THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 OCCASIONAL ESSAYS ON NATIVE 
 SOUTH INDIAN LIFE
 
 OCCASIONAL ESSAYS 
 
 ON 
 
 NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN 
 LIFE 
 
 BY 
 
 STANLEY P. RICE 
 
 INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
 
 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON 
 
 NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 
 
 igoi 
 
 All rights rcsrrrfif
 
 3>S 
 42 
 
 Ofc"R3 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 De Quincey somewhere says that, if he stopped to 
 consider what is proper to be said, he would soon 
 come to doubt whether any part at all is proper. In 
 writing the following pages I have stopped to 
 consider, and the inevitable misgiving has often 
 caused me to lay down my pen. Much that I have 
 written must, it seemed to me, be already well known, 
 and what was new was probably not worth knowing. 
 Hoping, however, that peradventure there may be 
 some men to whom these papers will be interesting, 
 I have taken courage to submit them to the public. 
 
 Amongst the many books which have been 
 published on India and Indian topics, it is rare to 
 find one that treats of the South. Since the time 
 of Clive and Hyder Ali, historical interest has 
 centred in the North. Travellers prefer to visit 
 the famous cities of the Punjab and the North- West 
 Provinces, the gardens of Kashmir, and the moun- 
 tains of Nepal, rather than the less attractive towns 
 and districts of the Southern Presidency. There are 

 
 vi PREFACE. 
 
 many reasons why this should be so ; and I feel 
 that an apology is almost needed for venturing upon 
 :i South Indian topic. 
 
 In writing on such subjects, it is almost impossible 
 to avoid the use of some Indian words for which 
 there are no exact English equivalents. In these 
 cases I have added a footnote for the benefit of 
 readers who may not be sufficiently acquainted with 
 India to understand them. It may often happen, 
 too, that what is commonplace to the Anglo- 
 Indian is unintelligible to the English reader, and 
 the task of steering a middle course was not always 
 easy. 
 
 My thanks are due to many friends, both English 
 and Indian, who have assisted me with advice and 
 information. I am also indebted to the editor of the 
 Madras Mail, who has kindly allowed me to use 
 material contributed to that paper, and to the editor 
 of the Calcutta Revieiv, for permission to reprint the 
 paper called "A Forgotten Kebellion." 
 
 S. P. R.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE v 
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS 1 
 
 I. Language 3 
 
 II. Manners and Customs 17 
 
 III. Religion 61 
 
 IV. Zemindars 83 
 
 V. Khonds and Savaras 97 
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION 117 
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE KAVERI 147 
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST 173 
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA 193
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS
 
 I. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 The task which I have proposed to myself is to set 
 down in my leisure hours a few observations and 
 deductions which, during a stay, short indeed abso- 
 lutely, but long when compared with the sojourn of 
 most Government officers, I have been able to make 
 concerning manners and customs peculiar to the 
 Uriyas of Ganjam. I do not pretend to have 
 exhausted my subject ; I do not pretend to treat it 
 scientifically. Some of my incidents may be common- 
 place ; some customs which I imagine to be peculiar 
 to the district may be mere variations of Southern 
 customs. I claim only this merit, that everything 
 which is set down here, I have either seen myself or 
 have been told by the people, generally in their own 
 language. I give the following pages for what they 
 are worth ; but if I shall have only succeeded in stir- 
 ring up pleasant memories in the minds of those who 
 know the district, I shall not feel that my labour has 
 been in vain. 
 
 B 2
 
 4 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 I imagine thai RIacaulay's school-boy, who knew 
 "who imprisoned Montezuma and who strangled 
 Atalmallpa," but who could not tell where Sujah 
 Dowlali reigned, is a fit analogy for many nowadays, 
 who have a very hazy idea of the position of Orissa 
 on the map ; who could not put their finger on the 
 great seat of the worship of Jagannath ; who do not 
 know that .Orissa has a special language of its own, 
 spoken by millions, or, if they do know it, have not 
 the remotest idea whether it has greater affinities for 
 Hindi or for Fijian. 
 
 And yet the people of Orissa are a distinct race — 
 distinct from the Bengalis to the north and from the 
 Telugu to the south — distinct in features, in manners, 
 in customs, in language especially. Orissa proper 
 lies within the province of Bengal, and the people of 
 Ganjam suffer in that they have been separated from 
 their brethren ; they are foundling children, alien 
 from the more favoured, because better recognized 
 Dravidian races ; alien even in the origin to which 
 their ancestry has been traced. 
 
 The Uriya language is rough and solid, resembling, 
 if I may venture on a somewhat too fanciful simile, 
 the unhewn temples of Salisbury Plain rather than 
 the graceful cathedral of Salisbury city. Indeed,
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 5 
 
 this simile is true in more senses than the obvious 
 one. For as Stonehenge is evidently the work of 
 rude and uncivilized hands, while the cathedral is the 
 production of more cunning artificers, so does Uriya 
 appear, in relation to other languages, as the language 
 of an uncivilized people. The foundation of it is 
 Sanskrit ; into the building there have been intro- 
 duced blocks from Hindustani quarries, and less 
 massive stones from the land of the Telugus ; but the 
 old structure remains all the same. It will, I think, 
 be conceded that the progress of a language is away 
 from inflection and synthesis. The two most highly 
 civilized nations in the world — the French and 
 English — use languages which, except in the case of 
 verbs, are almost entirely analytical. Uriya is a 
 highly inflected language. The nouns have separate 
 inflections, denoting possession, place, instrument. 
 The verbs are made to express condition, time, 
 causation, by means of inflection. But I am trans- 
 gressing my limits. I have no desire to write a treatise 
 on grammar or a philological essay. I shall leave it 
 to my readers to judge of my accuracy when I say 
 that the Uriya for ' at the houses ' is " ghoromtinong- 
 kothilre ! " 
 
 The written character bears a very close
 
 6 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 resemblance to the Nagari letters. It has lost the 
 distinguishing line at the top, however, and the angles 
 have all beeD rounded into curves. I shall be able to 
 convey some idea of what I mean by citing in analogy 
 the relation between the Roman and the German 
 characters ; but in the present instance the dis- 
 similarity is far more marked. 
 
 There are very few — I may say, none — in 
 Ganjam who can write the language in a cursive 
 hand ; almost all the documents that one sees are 
 written in the printed character. So true is it 
 that the people of these parts cannot read or write a 
 cursive hand, that should a document so written be 
 received from beyond the frontier, it is extremely 
 difficult to find any one who can decipher it. 
 
 The language may be described as a blend of 
 Sanskrit and Hindustani ; I do not, however, use this 
 expression in the strict scientific sense : the basis of 
 the language, especially of the written language, is 
 Sanskrit, but it is not altogether impossible for a man 
 who knows only Hindustani to catch the drift of an 
 Uriya conversation. How far Hindustani has had a 
 direct influence on the language, and how far both 
 languages have borrowed similar words and similar 
 structures from the Sanskrit it is not the province of
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 7 
 
 this essay to discuss. One curious fact is worth 
 recording ; it is that the vowel-sound which in many 
 Oriental languages is understood (though not written) 
 with consonants, and which in other Indian languages 
 is represented by a short " a " becomes in Uriya a 
 primitive " o " sound. 
 
 One of the characteristics which betrays that the 
 Uriya language has not progressed, and that the 
 nation is still in the infancy of its civilization, is 
 the fondness for onomatopoetic words. It is natural 
 that tribes in a primitive state, who wished to ex- 
 press some object in speech, should coin words 
 suggested by some sound made by the object, whether 
 it be a living being or a natural phenomenon. 
 " Kukkuda " is the word for a fowl, and it is a clear 
 imitation of the call which has led us to christen the 
 bird "Cock-a-doodle-doo." "Bromboro" is not a 
 bad reproduction in miniature of the humming of 
 those peculiarly objectionable and stupid beetles 
 which thrust themselves in one's face, often at the 
 most critical moment. Again, " chinkibaro," if you 
 violently accentuate the first syllable, tells its own 
 tale ; no interpreter is needed to inform us that this 
 is the word for " to sneeze." 
 
 The Sanskrit element appears very prominently
 
 8 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 in [Jriya names. As far as my experience of Telugu 
 names has gone, I have found that the lower classes 
 use purely vernacular names, not to be traced to any 
 Sanskrit form, and not representing either the gods 
 of the true Hindu mythology or their attributes. 
 Even among the educated classes the names are con- 
 fined to variations of a root form ; variations, for 
 instance, on the root form Jagat, variations on the 
 names Rama, Krishna, Sita. The only name I can 
 at present remember which conveys any picture to 
 the mind is the name Narasimham, the man-lion ; but 
 as that is an incarnation, and not an attribute, of 
 Vishnu, it is hardly a case in point, 
 
 Amongst the Uriyas, however, the appellations 
 derived from the attributes of the gods are many and 
 various. Syamo-sundara means "of a beautiful 
 bluish colour," and is an attribute of Krishna. 
 Krishna, too, is the " Dhonu-dhara " or bow-bearer, 
 the far-darting Apollo of Hindu lore. Brundavano 
 means a forest of the sacred " tulasi " plant. We 
 may hope that he who bears the name " Nityananda " 
 (always rejoicing) is as free from care as his name 
 suggests. " Dasarathi " is a good instance of the 
 purely Sanskrit character of these names. It is 
 derived from Dasaratha (ten cars) by pure Sanskrit
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. g 
 
 derivative method. I do not wish to multiply 
 instances, though I find many more ready to my 
 hand. Just as in Homer we find the " constant 
 epithet," so that Athene is " yXavKcons, Here' is \evk- 
 a>\evos, Apollo is e/cctepyos ; so the Uriya people have 
 seized on the epithets, and call their sons " grey- 
 eyed " and " far-darting," while their Telugu neigh- 
 bours have rather adopted the names themselves of 
 the gods. 
 
 In default of a better name Robinson Crusoe 
 called the savage whose life he saved " Friday," that 
 being the day of their meeting. The lower classes of 
 the Uriya people have a custom from which Defoe 
 has unconsciously borrowed. The names Sombaria 
 (Monday), Sukria (Friday), are not at all uncommon, 
 and Sunday and Thursday have also been requisi- 
 tioned. Why Saturday should not be used is not 
 inexplicable, for from the time of the earliest Acca- 
 dian mythology Saturday has been a day of evil 
 omen ; and many a Hindu has as superstitious a dread 
 of beginning an undertaking on Saturday as some 
 amongst us have of going on a journey on Friday, or 
 of sitting down thirteen to table. 
 
 The names of which I have been treating arc 
 what I may call the Christian names. Generally
 
 io ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 speaking-, the Uriyas have two names — that which 
 3ervea to distinguish the individual and that which 
 Berves to show his caste or sect. Brahmins have 
 many titles, most of which denote in some form or 
 other the overlordship of the ruling class. The 
 highest sect is called " Satopasti," a corruption of 
 satopati, from "swoto" (100) and "pati" (a lord). 
 These are supposed to be the flower of the Brahmin 
 tribe, who receive the homage even of inferior 
 Brahmins. " Paniorahi " is a curious title with a 
 curious history. It appears that when the rajas went 
 a-walkinoj it was not meet for them to walk alone. 
 Certain Brahmins therefore accompanied them — one 
 walking on each side. The raja would place his 
 hands upon the outspread palms of these courtiers, 
 and thus walk along in stately if uncomfortable 
 dignity. From this practice arose the name " Pani- 
 grahi " — " he that holdeth the hands." 
 
 Those that attend the car, carry the idol, and 
 perform other acts of devotion around the god at 
 Purushottam or Puri, are called Ponda. The deriva- 
 tion of this word is not clear to me, but I believe the 
 word is connected with the root "padh," "to 
 read." This derivation appears more obviously 
 in the name Padhi, the title of another sect
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. n 
 
 of Brahmins, whose duty it is to expound the 
 Vedas. 
 
 The heads of the village are called " Korono," 
 "the doer," and " Karji," "the manager." Both 
 words are derived from the same root, " kar," though 
 the latter is more directly connected with the word 
 " karjyo," " an affair." It is surely a practical view 
 of life that the Uriya takes, when the village heads 
 are thus the representatives of action. Or perhaps 
 — and this is the more probable view — the village 
 heads are the "doer" and the "manager" par ex- 
 cellence, to whom the ryot entrusts all his doing and 
 managing, the better to gratify his own laziness. 
 
 The korono, who is really only the accountant, 
 but who, by reason of his higher education, is generally 
 the ultimate authority in the village, appropriates 
 to himself as his caste distinction the title " Poto- 
 naiko." The word signifies the naik or head of the 
 town. It is curious to find that the word " naiko," 
 which is corrupted into the Telugu " naidu," is the caste 
 distinction of the lowest class, the village watcher 
 and professional thief ! 
 
 This man, for all that his cognomen is thus 
 lofty, goes by the generic name of " Dandassi." This 
 word means " worthy of punishment ; " and assuredly
 
 ra ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 no appellation ever fitted its owner more completely 
 than does this. He is the village policeman and the 
 village thief — a curious mixture of callings! The 
 villagers seem to have acted on the proverb, " Set 
 a thief to catch a thief ; " and if they do not always 
 manage to catch their thief, they at least live up to 
 their maxim in setting one ! 
 
 Before quitting the subject of men's names — and 
 I fear lest I grow tedious — I must mention one which 
 I think is worthy of explanation. The word for 
 a barber is " Bhondari." This word is derived from 
 " bhondaram," a treasure. Not much connection, one 
 would think, between treasure and a barber, unless it 
 be that with razor, ruthless as the shears of Atropos, 
 he sometimes shaves the precious moustache, or de- 
 molishes the delicately nurtured whisker. The real 
 truth is that the zemindars * delivered over the 
 guarding of the treasure to the professional barber, 
 who became a more important person in this capacity 
 than in his original office of " shaver in ordinary to 
 his Highness." The name has survived ; the office 
 has given place to one which the average reader will 
 consider more of a necessity and less of a luxury. 
 
 ■ A zemindar is a landed proprietor, who generally keeps up 
 on a small scale the state of a raja. His estate is called a 
 "zemindari."
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 13 
 
 But while most Uriyas have only two names, 
 many are to be met with in the zemindaris who boast 
 of three or even four. The additions are for the most 
 part titles given by the various zemindars, and they 
 are often even more easily acquired than some knight- 
 hoods and many medals ! A title, generally accom- 
 panied by more substantial recognition, in the shape 
 of land, is given for "blessing" the zemindar, for 
 holding his umbrella, perhaps for handing him betel 
 leaves. Sir "Walter Raleigh is not the only one 
 whose entrance into Court favour was carpeted with 
 a muddy cloak of plush ! 
 
 Thus titles for the most part denote some sort of 
 compliment, such as " Bhushano," an ornament, 
 " Ratno," a jewel, or " Subuddhi," the wise. Others, 
 again, seem to have no meaning, but are simply 
 fanciful names invented by the zemindars. 
 
 " What's in a name ? " cried the passionate Juliet ; 
 and she was right, for to her Romeo was Romeo, 
 though he were christened Tom or Dick. But we 
 who live in a later and more dispassionate age, who 
 are wont to look at things in the full light of practi- 
 cal common-sense, or in the cold, dry light of scientific 
 research, may be allowed to ascribe some virtue to 
 a name.
 
 i 4 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 Names are not given to men or to towns as 
 Clumbers arc to convicts and American streets. There 
 was a reason, probably, for every name — an aesthetic 
 reason, perhaps, but still a reason. No more direct 
 instances can be found than those which occur in the 
 Bible. The Israelites, even in the course of their 
 march across the desert, named the places from 
 fortuitous circumstances. Marah, bitterness, and 
 Meribah, strife, testify to the accidents to which the 
 names are due. Nor is it incident alone which 
 suggests names. Jericho, the city of palm trees, 
 Bethphage, and Bethany, betray in their names the 
 natural features of the places which they distinguish. 
 
 The history of a place and the character of its 
 people are often bound up in its name. Thus, in our 
 own England, the affix " Chester " shows the Eoman 
 occupation, " ton " is West Saxon, while " by " 
 indicates a settlement of the Danes ; and is there not 
 a whole volume of history in this ? 
 
 If the Uriyas show peculiarities in the names they 
 choose for their children, the names of their villages 
 must also be allowed to be in many cases imaginative. 
 Unfortunately, many of the low country villages are 
 called by names which are so corrupted that it is very 
 difficult to trace their meaning now. There are,
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 15 
 
 however, one or two instances which will serve to 
 illustrate this remark. " Nolihaddo," the hollow bone, 
 suggests grim legends, but " Gangadohoni," the Uriya 
 name for the flower called " gloriosa superba," calls 
 up visions of sweet lanes and scented hedgerows, of 
 an Indian " bank whereon the wild thyme grows." 
 Alas ! poor vision ! rudely dissipated by the stern 
 reality of cowsheds and the common native huts of 
 mud and thatch. Nothing could resemble less an 
 English country lane ; nothing could remind one less 
 of the brilliant scarlet and yellow of the flower whose 
 name the village bears. 
 
 In the mountains, where Nature made a more 
 direct impression on the \Jriya mind, there are many 
 fanciful and imaginative names. An Oriental poet 
 has told us that " the high hills are a refuge for the 
 wild goats." From the plains below the Uriya looked 
 up on the steep hills, strewn with rocks and boulders, 
 over which he must climb to his first settlement. It 
 was not surprising, therefore, that he christened the 
 place " Chelligodo," or the Fortress of the Goat. In 
 the next halting-place was a high hill, and the Uriyas 
 going out to their labour in the morning would see 
 the sun rise over this hill day after day. The Hill of 
 Sunrise is not an inappropriate name for the village.
 
 1 6 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 The radiance of the sun and moon seem especially to 
 have struck them, and the glories of the sunset seem 
 to have inspired the name of one village, Subarnagiri, 
 or the Hill of Shining Gold ! 
 
 It happened that on a dark and stormy night, 
 while the river ran high, a young Mussulman prince 
 was riding a black charger along its banks. Terrified 
 by the bowling of the storm and by the vivid flashes 
 of lightning, or perhaps goaded on by the malice of 
 the Evil One, the animal became unmanageable and 
 plunged into the rushing stream. Neither horse nor 
 rider was ever seen again. But the " Ghodo Haddo," 
 the Bones of the Horse, flows over its sandy bed, the 
 grave of the prince and his steed, as it flowed on that 
 stormy night. 
 
 In one of those deadly quarrels w T hich sometimes 
 arise between branches of the same house, matters had 
 gone too far for reconciliation. A duel w T as fought 
 between the brothers ; nor had it an end until 
 
 " Side by side those chiefs of pride 
 Together fell down dead." 
 
 Thus they fought and died, and their memory 
 survives. The place is called Mundomorai, "the 
 Smiting of the Heads."
 
 II. 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 
 
 It is a tradition amongst those of the Madras 
 Presidency whose fortune has never taken them into 
 the Ganjam district, to conceive of the Uriya as an 
 inferior animal — as belonging to a race not merely 
 low in the rank of civilization, but incapable of better 
 things. As a ryot he is unambitious, as a clerk he 
 is incorrigibly dull, as a man he is far behind the 
 age even of his next-door neighbour, the Telugu. 
 The tradition has become so firmly rooted in the 
 minds of those who have given the subject a thought, 
 that the defects of the Uriya are generally ascribed to 
 something inherent in himself, or to his racial qualities, 
 and very little account is taken of outside influences. 
 The Uriya of Ganjam labours under two disadvantages. 
 He is very far from Madras, and he inhabits only 
 part of a district. He speaks a language which is 
 spoken in Bengal, but not in any part of the Madras 
 Presidency save Ganjam, unless we except the Uriya
 
 t8 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 hill-tribes of Jeypore in the Vizagapatam district; 
 these, however, need scarcely be taken into account. 
 It is rather curious to notice that in a recent Madras 
 Act,* in which are enumerated the various names 
 by which a village headman is known in various 
 districts, the Uriya alone is unrepresented. The fact 
 is significant, for it shows how little he is considered, 
 nay, how entirely his existence is ignored. 
 
 But if the Uriya has been under a disadvantage, 
 owing to the paucity of his numbers, and to his 
 want of affinity with the other inhabitants of the 
 Presidency, this disadvantage is as nothing compared 
 with his geographical position. The Uriyas of Ganjam 
 inhabit a Ion g and narrow district in the extreme 
 north of the Presidency, three hundred miles from 
 Calcutta and six hundred from Madras — a district to 
 which till lately access could only be had by sea — 
 whose main port is an open roadstead, always danger- 
 ous, and often impracticable. Those who sit in high 
 places, who made it their business to visit southern 
 districts, rarely paid a visit to Ganjam. There was 
 no inducement for the men of other districts to come 
 to him ; still less was there any inducement for the 
 Uriya to go south, where his language would be 
 * The Village Service Cess Act.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 19 
 
 unknown, and where all his ambition would be 
 swamped by an overwhelming competition. 
 
 The consequence of these disadvantages is that 
 education has languished. The goal of an Uriya boy 
 who wishes to educate himself, is to be master of 
 Telugu — to be acquainted with Uriya. The school- 
 master who is not trained in Madras is generally 
 trained at Kajahmundry on the Godavari. He has 
 probably learnt such Uriya as he possesses from a 
 foreigner. I remember seeing a suggestion made 
 that a professor of Uriya, who really knew the lan- 
 guage, should be appointed at Kajahmundry. Even a 
 French boy, whose youth had been given to learning 
 English, and whose knowledge of French literature 
 was simply what he could glean from an English 
 master in an English school, would not make a good 
 instructor, save perhaps to kindergartens. Thus 
 arises a want of qualified Uriya teachers to train those 
 who, in their turn, are to instruct Uriya boys in the 
 various village schools. Too often it happens that 
 the schoolmaster who has set up on his own account 
 has himself only the knowledge which will suffice 
 to take his pupils as far as the rules of money 
 calculation, and the reading of a simple book. 
 
 With those ideas which arc born of tradition and
 
 :o ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 fostered by prejudice, it has been the custom to 
 decry the Uriya as a dirty, lazy lout, certainly dissolute, 
 and probably drunken, whose only virtue is an 
 unobtrusiveness, due to his insignificance. The causes 
 of this view of the Uriya are these. In the first 
 place, as I said, before, there is a tradition that the 
 Uriya is an inferior animal, and hence arises a desire 
 to prove that tradition correct — by a posteriori argu- 
 ments, if by nothing better. To this end the observer 
 is blind to the virtues, which are not apparent, and 
 notices only the vices, which are. This unconscious 
 desire to make observed facts fit in with a pre- 
 conceived theory, ignoring those facts which modify, 
 if they do not destroy it, is a failing to which all 
 are prone, and which might of itself account for the 
 present estimation of the Uriya. But there is another 
 cause. It is in just those avocations of life in which 
 the Uriya is thrown into contact with the European, 
 that he fails. Give him a piece of work to do ; he 
 is dilatory beyond all bounds of delay. If I were 
 to choose a national motto for him it would be 
 this :— 
 
 " To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow, 
 To the last syllable of recorded time." 
 
 Have you broken anything ? He will mend it in a
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 21 
 
 clumsy way. Is the work to be done of a kind 
 requiring skilled labour ? He will pass the day in 
 doing a minimum of work and in enjoying a maximum 
 of leisure ; wherein, perhaps, according to his philo- 
 sophy, he is not much to blame. 
 
 But his cardinal vice — his besetting sin — is his 
 extreme dirtiness. The ordinary Uriya seems to love 
 being filthy — filthy in his person, filthy in his house, 
 filthy in his surroundings. Go into an Uriya village, 
 and you will find the place stacked with rubbish — 
 filth in the streets, filth on the houses ; the whole 
 village looking more like an extended cattle shed 
 than an ordinary habitation of civilized men. The 
 very drinking-water tank is sometimes hardly fit to 
 bathe in. 
 
 Here, then, we have a key to the Englishman's 
 opinion of the Uriya. The two gods that sit in the 
 highest places in his national temple are Energy and 
 Cleanliness. To the vicious man who is but energetic 
 and clean, many of his vices are forgiven, but even 
 the virtues of the upright shall not save him from 
 damnation if he worship not these supreme deities. 
 I have said that the Uriya is lazy ; I have said he is 
 dirty. The conclusion is obvious. But we must even 
 now be careful not to judge too much by appearances.
 
 22 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 bain customs (t<> which I shall refer later ou), such 
 as the use of saffron and the position of the cowhouse, 
 lend to the person and to the surroundings of the 
 Uriya an appearance of ostentatious dirtiness which 
 the facts do not really justify, and I think I may say, 
 after having seen both, that the interior of an Uriya 
 house is neither better nor worse than that of 
 a Telugu of the same class, unless, perhaps, it is 
 humbler, in that it is of smaller dimensions. 
 
 In spite of this, however, have we not realized the 
 picture which was sketched at the beginning ? We 
 have found the Uriya infinitely lazy and indescribably 
 dirty, wdiile it has also been indirectly admitted that 
 he is deficient in intelligence. But this is not the whole 
 picture, though these are unfortunately the features 
 which force themselves upon a superficial observer. 
 Let us look a little deeper, and we shall find that the 
 Uriya is for the most part a law-abiding citizen, not 
 complaining and not turbulent, comparatively faithful 
 in his domestic relations, and, above all things, sober. 
 The Uriyas in the hill tracts and at the foot of the 
 hills are, it is true, wilder than their brethren of the 
 sea coast. But they are not a criminal tribe ; their 
 turbulence expresses itself in open revolt ; they are 
 not the enemies of the human race, as are the cattle
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 23 
 
 lifters and highway robbers of the southern districts. 
 Though, of course, the thieving classes exist, as well as 
 the receivers, without whom the others would soon 
 become extinct, yet ordinarily it may be said that 
 the Uriya does not disturb the safety of the 
 public. 
 
 On the other hand, he is quite ready for a fight, 
 and in this respect he is not wanting in esprit de corps. 
 I have no desire to write a history of the district, but 
 I may advert to the wars in Gumsur, where the 
 Uriyas rallied round their raja and gave a lot of 
 trouble to the British, although the superior discipline 
 and equipments of the latter made short work of the 
 native resistance ; yet in many cases the resistance 
 was offered, and at one place, a village called 
 AlMdigam, the English attack was repulsed with 
 considerable loss. A more conspicuous instance of 
 patriotism is to be found in the history of the sale of 
 the Atagada estate. This estate was sold for arrears 
 of revenue in 1854, but the ryots flatly refused to 
 acknowledge any raja but their own. Stringent 
 measures had to be resorted to then, but the same 
 spirit of disaffection has been breaking out ever since. 
 About 20 years ago the diwan of the zemindar of 
 Kallikot (who bought the estate) was murdered by
 
 24 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 the disaffected ryots. They refused to be sold with 
 the estate to the highest bidder. 
 
 The Uriya does not drink, and in this respect he 
 forms a notable contrast to his Telugu brethren. I 
 have seen whole villages of TeluQ-us — of the Reddika 
 caste — in which there was not one man who did not 
 bear the brand of drunkenness on his face. This 
 makes the Telugu turbulent and quarrelsome. A 
 fight in an Uriya village may arise from some 
 sectarian quarrel, or even upon some trivial matter, 
 which serves two embittered factions as a pretext ; in 
 a Telugu village a fight will arise for no reason what- 
 ever. The Uriya people are often found to be attached 
 even to minute points of religious observance. I was 
 myself at what threatened to be a riot. Two factions 
 adhered to the worship of different gods. Cars were 
 being driven round the village by each, and each 
 strove to force the other into striking the first blow, 
 for the people were on the verge of open war. At 
 last one car overstepped the prescribed boundary by 
 the breadth of one wheel. Instantly the other side 
 attacked it, and I have no doubt would have done 
 damage, had not I been able to restrain their violence. 
 This fanatical spirit is very strong amongst them, and 
 its influence is certainly not for good. The car
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 25 
 
 festival is an annual opportunity for paying off old 
 scores. The followers of Atlianasius were not more 
 embittered against the disciples of Arius than are 
 some village factions against one another. Nor are 
 there wanting those who cloak their personal 
 animosities in the ample folds of the garment of 
 religious enthusiasm ; perhaps, indeed, they are the 
 majority, though, looking back on the histories of 
 religions, one might find it hard to say what cannot 
 be done in the name of an adored deity. 
 
 Of their domestic relations, since the women are 
 secluded, it is only possible to judge by what comes 
 before the eyes of the world. It is certainly remark- 
 able that the wives who have been deserted by their 
 husbands, or who have found intolerable the intro- 
 duction of a rival, leading to ill-treatment by their 
 husbands, are in nine cases out of ten Telugus. Again, 
 the women whose character has been damaged by 
 slander, the men who have lost their caste at the in- 
 sinuation of others, are almost always Telugus com- 
 plaining against Telugus, and that, be it remembered, 
 in the midst of a population three parts Uriya. 
 
 I will not go so far as to say that facts like these 
 prove the point on which I am insisting. Doubtless 
 it may be urged that the Uriya is more ignorant, and
 
 26 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 therefore does not know what to do ; is more indolent, 
 and therefore does not care to come into court ; is 
 poorer, and therefore cannot afford the expense of a 
 suit. It may be said that complaints are less 
 frequent because morality is laxer. But I cannot 
 subscribe to any of these reasons. The Uriya is not 
 so ignorant, not so indolent, not so poor, but that he 
 can come to court on matters which are often very 
 trivial. There is nothing at all to point to a laxer 
 morality. The only reasons besides those I have 
 suggested which seem to me of any weight are these : 
 that the Uriya woman is more loth to come into 
 court, and that the parties are more easily reconciled. 
 Both these reasons, however, are honourable to the 
 Uriya, though in a different direction. 
 
 But w T hile I cannot adduce any sufficient ethical 
 reason, I must admit that there may be ethnical 
 reasons which, if they do not fully explain these 
 phenomena, at least contribute towards their explana- 
 tion. It must be recorded that the Uriya woman 
 guards herself very closely, like her Mahometan 
 sister, and that necessity would be very strong which 
 would drag her from her cherished seclusion before 
 the gaze of unwonted eyes. It must be allowed that 
 an insult in Uriya is not always accompanied by the
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 27 
 
 pains of excommunication, and that a man may be 
 content to hear himself called names, without fear 
 that to-morrow he will not be able to obtain fire and 
 water. 
 
 The Uriya, as I have found him, is particularly 
 polite in small ways. I have expressed this opinion 
 to several, and I have always heard that the Uriya is 
 a rude and stupid brute. Now, there is an " open 
 sesame ! " to a man's polite feelings which can hardly 
 be too highly estimated, and that is his language. 
 The Uriya is highly delighted if he finds a European 
 who can talk to him in his own language — perhaps it 
 is partly because such Europeans are rare. He is — 
 by hypothesis I was going to say — backward in the 
 race of civilization ; consequently he is timid. 
 Therefore, if a man ride up and ask his way in Telugu 
 of a man who does not know Telugu, he will probably 
 get no answer ! He will then ask, perhaps with a 
 little bluster, and the terrified Uriya will run away ! 
 
 In their dealings with foreigners the English are 
 hardly celebrated as the politest of nations. The 
 immortal Charles Yellowplush, Esq., has left us no 
 very high opinion of the Frenchmen whom he met in 
 Boulogne and of the " langwidges " they talked, while 
 a later generation is contemporary with the Irish
 
 28 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 gentleman who could not control himself on hearing 
 his mother called a " mare." It is hardly fair to blame 
 the Uriya who, far from " scattering all the features " 
 of anybody's face, simply stands stock still and, shall 
 we say, grunts ! If the shade of Demosthenes 
 appeared before you and declaimed the " De Corona," 
 he would hardly be justified in dealing you a clout on 
 the head because you did not appreciate all his 
 rhetorical finish ! 
 
 If you talk, then, to the Uriya in Uriya you 
 will generally find him polite. I have asked for 
 the village officers, for some water for my horse, or 
 the way to the next village, and plenty of willing- 
 men come to help me, while probably one or 
 two will accompany me some distance. These are 
 small things, but they are done cheerfully and 
 politely ; and I have known Uriyas put themselves 
 to gratuitous inconvenience to do me some small 
 service unasked. 
 
 I pass on from these inward and spiritual 
 characteristics to the outward and visible signs, 
 which may be more properly called customs. At 
 first sight the dress of an Uriya man differs only 
 from that of other natives by being dirtier ; the dress 
 of the women by being shorter. But here again I
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 29 
 
 have noticed a distinction not altogether to the 
 disadvantage of the Uriya men. All classes, even 
 the lowest, wear the clothes wrapped round the 
 loins, and tied in the way common to all natives 
 of the better class in the north. The Telugu ryot, 
 in the south of the district — and I may take him 
 as a typical distinction — wears a string round the 
 waist, on which he suspends his cloth, leaving the 
 hips bare ; and this mode of dress conveys rather 
 the impression of undress. But whatever advantage 
 the Uriya may gain in the style of his dress, he 
 loses in the colour ; and I fear the loss is far more 
 prominent than the gain. It is very rare to see a 
 white cloth, unless amongst the well-to-do classes : 
 the ordinary cloth is of a dirty yellow colour. I 
 have been told by an authority that both men and 
 women anoint their bodies very copiously with 
 saffron, in order to keep themselves cool ; and I have 
 been told that the men do so as much as the women. 
 This use of saffron may account for the colour of the 
 men's clothes, but I cannot unreservedly subscribe 
 to the opinion I have just recorded. My own belief 
 is that the women use saffron very largely as an 
 adornment. But the colour of the clothes is probably 
 due still more to the fact that they are not often
 
 3o ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 sent to the professional washerman, " the dhobi," 
 who makes things white. They are either washed 
 at home, or at the period of the bath, the man merely 
 exchanging his wet cloth for a dry one, and slightly 
 rinsing the former. As the ordinary man and woman 
 are ignorant of the refinements of the washerman's art, 
 the result is not all that could be wished, and the 
 cloth assumes a permanent muddy hue. This custom 
 must be put down to the debit side of the Uriya's 
 account. 
 
