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 SOME INQUIRIES 
 
 THE PROVINCE OF KEMAON, 
 
 RELATIVE TO 
 
 GEOLOGY, 
 
 AND OTHER BRANCHES 
 
 NATURAL SCIENCE. 
 
 BY 
 
 ASSIST.-SURGEON JOHN JVJcCLELLAND. 
 
 MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS IN LONDON, AND OF THE MEDICAL 
 AND PHYSICAL SOCIETY, CALCUTTA. 
 
 " While idle speculations about the structure of the earth lead to nothing better 
 than wrangling and confusion; every new fact respecting the relative position of 
 rocks, every accurate description of a district adds somewhat to our former know- 
 ledge, and contributes towards the completion of the science. Geognosy will be com- 
 plete only when we are accurately acquainted with the structure of the whole surface 
 of the globe, and when we understand completely the laws which regulate the changes 
 which it is slowly undergoing." — Thomas Thomson, M. D. 
 
 CALCUTTA: 
 
 PRINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS, 
 
 CIRCULAR ROAD. 
 
 SOLD BY 
 
 MESSRS. THACKER & CO. AND MESSRS. CANTOR Sc CO. 
 
 MDCCCXXXV.
 
 L<LG H / 3 
 
 TO 
 
 THE HONORABLE 
 
 SIR C. T. METCALFE, Bart. 
 
 GOVERNOR GENERAL OF INDIA, 
 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 THIS HUMBLE EFFORT TO BE USEFUL, 
 
 IS, 
 
 WITH PERMISSION, 
 
 RESPECTFULLY AND GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED, 
 
 BY 
 
 HIS DEVOTED HUMBLE SERVANT, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 

 
 PREFACE. 
 
 In submitting the following pages to the 
 public, ray object is to induce others more 
 competent than myself, to enter into similar 
 inquiries relative to the Geology of districts in 
 India. 
 
 I do not flatter myself, that my humble efforts 
 possess any intrinsic value. If they are found 
 to have any interest ; it is derived only from 
 the importance of the subjects to which they 
 refer. 
 
 Geology has, indeed, become a subject of popu- 
 lar interest in every country in the civilized 
 world ; so much so, that it may now almost be 
 taken as the criterion of national intelligence 
 and prosperity. 
 
 A noble effort has recently been made by a 
 few eminent members of the Asiatic Society of 
 Bengal, (with their distinguished President, the
 
 VI PREFACE. 
 
 Honorable Sir Edward Ryan, at tlieir head,) to 
 remove the reproach to which British institu- 
 tions in India were liable, by adapting a 
 department of the Asiatic Society exclusively to 
 the cultivation of Natural Science. 
 
 A few months had hardly passed after this 
 change, when a volume of Transactions issued 
 from the Physical class, that would do honour 
 to any Society in Europe. India, however, is 
 not a country in which new publications are 
 advertised in every village; and such are the 
 disadvantages of private individuals in remote 
 districts, that they often remain ignorant of 
 the existence of the most important works, until 
 some peculiar circumstance or accident presents 
 them to notice. I mention this, as an apology 
 for not having availed myself of some interesting 
 papers that have recently appeared in India on 
 Geological subjects, and which I had no oppor- 
 tunity of seeing, till my return to Calcutta. 
 
 There is one point that may require a word 
 in explanation, namely, that of having departed 
 from the practice of confining systematic descrip- 
 tions, to what are called simple minerals ; but
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 in a country so remote from the observations 
 of others, my object was rather to trust to 
 descriptions than to names. 
 
 Should a mere name, unaccompanied with the 
 description of the substance on which it is 
 conferred, be misapplied, the error would lead 
 to irremediable confusion. On the other hand, 
 descriptions admit of comparison with each 
 other, and with the things to which they relate ; 
 and by this means, correct not merely their own 
 errors, but also the erroneous application of 
 names : while they at the same time expose to 
 our view the nature and peculiarity of whatever 
 is submitted to them. It may therefore be 
 supposed that I was anxious to avail myself, as 
 much as possible, of systematic descriptions as 
 the only sure basis of inquiry, and I could see 
 no objection to their being applied, as well to 
 mountain rocks, as to the rarer minerals. 
 
 The labours which I here take the liberty to 
 submit to the public, are the result of a tempo- 
 rary residence in Kemaon, while on the regular 
 tour of duty with my regiment in that province. 
 Placed in Medical charge of two detachments.
 
 Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 thirty miles apart in the mountains, with 
 occasional liability to be called into head-quarters, 
 fifty miles in another direction, I had frequent 
 opportunities of collecting information, that it 
 would have been difficult, if not, quite impossible, 
 to resist, and I am only ashamed to have turned 
 such advantages to so poor account. 
 
 There are, however, circumstances to be 
 offered in palliation of the numerous faults that 
 pervade this work. The first, is that of my 
 unexpected removal from the province, with the 
 troops to which I was attached, and the conse- 
 quent interruption of my inquiries before they 
 were completed. I still, however, hoped, that on 
 my arrival at the station to which my corps 
 was destined, I should there have sufficient 
 repose to correct and arrange my MSS. and 
 collections. A few days had hardly elapsed, 
 after a harassing march, when I found myself 
 under orders to join Dr. Wallich in Calcutta, 
 (from which I was distant 1,100 miles,) with 
 the view of proceeding, with that eminent 
 man, on a Scientific Deputation to Upper 
 Assam.
 
 PREFACE. IX 
 
 The multiplicity of objects, connected with 
 my new appointment, appeared likely to engross 
 the short time I had to remain in Calcutta ; so 
 that I at first abandoned all hope of being able 
 to publish these labours. But the kind assurance 
 of Dr. Wallich, that the world, though a severe, 
 is yet a generous, arbiter in cases of this nature, 
 as well as the kind offers I received from distin- 
 guished individuals, to correct such portion of 
 the proof copy, as I might be compelled to leave 
 unprinted on my departure from Calcutta, have 
 encouraged me to submit the work, with all its 
 defects, to the indulgence of the public. 
 
 Having once commenced printing, my object 
 was to proceed with the greatest expedition ; so 
 as to accomplish as much as possible previous to 
 my departure from Calcutta. I was therefore 
 obliged to content myself with the inspection of 
 a single proof — a circumstance, which, without 
 great care on the part of the Printer, must have 
 given rise to still more numerous errors than 
 have occurred. 
 
 The indifference of Printers and Publishers 
 in general to the appearance of works in which
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 they have no property, is such as to deter 
 authors from publishing, until they are enabled 
 themselves to superintend the press at leisure ; 
 but the solicitude evinced by Mr. Pearce, for 
 the works which pass through his hands, is a 
 subject of gratulation to the Indian community, 
 and is not the least of those new facilities that 
 are now opened to the spread of literature. 
 
 Calcutta, 
 August^ 1835.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART L— GEOLOGY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chap. I. — Introduction, 1 
 
 Chap. II. — General Description of the District. 
 
 Burmdeo Pass — Road to Belket — Clioura Pany — Snowy 
 Peaks, their Physiognomy, their Altitudes, and Incli- 
 nations of their Acclivities — Formula for calculating 
 inaccessible Heights — Valleys of the Gogra — Physiog- 
 nomy of tlie Mountains of different Rocks — Geographi- 
 cal Boundaries of the District about to be described — 
 More Minute Observations on the Character of the 
 Mountains composing it — Sections into which it is 
 naturally divided — Superstiti on of the Natives — Hum- 
 boldt, 24 
 
 Chap. III. — Primitive Formations — Granite, Gneiss, 
 Hornblende-Slate, 
 
 On the Arrangement of Mountain Rocks — Observations of 
 Werner and Reaumur on this Subject at variance — Granite 
 — the Direction of the Principal Mountain Chain indi- 
 cated by the Granite — Concentric Disintegration of 
 Granite — Description of the Granite of Kemaon — Gneiss 
 — its Disintegration and Central Nuclei — the Decay of 
 Gneiss Mountains, and the Destruction of the City of 
 Chompawut from this Cause — The Ruins of Chompawut 
 — Description of Gneiss resumed — Subordinate Beds 
 in Granite and Gneiss — Hornblende-Slate, its Geognos- 
 tic Position, its Stratification, its Description, its Varie- 
 ties, its Foreign Beds — Chlorit Slate — Porphyritic Green 
 Stone, 39
 
 XU CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chap. IV. — Primitive Formations — Mica-Slate, Clay- 
 Slate, Primitive Limestone. 
 
 Nature and Geognostic Position of Mica- Slate — Oldest 
 Gypsum, its Description — Clay-Slate — Nature of this 
 Formation, and Peculiarity of the Principal Mountain 
 Chain in regard to it — Mountains of Clay-Slate Con- 
 trasted with those of Hornblende-Slate, and an Attempt 
 to explain the Cause of Difference between them — 
 Providential Association of Clay-Slate with Limestone, 
 more especially in Alpine Countries — Varieties of Clay- 
 Slate, with their Descriptions and Distinctions — Dis- 
 tinction between the fine curved Clay-Slate and Tran- 
 Eitioa Slate — Quartz, and the singular Septarium 
 occurring with it — Description of Drawing Slate — 
 Primitive Limestone — Description of its Varieties — 
 Splintery Hornstone, 63 
 
 Chap. V. — Transition Rocks, Oldest Transition Lime- 
 stone, Slate and Limestone, Magnesian Limestone, 
 Common Dolomite. 
 
 General Remarks — Transition observed between Primitive 
 and Secondary Strata — Proofs and Conclusions — Oldest 
 Transition Limestone, its Description — Slate and Lime- 
 stone, its Description and Nature — Coarse Magnesian 
 Limestone, its Description — Common Dolomite, or Stea- 
 titio Sand-Stone, its Description, its Variety and Nature 
 — Further Description and Remarks — Transition Slate, 8(> 
 
 Chap. VL — Transition Rocks, Transition Limestone, 
 Common Dolomite. 
 
 The Varieties of Transition Limestone — Remarks on its 
 Stratification, its Description — Overlying Variety De- 
 scribed — Compact and Common Dolomites Compared — 
 Mountains of Compact Dolomite Described ; its Geog- 
 nostic Relations, Stratification, and Localities — Nature 
 and Cause of its Transitions into Substances apparently 
 different from each other — Description of Granular
 
 CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 PAGK 
 
 Compact Dolomite, its Chemical Characters and Locali- 
 ties — Splintery Compact Dolomite Described — Oolite 
 or Grit-Stone ; Character of its Mountains, its Descrip- 
 tion — General Remarks on tlie Rocks here Described 
 as Dolomites, and the Reason for supposing them to be 
 of a different Nature 101 
 
 Chap. VII. — Rocks subordinate to the Transition Class, 
 occurring in Beds. 
 
 Peculiarity of the Older Strata, and an Attempt to explain 
 the Cause — Miscellaneous Rocks — Granatine — Fibrous 
 Limestone — Common Talc — Variety of Ditto — Minerals 
 Associated with Talc — Variegated Clay-Slate — Brec- 
 ciated Serpentine — Noble Serpentine, 121 
 
 Chap. VIII. — Floetz Rocks, First Floetz Limestone, 
 Magnesian Floetz Limestone, Vesicular Limestone, 
 Supplementary Observations on Additional Floetz 
 Rocks. 
 
 First Floetz Limestone, divided into three Beds, viz. 
 Copper-Slate, Alpine Limestone, and Tabular Limestone 
 — their General Description — Magnesian Floetz Lime- 
 stone, subdivided into Crystalline and Earthy — De- 
 scription of Crystalline Variety — Ditto of Earthy Ditto — 
 Vesicular Limestone, its Probable Identity with the 
 Rauch-Wacke of the Germans, and the Nagelflugh of 
 the Swiss — Singular Porpliyritic Septarium, its Doubtful 
 Origin and Nature, its Resemblance to the Ironstone 
 Septarium of Aberlady, described by the Late Dr. 
 Hutton — Hornstone — Arragonite — Supplementary Ob- 
 servations — Road from Belket to Burmdeo Pass — Bitu- 
 menous Marlslate — Calcareous Gritstone and Argillaceous 
 Sandstone — Descent to Burmdeo — Slate-Clay Organised 
 Fossils — Conglomerate — Physical Remarks, 136
 
 Xiv CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chap. IX. — Alluvial Rocks. 
 
 Mountains are the Source of Alluvial Deposites — the Nature 
 of these Deposites — How Produced — Siliceous Alluvial 
 Deposites — Aluminous Clay — Nagelflugh — Calctuff — Calc 
 Sinter — Volcanic Rocks 1 60 
 
 Chap. X. — Mines of the North-Eastern Frontier of 
 Kemaon. 
 
 Mining, how it ought to be considered — the necessity of 
 Mines being more attended to in India — Condition of 
 the Mines in Kemaon — Condition of the Persons 
 employed in them — the Deformities of these Persons — 
 How the Mines might be Improved — Copper Glance — 
 Remarks upon the same — Copper Pyrites — Description 
 of a Mine of this Ore — Description of the Ore — Native 
 Mode of Reducing these Ores — Yellow Sulphuret of 
 Copper — Ores of Iron — Micaceous Iron Glance — Com- 
 mon Iron Glance — Concluding Observations, 169 
 
 Chap. XI. — Clinnatology and Earthquakes. 
 
 Effects of Changes in the Condition of the Atmosphere on 
 our Sensations Illustrated — Radiation of Heat at the 
 Azores, and Canary Islands, where the Ocean is the 
 Radiating Surface — Ditto from the land in Europe and 
 America, compared with the same from Hindustan — 
 Peculiar Atmospheric Phenomena — Mean Diurnal Varia- 
 tions of Heat at Lohooghat — Difficulty of procuring 
 Philosophical Instruments in the Interior of India — 
 Extraordinary Fall of Rain — Earthquakes in Kemaon — 
 ConaexioD between them and the Eruption of Volcanoes — 
 Physiognomy of the High Peaks of the Himalaya, 194 
 
 PART II.— GENERAL VIEW OF THE ZOO- 
 LOGY OF KEMAOxNT. 
 
 Chap. XII. — Quadrupeds, 2!5 
 
 Chap. XIII. — General View of the Insects of Kemaon, 231 
 Chap. XIV. — General View of the Birds of Kemaon, 243
 
 CONTENTS. XV 
 
 PART III.— AN INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSES 
 OF GOITRE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introductory Section, 255 
 
 Sec. II. — Inhabitants of Primitive Rocks, 264 
 
 Sec. III.— Statistics of Shore Valley, 277 
 
 Sec. IV. — Statistics of various Valleys and Districts,. . 300 
 Sec. V. — Description of Goitre as it occurs in Kemaon, 
 
 •with an Attempt to Account for the foregoing Results, 312 
 Sec. VI. — General Observations on the Examination 
 
 of "Waters, 329 
 
 Sec. VII. — Examination of the Waters of Kemaon,.. 339 
 Sec. VIII. — On the connexion between Goitre and 
 
 Cretinism, their Nature and Causes, 367
 
 NAMES OF SUBSCRIBERS. 
 
 Metcalfe, Hon'ble Sir C. T., Bart,, Gov. Gen., 10 copies. 
 
 Lord Bishop of Calcutta, 2 copies. 
 
 Ryan, Hon'ble Sir E., Kt. 2 copies. 
 
 Ross, A. Esq. Hon'ble 
 
 Grant, Hon'ble Sir J. P., Kt. 
 
 Macauley, T. B. Esq. Hon'ble 
 
 Morrison, Col. Hon'ble, C. B. 
 
 Allahabad B. C. 
 B 
 
 Bacon, Lieut. T., Horse Art. 
 
 Baker, T. E. Esq., 10th L.C. 
 
 Bell, H. P. Esq. M. D. 
 
 Bignell, M. A. Esq. 
 
 Blujit, W. Esq. Hon'ble. 
 
 Bramley, M. J. Esq. 2 copies. 
 
 Brown, Captain W. 
 
 Burke, Dr. W. A. 
 C 
 
 Campbell, Lieut. W. C. 
 
 Cantor, C. A. Esq. 
 
 Cartwright, Brigadier. 
 
 Cautley, Captain P. T. 
 
 Cockerell, Messrs. and Co. 
 
 Cooper, Dr. H. 
 D 
 
 Dempster, Dr. T. E. 
 
 Dollard, Asst. Surg. W. 
 
 Downes, Lieut. D., 30th N. L 
 Drever, Dr. T. 
 Duncan, R. B. Esq. 
 Durant, Lieut. H. M. 
 
 E 
 Edgeworth, M. P. Esq. 
 Ewart. Lieut. R. S., 30th N. I. 
 Elver, W. Esq. 
 F 
 Falconer, Dr. H. 
 Falconer, A. Esq. 
 Forbes, Captain N. W. 
 Frith, R. W. G. Esq. 
 
 G 
 
 Garbett, Dr. C. 
 Glasfurd, Lieut. J. 
 Glyn, R. C. Esq. C. S. 
 Grant, J. W. Esq. 2 copies. 
 Grant, J. Esq. 
 Griffith, Dr. W. 
 H 
 Hamilton, R. N. C. Esq. C. S. 
 Hutchinson, J. R. Esq. C. S. 
 Hutchinson, Jas. Esq. 
 
 I &J 
 Irvine, Major A. 
 Jack, Lieut. A.,30thN.L2cops. 
 Jenkins, Captain F. 
 
 K 
 Kyd, J. Esq. 
 
 L 
 LangstafF, J. Esq. 
 Latouche, Captain P. 
 Lindsay, Dr. A. K. 
 Liptrott, Lieut. J., 30th N. I. 
 Low, H. M. Esq. 
 M 
 McDowell, Rev. J, F. 
 McFarlan, D. Esq. 
 McRae, Dr. J. 
 
 McSherry, Capt. T., 30th N. L 
 Milner, Captain T. E. 
 
 N 
 Nicolson, Dr. S. 
 O 
 Oglander, CoL H. 
 Orr, Captain E. M.
 
 ^ 
 
 NAMES OF SUBSCRIBERS. 
 
 Payne, Captain W., 30th N. I. 
 Prinsep, Jas. Esq. 
 
 R 
 Ramcomul Sen, Babu. 
 Ranken, Dr. Jas. 
 Reid, A. Esq. 
 Ross, Lieut. W. H., 30th N. I. 
 
 S 
 Sawers, J. Esq. Med. Bd. 
 Smith, M. Esq. 
 Stacy, Colonel L. R. 
 Stevenson, W. Esq. M. D. 
 Stewart, H. T. Esq. 
 
 Sweeney, Capt., H. M.'s 26th 
 
 Foot! 
 Swetenhani, Capt. E., Engr. 
 
 T 
 Thomason, Jas. Esq. 
 Thomas, E. T. Esq. 
 Tottenham, Captain J. L. 
 Tritton, Dr. E. 
 Twining, Dr. W. 
 W 
 Wallich, N. Esq. M. D. 
 Watson, General. 
 Wilson, J. C. Esq. 
 ^Foodburn, Dr. D.
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 The iadulgent reader is requested to correct a number of errata 
 which have occurred throughout this work, kiadly bearing in mind 
 the peculiar circumstances under which it went through the press, and 
 which have been explained in the Preface. The most important ones 
 are here pointed out. 
 Page 38, line 4, /or ' slates,' read ' slaty.' 
 
 ,, — ,, 5, /or ' quartz gypsum,' read * quartz and gypsum.' 
 
 „ 55, „ 27, for ' vol. VI., read ' vol. VII.' 
 
 ,, 115, ,, 2, from bottom, /or ' Gorou,' read ' Goron.' 
 
 „ 130, ,, 16, /or ' clay-slate,' read ' slate-clay.' 
 
 ,, 139, ,, 12, for ' catastrophies,' read ' catastrophes.' 
 
 ,, 172, ,, 14, /or * inertia,' read ' inertise.' 
 
 ,, 178, ,, 13, /or ' slates,' )'ead ' slate.' 
 
 ,, 216, for ' Murinus, Cristatus,' andgenerally all adjective specific 
 names throughout the Zoological Catalogue,' read ' mu- 
 rinus, cristatus,' with small, and not capital, initials. 
 
 ,, 264, ,, 16, a/ter mineral, insert water. 
 
 ,, 267, ,, 9, for ' two,' read ' three.' 
 
 „ 340, „ 11, /or ' 1.009,' read ' 1.0009.' 
 
 „ 341,,, 7, /or ' 1.001,' rea<? ' 1.0001.' 
 
 „ 356, „ 10, /or' 1.001,' read' 1.0001.' 
 
 „ 369, ., 3, from bottom, for ' Tarai,' read ' Taru.'
 
 RESEARCHES 
 
 THE PROVINCE OF KEMAON. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It may be considered presumptuous to 
 take this opportunity of offering- a few 
 remarks on the present state of Geolog-y 
 in India : but as I have in my humble 
 sphere laboured unassisted in this interest- 
 ing field, during- the greater portion of 
 my short residence in the country, I may 
 be supposed to know something- of the 
 causes which here retard the cultivation of 
 this science. 
 B
 
 2i GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 It is painful to reflect on the number 
 of years the immense empire of Hindustan 
 has been in our possession ; and that to 
 this day we should remain as ignorant 
 of its physical structure as we are of that 
 of China, or the interior of Africa. It is 
 painful to turn over the leaves of mineral 
 systems, and to find such accidental speci- 
 mens as may have found their way from 
 India to Europe alluded to, as regards the 
 position from which they were derived, in 
 as ambiguous terms as are usually adopted 
 in explaining the source of those mysteri- 
 ous bodies called aerolites, which occasion- 
 ally fall from the clouds. 
 
 The labours of geologists, within the 
 last thirty years, have put us in possession 
 of a vast fund of information respecting 
 the physical structure of almost every part 
 of Europe, and a great portion of Ame- 
 rica; but of the continents of Africa and 
 Asia, we are still ignorant of a sufficient 
 number of facts to enable us to conceive, 
 even a general notion of their formation, 
 with any tolerable degree of accuracy. 
 The remedy for this defect lies with those
 
 INTRODUCTION. 3' 
 
 who reside in foreign countries ; for al- 
 though such persons may not be so com- 
 petent to convey information on difficult 
 subjects, as those who Hve in enlightened 
 nations, where a ready acquaintance may 
 be formed with all that is known on any 
 scientific question : yet it is to such sources 
 we must chiefly look for the extension of 
 geological science. Governments are not 
 yet so liberal as to send philosophers to 
 every portion of the earth, for purely 
 scientific purposes ; and philosophers them- 
 selves are seldom possessed of sufficient 
 fortune to enable them, and disinterested- 
 ness to induce them, to incur the risk of 
 losing both life and fortune even in such 
 a cause. 
 
 In the few instances in which British 
 governments have patronized the travels of 
 scientific men, the motives have been rather 
 the extension of commerce than the pro- 
 motion of science ; and often so exclusively 
 so, as was calculated to defeat, rather than 
 to serve even the mere object in view; for 
 who can deny the impolicy of those frivol- 
 ous instructions by which the traveller is 
 B 2
 
 4 GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 generally embarrassed on entering upon 
 his mission, as if the interests of science, 
 and those of commerce were incompatible. 
 Thus for instance, when the natural 
 and artificial productions of Mysore were 
 required to be known. Dr. Buchanan was 
 directed to make the following the chief 
 objects of his researches in that country, 
 Tiz. esculent vegetables, cattle, farms, 
 cotton, pepper, sandal-wood, cardamums, 
 mines, quarries, minerals, mineral springs, 
 manufactures and manufac turd's, climates, 
 seasons, and inhabitants*. A few years 
 afterwards, as if to shew the caprice with 
 which such missions are devised, three 
 gentlemen were selected to survey the then 
 unexplored source of the Ganges, without 
 any other instructions than merely to 
 determine that geographical questionf : so 
 that it is easy to see, that under such 
 a system, geology, and indeed, natural 
 history in general, must be greatly or en- 
 tirely neglected. 
 
 * Buch., Lond., 1807. 
 
 t Asiat. Res. 447-8, Lond. 1812.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 Monuments of a people, or the external 
 relations and mere connexions of rivers 
 and kingdoms, force themselves on the 
 antiquarian and the geographer ; but the 
 researches of the geologist do not belong 
 alone to external nature : they must pene- 
 trate the surface of the earth, as well as 
 scrupulously trace, from the deepest valley 
 to the highest summit, the boundaries, 
 extent, and relations of every rock*. Thus 
 it is, that in geology, a greater effort, 
 mental as well as physical, is required to 
 produce a given effect, than perhaps in 
 any other branch of natural science. Hence 
 it is, that geology is so incapable of being 
 advanced by studies in the closet ; and so 
 likely to be injured by careless or deficient 
 observations in the mountain : and hence 
 also, as well as from the practical utility 
 
 * M. J. C. Braun Neergaard, in his Memoir on the 
 most Proper Means of accelerating the Progress of Mi- 
 neralogy, read to the French Institute, 1812, observes : 
 " In Mineralogy we have not the advantage, as in 
 Zoology, of subjecting living beings to rules ; nor as in 
 Botany, plants, which, in dying, reproduce their genera 
 and species."
 
 6 GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 it promises, the reason why it requires foi* 
 its cultivation, in unfavourable climates, 
 the encouragement of governments, by 
 which the number of operators may be 
 increased. 
 
 To the characters of a mineral must be 
 added the extent to which it occurs in 
 nature, as well as its connexion with, and 
 transition into, other substances, before 
 the description can be considered com- 
 plete. To ascertain this, is generally 
 beyond the means of individual exertion; 
 but by a judicious division of labour, it 
 might be rendered comparatively easy, 
 were residents in different situations to 
 describe the characters and relations of the 
 rocks composing the vicinities in which 
 they live. 
 
 The fact is, this interesting and import- 
 ant science is of too laborious a nature 
 to be practised with the requisite zeal 
 under ordinary circumstances, by foreign- 
 ers, in tropical climates. The effects of 
 exposure to the baneful influence of those 
 climates are so fatal, that persons are little 
 disposed to incur any risk of life, beyond j
 
 INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 what is necessary for the performance of 
 their indispensable duties. Notwithstand- 
 ing these nearly insurmountable obstacles 
 to the successful cultivation of geology in 
 India, much might be done were the 
 requisite facilities afforded ; and these, it 
 might be supposed, would not be altogether 
 withheld in a country which has been 
 celebrated since the earliest times for the 
 gold, diamonds, and other precious fossils 
 which it affords. 
 
 The first great step in improvement 
 would be, the organization of Geological 
 Societies in different parts of India, on 
 such footing as would render it a desira- 
 ble object to the ambition of scientific 
 men of all classes, to be enrolled on their 
 lists. In order to give them practical effect, 
 and to deprive them of the character of 
 mere amateur societies,their expence should 
 be borne by the state, and members thus 
 freed from subscribing aught but their 
 labours to their support. Libraries, con* 
 sisting of all the standard works on natural 
 history, should be furnished at the expence 
 of government, as well as all kinds of
 
 8 GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 philosophical instruments and chemical 
 apparatus. Additional stores of this kind 
 should be supplied either to the public at 
 large, or only to the members of the 
 societies, at such low prices, as would 
 merely cover the expence of their import- 
 ation. 
 
 The importance of this may be under- 
 stood, when it is known, that the expence 
 and difficulty of procuring philosophical 
 instruments, books, &c. in the Upper Pro- 
 vinces of India, amount to an almost 
 total prohibition of them, thus causing a 
 perfect suppression of individual industry 
 in the cause of national improvement, 
 as well as of science. With respect to 
 those philosophical instruments in particu- 
 lar, whose only value is their accurate 
 adjustment, the submission of the purchaser 
 to the most exorbitant charges for them 
 seldom protects him from disappointment, 
 such as is calculated to induce him, if not 
 to force him, to relinquish all his efforts. 
 
 There is nothing Utopian in the plan 
 here recommended ; the expence of books 
 and instruments for the libraries and
 
 INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 museums, as well as of the publication of 
 Transactions, and other incidental charges 
 would be little more than nominal, while 
 the impulse which would be afforded to 
 the science of geology, would be attended 
 with practical and solid advantages to the 
 state. A principal Society might be esta- 
 blished in Calcutta, with branch institu- 
 tions, at each of the other presidencies, 
 including Ceylon, Singapore, and Canton. 
 
 In order that the more meritorious 
 members might be rewarded for their 
 services, as well as to secure the most 
 deserving individuals, to fill public situa- 
 tions, the whole of the appointments in 
 the departments of the Surveyors General 
 of the different presidencies should be 
 exclusively bestowed on such members of 
 the Geological Societies as were not other- 
 wise employed. 
 
 It may be said, that the Physical Class 
 of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta is suffi- 
 cient for all the purposes that are required ; 
 but the present state of geology in India 
 is a proof, that however useful the Asiatic 
 Society may have been in the promotion
 
 10 GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 of other branches of science, it has really 
 done nothing in this ; and I very much 
 doubt, if their Transactions up to a very 
 late period, contain one mineral description 
 that would be received by a systematic 
 writer as correct*. The objects of the 
 Asiatic Society are too comprehensive to 
 be of much use in the cultivation of geo- 
 logy : this science itself requiring a greater 
 variety of attainments in abstruse details, 
 than could be well discussed in a Society 
 devoted to general learniug. 
 
 In support of this fact, it is only neces- 
 sary to refer to the Transactions of the 
 Geological Societies of Great Britain, and 
 compare what has been done by those 
 institutions within the last few years, with 
 the few geological papers to be found in the 
 whole series of Philosophical Transactions 
 
 * The period to which I refer is 1817 : since which 
 time, some late and much lamented authors, have 
 evinced their zeal in behalf of geology, by communica- 
 tions of great interest. The more minute, and conse- 
 quently the most important, portion of their labours 
 have not yet been published, and it is feared, will be 
 ultimately lost to the world from the defects in our 
 institutions here referred to.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 of London and Edinburgh. The Royal 
 Irish Academy is perhaps an exception 
 to the inile here implied ; but if so, it is 
 owing only to the influence of Richard 
 Kirwan, the " the father of British minera- 
 logy," whose writings on geological sub- 
 jects attracted the attention of Europe, 
 and gave a bias to the Society over which 
 he presided, something like that which was 
 occasioned by Newton in favour of mathe- 
 matical philosophy. To the influence of 
 Kirwan is ascribed, the honour possessed 
 by the Dublin Society, of being the first 
 institution in the British empire to endow 
 a geological professorship. Yet, notwith- 
 standing the interest evinced by already 
 existing institutions in Ireland in behalf 
 of geology, it has (I believe) been recently 
 deemed expedient to increase their num- 
 ber, by the addition of a Royal Geological 
 Society. 
 
 Before the world became acquainted 
 with the labours of Werner, Bergman, 
 Scheele, Klaproth, Kirwan, and Haiiy, 
 geology could not be called a science, and 
 its imperfect rudiments were then safely 
 c 2
 
 12 GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 confided to Societies celebrated for general 
 learning. When however its objects be- 
 came defined, its importance pointed out, 
 and principles laid down and established 
 for facilitating our knowledge of the Natu- 
 ral Histoi-y of the globe — for extending 
 our researches into the chemical nature of 
 the mineral substances, of which the crust 
 of the earth is composed, and their uses 
 in the economy of life : then did geology 
 present itself to enlightened nations, as a 
 science entitled to peculiar attention; and 
 Societies composed of the most eminent 
 men were suddenly called into existence. 
 Great Britain and Ireland alone can boast 
 of four such institutions : while our Indian 
 empire, although it occupies a portion of 
 the earth's surface, about twenty times 
 greater, excites no interest or attention. 
 
