and precious blood of Christ. He says ex- 
 pressly, that God justifies by imparting to us His 
 righteousness.* After making due allowance for some 
 confusion, both of language and thought, it seems most 
 probable that he meant by the substantial indwelling 
 of Christ's divine nature something different from the 
 Catholic y doctrine, as being a righteousness imputed 
 and external to us (though in a different sense to Lu- 
 ther's) not an actual renewal of our nature, making us 
 righteous. Still his protest against the Lutheran error 
 of confounding justification with redemption, and its 
 antinomian results, is important. In a separate trea- 
 tise, specially devoted to the inquiry, whether the Son 
 of God would have been incarnated, if there had been 
 no sin, he adopts and defends at length, on Scriptural 
 grounds, the Scotist opinion, and insists that the pre- 
 destined Humanity of Christ was the image on which 
 
 * Conf. Andr. Osiandri. Regiomonte, Prussiae, 15-51, pp. 42, 189. TJieses de 
 Justif. 120. There is some difference between Dollinger (Reformation) and 
 Mohler in their way of understanding him.
 
 THEOEIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 125 
 
 oui's was formed.* Another Lutheran divine, Karg of 
 Aiisbach, about ten years later, protested against the 
 doctrine of vicarious obedience to the law, but after- 
 wards retracted. At the close of the century, John 
 Piscator elaborately discussed and condemned the no- 
 tion, making justification consist simply in the remis- 
 sion of sin for the sake of Christ's sufferings, after 
 which the imperfect obedience of the regenerate is 
 accepted, and its imperfections condoned through the 
 blood of Christ, as long as it is sincere. His views, 
 however, were vehemently opposed among the Re- 
 formed, and the tenet he rejected found a place in the 
 Formula Consensus Helvetica of 167o.f 
 
 The treatise of Grotius on the Satisfaction of Christ, 
 written early in- the seventeenth century against Soci- 
 nus, deserves a more extended notice, both from the 
 author's high reputation, and from his having struck 
 out a theory of his own on the subject. It will be 
 convenient, therefore, to reserve it for separate exami- 
 nation at the end of the chapter. Meanwhile we may 
 glance at the teaching of the principal sects which 
 branched off from the original Lutheran or Calvinistic 
 stock, so far as it bears on the Atonement; and as 
 their systems were partly shaped by historical circum- 
 stances, it will be best to take them in chronological 
 order. 
 
 The earliest protest against the new doctrine of jus- 
 tification came from the Anabaptists, who insisted on 
 the necessity of good works ; and this, as Justus Me- 
 nius truly enough observed, in a Refutation published 
 
 * An Filius Deifuerit incarncmdux si peccatum non introimsset in mundum ? 
 Monteregio, Prussiae, 1550. 
 
 t John Piscat. Thes. TheoL Herborn. 1618.
 
 126 THE ATOXEMENT. 
 
 with a preface by Luther, is inconsistent with the 
 doctrine that faith alone saves. It was only, however, 
 in their second stage, as ' Mennonites,' that the com- 
 munity can be said to have had any definite creed.* 
 In a Confession, drawn up in 1580, original sin and 
 justification are described in language substantially 
 accordant with that of the Council of Trent ; free-will 
 is expressly affirmed to have survived the Fall, and 
 justification is ascribed to the ' eifusion or infusion' of 
 real righteousness through Christ by the cooperation 
 of the Holy Ghost, while justifying faith is said to be 
 that which works by charity, the fides formata of 
 Catholic, as opposed to the fides informis of Lutheran 
 theology. 
 
 The next great movement among the Reformed was 
 a still more direct and vehement recoil from received 
 opinions, confounding in an indiscriminate hatred the 
 original Christian dogma with the newer glosses which 
 had been put upon it. If Luther maintained, in his 
 Commentary on the Galatiam, that Christ only acci- 
 dentally discharged the office of a Teacher and Law- 
 giver, that the blindness of Papists alone had fashioned 
 out of the Gospel ' a law of love,' and that so far from 
 coming to authenticate the moral law the Saviour came 
 to abolish it, Socinus would hardly admit any object 
 of the Incarnation but that of instruction and example ; 
 if Luther's ubiquitarian theory absorbed the Humanity 
 in the Divinity of Christ, Socinus rejected His Divinity 
 altogether ; if original sin was interpreted by the Ee- 
 
 * So called from Menno Simonis, a Catholic Priest of Friesland, who joined 
 the sect in 1536. I need scarcely say, that they must not be confounded with 
 the English ' Baptists,' who came into existence as a distinct community in 
 1633.
 
 THEOEIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 127 
 
 formed in a sense which outraged alike the verdict of 
 history and of common sense, its very existence was 
 with equal disregard to facts, denied by their new 
 opponents. Xo place was allowed to the human will 
 in the Lutheran scheme of justification, therefore no 
 room is left for Divine grace in the Socinian; the Wit- 
 temberg theologians could scarcely endure the very 
 name of reason, and their Italian assailants were almost 
 as intolerant of faith. It has already been remarked, 
 that their conception of Christ's Mediatorial office was 
 necessarily moulded on their humanitarian conception 
 of His Person, and falls therefore beyond the scope of 
 this treatise. That they approximated more closely 
 than their predecessors among the Eeformed to some 
 details of Catholic belief is true, but their denial of a 
 false supernaturalism was, in fact, ultimately based on 
 a negation of the whole principle, though it of course 
 took time for the seminal ideas of the system to attain 
 full development. 
 
 Very different in character was the almost simulta- 
 neous revolt against Calvinistic orthodoxy, named from 
 Arminius, a theological Professor at Leyden, who died 
 in 1609. On the whole question of justification, Ar- 
 minianism was really though not professedly little else 
 than a simple recurrence to Catholic doctrine. Effica- 
 cious grace was said to be determined by its voluntary 
 acceptance, not by its intrinsic nature, and the notion 
 of irresistible grace, however explained, was absolutely 
 rejected. But the Arminians taught, almost in the 
 very language of the Council of Trent, that Divine 
 grace must prevent, accompany, and complete every 
 good work.* The views of Grotius, the chief orna- 
 
 * See the Confessio sive Declaratio Pastorum. Herdervici, 1622-4. It is an
 
 128 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 ment of their body, will be examined presently. Two 
 other writers may be noticed here, Curcellreus, and 
 Limborch.* Both agree in insisting chiefly on the 
 death of Christ as a sacrifice, which is a different idea 
 from the payment of a debt ; they deny, that Christ 
 in any sense endured, as the Lutherans taught, eternal 
 death and the wrath of God. If He had strictly and 
 fully suffered the punishment of our sins, our pardon 
 would be matter not of mercy but of justice ; Curcel- 
 leeus adds, that, if His satisfaction, righteousness, and 
 sanctity are imputed to us, there is no further ground 
 for our observing the moral law, nor can God justly 
 demand either faith or obedience from us. The effi- 
 cacy of the sacrifice offered for the sins of all mankind 
 is ascribed by Limborch to the will of God in freely 
 accepting it for that end, and to the dignity of the 
 Person who offered it. The imputation of His righte- 
 ousness can in no other sense be true than that God, 
 for His sake, is pleased to accept our imperfect obedi- 
 ence as though it were perfect, for He cannot see us 
 other than we really are. The Lutheran antithesis of 
 faith and works is unmeaning ; both alike are in one 
 sense our own ; both, in another, are the gift of God. 
 The object of faith is not simply the Atonement, but 
 the whole Person and office of Christ, Prophet, Priest, 
 and King. There is a double protest in these writers 
 against the extravagances of Reformed doctrine, and 
 the Socinian negations to which they had given birth. 
 The next system calling for notice here is that of 
 
 indication of their theological tendencies, that Grotiua at the time of his death 
 had it in contemplation to become a Catholic. 
 
 * Curcell. Inst. Eel. Christ, Amsterdam, 1675. Limborch Theol. Christ. 
 Amsterdam, 1730.
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 129 
 
 the Quakers, founded in this country about the middle 
 of the seventeenth century, by George Fox. Robert 
 Barclay is their great theologian.* This scheme of doc- 
 trine is directly opposed to, historical Christianity, but 
 unlike most of the Protestant Confessions, is remark- 
 able for its internal coherence. We may regard it as 
 the natural term in a series of mystical developments, 
 provoked by the exoteric and unspiritual nature of the 
 Lutheran scheme of justification, which began with 
 Sckwenkfeld and Wiegel, and found a more distinct 
 utterance in the writings of Jacob Bohme. While 
 discarding all technical terminology not sanctioned by 
 the language of Scripture, the Quakers taught, that 
 a ( seed of sin' was transmitted from Adam to all his 
 posterity, though only imputed to those who have 
 actually sinned. The remedy is to be sought in the 
 f inward light' or grace emanating from. Christ, the 
 Light that lightens every man, and this is offered to 
 all but forced on none ; for Calvin's doctrine of pre- 
 destination is declared to be most injurious to God, 
 and to make Him the Author of sin. This l objective 
 revelation,' whereby God speaks to every man, does 
 not supersede Scripture, but is superior to it, and con- 
 stitutes the primary source of knowledge and rule of 
 faith. The ' inward light' is also the source of regen- 
 eration; and here the Quakers, in fact, touch on the 
 confines of Catholic doctrine. The Lutheran denial of 
 the necessity of good works is explicitly condemned, 
 justification is described as the formation of Christ in 
 us, producing righteousness and holiness, and this is 
 its formal cause. The ' merit ' of good works is vindi- 
 
 * Rob. Barclay Theologies vere Christiana .Apologia. Lend. 1729. 
 
 R
 
 130 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 cated, and the fulfilment of the moral law insisted 
 upon. Justification and sanctification are practically 
 identified, as in the Catholic system. And, although, 
 as time went on, a Docetic tendency to ignore or de- 
 preciate the historical manifestation of Christ not un- 
 naturally developed itself in their teaching, Barclay 
 distinctly ascribes justification to i the sacrifice and 
 propitiation of Jesus Christ.' But their extreme dis- 
 like of all theological dogma and repudiation of sacra- 
 ments combined with other elements of the system to 
 induce a disparagement, leading ultimately into a de- 
 nial, of objective Christianity altogether. 
 
 The last, and in some respects most remarkable, of 
 these organized protests against the principles of the 
 original Eeformers was inaugurated in the eighteenth 
 century, by Emanuel Swedenborg, the son of a Swedish 
 bishop, whose profound hostility to the Protestant 
 notion of justification, as subversive of morality and 
 most pernicious to all Christian life, may be said to 
 have given its distinctive character and aim to the 
 peculiar system of belief he founded, which is still 
 professed by some few of our own countrymen.* This 
 is not the place to enter on a general examination of 
 his theology, but I may observe that in its ulterior 
 developments it has exploded almost every distinctive 
 tenet of the Christian faith, f A prophet who claimed 
 to derive his message by direct revelation and visions 
 from on high and of Swedenborg's sincerity there 
 
 * True Christian Religion, containing the Universal Theology of the Xew 
 Church. By E. Swedenborg. London, 1819. 
 
 f An Expository work by a Mr. Noble was lent me some years ago by a member 
 of the sect, in which I found every article of the Apostles' Creed, except the first, 
 directly or indirectly denied. My informant told me there were three Sweden- 
 borgian congregations in London.
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 131 
 
 cannot be a shadow of reasonable doubt was not 
 likely to be careful about conforming its contents to 
 the traditional beliefs of Christendom, least of all when 
 the first impetus to his supposed inspirations arose 
 from internal revulsion against the Creed in which he 
 had been brought up. His vision of the various states 
 of Purgatorial or more hopeless suffering, in which the 
 principal Reformers were expiating their erroneous 
 teaching on predestination or justification by faith 
 alone, indicates the ruling idea which shaped his whole 
 theology.* Like Socinus, he had a laudable desire to 
 pull up the tares, and even more completely than 
 Socinus he succeeded in rooting up wheat and tares 
 together. Thinking, oddly enough, that the Lutheran 
 notion of faith apart from morality was grounded upon 
 the doctrine of the Trinity, he replaced it by one not 
 materially differing from Sabellianism. Perceiving 
 again, and rightly, that the new theory of justification 
 introduced by the Reformers was based on their pecu- 
 liar estimate of original sin, he denied the Fall of man 
 altogether. A new motive was found for the Incarna- 
 tion in the rebellion of the apostate Angels, and re- 
 demption consisted in 'reducing the Hells into sub- 
 jection,' and thus bestowing renewal on the earthly 
 Church. While, however, Swedenborg attributes no 
 special efficacy to the death of Christ, he insists on the 
 Incarnation as the proper and only means of bringing 
 
 * Luther "was in a more hopeful state than others, as having originally be- 
 longed to a Church which exalts charity ahove faith, and never having heen able 
 altogether to divest himself of his early creed. Recollections of classical my- 
 thology seem to have exercised some influence over Swedenborg, who was a man 
 of wide and varied information. Thus e. g. Melancthon was constantly employed 
 in writing the words, ' Faith alone saves,' which were as constantly erased by 
 an unseen hand.
 
 132 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 men into conimnnion with the Deity, nsing on this 
 point language very like that of Cardinal Cusa and 
 other Catholic divines. Hence his view of justification 
 is also very like the Catholic. It is represented as 
 identical with sanctification, and as a renewal of the 
 whole inner man. But he confounds the belief in the 
 meritorious sacrifice of Christ with the Lutheran doc- 
 trine of imputation, which was fastened on it, and 
 maintains, that both alike came in with the Kicene 
 definition of the Trinity, whereas the former, as we 
 have seen, existed from the first, and the latter was 
 scarcely heard of before the sixteenth century. In 
 Swedenborg the recoil from a dry and technical theory 
 of satisfaction reaches its culminating point ; and the 
 wide acceptance, for a time, of his fanatical claim to 
 be the inspired restorer of primitive Christianity proves 
 how deep a wound had been inflicted by some of its 
 modem exponents on the reason and conscience of 
 mankind. 
 
 I reserved for separate notice the treatise of Grotkis 
 on Satisfaction,* and proceed now to redeem my pledge. 
 He was, as we have seen, an Arminian, and with strong 
 Catholic leanings, but he must not of course be taken 
 as a safe interpreter of Catholic belief, nor must we 
 be blinded by his zeal for Trinitarian orthodoxy to the 
 very questionable nature of his theory of the Atone- 
 ment, and of the arguments by which he supports it. 
 His book was answered by the Socinian Crellius (the 
 writer against whom Petavius' third 'book on the 
 Trinity is directed), and defended at length in a work 
 
 * Defensio Fid. Catjiol. de Satisfactione C/tristi, 1617 (Hug- Grot. Opp. Theol. 
 iv. Basileoo, 1732).
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 133 
 
 called the Triumph of the Cross by Essenius, who re- 
 produces his conclusions, and expands with perverse 
 ingenuity the most objectionable parts of his reason- 
 ing.* Before making any comments, it will be con- 
 venient to give a brief analysis of Grotius' treatise, 
 which is written with all the perspicuity and subtilty 
 of a legal mind, and displays, as might be expected 
 from its authorship, extensive research, both in sacred 
 and secular literature. 
 
 Grotius begins by laying down as the l Catholic 
 opinion,' that God wishing to benefit mankind, but 
 being hindered by their sins, which deserved punish- 
 ment, determined that Christ, by willingly enduring 
 the bitterest torments and a bloody death, should pay 
 the penalty for our sins, in order that without prejudice 
 to the exhibition of divine justice fsalvd divince justitice 
 demonstrationej , we might through faith be delivered 
 from the penalty of eternal death. The reader will 
 take note, that the words I have italicized contain the 
 gist of the whole theory. In the first chapter, adopt- 
 ing the Aristotelian division of causes, the author lays 
 down as the efficient cause of satisfaction, first God the 
 Father who gave His Son, and secondly Christ who 
 gave Himself for us. The material cause is Christ's 
 sufferings, both of soul and body, especially of soul, 
 preceding death, and still more His death itself. The 
 format cause is the payment of the penalty for our sins, 
 which are expressly said to be 'imputed' to Christ; 
 the prophecy of Isaiah is translated and explained, in 
 accordance with the Hebrew text, the < chastisement" 1 of 
 our peace is upon Him, not the l discipline,' as the 
 
 * Triumphus Crucis, sive Fides Cathol. de Satisfact. Christi. Amstelod. 1749.
 