 But, in addition to this, the men have one 
 peculiar custom in the matter of clothes, attributable 
 to superstition, and not to economy. The cloth 
 which they put on at meal-times never leaves the 
 house ; it is never washed by the washerman, but 
 from time to time the women of the house rinse it in 
 water. This is a curious custom, nor is it much to 
 be applauded. It probably arises from that scrupulous 
 dread of contamination which, carried to excess, 
 seems to us so unreasonable in the matter of food 
 of all kinds, but especially of water. But the remedy 
 is worse than the disease, and their scrupulosity 
 has only exemplified for them the " falsehood of 
 extremes." 
 
 The mode of tying the turban is also peculiar.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 31 
 
 The cloth is folded in such a way as to resemble 
 the roof of a house, the head-dress being worn very 
 high, and with a ridge running from front to back. 
 The shape (which is not easy to describe) is really 
 as distinct as the " cross-fold " of the Telugus, or 
 the " pork-pie " or " inverted soup-plate " of others. 
 In tying his turban the Uriya is very sedulous to 
 display all its ornaments. In fact, however, this 
 style of turban is not much seen. Most of the 
 people wear no head-dress, and those who do, have 
 for the most part adopted the fashion of their 
 Telugu neighbours. 
 
 The clothes of the women are, as I have said, 
 distinguished by their extreme brevity, and also by 
 a copious use of saffron. The clothes are, however, 
 not properly dyed, and the saffron is merely rubbed 
 into them. The idea one gets is that they have been 
 rolled about in a peculiar yellow mud, and have 
 never been properly washed since. The saffron dye 
 is therefore scarcely an improvement. Uriya women 
 are particularly fond of colour. No woman will 
 wear a cloth without a coloured border, though they 
 do not much affect clothes coloured throughout. 
 The kind of cloth most sought after is white, with a 
 red border about two inches wide, and a deep band
 
 32 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 of red across its breadth. In the matter of borders 
 the Uriya prefers to take a quantity rather than to 
 be particular about the quality. The dress of the 
 coolie class reaches only to the knees, and often not 
 so low. The process of robing is very simple. The 
 cloth is tied round the waist once, tucked in at 
 one corner, and thrown over the shoulder once or 
 twice, as its length may allow, and the toilette is 
 complete — a somewhat simpler arrangement than the 
 powders and patches, the unguents and perfumes of 
 Belinda's bedroom. I speak, of course, only of those 
 women whose modesty is not so delicate that it can 
 bear neither the suns rays nor the glances of others. 
 Women who do not usually leave their own houses — 
 women, that is to say, of the better class, wear the 
 cloth reaching down to the ankles, and put on one 
 with ampler folds, should they be called upon to 
 leave the house at an unusual hour. 
 
 The Uriya women as a class are far more secluded 
 than their Telugu sisters, and hence, when I say an 
 unusual hour, I mean an hour of the day when others 
 are about. An Uriya woman whose house does not 
 afford her the means of performing her ablutions at 
 home, goes out very early in the morning, say at four 
 o'clock, to bathe, while lazy men are still slumbering.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 33 
 
 Actaeon, on a like occasion, was turned into dog's 
 meat for his presumption ; but then, to be sure, 
 Artemis was a goddess. Odysseus, on the other 
 hand, received different treatment from Nausicaa. 
 Which would be the fate in these days of the rash 
 intruder into the village mysteries ? 
 
 Uriya women, then, have a high sense of female 
 modesty. It is not confined to the higher class alone. 
 Even the women whom the necessities of life drive to 
 work in the fields are exceptionally modest and 
 respectful. A coolie woman will turn her face away 
 from you, and, as you pass, she will draw her cloth 
 more securely across her breast. I must put this 
 down in her favour, if we contrast her with the 
 Tamil women of the south, many of whom go about 
 without shame, in no more clothing than their lords. 
 
 And while I am discussing this point, I may be 
 pardoned for a slight digression regarding the Uriya 
 notions of self-respect. There is one point on which 
 nations, prominently, though in widely different 
 ways, manifest their self-respect, and that is in their 
 treatment of women. The Englishman who respects 
 himself gives precedence in all points of etiquette to 
 the lady. Among savage tribes no man will demean 
 himself by doing work that his wife can do. The 
 
 D
 
 34 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 Mahometan guards his wife and the female members 
 of the family in the closest seclusion. And these 
 feelings are reciprocal. The English lady and the 
 savage wife would respect but little the man who 
 did not conform to these customs ; while, if the 
 Mahometan lady were forced to present herself before 
 the eyes of the world, she would be shamed and 
 disgraced in her own eyes for ever, beyond all 
 manner of speaking. I have pointed out earlier in 
 this essay that the Uriya woman of the ryot class 
 is kept in seclusion, and she will not go to work. 
 That is the custom, and it is as definite as the 
 European or the Mahometan customs are. 
 
 Famine was pressing heavily on the greater part 
 of India in the year 1897, and Orissa had its share. 
 It is in times like these that customs are emphasized. 
 The Collector of the district talks of " foolish 
 infatuation " when speaking of the reluctance of men 
 to come to work. The expression is surely not- 
 correct. It is quite true that the men are reluctant 
 to work under the famine rules, and that they will 
 not send the women to work. The Uriya is naturally 
 lazy, and he does not care to work if he can get on 
 without it. Work in the fields, moreover, is every- 
 where regarded, even by the agricultural labourer, as
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 35 
 
 in a higher grade of labour than breaking stones. 
 It has been suggested to me that his refusal to work 
 is due not to any feeling of self-respect, but solely 
 to his natural indolence and to the influence of the 
 caste heads, who hope to make a profit for themselves, 
 by forcing the Government to give gratuitous relief 
 in the village. For reasons of their own also, it is 
 urged, they have commanded the people not to 
 accept cooked food in kitchens. To be called 
 " chotrokhya," or " eater in kitchens," is to be 
 branded for life with the mark of Cain. We have 
 all heard at one time or another of a sad story of the 
 workhouse. We all know the dread an old couple 
 have to "go upon the parish." Yet the old go to 
 the workhouse only to die ; the young leave it without 
 friends to pity or despise them. But the Uriya 
 " chotrokhya " goes back to the village in which he 
 was born and bred. The old shake their heads at 
 him ; his friends with whom in happier days he, a 
 naked urchin, made mud pies in the village street, 
 now point at him the finger of scorn ; the young 
 shake off the dust of their feet against him. These 
 things are admitted facts ; they are customs, not of 
 caste, but of race. There is absolutely nothing to 
 show by whom and in what manner they were
 
 36 ASSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 invented. It may be that sordid motives induce the 
 people to continue a custom which higher feelings 
 originated. It may be that a father, by refusing to 
 work himself, or to allow his children to accept 
 cooked food, finds it convenient to subsist on the 
 grain granted in the village for the support of those 
 children. If this is so, it is rather remarkable that 
 a custom, founded on nothing but an elaborate fraud, 
 and invented by the stupid Uriya, should not have 
 been copied by his far more cunning Telugu 
 neighbour. 
 
 But this is a long digression. I return to the 
 dress and ornaments of the Uriya. Kound the necks 
 of the men is worn a curious sort of necklace made of 
 beads. It has no intrinsic value, but it is supposed 
 to be made of the " tulasi," the sacred plant. I am 
 afraid that this is not always the case, and many 
 necklaces are made of cocoanut and other woods ; the 
 Uriyas commit a pious fraud, if fraud it can be called. 
 It is evident that since the necklace is made of the 
 sacred plant it is connected with a religious rite. In 
 fact, the strict Uriyas of a certain sect will not eat 
 without their necklace, nor will they perform their 
 devotions. It is not clear what was the origin of the 
 custom, but if one may hazard a guess, perhaps it
 
 AMONG THE URIYA S. 37 
 
 was originally the means of tying on an amulet. 
 This theory is not altogether unsupported, for the 
 Uriya often wears a golden necklace, called " dhanno- 
 mali," from the resemblance of the beads to grains of 
 rice. In the centre of this necklace is generally a 
 small golden plate with the words " Sri ramo " en- 
 graved in Uriya on it. This points to its religious 
 significance. 
 
 The only other peculiar ornament worn by males 
 is a curious sort of gold earring. It is circular in 
 shape, and it is almost always worn double, though 
 the two parts are joined together. The best com- 
 parison that suggests itself is that of a double moon 
 in the first quarter, with the horns produced in a 
 circle till they meet. One would imagine this to be 
 a very heavy ornament, but it is usually made of lae 
 thinly plated over with gold. The earring is seldom 
 made of solid metal. 
 
 The Uriya has not learned that beauty is 
 " when unadorned adorned, the most," or else he is 
 too conscious of the shortcomings of the women, for 
 he loads them with ornaments in all available places : 
 in the hair, in the nose, in the ears, on the neck, on 
 the arms, from wrist to elbow, round the waist, and 
 on the feet ; jewels of silver and jewels of gold, works
 
 $S ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 of brass and works of glass, beads and trinkets, rings 
 and necklaces, bracelets and anklets — all are there in 
 magnificent profusion. But such profusion is, of 
 course, confined to the better classes. The wife of 
 the ordinary ryot is content with perhaps nose and 
 earrings ; but, above all, she must have the silver and 
 glass or brazen bracelets, often worn from wrist to 
 elbow. This is a sine qua non ; it takes the place of 
 the weddino- rino;. No wife will be without her 
 bracelets. Some castes, notably the working classes, 
 prefer brass ; others a profusion of colours in glass. 
 As all the world knows, when a wife becomes a widow 
 she takes off all her bracelets, except perhaps one, 
 and that, if ornamented, is now beaten flat and 
 defaced. And occasionally this symbol is used as the 
 presentment of a counterfeit widowhood. For some- 
 times a woman who falls out with her husband, and 
 is perhaps driven from her house, w T ill solemnly break 
 her bangles, in token that henceforth he is dead to 
 her, that from that time she renounces him for ever. 
 
 To tell the truth, brass bracelets are a serious 
 inconvenience. For the most part the brass is hollow, 
 but the solid brass is very heavy. Mr. Maltby says 
 that a set of these bangles will sometimes weigh as 
 much as ten pounds. The glass bangles are but tawdry
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 39 
 
 ornaments. They are made of lac, on a thin brass 
 
 foundation, and covered over with a thin coating of 
 
 glass. The earrings do not attract attention. The 
 
 ears are not generally pulled down and disfigured as 
 
 they are in the south, where lead is used to make the 
 
 ear grow out of shape. 
 
 The house of the Uriya is usually a hut, made of 
 
 mud dried in the sun. It is generally thatched with 
 
 paddy straw, and is rectangular. The villages are 
 
 built in more or less regular streets, but the direction 
 
 of the main street must be east and west, and not 
 
 north and south. In the building of their houses 
 
 they observe one curious custom, though I am not 
 
 sure that it is universal. They plough the land and 
 
 sow in it some grain (generally black gram), after 
 
 consulting a priest or seer. What the object of this 
 
 is I have not been able to discover. One is reminded 
 
 of the ancient custom of ploughing the lands before 
 
 raising the walls of a city, and of the gift to Horatius, 
 
 when 
 
 " They gave him of the corn land 
 That was of public right 
 As much as two strong oxen 
 
 Could plough from morn till night." 
 
 Sometimes, when a village is founded, a com- 
 memorative pillar is set up and adorned with coloured
 
 4 o ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN IIFE. 
 
 cloths and leaves, while the Brahmins call upon the 
 god to bless the undertaking and propitiate him with 
 sacrifices. Do we not even the same when some 
 Royal personage goes to lay a foundation stone 
 with a silver trowel, or float a ship by means of a 
 button ? ' ' One touch of nature makes the whole 
 world kin." The Brahmin becomes a lawn -sleeved 
 bishop ; the smoking sacrifice is turned into foaming 
 champagne ! 
 
 The Uriya is fond of smearing his house with red 
 ochre, and will often adorn it with patterns done 
 rudely in whitewash. Sometimes, however, if a native 
 artist is available, a ground work of white is painted 
 on the red ochre, and on this a picture — it may be of 
 fightings among the gods — of huntings and other 
 devices. Thus the ignorant Uriya ryot is not with- 
 out his standard of beauty, is not ignorant of fresco, 
 and imitates in his rude way the walls of the house 
 of Glaucus and the convent of San Marco. To a 
 European eye these things are not ornaments. To 
 those who look for the face and form of Nature in art, 
 gods with blue faces and six arms, impossible men on 
 impossible horses, and all other fabled monsters, are 
 matters rather of curiosity than of pleasure. The 
 doorways show very fair carving, not, however, of
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 41 
 
 figures, but generally of rosettes, arabesques, and 
 other conventional patterns. 
 
 It is curious that the Uriyas seem to love being- 
 filthy so much, that they thrust their dirtiness upon 
 every chance comer. To him whose ideas were 
 nurtured in the west, it seems natural to clean the 
 outside of the cup and platter at least, to welcome 
 the stranger to his best, and to keep in the back- 
 ground his kitchen and his stables — all that is unclean 
 or unseemly. On the threshold of an Uriya house is 
 the cattle shed, with its accumulated filth and straw 
 lying around. Beyond this, but generally entirely 
 separate from it, is the cooking and dining room ; 
 behind this again, the sleeping apartments. In 
 these matters, except that he is content with a 
 minimum of space, I am not aware that the Uriya 
 materially differs from other native races ; details 
 would therefore only be wearisome. 
 
 The hills and the jungles, by which the Uriya is 
 surrounded from his birth, have made him naturally 
 a keen sportsman, and I have never had any trouble 
 in getting beaters for my various shooting expeditions. 
 They seem to take great interest in the sport, and 
 are highly delighted at a successful issue. That their 
 love for sport is not merely the love of the hire or of
 
 42 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 the meat which may fall to their share, I am fully 
 convinced. The tom-toms play equally loudly the 
 funeral march of a bear and a deer. As for bears, 
 they are averse to killing them, as they have a curious 
 fancy that the souls of their ancestors inhabit thebodies 
 of bears after leaving their human prison. They will 
 not themselves take the risk of injuring their 
 ancestors, though they do not seem to mind another 
 man doing so. Their solicitude is, therefore, subjective 
 rather than objective. From time immemorial men 
 have loved to hunt and to shoot, not merely for the 
 sake of the meat, but also, and chiefly, for the pleasure 
 and excitement of the chase. It would be strange, 
 therefore, if the Uriya, who is only half civilized, did 
 not take a pleasure in these sports. I was surprised, 
 however, at my last bear hunt to find the accountant 
 of the village with me — not standing afar off ; and if 
 he was not in at the death, the sharp stones that cut 
 his naked feet were to blame, and not his eagerness. 
 
 The Uriya is not fond of education. He cultivates 
 his mind as little as his fields. He is content to sow 
 one crop if that will be enough for his subsistence. 
 He is content with his own low standard of comfort, 
 though a very little more labour, either manual or 
 mental, would enable him to rise above it. The
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 43 
 
 consequence is that he seldom climbs beyond the 
 heights of the Upper Primary Examination. The two 
 channels into which those who have received higher 
 education are almost sure to drift, are Government 
 service and the law. The number of Uriyas in the 
 higher grades of the magisterial or ministerial service 
 of Government might be counted on the fingers of 
 one hand. I have only seen one Uriya pleader, and 
 he was a retired Government servant. I am not at 
 all sure that this has not its advantage. In the south 
 hosts of would-be Government servants wander about 
 in search of work, and swell the number of the 
 unemployed. The immense supply of vakils * creates 
 an immense demand. To go to law is one of the 
 luxuries of the people and their chief est recreation. 
 There are even gradations in the luxury, and between 
 a civil suit before the district judge, or a criminal 
 case before the native magistrate, lie all the gradations 
 that there are between a box at a theatre and a seat 
 in the pit — stalls, dress circle, and upper circle all 
 have their analogy. But this is not a healthy form 
 of recreation. If two ryots fight, it is better for 
 them to settle the affair in their own way, or, if they 
 must come to court, to come themselves and tell their 
 * Native attorneys.
 
 44 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 story, than that there should be all the usual wire 
 drawing, and hair splitting, and purse straining, 
 while 
 
 "Raman pays that pleaders' clerks may dine." 
 
 On the other hand, the very low state of education 
 in most rural villages is not only a drawback to the 
 administration, but to the people themselves. Seeing 
 that districts are made up of taluks,* and taluks are 
 composed of village units, it is essential to good 
 administration that the officers of the village should 
 be intelligent and capable ; and this, emphatically, 
 the Uriya village officers are not. 
 
 But, though the village officers are a thorn in the 
 side of the Government authorities, it is in a far 
 wider way that the general lack of education produces 
 evil results. For in very many cases the karnam or 
 accountant is the only man in the village who can 
 write more than his name. The king of the village 
 is the lord of the pen. For the king of the village is 
 master of the Treasury, and the pen is the golden key. 
 Every ryot who pays money knows that he should 
 get a " rasid," f and knows that a " rasid " is a bit of 
 paper with writing on it. But to very few are the 
 figures and letters, and still more the English calendar, 
 * Divisions. f Receipt.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 45 
 
 anything more than cabalistic characters to be taken 
 for granted. 
 
 I have endeavoured to find out something about 
 the games of the Uriyas, and more especially the out- 
 door games ; but I could not discover much. The 
 little naked children appear to play in the dust, or 
 chase each other about without any rules, as it does 
 not seem right for boys over fifteen to play at all. 
 And while I am talking about these children, I may 
 mention that Uriya boys dispense with clothes for 
 a very long time. Boys of ten and eleven run about 
 the villages absolutely naked, save for what I may 
 call a proleptic string round the waist. The children 
 of the ordinary peasant class have too much to do — 
 washing the bullocks, driving away the birds from 
 the ripening paddy, and doing a hundred and one odd 
 jobs in the paddyfield — to invent out-door games for 
 themselves. And, after all, in the matter of their out- 
 door games the Anglo-Saxon race stands alone in the 
 world. One game they have, however, for the special 
 festival of Sravana Pournami, or the full moon of 
 August-September. In almost every village you 
 will notice a curious mound of earth in the shape of 
 a wedge, the thick end being about six feet from the 
 ground. At the thick end a pole is put up, and from
 
 46 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 the pole is hung a bunch of flowers. The game is to 
 run up the wedge and jump over the thick end of it, 
 taking on the way the flowers, which are hung so 
 high as to necessitate a fair jump. Not a very exciting 
 game one would think, but competition adds zest to 
 any game, and perhaps some annas change hands over 
 the various competitors — and there is no stimulant 
 like betting. 
 
 But if there are no outdoor games, there are 
 plenty played indoors. Most of these are variations 
 of games played on boards divided into so many 
 squares, and to describe them would be simply like 
 writing out a series of those " directions " which are 
 to be found in every parlour game of the kind. One 
 of the commonest of these games is the " tiger and 
 sheep," corresponding to our " fox and geese." The 
 names indicate very well the direction in which the 
 fears of eastern and western farmers run. 
 
 I was walking down the main street of one of the 
 larger villages one day, when I noticed two men play- 
 ing chess. I went up to look at the game, and found, 
 as indeed I expected, that they play this game as we 
 play it. The queen, however, is not allowed — on the 
 principle perhaps of the Zenana ; she becomes the 
 minister or mantiri. The bishop is turned into a
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 47 
 
 mere camel. The knight is merged in his own horse 
 — perhaps the nobler animal of the two, while the 
 castle is, appropriately enough, changed into an 
 elephant. But if Uriyas are not addicted to outdoor 
 games, there is one joyful ceremony at which all let 
 themselves loose in a wild sort of blind man's buff, 
 and that is marriage. 
 
 In the peculiarity of their marriage customs the 
 Uriyas are no whit behind other nations. Perhaps 
 of all recorded instances the Sabine ladies were married 
 in the most primitive fashion, the one-tenth of the 
 law which is not possession being somewhat dis- 
 regarded in their case. Even amongst the later 
 Romans the marriage was a pure contract, and the 
 wife was as much a member of the familia as the 
 freed men or the slaves. We ourselves have many 
 curious customs, symbolical and fantastic. The bride 
 is veiled and wears white ; the token of marriage is a 
 gold ring on the third finger of the left hand ; there 
 is a particular kind of cake, and the young couple are 
 sent on their journey with showers of rice and old 
 shoes. Therefore, after the cake and the old shoes, let 
 no one laugh at the apparent frivolity of some of the 
 Uriya customs. 
 
 Different castes have different customs. Amongst
 
 4 S ESSAYS ON XATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 the Brahmins this solemn ceremony begins with what 
 must really be considered a rough-and-tumble game ! 
 The bridegroom stands behind a screen in the court- 
 yard. The bride comes out of her chamber, and 
 throws three handfuls of salt and rice at him. Then 
 there is a scramble amongst the guests, the bride's 
 party trying to get some grains of salt, and the bride- 
 groom's doing their best to prevent this by trampling 
 it into the ground. If the bride's followers are so 
 lucky as to get hold of some grains, they keep 
 them against the day of the marriage dinner, when 
 they are served in the bridegroom's plate. If he 
 eats them he loses in the estimation of his wife's 
 relatives. 
 
 This sounds like a pure game, and to this the 
 custom seems to have degenerated. Probably the 
 main idea is that the bridegroom's duty is to protect 
 his wife, and not to receive from her. As salt and 
 rice are the common necessaries of Hindu life, the 
 bride tempts the bridegroom by offering these 
 symbols of all sustenance to him. And since it is 
 degrading for the man to receive support from the 
 woman, it is degrading for him to eat his wife's rice 
 and salt, which are typical of this support. I must 
 admit that this is conjecture ; but probably every
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 49 
 
 custom has an origin, and this solution seems at least 
 likely. 
 
 Another trial which the bridegroom has to under- 
 go is the ordeal of the Mantapam. In this ordeal 
 the bridegroom sits on a flat stone, while the bride's 
 relatives — " the virgins that bear her company " — do 
 their best to upset him. It does not appear that he 
 gains any credit by overcoming them, while, if they 
 upset him, he is held up to ridicule. This is rather a 
 one-sided way of doing things, and the bridegroom, 
 if he has a sturdy set of amazons to deal with, may 
 well find his position rather precarious. 
 
 If I mistake not, this has its origin in the same 
 idea as the custom I have lately recounted. The 
 point of view is perhaps slightly changed, and the 
 husband appears as the champion, instead of the 
 bread winner. He must prove that he is physically 
 capable of upsetting his enemies. It may be that 
 since the contest is with his wife's female relatives, 
 some idea of moral strength is intended to be 
 typified ; but as the contest is purely a physical con- 
 test, I do not think this is probable. It is, however, 
 possible that the part of the ceremony where 
 physical force is used is symbolical of the more 
 primitive form of marriage by capture. 
 
 E
 
 5 o ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 When the ceremony is over the bridal pair return 
 home, where they find a great pile of stools and 
 cooking pots. These the bridegroom kicks over. 
 The bride gathers them together, and piles them up 
 again. The bridegroom, rather wilfully one would 
 think, kicks them over again — and this is repeated 
 three times. On the surface the lesson we seem to 
 see here is that of patience. The bride is given a 
 foretaste of what she may expect when she has her 
 domestic cares to look to. I think, however, the 
 custom means to imply that henceforth the wife is to 
 be careful and troubled about domestic matters ; that 
 she is to be in subjection to her husband, and possibly 
 also that she must patiently submit to his moods. 
 This would account for the laborious piling up of 
 these articles — the labour of Sisyphus, though 
 fortunately not without end ; but I cannot explain 
 why the husband should kick the pots down, unless 
 it is to show that he is master in his own household, 
 and can do as he likes. 
 
 While the marriage ceremony continues the bride- 
 groom may not eat cold food, nor salt, nor certain 
 vegetables, in his father-in-law's house. This appears 
 to be a very whimsical custom, and the meaning of it 
 is not obvious on the surface. It is possible that the
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 51 
 
 husband is warned not to place himself in dependence 
 upon his wife's relatives. I am, however, inclined to 
 think that, since cold food would not usually be 
 offered to chance guests, but only to members of the 
 household, and since from the earliest ages the eating 
 of a man's salt creates an inviolable tie, the custom 
 arises from the sense that it is indecent for the bride- 
 groom to instal himself as a member of the family 
 before he is entitled to do so by a more definite 
 connection. 
 
 Every day at dinner the betrothed couple play at 
 cowries. The bridegroom takes these and throws 
 them on the ground. The bride collects them and 
 puts them again into his hand. This is repeated 
 seven times, for the numbers three and seven seem to 
 be considered the complete numbers by most Oriental 
 nations. The bridegroom then holds the cowries in 
 his tightly closed fist, and the bride has to open his 
 hand. Then her turn comes, and the bridegroom has 
 to open her hand. This game seems to have no 
 significance whatever. It is merely a little diversion 
 in the somewhat tedious eight days' ceremony. 
 
 When the time arrives for the bride to join her 
 husband, she proceeds to his house, where she is met 
 by her husband's sister, the custodian of the gate,
 
 5a ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 who refuses her admittance. This she has to pur- 
 chase by presenting a " sari," or fine cloth, to the in- 
 ezorable dame. I imagine that this is supposed to 
 represent the unwillingness with which the bride- 
 groom's sister leaves her station as mistress of the 
 house. Not until she receives a sufficient reward 
 will she hand over the keys of her trust. Of course 
 now the resistance is feigned and the reward is 
 nominal. We have often read of old retainers who 
 have been much disconcerted by the taking unto 
 themselves of wives by their masters, until then 
 thought to be confirmed old bachelors. 
 
 If the husband has no sister, the part is acted by 
 another woman. As the custom is purely symbolical 
 and has lost its original meaning, it matters little 
 who takes the part, just as among ourselves it is a 
 matter of small moment who gives the bride away. 
 
 Yet another ordeal is before the w r ife before she 
 enters upon her domestic reign. A golden ring is 
 thrown into a pot of rice and water, and she has to fish 
 the rin£ out. Her success or failure is taken as an 
 omen of the measure of her success in the duties of 
 housekeeping. This finding of the ring is very closely 
 analogous to the boiling of a ring in the Christmas 
 pudding. I cannot find that the custom had any
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 53 
 
 origin except in superstition, and it must be ranked 
 
 with the " Sortes Virgilianae," and others of that kind. 
 
 The Uriyas are scrupulously particular regarding 
 
 the exposure of the bride to the gaze of her male 
 
 relatives. All possible precautions are taken. She 
 
 does not stir out, unless compelled to do so. Even 
 
 then she walks by unfrequented paths, and is closely 
 
 enveloped in a veil. Further, she must not pronounce 
 
 the names of her husband or his parents, or his 
 
 relatives of the ascending line. Nay, more ; she 
 
 ,must even avoid words of which the first syllable 
 
 corresponds with the first syllable of any of these 
 
 names. She may not speak to them, but must 
 
 express herself by signs. This is slavery ! The 
 
 custom, the strict observance of which we may be 
 
 permitted to doubt, may have had its origin in a 
 
 transition from polyandry to monogamy or polygamy. 
 
 The husband's brothers, who would formerly have 
 
 shared the wife with him, would be of all men most 
 
 to be avoided. I am not, however, aware that the 
 
 Uriyas ever practised polyandry. However the 
 
 custom arose, it is now overlaid with monstrous 
 
 additions, and demonstrates, if not the falseness, at 
 
 least the absurdity — one might say the cruelty — of 
 
 extremes. The idea of decent respect, which was
 
 54 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 enjoined by a few salutary rules of conduct, is now 
 obscured by ;i multitude of senseless customs, so that 
 the respectful and respected matron now appears so 
 abject as to be a slave, so frail as to be unworthy of 
 her husband's confidence. 
 
 I proceed to notice one or two customs peculiar 
 to less important castes : — 
 
 Kaivartas (fishermen). — These men have to marry 
 their daughters before the age of puberty ; if they 
 fail to find a husband in time, the girl must be 
 married to an arrow. 
 
 Ghasis (scavengers). — An earthen vessel filled 
 with water is suspended from the marriage booth. 
 On the last day but one of this protracted wedding 
 the bride groom breaks the vessel. The bride's 
 brother then strikes him on the back, and the bride- 
 groom leaves the house in mock anger. Next day 
 the bride goes to his house and invites him back. 
 
 Rellis (or gardeners). — The bridegroom, with the 
 permission of the village magistrate, marches straight 
 into the bride's house and ties the wedding necklace 
 round her neck. A gift of seven and a half rupees 
 and a pig to the caste men, and of five rupees to 
 the bride's father, completes this very primitive 
 ceremony.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 55 
 
 I have merely selected a few amongst the many- 
 castes which have marriage customs peculiar to them- 
 selves. I have given the customs without comment, 
 and explanations will doubtless occur to the reader. 
 They serve as illustrations of the many apparently 
 senseless ceremonies with which the simple marriage 
 contract may be overlaid. 
 
 We read of the famous Solomon Grundy that he 
 was born on Monday, and after a rapid career met 
 his death on Saturday. With no less speed must we 
 fly from the rejoicings of the marriage booth to the 
 wailings of the death chamber. 
 
 In the general character of their funerals the 
 Uriyas do not differ from other Hindu races. Dis- 
 tinctions are only to be found in matters of detail. 
 Upon the death of the head of the household the 
 body is carried to the burning ground by the male 
 relatives ; the eldest son leads the way, carrying a 
 broken pitcher with fire in it. The women remain 
 behind to console the widow, and to add their lamen- 
 tations to hers. Meanwhile, if the deceased be a rich 
 man, the route of the procession is marked by a line 
 of copper coins and fried rice — largesses which are 
 thrown into the road, not apparently to any specific 
 persons, but simply for him who will to appropriate.
 
 5 6 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 It is, 1 suppose, an act of general charity, designed 
 to speed the departed spirit on its journey to the 
 other world. On arrival at the burning ground the 
 body is washed and wrapped in a new cloth. It is 
 then laid on the pyre, with the head to the north. 
 The eldest son walks three times round the pyre, 
 murmuring prayers or mantrams and burning husa 
 grass. This lie thrusts into the pyre beneath the 
 head of the corpse, and at once makes his way home- 
 ward — nor must he look back. 
 
 The widow and the female relatives then go to 
 the nearest tank, where the former breaks her 
 bracelets. 
 
 On the fourth day the son collects the ashes, with 
 intent to lay them at a more convenient season 
 in the bosom of Mother Ganges. The next few 
 days are occupied in feasting, but on the tenth day 
 all the relatives, both male and female, assemble at 
 a tank. The men are shaved there, and the women 
 have their nails pared. The ceremony of purification 
 follows. Men and women bathe and put on new 
 clothes. The widow is given a borderless sari, or 
 cloth, the sign of her widowhood. The whole cere- 
 mony of funerals lasts for twelve days. 
 
 In all this there is, I believe, very little that is
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 57 
 
 not common, at any rate with unimportant variations, 
 to other Hindu races. I have therefore given only 
 a rapid sketch of the ceremony, in order to introduce 
 some of the more important details which are 
 peculiar to Uriyas. It has been the custom from 
 time immemorial to regard shaving the head and 
 face as a sign of decent mourning. The Hindus are 
 essentially a conservative race, and we are fortunate 
 in possessing the records of an ancient Oriental tribe, 
 which, whatever may be their historical value, 
 explain, and are explained by, the manners and 
 customs of Oriental races of to-day. Thus Job, when 
 he heard of all his disasters — the loss of all his 
 wealth and the death of his sons — " took water and 
 shaved himself." And since it is a shame for a 
 woman to shave her head, and since she does not, for 
 obvious reasons, shave her face, the paring of the 
 nails is substituted, not, I think, because it has any 
 significance in itself, but simply that the women may 
 also partake with the men in their ceremonial 
 observances ; it is, as it were, the symbol of a 
 symbol. 
 
 In an earlier part of this essay I alluded to the 
 love which Uriya women have for colours. It is 
 evident that the assumption by the widow of a plain
 
 ;8 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 white sari arises from the same feelings which prompt 
 English people to wear black, or induced the old 
 Athenians to put on violet. And though I believe 
 that Uriya women are fond of colour for its own 
 sake, yet, since a cloth without a border is the 
 distinctive sign of widowhood, it is natural that the 
 women should insist on borders to their clothes. 
 Amongst us black crape is a distinctive sign of 
 mourning, and it is not w T orn save by those who are 
 in mourning. 
 