 It is agreed by all, that mineral topogra- 
 phies of districts, by competent persons, 
 constitute the only way by which the 
 science of geology is to be extended. 
 
 Up to the beginning of the present 
 century, the English even at home were 
 sadly behind other great nations in this
 
 INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 department of science, and from 1724 to 
 1799, nineteen works only were published 
 on the mineral topography of districts in 
 the United Kingdom. 
 
 In France, from 1750 to 1799, sixty-two, 
 and in Italy, thirty-six works on mineral 
 topography were published ; while Ger- 
 many and the rest of Europe contributed 
 to the world, two hundred treatises on the 
 same subject. 
 
 During the time the science of geology 
 was thus progressing in Europe, (as well 
 as in America, where twelve descriptions 
 of districts were published about the close 
 of the eighteenth century,) it may be 
 curious to learn what attempts were made 
 in India, either to improve the resources 
 of our new empire, or to extend the 
 boundaries of science. The papers on the 
 subject of mineral topography of countries 
 in the East Indies, up to the end of the 
 eighteenth century, areybwr*. 
 
 The first of these is by Johannes Ger- 
 hardus Konig, and is published in the 4th 
 volume of the Natural History Society of 
 
 * Dryander's Bibliotheca Banksianaj vol. iv. p. 72.
 
 14 GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 Upsal, entitled *'Observationes Minera- 
 log-icee, in India Orientali ; e litteris ejus 
 excerptse a Joh. Jac. Ferber*." 
 
 The second is by James Anderson, and 
 is, " An attempt to discover such Minerals, 
 as correspond with the classification of 
 Cronstedt, and thus lead to a more exten- 
 sive knowledge of mineralogy in this 
 country, the Coast of Coromandel, 1797*-" 
 
 The third is by Carl Peter Thunberg ; 
 and was published in 1785, under the title 
 of *' Beschreibung der Mineralien und 
 edlen steine, auf der insel Ceylon*." 
 
 The other is by Georgius Josephus 
 Kamel, and is found in the early Philoso- 
 phical Transactions, under the title of 
 '' De Mineralibus et Fossilibus Philippen- 
 sibus*." 
 
 * Dryander''s Bihliotheca Banksiana, vol. iv. p. 7^. 
 Konig was the pupil and correspondent of Linnaeus, 
 and the founder of Oriental Botany. " He was singu- 
 larly qualified for the employment he had entered into ;*" 
 says Dr. P. Russell, (pref. Roxb. Plants of Coroman- 
 del,) " more covetous of fame than of fortune, he 
 persevered in his pursuits with an enthusiasm that set 
 bodily fatigue, spare meals, and a scorching climate, at 
 defiance." He appears to have been supported during
 
 INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 The question that now suggests itself is, 
 whether any thing has been done since the 
 period to which the history of the subject 
 has been already traced, in order to retrieve 
 the time that was lost in bestowing on 
 India, the benefit of more enlightened 
 views in regard to geology 
 
 > 
 
 his labours by a pittance from the Nabob of Arcot ; 
 but three or four years before he fell a victim to 
 science, we are told in the same work, that the 
 " Madras Government, with the sanction of the Court 
 of Directors, made an addition to his salary," i. e. an 
 addition to the sura allowed him by the Nabob : he 
 died suddenly before he had time to profit by his 
 labours. 
 
 Of James Anderson, we know little more than that 
 he was an eminent physician in the army. 
 
 C. P. Thunberg, afterwards knight and successor to 
 Linnaeus, in the University of Upsal ; a fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and of most of the learned Societies of 
 Europe and America. 
 
 Kamel, or Camelli, was a Missionary ; and probably 
 a native of Portugal. He made many valuable commu- 
 nications to the Royal Society about the beginning of 
 the last century, regarding the Natural History of the 
 Philippine Islands. He was probably the first Euro- 
 pean who described the tea plant, and his name has 
 been bestowed by Thunberg, oa a genus of plants 
 nearly related to tea.
 
 16 GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 In the Annals of Philosophy, for 1817, 
 (vi. p. 164,) we find the following-, under 
 the head of " Mineral ogical examination 
 of India." *' It must be rather mortifying 
 to mineralogists, that the peninsula of 
 India, which has supplied the world for 
 so long a period with some of the finest 
 productions of the mineral kingdom ; and 
 which now, in some measure, may be 
 considered as belonging to the British 
 empire ; should, in a mineralogical point 
 of view, be still almost unknown. There 
 is every reason to expect, that this defect 
 will now be remedied. Sir John Malcolm 
 has taken with him to India Mr. Laidlaw, 
 a gentleman educated as a civil engineer, 
 and an excellent practical mineralogist 
 and geologist, with the avowed intention 
 of examining the country. We may anti- 
 cipate from the labours of this gentleman ; 
 numerous discoveries which cannot but 
 prove interesting to the scientific world, 
 and of great importance to our Indian 
 empire, from the new sources of wealth 
 which they may disclose."
 
 INTUODUCTION. 17 
 
 These were not the sentiments of a 
 common mind, or of one that was likely 
 to be swayed by any vulgar or idle 
 motive ; they were the expressions of a 
 man whose long and laborious life has 
 been devoted to the investigation of truth. 
 They were the sentiments of the author of 
 the most comprehensive system of che- 
 mistry that has hitherto appeared in the 
 English language — it is only necessary to 
 mention the name of Dr. Thompson. 
 
 There is, however, a third person, whose 
 name is connected with these remarks, 
 and whose sincerity in this or any other 
 instance, God forbid I should attempt to 
 impugn. It may be that the triumphant 
 soldier, and successful politician, in the 
 midst of the busy scenes into which he 
 was hurried, forgot the humble, and per- 
 haps eccentric, man of science ; or aban- 
 doned him with all his faults and peculiari- 
 ties to strangers, who may have expected 
 to find him all perfection*. Whatever 
 
 * The position of parties in this case bears sojne 
 •analogy to that of Burke and his friend Barry ; but, 
 alas, how the great Indian statesman loses by following 
 D
 
 18 GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 they may have been, it would be improper 
 in me to remark very closely, on the 
 unfortunate causes which led to the failure 
 of this talented, and once enterprising, 
 man, in the noble design he had formed. 
 I have said unfortunate causes ; for such 
 must be considered, whatever may have 
 led to the frustration of a design, from 
 which India might have derived so much 
 benefit. Even this is not all that is, in 
 this case, to be regretted ; for in a country 
 w^here any advancement in science depends 
 on the enterprise, zeal, and assiduity of 
 individuals, rather than upon a large 
 community ; the example of such a failure 
 is calculated, justly or unjustly, to deter 
 others from risking, not merely their lives 
 and fortunes, but also their reputations, 
 
 lip the comparison. To the forbearance of Burke with 
 the foibles of genius, the British nation is no doubt 
 indebted for those sublime achievements of the painter 
 that now adorn the walls of the Society of Arts. Burke 
 saw that he must either bear with his friend's peculia- 
 rities — that he must at least endeavour to improve them 
 only by gentle means, or that his country must lose the 
 benefit of his genius.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 in a cause which has not hitherto been 
 rightly estimated in India. 
 
 While aUusion to this painful incident 
 in the history of the science is, in itself, a 
 powerful argument in favour of Geological 
 Societies, as the only sure means of deve- 
 loping progressively the resources of our 
 possessions ; it may at the same time be 
 the means of directing a case of individual 
 hardship, to the attention of those who 
 have the power, as well as the disposition, 
 to award such redress as the case may 
 require. That such a case should ever 
 have occurred, that an individual who 
 surrendered his fair prospect of fortune 
 and fame in his native land ; and at the 
 expenceofasmall private fortune, perhaps, 
 equipped himself for a task of vital 
 importance to India, should be heard to 
 complain of any want of liberality, calcu- 
 lated to induce him to relinquish his 
 design, is more than can well be conceiv- 
 ed : yet such would seem to have been 
 the case. For some unfortunate reasons, 
 it was deemed expedient to withdraw all 
 pecuniary support from the gentleman 
 D 2
 
 Sid GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 who had entered so nobly upon the task 
 above referred to, and thus abandoned in 
 one of the most remote corners of India ; 
 a term of seventeen years have now passed 
 over him, without the means of even 
 transmitting his property to a place where 
 he might dispose of it, and by this means 
 return disappointed and mined to that 
 home which he left under the brightest 
 auspices. A deep sense of the injury he 
 conceives himself to have sustained has 
 destroyed his confidence in man, and 
 suppressed the utterance of any complaint. 
 To those who think and feel, as become 
 the sympathies of our nature, this tribute, 
 to the living author of a great design, 
 will neither appear indelicate, or absurd ; 
 although his own wrath may be partly 
 anticipated, as the consequence of my 
 good intentions*. 
 
 * 1 must here express my obligation to Mr. L. for 
 the liberality with Avhich he placed his valuable library 
 at my disposal, which as far as books were concerned, 
 left me little to complain of during the latter part of my 
 residence at Lohooghat ; but, unfortunately, I was too 
 much employed in practical researches at the time to 
 admit much reading.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 It HOW only remains to refer to a few 
 ^contributions regarding some of the mine- 
 rals and mines in Southern India, by Dr. 
 Benjamin Heyne ; and our sketch of the 
 melancholy condition of geology, and 
 geologists, in British India, will be com- 
 plete. The following extract from the 
 preface of his work, which was published 
 in 1814, will shew what he had to encoun- 
 ter; and is a true picture of the mortifying 
 causes which still continue to thwart the 
 best efforts of private individuals, in the 
 cause of general improvement. " I could 
 have wished," says Dr. Heyne, "" to be more 
 particular in mineralogical and geological 
 descriptions, but found myself so often 
 at a loss for want of specimens to refer to, 
 that I have seldom attempted it ; and in 
 general, omitted all such as I conceived 
 w^ould not be found perfectly correct. I 
 must here lament the loss of large collec- 
 tions, which I was obliged to leave behind 
 me at different places, during the latter 
 years of my residence in India, from 
 want of means to carry them with me in 
 the country, or of sending them to a place 
 of safety."
 
 22 GEOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 Since the time of Dr. Heyne, twenty 
 years of peace have nearly passed away, 
 without any new facility having been 
 opened to the cultivators of any one 
 branch of science in India — a country in 
 which all that is beneath the surface, all 
 that requires the exercise of the higher 
 faculties of the mind, in the practice of 
 the arts, is neglected — a country, of whose 
 riches we only avail ourselves, when she 
 offers them to us, on the surface of her 
 shores, or on the sands of her rivers. It 
 must now, however, be gratifying to find, 
 that the attention of Government is at 
 length directed to the important object 
 of public instruction ; but still, let us be 
 careful that we do not mistake the means 
 by which this is to be effected — let us be 
 careful that we do not confound the mere 
 theory of science with its practice. Let 
 us therefore attempt to remove those obvi- 
 ous causes which directly impede the 
 performance of useful operations, rather 
 than bestow exclusive attention on ju- 
 venile schools ; in which, under existing 
 circumstances, an education, without an 
 object, can only be given.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 Without pretending to be at all versed 
 in political matters, it appears to me to 
 be a maxim of common sense, that there 
 is but one permanent source of national 
 prosperity — that this consists in an indus- 
 trious cultivation of natural resources. 
 Where these are neglected, or deficient, 
 (the latter is perhaps never the case,) the 
 people are driven from time to time, as 
 exigencies occur, to supply their wants 
 and luxuries, by lawless aggressioii, against 
 the property of neighbours ; and in such 
 a state of society, one province only 
 flourishes on the ruins of another. This 
 praedial spirit has prevailed from the 
 earliest times in India ; and on our suc- 
 cess in ultimately replacing it, by habits 
 of industry, in the practice of the use-= 
 ful arts, our future security must mainly 
 depend. 
 
 When speaking of the mines, I shall 
 again take the opportunity of making a 
 few remarks on this important subject.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE DISTRICT. 
 
 BURMDEO PASS— ROAD TO BELKET— CHOURA PANY— 
 SNOWY PEAKS, THEIR PHYSIOGNOMY, THEIR ALTI- 
 TUDES AND INCLINATIONS OF THEIR ACCLIVITIES- 
 FORMULA FOR CALCULATING INACCESSIBLE HEIGHTS 
 —VALLEYS OF THE GOGRA- PHYSIOGNOMY OF THE 
 MOUNTAINS OF DIFFERENT ROCKS— GEOGRAPHICAL 
 BOUNDARIES OF THE DISTRICT ABOUT TO BE DE- 
 SCRIBED—MORE MINUTE OBSERVATIONS ON THE 
 CHARACTER OF THE MOUNTAINS COMPOSING IT- 
 SECTIONS INTO WHICH IT IS NATURALLY DIVID- 
 ED— SUPERSTITION OF THE NATIVES— HUMBOLDT. 
 
 BuRMDEO pass is eight marches, of 
 about ninety miles, from Bareilly, the 
 capital of Rohilcund, in a northerly direc- 
 tion. It is an amphitheatre resembling a 
 small bay, surrounded on all sides by the 
 most delightful mountain scenery, except 
 at a narrow outlet, where the great northern
 
 OF THE DISTRICT. 25 
 
 branch of the river Gogra emerg-es from 
 its paternal mountains, to pursue a more 
 placid course, through the plains of Rohil- 
 cund and Oude, until it joins the Ganges 
 near Ghazeepore. From Burmdeo pass 
 to Lohooghat is three marches ; also in a 
 northerly direction : during the first of 
 which, the road lies across a rugged group 
 of mountains, about 5,000 feet above the 
 sea, and composed chiefly of calcareous 
 grit stone, and slate-clay, and covered with 
 dense forests of exotic plants. Having 
 gained the summit of this group, a higher 
 range still intercepts the view of the Hima- 
 laya chain, and the path descends rapidly 
 to the encamping ground at Belket, which 
 terminates the first day's journey. The 
 whole of the intervening space, between 
 Burmdeo and Belket, is uninhabited : a 
 few huts, or what are here called villages, 
 may be found on the higher elevations ; 
 but the valleys, like the Tarai*, which 
 
 * A Persian term which means moist ; it Is used in 
 this instance by the natives of India, to designate the 
 low belt of forest that extends along- the base of the 
 Himalaya for several hundred miles. 
 E
 
 26 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 extends along the base of this group next 
 the plains, are uninhabitable for at least 
 six months during the year. 
 . The second march is a continual ascent, 
 from Belket to Choura Pany ; a high ridge, 
 which m^ay be considered to form the brow 
 of that elevated belt of alpine land which 
 extends along the base of the great Hima- 
 laya chain, varying in breadth from sixty 
 to ninety miles. It is here for the first 
 time, since entering the mountains, that 
 the snowy peaks burst upon the view, 
 with a magnificence which it would be 
 difficult indeed to describe. 
 
 From the encamping ground at Choura 
 Pany, the view is rather circumscribed ; 
 but on ascending any of the neighbouring 
 heights, an uninterrupted chain of slender 
 summits are seen to extend, like a vast 
 white curtain, from N. W. to E. ; and 
 considering the distance of the nearest to 
 be sixty miles, the extent of the chain 
 embraced at one view, cannot be less than 
 four hundred miles. The lowest altitudes 
 of this immense chain appear to be about 
 six thousand feet above the line of perpe-
 
 OF THE DISTRICT. 27 
 
 tual cong-elation, which in this latitude is 
 about twelve thousand feet ; consequently, 
 the lowest peaks in this portion of the 
 Himalayas must be somewhere about 
 eighteen thousand feet ; while many of 
 the higher summits approach an elevation 
 of twenty-five thousand feet above the 
 ocean. 
 
 Careful attention to the changes which 
 the physiognomy of such mighty eleva- 
 tions undergo, is an object of the highest 
 importance ; and was, I believe, first sug- 
 gested by Humboldt : but in order to 
 afford much interest in a moderate space 
 of time, constant observations of the most 
 accurate and systematic nature would be 
 necessary. Without pretending to any 
 thing of this soj't, I may refer to Plate I. 
 fig. 1 . which I sketched as a general outline 
 of the chain, from one of the higher summits 
 in the vicinity of Choura Pany. The 
 relative altitudes of the different peaks 
 were taken with a common Gunter's quad- 
 rant, furnished with two sight-vanes, 
 and a plummet. On a subsequent occa- 
 sion, I made a series of observations on a 
 E 2
 
 28 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 few of the most remarkable of the same 
 peaks, from a situation about eigliteen 
 maritime miles nearer to them ; and a 
 mile N. W. of Petoragur, at an elevation 
 qf six thousand feet ; the following result 
 may be worth inserting. 
 
 1st peak {a), (Plate I. fig. 1 .) the most 
 remarkable of the eastern extremity of the 
 range ; height 2* 45' ; western acclivity, 
 24°; eastern declivity, 60". It has con- 
 sequently an unsteady, or overhanging 
 character, as if it were about to fall towards 
 the east. Surrounding peaks ; or those 
 that are subordinate to it, are pointed and 
 bristling. 
 
 2nd peak {b) ; height, 3° ; western accli- 
 vity, 44°; eastern declivity, 55° ; character, 
 pyramidal and pointed. 
 
 3rd peak (c) ; height 3° ; eastern acclivity, 
 29" ; western declivity, 50", near the sum- 
 mit ; character, wedge-shaped. 
 
 4th peak (d); height, 2° 45'; eastern 
 acclivity, 47** ; western declivity, 51°; cha- 
 racter, resembling a dome. 
 
 Tlie lowest snow at the apparent base 
 of the peak (d), T. 17'. The same at the
 
 OF THE DISTRICT. 29 
 
 apparent base of the peak (a). From these 
 kind of observations also a formula may 
 be derived for calculating inaccessible 
 heights : the lower limit of perpetual 
 congelation being determined. Here, as 
 has been found by Webb and other travel- 
 lers, that limit is about 12,000 feet ; and 
 its height at the base of (/>), for instance, 
 was lo ; deduct the height of the place of 
 observation (6,000) from the height of the 
 lowest snow (12,000), and the difference is 
 the value of a degree of height ; accord- 
 ingly, the peak {b) must be somewhere 
 about 24,000 feet high*. 
 
 The hours of the day, at which these 
 awfully interesting" altitudes are seen to 
 
 * Notwithstanding the confidence we are ever ready 
 to repose in mathematical rules in the elucidation of 
 the laws of nature, yet they are often as imperfect as 
 the limited observations on which they are founded. 
 Thus there is reason to believe, that the inferior limit 
 of perpetual congelation is much more elevated on the 
 S. W. acclivity of the Himala}- a than has been assigned 
 to it, by Captain Webb. There is reason to believe, 
 that the inferior annual limit of snow varies so amaz- 
 ingly, according to peculiarity of seasons, that a series 
 of years only would afford accurate calculations. See 
 the Chapter on Climatology.
 
 so GENEKAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 most advantage, is either before sun-rise, 
 or after sun-set ; when their soft crimson 
 forms are barely relieved from the glow^ing- 
 tints of the sky, by the golden lights 
 that play along their varied outlines. 
 
 From the position at which these obser- 
 vations are supposed to be made, the 
 mountains which intervene between the 
 snowy range and the eye, vary in their 
 respective altitudes from six to twelve 
 thousand feet. The different branches of 
 the river Gogra are sometimes seen, but 
 often only heard, in furious torrents, 
 rushing down the river valleys, which 
 divide the mountain groups from each 
 other. The great valley of the Gogra is 
 seen a few miles to the east : the river 
 running from a north-easterly direction, 
 and receiving a large branch that comes 
 from the north-west. The north-eastern 
 branch, continues to mark the boundary 
 between the kingdom of Nepaul and the 
 province of Kemaon. The western branch 
 is soon discovered to be formed of two 
 rivers : one of which comes from the 
 north, and the other from the north-west.
 
 OF THE DISTRICT. 31 
 
 receiving its origin in the mountains, east 
 and north-east of Ahnorah, in conjunc- 
 tion with the Pindur, or third branch of 
 the Ganges. 
 
 The valleys of these rivers, sink to the 
 depth of five or six thousand feet below 
 many of the adjoining summits ; but the 
 general height of the mountains above 
 the valleys throughout the district, is from 
 two to five thousand feet. 
 
 The mountains are generally massive ; 
 and ditfer in their more minute outlines, 
 according to the nature of the rocks of 
 which they are composed. Hornblende- 
 slate forms mountains, whose acclivities 
 rise abruptly, at angles of from 65"" to 35° 
 with the horizon. Mica-slate and gneiss, 
 as well as clay-slate, present acclivities that 
 vary from 60° to 30^. The mountains 
 composed of these rocks are usually 
 wooded ; and their summits are round- 
 backed, undulating, or conical. 
 
 Limestone mountains are here charac- 
 terised on the great scale ; by abrupt 
 rugged acclivities, mural precipices, lofty, 
 varied, and picturesque summits, cas-
 
 32 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 cades, and subterraneous streams, deep 
 ravines, and narrow inaccessible valleys, 
 transition clay-slate forms barren, round- 
 backed mountains ; which are uniform 
 in their appearance, and intersected by 
 few ravines. 
 
 There is also a genus of rocks related 
 to the Dolomite family, which deserves 
 to be mentioned ; as stamping- a peculiar 
 character, upon numerous mountains of 
 the district : they form lofty caps, and 
 shields ; usually disposed in saddle-shaped 
 strata, presenting smooth, and often 
 inaccessible declivities ; which are too 
 abrupt to afford, even vegetable exist- 
 ence, except to grass and lichen : while 
 ravines and low places, situated at the 
 base of such mountains, are strewed 
 with rounded masses, which have been 
 precipitated from above. 
 
 The district which is to form the sub- 
 ject of the following pages, is embraced 
 by the latitudes 29° and 29" 45' N. Long. 
 79" 55' and 80" 20' E. ; and lies on the 
 western side, of the river district of the 
 Gogra. Having tlais defined the geogra-
 
 OF THE DISTRICT. 33 
 
 phical limits, to which only it is intend- 
 ed, that the following pages shall refer ; 
 it may be proper to recapitulate such of 
 the foregoing remarks as apply only to 
 this limited space, and to add such 
 further observations, oq the general cha- 
 racters of the district, as may lead the 
 way to the more minute details respect- 
 ing the rocks and minerals of which it 
 is composed, and of the relative con- 
 nexion of these to each other. 
 
 It has been said, that the mountains of 
 certain rocks, as gneiss, hornblende-slate, 
 &c. derive peculiar outlines from the 
 nature of their composition. These dis- 
 tinctive characters may even be traced 
 to more minute particulars. Hornblende- 
 slate, for instance, appears to have much 
 more effect, in resisting the destroying 
 power of the atmosphere, than either 
 gneiss or mica-slate : the latter rocks may 
 therefore be distinguished from the former 
 one, by the numerous white patches of 
 naked surface, whose active state of 
 decomposition prevents the growth of 
 vegetable matter. The mountains of 
 
 F
 
 34 GENEllAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 gneiss may again be distinguished from 
 those of mica-slate, by the overlying 
 masses of granite ; which have been de- 
 nuded by the decay of the softer rock, 
 in which they once existed as beds, or 
 central nuclei: enormous masses of this 
 kind are found throughout the gneiss 
 district, which extends from the ruins 
 of the ancient city of Chompawut, in a 
 north-westerly direction, probably for a 
 hundred miles : I have traced them my- 
 self for forty miles. 
 
 The valleys, formed by the different 
 tributary branches of the Gogra, divide 
 the district into sections. The first is 
 that deserted tract that lies between 
 Eurmdeo pass and Belket. The second 
 is a more important section ; and extends 
 from the river Ludhoo, at Belket, to the 
 Ramessa, and is chiefly composed of 
 primitive rocks. A ridge of granite, 
 composes the centre of this section ; and 
 forms occasional elevations of nearly 
 eight thousand feet. Gneiss, hornblende- 
 slate, mica-slate, and clay-slate, are the 
 other principal formations, which occur 
 in this section.
 
 OF THE DISTRICT. S3 
 
 The third natural division is that 
 which lies on the north of the Ramessa 
 river, and between the rivers called 
 iVlahi Kali and Surjee ; embracing some 
 fine, though small valleys, the principal 
 one of which is the valley of Shore ; and 
 to avoid the confusion of names, it may 
 be proper to use this term to distinguish 
 the adjoining portion of the district. 
 
 Of the mountain rocks that occur in 
 the Shore section, primitive clay-slate is 
 the oldest, and forms the basis of this 
 part of the district, and ascends to eleva- 
 tions which are occasionally above 8,000 
 feet : primitive, transition, and floetz 
 limestone also occur in succession, and 
 bestow their peculiar stamp on the as- 
 pect of the neighbourhood. The moun- 
 tains are here more majestic than in 
 either of the other sections ; each indivi- 
 dual, standing almost detached from the 
 group to which it belongs, and bearing 
 some well-marked character, which leaves 
 on the mind, an impression not easily 
 effaced. Thus we find, in the Shore dis- 
 trict, every mountain distinguished by 
 F 2
 
 36 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 some traditional name, derived from a 
 sacred rock, or ancient temple, which 
 usually caps the summit. At certain 
 festivals, crowds of the superstitious popu- 
 lation resort to these romantic caves and 
 temples ; and on more private occasions, 
 the solitary devotee often ends his life, 
 in the attempt to gain an almost in- 
 accessible summit, in order to invoke 
 the protection of some grotesque repre- 
 sentation of the deity, to which the 
 mountain is dedicated. How forcibly the 
 selection of such localities, for religious 
 purposes, attests the influence of what is 
 awful in nature, over the mind of man, 
 even in his mde and nearly savage state. 
 
 " In the infancy of civilization" (says 
 Humboldt) *' high places were chosen by 
 the people, to offer sacrifices to their 
 gods : the first altars, the first temples, 
 were erected on mountains." This remark 
 was suggested by his intercourse with the 
 aboriginal inhabitants of the Andes ; its 
 accuracy is confirmed by the customs 
 that prevail among the Hindoos of the 
 Himalayas 1
 
 OF THE DISTRICT. 37 
 
 The following table exhibits the moun- 
 tain rocks of the district, in the order in 
 which they occur, as well as could be 
 determined in so small a tract of coun- 
 try ; which, however well adapted for the 
 purpose, could enable no talent on the 
 part of the geologist, to construct a table 
 of the geognostic succession of rocks, 
 that would be found on more extensive 
 enquiry to be correct. On the contrary, 
 I expect to find reason, as we become 
 more acquainted with the description of 
 other districts in India, to bring into a 
 much more natural and scientific con- 
 nexion with each other, many rocks that 
 are set down here as distinct formations ; 
 such as those siliceo-magnesian deposites, 
 described under the heads Common, and 
 Compact Dolomites, and Siliceous Oolite. 
 I must beg, how^ever, not to be here under- 
 stood, as expressing a preference to such 
 general descriptions, as are not based on 
 the most intimate and minute acquaint- 
 ance with the nature and peculiarities of 
 the districts of which they profess to 
 treat. 

 
 38 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 
 
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 §<2
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRIMITIVE FORMATIONS— GRANITE, 
 GNEISS, HORNBLENDE-SLATE. 
 
 ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF MOUNTAIN ROCKS— OB- 
 SERVATIONS OF WERNER AND RAUMER ON THIS 
 SUBJECT AT VARIANCE— GRANITE— THE DIRECTION 
 OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAIN CHAIN INDICATED BY 
 THE GRANITE-CONCENTRIC DISINTEGRATION OF 
 GRANITE— DESCRIPTION OF THE GRANITE OF KE- 
 MAON— GNEISS- ITS DISINTEGRATION AND CENTRAL 
 KUCLEI— THE DECAY OF GNEISS MOUNTAINS, AND 
 THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CITY OF CHOMPAWUT 
 FROM THIS CAUSE— THE RUINS OF CHOMPAWUT— 
 DESCRIPTION OF GNEISS RESUMED— SUBORDINATE 
 BEDS IN GRANITE AND GNEISS— HORNBLENDE-SLATE, 
 ITS GEOGNOSTIC POSITION, ITS STRATIFICATION, 
 ITS DESCRIPTION, ITS VARIETIES, ITS FOREIGN BEDS 
 — CHLORIT SLATE— PORPHYRITIC GREEN STONE. 
 
 In describing a district, the geologist 
 has little to do with the observance of 
 any particular system, in the arrange- 
 ment of his subject. It is, perhaps, best 
 to follow no artificial method, such being.
 
 40 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 in general, foreign to the purpose of 
 practical geognosy ; however proper and 
 essential when applied to cabinets of mi- 
 nerals. Werner, for instance, found in the 
 mountains of Saxony, that hornblende- 
 slate chiefly occurs in subordinate beds 
 in clay-slate ; seldom in gneiss, or in 
 mica-slate : he therefore placed it in his 
 system along with primitive trap, and 
 assigned to it a position between primi- 
 tive limestone and the oldest porphyry. 
 
 In the Riesengebirge, Raumer found 
 the same rock to prevail to a much greater 
 extent than it had been found by Werner 
 in the Erzgeberg ; and its geognostic 
 position was found, by Raumer, to be 
 between a kind of granite and gneiss : and 
 this circumstance induced him to pro- 
 pose a new arrangement of mountain 
 rocks. This was perhaps unnecessary, 
 as Werner did not consider hornblende- 
 slate as peculiar to any fixed position 
 with respect to other rocks. Be this as 
 it may, it is found in Kemaon resting 
 on gneiss, into whicb it passes on the one 
 hand, and into mica-slate and clay-slate 
 
 I
 
 GRANITE. 41 
 
 on the other; and from the extent to which 
 it occurs, as well as from its position, 
 hornblende-slate appears to rank next to 
 gneiss among the mountain rocks that 
 compose the eastern frontier of the pro- 
 vince ; a fact which is sufficient to shew 
 how inexpedient it is, to enter upon 
 inquiries of this kind, with preconceived 
 notions derived from arbitrary systems. 
 
 I shall for convenience begin with 
 granite, giving a history of this and each 
 of the superincumbent formations in their 
 order of superposition ; and although the 
 plan will occasion some repetition, yet 
 it is hoped, that this will be of a less 
 objectionable nature than such as neces- 
 sarily arise out of the form of a journal, 
 in which travellers usually convey scien- 
 tific information of this kind. 
 
 1— GRANITE. 
 This rock is found at Choura Pany, 
 penetrating through gneiss, and form- 
 ing a succession of elongated elevations, 
 which if not the loftiest, at least consti- 
 tute the basis of the highest district in 
 
 G
 
 42 GRANITE. 
 
 Keniaon. Some little explanation is here 
 necessary to the right understanding of 
 the disposition of the strata generally, 
 which will be progressively developed in 
 the course of the descriptions of the 
 diflerent rocks. The ridge alluded to 
 extends in a north-westerly direction, 
 for forty or fifty miles, but terminates, 
 or is obstructed, a few miles east of Choura 
 Pany, by the great valley of the river 
 Gogra. This range appears to be an 
 elongation of the Leti, Tirsal, and Dhana- 
 pur mountains, w^hich form the eastern 
 boundary of the valleys in which the 
 Alacananda river arises ; and may with 
 great propriety be named, in the language 
 of geographers, the principal tnountain 
 chain : while the great chain to which 
 the snowy peaks immediately belong, 
 may, in like manner, be called the high 
 mountain chain. A better idea of the 
 relative connexion of these chains may be 
 formed, by the reader conceiving himself 
 placed on Choura Pany. On the south, 
 he sees the plains of Hindustan below 
 him like a mist, and distant about twenty
 
 GRANITE. 43 
 
 miles ; on the north, the high mountain 
 chain, or snowy peaks already described ; 
 and on the north-west, a succession of 
 elevated mountains are observed, extend- 
 ing from Choura Pany, obliquely, towards 
 the high mountain chain to which they 
 are attached : these constitute the prin- 
 cipal mountain chain, and this chain 
 gives off subordinate groups, which, on 
 the one side, pass in close succession to 
 the plains, where they terminate in a 
 line of steep declivities ; and on the other, 
 these lateral groups intermix with similar 
 groups, given off by the hig'h mountain 
 chain, and forming between them the 
 valleys of the Gogra. 
 
