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 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF 
 
 POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGY 
 
 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 An Analytical Reference Syllabus 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE ELLIOTT HOWARD, Ph. D. 
 
 Head Professor of Political Science and Sociology 
 
 
 
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 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 1907 
 
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THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF 
 
 POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGY 
 
 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY 
 
 An Analytical Reference Syllabus 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE ELLIOTT HOWARD, Ph. D. 
 
 Head Professor of Political Science and Sociology 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 1907 
 
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 • • • . * • I 
 
 • • • ' • 
 
PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 In the preparation of this outline I am especially indebted 
 to Professor Edward Alsworth Ross, who has generously 
 placed at my disposal his notes and bibliography. The treat- 
 ment of the "social processes" is developed according to the 
 suggestion of the "Map of the Sociological Field," published 
 in his Foundations of Sociology, p. 98. 
 
 George Elliott Howard. 
 Lincoln, August 5, 1907. 
 
 ^^ •_• M ir\ r\ f\ 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 Pages 
 Introduction: General Character of the Course 7 
 
 Chapter I. Characteristics of Sociological Science 8-21 
 
 I. Definition and Province of Sociology 8-12 
 
 II. Place of Sociology in the "Hierarchy" of the Sciences. .12-14 
 
 III. Relation of Sociology to the Other Social Sciences 14-17 
 
 IV. Methodology 'of Sociological Study 17-19 
 
 V. The Unit of Investigation in Sociology : 19-21 
 
 Chapter II. Elements of Society: The Social Population 22-31 
 
 VI. Size, Density, and Concentration of Population 22-24 
 
 VII. Composition of the Population 24-26 
 
 VIII. Movement of the Population 27-31 
 
 Ch.\pter III. The Factors or Causes of Social Phenomena 32-46 
 
 IX. Nature of the Social Forces 32-35 
 
 X. Classification of Social Forces 35-38 
 
 XI. Desires and Human Achievement 38-39 
 
 XII. Evolution of Desires 40-43 
 
 Xin. Influence of Environment 43-46 
 
 Chapter IV. The Social Processes 47-66 
 
 XIV. Preliminary Processes or Potential Socialization 47-50 
 
 XV. Genesis of Society 50-54 
 
 XVI. Association 54-59 
 
 XVII. Domination and Exploitation 59-61 
 
 XVIII. Domination and Forcible Assimilation 62-63 
 
 XIX. Opposition : References 63-64 
 
 XX. Stratification : References 64-66 
 
 Select Bibliography 67-86 
 
GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 GENERAL CHARACTER OP THE COURSE. 
 
 I. Scope of the Course. 
 
 1. General character of the study of sociology as dis- 
 
 tinguished from other sciences. 
 
 2. The course deals specially with the principles of pure 
 
 sociology; but it includes a summary discussion 
 of the principles of applied sociology. 
 3.. While primarily aiming at a mastery of sociological 
 science, the course will have a utilitarian or practical 
 purpose: the application of science to the improve- 
 ment of social life. 
 
 II. Plan of the Course; Method. 
 
 1. The Analytical reference syllabus: contains an outline 
 
 of the lectures, with topical citation of the literature. 
 
 2. Assigned texts, with "written reviews"; use of note- 
 
 book for readings on syllabus and for thesis. 
 
 3. Research work : each member of the class should select 
 
 a subject for independent investigation. For an ac- 
 ceptable thesis one hour of credit is given, if the 
 student registers for Course Al. 
 
 4. The '^Reserve Section" in the Reading Room. 
 
 III. Select Literature Available for the Course (see the 
 "Select Bibliography" at end of this pamphlet). 
 
 (7) 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 Section I. Definition and Province of Sociology. 
 
 I. Definitions. 
 
 1. Comte: regards the ''social science" as "social physics^' 
 
 {Positive Philosophy, I, 22) ; his "social dynamics" 
 (see Ward, Pure Sociology, 223-24; idem, Applied 
 Sociology, 8-9). 
 
 2. Spencer : the science of sociology has to give an account 
 
 of all the phenomena that result from the combined 
 action of social units {Principles of Sociology, I, 437. 
 Cf. Ward, "Herbert Spencer's Sociology," in Iiide- 
 pendent, March 31, 1904). 
 
 3. Giddings: "An attempt to account for the origin, 
 
 growth, structure, and activities of society by the 
 operation of physical, vital, and ps3^chical causes, 
 working together in a process of evolution'* 
 {Principles, 8. Compare iMd., 419) ; the "science of 
 social elements and first principles" {Principles, 33). 
 
 4. Dealey and Ward : "The study of human association" 
 
 {Text Book, 2). 
 
 5. Ward: Pure Sociology is a "treatment of the phe- 
 
 nomena and laws of society as it is" {Pure Sociology , 
 4). The "science of society, or the science of social 
 phenomena" {Pop. Sc. Monthly, June, 1902, p. 113) ; 
 "simply a scientific inquiry into the actual conditions 
 of society" {Applied Sociology, 3). 
 
 6. Small: "Sociology is the science of the'social process" 
 
 {General Sociology, 3.5. For his other definitions, 
 see iMd., 3, 23, 35; and A. J. S., V, 500). 
 
 7. Stuckenberg: The "science of society" (Sociology, I, 1). 
 
 8. Tarde: The science of society, or of social phenomena 
 
 {Laws of Imitation, 1, passim). 
 
 9. Sumner: "Science of the life of society" {Collected 
 
 Essays, 77). 
 
 (8) 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. H 
 
 10. Cooley: The "science of personal intercourse in its 
 primary and secondary aspects" (Human Noture and 
 the Social Order, 101). 
 
 11. Ross: The "science of social phenomena" (see Founda- 
 
 tions, 6, 91; A. J. S., IX, 201 ff.). 
 a. Is so broad a. definition necessary? Is description 
 
 better than definition? 
 1). What are "social phenomena?"' 
 
 12. Other definitions (for enumerations, see Ward, "Con- 
 
 temporary SociologT," in A. J. S., YII ; Small, Gen- 
 eral Sociology, 23-39; idem, "What is Sociology''? in 
 A. J. S., VIII, 468-77; idem, in A. J. 8., V, 506 ff. ; 
 Blackmar, Elements of Sociology, 12 ff. ; Branford, 
 "Origin and Use of the Word 'Sociology,' " in A. J. S.. 
 IX, 145ff.). 
 
 II. Preliminary View of the Conceptions and Systems of 
 Sociology. The Subject Matter of Sociology is according to 
 
 1. Tarde : Imitation, opposition, adaptation (see Davis, 
 
 Gahriel Tarde (1906) ; and Tarde, Social Laws 
 (1897). 
 
 2. Gumplowicz, Novicow, Loria, Vaccaro : The struggle or 
 
 conflict between classes, groups, races, societies (see 
 Ross, Foundations, 272-90). 
 
 3. Ratzenhofer : Society as a process of adjustment by 
 
 conflict and by co-operation between associated indi- 
 viduals (Small, General Sociology, 181-394). 
 
 4. Simmel : The "function of socialization"; or the "Modes 
 
 or forms of association into groups : social morphol- 
 ogy" (see his "Problem of Sociology," in Annals, 1895, 
 VI, 412-23 ; and idem, "Persistence of Social Groups," 
 in A. J. S., Ill, 662 ff. Cf. Ross, Foundations, 4-5; 
 Davis, Gahriel Tarde, 101-102). 
 
 5. Greef: "Contract" as distinguishing mark of society. 
 
 A type of the "classifying" sociologists. 
 
 6. Kropotkin : "Mutual aid." 
 
 7. Durkheim : "Division of social labor" ; "social con- 
 
 straint." 
 
 8. Giddings : "Consciousness of Kind" (Principles, 17 ff. ; 
 
 idem. Inductive Sociology, 91 ff. ; idem, Descriptive 
 and Historical Sociology, 275 ff.). 
 
10 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 9. Ward: ''Human achievement" {Pure Sociology, 15-44; 
 
 Dealey and Ward, 32-47. Compare the criticism of 
 Ross, Foundations, 5.) 
 a. Emphasis of function, not structure: pragmatism. 
 6. Law of difference between organic and social evolu- 
 tion. "The environment transforms the animal, 
 while man transforms the environment." Compare 
 the law of difference between cosmic and organic 
 evolution (Ward, in Pop. 8c. Monthly, XI, 672-82). 
 
 c. What is "material civilization"? "Matter is dy- 
 
 namic." 
 
 d. Definition and forms of achievement. 
 
 10, The earlier so-called "Organicists," among whom are 
 
 Spencer, Schiiffie, Lillienfeld, Roberty: Sociology is 
 the science of the "social organism" ; of "society re- 
 garded as a whole composed of definitely arranged 
 parts" (Small, General Sociology, 07-179; Ross, Foun- 
 dations, 1, 71 ff., 256 ff.). 
 a. Relative sterility of sociology based on biological and 
 physical analogies (see Patten, "Failure of Biologic 
 Sociology," in Annals, 1894, IV, 919-47; and com- 
 pare Small, in ibid., 1895, V, 740-46 ; Small and 
 Vincent, Introduction, 87-96; Stuckenberg, I, 32; 
 Ross, Foundations, 1 ff., 154-56, and Index at 
 "organism" ; Reid, "Biological Foundations of 
 Sociology," in A. J. S., XI, 532-54). 
 h. Is the theory of the "social organism" without scien- 
 tific value? Is it adopted by Ward? (see the de- 
 fence of the use of biological analogies by Small, 
 General Sociology, 74 ff. ;'and compare Spencer, in 
 Westminster Revieiv, N. S., XVII (1860) ; Ratzen- 
 hofer, Sociologische Erkenntniss, 165; Blackmar, 
 Elements, 16 ff.; Giddings, Principles, 8 ff., 399; 
 id&m, Inductive Sociology, 29, 182 ff. ; Ward, Pure 
 Sociology, 565; Wells, "Social Darwinism," in 
 A. S. S., I, 117 ff.). 
 
 e. What is a "society"? (Simmel, in Annals, VI, 422; 
 
 Hayes, in A. J. S., X, 625 ; Small, General Sociology. 
 405, 115 ff. (Spencer's view), 183 ff., 632 (Tarde's 
 view) ; Ward, Pure Sociology, 565 ; Giddings, Ele- 
 ments, 6; Fairbanks, 2-3; Gumplowicz, Grundriss, 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 11 
 
 139 ft'., or in the translation, 136 ff. ; Giddings, In- 
 ductive Sociology, 6; Stuckenberg, I, 1 ff. (descrip- 
 tion) ; .Cooley, 1 ff., 84, passim; Tarde, Laws of 
 Imitation, cliap. iii; 59-88; Spencer, Principles of 
 Sociology, I, 447 ff. ; Adams, in A. J. 8., X, 208-27). 
 d. Sociology must concern itself especially with man- 
 to-man relations or associations (this point is best 
 treated by Cooley, Human Nature and the Social 
 Order; see particularly pp. 1-13, 79-101). 
 
 1) The social person is a "psychic fact"; a "group of 
 
 sentiments attached to some symbol." 
 
 2) Society "in its immediate aspect is a relation 
 
 among personal ideas." 
 
 III. Divisions of Sociology. 
 
 1. It is distinguished (by Ward) as: 
 
 a. Pure sociology: theoretical; objective; seeks to es- 
 tablish the principles of the science. 
 
 6. Applied sociology: practical; subjective; seeks to 
 establish the principles according to which the 
 sociological "arts" or activities may be organized 
 (see Ward, Pure Sociology, chap, i; Dealey and 
 Ward. chap, i ; Henderson, "Scope of Social Tech- 
 nology," in A. J. S., VI, 465). 
 
 2. When social mechanics or the social forces are empha- 
 
 sized, sociology is either : 
 a. Social statics : embracing especially social structure 
 
 or institutions; or 
 h. Social dynamics (kinetics) : embracing the phe- 
 nomena of change, movement. 
 
 But these are really divisions of "social mechanics" 
 (see Ward, "Static and Dynamic Sociology," in Pol. Sc. 
 Quarterly, X (1895), 203 ff . ; idem,, Pure Sociology, 3-7, 
 169 ff. ; Dealey and Ward, 159 ff. ; especially Ross, Foun- 
 dations, chap, viii; and the criticism of Giddings, 
 Principles, 57 ff. Cf. also Blackmar, Elements, 21-2; 
 Small and Vincent, 66 ff, ; Giddings, Theory of Soci- 
 ology, 18; Stuckenberg, I, 42-47; Fairbanks, 34 ff.). 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Ross, Foundations, chap, i, 3 ff. ; Dealey and Ward, chap, i; Ward, 
 Pure Sociology, chaps, i, ii, iii. 3-44; Giddings, Principles, chaps, i, 11, 
 3-51; idem. "Concepts and Methods of Sociology," in A. J. 8.. X, 161 ff.; 
 
12 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 idem, in Congress of Arts and Science, V, 800-812; especially idem, 
 Descriptive and Historical Sociology, 4-64; Blackmar, Elements, chap, 
 i, 3-38; Fairbanks, Introduction to Sociology, 1-17; Small, General So- 
 ciology, 3-35, 65 f£.; idem, "Subject Matter of Sociology," in ibid., X, 
 281 ff.; idem, "Scope of Sociology," nine articles in A. J. S., Jan., 1900- 
 July, 1904; Stuckenberg, Sociology, I, 1-33; Greef, Introduction, I, 1-30; 
 Hayes, "Sociological Construction Lines," in A. J. S., X, 623 ff., 750 ff., 
 XI, 26 ff., 623 f£., XII, 45 ff.; Simmel, "The Problem of Sociology," in 
 Annals, VI, 412-23; and the references in the outline above. 
 
 For further discussion of various systems and conceptions of So- 
 ciology, 'see Barth, Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Sociologie (1897), 
 Part I; Ward, "Contemporary Sociology," in A. J. S., VII, 475-500, 
 629-58, 749-62, analyzing twelve systems; and the lively discussion of 
 Vincent, "Varieties of Sociology," in A. J. 8., XII, 1-10; Simmel, "The 
 Sociology of Conflict," in A. J. S., IX, 490 ff., 672 ff., 793 ff.; Lloyd, 
 "The Organic Theory of Society," in A. J. S., VI, 577 ff.; Allin, "The 
 Basis of Sociality," in A. J. S., VIII, 75 ff. (a defence of Spencer's 
 organic concept); Ratzenhofer, Sociologische Ertienntniss. 1-2; espe- 
 cially Carver, Sociology and Social Progress, Part I, 15 ff. 
 
 Section II. Place of Sociology in the So-called Hierarchy 
 
 OF THE Sciences. 
 
 I. What is a Science? 
 
 1. ^'Methodized Knowledge'- relating to the laws of phe- 
 
 nomena. 
 
 2. Therefore it is the domain of forces (see Ward, Pure 
 
 Sociology, 40). 
 
 3. It rests on "faith"' in the universality of causation 
 
 (Ward, Pure tiociology, 6; White, in Pop. 8c. 
 Monthly, II. 730-39; Starcke, in Rev. International 
 de Sociologie, January 1898, p. 17). 
 
 4. Does not consist in the "discovery of facts" (Ward, 
 
 Pure Sociology, 6). 
 
 5. May be either "pure" or "applied": definitions? 
 
 II. Classification and Filiation of the Sciences (Comte, Posi- 
 tive PhiJosophy, II, 1.5-27, 29.5 ff., passim; Spencer, in 
 Essays: Scientific and Political, II, 78 ff. ; idem. Recent 
 Discussions, 06-70; Ward, Pure Sociology, 05-96; idem, 
 Dynamic Sociology, I, chaps, i, ii, especially 143-49, on 
 Comte and Spencer; idem, in Science, February 21, 1896; 
 Dealey and Ward. 7-15; Giddings, Principles of Sociology, 
 45-51; Greef, Introduction, 5; idem, Lois Sociologiques, 1-35; 
 Limanowski, "La Classification des Sciences et la Socio- 
 logie," in Rev. Int. de Sociologie, July, 1894; Carver, 15-64). 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 13 
 
 1. The logical or synoptical classification of Herbert 
 
 Spencer; Ward's criticism. 
 
 2. Auguste Comte's '^hierarchy" of the sciences, being a 
 
 genetic (tocological) or serial classification. Place 
 of psychology (cerebral or transcendental biology) 
 in his scheme? Of mathematics? (Comte, I, 20-27, 
 28 ff.; Ward, Applied Sociologij, 304-307, 310-11, 104; 
 idejn, Outlines of Sociology, 122 fif. ; idem, in A. J. S., 
 1, 742 flf., VII, 634-35; idem, Pure Sociology, 90). 
 a. Implies filiation, not strict hierarchical subordina- 
 tion : the phenomena which these sciences present 
 "diminish in generality and increase in complexity" 
 in the ascending scale, 
 &. Implies that in their evolution each higher science 
 is the product or creation of the preceding (see III, 
 below). 
 III. Scientific Results of Filiation (Ward, Pure Sociology, 
 chap, v; Dealey and Ward, chap. ii). 
 
 1. Illustrated by the analogy of sympodial development in 
 
 Botany: Social evolution is sympodial. 
 ff. Definition of "specialization." 
 h. Definition of "evolution." 
 
 2. Creative synthesis. 
 
 fl. Chemical synthesis. 
 
 h. Art ideals: art aims at the improvement of imperfect 
 nature; creative imagination; scientific imagina- 
 tion ; relation to imitation. 
 
 c. Social ideals: 
 
 1) Why the artist is apt to be a reformer? 
 
 2) The poetic idea : it is "a homogeneous undiffer- 
 
 entiated truth" ; poesy and prophecy. 
 
 d. Poesis: a form of creative synthesis. 
 
 1) Aesthetic creation: aims at the ideal; how differs 
 
 from "telesis." 
 
 2) Inventive creation : aims at the useful ; value of 
 
 scientific imagination. 
 
 e. Genesis : the creative synthesis of nature. 
 
 1) Acts without an ideal; "organic" generation. 
 
 2) Dependence of the higher upon the lower sciences 
 
 (Ward, Pure Sociology, 90-91). 
 3) Social consciousness or collective mind a product 
 of "spontaneous creative synthesis." 
 
14 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 4. The hierarchy of the synthetic creations of nature (see 
 
 table in Ward, Pure Sociology, 94; Dealey and 
 Ward, 57). 
 