 Various little peculiarities of detail are to be 
 met with in the twelve-days' ceremony. The bearers 
 of the corpse, at whatever hour the burning takes 
 place, must wait until the hour of sunset or sunrise 
 before leaving the ground, according as the man 
 died during the day or night. On the second day 
 the relatives sit down to a meal of bitterness (Uriya, 
 Pitdhhiyd) made of margosa leaves. The significance 
 of this is fairly clear. The real ceremony of 
 mourning seems to last for nine days only, for on the 
 tenth day w T e find that the mourners — except 
 perhaps the chief among them — go to a tank, there 
 bathe, then on their return wash their feet in 
 turmeric water, and enter the house through a new 
 booth put up for the purpose. Washing the feet is
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 59 
 
 of course an ordinary symbol of purification. I 
 suppose the booth is meant to mark their re-entry 
 into the affairs of the world after their nine days' 
 seclusion. It is made more clear that the actual 
 funeral ceremony lasts only nine days, by the fact 
 that on the tenth day, and not before, the use of 
 ghee, oil, and chillies is allowed. During the whole 
 twelve days, however, a sacred lamp is kept burning 
 in a small hole in the corner of the room. And if 
 the relatives end their days of mourning on the tenth 
 day, the eldest son has still a mysterious rite to 
 perform. In the darkness of the eleventh night he 
 rises and, taking with him a palm branch, a piece of 
 kora wood, and a new earthen vessel, he makes his 
 way to a tank or to an unfrequented place. There 
 he strips himself naked, mutters some incantations 
 over the things he has brought, and throws them 
 away. This done, he returns home. I suppose that 
 every rite and ceremony has a meaning, either 
 practical or symbolical, and perhaps one may discover 
 a meaning in the drawing apart of the young man, 
 and in the self-humiliation of his nakedness. But 
 it is hard to find a reason why he takes the branch, 
 and the wood, and the pot, or why he throws them 
 away. Perhaps, like the Greek obol for Charon,
 
 6o ESSAYS OX XATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 they represent the necessaries with which the spirit 
 must be furnished on its way to the other world. 
 
 Unfortunately, though these ceremonies are harm- 
 less enough, the Uriyas have one custom which 
 contravenes all the laws of sanitation. They refuse 
 to burn or bury the victims of cholera or small-pox, 
 but the corpses are simply taken and thrown outside 
 the village. The origin of such a superstition is not 
 far to seek. The goddess who presides over the 
 disease has laid her hand upon the victim, and he is 
 thenceforth accursed. It is sacrilege to offend the 
 goddess by offering the body the decent rites of 
 interment or cremation. So it is left to poison the 
 air, and the souls of many men go down to Hades 
 lest the goddess should be offended. Not more 
 certain victims to a fanatic idea were those sacrificed 
 to the war god of the Aztecs, or those immolated less 
 directly in honour of the Virgin, in the holocausts of 
 the Inquisition.
 
 III. 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 I find nothing remarkable in the religious system of 
 the Uriyas. They have the same general belief in 
 the Hindu theology as most natives of the same class. 
 But that is not saying much. Unable to conceive of 
 the Deity as an essential being, omnipresent, omni- 
 potent, yet always invisible, they are obliged to 
 satisfy their yearning for the concrete by journeys to 
 Puri, and, still more, by the worship of the village 
 goddess. Though they ascribe the seasons and the 
 varying natural phenomena to the Poromeswaro, or 
 Supreme Being, I do not think that the word 
 conveys any definite impression to their minds. 
 
 Of Puri, the famous shrine of Jagannath, lying, 
 however, in Orissa proper, this is not the place to give 
 any detailed description. But though the place itself 
 may be beyond the scope of this essay, yet the 
 influence it exercises upon the people is so great, and
 
 62 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 the journey thither in some respects so curious, 
 as to meril a passing glance. 
 
 It is about the month of July that one may- 
 observe crowds of devotees flocking in or from the 
 direction of Puri, their hair, coloured to all shades of 
 brown and yellow, fantastically piled upon their heads ; 
 their bodies smeared with the grey ash, which would 
 make them look uncanny, if the generally substantial 
 appearance of the individual did not rather give the 
 impression of mere uncleanliness. Their impedimenta 
 are few ; they wear practically no clothes. A string 
 of beads round the neck, a wallet, a brass pot, an 
 antelope skin for sleeping and sitting on, and the 
 indispensable snuff-box are the only articles they 
 carry. The pilgrim would be merely an object of 
 curiosity if he were not a pest. We may admire the 
 lens;th of the locust's les; or the structure of his wing, 
 until the green field is a bare desert, and then we 
 curse the insect. We may look curiously at the 
 devotee, but he brings with him the terrible scourge of 
 an outbreak of cholera. He is as ill-omened as the 
 locust. 
 
 The journey from Rambha on the Chilka lake is 
 generally performed in large flat-bottomed boats. The 
 sails are made of bamboo mats, such as are used for the
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 6 3 
 
 covering of native carts. One may well imagine that 
 such a boat, with a mat stuck on a pole for its " white 
 wings," is a clumsy, slow-moving affair enough. The 
 lake has a local god, a presiding deity of its own, 
 who must be propitiated with offerings of plantains, 
 of rice, of flowers. Woe betide the impious man who 
 neglects these offerings ! The angry god churns the 
 waters, stirring them as one stirs a pot, and the 
 unlucky boat sinks in the whirlpool. One has heard 
 of such a god even in England. " Now, to this day 
 on the river Trent, the Nottingham bargemen, when 
 the river is in a certain flooded state (a kind of eddy- 
 ing swirl it has) call it eager. ' Have a care, there 
 is the eager coming ; ' " a very real giant, in fact an 
 ogre. 
 
 Uriya temples are modelled upon the great temple 
 at Puri, and have outwardly very little in common 
 with the great temples of the south. The temple at 
 * Puri — the Mecca of the Hindus on the east coast — is 
 dedicated to Vishnu, as Jagannath, whose famous car 
 was once said to have immolated so many devoted 
 victims and sent them, let us hope, by a short and easy 
 road to heaven. In consequence of this temple, most 
 of the Uriyas in Ganjam are worshippers of Vishnu, 
 generally under the title of Radhakrishna, or of
 
 64 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 Jagannath. The more awful Siva, the destroyer, is 
 worshipped with fear and trembling upon the out- 
 skirts of towns and villages. He is not represented 
 by any graven image ; but in the symbol of a single 
 pillar of granite, the devout recognize the presence 
 of Divinity. His temples are not carven, but he is 
 generally lodged in a rude house, with mud walls and 
 roofed with thatch. Such a house I have seen with 
 walls dilapidated and roof in ruins, hidden away 
 in the heart of a bamboo jungle. Yet thither flock 
 the people, to worship in sunshine or in rain, in time 
 of famine or in time of plenty, careless of distance, 
 fatigue, or discomfort. It is difficult to say why such 
 a terrible god is housed in so poor a dwelling. But 
 the ark of God contained nothing but the tables of 
 the law ; and long after the final conquest of Canaan, 
 David complained that the ark of the Lord dwelt 
 " within curtains," while he was lodged in a house of 
 cedar. 
 
 The temple of Vishnu, under whatever names he 
 may be adored, is built in three parts, corresponding, 
 if I may say so without straining analogy, to the 
 three parts of our cathedrals. The inner apartment 
 is the abode of the god himself, the Holy of Holies, into 
 which the priest alone may enter ; and this corresponds
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 65 
 
 to our altar. The next part of the temple is the 
 chancel, where the worshippers congregate to offer up 
 their prayers and to deposit their sacrifices — a bunch 
 of plantains, some flowers, or a handful of rice. The 
 outer part is the nave, where the congregation sing 
 hymns after their orisons are over. 
 
 As every one knows, the Hindu god is completely 
 anthropomorphic. He lives with his wife, and often 
 with a servant; he indulges in the purely human 
 delights of dining and of bathing. " Peradventure," 
 also, " he sleepeth," and, like his fellow divinity, he 
 often goes on a journey ; and to the people these are 
 all very serious realities. Even the Brahmins, who 
 are generally allowed into the innermost sanctuary, 
 are kept without the veil during the sacred hour of 
 the banquet. I once asked the people to let me see the 
 % inside of the temple. They were not at all offended, 
 but, after they had made inquiries, they told me 
 politely that the god had not yet had his bath, and 
 was not prepared to receive visitors, but if I would 
 call again in an hour or two I might then expect to 
 be received ! This temple was sacred to Kama Sita 
 and their servant Hanuman. 
 
 That the journey of the god is a reality it does 
 not take the bloody car of Jagannath to prove ; 
 
 F
 
 66 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 those are my witnesses who have seen a car festival, 
 where crowds of men are tugging at the cables and 
 painfully dragging the heavy car up the long street. 
 
 The most striking feature of the Uriya temple,* 
 seen from the outside, is the great Holy of Holies. 
 This is built in the shape of a barrel, and is crowned 
 by a fluted roof and, over all, a pinnacle. This barrel 
 stands high above the rest of the temple, and is built 
 according to fixed proportions laid down by the Silpi 
 Shastra, the height bearing a fixed ratio to the area. 
 The other rooms allotted to the worshippers are not 
 striking, but they are generally adorned with carvings, 
 and the roof is a succession of more or less artistic 
 terraces. The temple is very compact ; there are 
 none of the courtyards and outlying fanes to which 
 one becomes accustomed in the south. Beyond the 
 three rooms of the temple, and a cook-room or so, 
 there is nothing. 
 
 The inside is distinctly disappointing. There are 
 no carvings and no ornaments. In the temple which 
 I was allowed to enter, I saw nothing but plaster, 
 once white, but now coloured to various shades of 
 brown and black by the smoke and soot of evil-smelling 
 
 * I am, of course, speaking of the ordinary temples in 
 moderate-sized villages, of which the one described is a fair type.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 67 
 
 lamps and unshaded candles. A priest lit a lamp 
 or a torch, and there loomed through the darkness a 
 white sheet spread over a table. Gradually to one's 
 accustomed eyes some black masses upon this altar 
 took the shape of ten or twelve dolls seated in a row. 
 These were the deities of the place, and their average 
 height was about a foot and a half. Except for the 
 idols, which were, of course, the raison d'etre of the 
 whole edifice, and, therefore, could scarcely be 
 excluded, the simplicity, though not the cleanliness 
 of the place, must have won the heart of the sternest 
 of Scotch Covenanters. 
 
 In the matter of food — those washings of cups, and 
 pots, and brazen vessels, which, in the eyes of the 
 Hindu, as in the eyes of the Pharisees, are so 
 intimately connected with religion — the Uriyas have 
 their own distinctive peculiarities. Unlike their more 
 austere southern brethren, not only the higher castes 
 of Sudras, but Brahmins themselves eat fish and, I 
 have been told, the flesh of wild animals, such as the 
 boar, the deer, or the antelope. They do not, how- 
 ever, touch domestic animals. The following was the 
 reason given why Brahmins are allowed to take 
 animal food. Rama, while he was wandering in the 
 north, through Orissa, sought hospitality, and did
 
 68 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 not seek in vain. The houses were thrown open to 
 him, and the faro, sumptuous or frugal, according to 
 the means of the host, was shared with him. But 
 when he journeyed to the south the houses were shut 
 against him. He sought rest and food, and found 
 none ; he asked for hospitality, and was refused. 
 Therefore he blessed those who had entertained 
 angels unawares, and cursed the Brahmins of the 
 south, that they should no more eat meat. I give this 
 story with diffidence, as having received it at second 
 hand. It is perhaps fair to ascribe it to the vanity 
 or imagination of the Uriya Brahmin who told it. 
 
 But while the Brahmin is allowed this latitude 
 in the matter of his food, and while all other castes 
 also are free to eat meat without fear of ex- 
 communication, all castes except the very lowest 
 abstain from the fowl and the pig ; and not 
 only from the fowl, but also from eggs. There 
 is, of course, a perfectly natural explanation for 
 this. The pig and the fowl are the most unclean 
 of all the unclean animals to be met with in an 
 Indian village. The law was evidently in the 
 original a rule of health, and, like so many other 
 laws of the same kind, the ceremonial has remained 
 and the meaning is lost. I suppose that every
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 69 
 
 intelligent reader of the book of Leviticus must have 
 noticed that though the animals which were declared 
 unclean were classed under a general principle, yet 
 those mentioned as examples are certainly amongst 
 the beasts from which one would instinctively abstain. 
 If you were to ask an Uriya why he does not eat 
 a fowl, he would of course simply say that it was 
 against the rules of his caste. His philosophy is 
 content with that explanation, and does not seek to 
 question the wisdom of his forefathers. The egg, 
 of course, goes with the fowl, being of the same 
 nature, and the only thing which is surprising is 
 that a people who live in the midst of uncleanliness, 
 and who drink water that the very animals refuse, 
 should consent to be so strictly governed by a 
 superstitious scruple, based upon a sanitary law. 
 
 Of superstition, as distinct from religion, there 
 is no lack. It is natural that a people whose 
 civilization is still undeveloped, and whose education 
 is yet in earliest infancy, should hold fast to a faith 
 in divination, witchcraft, and in ghosts. Professor 
 Huxley, in an interesting essay called " The Evolu- 
 tion of Theology," has shown that every religion has 
 its stage of ghost worship, or, at least, of belief 
 in ghosts, as well # as in the supernatural power
 
 ;o ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 exercised by certain persons over them. The evolu- 
 tion of the Uriya theology has not, it would seem, 
 advanced beyond this stage. 
 
 A certain young girl was suffering from some 
 mental disease, and was described by those who 
 knew her as " having a devil." The words are clearly 
 used in the same sense in which they are used in 
 the Scriptures. It does not appear precisely what 
 this devil was, but it was probably some form of 
 seizure. In due course she was put under the care 
 of a native doctor. While under his treatment she 
 is said to have given vent to a sort of ecstatic 
 utterance, and to have declared that she was be- 
 witched by a certain man. Whether the girl really 
 accused the man — whether she did so acting under 
 natural and not divine influence, or whether the 
 doctor, to satisfy a private grudge, thus interpreted 
 an inarticulate cry — these are points which are not 
 determined. The priestess of Delphi herself some- 
 times proved that she, too, was of like passions with 
 ourselves, and gave expression to ideas for which 
 Apollo was certainly not responsible. 
 
 At any rate, the utterance in question was at 
 once ascribed to the devil, who, in the course of 
 exorcism, had thus revealed his identity. The
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 71 
 
 exclamation was supernatural, and therefore infallible. 
 The man must be brought out and cured of this 
 terrible power of the evil eye. Accordingly the 
 friends and relatives of the girl banded together and 
 went to this man's house. They broke in ; they 
 dragged him out into the road ; they laid him on his 
 back, and sat on his chest. They then proceeded to 
 extract his two front teeth with a hammer and 
 pinchers in the most deliberate manner, using the 
 hammer probably as one would use it for loosening 
 a nail ! The object of this was to prevent the 
 exercise of the magic. It does not appear how the cure 
 was to work — whether the operators thought that 
 the words of cursing or of magic, coming through the 
 orifice of the teeth, would be mumbled, and thus lose 
 some of their incisive force, and therefore of their 
 power for evil, or whether it was thought that the 
 devil wanted room to fly out. Perhaps they thought 
 that the charm lay in the teeth, as the strength lay 
 in Samson's hair, or that the magic was stored up 
 behind the teeth, like the poison of the cobra. It is 
 probable, however, that the first of these explanations 
 is the true one. 
 
 Does not such a scene transport us back to the 
 Middle Ages? Does it not remind us of the
 
 7a ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 ducking-stool and the over-zealous shrew ? Perhaps 
 soon st iino enterprising Uriya headman will institute 
 a Star Chamber, or an Inquisition in his village 
 pound, to he named from some monstrous fiends 
 on his wall — productions of a local artist ! 
 
 A more horrible instance follows. At a village 
 only about eight miles from Berhampore, the chief 
 town of the district, was committed a deed recalling 
 the barbarities of the Mexican savages, who, com- 
 bining religion with a fine sense of utility and 
 economy, slew before the war-god their human 
 victims, and ate them themselves afterwards ! True, 
 in the present instance the cannibal feast was left out 
 of the programme ! The dramatis personae were 
 ordinary villagers, mainly of the artisan class. They 
 were also worshippers of the goddess, as was the 
 victim in this "village tragedy." On a certain night 
 they all went out together. By-and-bye, according 
 to a preconcerted plan, one of the party suggested a 
 drink. The intended victim was drugged and taken 
 along to the statue of the goddess, or, at least, to the 
 shrine containing what did duty for the statue. He 
 was there throw T n down with his face to the ground, 
 in an attitude suggesting supplication, and while he 
 was still in a state of stupor, his head was chopped
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 73 
 
 off with a native axe. The pure savagery of the 
 action was enhanced by the inhumanity of using an 
 instrument so imperfectly adapted to the work it was 
 called upon to do. 
 
 There is no doubt that in this instance the 
 sacrifice was made in perfect good faith. It calls to 
 our remembrance the Meriah sacrifices of the Khonds, 
 those Moloch offerings to the earth goddess, whose 
 gift of fertility was to be won only by the outpouring 
 of an innocent victim's blood. Yet, with all the 
 horror of a Meriah sacrifice — since human nature 
 must recoil from human torture — it was not without 
 its poetic ceremonial. In the present instance no 
 garlands bedecked the victim ; no priest consecrated 
 him to the Earth Mother. He was slaughtered as 
 one would slaughter an ox. The dark goddess needed 
 only the blood of a human sacrifice, and was not to 
 be appeased with ceremonial. 
 
 I pass from this gruesome relic of barbarian times 
 to the more medieval belief in accredited diviners. 
 These people work a great deal of mischief, but it is 
 certain that the people believe in them. Indeed, the 
 mischief they do is the direct result of the credulity. 
 A man once lost some paddy or some trifling vessel 
 from his house. Not being able to find it, he sallied
 
 74 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 forth in quest of the oracle — which in this case was 
 many miles away. What the votive offering was, 
 history does not record. Probably, however, the 
 utterances of the Sanyasi * were not priced as highly 
 as the ecstasies of Apollo's Delphic priestess. At 
 any rate, the inquirer obtained the information he 
 wanted, couched, of course, in mysterious language, and 
 straightway he accused one of his near relations. Hinc 
 lacrymae ! for the latter, not choosing to part so 
 cheaply with his reputation, promptly charged him 
 with defamation. The simple fellow relied upon the 
 word of the god-inspired, but, alas ! the god was in 
 angry mood, or perhaps the less divine impulse of 
 self-preservation prevailed. The right reverend 
 proved but a broken reed ; the soothsayer denied his 
 soothsaying ! 
 
 I have been told, however, of cases in which these 
 people have really discovered facts of which they 
 could have had no previous knowledge ; I give this 
 for what it is worth. Unfortunately the age is 
 sceptical of miracles ; the saints themselves are 
 relegated to the class of "Sludge the medium ;" and 
 where the information is at second hand some allow- 
 ance must be made for the personal equation. 
 
 * Ascetic.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 75 
 
 A more interesting kind of divination, or, at least, 
 of supernatural agency, was discovered in one of the 
 remoter villages of the district. It is in the leafy 
 month of September, when the trees are dressed in 
 their gayest, that a motley crowd of men, women, and 
 children may be seen wending their way to the little 
 village of Nuagada, to witness, if not to take part in, 
 a curious ceremony. The scenery lends its aid in 
 heightening the effect of the romantic rite. Nestling 
 in the arms of the hills, the village lies hidden from 
 sight in the midst of feathery bamboo, and completely 
 surrounded by a natural moat. The place is idyllic ; 
 one can wander at will through grove on grove of 
 bamboo, relieved here by a clump of aloes, there by 
 a tamarind or a banyan-tree, while ever underneath 
 murmurs the running streamlet, and the silence of 
 the glades is broken only by the cry of the jungle - 
 fowl, and the softer cooing of the green pigeon. It 
 is in such a scene as this that is performed the 
 mysterious rite to which the people flock. A holy 
 man comes forth, a fire is kindled — no small fire of 
 twigs, but a blaze of jungle faggots, the flames leap- 
 ing up breast high. Through this the inspired walks 
 unharmed, and proceeds to take his seat on a pile of 
 sharp, strong thorns, raised about two feet from the
 
 76 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 ground and woven in the form of a stool about two 
 feet square. This is the crucial test. So lightly clad 
 as to be almost naked, he takes his seat on this for- 
 bidding throne. If he is truly inspired, the thorns 
 will break beneath him, or will be turned aside, 
 powerless to pierce his divinely protected skin. But 
 woe unto that man into whom the true god has not 
 entered ! Not for him will the thorns fall away 
 harmless ; he shall taste to the full the bitterness of 
 his presumption. And the punishment is not a light 
 one ! Let any sceptical reader twine for himself such 
 a seat of strong bamboo thorns ; let him clothe him- 
 self in the raiment or non-raiment of a fakir, and take 
 his seat. I think neither he nor his scepticism will 
 remain lonsf. 
 
 Securely seated upon his thorny throne, and wield- 
 ing a knife or axe, the god-inspired now proceeds to 
 answer the requests of the many who have come 
 from far and near to inquire of the oracle. And to 
 each one in turn come with appropriate gestures the 
 answers, " voces, responsa sibyllae." Promises of 
 offspring to women, promises of cure to the sick, 
 promises of relief to the distressed : these and much 
 more does the god grant to his subjects for a con- 
 sideration ; for he is a very practical god. Not even
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 77 
 
 the indulgences which Luther denounced were bought 
 and sold more shamelessly than the promises and 
 prophecies of this mercenary divinity. Nor is the 
 god himself absent from the rite. It is said that long 
 ages ago at one of these ceremonies he took, like 
 Saturn, to devouring his own children. History has 
 not recorded whether he did so out of pure delight, 
 from feelings of vengeance, or as a just retribution. 
 Perhaps the people ventured to do unlawful things, 
 and were burnt up, as the fire in the hands of Korah 
 and Abiram proved their undoing. Perhaps they had 
 rashly gazed on the face of Him who was too holy for 
 profane eyes. Even Moses and Elijah in the old 
 legends dared not look upon the face of the Lord. 
 At any rate the sequel in this case is rather ludicrous. 
 The god is allowed on sufferance. He is placed with 
 his back to the people — not taking up his position as 
 the Merciful One, who is hiding his unbearable 
 splendour, but put in the corner like a naughty child 
 for fear he should get into mischief ! 
 
 But of the power of his prophecies and promises 
 he gives some very practical illustrations. He will 
 take his trusting suppliants through the fire, and 
 they will not be burned ; he will cut them with his 
 knife, and the blood will refuse to flow ; he will
 
 7 S ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 Beat tln-m <>n the thorns, and they will do them 
 no harm. 
 
 All this is clearly the relic of a barbarous rite. 
 Perhaps it would be more accurate to say that it is 
 the imitation of rites still practised among the 
 aboriginal tribes, but without the grosser barbarities 
 common amongst the latter. The curious part of this 
 rite is that the promises are practical, capable of proof 
 and of disproof. The Delphic oracle was notorious 
 for its ambiguities ; Croesus was told that he would 
 destroy a great nation ; Pyrrhus obtained the even 
 more famous hedging answer — 
 
 " Aio te Romanos vincere posse." 
 The indulgences certainly found credit, but no one 
 was in a position to prove their efficacy, for obvious 
 reasons. 
 
 The present case reminds one of the miracles of 
 
 the Old Testament. " Go, wash in Jordan seven 
 
 times," said Elisha, " and thou shalt be clean." Here 
 
 is a man who might strike his hand over the place 
 
 and recover the leper. 
 
 " Here is the finger of God ; a flash of the will that can, 
 Existent behind all laws, that made them, and, lo ! they are." 
 
 For the people believe in him. Year after year gives 
 them ample opportunity for testing the truth of his
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 79 
 
 prophecies, and year after year they flock to him in 
 their hundreds. After this who shall say that the 
 age of miracles is past ? 
 
 Powerful as is the benign god for good, still more 
 powerful is the vengeance of the offended deity. 
 Wishing to look at the thorns rather more closely, 
 I advanced a few steps. I was then wearing some 
 dark-coloured clothes. My attendant cautioned me 
 not to touch the thorns. The throne of the chosen 
 prophet was sacred to the god or demon, and the 
 sacrilegious touch of an unbeliever would awaken the 
 wrath of offended majesty. It seemed that dark 
 clothes were the broad gate through which the 
 avenging demon was to enter into a man ; light 
 clothes were comparatively safe. But if the demon 
 found an entrance, he would not be slow to take 
 vengeance. Disease, in one of the many shapes in 
 which it can attack mortals, would follow, and perhaps 
 death. But the god is not hard to propitiate. A 
 two-anna piece under his pillow, and a fowl or a young 
 pig — presumably for sacrifice — these are all that are 
 required. If all medical relief were so simple, what 
 would doctors do for a living ? 
 
 I was sitting lazily outside my tent one day, in 
 another and a wilder part of the country, with a book
 
 So ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 in my band, when a commotion among the buffaloes 
 that had brought the tent and were tethered hard by, 
 made me look up. I very soon found out the eause 
 of the disturbance. It was a man carrying a bamboo 
 over his shoulder, at one end of which was an ordinary 
 basket and at the other w T as a most outlandish-looking 
 affair. It was shaped like a box ; it had peacocks' 
 feathers stuck at the top of it, and it was decked with 
 pieces of bright-coloured cloth, not arranged with any 
 idea of symmetry or harmony, but simply stuck on 
 wherever an opening presented itself. I called the 
 man, and he brought the load. It had a small curtain 
 in front, and this was raised in a way that brought to 
 mind a Punch-and-Judy show in miniature. Inside, 
 seated in the middle of another collection of tinsel 
 and rags, of bits of silver paper and broken looking- 
 glass, was an idol, doing its best to look terrible, but 
 only succeeding, in my eyes, in looking intensely 
 ridiculous. It was jet black ; its eyes were bits of 
 silver paper, promoted, perchance, from serving on 
 mere chocolate — and holes were cut in them for the 
 pupils. Its tongue, which was thrust out to the very 
 furthest extent* which even a deity — and a goddess 
 
 * The goddess Kali is often represented with her tongue out. 
 Several explanations have been given, but it is probable that it 
 is a symbol of thirst.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 81 
 
 too — can be expected to accomplish, was a bright 
 vermilion and seemed to be made of sealing wax. 
 This awful being was the goddess Komola Bimbula, 
 which may be called, by way of interpretation, 
 Mumbo Jumbo. She presides over small-pox, and 
 travels from village to village to receive the homage 
 which will enlist her sympathies and ensure her 
 protection. Like a true believer, I offered my rice, 
 whereupon her attendant priest proceeded to beat a 
 gong violently, without any apparent object, and to 
 intone a rigmarole which seemed to be merely Uriya 
 names, and which was certainly nonsense. This was 
 the incantation. After this I felt secure ; small-pox 
 had no terrors for me. 
 
 We perhaps can afford to laugh at a belief in 
 witches and a fear of malignant deities. The goddess, 
 whose word can bring or exclude the dreaded small- 
 pox, or the rope hung with leaves, which is to bar the 
 entrance of the still more awful cholera, has no 
 interest for us save as a curiosity, or as an example 
 of the people's superstition. Yet, is their superstition 
 more gross than that of our servant girls, who trust 
 to the fortune-telling of the gipsies, or sleep with 
 wedding cake under their pillow ? These people also 
 recognize a Divine power ; their conception of Him is 
 
 n
 
 S= ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 more undefined, yet less ideal than ours ; but all 
 alike worship the Wisdom that controls the universe. 
 In India, as well as England, there are those who 
 cry that they 
 
 " Can call spirits from the vasty deep ; " 
 
 and common sense always answers with Hotspur : — 
 
 " Why, so can I, and so can any man ; 
 But will they come when you do call for them 1 "
 
 IV. 
 ZEMINDARS. 
 
 Unless we except the aboriginal tribes of the hills, 
 about whom I shall have a few words to say later, 
 there are no more interesting figures in the Northern 
 District of the Madras Presidency than the Uriya 
 zemindars of Ganjam. Eanging from the position of 
 a petty raja to one little superior to that of a wealthy 
 and important ryot, the zemindars have yet kept to 
 themselves a separate court and a separate clientele. 
 It is imperative on a raja to keep up at least a show 
 of state, even if it be but the emptiest of shows, 
 furnished out of coffers if possible more empty. 
 Indeed, it is the necessity for state which causes so 
 much disquietude to the Agent to the Court of "Wards 
 on assuming charge of an estate, for it is tolerably 
 certain to be encumbered with debt, often to the 
 extent of lakhs of rupees. 
 
 On first arriving at the palace of one of these 
 potentates the visitor is struck by the choice which is
 
 8 4 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 almost invariably made of a strong position. In a 
 district where hills are so plentiful, it is clear that 
 there was no difficulty in obtaining a vantage ground. 
 hi no zemindari in the district. is high ground want- 
 ing, and in no instance has the opportunity been 
 neglected. That this position was chosen for purposes 
 of defence is shown by one example, which will serve 
 for many. " The Atagacla raja's residence was secured 
 from sudden attack by its situation between two hills. 
 It was almost, if not entirely inaccessible, for from 
 one hill to the other a wall of stone twenty feet high 
 was carried to a length of about a hundred and fifty 
 yards. The wall was pierced by a large gateway, 
 with a square tower on each side of it." It is certain, 
 then, that the positions of various forts were chosen 
 for their strength, and whether considerations of art 
 have had anything to do with this choice or no, there 
 is no doubt that the effect, at least at a distance, is 
 most picturesque. Surrounded on three sides by 
 hills, for the most part densely wooded, the fort 
 nestles half hidden, but commanding an excellent 
 view of the plain, stretching away generally to the 
 sea. Sometimes, however, this order of things is 
 slightly modified, and we find the fort and the town 
 planted in the hollow formed by a ring of hills. But
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 85 
 
 whichever style obtains, the prevailing feature, that 
 which cannot fail to strike the visitor, is always the 
 neighbourhood of the hills. This points decisively 
 to the uncertainty of the land tenure, to the lawless- 
 ness which must have prevailed before the occupation 
 of the district by the British. The hills, and still 
 more the jungles, afforded a safe retreat in case of an 
 attack by overwhelming numbers. The chiefs pre- 
 ferred the paw of the wild beast to the passions of the 
 wilder men, and by grazing their cattle in the den of 
 the bear came near to realizing Isaiah's prophecy of 
 the golden age. And their retreat was the more 
 necessary because it was even less outward enemies 
 that the chiefs had to fear than the familiar friend, 
 who was so often ready to lift up his heel against 
 them. 
 
 Upon a nearer approach the forts are most dis- 
 appointing. The entrance gate, called the Simho 
 Dwaro, or Lion-door, is as often as not in a dilapidated 
 or half-repaired condition, and what should be im- 
 posing is only pitiful. Inside the gate, and on the 
 way to the reception rooms of the zemindar, one 
 usually passes through a confused medley of straw, 
 old mats, tents in tatters, and other miscellaneous 
 articles piled together to produce a confusion worse
 
 86 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 confounded. Farther on, under an open and probably 
 temporary shed, may perhaps be seen the car, shorn 
 of its festival splendours, and the palanquin, possibly 
 a thing of beauty when pranked out, but now in utter 
 and forlorn nakedness. 
 
 Things improve when we reach the zemindar. We 
 are received with dignified courtesy, and shown into 
 a room, small indeed, but adorned in a manner which 
 betokens some sort of care on the part of its owner. 
 It must be admitted that the adornments are often 
 somewhat incongruous, and I once saw on a bracket 
 hanging next to a picture of a blue-faced god talking 
 to a yellow lady, two small busts of Mozart and 
 Beethoven ! One visit to a native chief is much like 
 any other, and no description is needed here. It is 
 to be feared, however, that the Uriya zemindar is 
 more careful at times of himself than of his ladies. It 
 fell within my province once to inquire of the state 
 of the women's apartments, which are usually inferior 
 buildings roofed with thatch. The officer replied, 
 " Repairs are needed. The roof leaks." " Badly ? " 
 I asked. "Oh!" was the rejoinder, "a good deal. 
 The ladies take their meals in the zenana under an 
 umbrella to keep off the rain ! " 
 
 As an organizer the Uriya zemindar, speaking
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 87 
 
 generally (for, of course, there are exceptions), cannot 
 be held up as a shining example. The more energetic 
 undertake the management of their own estates ; but, 
 whether from indolence or from ignorance of affairs, 
 or, perhaps, from too nice a sense of noblesse oblige, 
 the diwan is generally left in sole charge, to enrich 
 himself as he may ; and he probably does not lose the 
 chance. Placed, as he is, with such infinite opportunities 
 for peculation, it would be strange if he did not find 
 some summary means of adding to the salary which 
 he obtains from the zemindar, and which is generally 
 utterly inadequate. He has an immense amount 
 of patronage to bestow, and he bestows it — but 
 not for nothing. In fact, in many cases, nearly 
 half the estate has been given away in " inams," or 
 freehold grants, and on the most frivolous pretexts. 
 For blessing the raja, for supplying goat's milk to the 
 raja's sons, for holding a torch at the marriage ceremony 
 — such are the frivolous and childish grounds on 
 which acres of land are thrown away. The zemindar 
 would no doubt consider it beneath his dignity to 
 refuse. It is the function of a raja to be lavish. 
 