 134 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 Fathers had taken it;* and it is insisted, also against 
 patristic tradition, that St. Paul's words (Gal. iii. 13) 
 mean that He was accursed of God. God punished, 
 and Christ endured the punishment. The final causa 
 is, on God's side, the exhibition of divine justice ; on 
 ours, the remission of sin, that is of punishment ; and 
 by justice is not to be understood the righteousness or 
 holiness of God, which is imputed to us, but His retri- 
 butive justice, which is displayed in the punishment 
 of sins. To these four causes Grotius adds as the 
 motive cause, on the one hand the love of God and 
 Christ for man, on the other our sins which deserved 
 punishment. The four grounds (or final causes) alleged 
 by Socinus for the death of Christ, to bear witness to 
 His teaching, to win the right of pardoning us, to show 
 an example of patience and obedience, and to elicit 
 our faith are not only rejected as inadequate (as they 
 are), but almost, as in the Lutheran theology, excluded 
 altogether. The second chapter is devoted to prov- 
 ing, that God punishes or releases from punishment 
 (which last Scripture calls to justifyj"), not as the 
 Creditor or the Person offended, but as the Euler of 
 the world; 'for the offended party, as such, has no 
 right to demand punishment, but only compensation 
 for the offenceV Punishment belongs to the Euler for 
 the good of the community, not for his own sake, even 
 when the crime is against himself, or for that of the 
 person injured. The third chapter explains, that God's 
 act in pardoning us is not an abrogation or interpreta- 
 tion of the Divine law (Gen. ii. 17), but a relaxation or 
 
 * ' Castigatio pacis nostrae imponitur Ei.' The Septuagint reads T 
 Vulgate, disciplina. Cf. supr. ch. ii. 
 
 t The reader will observe the Lutheran idea again cropping out.
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 135 
 
 dispensation of it, as regards certain persons, namely, 
 believers. All positive law is, in its own nature, dis- 
 pensable, nor are penal laws an exception ; but they 
 should not be dispensed without grave cause, or the 
 authority of law generally would be impaired. A two- 
 fold cause existed here, for without relaxation of the 
 law of death both man's worship of God and the evi- 
 dence of God's mercy to man would have utterly 
 perished. In the fourth chapter the question is asked, 
 whether Christ's being punished for our sins was un- 
 just ? It cannot be unjust in itself for God to visit 
 His most innocent Son with the bitterest torments and 
 death, because He did so. Neither is it unjust in 
 itself, that the innocent should be punished for the 
 guilty, of which there are abundant examples in na- 
 ture, in history, and in human law, as when children 
 suffer for their parents', subjects for their rulers' sin.* 
 It is essential to justice, that punishment should be 
 inflicted on sin, but not that it should fall on the sin- 
 ner, at least so long as there is some natural or moral 
 connection between the culprit and the victim, as be- 
 tween father and son, sovereign and people, surety and 
 client. The fifth chapter, which is the most important 
 of all for understanding Grotius' view, inquires, whe- 
 ther there was sufficient cause for God to punish Christ, 
 or, in other words, how it could benefit us ? For God's 
 wishing to pardon us, the cause was His own goodness ; 
 the question is about the method. This is expressly 
 shown, by the testimony of several Fathers, not to have 
 been necessary. Other ways of delivering man were 
 possible, but this was the most convenient, because the 
 
 * Essenius has an elaborate chapter expanding this argument in detail.
 
 136 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 authority of the moral law and the order of things 
 would have been endangered, had God let off the sin- 
 ner without some conspicuous example of the real deserts 
 of sin. That the example does not take place in the 
 person of the sinner is immaterial. According to ju- 
 rists, the most perfect method of relaxing a law is 
 where there is some compensation or commutation, and 
 this may be a commutation not only of punishment, 
 but of persons punished. Thereby also God showed 
 His special love toward us, inasmuch as it was not a 
 matter of indifference to Him (d&a^ov) to punish or 
 not to punish sin. It is shown in the sixth chapter, 
 that God intended to punish Christ, for He had never 
 granted or promised pardon on any other condition. 
 He therefore made Christ sin, and a curse. The nature 
 of satisfaction is then explained, as being not an actual 
 payment (for that ipso facto releases the debtor from 
 all further obligation), but a payment requiring a 
 voluntary intervention on the ruler's part (sohitio 
 recusabilisj, to relax the law and remit the penalty, 
 because it is not a payment of the very thing owed 
 which in this case was our eternal death but of some- 
 thing else. The ruler does not receive anything, for 
 there is nothing to receive, but he agrees on the pay- 
 ment of a certain penal satisfaction to remit all pun- 
 ishment for the future. The last four chapters of the 
 treatise are occupied with the death of Christ, con- 
 sidered as a reconciliation or propitiation, a redemp- 
 tion, a substitution, and an expiation. It not only 
 reconciles us to God but God to us (which is stated to 
 the same thing), by turning away His wrath from 
 us. It is a redemption, because our release from eter- 
 nal punishment was purchased by it ; and even texts
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 137 
 
 which expressly speak of our release from iniquity (as 
 Tit. ii. 14, 1 Pet. i. 18), are pressed into the winter's 
 service in this sense, while he goes out of his way to 
 deny that they mean, what they certainly say, that we 
 are redeemed from the bondage of sin. It is further 
 asserted, that the punishment or death of Christ was 
 substituted for ours. It is an expiation, as being an 
 antecedent act required on God's part for the remis- 
 sion of punishment. 
 
 Such, then, is Grotius' 'Defence of the Catholic 
 Faith,' or rather of his own, on the Atonement. In 
 his zeal against Sociuianism, he has reproduced some 
 of the worst features of the Lutheran and Calvinistic 
 systems, which helped to create it. The idea of justi- 
 fication, as a mere remission of punishment, the shock- 
 ing notion of a literal imputation of our sins to Christ, 
 with its immoral correlative of an imputation of His 
 holiness to us, reappears at least in words.* But in 
 its main characteristics Grotius' theory is his own, as 
 are also the arguments by which he supports it. And 
 of these something must now be said. 
 
 The first point to strike a reader of the treatise j.s 
 its thoroughly abstract and juristic manner of treating 
 the question. Such a view could only have occurred 
 to a mind habitually versed in the technicalities of 
 legal hair-splitting. It is rather the device of a special 
 pleader, who has taken a brief for the Atonement, than 
 the judgment of a theologian. Yet even so, and with 
 the additional charm of controversial ingenuity, one 
 can scarcely conceive its having satisfied so clear and 
 capacious an intellect. Were it simply suggested as a 
 fiction of the law, we might reply with the legal 
 
 * This view is however expressly disclaimed by Grotius in his later writings. 
 
 S
 
 138 THE ATOXEilENT. 
 
 maxim, Summum jus summa injuria. But, if it means 
 anything more, what shall we say ? The Ansclmic 
 notion, that pardon was impossible without the pay- 
 ment of an infinite equivalent for an infinite debt, 
 however untenable, is at least so far intelligible and 
 consistent. It supplies an adequate motive for the 
 Incarnation and the Cross. But Grotius denies that 
 an equivalent was either required or paid. His ratio- 
 nale of the death of Christ is one which shocks both 
 our reason and our religious instinct. It was not 
 fitting that God should let us off, so to speak, without 
 some terrible example of His righteous indignation 
 against all manner of iniquity ; but whether or not the 
 punishment took effect on the sinner was indifferent, 
 BO long as it was clearly understood to be the punish- 
 ment of sin. The spectacle on Calvary was a grand 
 dramatic exhibition of God's retributive justice, and 
 having thus publicly vindicated the authority of His 
 law, He consented to remit all further penalties of dis- 
 obedience. Yet surely, if a conspicuous example were 
 needed to deter men from sin for the future and it 
 could have no other object not only was there no 
 ground for selecting an innocent Victim, but it was 
 absolutely essential that punishment should fall on the 
 guilty ; the greater the criminal the more forcibly 
 would the lesson be conveyed. Least of all was the 
 Incarnation of a divine Person requisite, that the Fa- 
 ther might teach us the heinousness of our iniquities 
 by visiting their merited chastisement on His sinless 
 Son;* the Socinian account of that mystery would 
 
 * This weakness of the theory was pointed out by later writers who attacked 
 it, among the Lutherans, as Buddaeus (Instil. Thcol 17'25). Pfaff (Examen lib. 
 Grot, de Satis. 175JJ, and the jurist Ulrich Huber quoted by Buddauus.
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 139 
 
 fully satisfy all the requirements of the case. It is 
 true, indeed, that the Crucifixion of Jesus revealed, as 
 nothing else could reveal it, the exceeding sinfulness 
 of sin, but that is quite another thing from saying, with 
 Grotius, that He was punished and accursed for our 
 warning by the vindictive justice of God. The only 
 attempt made to account for His being chosen as the 
 Victim is in the passing remark (chap, v.), that He had 
 a special aptitude, from the dignity of His Person 
 and His intimate union with us, to be made a conspi- 
 cuous example ; surely the more perfect His inno- 
 cence the more conspicuous, on this view, the example 
 of injustice. I pass over the purely exoteric character 
 of the whole transaction which reduces the Incarnation 
 and the Passion to a thrilling scene in the drama of 
 the world's history, and recognizes no real communion 
 between the Second Adam and the members of His 
 body, from His flesh and from His bones, no other link 
 between His death and their redemption, than that the 
 condemned criminal is bidden to gaze on the punish- 
 ment of the Just as the condition of being spared his 
 own. But if the conclusion is startling, the line of 
 argument it is supported by is more startling still. In 
 this world the innocent often suffer for the guilty, 
 children bear the burden of their fathers', subjects of 
 their rulers' sin; nay, it frequently happens, in the 
 execution of justice, that good and bad are punished 
 together, or the good instead of the bad; therefore, 
 while the law must visit crime, it need not touch the 
 criminal ! But does not Christian instinct, to say no- 
 thing of Scripture, teach us, that these inequalities of 
 earth will be rectified by unerring wisdom in the world 
 beyond the grave ? or, rather, are not those very in-
 
 140 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 equalities a confirmation of our belief in the new 
 heavens and new earth wherein dwelleth righteous- 
 ness ? Such seeming difficulties, which from the days 
 of Job have tortured the philosopher, and sometimes 
 disquieted the Saint, run up at last into the one insolu- 
 ble riddle of all metaphysics and all theology, the 
 origin of evil. When once the existence of evil is 
 accepted as a fact, though its original permission can- 
 not be explained, they cease to be difficulties, and are 
 felt to be a temporary and incidental interruption of 
 the perfect order of the universe, introduced by sin. 
 They have also their bearings on the sacrifice of Christ, 
 as has been observed in a former chapter. But it is 
 quite a different matter when the experience of human 
 history, delirant regcs plectuntur Achivi, is converted 
 into a principle of divine governance, and it is gravely 
 inferred, that, because God for wise ends permits the 
 afflictions of the righteous, He punishes them for others' 
 sins.* To the bitter cry of humanity, ' What hope of 
 answer or redress ?' we have hitherto been content to 
 reply, ' Behind the veil, behind the veil.' But to argue 
 from the manifold chastisements entailed by the wick- 
 edness or follies of parents on coming generations, or 
 of sovereigns on a whole people, or again from the 
 necessary or culpable imperfections of human law, or 
 the blindness or prejudice or corruption of those who 
 administer it, as though such things were not an ab- 
 normal exception tolerated for a while by God, but the 
 rule of His providence and measure of His attributes, 
 
 * It is one thing to say, with Butler (Analogy, pt. ii. ch. 5), that vicarious 
 Bufferings in this world are an answer to objections drawn from the fact of the 
 innocent victim suffering for the guilty (cf supr. ch. 1) ; quite another to say 
 that G od judicially punislet the innocent for the guilty, which is Grotius'a argu- 
 ment.
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 
 
 is to cut away the roots of human morality, and of 
 trust in a higher than human Justice. It is to say in 
 effect, that, because evil exists, it must be eternal, and 
 to make God, if not its Author, its Accomplice. Of 
 all the strange notions that at various times have 
 darkened the revelation of Calvary, it would be hard 
 perhaps to find any more strange than this, which 
 eliminates from the greatest fact in history all real 
 significance, while it dares to interpose between man 
 and God a fiction of misdirected vengeance. Grotius 
 appends to his treatise a long list of extracts from the 
 Fathers, which certainly, whatever else they may con- 
 tain, do not contain the theory he has invented. 
 
 Before we close this chapter, one more writer, of 
 the early part of the eighteenth century, may be men- 
 tioned, both as exhibiting the most pronounced anti- 
 thesis, within the bosom of the Lutheran Church, to 
 the theological system of its founder, and as being the 
 last Lutheran divine of any note who can properly be 
 said to belong to the epoch of the Eeformation. 
 Towards the middle of that century, a wholly new 
 movement of religious thought commences with the 
 appearance of the Wolfenbiittel Fragments and other 
 publications of Lessing,* the quasi-rationalistic the- 
 ology of Semler, and the philosophy of Kant. From 
 thenceforth the contest in Germany is between the 
 assailants and the champions of the traditional Pro- 
 testant orthodoxy. The latter for the most part adopt, 
 with modifications, Grotius' manner of explaining the 
 Atonement, as it is done by Michaelis, Seiler, and Storr, 
 
 * Lessing maintains (Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts, 75) that the 
 moral law was given by God for the discipline of man, the imperfections of his 
 obedience being condoned in regard of the absolute perfections of the Son.
 
 142 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 while the leading -writers on the opposite side more or 
 less openly repudiate its historical truth and signifi- 
 cance. Into that controversy it would be beyond the 
 scope of this treatise to enter, nor could it be done to 
 any purpose without a discussion of the principal 
 schools of later German philosophy, as those of Kant, 
 Hegel, and Schelling.* There is no such objection to 
 completing our review of the various phases of Reform- 
 ation doctrine on the subject with an account of that 
 of John Dippel, the Christian Democritus as he was 
 called, who comes before the commencement of the 
 rationalistic period, and, while standing on the pro- 
 fessed ground of Lutheran orthodoxy, represents the 
 widest departure from the original standard of Lutheran 
 
 belief.f 
 
 The Redeemer, he observes, is not only a High- 
 priest, to reconcile His people through prayer and 
 sacrifice ; He is also a Prophet, to instruct the fallen 
 in the way of righteousness, and a King, to break the 
 chains of the realms of darkness, and set free the crea- 
 ture from the power of sin. His work of mediation, 
 as the Second Adam, is not complete till all this is 
 accomplished in the soul of the redeemed. God is 
 Love, and has ever loved us ; it is we who need to be 
 reconciled to Him, not He to us. And this reconcilia- 
 tion cannot be effected by a mere external fiction of 
 imputed righteousness, but only through the real im- 
 planting of a righteous principle within us by the life- 
 giving Spirit, whom Christ bestows, and by whose aid 
 
 * For some account of the successive Rationalist schools of German theology, 
 the reader may be referrod to Farrar's Bampton Lectures On the History of Free 
 Thought, vi. and vii. -with the Notes. 
 
 t Erojfneter Weg zum Frieden. Amsterdam, 1706. Vera Leir.onstratio Evan- 
 gclica, 1729.
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 143 
 
 we overcome sin. Punishment is either the natural 
 consequence of sin, or is inflicted by God for the dis- 
 cipline and correction of the sinner, and in either case 
 is a dispensation of His love. Spiritual death can as 
 little be separated from sin, as warmth from fire, for 
 sin is itself a conversion to the creature and a turning 
 away from our chief Good. Hell, therefore, is no 
 arbitrary creation of God, but the inevitable result of 
 sin ; sin means separation from God, and that separa- 
 tion is spiritual death. From this Christ sets us free, 
 not by a mere judicial acquittal, but by releasing us 
 from the power of sin. From corrective chastisement 
 He has not released us, but has taught us how to bear 
 it ; for by such chastisements alone, with the assistance 
 of indwelling grace, can the affections of the great mul- 
 titude of men be withdrawn from earthly things and 
 from their inherent concupiscence. We are therefore 
 placed under a discipline of love for our renewal and 
 sanctification. Neither Heathen, nor even Jewish, 
 sacrifices are properly types of the Sacrifice of Christ, 
 nor were they so designed by God, though the latter 
 are so explained ' by accommodation,' in the Epistle to 
 the Hebrews. Lastly, Dippel rejects as blasphemous 
 the Lutheran notion, that Christ endured the actual 
 curse and punishment of God, which must in fact im- 
 ply that He shared the actual sin. 
 
 It is obvious how far even professed Lutherans had 
 by this time drifted from their master's teaching, for 
 the most part in a reactionary direction, towards the 
 creed it was intended to supplant. 
 