 5. Sociology the highest of the sciences. 
 a. Depends on the physical sciences. 
 
 6. Danger of relying upon analogies of the physical and 
 other sciences; the "social organism" theory dis- 
 credited (see the criticism of Ross, Foundations, 
 41-70; also Section I of the syllabus). 
 
 c. Has the characteristics of a science. 
 
 1) The domain of forces and laws (Ward, Pure 
 
 Sociology, 46). 
 
 2) A well differentiated subject matter. 
 
 3) How a science advances (Ward, Pure Sociology, 
 
 chap. ii). 
 
 Section III. The Relation of Sociology to the Other 
 
 Social Sciences. 
 
 I. Enumeration of the Social Sciences (see a list in Blackmar, 
 Elements, 29-30; and compare Ward, in A. J. S., VII, 634- 
 35). 
 
 II. Relation to History (Ross, Foundations, 81-84, 180-81; 
 Small, General Sociology, 11-18, 44-62; Tarde, Laics of Imi- 
 tation, 8-9, chap, iv, 89-139; Ward, Pure Sociology, 13, 14, 
 15, 18, 20, 55-58, 62; idem, Applied Sociology, 40, 82, 234. 
 311-12; Dealey and Ward, 13-14, 28-29; Giddings, Principles, 
 28, 54 ff., 66, 71, 302 ff. ; idem. Inductive Sociology, 8; Wells, 
 in Am. Sociological Society, Puhlications, I, 118). 
 
 1. The philosophy of history is not sociology (so accord- 
 
 ing to Barth, Die Pliilosopliie der Geschichte als So- 
 ' oiologie) ; but sociology is pointing the way to a 
 sounder philosophy of history ; various conceptions of 
 history (see Barth as cited; and the summary by 
 Small,' 44-62. Cf. Vincent, in A. J. S., XII, 4 flf.). 
 
 2. By broadening its province and deepening its meaning, 
 
 history is drawing nearer to sociology. 
 a. To a greater and greater extent the two sciences 
 
 deal with homogeneous materials. 
 6. The extreme modern conception of history is that 
 
 of Lamprecht (see his paper in Congress or Arts 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 15 
 
 and Science, II, 111-124; idem, What Is History? 
 (1905) ; and Dow, in American Historical Review, 
 III, 431 ff.). 
 
 1) Lamprecht's phases of evolution. 
 
 2) His definition : ''History is priinaril}- a socio- 
 
 psj'chological science." 
 
 3) The other so-called "social sciences" are also 
 
 "mental sciences," with historj^ as a "universal 
 
 foundation." 
 c. Is history concerned merely with facts or isolated 
 events; or is it governed by "laws"? (see the criti- 
 cism by Ross, Foundations, 81-84, 180-181; and 
 those of Ward, Small, and Tarde, above cited). 
 
 III. Relation to Economics (Ross, Foundations, 25-27, 29-40; 
 Giddings, Principles, 45, 50, 51, 67 fif. ; idem, "Relation of 
 Sociology' to Economics," in Am. Ec. Ass., Piiblications, X, 
 No. 3; Ward, in A. J. S., YII, 493 fif . ; Giddings, "The Eco- 
 nomic Ages," in Pol. 8c. Quart., XVI, 193-221; idem, "The 
 Economic Significance of Culture," in Pol. Sc. Quart., 
 XVIII, 449-61; Small, General Sociology, 18-22; idem, "Re- 
 lation Between Sociology and the Other Social Sciences," 
 in A. J. S., XII, 23 ff.; "A Rejoinder," by Hoxie, in A. J. S'., 
 
 XII, 739 ff. ; answered by Small, "Are the Social Sciences 
 Answerable to Common Principles of Method"? in A. J. S., 
 
 XIII, 1-19). 
 
 1. The most independent and well-defined of the social 
 
 sciences. 
 a. Rests especially on three natural desires or traits: 
 
 1) Desire for wealth: involving hunger, want, love 
 
 of bodily ease (Ross, op. cit., 25 ff.). 
 
 2) Aversion to labor. 
 
 3) Reluctance to postpone present enjoyment. 
 
 &. The economics of consumption of wealth is closely 
 allied to sociology. 
 
 2, Examples of sociological problems arising in eco- 
 
 nomics (see Ross, "Sociological Frontiers of Eco- 
 nomics," in Foundations, 29-40). 
 
 IV. Relation to Political Science (Ross, 19-22; Garner, in A. 
 J. S., XII, 344 ff.). 
 
 1. Political science is concerned especially with the state, 
 the chief "purposive organization" of the "social 
 
16 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 constitution" (Compare Giddings, Priiiciples, 174 ff. ; 
 Ward, Pure Sociologij, 206 fif., 549 ff.; Dealey and 
 Ward, 292 ff., and Index at "State"; Spencer, Frm- 
 ciple8, I, 437-43). 
 a. As an art or "normative" science (Boss, 20). 
 h. As a science of the phenomena of government : very 
 closely related to sociology; social regulation. 
 2. Chief social forces revealed in the evolution of gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 V. Eelation to Comparative Jurisprudence. 
 
 1. Law as a part of the social regulative system. 
 
 2. Social forces involved : genesis of legal ideas ; historical 
 
 jurisprudence. 
 
 VI. Relation to Ethics (Ross, 17-19; Ward, Pure Sociology, 
 418 ff.. Index; idem, Psychic Factors, 102 ff. ; idem, Applied 
 Sociology, 317-18, 326, 84, 287; Small, General Sociology, 
 653 ff.). ' • 
 
 1. Failure of the old ethics. 
 
 2. Ethics is in fact a part of sociology; significance of 
 
 "social ethics." 
 
 VII. Fundamental Relation to Psychology (Thomas, "Prov- 
 ince of Social Psychology," in A. J. S., X, 445 ff. ; Ross, "Pres- 
 ent Problems of Social Psychology," in A. J. S., X, 456 ff. ; 
 the same two papers m Congress of Arts and Science, V, 
 860 ff. ; Ward, Psychic Factors). 
 
 VIII. Relation to Other Sciences: Comparative Religion, Aes- 
 thetics, noetics, ethnology, anthropology, genetics, eu- 
 genics, etc. 
 
 IX. Generalization as to the Place and Rank of Sociology 
 Among the Social Sciences (see tables in Giddings, Prin- 
 ciples, 49; Blackmar, 29, 31). 
 
 1. Sociology is emerging as a distinct science with its own 
 
 proper field of research ; but the social sciences are 
 interdependent. 
 
 2. Sociology is not an inclusive science, embracing the 
 
 other social sciences as mere branches or divisions 
 (contrary to Spencer). 
 
 3. Sociology is the highest of the social sciences, the mas- 
 
 ter science; and, as the science of social phenomena, 
 of social elements, principles, and laws, it is the "in- 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 17 
 
 elusive social science'' (compare Ross, Foundations, 
 chap, i; Giddings, Principles, 27 flf., 33 fif. ; Ward, 
 Pure Sociology, 90-91, 67-G9; Dealey and Ward, 54). 
 X. Suggested Practical Rule of Specialization : No Fixed 
 Limits need be set as to the degTce in which the overlapping 
 of the departmental areas of the social sciences is permis- 
 sible. 
 
 1. Perhaps such overlapping should be in direct ratio 
 
 to the intensiveness of the particular study or inves- 
 tigation. 
 
 2. Perhaps, as a working guide it may be said that the 
 
 results (laws, generalizations, truths) obtained in 
 each science are available in all; while the processes 
 are not; though even in the latter respect a fixed limit 
 would often prove a hindrance to the free handling 
 of materials. 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Ross, Foundations, 8-40, 81-84, 180-81; Giddings, Principles, 21-51; 
 idem, "Relation of Sociology to Other Scientific Studies," in Journal 
 of Social Science, Nov., 1894; idem, "Sociology and the Abstract 
 Sciences," in Annals, V (1895), 746-53; idem, "Relation of Sociology 
 to Economics," in American Economic Association, Publications, X, 
 No. 3; idem, in ibid., Ill, No. 1; idem, in Annals, I, No. 1; Small, 
 General Sociology, 44-62; Hadley, "Relation Between Economics and 
 Politics," in Am. Ec. Asso., Economic Studies, IV, No. 1; Howerth, 
 "Present Condition of Sociology in the U. S.," in Annals, V, 260-69; 
 Patten, "Relation of Economics to Sociology," in Annals, V, 577-83; 
 same, in Am. Ec. Asso., Publications. X, No. 3; idem, Relation of 
 Sociology to Psychology; Stuckenberg, Sociology, I, 34-42; Worms, "La 
 Sociologie et I'Economie Politique," in Revue Int. de Sociologie, II, No. 
 6; idem, "La Sociologie et le Droit," in ibid., Ill, No. 1; idem, "Classi- 
 fication des Sciences Sociales," in ibid., I, 437 ff.; Powers, "Terminol- 
 ogy and the Sociological Conference," in Annals, V, 705 ff.; Ward, 
 "Place of Sociology Among the Sciences," in A. J. S., I, 16-27; Fair- 
 banks, 11-17; Small, "Relation Between Sociology and Other Sciences," 
 in A. J. S.. XII, 11-31; idem. General Sociology, 44-62; Hoffding, "Re- 
 lation Between Sociology and Ethics," in A. J. S., X, 672 ff.; Small, 
 Significance of Sociology for Ethics (1902); Greef, Introduction, I, 
 chap, vii; Comte, Positive Philosophy, II, 93 ff. ; Carver, Sociology and 
 Social Progress, 65-87. 
 
 Section IV. The Methodology of Sociological Study. 
 
 I. ''The Basis of Method is Logic, and the Basis of Logic is 
 the Sufficient Reason or Law of Causation" (Ward, Pu7-e 
 Sociology, 45. Cf. Griddings, Principles, 52-53; Mill, System 
 of Logic, Book VI). 
 2 
 
18 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 1. The purpose of method is clearness; it is the principle 
 
 of style (Ward, 45-6. See Spencer's essay on 
 "Style") ; should be the basis of the educational cur- 
 riculum. 
 
 2. The need of right method increases directly with the 
 
 complexity of a science. Sociology is the most com- 
 plex of the sciences ; if its results are less certain 
 than those of the physical or mathematical sciences, 
 they are more important. Comparison with biology 
 and psychology. 
 
 3. "In the complex sciences the quality of exactness is 
 
 only perceptible in their higher generalizations" 
 (Ward, 48). Should the sociologist have an opinion 
 on current questions? 
 
 II. The Distinctive Method of Sociology is Generalization: 
 The Grouping of Phenomena and Using the Groups as 
 Units (Ward, 49 ff.). 
 
 1. Relativity of magnitude; the illusive effect of the 
 
 "near." 
 
 2. The effect of distance, or its equivalent, is "intensive"; 
 
 that of proximity is "extensive." 
 
 3. The mind's power of generalization depends upon in- 
 
 herent capacity and equipment (knowledge) ; illus- 
 trations; "ethnographic parallels"; governments; law 
 universal in social phenomena, even those regarded 
 Br as extraordinary (Ward, Pure Sociology, 53-54). 
 
 4. Law in history; historical determinism (Ward, 56 ff.) ; 
 ; the problem of "free will" and causation (Ward, 57; 
 
 Gumplowicz, "Actions ou Phenomenes," in Revue des 
 \ Revues, Nov. 15, 1895). 
 ' ff. Mesologv : influences of environment. 
 
 Z>. The law of parsimony: "greatest gain for least ef- 
 fort." 
 
 III. All Scientific Methods Needful in Social Science: Deduc- 
 tion, Induction, Indirect Deduction ("Generalization Inter- 
 preted by Deduction"; see Giddings, 53 ff.). 
 
 1. Criticism of the use of terms "static" and "dynamic" 
 
 (Giddings, 57 ff . ; Ward. "Static and Dynamic So- 
 ciology," in Pol. Sc. Quart.. X, No. 2). 
 
 2. Proper and improper classification (Giddings, 60 ff.) ; 
 
 examples: misuse of biological analogies. 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 19 
 
 3. May errors of classification be avoided by attention to 
 
 "ditferentiatioii'*? (Giddings, 63 fiP.)- 
 
 4. Use of "empirical generalizations" (Giddings, 04 ff.). 
 
 5. Use of "psychological synthesis'' (Giddings, G5-()9). 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 t Ward, Pure Sociology. 45-62, 161-63 (law of parsimony) ; idem. 
 Dynamic Sociology. II, Index at "Generality," "Generalization," "Ob- 
 servation," "Scientific Method," "Synthesis"; Dealey and Ward, 24-31; 
 Giddings, Principles, 52-69; idem. Inductive Sociology, 11-27, passim: 
 idem, "Exact Methods in Sociology," in Pop. Sci. Month., Dec, 1899; 
 idem, "Concepts and Methods of Sociology," in A. J. S., X, 161-76; 
 Durkheim, Les Regies de la Mcthode Sociologique, 1 ff.; Greef, Lois 
 Sociologiques, 50 ff. ; Blackmar, Elements, 39-47; Fairbanks, Introduc- 
 tion, 21 ff.; Stuckenberg, I.. 47, II, 300-307, and the references there 
 given; Menger, Untersuchungen ilber die Methode der Socialwissen- 
 schaften (1883); Simm6l, Die Probleme der Geschichtsphilosophie ; 
 Bernheim, Lehrhuch der historischen Methode, 2d ed.. 88 ff. ; Zenker, 
 Natiirliclie Entwickelungsgeschichte der Gesellschaft ; Reichesberg, Die 
 Statistik und die Gesellschaftsioissenschaft; Patten, "Failure of Bio- 
 logic Sociology," in Annals, IV. 919 ff. ; idem. Relation of Sociology 
 to Psychology ; Comte, Positive Philosophy, II, 57 ff., passim; Huxley, 
 in Nineteenth Century, Feb., 1887 (on process of generalization); 
 Caldwell, "Philosophy and the Newer Sociology," in Conteynp. Rev., 
 Sept., 1898; Bosanquet, "Relation of Sociology to Philosophy," in 
 Mind. Jan., 1898; Baldwin, "Present Position of Sociology," in Pop. 
 Sci. Monthly. Oct., 1899; Branford, "Origin and Use of the Word 'Soci- 
 ology,'" in A. J. -Sf., IX, 145; Small, "Methodology of the Social Prob- 
 lem," in A. J. S., IV, 113-44, 235-56, 380-94; idem. General Sociology, 
 90-95; Ratzenhofer, Sociologische Erkenntniss, 7-13. 
 
 Section Y. The "Unit of Investigation in Sociology"; 
 
 Various Conceptions. 
 
 I. The "Social Aggregate" or an Entire "Society" Considered 
 as One Organism. 
 
 1. Comparative sterility of the "panoramic" method; of 
 
 generalizing fi'om supposed vast similarities or con- 
 trasts. 
 
 2. Effect of the "widening of the ethnological horizon" : 
 
 there are many "societies," each with its own "cycles" 
 of evolution, its own experiences; value of the ex- 
 plorations of Spencer, Letourneau, and the German 
 investigators. 
 
 3. Social phenomena do not repeat themselves en masse 
 
 (Tarde, Social Laws, 25). 
 
 4. Advantage of choosing small rather than large units 
 
 (Ross, Foundations, 73-85). 
 
20 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 a. Similarities or parallels. 
 
 1) Improper: nations, epochs, civilizations, revolu- 
 
 tions, etc. 
 
 2) Proper: crowd, clan, secret society, minute cus- 
 
 toms, tendencies, relations, processes, or changes, 
 etc. 
 6. Contrasts: 
 
 1) Improper: Pre-Christian and Post-Christian, Jew 
 
 and Gentile, Oriental and Occidental, Ancient 
 and Western (Kidd), etc. 
 
 2) Proper: conflict and compromise, competition and 
 
 combination, and other contrasts revealed in 
 Ross's "Map." 
 c. Causes (Ross, 78-85). 
 
 1) Proper. 
 
 2) Improper. 
 
 II. The "Socius" : "Society Exists Whenever an Individual 
 Has a Companion or Associate" : Hence the Socins is the 
 Unit of Society or Social (jrroup (Giddings, Inductive So- 
 ciology, 9; idem, Elements, 9-11. Cf. Cooley, Human Na- 
 ture; and Bentley, in Annals, Y, 915 ff.). 
 
 1. Man as the concrete unit of investigation is too large; 
 
 he is not all the product of association (cf. Ross, 
 Foundations, 85-86). 
 
 2. This conception is inconsistent with the character of 
 
 "personality" (see Cooley). 
 
 III. Social Forces, Xot Socii as Individuals: Society is a 
 Synthesis or Combination of Social Forces ( Stuckenberg, I, 
 chaps, iv, v). This view not logical. 
 
 lY. The Social Organ or Functional Group: Not the Unit; 
 for there are Other Kinds of Groupings. 
 
 V. The Group : Not the Exclusive Unit ; for there are also 
 Relations constituting Social Bonds. 
 
 VI. Relations : Not the Exclusive Unit ; for these are Ob- 
 jective, and there are Subjective Facts (Ross, 87-8). 
 
 VII. Institutions. 
 
 1. Not the exclusive unit; for there are temporary and il- 
 
 licit groupings and formations of social significance. 
 
 2. Not the unit : for an institution is a grouping, rela- 
 
 tion, or mode of action sanctioned by society, and 
 there are actual elements of structure not so recog- 
 
CHARACTERISTICS. 21 
 
 nized; and the lower human or sub-human (animal) 
 sociology is neglected. 
 
 VIII. Social Imperatives, Being Socially Sanctioned Actions 
 or Beliefs : Not the Exclusiye Unit ; for there are also 
 
 IX. Uniformities or Planes not binding on the Individual. 
 
 1. Tendency to become coercive. 
 
 2. Dui'kheim's use of ''institution" not warranted. 
 a. Includes too much. 
 
 &. Excludes phenomena of crowds or ''social currents." 
 
 X. Social Processes, the Primordial Fact Lying Back of the 
 five Product-Units (Groups, Relations, Institutions, Im- 
 peratives, Uniformities). 
 