 After the diwan, the most important person is, 
 perhaps, the gantayet or treasurer. The name itself 
 reveals why he is important ; but his counsels are also
 
 88 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 of weight in matters affecting the private policy of the 
 zemindar. There are many other smaller officials 
 in the palace, each bearing his separate title. Of 
 these I may mention the tsam patnaik, or personal 
 accountant — the word tsam denoting " presence." 
 Many other dependants have titles conferred upon 
 them. " The ornament," " the jewel of wisdom," and 
 other high-flown epithets, much prized by the owners, 
 and gained sometimes for exploits in the jungle, or 
 for services rendered, but generally, as far as I can 
 make out, bestowed at the whim of the zemindar. 
 Perhaps he has a " Birthday Gazette." 
 
 The entree to his presence or to his palace is given 
 or withheld by the zemindar at his pleasure. It is a 
 high indignity to be refused this entree. In fact, the 
 permission is rarely withheld, unless the zemindar has 
 special cause for disliking the applicant, or reason to 
 doubt his loyalty. On the other hand, it is a great 
 distinction and the stamp of a gentleman (bholo loko) 
 to be allowed to sit on a carpet in the presence. It 
 would be a thankless and a tedious task to enumerate 
 all the various degrees of distinction peculiar to a 
 zemindar's court. But enough has been said to 
 emphasize the point that these petty chiefs keep up a 
 court and a state, with modes of granting honours and
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 89 
 
 the reverse that find their analogies in the court even 
 of a European sovereign. 
 
 Many and sore are the heart-burnings which the 
 favour or anger of a zemindar arouses. It was only 
 some few years ago that jealousies having their origin 
 in the displeasure of the zemindar, and consequent 
 banishment from the palace, inspired in the breast 
 of at least one man the desire for murder, which, 
 indeed, he all but accomplished. Palace intrigues 
 would form the subject of a separate volume, and the 
 limits of this essay will not allow me to treat of them. 
 Perhaps the most famous one of recent times was that 
 which resulted in the death by poison of the Rani of 
 Parlakimedi. The principal actor in this was the 
 gantayet ; and this illustrates what I have remarked 
 above, for assuredly he would have found it hard to 
 meddle with the food given to the rani, if he had not 
 had both influence and control in the palace. 
 
 Whatever be the character of the zemindar, viewed 
 from a high ethical standard, there is no doubt that 
 he is an object of the sincerest devotion to the people 
 over whom he rules. His position towards them is 
 somewhat analogous to that of a feudal lord, except 
 that he has not the right to command their services 
 in war. Right or no right, however, I do not think
 
 go ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 his people would hesitate to follow him. The maxim, 
 'Whatever is, is right," seems, to have imprinted 
 itself forcibly on the minds of the people, and there 
 are but few disaffected amongst them. Nevertheless, 
 it is only in the rarer cases that the zemindar has 
 sufficient acumen to understand that on the welfare of 
 the people depends the prosperity of his estate. 
 Roads are regarded only as a heavy expenditure of 
 capital, and the opening up of new markets, and the 
 consequent incentive to increased cultivation, is over- 
 looked. He w*ill allow channels and tanks to silt up 
 rather than incur the initial outlay necessary to put 
 them in repair and so to increase the prosperity of the 
 people. 
 
 In the more interesting of the zemindaries the 
 people are of a wild type, growing wilder as one 
 approaches the hills. They are a simple folk, con- 
 tent with what they possess, and regard their 
 zemindar as a being almost divine — as one whom it 
 would be unbecoming in them to approach without 
 the deepest reverence and humility. The traveller 
 cannot fail to notice the difference between these 
 people and the ryots of Government villages — too 
 often to the disadvantage of the latter — not in 
 
 O 
 
 prosperity, perhaps, but in character. The tribes
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 91 
 
 that live at the foot of the hill have intermingled 
 largely with the aboriginal tribes — the Khonds and 
 the Savaras, and have inherited with their blood 
 some of the savage, and, therefore, in one sense, 
 simple instincts of those races. With these folk the 
 zemindar does not deal as with the other inhabitants 
 of the estate. They do not pay him a share of the 
 crop, but have commuted it for an annual fixed 
 tribute (or nazar), which, however, is much less than 
 the value of the crop. This is a very small source 
 of revenue to the raja, as they so fondly call him, 
 for it amounts to an inconsiderable sum, and the 
 landlord has practically no means of recovering. The 
 contract is with the village, and it is rarely worth 
 while to eject these men for the small satisfaction 
 to be obtained. 
 
 Nearly every zemindari contains a large number 
 of these hill villages, which thus swell the rent- 
 roll of the estate without appreciably adding to 
 its material benefit. The people live mainly on 
 forest produce and by hunting. The moderation of 
 zemindars in the matter of the forest is worthy of 
 praise. The tax levied on produce is small and not 
 burdensome ; and the proximity of zemindari forests 
 has often anything but a beneficial effect on the
 
 92 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 revenue the Government derives from this source, 
 for the zemindar gains by underselling. 
 
 Wood — firewood aud timber — honey, and the 
 various common produce of the forests are sold by 
 those people, and form the staple of their livelihood. 
 Too often the large markets are remote and in- 
 accessible for want of roads. In these cases the 
 people flock down to the markets or local fairs, which 
 take place in various well-known centres and at fixed 
 times. 
 
 On such a day the simple hill-men may be seen 
 trooping in a long line, sharing with their wives 
 the burden of honey, of dried fruits, of, it may be, 
 tobacco, possibly even of the gaudy beads the people 
 are so fond of — in short, of any of those small articles, 
 by the sale of which they hope to make a livelihood 
 until the next fair. Here and there is a break in 
 the line, where some well-to-do man — enriched, 
 perhaps, by the fleecing of his more simple associates 
 — may be seen driving his pack bullock, laden with 
 wares of all descriptions ; and those who are so 
 fortunate as to possess the capital may even drive 
 so many as three. The fair itself presents a curious 
 sight. In addition to these small articles of con- 
 sumption are to be found ponies, cattle, sheep, pigs,
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 93 
 
 and other live stock ; hides brought by Mahometans, 
 clothes by Hindu merchants from the town ; and in 
 the centre and all around a gesticulating, shouting, 
 jostling, screaming medley of men and women, each 
 doing his best to out-scream the rest — and the 
 women are invariably the victors. 
 
 But the people are essentially timid. Out of 
 pure curiosity I went into the fair to see what was 
 going on. The unwonted sight of a European struck 
 terror into the hearts of the vendors, and, leaving 
 their wares, they fled helter-skelter, in spite of 
 the blandest smiles and the most reassuring words ! 
 
 But apart from these more peaceful avocations 
 the people are much devoted to hunting ; and this 
 for two reasons. It affords an excellent pastime ; 
 the excitement of the chase is as meat and drink to 
 them, and the results of it often go to form their 
 dinner. On many estates the zemindars keep a 
 special staff of trained servants, shikaris, whose 
 business it is to find him game, and to provide and 
 arrange for the sport, somewhat as gamekeepers do 
 in England. These shikaris, though, often go out on 
 their own account. The weapons they carry are of 
 a curious and varied type. A few of them may 
 carry antiquated matchlocks of the European
 
 94 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 pattern ; but the more characteristic weapons are 
 the Uriya gun, the bows and arrows, and the tangi or 
 axe. The gun is of immense length, and is bound 
 somewhat after the manner of a gigantic flute, with 
 curious bindings of steel or silver. It is often five or 
 six feet long, and is, in consequence, very heavy and 
 unwieldy. The bows and arrows are (save for the 
 feathers and the iron tip) made entirely out of 
 bamboo, the bow being made of the wood, and the 
 string of the bark — and very tough they are. The 
 arrows have sometimes a head of blunt wood, for the 
 purpose of stunning the animal, in place of the 
 usual sharp iron head. With these arrows the people 
 will attack and kill even panthers, though this is 
 probably rather dangerous sport. The tangi is 
 familiar to all who know Ganjam, and it is the most 
 characteristic weapon in the district. It is a sort of 
 battle-axe, often ornamented with wire bound round 
 the pole ; the head, too, is fashioned into various 
 shapes, according to the use to which the weapon is 
 to be put. For the most part, however, tangis in the 
 plains are simple axes used for cutting wood. They 
 are poor weapons at close quarters with a tiger or 
 a bear. 
 
 They have one curious mode of shikar, which,
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 95 
 
 however, I have never been fortunate enough to see. 
 Having chosen a secure place, they dig a hole, in 
 which they take up their position. A few yards 
 away a fire is lighted, while the man in the pit 
 rattles some instrument or plays on the tom-tom. 
 It is said that the animals are attracted by the light 
 and by the sound, and so fall an easy prey. I give 
 this for what it is worth. Credat Judaeus Apella ! 
 Which being interpreted means, " I would rather see 
 it done first ! " 
 
 Many of the zemindars have done a great deal of 
 big game shooting, and some can show a really fine 
 score of panthers and even of tigers to their credit. 
 Besides these, the sport they most affect is deer 
 shooting. Bears, I believe, fall under the protection 
 of the Hindu religion, and it is comparatively rarely 
 that these animals are molested. I am sorry to say 
 that the zemindars do not always show such nice 
 discrimination. I have known one shoot trapped 
 hares, and I have heard another fire at a jackal ! 
 One more point remains to be noticed — 
 Just as the Acts of the English Parliament are 
 dated, not by the year of the Christian era, but by 
 the year of the reigning sovereign, so the people of 
 these zemindaris often use, not the year of the
 
 o6 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 Hindu cycle, or the Mahometan era, but the year of 
 the reigning Raja of Puri ; and the method of 
 reckoning this year is so curious that it deserves to 
 be described in detail. 
 
 The first year of the reign is called, not one, but 
 " la'bho" or " gain." The counting then proceeds in 
 the ordinary course, but, with the exception of the 
 figure 10, all figures ending with 7 or are omitted. 
 This is called the " onko." Thus, if a raja has 
 reigned 21£ years he would be said to be in the twenty- 
 fifth " onko," 7, 17, and 20 being omitted. The idea is, 
 I suppose, capable of explanation, but the inclusion of 
 10 prevents any theory being formed by induction. 
 I have never found any explanation for it myself, 
 and the only practical result is that it is very 
 confusing. 
 
 Now the rest of the acts of the zemindars, and 
 the court that they keep, and the wars and rebellions 
 they have made against the Government, are they 
 not written in the book of the " District Manual " ?
 
 V. 
 
 KHONDS AND SAVAKAS. 
 
 The Khonds and Savaras of Ganjam district are so 
 intimate with the Uriyas, and have adopted in so 
 many cases their manners, customs, and language, 
 that, though the subject lies somewhat outside the 
 scope of this present essay, a few words by way of 
 appendix will not be out of place. 
 
 Of the Khonds proper, this is, however, not the 
 place to speak. They, lying in the arms of their 
 mountains, have but little intercourse with the Uriyas 
 of the plain. They are girt about on all sides with 
 natural ramparts, and their abode is only accessible 
 by passes, which offer few inducements to the 
 traveller, and no facilities to the trader. 
 
 Khonds there are, however, who inhabit a small 
 range of hills within five miles of Berhampore, the 
 chief town of the district. Here they live in seclusion 
 and in freedom, but also in the lowest depths of 
 
 H
 
 98 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 Bqualor and poverty. Khonds they are indeed in 
 
 name — 
 
 " Sed quantum mutatus ab illo 
 Hectore, qui redit exuvias indutus." 
 
 Exuviae ! They are lucky if they have one 
 garment, and that such as they can call their own ! 
 Once they loved gay colours. True Khond dresses, 
 both male and female, are full of stripes and patterns 
 in blue, yellow, and red. Where has gone the love of 
 colour? Instead of the long waistcloth ending in 
 tails of blue and red, the man binds about him a 
 wretched rag that can hardly be called a garment. 
 Colour there is none, if we except that colour which 
 a once white cloth takes on for want of water and 
 washing. Once the women took a delight in decking 
 themselves with flowers, and a pride in the silver 
 ornaments that jangled on their naked breasts. 
 Where are now the grasses that adorned them, and 
 the innocence that allowed them to go clothed only 
 from the waist ? Gone ! withered by the blast of the 
 breath of a " superior civilization." Alas for the poor 
 Khond ! Like his brethren, he, too, is girt about with 
 hills ; he, too, is placed in the midst of solitude. For 
 the hills themselves are left entirely to the Khond. 
 The slopes are crowned with dense bamboo forest and
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 99 
 
 fruit trees, all preserved by the Government. Here 
 the Khond might have been secure, but the wall of 
 Paradise was not high enough, and Satan entered in 
 the shape of the Uriya money-lender. 
 
 " Due entrance he disdained ; 
 At one slight bound high overleaped all bound." 
 
 The money-lenders have sucked the life out of the 
 unfortunate Khond. His lands are mortgaged ; his 
 trees are mortgaged ; and besides his land and his 
 trees he has nothing. In 1884 the Forest Depart- 
 ment took up three blocks in the Mohiri hills, com- 
 prising all the hill slopes. This was a death-blow to 
 the Khond. At one stroke was taken from him the 
 power of cultivating the land in his own national 
 way — the only way he really understands. For this 
 cultivation the dense undergrowth is cut down and 
 burnt, and the ashes are allowed to lie on the land as 
 manure. On the land thus prepared he sows broad- 
 cast the crop — it may be of cholum, or of some coarse 
 millet. The seed is cast on stony ground, where 
 there is not much depth of earth, and the scanty crop 
 forces its head through the crevices of the stones. 
 Such a mode of cultivation is, of course, beyond all 
 measure extravagant. The land which is sown one 
 year must be allowed to He fallow until the jungle
 
 ioo ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 has grown up again sufficiently dense to justify 
 another 1 turning and another sowing. Such as it is, 
 however, it is the Khond's darling pursuit. The 
 slopes of the hills alone were covered with thick 
 jungle, and when these were appropriated there was 
 nothing left. 
 
 The lands he had mort^a^ed now became a serious 
 consideration. It was clear that, so long as he could 
 support himself by the roving system of cultivation, 
 the lands lying in the valley were of little use to 
 him ; the mortgagee could till the land if he liked. 
 Now, however, he was thrown back upon this land 
 for his subsistence, and part — often the greater part 
 — of the produce was swallowed up in payment of 
 the usurious interest on the debts with which he was 
 burdened. Nor was this all. By reserving the 
 forests, the Government also reserved the fruit trees, 
 which formerly the Khond had been privileged to 
 enjoy. The trees were leased to the highest bidder 
 and the fruit sold by him. Thus was their second 
 means of livelihood cut off or, at any rate, diminished. 
 The Government, however, has recently made large 
 concessions to the Khonds in the matter of these 
 fruit trees, and a great cause of discontent has thus 
 been removed.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 101 
 
 With the forests and the fruit trees the Khonds 
 have also lost the right or privilege of hunting the 
 wild animals in the jungles. This is probably no 
 great hardship. The Khonds do not seem to look 
 upon hunting as a means of obtaining food. Indeed, 
 it would be difficult to class them among the earlier 
 stages of civilization. They are certainly not nomadic 
 or pastoral. Agriculturists they may be called, but 
 their agriculture is of a kind known only to them- 
 selves and to one or two other aboriginal tribes. 
 Hunters they are not, though they are fond of the 
 sport for its own sake, and though each man has his 
 bows and arrows made all of bamboo. Yet here 
 again we are forced to cry " Ichabod ! the glory is 
 departed." Gone are the hairpins of sambur bone — 
 an inestimable treasure in the eyes of the true hill 
 Khond. Gone are the floral decorations and the 
 fantastic head-dresses, which are the pride of the 
 mountain tribes. In dull, unromantic squalor our 
 Khond lives, moves, and has his being ; and ever as he 
 moves is heard the clanking upon his wrists of the 
 fetters of his debt. Yet for all this he is happy. 
 He is not free from the land tax ; his neck is under 
 the yoke of the Forest Department. But he is 
 happy. He clears the jungle by foul means, if fair
 
 io2 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 will not Berve, and carries on a surreptitious cultiva- 
 
 t inn. I ought rather to say " his defiant cultivation," 
 for the patches upon the hills are perfectly con- 
 spicuous ; but who is going to climb three thousand 
 feet to find the nest empty and the bird flown ? He 
 steals the firewood from the forest, and probably 
 filches the fruit. He is happy, because his wants are 
 few ; he is happy in that he lives for to-day ; he is 
 happy, because it is his nature to be happy. His 
 ignorance is bliss to him, and he counts it folly to be 
 wise. 
 
 In thus presenting an outline sketch of this 
 isolated body of Khonds, I have not been able to 
 describe any manners and customs peculiar to the 
 tribe. Living, as they do, surrounded by Uriya 
 villages, brought into contact with the Uriyas in all 
 the affairs of every-day life, the Khond of the hills 
 has lost his own peculiar customs and traditions, and 
 has, in a large measure, assimilated himself to the 
 predominating Uriyas. In features alone he is 
 essentially a Khond. The purity of stock is main- 
 tained by the restrictions of caste. In respect of his 
 customs he is at a disadvantage, compared with the 
 Savara, if disadvantage it be to relinquish national 
 customs in favour of those of a higher civilization.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 103 
 
 It is of the Savara and his home on the slopes of 
 Mahendragiri, the highest hill in the district, that I 
 intend to add a few notes. 
 
 If the people are happy who have no history, 
 then assuredly the Savaras, whose dwelling is in these 
 high hills, are the happiest people in the world. 
 Above them the hill, below them the hill, on either 
 side the hill, unmolested by the so-called civilization 
 of the plain, unhampered by the officiousness of 
 village servants, the Savaras live a life of steady 
 monotony — going forth to their labour in the morn- 
 ing, and returning to their rest at night. The 
 Savara's world is around him ; he knows nothing of 
 courts of justice or forest laws ; he has never heard 
 of railways or canals. His dominion is the mountain 
 — the mountain is his all. It gives him firewood, it 
 gives him water ; out of it he gets his scanty crops, 
 roaming year by year from place to place, and burn- 
 ing down the jungle as he goes, after the manner 
 lately described. The only thing the hill does not 
 give him is clothes, and of these he has such a scanty 
 stock that they need not be included among the 
 necessaries of life. His little village of perhaps ten 
 houses is built on the side of the hill, upon a small 
 plateau levelled for the purpose. The view from it
 
 io4 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 is magnificent ; the situation is well cIioscd. For the 
 view, probably, the Savara cares little; the situation 
 he has deliberately selected. But for all that from 
 November to June he has the advantage of us, he 
 must be very uncomfortable in the rains. 
 
 " The conies are but a feeble folk, yet make they 
 their houses in the rocks," are the words of Agur, the 
 son of Jakeh. Of all the aboriginal tribes of the 
 presidency, the Savaras are perhaps of the least 
 account. The Khonds, famous for the human 
 " Meriah " sacrifice, from time to time demonstrate 
 their existence by the murder of a policeman or by a 
 little rising on their own account. Like the spider, 
 which is in kings' palaces, the Toda encamps about the 
 Queen of the Hills. But the Savaras are but a feeble 
 folk, dwelling among the rocks — not perhaps pre- 
 eminent for wisdom, though in one or two respects 
 they set an example which their more civilized 
 brethren need not be ashamed to follow. 
 
 The house of a Savara is a tiny hut, with but one 
 small room. Here are his few possessions — a cooking 
 pot or two ; perhaps a bow and arrows ; a few skins 
 of the hill-squirrel for festival purposes. Sometimes 
 outside, in a tiny pen attached to the house, is the 
 pig or a few fowls. In the small hut are gathered
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 105 
 
 father, mother, and perhaps four or five children. 
 Here they lie down to sleep at night, adults and 
 children, male and female, without distinction or 
 difference. Under such conditions it is impossible 
 that husband and wife should enjoy the pleasures of 
 the conjugal relation. " It is their custom i' th' after- 
 noon to sleep." They retire into the jungle to rest, 
 and the gate of Paradise is guarded by a naming 
 sword that turns every way. For across the path 
 which leads into Eden is laid a bough or a bramble 
 to warn the profane intruder. The sign is always 
 respected, and the inmates are as secure as though 
 they were guarded by a veritable angel with his 
 sword of fire. 
 
 In a life of such simplicity it is hard to discover 
 manners and customs which are worth our notice ; but 
 the Savaras, like other nations and tribes, are peculiar 
 in the manner of their marriages and of their funerals. 
 
 The first step on the road to the altar is to ask the 
 hand of the maiden in marriage. To this end the 
 bridegroom and his father take in their hands an arrow 
 and a pot of liquor, and go to seek the girl. Arrived 
 at her parents' house, they strike the arrow into the 
 lintel, where it remains fixed, and then deposit the 
 liquor in the street ; or, perhaps, it would be more
 
 io6 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 accurate to say outside the house, seeing that Savara 
 villages do not usually boast of streets. So far all is 
 dumb show. The hint has been given, and it is for 
 the girl's father to take it. As the houses are gener- 
 ally open, and as probably the suitor contrives to 
 make a good deal of noise in fixing the arrow, there is 
 little chance of such visitors not being; observed within 
 doors. The father of the girl has perhaps fixed upon 
 another beau ; or he has taken a dislike to the suitor ; 
 or the blood of the haughty Savara De Veres runs 
 in his veins, and he will not consent to a marriage 
 which he considers beneath him. In such cases he 
 will come out of the house, and with a curt " Begone, 
 you and your liquor," expressed more or less politely, 
 he will dismiss both the suitor and the suit. The 
 disappointed swain carries away the arrow and the 
 liquor, to search for the hand of a maiden more com- 
 plaisant, and to touch the heart of a less obdurate 
 father-in-law. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the fair Belinda's sire be in 
 an amiable mood, or if the match be generally desir- 
 able, the father will come out of the house and carry 
 back the pot of liquor. The village is then invited 
 — not many guests will appear, one may suppose, 
 when the village consists of five or six houses. All
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 107 
 
 drink the liquor. This is the ratification of the clan, 
 and the betrothal is complete. The bridegroom elect 
 goes off with his father, and a few days afterwards 
 returns, this time with more substantial offerings — 
 goats, pigs, and fowls, as well as, of course, the 
 inevitable liquor. Then another feast, with plenty of 
 good cheer and more noise — and bride and bridegroom 
 go off, to live, we will hope, happily ever afterwards. 
 Such is the custom when the ceremony is per- 
 formed, as one may say, " with full choral service ; " 
 when the contracting parties are the Howards or the 
 Seymours of the Savara nation. But a marriage in 
 low life is less gorgeous, though more practical, and 
 shows a foresight with which one would not credit 
 so uncivilized a race. The girl is simply demanded 
 in marriage, and if her father agrees to the contract, 
 he and the bridegroom elect go into partnership, and 
 cultivate for two or three years. Though the 
 marriage expenses will not amount to more than ten 
 rupees, one can imagine that it would take some years 
 to amass even that, since the cultivation is merely 
 burning the jungle and sowing the seed broadcast. 
 Even after two or three years of probation and 
 prudence, it will sometimes happen that there is not 
 enough money for the wedding ; but the Savara of
 
 10S ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 the hills does not often get seriously into debt. The 
 marriage feast goes on in the manner already 
 described, though probably on a smaller scale. 
 
 In the manner of his funerals the Savara is 
 evidently a disciple of the utilitarian school. The 
 dead man's hands and feet are tied together, and a 
 bamboo is passed through them. Two men then 
 carry the corpse, slung in this fashion, to the burning- 
 ground. Many of my readers may have seen, and 
 seen with indignation, a pig slung on a pole in a 
 similar way. 
 
 When the burning-ground is reached, two posts 
 are stuck up, and the bamboo, with the corpse tied to 
 it, is placed crosswise on the posts, so that the 
 structure looks like a Rugby football goal-post in 
 miniature, though the idea is really more analogous 
 to that of the kettle in a gipsy encampment. Then 
 below the corpse a fire is lighted, and there begins a 
 fizzling, and a hissing, and a spluttering, until the 
 ropes which are tied round the hands and feet give 
 way. Down falls the corpse ; up leap the flames, 
 and that which was, is not. 
 
 Two small points in their strange burial service 
 remain to be noticed. For the fire, the Savara always 
 uses the wood of the mango tree. It is difficult to
 
 AMONG THE UR1YAS. 109 
 
 say why this should be. It is said that the Savara 
 does not care for mangoes, but this is not a sufficient 
 reason for the exclusive use of this wood in cremation. 
 The Savara man is always burnt in the portion of 
 ground — one cannot call it a field — which he last 
 cultivated. We all know how much store is set by 
 burial in consecrated ground, and it is probable that 
 the custom has originated in an analogous feeling. 
 
 The cultivation of the hills is the Savara's be-all 
 in life and his end-all after death. His last resting- 
 place is that ground on which he has toiled from 
 day to day, from which he drew his daily sustenance. 
 The whole ceremony is so ludicrously practical, that 
 it needs such a touch of sentiment for its salvation. 
 And yet when the poor Savara is thus consigned 
 to his own grand native hills, one may fitly sing 
 over him the requiem — 
 
 " In the vast cathedral leave him ; 
 God accept him, Christ receive him." 
 
 And what of the country which the Savaras 
 inhabit? A long chain of hills runs up from the 
 Vizagapatam district along the west of Ganjam, until 
 they become merged in the Eastern Ghats, and the 
 Savaras are lost in the abodes of the Khonds. In 
 the southern part of our district there is a regular
 
 tio ESSAYS OX NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 succession of forts, c;icli governed by an CJriya 
 
 chief called the " Bissoyi." Of them and of their 
 wars with the British I shall not speak here. Wars, 
 and burnings, and executions, are matters of history 
 proper, and can be read in the annals of the times. 
 The heads of the Savara clans are called " Gomango " 
 and " JMondolo," and much prized are the titles, 
 though the Uriya invaders took from them the 
 exercise of real authority. 
 
 The most conspicuous of the Savara hills is called 
 Mahendragiri, and round its venerable head cluster 
 many legends. The hill is something under 5000 
 feet in height, and near the top, upon a small plateau, 
 stands a rest-house, the property of a courteous 
 zemindar. Here is an ideal retreat for the seeker after 
 solitude. Far away lies the sea, more than twenty miles 
 as the crow flies. Underneath the hills — great rugged 
 mountains looked at from below — stretch out on 
 either hand, tumbled and in disorder, like some giant 
 children resting after their game of play, while from 
 above, the parent Manendra looks down upon and 
 watches over them. In the distance paddy fields 
 and pastures are unrolled to the sea-shore, while here 
 and there shining strips show r where the tanks are 
 dotted over the face of the country. Immediately
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. m 
 
 below, trees lie in the lap of a lower spur — bright 
 green, red, yellow, and olive, all mingled together. 
 In front issues the smoke and crackle of a great 
 furnace, where some Savara has, seemingly for pure 
 wantonness, set the jungle in a blaze. It is curious 
 to feel oneself so far above the dwellings of men, to 
 hear no sound but the twittering of the birds in the 
 wood, and the sigh of the wind in the trees. For 
 ordinarily the Savara does not cultivate the higher 
 slopes, and the rest-house is a thousand feet above 
 even the least of those small clusters of houses called 
 by courtesy villages. Above you an owl hoots ; 
 below perhaps you will hear the strange, harsh cry of 
 the jungle sheep or the sambur, but for the most 
 part all is silent, for the hill is very destitute of 
 animal life. 
 
 Immediately behind the rest-house there is a 
 small open plateau sloping gently up to the final 
 ascent of tumbled rocks and boulders. All around 
 are scattered temples — miniature huts, from which 
 the god has long since departed — huts made of rough 
 stone, and innocent of plaster or mortar. Among 
 them rises a more imposing structure, dedicated to the 
 god Jejushti, well put together, and adorned with a 
 fluted pattern carved in the stone. The shape is the
 
 ii2 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 ordinary Uriya barrel, which I have described before. 
 But the stories of which the temple is built are of 
 enormous size. The whole is symmetrical, and 
 shows a considerable progress in the art of architecture. 
 Right on the top of the hill is another temple, 
 dedicated to the god Bhimo : this is made of 
 magnificent boulders, piled one above the other. 
 The roof is a simple, solid square of rock, and upon 
 this is another enormous stone, also a single block, 
 shaped into circular form and fluted at the edges. 
 Upon this rests the crown of the temple. The 
 weight of these stones is so enormous that the walls 
 of the temple are in many parts crushed out of their 
 places, and gaps are everywhere to be seen. In one 
 or two cases the weio;ht of the vast mass has, as it 
 were, hewn off gigantic chips weighing several tons, 
 and these are lying now around the temple. From 
 a rough measurement which I made, I calculated 
 that the roof stone weighs over 150 tons! Such 
 were the bricks w T hich were used by the giants of 
 those days. 
 
 Tradition says that these two temples were built 
 by two brothers, divine or semi-divine, who had 
 originally lived together in harmony on the top of 
 the mountain and received conjointly the prayers and
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 113 
 
 the offerings of the hill tribes. But discord arose 
 between them, and the one, Jejushti, built for himself 
 the temple near which the rest-house now stands, 
 while the other, Bhimo, not to be outdone, erected his 
 shrine on the extreme summit of the hill, outvying 
 his brother both in elevation of site and in grandeur 
 of execution. Each invited the people to come and 
 worship his sole divinity — and here the legend ends. 
 Which was victorious, whether they afterwards were 
 reconciled, we do not know. Only the temples stand 
 there, memorials of the divine power, as the walls of 
 Laomedon owned the magic of Apollo's lyre and the 
 skill of Poseidon's hands. 
 
 Such is the legend ; but what a field for specula- 
 tion is opened up ! For besides the two completed 
 temples are scattered all round huge blocks of stone, 
 with edges squared and faces hewn, the materials for 
 other temples. Perchance a king who oppressed his 
 people sought to win heaven by building temples, and 
 gained a doubtful virtue by an intolerable tyranny ; 
 but another exodus scattered his plans to the winds. 
 Or a strong and prosperous king bequeathed to his 
 son the task of completing the coronation of 
 Mahendra. But the son was a weak prince ; the 
 kingdom was torn by dissensions, and the work 
 
 r
 
 ii 4 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 remained unfinished. Or again seven years of famine 
 succeeded to seven years of plenty; Pharaoh's lean 
 kine had eaten up Pharaoh's fat kine, and labour was 
 there none. Or perhaps the pious king died, and the 
 impious son paid no tribute to the gods of his father. 
 But to what end is speculation ? There lie the 
 stones, their history locked within that secret drawer ; 
 and who shall unlock it ? 
 
 There is yet another legend connected with the 
 hill. Half-way down, in the steepest part of the 
 steepest ghat, is a stone image, roughly hewn into 
 some semblance of a female figure. This is the Old 
 Woman of the Mountain. The story goes that as she 
 was toiling down the hill, in far-off times, " before the 
 sun shone and the moon gave her light " (as a Savara 
 expressed it to me), her foot slipped, and she rolled 
 down the precipice. The fall killed her at once, and 
 she burst asunder in the midst. The pious men of 
 the mountain have put up this image in the way, 
 that travellers may worship, and are so faithful to 
 their tradition that they have divided the image 
 " close to the waist." It is hard to destroy the 
 romance, and to ask the practical question, whether 
 the legend is not rather the effect than the cause of 
 the broken ima^e.
 
 AMONG THE URIYAS. 115 
 
 Here we will leave the Savaras and their hills and 
 their legends. Their wants are few ; their life is 
 simple, and they are dominated by the superior 
 civilization of the Uriyas in the plains. But they 
 are yet free — free as long as their mountain home 
 remains to them. Mahendragiri is the outlying 
 rampart. Behind, across a valley into which one 
 looks down a sheer two thousand feet, rises Singaraj, 
 the lion king, and all his subject hills, ranging line 
 after line behind him. The mountain looks like some 
 monarch, who, leading his well-ordered regiments 
 against the foe, had met with another Perseus and 
 another Gorgon's head. And there they stand, 
 arrested, petrified, their king at their head — immov- 
 able battalions for evermore.
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION
 
 In the south of the district of Ganjam, some four 
 and twenty miles from the railway, there lies, in the 
 pleasant valley of the Vamsadhara, the little town of 
 Parlakimedi. Placed for many years under the 
 direct control of the Government, and of late ruled 
 over by an enlightened prince and a prudent manager, 
 the country has proved to be the garden of the 
 district. Flanked by a range of hills known as the 
 " Maliahs," irrigated by river channels, its cultivated 
 fields varied continually by thickly wooded hills, the 
 country thrives, even while its less fortunate neigh- 
 bours are in distress. The ryots live in peace and 
 security. The crops are gathered, the rents are 
 paid, and all goes " merry as a marriage bell." 
 
 The town itself has few attractions of any sort, 
 and none of name. Its traditions and its history are 
 purely native. No Francis Xavier spent his life here ; 
 no apostles from the setting sun have left traditions ; 
 no western companies have risen to fame or sunk into 
 oblivion here. Perhaps its interest is that its history
 
 i2o ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 is purely native. At a time when the influence of 
 western nations was making itself felt all over India 
 — when Bentinck was abolishing widow-burning and 
 organized murder ; when Lutheran missionaries 
 were disputing with the learned Brahmins of Tanjore, 
 and Catholics were converting the fishermen of 
 Tinnevelly — the picture of the Uriya chiefs revelling 
 in unbridled lawlessness, is interesting from its very 
 contrast. The scene is barbaric. Some of the 
 episodes are worthy of Attila or Brennus. To a 
 barbarian scene belong barbarous words, strange 
 names of men and places, paiks and sanads and 
 Bissoyis, not understanded of the multitude. 
 
