LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA GIFT OF MRS. MARY WOLFSOHN IN MEMORY OF HENRY WOLFSOHN "bi 3^&aH ^k^S^^ / V - J* V |vK ** V^ -?7l W%T .v* ^ft^s?^ , *- *&* ^-W^*J? ^^;wlas&03& ; ^K^.f 3S^( *"5 EARTH, SEA m SKY OR MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE BEING A FULL AND GRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF ALL THAT IS WONDERFUL IN EVERY CONTINENT OF THE GLOBE, IN THE WORLD OF WATERS AND THE STARRY HEAVENS. CONTAINING Willing fidventeg on land and Sea RENOWNED DISCOVERIES OF THE WORLD'S GREATEST EXPLORERS IN ALL AGES, AND REMARKABLE PHENOMENA IN EVERY REALM OF NATURE. EMBRACING The Striking Physical Features of the Earth THE PECULIAR CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HUMAN RACE, OF ANIMALS; BfRDS, INSECTS, ETC., INCLUDING A VIVID DESCRIPTION OF THE Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans AND OF THE POLAR SEAS, THE MONSTERS OF THE DEEP, BEAUTIFUL SEA- SHELLS AND PLANTS, SINGULAR FISHES AND DWELLERS IN THE WORLD OF WATERS, REMARKABLE OCEAN CURRENTS, ETC. TOGETHER WITH THE imttg |l[{mwtttw 4 % Spriw and Jptewg Jg*kws THE WHOLE COMPRISING A Vast Treasury of all that is Marvelous and Wonderful IN THE EARTH, SEA, AIR, AND SKIES. BY HENRY DAVENPORT NORTHROP, D. D., Author of "Marvelous Wonders of the Whole World," etc., etc. EMBELLISHED WITH OVER 300 FINE ENGRAVINGS THE J. DEWING COMPANY, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by J. R. JONES, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. ANIMALS OF THE TROPICS. UNIVERSITY OF THE UNIVERSITY or PREFACE. In the preparation of this work, the object has been to furnish a vol- ume which would in itself form a complete library of knowledge and en- tertainment. Whatever is worth knowing, whatever is of absorbing in- terest respecting the history, manners and customs of strange and curious people ; respecting the singular animals of pre-historic times and the mar- vels of natural history, including the curiosities and unique creations of the animal kingdom, will here be found. A natural division has been made according to the three great divi- sions of the universe, EARTH, SEA, AND SKY, and the result is a combina- tion of Three Books in one Volume. In the first part of the work the reader is conducted through the coun- tries and climes of the whole world. He is even led back to periods be- fore the advent of man. The ancient world with its vast forests, remark- able deluges, strange animals and gigantic upheavals rises before him. He sees immense quadrupeds and birds, more monstrous than any of the imaginary creatures of old mythology. Coming down to a later period the reader visits the famous countries of the globe, climbs the mountain ranges of Asia, stands on " Alps piled on Alps," witnesses burning volcanoes-, extinct craters, terrible avalanches and landslides, moving glaciers, earthquakes that swallow cities with thousands of their inhabitants, the brilliant aurora painted on the northern sky, and the fatal ravages of cyclones, and tornadoes. The marvelous relics that are discovered under the microscope, together with living creatures are computed by tens of thousands to the square inch. The various Races of Men, their customs, forms of government and' re- ligious rites, human sacrifices and savage wars are fully described. What exploits of heroism, and bravery in the face of danger and deathi it has cost to explore these realms and reveal their amazing secrets ! As may be seen, the book abounds in strange adventures, startling situations, in- teresting anecdotes, descriptions of curious animals and the most fascinat- ing revelations in natural history. (iii) iv PREFACE. In the second part of the volume the reader is made a voyager over the world of waters and an explorer of its wonderful depths. He sees here the vast variety of inhabitants in the briny deep, comprising innumerable species of living creatures, from the coral insect, building its singular is- lands, up to the huge sea-serpent, that astounding monster and object of terror. He is shown in this World's Aquarium the lowest forms of life, fantas- tic shrubs, brilliant sponges, bell-shaped jelly-fishes, the hairy medusae, the glutinous hag, the curious star-fish, the electric torpedo, the fishing frog, creatures that wear armor, the savage cuttle-fish, the pearly nau- tilus, the flying-fish, the voracious shark, the singing-fish and other mar- velous creatures whose multitude is as the sands of the sea. The perils of the deep, celebrated voyages and miraculous escapes, the most terrible shipwrecks, the dangers of whaling cruises and the loss of hundreds of lives, the notable feats of the diving bell and the deep sea- dredgings which have revealed miracles of creation in the cavernous depths of the ocean, the venturesome exploits of pearl-fishing : these and myriad other things are here placed before the reader in glowing descrip- tions, with elegant illustrations, the beauty and charm of which are apparent on every page. The reader finds that the volume does not end here, and that he has more worlds to conquer. He has yet to survey the starry universe and stand in awe before the abysses of infinite space, and be dazzled by the armies of light that sweep over the celestial plains. He gazes at Arcturus, Orion and the Pleiades ; at clusters of nebulae which are found to com- prise countless orbs ; at gigantic Suns, so distant that they are called fixed stars, arrayed, as the astronomer's telescope assures us, in all the gorgeous colors of the rainbow ; at Constellations which must have been old when man was young, and at fleets of myriad orbs sailing in the upper deep, led by the Lords and High Admirals of Creation. He beholds showers of falling meteors, and the amazing flight of comets, " those em- blazoned flags of Deity." Old astrology is likewise scanned, and ancient Superstitions and Gro- tesque Beliefs are described, together with Eclipses, Coronas, Auroras and all Celestial Phenomena. HENRY DAVENPORT NORTHROP. CONTENTS. BOOK I. THE EARTH. 'CHAPTER i. MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. Curious Old Legends and Superstitions A Chinese Quarryman A Scandinavian God with his Sledge- Hammer Strange Things Seen by a Sybil The Crust of the Earth a Museum of Singular Relics Footprints and Skeletons of Gigantic Birds and Four-Footed Animals Enormous Sizes and Uncouth Forms Extinct Species of Animal Life An Immense Fish-Lizard Extraordinay Marine Reptile A Wing-Fingered Monster A Freak of Nature A Fossil Reptile Sixty Feet Long The Scaly Hylseosaurus Discovery of the Mammoth An Island of Bones The Huge Dinotherium A Bulky Creature that could neither Walk, Leap nor Climb Natural History Printed on Leaves of Stone Marks of Raindrops, Trees and Birds on Rocks Fossil Remains of Myriads of Minute Beings Layers of Various Kinds of Shells Forming Marble of Great Beauty Wonders of a Drop of Water Under the Microscope 25 CHAPTER II. PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. Astonishing Convulsions and Physical Revolutions Fabulous Traditions Histories of Reptiles Written in Stone Gigantic Inhabitants of the Ancient Globe Skeletons of Extinct Animals found in Rocks A Winged Monster Combat Between Enormous Reptiles The Huge Megalosaurus A Vampire of the Pre- Historic Age A Creature Curiously Constructed The Wing-Fingered Bird The Famous Iguanodon A Vivid Picture of the Early Ages Animal Life in the Oolic Period A Dragon on Wings The Remarkable Dinotherium The Strange Hand- Animal The Glyptoden The Primeval Armadillo A Creature that could Swallow an Ox Megatherium Animals in Mortal Combat A Bird Without Wings Flowers in Stone Fossil Fishes Beautiful Shells 58 CHATPER III. THE TERRIBLE PHENOMENA OF EARTHQUAKES. Nature's Destructive Agencies Tremendous Forces Pent up Within the Earth Frequency of Earthquake Shocks A Country in South America Never Quiet (v) vi CONTENTS. Signs of the Approaching Disaster A Part of our own Country Sunk by a Convulsion The Great Earthquake of Calabria Human Beings Tossed in the Air Heavy Objects Whirling About Farms Changing Places Jamaica Visited Destruction of the City of Lisbon The Sea Rushing Madly on the Shore Terrible Loss of Life Horrors Multiplied Immense Fissures in the Earth Great Calamity at Messina Statistics Showing Appalling Destruction of Life Charleston in Terror Java and Southern Europe Shaken 106 CHAPTER IV. MOUNTAINS OF FIRE. Terrible Images of Grandeur Open Mouths of Fire The Earth a Seething Furnace Inside A Lighthouse in the Eolian Islands Dull Thunders Shaking Moun- tains A River of Fire Thirty Miles Long Violent Eruption of Mauna Loa A Scene of Appalling Sublimity Jets of Fire and Smoke a Thousand Feet High Connection Between Earthquakes and Volcanoes Hoffman's Vivid Description of Fiery Stromboli A Volcano Bursting out of the Sea Graham's Island in Conflagration A Party Caught by a Deluge of Ashes and Hot Stones Cities Buried Under Floods of Lava from Vesuvius Remarkable Asiatic Volcanoes A Strange New Zealand Tradition The Sea Boiling and Driven Back 120 CHAPTER V. ADVENTURES AMONG STRANGE PEOPLE. Beautiful Islands Long Veiled in Mystery The First Voyage Around the World Zoological Gardens The Natives of the Pacific Isles Various Types of Sav- ages The Remarkable Island of New Zealand Life Among the Maories Weapons of War A Figthing Race of Men An Exciting Episode Wicked Treachery Hideous War Dances Queer Performances of an Old Chief- Children Imitating the Art of War Savage Cannibalism Tragic Death of a Blind Queen A Chief in War Costume Witches and Witchcraft A Native Priest Huge Wooden Idols The Sandwich Islands Beauty of the Women Expert Swimmers Extraordinary Feats of Surf Swimming The Dagger that Killed Captain Cook A Splendid Race of Savages Kamehameha Catching Spears The Marquesans Elegant Tattooing A Chief Decorated from Head to Foot The Puncturing Needle 143 CHAPTER VI. WILD TRIBES AND THEIR CURIOUS CUSTOMS. A Remarkable Uncivilized Nation in South America Description of the Araucan- ians A Curious Method of Shaving A Hairy Upper Lip Thought to be Highly Improper Disputes Settled by Pulling Hair Women who Paint their Faces- Savages who Insist on Etiquette Horses Superbly Decorated Singular Saddle and Siirrups Mar-riage Customs An Exciting Elopement A Furious Com- batExpert Horse-back Riders Using the Lasso Dangerous Adventure with a Wild Bull The Animal in the Toils Disgusting Cannibalism Preferring Human Flesh to Pork Old "Turtle Pond "Savage Atrocity A Fijian Legend The Fijian Islander's Canoe An Ingenious Contrivance Expert CONTENTS. VH Navigation Natives of Borneo Dyak Pirates Small Men of Great Strength Extraordinary Physical Endurance American Indians A Hotly Contested Ball Game An Old Arab Hunter Capturing a Hippopotamus The Old "River King" in his Glory A Struggle Against Odds Daring of the Na- tives 171 CHAPTER VII. CURIOSITIES OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. Wonderful Revelations in Natural History Vast Multitudes of Living Creatures Earth, Air and Water the Home of Life Colossal Monsters of Forest and Jun- gleThe Towering Giraffe Ludicrous Movements A Beautiful Creature Power of Self Defense The Giraffe in the Old Roman Circus A Swift Chase and Capture The Striped Zebra The Most Beautiful of Quadrupeds The King of Portugal and his Four Zebras A Creature Hard to be Tamed Animal Sacrifices in Eastern Countries The Ponderous Rhinoceros Made to Fight in the Roman Colosseum A Monster Almost Iron-Plated Haunts of the Clumsy Beast Hunting the Rhinoceros Fatal Stroke with a Sword Story of a Terri- ble Encounter The Voracious Crocodile Killed at Roman Games Arabs Wounded by Crocodiles A Friendly Bird The Attack with a Dagger The Famous Gavial of India A Reptile on Wings The Flying Frog A Reptile with Exquisite Colors 193 CHAPTER VIII. WILD ANIMALS OF THE FOREST AND JUNGLE. Old Classic Tales Concerning the Lion His Majesty Once a Native of Europe Leaping the Hedge Into the Trap Captured by Stratagem Boundaries of the Lion's Kingdom A Human Head in a Lion's Mouth A Roar Like the Sound of an Earthquake Alarm of the Inhabitants of P'ain and Forest Massive Muscles and Immense Shoulders A Singular Encounter Shocking Scene A Heart-Rending Cry for Help Brute Affection The Sailor and Baboon Living stone's Adventure with a Lion The Royal Tiger Tamed for a Pet Dreadful Ferocity A Guide Killed by a Blow Exciting Episodes in Tiger Hunting Carrying Off a Buffalo Savage Courts Entertained by Brutal Sport Elephants Hunting the Tiger The American Black Bear The Labiated Bear The Bear's Song Ludicrous Antics The Celebrated " Martin " The Grgantic Hippopota- musDescription of the Animal Arrival of a River-Horse in Europe Strange Actions and Crowds of Curious Spectators 217 CHAPTER IX. REMARKABLE TYPES OF ANIMAL LIFE. The American Puma Killing Prey for the Sake of Killing Two Hunters in tht Catskills A Sportsman's Shocking Death Singular Encounter with a Puma- Power of Gentleness upon the Brute Creation The Great Grizzly Bear A Clumsy Creature Blind Bears Regaining Sight The Famous Jungle Bear Claws of Unique Construction Hunter's Ingenious Methods of Capture How Vin CONTENTS. the "Jungler" Acts in Captivity The Bear's Song The Hedgehog A Prickly Covering A Long Winter's Sleep The Hedgehog Proof Against Poison The Eternal Foe of Serpents The Brazilian Porcupine A Creature with an Extra- ordinary Armor Classic Legends Concerning the Porcupine An Animal that Lacks Brains Common Porcupine Method of Showing Anger A Quadruped Rolled up like a Ball The Armadillo A Thick Coat of Mail A Rapid Digger in the Earth A Bone-Covered Ball Tumbling Unhurt Down a Precipice -A Sense of Wonderful Acuteness The Scaly Ant-Eater A Toothless Animal- Scales like those of a Fish The Agile Kangaroo Curious Pouch for Carrying Young A Long Leaper Hard Fighters American Opossum A Lover of Barn-yards Odd Method of Transporting Little Opossums 244 CHAPTER X. WILD SPORTS IN THE TROPICS. The Bulky Elephant Tale of the Assyrian Queen Panic and Frightful Carnage Ivory Palaces Thrones of Elephants' Tusks Elephant Gymnasts The Mon- ster Frightened by a Horse Revenge for an Insult -Droves of Game Passion- ate Cry and Wild Rush A Situation Apparently Hopeless At the Mercy of the Infuriated Beast Exploits of Jan Wildeman A Frightened Scotsman Immense Quantities of Ivory Baldwin Pursued by an Elephant Miraculous Escape Exciting Chase Goatskin Clothing Torn to Shreds The Rhinoc- eros Powerful Animal Hunted with Elephants Terrible Weapon of Attack and Defence Story of a Desperate Fight Hunting Rhinoceroses with Horses Strange ''Rhinoceros Birds" Mad Beast Attacking Hunters Lucky Shot "Fire-Eating Rhinoceros" Routing a Camp at Night Horse Saved by a Bullet Sudden Upset of a Wagon Helping the Young to EscapeVast Size of the Hippopotamus Anger Easily Aroused Manner of Hunting the River- Horse Hiding Under Water Cumming's Adventure with a Hippo Man and Be*st Splashing in the Water Together Unique Surgical Operation Steering the Huge Creature Ashore Boat Smashed by a Sea-Cow Snatched from Devouring Jaws Crocodiles Startled from Slumber Dangers of Goriila Hunt- ing Fierce Aspect of the Gorilla Amazing Power of the "Wild Man " Ele- phants Routed by Gorillas The Fleet Ostrich Modes of Capturing the "Flying Camel" Hunters' Disguise A Flying Run Baldwin and Andersson's Adven- tures Concern.of the Old Birds for their Young 264 CHAPTER XL SIGHTS IN THE WORLD'S MENAGERIE. Man in the Jaws of the Lion Meeting the Great Beast Death from the Stroke < f a Paw Jacob Bok's Adventure Lion's Gratitude Magnanimity of the King of Beasts Shaking Mane and Lashing Tail Tremendous Strength Narrative of Brehm Spectral Lemur A Creature with Singular Eyes and Claws Fine Tree-Climbers The Babiroussa Quadruple Tusks A Restless and Ferocious Beast White-Lipped Peccary Plucky Fighters Wart-Hog A Dangerous Brute Invader of Cultivated Fields Expert Swimmer Adventure of Captain Harris The Lithe Panther Supple Muscles of Great Strength Sudden Spring- Thirst for Blood Doctor Brehm's Remarkable Experience An Old Dog faced CONTENTS. ix Baboon Dreadful Encounter Courage of a Malay Captain The Tapir An Omniverous Quadruped Cousin of the Hippopotamus A Fortunate Nose Whistling Tapirs Tapir Domesticated The Wallachian Sheep Extraordinary Horns Splendid Growth of Wool Mountain Sheep of Bokhara Horns of Surprising Size A Dwelling on High Rocks Flying Fox Marvelous Membrane Unique Product of the Animal Kingdom Hanging from Forest Branches Arctic Seals Elegant Fur Hunting the Seal Sea-Elephant The Walrus Use of Tusks Perils of Walrus Hunting 306 CHAPTER XII. FOUR HANDED-ANIMALS. The Gorilla Giant of the Forest A Missionary's Explorations and Discoveries- Curiosity of Civilized Nations Awakened Gorilla Huts Low Order of Intelli- genceEnormous Jaws and Physical Strength The First White Man who Killed a Gorilla How Gorillas Bury their Dead Thrilling Adventures of Du Chaillu A Savage Combat The Orang-Outang Man-like Ape Awkward Motions Great Power of Mimicry Dreaded Adversary Laughable Tricks Orang of the Prince of Orange Escape from the Cage Brute Gentleness and Affection An Orang on Shipboard Inveterate Tippler Ravenous Thieves Orang's Death Guereza Monkey Elegant Decoration Beauty of Color Monkey Grimaces Droll Antics Proboscis Monkey Ample Dimensions of Nose Dog-Faced Baboon Immense Troops Prowlers and Plunderers A Chaplain's Story Chased by Baboons Lion Monkey Irritable Creatures Hairy Appendages... 332 CHAPTER XIII. PECULIAR SPECIES OF BIRDS. The World's Favorites Fairies of the Air Orchestras on the Wing Creatures whose Clothing Grows on Them Specimens of Cockatoos Noisy Flights Easily Tamed and Affectionate The Night Swallow A Fine Streamer Beauty of Color Graceful Movements Esculent Swallow The Strangest Food in the World Remarkable Nests Sappho Humming Bird Rainbow Colors Dart- ing Through the Air Sword Bill Long Beak Peregrine Falcon Ancient "Hawking" A Bird Trained for the Chase Combat in the Air Secretary Bird A Warrior with Wings Death to Snakes Power of Leg and Foot Cour- age that Never Fails Remarkable Birds' Nests Titmous/e Closing the Door of the Nest A Watchful Sentinel Sociable Grossbeaks Wonderful Nest A Bird that Sews with Thread and Needle Tailor Bird's Nest Three-Toed Wood- pecker A Creature that Leaves its Mark Penguins Wings and Fins Com- bined "Sittingup Like a Major" Description by Darwin Training up Young Penguins The World Renowned Pelican Marvelous Sight Great Assembly of Birds Montgomery's Poetical Tribute to the Pelican 354 CHAPTER XIV. THE IMPERIAL EAGLE. Monarch of Mountain and Forest Majestic Flights Gazing at the Sun Rapa- cious Tyrants Elevated Nest Symbol of Roman Empire Tribute of Mrs. He- mans to Wounded Eagle Ama/ ing Gift of Sight Seizure of Marie Delex A X CONTENTS. Monster of the Air Children Carried Away on Wings Frightful Encounters A Daring Rescue Forest King on His Crag Swift Descent Shrewd Method of Taking Prey The Bald Eagle Dimensions of Sea-Eagle Preying on Quad- rupeds Mated Once for Life Osprey or Fish Eagle Peculiar Foot and Toes Plunging Down from Vast Heights Claws of Astonishing Strength Harpy Eagle Tenant of Mexico and South America Hard Fighter Destroyer of Animal Life Sure Aim and Fatal Blow Feathers Used for Decorations- Striking Colors of Plumage 377 CHAPTER XV. CHARMING CREATURES OF THE AIR. Beauty of the Bird of Paradise Strange Guesses" A Heavenly Residence" Fly- ing Against the Wind Method of Catching the Paradise Bird Rising Above the Gale Plumage of Wonderful Elegance Bird Seen in a Mirror Fastidious Creature Pride of Feathers Pretty Hedge-Sparrow Great Pains in Building a Nest Fine Singers Nightingale Learning the Hedge-Sparrow's Song Dis- covery of the Lyre-Bird Singular Form of Tail Graceful Appearance Swift Runner Sudden Break in the Music Savages Decorated with Superb Feath- ers The Swift Swallow Ingenious Aerial Oars Long Flights Extraordinary Migrations Guesses by Scientific Men ' ' When the Swallows Homeward Fly' ' Argus Pheasant Size and Color A Beauty of Sumatra Plumage Decorated with a Hundred Eyes Short Life in Captivity Old Birds with Gay Feathers Story of Croesus and Solon "Golden-Flower Fowl" of China Far- Fly ing Alba- trossExpert Fisher Nest Built up on the Ground The Plumed Crane Milton's Description Story of William the Conqueror Habits of Crane Fam- ilyLudicrous Vanity of a Crane Dweller in Tree-Tops 391 CHAPTER XVI. CURIOUS SPECIMENS OF THE FEATHERED TRIBE. The Odd-Looking Flamingo " Bean-Pole' ' of the Bird World Fiery Plumage- Elegant Appearance Singular Nest Remarkable Construction of Jaws The " Kiwi-Kiwi" Wingless Creatures Descendants of the Ancient Dinornis New Zealand Chiefs Dressed in the Skin of the Apertyx An Egg that Weighs One-fourth as much as the Bird Habits of the Apertyx The Ostrich Bird of the Desert Extraordinary Nest and Eggs Birdlings Hatched by the Sun Arabian Stories of the Ostrich Royal Carriage Drawn by a Team of Ostriches Riding the Two-legged Steed Cunning Methods of Capture American Os- trich Described Noisy Guinea-Fowl Flesh of Fine Flavor Conspicuous Crest Eggs Colored like the Plumage The Sacred Ibis Varied Colors Bird of Mexico Egyptian Veneration for the Ibis Regular Migration Embalmed Remains in Egyptian Burial Places The Giant Heron Lonely Creature In- habitants of Marshes and Water Courses Singular Habits Seeking Prey- Standing for Hours on one Leg Little Herons The Heron and Falcon in Combat The Owl Immense Eyes A Night Prowler White Owl Tenant of Barns Voracity for Mice The Owl Attacking a Man Little Birds' Revenge The Darter Long Neck The Famous Stork Remarkable Intelligence A Good Wife and Mother Storks Sentenced to Death for Infidelity The Adju- tantBlue-Headed Parakeets 413 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XVII. MARVELOUS CREEPING ANIMALS. Reptiles of Antiquity Animal Curiosities Fangs of Deadly Poison Strange Mode of Breathing Historic Chameleon Shooting Tongue Changing Colors Two Animals in One A creature Asleep on one Side and Awake on the Other Five-Toed Geckos Curious Suction Foot Nimble Running on Smooth Sur- faces Tongue like a Dart The Common Iguana South American Reptile Pouch Under the Jaw Hunting the Iguana Lizards for Breakfast Darwin's Description of the Iguana The Sea Guana Attachment of Male for Female A Gallant Defender Capital Swimmers Bellowing Bull-Frogs Frogs Giving First Idea of Electric Telegraph Housed in Winter Quarters Stories of the Domesticated Frog How a Frog Disappeared and what Became of Him Won- derful Horned-Frog The Mysterious Salamander Old Notions about a Crea- ture that could Resist Fire Human Clothing that will not Burn Land Tor- toisesFinely Colored Shells Remarkable Longevity Elephantine Tortoise How the Tortoise Feeds Astounding Surgical Operation Value of the Tor- toise Shell The Tun Snail A Creeping Oddity 441 CHAPTER XVIII. MONSTROUS REPTILES OF THE TROPICAL WORLD. The Crocodile Power of Destruction The Tyrant of the Tropical Seas Double Jaws Teeth and Scales Egg of the Crocodile Old Stories of the East The Crocodile's Little Friend Danger Signal A Harpoon Thrust Swift Swim- mer Deadly Serpents A Cold- Blooded Bosom Companion Eastern Snake- Charmers Coolness Saves a Man's Life Foolhardy Risk Gurling Killed Poison Working with Lightning Rapidity Venomous Viper Dancing Snakes Fascination of Music for Serpents Death of a Notorious Serpent-Eater A Disgusting Glutton Huge Boa-Constrictor Blind Adoration of the Boa Lines by Southey A Monster Swallowing its Bed Disgorging a Blanket Vast Size of the Boa Enormous Muscular Power Fed to Death Tree Snakes with Magnificent Colors The Slender Whip Snake Frightful Accident in Guinea Ghastly Fangs The Egg-Eater Immense Throat of a Tiny Creature Serpents of - Surprising Beauty Queer Popular Superstitions The Red- Throated Lizard Hideous Cristatus The Curious Moloch A Freak in the World of Reptiles The Pipa Toad A Creature that Hatches Eggs on its Back- Description of the Batrachians Death from a Toad Winter's Sleep in a Bed of Mud 467 CHAPTER XIX. MARVELS OF INSECT LIFE. Intelligence Among Insects All Sorts of Insect Mechanics Pillaging Pirates The Goliath Beetle Monstrosities and Freaks "Little Devils" Gorgeous Coloring of Shells and Wings Jewelry Made of Insects Wingless Butterflies Extraordinary Changes Through Which Insects Pass Metamorphosis of the Dragon-Fly Perfection of Organization Wonderful Handiwork of Nature Gnats More than a Match for Men The African Fly A Dreaded Pest Magnified xii CONTENTS. Proboscis of a Common Fly Amazing Rapidity of Movement Insect Gym- nasts and their Strength Ingenious Mechanisms Transformation of the Common Gnat Insect Saws, Rakes, and Chisels Surpassing Man's Finest Instruments Curious Method of Talking Eyes Like Telescopes Military Drill The Remarkable Achievements of the Spider An Insect Better than it Appears Slave-Holding Ants A Colony Saved by an Old Slave Insects that Keep a Dairy Ants and their Milch Cows Warrior Termites Builders and Destroyers of Towns 495 CHAPTER XX. MUSEUM OF REMARKABLE INSECTS. Anatomy of Insects Superior to that of Man Curiously Formed Eggs Lifting the Lid and Stepping Out Not Taking the Trouble to be Born Eggs Exquisitely Decorated S^'.less Insects Flying Lamps Insects Illuminating Dwellings Brilliant Appc ranees Beetles The Sacred Beetle of Egypt Insect Under- taker Death Watch Droll Superstition Hercules Beetle Six Years' Impris- onment The House Cricket Poet's Address Ship Saved by a Cricket How the Chirping is Done Wings Without Flight The Spider's Web Ingenious Mechanism Water Spider How Air is Obtained A Complete Diving Bell Rapacious Bird Spider Females Practicing Cannibalism on their Husbands Children Devouring Mothers Thread of Myriads of Fibres The Great Moth Family Death's-Head Moth Fungus Growing on an Insect's Head Ravagers of the Forest Visit to the Woods Whirlwind of Fire Waging Organized War on Moths Incalculable Destruction by Mites Stenographers, Carpenters, Joiners, Carvers among Insects Wood-Boring Goat Moth Making a Place for Eggs The Historic Locust Ravages in the West Flights of Devastation Where Locusts Come From Devouring One Another Rapid Growth of Young Orchestra of Strange Instruments Return after Seventeen Years No Forgetfulness Ephemera Creatures of a Day Described Bees and their Re- markable Habits Insect Intelligence 513 CHAPTER XXI. CURIOSITIES OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Living Seed in the Earth The Tap-RootPlants that Perspire Catching Water from Trees Garden Sun-Flower An Old Physician Living in a Pair of Scales Vegetable Marvel The Weeping Tree Plant with a Movable Lid Water Treasured in Plants in the Burning Desert Leaves that Flash Lightning The Famous Cow-Tree Vegetable Milk Butler Tree Poisonous Compounds "Herculean Remedy "India-Rubber Tree Golden Wealth for the World- Vegetable Giants Astonishing Magnitudes Eighteen Guests Taking Supper in a Hollow Tree Enormous Lime-Tree Normandy Oak Turned into a Church Riding on Horseback Through Tree-Cavities Colossal Baobab Strange Burial Place Gigantic Cedars of California Tops Five Hundred Feet in the Air Giving a Ball on a Stump Vegetable Longevity Methuselahs of the Forest Historic Lime at Fribourg Old age of the Fir Army of Cortez under one Tree Legends of Teneriffe Dragon's-Blood Tree Where we get Camphor " Serpents of the Vegetable Kingdom "Deadly Nettles The Fatal CONTENTS. xin Upas Astounding Stories Antidotes to Poison Medicinal Treasures Famous Tartarian Lamb Part Plant and Part Animal Wonderful Rafflesia Plants without Leaves Borrowing those of their Neighbors Picturesque Scene in the Tropics Giant Ferns Mangrove Tree Sea of Fire Seeds Sprouting in Hu- man Noses and Stomachs Marvelous Enginery Balloon Puff-Ball 543 CHAPTER XXII. PERILS OF MOUNTAIN AND DESERT. Creation a Museum of the Marvelous Awful Mountain Peaks with Veiled Faces Mont Blanc Sovereign, of Mountains Attempt to Ascend the Giant of the Alps Ambitious Young Naturalist A Complete Failure Snowy Chasms Afraid to Sleep Determined to Conquer or Die Trembling on the Mountain's Edge Adventures of Jacques Balmat Blinded by Exposure Daring Expe- dition Scaling Snowy Precipices On the Far Summit Miserable End of Bal- mat World Startled by an Alpine Tragedy A Russian Traveller Twelve Guides " Cowards!" Forward An Awful Disaster Hurled Headlong Hun- dreds of Feet Death in the Deep Abyss Bodies Left in the Yawning Gulf- Running Frightful Risks Miraculous Escapes Recent Ghastly Discoveries Rivers of Ice Famous Mer De Glace Flower Garden in a Desert of Snow Hospital of St. Bernard Travellers Caught in the Storm The Great St. Ber- nard Dog Rescuing the Perishing Exploits of the Dog "Bass" Dangers of the Desert Cyclones and Columns of Hot Sand Air that Scorches Man and Beast Graphic Description of the Storm Adventures wi Africa Zambesi Falls Perilous Ascent of a Nile Cataract... ,...576 BOOK II. THE SEA. CHAPTER I. MONSTERS OF THE GREAT DEEP. The Ladders of the Titans The Watery Desert A Great Unknown Mysteries of the Deep Marvelous Products Terrible Marine Monsters The World- Re- nowned "Kraken" Battle with a Strange Foe The Great Sea Serpent Singular Stories Old Sailors' Narratives The Huge Ocean Giant Curious Habits of the Whale Perilous and Exciting Adventures A Miraculous Escape The Flying Dragon A Fish with Spikes Seized by a Shark The Stomias- Boa The Hammer-Headed Shark The Siamese Twins of the Sea 597 CHAPTER II. MYSTERIES OF THE OCEAN. Chinese Belief Respecting the Deluge The Great Mexican Inundation A Huge Gulf Swallowing Rivers The World would be Dead Without the Ocean The xiv CONTENTS. Race-Course of Commerce Varied Color of the Sea Causes of the Different Tints Countless Myriads of Animalcules Phosphoresence of the Sea Waves Silvered with Flashing Light A Magical Effect Cyclones and Tempests Strange Story of a Lost Vessel Terrible Fury of Ocean Storms The Dreaded Waterspout Ships Lifted Bodily from the Sea and Hurled Back The Myster- ious Argonaut A Creature that Sails in a Boat The 'Monstrous Octopus An Ink- Battery A Shot that Hit Dreadful Encounter with a Cuttle -Fish A Pearl- Diver Attacked Nautilus of the Pre-Historic Seas 631 CHAPTER III. THE WORKMEN OF THE SEA. The Ocean a Nursery of Life World-Makers Destruction of the Weaker Marine Tribes Half Plants and Half Animals Graceful Forms and Brilliant Hues- Flowers of Ocean Astounding Multitude of Infusoria Mountains Formed from Tiny Shells Islands Built by Coral Insects Magnificent Paris Built by Animal- cules Coral Forests in the Sea Coral Islands Hundreds of Miles in Extent Ships in Danger The Birth of New Lands The Marvelous Actinia Plants of Living Stone Myriad Forms of Life in the Sea Depths of Amazing Splendor The Humming Birds of the Ocean 653 CHAPTER IV. RARE SPECIMENS OF OCEAN LIFE. The Famous Narwhal Many Teeth in One Strange Superstitions as to the Sea- Unicorn A Formidable Weapon The Best Kind of Ivory Narwhal Fishing An Arctic Black Hole of Calcutta Immense Size of the Narwhal The Huge Grampus The "Killer" Capturing Seals Story of the Whale Flashes like Lightning from the Waves The Hairy Medusae A Wake of Silvery Light "All Hands Ahoy!" Whale Fishing and its Dangers Sea- Birds and Their Curious Habits The