 It is not necessary to introduce here any lengthened 
 notice of English divines of the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth centuries, partly as being better known, partly
 
 144 THE ATOXEMEXT. 
 
 because they have not originated any special theory on 
 the Atonement itself, while on its application to us, or 
 the doctrine of Justification, their opinions incline 
 more or less, according to individual bias, in a Catholic 
 or Lutheran direction. Nor do the more eminent of 
 them insist on any particular view of justification, with 
 the exception of Hooker, who, in his Sermon on the 
 subject, not only lays down an extreme doctrine of 
 imputation, but implies that to deny it is to ' pervert 
 the truth of Christ,' and * gainsay the very ground of 
 apostolic faith;' yet his opinion stops considerably 
 short of Luther's, and in the very same discourse he 
 says that Lutheran teaching is ' damnable,' and by 
 implication ' overthows the very foundation of faith.' 
 It may be added that the Sermon on Justification was 
 among his earlier writings, and was not published 
 during his lifetime. The Atonement is scarcely 
 touched upon in the famous exposition of the patristic 
 doctrine of the Incarnation in the fifth book of the 
 Ecclesiastical Polity, which however has the following 
 passage on the question of its necessity. " The world's 
 salvation was without the Incarnation of the Son of 
 God a thing impossible, not simply impossible, but im- 
 possible it being presupposed that the will of God was 
 no otherwise to have it saved than by the death of His 
 own Son." So also Pearson, in expounding the fourth 
 article of the Creed (which he does in much the same 
 manner as the Tridentine Catechism, though at greater 
 length), contents himself with observing; "Salvation 
 is impossible unto sinners without remission of sin; 
 and remission in the decree of God impossible without 
 effusion of blood." Butler, the great ornament of 
 Anglican theology at a later date, while defending, in
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 145 
 
 the fifth chapter of the Analogy, the doctrine of Christ's 
 mediation and Atonement against current infidel objec- 
 tions, expressly disclaims any idea of speculation on 
 the abstract necessity of Atonement, or of attempting 
 to explain the manner of its efficacy. He considers 
 that ' Scripture has left this matter of the satisfaction 
 of Christ mysterious, left somewhat in it unrevealed,' 
 and that accordingly i all conjectures about it must be, 
 if not evidently absurd, at least uncertain.' 
 
 The chief classical work on the subject in recent 
 times is that of Archbishop Magee, on the Scriptural 
 Doctrine of Atonement and Sacrifice, which, like so 
 many others, is mainly directed against Unitarian ob- 
 jections. He enters at great length into the univer- 
 sality and divine origin of the institution of animal 
 sacrifice, and the belief in its expiatory virtue, tracing 
 it from the time of Abel. But his argument is drawn 
 in great measure, like Butler's, from natural analogies, 
 and, with Butler, while insisting on the fact of the 
 Atonement, he disclaims speculations on the reason or 
 manner of its efficacy, viewing it as a means ordained 
 by God, not as the cause of His forgiveness. The 
 notion of the necessity of an infinite Victim for an infi- 
 nite sin he indignantly repudiates, treating it as an 
 Unitarian misrepresentation. His work, though dis- 
 playing considerable learning on many detailed points, 
 can hardly be said to throw much new light on the 
 subject as a whole.
 
 146 
 
 NOTE TO CHAP. V. 
 
 ON BAXTER'S VIEW OF IMPUTATION. 
 
 A CONTROVERSY on imputed righteousness arose in England 
 during the sixteenth century, chiefly among the dissenters, in "which 
 Baxter's name is prominent. His matured views, together with a 
 short history of the controversy from the beginning, will be found in 
 his Treatise On the Imputation of Christ's Righteousness to Believers 
 (London, 1675), with which the reader may compare some extracts 
 from his Life of Faith in "Newman's Led. on Justif. pp. 427, 42S. His 
 teaching on the subject in the Treatise just mentioned differs little, 
 if at all, except in manner of expression, from that of the Fathers 
 and later Catholic divines ; and this he repeatedly implies, though 
 feeling bound to insert frequent protests against language used, or 
 said to be used, by ' the Papists,' evidently more from educational 
 misapprehensions than from any real difference of sentiment. Even 
 the ' merit of good works ' is expressly admitted, ' according to the 
 law of grace through Christ.' The Lutheran notions of Christ's 'vi- 
 carious obedience being imputed to us, and of our sins being imputed 
 to Him, so that He took on Himself the person of the sinner, and 
 endured, as such, the wrath and curse of God and the torments of 
 the damned, are explicitly repudiated ; and original sin is accordingly 
 explained in a sense widely different from Luther's extravagant 
 theory. On the whole, I conceive that Baxter, prejudices apart, 
 would have found little to quarrel with in the Tridentine doctrine of 
 justification. It need scarcely be observed, that, while his style is 
 somewhat technical and archaic, he is one of the clearest and most 
 learned theological writers in our language. In his scrupulous can- 
 dour, and Christian courtesy and moderation of tone towards op- 
 ponents too often conspicuous for the absence of such qualities (in-
 
 THEORIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD. 147 
 
 eluding those to whom he owed his thirteen years' imprisonment) he 
 reminds us of the great and large-hearted Athanasius, who is a model 
 for controversialists.* After Baxter's death, the controversy was 
 carried on by a Dr. Williams, also a dissenter, who takes the same 
 side, but does not profess to be ' in all things of the same judgment' 
 with him, and is by no means his equal in clearness of statement, or 
 correctness of information. 
 
 * The bitterness of his opponents may be inferred from a statement made by 
 Dr. "Williams, after his death (Discourses, vol. i. p. 431) : " There be of them 
 that say publicly, ' Mr. Baiter is in Hell'!"
 
 148 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 
 
 THE Aipnement_did_npt, as has been before remarked, 
 become n subject of direct controversy at the Reform- 
 ation, nor has it, except in some few instances in 
 Germany to be noticed presently, been distinctively 
 iTandled by later Catholic theologians/ For the most 
 part they either follow the patristic method, as Tho- 
 massin and Petavius, or, more generally, the Scho- 
 lastic, adopting either the Thomist or Scotist system 
 under various modifications. Among Thomists may 
 be reckoned Suarez, Yasquez, Gregory de Valentia, 
 Dominic a Soto, and Toumely ; among Scotists, Medina, 
 De Lugo, Frassen, and Henno. All alike introduce 
 the doctrine as falling under that of the Incarna- 
 tion. Petavius, out of sixteen books on the Incarna- 
 tion, devotes one chapter only to the satisfaction and 
 three to the priesthood of Christ. Thomassin gives 
 half of one book to His satisfaction, and the whole of 
 the next to His priesthood, which, however, includes 
 an exposition of the doctrine of the Eucharist. To 
 examine these writers in detail would be to go over 
 again the ground we have already traversed. But one 
 or two specimens may be given of the more scientific
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 149 
 
 treatment of the subject during the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, and, as the Parisian Sorbonne was at that time 
 the great theological school of the Church, they shall 
 be taken from the works of its professors. 
 
 Tournely, the last of the great writers mentioned 
 above, was a vigorous, not to say bitter, controversialist. 
 On the doctrines of grace he was vehemently opposed 
 to Thomist opinions, but he adopts the Thomist view of 
 the atonement in its extremcst form, treating the ques- 
 tion, throughout, like Grotius, in reference to the So- 
 cinians.* Indeed lie candidly informs us, that out of the 
 many opinions debated among Catholic divines he has 
 chosen that which appeared to him best adapted ' for 
 repressing Socinian impiety.' With the great multi- 
 tude of theologians, he denies any antecedent neces- 
 sity for the Incarnation, either in itself, or assuming 
 the creation or the fall of man. But on the hypo- 
 thesis of the restoration of fallen man, while admitting 
 in words that 'by the extraordinary power of God' 
 we might have been saved without ' condign ' satisfac- 
 tion, he yet insists that by the 'ordinary power of 
 God ' this was impossible ; and the ordinary power is 
 explained to mean the laws of divine justice, which 
 are part of tlie divine nature. And, as he also agrees 
 with the Thomists that there could be no condign 
 satisfaction except that of Christ, we may regard him 
 as accepting practically the Anselmic view of an abso- 
 lute necessity for the Incarnation, assuming the restor- 
 ation of fallen man. He maintains, with Grotius, that 
 the punishment of- Christ was strictly and literally 
 substituted for ours, and that He endured the vindic- 
 
 * Honoratus Tournely Prctlect. Theol.de Incarn. Verbi Dtiint. Parisiis, 1727.
 
 150 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 tive justice of God in our place, though not, as Lu- 
 therans inferred, the torments of the damned. It 
 follows of course that it was not a matter of mercy, 
 but of strict justice, on God's part to accept the satis- 
 faction offered for us, and that He could not do other- 
 wise. Under the term satisfaction Tournely compre- 
 hends the payment of a debt, the appeasing of divine 
 wrath, and the expiation of the liabilities of sin. 
 
 Le Grand, a disciple and continuator of Toumely, 
 follows on the whole his master's teaching, and, like 
 him, directs the argument mainly against the Socinians. 
 But in simplicity of method, moderation of tone, and 
 absence of controversial asperity, his Treatise on the 
 Incarnation* contrasts very favourably with Toumely's 
 Preelections, and in some important points their con- 
 clusions are different. Moreover Le Grand is always 
 very careful, which Tournely is not, to distinguish be- 
 tween his own opinions and the doctrine of the Church. 
 He not only rejects any absolute necessity for the In- 
 carnation, in itself or assuming the Fall, but adds that 
 fallen man might have been otherwise restored, though 
 there could not have been any other condign satisfaction, 
 nor could God have otherwise l expressed His vindic- 
 tive justice ;' but then it was not necessary to express 
 it, for, while it gives Him the right to punish sin, it 
 only binds Him not to pardon the sinner without true 
 repentance. The Incarnation was therefore, as the 
 Fathers had taught, not the only but the fittest method 
 of redemption. Le Grand accepts the Thomist view 
 of its motive as the most probable ; satisfaction he de- 
 fines, with Tournely, as 'the voluntary rendering of 
 
 * Tractatus dt Incarn. Verb. Divini. Parisiis, 17-50.
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 151 
 
 equivalent honour and reverence out of what is one's 
 own, and not otherwise owed, to compensate an injury 
 done to another;' adding, that all these conditions 
 were fulfilled in the satisfaction of Christ, which was 
 not only equivalent but superabundant, and such as 
 God was bound in strict justice to accept. But he is 
 careful to explain, that all which pertains to the Catho- 
 lic faith to hold is, that it was such as God could fit- 
 tingly accept for the sins of men. Le Grand admits 
 pointedly, what Grotius had almost seemed inclined to 
 deny, that the grounds assigned by Socinians for the 
 death of Christ are true and valid, as far as they go, 
 though inadequate, and answers their objection about 
 the innocent suffering for the guilty not altogether 
 satisfactorily, but in a very different manner from the 
 ingenious special pleading of the great jurist. While 
 insisting on the fact, as ascertained from Scripture, 
 that it was not God's will to remit sin without atone- 
 ment, he confesses that his explanations of it are little 
 more than conjectural, and that there are causes of the 
 mystery which in this life we cannot hope to discover. 
 It is probable that both these writers were largely in- 
 fluenced in their particular way of looking at the 
 question clearly Toumely was by the exigencies of 
 the Socinian controversy, as was also the case with 
 some English divines, such as Stillingfleet. Yet any 
 dispute about the office and work of the Eedeemer was 
 in fact beside the mark, as against those who rejected 
 His divine nature. The root of the difference lay 
 deeper. 
 
 One later specimen shall be adduced, also from a 
 professor of the Sorbonne, of the theological treatment
 
 152 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 of the subject.* Kobbe, the author of a Treatise on 
 the Mystery of the Incarnate Word, after successively 
 repudiating Wicliffe's notion of an absolute a priori 
 necessity of the Incarnation, Raymond Lully's of a 
 necessity assuming the Fall, and that of the Calvinists 
 (borrowed from St. Anselm) of a necessity assuming 
 the restoration of fallen man, decides, against Scotus, 
 that it ivas necessary i for condign satisfaction,' as no 
 other would be equivalent or ex alias indelitis. He 
 adds, against the Socinians, that it was a true and 
 proper satisfaction, ^or was it only sufficient, but 
 superabundant. Any act of Christ, or any single drop 
 of His Blood, would have been sufficient for our re- 
 demption, from the dignity of His Person, but not 
 efficient unless He had so designed it. The sacrifice 
 was really offered ad alterum, because offered to the 
 whole Trinity. The author further argues, against 
 Vasquez, Medina, and others, that it was ex propriis 
 and ex alias indcUtis, because acts belong to the per- 
 son, not the nature, of the agent. Under this last 
 head the question is asked, whether the satisfaction of 
 Christ required any agreement on God's part to accept 
 it, or whether He was bound as a matter of justice to 
 do so ? The necessity of an agreement is denied by 
 St. Bonaventure, Scotus, and, others (and, as we have 
 seen, by Tournely), but affirmed by Suarez, whose 
 opinion Eobbe adopts, considering it clear from Scrip- 
 ture (Heb. x.) that there was in fact such an agree- 
 ,ment, and thinking further, that it was requisite, 
 because the offending parties might have been fairly 
 
 * Tractatut de Mysterio Verli Incarnati, auctore J. M. Eobbe. Parisiis, 1762.
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 153 
 
 called on to make satisfaction themselves. Christ was 
 our Head by arrangement (pactoj, not, like the first 
 Adam, by nature. He satisfied in strict justice, inas- 
 much as His satisfaction was adequate and more than 
 adequate, but to accept it for us was a matter not of 
 justice, but of mercy. 
 
 And now let us give two examples, from the same 
 century, of the hortatory and devotional rather than 
 scientific treatment of the subject, which for that very 
 reason will be in one sense a surer test of the habitual 
 manner of looking at it. They will be found, like the 
 theological treatises of Petavius and Thomassin, to 
 bear out the remark made in an earlier chapter, that, 
 while the scholastic formula of satisfaction was retained 
 as one method of expressing the mystery of atonement, 
 the idea of sacrifice was that most predominant in 
 Catholic teaching and devotion. 
 
 My first illustration shall be taken from a Treatise 
 on the Priesthood and Sacrifice of Jesus Christ \ in four 
 books, by Leonard de Massiot, a French Benedictine 
 of the learned Congregation of St. Maur.* The author 
 begins by tracing out' the idea and obligation of sacri- 
 fice, as the supreme act of homage to God, and as in- 
 cluding, since the introduction of sin into the world, 
 an additional character of reparation ; and shows how 
 both the interior and exterior sacrifice are most per- 
 fectly realized in Christ. The second book deals with 
 the sacrifice and priesthood of Christ, in its unity, per- 
 petuity, and continuation in the Eucharist. The whole 
 mystical Body is offered with Him on the Cross, which 
 is ' the common altar of all mankind.' In the third 
 
 * Traite du Sacerdoce et du Sacrifice de Jesus Christ. Par L. de Massiot. 
 Poitiers, 1708. 
 
 U
 
 154 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 book the effects of His sacrifice are considered, under 
 the classification of satisfaction, merit, overcoming the 
 power of sin and Satan, rind confounding pride by hu- 
 mility. The last half of the book is occupied with the 
 treatment of the Eucharist as an abiding memorial of 
 the benefits wrought by Christ, a sacrifice of praise 
 and thanksgiving, a mystery of unity, a sign of the 
 union of the faithful, and a mystery of faith. The 
 fourth book, which is much the longest, continues in 
 detail the consideration of the priesthood of Christ, as 
 communicated to His Church in the Eucharist. To 
 return to the chapter on satisfaction. The writer 
 relies chiefly on Anselm's argument for the impossi- 
 bility of man making satisfaction for himself, and on 
 Aquinas for the sufficiency of that wrought by Christ, 
 as giving to God something more pleasing than what 
 He had lost by sin, owing to the charity with which 
 Christ endured the pains of His passion, the excellence 
 of His life, and the dignity of His Person. His volun- 
 tary temporal death, it is added, was of far greater 
 value than our eternal death could be. Our personal 
 satisfactions are not superseded by His, but must be 
 united with it. 
 
 Not very different is the treatment of the subject by 
 a later author, Plowden, who, though an Englishman, 
 was a resident in France, and, like Massiot, wrote his 
 Treatise on the Sacrifice of Jesus Christ in French.* 
 While rejecting the notion of any absolute necessity, 
 he dwells on the congruity of a satisfaction and re- 
 paration being made for the disorder caused by sin, 
 either by all men in common, or by some representa- 
 
 * Traite du Sacrifice de Jt'sut Christ. Paris, 1778.
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 155 
 
 tive of the race. He proceeds to discuss the qualities 
 and conditions essential for a mediator, who must not 
 only be able to pardon sin but to infuse holiness. 
 These conditions can only be found united in the God- 
 man. It was fitting, again, that He should accomplish 
 His work by sacrifice, which is the highest of all acts 
 of satisfaction, though any, the least, intercession of 
 His would have been sufficient, from its infinite value. 
 The effects of His sacrifice are three-fold ; to reconcile 
 or reunite us with God, to unite us with each other 
 by charity, and to incorporate us into the mystical 
 body, which He offered up with His natural body 
 on the Cross. The work is divided into five parts. 
 The first examines the prcannouncement of the great 
 Sacrifice in the written and unwritten law, the Jewish 
 and Heathen rituals. The second exhibits the perfect 
 fulfilment of the sacrificial idea in the life and death 
 of Christ. In the third is considered its perpetuation, 
 for communicating its effects to us, in the mass, con- 
 sidered chiefly as the centre of Christian worship. 
 The fourth part insists on the reproduction of the idea 
 in all members of the mystical body through self- 
 sacrifice and imitation of the virtues of their Head, 
 while the fifth carries on the idea to its final consum- 
 mation in the offering up of the entire body of the 
 elect reunited with their Head in heaven. Of the 
 three last parts no more need be said here. In the 
 first, the interior sacrifice of the heart, and the out- 
 ward sacrifice, which is its proper expression, are con- 
 trasted and explained, with constant reference to 
 Augustine's City of God. The outward expression 
 was needed for men composed of body and soul, and 
 having to live in society, even during the state of in-
 
 156 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 nocence ; still more after the Fall, when the idea of 
 expiation was added to that of homage, and hence 
 animal sacrifices came into use. Those of the Jewish 
 ritual are examined in detail. In the second part the 
 immense superiority of Christ's sacrifice to all others is 
 dwelt upon. It consists of the oblation of His Body, 
 Soul, and will, that is of His Avhole Being, and that of 
 His members with it ; of His prayers and other acts, 
 and those of His members with them ; and of His 
 sufferings and death, and theirs united with His. 
 