 1. The most important part of sociological study, involv- 
 
 ing an understanding of the vital elements of "so- 
 cial forces" and "social psychology." 
 a. Why process hitherto neglected in favor of a study 
 
 of products. 
 6. How this neglect has caused living process to be 
 
 mistaken for institutional survival (Ross, 92-3). 
 c. Mistaken tendency to account for social life from a 
 single process; whereas there are many processes. 
 
 2. Sequence and interaction of the social processes (Ross, 
 
 95-99). 
 
 «. Carefully explain Ross's "Map of the Sociological 
 Field"' (p. 98). 
 
 Z). Compare this "map" with other analyses of the prov- 
 ince of sociology (examine the table of contents 
 of Gidding's Principles, Ward's Pure Sociology 
 (slightly modified in form in Dealey and Ward's 
 
 S Text Book) . Spencer's Principles, Schilffle's Bau 
 und Lehen (Small, 158-66), and Greef's Intro- 
 duction, I, 158 ff., 214; Small, 235). Compare the 
 schemes of Tarde, Ratzenhofer (partly in Small, 
 284-86), and Gumplowicz. 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Ross, Foundations, 71-95; idem, in A. J. S., IX, 188-207; Giddings, 
 Inductive Sociology, 9; idem, Elements, 9-11; Bentley, "Units of In- 
 vestigatioti in the Social Sciences," in Annals. V, 915-41; Small, Gen- 
 eral Sociology, 3 ff., 404-405, passim (social process the province of 
 sociology is his thesis); Hayes, in A. J. S., X,,625 ff., 750 ff. : Adams, 
 "The Nature of Social Unity," in A. J. S., 'IX, 208-27; Simmel, in 
 Annals, VI, 417, 422, passim; Stuckenberg, I, chaps, iv, v, passim. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY: THE SOCIAL POPULATION. 
 
 Section VI. Size, Density_, and Concentration op 
 
 Population. 
 
 I. Preliminary Principles and Generalization (Seligman, 
 Principles, 48-49; Giddings, Principles, 79-82; idem, Descrip- 
 tive and Hist. >iociologi), 72 tf.. 91-92, 96-103; Kropotkin, 
 ''Mutual Aid Among Animals." in Nineteenth Century, 
 XXVIII, 702). 
 
 1. The study of population is partly economic, but mainly 
 
 biological and sociological (cf. Ross, Foundations, 
 29 ff.). 
 
 2. Significance of aggregation. 
 
 a. Is man naturally a social being? (Cf. Ward, Pure 
 Sociology, 555-57; and Giddings, 79.) 
 
 &. Aggregations or groups among animals, savages, and 
 barbarians (Howard, llatrimonial Institutions, I, 
 01 ff., animal sociology). 
 
 c. Rare examples of isolation (Lumholtz, ''Cave 
 Dwellers of the Sierra Madre," in Memoirs of the 
 International Congress of Anthropology, 1891; 
 Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales, 46-17) ; isolation 
 of faniilies and individuals in the U. S., the result 
 of transient conditions. 
 
 II. Influences Determining the Place and Extent of Aggrega- 
 tion for Animals and Men. 
 
 1. Environment (Giddings, Desc. and Hist. Soc., 91 ff.). 
 
 a. Drainage, altitude, temperature, humidity, soil, ex- 
 posure. 
 
 6. Food supply (Espinas, Societes Animales, 461, pas- 
 sim; Kropotkin. op. cit.. 700-706; Abbott, Natural- 
 ist's Wanderings ; Giddings, 82 ff. ; Taylor, Anthro- 
 pology. 207; Grey, Northwest and Western Austra- 
 lia, il, 276-78). 
 
 c. Examples of natural habitats : homes of the Ameri- 
 can aborigines; valleys of the Mississippi, Ganges, 
 
 (22) 
 
ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY. 23 
 
 Euphrates, Nile, Yellow River, I*o, Rhine; arid 
 regions; aggregations in U. S. east of lUOth merid- 
 ian, 1790-1890 (Giddings, 8G-87). 
 2. Artificial conditions: man transforms the environ- 
 ment. 
 
 a. Aggregation favors further aggregation. 
 
 6. Creation of the secondary means of subsistence. 
 
 c. Relative density of population in the hunting, pas- 
 
 toral, agricultural, and industrial stages (Selig- 
 man, 49; Roberts, Anth. Coal Communities, 11-12) : 
 example. New England Indians in Colonial period. 
 
 d. Sentiment may sustain a city : examples, Mecca, 
 
 Jerusalem, Athens (Hogarth, Xearer East, 274). 
 
 III. Resulting Size and Density of Population. 
 
 1. Probable population of the globe; of the United 
 
 States; and of the principal countries, at successive 
 periods (for Russia, see Milioukov, Essais, chap. ii. 
 Compare Hogarth, Nearer East, 14G-67). 
 
 2. Density of population (Giddings, Dcsc. and Hist. Soc.^ 
 
 io) . 
 
 a. When industry is well developed density depends on 
 wealth or the means of procuring food rather than 
 on domestic or local food production: examples of 
 France and England (Seligmau, 49-50). 
 
 &. Relative present density in different countries (for 
 Russia, see Milioukov, chap, ii, and the chart at the 
 end of the vol. Compare Hogarth, 146-67). 
 
 c. Relative density in different states of the Union (see 
 map and diagram in Twelth Census, vol. on '"Popu- 
 lation"; and in Seligman, 50-52). 
 
 lY. Concentration (Agglomeration) or Distribution of Popu- 
 lation between City and Country. 
 
 1. Size, character, and the influences determining the loca- 
 tion or founding, of 
 «. Babylon, Nineveh, Egbatana, Jerusalem, Tyre, and 
 
 other great cities of ancient Asia. 
 6. Athens and other Hellenic cities. 
 
 c. Rome and the Italian towns. 
 
 d. Mediaeval cities (for these and the preceding groups, 
 
 see Kai^ Biicher, in Die Grossstadt, 3-31). 
 
24 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 1) Small size of German cities. 
 
 2) Small size of English cities. 
 
 2. Modern cities (Biiclier, in Die O-rossstadt, 3-31; and 
 Weber, Growth of Cities, chap. iii. See section VIII, 
 below). 
 a. The great city is a modern phenomenon; its vast so- 
 ciological significance. 
 &. Influences determining the origin, character, and ex- 
 pansion ; the ''industrial revolution" ; system of 
 transportation ; location ; names. 
 c. Present state of the urbanization of population in 
 the United States and other countries : percentages 
 at dififerent dates (Seligman, 51-52; Weber, 1-142). 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 By preference, read Seligman, Principles of Economics, 48-53; Gid- 
 dings, Principles of Sociology, 79 ff.; idem. Descriptive and Historical 
 Sociology, as cited; and Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Sociology, 341 ff. 
 For further study, consult Twelfth Census, volumes on "Population"; 
 also Abstract of the Ttoelfth Census; Weber, Growth of Cities, espe- 
 cially 1-228; Karl Bucher, in "Die Qrossstadt;' 3-31; Allendorf, Der 
 Zuzug in die Stddte; Hogarth, The Nearer East, 264, 146-67; Milioukov, 
 Essais, 238-40, 47-65; Seeck, Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken 
 Welt, I, 364, 368, 385 (cityward flow); Wells, Anticipations, 39 fl.; 
 Howe, The City the Hope of Democracy ; Wright, Practical Sociology, 
 21-63; U. S. Industrial Commission, Report (1903), XIX, 1-13; Tene- 
 ment House Department of N. Y. City, First Report (2 vols., 1904); 
 University of Pa., Translations and Reprints, II, No. 1, 38-39 (Popula- 
 tion of English Mediaeval towns) ; Levasseur, La Population Francaise 
 (1891). For a bibliography of urban population, see Brooks, in Mu- 
 nicipal Affairs, V, 227-30; and compare the discussion of authorities 
 in Weber, op. cit., 476 ff., and the footnotes. 
 
 See the Special Card Catalogue of the Department of Political 
 Science and Sociology on "Population." 
 
 Section YII. Composition of the Population. 
 
 Distribution (see Special Card Catalogue on "Popula- 
 tion"). 
 
 1. As to sex (see Westermarck, Human Marriage, 460-83, 
 and chaps, xx, xxi, xxii; Wake, Marriage and Kin- 
 ship, 223 ff.; Howard, Mat. Inst., I, 132-41; Bailey, 
 67-94). 
 a. Relative numbers of the sexes: 
 
 1) In older and less civilized countries, often an ex- 
 cess of males; causes of polyandry. 
 
ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY. 25 
 
 2) In Europe, about 1,064 females to 1,000 males; but 
 
 the birth-rate of males exceeds that of females: 
 why greater mortality'? 
 
 3) In America, 51.2 per cent, males; 48.8 per cent. 
 
 females; but in Massachusetts, 51.3 per cent, fe- 
 males ; in. Wyoming, 37.1 per cent, females. 
 6. Economic and social significance of the numerical 
 
 disparity of the sexes? 
 c. Influences predetermining the sex of offspring (Ho- 
 ward, Matrimonial Institutions, I, 138-41). 
 
 2. As to age (see diagram in Seligman, 54; and Levas- 
 
 seur, Population, II, 257-GO). 
 
 a. In the United States (1900) : 26 millions, male and 
 female, between 5 and 20 or of school age, 21 mil- 
 lions, male, of voting age (over 21) ; and 16 mil- 
 lions, male, of militia age (18 to 44). 
 
 1). Social and economic significance of age-classes: 
 child-labor; public education; pensions, etc. 
 
 c. Effect of immigration and emigration; of industrial 
 conditions (see table in Seligman, 55). 
 
 3. As to occupation. 
 
 a. Age limits of productive classes about 15 to 65. 
 
 6. Classification of U. S. population by occupations: 
 
 great increase of industrial classes (Seligman, 56. 
 
 Cf. U. 8. Census, "Population"). 
 
 4. Other forms of distribution or classification (see Sec. 
 
 IX, below). 
 II. Demotic Composition: National and Racial Distribution 
 (Oiddings, Principles, 96 ff . ; idem, Desc. and Hist. Soc 
 104-23).^ 
 
 1. Causes and processes of race-intermixture; definition 
 
 of "demotic." 
 a. Intermarriages of aliens; wife-stealing; modern hus- 
 band-purchase. 
 6. Inter-clan unions: exogamy. 
 
 c. Conquest with incorporation or assimilation. 
 
 d. Immigration and migration : the chief cause in mod- 
 
 ern communities. 
 
 2. Intermixture of race-elements in American popula- 
 
 tion, 
 a. In whole country : relative number of foreign-born ; 
 
26 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 the percentage of native-born almost stationary, 
 being 13.2 in 1860, and 13.7 in 1900 (Seligman. 60; 
 Giddings, Principles, 98-99). 
 
 1). In the various states : example of Utah. 
 
 c. In the great cities: examples of New York and Chi- 
 
 cago (Longstaff, Studies in Statistics, 174; "Hull 
 House Maps and Papers"; Giddings, 99). 
 
 d. In particular industrial regions: coal fields (Roberts, 
 
 Anthracite Coal Communities, 3-27, passim). 
 
 1) The 26 peoples; characteristics, physical, moral, 
 
 mental. 
 
 2) Social problems presented: race-pride; social 
 
 "capilarity" ; degeneration. 
 
 3) Problem of assimilation: alleged operation of Mal- 
 
 thusian law (Roberts, 17). 
 
 3. Intermixture of race-elements in other populations 
 
 (Giddings, Desc. and Hist. Soc, 112 tf.). 
 
 4. Value of race-amalgamation. 
 
 a. Is the quality improved by human ''cross-fertiliza- 
 
 tion"? Law of "similarity" (see Westermarck, 
 
 chaps, xiii, xv; Howard, I, 130-31). 
 &. Effect of amalgamation on the American people: 
 
 will the ultimate type of American man he found 
 
 in the Central West? 
 
 c. Immigration and the problem of a lower standard 
 of living : significance of Chinese exclusion ; of 
 other restrictions on immigration. 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Seligman, Principles of Economics, 53-55; Giddings, Principles of 
 Sociology. 96 ff.; idem, Descriptive and Hist. Sociology, 104-23; Mayo- 
 Smith, Statistics and Sociology. 36 fl.; Wright, Practical Sociology, 
 33 ff., 65 ff., 151 ff.; Levasseur, Population, II, 257 ff.; U. S. Eleventh 
 and Ticelfth Censuses, "Population"; also Abstract of Twelfth Census; 
 Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities, chaps, i, ii, passim; Mahr 
 (G. von), in Die Orossstadt. 73-146 (important tables for Germany); 
 Gulick, Evolution of the Japanese, 160-61 (child labor), passim; Weber, 
 Growth of Cities, chaps, vii, viii, 368 ff. ; the works of Wake, Wester- 
 marck, and Howard as above cited; and Bailey, Modern Social Condi- 
 tions, 67 ff. 
 
ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY. 27 
 
 Section VIII. The Movement op Population. 
 
 The Genetic Increase of Population. 
 
 1. The marriage rate (Maj^o-Smith, 1)3 ff . ; Seligman, 55- 
 
 56; Howard, III, 213 ff., 242 ff. ; Weber, 319-30; 
 
 Bailey, 136-212, 347 ff.). 
 a. The present rate in the United States; in other 
 
 countries. 
 &. Proportion of single persons (Seligman, 56). 
 
 1) In the country. 
 
 2) In the city. 
 
 c. Movement of the marriage rate. 
 
 1) It is falling both in Europe and America: causes 
 
 and signiflcance? 
 
 2) In America and England, for both adult and total 
 
 population the rate is higher in the city than in 
 the country ; but in the United States the cities 
 have a smaller proportion of the married. Why? 
 (See Weber, 319-30.) 
 
 3) In genera], the marriage age is rising (Weber, 
 
 326 ff.). 
 
 4) The marriage rate falls in hard times and rises 
 
 on the recurrence of prosperity. 
 
 5) The rate rises with improvement in conditions 
 
 favoring the employment of women. 
 
 6) Influence of migration on the rate (Weber, 328-9). 
 
 2. The birth-rate or fecundity; definition of ''crude" and 
 
 ''refined" rates (Mayo-Smith, 65 ff . ; Bailey, 95 ff.). 
 ff. The actual rate. 
 
 1) In the United States, about 35. 
 
 2) In other countries, varies from 22 in France to 
 
 50 in Russia and India. 
 6. Movement of the rate. 
 
 1) Causes of variation: race, economic conditions, 
 
 occupation, prudential reasons, psychic causes; 
 Fetter's law {Bevdlkerungslelire) ; Hadley, 
 Economics, 48-49; Weber, 337-38). 
 
 2) The rate is falling rapidly in the eastern states; 
 
 among native-born as compared with foreign 
 born? in manufacturing districts as compared 
 with agricultural and commercial? 
 
28 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 3) Almost universally the "crude" rate is higher in 
 
 the city than in the country; but not always th(- 
 ''refined" rate. Rule in Prussia? In Saxony? 
 In Massachusetts? 
 
 4) In the United States, families are larger in the 
 
 city than in the country; while in France the re- 
 verse is true; but there seems to be no direct 
 connection between agglomeration and fecun- 
 dity (Weber, 328-38). 
 
 5) Families are larger among the poorer and less in- 
 
 telligent classes; the birth-rate diminishes as 
 civilization advances; relation to "density" 
 (Seligm.an, 57; Weber, 338 ff. ; Brownell, "Sig 
 nificance of a Decreasing Birth- Rate," in Annals, 
 V, 48-89, and many authorities there cited) : 
 Reasons? The problem of "race-suicide"? 
 
 6) In mining and manufacturing populations the 
 
 birth-rate is relatively higher than in agricultu- 
 ral and commercial populations (Wappaus, II, 
 481; Newsholme, Yital Statistics, 57; Weber, 
 321, 341-42, and his Table CXLVI). 
 
 7) Effect of cityward migration on the rate (Weber, 
 
 342-3). 
 
 8) Proportion of illegitimate births: in the country 
 
 as compared with the city (Weber, 404-406, 
 294-05, 332-33, 335-36, 362-63; Seligman, 55-56; 
 Levasseur, II, 34, 206, 400-401). 
 3. The death-rate: mortality; importance of the refined 
 rate (Mayo-Smith, 128 ff . ; Bailey, 213 ff.). 
 a. The actual rate. 
 
 1) In modern communities 17-21 per 1.000. 
 
 2) In the U. S. (1900) 17 per 1,000. 
 
 3) Rate in various states and cities. 
 
 1). Movement of the rate (Weber, 343-67; "Vital Statis 
 tics in New England" (1892), 57; Seligman, 57). 
 
 1) Causes: season, age, sex, race, sanitary condition. 
 
 2) The rate is slightly greater for males. 
 
 3) The average urban rate is larger than the rural; 
 
 great decrease of the urban rate in recent times 
 (Seligman, 59; Weber, 355-58). 
 
ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY. 29 
 
 4) Selected cities show a rate lower than the rural 
 
 (Weber, 444). 
 
 5) Expectancy of life in city and country (Weber, 
 
 346-7). 
 
 c. Vast sociological significance of the death-rate; 
 
 waste of child-life and waste of human life in gen- 
 eral is the real "race-suicide" (see Spargo, Bitter 
 Cry of the Children) . 
 
 1) Sanitation and housing; milk inspection; open 
 
 spaces and recreation (Weber, 349 ff.). 
 
 2) Pure food and water; temperance. 
 
 3) Scientific treatment of disease; evil of patent 
 
 medicines. 
 
 4) Kavages of war compared with those of bad sani- 
 
 tation. 
 
 d. Historical illustrations. 
 
 1) Depopulation of Rome; vitality of Teutons; of 
 
 ancient Greeks (Seeck, I, 201-202, 338-80; Pear- 
 son, 71 ff. ; Gibbon, chap. ii). 
 
 2) Why the mediaeval English population was sta- 
 
 tionary for 200 years. 
 
 3) Are the limits of the ''higher" races "unchange- 
 
 able"? (Pearson, 31-00;" Ward. Applied Soci- 
 ologij, 107-109, 236 (equivalence of races).) 
 II. Congregate Growth of Population; Mobility. 
 
 1. Origin of free migration. 
 
 a. Phenomena of migTation in early society (Giddings, 
 Principles, 90 ff . ; idem, Desc. and Hist. Soc., 77 ff.). 
 