Elegant Black-Backed Gull Laughing Gull "Haw, ha, ha, Haw ! "Birds that are Pirates The Sea-Mew and its Island Home The Wonderful Island of St. Kildare Humming-Birds of the Ocean Colors that Dazzle the Eye Beautiful Specimens of Scaly-Finned Fishes Flag-Ship Coral-FishRock-FishWhip-Fish Duke-FishEmperor-Fish The Sharp- shooter of the Sea Good Aim and Successful Shot A Fish With Two Lungs Burrowing in the Mud Savage Fighters A Fish that Hisses The Frog- CatcherCurious Climbing Fish Experiments with the Mud-Jumper A Slug- gard that Proves to be Swifter than an Arrow 666 CHAPTER V. BUTTERFLIES OF THE OCEAN. Beautiful Dwellers in the Sea Fishes with Wings Both Water and Air their Ele ments Alighting on Ships Curious Formation of Fins The Flying Gurnard t of the Mediterranean Sailing Through the Air Mounting on Wings to Leave Enemies Behind Prey for Sea Gulls Swallows of the Ocean The Growling Gurnard Strange Noises The Gurnard's Greediness The Marvelous Red Fire-Fish The Terror of Arabian Fishermen The King-FishGreat Size and CONTENTS. xv Beauty Savory Meat The Drum-Fish An Orchestra in the Sea Narratives by Humboldt and Tennent Tinkling Sounds of Great Sweetness Paradise Fish and its Singular Habits A Haughty Male and His Brutality The Sea But- terfly The Bridegroom Winged Insects of the Deep 687 CHAPTER VI. SINGULAR VARIETIES OF FISHES. Amazing Contrasts in Ocean Life The Great Sword Fish Vast Size and Power A Creature Armed for Destruction Formidable Weapon of the Sword Fish A Sword Left in the Timber of a Ship The Whale's Great Enemy The Ocean Bat Peculiar Attitude in the Water Arms and Fins Combined A Creature of Hideous Ugliness The Slender Pipe Fish The Needle of the Sea Strange Pouch for Carrying Eggs Color of the Pipe Fish A Dried Curiosity Sea- Horse Body Clad with Mail Tail that Grasps Short-Nosed Hippocampus Peculiarities of the Short-Nose The Skate An Enterprising Digger Elegant White Fins The European Sting Ray A Bag for the Infant Fieh The Sea- Devil A Fish that Angles Singular Method of Capturing Prey The Extraor- dinary Tape Fish A Beautiful Marine Animal Great Length of the Tape Fish The Sea-CatSilvery Color Wonderful Healing Oil Flat Fish Turbot Plaice Flounder Sole Spiny Sea Porcupine Globe Fish Sun Fish The Sturgeon An Ocean Delicacy A Fish Fond of Mud , 699 CHAPTER VII. WANDERERS IN THE WORLD OF WATERS. Hairy Creatures Roaming in the Deep Immense Variety of Jelly-Fishes The Shining Sea " Myriads of Living Points" Bathers Entangled in Hair Portu- guese Man- of- War The "Jelly" Curiously Born Hunger never Satisfied The Trunk Fish Mailed Rovers of the Sea A Fish with Spurs Famous Nar- whal Extraordinary Weapon Finest Ivory in the World Old Superstitious Notions The Race of Sticklebacks A Spiny Covering Strong Defence against Foes Sticklebacks in a Tub Trying to Swallow an Eel Fishes Building Nests Desperate Fighters Nest-Builder Discovered by Agassiz Great Trav- ellers Unlimited Greediness The Fan Fish Native of Indian Waters Lump Suckers Strange Looking Creature The Sea-Snail Sucker Fish A Fish that Sticks Towed Free by other Fishes Riding Hundreds of Miles without Mov- ing a Fin Harness Fish Toothless Swimmer Delicious Eating Hard Ar- morMarvelous Turbot Turbot Fishing The Sly Silurus Urchin Fish- Balloon of the Ocean Air Out and Fish Under Water Arrow Pike A Dart in the Sea Hearty Eater Vast Size Real " Old Salt" Shares and their Eggs , 716 CHAPTER VIII. LIFE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE SEA. Creatures that Manufacture Limestone Definition by Professor Dana Marvelous Builders in the Ocean New Polyp Growing out of the Side of the Old One Coral Insects in All Seas Luxuriance of Coral Life in the Pacific Varieties of xvi CONTENTS. Coral How the Little Architects get their Materials Rearing Islands from tne Bottom of the Deep The Bermudas once a Coral Island The Sea Cucumber Strange Oriental Food Harpooning Sea Cucumbers at the Depth of a Hundred Feet Hundred-Armed Sea-Star Amazing Power of Reproducing Lost Limbs Stomachs that go by the Name of Fish " Five Fingered Jack " Scavengers of the Ocean Death on Oysters How the Star- Fish gets into an Oyster's Shell Droll Polyps Animal-PlantsActinia Enormous Mouth Sea Anemones Voracity Unparalleled Life Multiplied by Tearing the Body in Two Astonish- ing Tenacity of Animal Life 742 CHAPTER IX. EXTRAORDINARY TURTLES AND CRUSTACEANS. The Great Marine Turtle A Creature Born with Oars and Paddles Swift Swim- mer Dozing on the Water Turtles' Nests in the Sand Curious Youngsters Rushing by Instinct for the Sea Turtle Hunting Delicious Food Haunts of the Green Turtle Natives Lying in Wait Human Cruelty Coriaceous Tur- tle The Bony Lobster Monstrous Pincers Powerful Weapons A Propeller Tail Shedding the Old Crust Escape from the Prison New Growth of Shells The Numerous Crab Family Singular Creatures The Pea Crab Hermit Crab Looking Around for a New House Moving into the New Dwelling Tussle between a Shrimp and Crab -Where Crabs Abound Crab Sentinel Standing Guard Casting off Broken Limbs Horrid Crab of Madagascar Sharp Points Strange Land Crabs 752 CHAPTER X. MOLLUSKS WITH PECULIAR SHELLS. A Choice Mineral Substance Material for Ocean Builders "See what a Lovely Shell " Rare Mollusks The Young Guarded Repulsive Creatures in Beauti- ful Dwellings The Sea-shore a Great School of Instruction Curious Pearl Oyster Helmet Shells Cone Shells Gorgeous Hues Interesting Bivalves Scallop Shell Ornament of Pilgrims Silken " Byssus "Strange Material for Fabrics Treasures of the Pearl Oyster Fondness of the Ancients for a Gem Shakespeare on the Orient Pearl Immense Wealth of Ceylon Pearl Fishing by Cingalese Picturesque Spectacle Firing a Cannon at Day-break Ropes, Knives, and Stones Three Sieves Form and Color Pearls of Every Hue Allusion of the Historian Tacitus Origin of Pearls Emerald Fringes Marvels of Old Ocean's Bed 765 CHAPTER XL SHIPWRECKS AND OCEAN ADVENTURES. The Benefits of the Ocean very Costly A Devouring Moloch Human Victims and Horrible Gifts Rich Cargoes Swallowed Up Innumerable Human Vic- tims Ships on Fire Taking to the Boats Sailors Familiar with Danger- Horrors of the Great Abyss Washington Irving's Graphic Description of a Shipwreck Dismal Stories Startling Ad ventures of a Ship Captain A Drown- ing Cry Mingling with the Wind Perils of Arctic Voyages Loss of the Ship "Jeannette" Ice Hammering at the Vessel Melville Tdking a Photograph- Hasty Preparations to Leave Three Boats Lowered" There She Goes !" Encamping on the Ice Boat Mounted on Sleds Long and Toilsome Journey CONTENTS. xvil Silk Flag Unfurled on Bennett Island Capturing Arctic Animals The Great Sea-Cow '* Funny Wee Fishes" Terrific Battle with Walruses Fast Loading and Firing Loss of the " Essex" Captain Pollard's Vivid Narrative Repeated Attacks of an Immense Whale The Ship Stove Three Little Boats on the Great Deep A Barren Island Frightful Sufferings Again on the Trackless Sea Miraculous Escape Rescue of Men from the Island Horrid Cannibalism Tor- nadoes and Waterspouts Elements at War A Thousand Ships Go Down Wreck of the Royal Fleet Immense Loss of Life Huge Cannon Blown Away by the Hurricane An Appalling Scene 774 BOOK III. THE SKY. CHAPTER I. THE MARVELS OF THE HEAVENS. The Sun Twelve Hundred Thousand Times as Large as Our Earth Sublime Scen- ery of the Midnight Sky Starry Splendors over Head Innumerable Worlds in the Firmament The Boundlessness of Space Imperial Suns Burning on High Heavens Piled on Heavens A Wonderful Journey Through Space Fly- ing on a Beam of Light Rich Clusters of Starry Systems Millions of Worlds Immeasurable Distances Swift Motion Everywhere Astounding Revelations of the Telescope Lord Rosse's Ten Thousand Eyes Far-Distant Suns Col- ored Like the Rainbow Thomas Moore's Poetical Tribute to the Bright Heavens Sublimity of Astronomical Science 791 CHAPTER II. REMARKABLE PHENOMENA IN THE SKY. Strange Appearances in the Heavens Fiery Bodies Sweeping Through the Sky Startling Explosions An Aerolite Suspended in a Church Fall of a Great Stone A Brilliant Meteorite Seen in Connecticut Balls of Fire Leaping and Whizzing in the Air A Red Globe Apparently as Large as the Moon A Shower of Burning StonesThe Great Meteor at Hurworth 803 CHAPTER III. A WORLD BURNED OUT AND DEAD. The Earth Cushioned with Air The Weight of Every Human Being Seventeen Tons Our Nearest Planetary Neighbor Time Required by a Railway Train to Reach the Moon Lunar Mountains Moon Torn by Furious Volcanoes The Fires Extinct The Surface Cold Craters and Caverns Lunar Seas A Desert World Eternal Silence No Air nor Water No Sky Young Lady in the Moon Perpetual Changes White-Crested Mountains The Moon's Attractive Features The Moon a One-Sided Creature Strange Conjectures as to the Side Turned Away The First Quarter Immense Cavities in the Moon's Surface xvin CONTENTS. Measuring Craters Excitement over First Discoveries Droll Superstitions A Satellite Supposed to Rule almost Everything 812 CHAPTER IV. MAGNIFICENT AURORAL DISPLAYS. Most Striking of Optical Splendors Auroral Arc Streams of Light Shooting Up- ward Trembling Gleams and Flashes " Ther.Merry Dancers" Lights of Rain- bow Colors What Parry and Franklin Saw ; .ie Heavens in Gay Attire Lieu- tenant ChappelPs Auroral Umbrella Arch of Silvery Light The Canopy Glow- ing with Splendid Scenery Polar Night Six Months without a Sun Animals Dying of Gloom Dazzling Standards Unfurled Magnetism Fiery Tempests in the Sun Magnetic Stones on Earth Outbreak of Auroral Magnificence Sir John Herschel's Conclusions The Jerking Needle Reference by Aristotle-^- Northern Lights more Common than formerly in the Northern Zones 826 CHAPTER V. IMAGES IN THE HEAVENS. Optical Phenomenon at B 11 ffalo Topmasts Rising out of the Water Deceitful Fog Bank Extraordinary " Fata Morgana" in Sicily A Spectacle that Excites the Populace Ascribing the Mirage to the Devil Prophecy Concerning Elec- tricity Prismatic Colors of Amazing Beauty Troops of Clouds in the Sky- Height of Clouds Poetical Fancies from Ossian Mist on the Water Ac- counting for Vapors What Colors the Sun The Great Orb Shorn of His Glories Why the Sun is Red at Rising and Setting Remarkable Halos Strange Mock Suns Parhelia Historic Halos What Gassendi Saw Parhelia Observed by Hevelius Beautiful Sky Picture in Tennessee Perfection of Creative Skill Phenomena of Light Wonderful Waves and Circles Light a Magnificent Painter Innumerable Vibrations 837 CHAPTER VI. STRANGE WANDERERS THROUGH SPACE. Sudden Appearances Unusual Phenomena Great History of the Heavens Bodies Governed by Solar Attraction Elongated Orbits Marvelous Comet of 1680 Period Estimated at Three Thousand Years Thousands of Miles in a Minute- Sir Isaac Newton's Prediction Halley's Comet A Frightened Emperor Shocking Calamities Supposed to be Foreshadowed Visitation During a Bloody War Hideous Faces and Bristling Hair Byron's Graphic Description Sub- stance of Comets Thin Vapor A Comet Enveloping Jupiter The Poet Con- der's Apostrophe 851 CHAPTER VII. MONSTERS AND SUPERSTITIONS. Former Belief in Astrology Strange Fancies Olaus Magnus and his Absurdities- Droll Description of the Great Sea Serpent The Monster Attacking a Ship- Statement by a Bishop Cooking a Meal on the Back of a Leviathan Legendary History of Trees and Plants Trees Bearing Water- Birds Story of a Marvelous Tree in Scotland Belief of Scientific Men in Ridiculous Fables Queer Light- ning Rod Charlatans and Greenhorns Roots of the Mandragora Carved into Fantastic Shapes Life Preserver of Gods and Animals Alarming Eclipses..857 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Animals that Inhabit Tropical Countries . . .. Frontispiece. Pan-Kou-Chee, the Creator 26 Thor, the Giant-God of the Scandinavians . . . . . .28 Combat with Kircher's Winged Dragon ... ... 30 The Primeval Forest from which our Coal-Beds were Formed . . -33 Remarkable Skeleton of an Immense Fish-Lizard . . . . '35 Enormous Extinct Animals the Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus . . 37 The Great Fish-Lizard and Flying Reptile ...... 39 Fossil Skeleton of the Pterodactyl ........ 40 The Ramphoryncus or Creeping Bird . . . . . . .41 Immense Pre-Historic Animals the Iguanodon and Megalosaurus . . 44 A Huge Bone-Plated Animal the Hylaeosaurus . . . . .45 Gigantic Skeleton of the Mammoth in the Museum at St. Petersburg . 47 Footprints of the Labyrinthodon in Stone ...... 50 Footprints of a Bird 50 Footprints of a Bird and Impression of Rain Drops. . . . '5 Chalk under the Microscope . . . . . . . 52 Fossil Remains in Chalk. ......... 53 A Drop of Water as seen under the Microscope 55 Extinct Animals, the Skeletons of which are Found in Solid Rocks . . 61 Fierce Combat between the Megalosaurus and Iguanodon . . .63 A Massive Antediluvian Animal the Megalosaurus . . . -65 The Curious Pterodactyl, or Wing-Fingered Bird " . . . 67 The Ponderous Iguanodon ......... 72 The Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus in Mortal Combat . . . -74 Singular Reptiles of the Oolitic Period 7& The Flying Dragon 78 The Immense Dinotherium ......... 80 An Extraordinary Reptile the Labyrinthodon . . . . .81 A Group of Curious Hand-Animals ....... 82 The Armadillo of the Ancient World 83 The Famous Antediluvian Crocodile 85 The Gigantic Megatherium 86 Skeleton of the Megatherium ........ 88 The Dinornis A Bird without Wings ....... 93 Fossil Fishes Bedded in Rock 95 A Zoophyte with Five-sided Stem . . . . . . . -97 Exquisite Fossil Shells 98 Antediluvian Animals of the Valley of Paris 100 (xix) XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Ancient Animals in the Thames Valley . . . . . . .103 Effect of an Earthquake on the Sea . . . . . . .107 Destruction of Lisbon by an Earthquake 112 Destruction of Messina . . . . . . . . . .117 Fissures Produced by an Earthquake . . . . . . .118 Terrible Eruption of the Hawaiian Volcano Mauna Loa . . .123 Volcano of Taal Luzon Philippines 125 Flames Bursting from the Crater of Stromboli 128 Volcano under the Ocean near the Azore Islands 130 Volcanic Eruption at Graham's Island . . . . . . . 133 Chimney Composed of Prisms of Basalt St. Helena . . . .135 Birth of a Volcanic Island . . . . . . . . . 139 Eruption of Vesuvius, August 26, 1872 ....... 141 Representative Types of Pacific Islanders . . . . . .146 The Grotesque Maori War Dance 150 Interior of a Pah, or Native Village 152 A Native Chief in Full War-dress 155 Te Ohu, a Native Priest 159 A Tiki at the Village of Roera 160 Grotesque Wooden Idols . .161 House-Dwellers on the Sea . 165 King Kamehameha and the Spears 168 Marquesan Chief 169 An Araucanian Marriage . . . . . . . . J 75 Fijian Canoe in a Stiff Breeze . . . . . . . .180 An Illanoan Pirate and Saghai Dyak . . . . . . .183 An Exciting Indian Ball Game 187 The Old Arab Attacking the Hippopotamus 189 Expert Dancers Amusing Spectators . . . . .191 The Giraffe or Camelopard i9 6 , Giraffes in their Native Resorts 199 Wild Zebras of Southern Africa 201 The Indian Rhinoceros ......... 204 Terrible Encounter with a Rhinoceros ....... 208 The Curious Gavial of India . . . . . . .212 Flying Dragon and Flying Frog 214 The Imperial Lion of Africa . .222 Livingstone's Narrow Escape . . . . . .225 The Royal Tiger of India 229 Hunting a Ferocious Tiger 233 The Sloth Bear 236 The Hippopotamus or Gigantic River-Horse ...... 239 " Obaysch " First Hippopotamus Transported to Europe . . . 242 The Puma or American Tiger ........ 246 Grizzly Bear and its Prey 248 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxi PAGE The Jungle Bear of Southern Asia ........ 250 The Prickly Hedgehog . .252 Porcupine and its Young . . . . . . . 254 The Common Porcupine of Canada ....... 255 Bone-Plated Armadillo 256 Armadillo Rolled Up and Erect 257 The Scaly Ant-Eater . . . . 259 A Family of Kangaroos . . . . 261 Opossum Carrying its Young 262 Elephants in their Native Jungle ........ 268 Natives of South Africa Capturing an Elephant *, 272 Baldwin Chased by an Elephant .277 Hunting the African Rhinoceros 281 Infuriated Rhinoceros Charging on Hunters 284 Camp Attacked by Fire-Eating Rhinoceros 286 Charge of a Rhinoceros Suddenly Stopped ...... 289 Capturing a Monstrous Hippopotamus ....... 293 Gorilla Turning upon his Pursuers ........ 298 Hunting the Ostrich . . . . . . . . . . 301 An Exciting Chase .......... 302 A Herd of Cattle Attacked by an Immense African Lion . . . 308 An Oddity of the Animal Kingdom the Spectral Lemur . . . 311 Peccary or Stag Hog 312 ^Elian's Wart-Hog . . . . . . . . . .314 Great African Panther and Cubs . . . . . . . .316 Omniverous Malay Tapir ......... 320 Spiral-Horned Wallachian Sheep 322 Bokhara Mountain Sheep 324 Wonderful Flying Foxes 326 Seals in their Native Haunts . . . . . . . . .328 Walrus or Sea-Horse .......... 330 The World-Renowned Gorilla ........ 335 Asiatic Orang-Outang .......... 341 Portrait of the Orang-Outang . 343 Guereza, with Beautiful Flying Mantle ....... 346 Dog-Faced Baboons .......... 348 Lion Monkeys Stealing Cocoanuts . . . . . . -351 White and Raven Cockatoos . . . . . . . . . 356 The Flag Night-Swallow 358 Specimens of the Esculent Swallow and Edible Nest .... 359 The Sappho Humming-Bird . . . . . . . . .361 The Sword-Bill 362 Famous Peregrine Falcon ......... 364 Secretary Bird Killing a Snake 365 Nest of the Water-Hen 367 xx ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Immense Nests of African Social Grossbeaks ...... 369 Nest of the Tailor Bird ........... 370 Three-Toed Woodpecker 371 Tufted Penguin . . . . . . . .. . .372 The Pelican 374 Marie Delex Seized and Carried Away by an Immense Eagle . . .381 Vulture on his Mountain Crag . . . . . . . . 383 Sea-Eagle and its Captive ......... 384 Fish-Eagle with" Brood of Young . . . . . . . . 387 Ravenous Harpy Eagle . . . . . . . . . . 389 Royal Bird of Paradise 393 Graceful Hedge-Sparrows 397 Queenly Lyre Bird ....... . . 399 Ariel Swallows and Nest ......... 402 Beautiful Argus Pheasant . , . . . . . . 407 Golden Pheasant ........... 409 Wandering Albatross 410 Crested Crane and Virgin Crane . . . ... . . .412 Asiatic Flamingo 414 Curious Apteryx or " Kiwi' ' 417 American Ostrich and Young 422 Crested Guinea Fowl . . . . . . . . . . 424 The Sacred Ibis 426 Giant Heron 428 The Strange Shoe-Bill 430 Snow Owl and Screech Owl . . 432 Sharp-Billed Darter or Snake Bird 434 The Gigantic Adjutant . . . 438 Blue-Headed Parakeets 440 Long-Tongued Chameleon ......... 444 Five-Toed Gecko or Wall-Lizard 448 South American Iguana 45 The Sea Guana 45 2 Great Jumping Bull-Frog . . . . . . . 455 Armor- Plated Frog . . . . . . . . . .461 Giant Salamander . . . . . . . . 463 Elephantine Tortoise . . . . . . . . . 464 The Tun-Snail 466 Famous Egyptian Crocodile ....... 469 Oriental Snake-Charmers 475 The Venomous Viper .......... 480 Ravenous Boa-Constrictor Swallowing a Fowl . . . . .482 Tree-Snake Devouring its Prey ........ 486 The Ravenous Egg-Eater . . . . . . . . 490 The Moloch 492 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxiii PAGE Pipa Toad Hatching Eggs on its Back 493 Life and Metamorphoses of the Dragon-Fly 497 Magnified Proboscis of the Common Fly ...... 500 Common Gnat and its Metamorphoses ....... 501 Caterpillars on the March 504 Voracious Chicken-Spider ' . ; 506 Ant About to Milk Aphides 508 Village Built by Warrior Ants . . .. . . . 5 11 European Chirping Cricket . . . . . . . . 5 r 7 The Mason Spider .. . . . . . . . .522 Greedy Bird-Spider Devouring its Victim 524 New Zealand Moth with Fungus Plume 526 The Monk Bombyx Chrysalis and Butterfly 529 Wood-Boring Goat-Moth ......... 532 Carpenter Bee and its Little Chambers ....... 533 Great Swarm of Migratory Locusts ....... 535 Ephemera or Creatures of a Day ........ 539 Dense Swarm of Bees . . . . . . . . . . 541 The Famous Weeping-Tree . . . 547 World-Renowned India-Rubber Tree . . . . . . 549 Extracting Milk from the Cow-Tree . . . . . . . 551 Gigantic Chapel Oak in Normandy ....... 553 Colossal Baobab of the Virgin Forests of Africa ..... 556 Historic Lime-Tree of the Battle of Morat . . . . . . 559 Dragon's-Blood Tree of the Island of Teneriffe 560 Poisonous Tree or Upas of Java ' .563 Unique Tartarian Lamb ......... 565 Native Forest in Sumatra, with Elegant Specimens of Rafflesia . . 567 Hunting Excursion Through a Mangrove Forest . . . . . 570 The Wine-Tree or Wine-Bearing Sago-Palm 573 Gigantic Puff-Bail of One Night's Growth 575 Panorama of Mont Blanc and Surrounding Mountains . . . -579 Awful Catastrophe in the Chasms of Mont Blanc ..... 585 The Mer de Glace Famous Glacier of the Alps ..... 589 Celebrated St. Bernard Dogs Rescuing a Traveler ..... 592 Terrific Cyclone Hurling Columns of Desert Sand into the Air . . 595 The Huge Cuttle-Fish Attacking a Ship 601 Monstrous Polypus Met by the Steamship Alecto 603 A Monstrous Sea-Serpent as Described by Sailors ..... 607 A Boat's Crew Attacking a Whale ....... 612 Enormous Whale of the Arctic Regions . 614 In the Jaws of the Great White Shark 618 The Hammer-Headed Shark . . . . . . . .* .621 The Angel Fish ........... 622 The Pegasus Dragon 623 XX JV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAG* The Spike Fish 625 The Stomias-Boa 626 Professor Silliman's Double Cat-Fish . . . . . . .627 Professional Divers Gathering Sponge ....... 628 The Historic Deluge and its Terrible Devastation 633 A Phosphorescent Sea 635 Whale and Fishes in Brilliant Phosphorescent Light . . . -637 A Water-Spout at Sea 642 A Ship in Danger from Water-Spouts 643 Front View of the Immense Octopus 645 Glutinous Jelly-Fishes 647 Beautiful Specimens of Star-Fish ........ 649 Crested Seal 650 A Savage Foe 65 1 The Ancient Ammonite 652 An Island in Mid-Ocean Formed by Coral Insects 655 A Coral Shrub 656 A Sponge with Coralline Attached . . . . . . -657 Scaly-Clawed Crustacean . . . . . . . . -659 Specimens of Bivalve and Univalve Shells 660 White Actinia of St. Helena 662 Catching a Huge Turtle 663 A Sea-Flower in Living Stone ........ 664 A Stone with Star Clusters 665 Icelanders Capturing Narwhals . . . . . . .670 Hairy Medusae . . . . . . . . .671 Perilous Encounter with a Whale ........ 673 A Flock of Sea-Gulls 676 The Singular Island of St. Kilda '. . .677 Specimens of Curious Fishes 679 The Shooting-Fish Catching a Bee 68 1 The Doko or Salamander Fish 683 The Mud-Jumper or Climbing-Fish ....... 684 A School of Flying-Fishes ......... 689 Gurnards, or Fishes that Growl ........ 690 The Red Fire-Fish 692 The Opah or King Fish 693 Family of Paradise Fishes 695 The Sea-Butterfly 696 The Bridegroom Fish . . . . . . . . . .697 The Sword-Fish Capturing his Prey 7 The Sea-Bat 701 Pipe Fish and Sea-Horse . . . 702 Short-Nosed Hippocampus 74 The Sharp-Nosed Skate 705 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxv PAGB Loon in the Jaws of an Angler-Fish 706 The Tape Fish . 707 The Sea-Cat - . . .708 Flat Fish : Turbot, Plaice, Flounder, Sole 709 Spiny Sea- Porcupine 711 Sturgeons of the Caspian Sea 712 Globe Fish and Sun Fish 713 Shooting Seals ........... 715 Swimming Jelly-Fishes 720 Remarkable Trunk-Fish 721 The Narwhal or Sea-Unicorn 723 Spiny Sticklebacks and Nest . . . . . . . . . 725 Sword or Fan-Fish .......... 729 The Sucker Fish 730 Harness Fish ........... 731 Old and Young Silurus 733 Fahak or Urchin Fish 735 Angler and Arrow Pike 736 Cases of Sharks' Eggs .738 Coral Arbor and Mysterious Cuttle-Fish 741 Sea-Cucumber at the Bottom of the Ocean 744 Beautiful Specimens of Star-Fishes 747 Marvelous Plants on the Bottom of the Ocean 749 Curious Polyp 750 Natives Capturing Immense Green Turtles . . . . . -753 Coriaceous Turtle . . . . . . . . . 755 Edible Turtle 756 American Lobster and Spiny Lobster 757 Crabs Washed Ashore by a High Tide 760 The American Giant-Crab 762 Great Crab of Madagascar 763 Beautiful Coral Island Surrounding a Lagoon in the Pacific . . . 766 Rare Specimens of Mollusks . . . . . . . . . 7^7 Madrepore Attached to a Mother-of-Pearl Oyster .- . . . 768 Helmet Shell of Madagascar, etc "... 769 Bear's-Paw Clam, etc 77 Oyster with Beautiful Pearls 772 Ship Wrecked by a Furious Storm <, . . 776 The "Jeannette" Crushed and Abandoned 779 Savage Battle with Walruses ' . . .781 Shipwrecked Sailors Attacked by Sharks 783 Waterspouts in the Southern Seas .... ... 787 Terrible Hurricane in the Tropics 789 Relative Sizes of the Sun and Planets . -. . , . 797 Lord Rosse's Great Reflecting Telescope 804 xxv i LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Shower of Brilliant Meteors on the Ocean 807 Volcanic Craters on the Moon's Surface at Sunset 813 Part of the Moon's Crescent during the First Quarter . . . .817 The Earth as Seen from the Moon 820 Singular Aspect of the Moon's Surface . . . . . . .821 Brilliant Aurora Borealis in the Arctic Seas 831 Auroral Flames in the Northern Sky . . . . c . .832 Ships Painted on the Sky by Atmospheric Refraction .... 836 Remarkable Appearances of Cloud-Land . . . . . . 839 Halos and Parhelia 843 Parhelia Observed by Gassendi . . . . . . . . 844 Parhelia Observed by Hevelius ........ 845 Parhelia Observed in Tennessee 846 Intersection of Two Wave Systems . . . . . . . 849 Ancient Sea-Serpent . . .858 Monster Attacking a Ship 859 Marine Dragon 860 The Bird Tree 861 Tree Producing Ducks .862 Carved Mandragora Roots 863 UNIVERSITY \SLHV&&/- BOOK I. THE EARTH. , CHAPTER I. MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. Curious Old Legends and Superstitions A Chinese Quarryman A Scandinavian God with his Sledge-HammerStrange things Seen by a Sybil The Crust of. the Earth a Museum of Singular Relics Footprints and Skeletons of Gigantic Birds and Four-Footed Animals Enormous Sizes and Uncouth Forms Extinct Species of Animal Life An Immense Fish Lizzard Extraordinary Marine Reptile A Wing-Fingered Monster A Freak of Nature A Fossil Reptile Sixty Feet Long The Scaly Hylaeosaurus Discovery of the Mammoth An Island of Bones The Huge Dinotherium A Bulky Creature that could neither Walk, Leap nor Climb Natural History Printed on Leaves of Stone Marks of Raindrops, Trees and Birds on Rocks Fossil Remains of Myriads of Minute Beings Layers of Various Kinds of Shells Forming Marble of Great Beauty Wonders of a Drop of Water Under the Microscope. HE scenes of creation astonish us, whether uplifting our look we gaze at the brilliant heavens, or cast our eyes upon the tiniest creatures of this lower realm. Immensity is everywhere. It stands revealed in the azure dome of heaven, where glows a perfect dust of stars, and in the living atom which hides from us the marvels of its organization. The ideas of the ancients respecting the birth of the world, and the origin of its wonderful forms of life, appear to us to be very singular. We find curious old traditions and legends, stories of mighty gods and enormous giants, who had something to do with the work of creation. There were strange fancies, too, concerning the shape of the earth, the boundaries of its lands and seas, the foundation on which it was built, and the movements of the heavenly bodies. The Grecian picture of the creation, as we see it engraved on the shield of that famous warrior, Achilles, represents the earth as a flattened disk, surrounded everywhere, and in a circular form, by the sea, or rather by the river of ocean which defines the limits of the known world. Above this terrestrial disk the solid sky is outspread like a dome ; a dome supported by two massive pillars, which rest on the god Atlas. A similar absurdity prevails among several ancient peoples. The Scandinavians balance the (25) EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. earth on nine posts. The Brahmins figure it as propped up on four ele- phants. But on what foundation do these nine posts and four elephants repose ? What Anak of a god can support on his brawny shoulders the burden of the terrestrial mass ? Without pausing over these questions, let us complete our outline of the Grecian picture : The solid vault of the heavens is traversed by the stars in chariots of silver, impelled by the PAN-KOU-CHEE, THE CREATOR (FROM AN OLD CHINESE PAINTING). rapid clouds. When the sun bursts upon human eyes, he emerges from the sea on the side of the east ; in the evening, he re-plunges, on the west, into the same great river. During the night, borne in a golden car, he re-ascends, beneath the earth, the pathway of the eternal ocean. There that is to say, below the earth spreads another vault, corresponding MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 27 in its curvature to that of the sky : the vault of Tartarus the shadowy realm of the Titians, those rebellious and vanquished angels of the Pagan mythology. Sombre and silent, Tartarus is shrouded in ever- lasting night. Chinese ^Legend of the Creation. When we cast a glance upon creation, we are astonished at its vastness, and we see that none of our fictions attain the sublimity of its proportions. For instance, the Chinese account of creation represents the first organizer of chaos under the form of a feeble old man, enervated and tottering, called Pan-Kou-Che, surrounded by confused masses of rock, and holding a chisel in one hand and a hammer in the other. He toils painfully at his work, with chisel and hammer, and, covered with perspiration, carves out the crust of the globe, at the same time that he clears a path through a wilderness of rocky masses. One shudders at the relative feebleness of the workman to the immensity of the task. Well nigh lost amidst enor- mous masses of shattered stone, which surround him on every side and encumber the picture, he appears to be a real pigmy executing a herculean task. On the other hand, the people of the North, looking upon their land so often devastated by floods, thought that some god in his anger had broken up the surface of it, and gathered the ruins into heaps. But to the children of Scandinavia this deity was not a trembling used-up old man ; they re- quired a divinity endowed with their own savage energy. In their eyes it was the god of tempests ; the redoubtable and gigantic Thor, who, armed with a blacksmith's hammer, and suspended over the abyss, with mighty blows broke up the crust of the earth, and fashioned out the rocks and mountains with the splinters. Here we see already an advance upon the feeble old Pan-Kou-Che ; strength is substituted for the weakness of old age. Thor shows like a revolted giant, raging and shattering everything that falls within his reach. To us such images appear very puerile. Instead of these old men and giants laboriously occupied in hammering out the globe, we only trace everywhere the invisible hand of the Creator. In one place, with a deli- cacy which passes all conception, it animates the insect with the breath of life , in another, expanding itself to vast dimensions, it reins the worlds scattered through space, and convulses or annihilates them. It is at such times that, in the midst of its throes, our globe cleaves its mountains and opens its abysses ; and upon each of its gigantic ruins, as upon each grain of sand, the philosopher finds written a grand page of natural wonders. 