 It will at once be seen, that with these writers and 
 they are but a specimen of many more the dominant 
 idea, as with the Fathers, is that of Sacrifice, which is 
 a more comprehensive one than that of satisfaction 
 only, or the payment of a debt. It includes and ex- 
 hausts them, but it includes a great deal more. We 
 may further observe that this idea is habitually 
 viewed in connection with its perpetuation in the 
 Eucharist. And this suggests a subject already more 
 than once referred to in the chapters on patristic 
 teaching, and which cannot be wholly passed over in 
 speaking of the doctrine of the Atonement, though a 
 separate volume would be required for its adequate 
 treatment. A few words ^ must suffice here, not to 
 prove but to indicate the inseparable union between 
 the sacrifice of the altar and the sacrifice of the Cross. 
 
 On the last night of His earthly ministry, when the 
 shadows of death were closing in upon the chosen few, 
 and the dark designs of the conspirators were even 
 now shaping themselves into act within the walls of 
 the apostate city, Jesus, having loved His own, loved 
 them unto the end. He was about to die. And there- 
 fore He gathered His disciples around Him in that
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 157 
 
 upper room at Jerusalem, for a last farewell. " When 
 the evening was come, He sat clown with, the Twelve." 
 He had washed their feet ; He had addressed to them 
 those words of thrilling import, which run through, 
 four chapters in the narrative of the last Evangelist ; 
 He had eaten the Paschal supper. And then, as at a 
 marriage feast He had begun His ministry by chang- 
 ing water into wine, so at the feast which closed it He 
 transmuted, by a signal miracle, the shadow to the 
 substance, the figures of the law into the realities of 
 the Atoning Sacrifice. He ' sanctified Himself.' He 
 offered the great Eucharistic intercession (John xvii.) 
 which embraced all future ages, and contained in germ 
 all possible liturgies of Christendom. He rehearsed 
 before the Twelve in mystery that Sacrifice, which on 
 the morrow was to be offered in tears and blood. He 
 took of the pure wheat flour which is given for man's 
 nourishment, and the fruit of the vine which maketh 
 glad his heart, and consecrated them to be for all time 
 the symbols, the vehicle, the transparent veils of that 
 sacred Flesh and that redeeming Blood, which He had 
 assumed in the Conception, and was to offer on the 
 Cross. What He did then His Church was to con- 
 tinue always, till He should return again, for a me- 
 morial of Him. As every Christian prayer must be 
 offered in His name, so all Christian worship must be 
 centred in the one great act which perpetuates for 
 ever the ' new rite ' of that last Paschal Supper, not in 
 empty sign, but in spirit and in truth. From the 
 rising to the setting sun, wherever His name is known 
 among the Gentiles, He has bidden that pure oblation 
 to be laid continually on His altar. The Incarnation 
 and the Passion are no mere incidents of bygone his-
 
 158 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 tory, but a presence of abiding power. The Blood 
 that flowed on Calvary flows indeed no more, but the 
 Lamb slain before the worlds were made is offered 
 still, Himself the Victim, Priest, and Shrine. And 
 through the might of that Atonement, the Sacrifice 
 one and indivisible pleaded on ten thousand altars, the 
 same yesterday, to-day, and for ever, is the Church's 
 prayer fulfilled; Ac/nus Dei, qui tollis peccata mmidi, 
 dona nobis pacem* 
 
 I proceed to give some notice of German Catholic 
 divines in the present century, who are now stepping 
 into the place occupied before the French Revolution 
 by the doctors of the Sorbonne. In 1807, Kliipfel 
 and Dobmayer published dogmatic works in Latin.^ 
 They agree in regarding the Atonement as a mystery, 
 which we cannot explain on antecedent grounds of 
 reason, and must therefore be content to accept as a 
 revealed fact : ConsuWus iyitur dncimus rem arguere ex 
 eventu. The Son of God has "made satisfaction, inas- 
 much as He has done all that was necessary for our 
 eternal welfare, for removing sin and its consequences, 
 and reestablishing the kingdom of God. In what sense 
 this satisfaction was necessaiy we cannot know, but 
 we must infer from the event that there are reasons 
 why it was so. Dobmayer adds, that the Atonement 
 must not be regarded as a punishment inflicted on 
 Christ, but as an act done by Him for the benefit of 
 the human race ; not as a substitute for our personal 
 service, but as a supplement of our weakness and en- 
 
 * See Note at the end of the Chapter, ' On the Connection between the Sacri- 
 fice of the Cross and the Eucharist.' 
 
 t Kliipfel Instit. Theol. Dogmat. Wien, 1807. Dobmayer Systema Theol. 
 Cathol. Sulsbach, 1807.
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 159 
 
 coiiragement to our energy. A more famous name is 
 that of Klee, who wrote thirty years later, in German, 
 on Catholic doctrine.* He understands by the satis- 
 faction of Christ, that through His bodily death He 
 has removed the ground of our spiritual death, and 
 softened (gemildert) its consequences, as to intention 
 and efficacy for all, and actually for those who are so 
 united with Him as to be able to appropriate His suf- 
 ferings. We cannot say, that He has formally en- 
 dured our punishment, as such, for it is impossible for 
 the innocent to be justly punished ; nor materially, for 
 He was not made subject to spiritual death, as neither 
 to ignorance or evil desire. Xeither, again, has He in 
 such sense suffered in our place, and by substitution, 
 as that by His satisfaction all our debt and sin is in 
 fact remitted. Bodily death, the sorrows of life, 
 ignorance and concupiscence remain, and we are then 
 first released from our debt, when we have fulfilled all 
 the conditions requisite for partaking of the benefits 
 of the redemption wrought for us. This satisfaction 
 of Christ is in itself superabundant ; for, while sin is 
 finite, the acts of the God-man, as proceeding from His 
 Person, not from His finite human nature, are infinite. 
 Another Catholic writer of the same date, Brenner 
 (Katliol. Doymat. p. 36), also protests against the no- 
 tion of substituted punishment, as hard and unreason- 
 able, and inconsistent with the nature of God. We 
 cannot pass over in silence a still greater name, that 
 of Giinther ; but with his philosophical system, which 
 is aid to be very obscurely expressed, I have no 
 acquaintance, nor indeed would this be the place for 
 
 * Klee Eatholische Dogmatik. Mainz, 1835.
 
 160 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 examining it if I had. I shall content myself with 
 giving, as simply as I can, the account of the Atone- 
 ment contained in his Theory of the Incarnation* We 
 shall have occasion presently to notice the writings 
 of Pabst, who, if he represents the same theological 
 school, is at all events a much clearer and more intel- 
 ligible exponent of its principles. Gimther's system 
 implies, if I understand him rightly, the Scotist idea 
 of the Incarnation, as antecedent to the prevision of 
 the Fall. Its primary object is the infusion of divine 
 life into man, or his regeneration to eternal life. The 
 death of Christ is ' not the moving but the mediating 
 cause ' of redemption ; or, in other words, God is not 
 gracious to us because Christ died, but Christ died for 
 us because God is gracious. The juristic view of vica- 
 rious satisfaction is rejected, on the ground that justice 
 requires the punishment of the guilty, and can least of 
 all be satisfied by the supreme injustice of punishing 
 the innocent instead. That would be a direct contra- 
 diction. Some other explanation must therefore be 
 found for the Sacrifice of the death of Christ. God 
 will only forgive sin to those who are willing to be 
 reformed ; but for this man needs a practical proclama- 
 tion of the heinousness of sin, which is given, as in a 
 picture, by the death of Christ. But the ground of 
 sin lies not only in ignorance, or unbelief, but in the 
 infirmity of a perverted will, and the work of redemp- 
 tion, therefore, must be something beyond a mere out- 
 ward exhibition ; it must consist in the real communi- 
 cation and implanting of a new nature, to reunite the 
 soul with God. The redeeming power must then be 
 
 Giinther Die Incarnalionstheorie. Wien, 1829. His Philosophical Works 
 were placed on the Roman Index.
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 161 
 
 sought in the life of Christ, but it can only be imparted 
 through His death. The Son of God took, in His In- 
 carnation, a human body under the conditions of fallen 
 nature transmitted from Adam, though without sin. 
 This body of death He offered up to God, pouring out 
 the earthly blood and animal soul or life,* and thus 
 satisfied justice and opened the hands of love. The 
 necessity for His death does not rest on any attribute 
 of the divine nature, for God is Love, but on some 
 quality of human nature, which as yet we cannot fully 
 comprehend, but which is indicated by the statement 
 of Scripture, that ' without shedding of blood there is 
 no remission,' for the soul is in the blood, and the 
 blood is that which atones for the soul. It is clear 
 that this theory lays a special stress on the Incarna- 
 tion, and views the death of Christ chiefly as a channel 
 for conveying the. benefits of the Incarnation to us, 
 but the precise meaning of the latter portion of it I do 
 not profess to understand. "We may compare with it 
 the following considerations of the philosopher Baader 
 on the nature of human sinfulness.'f The soul of man, 
 subjected through the Fall to the bondage of matter, 
 can only through the medium of matter be restored to 
 the freedom of spiritual life. But the blood, as the 
 special organ of animal life, is also the organ of sin. 
 By the oblation of the outpoured blood the spiritual 
 powers of man were set free, and the impure influences, 
 which held him in thraldom, passed from him into 
 that which was offered up, while the blood thus offered 
 
 * This may remind the reader of some similar expressions of Origen's, previ- 
 ously referred to. 
 
 t Baader Vorlesungen uber eine kunftige Theorie den Opfert oder Kultus, 
 Mxinster, 1837. 
 
 X
 
 162 THE ATOXEMEXT. 
 
 and consecrated in the death of Christ returned as a 
 life-giving and fruitful principle into the substance of 
 those for whom it was offered. This view of Baader's 
 seems, at least in language, to come very near the 
 Manichean notion of the impurity of matter. 
 
 And now let us turn to a theologian already men- 
 tioned, who is comparatively free from the lengthy 
 periods and needless periphrasis often so perplexing in 
 German writers, and speaks with a clearness at times 
 almost rising into eloquence. A brief account of his 
 general system, will best introduce his exposition of 
 the doctrine of Atonement.* The idea of God, as the 
 Ego, or absolute Being, implies from eternity the idea 
 of the creature, the non ego, or conditioned being, as 
 its necessary correlative. But the actual realization 
 of the non ego, as natura naturata, Dei qua naturae 
 naturantis, is not necessary, as the pantheistic scheme 
 implies. Creation is a free act of God, implying a 
 beginning, as the absolute nature is essentially neces- 
 sary and eternal; but the conditioned once actually 
 brought into existence must last for ever, as the crea- 
 turely reflexion of the absolute Being of God. There 
 was no theoretical necessity for Him to create, but 
 there was an ethical ground in His own nature, and 
 that ground was love. As then by His free love He 
 created us, so by love alone can the creature gain or 
 
 * This sketch is drawn mainly from Pahst's Der Mensch und seine Oeschichte 
 (Wien, 1830), hut I have also compared with it a later work of his, Adam und 
 Christus (Wien, 1836), where the subject is treated as introductory to an elabo- 
 rate dissertation on the seven sacraments, and especially marriage, viewed in its 
 sacramental character, to which the author attaches a crucial importance as 
 marking the distinction hetween Catholicism and various forms of imperfect or 
 unchristian belief. It would he impossible to give each reference separately.here ; 
 the reader will have no trouble in verifying them, if he pleases, for himself.
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 103 
 
 preserve its union with Him. Creation is God's eter- 
 nal revelation of Himself. The creature cannot attain 
 to a real consciousness of its own being, without 
 thereby becoming conscious of the absolute Being or 
 Creator. As in the unity of God there are Three 
 Persons, so creation, which is His image, is threefold 
 also. There is^ free spirit, nature or the physical 
 universe which is unfree, and man in whom both are 
 combined, spirit and nature standing to each other in 
 the relation of substance and accident. Man consti- 
 tutes the organic unity of the two ; he is at once dis- 
 tinct from each and partakes of both ; in him the life 
 of nature puts forth its most perfect bloom, while he 
 is also a member of the spirit-world, and thus creation, 
 as the outward revelation of God, becomes ' the perfect 
 reflexion of the divine consciousness.' As the organic 
 unity of nature and spirit, man is the ' coping-stone of 
 creation,' the creature of all creatures, the ultimate 
 realization and representative of the creaturely idea, 
 and perfect antithesis of the Creator. Or, as the au- 
 thor says elsewhere, he is the last and most glorious 
 fruit of the mighty increase of the earth, the wondrous 
 fabric (GebildeJ wherein God by a new and special 
 creative act has bound the two worlds of spirit and 
 matter into organic unity. 
 
 From this idea of creation is deduced the idea of 
 sin, as consisting in a refusal on the creature's part to 
 recognize its creatureliness, and consequent dependence 
 on the absolute Being of God. It involves an infinite 
 debt (SchuldJ incurred by the creature, and an infinite 
 offence against the Creator, whom it directly tends, so 
 far as in it lies, to dethrone, because it is a negation 
 of His self-existent Being. By thus denying God it
 
 164 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 also denies the very basis of all creaturely existence, 
 and turns the life of the spirit into a lie, corrupting its 
 whole being, and marring, though it cannot destroy, 
 the image of God. It involves an eternal enmity be- 
 tween the creature and the Creator, as being a wilful 
 aversion from the Highest Good ; in a word, it involves 
 Hell, not as an infliction of the divine wrath, but as 
 the inevitable sequel of its own act in choosing self- 
 love rather than the love of God. Such are the effects 
 of sin on the spirit-world ; its eifects on the world of 
 man are further modified by the .conditions of his com- 
 posite nature, which is not mere spirit, but formed of 
 spirit and matter combined, each individual being part 
 of an organic whole, the member of a race. Hence it 
 follows, that the sin of the first and typical man be- 
 comes, not personally but gcnerically, the heritage of 
 all his children ; for though God creates each soul sepa- 
 rately, He creates it with reference to the particular 
 body it is destined to inhabit, not for a separate exist- 
 ence, but to become part of the composite man who 
 is a member of the race.* Sin, then, has a direct 
 effect in dissolving, ipso facto, the organization of hu- 
 manity. The parts lose their proper relationship and 
 union with each other, and both are accordingly dis- 
 honoured, the spiritual enslaved to the material, the 
 material itself made subject to a law of decay and 
 death extending over the whole physical creation. 
 The earth is cursed for man's sake. 
 
 But in the very ground of the curse lay also the 
 possibility of redemption. The generic transmission 
 of our fallen humanity, compounded of free spirit and 
 
 * Th: author alludes to ' creationism ' as opposed to ' traducianism.'
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 165 
 
 unfree matter, which was the channel of sin, might 
 prove the means of restoration, whenever a sinless 
 descendant of the first Adam should appear to become 
 the Second Head and Father of the race, the Source to 
 them of original merit (Erlverdienst) instead of original 
 sin fErlsundeJ . But this could only be One who was 
 God as well as man. The Spirit, who is the Bond of 
 Love in the Holy Trinity, and had been at first the 
 Principle of union between the creature and the 
 Creator, immediately departed on the entrance of sin 
 into the world. But the divine Logos, by whom all 
 tilings were made, as immediately took His place, and 
 began at once to speak with authority in the conscience, 
 so that man's life, amid manifold errors and darkness, 
 remained a religious one, and was never wholly cut 
 off from God even amid the deepest gloom of Heathen- 
 dom.* Conscience, as was shown in the case of Corne- 
 lius, contained in itself the germ of redemption, and 
 indeed of the future Church. We may say with Justin 
 Martyr, " Those, like Socrates and Heraclitus, who 
 lived according to the Logos (inwardly revealed) 
 were Christians." Or, in the author's own words, 
 " Conscience in its objectivity is the beginning of 
 the external Church, and the Church is the objective 
 perfection of conscience, having attained its outward 
 fulfilment." But, inasmuch as this inward revelation 
 to the individual conscience proved insufficient, an 
 outward revelation was added, and that, being addres- 
 sed to fallen man, could only be a revelation of the 
 Eedeemer. It was given first in the Covenant with 
 Abraham, then in the Law of Sinai, which ' fixed the 
 
 * I need hardly remind the reader of the famous argument for the supremacy 
 of conscience in Butler's Sermons on thf Constitution of Human Nature.
 