 This somewhat complex description 
 would not have been required, were the 
 chain of mountains to which it refers, as 
 distinctly marked by their altitudes, as 
 by their strata ; but as this is not the 
 case, and as the whole province appears, 
 if superficially viewed, a mere chaos of 
 mountains, we are not to lose sight of 
 any indications presented by their inter- 
 G 2
 
 44 GRANITE. 
 
 nal structure, and particularly by the 
 strata of granite. 
 
 The granite, as has been stated, makes 
 its appearance only in the centre of this 
 mountain chain, in the loftiest places, 
 such as Choura Pany. It is stratified, 
 and extends in the direction of N. W. ; 
 the strata are nearly vertical, and appear 
 to be composed of nodula, around which 
 concentric layers are wrapped, in the 
 form of newer and newer deposite. This 
 appearance may however be referred to 
 the effects of weathering, as it is only 
 observed on surfaces that have been long 
 exposed. A similar appearance has been 
 long since observed by Dolomieu, in 
 blocks of granite, in ancient Rome ; and 
 also by De Luc, in the granite mountains 
 of Silesia. 
 
 The colour of our granite is grey, 
 sometimes of a reddish hue, derived from 
 the felspar ; but the usual colour is bluish 
 grey. The mass is fine-grained, and 
 resembles specimens I have seen of Aber- 
 deen granite : the quartz is crystalline, 
 but the felspar is dull and earthy. The 
 
 i
 
 GNEISS. 45 
 
 latter appearance may be the effect of 
 exposure to the weather, as I cannot 
 depend on the perfection of the specimens 
 examined ; and from the great harchiess 
 of the rock, I was unable to detach fresher 
 pieces. Its specific gravity is 2.71375. 
 
 2.— GNEISS. 
 
 Gneiss reposes on the granite, in con- 
 formable strata^ and the transition between 
 the two rocks is by imperceptible degrees, 
 so that it cannot be determined where 
 the one begins, or the other ends. 
 
 In the newer granite, the quartz be- 
 comes less crystalline, and of smaller 
 quantity, in proportion to the other ingre- 
 dients, until at length it disappears, so 
 as to leave chiefly felspar and mica, with 
 a very small portion of amorphous quartz. 
 Ihe change renders the rock less com- 
 pact ; and in this state it occurs at the 
 base, and on the acclivities of Choura 
 Pany ; and from thence it extends in a 
 north-westerly direction, forming the prin- 
 cipal portion of the most elevated district 
 in Kemaon.
 
 46 GNEISS. 
 
 Its course is marked by immense 
 denuded masses of granite, or more com- 
 pact and durable gneiss, as well as green 
 stone. Sometimes these masses are group- 
 ed together with remarkable order ; at 
 others, the most awful confusion prevails. 
 In one place, a number of loose, uncon- 
 nected masses, are heaped one above 
 another, in the form of a cone : an instance 
 of this kind occurs near Dole, on the 
 road between Lohoogat and Almorah. 
 On other occasions, mountain masses of 
 enormous size and globular shape are 
 accumulated on the verge of a frightful 
 precipice ; and so nicely balanced in their 
 critical situation, that the slightest appli- 
 cation of force would be supposed suffi- 
 cient to precipitate them to a fearful 
 depth, with an effect that could scarcely 
 be contemplated. It may easily be pre- 
 sumed, tliat such scenes would be ascribed, 
 by ignorant and superstitious people, to 
 preternatural causes, connected with the 
 exploits of their deities ; and a celebrated 
 temple at Dhee, also on the road between 
 Lohoogat and Almorah, is naturally 
 formed between two masses of this kind.
 
 GNEISS. 47 
 
 As to the origin of these stupendous 
 rocks, there can be but one explanation; 
 namely, that they were originally contain- 
 ed as central nuclei in gneiss ; which 
 from a peculiar tendency to decay, moul- 
 dered into friable earth, and was removed 
 by the torrents, leaving the present masses 
 exposed upon the surface. Nor is this a 
 mere speculation ; for the fact is esta- 
 blished by numerous masses of a similar 
 nature, progressively undergoing the same 
 changes ; and so rapidly do they take 
 place, that even human institutions are 
 sufficient records of the sinking and decay 
 of mountains. A most instructive and 
 humiliating instance of the changes that 
 are taking place in the physical, as well 
 as in the moral, world, is presented by 
 the ruins of Chompawut*, the ancient 
 capital of Kemaon. 
 
 The catastrophe by which Herculaneum 
 was destroyed, was but the excessive 
 operation of causes, to the effects of which, 
 certain countries were ever liable : such 
 also is the destruction of a city by an 
 
 * Now called Kalee Kemaon.
 
 48 GNEISS. 
 
 earthquake. Visitations of this kind are 
 indeed terrible to contemplate, but they 
 are generally sudden, and of brief dura- 
 tion. Not so is the silent and slow 
 destruction of a city, by the decay of the 
 rock on which it is erected : here the 
 horrors of desolation must necessarily be 
 protracted, and in the case of a people 
 who must have been more ready to ascribe 
 the catastrophe to a slow and vengeful 
 destiny, from which it were useless to 
 attempt escape, rather than to a law of 
 physics, that a better informed people 
 would have understood, the effects must 
 have been awful. Yet such appears to 
 have been the fate of Chompawut. 
 
 This city w^as erected on gneiss at the 
 northern side of Choura Pany, and was 
 totally destroyed by the decomposition 
 of the eminence on which it stood. A 
 few vestiges only remain, owing to the 
 accidental circumstance of their having 
 been erected on the more durable beds of 
 the rock ; but in other respects, although 
 built of granite, and probably intended 
 to endure for ever, scarcely one stone 
 remains on another.
 
 GNEISS. 49 
 
 Whether or not there be any records 
 regarding this city extant, I am unable 
 to say ; but probably there are none. The 
 severe conflicts that formerly took place 
 between the Goorkah princes, can have 
 left few historical remains of fallen dynas- 
 ties. All I could learn on the spot was 
 that the last Raja, who resided at Chom- 
 pawut, fled with his court to Almorah, 
 in consequence of a dream. As many of 
 his subjects as could, followed him, and 
 the remainder settled in various parts of 
 the province. The fort, having been 
 erected on granite, still remains, and is at 
 present occupied by aTesildar, or native 
 collector, of revenue; but of the Raja's 
 palace scarcely a trace is to be found. 
 
 There is, however, the base and door- 
 w^ay of a Chubootra, or balcony, remain- 
 ing, and it is supposed, the palace must 
 have been situated in the vicinity of this ; 
 a belief that is confirmed by the numer- 
 ous blocks of laboriously sculptured 
 granite, which are strewed on the sur- 
 face. The balcony is also of granite, 
 ornamented in the richest style of bass- 
 
 H
 
 50 GNEISS. 
 
 relief. At the lower extremity of the 
 ruins, a fountain, and three or four 
 temples, remain in good preservation. The 
 temples are erected in a level area, about 
 a hundred feet square, which appears to 
 have been excavated into the solid rock. 
 They are polygonal on their bases, and 
 about twenty feet in diameter, and 
 enclosed above by arched domes. The 
 fountain is a small apartment, about ten 
 feet square, and erected outside of the 
 quadrangles, in which the temples are 
 placed : these structures are of exquisite 
 proportions and beauty, and are entirely 
 composed of granite, ornamented in a 
 style of elegance and minute profusion, 
 that must have taken great labour and 
 taste to accomplish*. 
 
 * Since the aLove was written, I had the honour of 
 an interview with His Highness Raja Gomaun Singh, 
 lineal descendant from the Rajas of Kemaon ; and I 
 took the liberty, through the medium of a friend, as an 
 interpreter, to inquire of His Highness, what infovma- 
 tion he possessed regarding the antiquities of the 
 ancient seat of his ancestors. He was delighted to 
 find that any one beside himself felt interested in the 
 Bubject, and took a letter from his breast that he had
 
 GNEISS. 51 
 
 Had I been permitted to finish my 
 researches in Kemaon, it was a part of 
 my intention to have made a full descrip- 
 tion of these antiquities. They are pro- 
 bably of a very early date : the present 
 inhabitants can give no account of them ; 
 and I found some remains of domestic 
 architecture, (also of granite,) situated on 
 the face of the mountain at the upper 
 extremity of the principal ruins. They 
 were quite overgrown with forests of aged 
 oak, that could scarcely have existed at 
 the time these edifices were inhabited. 
 
 While this brief sketch illustrates the 
 change that gneiss undergoes, from expo- 
 sure to the atmosphere, it may also direct 
 
 that day received from the Bramins, whom he employs 
 to protect the ruins of the temples, although the coun- 
 try has long since passed from the hands of his family. 
 He said, if I wished it, he would send me a history of 
 his ancestors, in which I might find something respect- 
 ing Chompawut, but nothing whatever regarding the 
 origin of the temples, which surpass all antiquity. The 
 history of his family, he observed, was so long, that an 
 elephant would be required to carry it. He confirmed 
 the tradition of the dream, and supposed it to be about 
 500 years since the city of Chompawut was deserted. 
 H 2
 
 52 GNEISS. 
 
 to the notice of others, the subject of 
 these interesting ruins, with a view to 
 their further ehicidation. 
 
 The strata of gneiss run in the direction 
 of N. W. and dip 80*^ to N. E. ; they 
 vary in thickness from five to eight 
 feet, and contain foreign beds of granite, 
 green stone, iron mica, and micaceous 
 iron ore ; also cotemporaneous veins of 
 quartz and felspar. 
 
 Specific gravity of fresh specimens 
 2 635. The mountains which are formed 
 of this rock are usually rugged, and 
 covered with dense forests of oak. 
 
 (a) ferruginous smte. 
 
 The rock to which this name is given 
 occurs in subordinate beds in each of the 
 foregoing rocks. 
 
 At Choura Pany, it is found in granite, 
 in beds of a hundred feet thick. At 
 Dole, about forty miles north-west of 
 Choura Pany, a similar rock occurs, rest- 
 ing on gneiss. Its colour is blackish 
 grey, with lighter and darker stripes on 
 the surface of the cross fracture.
 
 HORNBLENDE-SLATE. 53 
 
 It occurs massive. External lustre 
 glimmering ; lustre of the principal frac- 
 tvu-e, shining, and of the cross fracture, 
 earthy, or glimmering. Fracture, slaty, 
 with a single cleavage. Fragments, tabu- 
 lar. It is semi-hard, inclining to soft. It 
 soils. Specific gravity, 2384. 
 Physical Characters. 
 It has no effect on the magnet, either 
 before or after exposure to the blow-pipe. 
 Chemical Characters. 
 On exposure to the blue flame of the 
 blow-pipe, it slowly assumes a reddish 
 yellow surface. It gives to borax a grey- 
 ish green colour, inclining to greyish- 
 white on the edges. 
 
 This rock might be named a mica-slate, 
 containing a small portion of micaceous 
 iron ore, finely disseminated with very 
 fine granular quartz, common mica, and 
 fine earthy felspar. 
 
 3.— HORNBLENDE-SLATE. 
 
 It has been shewn, that the two rocks, 
 
 (gneiss and granite,) already described, 
 
 form the principal mountain ridge, in 
 
 nearly, but not quite, vertical strata : for
 
 54 HORNBLENDE-SLATE. 
 
 a dip of 80° is invariably observed, bend- 
 ing to the north-east. This fact, together 
 with others which are yet to be observed, 
 renders it nearly certain, that a great 
 basin or trough, of considerable depth, 
 is formed by the substratum, or funda- 
 mental rock ; descending from the centre 
 of the high mountain chain, and ascend- 
 ing again to form the basis of the princi- 
 pal mountain chain. This basin, it would 
 appear, is filled up partly by a number 
 of successive layers, of newer and newer 
 rocks, and these layers or strata are not 
 uniformly spread over every portion of 
 the cavity of the basin ; but they are 
 accumulated in particular places, and 
 thus form subordinate troughs, or valleys ; 
 which have again been transformed by 
 succeeding dcposites of newer rocks. 
 
 Hornblende-slate appears to have been 
 deposited chiefly in the bottom of this 
 basin ; and to ascend only in small quan- 
 tity, or to disappear entirely on its higher 
 margins*. In these latter situations, it 
 
 * On the 8. ^V^ acclivity of the principal mountain 
 chain ; or, in other words, the ascent from Belket to 
 Choura I'any, hornbleude-slate is found, at the altitude
 
 HOUNBLENDE-SLATE. 55 
 
 either assumes a coarse granular structure, 
 and passes into gneiss, as on the southern 
 acclivity of Choura Pany, and into mica- 
 slate, as below Durgura ; or it changes 
 into a very fine granular description of 
 clay-slate, as in the bed of the Lohoo river, 
 on the northern foot of Choura Pany. 
 
 It may be more consistent with the 
 nature and connexions of this rock, to 
 imitate Werner and Professor Jameson, in 
 considering' hornblende-slate, not as a 
 distinct formation, as described by Rau- 
 mer*, but as occurring only in beds ; but 
 there can be no doubt that those beds 
 are of much greater extent than either 
 of those eminent geolog-ists contemplated ; 
 
 of 6,000 feet, to change into tlie character of gneiss ; 
 and in the course of this mountain acclivity, conical 
 peaks rise one above another. The centre of each peak 
 is composed of granular hornhlende-slate, closely resem- 
 bling gneiss, from which it only differs by containing 
 hornblende sufficient to give it a greenish hue ; while 
 the strata surrounding these centres retain the charac- 
 ter of hornblende-slate, until we ascend to the altitude 
 already mentioned, which appears to be that at which 
 hornblende-slate disappears. 
 * Annal. Phil. vol. vi. p. 478.
 
 56 HORNBLENDE-SLxVTE. 
 
 and as the term bed affords too contracted 
 an idea of a rock, which composes an 
 extensive portion of a district, the incon- 
 venience might perhaps be avoided by 
 substituting the terms partial J ormaf ion*. 
 
 The direction of the strata of horn- 
 blende-slate is ruled, rather by the direc- 
 tion of mountain groups, than by that 
 of principal mountain chains ; or, in other 
 words, its direction is subject to varia- 
 tion, arising from local irregularities of 
 the surface of the basin, in which it is 
 deposited. The dip is seldom less than 
 60", and often as much as 80^. 
 
 The acclivities of mountains composed 
 of this rock are usually rugged and 
 
 * To Raumcr, (ri-cen-slate occurred resting on gneiss 
 and griinite in the Riescngeberge; to Werner it occurred 
 in clay-slate. In Kemaon, it is found resting on gneiss. 
 To these we might perhaps apply the terms of first, 
 second, and third trap (or partial trap) formations ; 
 but it is highly probable, that in a more advanced state 
 of Gcoh)gical Science, these seeming irregularities may 
 be reconciled to some general law, which has hitherto 
 eluded our observations. This is the more probable, as 
 our geognostic acquaintance with the structure of the 
 earth is as yet confined to a comparatively small pro- 
 portion of the whole surface.
 
 HORNBLENDE-SLATE. 57 
 
 inaccessible ; and tabular masses of nearly 
 perpendicular strata stand several feet 
 erect above the surface. From this pecu- 
 liarity, soil sufficient for the growth of the 
 most luxuriant vegetation is retained on 
 the steepest acclivities. 
 
 Oak being in this latitude the inhabit- 
 ant of loftier altitudes than are formed 
 by this rock, the forests that prevail on 
 it are chiefly composed of pines of the 
 largest growth. 
 
 The tract of district composed of horn- 
 blende-slate, although of considerable ex- 
 tent, is almost totally deserted ; and the 
 few villages that are found on it, are 
 miserably poor, and, in general, uninhabit- 
 able for several months during the year ; 
 as well from the miasmata and heat that 
 prevail in its dense forests, and deep 
 valleys, as from the rapacity of the wild 
 beasts by which these are infested : as 
 the tiger, leopard, and the bear. 
 
 Hornblende-slate having been found 
 in so many ditferent positions, with re- 
 spect to other rocks, a minute description 
 of it, as it occurs in Kemaon, resting on 
 I
 
 >58 llORNELENDE-SLATE. 
 
 gneiss, may be useful in assisting- to form 
 its separation into species, depending* on 
 the rocks with which it is associated in 
 nature. 
 
 Its colours are seladon, pistachio, and 
 olive-green. 
 
 It occurs massive, and contains cotem- 
 poraneous laminae of quartz, in thin 
 alternate layers, and flattish grains, from 
 small, to very small ; and even finely dis- 
 seminated. External lustre, dull, inclin- 
 ing to resinous. Fracture foliated, and 
 slaty, with a single cleavage. Lustre of 
 the principal fracture glistening, or shin- 
 ing, and of the cross fracture, glimmering. 
 Shape of the fragments, tabular. Distinct 
 concretions, lamellar. It affords a green- 
 ish grey streak. It is opaque. It is semi- 
 hard. It is somewhat sectile. It affords 
 an earthy smell when breathed on, and feels 
 rather meagre. Specific gravity, 2-920. 
 
 Chemical characters. It is not fusible 
 before the blow-pipe ; probably from its 
 intermixture with common clay, a large 
 proportion of mica, and other impurities, 
 as its lightness indicates.
 
 HORNBLENDE-SLATE 59 
 
 Variat. a. — Coarse Granular. 
 Its colours are greenish grey, seladon, 
 and pistachio green ; with a pearly and 
 glimmering lustre. Fracture, coarse gra- 
 nular ; but somewhat inclining' to slaty. 
 Lustre of the fracture, resinous and slight- 
 ly shining. Distinct concretions are 
 lenticular, inclining on the one hand to 
 lamellar, and on the other, to granular. 
 Specific gravity, 2 708. 
 
 It appears to contain felspar, as well 
 as quartz, and may be considered as the 
 transition between hornblende-slate and 
 gneiss. 
 
 Variat. b. 
 Colour, dark greenish grey. Fracture, 
 slaty in the large, but compact, even, 
 and inclining to earthy in the small. 
 Lustre, glimmering. It is opaque. It is 
 similar in the streak. It is semi-hard, 
 inclining to soft, and affords a strong 
 bituminous smell when breathed on. 
 Specific gravity, 2728. 
 
 This rock is a transition between horn- 
 blende-slate and clay-slate ; and appears 
 to be composed of minute grains of quartz, 
 I 2
 
 ^0 HOUNBLENDE-SLATE. 
 
 imbedded in a basis of clay and horn- 
 blende. 
 
 The foreign beds, which are contained 
 in hornblende-slate, are gypsum, mica- 
 ceovTS iron glance, common iron glance, 
 chlor it-slate, and primitive green-stone. 
 
 The first is common to this rock, and 
 mica-slate, and will be noticed in the 
 next chapter ; and the description of the 
 iron ores may be consulted in the account 
 of the mines. 
 
 The chlorit-slate and porphyritic green- 
 stone appear to be peculiar to this forma- 
 tion. 
 
 (b) chlorit-slate. 
 
 Its colours are emerald and grass green. 
 It occurs massive. Internal lustre, pearly. 
 
 Fracture scaly foliated. Distinct con- 
 cretions, thin lamellar. Lustre of the 
 distinct concretions, shining. It is opaque, 
 and it affords a light-coloured streak. 
 
 It is soft, and perfectly sectile. It is 
 meagre to the feel. Specific gravity, 3. 
 
 It occurs in large quantity in tlie lower 
 strata of hornblende-slate, and is found 
 at Chimtouly, in the vicinity of the iron
 
 HORNBLENDE-SLATE. 61 
 
 mines. It also occurs at the southern 
 foot of Choura Pany, near Belket, where 
 its scaly laminae alternate with thin 
 laminae of quartz. It is the substance 
 that gives the slaty structure to horn- 
 blende-slate. 
 
 (C) PORPHYRITIC GREEN-STONE, 
 
 This rock is found at the southern foot 
 of the principal mountain chain, where 
 it forms at Belket, a portion of the bed 
 of the river Ludhoo. I have not been 
 able fully to ascertain its extent and 
 geog-nostic relations ; and as this is a 
 point of first-rate importance, it would 
 be improper to hazard an opinion upon it. 
 
 It will be seen on inspection of the 
 map, as well as from what is said in 
 the description of Belket, that ifthepor- 
 phyritic green-stone passes under the 
 elevated mass of strata composing the 
 southern declivity of Choura Pany, that 
 then those philosophers, who contend that 
 the strata of mountains have been elevated 
 to their present position, by the expan- 
 sive operation of heat, confined in the 
 centre of the earth, would find in the
 
 .62 IIORNBLENDE-SLATE. 
 
 peculiar position of this green-stone, a 
 strong argument in favour of their doc- 
 trine ; but if, on the other hand, it should 
 appear on further inquiry, that this for- 
 mation, like the others we have described, 
 presents the character of a deposite from 
 above ; then, of course, the first argument 
 would come to nothing. This rock is 
 composed apparently of equal parts of 
 hornblende and felspar, in minute crys- 
 tals, mechanically mixed, so as at first 
 sight to look somewhat like a fine granite. 
 It is not stratified, but divided in all 
 directions by adventitious rifts, which 
 give it a brecciated structure in large 
 masses. The fragmented pieces are usually 
 trapezoidal. It is hard, and not parti- 
 cularly heavy.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PRIMITIVE FORMATIONS — MICA-SLATE, 
 CLAY-SLATE, PRIMITIVE LIMESTONE. 
 
 NATURE AND GEOGNOSTIC POSITION OF MICA-SLATE— 
 OLDEST GYPSUM, ITS DESCRIPTION— CLAY-SLATE— 
 NATURE OF THIS FORMATION AND PECULIARITY OF 
 THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAIN CHAIN IN REGARD TO IT 
 —MOUNTAINS OF CLAY-SLATE CONTRASTED WITH 
 THOSE OF HORNBLENDE-SLATE, AND AN ATTEMPT TO 
 EXPLAIN THE CAUSE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 
 THEM— PROVIDENTIAL ASSOCIATION OF CLAY-SLATE 
 WITH LIMESTONE, MORE ESPECIALLY IN ALPINE 
 COUNTRIES— VARIETIES OF CLAY-SLATE, WITH THEIR 
 DESCRIPTIONS AND DISTINCTIONS— DISTINCTION BE- 
 TWEEN THE FINE CURVED CLAY-SLATE AND TRAN- 
 SITION SLATE— QUARTZ, AND THE SINGULAR SEPTA- 
 RIUM OCCURRING WITH IT— DESCRIPTION OF DRAW- 
 ING SLATE— PRIMITIVE LIMESTONE— DESCRIPTION OF 
 ITS VARIETIES— SPLINTERY HORNSTONE. 
 
 4.— MICA-SLATE. 
 
 This rock occurs in small quantity in 
 
 proportion to either of those formations. 
 
 described in the last chapter. It is found 
 
 at Durgura, alternating with gypsum.
 
 64 MICA-SLATE. 
 
 and a micaceous kind of clay-slate, which, 
 but for the absence of quartz, might also 
 be named mica-slate, for it is a scaly 
 compound of primitive clay and mica. 
 From its nature, however, as well as from 
 the geognostic situation in which it is 
 found, it may be considered to be a tran- 
 sition between mica-slate and clay-slate. 
 
 Mica-slate also occurs associated with 
 similar rocks at Choura Pany, and in 
 various parts of the district, always occu- 
 pying the same geognostic place. It 
 generally rests on hornblende-slate ; but 
 in the higher altitudes, where that rock is 
 wanting, it rests on gneiss. It is compos- 
 ed of small grains of quartz, some felspar, 
 and a considerable proportion of grey or 
 white silvery mica. Mean direction of 
 the strata W. N. W. ; mean dip, 50". 
 (a) oldest gypsum. 
 
 Gypsum is found, as has been stated, 
 alternating with mica-slate, at Durgura, 
 and on the southern declivity of Choura 
 Pany, in beds of from fifty to three 
 hundred feet thick. The strata are sub- 
 divided by numerous slaty rifts, which
 
 MICA-SLATE, 65 
 
 mil parallel to the strata seams, and divide 
 the rock into tables that vary from two 
 to six inches thick. It also occurs at 
 Cliimtouly, in beds, in hornblende-slate. 
 
 Its colour in some beds is reddish white, 
 and in others, greenish-white. Lustre 
 glimmering ; but sometimes glistening, 
 especially in the principal fracture, while 
 that of the cross fracture is pearly. Frac- 
 ture, slaty in the large ; large fragments 
 are consequently tabular, but small pieces 
 are wedge-shaped. Distinct concretions, 
 straight lamellar. It is faintly translucent 
 on the edges. It is semi-hard. It is rather 
 easily frangible. 
 
 Specific gravity of the reddish coloured 
 variety, from Durgura, 2*612, and of the 
 greenish white kind, from the same place, 
 2 '574 and 2 '669 ; while a variety of the 
 same from beds in hornblende-slate at 
 Chimtouly, is, 2'3. 
 
 Chemical characters. It is infusible 
 before the greatest heat of the blow-pipe, 
 either wdien placed on charcoal or held 
 in the forceps. Even with the addition 
 of borax, and the flame directed to the 
 
 K
 
 Q^ CLAY-SLATE. 
 
 edoes of the laminae, it evinced little 
 signs of fusibility ; nor is it soluble in 
 any proportion of water. 
 
 These experiments were not made on 
 the specimen from Chimtouly, which 
 appears to be a purer gypsum than the 
 others, from its more compact and sparry 
 character, as well as from its containing 
 less mica. 
 
 5.~CLAY-SLATE. 
 This great formation composes, at least, 
 a sixth part of the whole province, and 
 is stretched in conformable strata over 
 the mica-slate and trap rocks described 
 under the head of hornblende-slate. It 
 commences on the N. E. acclivity of the 
 principal mountain chain* under the 
 
 * This formation is quite deficient on the south- 
 western acclivity of the principal mountain chain, as 
 far as I have been able to observe, or learn from thre 
 observations of others. Should this deficiency prove 
 to be general, the fact will be very interesting, as the 
 succession of primitive rocks will in that case be un- 
 equal on the two sides; a circumstance which, however 
 common in regard to single mountains, can only be 
 accounted for in the case of high and principal mouU'-
 
 CLAY-SLATE. 67 
 
 out-going of the substratum, at the eleva- 
 tion of about 7,000 feet, and from thence 
 stretches into the lower districts forming 
 mountain groups, in conjunction with 
 newer rocks, through which it often 
 pierces, forming peaks and ridges seven 
 and eight thousand feet high. 
 
 These elevated and massive groups, whose 
 bases are surrounded with mantle-shaped 
 sti-ata of limestone, traverse, obliquely, 
 the centre of the Alpine land, situated 
 between Choura Pany and the snowy 
 range. The mountains often appear iso- 
 lated from each other, or only to join by 
 slender mountain-arms ; and thus they 
 form numerous small elevated valleys, 
 w^hich present the most striking contrast 
 to the inhospitable aspect of those tracts 
 of country wdiich are composed of horn- 
 blende-slate. The cause of this difference 
 of character, so remarkable between the 
 
 tain chains, by supposing the strata composing them to 
 have been disturbed and uplifted subsequent to their 
 original deposite — a doctrine long since rendered plau- 
 sible by M. de Saussure and others. 
 K 2
 
 68 CLAY-SLATE. 
 
 districts composed of these formations, 
 may be easily explained. 
 
 Hornblende-slate, if left undisturbed, is 
 one of the most indestructible of all rocks 
 by mere atmospheric causes* ; we, accord- 
 ingly, find the mountains composed of it 
 in the same state in which they were 
 originally formed by nature, as is indi- 
 cated by their rugged acclivities, and the 
 absence of debris at their bases. Clay- 
 slate, on the contrary, is soft and friable, 
 or its hardness depends on ferruginous 
 ingredients, which are decomposed by 
 the heat and moisture of the atmosphere ; 
 these causes keep up a constant process 
 of decay ; in consequence of which, the 
 valleys, if not gradually filled up, are 
 at least prevented from sinking deeper ; 
 while the mountains, freed from original 
 asperities, look worn and rounded in 
 their outlines, and their surface in time 
 becomes converted into alluvial soil, which 
 either remains in situ, or is carried down 
 
 * This I suspect is contrary to tho gci^cral impres- 
 sion, probably derived from observing the rock in tho 
 vicinity of torrents, roads^ quarries, &:c.
 
 CLAY-SLATE. 6^ 
 
 to fertilize the valleys situated at their 
 base ; and here an interesting observation 
 presents itself. 
 
 Ferruginous clay would form a barren 
 and unproductive soil, unfit to supply 
 the wants of man : so we find by the 
 direction of a bounteous Providence, that 
 this clay, in its progress from the moun- 
 tain acclivities to the valleys, is carried 
 by the torrents over beds of limestone 
 and marl ; and by the calcareous admix- 
 ture thus acquired, the ferruginous oxides 
 are decomposed, and a soil is afforded, 
 which is capable of yielding with little 
 labour, no less than three crops of grain 
 annually*. 
 
 This extraordinary fertility is only 
 observed in the floetz districts, in which 
 the admixture of slate and limestone is 
 so adjusted on the mountain acclivities, 
 as to render the small proportion of 
 arable land that occurs in such places, 
 
 * " Ave any of the salts of iron present ? Tliey may- 
 be decomposed by lime.'"' — What the philosopher recom- 
 mended to be done by art, is here spontaneously per- 
 formed in the great laboratory of natm-e before our 
 eyes.— Vide Sir H. Davy's Agricult. Chem. p. 5,
 
 70 CLAY-SLATE. 
 
 capable of supporting- a population that 
 could not exist, but for the beneficent 
 law of nature, which thus increases the 
 fertility of one portion of a district, in 
 proportion to the sterility of another. 
 
 The four v^arieties of clay-slate that 
 have been noticed in Europe, may be 
 detected here. 
 
 1. Variat. Bluish grey; with a faint 
 tinge of greenish yellow, and a slight 
 glimmering lustre. Specific gravity, 2'3. 
 
 This is a common rock, and is the 
 oldest member of the series, if we may 
 judge from its geognostic situation. It 
 is very distinctly stratified ; but the strata 
 are intersected at irregular distances by 
 seams, which pass at rig^it angles to the 
 seams of stratification, giving the whole 
 somewhat of a columnar structure. 
 
 2. Variat. Old blue-slate. The colour 
 of this rock is bluish black, rendered 
 reddish grey on the edges by long expo- 
 sure. It has generally a fine slaty struc- 
 ture, but it is sometimes also compact. 
 It is this variety that forms, occasionally, 
 the lofty altitudes in fioetz districts al-
 
 CLAY-SLATE. 71 
 
 ready alluded to. It forms the basis of 
 Takill, the highest mountain in Kemaon 
 that I have had an opportunity of exa- 
 mining- ; and which, according to measure- 
 ments taken by order of Government, 
 proved to be 8 221 feet. 
 