 &. Checks to mobility in the middle ages, notably in 
 England. 
 
 c. Significance of the American doctrine of right of 
 
 expatriation ; industrial and social influences fa- 
 voring mobility. 
 
 d. Composite character of human race through mo- 
 
 bility. 
 
 2. Emigration and immigration in modern communities. 
 a. Immigration usually swells population of new coun- 
 tries while emigrntion does not often diminish that 
 of old countries: effect of increasing birth-rate? 
 
 6. Problem of migration in United States. 
 1) Extent of immigration ; restrictive laws. 
 
30 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 2) Internal migration: Causes? Social effects? Evi- 
 
 dences of a transition phase? 
 
 3) The problem of assimilation (see Simons, in A. J. 
 
 .%VI, VII). 
 c. The cityward flow of population. 
 
 1) Kelative increase through genetic and congre- 
 gate growth (for Germany, see Biicher, in Die 
 Grosssiadt, 3-31; Allendorf, Der Zuzug in Die 
 Stadte; and compare Kuczynski, Der Zug nach 
 dei\8tadt: :Nrilioukov, Essais. 27 ff.. 238 ff., for 
 Russia). 
 
 3. Causes. 
 
 a. General causes. 
 
 6. Influence of railways (Weber, 23-2.5). 
 
 c. Influence of cheap and SAvift transportation on the 
 
 expansion of cities {see Wells, Anticipations, 
 
 30-72; Weber, 409 ft'.). 
 
 4. The garden city movement in England ; the "back-to-the- 
 
 farm" cry in America. 
 
 5. Social effects of urban agglomeration (Weber, 431 ff.). 
 
 6. Hansen's indictment of cities (see his Drei Bcvolker- 
 
 ungsstufen (1889) ; and the criticism of Weber, 
 370 ff.). 
 III. The Law of Population (Seligman, 60-65; Patten, "Law 
 of Population Restated," in Pol. Sc. Quart., X; Fetter, "Es- 
 say on Malthus," in Yale Review, VII; Bonnar, Malthus 
 and His Work (1885) ; Spencer, Principles of Biology, Part 
 VI, chap xii). 
 
 1. Statement of Malthus's law. 
 
 2. Examination of his law. 
 
 3. Neo-malthusianism. 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Seligman, Principles of Economics. 55-65; Giddings, Principles of 
 Sociology. 87-96; idem. Descriptive and Hist. Sociology, 74-91; Weber, 
 Groivth of Cities. 318-67; Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Sociology, 36-177; 
 Ogle, "On Marriage Rates and Marriage Ages," in Journal of the Sta- 
 tistical Society (English), LIII (1890), 253-80; Crum, "Marriage Rate 
 in Mass.," in American Statistical Association, Publications, IV, 322-39; 
 idem, "Birth Rate in Mass.," in Quarterly Journal of Economics, XI, 
 248-65; Kuczynski, "Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born Popu- 
 lation in Mass.," in ibid.. XVI, 1-36: idem, Der Zug nach der Stadt 
 (1897); Bertillon, "Morbidity According to Occupation," in Jour. Stat. 
 Society, LV (1892); Levasseur, Population. 11, as cited; Booth (C). 
 
ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY. 31 
 
 "On the Birth Rate in London," in Jour, of Stat. Society (1893); Bil- 
 lings, "Diminishing Birth-Rate in the U. S.," in Forum, XV, 467-77; 
 Edson, "American Life and Physical Degeneration," in North Am. 
 Revieiv, CLVH, 440-51; Marshall, Principles of Economics (3d ed.), 
 263; Wappaus, Allgemeuie Bevolkcrungsstatistik (1861); Henriot (P.), 
 Agglomerations Urbaines (1897); N. Y. Tenement House Committee, 
 Report, 1894; Seeck, Gesch. des Untergangs der antiken Welt, I, 201- 
 202, 338-90; Pearson, National Life and Character, 31-90; Kendall, 
 "Natural Heirship: or, All the World Akin," in Nineteenth Century, 
 XVIII (1885); Fairlie, Municipal Administration, 77-102 (rise of Amer- 
 ican cities); Goodnow, City Government, chap, iii; Howe, The City 
 the Hope of Democracy ; Shaw, Municipal Government in Great Brit- 
 ain; idem. Municipal Government in Continental Europe, Index at 
 various major topics mentioned in this syllabus; Newsholme, Vital 
 Statistics. On the marriage rate, see Howard, Matrimonial Institu- 
 tions, III, 213 ff., 242 ff.; Westergaard, Statistik der Ehen; Cauderlier, 
 Lois de le Population; Oettingen, Die Moralstatistik ; Willcox, "Mar- 
 riage Rate in Michigan," in Am. Stat. Ass., IV; idem, "Study in Vital 
 Statistics," in Pol. Sci. Quart., VIII; Farr, Vital Statistics: Wright, 
 Practical Sociology. 105-49; Bailey, Modern Social Conditions. 
 
 For more extended study, see the Special Card Catalogue on "Popu- 
 lation." 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE FACTORS OR CAUSES OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA. 
 
 Section IX. The Nature of the Social Forces or Human 
 Desires (Wants^ Cravings). 
 
 I. Criticism of Various Theories of the Social Forces (Ross, 
 Foundations, 149-61; Small, General Sociology, 79, 80-90). 
 
 1. The so-called ''dualistic sociologj-" (Barth, 167-94). 
 
 a. Alleged '^dualism" of Franklin H. Giddings {Prin- 
 ciples of Sociologi/, 363-99, especially 363, 370). 
 
 1) Role of "cosmic energy" as social causation 
 
 (physical social process). 
 
 2) Role of men's desires as social causation (psychic 
 
 social process). 
 6. Alleged "dualism" of J. S. McKenzie (Introduction 
 
 to Social PliUosophy, 369 ff. Cf. Small, 83-84; 
 
 Barth, 172 ff.). 
 c. Alleged "dualism" of Lester F. Ward (Small, 81-82; 
 
 Barth, 167-72). See II below. 
 
 2. Theory of two sets of social factors (Ross, 150-52). 
 
 fl. The external factors or environment : these are in- 
 fluences or causes determining volitions. 
 
 &. The internal or psychic factors : these are volitions, 
 desires; the proximate causes of the telic event. 
 
 e. Compare this form of "dualism" with the "dualism" 
 of cosmic and psychic energy, as above considered. 
 For the discussion of environment as a factor of 
 social phenomena, see future syllabus. 
 
 3. The confusion of "needs" with "wants" (Ross, 152-54). 
 a. Needs as "functions" or "welfare activities." 
 
 6. Wants (desires) include dynamic activities other 
 than those necessary for welfare or survival. 
 
 II. Desires (Manifestations of Feeling) are the Essential or 
 Proximate Social Forces. 
 
 1. Great importance of Ward's doctrine {Dynamic So- 
 ciology, I, chap. V, and Index at "Desire," "Desires," 
 "Social Forces"; Psychic Factors of Civilisation, es- 
 
 (32) 
 
FACTORS OR CAUSES. 33 
 
 pecially chaps, ix, xviii; Pure Sociology, chaps, vi, 
 vii, ix, and practically all of Part II; "The Social 
 Forces,'' in A. J. 1^., II, 82-95; Dealey and Ward, 
 Parts I, II, III). 
 a. His "dualism"; he insists on physical basis of psychic 
 
 phenomena (see especially Pure Sociology, chaps. 
 
 V, x; Dealey and Ward, chap. vii). 
 &. His gi-eat contribution is the revelation of desires, 
 
 feelings, as the essential or psychic social forces; 
 
 sociolog}' a psychic fact. 
 
 1) Feeling is the dynamic agent; a connative cause 
 
 or true "cosmic" force. 
 
 2) Intellect is the directive agent; a telle or "final" 
 
 cause. 
 
 2. Psychology of the social forces (Ward, Psychic Factors, 
 
 13-35). 
 a. The dual nature of mind. 
 
 1) Sense. 
 - 2) Intellect. 
 
 h. The psychological process (Ward, PsycMc Factors, 
 15 fif.). 
 
 1) Sensation: either intensive or indifferent: basis 
 
 of subjective psychology (chiefly the intensive). 
 
 2) Perception : the process produced by fixing atten- 
 
 tion upon the notion or knowledge caused by 
 sensation : the basis of objective psychology 
 (chiefly derived from the indifferent sensations). 
 
 3) The scale or order of the senses passing from sub- 
 
 jective to objective: touch, taste, smell, hearing, 
 sight; but if emotion be included, it must come 
 'before toiich, because it is exclusively subjective 
 (see below). 
 
 3. Resulting classification of the sensations or feelings. 
 A. As to Origin. 
 
 1. Primary- or direct. 
 a. Touch. 
 
 &. Taste. 
 
 c. Smell. 
 
 2. Secondary or indirect (derivative). 
 
 d. Hearing (emotional). 
 
 e. Sight (emotional). 
 
 f. Emotion (so-called "sixth sense"). 
 
34 GKNERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 B. As to Location. 
 
 1. External: the five senses (roughly classed). 
 
 2. Internal : the emotions : diffused ; caused chiefly 
 
 by ideas or products of brain ideation ; produce 
 no perception or direct knov.iedge. 
 
 [•' C. As to Quality. 
 
 1. Intensive (sphere of subjective psychology). 
 a. Pleasureable. 
 
 6. Painful. 
 
 1) Presentative or primary pain. 
 
 2) Representative or secondary pain (equal to 
 
 desire). 
 
 2. Indifferent (sphere of objective psychology). 
 a. Conscious. 
 
 6. Unconsious. 
 
 4. Subjective psychology ( Ward, . Psi/c/iic Factors, 20-24; 
 
 idem, Pure Sociology, 97 ff. ; Dealey and Ward, 
 
 60 ff.). 
 a. Has to do with the sensations, not the intellect. 
 6. Has to do mainly with the intensive sensations. 
 
 c. Therefore hns to do especially with the emotions: 
 
 these are the principal social forces or desires. 
 
 1) Produce no knowledge or perceptions. 
 
 2) Nerve currents only media. 
 
 3) Some of the emotional ganglia are connected with 
 
 the cerebrospinal system; but the great emo- 
 tional centers are connected with the sympathetic 
 system, whose operations are internal and mainly 
 unconscious. 
 
 d. Variety or scope of the emotions (Ward, Psychic 
 
 Factors, 52 &.). 
 
 e. The connative faculty; philosophy of desire (see be- 
 
 low). 
 
 5. Objective psychology. 
 
 a. Has to do exclusively with perceptions and their 
 "elaboration by the brain." Hearing and sight de- 
 voted exclusively to furnishing perceptions; the 
 other senses in less degree. 
 
 &. Perceptions are registered in the brain by a physio- 
 logical process. 
 
FACTORS OR CAUSES, 35 
 
 c. Intellectual elaboration : percosiytion, conception, 
 judgment (expressed in a proposition, and may be 
 truth or error), idea, generalization, reasoning. 
 
 cl. Intuition (Ward, Psi/chic Factors, 28-9, 133 ff.). 
 
 6. The connative faculty or will (Ward, Psi/chic Factors, 
 
 30 ff., 44 ff., 59 &.;idem, Pure Sociology, 13G ff., 247 
 ff.; Dealey and Ward, 69 ff.). 
 
 7. Philosophy of desire (Ward, Psr^hic Factors, 51-58; 
 
 Dealey and Ward, 65 ff.). 
 
 8. The claims of feeling or desire (Ward. Applied So- 
 
 cioJogy, 29 ff.). 
 III. Criticism of Various Theories of the Desires as Social 
 Forces (Ross, Foundations, 154-161). 
 
 1. Theory of one general force or the desire for the so- 
 
 cial welfare. 
 
 2. Winiarski's quantitative theory or doctrine of equiva- 
 
 lence {Revue Philosophique, XLV, 351-86, XLIX, 
 113-34; summarized by Ross, 156 ff.). 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Ross, Foundations. 149-61; same in A. J. S., IX, 526-48; Patten, 
 "Theory of the Social Forces," in Supplement to Annals, Jan., 1896; 
 Ward, Dynamic Sociology, I, 468-82, and his various works above 
 cited; Stuckenberg, Index at "Forces Social"; Dealey and Ward, chap, 
 vii, passim: Small, 532 ff., 623. For a discussion and a classification 
 of the social forces, see Zenker, Natilrliche EntwichlungsgeschicMe 
 (ler Gesellschflft, 83-95. 
 
 Section X. Classificatiox of the Social Forces. 
 
 I. Why there is Need of Classifying the Social Forces (Ross, 
 Foundations, 161-64). 
 
 1. Hedonism : are social forces reducible to desire for 
 most pleasure and least pain? (Cf. Ward, Pure So- 
 ciology, 129 ff. ; idem. Applied Sociology, 25, 244, 327, 
 and Index at 'Tain," "'Pleasure"-; idem. Psychic Fac- 
 tors, 30. 35; idem, Dynmnic Sociology, Index at 
 "Pain," "Pleasure.") 
 a. Are some of the instincts mere survivals and there- 
 fore meaningless uuder present conditions? 
 i. Nature of the impulses. 
 
 c. Significance of "play" (see Groos, Tlie Play of Ani- 
 mals). 
 
36 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 d. Reason destroys as well as creates interests, crav- 
 ings, desires. 
 
 2. The social factor; imitation of the gratifications of the 
 
 elite. 
 
 3. Hedonism and the ''law of parsimony" (Ross, 164; 
 
 Ward, Pure Sociology, 161-63), 
 
 4. The problem of "pain-economy" and "pleasure-econ- 
 
 omy" (Patten, in Annals, Snpp. to VII (1896), 59, 
 60, 75 ff.; Ward, Pure Sociology, 104-105, 283 ff.; 
 idem, "Utilitarian Economics," in A. J. S., Ill, 
 520-36; idem, in Annales de I'Institut Int. de Sociolo- 
 gie, IV, 89-132). 
 
 II. Small's Classification [General Sociology. 196-223, 425- 
 42, 443-81, 523-37 ; A. J. S., \1. 177-79. Criticised by Ross, 
 165; idem, A. J. S., IX, 537). 
 
 1. Principle of his classification. 
 
 a. Interests are the basis (lie back) of desires or par- 
 ticular forces (see especially General Sociology, 
 534-35). 
 
 6. Interests are to desires as substance to attribute or 
 as genus to species. We may be unconscious of the 
 stimulating basic interests. These are "teleogical" 
 (p. 431). 
 
 c. Social process consists mainly of "conjunction of in- 
 terests" and "conflict of interests" {Gen. Soc, 202- 
 203). 
 
 2. Enumeration of the basic interests or social forces. 
 a. Health-interest: food, sex. work. 
 
 1). Wealth-interest. 
 
 c. Sociability-interest. 
 
 d. Knowledge-interest. 
 
 e. Beauty-interest. 
 
 f. Rightness-interest. 
 
 III. Ratzenhofer's Classification ( Sociologische Erkenntniss, 
 54-66; Ross, 166; Small, 189 ff., passim. Cf. Fairbanks, 
 119 ff.). 
 
 1. Primitive or basic "interests." 
 
 a. Race-interest : impulses centering in the reproductive 
 
 functions. 
 h. Physiological interest: hunger and thirst. 
 
B^ACTORS OR CAUSES. 37 
 
 2. Secondary interests, developing from the primarr. 
 
 c. Egotic interest (from "a"). 
 
 d. Social interest (from ''b"). 
 
 e. Transcendental interest; from feeling of dependence 
 
 on the infinite (cosmos). 
 IV. Ward's Classification. 
 
 1. Principles of the classification. 
 
 a. Considers "function" to which the forces prompt. 
 h. Based mainly on psychic analysis. 
 
 2. Enumeration of the classes of forces or desires (see the 
 
 Table in Pure Sociology, 261; idem. Dynamic So- 
 ciology, 1, 472; Dealey and Ward, 78; Ross, 1G7). 
 "V. Stuckenberg's Classification (Sociology, I, 207 ff., and In- 
 dex at "Forces"; cf. Ross, 1G7-68). 
 
 1. Fundamental. 
 
 a. Economic (involves the desire for wealth). 
 
 h. Political (involves two egotic, non-political desires). 
 
 2. Constitutional, 
 e. Egotic. 
 
 d. Appetitive. 
 
 e. Affectional. 
 
 f. Recreative. 
 
 3. Cultural. 
 
 g. x\esthetic. 
 h. Ethical. 
 
 i. Religious. 
 /. Intellectual. 
 VI, Ross's Classification {Foundations, 168-81). 
 A. Desires (original forces). 
 
 1. Natural. 
 
 a. Appetitive : hunger, thirst, sex-appetite. 
 h. Hedonic. 
 
 c. Egotic. 
 
 d. Afl'ective. 
 
 e. Recreative. 
 
 2. Cultural. 
 
 f. Religious (cf. James, Varieties of Religious Experi- 
 
 ence; Brinton, Religion of Primitire Peoples). 
 
 g. Ethical : love of fair play, sense of justice. 
 
 h. Aesthetic : desire for pleasure of perception, the 
 
 beautiful. 
 i. Intellectual. 
 
38 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 B. Interests : Based on Primary Forces Acting tvith re- 
 spect to Wealth., Government^ and Knowledge (sec- 
 ondary or derivative forces). 
 
 1. Economic interest. 
 
 2. Political interest. 
 
 3. Eeligions interest. 
 
 4. Intellectual interest. 
 
 Section XI. The Desires and Human Achievement. 
 
 I. Progress and the Multiplication of Desires. 
 
 1. Few and simple wants of backward races, classes, and 
 
 individuals. 
 
 2. The conflict of desires. 
 
 a. Among the primitive Christians ; religion and beauty. 
 1). Among the 17th Century Christians of England. 
 
 3. Pathological aspects of transition periods in the evolu- 
 
 tion of wants; Nero and the rise of artistic desires 
 among the Romans (Capes, Early Empire^ 111-16, 
 226 ff.). 
 
 4. Luxury and the evolution of culture (A. G. Warner, 
 
 ''Economic Notes Eegarding Luxury," in Am. Ass. for 
 Ad. of Sc, XXXYIII (1889) ; and Moran, in A. J. S., 
 VI, 823-38). 
 
 a. Luxuries which express spiritual growth. 
 
 h. Luxuries which express perverted tastes or desires. 
 
 c. Unsocial or anti-social desires: "Conspicuous waste" 
 (Yeblen, Theory of the Leisure Class). 
 