 The places which belong to this particular page of 
 Indian history have all disappeared. The Four 
 Streets are no longer to be found. The palace, where 
 so many combinations were formed, only to be shaken 
 in the march of events into new T ones, like the colours 
 of the kaleidoscope — all these have given place to a 
 new palace, built from an European design, and front- 
 ing the main street. At the other end of the street 
 stands a flourishing college. Printing and the arts 
 are encouraged, and — last wonder of a civilizing age ! 
 — a newspaper has recently made its appearance. 
 
 Such is the Parlakimedi of to-day. Far different
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 121 
 
 was its aspect a century ago. The town was then 
 the scene of rapine and riot, and not seldom of blood- 
 shed. Everywhere smoke rose from the burning 
 villages ; crops were destroyed, women outraged ; 
 men were sent into the jungles, shorn of ears or nose, 
 to seek from the gentler tigers the mercy denied to 
 them by their fellow-men. All was insecurity and 
 war, where now there reign security and peace. War, 
 too, of a barbarous type, not governed by treaties of 
 St. Petersburg or Geneva conventions ; war, where 
 one party at least harried the innocent people, as an 
 incentive to battle, and ravaged the fields out of sheer 
 wantonness. 
 
 In 1798 the zemindar, by refusing to submit to 
 authority, and by neglecting to pay his tribute, forced 
 the Government to adopt strong measures. He was 
 therefore confined ; his son, Purnshottama Narayana 
 Deo, and his nephew, Durga Raj, were at the same 
 time secured and were sent to Masulipatam, on the 
 east coast. These things were the beginning of 
 sorrows. The people — at least those who espoused 
 the cause of the zemindar — rose in arms. They seized 
 villages, they carried off the grain, they put a stop to 
 all collection of revenue by threatening the peasants. 
 On all sides appeared blackened ruins of hamlets, on
 
 i22 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 all sides men fled to the hills and the jungles to escape 
 the wrath of the insurgents. 
 
 The Government at first tried concession. Purn- 
 shottama Deo and Durga Eaj were brought back to 
 the district from Masulipatam. The effect was 
 magical. The power of the insurgents did not merely 
 dwindle, it vanished ; their forces were not merely- 
 weakened, they melted away. The country, though 
 desolated, was again at peace, and all that remained 
 to be done was to provide for its administration. 
 The estate which had been forfeited by the late 
 zemindar was now conferred on Purnshottama Deo 
 and the management was entrusted to Durga Raj. 
 
 For thirteen years all went well. The zemindar 
 died, and was succeeded by a minor son. Durga Raj 
 was ruler and manager in word and in deed ; but in 
 1813 he died, and the old fires of insurrection burst 
 out afresh. This time they were fanned by the 
 intrigues of the ladies of the palace ; and for nineteen 
 years the country was thrown into confusion to satisfy 
 an old woman's lust of power and a young woman's 
 caprice or vanity. 
 
 The immediate cause of revolt was the appoint- 
 ment of a new manager, Padmanabha Deo. It was 
 supposed that this man, who was the son of Durga
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 123 
 
 Raj, would be respected by all ; but, for some reason, 
 he seems to have been obnoxious from the first. It 
 is now that the Bissoyis appear on the scene, and it 
 is necessary to relate who and what they were. 
 
 As has already been said, Parlakimedi is flanked 
 by a range of hills known as the Maliahs. In these 
 hills are a number of forts, in which the Bissoyis or 
 hill chieftains reside. Each of them holds a small 
 court of his own ; each has his armed retainers and 
 his executive staff. They were set to rule over the 
 hill tracts, to curb the lawlessness of the aboriginal 
 tribes of the mountains — the Khonds and the Savaras. 
 They were, in fact, lords of the marches, and were in 
 a measure independent, but they appear to have been 
 under the suzerainty of the raja at Kimedi, and they 
 were also generally responsible to Government. Such 
 men were valuable friends, and dangerous enemies. 
 Their influence amongst their own men was complete ; 
 their knowledge of their own country was perfect. 
 It was they, and they only, who could thread their 
 way through the tangled and well-nigh impenetrable 
 jungle by footpaths known only to themselves. Hence, 
 when they became enemies, they could entrench 
 themselves in positions which were almost impreg- 
 nable. Now a road leads to every fort ; the jungles
 
 i2 4 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 have disappeared ; the Bissoyis still have armed 
 retainers, and still keep a measure of respect; but 
 their power to sting is gone, and the officer of 
 Government goes round every year on the peaceful, 
 if prosaic, occupation of examining schools and 
 inspecting vaccination. 
 
 Such were the men who at this crisis induced the 
 widow of the late zemindar, Gajapati Pata Mahadevi, 
 to rebel. Once more the smoke arose from the burn- 
 ing villages ; once more the peasants were harried, 
 and the crops were plundered. A force was sent 
 against the rebels, but the difficulties were too great, 
 and it was obliged to retire. Negotiation was then 
 tried, and a complete inquiry into the complaints was 
 offered. In 1814 a memorable interview took place 
 between the Collector of the district and the Bissoyis. 
 Great preparations were made, and at the appointed 
 time a band of Savaras, armed with bows and arrows, 
 marched to the camp ; but no one followed ! The 
 Bissoyis, fearing the treachery of which they knew 
 themselves capable, had gathered in a grove at some 
 distance. Hour after hour passed, and they gave no 
 sign. At length they arrived, escorted by a thousand 
 to twelve hundred men, armed with matchlocks and 
 bows and arrows ! The conference showed symptoms
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 125 
 
 of becoming turbulent. It was settled, however, that 
 the chiefs should present their grievances in writing. 
 But this came to nothing, and three days afterwards 
 another meeting was held. The one cry was for the 
 removal of Padmanabha Deo. It was vain to ask, 
 " What evil hath he done ? " The people could not 
 brook minute inquiries into detached points ; they 
 could not understand the sifting of evidence. The 
 clouds grew blacker, and a storm was brewing. We 
 may imagine the feelings of the Collector and his 
 assistant when they felt themselves practically alone 
 with these chiefs, who could command a thousand 
 men at a moment's notice ! The Jeringhi Bissoyi 
 turned to the Guma Bissoyi and said, " Are not the 
 golden sparrows flown into our cage ? Let us watch 
 them, till we get what we want." Luckily they were 
 dissuaded by one of the Collector's clerks, and the 
 Englishmen were delivered. In the end the manager 
 was removed, and the country was again restored to 
 tranquillity. 
 
 The fire was suppressed, but not put out, and in 
 
 1816 it was again fanned to a flame by the former 
 manager, Padmanabha Deo. It was, however, in 
 
 1817 that matters were really brought to a crisis. 
 In that year the head English clerk of the Collector's
 
 1 2 6 ESSA ) S OA ' NA TIVE SO UTII INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 office was appointed to be manager. He was a Tamil, 
 his name Subaraya Mudali. What must have been 
 the consternation, and even terror of this poor man, 
 when lie found himself tossed neck and heels into the 
 midst of a den of roaring lions, for so the wild 
 Bissoyis and the insurgent Uriyas must have seemed 
 to him ! With what relief must he have received the 
 news of his removal, which came a few months later ! 
 Meanwhile the political parties had taken definite 
 form. On the one side was the Pata Maha Devi, 
 elder widow of the late zemindar, supported by the 
 Bissoyi of Guma ; on the other the younger widow, 
 whose chief adherent was the Bissoyi of Jeringhi. 
 The authorities felt themselves obliged to play a 
 waiting game, though their eyes were open and they 
 expected the worst. "The violent struggle for 
 pow r er," says a report of that year, " attended by the 
 usual disturbances," rapine, outrage, and destruction, 
 " may be expected in a year or two." The authorities 
 felt their weakness ; the turbulent semi-military 
 hordes knew their power. On the one hand, they 
 could afford to laugh at the empty threats of troops 
 which never came, or, if they came, were harmless ; 
 on the other, they were filling their pockets with 
 unlawful gain.
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 127 
 
 So things went on from bad to worse for the 
 next thirteen years. The plunderings and burnings 
 continued — not, of course, all the time, but with too 
 brief intervals of peace. At times a startling episode 
 stands out in greater prominence. In 1822 the 
 town rose and drove out the raja's diwan, or chief 
 minister, and the revolting spectacle of the heads 
 of five murdered Savaras, exposed on the walls 
 after the manner of our forefathers, shocked the 
 European humanity of the civil officers. In 1827 
 the two rival queens joined their forces against 
 the raja's wife. They were driven out, and. fled, 
 while their favourite was thrown into a well near the 
 palace. Manager after manager only added fuel to 
 the fire. The real masters of the country were the 
 " town peons," the peons of the Four Streets. These 
 men, who, during this period, degenerated into a 
 compound of bully and savage, were the household 
 troops of the zemindar ; they collected his revenues 
 and guarded his borders. At this time they were 
 indispensable to any party, and they did that which 
 was right in their own eyes. They plundered the 
 treasury, they pillaged the country, they drove away 
 the managers, and set up the idol of their fleeting 
 fancy, to knock it down again when the mood passed.
 
 ta8 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 In 1831 a gentleman of the name of Eden was 
 appointed to the district. From the report of Mr. 
 Russell, who rather damns him with faint praise, he 
 seems to have been a quiet, peace-loving man, afraid 
 of responsibility, and averse to strong measures, 
 though he once showed himself fearless enough in a 
 critical position. He went to Parlakimedi with some 
 sepoys, but, finding his approach was resisted on the 
 way, he determined to go on alone. Meanwhile the 
 insurgents opposed the soldiery, seized the baggage, 
 captured a company of sixty men, and cut off the 
 communications. Masters of the situation, they could 
 dictate their own terms ; they were bought off with 
 a present of 19,000 rupees, and once more peace was 
 restored. 
 
 This was in August, 1831. In September of the 
 same year the storm broke out afresh. In May the 
 Government had taken what seems to the reader of 
 to-day a very extraordinary step. They had restored 
 the hated Padmanabha Deo, upon whose removal the 
 Bissoyis of 1816 had insisted with such determi- 
 nation. Nor was the experiment more successful 
 now. All parties in the State agreed to reconcile 
 their differences, and to unite for the expulsion of the 
 object of their common hatred. At the same time it
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 129 
 
 is very doubtful if any measure short of war would 
 have been successful. The insurgents loved anarchy 
 for its own sake. The so-called grievances were but 
 a pretext ; they found they could get gold for the 
 gathering, and there was no man to take it from them. 
 However this may be, the death of Padmanabha Deo, 
 which soon followed, produced quiet. The parties, 
 who were united by the common bond of hatred to 
 him, now began again to look each after its own 
 interests. 
 
 At this juncture Mr. Russell arrived in Ganjam, 
 with a special commission from the Government of 
 Fort St. George. His first care was to try and find 
 out who were the instigators of rebellion, and the 
 universal cry of the people laid the guilt on the 
 heads of Rakana Chendrudu, the Sirdar of the town 
 peons, and Gopinadha Patnaik, the chief Uriya 
 accountant. These men had already, in 1823, been 
 put upon their trial for riot, robbery, and arson, but 
 the Court of Faujdari Adalut, distrusting the evidence, 
 acquitted them. In 1827 the same men were found 
 to be fomenting the disturbances and directing the 
 intrigues ; and they were therefore banished from 
 the zemindari. The authorities, however, seem to 
 have been hoodwinked, and they were allowed to 
 
 K
 
 130 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 return upon their protesting fidelity. This was a 
 sham. In 1831 the same two men, though pre- 
 I ending to side with the manager, were in secret 
 league with the rebels, and paralyzed all the schemes 
 of the party to which they professed to belong. It 
 is difficult to understand how the authorities were 
 persuaded into letting them return ; but it is easy to 
 be wise after the event. The town peons were all- 
 powerful, and these men had unbounded influence 
 over them. It may have been policy, therefore, to 
 tolerate them, and at least to affect to trust them. 
 The event proved it was mistaken policy. Taken 
 three times from the zemindari, and three times 
 restored, they seemed, both to the town peons' and to 
 the people, to bear charmed lives. The town peons 
 obeyed with alacrity the congenial orders to plunder 
 and destroy ; the people suffered and were dumb. 
 
 When Mr. Eussell arrived these men sent him 
 submissive letters : not that they wrote them them- 
 selves, they were too clever for that. The letters 
 were supposed to come from the Bissoyis, but Mr. 
 Russell was not asleep. He managed to get hold of 
 an Uriya called Dasu Patnaik, and this was no mean 
 acquisition, for such was the terror of the inhabitants, 
 that many wealthy men came, like Nicodemus, by
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 131 
 
 night, for fear of the town peons and their adherents. 
 Dasu Patnaik managed to get two very curious letters 
 for Mr. Russell — letters which speak of outrage in 
 the most open and indifferent way, which chuckle 
 over treachery, and mix up the common affairs of life 
 with plans for resistance and wholesale destruction. 
 The letters both came from Rakana Chendrudu, and 
 were written in 1818 and 1832. "If you plunder 
 four villages and the Fair," he says in one of them, 
 " it will be well. . . The Bissoyis of seven forts came 
 there, and the Jeringhi Bissoyi pledged himself by an 
 oath to the Mudali (the then manager) that he would 
 get in the collections, after ivhich they laid in wait on 
 the road, wounded his sayer peon, and robbed him of 
 his seal, his badge and the money he was carrying." 
 And again in the letter of 1832 : " Collect the people 
 and the peons of the Four Streets, and stockade the 
 pass. I will come with Padmanabha Deo," whose ally 
 he professed himself to be. " Then let Jaggili 
 Bissoyi take the peons and burn some villages. If 
 you do this, I will prevent the troops from going 
 westward. You wrote for beaten rice. There is 
 none to be got here. You can get it at Gunupur." 
 There is a charming candour about these letters. 
 Innocent remarks about household necessaries are
 
 132 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 dovetailed into schemes for betraying troops and 
 burning villages ; but more remarkable still is the 
 insolence, exulting in shameless treachery, ..which is 
 contained in the " after which " of the first letter. v 
 
 Mr. Russell was not the man to let the grass 
 grow under his feet. He determined to capture 
 these two men, and one "Godeyapaud" (for so the 
 name is written in the report). Troops were 
 collected ; a panic seized the rebels, and Gopinadha 
 Patnaik and the Sirdar were easily taken. The 
 attempt to capture Godeyapaud failed. A night 
 attack was made upon his house, and was very nearly 
 successful. He had closed the approach with bushes, 
 and a slight noise was made in pulling them out of 
 the way. His ears, sharp as those of a wild animal, 
 warned him to fly at once, and he obeyed the warn- 
 ing. His wife and children, however, were captured. 
 
 He fled to Guma, and the Bissani, the mother of 
 the young Bissoyi, refused to deliver him up. 
 Martial law was then declared, and, the people of 
 Guma being now openly -at war, conflicts took place 
 frequently and with varying success. The fruits of 
 victory, however, remained with the Government. 
 The troops, though they had done little, had at least 
 penetrated to places hitherto deemed inaccessible.
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 133 
 
 The ringleaders of the revolt were prisoners. A rude 
 blow had been dealt at the fancied security of the 
 insurgent^-' and the people, recovering their con- 
 fidence, began to come back to their deserted 
 villages. 
 
 At this stage light is thrown upon a curious point 
 of the criminal law of that day. The two prisoners 
 were tried by the court of Faujdari Adalut, and were 
 of course found guilty of rebellion and treason. 
 Every one looked for their execution, but the highest 
 punishment which the law allowed was transporta- 
 tion for life. Mr. Russell very naturally expresses 
 his surprise. If there is one crime more than another 
 for which death seems the only fitting penalty, that 
 crime is treason. If there is one crime more than 
 another for which the sentence of death has been 
 established by precedent, at any rate for Englishmen, 
 that crime is treason. Page after page of English 
 history contains the names of dukes, earls, marquises, 
 gentlemen, queens, nay, even one king — who were 
 executed for this offence. Nor was the case of the 
 two rebels a technical case of treason. Rebellion had 
 been fostered for its own sake ; law and order had 
 been resisted, because the rebels profited by anarchy. 
 It is strange that the law which executed Nanda
 
 134 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 Kumar for forgery had no power over the lives of 
 traitors. 
 
 When the news was known, that these men were 
 not to die, the effect was disastrous. The people had 
 seen them thrice removed and thrice restored. They 
 bore charmed lives, and nothing short of death would 
 break the spell. In some vague, mysterious way 
 their influence would stretch over sea from the place 
 of exile, to work a renewal of miseries to the country. 
 
 Such was the consternation, that martial law, 
 which had till now been confined to Gunia, was now 
 proclaimed throughout the state. Negotiations were 
 also opened with the Bissoyi of Jeringhi and the 
 Bissani of Guma for the delivery of the rebel, Gode- 
 yapaud. The interpreter was one Dasarathi Jenna, 
 leader of the town peons. Mr. Russell trusted 
 neither this man nor the Bissoyi, and events showed 
 that he was right ; but for the time it was necessary 
 to dissemble. Unfortunately Mr. Russell had to 
 leave the district for a while. No sooner had he gone 
 than disaster followed. 
 
 The Bissoyi had fixed the date and place where 
 he had to deliver up the rebel, but, like a true 
 Oriental, he kept on making excuses for delay. 
 The troops were then commanded by a Major
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 135 
 
 Baxter, who, intending to bring matters to "a 
 crisis, resolved to go in person to the Bissoyi's 
 fort. His zeal seems to have carried him to the 
 borders of rashness. He set out with a body of 
 troops, sending a havildar in advance to recon- 
 noitre. The havildar found the road blocked with 
 trees, and sent back word. Major Baxter, with that 
 false sense of security which at times seems so 
 strangely to take possession of expeditions of this 
 kind, took no notice. The men marched on with- 
 out loading, totally unsuspicious of an ambush, when 
 suddenly, on turning a corner, they were fired upon. 
 Major Baxter was wounded in the arm, and the 
 havildar in the knee. Some of the men probably 
 received wounds also, but the party managed to 
 fight its way back. Major Baxter died of his wound, 
 and the havildar lost his leg. 
 
 Mr. Russell returned in November, 1833, only 
 to find things worse than ever. The Bissoyis had 
 again made war upon the defenceless ryots, and fire 
 and rapine were as busy as ever. Several conflicts 
 had taken place between the troops and the rebels. 
 Above all, how was the Bissoyi of Jeringhi to be 
 treated ? The Bissoyi had written to Major Baxter, 
 asking him not to come to Jeringhi, and objecting
 
 136 ASSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 to the presence of the troops. He had in a manner 
 hinted that an advance in force would be considered 
 a declaration of war, and in this he seems to have 
 been little to blame. But afterwards he plundered 
 the villages, attacked the troops, and shut the passes ; 
 and he had thus shown himself to be in open rebel- 
 lion. It was impossible to receive him again upon 
 the old footing : it was impossible to pardon him, 
 so long, at least, as no overtures came from him. 
 Meanwhile it was necessary to temporize for other 
 reasons. The crops were ripe for harvest. The dew 
 at that season of the year is very heavy in Ganjam, 
 and exposure would be certain to bring on fever. 
 The troops had no artillery. Lastly, Mr. Russell 
 hoped that, if he ceased from open hostility, the 
 enemy would refrain from violence. But it was 
 necessary to keep open a certain pass ; and a party, 
 which was sent to occupy it, was fired upon, and had 
 to retire with loss. All hopes of peace were at an 
 end. War was the only course left. 
 
 Faction, which plays so important a part in the 
 politics of Indian villages and Indian states, now 
 stepped in to put an end to the strife. Many of 
 the hill chiefs had been elected, to the exclusion of 
 other claimants. These disappointed rivals now
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 137 
 
 came over to the Government, and brought with 
 them a number of peons. This was the turning- 
 point of the insurrection. The troops and their 
 English officers, ignorant of the country and the 
 language, could only follow the beaten tracks. These 
 were easily obstructed by a few bamboo bushes laid 
 across them, while here and there was a breastwork 
 of earth and stones. Such barriers were almost 
 impregnable without artillery, and afforded excellent 
 shelter to the enemy. But now the aspect of affairs 
 changed. The new recruits knew the country as well 
 as the insurgents. They conducted the troops along 
 scarcely practicable footpaths. Very soon their forts 
 were reduced, the grain was captured, and the key 
 to the position was lost to the rebels. 
 
 Events now drew rapidly to a close. In January, 
 1834, artillery arrived, and an attack on Jeringhi 
 was ordered. To divert attention, an assault was 
 made upon a small village called Ullada, and Lieut. 
 Sherard, of the 49th Native Infantry, was killed. 
 On the 18th January a night attack was made on 
 Jeringhi from three different points. Although 
 some of the parties did not arrive till the sun was 
 up, the attack was completely successful. The 
 rebels fled, leaving the fort in the hands of the
 
 13S ASSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 victors. Soon afterwards the Bissoyis of Rayagada 
 and Lavanyakota were caught, arid a month later 
 they were hanged. Other chiefs now sued for pardon. 
 Village after village was stormed, where the rebels 
 still held out. They had now become desperate. 
 They murdered or mutilated all who fell into their 
 hands. They wounded the peasants, or cut off their 
 noses, and sent them in to Mr. Russell, with a 
 message that their blood was upon his head. In 
 one village they killed or wounded twenty-six old 
 men, women, and children. 
 
 But the end was at hand. In March, 1834, 
 Mr. Russell obtained a notable addition in the 
 person of one Fakir Raz. In April this man seized 
 " Gurnall," a ferocious Savara leader, and delivered 
 him up to justice. Then " Godeyapaud," of whom 
 mention was made earlier, was captured, but died 
 of a wound he received in the scuffle. The Bissani 
 of Gurua and her sons came in and submitted ; and 
 the only rebel of consequence who was at large, 
 was the Bissoyi of Jeringhi. 
 
 Hunted like a wild beast, he fled from one hiding- 
 place to another. He took refuge with the Bissoyi 
 of Tumba, and the raja, the suzerain of the latter, 
 commanded him to deliver up the refugees. Driven
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 139 
 
 thus between the devil and the deep sea — between his 
 allegiance to his raja, and his vows of hospitality — 
 the unfortunate Bissoyi warned his guest, and then, 
 with the fortitude — if we may not say courage — of an 
 ancient Roman, cut his own throat. The fugitive 
 fled to his father-in-law, but only to bring disaster 
 upon him, for in an attempt to seize the Bissoyi of 
 Jeringhi, his father-in-law and his four sons were 
 captured, while the prize escaped. The Jeringhi 
 chief now fled northwards, and soon afterwards the 
 Bissoyi with whom he had taken refuge, with less 
 courage and more philosophy than his brother Bissoyi 
 had shown, gave up his guest to the Government. 
 One is glad to know that death spared him the 
 disgrace of a public execution. He was placed in a 
 false position by Major Baxter ; and though he might 
 have returned to his allegiance, he was drawn, as it 
 were insensibly, into a rebellion to which he was 
 originally averse. 
 
 All was over. The spirit of the revolt was 
 broken. It remained only to dispose of the actors, 
 as at the close of a Shakespearian tragedy, with a 
 dead march. Eleven men were hanged, others were 
 transported. A hundred and three of the town 
 peons were confined. The fire was effectually put 
 out, never to be re-lighted in Parlakimedi.
 
 140 ESS A YS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 As compared with the military histories of small 
 expeditions, the story is perhaps wanting in interest. 
 Here and there, there was a scene which gave promise 
 of dramatic effect ; but, with the exception of the 
 attack on Jeringhi, the war was made up of unimpor- 
 tant skirmishes, attacks on insignificant villages, and 
 captures of isolated rebels. The main interest lies 
 elsewhere. The veil is lifted, and we get a glance at 
 district administration at that time. These things 
 were before the days of railways or telegraphs. The 
 post was painfully carried to Madras by runners, 
 whose jingling rings, now a mere symbol of office, 
 may from time to time have scared away the beasts 
 of the jungle. Events which took place in Ganjam 
 had passed into history before they reached the ears 
 of Government. There was no time to obtain orders ; 
 it was necessary to act at once or never. The re- 
 sponsibility was increased tenfold, not only in respect 
 of particular acts, but with regard also to the general 
 line of action. The policy of the Government was 
 a policy of conciliation. It was natural that the 
 Collector should hesitate to use armed force, even at 
 the most serious crises, and thus to commit the 
 Government to a policy which they rejected time 
 after time. The European officers were completely
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 141 
 
 isolated. In all the events which took place before 
 Mr. Russell's arrival we hear of only a few names — 
 four or five at most. These few were called upon 
 over and over again to put their lives in jeopardy, 
 and it is to their honour, and to the credit of the 
 service to which they belonged, that they obeyed the 
 summons fearlessly. 
 
 But while we acknowledge the bravery of these 
 officers, it is worthy of our remark that in no case 
 was harm deliberately done to a European. It is 
 true that Lieutenant Sherard was killed by a musket 
 ball in his body, and that the wound in his arm 
 proved fatal to Major Baxter. But the shot which 
 killed Lieutenant Sherard was apparently fired at 
 random in the course of a skirmish, and Major 
 Baxter's case is hardly in point, since the advance of 
 the troops was taken as an overt act of hostility, and 
 the rebels probably justified his death to themselves. 
 On the other hand, a European officer was for some 
 time a prisoner in their hands ; on more than one 
 occasion the Collector was practically in their power, 
 and several times English officers were surrounded by 
 angry, threatening mobs, whose fury might have 
 excused, though not absolved, their violence. Yet, 
 in the midst of faction and intrigue, in the midst of
 
 i 4 2 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN II IE. 
 
 burning, plundering, and mutilation, not one of these 
 officers received any injury. 
 
 The difficulties of the enterprise are not to be 
 measured by statistics. Judged by the number of 
 troops engaged, by the number of men killed, or by 
 the number of definite actions, the affair was a 
 trifling one ; but these were the very reasons why 
 it was made so difficult. There were very few troops, 
 and it became necessary to employ the untrustworthy 
 town peons. If the commanders could have engaged 
 the Bissoyi with their forces in the open plain, the 
 disciplined troops would doubtless have soon scattered 
 the rebels. A single battle would have decided the 
 campaign, and, even if more blood had been spilt, the 
 peace of the zemindari would still have been cheaply 
 purchased. But the chieftains were too wily for 
 that. Their dense jungles afforded them excellent 
 cover, and they would hardly be likely to forego 
 their advantage easily. Mr. Russell, on the other 
 hand, was completely in the dark. We are accustomed 
 to think of the Collectors in those days as the kings 
 or the fathers of the people, making royal progress 
 to receive the homage of their subjects, and listening 
 with ready ear to the complaints of their children. 
 The authorities in Ganjam knew nothing about the
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 143 
 
 people, the country, or the language. There were no 
 maps ; there were hardly any roads. The people 
 were either disaffected, or treacherous, or afraid. 
 Those who should have seen that the hill tribes were 
 a peculiar people, were treating them as the ordinary 
 peasants of the plains. Those whose business it was 
 to know the language of the district, did not know a 
 word of Uriya. Those whose duties should have 
 taken them on tours to all parts of the country, 
 could give no information about its geography. In 
 a word, the Intelligence Department was wanting. 
 It did not merely fail ; it never existed. The Govern- 
 ment made a few arrests, and had perhaps produced 
 an impression ; but until the hill people were 
 persuaded to abandon the cause of rebellion, and to 
 become guides for the troops, the Bissoyis held their 
 own, and success was as far off as ever. 
 
 The expedition was in many ways remarkable. 
 Though the troops were engaged, the chief command 
 was given to a civilian, and even when there was 
 open war the military operations were curiously 
 mixed with diplomacy. Now the peons were used 
 instead of the soldiers, in the hopes of causing less 
 irritation. Again, warfare ceased altogether, in order 
 that the fire, unfed, might burn itself out. Anarchy
 
 i 4 4 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 had broken out fitfully for thirty-six years, and the 
 
 last and most formidable insurrection lasted from 
 
 September, 1831, to May, 1834 ! Unprovided with 
 
 troops, with maps, with artillery, with information, 
 
 i 
 Mr. Russell yet acted like a man who, conscious of 
 
 his weakness and his difficulties, is determined to 
 
 succeed in spite of both. 
 
 Most interesting of all are the Bissoyis and their 
 
 hill tribes, who now for the first time came in contact 
 
 with Europeans. They were a strange mixture of 
 
 ferocity and shrewdness. They were ruthless in 
 
 murdering men and outraging women, in plundering 
 
 crops and burning villages — not because they took a 
 
 delight in murder and outrage (though perhaps 
 
 plunder had its own attractions), but because these 
 
 things were a means to an end, and in their savage 
 
 philosophy the end justified any means. On the 
 
 other hand, they carried their notions of hospitality to 
 
 an extreme ; they were not ignorant of the arts of 
 
 reading and writing, and they showed considerable 
 
 skill both in their military and their diplomatic 
 
 encounters with the Government. The Bissani of 
 
 Guma is described as a woman of extraordinary 
 
 fascination, with the power of making every one 
 
 believe her sincere — a difficult task at a time when all
 
 A FORGOTTEN REBELLION. 145 
 
 were treacherous. Throughout the period when the 
 so-called " Sirdar " and his confederate were in secret 
 league with the Bissoyis, these latter were quick to 
 grasp the situation, and without their intelligent 
 assistance many a well-laid plot for burning or 
 plundering must have failed. 
 
 All this is over to-day. The jungles, which alike 
 hid the insurgents and baffled the troops, have been 
 cleared perhaps too effectually. Roads now run 
 where the troops painfully followed up the scarcely 
 distinguishable tracks. The passes are free ; the forts 
 are undefended. The officer of Government is no 
 longer " a golden sparrow that has flown into a cage ; " 
 and, treated as a guest in the fort, he finds little in 
 his host to remind him of the bygone ferocity of the 
 Bissoyis of Parlakimedi.
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE KAVERI
 
 What the Ganges is to the races of the north, that 
 is the Kaveri to the Tamils of Southern India. 
 Highly venerated as is the northern river, widely re- 
 nowned as is the city of Benares, it may well be 
 doubted if the river Kaveri has not obtained amongst 
 its own devotees a veneration as high, and the shrine 
 of Srirangam a renown as wide. To bathe in the 
 river is forgiveness of sins ; even to meditate upon it 
 is to obtain salvation. Pilgrimages are undertaken 
 for reasons without number : this man wishes to be 
 cured of a terrible disease ; that woman desires to be 
 blessed in child birth ; one presents his offering that 
 his business may be successful, and another performs 
 a sacrifice because his affairs have prospered. Ex- 
 treme unction is afforded by the river, and with its 
 water the lips of the dying are moistened. 
 
 Of all natural phenomena the Hindu loves the 
 rivers best. Nor is this a matter for surprise. To 
 him the river is life ; from it he obtains water for 
 drinking and for the ordinary necessities of life ; by
 
 1 50 ESSA YS ON NA FIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 it is nourished the rice crop, which gives him the bulk 
 of his food. Each district venerates its own river ; in 
 Tinnavelly the Tambraparni is accounted divine ; in 
 Madura the Vaigi is worshipped ; hut pre-eminent 
 among them is the Kaveri, in whose adoration all the 
 races of the south unite. It is natural that the Hindus 
 should have endued their rivers with divine attributes, 
 and given them a place in their theocracy, and it 
 would be strange indeed if legends concerning them 
 had not grown up among so imaginative a people. 
 Thus the Vaisi of Madura was duo; under the orders 
 of a king to whom the god Krishna appeared in the 
 form of a beggar seeking for work. And as Jason 
 carried the goddess Hera across the foaming torrent, 
 so the king had compassion on the beggar and set him 
 to work in the canal. In neither case was the reward 
 delayed. The goddess assured the hero of her protec- 
 tion ; the grateful god dug the river Vaigi in a single 
 day, and conferred the boon of water on the rice fields 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 The river Kaveri rises in the mountains of Coorg, 
 on the west coast, and, taking a general south-westerly 
 direction, it falls into the sea in the district of Tanjore, 
 on the east coast, after a course of about four hundred 
 miles. Compared with the gigantic rivers of Northern
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE K AVERT 151 
 
 India — with the Ganges, the Indus, or the Sutlej — 
 such a stream may appear insignificant indeed. But 
 in point of length and breadth the Kaveri might 
 easily hold its own among the rivers of Europe, 
 seeing that her course is twice as long as that of the 
 Thames, and only slightly inferior to that of the 
 Seine. Like most Indian rivers, however, the Kaveri 
 has the disadvantage of being wholly dry for over 
 six months in the year. But the mission of the 
 Kaveri is to foster agriculture and not to facilitate 
 commerce. The river is impracticable for ships, and 
 the whole of that sacred water is devoted to the 
 irrigation of the land. 
 
 Leaping down from her strongholds in the moun- 
 tains of Coorg, the Kaveri flows through the state of 
 Mysore, half encircling the historic city of Seringa- 
 pa tarn, until she emerges into the Madras Presidency 
 in the district of Coimbatore. Gliding onwards 
 through that district into Trichinopoly, she opens her 
 arms to embrace the sacred fane of Srirangam, and 
 finally pours all her accumulated wealth upon the 
 rich alluvial plains of Tanjore, to drop at last, a tiny 
 streamlet, into the Bay of Bengal. 
 