 The acclivities of this mountain are 
 covered by the different formations of 
 limestone, from under which the slate is 
 rarely seen protruding, except on the 
 highest summits. Specific gravity of a 
 specimen from the cap of Takill, 2643. 
 
 3. Variat. Ihis is scarcely entitled to 
 a separate consideration from the first, 
 as it is only distinguished from it by 
 the total absence of particles of mica, and 
 by the distinct concretions in this inclin- 
 ing somewhat to a granular shape ; while 
 in the first they are lamellar, and the 
 two kinds pass into each other, the pre- 
 sent variety always maintaining a super- 
 incumbent position with regard to the 
 first, of which it may be considered as 
 merely the newest extreme*. 
 
 * It miglit be more correct to describe this as the 
 second variety, as it seems to be an older rock thai^ 
 the old blue slate.
 
 ^2 CLAY-SLAfE. 
 
 4. Variat. This is distinguished by its 
 crystalline and curved slaty laminee, and 
 is a very important variety, from its lia- 
 bility to be confounded with transition 
 slate. It has a more earthy lustre than 
 transition slate, which is pearly, and it is 
 generally stained on its external surface 
 with red oxide of iron, an appearance 
 rarely observed on transition slate. It 
 is also occasionally mixed with mica, and, 
 indeed, passes into mica-slate. It some- 
 times occurs of a bluish black colour, 
 while the transition slate that is likely 
 to be confounded with this variety of 
 primitive clay-slate, is always light grey ; 
 and, lastly, primitive slate is somewhat 
 lighter : the specimens of this that I 
 examined, differed from 2567, to 24, 
 while several specimens of transition slate 
 were each found to exceed 2 '6. 
 
 This rock forms sharp elevated ridges, 
 with conical peaks ; and it occurs chiefly 
 in high primitive districts, unaccompanied 
 by limestone. 
 
 Clay-slate contains some unimportant 
 beds of gypsum. It contains likewise
 
 CLAY-SLATE. 73 
 
 beds of graphite, and is the only reposi- 
 tory of massive quartz. 
 
 (a) quartz. 
 
 In the district laid down in the map, 
 quartz is found in cotemporaneous veins 
 in clay-slate : these are generally small, 
 seldom exceeding twelve inches in diame- 
 ter ; and do not usually run more than 
 ten or twenty yards in length : but they 
 are often much smaller than this, branch- 
 ing off in different directiotis, and termi- 
 nating in wedge-shaped points. 
 
 Beds of quartz are also frequent : they 
 sometimes naeasure eight or ten feet in 
 diameter, and run for miles in the 
 direction of the strata ; several of them 
 usually occurring in the same vicinity. 
 They terminate by the approximation of 
 their walls below, and wedge themselves 
 out at their extremities like cotempora- 
 neous veins. Quartz also occurs in over- 
 lying masses, along the lofty ridges and 
 peaks of clay-slate ; where its presence 
 might be accounted for, by supposing it 
 to have been yielded from former beds 
 in the slate, which being more subject 
 L
 
 74 CLAY-SLATE. 
 
 to decay than the quartz, gave up its 
 contents to the surface, by a similar 
 process to that which has been observed 
 to produce the masses of granite in gneiss 
 districts. It occurs, however, in this situa- 
 tion along with a peculiar septarium, 
 which is of a sufficiently curious nature 
 to raise doubts in the minds of some, I 
 should think, as to the origin of this 
 deposite of quartz. The subject shall be 
 again reverted to, when treating of the 
 septarium here alluded to. Quartz is 
 also found in the same situation, in the 
 form of small and minute hexagonal 
 prisms, or suppositious crystals. The colour 
 of the quartz is white. 
 
 (b) drawing slate. 
 
 This rock occurs in beds which are 
 situated between clay-slate, and transi- 
 tion and floetz limestone : and often con- 
 tains copper pyrites. It has frequently 
 a brecciated structure, the fragments of 
 which are cemented with calcspar. 
 
 Its colour is iron black. It occurs 
 massive. Surface smooth. Lustre resinous, 
 and sometimes glistening. Fracture diverg-
 
 PRIMITIVE LIMESTONE. 75 
 
 ing fibrous, inclining to scaly foliated. 
 Fragments cunieform. Distinct concre- 
 tions, very thin, lamellar. It is opaque. 
 It affords a lead-grey streak. It soils 
 slightly, and writes. It is soft, meagre to 
 the feel, and sometimes affords a strong 
 bituminous smell when breathed on. 
 Specific gravity, 2*787 and 2'78. 
 
 Chemical characters. It is infiisible. 
 
 €.— PRIMITIVE LIMESTONE. 
 
 Primitive limestone composes the north- 
 ern acclivity of Takill ; and from thence 
 it extends in a north-westerly direction, 
 probably for many miles. I have myself 
 traced it twenty or thirty. 
 
 It occasionally gives way to the newer 
 limestones, and again appears constituting 
 the peculiar feature of some rugged pre- 
 cipice. I have never observed it to 
 form a mountain summit, or to occur in 
 any altitude above five or six thousand 
 feet at the utmost. 
 
 In a small river valley, which partly 
 separates Takill from the Oudepore 
 group, this rock forms the most frightful 
 L 2
 
 76 PRIMITIVE LIMESTONE. 
 
 precipices on both sides that can well 
 be imagined. These precipices compose 
 broken, and seeming-ly tottering moun- 
 tain acclivities, that ascend in places for 
 three or four thousand feet, at various 
 angles between 45" and 75°; and as the 
 only road between Lohooghat and Peto- 
 ragur lies along the verge of these pre- 
 cipices for several miles, it is impossible 
 that the most indifferent traveller could 
 pass, insensible either to the danger of his 
 situation, or the beauties of the scene. 
 This limestone is distinguished in the 
 large scale, by its thick slaty appearance, 
 owing apparently to occasional laminae 
 of argillaceous matter which pass an 
 uncertain length through each stratum, 
 parallel to the strata seams. The strata 
 are mantle-shaped, rather than conform- 
 able ; or they may be said to partake of 
 the nature of both. This variety of the 
 rock is of a bluish grey colour, with a 
 dull lustre. • 
 
 On the mountain acclivity composing 
 the southern boundary of Goron valley, 
 there is also a bed of primitive limestone.
 
 PRIMITIVE LIMESTONir. 77 
 
 distinguished from the former in heing 
 conformable, and in the colour being 
 snow-white, reddish-white, and peach- 
 blossom red, without lustre. 
 
 The fracture of the first variety is com- 
 pact, and coarse splintery ; of the second, 
 large conchoidal, inclining to foliated. 
 Distinct concretions, very fine granular ; 
 but they are coarser, in the second, than 
 in the first variety, and the former is 
 slightly translucent on the edges ; the 
 latter nearly opaque. They are semi-hard. 
 The second variety is brittle ; the first 
 not particularly so. Neither, is very 
 difficultly frangible ; but the second variety 
 is the most frap-ile. When the second 
 variety is moved loosely in the hand, it 
 affords a slightly grating sound. Specific 
 gravity of the bluish grey variety, 2*6477 ; 
 of the snow-white, 2 6 ; and of the peach- 
 blossom red, 2'7- 
 
 Chemical characters. They dissolve 
 rapidly, and with effervescence, in muria- 
 tic acid. 
 
 The snow-white strata are lowest in 
 the bed, and lie directly on the old blue
 
 78 PRIMITIVE LIMESTONE. 
 
 slate. The peach-blossom kind next 
 occurs. It is probable from its external 
 characters, as well as from its stratifica- 
 tion, that the bluish grey variety is the 
 newest; but the total absence of any detri- 
 tus or organic remains in it ; and parti- 
 cularly its giving- support to a deposite 
 of transition limestone, are sufficient rea- 
 sons for placing it in the primitive class 
 of rocks. 
 
 The snow-white and peach-blossom 
 varieties contain subordinate beds of the 
 following rock. * 
 
 (d) splintery hornstone. 
 
 There are three varieties of hornstone 
 in the Shore district, each of which appears 
 to be peculiar to the class of rocks with 
 which it is associated in nature. The 
 first variety is that which occurs in pri- 
 mitive limestone, and its description natu- 
 rally belongs to this place. 
 
 It occurs massive, either long and 
 cylindrical, or fiat, approaching to the 
 character of strata. 
 
 Colours, faint greenish, yellowish, or 
 bluish white. Surface smooth. External
 
 PRIMITIVE LIMESTONE. 79 
 
 lustre dull. Fracture compact, splintery, 
 and large conchoidal, inclining; to con- 
 cealed foliated, with a double cleavage. 
 Cross fracture, small conchoidal, and un- 
 even. Fragments, irregular, indetermi- 
 nately angular and sharp-edged. Lustre, 
 pearly, or in places glistening from minute 
 particles of calcspar. 
 
 It is semi-transparent in thin frag- 
 ments. It is semi-hard, approaching to 
 hard. It is not very difficultly frangible. 
 Specific gravity, 28 16. 
 
 Chemical characters. It is infusible 
 before the blovr-pipe. 
 
 It is found along with the primitive 
 limestone of Goron valley. I have also 
 found it in amorphous masses, in floetz 
 limestone ; at the north-western extre- 
 mity of the Oudepore mountains, near 
 Petoragur.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS, OLDEST TRANSITION 
 
 LIMESTONE, SLATE AND LIMESTONE, 
 
 MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE, COMMON 
 
 DOLOMITE. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS— TRANSITION OBSERVED BETWEEN 
 PRIMITIVE AND SECONDARY STRATA— PROOFS AND 
 CONCLUSIONS— OLDEST TRANSITION LIMESTONE, ITS 
 DESCRIPTION— SLATE AND LIMESTONE, ITS DESCRIP- 
 TION AND NATURE— COARSE MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE, 
 ITS DESCRIPTION— COMMON DOMOLITE, OR STEA- 
 TITIC SAND-STONE, ITS DESCRIPTION, ITS VARIETY 
 AND NATURE— FURTHER DESCRIPTION AND REMAJIKS 
 —TRANSITION SLATE. 
 
 The rocks belonging- to this class are 
 distinguished from primitive rocks by 
 their position ; by greater irregularities 
 in regard to stratification ; and by con- 
 taining obscure traces of oi^anised beings^ 
 as well as by certain characters presented 
 by the structure of the rocks themselves. 
 
 In Shore valley, we find a black, fine 
 grained limestone, resting in unconform-
 
 TRANSITION HOCKS. 81 
 
 able strata, on clay-slate. These masses 
 are sometimes overlying', and of various 
 external shapes ; as long, round, flat, 
 cavernous, and entangled. The flat ap- 
 proach to tabular shapes, and are piled 
 upon each other, so that in places they 
 form ridges, which rise to the height of 
 two or three hundred feet above the val- 
 ley, when they end in tabular summits. 
 The highest tables which compose these 
 summits are quite horizontal : while the 
 lower ones approximate more to the 
 dip of the clay-slate, on which they rest. 
 It is difficult, when viewing these appear- 
 ances, to resist the belief that this liaie- 
 stone belongs to a newer period in the 
 history of the worl 1, than the clay- 
 .slate ; for in the primitive rocks, we have 
 seen one series succeed another, in re- 
 gular and unbroken order, without any 
 marks of violence or confusion from local 
 causes. 
 
 In another part of the district, a:i 
 impure, flne-grained limestone, is found 
 mechanically mixed with newest clay- 
 M
 
 82 TRANSITION HOCKS. 
 
 slate, in thin, slaty lamillee*. In succeed- 
 ing strata, the quantity of calcareous 
 matter increases, until the argillaceous 
 ingredient disappears, and the limestone 
 either assumes the usual character of the 
 transition rock, or it approaches that of 
 an impure magnesian limestone. The 
 impurities of the magnesian limestone 
 are of two kinds : one distinguished by 
 containing minute grains of quartz or 
 silex, and the other, by containing argil- 
 laceous clay. The first, when fresh, pre- 
 sents some of the characters of the soap- 
 stone family ; but when weathered, it 
 looks like a fine siliceous sandstone : 
 while the second has a dirty scaly tex- 
 ture, internally, somewhat like clay-slate ; 
 but carelessly examined, it would be mis- 
 taken for granular limestone. 
 
 These three rocks rest on the third 
 variety of clay-slate, and they appeared 
 to me to occupy nearly the same geognos- 
 tic situation ; but 1 am unable accurately 
 
 * It presents tlie same external characters as the 
 " flint-slate" in the German collection of minerals in 
 the Asiatic Society's museum.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 83 
 
 to describe their relative situation to each 
 other, further than that the limestone 
 seemed to be the substratum, and that 
 above it, beds of curved pearly slate 
 occurred, of greater or lesser thickness, *- 
 from five hundred, or more, to only a few 
 feet. The superincumbent strata of this 
 slate soon begin to display occasional 
 laminae of magnesian limestone. This 
 appearance becomes more extensive in 
 each succeeding stratum, until the slaty 
 laminae disappear from the magnesian rock, 
 which either changes again into slate by 
 a similar gradation, or constitutes of itself 
 the superincumbent structure of moun- 
 tains. 
 
 From these observatious it appears 
 evident, that a change has here taken 
 place, from the primitive to the transi- 
 tion rocks of Werner ; in support of 
 which, the following reasons are pre- 
 sented to our notice : 
 
 1st. The clay-slate on which the low- 
 est bed of limestone reposes is, indubit- 
 ably, a primitive slate. 
 
 2nd. The limestone bears the charac- 
 M 2
 
 84 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 ters of a transition, rather than of a 
 primitive rock. 
 
 3rd. The magnesian limestone, ^nd 
 the slate that lies over the common lime- 
 stone, contain traces of organised fossils, 
 which are referriblc to the earliest tran- 
 sition period. 
 
 4th. Mountains of cr^^stalline, fine- 
 curved, and pearly slate, containing cotem- 
 poraneous veins of quartz, rest on the mag- 
 nesian limestone, in conformahle strata ; 
 and as it is clear that this slate cannot 
 be a floetz rock, it follows, as a natural 
 consequence, that the substratum cannot 
 be considered as belonging to that class. 
 
 Thus it appears, that transition rock"? 
 are clearly indicated in the mountains 
 of Kemaon ; that grey wacke, and grey 
 •wacke-slate are both absent, and that 
 their place is supplied by a rock com- 
 posed of a mixture of magnesian lime- 
 stone and argillaceous clay : and lastly, 
 that however adv^erse to our former 
 notions, we shall be obliged to admit 
 magnesian limestone into the clas& of 
 transition rocks.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 85 
 
 Without attempting- to speculate ou 
 this subject, I shall proceed at once to the 
 description of the rocks theraselves, as 
 the only way in which information either 
 useful or satisfactory can possibly be 
 afforded on a subject of this nature. 
 
 1.— OLDEST TRANSITION LIMESTONE. 
 
 This is the oldest member of the tran- 
 sition class, and in every country, that 
 has been hitherto examined, it marks 
 the commencement of secondary strata. 
 
 It is found on the western acclivity 
 of a lofty mountain near Lohooghat, 
 which is called the Soee, (which signifies 
 need/e,J where it runs for a short distance 
 in a line with the Petoragur road, at an 
 elevation of about six thousand feet. The 
 bed of rock then crosses the road, and 
 descends into deep valleys : in these I 
 have traced it extending- in a north- 
 westerly direction, as far as Ryegong'. It 
 is scarcely stratified, but rather disposed 
 in an unconnected succession of tabular 
 n^asses, which extend in the direction of 
 tlie general strata, forming- a bed that
 
 86 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 varies in breadth, from ten to fifty feet, 
 and upwards. The lyin(y side of the bed 
 is formed by either the third or the 
 fourth variety of primitive slate ; while 
 the hanging* side is formed of a mixture 
 of slate and limestone, either magnesian 
 or common ; but neither side is at all 
 well defined. The course of the bed is 
 marked by occasional small caves, or 
 rather holes and interstices, as well as by 
 overlying- tables, and rounded masses of 
 limestone, the surface of w^iich is often 
 converted into a brown dusty matter, 
 and is divided by cellular reticulations 
 of fine veins of calcspar-^an appearance 
 which is here peculiar to this rock. The 
 following are its characters : 
 
 Colour, Berlin blue. Lustre glisten- 
 ing. Fracture compact, large conchoidal. 
 Distinct concretions, fine, or very fine 
 
 * These terms have heen long ago introduced from 
 the technical language of miners ; they are very 
 expressive, especially to those who are practically 
 acquainted with the a})pearance of beds and veins. 
 The lying side means the inclined floor, on which the 
 contents of the bed reposes, while the hanging side is 
 the roof or lower surface of superincumbent rock.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 87 
 
 granular ; the fine granular concretions 
 are somewhat angular, and have a dull 
 dark-blue colour : while they are sur- 
 rounded on the fractured surface by 
 minute splinters, which appear to the 
 naked eye like very fine white specks. 
 
 It is opaque. It is semi-hard. 
 
 It is entirely dissolved with brisk effer- 
 vescence in acids. 
 
 2.— ALUMINOUS SLATE AND LIMESTONE. 
 This rock next occurs in the succession 
 of the transition series, and is formed of 
 alternate layers of limestone and slate. 
 The limestone ingredient is generally 
 magnesian, but sometimes common ; 
 especially in the vicinity of the last 
 described rock. The slaty portion has 
 mostly a bituminous appearance, but it is 
 little altered by exposure to the blow- 
 pipe. The thickness of the layers which 
 constitute the mass, varies from a line to 
 seven or eight ; and the different layers 
 wedge each other out, by a curved slaty 
 sort of structure. The argillaceous part 
 comprises usually two-thirds of the mass,
 
 88 TKAXSITION PvOCIvS. 
 
 and the colour of this portion is some- 
 times bluish black; at others, blackish 
 green, with a resinous lustre. 
 
 The limestone layers are grey, seldom 
 without a tinge of green ; and in all cases, 
 present a very fine granular structure : 
 are semi-hard, aftord a coarse splintery- 
 fracture, with wedge-shaped fragments, 
 and are quite opaque. 
 
 The greenish variety of this rock crosses 
 the bed of the Ponar river, in a very 
 low situation, about a mile due north 
 from Ryegong. It here contains fossil 
 appearances, consisting of rings grouped 
 two or three together, and placed each 
 in the corresponding axis of the other, 
 so as to convey the impression, that they 
 belong to some extinct form of organ i.-a- 
 tion; although on breaking the rock, there 
 is no appearance of its con'.aining an 
 extraneous substance. 
 
 The same bed makes its appearance 
 at an altitude of fifteen hundred, or two 
 thousand feet higher than the previous 
 locality. This new situation is on the 
 road between Ryegong and the Soee,
 
 TRANSITION KOCKS. 89 
 
 and a few miles east of the village of 
 Boida, where it forms a steep declivity, 
 giving support to magnesian limestone 
 and transition slate, and is not distin- 
 guished by the appeai'ance of the extrane- 
 ous fossil above alluded to. In both 
 situations the rock is conformable; and 
 it appears by its colour and weight to 
 contain probably both chlorite, and horn- 
 blende, which minerals constitute whole 
 mountains in the form of hornblende- 
 slate in this vicinity, and -give a tinge 
 of green to the older transition deposites 
 that repose upon them. 
 
 This rock is also found in mantle- 
 shaped strata, resting on hornblende-slate, 
 at the south-western extremity of Takill, 
 where it constitutes the corresponding 
 declivity of the Ramessa valley. Here 
 the argillaceous portion of the rock cor- 
 responds with the colour and nature of 
 the old blue clay-slate, which constitutes 
 the principal structure of that mountain, 
 and which we may infer was the original 
 repository that aiforded the material of 
 the slaty portion of this rock. A third 
 
 N
 
 90 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 variety occurs at the Sooee, where the 
 limestone portion is combined in a mecha- 
 nical alternation of layers, with ordinary 
 transition slate. 
 
 Specific gravity of the greenish colour- 
 ed variety, 2 '75, and of the bluish kind 
 from Takill, 2647. 
 
 3.— COARSE MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. 
 
 This rock may occasionally be found 
 alternating with, and passing into the 
 foregoing ; but it occurs chiefly in a 
 newer or incumbent position, and such 
 is the case at the Sooee. From thence 
 it has been traced into the Ponar valley, 
 preserving the same geognostic position. 
 In the latter situation, rolled masses are 
 found of great size in the bed of the 
 Ponar river ; and on the surface of these 
 the same singular traces of organic fossils, 
 already observed in the former rock, 
 are delineated ; but the figure is in this 
 better developed, the rings constituting 
 each figure are more numerous, and con- 
 form to an awl-shaped outline. They 
 are uniform in size, and quite independ- 
 
 I
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 91 
 
 ent of any peculiarity of structure, or 
 colour of the rock, for they occur in all 
 varieties of it, and may, although only 
 superficial, be considered the vestige of 
 some organised substance. See plate ii. 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 The following are the characters of the 
 rock. Colours dark bluish grey, pearl 
 grey, and reddish white. Lustre dull or 
 inclining to resinous, and of some to 
 pearly, rarely glimmering. 
 
 Fracture compact, even, inclining to 
 earthy in the blue, but to coarse splin^ 
 tery, passing into large conchoidal in the 
 pearl grey variety. 
 
 Distinct concretions, small or fine 
 granular ; lustre of the distinct concre- 
 tions in the blue kind, resinous. Pearl 
 grey kind, is translucent on the edges ; the 
 blue is perfectly opaque. 
 
 It is semi-hard, and rather difficultly 
 frangible ; specific gravity of the dark 
 coloured variety, 2*65, and of the pearl 
 grey, 2 687. 
 
 Chemical characters : dissolve very slow- 
 ly, and with very feeble effervescence in 
 N 2
 
 92 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 nitric acid, leaving about 40 per cent, 
 of insoluble matter. With the addition 
 of twice or thrice its weight of borax, 
 it becomes, after continued exposure to 
 the blow-pipe, imperfectly converted into 
 a white enamel on the edges. 
 
 This rock passes into the following 
 variety, which rests upon it in conform- 
 able strata. 
 
 It agrees in most of its characters, 
 with the magnesian limestones of England, 
 and may assist in determining the geog- 
 nostic rank of those rocks, should the 
 point be still uncertain. 
 
 (A) COMMON DOLOMITE; OR STEATITIC 
 SANDSTONE. 
 
 The artificial anangement of this spe- 
 cies is one of those difficulties, which 
 even M. Neergaard acknowledged must 
 occasionally be expected by the best 
 practical mineralogist; and a new name 
 (says he) given to a substance, often 
 induces people to believe that the sub- 
 stance is new.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 93 
 
 Although I have distinguished this 
 rock by tlie name of steatitic sandstone, 
 I have done so, chiefly to express the 
 uncertainty of my own opinion, as to 
 its true nature : I however, strongly sus- 
 pect, that it will be found to be a magne- 
 sian limestone, differing from most of the 
 species with which we are acquainted. 
 In the mean time, I feel assured, that an 
 accurate description will answer the pur- 
 poses of science, better than any specu- 
 lations I can offer on the subject. 
 
 Its colours are greenish, bluish, and 
 yellowish grey ; often tarnished with red- 
 dish brown delineations on the surface. 
 It rarely occurs cream yellow. 
 
 External lustre, dull ; but internally 
 it is vitreous. Fracture rather coarse 
 splintery, in the small ; but slaty, or 
 concealed foliated, in the great. The 
 splinters become white and mealy, on 
 exposure to the air for a few months ; 
 and on longer exposure, the whole sur- 
 face assumes an earthy aspect, presenting 
 for a time, occasional blue spots, of irre^ 
 gular shape and earthy lustre.
 
 94 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 The small fragments are indetermi- 
 nately angular, or inclined to wedge- 
 shaped, with sharp edges. 
 
 Distinct concretions are very fine gra- 
 nular, and scarcely perceptible in fresh 
 specimens. 
 
 It is translucent on the edges. It 
 scratches glass, and is with difficulty 
 scratched with the knife. It is rather 
 brittle. It feels meagre. Specific gravity, 
 2-6134 to 2-7725. 
 
 Chemical characters. It is very par- 
 tially soluble in nitric acid, and even 
 when previously reduced to impalpable 
 powder, 70 per cent, at least remains 
 insoluble. After exposure for several 
 minutes to the blue flame of the blow- 
 pipe, it loses a portion of its colour and 
 weight, and becomes easily frangible ; and 
 by the addition of borax, its edges, with 
 much difficulty, are converted into a 
 white enamel*. 
 
 * From these characters it would seem, that this 
 rock contains a large proportion of very minute quart- 
 zose grains, imbedded in a magnesian basis.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 95 
 
 (e) weathered steatitic sandstone. 
 
 Weathered specimens of the above- 
 described rock are so different from it, 
 in their external characters, that they 
 would not be recognised as belonging to 
 the same species, were they not seen in 
 situ, presenting all their different stages 
 of mutation, between the fresh and the 
 disintegrated rock. 
 
 It may not here be improper to refer 
 to Dr. Berger's remarks on the identity 
 of soap-stone and serpentine, which he 
 believed to be of common origin ; in 
 proof of which he adduced the analysis 
 of serpentine by Kirwan, and of soap 
 rock (seifenstein) by Klaproth, and then 
 observed : " We see that with the excep- 
 tion of silica and water, which are most 
 abundant in soap-rock, there is in the 
 last substance a diminution of about 
 03 or 04 of all the other compo- 
 nent parts of serpentine, as if they had 
 been destroyed in consequence of the 
 disintegration of the rock, and carried 
 off by the waters."
 
 96 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 The principle which these observations 
 of Dr. Berger render so probable, is 
 exemplified in this instance by the trans- 
 formation of the foregoing- into the pre- 
 sent rock ; apparently by the removal 
 of the talcose parts by weathering. 
 
 Its colour is grey, with a tinge of 
 green, more or less faded, according to 
 the freshness of the specimens ; and it 
 contains numerous curved and ring- 
 shaped stripes of reddish brown and 
 ochre yellow, chiefly the latter*. 
 
 External surface, rather corroded and 
 granulated. Lustre, dull. Fracture, ear- 
 thy. 
 
 Distinct concretions, very fine granu- 
 lar. It is semi-hard, inclining to soft. 
 It is very easily frangible. It is perfect- 
 ly opaque. Specific gravity ; 2'607, after 
 emersion, 2 674. 
 
 * Derived from the oxidizement of common clay- 
 iron stone, which mineral is very generally distributed 
 through the rifts and seams of both varieties of the 
 rock, and occasionally contains impressions of zoophites, 
 one of which I found on the highest point of the 
 Sooee.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 97 
 
 Chemical characters. It is insoluble 
 in acids, and before the blow-pipe, affords 
 with borax, a milk-white enamel. 
 
 These two varieties, so different in their 
 characters, may be esteemed as having 
 been originally but one substance. The 
 first variety rests on, and passes into the 
 coarse magnesian limestone ; but some- 
 times a bed of transition slate intervenes. 
 It composes the loftiest altitudes of the 
 Sooee, where it assumes, occasionally, the 
 character of a fine siliceous sandstone. 
 From this situation it extends into the 
 low district of the Ponar valley, form- 
 ing in its course, bold, rugged, and often 
 inaccessible mountains, which are dis- 
 tinguished by their sharp ridges and 
 narrow deep valleys. It crosses the 
 Ponar valley, and continues the same 
 direction, probably without interruption, 
 to Almorah, where it rests on a low 
 ridge of slate, probably transition slate. 
 Here it answers the purposes of archi- 
 tecture, and is, we may suppose, from this 
 circumstance, less disposed to decay than 
 the specimens subjected to examination. 
 o
 
 98 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 This rock is intimately connected with 
 compact dolomite on the one hand, and 
 magnesian oolite on the other ; both of 
 which occur to an important extent in 
 Kemaon, as will be seen in the next 
 chapter. 
 
 4.— TRANSITION SLATE. 
 
 This rock may be said to consist of 
 two varieties, disting-uished rather by 
 their position, than by any peculiarity 
 of character. 
 
 The first is that which rests immedi- 
 ately on the bed of oldest transition 
 limestone, and the second is that which 
 rests on the common dolomite or steati- 
 tic sandstone. 
 
 The lowest strata are dark and earthy, 
 and emit a strong bituminous smell — pro- 
 perties which diminish in the newer 
 strata, which assume a clear pearly 
 lustre, with, or without a fine curved 
 sti*ucture. These characters however, dis- 
 appear in low valleys, where the rock is 
 more exposed to moisture : in these situa- 
 tions too, it is important to observe, that
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 99 
 
 it is always more or less impregnated 
 with detritus from surrounding substances. 
 Thus, for instance, when the valley in 
 which it is situated is subordinate to 
 mountains of hornblende-slate, the tran- 
 sition slate is found to present a greenish 
 tinge ; in other cases, it contains calcare- 
 ous matter. Nor are these the effect of 
 alluvial changes alone, but appear, espe- 
 cially in the former case, to be inherent 
 in the constitution of the rock. 
 
 The oldest stratum, or that which lies 
 in contact with the first bed of limestone, 
 is found broken, crushed, and indented, 
 as if it were by the mechanical pressure 
 of tho^superincumbent strata, indicating- 
 that these were deposited ; while the former 
 was in a state of emolescence, and the 
 limestone hard and unyielding*. 
 
 Transition slate contains few contem- 
 poraneous veins of quartz, and when these 
 
 * As limestone hardens not by the evaporation of 
 its moisture, but by the absorption of carbonic acid, 
 we can have no difficulty in conceiving how it may 
 have become very quickly hard and unyielding in a 
 situation where carbon still abounds. 
 O 2
 
 100 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 do occur, their walls are bituminous, 
 loose, and friable ; while in clay slate, 
 they are compact and intimately united 
 to their contents. 
 
 Transition slate forms the mountain on 
 which the village of Barakote is erected ; 
 and at the southern extremity of that 
 mountain, the slate is seen resting on 
 the common dolomite*, 
 
 * I have been thus particular in pointing out a spot 
 on the high road between Lohooghat and Petora, where 
 the important fact of transition slate resting on this 
 sandstone may be observed by every traveller who 
 passes, without the trouble of dismounting from his 
 horse. 
 
 This singular fact is the more important, ^as I find 
 the same peculiar sandstone is a very generally dis- 
 tributed rock throughout India.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS, TRANSITION LIME- 
 STONE, COMMON DOLOMITE. 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF TRANSITION LIMESTONE— REMARKS 
 ON ITS STRATIFICATION, ITS DESCRIPTION— OVERLY- 
 ING VARIETY DESCRIBED— COMPACT AND COMMON 
 DOLOMITES COMPARED— MOUNTAINS OF COMPACT 
 DOLOMITE DESCRIBED, ITS GEOGNOSTIC RELATIONS, 
 STRATIFICATION, AND LOCALITIES- NATURE AND 
 CAUSE OF ITS TRANSITIONS INTO SUBSTANCES APPA- 
 RENTLY DIFFERENT FROM EACH OTHER— DESCRIP- 
 TION OF GRANULAR COMPACT DOLOMITE, ITS CHEMI- 
 CAL CHARACTERS AND LOCALITIES- SPLINTERY COM- 
 PACT DOLOMITE DESCRIBED— OOLITE OR GRIT-STONE, 
 CHARACTER OF ITS MOUNTAINS, ITS DESCRIPTION— GE- 
 NERAL REMARKS ON THE ROCKS HERE DESCRIBED 
 AS DOLOMITES, AND THE REASON FOR SUPPOSING 
 THEM TO BE OF A DIFFERENT NATURE. 
 