28 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. In the Scandinavian mythology we discover some pictures of the great events which then took place in the earth and in the heavens. The description paints the ravages of the volcanic eruptions and of the waves of a wild and untamed ocean. The inspired sybil relates that at this time the sun did not rise where it now does, and that the East was invaded by polar ices. I remember, says the sybil, nine worlds and nine heavens. THOR, THE GIANT-GOD OF THE SCANDINAVIANS, RECONSTRUCTING THE GLOBE. Before the sons of the gods raised the globes, the sun shone in the South. In the East is seated the old woman in the forest of iron (the polar ices). The sun is covered with clouds, the earth sinks in the sea, the shin- ing stars disappear from the heavens, clouds of smoke envelop the all- nourishing tree, lofty flames mount even to heaven ; the sea rears itself violently towards the skies and passes over the lands. Neither earth MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 29 nor sun exist any longer; the air is overcome by glittering streams. The sybil for the second time sees the earth, covered with verdure, rise from the sea. Thus the people of antiquity had their superstitions and their fabulous legends, but these were never so widely diffused as they became in the middle ages, a period of simple ignorance and ardent faith. At that time, as M. Figuier says in his excellent work on this epoch, all classes of the people, and even a great part of the nobility, the magistracy, and the clergy, believed in magic. Learned men vied with each other in collecting all the fables of their forefathers and recording them in their works. They found monsters in every kingdom of nature, and equally in the depths of the sea as in the heavens. They appeared to think men were compelled to draw on their imaginations for the marvelous, the absurdity of which amuses us at the present day, for we have learned that in the great realms of nature scenes are presented wruch are more extraordinary and thrilling than any fictions 'of ancient times. Yet the most eminent men of the middle ages, who could discuss all branches of human knowledge of that day with perfect clearness, seemed to be struck with blindness as soon as the ques- tion turned upon monsters. One well-known naturalist describes with minute precision all the localities in the Alps, all the animals to be found there, and every flower that blooms in their valleys. Every object is drawn with extraordinary skill ; there is so much delicacy in his engravings that the humblest moss may be recognized. But along with these faithful representations of nature, we find frightful aerial monsters ; winged dragons which swarm in the obscure windings of roads, and stop the alarmed traveller. The perusal of the work of this author might well have sufficed to prevent our credulous ancestors from venturing into the gorges of the Alps or searching into their dark caverns ! The Earth Born of Fire and Water. Another celebrated work represents sirens, monks, and men-at- arms of the sea, all covered with scales, and as fresh as if they had just withdrawn from the gulfs of Neptune. Kircher, who was also a well-known writer, pictures frightful dragons which guard the riches of the earth, and which must be vanquished before -obtaining possession of them. When learned men began to occupy themselves with the formation of ,the earth, they became divided into two very clearly defined opposite parties : the Plutonists, who attributed the crust of the globe exclusively to fire ; and the Neptunists, who, on the contrary, derived everything from the action of water. The truth is that fire and water have had 30 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. their share by turns. One part of the terrestrial crust is the result of ignition, the other that of the deposit from water. It is evident that the globe is only a sun crusted over and partially extinguished, the hard- ened surface of which hides the great interior furnace from view. The globe on fire, and launched into space, necessarily gave off heat, and when after a long succession of ages it had sufficiently cooled COMBAT WITH KIRCHER/S WINGED DRAGON. its surface became solidified, and constituted the primitive crust. When this cooling process had made sufficient progress, the vapors from the earth, an immense atmosphere of which enveloped the globe, became con- densed and for ages descended upon the earth in torrents of rain. Gleams of lightning and incessant peals of thunder accompanied these imposing MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 31 scenes of the birth of our globe, of which our imagination will never yield us more than an imperfect image. Origin of the First Seas. At the same time that, in the course of ages, the crust of the earth increased in thickness, the cooling down, by contracting the globe, forced its envelope to yield and break. These convulsions produced the mountains which now diversify its surface. Whilst the crust of the earth was yet thin, a slight effort of the central heat sufficed to rupture it, but this only produced insignificant elevations. When this crust had acquired greater thickness, its rupture, inasmuch as it required much greater force, was only effected by means of the most violent movements ; it was then that the Cordilleras rose into the clouds. The upheaval of each mountain chain was necessarily accompanied by violent commotions in the depths of the sea, and thence came those grand scenes of deluges mentioned in the traditions of all nations. These great upliftings, of which fifteen have been proven by geological science, terminated by the rising of the chain of the Andes, the result of an immense rent extending almost from pole to pole. Then the two Americas were lifted above the ocean, and assumed their present shape. Thus fire and water successively remodelled the surface of the globe. It is to be remarked that the crust of the earth in breaking follows a fixed direction. All the great mountain chains have been developed from the north to the south, as the Andes and Ural, or from west to east, as in the Atlas chain. Amazing' Destruction, of Animal Life. It is evident that each period had its peculiar organic forms, and that the species of animals of one epoch neither lived before nor after this epoch. Humboldt himself, the most illustrious philosopher of modern times, embraces this opinion without any qualification. Each upheaval, he says, of these mountain chains of which we can determine the relative antiquity, has been signalized by the destruction of ancient species and the appearance of new forms of life. Numerous groups of animals and plants have had their beginning and their end, and creative intervention must have manifested itself at the appearance of each of them. The earth is only an immense cemetery where each generation acquires life at the expense of that which has just expired ; the particles of our corpses form new materials for the beings which follow us. The first layers of the earth that cooled down became covered with a luxuriant vegetation, the remains of which now constitute our coal- beds antediluvian forests, which the genius of man extracts from the depths of the earth, to serve the wants of industry and his own dwellings. 32 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. During this period the whole surface of the globe was covered with strange and dense forests, where proudly reigned a host of plants and trees, the representatives of which at the present day play but a very humble part. Here were palms and bamboos, there gigantic moss-like plants, which bore straight 'Stems towering to a height of eighty to a hundred feet. Then came immense growths, the stems of which remind one of a reptile's scaly armor. Lastly came trees of the family of our pines and firs, their boughs laden with fruit. 4 . Gig-antic Growths of Vegetation. These vast primeval forests, which the course of ages was to anni- hilate, sprang up on a heated and marshy soil, which surrounded the lofty trees with thick compact masses of aquatic plants, intended to act a great part in the formation of coal. The luxuriant vegetation of the coal period was certainly favored by the enormous heat which the scarcely-chilled terrestrial crust still preserved, as also by the dampness of the atmosphere, and very probably by the great abundance of car- bonic acid which it then contained. Although a thick and magnificent mantle of foliage covered the globe, everything wore a strange, gloomy aspect. Everywhere rose gigantic rushes and ferns, drawing up an exuberance of life from the fertile and virgin soil. The latter in their aspect resembled palms, and the least breath of wind waved their crowns of finely-cut leaves like flexible plumes of feathers. A sky, ever sombre and veiled, oppressed with heavy clouds the domes of these forests: a wan and dubious light scarcely made visible the dark and naked trunks, shedding on all sides a shadowy and indescribable hue of horror. This rich covering of vegetation, which extended from pole to pole, was sad and utterly silent, as well as strangely monotonous. Not a single flower enlivened the foliage, not one edible fruit loaded its branches. The echoes remained absolutely mute, and the branches without a sign of life, for no air-breathing animal had as yet appeared amid these dismal scenes of the ancient world ! One might say, in fact, that there was then no animal life to be seen, for amid so many remains of the coral flora, which geologists have so admirably reconstructed, they have only met with a few rare vestiges of one small reptile. This great contrast between the richness of the vegetable and penury of the animal kingdom is explained by the great quantity of carbonic acid at that time mixed with the atmosphere, which, though particularly favorable to the life of plants, must have been fatal to all animals endowed with active respiration. But though the atmosphere was poisonous, the seas, on the contrary, uniting to- (33) 84 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. gether all conditions most favorable to life, were peopled with shelled mol- luscs and fish. After having lent life to the primitive ages of the globe, these strange forests completely disappeared in the lapse of ages, and they have now become almost impossible to recognize, owing to the transformations they have undergone in nature's immense subterra- nean store-houses. There can, however, be no doubt about the matter. It is clearly the remains of these antique forests of our planet that con- stitute the coal of the present time. Science, carrying its torch even into the dark regions whence these remains proceeded, has discovered all the constituent parts. Amid the black and gleaming masses of the coal strata abundant impressions have been found of the plants which produced our vast beds of coal. Discovery of an Antediluvian Monster. In the year 1814, Sir Everard Home published an account of some large and very remarkable bones found in a rock, thirty or forty feet above the sea level, on the English coast. The remains examined were incomplete, and the nature and habits of the animal to which they be- longed baffled all inquiry, until the discovery of more perfect skeletons unfolded a race of water reptiles, which received the name of ichthyosau- aurus, or fish-lizard. This strange creature ranging from twenty to more than thirty feet in length, of which ten species are enumerated, had the snout of a porpoise, the head of a lizard, teeth of a crocodile, the vertebrae of a fish, and the paddles of a whale; thus presenting in itself a combi- nation of mechanical contrivances which are now found distributed among three distinct classes of the animal kingdom. Persons to whom this sub- ject may now be presented for the first time, will receive with much sur- prise, perhaps almost with incredulity, such statements as are here advanced. It must be admitted that they at first seem much more like the dreams of fiction and romance than the sober results of calm and deliberate investi- gation ; but to those who will examine the evidence of facts upon which our conclusions rest, there can remain no more reasonable doubt ot the former existence of these strange and curious creatures, in the times and places we assign to them, than is felt by the antiquarian, who, finding the catacombs of Egypt stored with the mummies of men, and apes, and crocodiles, concludes them to be the remains of animals and reptiles, that have formed part of an ancient population on the banks of the Nile. The teeth of the lizard-fish, in some instances amounting to two hundred and ten, and the length of the jaws to more than six feet, qualified it for prey- ing upon weaker creations ; and the half-digested remains of fishes and reptiles, found within the skeletons, indicate the precise nature of its food* MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 35 A single paddle of the four with which the animal was furnished some- times contains more than a hundred bones, giving it great elasticity and power, and enabling it to proceed at a rapid rate through the water. The eye was enormously large, its cavity, in one species, being fourteen inches in its longest direction. The eye also had a peculiar construction, to make it operate both like a telescope and a microscope, so that the animal could descry its prey by night as well as day, and at great depths in the water. This fish-like lizard in some degree answers to the words of Milton REMARKABLE SKELETON OF AN IMMENSE FISH-LIZZARD. With head uplift above the waves, and eyes That sparkling blazed, his other parts besides, Prone on the flood, extended long and large, Lay floating many a rood. The lizard-fish was an air-breathing, cold-blooded, and carnivorous in- habitant of the ocean, probably haunting principally its creeks and bays, fitted by its formidable jaws and teeth, its rapid motion and power of vision, to be the scourge and tyrant of the existing seas of its era, keeping the multiplication of the species of other animals within proper limits. 36 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. Though essentially marine, and admirably adapted by its organization to cut the waves, certain peculiarities of structure have induced the opinion that the forward paddles might be subservient to locomotion not only in the water, but on land. Professor Owen thinks that the ichthyosauri, like the ex- isting crocodiles, may have come ashore to sleep, or resorted thitherto de- posit their eggs. The remains of these animals occur in great abundance on the English coast where the cliffs appear to be inexhaustible quarries of them. A Strange Marine Reptile. In the same strata in which the remains of the ichthyosaurus are found, another marine reptile appears, which received its name of plesiosaurus, signifying akin to the lizard, from its more closely resembling animals of this genus than fishes, especially in the character of the skeleton. A similar remarkable combination of forms appears in this animal to that which distinguishes its preceding relative the head of a lizard, the teeth of a crocodile, a neck resembling the body of a serpent, the trunk and tail of an ordinary quadruped, the ribs of a chameleon, and the paddles of a whale. Such are the strange combinations of form and structure in the plesiosaurus, a genus, the remains of which, after interment for thou- sands of years amidst the wreck of millions of extinct inhabitants of the ancient earth, are at length recalled to light by the researches of the geolo- gist, and submitted to our examination in nearly as perfect a state as the bones of species that are now existing upon the earth. Its most striking feature is the great length of the neck, which has from thirty to forty vertebrae, or bone joints, a larger number than in any known animal, those of living reptiles varying from three to six, and those of birds from nine to twenty-three. It has been therefore correctly compared to a serpent, threaded through the body of a turtle. That it was aquatic, is evident from the form of its paddles ; that it was marine is almost equally so, from the remains with which it is universally associated ; that it may have occa- sionally visited the shore, the resemblance of its extremities to those of the turtle may lead us to conjecture; its motion, however, must have been very awkward on land; its long neck must have impeded its progress through the water, presenting a striking contrast to the organization of the lizard-fish, which so admirably fitted it for that purpose. May it not therefore be concluded (since in addition to these circumstances, its respir- ation must have required frequent access to air) that it swam upon or near the surface, arching back its long neck like the swan, and occasionally darting it down at the fish which happened to float within its reach ? It may per- haps have lurked in shoal water along the coast, concealed among the sea-weed, and raising its nostrils to the surface from a considerable depth, (37) 38 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. may have found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous enemies; while the length and flexibility of its neck may have compensated for the want of strength in its jaws, and its incapacity for swift motion through the water, by the suddenness and agility of the attack which they enabled it to make on every animal fitted for its prey. The appearance of the animal, which is far less formidable than that of the ichthyosaurus, shows that it was more adapted to occupy the tranquil waters of sheltered creeks and bays than to brave the rough breakers of the deep. The first almost entire skeleton of plesiosaurus was obtained in 1824, and since then a large number of species have been established. From the connected and almost perfect state of the skeletons of ichthy- osauri and plesiosauri, as if prepared by an anatomist, these animals appear to have been suddenly destroyed and immediately embedded. As we know that river fish are sometimes stifled, even in their own element, by muddy water, during floods, it cannot be doubted that the periodical dis- charge of large bodies of turbid fresh water into the sea may be still more fatal to marine tribes. Large quantities of mud and drowned ani- mals have been swept down into the sea, by rivers, during earthquakes, as in Java some years since ; and indescribable multitudes of dead fishes have been seen floating on the sea, after a discharge of noxious vapors, during similar convulsions. A Monstrous Creature of the Pre-Historic Age. Contemporaneously with these strange animals, marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial tortoises flourished, with crocodiles of extinct species, and the pterodactyle, or wing-fingered reptile, perhaps the most singular and mons- trous creature of the ancient world, the type of which appears in no living genus. This flying reptile had such a remarkable construction that it puz- zled scientific men. Naturalists pored over its remains, but were unable to assign them to their true place in the animal kingdom, some pronouncing it a bird, others a reptile, and others a bat, till Cuvier took its skeleton in hand. Behold, he observes, an animal, which, in its bone formation, from its teeth to the end of its claws, is like a reptile ; nor can we doubt that those characteristics existed in the muscles and soft parts, in its scales * its circulation, and other organs. But it was, at the same time, an animal provided with the means of flight, which, when stationary, could not have made much use of its anterior extremities, even if it did not keep them always folded as birds keep their wings ; which, nevertheless, might use its small anterior fingers to suspend itself from the branches of trees, but when at rest must have been ordinarily on its hind feet, like the birds, again; and also, like them, must have carried its neck sub-erect, and THE GREAT FISH-LIZARD AND FLYING REPTILE. (39) EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. ..curved backwards, so that its enormous head should not interrupt its equi- librium. Pterodactyles had the head and neck of a bird, the mouth and .teeth of a reptile, the wings of a bat, the body and tail of one of the lower .orders of animals. Their eyes were enormously large so that they could .seek their prey in the night. They could not only fly, but like the exist- ing vampire bat, they had the power of swimming. Thus, like Milton's fiend, qualified for all services and all elements, the pterodactyle was a fit companion for the kindred reptiles that swarmed in the seas, or crawled on the shores of a turbulent planet The fiend, O'er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, With head, hands, wings, or feet pursues his way, And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies. Cuvier, in his great work, pro- nounces these fly- ing reptiles the most extraordinary of all the beings whose ancient existence is revealed to us ; and those which, if alive, would seem most at variance with living forms. Many spe- cies have been de- termined, most of them varying from the size of a snipe to that of a cormor- ant. It is estimated that the expanded FOSSIL SKELETON OF THE PTERODACTYLE. wings of this creature measured six feet in width. Another reptile allied to the pterodactyle lived in this epoch. It wa.s the ramphorynchus, and was distinguished from the former by a long tail. The imprints which this animal has left upon the sandstone of the period indicate at once the impression of its feet and the linear furrow left by its tail. Like the pterodactyle, the ramphorynchus, which was a very strange creature, could not precisely fly, but, aided by the natural parachute formed by the membrane connecting the fingers and the body, it could throw itself from a height upon its prey. The footprints in the MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 41 soil are those which always accompany the remains of the ramphorynchus in the rocks, and they show the imprints at once of the anterior and pos- terior feet and tail. Extraordinary Land Reptiles. Not less remarkable than these inhabitants of the ocean and the air were the land reptiles of the same period, the iguanodon and megalosau- rus. The iguanodon had a very singular structure. Although the size and proportions of its body and limbs have been determined from numer- ous detached bones, and the few specimens in which several are collected in the same block of stone, yet but a vague idea of the form and appear- ance of the original animal can be derived from the relics hitherto discov- ered. We may, however, safely conclude that the body of the iguanodon was equal in magnitude to that of the elephant, and as massive in its THE RAMPHORYNCHUS OR CREEPING BIRD. proportions; for being a vegetable feeder, a large development of the abdominal region may be inferred. Its limbs must have been of a propor- tionate size to sustain so enormous a bulk ; one of the thigh bones, if covered with muscles and tissues of suitable proportions, would form a limb seven feet in circumference. The hinder extremities, in all probability presented the unwieldy shape of those of the hippopotamus or rhinoceros, and were supported by very strong, short feet, the toes of which were armed with claws, like those of certain turtles. The fore legs appear to have been less bulky, and were furnished with hooked claws. The teeth dem- onstrate the nature of the food required for the support of this herbivorous reptile, and the power of mastication it enjoyed ; and the ferns, pines and hemlock trees, with which its remains are associated, indicate the vegeta- tion adapted for its sustenance. But the physiognomy of this creature, 42 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. from the peculiar shape of the skull and jaws required for the attachment and support of the powerful muscles necessary for the grinding of tough vegetable substances, must have differed entirely from that of all known reptiles. The length of the iguanodon has been variously estimated ; the differ- ence in the computation depending chiefly on the extent assigned to the tail, which in many lizards is much longer than the body. If the tail of the fossil reptile was slender, and of the same relative proportions as in forms now existing, the largest individual would be fifty or sixty feet long. Remains of the megalosaurus have been found in several localities. So many perfect bones and teeth have been discovered that we are nearly as well acquainted with the form and dimensions of the limbs as if they had been found together in a single block of stone. The restoration of the animal had been accordingly effected agreeably with the proportions of the known parts of the skeleton, and in harmony with the general characters of the order of reptiles to which the megalosaurus belonged. Baron Cuvier estimated this animal to have been about fifty feet in length. Calculations founded on more complete evidence reduce its size to about thirty-five feet ; but with the superior proportional height and capacity of trunk as contrasted with the largest existing crocodiles, even that length gives a very formidable character to this extinct rapacious reptile. The restoration, according to the proportions of fossil bones of the megalosaurus hitherto obtained, yields a total length of the animal, from the muzzle to the end of the tail, of thirty-seven feet, the length of the head being five feet, the length of the tail fifteen feet, and the greatest girth of the body twenty-two feet six inches. As the thigh bone and leg bone measure each nearly three feet, the entire hind leg must have attained a length of two yards, and indicated a foot, with the toes and claws entire, of at least three feet in length. The form of the teeth shows the megalosaurus to have been strictly a flesh-eating crea- ture, and these were fearfully fitted to the destructive office for which they were designed. They appear straight when young, but become sligtly bent backwards in the progress of growth, and the fore part of the crown, below the summit becomes thick and convex. They present a combination of contrivances similar to those which human ingenuity has adopted in the construction of the knife, the sabre, and the saw. Enormous Lizards of the Prehistoric Age. The world-renowned naturalist, Figuier, thus describes this gigantic reptile : The megalosaurus was an enormous lizard, borne upon feet slightly raised : its length reached about forty-five feet. Cuvier consider- MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 43 ed that it partook of the structure of the reptiles which haunt the banks of the Nile and tropical India. The complicated structure and marvel- ous arrangement of the teeth prove that it was essentially a flesh-eating animal. It fed probably on other serpents of moderate size, such as the crocodiles and turtles which are found in the fossil state in the beds. The lower jaw supports many teeth : it shows that the head terminated in a straight muzzle, thin and flat on the sides, like that of the gavial, the crocodile of India. The teeth of the megalosaurus were in perfect accord with the destructive nature of this formidable creature. They partake at once of the knife, the sabre and the saw. Vertical at their junction with the jaw, they assume with the increased age of the animal a backward curve, giving them the form of a gardener's pruning-knife. After insisting upon some other particulars respecting these teeth, Buckland says, " With teeth constructed so as to cut with the whole of their concave edge, each movement of the jaws produced the combined effect of a knife and a saw, at the same time that the point made a first incision like that made by the point of a double-cutting sword. The backward curvature taken by the teeth at their full growth renders the escape of the prey when once seized impossible. We find here, then, the same arrangements which enable mankind to put in operation many of the instruments which they employ." The Colossal Iguanodon. Figuier also says concerning the iguanodon that it was more gigantic than the megalosaurus : the most colossal, indeed, of all the reptiles of the ancient world which research has yet exposed to the light of day. The form and disposition of the feet, added to the existence of a horn on the upper part of the muzzle or snout, render this creature one of the marvels of the ancient world. The bone of its thigh surpasses that of the elephant , the shape of this bone and feet demonstrates that it was formed for travelling inland ; and its dental system shows that it was herbivorous. The teeth which are the most important and charac- teristic organs of the whole animal, are not fixed in distinct sockets like the cocodiles, but fixed 6n the internal face of a dental bone ; that is to say, in the interior of the palate, as in the lizards. The place thus occupied by the edges of the teeth, their trenchant and saw-like form, their mode of curvature, the points where they become broader or narrower which turn them into a species of nippers or scissors are all suitable for cutting and tearing the resisting plants which are also found among the remains with the reptile. We present an engraving in which the iguanodon and megalosaurus (44) MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 45 struggle for the mastery in the centre of a forest, which enables us also to convey some idea of the vegetation of the period. Here we note a vegetation at once exotic and temperate that of the tropics, and a flora resembling our own. On the left we observe a group of trees, which resemble some of the plants of our forests. An entire group of trees, composed of ferns, are in the background ; in the extreme distance are some palms. We also recognize in the picture the alder, the wych-elm, the maple, and the walnut-tree, or at least species similar to these. A Marvelous Reptile. The hylaeosaurus was another enormous reptile, whose remains were found in the Tilgate Forest. This animal appears to have combined some of the features both of the crocodile and of the lizard. It was covered A HUGE BONE-PLATED ANIMAL THE HYL^EOSAURUS. with thick scales, and along the back was a row of long conical bones or spikes, resembling the crests. This animal is supposed to have been a ter- restrial, herbivorous reptile, between twenty and thirty feet in length. Alto- gether it must have been of the most extraordinary reptilian organization. When the ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus ceased to rule the ocean and become extinct, the mososaurus took their place, to keep the mul- tiplication of the species of other animals within proper limits. The mososaurus derives its name from the locality, Maastricht, on the River Meuse, in Germany, where its remains have been chiefly discovered, 46 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. and from the Greek word sauros, a lizard, to which tribe of animals it belongs. The occasional discovery of bones and teeth of an unknown animal in the limestone has long since directed the attention of natural- ists to the quarries of St. Peter's Mountain. Discovery of an Immense Fossil Skeleton. In 1770, M. Hoffmann, who was forming a collection of organic remains, discovered a specimen, which has conferred additional interest on this locality. Some workmen, on blasting the rock in one of the caverns of the interior of the mountain, perceived, to their astonishment, the jaws of an enormous animal attached to the roof of the chasm. The discovery was immediately made known to M. Hoffmann, who repaired to the spot, and for weeks presided over the arduous task of separating from^ the rock the mass of stone containing the remains. His labors were at length repaid by the successful extrication of the specimen, which he conveyed triumphantly to the house. Unfortunately, the canon of the cathedral, which stands on the mountain, claimed the fossil in right of being lord of the manor, and succeeded, by a most unjust and expen- sive lawsuit, in obtaining this precious relic. It remained in his posses- sion for years, and Hoffmann died without regaining his treasure, or receiving any compensation. The French revolution broke out, and the armies of the republic advanced to the gates of Maestricht; the town was bombarded, but by the desire of the committee of scientific men who accompanied the French troops, the artillery was not allowed to play on that part of the city in which the celebrated fossil was known to be contained. In the meanwhile, the canon, shrewdly suspecting why such peculiar favor was shown to his residence, concealed the specimen in a secret vault ; but when the city was taken, the French authorities com- pelled him to give up his ill-gotten prize, which was immediately trans- mitted to the zoological garden at Paris, where it still forms one of the most striking objects in that magnificent collection. ' The entire length of the mososaurus has been estimated at from twenty-five to thirty feet ; the number of its spinal joints is one hundred and thirty-three. Its skull measures four and a half feet in length, and two and a half feet in width. \ln the more recent deposits, the remains of immense animals are found in great numbers; among the most remarkable of these is the mammoth or fossil elephant. Bones and tusks of elephants or mastadons occur throughout Russia, and more particularly in Eastern Siberia and the arctic marshes. The tusks are very numerous, and in so high a state of preservation that they form an article of commerce, and are employed in the same works as what may be termed the living ivory of Asia and Q (47) 48 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. Africa, though the fossil trunks fetch an inferior price. Siberian fossil ivory forms the principal material on which the Russian ivory-turner works. The tusks most abound on the shores of the Frozen Sea, and the best are found in the countries near the arctic circle, and in the most eastern regions, where the soil in the very short summer is thawed only .at the surface ; in some years not at all. Discovery of an Enormous Mammoth. In 1799 a Tungusian named Schumachoff, who generally went to fish and hunt at the peninsula of Tamut after the fishing season of the Lena was over, had constructed for his wife some cabins on the banks of Lake Oncoul, and had embarked to seek along the coasts for tusks, called horns by the people of that region. One day he saw among the blocks of ice a shapeless mass, but did not then discover what it was. In 1800 he perceived that this object was more disengaged from the ice, and that it had two projecting parts, and towards the end of the summer of 1801 the entire side of the animal and one of his tusks was quite free from ice. The summer of 1 802 was cold, but in 1 803 part of the ice between the earth and the mammoth, for such was the object, having melted more rapidly than the rest, the plane of its support became inclined, and the enormous mass fell by its own weight on a bank of sand. In March, 1 804, Schumachoff came to his mammoth, and having cut off the tusks, exchanged them with a merchant for goods of the value of forty dollars. 