 It is not without reason that the Hindus revere 
 their river, and that their imagination has woven
 
 1 5 2 jESSA YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 legends about her. Even from the point of view of 
 unromantic statistics the Kaveri is unrivalled in the 
 south, and yields the most splendid return on the 
 outlay in all India. In 1897-98 the area irrigated 
 by this river in British territory was upwards of 
 950,000 acres. In the northern and eastern parts of 
 Tanjore the entire land is formed by the alluvial 
 deposit of the river. Hardly a square inch of arable 
 land is left uncultivated, and the whole is watered by 
 this splendid river or her tributaries. 
 
 But while the Kaveri is the source of wealth to 
 the ryots, and of revenue to the Government, she is 
 also the harbinger of death to the people at stated 
 seasons of the year. No sooner has the river risen 
 with the first floods than cholera makes its appear- 
 ance. Throughout the cold season it rages, carrying 
 off its victims by hundreds from the towns and by 
 tens from the villages, and subsiding only with the 
 subsidence of the river. Medical skill can only 
 mitigate, but cannot prevent the disease. The theory 
 that the germ is brought down by the river may not 
 have attained the position of a well-established 
 scientific truth, but the experiments which show that 
 the germs are water-borne, and the coincidence of the 
 period of the outbreak with the rise and fall of the
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE K AVERT. 153 
 
 river, go far towards proving it. By no means, how- 
 ever, can the natives be persuaded to give up using the 
 water. The ignorant do not believe in what they cannot 
 see, and argue that that water can do them no harm 
 which they and their fathers have for ages used with 
 impunity. The devout, if they have a lingering fear, 
 put their soul's salvation above the risk of death, and 
 thus the mother of the Brahmins is too often, like 
 Saturn, the devourer of her own children. 
 
 And this is the Hindu legend of the Kaveri : 
 There lived in the remote ages a king called Kavera, 
 who, by his continued austerities, had not only 
 subdued his sensual appetites, but had even cut 
 himself loose from all social ties. He was learned in 
 all the learning of the Vidyas, and had attained to 
 so sublime an ideal that human virtue itself was 
 accounted nothing in his eyes. For a thousand 
 celestial years he performed penance in the peaks of 
 the Himalayas, and meditated upon the Divine essence 
 of Bramha. At the end of that time the god, pleased 
 with his patient devotion, appeared to him, and 
 promised to grant him anything he might desire. 
 " Oh, my lord," answered Kavera, " if indeed my long- 
 penance has found favour in thine eyes, what can 
 I desire more than release from the sorrows and the
 
 1 5 4 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTII INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 joys of this life ? Let me not ask for a less abiding 
 boon." But Bramha replied, " We Devas are not 
 able to errant this boon. It is in the hand of one 
 only, even the Para Bramha. But I will tell thee 
 what I will do. My daughter, even the peerless 
 Vishnu Maya, mother of the world, shall become thy 
 daughter, and she shall give thee thy heart's desire." 
 Then the £od ascended into heaven and summoned 
 Vishnu Maya, who intoxicates the world. And when 
 the long-eyed goddess appeared, Bramha exclaimed, 
 " Oh ! happy girl, thou shalt be the daughter of this 
 Yogi ; thou shalt become a river and be called 
 Kaveri, whereby thou shalt purify the world and 
 lead men to heavenly bliss. Thy Divine being shall 
 be divided in twain ; as Lopamudra, thou shalt be 
 wedded to Agastya ; as Kaveri, thou shalt rule the 
 world." With these words the god vanished. 
 
 In course of time a daughter was born to Kavera, 
 and grew up in the house to be the delight of her 
 parents. The old king's asceticism now amounted to 
 frenzy, and he announced to Kaveri his intention of 
 forsaking the world altogether, lest any action of his 
 should stand in the way of his salvation. Kaveri 
 answered : " It is sufficient that I am thy daughter ; 
 I shall always proclaim thy glory, and our fathers
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE K AVERT 155 
 
 will then attain the Para Bramha, and my sons the 
 divine Vishnu." Kavera then left his home, 
 renounced all worldly affairs, and held communion 
 with God. " He became as pure as wind, viewed 
 the joys and sorrows of life with indifference, and 
 thus, at the climax of his frenzy, he attained the 
 Supreme Being." 
 
 Kaveri meanwhile was practising the austerities 
 of her father. Vishnu appeared to her one day and 
 said : " Kaveri, thy penance has found favour in 
 my eyes. Ask, therefore, what boon thou wilt." 
 Kaveri answered : " Oh, my lord ! I desire to 
 become a river, that those defiled by sin may wash 
 in my waters and be cleansed." Then Vishnu 
 replied, and his countenance grew black as night : 
 " Verily it is the lot of wicked men that they should 
 die in their sin. But thou hast asked this boon and 
 I grant it to thee, worthless though the men be for 
 whom thou hast asked it. Now, therefore, hearken, 
 and I will tell thee what shall befall. In the mount 
 of Sahya I take upon me the form of a tree, and the 
 god Bramha will wash my feet there. In that 
 mountain shall thy stream rise, and thou shalt flow 
 with the waters of Bramha. Thou shalt be called 
 the Ganges of the South, and shalt purify both gods
 
 1 5 6 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 and men. I will grant thcc that thou be greater 
 than the Ganges and chiefest among rivers, for the 
 Ganges indeed flows from my feet, but I lie in thy 
 lap. Moreover, Agastya will come hither bearing a 
 pot of water. Him thou shalt wed, taking upon thee 
 human form as Lopamudra." Then Kaveri did 
 obeisance, and the god vanished from her eyes. 
 
 Far away to the south of the Vindhya mountains 
 dwelt Agastya, seeking to attain salvation after the 
 manner of holy men. But the god appeared to him 
 and charged him to take a wife. " Be in the world,'' 
 he said, " but do not loose thy hold on divine things ; 
 for better is he that feedeth a traveller at noonday, 
 if he do not glorify himself, than he that washeth 
 himself in the Ganges and doeth penance." But the 
 idea of marriage was hateful to Agostya ; "Why," 
 he cried, " should I fall again into the hell of family 
 cares?" "Verily," replied the god, "it is right to 
 desert a wife, if she be a wretched fool or a scold. 
 But thou shalt marry my daughter, who dwelleth in 
 the Sahya mount." Then Agastya no longer mur- 
 mured, but set out on his journey. On his way he 
 met the Vindhya mountain, which bowed down before 
 him, and Agastya commanded that it should not arise 
 till he returned. But he came by another way,
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE K AVERT. 157 
 
 and thus the mountain is bowed down unto 
 this day. 
 
 Then Agastya journeyed to the Himalayas, where 
 he found Kaveri ; and she rose up and brought 
 water for him to drink, and bathed his feet, and did 
 obeisance. Then Agastya said to Kaveri, " the ever- 
 smiling, the obedient, the blue-eyed, the red-lipped, 
 the curly-haired " — " Oh, Kaveri, I obey the god 
 Bramha, and I have come to you. Let us therefore 
 do as he commands." And Kaveri answered : 
 " I am the daughter of Bramha. I am called 
 Lopamudra, and as Kaveri I shall flow through the 
 south. May the water of all the fourteen thousand 
 rivers be mingled in my stream. Let the wanderer 
 who bathes in my waters be as though he had bathed 
 in all rivers and had performed all sacrifices. Let 
 the land round my banks laugh ; let me bring riches 
 to the people and learning to the Brahmins. May 
 those who perform ceremonies with my waters 
 obtain eternal bliss. May the sins of those be 
 forgiven who think upon my name and who look 
 upon my stream. If thou wilt cause these things to 
 come to pass, I will be thy wife." Then Agastya 
 said : " This the god Bramha has promised. In 
 this pot I carry the waters of Ganges and of the
 
 1 58 ESSA YS ON NA Tl VE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 fourteen thousand rivers. A part of thee, even 
 Kaveri, shall enter this pot, and thou, Lopamudra, 
 shalt be my wife ; and we shall journey together to 
 the Sahya mountain. There dwells a Yogi who is 
 Vishnu. Thou shalt be purified by the dust of his 
 feet, and so thou shalt be the greatest of rivers, and 
 shalt purify sinners." 
 
 Then Kave'ri divided her nature and entered the 
 pot ; but as the fair maiden, Lopamudra, she stood 
 before Agastya and did obeisance. 
 
 So the wedding; was celebrated with all the 
 magnificence that marked the nuptials of Siva and 
 Parvati, and Bramha was present, with all the gods 
 and the angels. Agastya bathed the feet of Vishnu 
 and Lakshmi ; the angels drank of the water, and 
 with it the pot of Agastya was filled. And Kaveri 
 bowed down before Parvati. Then the goddess 
 said : — 
 
 " Always bear thyself humbly before thy husband, 
 though he should be angry. Abstain from the society 
 of sinners. Tell the truth, and speak mildly. Listen 
 with joy to the renown of Vishnu. Think ever of 
 thy husband's weal, and keep thy house as becometh 
 a wife." So the gods and angels departed from them, 
 and they went to the mount of Bramha. Then said
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE K AVER I. 159 
 
 Agastya: " This is the mount of Brarnha. Here will 
 I leave the pot for a space, until I have bathed in the 
 waters of the Swarnamukhi." Then he commanded 
 his disciples that they should carefully guard the pot, 
 and went to bathe in the golden-faced river. 
 
 Days went by, and he did not return. Mean- 
 while Kaveri remained imprisoned in the pot, but at 
 last she said to herself : " So many days are now past, 
 and still the Rishi does not release me. Yet he has 
 promised to let me go, and so if I leave the pot now 
 I shall be committing no sin." 
 
 While she was thus meditating, the god Bramha 
 came to the mount and bathed in the golden water. 
 Then he was aware of a tree hard by, and fell to 
 thinking what it might be. At last he perceived that 
 it was the god Vishnu, and he bowed down and did 
 obeisance. Then a voice from heaven was heard : 
 " The god Vishnu has appeared in the form of a tree. 
 Let due worship be performed." Bramha, therefore, 
 worshipped him with flowers and holy leaves, and 
 bathed his feet with water from the pot. Then again 
 the voice said : " Oh, Kaveri, thy day of happiness has 
 come ; this is the holy season in which thou shalt run 
 to meet the sea ; from henceforth thou shalt be known 
 as the Ganges of the South. Thou shalt issue from
 
 1 6 o ESS A YS ON NA TTVE S UTII INDIA N LIFE. 
 
 the pot of Bramha and How over the feet of Vishnu, 
 and they who bathe in thy waters shall attain 
 salvation." 
 
 And a soft wind arose, laden with sweet scents, 
 and blew towards the south. And Indra gathered 
 the clouds around the mountain, and a gentle rain be- 
 dewed the earth. Then did Kaveri come out of the 
 pot ; and the rain descended, and the wind blew, and 
 she flowed forth in mighty flood to the south. 
 
 Meanwhile Agastya came in haste and found the 
 pot fallen down. And he said to his disciples : 
 " Whither has Kaveri fled, and why have you dis- 
 obeyed your trust?" And the disciples answered, 
 trembling : " When the storm arose, we went for 
 shelter under the trees. Then it was that Kaveri left 
 the pot. On her way we met her, and entreated her 
 to return. But she heeded not, and answered : ' It is 
 the will of the Bishi, and by the command of God I 
 am now leaving the pot. It is in this mount I must 
 take my source. The Rishi, who knows all things, 
 will understand and will forgive you.' And having 
 said this she went on her way." But Agastya, though 
 he could not blame his disciples, was angry that the 
 pot was lost. And Kaveri cried out : " Oh, Rishi, I 
 knew thy will, and therefore came I out." Then
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE KAVERL 161 
 
 Agastya answered : " I saw thee not and I was angry. 
 Now go fchou forth and purify all the world." 
 
 So Kaveri, mingling her waters with Swarnamukhi 
 and Kapila, flowed towards the sea. And he who 
 feeds even one man where Kaveri joins with Kapila 
 shall be as though he bathed in all the rivers of the 
 world. Even a fool who bathes in these waters shall 
 attain the Para Bramha. 
 
 And Kaveri flowed on till she reached Swethavana, 
 and there she was wedded to Samudram (the sea). 
 And the god Bramha appeared and gave his daughter 
 in marriage. Flowers fell from the skies, and the 
 angels danced in heaven ; for as darkness flies at the 
 approach of dawn, so at the thought of Kaveri does 
 sin fly away. 
 
 Such is the legend of the Kaveri as it appears in 
 the Sanskrit original. It seemed better not to inter- 
 rupt the course of the story by stopping to elaborate 
 the various interesting points which arise. Asceticism, 
 which formed the last stages of the orthodox Brahmin's 
 life, naturally plays a great part in a legend of this 
 kind. The path to the Para Bramha leads, according 
 to the esoteric doctrine of Brahminism, through self- 
 restraint and mortification to the entire renunciation 
 
 M
 
 16a SSSA YS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 of the world and all its cares, its joys, and its sorrows. 
 As it was the duty of every Brahmin to live for a 
 period the domestic life, so also it was his duty to cast 
 himself gradually loose from this life, and thus by the 
 exercise of virtue and the incessant contemplation of 
 the Divine, to reach the Para Bramha, who is perfection. 
 Speech was denied to him, except in so far as it was 
 necessary in reciting the Vedas. His clothing was to 
 be the bark and the leaves of trees, and for food he 
 was in the end to be content with what had become 
 detached from the branches. Thus it is that the old 
 King Kavera is described as being " as pure as wind." 
 The image is fine. No simile could be better than 
 that which likens the mystical and negative state of 
 existence which has wholly renounced all earthly 
 intercourse, to the colourless, invisible wind, that, 
 blowing straight from heaven, comes we know not 
 whence, and goes we know not whither. The power 
 acquired by the practice of austerities was immense. 
 In the Kamayana the Kshatriya Viswamitra not only 
 obtains the rank of Brahminhood, but even creates 
 whole systems of stars and " afflicts the three worlds 
 with fear." And this kind came not out but by 
 prayer and fasting. It was Christ's doctrine of re- 
 nunciation strained to the uttermost ; the ideal was
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE HA VERT. 163 
 
 the annihilation of all natural feelings ; they sought 
 first, after their light, the kingdom of God and His 
 righteousness, and trusted, not that all these things 
 should be added unto them, but rather that that king- 
 dom would be sufficient in itself. 
 
 The legend has probably an Aryan origin. The 
 scenes of Kavera's penance, of the childhood of 
 Kaveri, and of her marriage with Agastya, is laid in 
 the Himalayas, and in Hindustan proper. Agastya 
 himself comes from the Deccan, and it is through him 
 that the Kaveri is transferred to the southern country. 
 It might be, however, that the people of the south 
 were anxious to claim that their river also had its 
 abode in the mountains of the gods, whence flowed 
 the great streams of the north, and especially the 
 Ganges. But there is a little touch in the narrative 
 which seems to controvert this view. We are told 
 that Kaveri was " blue-eyed, curly-haired, and red- 
 lipped." These epithets are eminently characteristic 
 of a northern, Aryan race, for the Dravidians them- 
 selves are generally darker in hue ; amongst them 
 blue eyes could hardly be an attribute of beauty, and 
 red lips and curly hair are practically unknown. 
 
 The importance given to Vishnu in this legend 
 is rather remarkable. The worship of Vishnu
 
 1 64 ESSAYS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 predominates in the north, and especially in Orissa, 
 where the great temple of Jagannath stands, and where 
 Siva is adored in the shape of a single stone in temples 
 placed outside the villages. In the south the people 
 are generally worshippers of Siva ; and though there 
 are many temples to Vishnu, the greatest are dedicated 
 to Siva, or his son, or his wife. All the people of the 
 south alike reverence the Kaveri. The temple at 
 Madura, however, belongs to Mariamman, that at 
 Trichendur in Tinnevelly holds Subramaniam in 
 honour. At the holy, " Thula," week, when the people 
 flock to Mayavaram to obtain the special purification 
 of the Kaveri, Subramaniam, Siva's son, is worshipped 
 under the form of Mayuram. But although Vishnu 
 appears in this legend as superior to Bramha, who 
 washes his feet, we find that at the wedding it is 
 Parvati, the wife of Siva, to whom Kaveri does 
 obeisance, and who gives her the parting words of 
 advice. It is therefore probable that we should not 
 consider the legend wholly Vaishnava or wholly 
 Saiva. It perhaps belongs equally to both creeds, 
 though Vishnu plays the more important part. There 
 are, moreover, temples in the south where both deities 
 are worshipped alike. And it is to be noticed also 
 that the god Bramha appears more than once. It is
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE KAVER1. 165 
 
 he that promises to give the divine Maya as a daughter 
 to Kavera, and he also appears at her wedding with 
 the sea. This is the more remarkable because at the 
 Sahya mount he is described, as I have said, as wash- 
 ing the feet of Vishnu, and this would seem to imply 
 inferiority. Bramha must not, however, be confounded 
 with the Para Bramha of the Upanishads, the in- 
 carnation of all perfection and the ideal of esoteric 
 Brahminism. Indeed the distinction is drawn by 
 Bramha himself, where he says that death is a boon 
 which is not for the Devas to give, being in the hands 
 of the Para Bramha alone. 
 
 The domestic aspect of the legend is also not with- 
 out its interest. Homely touches and somewhat 
 ludicrous incidents are not uncommon in ancient 
 writings. Hera is suspended from heaven in a golden 
 chair, and Ares roars with pain, " like ten thousand 
 bulls ! " The gods of the Chaldean mythology swarm 
 to the sacrifice " like flies," and crouch like frightened 
 dogs before the gate of Anu. In this legend we find 
 Bramha propounding a new theory of divorce. " It 
 is right," he says, "to 'desert a wife, if she be a 
 wretched fool or a scold." And Parvati enumerates 
 to Kaveri her housewifely duties. " It is your hus- 
 band's right to be angry," she says in effect, " and it
 
 1 6 6 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 is for the wife to bear it in silence. The husband 
 must always be first in his wife's thoughts ; and 
 next to domestic duties comes the love of truth and 
 religion." This insistence on the subordination of 
 woman, even though she be divine, is to be expected 
 in Hindu writings. Sita's fame in the Kamayana is 
 not more due to her chastity when in Havana's power 
 than to her wifely devotion to Kama in the forest. 
 
 But the most striking conception in the legend is 
 the dual nature ascribed to Kave'ri. There is no 
 materialism in this. Kaveri and Lopamudra are not 
 two separate embodiments of a common original ; 
 they are essentially the same person. The writer has 
 evidently some difficulty in maintaining the meta- 
 physical idea, for, though Kaveri enters the pot, and 
 Lopamudra journeys with her husband, yet, when 
 Kaveri starts on her course to the east, Agastya, it 
 seems, is left alone. Yet when Kaveri reaches the 
 sea she is wedded to him, and this would imply that 
 she has an existence altogether distinct from Lo- 
 pamudra, the wife of Agastya. One is reminded of 
 the Christian Faith, which declares that, " although He 
 be God and man, yet He is not two, but one Christ." 
 This doctrine is also not unknown to the metaphysics 
 of the Indian sages. In the Brihadaranyaka
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE KAVERI. 167 
 
 Upanishad Self is declared to have existed in the 
 beginning in the form of the Purusha or Person. 
 " He was as large as man and wife together. He 
 then made his self to fall into two, and thence arose 
 husband and wife. He embraced her, and men were 
 born, She thought, ' How can he embrace me after 
 having produced me from himself ? I shall hide my- 
 self.' She then became a cow, the other became a 
 bull, and embraced her, and hence cows were born." 
 In like manner she became the female and he the 
 male, until the creation of all things that have sex 
 was complete. The Purusha is not made up of two 
 component parts, the man and the woman. His 
 personality remains the same after the creation of 
 woman and the animals as before it, just as Kaveri 
 and Lopamudra, while they have separate existence, 
 are manifestations of the same person. The same idea 
 seems to be more clearly expressed in the account of 
 creation in the Aitareya Upanishad, where the Purusha 
 is described as the First Cause in human form, from 
 whose members proceed the elements, the heavenly 
 bodies, and the trees. These deities re-enter the 
 sentient being, man, in various forms, Agni, the fire, 
 becoming speech ; Vayu, the air, the breath of the 
 nostrils ; Aditya, the sun, his eyes, and so forth.
 
 1 68 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 Though the main features of the legend are 
 preserved, the common people have many variations of 
 the details. According to one version, when Agastya 
 left the pot on the ground near the tree of Vishnu, a 
 crow came and perched on it : the pot fell over, and 
 the water of the Kaveri began to flow. This variation 
 is not authentic, and is in every way inferior to the 
 Sanskrit story. The birth of the Kaveri is here 
 attributed to a vulgar accident, while in the authentic 
 version, the natural picture of the burst of the rains 
 is adorned with poetical image — the coyness of Kaveri 
 and the gentle presence of Indra and the wind god, 
 growing more boisterous as the storm increases. 
 
 In the district of Tanjore, and not many miles 
 from the mouth of the Kaveri, the river is remarkable 
 for its winding course, and in one place it actually 
 runs to the west. The people of those parts say that 
 here Agastya came near to catching the truant, and 
 that she was forced to wind about in her efforts to 
 escape. It is plain, however, that this is a variation, 
 for, according to the original legend, we find Agastya 
 on the Sahya mount, at first angry, but afterwards 
 bowing to the will of God, nor does he make the least 
 attempt to follow Kaveri. The variation, moreover, 
 has probably arisen in the locality, and was especially
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE KAVERI. 169 
 
 suggested by the doubling back of the river upon 
 itself. The wedding of Kaveri and the sea took place, 
 not at Kaveripatnam (Kaveri's town), which lies at 
 the present mouth of the river, but at a place nearly 
 nine miles inland. This fact points to the antiquity 
 of the legend, and also to the rapid formation of the 
 delta. The forces of nature have, however, been 
 materially helped by the extension of irrigation 
 farther up the river. No doubt the Kaveri, originally, 
 had a considerable estuary, and this probably gave to 
 Kaveripatnam its reputation as an ancient and 
 flourishing port. Now, however, when almost all the 
 water is drained away for purposes of agriculture, the 
 river dwindles in the course of fifty miles from a con- 
 siderable stream to a tiny rivulet not more than 
 twenty yards across, and the contraction has, of course, 
 led to the formation of land. 
 
 The mention of Kaveripatnam suggests that this 
 is a fitting place to tell the story connected with that 
 village, though it is entirely separate from the legend 
 of the river. Kaveripatnam, now a poor little fishing 
 village, and insignificant even among villages, was 
 once the abode of royalty, and traded in gold and 
 precious stones. The court was splendid ; the build- 
 ings were magnificent, and a stately fleet of
 
 1 7 o ESS A YS ON NA Tl J E SO UTH INDIA N LIFE. 
 
 merchantmen rode a1 anchor in the mouth of the river. 
 The prosperity has long since passed away ; the oracles, 
 with more logic and less ambiguity than is generally 
 to be found in them, declared that on the day when 
 the great irrigation dams were begun their city would 
 be destroyed. Even now, however, great blocks 
 either of brick or stone remain to witness to the 
 glory that has departed, and the natives say that at 
 times an uncut ruby may be picked up among the 
 debris. The place is desolate ; the monotony of the 
 sand heaps, so common along the Coromandel coast, 
 is broken by trees, which look forlorn when contrasted 
 with the general luxuriance of the delta. Even the 
 prickly pear, at all times dusky and uncompromising, 
 seems to have taken on a dingier hue and a more 
 uncompromising character. On the dreary sea-shore 
 a few huts huddled together and a few nets spread 
 out to dry attest the existence of a petty trade, sole 
 remnants of the commerce of a once flourishing town. 
 Long ago, before the city had risen into grandeur, 
 there lived an aged fisherman and his wife. And one 
 day a stranger arrived at their hut, bearing with him 
 a bundle, which he laid upon the threshold. He told 
 the dame to guard the bundle well, for in it she would 
 find her fortune, and having said this he vanished.
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE K AVERT 171 
 
 The old woman unrolled the bundle, and in it she 
 found a baby boy. She took him up and nursed 
 him, and he grew up with them. Time went on, and 
 the affairs of the old couple had prospered, until they 
 found themselves the owners of several large boats. 
 Meanwhile the child had grown into a handsome boy 
 of fourteen, and his foster father, judging that the 
 mysterious child had brought with him the blessing 
 of prosperity, had suspicions that he was more than 
 mortal. So convinced was he of this, that he put 
 the boy in command of the boats, and told the sailors 
 to do whatever he should order. Accordingly the 
 boats put out to sea, and all went well until they 
 touched at a port. Then the boy captain told them 
 to fill the vessels with mud, but the sailors, surprised 
 at such an absurd order, at first refused to comply. 
 Some of the wiser among them, however, remembering 
 the injunction laid upon them by the master, per- 
 suaded their comrades to obey, and soon the crews 
 were engaged in the ridiculous task of loading their 
 boats with mud. Many were the misgivings as the 
 boats sailed for home, and loud were the murmurs 
 that the master was nothing better than a fool, in 
 having sent a mere lad in command of his vessels. 
 But when they reached home, lo ! all the mud was
 
 1 7 2 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 changed into solid gold. The boy was revealed to 
 his astonished foster parents as the god Subramani- 
 am, the Divine son of Siva and Parvati. Then he 
 was caught up into heaven, leaving behind him a 
 promise of his favour to the aged couple and of 
 assured prosperity to the town of Kaveripatnam.
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST
 
 At Kynance Cove, not two miles from the Lizard, 
 they show you a rock, in which are a few tiny basins 
 of water known as the fish pools. They are simply 
 hollows in the rock, the largest some two feet square 
 and as many deep, but in them dwells a community 
 of small fish, unconscious of the waste of waters out- 
 side, of wrecks, of storms, and of the continual warfare 
 between man and their larger brethren of the ocean. 
 There they live their tranquil lives, surrounded on all 
 sides by protecting walls, and above them only the 
 clear water and the sky. The tide comes in and 
 recedes again, and if from time to time an individual 
 be missing, the community remains undisturbed by 
 tides and unharmed by man, for the people of the 
 coast will not touch them. At times a commotion 
 arises, when some unhappy mollusc is dropped into 
 the pool to make sport for a wanton boy or a curious 
 visitor. In such a case the water is alive with 
 flashing tails. The more fortunate fasten on the 
 unlucky shellfish ; others dart about, looking in vain
 
 1 7 6 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 for a place where they too can take hold. For a few 
 moments the whole community is in a ferment ; then 
 the excitement is over, and once more the pool is at 
 rest. 
 
 Such is the life of the fisher folk of Tranquebar. 
 For scores of years they have lived their placid life 
 in the village, undisturbed by the coming of the 
 white man — hardly conscious of the change of 
 masters, or of the fortunes which have overtaken 
 their native place. For Tranquebar was once the 
 " Queen of the East." She owed her being to the 
 colony which was sent out from Denmark by King 
 Frederick IV., and whose church bears the royal mono- 
 gram to this day. In the times of Christiern VII. 
 a fort arose on the sea beach. The high road led 
 through a stately gate, down the royal street (still 
 named after the king) to Government House, which 
 was separated from the fort by the Grand Square. 
 Ships then came to Tranquebar, bringing, not perhaps 
 " ivory, apes, and peacocks," but the articles of a 
 more practical commerce. Loves, hates, and intrigues 
 worked themselves out in the Palace, in the Square, 
 in the Fort. And then, in 1845, the Danes and their 
 following disappeared, like Galuppi's audiences, 
 " with lives that came to nothing, or with deeds as
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST. 177 
 
 well undone." Only the plant of their religion they 
 left to the care of the Leipzig Mission. For in 1845 
 Tranquebar was sold by treaty to the British, and 
 a new generation arose under new auspices. Hither 
 came the revenue officers and other high officials of 
 the Government, bringing with them those whose 
 business brought them into frequent contact with 
 the various parts of the administration. The fort 
 was turned into a jail ; Government House became 
 a court of justice, over which the District Judge 
 presided. But these, too, passed away. Trade now 
 flows to a neighbouring and more convenient port. 
 Government House has dwindled to a petty post- 
 office ; the fort is degraded to a mere custom-house, 
 and out on the Square the remnant of the surround- 
 ing pillars are as the tombstones of the gallants and 
 ladies who once walked there in the cool of the 
 evening. 
 
 But the fisher folk live on their tranquil life, 
 unconscious of these changes. Their ideas are limited 
 to the narrow circle in which they live ; their interests 
 are centred wholly in the catching of fish, or in the 
 making and mending of boats and nets. From time 
 to time a commotion arises among them. Some 
 adventurous member has gone on that mysterious 
 
 N
 
 1 7 3 ESSA YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 voyage to the "Islands" — the Atlantis of the East 
 ('<»ast peasant ; and when he returns the community 
 fastens upon him, devouring eagerly every scrap of 
 the news he brings. For nine days the wonder lasts ; 
 then the excitement subsides, and the life sinks back 
 <>nce more into its placid routine. 
 
 In accordance with the Hindu economy, the 
 fishermen form a caste by themselves, and they are 
 very low in the social scale. Those who live in the 
 extreme south are indeed Christians, whose fore- 
 fathers were converted to the faith by St. Francis 
 Xavier. They are devout Catholics, and they have 
 preserved the Portuguese names by which their 
 fathers were baptized into the Church, so that, in- 
 congruous as it sounds, Jose Fernandez and Maria 
 Santiago are but humble folk, catching fish in a 
 primitive way, with no more clothing on than a small 
 loin cloth and a picture of the Virgin. Farther 
 up the coast, and in Trancjuebar, of which we are 
 speaking, the fisher folk are Hindus, and caste has 
 the effect, which, however lowly it be, it always 
 has, of uniting the community in the bonds of 
 brotherhood. They choose out from among them 
 a man of influence, or of wealth, to lead them, and 
 then they band together in little groups of four or
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST. 179 
 
 five for fishing purposes, though the whole community 
 is one and indivisible, and though each man has his 
 separate place in it. Each man, too, has his own 
 fishing net, and probably his own small canoe, and 
 may, if lie prefers it, go out alone. Most men, how- 
 ever, prefer to join one or other of the groups, for 
 company's sake, and also for profit. The laws of 
 the little republic are well understood, though un- 
 written ; and they work without friction. The 
 younger men do the hard work — reef the sails, row 
 from one fishing ground to another, let down and 
 haul up the great seines ; it is the part of the elder 
 men to guide the boats, to choose the best ground, 
 and to control the working of the nets. Before the 
 rim of the sun appears on the horizon above the 
 edge of the water, they are astir, running out 
 the canoes, collecting the nets, and preparing the 
 tackle. All the morning they fish, and the more 
 industrious remain until the sun sinks behind the 
 fringe of cocoanut trees that marks the coast-line 
 of their village. But in stormy weather, when the 
 rain is beating down on the water, and the waves 
 are tossing their light canoes like cockle-shells, 
 they do not venture out at all, or they do not 
 stay out so long, for the fish then seek the
 
 180 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 deeper water, the risk to man and boats and 
 tackle is greater, and the profit is less considerable. 
 And when they are back ashore, the fish are handed 
 over to the women, and the solitary amusement of 
 the evening begins. For the fishermen drink a great 
 deal. They justify the indulgence to themselves, by 
 saying that their hard life in the salt waters makes 
 stimulants a necessity ; and perhaps they are not 
 altogether wrong. In fact, half their earnings goes 
 in this way, and they would spend more if they 
 could afford it. " What do you do if you earn a 
 rupee ? " a man was asked. " How do you spend 
 it ? " " Eight annas goes to buy rice," he replied, 
 " and eight annas to buy toddy." " And what if 
 you earn another rupee?" "Buy more drink," was 
 the ingenuous answer. But though they are so fond 
 of intoxicants, it would be unfair to describe them 
 as a class given to drunkenness. Cocoanut toddy is 
 a comparatively mild form of stimulant, and long habit 
 and hard work has probably weakened the effect of 
 the alcohol. 
 
 It is the part of the men to catch the fish and to 
 brine them home : the women's business is to take 
 the fish to market and sell them. Once the haul is 
 ashore and the women have taken charge of it, the
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST. 181 
 
 men put aside all thoughts of fish and fishing till the 
 next morning. So little do they know of the market 
 values that they could not tell off-hand the price of a 
 particular fish or of a particular haul. They are con- 
 tent to hand over the catch to their wives and to 
 receive whatever they may get for it. They do not 
 generally keep much for their own consumption, for 
 they prefer rice ; perhaps they have a natural disgust 
 for what they are so closely and so constantly con- 
 nected with. 
 
 The morning I had fixed on for my excursion 
 dawned bright and clear. Though the sun was rising 
 behind a bank of clouds the sky gave promise of a 
 glorious day, and a cool, fresh breeze blew invitingly 
 off the sea. Down in a backwater lay our boat, just 
 out of reach of the breaking waves. They had made 
 ready for me a luxurious ship, by the simple con- 
 trivance of tying two large canoes together ; and on 
 this lordly vessel was placed the chair of state, for 
 the native in Southern India seems to think an 
 Englishman can do nothing without a chair. 
 Whether he goes out to inspect crops, or to super- 
 intend some irrigation work ; whether he is going 
 a-fishing or a-hunting, the inevitable chair is borne 
 before him, often to the sole discomfort of the bearer,
 
 1 8a ESSA YS OX X. ITll'E SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 for, of course, it is seldom used. Still, it takes the 
 place of a standard, and perhaps adds some dignity 
 to the cavalcade in the eyes of those whom it is 
 meant to impress. 
 