 166 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 categorical imperative of conscience in tables of stone.' 
 In the life of His chosen people God revealed a type 
 of His dealings with mankind, and their history ex- 
 hibited, as in a picture, the history and the judgment 
 of the world. The Levitical priesthood recalled the 
 reality of sin, the Prophetic Order spoke out with 
 growing distinctness, as time went on, the promise of 
 redemption. 
 
 We have seen that the created spirit had realized 
 its creaturely freedom in the choice of evil, through 
 what must be considered a second creative act. 
 Eestoration therefore could only be brought about 
 through a new creative act, not to annihilate the 
 former, which in itself is irreversible, but to abolish its 
 
 results fdass sich dieselbe obschon nicht in ihrem Seyn, 
 
 dock in ihrem Daseyn aufhebt und ausloschtj. And this 
 was a fresh revelation of God, not like the first, as 
 absolute Being, but as the Eedeemer and Atoner, to 
 renew that life, originally derived from Himself, 
 which the creature had lost by sin. It must be at 
 once an act of satisfaction wrought out through the 
 perfect obedience of a sinless Child of the fallen race, 
 and an act of creation and revelation vouchsafed by 
 God; therefore only the God-man could accomplish 
 it. This double work of restoration has necessarily a 
 gradual development, with various epochs and periods, 
 and this, as we have seen, was actually the case. First 
 the still small voice of God spoke, 'as from afar/ to 
 the conscience of man; next He revealed Himself 
 more intimately through the covenant with Abraham, 
 and the Jewish ritual ; and at last in the fulness of 
 time the divine fiat went forth, and the Word made 
 Flesh proclaimed Himself the Way, the Truth, and
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 167 
 
 the Life. He by whom all things were made at the 
 
 tf 
 
 beginning came to remake them. The union of God 
 and man in One Person finds a type and analogy in 
 the union of spirit and material nature in man, which 
 is also an organic union of life ; and in the God-man 
 each nature remains perfect and entire.* In His birth 
 of a Virgin we read both His identity with our com- 
 mon humanity and His distinction from it. He is a 
 member, not a product, of the race. The Second 
 Adam, like the first is (as Man) an immediate crea- 
 tion of God, but, unlike the first, takes root in the soil 
 of humanity, as being formed not from the ground, 
 but from the consecrated substance of a pure Virgin, 
 daughter of Eve. The thirty years of His hidden 
 life represent His fellowship with our nature, as Son 
 of Man ; the three years of His public ministry repre- 
 sent His manifestation, as the Son of God with power, 
 in His threefold office of King, Priest, and Prophet. 
 In His character as Second Adam and Head of the 
 race, He passed, like the first Adam, through the trial 
 and probation of free-will, not for Himself but for us. 
 The first man was placed for probation in the ' Paradise 
 of pleasure,' where every need was satisfied; the Second 
 was driven into the wilderness, that brought forth 
 thorns and thistles, the heritage of Adam's sin, to be 
 tempted of the devil after fasting forty days. Each of 
 
 * I omit the author's account of the hypostatic union, which does not materi- 
 ally differ from that in the ordinary manuals. He rejects, as inconsistent with 
 the perfection of manhood, the common opinion of a full infusion of beatific and 
 other knowledge into our Lord's Human Soul from the first, and holds, with some 
 of the Fathers, that there was a real growth in -wisdom, not only in its outward 
 manifestations. The question will be found discussed in Wilberforce's Incarna- 
 tion, ch. iv., Kuhn's Leben Jesu, i. 5. See also Petav. De Incarn. xi. 2-4, with 
 the notes of Alethinus, who takes the same view as Pabst, and on the same 
 grounds, as most consistent with the entire KtvwaiQ of the Incarnation.
 
 168 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 the three Temptations was an attempt in different 
 forms to make Him deny or doubt, if but for a mo- 
 ment, the perfect union of His human will with God. 
 In His victory over the Tempter through the free 
 exercise of that human will, though He was impeccable 
 by virtue of the hypostatic union, He asserted, what 
 Adam's sin had denied, the absolute dependence of the 
 creature on the Creator, and proclaimed before Heaven 
 and Hell the entire conformity of His creaturely will 
 with the will of God. And thus the work of redemp- 
 tion was begun.* 
 
 Since man by wilful disobedience had incurred the 
 debt of sin, only through willing obedience of the 
 whole life and being could that debt be paid. And 
 in order to profit the whole race, the payment must 
 take the shape of what in man is the natural conse- 
 quence and fruit of sin. The entire life of the Ee- 
 deemer, in great things as in small, must fulfil the 
 ideal of penance, which - in mankind is an inevitable 
 necessity, but in Him was a voluntary sacrifice. This 
 self-oblation, inaugurated in John's baptism of repent- 
 ance, was consummated in the dereliction and the Cross. 
 But His merit (Erbverdienst) can only be applied to 
 Hi a members individually by their own cooperation. 
 Bedemption is universal, justification depends on the 
 human will; and as all, whether under the law of 
 nature, or of Moses, or of grace, are lost who by 
 personal act make the common sin of the race their 
 own, so those alone can partake of the common merit 
 
 * There is an interesting discussion in Adam und Christus (pp. 76-83) on 
 the relations of the freedom of Christ's human will to Hia impeccability, but it 
 would take us too far from our proper subject to introduce it here. Cf. Kuhn's 
 lebtn Jtsu (Mainz, 1838), vol. i. ch. 4.
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 169 
 
 who by voluntary union with the life of Christ, the 
 ideal Man, make His merit theirs ; so that what before 
 were fruitless sufferings become in them a meritorious 
 satisfaction. This double connection of humanity with 
 the first Adam and the Second explains that strange 
 intermingling of good and evil, sorrow and joy, which 
 would else be the great riddle of life. For redemption 
 as little destroyed our freedom as the Fall, and those 
 who are led of the Spirit of Christ must be content to 
 share in this world the common penalties of the race, 
 just as those who in heart reject Him are still, as yet, 
 His brethren after the flesh. When, lastly, Christ 
 had made by the Sacrifice of the Cross an overflowing 
 redemption (copiosa redemptioj and gone down into 
 Hades, to pay to the uttermost the debt of sin, He rose 
 transfigured from the grave and ascended into heaven, 
 to send back the Spirit, who had been chased away by 
 sin, as the Teacher of all truth, and Comforter in all 
 trials and temptations. Thus was the work of re- 
 demption perfected, and summed up in the baptismal 
 formula in the name of the Holy Trinity. The divine 
 Spirit had, as we have seen, at the beginning united 
 the dependent creature with the self-existent God, and 
 now that same Spirit came once more to sanctify and 
 re-unite the ransomed race with Him. As the work 
 of re-creation is properly allotted to the Son who is the 
 Creative Word, so is the work of re-union assigned to 
 the Spirit who is the Bond of Love. 
 
 The Church of the Old Dispensation was the repre- 
 sentative of the coming Christ, the Church of these 
 latter days is the representative of the Word made 
 Flesh, who must be ever present in it as the infallible 
 Interpreter and great High Priest, with His abiding 
 Sacrifice. His life-long obedience to God, and His 
 
 Y
 
 170 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 life-long toil for man were concentrated and sealed in 
 the act of death, the ' bright bloom of the world-re- 
 deeming work of Christ.' Therefore that sacrificial 
 act must continue to be the supreme and characteristic 
 worship of God on earth, from which all other kinds 
 of worship derive their consecration and their worth. 
 Mankind cannot celebrate its solemn Easter without 
 the Easter Lamb. It was impossible but that the 
 Cross should become an altar, the material sacrifice of 
 Christ offered up in blood be perpetuated in an un- 
 bloody rite, that is in the sacrifice of the Mass. But 
 the Mass is a Sacrament as well as a sacrifice ; the 
 sacrifice sets forth the death of the Son of Man in its 
 relation to God, in the Communion is shown the death 
 of the Second Adam in its relation to humanity ; in 
 the former He is present as representative of the race, 
 in the latter as the Fountain of their new life. As in 
 the Mass there is offered with the Body and Blood of 
 Christ the whole family of believers, so in Communion 
 the redeemed are made partakers of that Body and 
 Blood, that they may have life in themselves. And 
 thus are His words fulfilled ; " If I be lifted up, I will 
 draw all things unto Me." 
 
 Such, then, are some specimens of the teaching of re- 
 cent German Catholic theologians on the Atonement.* 
 Of its treatment by modern Lutheran writers something 
 shall be said presently. Meanwhile let us revert for 
 a moment to a famous controversy carried on in France 
 between two of the most distinguished writers of the 
 seventeenth century. Among the many questions, 
 
 * It may be expected to be discussed in the next volume of a theological 
 work now in course of publication by Dr. Kuhn, Professor of Dogmatics in the 
 Catholic Faculty of Tubingen, one of the most distinguished among living Ger- 
 man theologians.
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 171 
 
 philosophical and theological, on which Malebranche 
 and Arnauld were opposed to each other, one was that 
 so often alluded to in these pages, on the motive of the 
 Incarnation. In his Treatise on Nature and Grace, the 
 great Oratorian maintains, that Jesus Christ, though 
 His birth among men occurred in the fulness of time, 
 is, in the eternal counsels, the Beginning of the ways 
 of God, the Firstborn of all creation, and the predes- 
 tined Model whereon our humanity was formed after 
 the image of His. The Word and Wisdom of God, 
 foreseeing among all possible creatures none other that 
 was worthy, offered Himself, to establish as Sovereign 
 Priest an everlasting worship in honour of His Father, 
 and to present a Victim deserving of His acceptance. 
 The world was created for the sake of the Church, that 
 is of Christ who is its Head, and man was formed after 
 the image of Christ, to be the ornament of this visible 
 temple. So far Malebranche said no more than had 
 often been said before him. But he goes on to observe, 
 that it was requisite for the fulfilment of His design 
 that man should be subject on earth not only to trials 
 and afflictions, but to the movements of concupiscence, 
 in order to illustrate the victories of grace ; and that 
 the sin of the first man was necessary, because for 
 making the elect merit that glory which shall be one 
 day theirs no means could be comparable to leaving 
 them for a while immersed in sin fde les laisser tous 
 enveloppcr duns le ptche pour lew faire a tons miser icorde 
 en Jesus Christ j, inasmuch as the glory they acquire 
 by resisting concupiscence through the grace of Christ 
 is greater than any other.* This need not, and per- 
 
 * Malebranche Traitede la Nature et de la Gr ce, ii, 24, 30, 31, sqq. Arnauld 
 replied in his Reflexions Philosophiquet et Theologiquet.
 
 172 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 haps did not, mean more than St. Paul's statement, 
 that God has concluded all under sin, or in unbelief, 
 that He may have mercy upon all, or than the some- 
 what poetical exclamation of the Roman ritual, ccrte 
 necessarium Adce pcccatum quod Christi morte delctum 
 est. Indeed Malebranche seems to have moulded his 
 language on such expressions as these. Still he cer- 
 tainly laid himself open to the retort, which was actu- 
 ally made, that on this theory the Fall was not simply 
 permitted but predestined by God, and that ' humanity 
 was sacrificed for Christ, not Christ for humanity.' 
 Arnauld, however, by no means contented himself with 
 objecting to this part of his opponent's system. He 
 appealed to the authority of Aquinas which is of 
 course on his side against the Scotist idea of the In- 
 carnation as independent of the Fall ; and, with less 
 prudence, asserted in reliance on Thomassin what is 
 unquestionably incorrect that the Fathers are unani- 
 mous in making the decree of the Incarnation depend 
 on the prevision of sin. It was not to be expected 
 that theologians, whose characteristic principle it was 
 to grudge the universality of redemption, should ap- 
 preciate what must have appeared to them the very 
 superfluous charity of assuming a nature which did 
 not need to be redeemed. And Arnauld, highly as 
 we may and must respect him as a man and a writer, 
 was, unhappily, deeply imbued with the theological 
 idiosyncracies of his school. He seems on some points 
 to have had the better of his antagonist, whose 
 antipathy to the Jansenistic scheme of predestina- 
 tion did not preserve him from starting another 
 theory, on the relations of grace to the human Soul of 
 Christ, equally arbitrary and in its results equally
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 173 
 
 objectionable.* But, on the whole, we may fairly consider 
 Malebranche as representing in this dispute the patristic 
 and Catholic tradition, while the great champion of 
 Jansenism, like the Lutherans and Calvinists before 
 him, adopts the narrower system, which had found 
 favour with some of the Schoolmen, and which till of 
 late has generally prevailed in the more orthodox 
 Protestant theology.']' 
 
 Here, then, our record of the past may be closed. 
 For the future, since the fall of the old Sorbonne, and 
 during the present lull of theological energy in Italy 
 and Spain, we look with anxious hope to the Catholic 
 thinkers of Germany, that nation once the sovereign 
 power of Christendom, but into whose hands in these 
 later days the torch of sacred as of secular science has 
 been committed, and which, like Greece of old, in the 
 decay of political greatness is conquering for itself a 
 nobler and more enduring empire in the leadership of 
 European thought. We turn to the land where Boni- 
 face preached and suffered, the cradle of the Anglo- 
 Saxon race, and ask its people to repay their kinsmen 
 in the fruits of sanctified intellect, from whom in earlier 
 days they received the heritage of faith. 
 
 * Some account of the controversy may be found in Sainte Beuve's Port Royal 
 (Paris, 1859), torn. v. ch. 6. The author seems, strangely enough, to imagine 
 that Malebranche ./{>< invented the idea of the Incarnation being predestined in- 
 dependently of the purpose of redemption. 
 
 t See Note at the end of Chapter on ' Recent Lutheran Theology.'
 
 174 
 
 NOTE I. ON CHAP. VI. 
 
 ON THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE SACRIFICE OF THE CROSS 
 AND THE EUCHARIST. 
 
 IT has been already observed that Sacrifice, that is, the self-devotion 
 of the -whole being, is the rightful homage due from the creature to 
 the Creator, and therefore was from the beginning the proper idea 
 of divine worship (Xarpt/a.) It is what constitutes, in techirical 
 language, the differentia of the supreme worship of God, as dis- 
 tinguished from all subordinate and derivative kinds of worship, 
 some of which may also be offered to our fellow-creatures, whether 
 living or departed. Thus, incense is not only presented at the altar, 
 but to the officiating clergy and congregation also; so, again, we 
 may ask the Saints at rest or friends on earth to pray for us, which 
 is a kind of worship ; or, to take another instance, outward acts of 
 devotion, as bending the knee, are paid to earthly sovereigns. But 
 to offer sacrifice, if only by an internal act of the mind, to any 
 created being is the essence of idolatry, and a sin against the first 
 and great commandment. The true worship of God, then, always 
 consisted in sacrifice, both internal and external ; though the out- 
 ward expression might vary according to time and circumstance, and 
 was in fact essentially changed by the sacrifice of Christ. Mean- 
 while the idea itself had been modified by the introduction of sin 
 into the world, which gave it a new character of reparation (cf. Chap- 
 IV.) and made all human sacrifice imperfect. One alone could now 
 offer a full and perfect satisfaction and oblation : in the life and 
 death of Christ the idea received not merely its highest, but its sole 
 adequate fulfilment. In the eternal purpose of God He was 'the 
 Lamb Slain from the foundation of the world,' and all acts of human 
 worship were accepted, so far as they were accepted, in and through
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 175 
 
 that One spotless Sacrifice, though the -worshippers knew it not. 
 But when in the fulness of time the Lamh had been slain, not in 
 predestination but in fact, that One Sacrifice once offered became, 
 from the nature of the case, and in reality not in symbol, the true 
 and characteristic worship of the Catholic Church. Types were 
 necessarily abolished ; commemorations there might be, but they are 
 not properly sacrifice, and are therefore insufficient ; to repeat the 
 One Sacrifice is impossible ; to attempt a supplement or a substitute 
 would be both useless and profane. Therefore the same Sacrifice 
 must abide for ever in the Church. 
 