 II. Illustrations of the Nature of the Desires in Their Relation 
 to Progress. 
 
 1. Highly developed tastes, especially the literary, of the 
 
 Roman senatorial nobles of 4th century; life on the 
 villa (Munro, Mediaeval Civilization, 32-33). 
 
 2. Comparison of the desires of the natives with those of 
 
 the Chinese tradesmen in Java (Day, ''Experiences of 
 the Dutch with Tropical Labor,'' in Yale Review, IX 
 (1900), 58-75, especially 70, 73; Clark, "Labor Con- 
 ditions in Java," in Bulletin of Bureau of Labor, 
 No. 58 (1905), 906-58, especially 923, 924). 
 
 3. Contentment and social stagnation in Cuba (Clark, 
 
FACTORS OR CAUSES. 39 
 
 ''Labor ronditions in Cuba," in Bulletin of the 
 Bureau of Labor, VII, No. 41 (1902), 663-793, espe- 
 cially 747). 
 
 4. The Filipino's standard of living and the American im- 
 
 perial problem : few wants, tropical abundance, dis- 
 like of work, improvidence (Clark, '"Labor Conditions 
 in the Philippines," in Bulletin of the Bureau 
 of Lahor (1905), No. 58, pp. 721-905, especially 793, 
 841). 
 
 5. Wants of the Mexicans and of the American Indians 
 
 compared: rum, tobacco, sloth, lack of ambition 
 (Weyl, ''Labor Conditions in Mexico," in Bulletin of 
 the Bureau of Lalor, VII (1902), No. 38, pp. 
 1-94, especially 15-16). 
 
 6. Illustrations of the operation of the phylogenetic 
 
 forces. 
 
 a. Effect of the rise of sex-desires on moral conduct 
 (Marro, "Influence of the Puberal Development 
 Upon the Moral Character of Children of Both 
 Sexes," in A. J. S., V, 193-219). 
 
 &. Moral and cultural results as seen in the phenomena 
 of wooing among animals and men (Howard, 
 Matrimonial Institutions, I, 202-208, and many au- 
 thorities there cited). 
 
 7. The gaming instinct as a social force (Thomas, "The 
 
 Gaming Instinct," in A. J. 8., VI, 750-63) : The so- 
 cial philosophy of rivalry in contests of skill and 
 chance. 
 
 8. As illustrated by the law of parsimony (Flamingo, 
 
 "Une Loi Sociologique," in Revue Internat. de 8o- 
 ciologie (1894), 409-21, especially .414-21). 
 
 9. As illustrated in the discussion of "Historical or Eco- 
 
 nomic Materialism" (by Kellez-Kranz, Novicow, 
 Loria, Kovalewsky, and others, in Annalcs de VInst. 
 Int. de Sociologie/yUI (1900-1901), 49-327). 
 
 10. Social forces (desires) versus alleged race-character- 
 istics (Zenker, Die Gesellsehaft, II (1903), 83-95: an 
 able account, with a classification of the social forces. 
 
40 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 Section XII. The Evolution of Desires. 
 
 A. General Illustrations of the Origin and Development of 
 
 Desires. 
 
 I. Phylogenetic Forces. 
 
 1. Relative unimportance of the sex-desire as a social 
 
 force among primitive men (Howard, Matrimonial In- 
 stitutions, I, 93 ff., 98 ff,, and the authorities there 
 cited). 
 
 2. Temple-prostitution and other practices, supposed to 
 
 be evidence of primitive promiscuity, are the results 
 of the rise of complex desires due to progress in in- 
 stitutions (Howard, I, 47 flf., and authorities there 
 cited). 
 
 3. Early evolution of sex-desires among the Hebrews and 
 
 other Semites (Barton, Semitic Origins, 41-45, pas- 
 sim; Howard, I, 161 ff., and Index at ''Hebrews"'). 
 
 II. Rise and Consequences of the Institution of Property and 
 the Desire for Wealth. 
 
 1. Dominance of the economic interest among the Baby- 
 
 lonians, 22.50 B. C. : leads to law and social control 
 (Vincent, "Laws of Hammurabi," in A. J. S., IX, 
 737-54, especially 748, 753). 
 
 2. Significance of wife-purchase (sale of daughters) 
 
 among the Arabs before Mahomet (Robertson Smith, 
 Kinship and Marriage, 78-79; Howard, I, 161 ff., 
 195 ff.). 
 
 3. Significance of development of property in pastoral 
 
 stage: wife-purchase for cattle; paternal kinship; 
 rise of economic interest (Hildebrand, Recht und 
 Sitte, 23, 31). 
 
 4. Rise of commercialism among Highland chiefs on fall 
 
 of Clan-system after 1745 : Craving for money, land- 
 rents (Blackie, Scottish Highlanders and the Land 
 Law, 39-42, 43, 45, 46, passim). 
 
 5. The consumption of wealth (Moran, "Ethics of 
 
 Wealth," in A. J. 8., VI, 823-38). 
 a. Low ideals : luxury ; conspicuous waste. 
 1). High ideals: individual and social utility, 
 c. Is luxury ever morally and socially justifiable? Are 
 there luxuries which ennoble and signify progress? 
 
FACTORS OR CAUSES. 41 
 
 6. Evolution of desires among industrial wage-earners 
 
 (Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities , 237-43, 253, 
 
 283,87-119). 
 
 7. New ideals regarding the production, consumption, and 
 
 distribution of wealth (Small, "A Dutch Co-operative 
 Experiment," in A. J. S., VII, 80-90) : reciprocal in- 
 terests of capitalist and laborer. 
 
 III. Evolution of Desires Among the People of the Western 
 Plains and Mountains of the United States (R. L. Stevenson, 
 ''Across the Plains," in Works (Scribners, 1895), XY, 115 
 ff., 124-48). 
 
 IV. Ideals as Desires. 
 
 1. Of the Japanese. 
 
 a. Small desire for life under the feudal regime; 
 apotheosis of suicide (Gulick, Evolution of the Jap- 
 anese, 154-58). 
 
 h. Hero-worship [ihid., 94 flf.). 
 
 G. Effect of contact with Occident [ihid., 23 ff., 159 ff.). 
 
 2. Ideals producing the crusades and produced by the 
 
 crusades (Guizot, Hist, of Civilization, I, 173-92; 
 Cox, Crusades; Prutz, KuUurgeschiclite der Kreiiz- 
 ziige, 392-93, contrast of the ideals of the Templars 
 and the Venetian traders). 
 
 3. Ideals of the Cistercians and other monastic orders 
 
 contrasted with those of the Cluniacs and with those 
 of the military class (Munro, Mediaeval Civilization. 
 155, 157-58). 
 
 4. Ideals of the Roman Stoics contrasted with those of 
 
 the freedmen and those of average Roman society 
 (Capes, Early Empire, 117-18, 22.3-36; idem, Age of 
 the Antonines, 90, 127-30, 178-79; Dill, Roman /^o- 
 cietg from Nero to Marcus Aurelius (1905), 1 ff., 
 58 ff., 100 ff. ; 141 ff., 289 ff., 334 ff. ; idem, Roman So- 
 ciety in the Last Century of the Western Empire 
 (1898), 102-103, 109-10, 112, 117-18, 142-43, 151-55, 
 167, 361, 374. Cf. Seeck, Geschichte des Untergangs 
 der antiJcen Welt, II, 165-67) . 
 
 5. Ideals fostered by military despotism, stimulated by 
 
 the mania for wealth. 
 
4:2 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 a. Among the Turks as compared with the Armenians 
 
 (Ferrero, Militarism, 139 ff., 145, 158-59). 
 &. Rise of higher modern ideals (ilid., 293 ff., 298, 299). 
 6. Illustration of the variety of human wants and ideals 
 (R. L. Stevenson, ''The Lantern-Bearers," in Works, 
 XV, 235-49). 
 
 B. Race and the Evolution of Desires. 
 I. Is the Difference in Culture and in the So-called Character- 
 istics of Races Due to Inherent or Inherited Ca- 
 pacity; or is the Difference Due to Diverse Environ- 
 ment, Experience, Training, Institutions? 
 
 1. The view of Jhering {Evolution of the Aryan (1897), 
 
 69-70, 148-49. Compare Vacher de Lapouge, L'Aryen: 
 son Role Social (1899). 
 
 2. The view of Ward (ylpplied Sociology, 107 ff., 236, 156 
 
 ff., 95 ff., passim). 
 
 3. The view of Pearson (National Life and Character, 
 
 chap. i). 
 
 4. The view of Lippert: "active and passive" races (Eul- 
 
 turgescliichte, I, 37 ff., 43 ff.). 
 
 5. The view of Sir Henry Maine: "progi-essive and non- 
 
 progi-essive" races {Ancient Law, chap. ii). 
 
 6. The view of Darmesteter {Selected Essays, 155-77). 
 
 7. The view of Reid {Principles of Heredity (1905), 289- 
 
 300) : race mental traits mainly acquired. 
 
 8. The view that psychic race-characteristics are mainly 
 
 heriditary (Michaelis, Prinzipien der natiirlichen und 
 sozialen Enticicklungsgeschichte, Y, 57-87; especially 
 Closson, "Hierarchy of the European Races," in A. J. 
 S., Ill, 314-27, 314. Cf. Bagehot, Physics and Poli- 
 tics (Humboldt Library, 1880), 67-70, 83-87; Le Bon, 
 The Croivd, 43, 91-92; Greef, in A. J. S.. VIII, 779- 
 811, especially 785-98). 
 
 9. The view that psychic race-characteristics are mainly 
 
 due to social conditions (Gulick, Evolution of the 
 Japanese, 21, 425-26, passim; especially Thomas, 
 "Province of Social Psychology," in A. J. S., X, 445- 
 55, especially 451-54; idem. Sex and Society; and 
 Ward, as above cited). 
 
 10. Importance of will, character, in social evolution; 
 
FACTORS AND CAUSES. 43 
 
 Bryce, Studies in History and Jurisprudence, 1, 59-62, 
 II, 1-48, especially 15-10 (Obedience). 
 
 II. Desires among African Natives. 
 
 1. Results of contact with Europeans in South Africa 
 
 (South African '^^ative Races Committee, Natives of 
 South Africa, 1901, 229-50). 
 
 2. Results of Contact of Southern Xegroes (slaves) with 
 
 western culture in the United States (Laws, 'The Ne- 
 groes of Cinclare Central Factory and Calumet Plan- 
 tation, Louisiana,'' in Bulletin of Bureau of 
 ■ Lahor, VII, 1902, No. 38, pp. 95-120, especially 117-20) . 
 
 3. General results of contact with European civilization 
 
 (Reinsch, in A. J. 8., II, 145-67). 
 
 III. Desires among the- Hebrews (Darmesteter. ''Race and 
 Tradition,-' in Selected Essaijs (1898), 155-77. Cf. Renan, 
 History of the People of Israel, Y, 272-73; Barton, Semitic 
 Origins, 1-29, 28, 41-45). 
 
 IV. Desires as Influenced by Environment among the Arabs 
 (Bedawi) : Origin of Semitic Traits in General (Barton, 
 Semitic Origins, 1-29, 28). 
 
 V. Desires of Turk and Armenian (Ferrero, Militarism, 154- 
 55, passim). 
 
 VI. Desires among Papuans (Ke and Aru Islands) as Con- 
 trasted with those of Malays (Wallace, Malay Archipelago, 
 II, 170-78, 193, 206-207, 232-40, 324-25, 442-43, 440-48. 
 
 VII. E^rly Evolution of Higher Desires among the Greeks 
 (Keller, Homeric Society, 299). 
 
 VIII. Filipino and Chinaman (Clark, "Labor Conditions in 
 the Philippines," in Bulletin of Bureau of Labor, No. 
 58, pp. 721-905). 
 
 Section XIII. The Influence of Environment as a Factor 
 IN Social Phenomena : Mesology. 
 
 I. Theory of Environment (in Narrow Sense) as a Factor in 
 Racial and Social Evolution (for the history, see Greef, 
 in A. J. /S., IX, 246-58). 
 
 1. The true science of mesology distinguishes between the 
 objective and the subjective environment or character 
 (Dealey and Ward, 34-35, 178-79, 210-12; Ward, Pure 
 Sociology, 58, 178 ff.). 
 
44 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 a. Heredity and var:?.tIon in the animal stage of organic 
 evolution. "The environment transforms the 
 animal." 
 
 &. Heredity and variation in the human stage of or- 
 ganic evolution : ''Man transforms the environ- 
 ment" (Ward, Pure Sociology, 16-17) : resistance of 
 both heredity and intellect. 
 
 2. Real importance of mesolog;\'. 
 
 a. Physical effects (Ward, 58, 178 ff.). 
 6. Psychic effects. 
 c. Social effects. 
 
 3. Kinds of environment in the broad sense. 
 
 a. Physical : Altitude, humidity, temperature, quality 
 
 of soil, etc. 
 6. Local : Such as urban, rural, etc. 
 
 c. Racial or ethnic. 
 
 d. Social: Institutions and other social conditions: 
 
 sometimes they account for physical characteristics. 
 
 e. Economic : Riches or poverty ; sometimes causes 
 
 physical changes. 
 
 f. Education : School-training or its equivalent, 
 
 g. Religious, etc. (see the results of Odin's researches 
 
 in his Genise des Orands Hommes; or in Ward, 
 Applied Sociology). 
 
 4. Environment and Weissmann's theory : The two evolu- 
 
 tions. 
 II. Illustrations of the Influence of Environment. 
 1. Topography or geographical condition. 
 
 a. Mode of administration in Mexico (Guerrero, Gene- 
 sis del Crimen en Mexico (1901) ; reviewed by Starr 
 in A. J. S., IX, 712-16). 
 
 6. Social or national type (Demolins, Comment la 
 Route crie le Type. Compare his Les Francais 
 d'Aujourd'hui; and Bryce, in Contemp. Review 
 (1886), XLIX. 431-32 (routes of commerce and 
 travel) ; W. D. Babington, Fallacies of Race 
 Theories as applied to National Characteristics 
 (1895) ; reviewed by Cliffe-Leslie, in Fort. Rev.. 
 XVI, 753). 
 
 c. The historical development of peoples as revealed by 
 the new geography which is the "study of the en- 
 
FACTORS AND CAUSES. 45 
 
 vironment of man" (Ripley, "GeogTai)liy as a So- 
 ciological Study," in Pol.Sc. Quart. (1895), X, 
 630-55; Bryce, "'The Relation of History and Geog- 
 raphy," in Content J). Revieto (1886), XLIX, 426-43; 
 Ratzel, Amthro 1)0- Geo graphic (1882) ; ideni^ Polit- 
 ische Geographie; oder, die Geographie der 
 Staaten, des Verlcehres, mid des Krieges (1903). 
 
 d. Rise of cities (Ratzel, ''Die geogi'aphisehe Lage der 
 
 grossen Stiidte," in Die Grossstadt, 34-72). 
 
 e. Barbarian ''enclaves" (Bryce, Studies in History and 
 
 Jurisprudence, I, 24-26). 
 
 2. Influence of climatic conditions. 
 
 a. Humidity, temperature, wind (Hann, Handhoolc of 
 Climatology (1903), 56-7, 67, 141; Weyl, "Labor 
 Conditions in Mexico," in Bulletin, No. 38, Vol. 
 YII (1902), especially 13-14). 
 
 h. Influences on industry (Ripley, op. cit., 650-51). 
 
 3. Influence of soil and geological formation ; products. 
 a. Role of maize in America (Payne, History of 
 
 America, I; reviewed by Giddings, in Pol. Sc. 
 Quart., Yin, 7SS). 
 &. Role of the date-palm in Arabia and in Babylon ; its 
 connection with the origin of Semitic clan (Bar- 
 ton, .Semitic Origins. 30, 33, 38-39, 90 ff., 95, 159). 
 
 c. Role of beech-tree (Taylor, in Knowledge, Nov., 1889; 
 
 and British Ass. for Ad. of Sc, 1889, p. 782; Ripley, 
 op. cit., 650-51). 
 
 d. Origin of Hebrew desire for trade (Kent. History of 
 
 Hebrew People (1899), III, 38-39: Effect of change 
 from Palestine to Mesopotamia). 
 
 e. Relative effects of kinds of rock-formation on insti- 
 
 tutions of Brittany and the Department of the 
 Marne (Riplej*, op. cit., 653). 
 
 f. Mineral deposits. 
 
 4. Relative effect of mountain environment in creating 
 
 and conserving ideas and institutions. 
 
 a. Persistence of religious and social customs in Tyrol 
 and the Salzberg; also in Auvergne (Leslie, Essays 
 in Pol. and Moral Philosophy, 414-37). 
 
 6. Causes of Kentucky feuds (MacClintock, "The Ken- 
 tucky Mountains and Their Feuds," in A. J. 8., 
 VII,' 1-28, 171-87). 
 
46 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 c. Diverse effects of mountains, plains, oases, vrater- 
 commiinication, and steam transportation in the 
 building and transformation of gi-oups, creeds, in- 
 dustries, etc. (Hogarth, The Nearer East, 266, 178, 
 180, 184-85, 186, 228, 232, 235, 246-47, 251, 258, 265, 
 270, 272, 273, 278-79, passim). 
 5. Influence of environment on the size of social groups 
 and the process of social aggregation in general 
 r Greet, in A. J. B., IX, 69-104, 226-8^0, especially 97-98, 
 100, 88, 91, 246-58, giving a history of theory of the 
 influence of the environment, X, 64-80). 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Seligman, Principles of Economics, 36-48 (nature of environment) ; 
 Ratzel, "Studies in Political Areas," in A. J. 8., Ill, 297-310, 449-63, 
 especially 297, 449, IV, 366-79, especially 366; Roberts, Anthracite Coal 
 Communities, 8, 9, passim; Payne, History of America, I, especially 
 294-303, 316-21, 328-29, 349, 364, 368-73; Seeck, GescMchte des Unter- 
 gangs der antilcen Welt, I, 192-94; Jhering, Evolution of the Aryan, 
 Book II (Aryans and Semites) ; Rowe, The United States and Porto 
 Rico tDith Special Reference to the Problems arising out of our Con- 
 tact with the Spanish-American Civilization (1904); Bageliot, Physics 
 and Politics; Guyot, Earth and Man (1868); idem. The Earth and 
 its Inhabitants (1869); Ripley, Races of Europe; Winsor (Justin), 
 The Mississippi Basin; Babington, Fallacies of Race Theories as ap- 
 plied to National Characteristics (1895) ; Beddoe, Races of Britain. 
 