 In the boat, however, the chair was not of much 
 advantage, for the means of fastening it down were 
 scanty, and the equilibrium of the boat was such as 
 to make one prefer a safer, if less dignified position. 
 I had taken the precaution to dress in character, for 
 the chances of getting wet are not small when your 
 boat has no sides, even though the seas may not be 
 running high. And now fairly on board we began 
 to slip down the backwater towards the breakers. 
 For one moment the boat held her breath, as she 
 mounted the white crest of an advancing wave. Then 
 she plunged forward, and we were through the foam 
 with hardly a splash, and making for the open sea. 
 
 The word "catamaran," as every one knows, is 
 made up of two Tamil words meaning "trees bound 
 together ; " and the description is as literal as it is 
 concise. The boats consist simply of two rough-hewn 
 logs tied together with rope. They are slightly 
 curved at stern and bow, to lessen in some degree the 
 resistance of the water, but this is all that distin- 
 guishes them from an ordinary raft. On his logs the
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST. 183 
 
 fisherman squats, and paddles his craft along after 
 the fashion of a Canadian canoe. His oars are as 
 rude as his boat ; to a thin rough-hewn pole is tied, 
 by means of a rope and two holes bored in it, a flat, 
 circular piece of wood, to serve as a blade. In front 
 of the rower are piled his nets and his line, and there, 
 too, he deposits the fish he catches. Yet, primitive 
 as the vessel is, nothing could serve his purposes 
 better. The man is practically naked, and he is as 
 much at home in the water as out of it. If a heavy 
 sea washes him off his seat he has but to clamber 
 back into it, for the boat cannot easily be upset, and, 
 if it were, it is almost as serviceable bottom upwards ! 
 True, he may lose his nets, and his fish, if he have 
 caught any ; but these are easily replaced, and 
 perhaps the greatest misfortune would be to lose his 
 oar. It is seldom or never that a fisherman loses his 
 life ; in addition to his great powers of swimming, 
 and to the handiness of his boat, he can always 
 reckon on the assistance of his companions, for the 
 sense of brotherhood is strong among these fisher 
 folk. Not only are they bound together by the ties 
 of a common caste and a common profession, but they 
 have early learnt the advantage of division of labour. 
 Each is necessary to the other, for a big net worked
 
 1 84 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 by several canoes will give each man a profit lie could 
 not hope to realize by his unaided efforts. 
 
 Many of the canoes are larger than the one 
 described, and boast of sail, rudder, and oars. Except 
 that the number of logs is increased, the hull is 
 built in exactly the same way ; on to the stern is tied 
 a piece of wood, rudely shaped into the resemblance 
 of a rudder. The oars are bound to the sides of the 
 craft, but not so tightly as to interfere with their 
 free play, and the ropes that bind them thus serve 
 the purposes of rowlocks. There is perhaps nothing 
 remarkable in this, for even on such civilized waters 
 as the Norway fiords the fishermen are accustomed 
 to use loops of rope, in which they insert the oars, 
 and, clumsy though they seem to the inexperienced — 
 mild crede experto — practice has made them effective 
 enough to the Norwegian boatmen. The sail and 
 mast, which match the rest of the vessel in rudeness 
 of construction, are hoisted into a socket, where the 
 mast is kept in its place by the assistance of two or 
 three of the crew. Arrived at the fishing ground, 
 the boat is made fast by a primitive anchor, con- 
 sisting of a heavy stone tied to the end of a long 
 rope. The whole vessel might be taken for the 
 model of a prehistoric yacht, the first link in the
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST. 185 
 
 long chain of evolution, of which the last is the 
 modern racing cutter. All is sufficiently complete ; 
 the principles of the sailing vessel are all recognized. 
 Means are provided for steering, for anchoring, for 
 tacking ; the bow is raised to present less surface to 
 the water ; oars are ready to provide for the absence 
 of wind. But on board such a vessel you feel as 
 though transported into another epoch — past the 
 long Dragon ships of the Vikings, past the battleships 
 of the Peloponnesian war, past even the "black 
 ships " of the Homeric ages. On such a boat as ours 
 was, the desperate victims of Noah's flood might 
 have made a vain effort to save themselves. Yet 
 even they would have devised some method of fixing 
 the mast in its place ; for of all that is primitive 
 about the boat, surely the most primitive contrivance 
 is the use of human support for the mast ! However, 
 the men employed in this way would have nothing 
 else to do while the boat is under sail, so that the 
 inconvenience is probably not considerable. 
 
 Meanwhile we were sliding out to sea, and the 
 rowers had taken their oars and were putting their 
 backs into it. The crew consisted of four or five 
 rowers, the master (who took the helm), and a boy-of- 
 all-work, an apprentice, perhaps, and the son of one
 
 1 86 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 of the sailors. All were entirely naked, save for the 
 merest shred of cloth, which cut decency down to its 
 narrowest limit. Before long the steersman struck 
 up a ditty, and all the rowers joined in the chorus. 
 It is the delight of all natives working in unison. 
 Their bodies swing in time with the rhythm, and 
 their spirits rise with the mere exercise of shouting. 
 There is a tacit understanding amongst them, for, 
 when one is evidently tiring, by reason of the great 
 strain on the voice, another takes up the wondrous 
 tale, as though it were his part in the play. What 
 the song was, and what the tune was, were matters 
 of mere conjecture, but the chorus was plain enough. 
 " Velu Mayilu," they sang at their oars ; " oh 
 Subramaniam, Lord of the Peacock, hear us." So 
 we may suppose that the poem was originally a 
 ' ' hymn to Siva's son," but has degenerated into a 
 mere time-keeper for the oars and an encouraging- 
 noise for the rowers. Not otherwise does the piano- 
 organ or the German band degrade the great 
 productions of a European master into mere noisy 
 importunities for coppers. 
 
 And when the hymn was finished, there was 
 silence for a while, broken only by the regular plash 
 of the oars. Then the song broke out again, this
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST. 187 
 
 time some local ditty about the coming of the 
 English to Tranquebar — 
 
 " The waves lapped the black ship that brought 
 the strangers to the Indian strand." 
 
 In truth, the jargon is such that their own people 
 cannot understand it. The words are lost in the riot 
 of their lusty voices, as well as in the incomprehensible 
 dialect, and only by dint of careful listening is a 
 chance phrase picked up from time to time. And 
 now we had left Tranquebar far behind, and the 
 shore began to be a mere fringe of cocoanut palms, 
 broken only in one place by the mass of the Danish 
 fort. But the breeze was beginning to freshen, and 
 it was time to hoist sail. Up it went, with plenty of 
 noise, of advice it may be, and of objurgation also. 
 We slipped merrily through the dancing water, the 
 rude sail bellying to the wind, while the efforts of 
 its human supports could hardly hold the mast in its 
 place. And as we went, the small fry of the ocean, 
 seen clearly through the transparent water, flitted 
 round us, secure in their own insignificance. Soon 
 there came floating by a huge shapeless mass of dead 
 white jelly, and at once one of the young fishermen 
 jumped into the water after it : not that the ugly 
 mass has a market value, he was simply trying to
 
 iSS ESS A YS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 gratify my curiosity. But when he had laid hold of 
 it, he cried out and made at once for the boat. 
 Flinging the thing on board, and scrambling hastily 
 up after it, he fell to rubbing his naked body and 
 chest vigorously with salt water. For the thing 
 stung like a nettle, and the irritation, if superficial, 
 is none the less painful. 
 
 And now we and our attendant canoes had 
 reached the fishing grounds, and the big boat dropped 
 her stone anchor. Then the net was unwound, and 
 each canoe, taking hold of it, rowed out in different 
 directions from the parent boat, so that at last a large 
 circle was formed, which was covered by the net 
 stretched out under the water. Far away the 
 canoes lay, with nothing to mark their connection 
 with the bigger boat, except the nodding floats that 
 dotted the water between, and marked where the 
 fatal net was spread. But at a signal from the leader, 
 all rowed once more together, bringing the great net 
 with them, until they were again collected in a little 
 crowd. And then, with shouts and cries, some giving 
 advice, and others yelling for yelling's sake, up 
 rushed the big net through the swirling water, until 
 at last the end came, and at the bottom, with the 
 sand and slime, and shell, there was a wriggling,
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST i8g 
 
 glistening mass of silver, and pink, and brown — sea- 
 snakes and eels, fish great and small, crabs and 
 prawns, all mingled together in one writhing con- 
 fusion. Afterwards began the task of sorting ; the 
 sea-snakes were thrown back to liberty, as well as 
 such of the small fish as would not serve for bait. 
 Prawns are of little account for the market, but they 
 are the food of many larger fishes, and are therefore 
 much used in line fishing. Again and again the 
 same process is repeated, and now and then a prize is 
 taken in the shape of a pomfret or a seer. But too 
 often the net contains nothing but small fry and shell- 
 fish, which, though saleable in the market, are hardly 
 worth the trouble of sorting. And when the little 
 fleet has sufficiently swept that ground, and the profits 
 of the net become less and less, it moves off perhaps 
 to some other fishing ground, or each canoe will go 
 off to fish with line and bait on its own account. 
 Long practice has, of course, taught the fisherman 
 where to cast his net, and where to take to his line. 
 Chiefly, perhaps, out of courtesy to myself, our boat 
 went off to one of the line fishing grounds, and there 
 we fished with hooks driven through the backs of live 
 prawns and small fish. We were not, however, very 
 successful, for, though the fish rose at the bait in
 
 1 90 ESSA YS ON NA IV J 'E SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 sufficienl quantity, they were all insignificant in size. 
 Line fishing is always a slower process, but there is a 
 greater chance of a big prize. 
 
 I If the fish that are caught off the coast, the 
 pomfret and the seer are the most profitable. All 
 European tables know well the white and delicate 
 flat fish, as well as the equally white and firmer flesh 
 of the seer. Sometimes a shark comes by and takes 
 the bait ; but this is not common, and man-eating 
 sharks especially are said to be very rare. It is 
 considered very ill-omened to catch a shark, and the 
 line which has been the cause of such a misfortune is 
 thrown away. This, however, is no great hardship, 
 and perhaps the superstition has grown out of what 
 was at first only a convenience. For the shark, which 
 would be an unwelcome passenger on the small canoe, 
 has to be cut adrift, and the hook with it. So that 
 the severed line would, in all circumstances, be of little 
 use. It is rather strange, however, that, except this 
 one superstition, I was only able to find one legend 
 concerning the fish, and that had a Christian origin. 
 It is said that St. Francis Xavier, walking one day 
 along the shore, engaged in devotions, dropped his 
 rosary. A wave swept it away, and it was seen no 
 more. But while he was searching for it a crab came
 
 FISHERMEN ON THE EAST COAST. 191 
 
 up to him, bearing it in his mouth. Overjoyed at the 
 recovery of the rosary, and considering that the crab 
 was obeying a Divine command, St. Francis blessed 
 the creature with the sign of the cross, and this sign 
 it wears to this day. The crab is said to be common 
 only along the east coast near Tranquebar, and it 
 goes by the name of the Catholic crab. 
 
 But the sun was getting hot, and we were three 
 miles from the shore. I, too, had the work of the day 
 before me, and, pleasant as was the cool green water, it 
 was time to weigh anchor and hoist sail. So we ran 
 back without adventure to the shore, where I parted 
 from my hosts. They started again for the fishing 
 grounds, in hopes of better luck, and I returned to my 
 camp, not ill-pleased with my morning's experience 
 in a catamaran.
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA
 
 A halo of romance and poetry will always linger 
 about the East, as long as the palm trees wave and 
 the sun continues to set. It is the land of awful and 
 ancient religions, of magnificent ceremonial, and of 
 immemorial custom. On the other hand, the Hindu 
 in public life, be he administrator, magistrate, or 
 pleader, conducts his business after the prosaic method 
 of the West ; he has nothing Oriental about him save 
 his dress and his inviolable caste. The peasant works 
 out his appointed time in the monotonous routine 
 of village life ; he lives in his fields, moves in his 
 bullocks, and has his being in never-ending conversa- 
 tions about money, markets, lawsuits, and the price of 
 land. 
 
 We are permitted to see but little of the domestic 
 life — that inner sanctuary, which the Hindu guards 
 with such zealous care. Sometimes a corner of the 
 veil is lifted, and we may, if we choose to look, obtain 
 a glimpse of that which lies beyond. We may see 
 that the contract of marriage is not a mere agreement 
 
 o 2
 
 1 96 ESSA YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 by the husband to maintain his wife, and by the wife 
 to cook her husband's food and to bear his children. 
 We may see the father, when he has finished his day's 
 work and put off all but the most necessary raiment, 
 take his child upon his knee, and untying the knot of 
 his hair, twist it round his face, so as to represent a 
 bogie, and to frighten the boy into a delicious ecstasy 
 of terror. At times the boys may be seen playing 
 their game of blind man's buff, where the protagonist, 
 instead of having his eyes bandaged, is bound to hold 
 his breath while he catches his companions. Every 
 morning the girls are drawing in pounded rice 
 wonderful freehand designs at the threshold of their 
 homes. But these are slender signs. Too often In- 
 difference guards the gate of Affection, and Respect 
 puts on the likeness of Servility. 
 
 Fables, myths, legends, and superstitions — by 
 whatever name we call them — are interesting, firstly, 
 because they embody the immemorial wisdom of the 
 ancients ; secondly, because they afford assistance to 
 the scholar in tracincr the connection between East 
 
 O 
 
 and West ; and, thirdly, in that they shed a light, 
 however dim, upon the everyday life of the people. 
 The philosophy of the ages soon settled upon the 
 infinite problem of the beginning of things, and the
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 197 
 
 result was a fable, a theory, a narrative, suited to 
 the ethical character of the nation which conceived it. 
 The Greeks divided the rule of the upper world, the 
 sea, and the infernal regions, among a Trinity who 
 had forcibly supplanted an ill-defined race of giants, 
 children of the union between the primeval Heaven 
 and Earth, themselves the offspring of Chaos and 
 Night. The Hebrews, with a more forcible philosophy, 
 imagined that the world fell into order out of chaos 
 at the bidding of an Omnipotent Spirit. The 
 Brahmin doctrines ascribe the creation to a Primal 
 Being, brooding over the waste of waters, from whom 
 proceeded in due course the elements, the sun and 
 moon, and lastly man. All Nature became trans- 
 formed by the imagination of these old races. A 
 perennial fountain becomes a mother mourning for 
 her children, slain by the sun-god, whose rays are 
 arrows in his hand. The woods and fountains 
 are peopled with oreads and satyrs and naiads, 
 and the sea is the abode of nereids and tritons. 
 And in the robuster legends of Scandinavia, the 
 earth is a giant, whose valleys are the scars 
 left by the mighty strokes of Thor's hammer ; 
 the sea is a drinking cup, which he tries in vain 
 to drain ; and the valkyrs ride on the storm-
 
 1 98 ESSA YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 clouds to the field of battle, and carry the valiant 
 dead to Valhalla. 
 
 Amongst the Hindus, besides the religious stories, 
 which go to make up much of the folk lore, we find 
 also fables of the doings of animals, and of the origin 
 of birds and trees. These myths, which for the most 
 part wrap up some wise reflection in the palatable 
 form of anecdote, often had their origin or their 
 counterpart in the ancient Sanskrit writings. The 
 dainty French milkmaid, whose unguarded toss of the 
 head upset both her milk and her calculations, has 
 been traced for us by Professor Max Miiller through 
 the Arab whose stick, intended for the back of a 
 visionary son, destroyed his pot of honey, to the 
 Sanskrit Brahmin, who, less careful of domestic 
 reverence, kicked at an imaginary wife, and found 
 her but a bag of rice. The philologist has used the 
 fable as an example of the connection between. 
 Eastern and Western lore, and also of the variations 
 which such fables undergo in the course of their 
 journey. To us, who are rather considering the 
 point of interest, I have placed third, the three stories 
 of the milkmaid, the Arab, and the Brahmin are each 
 characteristic of the people and of the age to which 
 they belong. The milkmaid upsets her milk with a
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 199 
 
 gesture truly French ; but while the Arab chastises 
 his son with a stick, the Brahmin corrects his wife with 
 a more humiliating foot. Of the age, therefore, and 
 not of the people alone, for we have not from this 
 story occasion to represent the Brahmin of to-day as 
 treating his wife otherwise than with respect. 
 
 But besides the two great classes of religious 
 legends and of philosophic aphorisms, there is the 
 third division, which we call fairy tales, nursery 
 rhymes, and ghost stories. The natives of South 
 India do not seem to have nursery rhymes, properly so 
 called. My judgment, however, remains at present 
 in suspension, for I do not wish to infer that what I 
 have not been able to find is therefore non-existent. 
 But when I asked what children had in the way of 
 stories, I was given a long tale of a king and his 
 ministers, in which the gods duly figured, and (to the 
 best of my belief) a Lady of the Lake played some 
 part. Such a tale is very far from " Little Miss 
 Muffet," or the cow which jumped over the moon, but 
 no effort of mine could discover anything analogous 
 to these. No Indian maiden sat on a " tufiet," or 
 even a mat, to drink her milk or her rice water ; no 
 Hindu Jack Horner squatted in any corner to pick 
 out the best of the sweetmeats, and to praise himself
 
 zoo ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 for the act. Instead of these the children are opener- 
 ally led with the ever new adventures of Rama, or 
 with stories of beasts and birds from the Panchatantra, 
 which are not really nursery tales, but rather belong 
 to the second class, that is, the class of moral fables. 
 
 Some analogy, at least of horror, may perhaps be 
 traced between the wicked wolf of Little Red Riding 
 Hood and the were-tiger, that gruesome idea, which 
 seems to have taken fast hold of the imagination of 
 Oriental and of half barbarous nations. Some such 
 idea seems to be latent in the following story: Once 
 upon a time a tiger fell in love with a beautiful 
 maiden, who lived in a village near the hills where 
 his lair was. So he took upon himself the form of a 
 handsome youth and went to ask her in marriage of 
 her parents. The old people, not suspecting any- 
 thing, and overjoyed at finding such a suitor for their 
 daughter's hand, readily consented, and the wedding 
 took place in due course. Two or three days 
 after the festivities were over, husband and wife 
 started to walk to their home. The way was long, 
 and the woman began to flag. " Let us rest here, 
 dear husband," she said, "for I am tired." But he 
 answered roughly, " Be quiet, or else I shall show 
 myself in my true shape." So she trudged along for
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 201 
 
 some time in silence, but at last she complained again. 
 When he answered her as before, she met him with 
 defiance and, like Semele, in the Greek legend, insisted 
 on seeing his true form. Then the human disguise 
 fell off, and a tiger stood before her. She was struck 
 dumb with fright, but what could she do ? She was 
 alone in the jungle, far from her house and from all 
 human habitation, and there was nothing for it but 
 to follow her terrible lord. At last they arrived at 
 the lair in the heart of the jungle, and there she set 
 about putting the house in order. Meanwhile the 
 tiger, in pity for the poor girl, had resumed his human 
 shape, and never again appeared before her as a tiger. 
 So they lived together for two years, and two children 
 were born to them, which, however, were neither 
 more nor less than tiger cubs. 
 
 Meanwhile the woman grew restless, and said to 
 her husband, " Dear husband, it is long since I have 
 seen my parents and my brothers. Let me go, if only 
 for a few days, and see how they do." But her 
 husband, knowing that this would be the end of their 
 union, refused to let her go. Several times she asked 
 his leave, and as often as she asked she was refused. 
 At last she determined to Hy ; so one day, when her 
 husband had gone out to hunt, she took a knife and
 
 2 o 2 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTII INDIA N LIFE. 
 
 stabbed the cubs, and having hung the bodies from 
 the roof directly over a hot iron plate, she locked the 
 door and ran off through the jungle to her native 
 village at the top of her speed, not daring so much as 
 to look behind her. 
 
 In due course the tiger came home in the evening 
 and knocked at the door, but, as he could get no 
 answer and could not open the door, he listened at 
 the keyhole and heard the hiss of the blood as it fell 
 drip, drip, on the hot iron plate. At first he thought 
 his wife was too busy preparing the evening cakes to 
 attend to his knocking, but at last, as he could not 
 make her hear, he was obliged to force open the door. 
 And what a sight met his eyes ! His two cubs hung 
 from the roof dripping with blood, and his wife had 
 vanished ! 
 
 Next morning he went off in human shape to his 
 father-in-law to fetch his wife back, and was met by 
 her brothers, who courteously welcomed him to a 
 sumptuous repast. When the meal was over, he was 
 asked to sit down on a mat, while the brothers offered 
 him the customary courtesy of betel leaves. Suspect- 
 ing nothing, he stepped on to the mat, and tumbled 
 into the pit over which it had been laid. Then the 
 treacherous brothers, who had previously made ready
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 203 
 
 a heap of stones, stoned him to death as he lay in 
 the pit. And that was the end of the tiger. 
 
 Though the idea of a were-tiger seems to under- 
 lie this story, the positions are reversed ; for while 
 we are accustomed to hear of the man, who takes 
 upon himself at will the form of a beast, we have 
 here a tiger who can at pleasure assume the form of 
 a man. All our sympathies, however, are with the 
 tiger, for if he deceived the girl at first, he was, 
 in the end, more sinned against than sinning. The 
 brothers, moreover, cannot be acquitted of the 
 cardinal sin of killing a guest by treachery, even 
 though the guest was a tiger. The native theory, 
 however, seems to be that the were-tiger and all 
 of his race must be destroyed at all costs, and that 
 the end justifies any means. 
 
 Far more weird is the Malay story of the real 
 were-tiger* — the beast who destroyed cattle, and was 
 himself caught in a trap. Step by step they tracked 
 the blood, till it led them to the house of a man, and 
 there their marrow froze and their hair stood erect. 
 They could not seize him, and from that time the 
 man disappeared, but folk say he limped to his dying- 
 day. The idea, also, of the souls of men inhabiting 
 * Hugh Clifford, "In Court and Kampong."
 
 2o 4 ESS A YS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 beasts, which is probably an offshoot of the were-tiger 
 tradition, is to be found amongst the Uriyas, who 
 will not shoot bears, lest they should contain the soul 
 of a grandmother ! The were-animal is known to most 
 of the ruder nations, but the more refined mythology 
 of Greece does not seem to have admitted the idea. 
 Zeus, indeed, assumes the form of a bull when court- 
 ing Europa, and the Centaurs were half beast. But 
 Zeus was a god, whose ethereal substance could 
 assume any form, and who was above mere human 
 laws ; and there is no reason to suppose that the 
 Centaurs could change their shapes. The story of 
 Circe, again, and with it "Beauty and the Beast," 
 and the many German tales of enchanted princes 
 must be distinguished on the ground that in these 
 last the man assumes bestial form at the bidding 
 of another. While he is under the spell, he is 
 powerless to help himself, and he can regain 
 human shape only by the favour of the wizard or 
 by the intervention of a third person. The were- 
 man, on the contrary, could assume the form of a 
 wolf or tiger, or put it off, as it suited his con- 
 venience. For a true analogy we must turn to 
 the "Volsung Saga," where Sigmund and Sinfiotli 
 grew —
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 205 
 
 " As very wolves 
 In outward shape and semblance, and they howled out wolfish 
 
 things, 
 Like the grey dogs of the forest, though somewhat the heart of kings 
 Abode in their bodies of beasts." 
 
 The East probably gave birth to a tradition, 
 which appears in less savage forms amongst many 
 of the nations of Europe, and especially among the 
 Scandinavian and Teutonic races. From this fable 
 we pass on to the more common kind of moral story, 
 which has its closest analogy in the fables of iEsop. 
 These are, moreover, in entire accord with the Hindu 
 genius, and the " Panchatantra " furnishes many 
 examples. The well-known " ass in the lion's skin " 
 reappears with characteristic variations in the 
 following : — 
 
 An ass once put on a tiger skin, and used to 
 graze every day in the rice field. The owner, taking 
 him for a tiger, dared not disturb him. But one 
 day a fox (or more probably a jackal), being 
 maliciously inclined, said, " Uncle, it is long since 
 I heard the sweet tones of your voice. Pray sing 
 a little." The ass brayed, and the owner, seeing the 
 trick, promptly killed him with sticks and stones. 
 
 yEsop, who differs from this story in details, which 
 are easily referred to geographical causes, lacks the
 
 206 ESS A YS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN IIFE. 
 
 insensibility to the feelings of animals which the 
 Hindu fable betrays. That this is entirely in keeping 
 with the Hindu character, those can testify who 
 have seen a driver belabour an overladen horse, or 
 a coolie carry a pig, slung head downwards on a 
 pole. Nay, the cow herself, the mother of Brahmins, 
 or at least the bull, beloved of Siva, is not treated 
 with the respect due to the sacred animal of the 
 East. I do not speak, of course, of those holy kine 
 which are free to roam the streets, or to lie lazily 
 flicking the flies off them in hospitable verandahs, or 
 devouring dainties, willingly offered, for that the 
 finger of God is on them. These are the high priest- 
 hood of the cattle, but their humbler working brethren 
 are treated with singular indifference. 
 
 Save for its likeness to, and its variations from, 
 the story of iEsop, this fable (and indeed the one 
 which follows) must not be regarded as especially 
 interesting in itself, but rather as a type of many 
 such stories of animals, which I have chosen simply 
 because it was told me by one of the people. It has 
 at any rate the old moral attached, but it is difficult 
 to see what lesson, except the obvious one of using 
 common sense, we are to learn from the fable of the 
 monkey and the crocodile.
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 207 
 
 There was once a monkey, which lived on the 
 banks of a great river, feeding on the luscious fruit of a 
 tree that grew there. A crocodile observing this, and 
 thinking that a monkey which lived so well would 
 be a dainty mouthful, watched for an opportunity to 
 catch him. So one day, when the monkey came to 
 drink, the crocodile seized him and carried him off 
 to the middle of the river. Arrived there, she said, 
 " Aha ! good sir, shall I tell you why I have brought 
 you here ? I have long thought that you would be a 
 dainty morsel, and now I shall have a fine feast on 
 your heart and liver." " Oh, mother," replied the 
 monkey, " why did you not tell me this before ? I 
 would gladly have given you my heart and liver, but 
 I am sorry to say I left them on the tree ! If you 
 take me back, I will let you have them at once." The 
 crocodile believed this, and carried him to the shore ; 
 and the monkey, jumping off his back, was soon up a 
 tree. " fool," he cried to her, " to suppose I could 
 leave my heart behind me ! " 
 
 Many and varied are the legends which belong to 
 the naming of villages or to the origin of rivers. The 
 story of the Kaveri has been told at length, and need 
 not be repeated. Of the Coleroon, whose name 
 signifies " killing," they tell the following :—
 
 2o8 ASSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 A mother was wearily trudging over the burn- 
 ing sands with her child in her arms. Overcome by 
 fatigue, she laid the child down and went aside to 
 rest. But the god came down in the floods of the 
 river and snatched the child away. 
 
 The names of villa eres are often derived from local 
 legends, but unfortunately the traditions have too 
 often been lost. The original name has perhaps been 
 corrupted out of all recognition, or the careless native 
 of to-day, who is content to take things as they are, 
 has never taken the trouble to ask how they became 
 so. He has been born, and has lived all his life, in 
 the village, and it does not occur to him to suppose 
 that there is any meaning in a name which he hears 
 every day of his life. To him it is just a name, and 
 nothing more. When I asked for an explanation of 
 the name Kuhur, the village of Kuhu, or the Loud 
 Cry, I was told vaguely of some tradition that at the 
 time of its founding a voice from heaven had been 
 mysteriously heard.* The village of Punjai, which, 
 so written, means " dry land," furnishes a good example 
 of the corruption of names. When I arrived at the 
 village, I found only wet fields, and concluded that 
 
 * Kuhu, however, appears in " Manu " as the goddess of the 
 new-moon day.
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 209 
 
 here was another instance of the lucus a non lucendo. 
 But the villagers told me that the name was really 
 Pon-cey, or the " golden crow," and related the follow- 
 ing legend : — 
 
 There is a tank not far from the village, and 
 one day a Hock of crows flew over it, pecking to death 
 a sick one among their number. Being now exhausted 
 and at the point of death, the poor crow was dropping 
 into the tank, when the god Siva appeared, scattered 
 its tormentors, and changed the dying crow into gold. 
 In this form it fell into the tank, and gave its name 
 to the village which stands there to-day. 
 
 Another instance of the corruption of names is to 
 be found in the word Chicacole. The Telugu name of 
 
 o 
 
 this, Sri Kakulam, appears to be derived from the 
 name of the presiding deity, but the real explanation 
 is probably that the name consists of two Hindustani 
 words, signifying the opening of parcels. The place 
 is a great Mahometan centre, and was at one time of 
 considerable importance ; the name, therefore, probably 
 refers only to the prosaic business of the post. 
 
 Every nation, probably, has traditions or super- 
 stitions connected with animals. The imagination 
 
 o 
 
 or philosophy which crowned Athens Queen of 
 Wisdom, and made of the rainbow a goddess with
 
 2 1 o ESSA YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 many-coloured wings, sought also to account for the 
 colour of a bird's wing or the eruption of a volcano 
 by romantic theories. The Greeks supposed that the 
 crow was originally white, and that it was changed to 
 black by the anger of Apollo ; the peacock in like 
 manner obtaining its beautiful tail from Hera, who, 
 also to punish the importunacy of the bird, endowed 
 it with its discordant voice. Even the more matter- 
 of-fact Roman accepted the auguries of birds which 
 flew on his right hand or his left, and to him the wolf 
 was always sacred, for obvious reasons. We also are 
 not without our superstitions. A crow flying over a 
 house is a presage of evil ; it is a sign of good luck if 
 a black cat follows you ; while, on the other hand, a 
 black dog is symbolic of the evil one. Amongst the 
 natives the toddy-drawers of the south of India pursue 
 the squirrel with an inveterate hatred, and will kill 
 it when they can, even though the chase be long and 
 wearisome. And this is the cause : — 
 
 Once upon a time one of the gods, having com- 
 passion on the toddy-drawers because their life was a 
 hard one, and because they were always exposed to 
 danger, left at the foot of a palmyra tree some charmed 
 water, the virtue of which was that it saved from 
 injury any one falling from a height.
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 211 
 
 The toddy-drawer, however, father of the race, 
 was drunk, and, forgetting to drink the elixir, went 
 home. When he returned he found that a squirrel 
 had drunk it, and vowed vengeance on it. And that 
 is why every toddy-drawer will always kill a squirrel, 
 and also why the squirrel, from whatever height he 
 may fall, comes to no harm. 
 
 The squirrel was favoured more than once by the 
 gods. For when Rama was going to Ceylon to 
 rescue Sita from the power of Ravana, he found no 
 means to cross the straits. Thereupon an army of 
 squirrels gathered together, and by wetting their 
 bodies, rolling on the sand, and then shaking them- 
 selves, they formed a dam which reached from 
 India to Ceylon. Rama, in gratitude, stroked the 
 squirrel, and, just as men say the breast of the 
 robin was stained with the blood of Christ's feet, 
 as it strove to loosen the nails, so the native thinks 
 that the squirrel still bears the imprint of the god's 
 fingers. 
 
 The crow, which sits, like impudence incarnate, 
 with head cocked on one side, and one little eye ever 
 on the watch, has induced in the native mind the 
 belief that it is always blind of one eye. Rama, they 
 say, was one day sleeping by the side of Sita when
 
 a i 2 ESSA YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 an asura,* being enamoured of her, descended in the 
 form of a crow and tried to attract her attention. 
 Sita, true to that perfect chastity which all the 
 legends love to extol, took no notice of his blarfclish- 
 ments. The asura-crow, however, was not to be 
 denied. He began to peck at her breasts, even 
 drawing blood. At this Rama awoke, and seizing in 
 his rage the nearest weapon, which happened to be 
 a blade of grass, he flung it at the offending crow. 
 The latter begged for mercy, but the weapon of 
 Rama, once it has left his hand, cannot fall ineffectual, 
 and the asura therefore offered one of his eyes as a 
 sacrifice. It would seem, however, that the curse 
 which his weapon inflicted was not the loss of one 
 particular eye, but rather of the power to see out of 
 both eyes at the same time. 
 
 This is one of those many stories that Hindus 
 love to tell of the almighty power of Rama, of 
 the chastity of Sita, and of the overthrow of 
 asuras and other evil genii. It seems strange 
 that the crow should thus be made to suffer 
 for the fault of the asura, but every English boy 
 learns that the serpent is doomed to glide upon the 
 ground because Satan once used him as a means to 
 
 * Demon.
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 213 
 
 compass man's fall. The logic in both cases is 
 perhaps at fault, but it is not worse in the one than 
 in the other. 
 
 Ifeculiarly sacred in the eyes of the villagers is 
 the marriage of the masculine banyan to his bride, 
 the fair margosa. Around them they march in 
 solemn procession ; and before them men and women 
 pray and vow their vows unto the Lord. 
 
 Of the vrdli bush, which yields no sap, the people 
 have the following belief. The bush had sap once, 
 as other trees have, and its sap had the peculiar power 
 of turning base metals into gold. But the gods, 
 looking down from heaven, and seeing that men were 
 covetous, and that the tree only increased avarice, 
 cursed it for man's sake. And from that time for- 
 ward it has been dry. 
 