 5.— TRANSITION LIMESTONE. 
 It is difficult to say whether this rock, 
 or that siliceo-magnesian deposite, de- 
 scribed in the last chapter, be entitled 
 to priority of rank in a chronological 
 arrangement; for as they do not occur
 
 102 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 tog-ether within the limit of the district 
 examined, we have no data on which to 
 form any decisive observations, and in 
 this, as in all similar cases, mere argument 
 would be a poor substitute for facts. 
 
 The present rocks are, however, w^ell 
 known and described in almost every 
 geological work ; but as we cannot be 
 too well acquainted with the natural 
 appearances of every formation in every 
 country, I cannot forego the opportu- 
 nity of offering a few remarks on these 
 strata, as they appear in Kemaon. 
 
 This limestone presents two varieties, 
 which are well distinguished from each 
 other, by the manner in which they 
 occur in nature, as well as by their 
 specific gravity. The most important, 
 because the most extensive of these, is 
 somewhat stratified and conformable, and 
 in conjunction with clay-slate, forms whole 
 mountains and even mountain groups. 
 Beds of graphite sometimes intervene 
 between the slate and limestone ; at others, 
 tlie two rocks change gradually into each 
 other, by what may be named a chemical
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 103 
 
 mixture, in order to distinguish it from 
 the more mechanical alternation of parts, 
 which constitute the transition between 
 similar rocks described in the last chapter. 
 
 This transition takes place by means 
 of a rock that consists of carbonate 
 of lime and alumina; one or other of 
 these ingredients preponderating- at a 
 particular place, according- to the proxi- 
 mity of clay-slate, or of limestone ; and 
 this coarse earthy substance affords, like 
 swine-stone, which it resembles in its 
 nature, an unpleasant odour when rubbed. 
 
 Unless limestone contains impurities, 
 either constitutionally disseminated in its 
 structure, or externally applied in the 
 form of a coating on its surface, or con- 
 stituting strata seams, it undoubtedly 
 acquires a homogeneous and unconform- 
 able character, from the corrosive effects 
 to which it is subject from various che- 
 mical agents. Hence it is, that those 
 limestones which are the purest carbo- 
 nates, and which are most exposed to 
 the influence of external causes, display 
 the smallest signs of regular stratification,
 
 104 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 such as the alpine limestone. Why, it 
 may be asked, is stratification usually 
 most indistinct in those limestones that 
 present fused-like and corroded preci- 
 pices ? The answer is, that the continuity 
 of strata on the surface of mountains of 
 pure carbonate of lime, and the original 
 features of the precipices of such moun- 
 tains, have been destroyed and effaced 
 by the same causes, namely, the chemi- 
 cal action of waters. 
 
 The blue primitive limestone described 
 in the fourth chapter, is as distinctly 
 stratified as any other formation in the 
 district ; but it owes the preservation of its 
 integrity in this respect, to the layers of 
 compact argillaceous matter that adhere 
 to the surfaces of the strata, and which 
 thus protect them from the corrosive 
 effects of the waters. The opinion of 
 some respectable geologists, that stratifi- 
 cation is incompatible with the nature of 
 limestone, as a chemical deposite, may 
 have arisen from observing the appear- 
 ances which alpine limestone is liable to 
 assume, without considering the causes to 
 
 i
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 105 
 
 which those appearances are here refer- 
 red*. Chemical compounds only assume 
 crystalline forms under certain circum- 
 stances ; and we may safely venture to 
 conclude, from the appearance presented 
 by calcareous rocks, that the circum- 
 stances under which they were deposited 
 were unfavourable to any other law than 
 that which still governs the gravitation 
 of matter. 
 
 The specimen of limestone which led 
 to these remarks, is found in large quan- 
 tity in the Shore district, and is probably 
 among the oldest transition rocks that 
 are found there. It composes the small 
 mountain ridge in the centre of Shore 
 valley, whose tabular structure was al- 
 luded to in the beginning- of the last 
 chapter. 
 
 It might, from what was there said, be 
 supposed to be a floetz limestone ; but 
 
 * Mr. Bakwell, if I recollect right, in his very inter- 
 esting and popular introduction to geology, asserts, that 
 it is a physical impossibility that limestone can, from 
 its nature, be stratified. — See Edition 1816. 
 P
 
 106 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 this is not the case, as the nature of 
 the transition that has been described to 
 exist between it and clay-slate, is suffi- 
 cient to shew ; and it does not always, nor 
 even generally occur in tabular masses. 
 It forms most of the mountain accli- 
 vities that encircle Shore valley. Most 
 of these when viewed from a distance, 
 present very distinct marks of stratifica- 
 tion ; but on approaching- them, they 
 appear like loose unconnected mountain 
 masses, divided certainly into tables ; but 
 these are again cleft and comminuted 
 sometimes into slaty fragments, cemented 
 with tufa and calcspar. Other fragments 
 are cubical, and various massive shapes of 
 enormous size, presenting fissures which 
 are either open, and lined with calcspar, 
 or filled with tufa. Although thus wreck- 
 ed and broken, evidently by the action of 
 alluvial waters, this rock may still be 
 said to be stratified in the great scale, as 
 indicated by the distant view, and also 
 by the minute inspection of detached 
 nnasses, in which traces of obliterated 
 strata-seams are often to be found.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 107 
 
 The colour of this limestone is bluish 
 black, sometimes Berlin-blue, and rarely 
 streaked with tile-red. 
 
 It is often brecciated, the distinct parts 
 being- cubical and rhomboidal, but so 
 closely united, that its brecciated charac- 
 ter is only detected by attempting to 
 break it. 
 
 The fracture is small conchoidal, frag- 
 ments rather inclined to sharp-edged. 
 
 Lustre, dull. It is opaque. It is semi- 
 hard. Specific gravity, 26l to 2-671. 
 
 Chemical characters. It dissolves en- 
 tirely with brisk effervescence in acid, 
 and affords a snow-white quick-lime, 
 without falling to powder. 
 
 (a) overlying variety. 
 
 This variety of transition limestone 
 occurs in distinct masses, of various shapes 
 and sizes ; the former frequently irre- 
 gular, but often rhomboidal, cubical, 
 columnar, seldom round. They occur 
 singly, or in large numbers, piled loosely 
 together in the form of bold rugged 
 knolls, mountain shields, and caps : more 
 rarely, two or three enormous isolated 
 N 2
 
 108 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 blocks are so nicely balanced upon each 
 other, as to convey the idea of their 
 having been so placed, by some artificial 
 power beyond our conception. Their 
 external surface is granulated and uneven, 
 often also streaked by projecting lines. 
 
 Its colour is velvet black, with numer- 
 ous spots and veins of white calcspar. 
 
 Fracture, large conchoidal, inclining to 
 granular foliated. Fragments, indeter- 
 minately angular, and rather blunt-edged. 
 Lustre of the fracture, glimmering, some- 
 times glistening. 
 
 It is opaque. It affords a white streak. 
 It is semi-hard. Specific gravity, 2* 8435 
 and 2-8668. 
 
 Chemical characters. The same as the 
 foregoing. 
 
 It sometimes rests on the foregoing 
 variety, with which it usually occurs ; 
 it also rests on clay-slate, and is exten- 
 sively distributed on mountain ridges 
 and acclivities in the vicinity of Shore, 
 between the altitudes of five and seven 
 thousand feet. The spotted variety in 
 particular is a beautiful marble, and
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 109 
 
 would be highly esteemed, if within the 
 reach of a people whose knowledge of 
 the arts enabled them to appreciate its 
 value. 
 
 Along with these limestones, beds of 
 green-stone, slaty talc, and graphite are 
 very common. 'ilie transition green- 
 stone and the graphite are peculiar to 
 this formation, but the talc also occurs 
 in floetz limestone. The stratified varie- 
 ty is also the repository of copper 
 pyrites. 
 
 6.— COMPACT DOLOMITE. 
 The description of the rock now about 
 to be entered upon might have followed 
 that of the common dolomite, or steatitic 
 sand-stone, with which it appears, in 
 many respects, to be connected. There 
 are however differences both in regard 
 to physical and external characters be- 
 tween them, that ought not to be con- 
 founded, the more so as they appear but 
 to constitute varieties of a series of 
 rocks, which, as far as I am capable 
 of judging, are as yet imperfectly known.
 
 110 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 Under such circumstances, every cha- 
 racter that appears to constitute a well 
 founded distinction ought to be adhered 
 to, until something- satisfactory be ascer- 
 tained respecting their chemical, as well- 
 as physical history. While the former 
 rock was found to rest beneath transi- 
 tion slate, the present one is found to 
 repose upon that slate, and never as far 
 as I have seen, gives support to any 
 superincumbent formation . 
 
 Having entered the mountains from 
 the piains, via Burmdeo pass, and cross- 
 ed the ridge of grit-stone ; mountains of 
 compact dolomite are seen rearing them- 
 selves abruptly out of the narrow valley 
 of Belket. The beautiful green and blue 
 colours of their naked precipices; the 
 picturesque forms of their lofty summits, 
 as well as the uniform arrangement of 
 their massive, and nearly perpendicular 
 strata, convey, upon the whole, a most 
 sublime effect. 
 
 In this locality, the geognostic relations 
 of the rock are not capable of being 
 very satisfactorily ascertained. It is
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. Ill 
 
 separated from hornblende-slate on the 
 one side, by a curved slaty rock com- 
 posed of chlorite and quartz, which, from 
 observations made on the spot, I was 
 led to believe, passed into a granular variety 
 of the rock now under consideration. 
 
 On the opposite side of the mountain, 
 it forms a close local connexion with 
 the grit-stone ; but I had no opportu- 
 nity of determining whether or not any 
 physical assimilation exists between these 
 two apparently distinct mountain rocks. 
 
 The strata are distinct and nearly 
 vertical ; the dip being seldom less than 
 75", alternately changing from N. N. E. 
 to S. S. W. The direction is conse- 
 quently W. N. W. The strata are divid- 
 ed by numerous rifts and fractures, pass- 
 ing at right angles to the seams of stra- 
 tification, which give the rock a columnar 
 appearance. It would however seem, 
 that these divisions of the strata are the 
 effect of causes which are still in opera- 
 tion : such as the encroachment of the 
 periodical torrents on the bases of the 
 mountains ; the percolation of water from
 
 112 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 above, as well as the concussion of earth- 
 quakes. 
 
 At the bridg-e which crosses the Ram- 
 gungah river, on the road leading- between 
 Almorah and PetoragTir, and above forty 
 miles to the north of the first-mentioned 
 locality, the same rock again occurs. The 
 granular variety here constitutes the bed 
 ol' the river in nearly horizontal strata, 
 resting' on green transition slate. It 
 ascends in the deep ravines, on the 
 Petoragur side of the river, and is found 
 in the lower parts of the Gorou valley, 
 two thousand feet at least above the 
 situation it occupies at the bridge. 
 
 On the opposite, or Gungovvly side of 
 the river, the rock changes its character 
 into siliceous oolite, by giving up its 
 colouring matter, and assuming a porous 
 nature ; and in this state it ascends on 
 mountain shields, occasionally forming 
 bold rugged knolls on the rising accli- 
 vities, till at length it forms one of the 
 loftiest ridges in Keniaon, and is termi- 
 nated by Rye Peak, a conical summit, 
 scarcely less elevated than Takill.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 113 
 
 In these various situations, the rock 
 makes numerous transitions into sub- 
 stances apparently different ; but as they 
 all agree in their chemical characters, 
 and change progressively into each other, 
 it was necessary for the development of 
 their history to embrace them under one 
 general view, although it may now be 
 necessary to describe the extremes as 
 distinct species. The changes of this 
 siliceo-magnesian deposite, seem rather 
 to depend upon altitude, than upon any 
 other circumstance that I have been 
 able to detect. Thus at Belket, at an 
 altitude of about 1,300 feet, it is the 
 same as it occurs in the valley of the Ram- 
 gungah, at about 1,500 feet. At Pokre, 
 on the acclivity of the Deary mountains, 
 near Gungowly, at an elevation of about 
 6,000 feet ; it is nearly identical with the 
 common dolomite of Jeerconie, which is 
 described in the last chapter ; and at the 
 altitude of 7,000 on the Deary mountains, 
 it assumes the character of an oolite, 
 which bears the same relation to compact 
 dolomite, as the weathered steatitic sand- 
 Q
 
 114 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 stone of the same altitude on the Sooee 
 bears to common dolomite of that place. 
 (a) var. granular. 
 
 Althoiig-h this is only a sub-species, I 
 shall describe it first, as it appears to be 
 the oldest variety. 
 
 Its colours are peach-blossom red, 
 Columbine red, passing- into pearl-g-rey ; 
 sky-blue, and emerald green. External 
 lustre inclines to resinous. 
 
 Fracture, compact, inclining in some 
 cases to diverging fibrous, and in others, 
 to imperfect small foliated. Principal 
 fracture, coarse splintery ; cross fracture, 
 granular. Lustre of the fmcture, pearly. 
 
 Fragments, wedge-shaped, and blunt- 
 ed o:ed. 
 
 Distinct concretions, small, round g'ra- 
 nular, and egg-shaped, with smooth sur- 
 face. Lustre of the distinct concretions, 
 vitreous. 
 
 It is not easily scratched by the knife. 
 It is translucent on the edges. It is 
 brittle. 
 
 It is easily frangible ; rarely however 
 it is moderately tough, and if cut into
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS, 115 
 
 thin strips, would probably prove flexible. 
 Specific gravity, from 2-6*57 to 2 505. 
 
 Chemical characters. It is very partially 
 and slowly dissolved in nitric acid, with 
 a most feeble effervescence. After expo- 
 sure for five minutes to the blue flame 
 of the blow-pipe, it displays a conglo- 
 merated texture, consisting* of small white 
 grains, imbedded in an imperfect slag ; 
 with the addition of borax, the granular 
 portion is converted into a bluish white 
 enamel on the surface, but the other parts 
 undergo no further alteration. 
 
 This rock occurs at Belket, where it 
 is surrounded by lofty mountains, primi- 
 tive as well as floetz, and transition. It 
 rests on hornblende-slate and a mixture 
 of quartz and chlorite, and passes into 
 compact dolomite. It is also found in 
 the deep valley of the Ramgungah river, 
 near Petoragur, where it rests on transi- 
 tion slate, and passes into oolite. In the 
 latter situation, the strata are between 
 mantle-shaped, and conformable. It is 
 found in the lower parts of Gorou valley, 
 along with transition limestone, and in 
 Q 2
 
 116 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 this situation, it is dull and earthy, and 
 in every respect resembles in appearance, 
 a coarse calcareous grit-stone. The snow- 
 white variety I have never found in situ, 
 but abundant rolled masses of it occur in 
 the rivers and Aalleys in the vicinity of 
 the other kinds of the rock. 
 
 (b) var. splintery. 
 
 Colours greenish-white, passing on the 
 one hand into emerald green, and on the 
 other, into azure blue. Lustre, between 
 vitreous and resinous. 
 
 Fracture compact, fine splintery, even. 
 Fragments, indeterminately angular, and 
 rather sharp-edged. It is translucent on 
 the edges. It is similar in the streak. 
 It scratches glass, but yields easily to the 
 file. It is rather brittle. It is rather 
 fragile, and somewhat meagre to the 
 feel. Specific gravity, 2659- 
 
 Chemical characters. It is very par- 
 tially soluble in nitric acid. Before 
 the blow-pipe it looses its colour, and 
 becomes fragile ; and with the addition 
 of borax, it melts on the edges into an 
 opaque white enamel.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 117 
 
 It forms whole mountains at Belket, 
 which is the principal locality in which 
 it is found The peculiarity of its stra- 
 tification has been already described. 
 
 It contains nests of earthy and slaty 
 chlorite, and blue felspar. 
 
 (C) SILICEOUS OOLITE. 
 
 The next member of this series of rocks 
 is an oolite or grit-stone, that composes 
 a lofty range of mountains on the north 
 of Gungowly ; the name of which is 
 Deary. The highest point of it is a 
 conical peak, that ascends about 300 feet 
 above the general height of the ridge, 
 and is named in the new map of the 
 province, lately published by the Govern- 
 ment, Kye Peak. It is however very 
 difficult to derive the real name of a 
 mountain from the natives. Indeed, it 
 is only after repeated inquiries, that the 
 true name may be guessed at with any 
 tolerable degree of success. 
 
 On traversing this range, I was enabled, 
 with the assistance of Gunter's quadrant, 
 to form a pretty near estimate of its
 
 118 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 height, by making comparative observa- 
 tions between it and other altitudes that 
 have been determined, and I should 
 conceive the Rye Peak to be about 8,100 
 feet. This ridge extends in a north-wes- 
 terly direction, between the Ramgungah 
 and the Surjee rivers. It is entirely com- 
 posed of oolite, resting in saddle-shaped 
 strata, on transition slate. It is narrow 
 at the summit, and extremely steep, but 
 rarely inaccessible : and its outline is 
 diversified by numerous very bold coni- 
 cal peaks. The acclivity which rises out 
 of the valley of the Ramgungah, is dis- 
 tinguished by remarkably prominent 
 and insulated dome-like shields ; and the 
 surface of the whole ridge, as well as of 
 the acclivities of the peaks, are strewed 
 with overlying masses of the rock, and 
 clothed with forests of oak. 
 
 Colour of the rock is yellowish white ; 
 surface rough ; external lustre, none. In- 
 ternal lustre, inclining to vitreous. 
 
 Fracture compact, uneven, inclining 
 to coarse splintery on the one hand, and 
 to large conchoid al on the other. 
 
 i
 
 TRANSITION KOCKS. 119 
 
 Fragments, irregular, blunt-edged. 
 
 Distinct concretions, fine granular. 
 Surface of the distinct concretions, smooth. 
 Lustre of the distinct concretions, vi- 
 treous. 
 
 It is translucent on the edges. It is 
 similar in the streak, and semi-hard. It 
 is not particularly brittle ; is easily fran- 
 gible, adheres slightly to the tongue, 
 and often affords a grating sound when 
 handled. Specific gravity, from 2*6 to 
 2-5975. 
 
 Chemical characters. It dissolves very 
 partially and with feeble effervescence 
 in nitric acid. 
 
 It becomes enamelled on the surface 
 after exposure to the blue flame of the 
 blow-pipe, with the addition of borax. 
 
 It is distinguished from granular folia- 
 ted limestone, by its slightly vitreous 
 aspect, and by its comparative insolu- 
 bility in acids. It passes occasionally 
 into all the different varieties of rocks, 
 which have been here described, under 
 the common head of dolomite ; but which, 
 I suspect, will be either found to consti-
 
 120 TRANSITION ROCKS. 
 
 tiite a distinct family, or at least a new 
 species of magnesian limestone, contain- 
 ing a larger and more uniform propor- 
 tion of silex than has hitherto been 
 discovered in any of the numerous varie- 
 ties of that rock.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ROCKS, SUBORDINATE TO THE TRANSI- 
 TION CLASS, OCCURRING IN BEDS. 
 
 PECULIARITY OF THE OLDER STRATA, AND AN ATTEMPT 
 TO EXPLAIN THE CAUSE— MISCELLANEOUS ROCKS- 
 GRAN ATINE— FIBROUS LIMESTONE— COMMON TALC- 
 VARIETY OF DITTO— MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH 
 TALC— VARIEGATED CLAY-SLATE— BRECCIATED SER- 
 PENTINE-NOBLE SERPENTINE. 
 
 The rocks described in the foreooino- 
 pages, include, vs^ith one or two excep- 
 tions, all the great formations that 
 compose the solid mass of the principal 
 mountain chain. They rest on granite, 
 which penetrates through them, not in 
 vertical strata, but with a dip of 75" to 
 the north-east. There is reason to believe 
 that this is not a true dip, but rather a 
 superficial bending of the strata (of a 
 similar nature to what may be seen in 
 R
 
 122 BEDS SUBORDINATE TO 
 
 plate III), that does not extend to the 
 lower granite. 
 
 The immense accumulation of primi- 
 tive rocks, which composes the alpine 
 land, extending to the high mountain 
 chain, must occasion a pressure on the 
 side of the Himalayas calculated to force 
 the vertical strata of granite towards the 
 plains, the side on which it is least sup- 
 ported*. What strengthens this view 
 is, that clay-slate, a rock that constitutes 
 two-thirds of the acclivity on the side of 
 the Himalayas, is quite absent on the 
 opposite side next the plains. 
 
 Were it not for this explanation, the 
 granite would be taken for a newer for- 
 mation than the gneiss and hornblende- 
 slate on which it seems to rest, a trans- 
 position of rocks which is contrary to 
 all established principles of geognosy, 
 
 * " As the M-aters which formerly assisted in sup- 
 porting the mass of mountain began to lower their 
 level, those masses then lost their former support, yield- 
 ed to the action of their weight, and began to separate 
 and be detached from the rest of the mountain, falling 
 to the free side as that where least resistance was 
 opposed."" Werner. — Vid. New Theory of Veins.
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 123 
 
 and which we could not receive unless 
 confirmed by the most extensive and 
 careful observations, such as would em- 
 brace the Himalaya range from Tartary 
 to Hindustan. In the mean time, the 
 above explanation may be sufficient to 
 account for the local appearance on the 
 south-western acclivity of Choura Pany, 
 the only locality in which I have had 
 an opportunity of examining- this appar- 
 ent inversion of the superposition of 
 strata. 
 
 Before proceeding to the notice of the 
 great floetz formations, it is necessary 
 to describe some less extensive deposites, 
 which appear to be of older date. They 
 are found in beds in primitive and 
 transition rocks, and newer varieties of 
 them occur also along with floetz lime- 
 stone. An interesting locality, in which 
 all of these minerals are found, is repre- 
 sented in plate IV. and is situated about 
 two miles north of the cantonments of 
 Petoragur. 
 
 1st, Granatine. A rock of this nature is 
 derived from primitive limestone, along 
 R 2
 
 124 BEDS SUBORDINATE TO 
 
 with which it is found in rather exten- 
 sive beds in clay-slate. The oldest variety 
 of the rock is stratified, and the newer 
 kinds are strewed over extensive tracts 
 of the district in overlying masses. 
 
 It is composed of dolomite spar and 
 calcspar, imbedded in an earthy basis, 
 which in the oldest variety is calcareous, 
 and in the newer it approaches to a 
 talcose nature. In the oldest variety the 
 crystals of dolomite spar are very small, 
 but in the newer sorts they are often 
 middle sized. This rock is often as.so- 
 ciated with copper and iron pyrites ; in 
 such cases, the ores when they occur in 
 sufficient quantity, appear to have dis- 
 placed the other ingi'edients of the rock, 
 and to constitute the matrix in which 
 the dolomite spar is imbedded. Its spe- 
 cific gravity is 2'990. 
 
 I have never found it on high ridges, 
 but chiefly forming rugged mountain 
 shields and belts, extending along the 
 abrupt declivities of limestone mountains. 
 In this way it is found in the vicinity of 
 Petoragur, on the rugged path to Kut-
 
 TRANSITION KOCKS. 125 
 
 tygong, at Gungowly, and at the Rye 
 copper mine, as well as at that of Ager 
 in the valley of Barabice. It has a 
 strong resemblance to sienite, with which 
 formation it is probably connected. 
 
 2nd, Fibrous Limestone. This sub- 
 stance occurs, along with common talc 
 and the last described rock, at the north- 
 eastern extremity of the Oudepore moun- 
 tains in conformable strata. It is found 
 in the valley of Barabice in the same 
 way. It occurs also on a low ridge, 
 which forms the western boundary of the 
 valley, in mantle-shaped strata, resting 
 on transition limestone and clay-slate. 
 'Ihe strata are usually thin, and the 
 whole bed seldom occupies more than a 
 few feet in thickness. It sometimes 
 occurs in overlying masses, of great 
 length in proportion to their thickness 
 and breadth. Its colours are lead grey, 
 greenish and bluish grey, clouded and 
 striped with smalt blue. External lustre 
 dull, and spotted with a reddish tarnish. 
 Internal lustre somewhat pearly. The 
 remaining external characters agree with
 
 126 BEDS SUBORDINATE TO 
 
 the description given by Professor Jame- 
 son to this substance. Specific gravity, 
 2-768. 
 
 Chemical characters. It burns to quick- 
 lime without falling to powder, and 
 dissolves with brisk effervescence in nitric 
 acid. 
 
 3rd, Common talc. This rock is found 
 along with that last described, and with 
 the granatine ; in both of which it is 
 disseminated. It also occurs, though 
 rarely, as an extraneous fossil in transi- 
 tion and floetz limestones. 
 
 Its colours are bluish, and greenish 
 grey, and bluish black ; sometimes these 
 colours alternate together, in spots and 
 streaks, in the same specimen. Its lustre 
 is between pearly and metallic. 
 
 Fracture, curved slaty. It is translu- 
 cent on the edges. It is soft. It is sectile. 
 It is not difficultly frangible. It feels 
 greasy. Specific gravity, 2"8. 
 
 Chemical characters. When exposed 
 for five minutes to the flame of the blow- 
 pipe, it loses a small portion of its 
 weight, and becomes snow-white, hard,
 
 TRA-NSITION ROCKS. 127 
 
 and brittle, and with the addition of borax, 
 it is changed on the edges into a greyish- 
 white enamel. 
 
 Variet. b. It occurs massive, and also 
 in the state of a fine loose powder, which 
 with moisture is converted into pipe- 
 clay. 
 
 Its colours are bluish and greenish- 
 white, clouded wdth bluish-black. Ex- 
 ternal lustre, pearly, with a greasy kind of 
 gloss. Fracture, slaty, inclined to fibrous. 
 It is transparent on the edges, and in 
 thin folia. It writes, but does not soil. 
 It is very easily frangible. It is very 
 soft, and perfectly sectile. It feels very 
 greasy. Specific gravity, 2*6082. 
 
 Chemical characters. Its weight, tena- 
 city, and hardness are vmchanged by 
 the action of the blow-pipe, nor is it 
 fluxed by the addition of borax. During 
 the application of heat, the colour of the 
 white sort assumes a permanent bluish 
 grey. 
 
 The chemical characters of this variety 
 are different from those that have been 
 usually found to belong to talc, and as
 
 128 BEDS SUBORDINATE TO 
 
 I have found this mineral to accompany 
 the repositories of copper ore, its pecu- 
 liarities are the more deserving of atten- 
 tion. 
 
 The varieties of talc and soap-stone 
 examined by Kirvvan, Klaproth, and 
 Bergman, were found to become hard 
 and brittle after the application of heat, 
 and to melt with the addition of borax. 
 We are therefore led to conclude, that 
 the variety here noticed, partakes more 
 of the nature of pot-stone, or the soap- 
 stone of Cornwall, than of common talc ; 
 but it is probable that its peculiarity 
 merely depends on the absence of argill, 
 to which ill these cases the phenomenon 
 of hardening before the blow-])ipe is 
 usually to be ascribed. Indurated talc, 
 amianthus, and rhomb-spar, as well as 
 common felspar and hornstone, occur 
 along with common talc. 
 
 4. Variegated Slate. This rock is found 
 in the district of ^horc, resting on clay- 
 slate, in mantle-shaped strata ; and some- 
 times it is also found conformable, on 
 considerably elevated ridges and moun-
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 1^9 
 
 tain shields. Fracture, slaty in the large, 
 like ordinary clay-slate ; but in the small, 
 it presents a second cleavage, parallel to 
 the edge of the strata ; and the fragments 
 derived from the latter fracture, are tabular, 
 and ornamented on their surface, with al- 
 ternate layers of indigo-blue and greenish 
 and yellowish-grey, blended together with 
 various degrees of intensity, like the 
 coloured stripes of a ribbon. It is soft, 
 and without lustre. 
 
 llie strata usually dip about 30" more 
 or less, according to the acclivity on 
 which they lie. They are intersected by 
 vertical rifts, which divide them into 
 rhomboidal masses of various sizes ; these 
 rifts are always parallel to each other, 
 they consequently intersect the strata 
 seams at about angles of 30° and 60°. 
 Though not universal, this kind of struc- 
 ture is rather prevalent in the newer 
 clay-slates. 
 
 Variet. a. This is a still newer slate, 
 
 and is found often resting on tmnsition 
 
 limestone. It generally occurs along with 
 
 calcareous rocks, and is consequently 
 
 s
 
 ISO BEDS SUBORDINATE TO 
 
 very common in the Shore district, 
 where it composes low shields and knolls. 
 Its structure is brecciated, but fine slaty 
 in very small fragments. The distinct 
 brecciated masses are tabular, and ce- 
 mented by calcareous matter, with which 
 the external surface of the rock is almost 
 always coated. It contains numerous 
 fissures, which are lined with calcspar. 
 Its colour is very light, yellowish grey. 
 It is soft, and contains no scales of mica ; 
 but is distinguished by a slight crystal- 
 line lustre, which, together with the 
 absence of vegetable impressions, is 
 sufficient to prevent its being confound- 
 ed with clay-slate, which seldom or never 
 is found to compose knolls, or mountain 
 shields ; but rather occurs as upfilling in 
 cavities and hollows at the bases of 
 mountains. 
 
 5. Brecciated Serpentine. Of the ge- 
 ognostic importance of this rock, I am 
 unable to give any precise information. 
 It appears to be of considerable extent ; 
 and from the circumstance of its giving 
 support to transition limestone, as well
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 131 
 
 as from the massive and conformable 
 nature of its strata, it may be ranked 
 amongst tlie early transition, if not among 
 the newer primitive rocks. 
 
 It is found at Julaghat, about twelve 
 miles from Petoragur, in a north-east 
 direction, where it forms the bed of the 
 Mahi-Kali river. Lofty inaccessible ac- 
 clivities ascend abruptly on both sides 
 of the river, to the height of several 
 thousand feet above its bed ; in these, 
 transition and floetz limestones are the 
 principal rocks, and both rest occasion- 
 ally on the serpentine ; but I have been 
 unable to discover the substratum on 
 which this rock reposes*, as well from 
 want of time, and the inaccessible nature 
 of the neighbourhood, as from the vici- 
 nity of a foreign state : the Mahi-Kali 
 river forming here the boundary between 
 the British territory, and the kingdom 
 of Nepal. 
 
 It is stratified and conformable. Direc- 
 tion W. N. W. dip 40" E. N. E. It^ 
 
 * I believe it to be clay-slate. 
 
 s 2
 
 132 BEDS SUBORDINATE TO 
 
 colour is greyish black. Fracture, com- 
 pact, large coiix:hoidal, more or less per- 
 fect. 
 
 Lustre, dull ; but externally it is slightly 
 metallic. Fragments, indeterminate and 
 rather sharp-edged. It is opaque. It 
 affords a light-grey streak. It yields 
 with some difficulty to the knife. It is 
 rather difficultly frangible. It affords a 
 soft powder, and is in its massive state, 
 soft and warm to the touch. Specific 
 gravity, 2 '68. 
 
 Chemical characters. In nitric acid,, 
 it is partially dissolved, with very feeble 
 and slow effervescence, and the residue 
 forms a jelly. After exposure to a white 
 heat before the blow-pipe, it assumes a 
 reddish colour on the edges, and with the 
 addition of borax, it is converted with 
 difficulty into a greenish black enamel. 
 