 Two things then are clear: (1) that the distinctive and supreme 
 worship of the Church must still, as of old, be a worship of sacrifice, 
 or it would not, strictly speaking, be worship at all ; (2) that since the 
 One great Oblation has been actually offered, to which nothing can be 
 added, and which cannot be repeated, the Christian Sacrifice must be, 
 not prefigurative like those of the law, or commemorative merely, 
 but identical with that of the cross. For no other sacrifice is hence- 
 forth possible, or conceivable. Every Christian prayer, indeed, com- 
 memorates the Sacrifice of Christ, and is accepted through it ; but the 
 central act of worship must be that very Sacrifice itself, though 
 offered in a different manner on the altar and on the cross. It is not 
 repeated but continued in the Church on earth, through the ministry 
 of His representatives, as in the courts of Heaven directly by Him- 
 self. And from this follows also the reality of His Presence. The 
 same Body and Blood which were offered on Calvary must be offered 
 in the Christian Sacrifice (though the manner of the Presence as of 
 the oblation differs), or the Sacrifice could not be the same. Bread 
 and wine, however sacred from consecration to a sacred use (like the 
 water of baptism or the oil of confirmation or of the last unction), 
 could never become the material of more than a commemorative rite. 
 If the oblation is the same, the thing offered must be the same too. 
 And therefore the Real Presence of the divine Victim is essential to 
 the reality of the Sacrifice.* 
 
 Hence, again, it follows, that the argument of the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews, often quoted against the truth of the Eucharistic Sacrifice, 
 
 * This is not the place to enter on the Doctrine of the Real Presence. The 
 philosophical side of the question is discussed with great acuteness in Dalgairns' 
 Jlo'y Communion (Duffy, 1862) ; Cardinal Wiseman has exhibited the scriptural 
 argument, with special reference to Oriental languages, in his Lectures on the 
 Blessed Eucharist (Dolman, 1830); and the patristic argument is drawn out in 
 "Wilberforce's Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist (Mozley, 1853).
 
 176 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 in fact confirms it. For what is the drift of that argument ? That 
 the One Sacrifice of Christ has superseded and abolished all types 
 and shadows of the Law, and is itself incapable of supplement or 
 iteration. He has, we are told, an ' unchangeable Priesthood,' and 
 is 'a Priest for ever after the order of Melchisedec.' What is this 
 but to say, that His Sacrifice abides for ever in the Church, and re- 
 mains for all time the supreme act of creaturely adoration, and centre 
 of all Christian worship ? Or, in other words, that glorified Body, 
 which He presents continually before God in heaven, He presents no 
 less truly, though ' in a mystery,' on our altars, in whose sight the 
 visible and invisible Church are not two but one Kingdom of God. 
 What Christ really offered by anticipation in the upper room at 
 Jerusalem He offers really now by perpetuation in heaven and on 
 earth. 
 
 In illustration of what has been said, I subjoin a passage from a 
 great living theologian, forming the close of a dissertation on ' the 
 Eucharist as a Sacrament and a Sacrifice,' the whole of which is 
 well worth perusal; "Thus the Christian Sacrifice is at once per- 
 manent, and single. Its unity does not contradict its duration, nor 
 its duration prevent its being ever one and indivisible. The offering 
 of that Sacrifice is indeed divided into numberless acts, according to 
 the conditions of time and space in this earthly life ; but they are 
 brought into unity and held together through the Person of Christ, 
 in whom and with whom His ministers do all their acts. It is pre- 
 cisely in this multiplicity of the oblation, by which the One ever- 
 living Yictim is offered and the Sacrifice of the Cross constantly 
 applied anew in its effects to the whole body and to its individual 
 members, that the perfection and indissoluble power of that Sacrifice 
 reveals itself. To the retrospective glance of the Christian the num- 
 ber of sacrificial acts on the altars of the Church at once take their 
 place, as dependent on that one heavenly offering, which again 
 depends on that of the Cross, as one single celebration of sacrifice. 
 ' For Christ is gone into heaven itself to appear now for us before 
 the presence of God.' It is no new immolation that takes place, 
 only that once offered on Golgotha is shown to the Christian people 
 in a symbolic act sensibly representing the separation of body and 
 blood in death. The Cross has developed into a living Tree, ever 
 green and ever fruitful, overshadowing the Church of all times and 
 all places."* 
 
 * Dollinger's Chrislenthum und Eirche (ut supr.), p. 256.
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 177 
 
 Lastly, I will give, as it stands, the statement on this subject in the 
 Tridentine Catechism; "Unum igitur et idem sacrificium esse fate- 
 mur, et haberi debet, quod in missa peragitur, et quod in Cruce 
 oblatum est; quemadmodum una est et eadem Hostia, Christus 
 videlicet Dominus noster, qui Se Ipsum in ara Crucis semel tantum- 
 modo cruentum immolavit. I^eque enim cruenta et incmenta 
 Hostia dute sunt Hostile, sed una tantum ; cujus sacrificium post- 
 quam Dominus ita proecepit, ' Hoc facite in Meam commemorationem,' 
 in Eucharistia quotidie instauratur. Sed unus etiam atque idem 
 Sacerdos est, Christus Dominus ; nam ministri, qui sacrificium 
 faciunt, non suam, sed Christi Personam suscipiunt, cum Ejus Corpus 
 et San,?uinem conficiunt. Id quod et ipsius consecrationis verbis 
 ostenditur. Xeque enim sacerdos inquit, 'Hoc est Corpus Christi,' 
 sed ' Hoc est Corpus 3Ieum,' Personam scilicet Christi Domini gerens, 
 panis et vini substantiam in veram Ejus Corporis et Sanguinis, sub- 
 stantiam convertit." * 
 
 It is superfluous to add passages from the Fathers in evidence of 
 their ^ell-known and unanimous teaching on the Eucharistic Sacri- 
 fice. 
 
 * Cat. ad Par. Pars n., cap. iv., Q. 74, 75.
 
 178 
 
 NOTE II. ON CHAP. VI. 
 
 RECENT LUTHERAN THEOLOGY ON THE MOTIVE OF THE 
 INCARNATION. 
 
 IT has been observed more than once, that the Scotist view of the 
 motive of the Incarnation was foreign to the ideas of the Reforma- 
 tion. It was indeed maintained by Osiander, as we have seen, but 
 the exception is exactly of that kind which proves the rule, for here, 
 as in many other points, Osiander felt himself and was felt by his 
 coreligionists to be- out of harmony with the general Lutheran senti- 
 ment of his day. With him began that reaction against the first 
 Reformers, which has been traced out in an earlier chapter, and 
 which lasted till the Reformation merged into the Rationalist move- 
 ment in Germany. A similar spirit has however reappeared in our 
 own day in some of the more eminent Lutheran divines of the ortho- 
 dox school, and their adoption of the Scotist view as an integral 
 part of their system is an illustration of it. It may be worth while 
 to give a few instances of this. 
 
 Martensen, a Danish Lutheran, whose work, Die christliche Dog- 
 inatik (Kiel, 1850), I quote from a German translation, teaches 
 as follows. Man is created after the image of the divine Logos. 
 The ' supralapsarian' view of Calvin, that redemption, and therefore 
 sin, was predestined from, eternity is met by saying that the Incarna- 
 tion was predestined from eternity as the true ideal of humanity, 
 but not the Passion and death of the God-man. It resulted from our 
 wilful sin, that ' the divine revelation of love actually took place as 
 a revelation of redemption.' Christ can only become our Redeemer 
 because He is by an eternal purpose our Mediator. We must not 
 aay, that ' without sin there would have been no place in the human
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 179 
 
 family for the glory of the Only-begotten.' He, who would any- 
 how have been the Mediator of an imperfect race, has humbled Him- 
 self yet further to become the Eedeemer of a sinful race. ( Christ. 
 Dogm. pp. 151, 193-5, 294.) The author, while accepting generally 
 the language of the Lutheran formulas, gives them an interpretation 
 widely different from that of their founders. The shocking exaggera- 
 tions of Lather and Calvin on the nature and consequences of 
 original sin are softened down to a sense little, if at all, different 
 from that of Catholic tradition. The satisfaction of Christ is ex- 
 plained through His redemption, and justification as implying the 
 gift of a new principle of holiness implanted in the soul. The ap- 
 peasing the wrath of God, and the ' active obedience ' of Christ, 
 which play so important a part in earlier Protestant theology, are 
 reduced to conformity with the teaching of the Fathers ; while many 
 Lutheran opinions are expressly rejected, as the ubiquity of Christ's 
 Body, and the Lutheran gloss on the descent into Hell. An in- 
 termediate state of purification between death and judgment is 
 maintained, nor does Martensen object to call it Purgatory ; he pre- 
 fers the mediaeval opinion to that of the Reformers as to the age of 
 the resurrection body. The book is interesting in itself, and as 
 marking the contrast between earlier and later Lutheranism. It 
 closes with a remarkable discussion on the future condition of the 
 wicked, with scriptural and patristic authorities. 
 
 Thomasius, a professor at Erlangen, of narrower views than Mar- 
 tensen, whose work on Origen has already been referred to, discusses 
 the motive of the Incarnation at some length in his Christi Person und 
 IVerk (Erlangen, 1853), urging the authority of Scripture, Fathers, 
 and Schoolmen against Martensen's view, which he rejects as well 
 on that account as from thinking that it derogates from the love of 
 Christ, and refers His taking our nature to an internal necessity in 
 the being of God, not to compassion for man an objection which 
 would be at least equally applicable to the Anselmic and many Pro- 
 testant theories of satisfaction ; but in fact it does not really apply at 
 all here, for the intention of taking our humanity in order to unite 
 us with God is itself one free act of love, the further purpose of suf- 
 fering for our redemption is another. Thomasius considers the decree 
 of the Incarnation to be included in the decree of creation, modified 
 through the entrance of sin foreseen though not predestined by God. 
 He says that in Christ the archetype of humanity is bodily fulfilled. 
 He quotes Domer, as holding the opposite (Scotist) view ; but the
 
 180 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 purely historical character of Corner's work does not give scope for 
 treating such questions directly. 
 
 Nagelsbach, in his work Der Gottmemch (Niirnberg, 1853), de- 
 voted to showing, as against atheism and pantheism, that the God- 
 man is 'the fundamental idea of revelation in its unity and histori- 
 cal development,' maintains that the union between God and man 
 which love requires, can only be realized by God taking on Himself 
 not abstract but actual humanity, i. e. becoming man. His Incar- 
 nation cannot be accidental. It is opposed, as Kurtz says, to all 
 Christian feeling and consciousness, that we should owe it, and the 
 deification of our nature, only to sin. It is implied in the very prin- 
 ciple of love, that this was from the first the end and scope of human 
 history. Its first prophecy is not Gen. iii. 15, but Gen. i. 26. 
 The First Adam implies the Second. All previous history was an 
 education of the world for His coming, all Christian history springs 
 from Him as its Hoot, whose appearance is the centre-point in the 
 life of the world. (Der Gottmensch, vol. i. pp. 28-32.) Liebner, in 
 his Christologie (Gottingen, 1849), argues at length, that the Incar- 
 nation and the consequent deification of our nature were involved in 
 the original act of creative love, as the archetype and proper term of 
 humanity. He answers in detail the objections of Thomasius. 
 
 Rothe, one of the greatest Lutheran divines of the day, in his 
 Theologische JSthik (vol. ii. pp. 252-338), treats of the redemption 
 wrought by Christ. He does not expressly touch on the probabilities 
 of the Incarnation, as antecedent to sin ; but he considers redemption 
 involved in the original act of creation, though requiring a fresh 
 creative act or new beginning of the race, proceeding from the 
 race itself, but by a supernatural origin : i. e. a Second Adam. The 
 author traces out the preparation for Christ's coming under the Old 
 Law by the moral education of mankind, and by miracle and pro- 
 phecy, leading up to the final revelation in His personal appearance, 
 the end of which is redemption, or restored communion between God 
 and men, by the removal of sin which divided them. In order to 
 mediate between God and man, He must share the nature of both 
 perfectly, and must make a free and complete self-oblation of His 
 whole being for the honour of God, and for love of man ; and this in 
 a sinful world, hating holiness and truth, and under the dominion of 
 Satan, can only be consummated through the sacrifice of His life. 
 To impart the fruits of His redemption, He has founded a spiritual 
 kingdom or family among men, whereof He is the Head and Heart,
 
 LATER CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 181 
 
 from -which the life of the whole body is derived. For the redemp- 
 tion of sinful humanity, wrought fully once for all by Himself, must 
 be applied separately to individual members of the race. Only so 
 can actual redemption and propitiation before God be accomplished 
 for them, through the removal of sin and of the debt and punish- 
 ment which are its consequences. Pardon cannot be bestowed, 
 unless there is a guarantee for the actual casting out of sin. When 
 the sinner is thus reconciled with God, a gradual process of renewal 
 follows, in which the moral and religious elements are constantly 
 tending to become identified. For cases of death-bed conversion, and 
 even for those who die unconverted, there still remains till the end 
 of the present world and the general judgment an intermediate state 
 of trial, probably by fire (for which Mark ix. 49 is quoted). But a 
 time comes sooner or later, when the being is wholly turned to evil, 
 (damonisirt,} and no further change is possible. Conversion after 
 death is harder than before, and the higher position once forfeited 
 can never be regained. (Ib., pp. 190-2, 484, 488.) 
 
 Similar specimens of modern Lutheran teaching might easily be 
 multiplied; but these are taken as a sample, from some of the principal 
 contemporary divines of that body.
 
 182 
 
 CHAPTER YIL 
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMENT IN RELATION TO MAN. 
 
 AND now that we are come to the end of our inquiry, 
 does it not almost seem as if we were still at the be- 
 ginning? Are we not tempted to exclaim, with the 
 philosopher of old, that the end of all knowledge is 
 the consciousness of our ignorance ? Doubtless what 
 Coleridge said of philosophy is even more true of theo- 
 logy, that it begins in wonder and ends in wonder. 
 Indeed this is but to repeat the language of the ritual, 
 that He, who has wonderfully created our nature, has 
 yet more wonderfully redeemed it. 
 
 "Das Wunder 1st des Glaubens liebstes Kind."* 
 
 After all has been said, much must ever remain un- 
 said. Our deepest feelings are precisely those we are 
 least able to express ; and, even in the act of adoration, 
 silence is our highest praise. Still, without attempting 
 to dogmatize on points beyond the sphere of revelation, 
 we may gather up some results, both negative and 
 positive, from what has been recorded of the past. 
 Not to dwell on minor undercurrents of opinion or 
 
 * Gothe's Fatuf.
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATOXEilEXT. 183 
 
 belief, we have seen the successive waves of two great 
 theories of satisfaction pass over the surface of theo- 
 logy, and again retire, but not without leaving in- 
 delible traces behind them. First came the Origenist 
 notion of a ransom paid to the Evil Spirit, which found 
 its latest utterance in Peter Lombard, but was then 
 already merging into the broader and more spiritual 
 conception of a victory over sin, and therefore over 
 him who is its author. After this followed the An- 
 selmic conception of an infinite satisfaction for an infi- 
 nite debt, discussed in all' its bearings throughout the 
 scholastic period, and almost universally rejected, but 
 finding new advocates at the Reformation, and becom- 
 ing in their hands the basis of a system, which has 
 served first to distort, and then to alienate, the moral 
 and religious convictions of a large section of Chris- 
 tendom. The scholastic controversy brought out with 
 peculiar clearness that, while we have no right to as- 
 sume that an adequate satisfaction was necessary, a 
 satisfaction not only sufficient but superabundant has 
 certainly been made, owing to the infinite worth, by 
 virtue of the hypostatic union, of those human acts 
 and sufferings which the Redeemer offered as the 
 Head and Eepresentative of our race. We cannot, 
 again, say, except by a figure of speech, that our sins 
 were imputed to Him, or that He who was sinless en- 
 dured the wrath of God ; still less, in the blasphemous 
 language of several Lutheran divines, that He suffered 
 the torments of the damned. Yet it is certain, that 
 the mental greatly exceeded the bodily sufferings of 
 the Passion, and that they were chiefly, though not 
 exclusively, supernatural. Even those which at first 
 blush might seem purely natural, as the awful solitude
 
 184 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 of which the Prophet spoke, or the 'contradiction' fore 
 told by Simeon and noticed in the Epistle to the He- 
 brews, have their supernatural side also. The Agony 
 in the Garden and dereliction on the Cross represent, 
 in the language of prophecy, an ' ocean of sorrow,' on 
 whose shore we may stand, and gaze down upon the 
 waveless surface; but the depths below no created 
 intelligence can fathom. That, in some sense to us 
 incomprehensible, Jesus received into His human con- 
 sciousness the countless sins of all generations of man- 
 kind, and vouchsafed to learn by experience what it 
 is to be shut out -from the Eternal Love, is attested by 
 the fourth word on the Cross, and the sweat of Blood. 
 Dolor Mem in conspectu Meo semper. We can but 
 adore in silence the inscrutable secret of those ' un- 
 known agonies,' the interior martyrdom sealed at last 
 in death. 
 
 The controversies of the Eeformation threw a fresh 
 light on the subjective and moral aspects of the doc- 
 trine, and exhibited with peculiar distinctness the 
 error of supposing, that the Atonement wrought by 
 Christ was to be understood as superseding our own 
 satisfactions or obedience, instead of sanctifying and 
 transforming them. This was in fact the question 
 that lay at the root of the long disputes on justification, 
 and the nature of justifying faith. 
 