 For a bibliography, see Seligman, 36; and consult the footnotes ia 
 Ripley's article in Pol. Sc. Quarterly, X, 654-55. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SOCIAL PROCESSES.* 
 
 Section XIV. Preliminary Processes or Potential 
 
 Socialization. 
 
 A. Cleaning of Social Assimilation (compare Dealey and 
 Ward, 17G-98; and Ward, Pure Sociology, 193-220). 
 
 I. General Character of the Preliminary Processes (Ross, 
 Foundations, 89-90, 95-96 ; idem, in A. J. 8., X, 470-72 ; idem 
 in Congress of Arts and Science, V, 880-82 ; Thomas, in A. J. 
 S., X, 447, 450 ff. (planes, parallelism; idem, in Congress 
 of Arts and Science, V, 862 if. ) . 
 
 1. Are these processes not "strictly social"? 
 
 2. The^- are mainly spontaneous rather than purposive 
 
 (compare Ross, Foundations, 95; Small, GcQieral So- 
 ciology, 207 ff.; Simons, in A. J. S., VI, 793, 796-99). 
 
 II. Views as to the Nature of Assimilation (Simons, in A. J. 
 S.,YI,790n.). 
 
 1. As to its relative importance as a social fact (Gum- 
 
 plowicz, Rassenkampf, 254; Ratzenhofer, Die So- 
 ciologische Erkemitniss: Novicow, Les Luttes, 128; 
 Ross. Social Control, 339). 
 
 2. Definitions. 
 
 a. That of Giddings {Principles, 49, 70). 
 I). That of Novicow (Les Luttes, 128-152). 
 
 c. That of Burgess (Pol. Sc. and Comp. Const. Laiv, 
 
 I, 2). 
 
 d. That of Simons: '-'A process due to prolonged con- 
 
 tact; figuratively a process by which the aggrega- 
 tion of peoples is changed from a mere mechanical 
 mixture into a chemical compound" {A. J. S., VI, 
 791-92). 
 
 3. In form, assimilation may be 
 
 a. Peaceable, perhaps being the earlier. 
 
 T). Warlike or forcible: role of conquest with "result- 
 
 *In the main, following Ross's Analysis. 
 
 (47) 
 
48 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 ing amalgamation and assimilation of heterogeneous 
 ethnic elements" ; of slavery. 
 
 4. In mode of action, it may be 
 
 a. Spontaneous or unconscious : role of contact, hered- 
 ity, adoption? This is essentially the ''prelimin- 
 ary" process. ' 
 
 &. Purposive or conscious. 
 
 5. The essential prerequisites of the process of assimila- 
 
 tion are 
 
 ff. Psychic : "consciousness of kind" or "potential fel- 
 lowship" (Giddings, Principles, 17; Gumplowicz, 
 Rassenkampf, 244; Mayo-Smith, "Assimilation of 
 Nationalities in the U. S.," in Political Sc. Qiiar- 
 terhj, IX, 431; Simons, in A. J. S., VI, 798-99). 
 
 Z>. Social: that is contact through intercourse; accom- 
 plished. 
 
 1) Through physical means of communication; or 
 
 2) Through psychic means of communication; assimi- 
 
 lation is a psychological rather than a biological 
 process (Simons, in A. J. S., VI, 801-803). 
 
 6. Assimilation has two elements : the active and the pas- 
 
 sive. Their relative influence depends on three fac- 
 tors (Simons, VI, 803-807). 
 
 a. Relative culture state, 
 
 &. Relative mass. 
 
 c. Relatively intensity of race-consciousness. 
 
 B. Kinds of Prelimitiary Processes. 
 
 I. Assimilation by Environment (cf. Simons, in A. J. 8., VI, 
 815-16; Ward, Pure Sociology, 178, 180, Index; Giddings, 
 Principles, 82 &., 120-21). 
 
 1. Influence of physical environment, of certain areas in 
 
 differentiating animal species, and especially man 
 (Ward, in A. J. >S'., VII, 721-29) ; Greef's theory 
 of "Social Frontiers," in A. J. S., IX, G90-702, 832-39, 
 X, 64-80, 228-44, 53143 (especially 541-42), 766-86, XI, 
 60-74, 219-28, 409-21, 663-80). 
 
 2. Role of memory and cunning (inventive power) in so- 
 
 cial differentiation (Ward, in A. J. 8., VIII, 723-26) ; 
 resulting products (Simons, in A. J, 8.. VI, 797). 
 
THE SOCIAL PROCESSES. 49 
 
 a. Diverse races or ethnic groups in diverse areas. 
 
 6. Languages. 
 
 c. Manners, customs, ceremonies, beliefs. 
 
 3. Social integration. 
 
 a. Sequence of cannibalism, conquest with extermina- 
 tion, conquest with slavery, industrial class. 
 
 &. Race-integration ; the variety of influences producing 
 present race-diff'erences; will there result one per- 
 fected world-race? (Ward, op. cit., 729-45). 
 
 4. Illustrations of assimilation by environment. 
 
 a. Influence of the desert in the evolution of the Semitic 
 ethnic type (Barton, Semitic Origins, 271-73, 30-39, 
 74-79, 179 ff. ; Hogarth, ^^earer East, 255-59). 
 
 1) "Meagerness," the Arab chai^cteristic. 
 
 2) Assimilation, a preparation for the culture-stage 
 
 of Mahomet. 
 
 &. Influence of routes of commerce; mission of the 
 Phoenicians and the Jews in assimilation (Keller, 
 Homeric Society, 1-28, especialy 21-24; Bryce, in 
 Contemporary Revieio (1886), XLIX, 431-32; and 
 compare idem, Studies in. History and Jurispru- 
 dence I, 308, 265-68; Simons, in A. J. S., VI, 799- 
 800). 
 
 c. Influence of ethnic and local environment among na- 
 tives of Celebes; assimilation .encouraged by mis- 
 sionaries (Wallace, Malay Archipelago, I, 411). 
 
 II. Assimilation by Occupation and Mode of Life. 
 
 III. Assimilation by ''Dialectic of Personal Growth" (Ross^ 
 Foundations, 95. Compare Cooley, Human Mature, 20 ff.; 
 and Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretation, 13-65). 
 
 IV. Assimilation by Culture and Education. 
 
 1. Influence of Rome on Gaul (Fustel de Coulanges, His- 
 
 toire des Inst. Politiques, I, 5-7). 
 
 2. Influence of culture among the Greeks; the institution 
 
 of guest friendship (Seebohm, Greek Trihal Society, 
 99-100; Simons, in A. J. S., VII, 59 ff.; Keller, ffo- 
 meric Society, 1 ff., 21-24, 292-314, especially 298-99, 
 303-306) : the original strong "syngenetic" feeling was 
 modified before Homer. 
 
 3. Cultural results of conquest (Simons, in A. J. S., VII, 
 
 56). 
 4 
 
50 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 4. Influence of culture among the ancient Irish (Joyce, 
 
 Social History of Ancient Ireland, 418-22) . 
 
 5. Influence of culture on the Japanese (Gulick, Evolu- 
 
 tion of the Japanese, 435-37, passim). 
 
 6. Limits to assimilation by culture (Zenker, Die Gesell- 
 
 scJiaft, I, 152). 
 
 7. Other illustrations (Demolins, Les Francais cFAujour- 
 
 d'hui, 218-23; Bryce, Studies in History and Jur., I, 
 308, 265-66; Wallace, Malay Archipelago, I, 35-36, 
 241; Jhering, Evolution of the Aryan, 3, 25; Zenker, 
 Die Gesellschaft, I, 150, 148-49; Gulick, Evolution of 
 Japanese, 435, 437, passim; Seeck, Untergangs, I, 195, 
 223-24, 263). 
 
 V. Products of the Preliminary Processes (See Ross's "Map 
 of the Sociological Field"). 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Simons (S. E.), "Social Assimilation," in A. J. 8., VI, 790-822, VII, 
 53-79, 234-48, 386-404, 539-56: the only monograph on the subject; read 
 the article in vol. VI in studying the "preliminary process," though 
 much of it relates to the later and "conscious" process, and note the 
 bibliography in VII, 551-56; Ward, "Social Differentiation and Social 
 Integration," in A.J. S., VIII, 721-45; Ross, "Problems of Social Psychol- 
 ogy," in A. J. S., X, 456-72, especially 470-72; or the same in Congress 
 of Arts and Science, V; Zenker, Die Gesellschaft, I, 145-52; Bagehot, 
 Physics and Politics, 81-155 (nation-making) ; Bryce, "Action of Cen- 
 tripetal and Centrifugal Forces on Political Institutions," in Studies, 
 I, 255-311; Ross, Foundations, Index at "Environment," "Assimila- 
 tion," "Occupation"; Small, General Sociology, Index at "Process," 
 "Environment"; "Ward, P?/ re Sociology. 19Z-220. and Index at "Assimila- 
 tion," "Environment"; Fairbanks, 71 ff.; Thomas, "Province of Social 
 Psychology," in A. J. 8., X, 445-55; or the same in Congress of Arts 
 and Science, V. 
 
 Many of the references given in Section XIII of the Syllabus are 
 available to illustrate "Assimilation by environment." 
 
 Section XY. The Genesis of Society. 
 A. What is Social Process? 
 
 I. Definitions or Conceptions of Social Process (Ross, Founda- 
 tions, 90; Small, General Sociology, 240, 176, 188, Index at 
 "Process, Social"; Ratzenhofer, Sociologische Erhenntmss, 
 221, 244, passim; Giddings, Principles, 75, 363, 376; Cooley, 
 Human Nature, 272, 333, 119 ff . ; Fairbanks, 141 ff.). 
 
 II. Relation to ''Social Structure" (Small, 132, 176 531, and 
 
THE SOCIAL PROCESSES. 51 
 
 Index at "Structure, Social"; Grasserie, Essai, 243-263; 
 Dealej and Ward, 167-G9; Ward, Pure Sociology, 180, 183- 
 
 85, 175-76, 15, 113, 114, and Index; idem, in Congress of 
 Arts and Science, V, 842-55; Tonnies, in Congress of Arts 
 and Science, V, 825-41). 
 
 III. Relation to ''Social Function" (Small, 531, 176, 217, In- 
 dex at "Functions"; Ward, Pure Sociology, 15, 180, 175, 232, 
 308; id&m, Dynamic Sociology, I, 701, 119, 468-69; Ross, 
 
 86, 272-75; Fairbanks, 91 ft'., 119 flf.). 
 
 IV. Do the Social Processes Constitute "Association"? 
 
 B. Analysis of the Genetic Processes. 
 
 I. Primary Association. 
 
 1. By multiplication. 
 
 a. Consanguine (genetic) multiplication: horde, tribe, 
 clan, family ( Howard, Local Const. History, I, 1 
 If.; idem, ^Matrimonial Inst., I, 12 ff). 
 
 I). Differentiation : formation of new societies : "multi- 
 plication by division" (Ward, in A. J. S., VIII, 
 723; idem, Pure Sociology, 205; Dealey and Ward, 
 185; Ratzenhofer, 109). 
 
 2. By congi'egation : artificial clans or other societies ; or 
 
 those partially formed of heterogeneous elements 
 (see Howard. Matrimonial Inst., I, 12 ff., 296 ff. ; 
 Hearn, Aryan Household; Lyall, Asiatic Studies, 
 chap. vii). These groups may also "multiply by 
 division." 
 
 a. The union may be free: by alliance. 
 
 h. The union may be constrained: by conquest. 
 
 3. Note: Value of Giddings' theory of the "most ele- 
 
 mentary form of the social relation"? (Principles, 
 17 ff.; especially idem, in A. J. S., X, 163-66; or in 
 Congress of Arts and Science, V, 789 ff. ; idem, Desc. 
 and Hist. Soc, 275 ff.) . 
 
 II. Secondary Association or Conjugation : That is the Union, 
 "Amalgamation," "Compounding," or "Integration" of Ex- 
 isting Societies or Social Groups. 
 
 1. The component societies may have been formed either 
 
 by multiplication or congregation or by both. 
 
 2. The component societies may continue to expand by 
 
52 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 genetic and congregate gi'owth (see Sec, VIII above 
 on ''Movement of Popnlation"). 
 3. The process of conjugation (the "race-integration" of 
 Ward) may embrace the recompoiinding of compound 
 societies (see Ward, in A. J. 8., VIII, 729 ff., 736 fif. 
 ("A Sociological Utopia"). Compare Greef, in A. 
 J. 8., X, 531-43, especially 542). 
 
 III. Colonization as a Phase of Multiplication and Differentia- 
 tion of Societies. 
 
 C. Psychological Classification of Societies (Giddings, in A. 
 J. S., X, 166-70 ; or Congress of Arts and Science, V, 791 flf. ; 
 idem, Desc. and Hist. Soc, 4-64). 
 
 I. Instinctive Societies : Animal Societies. Query : Are Animal 
 Societies ever Partially "Rational"? 
 
 II. Rational Societies: Human Societies; but These show a 
 Combination of Instinct and Reason, the latter element 
 more and more proponderating as evolution advances. Hu- 
 man societies may be classified as : 
 
 1. Mainly spontaneous; varies in attitude toward stran- 
 
 gers. 
 a. Sympathetic, homogeneous group of blood-kindred; 
 
 exclusive; tends to regard the stranger as an 
 
 enemy. 
 6. Congenial homogeneous group of the like-minded 
 
 (sects, communal societies, etc) ; exclusive; rejects 
 
 those not like-minded. 
 
 c. Approbative heterogeneous group; sometimes law- 
 
 less; usually tolerant (mining-camps, cattle-range, 
 etc.). 
 
 2. Mainly artificial: consciously planned; usually hetero- 
 
 geneous; compound; formed by conquest or federa- 
 tion. 
 
 d. Despotic or frontier : repellent and inhospitable to 
 
 strangers (Russia, Turkey, Ancient Mexico, An- 
 cient Peru, etc.). 
 
 e. Authoritative: sanctioned by tradition; divine right. 
 
 f. Conspirital : formed by disruption of old societies by 
 
 force, intrigue, etc. 
 
 g. Contractual: usually tolerant toward strangers; the 
 
THE SOCIAL PROCESSES. 53 
 
 United States and the doctrine of expatriation and 
 naturalization. 
 h. Idealistic. 
 
 D. Theories of Society Dependent on the Various Classes as 
 Above Descrihed (Giddings, in A. J. 8., X, 169-70). 
 
 I. Totemistic Theory : From the Instinctive. 
 
 II. Brotherhood Theory: (Zoon Politikon) : From the Sym- 
 pathetic. 
 
 III. Consciousness of Kind Theories : From the Congenial. 
 
 IV. Natural Justice Theories : From the Approbational. 
 
 V. Political Sovereignty Theories: From the Despotic: 
 ''Might makes Right.". 
 
 VI. Divine Right Theories : From the Authoritative. 
 
 VII. Machiavellian Theories of Inevitableness of Intrigue and 
 Conspiracy: From the Conspirital. 
 
 VIII. Social Compact Theories : From the Contractual 
 (Those of Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, etc.). 
 
 IX. Utopian Theories: From the Idealistic (Those of Plato, 
 More, Harrington, Bellamy, etc.). 
 
 E. Illustrations of the Genetic Processes, 
 
 I. Multiplication (Payne, History of America, II, 43-51, 2^(is- 
 si}n: Ward, Pure Sociology, Index; Bagehot, Physics and 
 Politics, 195-99 ; Giddings, Principles, 79 ff. ; idem, Desc. and 
 Hist. Soc, 74-76). 
 
 II. Congregation (Payne, op. cit., II, 49-50, 44; Kovalewsky, 
 Mod. Customs and A,nc. Laios of Russia; Prutz, Kulturge- 
 schichte der Kreuzziige. 99, 105-107, 180 ff. ; Fustel de Cou- 
 langes. Hist, des Inst. Pol.. I, Book III, chaps, v, vi, vii, 
 viii, especially 450-54, II, 276; Giddings, Principles, 91 ff.; 
 idem, Desc. and Hist. Soc, 11 ff., 90). 
 
 III. Conjugation (Greef. in A. J. S.. X, 531-43; Fustel de 
 Coulanges, op. cit., I, Book III, chap, viii (relation of Ger- 
 mans with the Gallic population), 450-64; Payne, op. cit.. II, 
 50-52; Barton, Semitic Origins, 162, 172-73, 176, 272-73, 277- 
 78; Ward, in A. J. S.. \U. 721-45, 727-28; idem, Pure So- 
 ciology, 205, 310 ; Riggs, Hist, of tJie Jewish People, 155-56 ; 
 Arnold, Roman Provincial Administration, 10-14, 17-18, 
 30-35; Bryce, Studies in Hist, and Jurisprudence, I, 245, 
 
54 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 255 ff., 260, 263, 303-308, 321-22 (peaceable conjugation) ; 
 Bagehot, Physics and Politics, 41 ff., 81 fif. ; Diinlop, ''Ire- 
 land," in Camh. Mod. Hist., Ill, chap, xviii, 579-616, 588, 
 598-605 ; Coste, L'Experience des Peuples, 562-64 ; Kropotkin, 
 Mutual Aid, 204-208 (conjugation by alliance) ; Blackie, 
 Scottish Eighlanders, 127-28; Ross, Foundations, 249-53; 
 Dealey and Ward, 84, 194; much m Simons's work on As- 
 similation; Grasserie, Essai, 285 ff.). 
 IV. Colonization (Collier, "The Theory of Colonization,'' in A. 
 J. 8., XI, 252-65; idem, ''The Evolution of Colonies," in Pop. 
 Sc. Monthlij, LIII (1898), 289-307, 452-66, 620-33, 806-808, 
 LIV; Keller, ''The Value of the Study of Colonies for So- 
 ciology," in A. J. 8., XII, 417-20 ; Ward, Dynamic Sociology, 
 I, 339-40). 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES. 
 