 The indestructible character of this 
 rock is well demonstrated by a few pro- 
 minent strata on either side of the river„ 
 projecting' in such a manner as to con- 
 tract the breadth of the stream, from 
 sixty or eighty yards, to about forty feet ;
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 133 
 
 although the quantity of water trans- 
 luitted by this rapid torrent is probably 
 equal to that of the Thames at Putney, 
 or Kevv. An old tottering' bridge, com- 
 posed of beams of timber extended across 
 this contraction of the stream, forms the 
 only communication between Nepal and 
 the Company's dominions in Kemaon 
 during the rains ; but at other seasons, 
 tlie river is fordable in some places, and 
 in others, may be crossed in boats. 
 
 Tlie structure of the rock is brecciated, 
 and in attempting to break it with the 
 hammer, it separates into rhomboidal 
 pieces, which were bound together ^vith 
 carbonate of lime. Those surfaces which 
 have been exposed to the occasional fric- 
 tion of the current, are uneven ; but 
 perfectly smooth and polished with an 
 oily gloss, similar in appearance to a 
 highly polished surface of wood by unc- 
 tuous applications. 
 
 Another variety of common serpentine, 
 diifering from the above in its specific 
 gravity, is found on the mountain which 
 separates Shore, from the valley of Deodara,
 
 134 BEDS SUBORDINATE TO 
 
 at an elevation of 6,000 feet. It is also 
 of black colour, but it is not brecciated. 
 Its fracture is large conchoidal. It is 
 easily scratched with the knife, and is 
 quite opaque. Specific gravity, 281. 
 
 Variet. a. Noble Serpentine. It is 
 found on the eastern acclivity of Durge, 
 on descending into the valley of the 
 Mahi-Kali, in amorphous masses. It first 
 occurs in the form of a soft brecciated 
 slate, having a large conchoidal cross 
 fracture, with a lustre between earthy 
 and pearly on the principal fracture. It 
 soon assumes the compact structure of 
 serpentine, and presents the following- 
 characters. 
 
 Colour sea-green, with occasional fine 
 streaks of talc, which are light grey and 
 shining. 
 
 External lustre dull ; lustre of the frac- 
 ture between resinous and pearly, with 
 occasional glimmering specks. 
 
 Fracture compact, large and small con- 
 choidal. The large conchoidal is often 
 very fine splintery. 
 
 Fragments rather sharp-edged, and
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. 135 
 
 feebly translucent on the edges. It is 
 difficultly scratched with the knife, and 
 affords a pearl grey streak. It is not very 
 fragile. It feels rather meagre. Specific 
 gravity, 3 174. 
 
 Chemical characters. In the trials 
 made by the blow-pipe, it proved infusi- 
 ble without addition, but with borax it 
 melts with considerable difficulty into a 
 greenish grey enamel. 
 
 It occurs chiefly overlying, in long 
 and rolled masses, and often assumes a 
 brecciated structure, and in such cases 
 the fragments are cemented with calcspar, 
 steatite, &c. It is often also penetrated 
 with veins of these substaaces, and often 
 with corbonate of lime. It is found near 
 the village of Goorat, on the path leading 
 from Petoragur to Julaghat.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS, FIRST FLOETZ LIME- 
 STONE, MAGNESIAN FLOETZ LIMESTONE, 
 VESICULAR LIMESTONE, SUPPLEMENTARY 
 OBSERVATIONS ON ADDITIONAL FLOETZ 
 ROCKS. 
 
 FIRST FLOETZ LIMESTONE DIVIDED INTO THREE BEDS, 
 VIZ. COPPER-SLATE, ALPINE LIMESTONE, AND TABU- 
 LAR LIMESTONE— THEIR GENERAL DESCRIPTION— 
 MAGNESIAN FLOETZ LIMESTONE, SUBDIVIDED INTO 
 CRYSTALLINE AND EARTHY— DESCRIPTION OF CRYS- 
 TAI,LINE VARIETY— DITTO OF EARTHY DITTO— VESI- 
 CULAR LIMESTONE, ITS PROB!\,BLE IDENTITY WITH 
 THE RAUCH-WACKE OF THE GERMANS, AND THE 
 NAGELFLUGH OF THE SWISS— SINGULAR PORPHYRE- 
 TIC SEPTARIUM, ITS DOUBTFUL ORIGIN AND NATURE, 
 ITS RESEMBLANCE TO THE IRONSTONE SEPTARIUM 
 OF ABERLADY, DESCRIBED BY THE LATE DR. HUTTON 
 —HORNSTONE—ARRAGONITE— SUPPLEMENTARY OB- 
 SERVATIONS—ROAD FROM BELKET TO BURMDEO 
 PASS— BITUMINOUS MARLSLATE— CALCAREOUS GRIT- 
 STONE AND ARGILLxVCEOUS SANDSTONE— DESCENT 
 TO BURMDEO— SLATE-CLAY ORGANISED FOSSILS— 
 CONGLOMERATE— PHYSICAL REMARKS. 
 
 The rocks usually described as belong- 
 ing to the fioetz class, do not here occur
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS. 137 
 
 in that re^Tilar order of succession which 
 has been observed by geologists in less 
 alpine parts of the world ; but the pecu- 
 liar deposites, so generally observed in 
 mountainous countries, and described un- 
 der the head of first floetz, or alpine lime- 
 stone, is well marked in Kemaon as the 
 commencement of the series of floetz 
 deposites. 
 
 If we admit distinctions founded on 
 the peculiar nature of extraneous fossils 
 in each bed, or on their absence, such 
 principles will suggest the following divi- 
 sion of this formation. 
 
 1st. Copper-slate, distinguished by the 
 presence of copper ore, and by contain- 
 ing beds of graphite. 
 
 2nd. Alpine limestone, reposing on 
 copper slate, and forming lofty, irregular, 
 and often inaccessible heights, containing 
 no extraneous fossils. 
 
 3rd. Beds of tabular strata, mantle- 
 shaped, and often nearly horizontal, but 
 differing in this respect according to the 
 inclination of the surface on which they 
 repose, and farther distinguished by the 
 T
 
 13S 
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS. 
 
 presence of distinct concretions resem- 
 bling" small fishes. 
 
 (A) COPPER-SLATE. 
 
 This rock composes a large proportion 
 of the Shore district. It extends along 
 the bases and acclivities of the primitive 
 and transition mountains, forming" in 
 these situations, a succession of small 
 subordinate basins, occasioned by the cir- 
 cuitous contortions described in the direc- 
 tion of the strata. The strata are usually 
 made up of layers which are separated 
 by rifts, and transversely broken, so as 
 to give the whole a comminuted, thick 
 slaty appearance. 
 
 Between the fractured parts in the 
 lower strata, nests of bituminous fossils, 
 talc, copper, and iron pyrites occur. 
 
 (b) alpine limestone. 
 
 Mountain, or alpine limestone, occurs 
 in lofty irregular accumulations, which 
 rise abruptly in the form of rugged, often 
 isolated pyramidal mountains, whose ac- 
 clivities are formed by the almost per- 
 pendicular rearing of tabular masses.
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS. 139 
 
 while their declivities are composed of 
 unconformable, brecciated, homogeneous 
 mountain-masses, presenting- few external 
 traces of the tabular, or stratified struc- 
 ture, but merely cemented together, and 
 perforated by caverns, fissures, and sub- 
 terraneous waters. The bases of the 
 mountains of alpine limestone, are over- 
 spread with masses precipitated from 
 above by some natural convulsions, and 
 again agglutinated by the same or suc- 
 ceeding- catastrophies, and transformed 
 into subordinate knolls, mechanically as 
 well as chemically, grouped together in 
 the most sublime and picturesque forms. 
 
 (C) TABULAR AND MANTLE-SHAPED 
 VARIETY. 
 
 This rock occurs in patches, pretty 
 extensively distributed on low shields and 
 valleys, throughout the Shore district. 
 The strata are subdivided by slaty rifts 
 like the copper-slate, but unlike the latter, 
 they are almost always fiat, and seldom 
 or never form basins, or contain bitumin- 
 ous talcose, or metallic fossils ; but arc 
 T 2
 
 140 FLOETZ ROCKS. 
 
 distinguished by containing- concretions 
 resembling small fishes, one of which is 
 represented in plate V. figs. 1, 2, 3. 
 
 These several varieties of limestone, 
 are scarcely to be distinguished from 
 each other, by their external or chemical 
 characters ; which may be set down as 
 follows : 
 
 Colours bluish-grey and ash-grey. Ex- 
 ternally tarnished with dirty greyish 
 white. Sometimes the internal and exter- 
 nal colours alternate on the surface, giving 
 the rock a variegated flinty appearance. 
 
 External surface smooth, and without 
 lustre. Lustre of the fracture dull. Frac- 
 ture compact, large conchoidal, inclining 
 to fine splintery. Fragments irregular, 
 somewhat sharp-edged. It is feebly 
 translucent on the edges. It affords a 
 light-coloured streak, and is capable of 
 being scratched by the knife, but not 
 without difficulty. Specific gravity, 2'732. 
 
 Chemical characters. It dissolves com- 
 pletely, with brisk effervescence, in nitric 
 acid, and burns to a fine white quick- 
 lime without falling to powder.
 
 FLOETZ HOCKS. 141 
 
 MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE (SLATY). 
 
 This rock is much more allied to the 
 magnesian limestones of England, than 
 any of the previous deposites of a mag- 
 nesian nature that have been described, 
 and from which it is perfectly distinct 
 in all but its chemical characters. 
 
 It occurs as a partial deposite, along 
 the course of the small river that drains 
 the valley of Shore. The strata are near- 
 ly horizontal, or they seldom dip more 
 than 15°, tending to the same general 
 centre, so as to form an irregular shal- 
 low basin. 
 
 The course of the strata is singularly 
 waved, forming a constant succession of 
 undulations, which have often the regu- 
 larity of artificial arches of masonry ; 
 an appearance which is well exposed by 
 the section of the rocks formed by the 
 bed of the river, and represented in plate 
 Vs fig. 4. This deposite rests occasion- 
 ally on transition limestone, whose irre- 
 gular surface appears to have given rise 
 to the waved disposition of the superin- 
 -~i-o.^t rock ; and although I found it
 
 142 FLOETZ ROCKS. 
 
 to contain no organic fossils, its g"eog- 
 nostic position, and form of stratification, 
 induced me to consider it to be cotem- 
 poraneous with those beds of tabular lime- 
 stone described in the preceding article ; 
 which would bring it to something near 
 the epoch of similar deposites in Eng- 
 land. Like the English rock too, the 
 lower beds are blue, while the upper 
 ones are yellow and earthy ; and although 
 it will be shewn, that this difference is 
 chiefly referrible to the chemical changes 
 to which the rock is liable under certain 
 circumstances of exposure, it will never- 
 theless be necessary to give a separate 
 description of each variety. 
 
 (a) crystalline, or compact variety. 
 
 Colour, bluish-grey. External lustre 
 dull. Lustre of the fracture very faintly 
 glimmering. 
 
 Fracture, slaty foliated in the large, 
 owning to very thin argillaceous layers, 
 which give it often a thin lamellated 
 structure, but compact in the small, and 
 fine splintery, inclining to even.
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS. 14S 
 
 FragUients, tabular in the large, but 
 wedge-shaped and indeterminate in the 
 small, with blunt edges. Distinct con- 
 cretions, very fine granular. It is opaque. 
 It affords a bluish- white streak. It is 
 semi-hard, inclining to soft. It affords 
 an earthy smell when breathed on. Spe- 
 cific gravity, 2'7, 2-71. 
 
 Chemical characters. It affords a feeble 
 effervescence in nitric acid, and a very 
 small quantity dissolves. Before the 
 blow-pipe it loses its colour, and be- 
 comes somewhat friable ; and with borax 
 it melts, with some difficulty, into an 
 opaque porcelaneous mass. 
 
 (b) earthy variety. 
 
 This, although an apparently different 
 substance, is derived from the elongation 
 of the strata of the foregoing rock, and 
 the transition between them is so abrupt 
 as to be seen on a single hand specimen. 
 
 The slaty laminae of the first variety, 
 run alternately into the earthy structure 
 of the other ; while the same strata seams,
 
 144 FLOEtZ ROCKS. 
 
 the same fine layers of argillaceous sub- 
 stance, and large slaty rifts, are conti- 
 nuous between both, proving them to 
 have been originally the same, and sub- 
 sequently changed by an inherent ten- 
 dency to decay ; for it is difficult to 
 conceive how these appearances could 
 exist, if the strata seams were the result 
 of crystallization, and the elementary 
 constitution of the rocks themselves, ori- 
 ginally different from each other. 
 
 To the chemical action of external 
 agents, may therefore be ascribed, a por- 
 tion, at least, of the changes to which this 
 rock is subject ; for those beds which are 
 most changed from what we may suppose 
 to have been their original nature, are 
 also most superficial, and consequently, 
 most exposed to the influence of those 
 agents. Nay, even the elevated edge of 
 a single stratum, presents the character 
 of a fine earthy, yellow sandstone ; while 
 the lower portion, which dips under other 
 strata, is a blue crystalline limestone. The 
 characters of this variety are as follows : 
 
 Colour, ochre yellow. Lustre, none.
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS, 145 
 
 Fracture, earthy*. Fragments indetermi- 
 nate and blunt-edg-ed. Distinct concre- 
 tions, very fine granular. It soils slightly. 
 It is soft, and adheres to the tongue. It 
 affords a ringing or creaking sound when 
 tossed loosely in the hand. Specific gra- 
 vity, 2'1. Increases after absorption. 
 
 Chemical characters. It does not effer- 
 vesce or dissolve in acid. Without addi- 
 tion it undergoes no change before the 
 blow-pipe ; but with borax, it forms a 
 white porcelaneous mass. 
 
 VESICULAR LIMESTONE. 
 
 This is a coarse breccia, composed of 
 frao-ments of transition and floetz lime- 
 stones, loosely aggregated and cemented 
 with calctuff, containing round empty 
 vesicles of various sizes, and presenting 
 the general appearance of what an inex- 
 
 * Fine argillaceous streaks of a blue colour pass 
 through the substance of the rock, parallel to the strata 
 seams, causing rifts, which give the rock a thick slaty 
 structure ; but as these are natural separations, it 
 would be incorrect to describe the fracture as " thick 
 slaty." 
 
 U
 
 146 FLOETZ ROCKS. 
 
 perienced person might conceive to be, 
 volcanic slag*. Nor would the closest in- 
 spection remove the impression, without 
 an examination of a newly fractured 
 surface, when the fresh looking fragments 
 of limestone, and the glistening specks 
 of calcspar and tuff, present the ordinary 
 characters of their respective natures ; 
 which could scarcely be the case, had 
 they been exposed to the action of fire. 
 
 It occurs in overlying mountain masses, 
 in the neighbourhood of transition and 
 floetz limestones, generally resting on 
 low ridges, but also on the verge, as well 
 as at the base of precipices composed of 
 these rocks. Also in valleys and ravines 
 at the foot of limestone mountains ; but 
 in the latter situations, it degenerates into 
 conglomerate*, still however bearing the 
 character of a single formation. On high- 
 er altitudes, the fragments of which it is 
 composed are small, seldom larger than 
 
 * The diflerencc between a brecciated and a con- 
 glomerated rock is, that the first is composed of angu- 
 hir, and the latter of rounded, or more or less worn 
 masses cemented together.
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS* 147 
 
 hand specimens, and they vary from that, 
 to the size of very small distinct concre- 
 tions. These fragmented parts are sharp- 
 edged, and form about half the mass ; the 
 remainder being partly composed of calc- 
 tuff, and partly of compact red marl, 
 containing minute cavities, lined with 
 calcspar ; but the size of these cavities 
 increase as you descend, and in propor- 
 tion as the rock becomes coarser. On 
 the higher altitudes, wliere the fragment- 
 ed particles are small and even minute, 
 the cavities disappear, and the rock 
 assmnes a compact porphyritic structure, 
 becomes stratified, and somewhat conform- 
 able, as is the case on the summits of 
 Durge mountains, which form the north- 
 eastern boundary of Shore valley, at an 
 elevation of seven thousand feet. From 
 thence it may be traced along the moun- 
 tain acclivities, and into the deep valleys 
 that skirt the limestone of Takill, Oude- 
 pore, and the surrounding country. 
 
 This rock is probably tlie rauch-wacke 
 of the Germans, which was formerly sup- 
 posed to be connected with the first floetz 
 u 2
 
 148 FLOETZ ROCKS. 
 
 formation ; it is also analogous to, if not 
 identical with, the nagelflugh of Switzer- 
 land, which is nothing more than the 
 various fragments o£ other rocks, agglu- 
 tinated by calcareous cement. 
 
 PORPHYRITIC SEPTARIUM. 
 
 The rock to which this name is given 
 occurs in overlying masses near the high- 
 est ridges and summits of Takill, at an 
 elevation of upwards of eight thousand 
 feet. It is composed of common felspar, 
 as a matrix to fragments of transition 
 limestone. The felspar is also found se- 
 parate, in small detached masses, whose 
 structure is angulo-cellular. The cells are 
 large enough to contain middle-sized crys- 
 tals, and the septae between them vary 
 in thickness from an eighth, to a twentieth 
 part of an inch ; but the larger cells are 
 generally subdivided by still more deli- 
 cate scpt?e, the whole presenting the 
 character of magnified cancelli of the 
 bones of animals. 
 
 Close to these cavernous fragments, we 
 find columnar and cubical masses of the
 
 FLOETZ KOCKS. 149 
 
 compact rock : these present rough, dull, 
 surfaces ; but on closer examination, we 
 find the roughness in some places to 
 depend on the remains of broken cells, 
 and in others, to be caused by minute 
 suppositious crystals of felspar, aggregated 
 in manipular and rose-shaped groups, 
 which are superimposed on the surface of 
 the rock*. 
 
 On breaking a fragment from the sound 
 rock, we find the fracture compact, and 
 numerous w^hite lines of felspar running' 
 in various directions, forming cells which 
 are filled with fine granular limestone 
 of a blue colour, corresponding in every 
 respect with the characters of massive 
 transition limestone. 
 
 Some of the more superficial cells were 
 
 * An interesting fact is, that the crystals are some- 
 times found superimposed in the cavities of the broken 
 cells, as well as on other parts of the surface. Thus it 
 is proved that the crystallization took place subsequent 
 to the formation of the cellular structure ; and as no 
 crystals are found in those cells which contain lime- 
 stone, this latter substance must have been deposited 
 previous to the formation of the crvstals.
 
 150 FLOETZ ROCKS. 
 
 filled with floetz limestone, and partly 
 with red marl and calcspar. - 
 
 As the cells of this septai'iuni have no 
 communication with each other, we must 
 conclude that the limestone imbedded in 
 them, must have had a prior existence. 
 From whence then was the matrix deriv- 
 ed, and to what cause are we to ascribe 
 the singular structure of the whole ? Tlie 
 structure, it will be observed, is similar 
 to that of the ironstone septarium of 
 Aberlady, on which Dr. Hutton of Edin- 
 burgh chiefly rested the demonstration 
 of his celebrated theory of the igneous 
 origin of the earth. The mountain on 
 which it occurs is composed of primitive 
 clay-slate, penetrating through the differ- 
 ent formations of transition and floetz 
 limestones, and forming conical peaks, 
 the highest in the district ; but they are 
 composed of solid undisturbed strata. 
 The above question tlierefore can hardly 
 admit of any explanation founded on the 
 volcanic nature of this mountain. 
 
 It might, notwithstanding, have been 
 more consistent with the nature of this
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS. 151 
 
 rock, to have inserted it under the 
 head of volcanic or pseudo-volcanic 
 minerals ; but as I have met with no 
 other instance of such substances, I con- 
 sidered it unnecessary to refer it to a 
 distinct chapter, especially as there ap- 
 pears to be as much reason for assigning- 
 it to one class, as to another. I have 
 found common felspar in one instance 
 near Petorah, containing rhomboidal 
 empty cavities ; but both the nature of 
 this specimen, and the locality in which 
 it was found, is too nearly allied to the 
 rock here described to allow it to be con- 
 sidered a distinct substance. 
 
 Among the remaining earthy minerals 
 found to occur along with floetz rocks, 
 I may mention a peculiar description of 
 hornstone. Arragonite is also found in 
 the form of a biniary compound with 
 talc. The following are the further par- 
 ticulars of these substances. 
 
 HORNSTONE, 
 
 Colour, oil green, and greenish grey, 
 faintly clouded with siskin green. It
 
 152 FLOETZ ROCKS. 
 
 occurs massive. External surface, smooth, 
 and tarnished reddish. Lustre of the 
 fracture dull, inclined to resinous. 
 
 Fracture between compact and splin- 
 tery. Fragments wedge-shaped. It is 
 translucent on the edges, and affords a 
 white streak. It yields easily to the 
 knife, but not to the nail. Specific gra- 
 vity, 2655. 
 
 Chemical characters. It is infusible 
 before the blow-pipe. 
 
 It is found in floetz limestone, along 
 with talc, to which it appears to be al- 
 lied. 
 
 ARRAGONITE. 
 
 This mineral is found near the village 
 of Gooseragong, in Shore valley, along 
 with masses of floetz conglomerate, at the 
 base of lofty precipices of alpine lime- 
 stone. It occurs in round masses, which 
 are composed of minute rhombic and 
 hexagonal prisms, imbedded in a talcose 
 matrix. The crystals are very refractory 
 on exposure to heat, and emit a slight 
 odour of gun-powder.
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS. 153 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY OBSERVATIONS ON ADDI- 
 TIONAL FLOETZ ROCKS. 
 
 We have now enumerated the difl'erent 
 mountain rocks, and earthy minerals 
 which compose that part of the province, 
 that extends from Belket to the valley of 
 Barabice — a distance of six marches in a 
 northerly direction; and the only rocks 
 which remain to be described, are those 
 composing' a massive group of mountains 
 that run between the principal mountain 
 chain, and the plains, and which, there 
 is reason to believe, must be referred to 
 the class of floetz rocks. This mountain 
 group is the first that is crossed on enter- 
 ing Kemaon by Burmdeo pass, and has 
 been alluded to in the beginning of the 
 second chapter. 
 
 My knowledge of the rocks that com- 
 pose this group is but limited, from not 
 having had the opportunity of tracing 
 their history : I have, however, endea- 
 voured to avail myself of one or two oppor- 
 tunities, in which I crossed this way in 
 the performance of my professional duty, 
 and have thus been enabled to extend
 
 154 FLOETZ KOCKS. 
 
 the map to the foot of the mountains, as 
 well as to acquire a tolerable idea of the 
 physical constitution of this group ; but 
 as it forms the link of connexion between 
 the plains of India, and the Himalaya 
 mountains, the absence of a definite geo- 
 logical history of it is much to be 
 regretted. 
 
 Belket, as has been stated in a former 
 chapter, is situated in the valley of the 
 river Ludhoo, and lies about six mari- 
 time miles from Burmdeo ; but from the 
 circuitous windings of the mountain path, 
 it is probably fifteen miles to travellers. 
 
 From Belket to Burmdeo pass, the path 
 at first lies for some distance along the 
 bed of the Ludhoo ; and wherever the 
 substratum makes its appearance amidst 
 the huge rolled masses of quartz, dolomite, 
 and trap, it is found to be the coarse 
 porphyritic greenstone, which has been 
 described in the third chapter. 
 
 1. Bituminous marl slate. Next to the 
 greenstone just mentioned, we find a blue 
 coloured fine earthy limestone, corre- 
 sponding with the cliaracters of bitumin-
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS. 155 
 
 oiis marl slate. It is opaque, and has a 
 coarse splintery fracture, approaching- to 
 earthy, with a slight g-limmering- lustre, 
 and it effervesces briskly in acids. The 
 strata are conformable, and dip to the 
 north-east. One of the specimens exa- 
 mined was found to contain either copper 
 or iron pyrites, probably the former. 
 
 2. Calcareous grit-stone. This rock is 
 met with on ascending- the mountain, 
 and it appears to be derived from the 
 bituminous marl slate. It composes al- 
 most the whole upper surface of the 
 mountain, from the elevation of a thou- 
 sand, to that of four thousand feet, and 
 seems to be composed of fine sandy par- 
 ticles, imbedded in a calcareous basis. Its 
 colour is greenish-grey : the green hue 
 depending on the presence of chlorite, 
 the peculiar colouring detritus of the pri^ 
 mitive mountains to which this group is 
 subordinate. It also contains particles of 
 hornblende and mica, derived no doubt 
 from the same source. It has an earthy 
 lustre, is rather soft, and effervesces brisks 
 ly in acids, and about a third part of 
 X 2
 
 156 FLOETZ ROCKS. 
 
 the mass is dissolved. Its specific gra- 
 vity is 2'6. 
 
 It contains detached nodules of com- 
 pact splintery hornstone, clay iron stone, 
 and some other rocks. 
 
 3. Argillaceous sandstone. Leaving the 
 path, and ascending one of the highest 
 peaks of the group, the calcareous grit- 
 stone is found to disappear, and to per- 
 form a transition into a substance having^ 
 somewhat similar external characters ; 
 but containing no calcareous matter, the 
 arenaceous grains being imbedded in an 
 argillaceous basis. This rock is detached 
 into conical caps, in distinct patches' 
 Sometimes it is found extending along 
 the highest ridges, in small-sized masses, 
 broken and strewed thinly over the sur- 
 face, or collected into irregular heaps. It 
 presents a large slaty fracture ; but 
 compact and earthy one in the smallJ 
 with fine granular distinct concretions, 
 closely impacted. Lustre, earthy, except 
 on the surface of the large slaty fracture, 
 which glimmers with mica. I have not 
 observed it to contain any fossil remains.
 
 FLOETZ ROCKS, 15? 
 
 On descending- from this ridg-e, the path 
 to Burmdeo pass lay for the most part 
 in deep ravines : these were composed of 
 calcareous g-rit-stone, in conformable strata, 
 presenting- a dip of 30° to the north-east. 
 Numerous brooks descend through these 
 ravines, depositing calcareous incrusta- 
 tions on the rocks over which they pass, 
 and thus indicating the calcareous nature 
 of the upper structure of the mountains 
 I'rom which they issue — a testimony which 
 is partly confirmed, by the mighty pre- 
 cipices and rugged outlines, which these 
 mountains present to the plains. As we 
 descend, the grit-stone still continues, 
 and the extraneous substances which it 
 contains increase in quantity as we ap- 
 proach the base of the mountain. Along 
 the base of this group, rounded hills occur 
 from 50 to 300 feet high, composed of 
 water-worn masses of every variety of 
 size, imbedded in slate-clay. These hills 
 ascend abruptly, leaving water-courses 
 and ravines between them and the moun- 
 tains, while the opposite declivity slopes 
 gently down to the plains. The slate-
 
 158 FLOETZ HOCKS. 
 
 clay is composed of fine sandy and dusty 
 particles, mixed mechanically with mica, 
 and abounding' with impressions of reeds 
 and stems, and leaves of aquatic plants, 
 and doubtless many other organic re- 
 mains, which are yet to be explored, and 
 to which no nation but our own, would 
 have been so long indififerent. But there 
 are difficulties in the way of such re- 
 searches, in this particular locality, which 
 neither national zeal, nor individual en- 
 terprise could fully overcome. Nature, 
 as if to suit the structure and disposition 
 of particular creatures to the tract they 
 are destined to inhabit, has bestowed on 
 the gigantic elephant and savage tiger, 
 the perpetual inheritance of this most 
 awful landscape ; and in order to render 
 more secure from the tyranny of man, at 
 least one spot on the surface of the earth, 
 she has bestowed on this part of the Tarai 
 — a climate which the human constitution 
 could not endure, even for a day at cer- 
 tain seasons. Yet how adapted to our 
 sympathies is this appropriation of a loca- 
 lity that marks such contrasts in its phy-
 
 FLOETZ ROCiCS. 159 
 
 sical structure ! On the one band, we 
 have plains extending- almost to the Afri- 
 can continent^ and to the Indian ocean, 
 with hardly an undulation to relieve the 
 monotony of space. On the other, an 
 almost interminable succession of moun- 
 tains, ascend one above another, until 
 they penetrate beyond the regions of 
 animal existence, and conceal themselves 
 in clouds. Nor is there here, as in most 
 other countries, any softening- of parts — 
 any blending of extremes — a foot of earth 
 -—a single line, marks the awful contrast.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 ALLUVIAL ROCKS. 
 
 MOUNTAINS ARE THE SOURCE OF ALLUVIAL DEPOSITED 
 —THE NATURE OF THESE DEPOSITES— HOW PRO- 
 DUCED—SILICEOUS ALLUVIAL DEPOSITES— ALUMIN- 
 OUS CLAY— NAGELFLUGH— CALCTUFF— CALC SINTER 
 —VOLCANIC ROCKS. 
 
 In Kemaon, as in all other mountain- 
 ous countries, we can have no such uni- 
 formity in aUuvial deposites as in low 
 countries ; but the phenomena connected 
 with their production can be here studied 
 with more advantage, as mountains are 
 the great natural laboratories in which 
 alluvial rocks are prepared, and from 
 which they are transmitted to fertilize 
 the earth. 
 
 Alluvial deposites are derived from the 
 disintegration of the older rocks, by the 
 destroying agencies of heat, light, mois-
 
 ALLUVIAL ROCKS. l6l 
 
 ture, and we may perhaps be allowed to 
 add, of earthquakes, and the attrition of 
 winds. It may indeed be improper to 
 designate as destroying those eifects that 
 keep up the never-ceasing supply of allu- 
 vial soil, so essential to the existence of 
 the inhabitants of this globe, vegetable 
 as well as animal. In Kemaon, the varie- 
 ties of these deposites are few, and differ 
 from each other according to the source 
 from which they were derived. In arrang- 
 ing them, we cannot follow any rule 
 founded on priority of formation, the 
 changes that produce the different varie- 
 ties being simultaneous. 
 
 Some of the older rocks are disinte- 
 grated more slowly than others ; accord- 
 ingly we find in alluvial deposites, a 
 preponderance of rocks that are in the 
 large scale easily frangible and hard ; so 
 that when once detached from the original 
 masses to which they belonged, they are 
 incapable of further reduction of size, 
 except by their own friction : these are 
 all of a siliceous nature, and our sands 
 and gravel are familiar instances of them. 
 
 Y
 
 162 ALLUVIAL ROCKS. 
 
 Next in proportion to these we have 
 the finer earthy particles, which formerly 
 existed in a state of mechanical combi- 
 nation in the older strata, and which 
 became detached from their original 
 repository, either by the decomposition 
 of some of the matters that held them 
 together in their former state, or by the 
 absorption of moisture, their particles 
 lose their affinity for each other ; the 
 mass softens, separates, and is removed 
 by the w^aters, in order to fill up and level 
 the original irregularities of the surface 
 of the solid rocks, and render them fit 
 habitations for the various tribes of ter- 
 restial beings, by which the earth is 
 peopled . 
 
 This order of alluvial deposites, com- 
 prises the various aluminous clays, which 
 derive distinctive characters from the 
 proportion in which they are mixed with 
 silex, lime, magnesia, and iron. 
 