'For some years the flesh of this animal was cut off for dog-meat by the people around, and bears, wolves, gluttons, and foxes fed upon it till the skeleton was nearly cleared of its flesh. About three-fourths of the skin, which was of a reddish-gray color, and covered with reddish wool and black hairs about eight inches long, was saved, and such was its weight that it required ten men to remove it; the bones of the head, with the tusks, weighed four hundred and sixteen pounds. The skele- ton was taken to St. Petersburg, where it may still be seen in the Museum of Natural History. This animal must have -been twice the ordinary size of the existing elephant, and it must have weighed at least twenty thou- sand pounds. There is not in the whole of Asiatic Russia any brook or river, especially of those which flow in the plains, on the banks of which some bones of elephants and other animals foreign to the climate have not been found. But in the more elevated regions, they are wanting, as are the marine petrifactions. But in the lower slopes and in the great muddy and sandy plains, above all, in places which are swept by rivers, they are sure to be found, which proves that we should not the less find them MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 49 throughout the whole extent of the country if we had the same means of searching for them. Every year in the season of thawing, the vast rivers which descend to the Frozen Ocean in the north of Siberia sweep down with their waters numerous portions of the banks, and expose to view the bones buried in the soil and in the excavations left by the rush- ing waters. It is curious that the more we advance towards the north of Russia the more numerous and extensive do the bone repositories become. In spite of the undoubted testimony, often repeated, of numerous travellers, we can scarcely credit the statements made respecting some of the islands of the glacial sea near the poles, situated opposite the mouth of the Lena and of the Indigirska. All the islands nearest to the main land, which is about thirty-six leagues in length, except three or four small rocky mountains, are a mixture of sand and ice, so that when the thaw sets in and their banks begin to fall many mammoth bones are found. All the isle is formed of the bones of this extraordinary animal, of the horns and skulls of buffaloes, or of an animal which resembles them, and of some rhinoceros horns. Quarries of Fossil Ivory. New Siberia and the Isle of Lachon are for the most part only a mass of sand, of ice, and of elephants' teeth. At every tempest the sea casts ashore new quantities of mammoths' tusks, and the inhabitants of Siberia carry on a profitable commerce in this fossil ivory. Every year during the summer innumerable fishermen's barks direct their course towards this isle of bones, and during winter immense caravans take the same route, all the convoys drawn by dogs, returning laden with the tusks of the mammoth, weighing each from 150 to 200 pounds. The fossil ivory, thus withdrawn from the frozen north is imported into China and Europe, where it is employed for the same purpose as ordinary ivory, which is furnished, as we know, by the elephant and hippopotamus of Africa and Asia. The isle of bones has served as a quarry of this valuable material for export to China for five hundred years, and it has been exported to Europe for upwards of a hundred. But the supply from these strange mines remains undiminished. What a number of accumulated generations of these bones and tusks does this profusion imply ! The abundance of the remains of fossil elephants in the Russian steppes has given birth to a legend of a very ancient origin. The Russians of the north believe that these bones proceed from an enormous animal which lived, like the mole, in holes which it dug in the earth ; it could not bear the light, says the legend, but died when exposed to it. A circumstance curious enough is that this same legend of an animal living 4 50 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. underground has spread to China. We read in the great Chinese work on Natural History, composed in the sixteenth centuiy, of an animal that was called by a name signifying the mouse, which hides itself. The descrip- tion says, it constantly confines itself to subterranean caverns ; it resem- bles a mouse, but is of the size of a buffalo or ox. It has no tail ; its color is dark ; it is very strong and excavates caverns in places full of roots, and covered with forests. Another writer thus expresses himself: This monster haunts obscure and unfrequented places. It dies as soon as if is exposed to the rays of the sun or moon ; its feet are short in proportion to its size. Its tail is as long as that of a Chinese. Its eyes are small, its neck short. It is very stupid and sluggish. I. FOOTPRINTS OF THE LABYRINTHODON IN SANDSTONE. 2. FOOTPRINTS OF A BIRD. 3. FOOTPRINTS OF A BIRD AND IMPRESSION OF RAIN DROPS. In 1834 an account was published of some remarkable fossil footsteps in the new red sandstone in Saxony. The largest track appears to have been made by an animal whose hind foot was eight inches long, the fore foot being much smaller. It received the name of chirotherium, owing to the resemblance of its impressions to the shape of the human hand. Fossil skulls, jaws, teeth, and a few other bones of this animal, have since been discovered, and from some characteristics which they possess found at the present day only in frogs and salamanders, and from the proportionate size of its fore and hind feet, also a characteristic MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 51' of the toad and frog this extinct animal is supposed to have been a huge frog. It has more recently received the name of labyrinthodon, from the peculiar structure of its teeth, which, under the microscope, present a series of irregular folds, resembling the labyrinthic windings of the human brain. The pictorial representation in the following chap- ter is from a model at the London Crystal Palace. Later a variety of tracks, referred to the chirotherium, tortoises, and reptiles were discov- ered in the new red sandstone in the neighborhood of Liverpool. The largest footprint was nine inches long, and six inches broad, the length of the step approaching to two feet. Abundant footprints along with ripple marks, have been found on layers of the forest marble, to the north of Bath. A communication to the Journal of Science, in 1836, by President Hitchcock, of Amherst College, called attention to some very distinct tracks in the red sandstone of the Connecticut valley, resembling the impressions left on the muddy banks of the river by the aquatic birds now common to the locality. Marks of Rain Drops in Solid Rocks. Similar impressions of rain drops occur in the Storeton quarries, where tracks of the chirotherium are found. The under surface of the strata, at the depth of thirty-two or thirty-five feet, presents a remarkably blistered or watery appearance, being densely covered by minute hem- ispheres of the same substance as the sandstone. The impressions are sometimes perfect hemispheres, indicating a vertical fall of rain; but in other cases they are irregular and elongated in a particular direction, as if the drops had struck the surface obliquely, indicating a wind accompanying the rain. President Hitchcock mentions specimens of sandstone in his possession, obtained from various parts of the United States, which show footprints, ripple marks and rain drops, the latter evincing, by a uniform elongation of shape, the direction of the wind when the rain fell. Walking along our shores in the present day, we observe a well- defined cast of our own footstep left in the sand still wet from the retreating tide, and similar distinct impressions made by the passage of animals and birds across it, and by the descent of a shower of rain upon it. In the same manner it is probable that the tracks which the new red sandstone presents were formed on the shores of an estuary, or a tidal river, between high and low water mark then dried and hardened by the action of the sun and air during the subsiding of the waters the returning waves washing up mud to cover up the impressions, the two layers uniting, to exhibit, if ever separated, the one a mould, and 52 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. the other a cast from it, of the forms that have been there. The obser- vation of like phenomena, now, to these unfolded by this geological formation, are of no mean importance and interest to mankind, in every condition of society. Many a depredator has been detected by the correspondence of his foot to its imprint in the snow or loose earth near the place of his crime. The North American Indian finds his enemy by his trail, and can not only distinguish between the elk and the buffalo by the marks of their hoofs, but determine with great exact- ness the space of time that has elapsed since the animals have passed. In the deserts of Africa, the track of the camels proclaims to the Arab whether a heavily or lightly laden caravan has crossed the sands. But from the imprints pre- sented by the sandstone formation, we gather in- fo rmati on respecting what transpired many thousands of years ago, catch a glimpse of the gi- gantic birds and strangely formed quadrupeds that then existed, and even have indicated to us, in a manner so plain as not to be mistaken, the di- rection from which the wind blew while a shower of rain was falling. We find embedded in the earth the fossil re- CHALK UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. mains of yast quantities of animals no less remarkable for their minuteness and construction than those already described in the preceding pages are for their colossal size. They are called animalcules, or infusoria. Their skeletons constitute nearly the whole mass of some soils and rocks, many feet in thickness, and extend- ing over areas of several miles. Such is the polishing slate, in Bohemia, which occupies a surface of great extent, probably the site of an ancient lake, and forms slaty strata of fourteen feet in thickness, almost wholly com- posed of the shields of animalcules. The size of a single one, forming the polishing slate, amounts upon an average, and in the greatest part, to one-sixth of the thickness of a human hair. Such is the statement of MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 53 Ehrenberg, which naturally suggests the reflection of the French phi- losopher, that if the Almighty is great in great things, he is still more so in those which are minute ; and furnishes additional data for the well known moral argument of the theologian, derived from a comparison of the telescope and the microscope : The one led me to see a system in every star ; the other leads me to see a world in every atom. The one taught me that this mighty globe, with the whole burden of its people and of its countries, is but a grain of sand on the high field of immensity; the other teaches me that every grain of sand may harbor within it the tribes and the families of a busy population. The one told me of the insignifi- cance of the world I tread upon; the other redeems it from all insignificance for it tells me that in the leaves of every forest and in the flow- ers of every gar- den, and in the waters of every rivulet, there are worlds teeming with life, and numberless as the stars above. FOSSIL REMAINS IN CHALK. The composition of the polishing slate of Bohemia is far from being unique; for in several other European localities, and very largely in Amer- ica, strata consisting mainly of fossil animalcules have been observed. This is the case with the infusorial earth of Virginia, a yellowish clay, form- ing a deposit from twelve to fifteen feet in thickness, upon which the towns of Richmond and Petersburg are built. The surface of the country over which it extends is characterized by a scanty vegetation, owing to the nature of the soil dependent on the minute organisms of which it almost entirely consists. When a few grains of this earth are properly prepared for microscopic examination, immense numbers of the shields or 54 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. cases of animalcules are visible under a magnifying power of three hun- dred diameters ; in fact, the merest stain left by the evaporation of water in which some of the marl has been mixed, teems with these fossil re- mains. The farther we pursue our investigations in this direction, the more wonderful do the discoveries become. These organisms are of exquisite structure and comprise many species and genera. The most beautiful and abundant are the circular shields, which are elegant saucer-shaped cases, elaborately ornamented with open- ings disposed in curves, somewhat resembling the machine-turned sculp- turing of a watch. These shells are from one-hundredth to one-thousandth of an inch in diameter. The body of the living animalcule was protected and enclosed by a pair of these concave shells. The Smallest Creatures ever Discovered. Beds of infusorial earth occur in almost every quarter of the globe. A large proportion of the sand of the Libyan desert consists of microscopic fossil remains ; and the marine sands of the Paris basin are in some locali- ties so full of microscopic forms, that it is calculated that a cubic inch of the mass contains sixty thousand. Many of the peat bogs of Ireland contain layers of a white, earthy substance, which, when dry, is of the appearance and consistence of brittle chalk, and this consists of the cases of animalcules. Infusoria abound also at the present time. They are generally to be found in stagnant pools, and not unfrequently in springs, rivers, lakes and seas; also in the internal moisture of living plants and animal bodies, and are probably at times carried about in the vapor and dust of the atmos- phere. Unlike the larger animals, throughout the whole of which we can trace one common type, the forms of these minute creatures are varied and singular. Some are egg-shaped, others resemble spheres; others again different kinds of fruit, funnels, tops, cylinders, pitchers, wheels, flasks, eels, serpents and many classes of animals with jointed skeletons. Some of the animalcules are visible to the naked eye, as moving points though the smallest are not more than the 24,oooth of an inch in diameter, a single drop of water having been estimated to contain many thousands of them. They were formerly supposed to be little more than mere particles of matter endowed with vitality ; but Ehrenberg has dis- covered in them an apparatus of muscles, intestines, teeth, different kinds of glands, eyes, nerves, and organs of reproduction. They not only propagate by eggs, but by self-division ; and are the most reproductive of all organ- ized bodies. They possess a comparatively long life, and in general main- MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 55 tain themselves pretty uniformly against all external influence, as do larger animals. As far as is yet known, they appear to be sleepless. It cannot but be a matter of great interest to learn, if possible, the use of these minute animals in the economy of nature. That they are not merely accidents in creation we may be quite certain, and that they simply enjoy life and do not contribute to the well-being of the whole, may be Considered equally improbable, and too unlike the ordinary course of A DROP OF WATER AS SEEN UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. nature to be admitted for a moment. All things work together, and we may in all cases, safely inquire concerning the adaptation of any group, however minute or apparently unimportant it may at first appear. It has been ingeniously suggested by Professor Owen that these little creatures are the appointed devourers of organic matter immediately be- fore its final decomposition into inorganic elements. For, consider, says he, their incredible numbers, their universal distribution, their insatiable 56 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. voracity, and their invariable presence wherever animal or vegetable mat- ter is undergoing decomposition in water. Surely we must be indebted to them the ever active and invisible scavengers of the world for the salubrity of our atmosphere'; but they perform a still more important office, perhaps, in preventing the gradual diminution of the present amount of organized matter upon the earth. And it is not difficult to understand in what way this result is produced, for, when the organic matter is in that state of comminution and decay which immediately precedes its return from the organic to the inorganic world, these wakeful members of nature's invisible police are everywhere ready to arrest the fugitive particles, and turn them back into the ascending stream of animal life. Becoming the food of the smaller infusorial animalcules, they again supply the voracity of the larger ones, and of numerous other small animals, which in their turn are devoured by larger ones, and so, by de- grees, the substance fit for the nourishment of the most highly organized classes is brought back by a short route from the extremity of the realms of organized matter. Skeletons Traveling in the Air. It is a remarkable and very interesting fact with regard to these animalcules, that their light skeletons, are capable 'of being transported by the air in the form of fine dust to the distance of many hundred miles out at sea ; and the quantity so transported is often sufficient to cloud the air, and form a sensible deposit on the decks and rigging of ships. The microscope alone is capable of proving whence this dust comes, but, with its aid, they can be recognised, identified, and traced to that continent or island, which is not always the one nearest at hand, where they are in- digenous. It will not be surprising, also, since we thus find the bodies of the animalcules themselves carried along by millions through the air, that their eggs may be carried yet farther, and prove a bond of union between distant lands, whose other inhabitants have no relation. Who could have imagined that the atmosphere is in this way the means of conveying to distant spots the invisible stony frame-work and the eggs of these little bodies ? And yet it is impossible to doubt the importance of such a mean: of communication in the animal economy. The first animals produced, after the infusorias and microscopic plant- animals, in the still warm, dense waters of the primeval seas, were such as sea-stars and sea-hedgehogs, whose very numerous organs present a sym- metry absent in the infusorias. These beautiful flower-like zoophytes, covered the bottom of the sea where they were planted, rising, like a sub- marine forest, to an elevation of several yards. The various solid parts of MARVELS OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 57 their bodies had already some analogy with those constituting the skele- ton of the superior animals, and thus formed, around a stem or vertebral column, a complex framework destined to protect the vital organs. Innumerable Insects Building- Islands. Animals of this low organization multiply rapidly, and are capable of making very important geological deposits. While, indeed, the verte- brated animals and the larger and more complicated molluscs live for some considerable time, and modify during that time the general condi- tions of organic existence, these little creatures may, by their rapid secre- tion of solid matter from the water, and (owing to their brief existence) equally rapid deposition of it in a solid form, lay the foundation of islands,, and even of new continents. The land thus formed may, when brought above the sea level, be destined to last, with little change, throughout many successive geological epochs, during which group after group of species of the higher animals may be introduced and destroyed, some of which leave no indication of their ever having existed, while others are represented by a few bones, a tooth, a scale, or perhaps only by the faint impress of a footstep. How important, then, it becomes that we should understand these, the common hieroglyphics, even if their meaning is less full, and when they speak an earlier and a simpler language than the others, since the sacred characters which tell of higher events are so infinitely more rare, and for that reason also more difficult to render. The most enduring monuments of man himself his cities, his pyramids, and his lofty columns are, in many cases, built of these far more ancient and far more lasting objects, which withstand the shock of earthquakes and the hand of time, and which scarcely yield, even at last, to the slow influence of crystalline forces, re-arranging the particles by the aid of heat and electricity. CHAPTER II. PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. Astonishing Convulsions and Physical Revolutions Fabulous Traditions Histories of Reptiles Written in Stone Gigantic Inhabitants of the Ancient Globe Skeletons of Extinct Animals found in Rocks A Winged Monster Combat Between Enormous Reptiles The Huge Megalosaurus A Vampire of the Pre- Historic Age A Creature Curiously Constructed The Wing-Fingered Bird The Famous Iguanodon A Vivid Picture of the Early Ages Animal Life in the Oolitic Period A Dragon on Wings The Remarkable Dinotherium The Strange Hand-Animal The Glyptoden The Primeval Armadillo A Creature that could Swallow an Ox Megatherium Animals in Mortal Combat A Bird Without Wings Flowers and Plants in Stone Fossil Fishes Beautiful Shells. HE observer who glances over a rich and fertile plain, watered by rivers and watercourses which have, during a long course of ages, pursued the same uniform and tranquil course ; the travel- ler who contemplates the walls and monuments of a great city, whose foundations are lost in the night of ages, witnessing, apparently, to the unchangeableness of things and places ; the naturalist who examines a mountain or other locality, and finds the hills and valleys and other ac> cidents of the soil in the very spot and condition in which they are des- cribed by history and tradition ; neither of these inquirers would at first suspect that any serious subversion had ever occurred to disturb the sur- face. Nevertheless, the spot has not always presented the calm aspect of stability which it now exhibits ; in common with every spot of earth, it has had its convulsions, its physical revolutions, whose story we are about to trace. Buried in the depths of the soil, for example, in one of those vast excavations which the intrepidity of the miner has dug, in search of coal and other minerals and metals, there are numerous phenomena which strike the mind of the inquirer, and carry their own conclusions with them. A striking increase of temperature occurring in these subterra- nean places is one of the most remarkable of these. It is found that the temperature of the earth rises one degree for every sixty or seventy feet of descent from its surface. If the interior of the beds be examined minutely, if, armed with the miner's pick and shovel, the surrounding earth is dug up, it is not impos- sible that the very first efforts at mining may be rewarded by the discovery of some fossil form no longer found in the living state. The remains of (58) PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 59 plants, and animals belonging to the first ages of the world, are, in fact, very common ; entire mountains are formed of them, and, in some local- ities, the soil can scarcely be touched at a certain depth without yielding fragments of bones and shells, or the impression of fossilized animals and vegetables, the buried remains of extinct creations. These bones these remains of animals or vegetables which the pick of the young geologist has torn from the soil belong probably to some organic species which no longer exists anywhere : it cannot be compared to any animal or plant living in our times ; but it is evident that these beings, whose remains are now so deeply buried, have not always been so covered ; they lived on the surface of the earth as plants and animals do in our days, for their or- ganization is essentially the same. The beds in which they now repose, then, must in other times have formed the surface ; and the presence of these bones and fossils proves that the earth has suffered great changes. These remains of the primitive creation had long been examined and classed scientifically as freaks of nature, for so we find them described in the works of the ancient philosophers who wrote on natural history, and in the few treatises on natural history which the middle ages have be- queathed to us. Fossil bones, especially those of elephants, were known to the ancients, giving birth to all sorts of legends and fabulous histories : the tradition which attributed to Achilles, to Ajax, and the other heroes of the Trojan war, a height of twenty feet, was traceable no doubt to the discovery of the bones of elephants near their tombs. In the time of Pericles we are assured that in the tomb of Ajax a knee-bone of that hero was found, which was as large as a dinner-plate. This was probably only the fossilized knee-bone of an elephant. Tracks of Reptiles in Stone. The imprints left upon the earth or sand, which time has hardened into sandstone, furnish to the geologist a series of valuable indications. The reptiles of the ancient world, the turtles in particular, have left upon the sands, which time has transformed into blocks of stone, imprints which evidently represent the exact mould of the feet of these animals. These impressions have sometimes been sufficient for naturalists to determine to what species the animal belonged which thus left its impress on the wet soil. Some of these present traces of the steps of the great reptile known as the labyrinthodon or cheirotherium, whose foot resembles the hand of a man. Another well-known impression is supposed to have been the impress of the foot of some great turtle. The historian and antiquarian may traverse the battle fields of the Greeks and Romans, and search in vain for traces of these conquerors, whose 60 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. armies ravaged the world. Time, which has overthrown the monuments of their victories, has also effaced the imprint of their footsteps ; and of millions of men besides, whose invasions have spread desolation over Europe, there is not even a trace of their footsteps. These reptiles, on the contrary, which ranged for thousands of years on the surface of our planet when still in its infancy, have impressed on the soil indelible recol- lections of their existence. Hannibal and his legions, the barbarians and their savage hordes, have passed over the land without leaving a material mark of their passage, while the poor turtle which drags itself along on the silent shore of the primitive seas has bequeathed to learned posterity the image and imprint of a part of its body. These imprints may be perceived as distinctly marked on the rocks as the traces left in moist sand or in newly-fallen snow by some animal under our own eyes. What grave reflections