 Ward, "Social Differentiation and Integration," in A. J. S., VIII, 
 721-45; Simons, in A. J. S., VI, VII, as cited in preceding section of 
 this Syllabus; Ross, Foundations. 95-96, 98, 249-253 (conjugation); 
 Giddings, in A. J. S., X, 161-170; or the same in Congress of Arts and 
 Science, V, 787-94; Zenker, Die Gesellschaft, I, 152-73 (conjugation); 
 Novicow, Les Luttes, 82 ff., 358-402; Eleutheropolis, Soziologie, 26-51; 
 Cairnes, Slave Poicer (causes of development of slave societies). 
 
 Note that Gumplowicz, Ratzenhofer, Novicow, and all the "strug- 
 gle" theorists have given a vast amount of material for the conjuga- 
 tion of races. Ratzenhofer is analyzed at great length by Small. See 
 also Dealey and Ward, as above cited, and Giddings, Descxiptive and 
 Historical Sociology, 72 ff., 304 ff. 
 
 Section XVI. Association. 
 
 Definition and Limitation of Association (Giddings, Prin- 
 ciples, 100, 400 ; Ross, Foundations, 4, 5 ; Small, 217, 501 ff., 
 305; Dealey and Ward, 22 fif. ; Ward, Pure Sociology, 14, 244, 
 389, 511). 
 
 1. As essentially a psychic process conditioned by the 
 
 physical process, it is distinguished from the phe- 
 nomena of aggregation. 
 
 2. Its evolution begins in simple phases of feeling and per- 
 
 ception and "develops through many complications, 
 into activities that ultimately call forth the highest 
 powers of the mind" (Giddings, op. cit., 100). 
 
 3. Therefore, abstractly considered, it represents phe 
 
 nomena subsequent to those considered under "pre- 
 liminary processes" and "genesis of society"; al- 
 
THE SOCIAL PROCESSES. 55 
 
 though in time, for the same social population, all 
 three of these groups of processes overlap, and are 
 constantly arising. 
 II. Factors or Elements of the Associational Process. 
 
 1. Communication (Giddings, Principles, 102-16; idem, In- 
 
 ductive Sociology, 111 ff. ; Cooley, Human Nature, 
 45-101; Shaler, The Neighbor, 36-40, 204 ff. (''condi- 
 tions of the contacts of men") ; Tarde, Logique »%- 
 dale, 323 (covenants) ; Payne, Hist, of America, 1, 
 482, 484-86 (covenants of gods and men). 
 a. Meeting or encounter: a psycho-physical phenomenon 
 (Giddings, Principles, 104-109; idem. Inductive So- 
 ciology, 93 ff. ; Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, 90-114; 
 Tarde, Logique Sociale, 320; Shaler, TJie Neighbor, 
 260 ff., 295-98, 279-81, 290-93; Thomas, ''Psychology 
 of "Race-Prejudice," in A. J. 8., IX, 593-611 ; Guyau, 
 Non-Religion, Part III, chap, i; Zenker, Die Gesell- 
 schaft, 60-71). 
 
 1) Perception of unlikeness. 
 
 2) Perception of likeness. 
 
 l. Imitation (Giddings, 109-16). 
 
 1) Tends to assimilate and harmonize: custom-imita- 
 
 tion and mode-imitation (Tarde, Laws of Imita- 
 tion, Index at "Imitation"; idem. Social Laws, 
 11-67) . 
 
 2) Tends also to create antagonisms or rivalries of 
 
 imitations : the logical "duel" and "invention" 
 (Tarde, Social Laws, 68 ff. ; idem. Laws of Imi- 
 tation, Index). 
 
 3) In the end it produces toleration, co-operation, 
 
 and other social structures. 
 c. Development of sociability and personal ideas 
 (Cooley, Human Nature, 45-101). 
 
 2. Fascination (Bryce, Studies, II, 9-10 (force of feeling 
 
 of deference) ; Seeck, Untergangs, 215-18; Halsey, 
 "Genesis of a Modern Prophet," in A. J. S., IX, 310- 
 28 (power of assurance, confidence, and self-asser- 
 tion) ; Lee, Cambridge Modern History, III, 363 (the 
 spell of Elizabeth) ; Payne, Hist, of America, II, 37- 
 38 (how the chief gained ascendancy) ; Conway, "Is 
 Parliament a Mere Crowd?" in Nineteenth Century, 
 
56 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 LVII, 898-911; Tarde, U Opinion et la Foule (2d ed., 
 1904), 159 ff. ; idem, Essais et Melanges (foules et 
 sectes) ; Le Bon, The Crowd, 133-60 (leaders of 
 crowds and their means of persuasion) ; Sighele, 
 Psychologie des Sectes, 71 ff.). 
 3. Intimidation (Addams, Democracy and Social EtMcs. 
 33). 
 III. Laws of the Associational Process (Giddings, Principles, 
 400-19; Ross, Sociul Control, 325-49). 
 
 A. Laws of the Psychic or Volitional Process. 
 
 1. Laws of imitation (with Giddings, 400-401; compare 
 
 Cooley, 47 ff., and Ross, Foundations, 94, on the 
 limits of imitation). 
 a. Imitations spread in geometrical progression (Tarde, 
 
 LatDS of Imitation, 20). 
 6. Imitations are refracted by their media (Tarde, Laws 
 of Imitation, 22). 
 
 2. Laws of the social choice of social values. 
 
 a. First law or "law of preferences among ends to be 
 achieved"; dependent upon the following elements 
 and criteria of the ideal good : 
 
 1) Personal force or virtue in the original sense. 
 
 2) Happiness with utility as the criterion : the hedon- 
 
 istic or utiltarian ideal. 
 
 3) Integrity: meaning ''wholeness" of pleasure, of 
 
 power, and of character. 
 
 4) Self-realization. 
 
 These elements and criteria are subjective; and 
 their influence decreases in the order above given ; 
 "but if mental and moral evolution continues, the 
 higher ideals must become increasingly influen- 
 tial" (Giddings, 403, 408). 
 6. Second law or law of combination and means: 
 
 1) Populations with simple interests make conserva- 
 
 tive choices. 
 
 2) Populations with varied and inharmoniously com- 
 
 bined interests make radical choices. 
 
 3) Populations with many varied and harmoniously 
 
 combined interests make consistently progressive 
 choices. 
 
THE SOCIAL PROCESSES. 57 
 
 B. Laics of the Limitation of the Psychic Process by the Physi- 
 cal Process (Giddings, 412-19; especially Ross, Social Con- 
 trol, 338-49). 
 
 1. Law of selection : artificial selection is governed by sub- 
 
 jective value (see Ross's analysis of the process). 
 
 2. Law of survival : survival is governed by organic and 
 
 subjective utility. 
 
 This law formulates objective physical conditions to 
 which the social choice of the subjective values must 
 conform. Is it true that society may "increase" the 
 diversity or ditferentiation of the environment, but 
 cannot "prevent" it? (Compare Giddings, 413; with 
 Leslie Stephen, • in Conteinp. Review, LXIV, No. 2, 
 August, 1893; Simon Patten, Social Forces, 12-17; 
 Ward, Applied Sociology, 130 ff., 293, 123, 129, and 
 Index; idem. Pure Sociology, 171-84). 
 IV. The Evolution of Desires Through the Development of So- 
 cial Values. 
 
 A. Ross's Theory of the Relation of Such Values to Desires 
 
 {Social Control, 325-Z7). 
 
 1. Evolution of values. 
 
 a. Spontaneous generation of values : "reciprocal sug- 
 gestion and transfusion of feeling" through inter- 
 course; convention. 
 
 6. Influence of the elite, of superior individuals (Ross, 
 op. cit., 328 fit., 347-49). 
 
 c. The force of tradition. 
 
 2. Control through social values (Ross, op. cit., 330 fif., 
 
 338 ff.). 
 a. Selection and preservation of qualities and ideals. 
 6. Rejection and depreciation of qualities and ideals. 
 
 B. Examples of the Products of Association: That is, of So- 
 cial Values ami Desires. 
 
 1. Desire for the pleasures of association or sociability : 
 the meaning of play? 
 a. Among animals (Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, 21-31, 42 
 (squirrels), 44 (prairie dogs). 45-46 (hares), 54-55; 
 
58 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 Groos, Play of Animals; Giddings, Principles, 116- 
 17; Espinas, Societes Animales). 
 
 b. Among men (Kropotkin, 90 if. (savages) ; Cooley, 
 
 Human Nature, 45 ff. (the infant) ; Giddings, Prin- 
 ciples, 117 fif.). 
 
 2. Desire for approbation of public opinion and its vari- 
 
 ous manifestations (Cooley, Human Nature, 179-321). 
 a. The social self (Cooley, 160, 171, 177-78). 
 J). Recognition by others: ambition (Cooley, 170); 
 
 vanity {idem, 203-205) ; independence {idem, 206- 
 
 207). 
 
 c. Selfishness (Cooley, 182-83). 
 
 d. Honor and courage (Cooley, 207 ff.) ; controlling 
 
 force of honor among the Arabs (Hogarth, Nearer 
 East, 260) ; high personal character dependent upon 
 public opinion and group honor (Ross, Founda- 
 tions, 320-21; Schreiner, "Stray Thoughts on South 
 Africa," in Fortnighthj Review, July, 1896. See also 
 Gulick, Evolution of Japanese; and Munro, Med. 
 Cif., 713-45). 
 
 e. Pride (Cooley, 201; Tarde, La Logique Sociale, 327). 
 
 f. Hatred and sympathy: the origin (Shaler, The 
 
 Neighhor, 22-27, 264, 269). 
 
 3. Desire to preserve the social order. 
 
 a. Illustrated by Durkheim's law of suicide: "Suicide 
 varies inversely with the degree of integration of 
 the social groups to which the individual belongs" 
 (Durkheim, Le Suicide, 223). Those firmly held in 
 the bonds of family or group rarely commit suicide 
 {idem., 228. Cf. Dumont, Depopulation et Civili- 
 sation, 121; Greef. in A. J. S., IX, 76 fif.). 
 
 1). Illustrated by the causes of the rise and decline of 
 the evils of the tribal spirit (Shaler, The Neigh- 
 hor, 260-336, especially 280, 303, 307-36). 
 
 c. Illustrated by the relaxation of conduct among half- 
 breeds (Schreiner, in Fortnightly Review, July, 
 1896; Ross, Foundations, 320-21). 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES. 
 
 Ross, Social Control. 225-37, 338-49; idem. Foundations. 4, 5, 320-21, 
 376-78; Giddings, Principles, 400-19, 100-24; idem. Inductive Sociology, 
 93 ff. ; Tarde, Laws of Imitation, Index; idem, Social Laws, 68 ff. ; 
 
THE SOCIAL PROCESSES. 59 
 
 idem, Logique Sociale, chap, iv; Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, 88-114 (socia- 
 bility among savages); Groos, Play of Animals; Thomas, "Psychology 
 of Race-Prejudice, " in A. J. 8., IX, 593, 611, an excellent article bearing 
 on the general subject of the evolution of association; Roberty, "Le 
 Materialisme Hist, ou Economique," in Annales de VInst., VIII, 247, 251, 
 256; Patten, Social Forces, 12 ff.; idem, in Annals, III, 129 ff. ; Tarde, 
 Inter-Psychology; The Interplay of Human Minds; Dumont. Depopu- 
 lation et Civilisation, 121-22 (demoralizing effects of cotitact of low 
 races with civilized). 
 
 Section XVII. Domination and Exploitation. 
 
 I, Definitions and Principles. 
 
 1. Meaning of ''domination" as a generic name of a com- 
 
 plex social process 
 
 2. Ross's defiiiition of exploitation : ''Any profiting of one 
 
 section of society at the expense of other sections 
 which v.'onld disappear if the sections came to be ap- 
 proximately equal in intelligence, organization, 
 leadership, and physical strength." 
 a. Query : May there be exploitation of one individual 
 by another individual; as there is (according to the 
 definition) exploitation of class by class? 
 &. Query : Ai"e there inequalities of income and prop- 
 erty which are not true forms of exploitation? 
 
 II. Kinds or Species of Exploitation as Differentiated by Ross. 
 
 1. Of offspring by parents (Sewall, "Child Labor in the U. 
 
 S." in Bulletin of Bureau of Labor, No. 52, pp. 528- 
 32; see also Bulletin, No. 62 (1906) ; Spargo, Bitter 
 Cry of the Children; and University Card Catalogue 
 at "Child Labor"). 
 
 2. Of women by men (Wallace, Malay Archipelago, I, 
 
 43). 
 
 3. Of poor by rich (Blackie, Scottish Highlanders. 77-81, 
 
 monopoly of kelp by the lairds; Kovalewsky, 3Iod. 
 Customs, 215 If., exploitation of peasants; Clark, 
 "Labor Conditions in Java," in Bulletin of Bureau of 
 Lahor, No. 58, pp. 933 ff.). 
 
 4. Of the smaller number by the larger number. 
 
 5. Of the industrious by the leisured (Payne, Hist, of Am. 
 
 II, 21-2. 52-53, 55-56, 57-60). 
 
 6. Of the ignorant by the intelligent. 
 
 7. Of the (physically) weaker by the (physically) 
 
 stronger. 
 
60 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY, 
 
 8. Of the unorganized by the organized. 
 
 9. Of those who compete by those who combine. 
 
 10. Of the just and sympathetic by the unjust and unsym- 
 
 pathetic. 
 
 11. Of the laity by the priests (Abbott, Religious Life in 
 
 America, 127 and note ,1). 
 
 12. Of the governed by the rulers (Johnson, Exploitation 
 
 of Colonies, 31 ff., passim; Hildebrand, Recht und 
 Sitte, 145-49; Payne. History of America, II, 54-56, 
 feudalism in ancient Mexico ; Kropotkin, Mutual Aid. 
 200, 230, 236; Fustel de Coulanges, Inst. Pol., Ill, 350- 
 53, 390-91, exploitation by the missus, lY, 24, 31-33, 
 577; Kent, Hist, of Hehrew People, I, 98; Roberts, 
 Anthracite Coal Communities, 279-81, 316-42; Seeck, 
 Untergangs, I, 318, 392-94, 404-406, II, new taxes; 
 Arnold, Roman Provincial Adtninistration. 20-28, 73- 
 85,08-99,181-82,240). 
 
 13. Of less capable by the more capable: note how the 
 
 new invention, or acquistion, or other new good be- 
 comes, at first, a new means of exploitation. 
 III. Ross's Laws of Exploitation. 
 
 1. ''Other things being the same, exploitation will be more 
 
 open, ruthless, and stubborn between the unlike than 
 between the like" (compare his ISocial Control, 25; 
 and his Foundations, 286). 
 
 2. ''A close-knit group animated by a class-consciousness 
 
 and spirit will be more ruthless in exploitation than 
 a more loose collection of individuals will be" (com- 
 pare his Social Control, 71, 75, 86, 346, and Founda- 
 tions. 288-89). 
 
 3. "Different sections of society differ in original disposi- 
 
 tion to exploit" (see Foundations, 286-87). 
 
 4. ''The will to exploit lasts as long as the power to ex- 
 
 ploit" (compare Kidd, Social Evolution, 172-76; with 
 Sombart, Socialism, 109-10). 
 
 5. "Whatever equalizes classes in respect to intelligence, 
 
 organization, numbers, economic strength, physical 
 strength, etc., narrows the power of one to exploit 
 the other" (cf. Taine, Ancient Regime, Book IV, 
 chap, iii ; Ward, Pure Sociology, 208-209 ; Strong, So- 
 cial Progress (1904) ; Dawson, South America). 
 
THE SOCIAL PROCESSES. 61 
 
 G. "The formation of a population element neither exploit- 
 ing nor exploited is apt to yield a body of opinion sym- 
 pathetic with the exploited and critical of the ex- 
 ploiters. The larger and the more influential this 
 body of neutrals the more exploitation must become 
 attenuated and disguised" (see Gumplowicz, Outlines 
 of Sociology: Commons, Trade Unionism (on public 
 opinion) ; Day, ''Experience of the Dutch with Tropi- 
 cal Labor,"' in Yale Review, IX, 61 ff'., on Dekker's 
 ''Max Havelaar"). 
 
 7. ''Domination from without tends to suppress infra- 
 
 social exploitations." 
 
 8. "Clandestine exploitation outlasts open exploitation 
 
 and superstition and fraud are fused as props after 
 force has ceased to be available." 
 
 9. "Opportunities for clandestine exploitation multiply as 
 
 social relations become more involved and co-operation 
 more complex and far-reaching" (see Jenks, Report 
 on English and Dutch Colonies, 143). 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Abbott, Religious Life in America, 127; Fustel de Coulatiges, Institu- 
 tions Pol, I, 295-309, 463-70 (slight exploitation of Gauls by Germans), 
 II, 48-57, 276-305 (later Roman slavery), III, 90-91, 240, IV, 532-83 (ex- 
 ploitation when public authority is weak) ; Sombart, Socialism, 108-10 
 (class exploitation) ; Kidd, Social Evolution. 172-76 (to be compared 
 with the passage from Sombart) ; Clark, "Labor Conditions in Philip- 
 pines," in Bulletin of Bu. of Labor, No. 58, pp. 870-72 (coolie contract- 
 labor) ; Jenks, Report on English and Butch Colonies, 3, 4; Keller, Ho- 
 meric Society. 278-81, 293-94; Weyl, "Labor Conditions in Mexico," in 
 Bulletin of Bu. of Labor, No. 38, pp. 27-30, 49-52; Dawson, South American 
 Republics, II, 64, 242. 249; Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, 200, 230, 236; Prutz, 
 Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzziige. 334-35, 327-28; Ferrero, Militarism, 
 76-78, 127-28, 131, 141-42, 162-63, 296, 144-45, 147-49, 156-57, 212-13, 298-99; 
 Die Grossstadt, 18-19; Ames, "Labor Conditions in Porto Rico," in Bul- 
 letin of Bu. of Labor, No. 34, p. 386; Cairnes, Slave Poicer. 64-106; 
 Ireland, The Far Eastern Tropics, 173 (exploitation by Dutch East 
 India Company), 111 (oppressive taxation in Malay States); articles 
 in Independent. 1902, 1903, on exploitation of Philippines; Hopkins, 
 India. 222; Strong, Social Progress: A Y ear-Book (1904), on Latin 
 Americ?,n politics; Munro, Mediaeval Civilization, 39-46 (tax-dodgers 
 of 4th century) ; Dill, Roman Society in Last Century of Western Em- 
 pire, 218-31; Kent, I, 183, 198, III, chaps, ii, iv; Hildebrand, 39-42, 
 145-52; Wallace, Malay Archipelago. I, 276-87 (how the Rajah took the 
 census), 307-308, 453-56, 143, 149-50", II, 6-8; Hobson, Imperialism, 
 228-37, 253-54, 260-304; Cambridge Mod. Hist. Ill, 77, passim: Johnson, 
 Exploitation of Colonies; Waltmann, Politische Anthropologic. 196-99. 
 