 Another idea elicited in the course of discussion is, 
 that in all probability the Son of God, ' the Firstborn 
 of every creature,' would have assumed our nature, and 
 sanctified it by personal indwelling, though we had 
 needed no redemption. We could not have argued d 
 priori that He would come at all, or that, when we 
 had fallen, He would come to die. We could not have
 
 MOEAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMENT. 185 
 
 told that the Incarnation of Jesus was to be the means 
 of our union with the Godhead, or that our atonement, 
 if atonement was needed, would be wrought by His 
 death. K"or can we tell why it has been so now. The 
 reasons lie deep in the counsels of eternal wisdom. 
 But looking back on what has actually occurred, with ' 
 the light which revelation throws upon it, we may 
 discern something, if not of the original causes of the 
 Atonement, at least of its adaptation to our nature, 
 and the lessons it is designed to teach. There is a 
 fitness in the belief, that He, who is c the Brightness of 
 the everlasting Light, the unspotted Mirror of God's 
 majesty, and Image of His goodness,' would have come 
 to make ' His delights with the children of men,' even 
 if they had persevered in their primal innocence. Still 
 more does it seem natural to us, that, when we had 
 sinned, He should consecrate afresh our fallen hu- 
 manity in the baptism of blood; and this for many 
 reasons. 
 
 1. Pain, as has been already said, is the deepest and 
 truest thing in our nature since the Fall. We feel in- 
 stinctively that it is so, even before we can tell why. 
 Pain is what binds us most closely to one another and 
 to God. It appeals most directly to our sympathies, 
 as the very structure of language indicates. To go no 
 further than our own, we have English words, such as 
 condolence, to express sympathy with grief; we have 
 no one word to express sympathy with joy. So, again, 
 it is a common remark that, if a funeral and wedding 
 procession were to meet, something of the shadow of 
 death would be cast over the bridal train, but no 
 reflection of bridal happiness would pass into the 
 mourners' hearts. Scripture itself has been not in- 
 
 A a
 
 18G THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 aptly called ' a record of human sorrow.' The same 
 name might be given to history. ' Man is bom to 
 trouble as sparks fly upward.' Friendship is scarcely 
 sure till it has been proved in suffering, but the chains 
 of an affection riveted in that fiery furnace are not 
 easily broken. So much then at least is clear, that 
 the Passion of Jesus was the greatest revelation of His 
 sympathy ; " Greater love hath no man than this, that 
 a man lay down his life for his Mends." " It was 
 fitting that God should make the Author of their sal- 
 vation perfect through sufferings." And hence Fathers 
 and Schoolmen alike conspire to teach, that one reason 
 why He chose the road of suffering was to knit us 
 more closely to Himself. For this He ' exalted His 
 head,' not on a throne of earthly glory, but on the 
 cross of death. It is no mere accident, but a law of 
 our present being, 
 
 " That to the Cross the mourner's eye should turn, 
 Sooner than where the stars of Christmas burn." * 
 
 And all, in their several degrees and ways, are mourn- 
 ers. From this, too, it follows, that the Cross was not 
 only a manifestation of His love, but, as the apostle 
 reminds us, of His power also. He was lifted up 
 thereon, not only as the great High-priest and true 
 Melchisedec of a better covenant, not only as the 
 Prophet, who could preach most persuasively from 
 that uneasy deathbed of the bleeding tree, but in vin- 
 dication of the regal office, to which also He was 
 anointed by the Eternal Spirit in Mary's womb. The 
 Cross was an altar of Sacrifice, and a chair of Truth, 
 
 * Christian Tear. Good Friday.
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATOXEMEXT. 187 
 
 but it was also, strange as it may sound to say so, the 
 throne of an everlasting kingdom. It was there the 
 Redeemer asserted His double royalty, over the intel- 
 lects and the hearts of men. 
 
 When is it that we most deeply realize the presence 
 of our King ? ]^ot when the angel brightness shines 
 on the fields of Bethlehem, and the Gloria in Excelsis 
 of angel music rings clear and sweet through the still- 
 ness of the midnight heavens ; not when the Paschal 
 alleluias sound over the opened Grave ; or the mighty 
 wind is rocking the upper chamber, where the Para- 
 clete descends in tongues of flame on the first believers 
 of the infant Church. ]STo ; but in the grave solemnity 
 of the Good Friday procession, when altars are strip- 
 ped, and bells are hushed, and lights burn dim, and 
 the crucifix is veiled, and for that day alone of all the 
 year the daily sacrifice has ceased, as though the reign 
 of Antichrist were come, and the abomination of deso- 
 lation set up in the most holy place ; it is then the 
 strange unearthly melody of the Vexilla Regis breaks 
 on the silence of our supernatural sorrow, with the 
 tidings that He, the Crucified, is Lord and King. 
 
 " The royal banners forward go, 
 The Cross shines forth in mystic show." 
 
 And, therefore, when scarce four centuries had passed 
 since the Crucifixion, the greatest Father of the Church 
 could openly appeal to the glory of that Cross ' once 
 trampled on by the enemy, but now the brightest 
 ornament of a monarch's crown.'* The foolishness of 
 that preaching of the Cross overcame the world; it 
 
 * Aug. in Ps. liy. 9.
 
 188 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 subdued the pride of philosophy, and tamed the fire 
 of lust. Domuit orbcm non ferro sed liyno. He with 
 great power had exalted His chosen people, and they 
 exalted His head on the accursed tree ; but from that 
 tree, stained with the blood-red dye of empire and of 
 martyrdom, He claimed and conquered the allegiance 
 of mankind. In the words of a writer too early 
 snatched away, "All the other bonds that had fastened 
 down the Spirit of the universe to our narrow round 
 of earth were as nothing in comparison to this golden 
 chain of suffering and self-sacrifice, which at once 
 riveted the heart of man to One, who, like himself, 
 was acquainted with grief."* In this sense also His 
 sacred limbs 
 
 " were nailed, 
 For our advantage, on the bitter Cross." 
 
 What is it, again, that gives to the rolling music of 
 the Psalter, which has echoed for above three thousand 
 years along the corridors of the Jewish or the Christian 
 Church, its peculiar force and charm a sweetness 
 that never wearies, a power that never fails and has 
 fitted it to record the most various experiences of 
 individuals and of nations, to syllable the deepest 
 thoughts whether of joy or sorrow which have stirred 
 the hearts, and shaped the destinies, of a hundred 
 generations of the chosen people of God ? It is not 
 only that marvellous fulness of human utterance, that 
 exquisite refinement and tenderness of pathos, which 
 strike a responsive chord in our inmost being, that 
 have made the Psalter our most cherished manual of 
 
 * Arthur Hallam's Remains.
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMENT. 189 
 
 secret devotion, the most familiar and universal organ 
 of our public praise. It is this, but it is more than 
 this ; their inspired sympathy with every phase of the 
 Redeemer's life-long Passion, with every sentiment of 
 the Heart which gathered up and recapitulated in 
 Itself the collective heart of humanity, has made the 
 songs of Israel the rightful heirloom and common 
 ritual of Christendom. For the history of the Passion 
 is, in one sense, the history of the Church, and in the 
 streets of that ' great city, which is spiritually called 
 Sodom and Egypt,' our Lord is not once but perpetu- 
 ally crucified. 
 
 2. Once more. Jesus not only drew us to Himself 
 by what in our fallen nature was the most intimate 
 and holiest bond of sympathy; He also transmuted 
 suffering from a chastisement into a means of grace. 
 It became a kind of supplementary sacrament, conse- 
 crated in the prayer of Gethseinane, " Thy will be 
 done." He died not, as some have imagined, to 
 supersede our imperfect satisfactions, but to ennoble 
 them, and give them worth. Thenceforth they have a 
 true though derivative value, because they are shadows 
 of His Cross, and sprinkled with His atoning blood. 
 They have merit, not in spite of His meritorious Pas- 
 sion, but because of it. Just as His obedience was not 
 to be the substitute, but the pattern .and rule of ours, 
 so too in suffering He left us an example of penance. 
 He did not abolish for His disciples the common doom 
 of sorrow, but sanctified it. He bade them take up 
 their daily cross, but He showed how that cross might 
 be turned from a curse to a beatitude. The cloud of 
 doubt or perplexity has melted away, and His people 
 are free to serve Him, in the spirit not of slaves but
 
 190 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 sons. We know that our poor satisfactions are ac- 
 cepted, because they are joined with His. The great 
 law of retributive justice, that sin must suffer, fymuavn 
 iraeew, which suggested the grandest and most religious 
 drama of the ancient world, lay as a heavy burden at 
 the poet's heart. The Sacrifice of Calvary assures us 
 that the law of justice is also a law of love. Suffering 
 is as the rough ore embedded in the earth, out of 
 which may be fashioned crowns of glory or chains of 
 bondage. It is ours to make friends of the wages of 
 iniquity, by offering our righteous chastisements in 
 atonement for our sin. The Passion has impressed on 
 every act of Christian service a new power of repara- 
 tion. Since Jesus lived as a ' Man of sorrows,' the 
 trials of life have attained a meaning and a dignity ; 
 since Jesus died, the solitude of death, of which a 
 Christian philosopher has spoken,* is less terrible than 
 before, the stone is rolled away from the door of the 
 sepulchre, and a light is shed from the Cross on the 
 cleansing fires of the world beyond the grave. When 
 'the two voices' are striving in man's soul for the 
 mastery, there are others than Faust whose hand has 
 been arrested by the music of the Easter bells. 
 
 3. In the method of the Atonement and in its abid- 
 ing presence in the Church, we are taught the spirit 
 of self-sacrifice, which lies at the root of all human 
 excellence, and is the true measure of our perfection. 
 When we come to present that great Sacrifice on the 
 altar, we are bidden to say; "We give Thee thanks 
 because of Thy great ylory" He who has learnt the 
 meaning of those words has caught the spirit of the 
 
 * " Je mourrai scul." Pascal. Pensces,
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMENT. 191 
 
 Eucharist, and of the Cross.* Nor only so. The cen- 
 tral act of Christian worship is at once a Sacrifice and 
 a Communion. It teaches us both parts of the precept 
 of charity, self-devotion to God, and self-devotion for 
 the good of man. All genuine nobility of character 
 springs from self-oblivion, and self-oblivion is the spirit 
 of sacrifice. The toil of the mission, the zeal of the 
 apostle, the varied ministries of bodily or spiritual con- 
 solation, the meekness of endurance, the heroism of 
 action, the patience of confessorship, the courage of 
 martyrdom all these are fruits and tokens of the Cross. 
 It is the source of their energy, and the rule of their 
 fulfilment. Tender children, like the boy-martyrs of 
 Japan, have rapturously kissed the cross, whereon 
 they counted it a joy and an honour to die, as Jesus 
 died. On others His death has seemed to be almost 
 visibly imprinted, who, from intense and continuous 
 meditation on the Passion, have exhibited the marks, 
 and felt something of the bodily pains of the Crucified.*!' 
 But to all His followers, in their measure and degree, 
 must a share be imparted in that communion of sacri- 
 fice. It is a contradiction to be i delicate members of 
 a body whose Head is crowned with thorns.' Obedi- 
 ence, poverty, and virginity, which are among the 
 
 * "The Mass is the compendium of the Gospel. It is a heresy in doctrine to 
 acknowledge the Sacrament and to deny the Sacrifice. Worldliness is guilty of 
 a similar practical heresy with regard to holiness. It admits the claims of all 
 its obligations but one, and that is the obligation of sacrifice." Faber's Precious 
 Blood, p. 303. 
 
 f There can be no doubt about the fact of what is called 'stigmatization,' as 
 in the case of the Tyrolese ' Addolorata,' and others. It is perhaps to be ex- 
 plained as the physiological result of a peculiar concentration of mind on the 
 Passion, rather than as strictly miraculous. But it is not always easy to draw 
 the line. The Precious Blood, and the ' Five Wounds' are among the most popu- 
 lar 'special devotions' in the Church. See also 2 Cor. iv. 10 ; Gal. vi. 17.
 
 192 THE ATOXEilENT. 
 
 characteristic tokens of the Incarnation, are not, as has 
 sometimes been suggested, the specialities of a par- 
 ticular age or condition of society, though the manner 
 of their exercise may vary. Christianity knows no- 
 thing of ' dead virtues,' for in the power and example 
 of the Crucified all graces live. And, even as He came 
 not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give 
 His life a ransom, so we too are likest Him, when we 
 lay down our lives for the brethren. ]S"or is that 
 sacrifice less acceptably offered in an age, like the 
 present, of high civilization and refinement, when 
 direct persecution is hardly to be thought of, though 
 it may not win the praise of men, or attract their 
 notice. The inglorious martp-dom of labour, or weari- 
 ness, or contradiction ' the pang without the palm' 
 conies nearest His, who on earth was hidden and des- 
 pised; there are many Saints uncertified by public 
 recognition here, whose names are written in heaven. 
 The lesson of love is taught at Bethlehem, on Calvary 
 love is crucified ; but the Incarnate Victim is present 
 still, an abiding Sacrifice, in the Eucharist. To under- 
 stand what that mystery teaches is to understand the 
 scope of our Christian vocation, our highest law of life. 
 For His was a life-long Sacrifice. That is no fanciful 
 picture, with which Overbeck has familiarized us, of 
 the Boy-Christ on the Cross, with the thrilling pro- 
 phecy written beneath it, Dolor Meus in conspectu 
 Meo semper. And what He voluntarily chose for His 
 earthly lot He made into a privilege for His children. 
 There was a place found for the mourner, the perse- 
 cuted, the reviled, among the Beatitudes of the king- 
 dom of God. 
 
 4. It is a common saying, that cruelty and cowardice
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATOXEMEXT. 193 
 
 go together ; so also do self-sacrifice and tenderness. 
 They are different sides of the same idea. And all 
 the delicacy and romance, so to speak, of Christian 
 tenderness is perceptibly an outgrowth of the Cross. 
 If we compare either the characters of holy men, or 
 the broader facts of history, before and since the Cru- 
 cifixion, there are few contrasts so remarkable as the 
 presence or absence of that special quality which may 
 be called the grace and bloom of sacrifice, which is the 
 chivalry of self-devotion, and gives to heroic patience 
 its winning and attractive power. Compare Samuel 
 Avith St. Bernard, or Moses with the Teacher of the 
 Gentiles. The points of resemblance are many and 
 striking, but there is in each case a marked distinction. 
 Moses devoted his life for his people, his brethren after 
 the flesh, and could even pray that his own name might 
 be blotted out of the book of God's remembrance for 
 their sakes; but we seek in vain for that power of 
 world-wide sympathy, at once so universal and so 
 minute, which makes us feel towards the great apostle 
 even now, as we read his words, as though he were a 
 personal friend. Samuel did not cease to pray for his 
 royal master, till the day of his death; but we see 
 nothing of that intense feeling which melted Bernard 
 into an agony of tears, when he preached over a bro- 
 ther's grave.* It is the chief apostle of the Church 
 
 * It is not of course meant to deny, that there are exquisite touches of tender- 
 ness to be met with in the Old Testament history, as in the recognition of Joseph 
 by his brethren, and still more in the affection of David and Jonathan ; but the 
 very vividness with which such instances fix themselves in our memory shows, 
 that they are rare and exceptional. I hope it is not an over refinement to add, 
 that they mostly occur in the case of persons who are commonly recognized as- 
 partial types of Christ. 
 
 Bb
 
 194 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 who bids us be ' sympathizing, lovers of the brethren, 
 merciful, courteous. ' * 
 
 Or turn from individual to national characteristics. 
 Pain, deformity, sickness, sorrow, old age, are an heir- 
 loom of the Fall, but their cure or consolation is an 
 outflow from that Heart, which * for us men and for 
 our salvation ' was pierced on Calvary. Borne, Athens, 
 Alexandria, in their palmiest days, took no heed of 
 suffering, or heeded it only as an eyesore to be con- 
 cealed, or even as a crime to be punished. Our hos- 
 pitals, refuges, sisterhoods of compassion, and the like, 
 are a shadow cast from the Cross. There have, indeed, 
 in terrible visitations of pestilence been scenes of fren- 
 zied selfishness in Christian cities, that do but too well 
 recall the worst moral features of the plague recorded 
 by Thucydides and Lucretius ; but there was no Bor- 
 romeo at Athens to stand, as an angel of mercy, between 
 the living and the dead. There have been in our own 
 day cruel massacres at the barricades of a Christian 
 metropolis, but the gentle self-devotion of Afire was 
 a bequest from the Good Shepherd, whose words hung 
 upon his dying lips. The fierceness of war is not on 
 the whole what it was of old ; and, if slavery still un- 
 happily survives in some Christian nations, much at 
 least in its incidents, which the highest public opinion 
 of Eome or Athens allowed, is emphatically condemned 
 by the universal conscience of Christendom, j- 
 
 Hence, again, the Passion of Jesus has conferred on 
 childhood, and the child-like temper, a new dignity, 
 and made the love of children for whom a special 
 
 1 Peter iii. 8. 
 
 t See Note at end of Chapter.
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMENT. 195 
 
 sacrament is provided a reflection and niemorial of 
 His own. They were the first to welcome Him on 
 His entrance into this world, the last to sing His 
 praise. Children form the vanguard of the whiterobed 
 army of Martyrs, ' baptized in blood for Jesus' sake ' 
 in the cradles of Bethlehem, pursuivants of a long pro- 
 cession from every clime and age. When the repre- 
 sentative wickedness of all generations of mankind was 
 concentrated in the crowning act of apostasy which 
 converted the chosen city into a moral wilderness, and 
 seemed, but only seemed, to seal the Tempter's vic- 
 tory, every race, age, sex, condition, but one, conspired 
 to swell his triumph. The purity of the judgment-seat 
 was corrupted, priestly sanctity profaned, the gentle- 
 ness of woman turned to gall ; the crowds who chanted 
 1 Hosanna ' on Palm Sunday afternoon were the same 
 that on Friday morning shouted, l Crucify.' One class 
 alone, so far as the Gospels tell us, never joined that 
 cry. While priests and scribes were plotting under 
 the temple roof the death of its Lord, Hosannas rose 
 once more from boyish voices that would not be put 
 to silence, and the mouths o/ babes and sucklings 
 rebuked the madness of His people. 
 