should be awakened within us at the sight of these blocks of hardened earth, which thus carry back our thoughts to the first ages of the world, and how insignificant the discoveries of the archaeologist who throws himself into ecstacies before some piece of Greek or Etruscan pottery, when compared with these veritable antiquities of the earth ! Vast Antediluvian Forests. As already observed, the products of the first epoch of the globe were vegetable, consisting of immense forest growths, from which vast coal- beds were formed to furnish fuel for the subsequent races of men. The secondary epoch contrasted strongly with that which preceded it, for now the wonders of animal life burst upon us with their unique and fantastic shapes. The reptiles astonish us by their number, their gigantic size, and their unwonted forms ; antique and incomprehensible inhabitants of the globe, reproduced in all their parts to our wondering eyes by the genius of a Cuvier and an Owen ! It is to this epoch that the name of the rep- tilian age may be most appropriately given, so completely did these creatures then predominate on the globe; it was the age of a throng of frightful lizards, compared to which our own are mere pigmies, and which possessed a form and character of their own. At this time lived the ichthyosauri, veritable fish-lizzards, as is indicated by their name. These reptiles, which must have spread terror through the ancient seas, attained an enormous length. Their whole organization is a series of surprises. With the vertebras of the fish they have the fins of a dolphin; and while armed with the teeth of a crocodile, they display an optic globe which is without any parallel. This eye, the bulk of which was some- times as large as a man's head, was protected in front by a framework of bony plates, and was beyond all doubt the most powerful and perfect (61) 62 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. visual apparatus ever seen in creation. Hence the ichthyosauri could discover their prey at the greatest as well as the shortest distances ; in the profound darkness of night, and in the depths of the ocean ; the delicate structure of the organ of vision being protected from the shock of the waves by the bony buckler which surrounds the transparent globe. Naturalists have investigated the remains of these animals with such skill, that in spite of the destruction of the softer organs thousands of years ago, they have been enabled to make out the structure of the intes- tinal tube ! It has been shown that this was formed exactly like an Archimedian screw, and was strictly analogous to that of our sharks and rays. At the same time the nature of the food of these voracious reptiles has been discovered. The petrified remains of food which were found proved that they devoured an enormous quantity offish, and even occasion- ally their own species, for small ichthyosauri have been met with, in the inclosed remains of the large ones. Freaks of the Animal Kingdom. With these terrible rulers of the ancient seas lived the plesiosauri, rep- tiles equally strange, and which Cuvier considered as the most singular races of the early world. They were remarkable for their turtle-like fins, and especially for the thinness and extreme length of their serpent-like necks. The arrangement of the skeleton in the plesiosaurus indicates that it swam ordinarily on the surface of the waves, curving back its long flexible neck like a swan, and darting forward with it from time to time in order to seize the fish which approached it. Their paws, similar to those of the sea turtles, show that the plesiosauri, like these reptiles, sometimes issued from the sea and sought refuge amid the plants, in order to evade their dangerous enemies, which were beyond all doubt the ichthyosauri. If any of the animals which the remote periods of the globe present to our notice are to be looked upon as monsters, we submit that in this respect the first place is due to the pterodactyli, which remind one of the ancient dragons of legendary tradition. Their structure is so strange that one does not really know where to place them ; they were alternately looked upon as birds, mammals, and reptiles. De Blainville, embarrassed, as indeed all the learned world were, formed a separate class for them in^ the animal kingdom. The aspect of the pterodactyl was necessarily very strange. When naturalists tried to restore their frames, the figures they produced were more like the offspring of some diseased imagination than realities. They were really reptiles furnished with large wings, and resembled enormous bats, having a very pointed head supported on a slender neck. FIERCE COMBAT BETWEEN THE MEGALOSAURUS AND IGUANODON. (63) 64 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. At the period in the history of the world when the ocean swarmed with such monsters as the ichthyosaurus, the land was tenanted by huge croco- dile-like lizards. These were reptiles provided with feet; while those inhabiting the sea were partly like fishes, and had paddles to enable them to swim. The largest of the land species was the iguanodon, so called because it resembled in structure, and in the character of its teeth, the iguana, a lizard common in the tropical parts of America. The iguana of the present day only grows to the length of four or five feet, while the iguanodon of former ages reached astonishing dimensions. The small horn on its nose gave it a strange, dragon-like aspect ; but, notwithstand- ing its enormous size and formidable look, it was probably a harmless creature, like its modern relative, feeding only on vegetable substances. A Terrible Monster. The megalosaurus, or " great lizard," was, on the other hand, a dreadful carnivorous monster, almost as huge as the iguanodon, but far more terrible; for its immense jaws look as if they could have crushed through a bar of iron, and its formidable rows of teeth were specially adapted for cutting and tearing flesh : for some were arranged like those of a saw, while others were curved backward like a sabre, and sharp all along the inner edge, so that when an animal was seized by them it could not possibly escape. The body of the megalosaurus was covered with strong plates like armor, and its legs were longer in proportion to its size than those of other lizards. As these monsters were not sluggish like the crocodile and alligator, but, from their flexible, lizard-like structure, probably swift and sudden in their motions, the destruction of animal life by such must have been immense ; .and, indeed, their voracity may have been one cause of their extinction, for when other food failed them they may have attacked each other, the large herbivorous animals, such as the mastodon and mammoth, not being then in existence. From the plants preserved in the same rocks which contain the remains of these creatures, we know that they must have lived in a tropical climate, for the vegetation chiefly consists of tree-ferns and palms, such as only grow in hot countries. The megalosaurus received its name from its gigantic size, although the size is, in some respects, the character of least importance. The tribe of lizards, one of the most important of the existing reptilian groups, forms a link in the chain by which the animal we are now describing was con- nected with known forms; but, although analogies unquestionably exist between the lizard and the megalosaurus, and also between this animal and the crocodiles, there yet remain marked and peculiar features sep- arating it from both. It is now considered as one of an extinct family, (65) 66 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. pre-eminently remarkable for the great height at which all the species stood above the ground in proportion to all other reptiles ; and the height is indicated not less by the actual size of the bones of the extremi- ties, than by the provision made in the skeleton to resist the pressure of an enormous weight. The megalosaurus was a gigantic carnivorous land reptile, its body being of enormous size. It was clothed in scaly armor and stood with its whole body considerably above the ground, in bulk and general ap- pearance rather resembling the hippopotamus than the gigantic alligators of the present day. It was provided with a true reptillian tail, the length of which was considerable, although not nearly so great in proportion as that of existing crocodiles and alligators. The head was terminated by a straight, narrow, and long snout, not tapering, but compressed laterally. The teeth were of moderate size. They formed, however, strong and powerful cut- ting instruments, for the fore part was sharp and jagged, and the hind part much thicker and blunt, while one set succeeded another. An Ingenious Arrangement. The vertebrae are somewhat peculiar in form, and present nearly flat surfaces to one another ; but it is chiefly one group, consisting of five, firmly cemented together into a solid mass, and distributing the weight of the body upon the hinder extremities, that forms an exception to the ordi- nary reptilian character. Except the megalosaurus, and the two or three extinct species now grouped with it, and belonging to the same period, no reptile has more than two bones cemented together for this purpose ; and this is found sufficient, because much of the weight is supported directly upon the ground either by the body or tail of the animal. On the other hand, all the heavy land quadrupeds exhibit great strength and solidity in this part. It is interesting to find the long and powerful extremities of this monstrous reptile thus combined with a structure altogether different from that of other reptiles, but manifestly related to its habits. The ver- tebrae of the megalosaurus thus united are not in a straight line, but describe a gentle curve with the concavity downwards. The bones of the extremities are long, large, and hollow, resembling in this the corresponding bones of land quadrupeds. They exhibit, however, a mixture of the characters observed in the crocodile and in some lizards. They are so large, compared with the bones of animals most nearly allied, that, if the same proportions had held throughout, the megalosaurus might be compared with a crocodile sixty or seventy feet long, did such a mon- ster exist ; but the whole structure of the animal indicates considerably greater bulk and height in proportion to length than is seen in other rep- (67) 68 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. tiles. The trunk was broad and deep, the tail comparatively short, and the limbs unusually long. We have no means of deciding in what man- ner the tail was carried. A Peculiar Skeleton. This gigantic land reptile was accompanied by another, and still more oddly constituted animal, connecting the reptiles with birds in a manner not less remarkable than that by which the megalosaurus unites them with quadrupeds. The pterodactyl is a true flying reptile. It exhibits, how- ever, in the various parts of its skeleton such strange resemblances to other and very widely separated groups, that it was successively described as a bird and a bat, before it was acknowledged according to its true analogies ; and this not without some ground, since the mistake arose from the presence of peculiarities of structure considered in each case as characteristic of the two great classes of vertebrata to which it was referred. It is, perhaps, the most extraordinary of all the beings of whose former existence the study of fossils has made us aware, and is that which if living would appear most unlike any thing that exists in the known world. In tjie external form of the body the pterodactyli probably resemble the bats or vampires ; and some of the species attain the size of a cormorant, although others were not larger than a snipe. The resemblance, however, to the bat tribe, was limited to the form of the body, for the head was totally different, the snout being enormously elongated, and the eyes exceedingly large ; while the organs of flight or wings were even more powerful in proportion, and the legs were probably capable of being used in the water, assisting the animal to swim. Let us now consider a little more in detail some of the peculiarities of structure of this strange monster. In the first place, the skull, far from resembling that of a bat or bird, resembles in its general proportions, and even in some points of detail, that of the crocodiles ; and the reptilian analogies are completely pre- served in the position and small size of the cranium, and in the enormous length of the snout. The lower jaw is not less reptilian, and is provided, as well as the upper jaw, with a long row of powerful teeth implanted in sockets, and successively replaced as they were worn and lost. The num- ber of these teeth was about sixty ; they were conical like those of the crocodile, but larger compared with the size of the jaw. The whole of the other proportions of the head indicate a creature of great strength, capable of darting down upon fishes or preying upon the smaller land animals. A Strangely Formed Creature. The neck of the pterodactyl, although it contains only the usual num- ber of vertebrae (seven,) must have been of great length, and well fitted to PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 69 support and move the powerful head just described, but an unusual pro- vision is observable in the neck, assisting to give additional strength to the head, a set of bony tendons running along the vertebrae for this purpose. The length of the neck corresponds with what we see in birds, and indi- cates a perfect adaptation of the animal for rapid and long-continued flight. In* one specimen the head is thrown back so far, that the base of the skull almost touches the tail, without the bones appearing to be in an unnatural position. But it is chiefly in the bones of the extremity, by means of which the animal was enabled to fly, at the same time retaining the power of walking and in all probability of swimming, that we find the most singular of the mechanical contrivances, and observe a structure different from that of any other species, either living or extinct A Bird and Reptile Combined. The bones which support the wings of a bird exhibit, in spite of great external difference, a good deal of similarity to the bones of the fore ex- tremities of quadrupeds, and even reptiles ; and it might have been expec- ted, that, in adapting a species of either of these latter classes for flight, and enabling it to live chiefly in the air, similar modifications would have been adhered to. But the fact is not so. The wings of a bird owe a great part of their efficacy to the feathers with which they are covered ; and as it did not enter into the plan of nature to provide quadrupeds or reptiles with these appendages, other mechanical contrivances are resorted to by which the power of flight is obtained, and the common integument preserved in the bat and pterodactyl. In bats, which are flying quadrupeds, this modification consists in the extraordinary development of all the fingers, upon which skin is stretched like the silk on the rods of an umbrella; and this skin extends not merely between the elongated fingers, but also from the last finger to the legs and feet, and so to the tail. The thumb is partially free, and serves as a hook for suspending the animal. There is no really flying reptile now existing, but in one species, which is able to support itself for a short time in the air ; there is a very imper- fect flying apparatus, which chiefly acts as a parachute, supporting the animal in its long leaps. This consists of an expansion of the skin over a series of false ribs extending horizontally from the back bone. In the pterodactyl, however, which is evidently and expressly contrived for flight a very singular contrivance is introduced, and it is one which seems to have ensured to the animal the power of walking and swimming, as well as flying. In order to effect this, the bones of the fore extremity, so far as regards the shoulder and arm-bones, the wrist and the hand, scarcely differ from 70 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. the ordinary proportions of those bones in lizards, and correspond with the dimensions of the hinder extremity, so that up to this point there is no peculiar adaptation for flying. On examining the bones of the fingers, 'however, we find that the number of joints in that which corresponds to the little finger is increased to five, and each joint is enormously length- ened. To the whole of the little finger, thus produced till it has become longer than the body and neck together, a membranous wing was attached, which was also fastened to the rest of the arm, to the body, and to a por- tion of the hinder extremity. When, therefore, the arm was extended, the wing was not necessarily expanded, and only became so on the little finger being also stretched out so as to be at right angles to the arm ; and the membrane was then nearly surrounded on four sides by bone. By this contrivance the necessity of employing the whole arm in the mechanism of flying as in the bird, or the whole hand as in the bat, was done away with, and the flying apparatus being confined to one finger, the arms and hands could be readily and conveniently made use of like the corresponding extremities of other animals. A Creature with Remarkable Agility. The great peculiarity, then, in the pterodactyl, with regard to the organs of locomotion, is the freedom with which the arms and legs could act when the wings were not in use and this extends even to the struc- ture of the toes, which in the bat form only a single hook, but in the pterodactyl were free, and would allow the animal to stand firmly on the ground, to walk about like a bird, to perch on a tree, to climb rocks and cliffs, and possibly also to swim in the ocean. We have, therefore, in this singular genus an animal which, in all points of bony structure, from the teeth to the extremity of the nails, presents the characteristics of a reptile, being even perhaps covered with scaly armor, and which was also a true reptile in the important pecu- liarities of the structure of the heart and circulating organs. But it was at the same time provided with the means of flying ; its wings, when not in use, might be folded back like those of a bird ; and it could suspend itself, by claws attached to the fingers, from the branches of a tree. Its usual position, when not in motion or suspended, would probably be standing on its hind feet, with its neck curved backwards, lest the weight of the enormous head should disturb the equilibrium of the animal. Reverting now to the megalosaurus, its gigantic companion received the name of iguanodon. This has already been mentioned, but we give here a full description of this marvelous creature. It is known to us by ' the teeth and a considerable part of the skeleton. The teeth of the igu- PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 71 anodon are partly composed of bone, gradually becoming softer from the edge inwards, and partly of enamel, by which they are surrounded ; the result of this contrivance being the formation of a slant surface of the crown of the tooth, and therefore of a sharp cutting edge. While young, the tooth presents a sharp edge, and is lancet-shaped as it grows further out from the jaw, and is then a powerful instrument, well adapted to sepa- rate tough vegetable fibres ; while in its most advanced state it ceases to be adapted to this purpose, but is strong and flat, and at the same time uneven, the pulp of the tooth projecting from the surface, which is worn so as to be nearly horizontal, and forming a transverse ridge. The teeth therefore begin by being incisors, and in the course of time, as they become worn, they pass into the condition of grinders a- curious change, pro- viding for the animal a perpetual supply of teeth of all kinds, some enabling it to nip off tough vegetable food, and others helping to grind that food properly before it is committed to the stomach. A Bony Structure of Great Strength. The vertebral column of the iguanodon is on a scale commensurate with the vast bulk of the animal. The vertebrae themselves have nearly flat surfaces, and are large and somewhat wedge-shaped like those of the crocodile. The neck is not known, since no vertebrae have yet been found belonging to this part. The sarcum, or that part of the back-bone, cemented together to distribute the weight of the body on the hinder extremities, includes five vertebrae, as in the megalosaurus; and in one specimen this continuous solid ridge of bone measures seventeen inches in length, and its breadth, though only eight inches at the fore part, be- comes as much as thirteen inches towards the hinder part. The magni- tude, both in diameter and length, of the thigh and leg bones, corresponds well with the large portion of the spine thus grasped, as it were, by the bones of the pelvis, and strongly points to the terrestrial habits of the an- imal. The total length of the extremities seems, in some cases, to have exceeded eight or even nine feet, and the bones of the foot are gigantic even beyond the proportions thus indicated, since one of the separate bones measures thirty inches in length, and the last joint of the toe, to which a claw was attached, is five inches and a half long. There was thus an ample base for the vast column supporting the body. The tail of the iguanodon was probably very much shorter in propor- tion than that of crocodiles, and was very dissimilar. It must, notwith- standing, have been large, and flattened laterally, being of considerable breadth in the vertical direction near its attachment to the body. The ribs were very large, broad, and long. 72 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. While the bones 01 the extremities were perhaps six or eight times larger than those of the most gigantic alligator, the whole length of the iguanodon is not likely to have exceeded thirty feet. Even then, how- ever, allowing about three feet for the head, and assuming that the neck was short, and that the tail was about thirteen feet long, which it is calcu- lated would be the extreme size, we still have a length of twelve feet for the body, and this is much more than is seen in the trunk of any living animal. The body being of this length, and perhaps of more than cor- responding bulk, and lifted many feet from the ground, reaching perhaps to the height of twelve or fifteen feet, must have indeed been sufficiently monstrous,and departed widely enough from any known animal to justify THE PONDEROUS IGUANODON. the accounts that have been given of its strange and marvelous propor- tions. It is difficult to confine the imagination within due bounds when we endeavor to recall scenes enacted during the earlier periods of the earth's history, and to picture these past events without running into extrava- gance, and without overstepping the limits of simplicity and probability, which should always characterize natural history. There is, however, no need of exaggeration in depicting the wonders of those ancient periods, Let us imagine ourselves placed on a projecting headland or hill of PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 73 mountain limestone, anciently, as now forming a prominent and pictur- esque object, but commanding a view of the open sea, which then covered the greater part of our island. Placed in imagination in this command- ing position, let us endeavor to recall the scenes once enacted near some tract of low flat land a sandy shore of the oolitic period on which, at a distance, a few solitary palm trees stand out against the blue sky, but which is backed by a more luxuriant growth of pines and ferns, extend- ing towards the interior, and crowning the tops of distant high ground. The first object that attracts attention might be one of the crocodilian animals with its long slender snout, and with extremities admirably- adapted for swimming, combining those peculiarities of structure which. distinguish the teleosaurus. This animal might be seen moving slowly,. and not without difficulty, towards the water, but when there, darting ab- ruptly along, pursuing and devouring the small fishes that swarmed about the shallows ; these fishes, sluggish in their nature, and chiefly feeding on the molluscs which live near the shore, falling a ready and abundant prey. Many other crocodilian monsters, of similar habits, but more or less adapted for a marine life, might also have been seen wandering about. .Leviathans of the Antediluvian Seas. While, however, this was going on in the near vicinity of land, our supposed position would enable us to watch also the open sea at a little . distance. Here we could not fail being struck with that gigantic reptile,, the cetiosaurus, easily recognized by the dark outline of its huge head raised partly above the surface to enable the animal to breathe, while at the distance of some twenty yards from this would be seen its great fish- like tail. Could our power of vision enable us to see beneath the sur- face, there might also be observed those singular webbed feet, and enor- mous toes armed with long powerful claws, which so strikingly charac- terize this creature. But another of the monsters of the deep demands our notice a truly marine reptile gigantic in its proportions, admirably adapted for rapid motion, and combining some of the terrestrial and crocodilian peculiari- ties of the long-necked plesiosaurus, with the compact proportions of the great fish-lizard. Its huge crocodilian head contrasts strongly with the porpoise-like body, which is attached without any intervening neck ; and its powerful elongated extremities make up for the absence of a vertical tail-fin. The sharks, which were still abundant and powerful, and even the ichthyosaurus itself, could scarcely have escaped from these terrible enemies. Having thus obtained glimpses of the sea and its inhabitants, let us THE ICHTHYOSAURUS AND PLESIOSAURUS IN MORTAL COMBAT. (74) PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 75 next turn our attention to the adjacent land. The long-snouted and other crocodiles, which have gorged themselves with fish in the shallow water, now sleep half buried in the muddy and naked plains on shore. Some of them, eighteen or twenty feet long, advance on land with diffi- culty, their extremities being far better adapted to swimming than walking. Presently a noise is heard, and a huge animal advances, whose true nature and habits we are at first at a loss to understand. In its general propor- tions it is far longer and also taller than the largest elephant; its body hangs down near the ground, but its legs are like the trunks of great forest trees, and its feet form an ample base for the vast columns which press upon them. Instead of long tusks, large grinding teeth, and a trunk like that of the elephant, this animal has an exceedingly elongated and narrow snout, armed throughout with ranges of sharp and strong knife-like teeth. The monster approaches, and trodden down with one of its feet, armed with powerful claws, or caught between its long and narrow iaws, our crocodile is devoured in an instant. Insects of Marvelous Brilliancy. But there is yet another scene for us to contemplate. Still remaining .at no great distance from the shore, but advancing inland towards the forest, let us watch the golden beetles, and the beautiful dragon-flies and other insects as they flit past in all the brilliancy and cheerfulness of lux- uriant and untamed nature. The lofty forest trees, perhaps not much unlike some existing but southern pines, are woven together with thick underwood; and the open country, where it is not wooded, is brown with numerous ferns, still the preponderating vegetation, and distributed in extensive groups. Here and there a tree is seen, overturned and lying at its length upon the ground, preserving its shape, although thoroughly rotten, and serving as the retreat of the scorpion, the centipede and many beetles. A few quadrupeds, not larger than rats, are distinguished at intervals, timid even in the absence of danger, and scarcely appearing from their shelter without great precaution. A strangely formed animal, however, is perceived running along upon the ground: its general appearance in motion is that of a bird, but its body and long neck, its head and wings, are not covered with feathers, but are either quite bare, or perhaps resplendent with glittering scales ; its proportions are quite unlike those of any known animal; its head is enormously long, and like that of a crocodile; its neck long and out- stretched, or thrown back on the body; its fore extremities have four free toes, but the fifth toe folded down on the body ; its hind legs are short, and its feet perhaps webbed. This animal, running along upon the (76) PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 77 ground, pursues and devours the little quadruped we have been watching, and then perhaps darts off towards the sea to feed upon the fishes, which its peculiar powers would enable it to take, either pouncing upon and so transfixing the victim, or even occasionally diving in search of prey. The Flying Lizard. But we have not yet noticed the strangest phenomenon. This mailed reptile, four of its fingers still free, but the fifth opened out, and by a connecting membrane forming a wing of very large size, rises into the air, and flits about or hovers over-head, realizing and even surpassing, in the conditions of its existence, the wildest mythological accounts of fly- ing dragons which we read of, or those representations which we see pic- tured by the pencil of the Chinese. Of all the strange creatures that have ever appeared in the world, perhaps the strangest was this pterodac- tyl, or wing-fingered reptile. The remains of one have been found whose wings had a spread of twenty-seven feet, thus exceeding in size the larg- est condor of the Andes. But it could fly in the air or walk on the ground, climb trees and rocks by means of its strong claws, and most likely it could swim in the water. Its wings consisted of a membrane ex- tending from what we must call its fingers all along the body to the hinder limbs, and from the size and form of these latter it is evident that it must have walked or perched in the manner of a bird, to which its long neck also gave some resemblance. But it was a flying dragon, and had jaws like a crocodile's, armed with sharp-pointed teeth ; and its eyes were very large, probably adapted for seeing at night. From its remains be- ing found together with those of dragon-flies and beetles, it appears to have lived mostly on insects, while the larger kind are supposed to have eaten fish, which they may have seized like the sea-gull whilst flying over the water. The pterodactyl has utterly passed away with the age in which it lived, and there is nothing like it now in nature. In its time, it seems to have filled the same place in the natural economy that bats do now. But the pterodactyl was a reptile, a flying lizard, while the bats be- long to