62 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 Section XVIII. Domination and Forcible Assimilation. 
 
 I. Nature of Forcible Assimilation. 
 
 1. Its differentiation froin exploitation. 
 
 2. Its varying motives. 
 a. Openly selfish. 
 
 6. Ostensibly beneficent (see Natives of South Africa). 
 
 3. Its methods. 
 
 a. Direct or indirect. 
 &. Coercive or attractive. 
 
 II. Forms of Domination or Forcible Assimilation. 
 
 1. Of parents over children (Hearn, Aryan Household, 
 
 91-93, 97; Howard, Matrimonial Institutions, I, chap, 
 i, and the literature there cited). 
 
 2. Of men over women (Caird, Morality of Marriage, 41- 
 
 50, 92-97, 193-211; Gulick, Evolution of the Japanese, 
 55-56; Keller, Homeric Society, 220-21; Payne, II, 
 8-9; Howard, as above cited). 
 
 3. Of the patriarch or chief over members of house, clan, 
 
 or tribe (Payne, America, II, 37-38; Hildebrand, 
 Recht und Sitte; Kent, Hist, of the Hebrew People, I, 
 183; I Samuel, viii, 11-18). 
 
 4. Of the fighting class over the industrial (Payne, II, 
 
 20-22, 36-37; Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, 162-63;' Gulick, 
 53-58; Fustel de Coulanges, Transformation, 683-89; 
 Salter, The Neio Militarism (1899), 93-4). 
 
 5. Of conquerors over the conquered (Bryce, Studies, I, 9, 
 
 13, 14, 26; Die Grossstadt, 9-13; Jenks, Report on 
 Eng. and Dutch Colonies, 136-37; Keller, Ho- 
 mei'ic Society, 248 fif. ; Hopkins, India Old and New, 
 222, 225, 247-48, 290-92). 
 
 6. Of the stronger ally, person, class, or people over the 
 
 weaker (Bryce. Studies, I, 1-9; Greef, in A. J. S., 
 X, 657; Keller, 248 ff . ; Giddings, in A. J. S., X, 173). 
 
 7. Of the state over subjects (Keller, 248 ff.). 
 
 III. Examples of the Forcible Assimilation of Peoples. 
 
 1. Hebrew example (Biggs, Hist, of Jeivish People, chap. 
 
 ii; Book of Maccabees) . 
 
 2. Roman example (Arnold. Provincial Administration, 
 
 7-39, 1.34, passim: Renan, Y, 189 ff.). 
 
 3. Indian tribal example: forcible assimilation for tribute 
 
 (Payne, II, 2, 3).^ 
 
THE SOCIAL PROCESSES. 63 
 
 4. Russian examples. 
 a. Case of Poland. 
 6. Case of Finland. 
 
 c. Case of the Jews. 
 
 d. Case of Georgia (Ular, ''Revival of Georgia," in 
 
 Contcmp. Review (1905), LXXXVIII, 21-35). 
 
 5. German examples. 
 a. Case of Alsace. 
 
 &. Case of Denmark (Warming, ''The North Schleswie 
 Question," in A. J. 8., VIII, 289-335). 
 
 6. American examples. 
 
 a. Case of the Indians. 
 
 6. Case of the Filipinos (Clark, "Labor Conditions in 
 the Philippines," in Bulletin of Bureau of Labor, 
 No. 58, 799-800, passim). 
 
 c. Case of the Hawaiians (Commissioner of Labor, "Re- 
 port on Hawaii," in Bulletin of Bureau of Labor 
 (1903), No. 47, pp. 791-94). 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Keller, Homeric Society, 220-21, 248-49 (domination), 278-81, 293-94 
 (exploitation); Hobson, Imperialism. 307; Jenks, Report on Eng. and 
 Dutch Colonies, 318-21, passion; Novicow, Les Luttes, 125-53, especially 
 130; Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, 162-63, 166-67, 200, 220-21, 226-27, 230, 235-36; 
 Schmoller, Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirthschaftslehre. Part II, 
 544-49; Bryce, Studies in Hist, and Jurisprudence, I, 9, 13, 14, 26-30, 
 56-57, 78-81, 286-90. II, 16-19, 235; Zenker, Die Gesellschaft. I, 156-65, 
 176-77, 102-25; Gumplowicz, Outlines. 116-27, 150-53; Hogarth, Nearer 
 East, 265; Hopkins, India, 222, 225, 247-48, 290-92, Kovalewski, Modern 
 Customs, 100, passim; Blackie, Scottish Highlanders, 39-40; Fustel de 
 Coulanges, Institutions, I, 63; Menu, chap, v, sees. 147-151, 154-57, 161, 
 168; Strong, Social Progress. 199; Cambridge Mod. History. II, 138, 176, 
 III, 487-88, 504-5, 542-43, 537, 610. 
 
 Section XIX. Opposition : References. 
 
 I. General References (Simmel, Sociology of Conflict, in A. J. 
 S., IX (1903-4), 490-525. 072-89, 798-811, especially 511-12; 
 Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities, 37, 38, 88; Cooley, 
 Human Nature and the Social Order, 232-82, especially 235- 
 39, 254; Small, General Sociology, 38.3-84; Renan, People of 
 Israel, V, 193-94; Schmoller, Grundriss, Part II, 496-558; 
 Milioukov, Essai, 224-25, 275-77; Bagehot, Physics and Poli- 
 tics (on "The Uses of Conflict") ; Zenker, Die Gesellschaft, 
 
64 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 II, 102-104; Xovicow, Les Uittes, 13-17, 438-45, 331-34, 
 453-59; Tarde, L'Opposition Universelle, 1 &., 301 fif). 
 
 II. Class Struggle (Sclimoller, II, 542; Fustel de Coulanges, 
 Institutions, I, 27, 31, 36, III, 92-95, 240, IV, 579, 630-31, 
 634-35, 682; Hildebrand, Recht und Sitte, 89-94; Maine, Lec- 
 tures on Early Hist, of Institutions, 151, 158 ; Seebohm, Eng. 
 Village Community, 321; Schaper, '^Sectionalism in South 
 Carolina," 429-34; Clark, Lahor Conditions in Australia, 15- 
 16; '^Natural History of Party," in Yale Review, May, 1893, 
 pp. 74-82; Ross, Foundations, 272-90; or the same in Quar- 
 terly Journal of Economics, XVI, 549-62; Kriehn. '<Eng. 
 Popular Uprisings," in American Hist. Ass., Report, 1893, 
 pp. 151-61; idem, Eng. Rising in U50 (Strassbuig, 1892) ; 
 Riggs, Hist, of Jewish People, 109-29 (strife of Pharisees 
 and Sadducees) ; Ensor, Mod. Socialism, 10-11, 114-34, 168-69 ; 
 Bryce, Studies, I, 179-82, 238-39; Strong, Social Progress, 
 1904, pp. 194, 197-99 ; Pearson, National Life, 51-54 ; Brooks 
 Adams, in Bigelow, Centralization and the Law (1906), Lec- 
 tures, I, II; Waltmann, Politische Anthropolgie, 194; Die 
 Grossstadt, 2^,28-29). 
 
 III. Competition (Mills, The Struggle for Existence (1904) ; 
 Seligman, Principles of Economics, 139-52, 139 (bibliog- 
 raphy) ; Cooley, Human Nature, 232-61, especially 257; 
 Ward, Dynamic Sociology, I, 573, 594, II, 578; idem. Pure 
 Sociology, 175, 489, 511, 551, 568; Dealey and Ward, 87, 299; 
 Giddings, Principles, 136, 399). 
 
 IV. Emulation (Cooley, Human Nature, 262-82). 
 
 Section XX. Stratification : References. 
 
 I. General References (Payne, America, II, 68, 24-34; Kropot- 
 kin, M^ltual Aid, 135, 155-57, 218, 220, 289 91; Waltmann, 
 chap, vii, 194-211, 179-86; Guerrero, Genesis del Crimen en 
 Mexico; Moran, "Ethics of Wealth," in A. J. S., VI, 824-27 ; 
 Vincent, in A. J. S., IX, 741, 749, 753; Hopkins, India, 172, 
 333; Eleutheropolis, Soziologie, 86-90; Grosscup, in Mc- 
 Clur&s (Feb., 1905), on corporate ownership; Allen. ''Sanita- 
 tion and Social Progress," in A. J. S., VIII; Cairnes, Slave 
 Power, chaps, ii, iii, v; Veblen, "The Barbarian Status of 
 Women," in A. J. S., IV; Gumplowicz, Outlines. 132-36, 
 163-65; Simmel, Sociale Differenzierung ; Munro, Mediaeval 
 
THE SOCIAL PROCESSES. 65 
 
 Civilization, 29-30; Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics, 
 147-49, 168; idem, Newer Ideals of Peace; Spencer, Profes- 
 sional Institutions ; Kovalewsky, 124, 125, 14G; Ghent, Mass 
 and Class, chaps, iii. iv. 
 
 IT. Differentiation (Ross, Foundations, Index at "Differentia- 
 tion"; Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics, 14-19, 31-32, 
 G3-G4, 115-lG, 122, 147-49, 167-75, 207 ; Abbott, Religious Life, 
 350; Fiistel de Coulanges, Institutions, I, 9-15, 306, 225, 277- 
 78, II, 15-18, 145-49, 253-59, 293, 289-90, 300-302, 324-28, 344, 
 450-52, 454-58, III, 17-24, 230-31, IV, 62, 64, 66, 339, 466; 
 Kent, History of Eelreio People, I, 91, 196-200; Milioukov, 
 Essads, 228-36, 259-65, 267-68; Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, 139, 
 218; ISleio York Lahor Bulletin (1905), on "Judicial Deci- 
 sions Relating to Labor," 184; McMaster, Social and Indus- 
 trial Rights (Western Reserve Chapter D. A. R., 1903), 33- 
 35; Wejl, "Labor Conditions in Mexico," in Bulletin of 
 Bureau of Lahor (1902), No. 38, pp. 17-18; Clark, "Labor 
 Conditions in Australia," in Bulletin of Bureau of Labor 
 (1905), Xo. 56, pp. 11-12; Munro, Mediaeval CiviUvation, 20- 
 21; Keller, Homeric Society, 97-99, 145-49, 181-85, 260-62, 
 267-269, 277-78; Hobson, Imperialism., 140-42; Schaper, "Sec- 
 tionalism in South Carolina," 277-80; Decugis, in Revue Int. 
 de Sociologie (1894), II, 508; Kovalewsky, Mod. Customs, 
 104, 99-100, 124-125, 146; Dill, Roman Society in the Last 
 Century of the Western Empire, 126-27, 161-66. 190, 194, 211- 
 16, 218-25; Vincent, in A. J. S., IX, 741-42; Gulick, Evolu- 
 tion of the Japanese, 53-56, 120-21, 165-66, 259, 275 ; Riggs, 
 Hist, of Jeicish People, II, 117, 227; Bryce, Studies, I, 3, 67- 
 70, 256-57, 264-65, 269, 282-8G, II, 19 ; Bagehot, Physics and 
 Politics, 143-44; Seeck, Untergangs, I, 3, 32-35; Gubernatis, 
 "Social Clases in Italy," in Atlantic, XCIV (1904), 322-33; 
 Seebohm, Greek TriMl Society, 102-106, 114-20, 122; 
 Schmoller, Grnndriss, Part III, 546-47; Niehoer, 364-87, 405- 
 408; Zenker, Die GesellscJiaft, I, 174-76, II, 110-117; Hilde- 
 brand, Recht und Sitte, 38-39, 42, 81-82, 89-91, 93, 126-127, 
 145-52; Hopkins, India, 184, 186; Ghent, Mass and Class. 
 chap, iii; Joyce, Social History of Anc. Ireland, I, chap, v, 
 192-95, 222-23, 237-40, 440-51, 459-63 ; Kelley, Government or 
 Human Evolution, 335-60; Blackmar, Elements, 299-309; 
 Dobschutz, Christian Life in the Priinitive CJmrch, 189-90, 
 
 5 
 
^6 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 206, 242, 281-82, 285-8G; Arnold, Provincial Administration, 
 111 ; Giddiugs, in A. J. S., X, 173 ; idem, Inductive Sociology, 
 235-45; idem, Desc. and Hist. Soc, 526 ff., 186 ff.; idem, 
 Principles, 71 ff., 124 ff. ; Ward, Outlines, 262-93 ; idem, Ap- 
 plied Sociology (1906) ; idem, ''Social Differentiation and 
 Social Integration," in A. J. S., VIII, 721-45 : from Annales 
 de rinstitut Internat. de Sociologie, IX. 
 
 III. Gradation (Keller, Homeric Society, 97-99, 269; Clark, 
 ''Labor Conditions in the Philippines," in Bulletin of 
 Bureau of Lalor (1905), No. 58, p. 724; Addams, Democ- 
 racy and Social Ethics, 115-16, 122; Abbott^ Religious Life, 
 119 ; Fustel de Coulanges, Institutions, I, 264-67, 542-46, 553- 
 54, II, 278-88, especially I, Book II, chaps, xiii, xiv, xs^ .Ro- 
 man ranks and classes) ; Gulick, 55-6, 120-21, 165, 375; Nie- 
 boer, 405-408; Dill. op. cit.. 161, 163, 337; Joyce, I, 459-63; 
 Schaper, "Sectionalism in South Carolina," 271-76; Keasbey, 
 "Prestige Value," in Quarterly Journal of Economics, XVII, 
 461-70 ; Smith, .Kinship and Marriage, 52 ; Wallace, Malay 
 Archipelago, I, 344; Jhering, Evolution of the Aryan, 64-65. 
 158-62; Simmel, "Superiority and Subordination," in A. J. 
 /8'., II, 167-89, 392-415). 
 
 IV. Segration (Fayaiit, "There Effort is Bound by C;iste- 
 Fetters," in Success (Aug., 1903), 451-52; Vincent, in A. J. 
 S., IX, 753-54; Dill, op. cit., 214; Ames, "Labor Conditions in 
 Porto Rico," in Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor (1901), No, 
 54, pp. 379-80; Gulick, 259; Waltmann, 199-203, 206, 209, 
 279-80; Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities, 23; Ross, 
 Foundations, 46, 136-37, 273). 
 
 V. Subordination (Seeliger, Bedentung der Grmidherrschaft 
 im Mittelalter, Part I ; Commissioner of Labor, "Report on 
 Hawaii," in Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 47, y)p. 
 680-96; Weyl, "Labor Conditions in Mexico," in Bulletin of 
 the Bureail of Labor (1902), No. 38, pp. 42-44, 76; Clark, 
 "Labor Conditions in Philippines," in Bidlctin of the Bureau 
 of Labor (1905), No. 58, pp. 775-84; Fustel de Coulanges. In- 
 stitutions, I, 9-15, 145-49, 300-301, III 17-24, 204-205, 321-25, 
 244-47, 411-12, IV, 615, 670-89; Joyce, I, 195; Milioukov, 
 258-68; Dill, op. cit., 219; Keller, 267; McMaster, op. cit., 17, 
 35, 64-65; Blackie, Scottish Highlanders, 32, 48, 70, 136-37). 
 
SELECT BIBLOGRAPHY. 
 
 I. Bibliographies. 
 
 Beck, Hermann (editor). Bibliographie der Socialwissenchaften. 
 
 Dresden, 1906. 
 Blackmar, Frank W. The Elements of Sociology. References appended 
 
 to each chapter. 
 Dealey, James Quayle, and Ward, Ltester Frank. A Text-Book of Soci- 
 ology. A "Bibliography," pp. xix-xxv; and referetices appended to 
 
 each chapter. 
 Fairbanks, Arthur. Introduction to Sociology. A "Bibliography," 295- 
 
 307. 
 Giddings, Franklin Henry. The Principles of Sociology. A classified 
 
 bibliography under title of "A Partial List of the Books and 
 
 Articles referred to in the Text," 423-44. 
 Ross, Edward Alsworth. Social Control. "Partial List of Authorities 
 
 Cited," 443-48. 
 
 jpotmdations of Sociology. "Bibliography" to "Recent Tenden- 
 cies," 3.48-52; and "Sociological Works Cited," 397-401. 
 
 Simons, Sarah E. "Social Assimilation," in American Journal of So- 
 ciology. VII (Jan., 1902), 551-56. 
 Spencer, Herbert. Principles of Sociology. "References," I, 851-80, II, 
 
 1-26 (separate pagination at end of volume). III, 612-33. 
 Ward, *L4ster Fratik. ^pljnamic Sociology. "List of the Principal Au- 
 .^ tti,orl1:ies Referred to," II, 634-40. 
 
 Psychic Factors of Civilization. "List of Authprs and their 
 
 Works," 333-52. 
 
 Applied Sociology. "List of Authors and Titles of Works," 
 
 341-66. 
 
 Special Card Catalogue of the Department of Political Science and So- 
 ciology. 
 
 II. Source-Books and Re^vders. 
 
 Carver, Thomas Nixon. Sociology and Social Progress: A Handbook 
 for Students of Sociology. Boston, 1906. 
 
 Giddings, Franklin Henry. Readings in Descriptive and Historical So- 
 ciology. New York, 1906. 
 
 (67) 
 
68 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY, 
 
 III. Texts and Outlines. 
 
 1, Books Recommended for Continuous Reading to Supple- 
 ment the Lecture Course on the '"Sylla'bus." 
 
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• !,••• • 
 
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86 GENERAL SOCIOLOGY. 
 
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