 1. Siliceous alluvial deposites. The ori- 
 ginal source of these rocks are the oldest 
 primitive formations. They are derived 
 from the most elevated ridges of granite
 
 ALLUVIAL ROCKS. 163 
 
 and gneiss. The quartz contained in those 
 rocks is pure siliceous earth, and the same 
 substance is contained in the felspar and 
 mica, with which the quartz is here asso- 
 ciated. The felspar is decomposed by 
 the causes already adverted to, and the 
 siliceous earth is carried down from its 
 original repository by the torrents, and 
 is deposited on the level table lands, or 
 in lower valleys. In the former situation, 
 it is seldom mixed sufficiently with other 
 ingredients to form a productive soil: 
 its great defect is the want of absorbent 
 properties, and it is therefore a dry barren 
 earth ; but in these elevated places, it 
 seldom remains long, but is carried into 
 deeper valleys, and finally to the plains, 
 where it enters in due proportion into 
 the constitution of arable lands ; while 
 its excess either changes the direction 
 and the course of the rivers, or is carried 
 by their waters to the sea, causing, as some 
 philosophers have detected, a slow but 
 gradual recession even of the waters of 
 the ocean itself. So that every stratum 
 of gneiss, that moulders into decay in the 
 Y 2
 
 164 ALLUVIAL ROCKS. 
 
 mountains of Kemaon, contributes its 
 share with the rest of the Himalaya, to 
 the formation of new provinces at the 
 mouths of the Gang-es, an effect to the 
 completion of which, those moveable wastes 
 of sand that slowly accompany the cur- 
 rent of the river, are silently, but pro- 
 gressively advancing. 
 
 2. Aluminous clay. This substance, 
 which presents so many varieties, accord- 
 ing to the ingredient that preponderates 
 in its constitution, is derived in Kemaon 
 from the disintegration of clay-slate. Its 
 repositories are consequently lower than 
 those of siliceous earth. The whole of 
 the exposed surfaces of the strata of clay- 
 slate yield it. The iron pyrites, to which 
 in a great degree most of the clay-slates 
 owe their strength and hardness, is con- 
 verted into an oxide, by the action of 
 the atmosphere. The rock now becomes 
 soft and friable, and assumes a reddish 
 brown colour. In this state, it either 
 crumbles to powder, and is carried away 
 as soon as it is formed ; or it remains for 
 a time in situ, ready to be washed down
 
 ALLUVIAL ROCKS. 165 
 
 into the ravines, and from thence into 
 the valleys, where it is mixed with sili- 
 ceous and calcareous earths, and is thus 
 converted into one of the most fruitful 
 soils. But we find, that these alluvial 
 accumulations are not destined to fertilize 
 the mountain valleys alone ; for as these 
 are little more than water courses, subject 
 to violent periodical inundations, which 
 carry all accumulations before them to 
 the plains where the beds of the rivers 
 are low, and too contracted for the floods, 
 the waters loaded with mud spread over 
 the low countries, depositing' the matters 
 they carried with them from the moun- 
 tains. 
 
 The foregoing- alluvial rocks never occur 
 separately, but are always more or less 
 mechanically mixed together; and it is 
 partly for this reason, that they are classed 
 under the head of mechanical alluvial 
 deposites. In Switzerland, and some other 
 countries, there is a third deposite of the 
 nature here mentioned, called Nagelflugh, 
 by the Swiss. It occurs also in Kemaon, 
 but not to such extent as to entitle it to be
 
 166 ALLUVIAL ROCKS. 
 
 ranked with either of the preceding* 
 mechanical alluvial rocks. It contains 
 fragments of limestone, and other rocks, 
 imbedded in a basis of calctufF. The 
 vesicular limestone, described in the last 
 chapter, is probably only the oldest varie- 
 ty of what we here allude to. 
 
 The difference between them is, that 
 the vesicular limestone is more exten- 
 sively distributed, and that it is found 
 on lofty, isolated places, where it is dif- 
 ficult to conceive that it could have been 
 formed, except by some general cause 
 not now in operation ; while the con- 
 glomerate we here allude to, is on the 
 contrary, only found in low places, and 
 still continues to be formed by such local 
 as well as general causes, as occasion the 
 falling of fragments from the upper struc- 
 ture of mountains, and the re-union of 
 these by calctuff : so that the one appears 
 to be a diluvial, and the other an alluvial, 
 deposite. The subject is further eluci- 
 dated in the Essay on Goitre — section v.
 
 ALLUVIAL ROCKS. l67 
 
 CHEMICAL ALLUVIAL DEPOSITES. 
 
 1. CalctufF. In districts where lime- 
 stone prevails, as in the neighbourhood 
 of Shore valley, numerous detached beds 
 of this deposite are found. One bed of 
 this substance, I found to consist of a 
 succession of layers, formed by the suc- 
 cessive changes to which the extinct 
 brook from which it was formed, must 
 have been subject at different periods. 
 
 The lowest layers contain numerous 
 univalve shells belonging to the genus 
 helix ; along with the shells, fragments of 
 rocks sometimes occur, and the leaf of an 
 unknown plant is also found in them ; 
 unfortunately the layers, in which these 
 last were contained, were too friable to 
 allow of the preservation of a perfect 
 specimen. Along with the impressions 
 extensive accumulations of the figures 
 called osteocolla, from their resemblance 
 to the bones of animals, were found. 
 
 The uppermost layers contained none 
 of the appearances above-mentioned, but 
 abounded with the leaves of those species 
 of plants that now grow on the spot.
 
 168 ALLUVIAL ROCKS. 
 
 Plates VI. VII. and VIII. represent a 
 few of these impressions of leaves. 
 
 2. Calcsinter. This substance occurs 
 lining the inner surface of caverns in 
 limestone : it also lines the surface of 
 fissures of this as well as other rocks which 
 are situated beneath precipices of lime- 
 stone, and in all these situations it assumes 
 the various external shapes that have 
 been observed to belong to it in other 
 parts of the world. 
 
 VOLCANIC ROCKS. 
 
 Of the class of rocks, which are referred 
 by geologists to an igneous origin, I have 
 not had an opportunity of seeing any in 
 Kemaon, except the septarium described 
 in a former chapter be considered to 
 belong to this class.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MINES OF THE NORTH-EASTERN FRON- 
 TIER OF KEMAON. 
 
 MINING, HOW IT OUGHT TO BE CONSIDERED— THE 
 NECESSITY OF MINES BEING MORE ATTENDED TO IN 
 INDIA— CONDITION OF THE MINES IN KEMAON— 
 CONDITION OF THE PERSONS EMPLOYED IN THEM— 
 THE DEFORMITIES OF THESE PERSONS— HOW THE 
 MINES MIGHT BE IMPROVED— COPPER GLANCE- 
 REMARKS UPON THE SAME— COPPER PYRITES— DE- 
 SCRIPTION OF A MINE OF THIS ORE— DESCRIPTION 
 OF THE ORE— NATIVE MODE OF REDUCING THESE 
 ORES— YELLOW SULPHURET OF COPPER— ORES OF 
 IRON— MICACEOUS IRON GLANCE— COMMON IRON 
 GLANCE— CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 " Would it not be an obligation, a duty, for us to collect and leave 
 to futur« generations as much instruction and knowledge as possible, 
 on the labours carried on in our mines, whether it be in those that are 
 still worked, or io those that have been given up ?" — Werner. 
 
 The subject of mining is commonly 
 
 considered under two distinct heads ; the 
 
 first, as an important department of the 
 
 political economy of almost every nation ; 
 
 z
 
 170 MINES. 
 
 and the second, as a branch of natural 
 history. With respect to this division of 
 the subject, it is scarcely necessary to 
 observe, that any inquiry into the mineral 
 value of a newly acquired district should 
 be preceded, by -a comprehensive inves- 
 tigation of the character and relations of 
 the rocks of which it is composed ; and 
 that inattention to this important pre- 
 caution, must render all attempts to 
 ascertain the value of territory empirical 
 and uncertain ; and on the manner in 
 which this task is executed must depend, 
 the waste of capital on the one hand, 
 and the neglect of valuable resources on 
 the other. 
 
 My researches having been confined to 
 a comparatively small portion of Kemaon, 
 I cannot from such limited experience 
 pretend to give an opinion, as to whether 
 or not the mines of that province are 
 ever likely to become, under the most 
 skilful management, of any great national 
 importance. 
 
 The district I examined, contains two 
 mines of copper, and one of iron. The
 
 MINES. 171 
 
 former have been the scene of barbarous 
 eflforts to extract ore for many centuries. 
 Besides these mines, I have found the 
 remains of others, in the neighbourhood of 
 Shore valley, which have been long since 
 abandoned. 
 
 One encouragement we have in con- 
 ducting scientific researches into the value 
 of our mines is, if they disappoint us in 
 the prospect of riches, they reward us 
 with a greater variety of new and im- 
 portant information, commercial, scienti- 
 fic, and political, than we could expect to 
 derive from any other pursuit. 
 
 The indifference that prevails in India, 
 with regard to this interesting and highly 
 important subject, is only to be accounted 
 for by some peculiar trait in our national 
 character. The same apathy existed in 
 England in regard to the importance of 
 working our mines at home, on scientific 
 principles, until roused from her lethargy, 
 by the example of continental nations : 
 Geological and Wernerian Societies sprung 
 up, and the natural history of our mines, 
 as well as the economy of working tliem, 
 z 2
 
 172 MINES. 
 
 began of late to receive that attention 
 to which such subjects are entitled. If 
 an improved system in the conduct of 
 these important operations were at any 
 time required in England, how much 
 more so is it called for in India, where 
 the arts are so utterly unknown. 
 
 The moral improvement of the people 
 of India, is already receiving the earnest 
 attention of the highest authorities in the 
 state. In the plans that have been de- 
 vised, it cannot have been overlooked, 
 that to effect this noble regeneration, the 
 vis inertia, so characteristic of the inhabit- 
 ants of eastern nations, is first to be 
 overcome. 
 
 This we might try to remove, by in-j 
 structing them in the use of the mecha- 
 nical arts: in their use in increasing the 
 supply of the necessaries of life ; in pre- 
 paring raw materials for their social wants ;j 
 and in rescuing increased resources froi 
 the bowels of the earth, at a diminishe( 
 price of human labour. 
 
 These would, at least, be auxiliary] 
 means of effecting a reform in the native
 
 MINES. 173 
 
 character, no less worthy of the ag-e, than 
 of a British Government ; and with such 
 practical illustrations of the benefit of 
 science before their eyes, the natives of 
 India, naturally a shrewd mercantile race, 
 would not be backward in taking' advan- 
 tage of the lesson. 
 
 These reflections have been suggested 
 by a visit to the copper mines at Gun- 
 gowly, and Barabice, which from want 
 of the attention usually paid to such 
 works in Europe, appear to be only a 
 source of misery to those who are engaged 
 in working them ; while the revenue they 
 afford to the state is merely nominal. 
 
 These mines are farmed, or let at a 
 trifling rent, to mercenary contractors or 
 Teekedars, whose only object is to pro- 
 cure the greatest quantity of metal, at 
 the smallest possible expence. These 
 Teekedars again contract (as well as I 
 could understand) with the owners of 
 slaves, for the labour of extracting and 
 smelting the ores ; and between both 
 parties the unfortunate workmen are 
 ground down to such a degree, that if
 
 174 MINES. 
 
 their squalid looks did not bear testimony 
 to the truth of their complaints, I could 
 not have believed them. 
 
 The origin of these mines must be 
 referred to a very early period, yet no 
 improvement in the mode of operations 
 adopted, appears to have marked their 
 progress ; so that it is probable, the art 
 of mining was as perfect in Kemaon a 
 thousand years ago, as it is at the present 
 day ; a fact which illustrates the baneful 
 influence of tyranny and oppression, 
 rather than a condition of the human 
 mind that is incapable of profiting by 
 experience. 
 
 The drifts or passages of the copper 
 mines are so contracted, as only to allow 
 children to creep into them with any 
 degree of facility ; and it is this imper- 
 fection that occasions much of the cruelty 
 already adverted to. About a hundred 
 persons are employed at the mines of 
 Gungowly, and Barabice. They are 
 nearly all frightfully deformed ; and al- 
 though this has been in another part of 
 my researches, referred to cretinism, yet
 
 MINES. 175 
 
 it is by no means incompatible with what 
 is there stated, to suppose that their evils 
 are caused in some measure, or at least 
 aggravated, by the practice of sending 
 them into the earth, while they are mere 
 children, for the purpose of dragging out 
 the ores ; a labour which they are forced 
 to commence at the age of nine or ten 
 years, and to continue during the remain- 
 der of their lives. For this, their only 
 reward is a small quantity of earth, and 
 stones containing particles of copper ore ; 
 from which, with much additional labour, 
 they extract about eight annas worth of 
 copper a month. At these two mines 
 there are from thirty to fifty children, 
 under the age of twelve, thus employed, 
 without the hope of release during the 
 period of their natural lives ; and if dis- 
 qualified by age or infirmities for this 
 duty, they are then employed, as long as 
 they are fit for labour, either in the 
 workings of the mines, or in the smelt- 
 ing houses ; but if quite incapable of 
 farther employment, they are left per- 
 fectly destitute, or at best only depend-
 
 176 MINES. 
 
 ant on their miserable offspring, who are 
 brought up to the same bondage*. 
 
 On mentioning the cruelty of the prac- 
 tice to the Teekedar, he informed me that 
 it has existed since the earliest times, and 
 that it prevails generally in all copper 
 mines throughout every part of the neigh- 
 bouring provinces. 
 
 In the Company's territories, however, 
 I am sure the evil of employing children 
 
 * Since these remarks were written, I finJ on refer- • 
 ence to the Asiatic Researches for 1829, that the late i 
 Captain Herbert, (whose excellent talents were employ- 
 ed by the Government, to investigate the value of the 
 mines in our momitain provinces,) has favoured the 
 world with some valuable observations on the mines of 
 Kemaon. ■ 
 
 The greatest portion of the labours of this talented 
 and much esteemed author, relative to Kemaon, remain 
 Tinpublished ; and in the paper here adverted to, he 
 recommends various methods of improving the mines, 
 without making any remark upon the condition of the 
 persons employed in them. This is only to be account- 
 ed for, by the fact of our being so much accustomed to 
 witness the oppression of tlie natives of India towards 
 each other, that we are almost in daily habit of passing, 
 unobserved, very culpable cruelties, so long as they are 
 merely confined to native society.
 
 MINES. 177 
 
 in the mines, only requires to be pointed 
 out in order to be soon suppressed, when 
 it is to be hoped that Nepal and other 
 mountain states will follow the example. 
 
 I'he next step towards the improve- 
 ment of our mines, would be the intro- 
 duction of machinery, which might be 
 easily furnished from the great military 
 arsenals ; and a few European mechanics, 
 and practical miners, might be placed over 
 the natives, with a view to instruct them 
 in the European principles of working- 
 mines. A new establishment of this kind, 
 would at first be attended with some little 
 expense ; but if conducted with the re- 
 quisite skill, it would ultimately prove 
 no less important to the commerce and 
 welfare of the nation, than to the advance- 
 ment of the native character. 
 
 Under the present policy, the province 
 of Kemaon, though abounding in ores of 
 copper and iron, with inexhaustible forests 
 for the supply of fuel, barely affords 
 sufficient revenue to support its own 
 establishments. 
 
 The repositories of metallic minerals 
 2 A
 
 178 MINES. 
 
 which have occurred to my observation, 
 are only of two kinds, and they belong 
 to that class which is of cotemporane- 
 ous origin with the rocks in which they 
 exist. 
 
 The first is where the ores are disse- 
 minated in the strata seams, and in the 
 substance of rocks in nests and kidneys ; 
 and the second, is where they occur in 
 lying masses. Examples of the first are 
 presented by the repositories of copper, 
 and of the second by those of iron. m 
 
 The copper is found only in the slate 
 of yellow sulphuret ; but of this there are 
 three varieties, which differ much in value 
 from the quantity of metal they afford, 
 as well as from the labour required to 
 reduce them : the following is a descrip- 
 tion of each. 
 
 l.~COPPER GLANCE. 
 
 Colour, passing from sulphur yellow 
 to siskin green, sometimes spotted and 
 clouded on the surlace, with the pavonine 
 tarnish.
 
 MINES. 179 
 
 It occurs massive coarsely dissemina- 
 ted. Fracture compact, large conchoidal. 
 Lustre, shining- and metallic. Fragments 
 blunt-edged. Distinct concretions, thin 
 lamellar. It is soft in the greener, but 
 inclining to semi-hard in the yellower 
 varieties. It is not very difficultly fran- 
 gible. Specific gravity from 406 to 4093, 
 but the specimens tried were not quite 
 free from stony matter, otherwise, it would 
 be somewhat heavier, probably 4"2. 
 
 Chemical characters. Before the blow- 
 pipe it melts readily into a greyish black 
 globule, which when broken, displays 
 the cupreous lustre. During torrifaction, 
 a sulphureous odour is excited, and about 
 15 per cent, of the weight is lost. It 
 does not effervesce in nitric acid. 
 
 Notwithstanding the yellow colour of 
 this ore, it is probable from its chemical 
 characters, that it is the copper glance 
 of Professor Jameson, the vitreous copper 
 ore of Kirwan, and the grey sulphuret 
 of copper of Dr. Kidd. It contains a 
 large proportion of copper, and very 
 little iron, and is found in repositories 
 2 A 2
 
 180 MINES. 
 
 along- with copper pyrites, semi-indurated 
 talc, and rhomb spar. These repositories 
 are formed by transition limestone, and 
 granatine : mines of this ore hav^e been 
 wrought in the neighbourhood of Gun- 
 gowly for many hundred years. The ore 
 is also found in Shore valley in the 
 vicinity of Goseragong, in similar repo- I 
 sitories*. 
 
 2. Copper Pyrites. This ore is found J 
 in the valley of Barabice, where a small 
 mine of it is worked. The ore is here i 
 accompanied by nearly the same rocks * 
 as at Gungowly, and Shore valley ; but 
 
 * From occasional nodules of slag, and glassy scoriae, ■ 
 found on the low ridge that divides the valleys of Shore 
 and Goron from each other, as well as from the mine- 
 ral constitution of this ridge, I suspected that metallic 
 minerals must have been found here, which on inquiry ■ 
 proved to be the case. The only ore I could find was 
 copper pyrites ; although the natives of the place say 
 silver and lead have been also extracted somewhere in 
 this locality. They pointed out to me an old mine 
 from which these metals were said to have been afford- 
 ed, but I could find no trace of any but copper. The] 
 mine was given up about a hundred years ago, it is] 
 said, in consequence of part of the roof falhng in, by] 
 which several lives were lost.
 
 MINES. 181 
 
 besides talc, gTaphite also forms the 
 matrix in which the ore is disseminated. 
 
 From the imperfect state of mining-, as 
 of all other arts among' these people, it is 
 probable that the workmen are contented 
 with piu'suing- the softer rocks in the 
 workings of the mine, whether these con- 
 tain the g-reatest quantity of ore or not. 
 
 I endeavoured to ascertain this point, 
 as well as their general mode of working, 
 and for this purpose entered the mine. 
 
 It is a horizontal excavation, which 
 varies in height from two, to four feet, 
 and in width from eighteen inches, to 
 about three feet, so that the whole is 
 what English miners would call a creep. 
 About twenty-five yards from the en- 
 trance there are two counter openings, 
 which descend obliquely from above into 
 the mine ; through one of these a stream 
 of water enters, and the other serves as a 
 ventilator : but as the passage to the 
 workings penetrates twenty or thirty 
 yards beyond these openings, the princi- 
 pal portion of the mine derives no benefit 
 from them.
 
 182 MINES. 
 
 Having- penetrated about forty yards, 
 I was reluctantly compelled to return, in 
 consequence of the very contracted nature 
 of the remainder of the passage. 
 
 This mine is excavated at right angles 
 to the direction of the strata ; and as the 
 dip of the latter is at an angle of 45, the 
 drift is consequently penetrated through 
 successive layers of rock. This is com- 
 pact slaty limestone, of bluish grey colour, 
 alternating with lying masses of talc. 
 Comparing the external, w^ith the inter- 
 nal appearances, it would seem, that the 
 repositories of the ore which the miners 
 are at present extracting-, must be situa- 
 ted between the limestone and clay-slate, 
 which latter composes the substratum upon 
 which the limestone reposes. Beds of gra- 
 phite however, intervene between the two 
 rocks, and it would appear to be in these 
 beds that the present workings of the 
 mine are situated ; but it is not to be 
 supposed, that the original miners pene- 
 trated so far through solid rocks, witliout 
 meeting with a sufficient quantity of ore 
 during their progress, to reward them for
 
 MIKES. 183 
 
 their labour ; and it is therefore probable 
 that new workings might be advantage- 
 ously formed, at a more convenient dis- 
 tance from the entrance of the miae. The 
 native miners appear to be quite unac- 
 quainted with the use of gun-powder, as 
 a means of facilitating their operations ; 
 their only implements being hammers and 
 large iron chisels. As the fragments of 
 ore and stones containing it are detached 
 from the rock, they are placed in small 
 leathern bags, to each of which a strap is 
 attached, which is passed over the should- 
 er of a boy, who with a lighted torch in 
 the one hand, supporting his body on the 
 other, assisted with the knees, he drags 
 his unweildy burden along the floor of 
 the drift — a task which is rendered the 
 more practicable, by the load being half 
 suspended in a greasy mud, which is 
 formed by talcose earth and water. About 
 twenty young lads (who, from their defor- 
 mities, as well as from the peculiar nature 
 of their employment, look more like 
 young alligators than human beings), per- 
 form this part of the duty ; while about
 
 184 MINES. 
 
 six or seven men are employed in the 
 workings. 
 
 The ore is of a bright orange, or golden 
 yellow colour. It seldom occurs massive; 
 generally coarsely and finely dissemina- 
 ted. Fracture, compact, and fine grained. 
 It is semi-hard, inclining to soft. It is 
 rather difficultly frangible. 
 
 I could not procure a mass free from 
 stones, and large enough to enable me to 
 take its specific gravity. 
 
 Chemical characters. When heated to 
 redness, it gives out an hepatic odour, and 
 is reduced to a black globule with some 
 difficulty. It does not effervesce with 
 nitric acid. 
 
 The process of reducing copper pyrites, 
 as practised by the natives of Kemaon, is 
 worthy of description, although it does 
 not differ much from the method that 
 prevails in the mining districts of South- 
 ern India*. The ore being disseminated 
 in solid stony matter, the whole is pound- 
 ed and washed. The lighter parts being 
 thus carried off', the metallic particles and 
 
 * As recorded by Buchanan and by Dr. Heyue.
 
 MINES. 155 
 
 adherent sand is placed, when dried, in a 
 blast furnace, which resembles the hearth 
 of a blacksmith's forge. The furnace is 
 previously prepared with a coating- of 
 pounded and moistened charcoal. Char- 
 coal is also placed over the ore, and heat 
 is applied, and kept up for an hour, when 
 the whole appears in the state of black 
 slag. This is again reduced to powder, 
 and mixed with cow-dung', and then rolled 
 out to a broad flat layer, about two lines 
 in thickness, and placed on a pile of 
 wood so constructed as to burn for several 
 hours with an uniform intensity of heat. 
 
 The art of constructing the pile is in 
 selecting the wood of equal size and 
 density, and in igniting the whole pile, 
 so that it may burn simultaneously. 
 After this process, the regulum is found 
 in a loose, friable mass, of a reddish and 
 blackish brown colour. It is again pow- 
 dered, and placed a second time into the 
 blast furnace : on this occasion, a few small 
 fragments of quartz are added as a flux* ; 
 
 * I am here only speaking of the method adopted at 
 the Ager copper mine, where I witnessed the whole 
 2 B
 
 186 1S1INES. 
 
 and when the compound is reduced to the 
 fluid state, the blast is stopped, and the 
 coals removed from the surface of the 
 melted mass ; the iron and lighter impu- 
 rities float on the surface in contact with 
 the air, and become oxidised. The oxide 
 of iron thus formed, and all adhering' 
 impurities are now removed from the 
 surface, in a succession of layers of dross, 
 and the pure copper remains in the bottom 
 of the furnace. 
 
 In the first fusion, the ore is freed from 
 most of the earthy substances witli which 
 it was mechanically combined, and also 
 from a portion of the sulphur. To get 
 rid of the remainder of the latter sub- 
 stance, the roasting on the pile is an 
 effectual and economical mode, especially 
 where fuel is expensive or scarce. This- 
 
 process. Captain Herbert, in his interesting observa- 
 tions on this subject, says, that no flux is used, from 
 which it would seem that the practice of reducing the 
 ores at different mines varies a little. This is so far 
 right, for the nature and utility of fluxes should depend 
 on the nature of the ores.
 
 MINES. 187 
 
 ore yields from 25 to 30 per cent, oi 
 copper. 
 
 3. Yellow Sulphuret of Copper. Colour, 
 pale straw yellow. It occurs massive, 
 tuberose, and coarsely disseminated. Ex- 
 ternal lustre glimmering. Lustre of the 
 fracture, splendent. Fracture coarse grain- 
 ed, uneven. 
 
 Distinct concretions, fine angulo-gra- 
 nular. Lustre of the distinct concretions, 
 specular splendent. It is semi-hard. It 
 is brittle. It is very easily frangible. 
 Specific gravity of specimens not quite 
 freed from stones, 4*280. If freed from 
 extraneous matter, it would probably 
 be 4-4. 
 
 Chemical characters. Before the blow- 
 pipe it gives out sulphurous fumes, which 
 burn with a pale blue flame. It loses 
 about 20 per cent, of its weight, and is 
 reduced to a black slag, which is attract- 
 ed slightly by the magnet. By conti- 
 nuing the flame, patches of copper are at 
 length reduced, and found to constitute 
 about a sixth part of the mass. 
 
 From the phenomena it presents before 
 2 B 2
 
 188 MINES. 
 
 the blow-pipe, it is probable that this ore 
 is composed of about 40 per cent, of iron, 
 and the remainder of copper and sulphur. 
 It is extracted from the Rye mine, near 
 Gungowly, along with copper glance ; but 
 from the small quantity of copper it con- 
 tains, and the difficulty of reducing it, 
 it is rejected by the miners. ■ 
 
 Under an improved system of manage- 
 ment, it might be advantageous to inquire, 
 if the large proportion of sulphur con- 
 tained in this ore^ would not render it 
 deserving of attention*. 
 
 ORES OF IRON. 
 
 1. Micaceous Iron Glance. This ore 
 occurs in hornblende slate, in lying masses. 
 Mines of it are worked in the Ponar 
 
 * Dr. Thomson describes a very simple method em- 
 ployed hy Assessor Gahn at Falilun, for distilling 
 sulphur from pyrites. It consists merely of a long 
 wooden box, Avhich is made to serve as a flue to a 
 furnace in which the pyrites is roasted. The sulphur 
 is deposited in the wooden box, and may be swept out 
 at pleasure. It is then melted and cast into rolls. See 
 Travels in Sweden, p. 219.
 
 MINES. 189 
 
 valley, at an elevation of about four 
 thousand feet above the level of the sea. 
 It is extracted with little labour ; and the 
 repositories are sufficiently extensive to 
 aftbrd a perpetual supply of iron to the 
 whole of the upper provinces of India. 
 
 Its colours are iron and greyish black. 
 It occurs massive. Internal lustre, splen- 
 dent. Fracture perfect, undulating* curved 
 foliated, with a single cleavage. Distinct 
 concretions, curved lamellar. It is per- 
 fectly opaque. It affords a blackish brown 
 streak. It is easily frangible. Specific 
 gravity, 5' 1375. It is scarcely attracted 
 by the magnet. 
 
 Chemical characters. I found it infu- 
 sible before the blow-pipe, with or with- 
 out addition ; but it gave to the glass of 
 borax, a tinge of yellow. 
 
 2. Common Iron Glance. Colours, steel 
 grey, greyish black, and blackish brown. 
 It occurs massive. Fracture in the large, 
 passing from perfect to imperfect foliated, 
 with a single cleavage : but in the small, 
 it is compact and fine grained. Lustre 
 of the fracture, passing from shining to
 
 190 MINES. 
 
 glistening. It is hard. Specific gravity, 
 4-64. 
 
 It has more magnetic enei'gy than the 
 foregoing species, but it does not attract 
 iron filings. 
 
 Chemical characters. The yellow tinge 
 caused to the glass of borax is more ob- 
 scure in this, than in the last species. 
 
 Both of these ores are found in the same 
 repository, and in the same mine ; but 
 the common iron glance is also found in 
 various other parts of the province, in 
 repositories in clay-slate. 
 
 The second species differs from the first, 
 in containing a more considerable quan- 
 tity of earthy matter, which may account 
 for its lighter specific gravity, and greater 
 hardness. Probably too, it contains less 
 oxygen ; a circumstance that will explain 
 its more active magnetic properties, and 
 which is indicated according to Kirwan, 
 by its slight effect in discolouring the 
 glass of borax*. 
 
 The fine granular variety contains a 
 small quantity of calcareous earth, and it 
 
 ♦ 2 Kii^v. 184.
 
 .. 5MINES. 191 
 
 is to this important accident, that the 
 success of the natives in smelting these 
 ores must be referred. The ores are broken 
 into small fragments and mixed carefully 
 together, previous to placing them in the 
 blast furnace, in which they require to 
 remain for two hours before they acquire 
 the state of imperfect scoriae, and be- 
 come magnetic. I suspect, however, that 
 the same eftect would be produced in a 
 shorter time, and with a great saving of 
 fuel, were the proper proportion of cal- 
 careous matter added, in order to develope 
 the most fusible condition of the other 
 extraneous ingredients. 
 
 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 It is not to be understood that the 
 foregoing notice of mines embraces all the 
 varieties of metallic minerals which are 
 contained in Kemaon. On the contrary, 
 these remarks have been confined to the 
 productions of a comparatively limited 
 space, which is considered to contain 
 nothing like the valuable mines that are
 
 192 MINES. ' 
 
 found in various other parts of the pro- 
 vince. 
 
 As a guide to others who may engage 
 in the prosecution of these inquiries, (which 
 so far from being exhausted, are yet only 
 in their infancy), it may be useful to 
 remark generally, that the ores of copper 
 appear to follow the course of the transi- 
 tion and floetz limestones, beginning in 
 our territories, at the valley of the Mahi 
 Kali river, about the situation of Julaghat, 
 and extending through the valleys of 
 Shore, Goron, Barabice, Gungowly, and 
 extending in the same tract in a north- 
 westerly direction. The repositories are 
 all composed, as far as I have seen, of the 
 same rocks, and are all disseminated ; nor 
 have I in Kemaon seen an instance of a 
 metallic vein*. 
 
 * Captain Herbert, in the paper already adverted to, 
 makes frequent mention of the term vein^ when de- 
 scribing the repositories of copper ore. Probabl)^ he 
 did not intend to imply the technical meaning of the 
 word. Nothing can be of more consequence in an 
 economical, as well as geological point of view, than 
 to distinguish the true nature of mineral repositories.
 
 MINES. ' 1 93 
 
 Iron ores are peculiar to primitive rocks, 
 and pursue the course of their strata. 
 