quite a different order of animals. Modified, no doubt, by considerable and even important changes in matters of detail, but still remaining in all essential points the same, the picture thus given may be looked on as neither false nor exaggerated, however imperfect, and as, to a certain extent, characterizing the whole of the long period during which the oolites were being deposited. From time to time, in various places during this period, coral reefs were formed, mud-banks accumulated, and occasionally a considerable quantity of sand was also brought in ; and thus there went on a series of changes, (78) THE FLYING DRAGON. PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 7 resulting in the formation of many important beds of limestone and much clay, along a coast-line gradually advancing eastwards, and probably un- dergoing numerous alterations of level. Surrounded with a constantly renewed vegetation, in an atmosphere and with climatic conditions probably admirably adapted to its habits, there existed another monstrous animal, more unweildy even than the megalosaurus and treading down whole forests in its advance, organized so as to clear away a portion, at least, of the results of a rapid growth of vegetable matter. These animals must have been very numerous where their remains have been found; they have furnished sufficient material to enable us to complete, in imagination, their singular forms. A Colossus of the Antediluvian Age. The dinotherium is the most remarkable of the ancient animals, and the largest which has ever lived. For a long time we possessed very imper- fect portions of its skeleton, and Cuvier was induced erroneously to place it among the tapirs. The discovery of a lower jaw nearly perfect, armed with defensive tusks descending from its under side, demonstrated that this hitherto mysterious animal was the type of a genus altogether new and singular. Nevertheless, as it was known that there were some animals of the ancient world in which both jaws were armed, it was thought for some time that such was the case with the dinotherium. But in 1836 a head, nearly entire, was found, and this fine fragment was carried to Paris, and exposed to public view. It was nearly a yard and a half long. The defences, it was found, were enormous, and were carried at the extremity of the lower jaw-bone, and much curved inwards. The molar teeth were in many respects analogous to those of the tapir, and the great holes under the orbits, joined to the form of the nasal bone, rendered the existence of" a proboscis or trunk very probable. This colossus of the ancient world, respecting which so much has been said, somewhat approaches the mastodon: it seems to announce the ele- phant, but its dimensions were vastly greater than the living elephants, superior even to that of the mastodon and the mammoth, both fossil elephants. From its kind of life, and frugal habits this monster scarcely merited the formidable name imposed on it by naturalists, of " terrible ani- mal." Its size was, no doubt, frightful enough, but its habits seem to have been harmless. It is supposed to have inhabited the fresh water lakes, or marshes and the mouths of great rivers, by preference. Herbiv- orous like the elephant, it employed its proboscis probably in seizing the herbage suspended over the waters, or floating on their surface. We know that the elephants are very partial to the roots of vegetables growing in (80) THE IMMENSE DINOTHERIUM. PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 81 flooded plains. The dinotherium appears to have been similarly organized, and probably sought to satisfy the same tastes. With the powerful mat- tock which Nature had supplied him for penetrating the soil, he would be able to tear from the bed of the river or lake nourishing roots, for which the mode of articulation in the jaws, and the powerful muscles intended to move them, as well as the large surface of the teeth, so well calculated for grinding, were evidently intended. The more ancient of the secondary rocks have interested geologists on .account of the innumerable remains of shells which they contain. At the time when these strata were being deposited lived one of the most extraordinary reptiles of which we have any knowledge. It was a kind AN EXTRAORDINARY REPTILE THE LABYRINTHODON. of monster toad, so enormous as to equal an ox in size, the teeth of which, resembling the windings of a maze, have procured for it the name of labyrinthodon. The rocks of this ancient epoch have taught us some- thing even of the anatomical details of this animal, having preserved the impressions of its footsteps. On the same beds have been observed the prints of three-toed feet, considered by some geologists as traces of the first birds on our globe. The armadillo, ant-eater and pangolins, are the living examples of an ancient order of creatures which were characterized by largely developed claws at the extremities of the toes. The order seems thus to establish 6 A GROUP OF CURIOUS HAND-ANIMALS. (82) PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 83 itself as a zoological link in the chain between the hoofed animals and those armed with claws. All these animals belonged to the American continent. The glyptodon, which appears during this period, belonged to the family of armadillos, and their most remarkable feature was the presence of a hard scaly shell composed of numerous scales, which cover the entire upper surface of the animal from the head to the tail ; in short, a mammiferous animal, which appears to have been enclosed in a shell like the turtles : it resembles in many respects the ant-eater, and had six- teen teeth in each jaw. These teeth were channeled with two broad and deep lines, which divided the surface of the molars into three parts. The hind feet were broad and massive, and evidently designed to support a vast incumbent mass ; it presented phalanges armed with nails or claws. THE ARMADILLO OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. short, thick and depressed. The animal was enveloped in, and protected by, a solid case, composed of plates which, seen from beneath, appeared to be hexagonal in shape. The glyptodon had a near relative which is represented in the accompanying engraving. This armadillo of the early world was supposed to have been a different member of the same species, the chief difference in the two animals being in the structure of the tail, which is massive in the first, and in the other is composed of half a score of rings. In other respects the structure and habits are the same, both being herbivorous and feeding on roots and other vegetable products. Another family of reptiles appears in this epoch, and their relics show that they had a very singular construction. This is the teleosaurus, which 84 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. recent investigations permit us to reconstruct. The teleosaurus allows us to form a pretty exact idea of the crocodiles of the ancient seas those curiassed reptiles, which the German geologist Cotta describes as the great barons of the kingdom of Neptune, armed to the teeth and clothed in an impenetrable panoply ; the true filibusters of the primitive seas. The teleosaurus has an anatomical resemblance to some of the present reptiles of India. They inhabited the banks of rivers, perhaps the sea itself; they were longer, more slender, and more active than the living species ; they were about thirty feet in length, of which the head was from three to four feet,~with their enormous jaws well defended beyond the ears, some- times with an opening of six feet, through which they could engulph, in the depths of their enormous throat, animals of the size of an ox. In the river Ganges, in India, there is a huge reptile called the gavial, dis- tinguished from the Egyptian crocodile by the extraordinary shape of head and jaiws : there is no other living species of crocodile like it ; but Britain once possessed a crocodile resembling that of the Ganges, and of even larger dimensions. The teleosaurus was a reptile of that remote period that preceded the age of the great elephants and tigers. Its teeth were more numerous, and set closer together, than those of the Egyptian crocodile ; and it was covered with plates on its under side as well as on its back. Though it was longer and more slender than the crocodile of the Ganges, and the vertebrae of its back-bone were united by flat plates instead of a ball and socket, it resembled it more than any other animal. An Oddity of the Animal Creation. In those ages, so long passed away, when such monstrous creatures lurked amongst the reed-like plants of the rivers, and the forests of strange trees were haunted by reptiles of still more vast dimensions, how different must the aspect of the country have been from what it is now! The megatherium, or animal of Paraguay, as it was called, is, at first view, the oddest and most extraordinary being we have yet had under consideration, where all have been strange, fantastic and formidable. The animal creation still goes on as if Nature made them and then broke the die. Towards the close of the last century, an almost perfect skeleton of this gigantic animal was dug up, at the depth of one hundred feet, in a bed of clay on the banks of the river Luxon, near Buenos Ayres. This skele- ton was sent to the museum at Madrid, where it now remains. The megatherium was armed with claws of enormous length and power, its whole frame possessing an extreme degree of solidity. With a head and neck like those of the sloth, its legs and feet exhibit the character of the THE FAMOUS ANTEDILUVIAN CROCODILE. (85) 86 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. armadillo and the anteater. Some specimens of the animal give the meas- urement of five feet across the haunches, and the thigh bone was nearly three times as thick as that of the elephant. The spinal marrow must have been a foot in diameter, and the tail, at the part nearest the body, twice as large, or six feet in circumference. The girth of the body was fourteen feet and a half, and the length eighteen feet. The teeth were admirably adapted for cutting vegetable substances, and the general struct- ture and strength of the frame for tearing up the ground in search of roots, wrenching off the branches of trees, and uprooting their trunks, on which it principally fed. THE GIGANTIC MEGATHERIUM. Heavily constructed, and ponderously accoutred, it could neither run, nor leap, nor climb. It was an unwieldy monster, and all its movement must have been necessarily slow. But what need of rapid locomotion to an animal whose occupation, of digging roots for food, was almost sta- tionary? And what need of speed, for flight from foes, to a creature which, by a single pass of his paw, or lash of his tail, could in an instant have demolished the cougar or crocodile ? Where was the enemy that would dare encounter this leviathan of the pampas ? Or in what more PRE-H1STORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 87 powerful creature can we find the cause that has effected the extirpation of his race ? His entire frame was an apparatus of colossal mechanism, .adapted exactly to the work it had to do strong and ponderous in pro- portion as this work was heavy, and calculated to be the vehicle of life and enjoyment to a gigantic race of quadrupeds, which, though they are extinct, have in their fossil bones left behind them imperishable monu- ments of the consummate skill with which they were constructed. A Gigantic Sloth. If we glance at the skeleton of this animal, it is impossible to avoid being struck with its unusually heavy form, at once awkward and fantastic in all its parts. It is allied to the sloths, which Buffon tells us are of all the animal creation those which have received the most vicious organ- ization beings to which nature has forbid all enjoyment: which have only been created for hardships and misery. An attentive examination of the animal of Paraguay shows that its organization cannot be considered so odd or awkward when viewed in connection with its kind of life and individual habits. The special organization which renders the movements of the sloths so heavy, and apparently so painful on the level ground, gives them, orr the other hand, marvelous assistance when they live in trees, whose leaves form their exclusive food. In the same manner, if we consider that the megatherium was created to burrow in the earth and feed upon the roots of trees and shrubs, every organ of its heavy frame would appear to be perfectly appropriate to its kind of life and well adapted to the special purpose which has been assigned to it. We ought to place the megatherium between the sloths and ant-eaters. Like the first, it fed exclusively on the leaves of trees ; like the second, it burrowed deep in the soil, finding there at once nourishment and shelter. It was large as an elephant or rhinoceros of the largest species. The remains collected were found in the river Luxon, which runs through the great plains to the south of Buenos Ayres. A succession of three unusually dry sea- sons had left the waters so low as to expose the skeleton to view as it stood upright in the mud in the bed of the river. Further inquiries led to the discovery of two other complete skeletons, not far from the spot where the first had been found ; and not far from them an immense shell, the bones connected with which crumbled to pieces after exposure to the air. It is probable that, like the armadillo, the megatherium employed the tail to support the enormous weight of its body : it was also a for- midable defensive arm when used as it is by crocodiles. The hind feet were about three feet long and one foot broad. They formed a powerful implement for excavating the earth at great depths where the roots of 88 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. vegetables penetrated. Solidly supported by the two hind feet and the tail, and in advance by one of the fore feet, the animal employed the fore foot at liberty in hollowing out the earth or tearing up the roots of trees ; the toes of the fore feet were for this purpose furnished with large and powerful talons, which lay at an oblique angle in relation to the soil, much like the burrowing talons of the mole. The anatomical organization denotes heavy, slow, and powerful locomotion, but solid and admirable combinations for supporting the weight of an enormous creature ; a sort of excavating machine, nearly immovable, and of incalculable power for its own purposes. The skeleton of an animal similar to the megatherium has been found in SKELETON OF THE MEGATHERIUM. our own country. In consequence of some hints given by Washington, Thomas Jefferson discovered in a cavern of Western Virginia some bones which he declared to be the remains of some carnivorous animal. These bones Mr. Jefferson believed to be similar to those of the lion. Cuvier saw at once the true analogies of the animal. The bones were the remains of a species of gigantic sloth, the complete skeleton of which was subse- quently discovered in the Mississippi, in a state of preservation so com- plete that the cartilages still adhering to the bones were not decomposed. Jefferson called this species the megalonyx. It partook of the character- istics of the sloth ; its size was that of the largest ox ; the muzzle was PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 89' pointed; the jaws armed with cylindrical teeth; the anterior members much longer than the posterior; two great toes, short, armed with long and very powerful claws ; the index ringer more slender, furnished with a claw less powerful also ; the tail strong and solid : such were the salient points of the organization of the megalonyx, whose form was a little lighter than the megatherium. Singular Habits of Pre-historic Animals. The habits of these megatheroid animals, says Mr. Darwin, were a complete puzzle to naturalists, until Professor Owen, with remarkable in- genuity, solved the problem. The teeth indicate that they lived on vegetable food, and probably on the leaves and small twigs of trees. Their ponderous forms and great curved claws seem so little formed for locomotion, that some naturalists have actually believed that, like the sloths, to which they are intimately related, they subsisted by climbing, back downwards, on trees, and'feeding on the leaves. It was a bold, not to say preposterous idea, to conceive even antediluvian trees, with branches strong enough to bear animals as large as elephants. Professor Owen,, with far more probability, believes that, instead of climbing on the trees,, they pulled the branches down to them and tore the smaller ones up by the roots, and so fed on their leaves. The collossal breadth and weight of their hind quarters, which can hardly be imagined without being seen, become, on this view, of obvious service instead of being an incumbrance; their apparent clumsiness disappears. With their great tails and huge heels firmly fixed like a tripod in the ground, they could freely exert the full force of their powerful arms and great claws. One species was fur- nished with a long tongue, capable of great extension like that of the giraffe, which, by a beautiful provision of nature, thus reaches its leafy food. An Extraordinary Neck. It has already been intimated that the destruction of animal life in the early ages was partially due to the warfare waged by one species upon another. This is illustrated strikingly by two monsters to which we have previously referred. The plesiosaurus is the name given to one of these animals. The name is applied in consequence of its offering in many points strong analogies to the other reptiles ; but these are not sufficiently close to prevent it from exhibiting a form most strange and anomalous, and a structure equally remarkable, and differing considerably from that of any other animal. The most striking and manifest peculi- arity in the plesiosaurus consists in the enormous length of the neck,, which, in some species, not only exceeds in absolute dimensions, but also in its proportion to the size of the animal, that of the longest-necked DO EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. quadruped or bird. But the perfect mobility of this neck, of which we may form an idea by the number of joints it possesses, was no less remark- able. The giraffe, the longest-necked quadruped we are acquainted with, has only seven vertebrae of the neck, not differing in this respect from the other mammals; the swan, the longest-necked bird, has twenty-three: but the plesiosaurus is known, from some admirably preserved specimens, to have had upwards of thirty, and perhaps as many as forty. In its pro- portions, the neck in one species measures four times the length of the head, and actually exceeds the entire length of the body and tail. It was apparently thick and muscular near the body, but gradually became slender towards the head, which was small, and sometimes singularly dis- proportioned in size to the other parts of the animal. The head thus reduced in size exhibits, however, rather a high type of organization. It offers some of the peculiarities which characterize the lizard, especially in the wide interspaces left between the bones ; in the existence of a strong crest along the middle of the skull, indicating that the jaws were worked -as in lizards and not as in crocodiles ; in the structure of the lower jaw ; and in the absence of a cross ridge on the fore part of the skull. But in its general form, in the strength and size of the bones of the face and jaws, in the rugged outer surface of the bones, and in the sockets of the teeth, there is a distinct and well-marked approximation to the crocodile. An Admirable Contrivance. In the size and position of the breathing-holes, or external nostrils, we find, however, a marked and interesting difference from all existing rep- tiles, and a strong analogy to the corresponding part in animals allied to the whale, offering a beautiful example of adaptation of structure presented in very different animals, but producing similar results and supplying similar exigencies. These apertures are placed near the highest part of the head, where they would enable the animal most readily to breathe, without exposing anything more than the apertures themselves above the water, corresponding admirably with the marine habits of the animal, as indicated by the structure of its extremities. The jaws of the plesiosaurus are strong and rather spoon-shaped ; they were provided with a large number of teeth probably not less than a hun- dred which were conical, slender, long, and pointed, slightly bent inwards, and deeply grooved. These teeth had long fangs, and were planted in separate sockets, as in the crocodile. They could also be repeated and indefinitely renewed. It is probable that the animal could, like some serpents, swallow prey actually larger than the size of its head, the bones being so little attached that the cavity of the mouth could \ PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 91 become greatly dilated by a violent effort. There can be no doubt that the habits of the animal were strictly carnivorous. The plesiosaurus no doubt fed indiscriminately on whatever came within reach, whether living or dead. Its powers of locomotion in the water were great, and its strength must have been formidable ; but it had an enemy in the ichthyosaurus, from which there was probably little chance of escape. We have good reason to suppose that it could move about on shore, and it probably did so with greater facility than the seal or walrus ; but it is not likely that it resorted frequently to the land, since the sea appears to have been its more congenial abode. The animal just mentioned as the fierce and powerful enemy of the plesiosaurus, which was itself a voracious reptile, belongs unquestionably to the most remark- able and anomalous species, but departed, perhaps, much less considerably than the other from the present external form of marine animals. With the exception of a larger head, and paddles somewhat more developed, it was not very unlike the porpoise in its appearance, but it was a true rep- tile, adapted for constant residence in the sea, and in that respect claims -comparison as being the ancient representative of the great existing tribe of marine animals, of which the whale is perhaps the best known type. Jaws Armed with Frightful Teeth. The head of the ichthyosaurus was in all cases large compared with the general proportions of the body, and in general form it resembled that of the dolphin, the chief part of its magnitude consisting of a greatly elon- gated snout, like that of some of the aquatic crocodiles of the present day. The jaws are long, comparatively slender, and tapering to the extremity. Along their whole length on both sides there is a continuous row of coni- ical teeth of large size, not inserted in separate sockets, but placed in a kind of trough cut in the jaw, and merely separated from one another by a ridge of bone. These teeth were constantly removed and replaced by new ones during the whole life of the animal, an instance of those won- derful provisions of nature which meet us on every hand, and which show the principle of all-wise design. The structure of the lower jaw indicates a mechanical contrivance of some interest, intimately connected with the wants and habits of the animal. The jaws themselves are, as we have seen, long and slender. The teeth show that the animal was fierce and voracious, and analogy teaches us that in such cases the jaws must close suddenly on their prey with a snap, in order to ensure a proper hold being obtained. But a .slender lower jaw, however strong, would be very easily broken when ibrought in contact with hard bodies, such as the solid enamelled plates en- 92 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. closing some of the fish of the liassic period. By a complicated appara- tus of several pieces of bone, arranged so as to distribute in some measure the necessary shock arising from the convulsive jerk made while the ani- mal was in the act of seizing its prey, we have this purpose effected in several of the existing reptiles; but something more than this seems to have been needed by the icthyosaurus, since it exhibits an example of cross bracing, adding greatly to the effective strength without increasing the weight. By simply introducing a change of direction in the grain, as it is called, or fiber of the bone, this purpose is accomplished, so that the animal was enabled to snap with safety at the hardest and most solid sub- stance that came within its reach. The jaws of some specimens must have been upwards of six feet in length. A Telescopic Eye. The most remarkable peculiarity in the head of the fish-reptile besides the jaws is the size and structure of the eye. The eyes were placed far back on the head and behind the snout, with the nostrils or breathing holes just in front, so that each time the animal came to the surface to breathe, the eyes and nostrils, but no other parts of the head or body,, would be brought into the air. There can be no question that a voracious- animal like the ichthyosaurus, obliged from time to time to appear above water, and perhaps occasionally to come on shore, required an extraordin- ary provision, enabling it not only to see but to see distinctly, every thing- passing around it. It was thus provided with a peculiar apparatus, en- abling it to adapt its vision not only to shallow but to deep water, and not. only to water but to air. This apparatus effected its purpose by permit- ting a change of shape of the pupil of the eye, according as circumstances required; the pupil dilating at great depths, where but little light is transmitted, the shape flattening to allow of distant vision on shore, and the whole eye pushed forwards to enable its owner to see objects close at hand, thus affording every variety of action to this important organ. The bony scales which enclosed and defended the soft ball of the eye most resemble what is seen in the golden eagle and some other birds of prey, and may be best understood by a comparison with the scales of the arti- choke. The structure is characteristic of reptiles rather than of fishes,, and amongst reptiles is most remarkably shown in the lizard tribe. A Gigantic Bird. The marvels of the pre-historic world are not confined to quadrupeds nor swimming monsters. Other curiosities have been discovered, al- though some of them must be assigned to periods less remote than those THE DINORNIS A BIRD WITHOUT WINGS. (93) 94 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. in which the animals lived which have already been described. Very- few of the islands near Australia, except Van Diemen's Land, and very few indeed of those other islands which form the numerous archipelagos of the eastern and southern seas, are sufficiently well known, or have such an extent of superficial deposit, that we could with any reason ex- pect them to furnish many fossil relics. New Zealand is, in point of fact,, the only island from which such remains have been obtained ; and the condition of the bones, and the circumstances under which they are found, render it impossible to state very decidedly in what bed they there occur. It is, however, something to know that in these islands there ex- isted formerly, and possibly not very long ago, a considerable and impor- tant group of wingless birds, of which one representative, the apteryx, still remains, although apparently that also will soon be lost. Many ex- tinct species of these strange animals have been found in the gravel of the northern island, and they vaiy greatly in size, some having been far larger than the largest ostrich, while others were very small. In all these the general character is nearly the same, the animals being much stouter and more powerful in proportion than the ostrich, and absolutely without any trace of wings. Great Power and Speed. An outline of one of these extraordinary animals, will afford some notion of the vast proportions attained. The various species hitherto determined have all been referred to a single genus, under the name dinornis. The legs of the dinornis were powerful, and were no doubt well adapted for rapid locomotion ; and in the apteryx similar power- ful extremities enable the animals to run swiftly, and when attacked to defend itself with great vigor. The apteryx is nocturnal in its habits, and dwells in the deepest recesses of the forest, where gigantic trees are interwoven almost inpenetrably with climbing plants, and where, deeply secluded in the mountains, there occur open swampy spots covered with bulrushes. It feeds on insects and seeds. The islands of New Zealand, situated to the east of Australia, are still further removed than that continent from the groups of islands in the Indian Ocean ; but, in spite of their distance, it is in these latter that we find the nearest approach to the singular wingless birds just described. The dodo, whieh was brought to England and preserved in museums more than two centuries ago, and figures of which have been given, ap- pears to have inhabited the Mauritius and the island of Bourbon at no distant period, although for some centuries it has not been seen in a living state. Like the extinct wingless birds of New Zealand, it was nearly al- PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 95 lied to the cassowary, also an inhabitant of the Mauritius, but it was more massive, and of more clumsy proportions. There were also creatures in those early ages which dwelt exclusively in the ocean, some traces of which have come down to us, and enable us to understand the nature and characteristics of the tribes that wandered through the great deep. Professor Agassiz discovered, on looking care- fully at the numerous species of fish, the fossil fragments of which are found in the older rocks, that all, Jd^z^z&a*** ~^r^ S without a single exception, belong- ed to one of two groups. One of these groups is called ganoid, from a Greek word signifying splendor, the scales of these fishes being gene- rally coated with polished enamel, and often exhibit- ing a very brilliant lustre. It is chiefly the ganoid fishes whose remains are handed down to us in the old red sandstone and other rocks of that period. Sixty FOSSIL FISHES BEDDED IN ROCK. distinct species of these fish have been mentioned and most of them are remarkable for exhibiting strange peculiarities of shape, approximating in some instances the structure of the lower order of animals, combined with some apparent likeness to the class of reptiles. The most extraordinary of these fishes, " the buckler-headed," has a head from which its name is taken. This has been compared to the cres- cent-shaped blade of a saddler's cutting-knife, the body forming the handle. It is extremely broad and flat, extending on each side consider- 96 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. ably beyond the body, and the bones appear to have been firmly soldered together, so as to form one shield, the whole head thus being