 Birds especially, and their peculiarities, seem to 
 have seized upon the Hindu imagination. The white 
 neck feathers of the vulture, the bird of Vishnu, are 
 said to be the garland which the god gave to his 
 favourite, being well pleased with his faithful service. 
 And of this bird they tell also another story. Not 
 more ceaselessly does Philomela bewail the lost Itys 
 than this bird of Vishnu calls ever for Krishna in the 
 vain search for him. For one day Vishnu (who is
 
 a 1 4 ESS A YS ON NA TI VE SO VTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 Krishna) and his favourite had a contest as to which 
 of the two could more easily detect the hiding-place 
 of the other. Garuda, the vulture, first hid himself, 
 hut the all-seeing Krishna discovered him, tltough 
 only after long search. Then Krishna hid himself in 
 the bird's own eyes ; and Garuda to this day is 
 searching for the god, crying incessantly, " Krishna ! 
 Krishna ! " Men say that even now the god may be 
 seen, hiding himself in the pupil of the vulture's eye. 
 In the land where the cobra is venerated as a god, 
 and where the great Sesha is one of the Hindu 
 hierarchy, one expects to find popular superstitions 
 relating to the serpent. To the Christian mind, 
 brought up to look upon the serpent as the emblem 
 of all evil, the author of the original sin, and the 
 criminal on whom fell the primal curse, the idea of 
 worshipping a snake may seem almost repulsive. 
 But the Hindu sees only its beauty ; it is constantly 
 appearing in his legends ; it is the emblem of 
 eternity, and it has a subtle, mysterious power of 
 causing swift death. Against that mysterious power 
 the people have a mysterious charm, known only to 
 a few, and guarded jealously by ceremonial rites. 
 For as the witch's herbs had virtue only when 
 gathered by the light of the moon, so this charm
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 215 
 
 cannot be learnt except at certain times of the day. 
 The teacher and the learner must stand waist deep in 
 water, and breast must touch breast. There the 
 mysterious charm is told under oath of strictest 
 secrecy, and to the duly initiated the people flock 
 with the firmest belief in the power of their incanta- 
 tions. The lapse of time which proves the bite 
 innocuous has no effect on this belief ; the victim has 
 been bitten by a snake ; his imagination throws him 
 into a kind of stupor, and he will walk even miles to 
 the magician, quite unconscious of the fact that, were 
 the snake poisonous, he would be a dead man before 
 he had covered many yards. And the people say of 
 the snake that its tongue was originally as that of 
 other animals. But in the churning of the ocean the 
 gods used the serpent as a rope to draw up the 
 celestial ambrosia. When they had got it, and were 
 sharing it, the serpent licked off a few drops which 
 had fallen on some blades of grass. The grass was 
 sharp-edged and cut the serpent's tongue. And that 
 is the reason why it is forked now. 
 
 It is these little things, the smaller traditions in 
 which the people believe, that give us at least a 
 glimpse into their everyday life — that life which they 
 live apart from contact with the European, be he
 
 2 1 6 ESS A i 'S ON NA TIVE SO UTII INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 revenue officer, magistrate, or engineer. They will 
 sit for ever listening to the stories of the Purauas, 
 the Ramayaua, and the Mahabharata ; but this reveals 
 nothing to us. It is, perhaps, more their love of the 
 marvellous than their religion which impels them to 
 such rapt attention. One does not judge children by 
 their reception of the Bible, for the love of incident 
 is always present. Pharaoh's plagues are more 
 interesting to children than the Decalogue, and 
 Daniel demands more attention as the victim in the 
 lions' den than as the mysterious dreamer of dreams. 
 The tales of the great epics and the sacred books 
 have, therefore, a smaller relative value than the 
 trivial beliefs current among the people, concerning 
 animals and birds and trees. 
 
 Such traditions as these have been handed down 
 for generations, not merely among the ruder people, 
 but also among the educated classes. And when we 
 see these things, we cannot but wonder at the 
 stupendous conservatism of the Hindu religion. 
 While they acknowledge the inventions and the 
 methods of the West, they still cling fondly to the 
 superstitions of the East. The judge who to-day 
 gives decisions in accordance with the rules of logic, 
 cures snake-bites to-morrow in all simplicity of
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 217 
 
 unreasoning belief. The merchant, recognizing the 
 value of steamers, eats no food while he is aboard, or, 
 making use of a fraud which deceives no one, pre- 
 pares his own meal on a little earth brought from the 
 shore. Let him that is without sin first cast a stone 
 at them ; for there are not many among us also who 
 do not hold fast in the same unreasoning faith to 
 traditions which, as far as is humanly possible, 
 natural science has demonstrated to be untrue. 
 
 But in truth we are not treating of the highly 
 educated class — that class which now and again 
 denies its most sacred traditions from a false idea of 
 keeping up appearances. The town -bred class turned 
 out of our universities with a neat polish of English 
 and the sciences, is not representative of the people of 
 South India. One does not choose as examples of 
 the English people either the members of the Keform 
 Club on the one hand, or, on the other, the proletariat 
 of a London slum. The life of India is not to be 
 sought in the merchants and lawyers of the town or 
 amongst the pariahs and out-castes of the villages. It 
 is in the village community and amongst the respect- 
 able farming classes that we must look for those 
 traditions and that folk-lore which are household 
 words to-day. Ask an ignorant toddy-drawer why
 
 a 1 8 ESS A YS ON NA TIVE SO UTII INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 he pursues a squirrel, and you will perhaps get no 
 reasons in answer ; in our own country, though many 
 of its votaries cannot tell you its origin, the Punch- 
 and-Judy show is none the less a national institution. 
 Nor is it to the purpose if some scholar or philologist 
 object that many of the traditions have been drawn 
 from the Puranas or other ancient books. It is diffi- 
 cult to view one's own religion from the standpoint of 
 an impartial judge. We take the religion and its 
 details too much for granted, but Noah and his deluge 
 are surely traditions which live for many, nor is the 
 fact altered because learned men tell us of Hasisadra 
 and his pilot Nes-Hea. 
 
 But of all superstitions which a nation can hold, 
 those relating to ghosts are the most interesting as 
 well as the most universal. From the days of the 
 witch of Fndor, who called up the spirit of Samuel, 
 to Mr. Sludge, the medium of to-day, there have 
 always been those who believe and tremble, and 
 those who say, with the famous woman, " Je ne les 
 crois pas, mais je les crains." In Greece, where the 
 ghosts of the hundred and ninety-two Athenians 
 slain at Marathon torment the bodies of the merely 
 curious, as well as in Mariner's Friendly Islands, where 
 the atuas, or spirits of the departed, return to priests,
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 219 
 
 relations, and others, either in dreams or in the form 
 of apparitions, the belief in spirits exercises a very 
 real influence over the living. The Hindus, as well 
 as the Greeks, furnish the departed spirit with the 
 means for the journey ; but such ghosts we may leave 
 to cross Styx in safety, or to wail for ever on the 
 shores of Acheron. Our business lies rather with 
 those malignant spectres whose usual accompaniments 
 are blue lio-hts and clanking chains. 
 
 The Hindu ghosts, however, do not, like our 
 English spirits, operate wholly through terror. They 
 do not inhabit houses where some deed of blood has 
 been done. They are not the spirits of retribution, 
 called up by the conscience of the murderer. They 
 are spectres of pure malignancy — horrid ghouls, who 
 lurk invisible by day and night about the houses of 
 the peasants, listening for news which will give them 
 a chance to decoy, to terrify, and to murder. By 
 night, too, they roam about in the jungles, in the 
 thickets, and in lonely places, avoiding, as far as 
 possible, the villages and the habitations of man. A 
 woman perhaps arranges to go out early in the 
 morning with a companion, to gather sticks, it may 
 be, or for some other household purpose. If a ghost 
 hears their conversation, he puts on the form of one
 
 390 ESSAYS ON NATIVE SOUTH INDIAN IIFE. 
 
 of the women, and goes at dead of night to the house 
 of the other, taps at the door, and calls her, saying it 
 is near daybreak and time to start. The poor woman 
 goes out unsuspectingly, but she never returns, for 
 once they are well clear of the village, the ghost turns 
 upon her and kills her. Women, therefore, if they 
 have to go out early in the morning, make their 
 arrangements in the daytime and in their houses, for 
 fear of ghosts. For ghosts, like all evil things, love 
 the darkness, and when you are out of doors you 
 never know that one or two listening spirits of mis- 
 chief are not at your elbow. 
 
 But cunning as the ghosts may be in getting 
 their information and in deceiving unsuspecting 
 women, they are themselves outwitted by very simple 
 tricks. A woman who was decoyed into the plain on 
 the pretext of gathering fuel, discovered that her 
 companion was a spectre. So she pretended to lie 
 down and go to sleep, covering herself up with a 
 cloth. Meanwhile the ghost went on gathering sticks, 
 and the woman, quietly substituting her basket for 
 herself, slipped away home. When the time came 
 for the murder, the ghost of course found out that 
 his victim had disappeared, and in his rage at being 
 tricked he tore the basket to pieces.
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 221 
 
 These spirits, it seems, are like wild men, with 
 tangled hair hanging about their faces ; but they are 
 always easily distinguished from human beings, for 
 they have no legs. One is surprised that with this 
 glaring defect they can ever deceive any one ; but 
 ghost stories do not always bear close examination, 
 and we know how difficult it is to find any one who 
 has himself seen a ghost. Probably the best 
 authority in the village is only some one who heard 
 from some one else that a friend of his had seen 
 something uncanny. 
 
 In the middle of the night these horrid goblins 
 assemble at some grove outside the village, and there 
 they hold their ghoulish revel, dancing their clauses 
 macabres, singing their weird songs, or playing games, 
 perhaps with human skulls. Some sit round their 
 ghostly fire, telling many tales of strangled children 
 and women done to death, and one will show a finger 
 and another an ear, torn from the corpses of their 
 victims. A man, it is said, once visited this hall of 
 the ghosts, to get back his wife's necklace, which they 
 had stolen. He disguised himself as a ghost, by 
 letting his hair fall over his face, and joined in the 
 dance ! The necklace was passed from one to the 
 other, and when it came to the man he slipped away,
 
 a a a ESSA YS ON NA TIVE SO UTH INDIAN LIFE. 
 
 unobserved by the dancing ghosts ! We are not told 
 what he did with his tell-tale legs — but, after all, 
 ghosts are very simple creatures ! 
 
 But there is one thing of which ghosts stand in 
 special awe, and that is iron. Shepherds, therefore, 
 the robber castes, and others, whose business calls 
 them out of the village at night, always carry about 
 iron in some shape or other. Many wear an iron 
 finger- or toe-ring as a talisman. Such is the power 
 of iron, that ghosts are not only terrified at sight of 
 it, but may even be reduced to servitude by it. One 
 of them, which was captured by a charmer, was thus 
 kept in bondage by a nail driven into its head (for 
 ghosts do not feel), and did the work of a domestic 
 servant for years. But one day, after it had dressed 
 the hair of the ladies, it asked a young girl to comb 
 its hair for it. While the girl was doing this she 
 came across the nail. The ghost asked her to take it 
 out, and she, suspecting nothing, did so. No sooner 
 was the nail out than the charm was broken, and the 
 ghost, being thus set at liberty, ran away. 
 
 Such superstitions are very present realities to the 
 people of the villages. It matters little to them that 
 they are in many cases demonstrably false. The 
 year Vikari (called 1899 of the Christian era) was to
 
 TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA. 223 
 
 be a year of calamity. Seven planets, it is said, then 
 met in one sign of the zodiac. This heralded the end 
 of the world. The tenth avatar of Vishnu was to be 
 made manifest ; the god was to appear, mounted on 
 a white horse, armed with a scimitar, and blazing like 
 a comet. The world with all its wickedness was to 
 be burnt up and a new age of purity was to begin. 
 But the steadfast earth remains, and the day seems 
 still far off when the heavens shall pass away with a 
 great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent 
 heat. 
 
 And the placid life of the villagers continues. 
 They know nothing of history, and do not care to 
 know ; the sound of wars that stir up the hearts of 
 Western nations never reaches their ears ; the laws 
 and the government suffer change, but the traditions 
 remain, deep fixed in the hearts of the most con- 
 servative of peoples, and upheld by the most self- 
 contained of religions. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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 PUBLISHED BY 
 
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 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, E.C. 
 
 91 and 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, and 32 HORNBY ROAD, BOMBAY. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 BADMINTON LIBRARY (THE). - 
 
 BIOGRAPHY, PERSONAL ME- 
 MOIRS, &c. 
 
 CHILDREN'S BOOKS 
 
 CLASSICAL LITERATURE, TRANS- 
 LATIONS, ETC. - 
 
 COOKERY, DOMESTIC 
 MENT, &c. 
 
 EVOLUTION, 
 &c. - 
 
 MANAGE- 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 FICTION, HUMOUR, &c. - 
 
 FUR, FEATHER AND FIN SERIES 
 
 HISTORY, POLITICS, POLITY, 
 POLITICAL MEMOIRS, &c. - 
 
 LANGUAGE, HISTORY AND 
 
 7 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 *7 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 MENTAL, MORAL, AND POLITICAL 
 PHILOSOPHY 14 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS AND CRITICAL 
 WORKS 29 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS THEOLOGICAL 
 WORKS 32 
 
 POETRY AND THE DRAMA - - 10 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY AND ECO- 
 NOMICS 
 
 POPULAR SCIENCE .... 
 
 SILVER LIBRARY (THE) 
 
 SPORT AND PASTIME - 
 
 STONYHURST PHILOSOPHICAL 
 SERIES 
 
 TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE, THE 
 COLONIES, &c. 
 
 SCIENCE OF 16 WORKS OF REFERENCE - 
 
 17 
 24 
 26 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORS AND EDITORS. 
 
 Abbott (Evelyn) 
 
 (T. K.) - 
 
 (E. A.) - 
 
 Acland (A. H. D.) 
 Acton (Eliza) - 
 Adeane(J. H.) - 
 iEschylus 
 Ainger (A. C.) - 
 Albemarle (Earl of) 
 Allen (Grant) - 
 Amos (S.) 
 Anstey (F.) 
 Aristophanes - 
 Aristotle - 
 Arnold (Sir Edwin) ■ 
 
 (Dr. T.) - 
 
 Ashbourne (Lord) ■ 
 AshbyiH.) 
 Ashley (W.J.) - 
 Avebury (Lord) 
 Ayre (Rev. J.) - 
 
 Bacon 
 
 Baden-Powell (B. H 
 Bagehot ( W.) - 7, 
 Bagwell (R.) - 
 Bain (Alexander) 
 Baker (Sir S. W.) - 
 Balfour (A. J.) 
 
 Page 
 
 ■ 3.18 
 
 - 14.15 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 :8 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 9.19 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 3. 17 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 7. 14 
 
 > 3 
 
 17. 29 I 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 9. 10 
 
 ".32 
 
 Page 
 Balfour (Lady Betty) 5 
 Ball (John) - - 9 
 
 Banks (M. M.) - - 20 
 Baring-Gould (Rev. S.)27,29 
 Barnett (S. A. and H.) 17 
 Baynes (T. S.) - - 29 
 Beaconsfield (Earl of) 20 
 Beaufort (Duke of) - 10,11 
 Becker (W. A.) - 18 
 Beddard (F. E.) - 24 
 Beesly (A. H.) - - 7 
 
 Bell (Mrs. Hugh) - 19 
 Bent (J. Theodore) - 9 
 
 Besant (Sir Walter)- 3 
 
 Bickerdyke (J.) n, 12, 13 
 Birt (A.) 20 
 
 Blackburne (J. H.) - 13 
 Bland (Mrs. Hubert) 20 
 
 I Boase (Rev. C. W.)- 4 
 
 ■ Boedder (Rev. B.) - 16 
 Bosanquet (B.) - 14 
 
 Boyd (Rev. A. K.H.) 29, 32 
 Brassey (Lady) - 9 
 
 j (Lord) - - 12 
 
 Bra\ (C.) - - - 14 
 Bright (Rev. J. F.) - 3 
 
 Broadfoot (Major W.) 10 
 Browning (H. Ellen) 9 
 
 Bruce (R. I.) - - 3 
 
 Buck (H. A.) - 
 Buckland (J as.) 
 Buckle (H. T.)- 
 Buckton (C. M.) 
 Bull (T.) - 
 Burke (U. R.) - 
 Burns (C. L ) - 
 Burrows (Montagu) 
 Butler (E. A.) - 
 (Samuel) 
 
 Page 
 12 
 25 
 
 3 
 28 
 28 
 
 3 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 - 18, 20 
 
 29 
 
 Calder(J.) 
 Cameion of Lochiel 
 Campbell(Rev. Lewis) 18,32 
 Camperdown (Earl of) 7 
 Cawthorne iGeo. Jas.) 13 
 Chesney (Sir G.) - 3 
 
 Childe-Pemberton(W.S.) 7 
 Cholmondeley-Pennell 
 
 (H.) - - 11 
 
 Churchill( W. Spencer) 3, 20 
 Cicero - - - 18 
 Clarke (Rev. R. F.) - 16 
 Clodd (Edward) -17,24 
 Clutterbuck (W. J.) - 9 
 Colenso (K. J.) - 29 
 
 Coleridge (S. T.) - 19 
 Comparetti (D.) - 30 
 Conington (John) - 18 
 
 Page 
 
 Conway (Sir W. M ) 
 Conybeare(Rev.W.J.) 
 
 & Howson (Dean) 26 
 
 Coolidge (W. A. B.) 9 
 
 Corbin (M.) - - 25 
 
 Corbett (Julian S.) - 4 
 
 Coutts (W.) - - 18 
 
 Coventry (A.) - - n 
 
 Cox (Harding) - 10 
 
 Crake (Rev. A. D.) - 55 
 
 Crawford (J. H.) - 30 
 
 Creiehton (Bishop)- 4 
 Crozier (J. B.) - - 7, 14 
 Curzon of Kedleston 
 
 (Lord) - - - 4 
 
 distance (Col. H. - ia 
 
 Cutts (Rev. E. L.) - 4 
 
 Dallinger (F. W.) - 5 
 Davidson (W. L.) 15, 16, 32 
 
 Davies (J. F.) - - 18 
 11 
 
 De Salia (Mrs.) - 29 
 
 De Tocqueville (A.) - 4 
 
 Devas (C. S.) - - 17 
 
 Dickinson (G. L.) - 4 
 
 (W. H.) - - 30 
 
 Dougall (L.) - - 20 
 
 Dowden (E.) - - 31
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORS AND EDITORS— continued. 
 
 Povle (A. Conan) - 21 
 
 Dufferin (Marquisof) la 
 Duubar (Mar) F.) - 20 
 
 Ebringion (Viscounts la 
 
 Ellis 
 
 (R.L.) 
 
 Evans (Sir John) 
 
 Karrar (Pe.in) - - 16, 
 Folkard (H. C.) 
 Ford (H.) - 
 
 ,\\ I 1 
 
 Fowler (Edith H.) - 
 Foxcroft (H. C.) 
 Francis (Francis) 
 Francis iM. E.t 
 Freeman (Edward A.) 
 Freshfield (D. W.) - 
 Froude (James A.) 4, 7, 9, 
 Furneaux (\V.) 
 
 Pagt 
 
 Hume (David) - - 15 
 Hunt (Rev W.) 4 
 
 Hunter (Sir W.) - 5 
 
 Hutchinson (Horace G.) 
 
 11. 13 
 [ngelow (lean) - 19 
 
 I D.) • 5 
 
 Ingram ( 
 
 Gardiner (Samuel R.) 
 
 4 
 
 Gathorne-Hardv ( Hon. 
 
 
 A. E.) - - 12 
 
 ■3 
 
 Gibbons (IS) . - 
 Gibson (Hon. H.) - 
 
 12 | 
 
 13 
 
 (C. H.) - 
 
 M 
 
 (Hon.W.) 
 
 
 Gleig (Rev. G. R.) - 
 
 8 
 
 Goethe 
 
 19 
 
 Going (C. B.) - 
 
 25 
 
 Gore-Booth (Sir H. W. 
 
 11 
 
 Graham (P. A.) 
 
 13 
 
 (G. F.) - - 
 
 16 
 
 Granby (Marquis of) 
 
 12 
 
 Grant (Sir A.) - 
 
 M 
 
 Graves (R. P.) - 
 
 8 
 
 Green (T. Hill) 
 
 15 
 
 Greene (E. B.)- 
 
 5 
 
 Greville (C. C. F.) - 
 
 4 
 
 Grose (T. H.) - 
 
 ij 
 
 Gross (C.) - - 4. 5 
 
 Grove (F. C.) - 
 
 11 
 
 (Mrs. Lilly) 
 
 11 
 
 Gurnhill (J.) - 
 
 15 
 
 Gwilt (J.) - 
 
 25 
 
 Haggard (H. Rider)- 21 
 
 30 
 
 Hake (0.) - 
 
 12 
 
 Halliwell-PhillippsU.) 
 
 8 
 
 Hamlin (A. D. F.) - 
 
 
 Hammond (Mrs. J. H.) 
 
 4 . 
 
 Harding (S. B.) 
 
 
 Hardy (A. Gathorne-) 1: 
 
 .13 
 
 Harte (Bret) - 
 
 21 
 
 Harting(J. E.) - 
 
 12 
 
 Hartwig (G.) - 
 
 24 
 
 Hassall (A.) - 
 
 7 
 
 Haweis (H. R.) - 8 
 
 . 30 
 
 Heath (D. D.) - 
 
 14 
 
 Heathcote (J. M.) - 
 
 12 
 
 iC. G.) - 
 
 12 
 
 (N.) - - - 
 
 9 
 
 Helmholtz (Hermann 
 
 
 von) - 
 
 24 
 
 Henderson (Lieut- 
 
 
 Col. G. F.) 
 
 8 
 
 Henry (W.) 
 
 12 
 
 Henty (G. A.) - 
 
 26 
 
 Herbert (Col. Kenney) 
 
 12 
 
 Herod (Richard S.) - 
 
 13 
 
 Hilev (R. W.'i - 
 
 
 Hillier (G. Lacy) - 
 
 10 
 
 Hime iH. W.L., - 
 
 18 
 
 Hodgson (Shadworth)i5, 30 
 
 Hoenig (F.) 
 
 3° 
 
 Hogan (J. F.) - 
 
 7 
 
 Holmes (R. R.) 
 
 
 Homer - - - 
 
 
 Hope (Anthony) 
 
 21 
 
 Horace 
 
 18 
 
 Houston (D. F.) 
 
 5 
 
 Howitt (W.) - 
 
 9 
 
 Hudson (W. H.) - 
 
 24 
 
 Hullah (J.) 
 
 30 
 
 Jackson (A. W.) - 8 
 
 James (W.) - 15 
 
 jefferies (Richard) - 30 
 
 jekyll (Gertrude) - 30 
 
 Jerome (Jerome K.) - 22 
 
 Johnson (J. & J. H.) 30 
 
 Jones (H. Bence) - 25 
 
 Jordan (W. L.) - 17 
 
 owett (Dr. B.) - 17 
 oyce (P. W.) - 5, 22, 30 
 
 ustinian : - - 1 5 ' 
 
 Kant (I.) - - - 15 
 Kaye (Sir J. W.) - 5 
 
 Kellv(E.)- - - 15 
 Kent (C. B. R.) - 5 
 
 Kerr (Rev. J.) - - 12 
 
 Killick (Rev. A. H.) - 15 
 
 Kingsley (Rose G.) - 30 
 Kitchin (Dr. G. W.) 4 
 
 Knight (E. F.) - - 9, 12 
 
 KostliniJ.) - - 8 
 
 Kristeller (P.) - - 30 
 
 Page 
 Mill (John Stuart) - 15, 1; 
 Milner (G.) 31 
 
 Moilat (D.) - - 13, 19 
 Monck(\V. H. S.) - 15 
 Montague (F. C.) - 6 
 
 Moon (G. W.) - - 19 
 Moore (T.) - - 25 
 
 (Rev. Edward) - 14 
 
 Morgan (C. Lloyd) - 17 
 Morris (Mowbray) - 11 
 
 (W.) :8, 19, 20, 22, 31 
 
 Mulhall (M. G.) - 17 
 
 Nansen (F.) - - 9 
 
 Nesbit (E.) - 20 
 
 Nettleship (R. L.) - 15 
 
 Newman (Cardinal) - 22 
 
 Onslow (Earl of) 
 Osbourne (L) - 
 
 11, 12 
 23 
 
 Ladd (G. T.) - 
 Lang (Andrew) 5, 10, II, 
 17,18,19,20,21,22, 26, 30, 
 Lapsley (G. T.) 
 Lascelles (Hon. G.) 10, 
 Laurie (S. S.) - 
 Lawley (Hon. F.) - 
 Lear (H. L. Sidney) 
 Lecky (W. E. H.) 5, 15, 
 Lees (J. A.) 
 Leslie (T. E.Cliffe)- 
 Levett-Yeats (S.) - 
 Lillie(A.)- 
 Lindlev(J.) 
 Loch (C. S.) - 
 Lodge (H. C.) - 
 Loftie (Rev. W. J.) - 
 Longman (C. J.) 10,15 
 
 (F. W.) - 
 
 (G. H.) - 
 
 Lowell (A. L.) - 
 Lubbock (Sir John) 
 Lucan 
 
 Lutosla-.vski (W.) 
 Lvall (Edna) - 
 Lvttelton (Hon. R. H.) 
 
 (Hon. A.) - 
 
 Lytton (Earl of) - 5 
 
 19 
 
 Macaulay (Lord) - 6, 19 
 
 Macdonald (G.) - 9 
 
 (Dr. G.) - - 19, 32 
 
 Macfarren(Sir G. A.) 31 
 
 Mackail (J. W.) - 8, 18 
 
 Mackinnon (J.) - 6 
 
 Macleod (H. D.) - 17 
 Macpherson (Rev. H. A.)i2 
 
 Madden (D. H.) - 13 
 
 Magnusson (E.) - 22 
 
 Maher (Rev. M.) - 16 
 
 Malleson (Col. G.B.) 5 
 
 Mann (E. E.) - - 29 
 
 Marbot (Baron de) - 8 
 
 Marshman (J. C.) - 8 
 Martineau (Dr. James) 32 
 
 Mason (A. E. W.) - 22 
 
 Maskelyne (J. N.) - 13 
 
 Maunder (S.) - - 25 
 Max Muller (F.) 
 
 8,15, 16, 22, 31, 32 
 
 Mav (Sir T. Erskine* 6 
 
 Meade (L. T.) - - 26 
 Melville(G.J.Whyte) 22 
 
 Merivale (Dean) - 6 
 
 Merriman 'H. S.) - 22 
 
 Park(\V.) - - 14 
 
 Payne-Gallwey (Sir 
 
 ' R.) - - -11, 14 
 Pearson (C. H.) - 8 
 
 Peek (Hedley) - - 11 
 Pemberton (W. S. 
 
 Childe-) - - 7 
 
 Pembroke (Earl of) - 12 
 Pennant (C. D.) - 12 
 Phillipps-Wollev(C) 10,22 
 Phillips (Mrs. Lionel) 6 
 Pitman (C. M.) - 11 
 
 Pleydell-Bouverie (E. O.) 12 
 Pole (W.) - - - 14 
 Pollock (W. H.) - 11,31 
 Poole (W. H. and Mrs.) 29 
 Pooler (C. K.) - - 20 
 Poore (G. V.) - - 31 ! 
 Pope (W. H.) - - 12 
 Powell (E.) - - 6 
 
 Praeger (S. Rosamond) 26 
 Prevost (C.) - - 11 
 Pritchett (R. T.) - 12 
 Proctor (R. A.) 14, 24, 28 
 
 Raine (Rev. James) - 4 
 
 Rankin (R.) - - 20 I 
 Ransome (Cyril) - 3, 6 | 
 
 Raymond (W.) - 22 1 
 
 Reader (Emily E.) - 23 j 
 
 Rhoades (J.) - - 18 
 
 Ribblesdale (Lord) - 14 
 
 Rice (S. P.) - - 10 
 
 Rich (A.) - - - 18 
 Richardson (C.) - 10, 12 
 
 Richter (J. Paul) - 31 
 
 Rickaby (Rev. John) 16 
 
 (Rev. Joseph) - 16 
 
 Ridley (Sir E.) - - 18 
 
 Riley (J. W.) - - 20 
 Roget (Peter M.) - 16, 25 
 Romanes (G. J.) 
 
 8, 15, 17, 20, 32 
 
 (Mrs. G.J.) - 8 
 
 Ronalds (A.) - - 14 
 
 Roosevelt (T.) - - 4 
 
 Ross (Martin) - - 23 
 Rossetti (Maria Fran- 
 
 cesca) - - - 31 
 Rowe (R. P. P.) - 11 
 Russell (Lady)- - 8 
 (R.) --- 32 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Smith(W.P.Haskett) 
 
 10 
 
 Somerville (E.) 
 
 23 
 
 Sophocles 
 
 18 
 
 Soulsby (Lucy H.) - 
 
 31 
 
 Southev (R.) - 
 
 31 
 
 Spahr(C. B.) - 
 
 17 
 
 Spedding)J.) - 
 
 7. 14 
 
 Stanlev (Bishop) 
 
 24 
 
 (Lady) 
 
 8 
 
 Stebbing (W.) - 
 
 8,23 
 
 Steel (A. G.) - 
 
 10 
 
 Stephen (Leslie) 
 
 10 
 
 Stephens (H. Morse) 
 
 6 
 
 Stevens (R. W.) 
 
 3 1 
 
 Stevenson (R. L.) - 
 
 23, 26 
 
 Stock (St. George) - 
 
 15 
 
 Storr (F.) - 
 
 14 
 
 Strong (S. A.) - 
 
 3° 
 
 Stuart-Wortley(A.J.) 
 
 11,12 
 
 Stubbs(J. W.)- 
 
 6 
 
 Suffolk & Berkshire 
 
 
 (Earl of) - 
 
 11 
 
 Sullivan (Sir E.) 
 
 12 
 
 Sully (James) - 
 
 16 
 
 Sutherland (A. and G. 
 
 7 
 
 (Alex.) 
 
 16, 31 
 
 Suttner (B. von) 
 
 23 
 
 Swinburne (A. J.) - 
 
 16 
 
 Symes (J. E.) - 
 
 17 
 
 Tavlor (Meadows) - 
 
 7 
 
 — - (Una) 
 
 23 
 
 Tebbutt (C. G.) 
 
 12 
 
 Terrv (C. S.) - 
 
 8 
 
 Thornhill (W. J.) - 
 
 18 
 
 Todd (A.) - 
 
 7 
 
 Toynbee (A.* - 
 
 17 
 
 Trevelvan(SirG. O.) 6, 7, 8 
 
 (G. M.) - 
 
 6,7 
 
 Trollope (Anthonys- 
 
 23 
 
 Turner (ri. G.) 
 
 3i 
 
 TvndalKJ.) 
 
 7. i° 
 
 Tvrrell (R. Y.) - 
 
 18 
 
 Saintsbury (G.) 
 Sandars (T. C.) 
 Seebohm (F.) - 
 Selous (F. C.) - 
 Senior (\V.) - 
 Sewell (Elizabeth M.) 
 Shakespeare 
 Shand (A I.) 
 Shaw(W. A.) 
 Shearman (M.) 
 Sinclair (A.) 
 Smith (R. Bosworth) 
 (T. C.) - - 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 6,8 
 
 10, 14 
 
 11, 12 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 - 10, 11 
 
 Upton(F.K.and Bertha) 26 
 
 Van Dyke (J. C.) - 31 
 Verney (Frances P. 
 
 and Margaret M.) 8 
 
 Virgil - - - 18 
 
 Wagner (R.) - - 20 
 
 Wakeman (H. O.) - 7 
 
 Walford (L. B.) - 23 
 
 Wallas (Graham) - 8 
 
 Walpole (Sir Spencer) 7 
 
 Walrond (Col. H.) - 10 
 
 Walsingham (Lord)- 11 
 
 Walter (J.) 8 
 
 Ward (Mrs. W.) - 23 
 
 Warwick (Countess of) 31 
 Watson (A. E. T.) 10,11,12 
 Webb (Mr. and Mrs. 
 
 Sidney) - - 17 
 
 (T. E.) - -16,19 
 
 Weber (A.) - - 16 
 
 Weir (Capt. R.) - 11 
 
 West 1 B. B.) - - 23 
 
 Weyman (Stanley) - 23 
 Whately(Archbishop) 14, 16 
 
 (E. Jane) - - 16 
 
 Whitelaw (R.) - - 18 
 
 Wilcocks (J. C.) - 14 
 
 Wilkins (G.) - - 18 
 
 Willard (A. R.) - 31 
 
 Williams (T.) - - 7 
 
 Willich (C. M.) - 25 
 
 Witham (T. M.) - 12 
 
 Wood (Rev. J. G.) - 25 
 
 Wood-Martin (W. G.) 7 
 
 Wordsworth (W.) - 20 
 
 Wright (C. D.) - 17 
 
 Wvatt (A. J.) - - 19 
 
 Wylie (J. H. - - 7 
 
 Zeller (E.) 
 
 16
 
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