 More than this ; there has been a i tender grace ' 
 thrown over all the relations of thought, of literature, 
 and of life, which may no doubt often degenerate into 
 mere idle sentimentalism, but none the less springs 
 from a deeper and truer appreciation of the sacredness 
 of that humanity, which Jesus sanctified in sorrow and 
 death. One of the greatest modern writers on physical 
 science has commented on the very different application 
 of natural scenery exhibited in classical and in Christian
 
 196 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 literature.* There was no subjective poetry among 
 the ancients. "What was evening to the Greek? 
 What was it to the Eoman ? It was not till Christ- 
 ianity, that true but sadder second thought, had drawn 
 a veil over much that seemed, but only seemed, so 
 clear; till all the light that lay on human life had 
 faded into the hues of twilight, that men began to feel, 
 dimly at first, and as if by instinct, the true signifi- 
 cance of that wondrous interval which is not night 
 nor yet day, but more to the heart than either, "j* As 
 the prismatic hues are centred in the sunbeam, the 
 tenderness of affection, and the experience of life are 
 summed up and harmonized in the Cross. 
 
 5. It follows from this, that the vision of Calvary 
 interprets, while it chastens, our yearning for ideal 
 loveliness. Why has even physical beauty so power- 
 ful an attraction for us ? Why do we so fondly, so 
 madly, so wildly, so passionately love it ? Degraded, 
 indeed, the feeling may easily become into shapes of 
 nameless horror, for the l trail of the serpent ' is over 
 all the flowers of our earthly Paradise. But in itself 
 it is surely part of our unfallen nature, a relic of 
 primeval innocence ; it is the instinctive cry of the 
 creature for the Creator, the longing of the exiled 
 spirit for the sympathies of an immortal home.J In 
 this ideal sense the poet's words are true : 
 
 * See Humboldt's Kosmos, vol. ii. ch. 1., Eng. Tr. with the quotations from 
 St. Basil and the two Gregories. Cf. Newman's Church of the Fathers (London, 
 1840), pp. 126, 127. 
 
 t I am indebted for this passage to the unpublished Essay of a friend. The 
 nearest approach, so far as I am aware, to modern idealism and subjectivity in 
 classical poetry is to be found in the Idylls of Theocritus, which in their way are 
 unique. Virgil is perhaps an extreme case on the opposite side. 
 
 J See Pascal's Fensecs (Paris, 1761), 3, 6.
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMENT. 197 
 
 " Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting, 
 
 The soul that rises with us, our life's star, 
 Hath had elsewhere its setting, 
 And cometh from afar."* 
 
 He was not wrong who taught, that the love of Beauty 
 is indeed no other than the love of Eternal Truth. 
 And only in the brightness of the uncreated Vision 
 can that love find its adequate satisfaction. 
 
 " Wir miissen nach der Heimath gehen, 
 Um diese heilige Zeit zu sehen."f 
 
 But the corruption of what is noblest is most base. 
 The records of Heathendom tell us into what strange 
 aberrations even religious enthusiasm, when undisci- 
 plined, may lead its votaries. He, who is the Flower 
 of humanity, ' fairest among the sons of men,' is pro- 
 posed to our adoration, not so much, as modern art has 
 striven to represent Him, in that winning brightness 
 of His Boyhood which riveted the gaze of the assem- 
 bled doctors in the temple, or the grace of maturer 
 years which drew upon Him the eyes of all the wor- 
 shippers in the synagogue of Kazareth before He had 
 begun to speak, but with countenance ' marred more 
 than any man,' with ' no form or comeliness that we 
 should desire Him,' in the dishonour of His Passion, 
 and the cold repose of death. He is lifted on the Cross, 
 a bleeding Victim, to draw all men to Himself. And 
 thus the Cross is a response to our unfulfilled aspira- 
 tions, while it consecrates our discipline of sorrow. 
 It is a pillar of fire to lighten our eyes, and the shadow 
 
 * Wordsworth. Ode to Immortality. 
 t Novalis. Hymn to Death.
 
 198 THE ATOXEilEXT. 
 
 of a great Rock in a weary land ; pointing upwards to 
 the thrones on the right hand and on the left, but re- 
 minding us of the chalice of agony, the Eed Sea of the 
 baptism of blood. 
 
 6. It was observed in an earlier chapter, that Hea- 
 then sacrifices could scarcely, if at all, be taken as 
 prefigurements of the death of Christ, and that St. 
 Augustine and others regard even the Jewish sacri- 
 ficial worship more as a concession to temporary exi- 
 gences, and a safeguard against idolatry, than as 
 having any special prophetic value. But it must not 
 be forgotten, that such rites tell much of sin, if they 
 throw no light on its expiation. Sacrifice even, nay 
 chiefly, in its most revolting and criminal shapes, not 
 only the thousands o rams, the burnt offerings and 
 calves of a year old, but the first-born offered for 
 transgression, ' the fruit of the -body for the sin of the 
 soul,' like other forms of superstition and self-torture, 
 gives unmistakable though distorted expression to 
 man's instinctive sense of guilt, and his dread of pun- 
 ishment.* Other meanings there might be besides, as 
 in the Oriental notion of absorption into the divine 
 essence, or anima mundi, through self-annihilation ; but 
 still this feeling, however undefined, of remorse and 
 terror is the most radical and most universal explana- 
 tion. The facts of nature and the experience of hu- 
 man history tended to confirm these impressions. 
 Men could at best but feel after God, if perchance 
 they might find Him., and 'faintly trust the larger 
 hope,' though much in the outward appearance of 
 things seemed to contradict their creed. To assuage 
 
 * See Butlsr'i Analogy, Pt. ii, ch. 6.
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMENT. 199 
 
 this terror, and turn remorse into repentance, some act, 
 so to speak, was needed on God's side, to notify to 
 men, not indeed that He would leave sin unpunished, 
 but that punishment was tempered by mercy. And 
 such an assurance was given in the Incarnation and 
 death of the Eternal Son. It was the divine response 
 to the long and exceeding bitter cry of tortured hu- 
 manity, deepening from age to age in its conscious or 
 unconscious yearning for the advent of a Redeemer, as 
 it rose from the sinning, suffering multitudes of the 
 Patriarchal, or the Hebrew, or the Heathen world; 
 Adonaiet Dux domus Israel, Rex gentium et Deside- 
 ratum canun, veni et salva hominem quern de limo for- 
 mdsti ! 
 
 In the words of the great divine and preacher of 
 our own day ; " Why Christ's death was requisite for 
 our salvation, and how it has obtained it, will ever be 
 a mystery in this life. But, on the other hand, the 
 contemplation of our guilt is so growing and so over- 
 whelming a misery, as our eyes open on our real state, 
 that some strong act (so to call it) was necessary, on 
 God's part, to counterbalance the tokens of His wrath 
 which are around us, to calm and reassure us, and to 
 be the ground and the medium of our faith. It seems 
 indeed, as if, in a practical point of view, no mere pro- 
 mise was sufficient to undo the impression left on the 
 imagination by the facts of Natural Religion ; but in 
 the death of His Son we have His deed His irreversi- 
 ble deed making His forgiveness of sin and His recon- 
 ciliation with our race, no contingency, but an event 
 of past history. He has vouchsafed to evidence His 
 faithfulness and sincerity towards us (if we may dare 
 so to speak), as we must show ours towards Him, not
 
 200 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 in word, but by action ; which, therefore, becomes the 
 pledge of His mercy, and the plea on which we draw 
 near to His presence ; or, in the words of Scripture, 
 whereas ' all have sinned and come short of the glory 
 of God,' Christ Jesus is l set forth as a propitiation for 
 the remission of sins that are past,' to declare and 
 assure us, that, without departing from the just rule 
 by which all men must, in the main, be tried, still 
 He will pardon and justify him that believeth on 
 Jesus."* 
 
 Such then are some of the inferences that may be 
 drawn from the fact of the Atonement wrought by 
 Christ, though we could not, I repeat, have used them 
 beforehand as arguments to show that it was needed, 
 or that it would be vouchsafed. They do not unlock 
 the secret of the divine counsels, but they help to 
 explain its application to ourselves. We recognize, 
 as through a glass darkly, an utterance of that ' Wis- 
 dom that proceedeth out of the mouth of the Most 
 High, and reacheth from one end to the other mightily, 
 sweetly disposing all things ;' but we do not pre- 
 tend to understand it. We may not pierce behind 
 the veil. So much our hearts will tell us, that in the 
 Lamb slain before the foundation of the world, but 
 offered in time on Calvary, we have the surest pledge 
 and most perfect revelation of a love that cannot fail. 
 From of old He had loved us with an everlasting love, 
 and therefore in the compassion of His sufferings He 
 drew us to Himself. And, further, the voice of tra- 
 dition combines with the surmises of reason to suggest 
 to us, that the mystery of the Atonement is part of a 
 
 * Newman's University Strmons, pp. 106, 107.
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMENT. 201 
 
 yet deeper mystery in the eternal purpose of God. 
 He had always meant to make His tabernacle among 
 men, but He had not meant to die. Only in so far as 
 we comprehend the charity of the Incarnation, can we 
 hope to comprehend aright its consummation in the 
 charity of the Cross. 
 
 CO
 
 202 
 
 NOTE TO CHAP. VII. 
 
 ON CERTAIN CONTRASTS OF CHRISTIAN AND HEATHEN 
 CIVILIZATION. 
 
 THE view expressed in the last chapter as to the comparative 
 absence from the old heathen civilization of that gentler phase of 
 humanity, which seems a natural outgrowth from the Cross, may not 
 improbably be considered by many exaggerated or unreal. A few 
 words, therefore, shall be added here, in explanation of what it is 
 intended to convey. It is quite true, that a standard of excellence 
 was attained under the Greek and Roman Republics, which in some 
 respects has never been surpassed, while there are points in which 
 the average morality of Christian States has not unfrequently fallen 
 below it. To dispute this would be as little in the interests of 
 Christianity, as of historical truth. Neither, again, is it to be 
 denied, that many individual characters of heathendom present at 
 least foreshadowings and instalments of the peculiarly Christian 
 virtues, those, I mean, which were not only sanctioned but first dis- 
 tinctly inculcated by the Gospel. To use the words of Tertullian, 
 we discover in many testimonium animce naturaliter Clmatiana. 
 Such preeminently were Socrates, Marcus Aurelius, Agricola, and 
 perhaps Seneca ; such, in various degrees, were many more who 
 might be named. God never left Himself without a witness among 
 men. On the other hand, it must be confessed, that only in rare 
 and almost exceptional cases is anything like the Christian ideal, as 
 represented by the Sermon on the Mount, realized among ourselves. 
 It is a common remark, that very few lines need be altered in 
 Juvenal's Satires, beyond what is purely local, to make them 
 applicable to the London, or Paris, or Vienna of to-day. Yet it is
 
 MORAL FITNESS OF THE ATONEMENT. 203 
 
 important to remember, that, after all allowances, certain broad 
 contrasts remain, which fix a moral gulf between the world of 
 Juvenal and our own.-- 1 We gaze in a rapture of admiration on that 
 marvellous creation of genius, the Athens of Pericles, and Socrates, 
 and Phidias, of the mighty orators and poets whose words have rung 
 music in the ears of seventy generations of mankind. We do well 
 to gaze ; there has not been such another glory upon the earth. 
 But we are apt to forget that the picture has a darker side, over 
 which distance draws a veil ; that, in the language of a writer little 
 likely to undervalue its ideal grace, "if the inner life had been 
 presented to us of that period, which in political greatness and in 
 art is the most brilliant epoch of humanity, we should have turned 
 away from the sight with loathing and detestation."! The plays of 
 Aristophanes tell us something of that inner life; the pages of 
 Petronius Arbiter reveal under the Roman Empire a lower depth of 
 pollution. But the reality must have far exceeded anything our 
 imagination can reproduce. 
 
 It is not, however, with the impurity but the cruelty of the old 
 civilizations that we are now concerned, as contrasting with the 
 tenderness of feeling, the scrupulous thoughtfulness for others, which 
 has always been more or less a characteristic of Christian society, and 
 never more so than in our own day. If many things were permitted 
 to the Jews ' for the hardness of their hearts,' many more and worse 
 were practised by the Gentiles. The usages of war and slavery 
 have been alluded to in the text. The condition of women, and in 
 fact the whole system of family life, which was treated simply as a 
 subordinate department of statecraft, are also cases in point ; so is the 
 practice of human sacrifice, wherever it prevailed;! and the absence, 
 already mentioned, of any public provision for sickness or other in- 
 evitable suffering. There is, again, in individuals, even the best of 
 them, a hardness, a want of sympathy and considerateness, of much 
 that falls under the notion of Christian courtesy, which to us would 
 seem almost incredible, if we came across it in real life, at least among 
 
 * They are summed up in the Essay " On the State of the Heathen World," 
 in Jowett's Epistles of St. Paul, vol. ii., p. 68, sqq. 
 
 t Ib. p. 71. 
 
 J Mommsen denies the practice of human sacrifice at Borne ; others affirm it. 
 In Greece it did not prevail in historical times, but the public taste was not 
 shocked by legends which record it ; nor was the Spartan cryptia looked upon 
 with any special horror, though it would have been alien to Athenian habits.
 
 204 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 the educated classes. There are, of course, exceptions ; but I speak 
 of the general standard, and of what was not found inconsistent 
 with distinguished personal excellence. Even a man with all the 
 refinement of Horace never dreamt of regarding slaves as other than 
 mere chattels; the highest Roman ladies gazed with eager and 
 unpitying enjoyment on the hideous spectacles of the Coliseum. 
 Nor was the stern morality of Juvenal shocked at the gladiatorial 
 shows, but only at the nobles taking part in them. No public 
 sentiment of Rome was outraged when 20,000 slaves were killed in 
 a mock sea-fight for a summer afternoon's pastime to the spectators. 
 But I need not multiply illustrations of what will be readily 
 admitted. 
 
 Now it is clearly a fact, that in these and such like matters the 
 common feeling and practice of Christendom is a marked improve- 
 ment on that of preceding ages. Cruelties no doubt, both public 
 and private, have been perpetrated in Christian countries, some of a 
 kind the heathen never dreamed of. Still it remains true, that the 
 average standard, whether national or individual, is not what it was 
 then. No one questions, for instance, that the influence of the 
 Church contributed in the long run to the abolition of slavery, and 
 softened the horrors of war. Care for the sick and poor was from 
 the beginning a noticeable speciality of Christians ; hospitals, as has 
 been observed, were first erected in Christian cities. It is surely no 
 mere fancy to connect the changed temper of modern society with 
 the great event which has engaged our attention in this volume. 
 There is a sequence of causation, as well as of chronology. An 
 Order was founded by St. Camillus of Lelli in the sixteenth 
 century, under the name of Cruciferi, for attending those afflicted 
 with incurable diseases, or at the point of death. May we not say, 
 that all who represent the more tender and compassionate spirit of 
 Christian civilization arc so far, in their measure, bearers of the 
 Cross ?
 
 39 PATERNOSTER Kow, E.C 
 LONDON, March 1866. 
 
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 W T EBSTER & WILKINSON'S Greek Testament IS 
 
 WELD'S Last Winter in Rome 15 
 
 WELLINGTON'S Life, by BRIALMONT and 
 
 GLBIG 3 
 
 . by GLEIG 3 
 
 WEST on Children's Diseases 9 
 
 WH ATELY'S English Synonymes 4 
 
 Logic 4 
 
 Remains 4 
 
 Rhetoric ^ 
 
 Sermons 14 
 
 Paley's Moral Phylosophy .... 14 
 
 WHEWELL'S History of the Inductive Sci- 
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 . Scientific Ideas J 
 
 Whist, what to lead, by CAM is 
 
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 tionaries 5 
 
 WILBKRFORCE (W.) Recollections of, by 
 
 HAKFORD S 
 
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 Abridged ditto 5 
 
 YOUNG'S Nautical Dictionary 18 
 
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 on the HorsO . . . .., 18 
 
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