apparently covered by a single plate of enamelled bone. The body compared with this singular head appears extremely diminutive ; the back is arched and gradually recedes in elevation towards the tail, which is of moderate length ; the fins are few in number, and not very powerful, but appear to have possessed a bony ray in front, the rest of the fin being more fibrous. The whole body was covered with scales, which varied in shape in different parts, and seemed to have been disposed in series. It has been supposed by Professor Agassiz that the singular shape of the head served as a sort of defence to this animal in case of attack ; and one can readily imagine that the soft substance of the largest and most for- midable of its enemies, would be injured by any attempt to swallow so singular and knife-like an animal as the one before us. Like many, and indeed most of the species belonging to the ganoid order of fishes, and common in the older rocks, the bones of the head, and the scales of this strange monster, were composed internally of a comparatively soft bone, but each was coated with a thick and solid plate of enamel, of extreme hardness, and almost incapable of injury by any ordinary amount of violence. The detached scales, the buckler-head, and sometimes the complete outline of the animal, have thus been able to resist destruction, and are found in sandy rocks, composed of such coarse fragments that their accumulation would seem to have been accompanied with violence sufficient to have crushed to powder almost any remains of organized matter, and from which, indeed, we never obtain any fragments of shells or other easily injured substances. Beautiful Forms in Stone. The muddy beds deposited after the sandstones, although they con- tained a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime, were not in a con- dition favorable for the development of coral existence, and the remains of such animals are accordingly rare. This is not the case, however, with one group of zoophytes, for they were singularly abundant, and were manifestly an important group, perhaps assisting to clear the seas of an undue proportion of the minuter particles of decaying animal matter. The most singular of all these is the pentacrinite, an animal so compli- cated that the number of separate pieces of stone of which its singular skelelon is made up has been calculated to amount to many thousands. It was provided with a long and powerful but movable column, made up of a vast multitude of lozenge-shaped pieces, each marked with a curious set of indentations, and each pierced with a central aperture by PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 97 means of which a communication was kept up during life, enabling the animal probably to attach itself to some marine substance, or a floating log of wood. In the pentacrinite the stem was five-sided, and the body was partly defended by a small cup formed of regular plates rising from the column, and partly enclosed by a multitude of very minute and angu- lar plates fixed on a tough membranous pouch termin- ating with an extensive pro- boscis. The body was sur- rounded also by an incredi- ble multitude of branching arms, forming a complicated stony net-work, intended to intercept and convey to the stomach the particles of food fit for the animal, which were floating in the water within reach. Many specimens of this fossil are often found together, at- tached, it would seem, to what was once under surface of decayed wood drifting through the water. Fossil shells make up a large part of the relics de- posited by the ancient seas, and in numerous instances these appear to be scarcely altered from their original pattern. In other cases only an impression of the exter- nal form is left ; sometimes an entire cast of the shell, exterior and interior. In A ZOOPHYTE WITH FIVE-SIDED STEM. other cases the shell has left a perfect impression of its form in the imbedding mud, and has then been dissolved and washed away, leaving its mould. This mould, again, has sometimes been filled up by soft sub- stances, and an exact cast of the original shell obtained a petrified shell, in short. Petrified wood is equally common. The existence of marine 7 98 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. shells upon the summits of mountains had already struck the mind of the ancient authors. Witness Ovid, who in his celebrated book called the " Metamorphoses," tells us he had seen land formed at the expense of the sea, and marine shells lying dead far from the ocean ; and more than that, an ancient anchor had been found on the very summit of a mountain. The Danish geologist Steno, who published his principal works in Italy about the middle of the seventeenth century, had deeply studied the fossil shells discovered in that country. The Italian Painter Scilla produced a Latin treatise on the fossils of Calabria, in 1760, in which he estab- lished the organic char- acter of fossil shells. In France the celebra- ted BufTon gave, by his eloquent writings, great popularity to the notions of the Italian naturalists concerning the origin of fossil remains. In his admirable 'Epoques de la Nature' he sought to establish that the shells found in great quantities buried in the soil, and even on the summit of mountains, belonged, in reality, to species not living in our days. But this idea was yet too EXQUISITE FOSSIL SHELLS. new not to find objectors : it counted among its adversaries the hardy philosopher who might have been expected to adopt it with most ardor. Voltaire attacked, with his jesting and biting criticism, the doctrines of the illustrious innovator. Buffon insisted, reasonably enough, on the existence of shells on the summit of the Alps, as a proof that the sea had at one time occupied that position. But Voltaire as- serted that the shells found on the Alps and Apennines had been thrown there by pilgrims returning from Rome. Buffon might have replied PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 99 to his opponent by pointing out whole mountains formed by the accu- mulation of shells. He might have sent him to the Pyrenees, where shells of marine origin form immense mountains rising six thousand six hundred feet above the present sea level. But his genius was averse to controversy ; and the philosopher himself put an end to a discussion in which perhaps he would not have had the best of the argument. " I have no wish, he wrote, "to embroil myself with Mr. Buffon for a few shells." The vale in which the brilliant city of Paris now stands was once a lake or bay, whose shores were fringed with forests of palms. Strange animals, whose species have long since passed away, sported in its waters, whilst huge crocodiles lurked amongst the thick reeds and large water-lilies watching for their prey. The valley is known in geology as the Paris basin, just as the corresponding formation in the Thames is named the London basin. They both belong to the tertiary period, so called because it was the third in three great systems of rock formation ; the rocks being composed of the sedimentary deposit of water, and not, as in those of the first ages, produced by the action of fire : those in the vicinity of Paris being in strata or layers, containing alternately fresh-water and marine shells, showing that the valley of the Seine was at one time a fresh-water lake, and, at another, an arm of the sea. Skeletons of Animals Found Near Paris. At Montmartre, a hill a little to the north of Paris, there are extensive quarries of gypsum, the material known to us as plaster of Paris. Gyp- sum is composed of sulphate of lime, deposited by fresh water; and in digging these quarries a great number of skeletons of various animals were discovered, some of them being nearly perfect, having been preserved by the gypsum which had hardened about them. And Cuvier, the great French naturalist, restored them, and we can have a distinct idea of what these strange creatures were like, in every particular except their color. At the commencement of the tertiary period, the heat, though not so intense as it had been in the preceding ages, when the tepid swamps teemed with monstrous reptiles, was still as great in England and France as it is now in the tropics. But the temperature was slowly cooling, and the forests of palms were mixed with trees which still flourish in these climates, such as the oak, wych-elm, alder, cypress, walnut, and others. The gigantic saurians of the red sandstone age were extinct and appeared no more in the earth, and there grew into life the great pachyderms, or thick-skinned animals; instead of the dragon-like pterodactyle, the air was filled with quails, woodcocks, and curlews, and all nature wore a new aspect. ANTEDILUVIAN ANIMALS OF THE VALLEY OF PARIS. (100) PRE-HISTORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA 101 The animals which were so abundant in the Paris basin belonged chiefly to two genera : the palaeotheria, or ancient animals, and the anoplotheria or unarmed animals ; these latter, were so called from the Greek words for " unarmed," and for " beast," because their teeth were arranged in an even line all round, just as in man ; the canine teeth not projecting be- yond the others, as they do in animals which can bite and tear, so that they were defenceless. There were several . species of palaeotheria, the largest, or great palaeotherium, being about the size of a horse, but it was much heavier and clumsier, having a very thick body, supported on short, stout legs, and its feet were divided into three rounded toes. Its head was large, and was provided with a short trunk, or proboscis, like that of the tapir ; and altogether it formed a link between that animal and the rhinoc- eros, and probably resembled them in its habits. The anoplotheria also comprise several species, differing greatly from each other. The largest was about the size of a donkey but, though be- longing to the pachydermata, the anoplotherium was like no one animal now existing, for whilst in some respects it resembled the hippopotamus, its skull partook of the character of that of the horse, and its upper lip was divided, like the camel's ; and the bones of the feet, which were separated into toes sheathed in hoofs, were like those of the hog. The body was about four feet long, and it had a thick tail of equal length, prob- ably to assist it in swimming; and its hair was smooth, like that of the otter. The Gazelle of the Early Ages. Another kind, the xiphodon gracile, was about the size of a chamois, and was as light and slender as a gazelle; and instead of swimming in the water, it bounded over the plains ; but though in this respect it re- sembled a deer, and had a long neck and a short tail, its lip also was di- vided like the camel's. Some of the species were very small, one being only as large as a hare, whilst another was no bigger than a rat. It is difficult to imagine creatures more defenceless than these animals were, possessing neither horns nor claws, nor teeth that they could tear with ; and they were probably soon exterminated when the large beasts of prey came into existence. As it was, the chief enemies of those that frequented the water must have been the crocodiles. The anoplotheria were all herbi- vorous, living on seeds and green twigs, or the succulent roots of plants. Remains of the palseotherium and an aplotherium have been discovered in the Isle of Wight, in strata similar to that of the Paris basin, but not in such abundance. Altogether, Cuvier found the bones of about fifty dif- ferent kinds of animals, embedded in the gypsum, all of which are extinct, 102 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. besides turtles, and crocodiles, and bats, and various birds of kinds which still exist on the earth. Though Britain is now an island it was not always so. The researches of geologists show that it was once united to the continent of Europe. The fossil remains of animals discovered in many parts of England are the same as those found in France, and a species of fresh-water mussel, now extinct in that country, still lives in the river Seine. The flint imple- ments, too, which prove that even at that early age human beings existed on the earth, though there was no historian to chronicle their deeds, are found to be of a similar type in England and France, and seem to show that, at a far distant time, the same race of people inhabited both countries. But these men were not our ancestors; they died out, or were extermi- nated by the influx of tribes superior to them in intelligence, and the shape of their skulls, which have been dug up out of the gravel beds in France, shows that they belonged to a different race from any now inhabi- ting either country. London Once a Great Menagerie. At that time the valley of the Thames must have presented a very different aspect from what it does now, and it is supposed that the river Thames was then a tributaiy of the Rhine. The vegetation was of much the same character as at present, for, after lasting countless ages the great tertiary period had come to an end ; England was no longer covered with groves of palm-trees and tropical ferns, and the strange animals of the Paris basin were already extinct. The temperature, that had been gradu- ally cooling, at length became so cold that what is known as the glacial period, or age of ice, ensued. After a long interval, the climate grew warm again, and it was at this time that man came into existence ; at least we may conclude so, for there are no certain vestiges of human beings before the age of ice. The forest trees such as we still now have, appeared, and dense forests of oak, and elm and thickets of alder grew to the water's edge. The climate too was probably not very different to what it is now, except that the winter was colder and the summer hotter than in our day. But if the trees on the banks of the Thames were of the same kind as at present, it was far otherwise with the animal kingdom, for the gigantic mammoth browsed on the young shoots of the oak, whose branches gave shelter to troops of apes, whilst the woolly rhinoceros wal- lowed in the mud and the huge hippopotamus came swimming up the river. The wild horse and the ass scoured the plains, and herds of bisons and wild bulls roamed through the woods, that at night echoed with the ANCIENT ANIMALS IN THE THAMES VALLEY. (103) 104 EARTH, SEA AND SKY. cries of the hyena or the growling of immense tigers. There were sev- eral distinct species of rhinoceri natives of Britain and other parts of Europe, but they were not all co-existent. They first appear about the middle of the tertiary period, but the species that lived then appears to have given place to other kinds. Of these the woolly rhinoceros, which had two horns, was the most common, and its remains have been found in an entire state in the ice of northern Asia. Besides its woolly coat it had another peculiarity, which does not exist in every living species its nostrils were separated by a bony partition. There was also a smaller and more slender species, which had two horns, and another kind, no larger than a hog. The hippopotamus, of which there were two species, did not differ. much from that of Africa. Its bones have been found, to- gether with those of the rhinoceros, in many parts of London ; and a jaw- bone of a hippopotamus, armed with a formidable pair of tusks, was dug up at Peckham, and is now in the geological collection of the British Museum. A Multitude of Savage Creatures. It was at the close of the tertiary period, and just before the appearance of man, that many of the animals appeared which still inhabit Britain, such as the hog and the horse ; but the first horses were very small, being no larger than the donkey : there are no fossil remains of such horses as we see now-a-days. One species of the deer was of gigantic size, and there was a large serpent, and the caves were the abode of huge bears, that exceeded the grizzly bear of North America in size ; and a terrible creature, called the machairodus, now totally extinct, preyed on the deni- zens of the woods. Flocks of birds flew through the air, and vultures brooded on the rocks. Beavers constructed their dwellings in the stream, and were not extinct till historic times. In the valley of the Thames the remains of both arctic and tropical ani- mals are found, and the reindeer, glutton, musk-sheep, and even the lem- ming, once frequented Britain. It might be imagined that these animals lived at different periods, but the bones of hippopotami are found with those of the reindeer, and it is probable that as England was then united to the Continent, and the land continuous, the animals migrated accord- ing to the change of the seasons, and the 'hippopotamus swam up the rivers from France and Spain. The reindeer extended its wanderings as far as the south of France, where it was at one time very common. Amid the multitude of savage animals which then swarmed in these countries, the primitive human beings must have led a precarious exist- ence. Armed only with flint-headed arrows and axes, or bone-pointed PRE-H1STORIC MONSTERS OF LAND AND SEA. 105 spears, they doubtless frequently fell a prey to the tiger or terrible cave- bear. Their skeletons show that they were a small race o'f men, with round heads and low foreheads, and very prominent ridges over the orbit of the eye. They were probably something like the Eskimo or Lapland- ers, and their lives were spent in hunting or in resisting the attacks of wild beasts. Remarkable Products of Land and Sea. The shores of the islands or of the tract of main land then existing were apparently low and swampy. Deep inlets of the sea, bays, and the shifting mouths of a river, were also affected by numerous alterations of level not sufficient to destroy, but powerful enough to modify the animal and vegetable species then existing; and these movements were continued for a long time. The seas were tenanted by sharks, gigantic rays, and many other fishes of warm latitudes, and abounded also with large car- nivorous mollusca, capable of living either in fresh or brackish water. The shelving land was clothed with rich tropical vegetation to the water's edge, presenting to view the palm and the cocoa-nut, besides many of those trees which now lend a charm to the Spice Islands of the Indian seas. All these abounded also with indications of animal life. The large rivers were peopled with crocodiles; turtles and tortoises floated upon them; and these tenants of the waters, strange and varied as they were, and unlike the present inhabitants of the district, were not without resemblance to many species still met with on the earth. The interior of the land, of which the surrounding waters were thus peopled, was no less remarkable, and exhibited appearances equally instructive. Troops of monkeys might be seen skipping lightly from branch to branch in the various trees, or heard mowing and chattering and howling in the deep recesses of the forest. Of the birds, some clothed in plumage of almost tropical brilliancy, were busy in the forests, while others, such as the vulture, hovered over the spots where death had been busy. Gigantic serpents might have been seen insidiously watching their prey. Other serpents in gaudy dress were darting upon the smaller quadrupeds and birds, and insects glittered brightly in the sun. CHAPTER III. THE TERRIBLE PHENOMENA OF EARTHQUAKES. Nature's Destructive Agencies Tremendous Forces Pent up Within the Earth Frequency of Earthquake Shocks A Country in South America Never Quiet Signs of the Approaching Disaster A Part of our own Country Sunk by a Convulsion The Great Earthquake of Calabria Human Beings Tossed in the Air Heavy Objects Whirling About Farms Changing Places Jamaica Visited Destruction of the City of Lisbon The Sea Rushing Madly on the Shore- Terrible Loss of Life Horrors Multiplied Immense Fissures in the Earth Great Calamity at Messina Statistics Showing Appalling Destruction of Life 'Charleston in Terror Java and Southern Europe Shaken. ARTH QUAKES are the most fearful, and at the same time the most destructive, phenomena of nature. They are motions produced on the earth's solid surface by a force originating in the interior of the globe, and thence acting upward. This force appears to be subject to great variations in its intensity. In most cases the commotions occasioned by it on the earth's surface are exceedingly slight. The motion is scarcely felt, and passes away in the same moment. The larger number of earthquakes consist of a slight trembling of the ground, which can only be perceived by attentive observation, and then only under very favorable circumstances. When they have passed away, it is impossible to discover the slightest traces of their transitory activity. But at other times they are attended with effects so terrible and destruc- tive, that no other calamity can be compared with them. When the subterraneous force to which they owe their origin acts with a violent degree of energy, it produces such convulsions on the earth's surface, that not only are the works destroyed that men have raised to render their lives comfortable, and the buildings levelled to the ground that they have erected to protect them against the inclemency of the seasons, but in some cases the face of the country is changed that has been subjected to their operation. It is happily the case that earthquakes attended with such fearful effects are not of frequent occurrence ; they would other- wise render the countries visited by them uninhabitable for man and beast. Frequency of Earthquakes. In countries frequently subject to earthquakes, only those convulsions which are attended by destructive consequences are remembered by the (106) THE TERRIBLE PHENOMENA OF EARTHQUAKES. 107 inhabitants for any long time after. The slight ones are hardly noticed, or are only recorded by some curious observer. It appears, therefore, to- persons living at a great distance from such places, and receiving infor- mation of them only when producing some great calamity, that earth- quakes are not frequent, and occur only at periods remote from each other. This, however, is an error. Earthquakes are very frequent. By an exact observer not less than fifty-seven earthquakes have been noticed within the space of forty years in the town of Palermo, in Sicily, which were attended by such smart shocks as to be sensibly felt. EFFECT OF AN EARTHQUAKE ON THE SEA. In the town of Copiapo, in the extreme northern province of Chile, one or more shocks are felt almost every day; and though they commonly pass off without causing any damage, the town has suffered by them so frequently, and so many lives have been lost by the downfall of build- ings, that the inhabitants rush out of their houses as soon as the least commotion of the earth is perceived. If it were possible, says Humboldt, to obtain daily information respecting the state of the whole surface of our globe, we probably should convince ourselves that this surface is 108 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. nearly always shaken at some point or other, and that it is subject to an uninterrupted reaction between the interior and the exterior. Signs of Coming" Destruction. Many persons are apt to suppose that those countries which are situ- ated in the vicinity of active volcanoes are more frequently subject to violent concussions than those which lie at greater distances from them. This opinion is not correct; but it is true that earthquakes are common in the neighborhood of volcanoes. Every eruption of the mountain, and even every new flow of lava, or every ejection of ashes, is accompanied by a shock, which, however, is so slight, that it can only be perceived by persons who are near the crater, or on the declivities of the volcano. These slight shocks can hardly be considered as earthquakes, as they are not felt in the plain at its base. But many eruptions are preceded by real earthquakes. When the inhabitants of a country surrounding an active volcano observe that the mountain has ceased to emit smoke from its crater, they consider it as a sign of an approaching earthquake, and in many cases their fear has not proved unfounded. It may be true that earthquakes are most frequent in countries lying in the vicinity of a volcano ; but few of the more disastrous convulsions of this descrip- tion have occurred in such localities. The greater number have hap- pened at considerable distances from any active volcano, and even from places which by the nature of the rocks show that they have once been the seat of volcanic activity. It is also observed that earthquakes occur- ring at no great distance from volcanoes are of comparatively short du- ration, whilst the convulsions visiting countries lying far from them are repeated almost daily for months together, and frequently several times in one day. Of such a description were the earthquakes which were ex- perienced during more than a whole year (1812) in the plains of the Mississippi, and those which shook, in 1808, the Alpine valleys lying at the base of Mount Cenis. A Country Sunk by a Convulsion. That part of the plain of the Mississippi River, which, in 1812, exper- ienced a great number of strong concussions, and those repeated for sev- eral months together, extends between New Madrid, on the Mississippi, to the Little Prairie, north of Cincinnati. The principal seat of the earthquake was consequently nearly equi-distant from the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic Ocean. The following particulars respecting this earthquake are from Sir Charles Lyell : Flint, the geographer, who vis- ited the country seven years after the event, informs us that a tract of THE TERRIBLE PHENOMENA OF EARTHQUAKES. 109' many miles in extent, near the Little Prairie, became covered with water three or four feet deep; 'and when the water disappeared a stratum of sand was left in its place. Large lakes, of twenty miles in extent, were formed in the course of an hour, and others were drained. The graveyard at New Madrid was precipitated into the bed of the Mississippi ; and it is stated that the ground whereon the town is built, and the river bank for fifteen miles above, sank eight feet below their former level. The neigh- boring forest presented for some years afterwards a singular scene of confusion ; the trees standing inclined in every direction, and many hav- ing their trunks and branches broken. The inhabitants relate that the earth rose in great undulations ; and when these reached a certain fearful height, the soil burst, and vast vol- umes of water, sand, and pit coal were discharged as high as the tops or the trees. Flint saw hundreds of these deep chasms remaining in an alluvial soil, seven years after. The people in the country, although in- experienced in such convulsions, had remarked that the chasms in the earth were in a direction from S. W. to N. E. ; and they accordingly felled the tallest trees, and laying them at right angles to the chasms, stationed themselves upon them. By this invention, when chasms opened more than once under these trees, several persons were prevented from being swallowed up. At one period during this earthquake, the ground not far below New Madrid swelled up so as to arrest the Mississippi in its course, and to cause a temporary reflux of its waves. The motion of some of the shocks is described as having been horizontal, and of others perpendicular ; and the vertical movement is said to have been much less desolating than the horizontal. Human Beings Hurled Through Space. The upheaving shocks are accompanied by violent upliftings of the earth, as if repeated explosions were exerting their force upon the roof of a hollow cavern, threatening to burst open the ground and blow into the air every thing placed on it. They may also be compared to the burst- ing of a mine, which explodes with great force and removes the earth which it meets within its passage. When the surface of the earth is split by them, it is hardly to be conceived what terrible destruction must be produced in a few minutes by such convulsions following each other in quick succession. There are numerous instances on record which prove the immense force with which these shocks act on the surface and on everything on it ; some of them, indeed, appear almost incredible. In the great earthquake of Calabria, 1873, the most elevated portion of the granite mountain mass of the Aspromonte was seen to move up and down 110 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY, rapidly ; persons were raised from the ground and thrown to a distance from the place where they were; houses were removed from their site and carried to places higher than those on which they had been built. The foundation of many buildings was removed from beneath the ground with such violence, that the stones were broken to pieces and scattered about, and the hard cement which had united them was crushed into dust After the great earthquake of Riobama, in 1797, on the table land of Quito, the corpses of several of the inhabitants of the town were found on the top of a hill, separated from the place by a river, and several hun- dred feet higher than the site of the town. These persons had been hurled to the top of the hill by the violent upheavings of the ground. The rotatory shocks are certainly the most destructive, but are those .also which occur most rarely. They have only been observed in the most calamitous earthquakes, and not in all of them. The whirling motion puts the surface of the earth into a movement resembling that of the sea when agitated by irregular waves crossing and repulsing each other indifferent directions. In the earthquake of. Catania, -in Sicily, in 1818, many statues were turned round, and a large piece of rock had its former position from south to north changed to that of east to west Several instances of this kind were observed after the great earthquake of Valparaiso, in Chili, when that town was levelled to the ground. The large church La Merced presented the most remarkable ruin. The tower was built of bricks and mortar, and its walls up to the belfry were six feet thick. They were shivered into blocks, and thrown to the ground. On each side of the church were a number of square buttresses of good solid brick work, six feet square. Those on the western side were all thrown down, as were all but two on the eastern side; these two were twisted from the wall in a north-easterly direction, each presenting an angle to the wall. The twisting to the north-east was noticed in several other places. In a village thirty miles north of Valparaiso, the largest and heaviest pieces of furniture were turned in the same direction. Singular Confusion Caused by the Moving of the Ground. In some instances it has been found that large pieces of ground had exchanged their respective situations. This was the case at several places in Calabria, after the first great shock had passed by. A plantation of mulberry trees had been carried into the middle of a cornfield, and left standing there; and a piece of ground sown with lupines had been forced into a vineyard. For several years after the earthquake, lawsuits were brought in the courts of Naples to decide the claims which had origina- ted in the confusion of territorial possessions by the effects of that terrible THE TERRIBLE PHENOMENA OF EARTHQUAKES. Ill catastrophe. Facts of a similar description are recorded as having resulted from other earthquakes, such as that of Riobamba, where also several lawsuits were brought in the courts respecting the possession of pieces of ground, which had exchanged their positions. But Humboldt has recorded a still more extraordinary fact. When he was surveying the ruins of the destroyed town of Riobamba for the purpose of making a map, he was shown the place where the whole furniture of one house was found buried beneath the ruins of another. The upper layer of the soil, formed of matter not possessing a great degree of coherency, had moved like water in running streams ; and we are compelled to suppose that these streams flowed first downwards, then proceeded horizontally, and at last rose upwards. The motion in the shocks which were experi- enced in Jamaica, 1692, must have been not less complicated. Accord- ing to the account of an eye witness, the whole surface of the ground had assumed the appearance of running water. The sea and the land appeared to rush on one another, and to mingle in the wildest confusion. Some persons, who, at the beginning of the calamity, had escaped into the streets, and to the squares of the town, to avoid the danger of being crushed under the ruins of the falling houses, were so violently tossed from one side to the other, that many of them received severe contusions, and some were maimed. Others were lifted up, hurled through the air, and thrown down at a distance from the place where they had been standing. A few who were in the town were carried away to the harbor, which was rather distant, and there thrown into the sea, by which acci- dent, however, their lives were saved. Tlie Terrible Earthquake of Lisbon. The earthquake of Lisbon happened on the 1st of November, 1755. The day broke with a serene sky and a fine breeze from the east. About nine o'clock in the morning the sun began to grow dim, and about half an hour later a rumbling noise was heard, which proceeded from under ground, and resembled that made by heavy carts passing over a distant ground covered with pebbles. This subterraneous noise increased gradu- ally, but quickly, so that after a few seconds it resembled the firing of cannons of heavy calibre. In this moment the first shock was felt. Be- fore its violent concussions the foundations of many large buildings, especially the palace of the Inquisition and several churches gave way, and the whole of these edifices were levelled to the ground. After a short pause, perhaps of not more than a minute's duration, three other shocks followed in quick succession, by which nearly all the other larger buildings, palaces, churches, convents, public offices, and houses 112 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. were thrown down. All these shocks occurred in a space of less than five minutes. At the time the first shock was felt in the city, some persons were in a boat on the Tagus River, about three miles distant from the capital. They were astonished at hearing the boat making a noise, as if it were running aground, as they knew it was in deep water. In the same moment they observed on both banks of the river that the buildings were tumbling down. About four minutes later a similar noise was DESTRUCTION OF LISBON BY AN EARTHQUAKE. heard under the boats, and other buildings were seen falling to the ground. During this time a strange commotion was observed in the water of the river. It appears that at some places the bottom of the river was raised to the level of the water. Many vessels were lying in the har- bor opposite the town. Some of them were torn from their anchors and dashed against each other with great violence; in others the sailors drd not know whether their vessels were afloat or aground. THE TERRIBLE PHENOMENA OF EARTHQUAKES. 113 The minds of the inhabitants had not yet had time to recover from the terror caused by this terrible and quite unexpected catastrophe, when they were again plunged into dismay by a phenomenon of a different description, but hardly less terrible and destructive. About half an hour af- ter the most severe shocks had ceased, the sea rushed suddenly with incredi- ble velocity into the river. Although the water had been ebbing for two hours, and the wind blew fresh from the east, the sea at the mouth of the Tagus rose instantaneously about forty feet above high water mark. It would certainly have laid more than half the town under water, and com- pleted the work of destruction, had not the large bay, which the river forms opposite the capital of Portugal, permitted this enormous volume of water to spread itself over a surface of many square miles. But even this favorable circumstance did not entirely exempt the city from the effects of an inundation. The sea entered the lower streets, and a large stone-built quay, which .had been probably detached from its foundations by the earthquake, and on which about three thousand people had taken refuge, was suddenly hurled bottom upward, and every soul was lost. As quickly as the water had filled the river, so quickly did it retreat to the sea. The high wave, however, returned three or four times before the water attained its usual level, but every time with a diminished force and a less volume of water. Frightful Loss of Life. It is stated that, by the effects of the earthquake and of the inunda- tion, not less than sixty thousand persons perished. The larger number, it appears, were crushed by the ruins of the falling churches. For as it was a holiday, a great number of persons were at their devotions in the churches and convents, which, being very substantial edifices built of stone, suffered much more than the houses of private persons, and were reduced to heaps of ruins by the first shock. Towards evening a smart shock was felt; it was strong enough to split the walls of several houses which had still kept their position. The rents caused by this shock in the walls of these houses were more than half a foot wide ; but as soon as the shock had passed away, they closed again, and so firmly that it was impossible to find a trace of them. In addition to the horrors occasioned by the shocks of the earthquake and the inroads of the sea, the devoted inhabitants were exposed to the ravages of fire. An English merchant residing in Lisbon, who escaped, and published an account of the calamity, says: As soon as it grew dark another scene presented itself, little less shocking than those already described the whole city appeared in a blaze, which was so bright that I 8 114 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. could easily see to read by it. It may be said without exaggeration, it was on fire in a hundred different places at once, and thus continued burn- ing for six days together, without intermission, or the least attempt being made to stop its progress. It went on consuming everything the earth- quake had spared, and the people were so dejected and terrified, that few or none had courage enough to venture down to save any part of their substance ; every one had his eyes turned towards the flames, and stood looking on with silent grief, which was only interrupted by the cries and shrieks of women and children calling on the saints and angels for suc- cor, whenever the earth began to tremble, which was so often this night, and indeed I may say ever since, that the tremors, more or less, did not cease for a quarter of an hour together. I could never learn that this terrible fire was owing to any subterraneous eruption, as some reported. Horror Added to Horror. The ist of November being All Saints Day, a high festival among the Portuguese, every altar in every church and chapel (some of which have more than twenty) was illuminated with a number of wax tapers and lamps, as customary ; these setting fire to the curtains and timber work that fell with the shock, the conflagration soon spread to the neighbor- ing houses, and being there joined with the fires in the kitchen chimneys, increased to such a degree that it might easily have destroyed the whole city, though no other cause had occurred, especially as it met with no interruption. The nobility, gentry, and clergy, who were assisting at divine service when the earthquake began, fled away with the utmost precipitation, every one where his fears carried him, leaving the splendid apparatus of the numerous altars to the mercy of the first comer; but this did not so much affect me as the distress of the poor animals, which seemed sensible of their hard fate; some few were killed, others wounded, but the greater part, which had received no hurt, were left there to starve. From the square the way led to my friend's lodgings, through a long, steep, and narrow street; the new scenes of horror I met with here exceed all description ; nothing could be heard but sighs and groans. I did not meet with a soul in the passage who was not bewailing the death of his nearest relations and dearest friends, or the loss of all his substance; I could hardly take a single step without treading on the dead or the dying ; in some places lay coaches, with their masters, horses, and riders, almost crushed in pieces; here mothers with their infants in their arms; there ladies richly dressed, priests, friars, gentlemen, merchants, either in the same condition or just expiring; some had their backs or thighs broken, others vast stones on their breasts ; some lay almost buried in THE TERRIBLE PHENOMENA OF EARTHQUAKES. 115 the rubbish, and crying out in vain to the passengers for succor, were left to perish with the rest. In Asia, Africa, Europe and South America, as we have seen, earth- quakes have levelled whole cities and numbered their victims by tens, and in some instances hundreds, of thousands. In Judea, at the time of the battle of Actium, 31 B.C., an earthquake killed ten thousand people. Antioch has been visited by several of still greater magnitude, one of which, 526 A.D., is said by Gibbon to have slain two hundred and fifty thousand persons; and the same city was visited about sixty years later by another that made thirty thousand corpses. The earthquake, with volcanic eruption of Vesuvius, that wiped out Herculaneum and Pompeii in the year 63, need only to be mentioned. In more modern times earth- quakes have slain one hundred thousand at Calabria, Sicily, in 1783; and twelve thousand in the Argentine Republic in 1861. These are only a few of the great calamities of this kind that history records. More Recent Convulsions. No earthquake has visited the territory of the United States within the historical period which can be compared in extent or energy to the con- vulsion in August, 1886, that was felt from the Mississippi to the Atlantic, and which wrought such terrible disaster in Charleston, yet shocks simi- lar in character but less in degree are of constant occurrence. Observations show that on the Atlantic slope there is on an average one disturbance of this kind every month. These, however, as compared with the calami- ties which have desolated other parts of the world are very small and insignificant. In the Charleston disaster ninety-six persons lost their lives, a very insignificant number compared with the destruction, graphic accounts of which come to us from other quarters of the globe. In the early part of 1887 a frightful earthquake in the southern part of Europe destroyed more than 2000 lives, and spread desolation and suffering over a wide territory. Neither cholera nor any other pestilence has more reason to be dreaded than one of those terrible convulsions which demolish the most massive buildings, wreck the fairest cities, and in an instant hurry multitudes of human beings out of the world. One of the most destructive earthquakes of modern times was that which, in the Island of Java in 1884, destroyed thirty thousand lives, and engulfed a range of mountains forty miles in length, leaving no trace of the line along which it extended. Immense clouds of dust extended even to the opposite hemisphere. The whole civilized world had its attention awakened by this extraordinary convulsion. It literally buried mountains as we bury the dead. 116 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. In the earthquake at Charleston many buildings were demolished, and' great destruction of property resulted from the terrible visitation, yet considering the frightful havoc made by some European earthquakes, our American city was extremely fortunate. The truth of this statement will appear if we look at the account given of that tremendous convulsion in the island of Sicily which overthrew nearly the whole of the beautiful city of Messina, with a great loss of life. The shore for a considerable distance along the coast was rent, and the ground along the port, which was before quite level, became afterwards inclined towards the sea, the depth of the water having, at the same time, increased in several parts, through the displacement of portions of the bottom. The quay also subsided about fourteen inches below the level of the sea, and the houses near it were much rent. A Graphic Description of the Awful Calamity. But it was in the city itself that the most terrible desolation was wrought a complication of disasters having followed the shock, more especially a fierce conflagration, whose intensity was augmented by the large stores of oil kept in the place. An authentic account of this cal- amity has been preserved in a report sent by the Senate of the city of Messina to the King of Naples. It runs as follows : Your Majesty's feeling heart will, we doubt not, be touched by the deepest sorrow at the harrowing spectacle of a splendid city instantaneously changed, by a ter- rible and unexampled event, into a heap of ruins. The concussions of the earth, coming in succession every quarter of an hour, with incon- ceivable violence, have overthrown, from top to bottom, every building whatever. The royal palace, that of the archbishop, the whole of the maritime theatre, the pawn repositories, the great hospital, the cathedral, the monasteries and nunneries nothing has escaped destruction. The religious recluses are seen running through the streets in dismay, to seek, if possible, some place of refuge and safety, with the small number of persons escaped like themselves, almost by a miracle, from this overthrow. The sight is fearful ; but there is one yet more terrible that of the larg- est proportion of the citizens, dead and dying, buried beneath the ruins of their dwellings, without its being possible, from the want of laborers, to render assistance under such circumstances, to withdraw from beneath the rubbish those still breathing. Shrieks and cries, groans and sighs all the accents of grief are everywhere heard ; while the impossibility of redeeming from death those wretched victims, renders still more har- rowing the voice of despair that appeals in vain for help and compas- sion. THE TERRIBLE PHENOMENA OF EARTHQUAKES. 117 A new scourge has been added to all these calamities, and augments their horror. From amid the ruins of the overthrown buildings there is seen all at once to arise a raging fire. Unhappily the first shocks having begun about dinner-time the fires, then lighted in the kitchens, had kin- dled various combustible substances found among the remains of the crumbling houses. The king's lieutenant instantly hastened to the spot with his troops ; but the absolute want of laborers and needful appliances rendered all efforts unavailing, and it was impossible, not only to extin- guish the fire, but even to stop the progress of the flames, which contin- DESTRUCTION OF MESSINA. ued to devour the sad remains of a city, once the glory of her sovereigns, and the most flourishing in the kingdom. To so many simultaneous disasters have to be added a thousand others beyond description horrible. The corn magazines having been over- thrown, bread, that most needful of aliments, fails. The Senate has been obliged immediately to remedy this evil, by detaining in harbor the vessels laden with this commodity. But how make bread when the shops and utensils adapted to this trade are buried under the ruins, while the bakers have either perished or fled ? The water-courses having been turned aside, the public fountains are drained, and the mills can no longer grind corn. This aggravation of disasters has reduced almost to 118 EARTH, SEA AND SKY. despair the remaining inhabitants, who demand with loud cries bread for their sustenance. Some bemoan their goods and chattels, others their parents. In spite of the zeal and activity shown by the magistrates in restraining robbers, there are yet to be found wretches, without either humanity or religion, who, regardless of this Divine wrath displayed before their eyes, have pillaged not only private houses but also the public edifices and the pawn-repositories. Naught then, save the powerful protection of your Majesty, can redress such manifold misfortunes, so rapid in their succes- sion, and give new existence to this city, which requires to be wholly restored. The Senate beseeches your Majesty instantly to transmit the needful succors of men and money, to clear the roads covered by ruins FISSURES PRODUCED BY AN EARTHQUAKE. and corpses. The Senate equally entreats your Majesty to send to this city provisions of all sorts, for the subsistence of the inhabitants dispersed in the plains, and who, destitute of food, will be obliged to take flight, to the great detriment of your royal treasury. According to official reports made soon after the events, the destruc- tion caused by the earthquakes throughout the two Calabrias was im- mense. The loss of life was appalling 40,000 having perished by the earthquakes, and 20,000 more having subsequently died from privation and exposure. The greater number were buried amid the ruins of the houses, while others perished in the fires that were kindled in most of the towns, particularly in Oppido, where the flames were fed by great magazines- of oil. Not a few, especially among the peasantry dwelling in the country, were suddenly ingulfed in fissures, which, seen in all directions, gave the THE TERRIBLE PHENOMENA OF EARTHQUAKES. 119 ground the appearance of having been shivered like glass. Many who were only half buried in the ruins, and who might have been saved had there been help at hand, were left to die a lingering death from cold and hunger. Four Augustine monks at Terranuova perished thus miserably. Having taken refuge in a vaulted sacristy, they were entombed in it alive by the masses of rubbish, and lingered for four days, during which their cries for help could be heard, till death put an end to their sufferings. A Mother and Child Perish. Of still more thrilling interest was the case of the Marchioness Spadara. Having fainted at the moment of the first great shock, she was lifted by her husband, who, bearing her in his arms, hurried with her to the harbor. Here, on recovering her senses, she observed that her infant boy had been left behind. Taking advantage of a moment when her husband was too much occupied to notice her, she darted off, and, run- ning back to her house, which was still standing, she snatched her babe from his cradle. Rushing with him in her arms towards the staircase, she found the stair had fallen so barring all further progress in that direction. She fled from room to room, chased by the falling materials, and at length reached a balcony as her last refuge. Holding up her infant, she implored the few passers-by for help; but they all, intent on securing their own safety, turned a deaf ear to her cries. Meanwhile her mansion had caught fire, and ere long the balcony, with the devoted lady still grasping her darling, was hurled into the devouring flames. A few cases are recorded of devotion similar to that of this heroic woman, but happily attended by more fortunate results. In the great ma- jority of instances, however, the instinct of self-preservation triumphed over every other feeling, rendering the wretched people callous to the dangers and sufferings of others. Still worse was the conduct of the half- savage peasantry of Calabria. They hastened into the towns like vultures to their prey. Instead of helping the sufferers, they ransacked the smok- ing ruins for plunder, robbed the persons of the dead, and of those en- tangled alive among the rubbish, perpetrating still more atrocious crimes. Several cases occurred of persons being rescued alive from the ruins after the lapse of many days. Some were delivered at the end of three, four, or five days, and one even on the seventh day after interment. Those who were thus rescued all declared that their direst sufferings were from thirst. CHAPTER IV. MOUNTAINS OF FIRE. Terrible Images of Grandeur Open Mouths of Fire The Earth a Seething Fur- nace Inside A Lighthouse in the Eolian Islands- Dull Thunders Shaking Mountains A River of Fire Thirty Miles Long Violent Eruption of Mauna Loa A Scene of Appalling Sublimity Jets of Fire and Smoke a Thousand Feet High Connection Between Earthquakes and Volcanoes Hoffman's Vivid Description of Fiery Stromboli A Volcano Bursting out of the Sea Graham's Island in Conflagration A Party Caught by a Deluge of Ashes and Hot Stones Cities Buried Under Floods of Lava from Vesuvius Remarkable Asiatic Vol- canoesA Strange New Zealand Tradition The Sea Boiling and Driven Back. EEN from afar, volcanoes only give a very imperfect idea of what they are. To appreciate their phenomena and their ravages, our eyes must survey their depths. All is then changed, and the grandeur of the spectacle strikes the imagination, graving terrible images upon it. We are astonished at the immensity of their fire-spouting mouths, and at the vastness of the lava streams which flow from them at certain times. Some men of science have expressed their wonder that the interior of the earth can furnish matter sufficient for these eruptions, but a little reflection will show that no great contraction of the crust of the globe is required to feed them. Violent eruptions do not usually emit more than 1300 cubic yards of lava, and seldom so much. This quantity, supposing it spread equally over the surface of the globe, would not form a layer so much as the ten-thousandth of an irch in thickness. A contraction of the earth sufficient to shorten its radius half an inch would furnish matter for five hundred violent eruptions ; and on consulting the history of recent volcanic phenomena we arrive at the conclusion that a contraction of one inch and a half is sufficient to have supplied the lava thrown up in all the eruptions that have occurred on our planet during the last 3000 years. The loftier volcanoes are, the less frequent are their eruptions. The lava which they vomit forth, issuing from furnaces the depth of which is prob- ably the same in every case, it is clear, that for the waves to mount in the chimneys of those which are very high, a much greater force is required than in others. Thus one of the smallest of all, Stromboli, is always throwing out flames ; since the days of Homer it has served as a beacon to navigators approaching the Eolian Islands. On the contrary, the vol- (120) MOUNTAINS OF FIRE. 121 canoes which animate the crests of the Cordilleras, and which are six or eight times as high, seem condemned to long intervals of repose, and often only break out from century to century. Cataracts Hushing- Down the Volcano's Side. The volcanoes which lord it over the frozen summits of the Andes often produce phenomena equally striking and unexpected. When they melt the snows which crown their craters, their eruptions produce impet- uous torrents, which, precipitating themselves, bear with them smoking scoriae, fragments of rocks, and blocks of ice. At a great distance most volcanoes look just like pointed cones vomiting flames or vapors by a very narrow fissure. But when patience and courage have carried us to the rugged crests of their burning mouths, or when we have penetrated their sides, we are astonished at the scenes of grandeur which present themselves to our eyes in the midst of these frightful and dangerous abysses, where the heat and deleterious gases threaten to suffocate the traveler. One may well feel astonished at the dimensions of the ancient craters of France and Italy, the one filled up with lakes, the other trans- formed into forests. Many countries of our globe, now buried in the most perfect repose and covered with a vigorous vegetation, were, at an epoch that cannot at present be definitely fixed, everywhere convulsed by volcanic fires ; rich harvests now abound where formerly rolled burning streams of lava. Ancient craters now display only grass and moss in the depths of their mouths, which formerly vomited torrents of fire. This spectacle is even met with in the centre of France, in all the mountains of Auvergne. Active volcanoes are common at the present time on the surface of the globe. But by this it is not meant that they are agitated by perpetual convulsions. Nearly all .awake to their terrible activity only at long in- tervals, and during the space of time between the eruptions their internal toil is only revealed by slight and deceptive phenomena. Mountains in Convulsions. When a formidable eruption breaks out it is often accompanied by dull roars which seem to shake the mountain. In a short time the fiery mouth launches into the air sheets of flame and smoke, as well as masses of cinders and burning rock; in 1853, in one of its most terrible erup- tions, Cotopaxi projected great blocks of trachyte to a distance of nine miles. During this time the lava escapes with violence from the entrails of the mountain, and pours over its sides like so many streams or cas- cades of fire, consuming everything in their path. In very lofty volcanoes 122 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. the lava, in order to rise to the crater in which they culminate, must re- quire an almost incalculable force ; hence it often happens that it makes its way out before reaching it, and having burst the flanks of the moun- tain near its base forms a small additional volcano, in which, for the future, all efforts of the eruption are concentrated, and from which pour streams of lava which we should not expect from so low an elevation. In high volcanic mountains we often find at the base of the great cone a series of small accessory volcanoes : Etna possesses quite a family scattered over its flanks. In fact it is these that have in particular rav- aged the surrounding countries. The most frightful eruption of Etna in modern times was produced by one of these young volcanoes, the Monte Rosa. From it issued the long river of lava which rolled its burning waves over a distance of nine leagues, fired a great part of Catania, and only stayed its passage when it plunged into the sea amidst a most tu- multuous struggle between the waves and fire. Great Streams of Liquid Fire. The form of the Hawaiian volcano named Mauna Loa, is a flattened dome, and this is its most remarkable feature. The idea of a volcano is so generally connected with the figure of a cone, that the mind at once conceives of a loftysugar loaf ejecting fire, red-hot stones, and flowing lavas. But in place of slender walls around a deep crater, which the shaking of an eruption may tumble in, the summit of the Hawaiian vol- cano is nearly a plane, in which the crater, though six miles in circuit, is like a small quarry hole, the ancient orifice being not less than twenty- four miles in circumference. A violent eruption of Mauna Loa took place in the year 1843, which is thus described by the Rev. Titus Coan : On the loth of January, just at the dawn of day, we discovered a rapid disgorgement of liquid fire from near the summit of Mauna Loa, at an elevation of about fourteen thousand feet above the sea. This eruption increased from day to day for several weeks, pouring out vast floods of fiery lava, which spread down the side of the mountain, and flowed in broad rivers, throwing a terrific glare upon the heavens, and filling those lofty mountainous regions with a sheen of light. This spectacle contin- ued till the molten flood had progressed twenty or thirty miles down the side of the mountain, with an average breadth of one and a half miles, and across a high plain which stretches between the bases of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea. After many weeks another missionary and my- self penetrated through a deep forest, stretching between Hilo and the mountain, and reached the molten stream, which we followed to the top of the mountain, and found its source in a vast crater, amidst eternal (123) 124 EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. snow. Down the sides of the mountain the lava had now ceased to flow upon the surface ; but it had formed for itself a subterranean duct, at the depth of fifty or one hundred feet. This duct was vitrified, and down this fearful channel a river of fire was rushing at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles an hour, from the summit to the foot of the mountain. This subterranean stream we saw distinctly through several large aper- tures in the side of the mountain, while the burning flood rushed fear- fully beneath our feet. Our visit was attended with peril and inconceiv- able fatigue, but we never regretted having made it, and we returned deeply affected with the majesty, the sublimity, the power, and the love of that God who " looketh on the earth and it trembleth, who toucheth the hills and they smoke ; whose presence melteth the hills, and whose look causeth the mountains to flow down." A Fiery Mountain of Remarkable Formation. Mauna Loa presents the curious feature of having two distinct and seemingly unconnected craters one on the summit of the mountain, and another on its flanks, at a much lower level. This last is named Kirauea, and is perhaps the most remarkable volcanic crater in the world. It was visited by Mr. Ellis, a missionary to those parts, who has given an ac- count of it in his missionary tour. The approach to it lies over a vast tract completely covered with old lava; and Mr. Ellis describes his visit to it in the following terms : The tract of lava resembles in appearance an inland sea, bounded by distant mountains. Once it had certainly been in a fluid state, but appeared as if it had become suddenly petrified, or turned into a glassy stone, while its agitated billows were rolling to and fro. Not only were the large swells and hollows distinctly marked, but in many places the surface of those billows was covered by a smaller rip- ple, like that observed on the surface of the sea at the springing up of a breeze, or the passing currents of air, which produce what the sailors call *a cat's paw. After walking some distance over the ground, which in several places sounded hollow under our feet, we at length came to the