 In Girwal, which is now considered as 
 a great section of Kemaon, various mines 
 of copper and lead are said to occur. 
 Some of these have been mentioned by 
 Lieut. Webb, (xi. Asiat. Res. 1808,) whose 
 visit to them took place at a time when 
 the whole was in the possession of the 
 Nepalese ; and he expressed his surprise 
 that such mines should be neglected. 
 Twenty years have now elapsed since 
 these provinces fell into our own hands, 
 without any improvement having been 
 attempted in the mode of operations 
 carried on in the mines. It has been 
 shewn by the lamented Captain Herbert, 
 that improvement to a certain extent 
 might be made with safety, and advan- 
 tage to our resources ; but I would urge, 
 with the same views, a reason that is 
 likely to have much more weight with 
 the Government of India — namely, the 
 melioration of the condition of the ope- 
 mtive miners. 
 2 c
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 CLIMATOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN THE CONDITION OF THE 
 ATMOSPHERE ON OUR SENSATIONS ILLUSTRATED— 
 RADIATION OF HEAT AT THE AZORES, AND CANARY 
 ISLANDS, WHERE OCEAN IS THE RADIATING SURFACE 
 —DITTO FROM THE LAND IN EUROPE AND AMERI- 
 CA, COMPARED WITH THE SAME FROM HINDUSTAN- 
 PECULIAR ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA— MEAN DIUR- 
 NAL VARIATIONS OF HEAT AT LOHOOGHAT— DIFFI- 
 CULTY OF PROCURING PHILOSOPHICAL INSTRUMENTS 
 IN THE INTERIOR OF INDIA— EXTRAORDINARY FALL 
 OF RAIN— EARTHQUAKES IN KEMAON— CONNEXION 
 BETWEEN THEM AND THE ERUPTION OF VOLCANOES- 
 PHYSIOGNOMY OF THE HIGH PEAKS OF THE HIMA- 
 LAYA. 
 
 There is no branch of science that 
 affords a more interesting- or extensive 
 field for inquiry than Cliniatoiog-y : every 
 change of place impresses us with new 
 sensations, which are commonly, but 
 erroneously, imputed to the m^re change
 
 CLIMATOLOGY. 195 
 
 of scene, without reference to the influ- 
 ence of the different density, temperature, 
 and moisture of the atmosphere, from that 
 to which we have been accustomed. 
 
 This is ilhistrated by the effect pro- 
 duced on our sensations when ascending- 
 the acclivity of a lofty mountain — all our 
 feelings then undergo changes not to be 
 accounted for by the proportional deve- 
 lopment of new scenery, or of that to 
 which we have been familiar under a new 
 point of sight ; for the effects are the same 
 in the ascent of mountains to which we 
 are accustomed, and which disclose no 
 new or even generally interesting scenery. 
 
 The importance of the subject, and the 
 difficulty of procuring instruments in 
 India, for making accurate observations, 
 are reasons which have deterred me from 
 attempting more than a few common 
 remarks on the climate of Kemaon. 
 
 Taking the mean annual temperature 
 at the equator to be 84°, then deducting 
 one degree of heat for every degree of 
 latitude as we approach the pole, the 
 mean temperature in the 30° Lat. would 
 2 c 2
 
 196 CLIMATOLOGY. 
 
 be 54o ; but at Grand Cairo, whicb is in 
 the 30^ Lat.^ the mean annual tempera- 
 ture is 73°. 
 
 Kirvvan, who took into consideration all 
 the causes (known in his day), that con- 
 tribute to modify the distribution of heat 
 on the surface of the earth, computed the 
 mean annual heat of the 30° Lat. to be 
 
 70-7. 
 
 Dr. Heberden, from observations made 
 at the Azores, and on the Peak of Tene- 
 riffe, found, that at the former, the dimi- 
 nution of temperature is 1° for every 145 
 feet, and at the latter, 1° for every 190 
 feet of ascent. General Roy found that 
 1° of diminution of heat is equal to 280 
 feet. Saussure found from experiments 
 on the Alps, that a degree of heat is equal 
 to 287 feet ; and these last observations 
 agree nearly with those of M. Bouguer 
 and the French Academicians on the 
 Andes, who, at an elevation of 15,560 feet 
 above the sea, found the thermometer 
 stand at 30° : while another at the base of | 
 the mountains stood at 84. If we adopt 
 either of these last estimates (as most
 
 CLIMATOLOGY. 
 
 197 
 
 favourable to any application of the prin- 
 ciple in the present case), and deduct the 
 diminution of heat from 70 '7, then the 
 mean annual temperature at Lohooghat 
 would be 50°, nearly 10 degrees belovv 
 what it really is according to the annexed 
 table : 
 
 Altitude of the place, 5,562* /ee/ above the Sea — Lat. 
 29° 22' N. Long. 85 East. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 >. 
 
 
 
 
 
 April. 
 May. 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 •n 
 68.41 
 
 3 
 <-> 
 
 69.30 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 <; 
 
 69.10 
 
 1 
 
 a. 
 
 67.32 
 
 1 
 6.3.17 
 
 o 
 
 Z 
 
 52,35 
 
 i 
 
 Q 
 47.29 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 'I 
 
 45.17 
 
 3 
 43.57 
 
 52.34 
 
 S C 
 ,58.65 
 
 1 830-31 ti 
 
 59.32 C6.59 
 
 1834-35, 
 
 62. J7 (53.49 
 
 73.68173. |7->.3 170-2 
 
 62.94 
 
 51.63 45.55 
 
 i-.i.U 
 
 48. 
 
 52.34 
 
 60.88 
 
 Mean,- 160 94l(i5.'J9 
 
 71.44 71-34|70.56, 68.76 
 
 63.5 
 
 51.92 49.42 
 
 44.63 
 
 4J.V8 
 
 52.34 
 
 59,7<i 
 
 How are w^e to account for this remark- 
 able excess beyond the temperature that 
 the physical position of the province, in 
 regard to elevation and latitude, would 
 seem, from general principles, to entitle it? 
 
 Were we now to assume the mean annual 
 temperature of the same latitude in the 
 
 * Trans. Roy. Geograpli. Soc. Vol. iv. P. 410. 
 
 •f I have here availed myself of Dr. A. K. Lindesay's 
 Meteorological Register for the year 1830-31, Cal. 
 Med. Phys. Tran^ac. 1831.
 
 198 CLIMATOLOGY^. 
 
 plains at Seharungpore for instance*, to 
 be according to the tables of Kirwan, 70"7) 
 or the mean of Mr. Royle's maximum 
 and minimum, which would be 71°- One 
 degree of temperature, which we would 
 lose in ascending the mountains of Ke- 
 maon, would be equal to 415 feet of 
 altitude ; thus proving the powerful radia- 
 tion of heat from the plains of India, to 
 be quite beyond any conception that 
 could be derived from isothermal tables, 
 and will account for the mild and tem- 
 perate climate of Kemaon, even at eleva- 
 tions tliat ought to be little below the 
 verge of perpetual congelation-j-. 
 
 * We have no register of the temperature of Seha- 
 ningpore, but Mr. Royle states in his " Illustrations, 
 &c." page 7, that the maximum and minimum is 105° 
 and 37°, and that the station is elevated 1,000 feet 
 above the sea. 
 
 •f- It is difficult to reconcile the following extract, 
 founded on the observations of Captain Webb, with the 
 powerful radiation of heat from the plains of Hindu- 
 stan above pointed out. 
 
 " On the southern side of this immense chain towards 
 Hindustan, under the latitude of 30° or 31°, the snow 
 line is at an elevation of 12,400 feet ; but on the side 
 towards Thibet, snow disappears in summer, even at
 
 CLIMATOLOGY. 199 
 
 From the period of the cessation of the 
 rains in October, to the beginning- of 
 February, the atmosphere is so transpa- 
 rent and brilliant, that objects are seen as 
 distinctly at a mile, as if they were only 
 half that distance, and produce an effect, 
 which by some peculiar law of optics, is 
 just the reverse of what might be expect- 
 ed — they are magnified, so that goats and 
 
 the enormous elevation of 16,000 feet." — (Foreign 
 Quarterly Review, No. xix. Aug. 1832.) Humboldt has 
 attempted to account for this, by the supposed radia- 
 tion of heat from the plains of Thibet ; but we have 
 here proved the existence of a powerful degree of ra- 
 diation from the plains of Hindustan, unknown in any 
 other part of the world, and calculated to cause an 
 opposite effect to that remarked by Captain Webb. 
 
 Mr. Saunders, however, aftbrds from personal obser- 
 vation, on another portion of the Himalaya, a view of 
 the subject in perfect accordance with what we might 
 expect. Standing on a mountain ridge that forms the 
 boundary between Boutan and Thibet, he says: — " The 
 south side of this mountain, to within a few yards of 
 the ground on which we tread, is covered with trees 
 and verdure. On the north side, the eye takes an ex- 
 tensive range of hills and plains, but not a tree, shrub, 
 or scarcely a tuft of grass to be seen." — Phil. Trans, 
 vol. 79.
 
 200 CLIMATOLOGY. 
 
 sheep would be mistaken for buffaloes. 
 Perhaps the impression that distant objects 
 here occasion on the retina, being more 
 distinct than the eye has been accustom- 
 ed to, from similar objects at the same 
 distance, may account for the illusion. 
 If so, it is just the reverse of that decep- 
 tion of sight by which objects are magni- 
 fied when seen through a mist, and which 
 M. Le Cat explained to be the case, because 
 their dimness gives the character of undue 
 distance. The cause of this extreme 
 brilliancy of the atmosphere, is no doubt 
 owing partly to the rocky and inclined ^ 
 surfaces of the mountains, casting off the 
 moisture to the rivers, rather than to the 
 air, to the absence of marshes and of lakes, 
 and to the consequent absence of vapour. 
 This state of the air continues with little 
 interruption till February or March, when 
 the snowy peaks of the Himalayas, before 
 so distinctly seen at all hours of the day, 
 now begin to be obscured by clouds 
 about noon. This effect increases as the 
 weather becomes warmer, subject, how- 
 ever, to sudden though temporary inter-
 
 CLIMATOLOGY. 201 
 
 riiptions, from occasional falls of rain, 
 or snow, until the air becomes so loaded, 
 that objects become invisible at the dis- 
 tance of a mile. Nor is this alone aque- 
 ous vapour, for it is accompanied by a 
 dry westerly wind. The opacity of the 
 air is greatest at noon, when the wind is 
 highest, and subsides with the wind at 
 sunset ; the nights are calm and hazy, 
 and a slight earthy precipitate from the 
 atmosphere takes place, sometimes suffi- 
 ciently intense to be detected before sun- 
 rise on the leaves of plants. During the 
 continuance of these phenomena, which 
 are peculiar to the months of May and 
 June, no dew falls ; evaporation is acce- 
 lerated*, the sun is obscured, the skin 
 parched, and more of the natives die at 
 this, than any other season ; and the in- 
 
 * I found water lose by evaporation ^% of an inch 
 from its surface in 6 hours, when placed in the open 
 air, under a temperature of 82° in the shade, during- the 
 continuance of the wind here alluded to, which is more 
 than equal to the quantity that I found the surface of 
 water lose, during ordinary winds at tlie same tem- 
 perature in 12 hours. 
 2 D
 
 202 
 
 CLISIATOLOGY. 
 
 tensity of all these effects increase until 
 dispersed by a heavy fall of rain, which 
 is ushered in by thunder and hail storms. 
 The following- table exhibits the mean 
 diurnal variations of temperature during- 
 the different months. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 t> 
 
 
 b. 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 V 
 
 G 
 
 
 >. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >t 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 IP 4-:-5. 
 
 < 
 6 
 
 1 May, 
 
 ' June. 
 ! July. 
 
 < 
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 7.71 
 
 S 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 i. 
 
 B 
 
 i, 
 
 21.8 
 
 16.5 
 
 
 < 
 
 ■».36'2.3fi|l.i 
 
 3.39 
 
 
 
 The highest diurnal temperature at all 
 seasons is the afternoon, about 3 P. M. in 
 the summer, and 2 P. M. in winter. Al- 
 thoug-h the mean temperature of tlie 
 winter months, is nearly as high as that 
 of the spring' or autumn of some of the 
 mildest climates of Europe; yet the ex- 
 cessive diurnal variations of the thermo- 
 meter, during- the winter, in Kemaon, 
 render the climate at this season remark- 
 ably severe upon both plants and ani- 
 mals. Thus with a mean temperature of 
 nearly 50°, vegetation is as much inter- 
 rupted, wild beasts are as much driven 
 iyoin their haunts to seek their prey
 
 CLIMATOLOGY. 2103 
 
 amidst the habitations of man, as in some 
 of the more northern climates, where the 
 teiiiperature of winter is 20° lower. 
 
 Having" already published a paper con- 
 taining some remarks on the climate of 
 Kemaon*, I shall now avoid reverting 
 to any subject that might lead to repe- 
 tition. 
 
 It is stated in the paper alluded to, 
 that I had kept no iTiin gauge, and I took 
 the opportunity of venturing an opinion 
 as to the quantity of rain that falls in 
 Kemaon. At the time I made those 
 remarks, I had determined to adopt some 
 means by which I might be enabled to 
 form an estimate on this point. My 
 residence at the place was but temporary, 
 I could not therefore send to Calcutta, a 
 distance of a thousand miles, for a rain 
 gauge. Even if it could have been possible 
 to have received one in time, the proba^ 
 bility of its being broken on the way, or 
 imperfectly constructed, would have de- 
 terred me from doing so, independent of 
 
 * India Journal of Medical Science, Feb. 1835. 
 
 2 D 2
 
 204 CLIMATOLOGY. 
 
 the exorbitant charges that would be sure 
 to result from the trifling- commission ; 
 former experience having convinced me 
 of the impossibility of private individuals 
 in ordinary circumstances, procuring accu- 
 rate' philosophical instruments in the 
 interior of India. 
 
 Untler these circumstances I selected 
 for the purpose, a copper vessel, as near 
 the shape that a rain gauge ought to be 
 as could be procured in a remote moun- 
 tainous country, without the slightest 
 mechanical resources, and made the best 
 corrections I could for any disproportion 
 between the capacity and orifice. 
 
 With such an imperfect gauge, no care 
 or additional labour could of course lead 
 to accurate results ; but even allowing 
 that an error of twenty inches exists 
 (which I think is the utmost that could 
 have occurred) the result is still so much 
 in excess, of the greatest quantity of rain 
 elsewhere found to have fallen in one 
 year, that I trust it will induce those 
 who reside in Kemaon, and the adjoin- 
 ing mountain provinces, to keep regis-
 
 CLIMATOLOGY. '205 
 
 ters .of the rain gauge in their respective 
 localities. 
 
 It is a general impression that more 
 rain falls on the top of a mountain, than 
 on a plain ; and although the theory on 
 which the belief is founded is perfectly 
 satisfactory in itself, yet in the case of 
 small mountain, groups, it is at variance 
 with any experiments that have been 
 made on the subject. Mr. Barrington 
 found by two rain gauges, one placed on 
 the top of Rennig, a mountain in Wales, 
 and another at the foot of the same, that 
 the quantity of rain was equal in both 
 situations. 
 
 In alpine countries the case has been 
 found to be different ; and according to 
 the observations of Dr. Schenchzer long- 
 since recorded, 43 J inches fall annually 
 at Pisa, while only 22 inches fall at 
 Paris. If the estimate of the quantity 
 of rain which fell at Lohooghat, during 
 twelve months, be at all near correct, it 
 exceeds the greatest quantity that has 
 hitherto been noticed in any other coun- 
 try, although it is not by the register of
 
 206 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 one, but by the mean of a series of years, 
 that we ought to appreciate the moisture 
 of a climate. 
 
 
 
 £. 
 
 ctf' 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4-J 
 
 in 
 
 u 
 
 <u 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 5i 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 5 
 
 OS 
 
 =1 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 1834-3% 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 1-H 
 
 %l 
 
 13 
 
 i 
 
 f7i 
 
 J 19 Inches. 
 
 The purest rain water that could be col- 
 lected at Lohooghat, displayed the same 
 property of changing the delicate red 
 colour of the cold infusion of brazil wood, 
 to blue ; and I had no doubt, but that 
 this effect was owing to the same prin- 
 ciples that had elsewhere been detected 
 in rain waters, until I required to use it 
 for chemical purposes, when it became 
 necessary to examine as accurately as I 
 could, the extraneous impurities of rain 
 water at Lohooghat. Those who feel an 
 interest in this point, may consult the 
 experiments that relate to it, which to- 
 gether with the result, will be found in 
 the appendix to the examination of the 
 waters of Kemaon, (Essay on the causes 
 of Goitre — section vii.) 
 
 Earthquakes. The frequent occurrence
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 207 
 
 of earthquakes in India, during the last 
 three years, is no less alarming- than 
 remarkahle. They cause while they last, 
 considerable excitement in the public 
 mind ; but a few hours usually suffice to 
 allay at once our alarm, as well as our 
 speculations, as to the cause of such mys- 
 terious phenomena. They do not appear 
 of late to have been more frequent or 
 severe, in the mountains connected with 
 the Himalaya chain, than in the plains 
 of Hindustan. The following- are the 
 dates of those which have been felt at 
 Lohooghat since December, 1831. 
 
 1. December 25th, 1831, at 9 p. m. ; 
 continued about seven seconds, an undu- 
 lating motion of the earth on a N. W. 
 and S. E. line. 
 
 2. July 2nd, 1832, at 11 P. M. ; during 
 twelve seconds the earth shook, or rather 
 trembled and aiforded a noise, which is 
 difficult to describe, but which may be 
 compared to the sound of a heavy, but 
 transient rush of water. The noise pre- 
 ceded and succeeded the motion about 
 three seconds.
 
 208 EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 3. August 18th, 1832, 7 A. M.; the 
 earth trembled for the space of about five 
 seconds : no peculiar concomitant circum- 
 stances observed, except that the weather 
 at the time was hot and sultry. 
 
 4. September 23rd, 1832, 10 P. M.; an 
 earthquake took place, which resembled 
 i:i all its circumstances the one of the 
 
 2 lid July. ■ 
 
 5. May 30th, 1833. The earth was < 
 found to shake rather violently for about 
 twelve seconds, at 12 P. M. It was 
 attended with a noise like that already 
 described. 
 
 6. August 27th, 1833. This earth- 
 quake which was so severely felt in the 
 plains, from the 20th to the 26th degree 
 of latitude, was scarcely felt at Lohooghat, 
 and is inserted here on the authority of 
 a friend who perceived it. From this 
 period there is a longer intermission than 
 we have been accustomed to. ^ I 
 
 7. January 4th, 1835. About 7 A. M., ] 
 a slight shock was felt which lasted from 
 fifteen to twenty seconds, but the motion 
 of the earth was very gentle, and seemed
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 209 
 
 to be on a line between north and south, 
 accompanied by a noise as usual. 
 . 8. January 14th, 183o. About IJ A. 
 M. a shock which seemed to lie in the 
 direction of N. W. and more violent than 
 the one on the 4th took place, accom- 
 panied by a noise like distant thunder. 
 The motion was tremulous ; and in cross- 
 ing the strata, seemed to affect a single 
 one at a time. 
 
 In the year 1803, a great earthquake 
 took place in Kemaon, and the neigh-' 
 bouring provinces, of which I have not 
 had an opportunity of consulting any 
 authentic account ; but its effects are said 
 to have been very destructive to houses, 
 and consequentl}^ to human life. 
 
 The connexion between earthquakes and 
 the eruption of volcanoes, which has been 
 so often observed in other parts of the 
 world, renders a few remarks necessary, 
 on the probable dependance of these 
 phenomena upon each other in Kemaon ; 
 or rather, (we may venture to say) in the 
 centre of the Himalaya chain. Thermal 
 springs have been found in many parts 
 2 E
 
 210 EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 of the provinces of Girwal, Bhotan, and 
 probably also in Nepal and Kemaon ; but 
 of the nature of these we have no precise 
 information, nor is the existence of such 
 springs sufficient of itself to prove the 
 volcanic nature of the places in which 
 they occur*. The local effect of the spon- 
 taneous evolution of heat from pyrites, 
 is generally considered to be the most 
 probable cause of these springsf. 
 
 The nearest volcanic countries on the 
 south and south-east of Kemaon, are the 
 islands in the China sea, distant about 
 1,800 maritime miles. On the north, 
 tlie Thian-chan, or celestial mountains, 
 which run in the parallel of the 42° N. 
 Lat. and contain, according to the best 
 
 ♦ 1 Klap. 290. 
 
 ■f- The water of a hot spring in a part of Kemaon 
 that I have not visited, was sent to me for the purpose 
 of analysis, and found to contain about 20 per cent, of 
 its volume of sulphur, both in an earthy and in au 
 oxydised state. 
 
 A substance brought down from Thibet and sold 
 for shot, is a silicious topha, the oduct of a hot 
 spring, and exactly similar to the topha of the lee- 
 land waters.
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 211 
 
 accounts we possess, two active volcanoes. 
 The Pe-chan, or white mountain, which 
 is nearly extinct, and the Tourfan, or 
 llo-tcheou, said to be in great activity. 
 These volcanoes are only distant from 
 Kemaon about 720 maritime miles, and 
 we might be led to look to them, with 
 some suspicion, if we found that earth- 
 quakes were more frequent and severe as 
 we approach tliem ; but is this the case ? 
 
 From the information we possess (though 
 it is slight), regarding the Himalaya, 
 there is no circumstances that would 
 justify the belief of the volcanic agency 
 of any portion of the range, in causing 
 the earthquakes to which it is so subject. 
 
 Were we to venture conclusions drawn 
 from the physiognomy of the high peaks 
 of the Himalaya, on principles suggested 
 by the experience of Humboldt in the 
 Cordilleras of the Andes, we should have 
 little hesitation in ascribing the conical, 
 pyramidal, and bristling forms of these 
 stupendous peaks to the agency of former 
 volcanoes ; but without some itiore direct 
 proofs, we cannot adopt a belief at 
 2 E 2
 
 212 EAKTHQUAKES. 
 
 variance with what is positively known 
 respecting the geological structure of the 
 Himalayas generally. In the mountains 
 of Kemaon, which may be said to con- 
 stitute the pedestal, or base of some of 
 those lofty summits, there is the same 
 regularity in the constitution and super- 
 position of rocks that we observe in 
 mountains, whose connexion with volca- 
 noes we never suspect. When we witness 
 the decay of the more solid and massive 
 summits of ordinary mountains, we can 
 have no difficulty in ascribing the pointed 
 and leaning appearance of many of the 
 peaks of the Himalaya to the perturba- 
 tions of the atmosphere to which they 
 are so peculiarly exposed, and to the 
 falling of masses overloaded with ice. I 
 have been assured by those who had per- 
 sonal knowledge of the fact, that from 
 the time the ice and snow begin annually 
 to melt at the base of the peaks, an uni- 
 form precipitation of masses of rock also 
 takes place and accompanies the thaw. 
 
 Within a distance of fi'om thirty to 
 fifty miles from the district described in
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 213 
 
 the foregoing- pages, above twenty conical 
 and bristling peaks may be counted, which 
 vary in altitude from nineteen to twenty- 
 six thousand feet. Had these stupendous 
 summits been active volcanoes, they would 
 have emitted lava with a force propor- 
 tionate to their height ; they would have 
 scattered volcanic rocks and scoriee 
 throughout the neighbouring countries, 
 to an extent that cannot be contempla- 
 ted from examples such as exist in other 
 parts of the world ; yet, iii the vicinity 
 of the Himalaya, volcanic minerals are 
 seldom found, and have never occurred 
 to my observation during the course of 
 my researches in Kemaon.
 
 NOTE. 
 
 The following imperfect Sketch of the general Zoology of Kemaon, 
 though only commenced a little before my unexpected departure ; 
 may be sufficient to shew the extraordinary intermixture of Dorthern 
 and tropical species, by which the province is occupied.
 
 PART 11. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW 
 
 OF THB 
 
 ZOOLOGY OF KEMAON. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 Three species of the genus Simla are 
 found in Kemaon. 
 
 First. Large grey monkey. Tail as 
 long as the body, black hair on the face : 
 generally seen in pairs. The length is 
 about two and a half feet from nose to 
 tail. They inhabit rocks and caves, which 
 are inaccessible to beasts of prey. 
 
 Second. Smaller grey monkey, about 
 a foot shorter than the first species : are 
 always found assembled in large commu- 
 nities, consisting of many hundreds. They
 
 216 QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 prefer the warmest and deepest valleys. 
 They carry their young" suspended to 
 their hodies like the Phillippine monkey. 
 
 Third. Small brown monkey, probably 
 the Siniia Maura. About the size of a 
 cat : face naked . 
 
 Vespertilio Muriiius — Common Bat. 
 
 IE /c'^j/ifl.s— Elephant. These animals in- 
 habit the Tarai, where they exist in great 
 numbers in a wild state, but they are too 
 unw'eildy to enter the mountains. Not 
 feo high as even the lowest ridge of hills, 
 that bound the plains, has one of these 
 animals ever been seen : yet I have been 
 assured that their fossil bones are found in 
 the highest elevations that man has attain- 
 ed in Thibet, and a skull said to be that 
 of an elephant w^as brought down from a 
 very high elevation to the Commissioner of 
 Revenue in Kemaon, during my residence 
 in the province ; but not having inspected 
 the fossil, I cannot answer for the fact*. 
 
 * Interesting discoveries of bones of enormous qua- 
 drupeds, are now in progress in the mountain provinces 
 on the N. W. of Kemaon, under the indefatigable zeal 
 of iiiy friend Dr. Falconer and Captain Cautley.
 
 QUADRUPEDS. 217 
 
 Hystrix Crist at a — Common porcupine. 
 
 Mus Zibeth kits — Musk-rat . 
 
 Afus Decumanus — Common rat. 
 
 Mus Musculus — Common mouse. 
 
 Mus Minutus — Pigmy shrew. 
 
 Sciurus Volans — Flying squirrel*. This 
 animal is eight or ten inches from the 
 nose to the tail. Its skin, a fine soft fiir. 
 
 Lepics Timidus—Comraon hare. 
 
 Lepus Cuniculus — Rabbit. 
 
 Hana Temporaria — Common frog. 
 
 Of the genus Lacerfa, there are numer- 
 ous species, which I have been unable, for 
 want of opportunity, to distinguish. One 
 particular kind, probably the Iguana of 
 Buffon, I chanced to disturb when bask- 
 ing in the sun ; and on being alarmed, 
 instantly escaped into the thicket. It 
 appeared to be about three feet long, 
 including the tail, which was half the 
 length of the body, and tapering rapidly 
 to a point from a broad base. The body 
 was broad and clumsy, the neck short, 
 and nearly as broad as the body. It had 
 
 * Probably a specie* of tlie genus Petaurista of 
 Olivier. 
 
 2 F
 
 218 QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 four legs, very short. Its colour was dusky 
 grey, without stripes or spots. 
 
 Cams Farniliaris — Common dog. There 
 is a wild variety of this species found on 
 the borders of the mountains next the 
 plains. They are said to hunt in packs, 
 and to prove formidable enemies to much 
 more powerful animals. I happened to 
 see two of these wild dogs : they were 
 both of a reddish yellow colour, approach- 
 ing to light-brown. The hind legs were 
 longer than the fore ; the tail was rather 
 large and hanging ; the ears erect and 
 thick, terminating in a point; eyes| 
 obliquely placed, and elongated between 
 the angles of the tarsus : their skin emits 
 an offensive smell. One of these animals 
 was taken when young, and every endea- 
 vour made to tame him, but to no pur- 
 pose. They utter, when pressed by other 
 dogs, a plaintive shrill cry, very unlike 
 the hideous howl of the jackal ; and un- 
 like the latter, they have no dusky colours 
 on the tips of their hair. 
 
 The domestic dog of the higher Hima- 
 laya regions, a variety of mastiff of great
 
 QUADRUPEDS. 219 
 
 size and power, is different from any 
 of the dogs of Europe. He is distin- 
 guished by the smallness of Ids eyes, in 
 proportion to the breadth of his forehead, 
 by a short thick neck and body, with 
 rather long hair, and of a stupid expres- 
 sion, and sulky indifferent manner. These 
 dogs accompany the merchants of Bhotaa 
 in their travels across the mountains, be- 
 tween Tartary and Hindustan, during 
 which, the hardy mountaineers pass the 
 nights in the forests, equally secure under 
 the protection of their dogs, both from 
 wild beasts and robbers. The necks of 
 dogs are decorated with strong collars of 
 brass or iron, which answers the purpose 
 of armour, during their encounters with 
 wild beasts. They are extremely docile, 
 but uncertain in their temper. They are 
 also said to be more liable to hydrophobia 
 in hot climates than other doos. Thev 
 are of all colours, such as grey spotted, 
 black sides, white breasts, reddish, yellow, 
 brown, &c. 
 
 Cams Aureus — The jackal. This animal 
 is much larger than the jackal of the 
 2 F 2
 
 QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 plains. He is distinguished from the 
 wild dog above described, by being of 
 a stronger make ; by having a dusky hue 
 on the back, the crown of the head, and 
 tail ; by its eyes as w ell as head being- 
 rounder ; by being tamable, while the 
 wild dog is not, and by its hideous howl. 
 
 The jackal is remarkably shy and 
 cautious, so much so as never to allow 
 itself to be caught in a trap. They have 
 in Kemaon, much of the intelligence 
 ascribed in England to the fox, from the 
 dexterity with which they elude pursuit ; 
 and if hunted by a single dog, other 
 jackals assemble and intercept his return, 
 and unless quickly relieved, the dog is 
 soon destroyed. 
 
 Cams Vulpcs — The fox. He has grey leg's, 
 becoming' darker to the feet ; dark, sharp 
 nose ; bushy tail — that of the male having 
 a white tip : the upper surface of the ears 
 velvet black, inner surface cream yellow. 
 They are somewhat larger than the English 
 fox, and are very easily caught in traps. 
 
 Felis Tigris — The tiger is one of the 
 greatest scoui'ges to which the inhabitants
 
 QUADRUPEDS. 221 
 
 of Kemaon are subject. Their haunts 
 are the deep valleys and lower- ranges 
 of mountains which skirt the plains, 
 where the warmth of the climate is con- 
 genial to them in the cold season; but 
 during the hot-weather, and the rains, 
 when the herds return to the higher alti- 
 tudes, the tigers then penetrate into the 
 interior of the mountains, keeping posses- 
 sion of the deep valleys, where they prey 
 upon unfortunate travellers ; or when 
 pressed for food, they even approach the 
 villages in open day, and seize the first 
 animal they meet. It is calculated, as I 
 have been informed, that the loss of human 
 life by tigers, in Kemaon alone, amounts 
 on an average to no fewer than two hun- 
 dred and fifty per annum. This is a most 
 frightful proportion of victims out of a 
 country so thinly inhabited. Extensive 
 tracts are indeed quite deserted from this 
 cause ; and although the Government 
 allows a reward of ten rupees for every 
 tiger's head that is produced at Almorah, 
 their number is very slowly, if at all 
 diminished. There is, however, some
 
 2212 QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 reason to fear, that in the remote parts 
 of the province, great abuses exist, as to 
 the payment of the reward so humanely 
 given by Government, and thus the im- 
 portant object for which it was intended, 
 is in some degree thwarted. 
 
 Fe/is Lcopardus — The leopard is the 
 most numerous of the feline genus in 
 Kemaon. Unless on the defensive, they 
 never attack human beings ; but they are 
 very destructive to sheep, goats, and to 
 cattle in general. Dogs are also their 
 favorite prey ; and to procure them, I 
 have known instances of the greatest 
 audacity and cunning resorted to by the 
 leopard ; such, for instance, as concealing 
 himself in a dark corner close to his 
 intended victim, and there awaiting a 
 favourable opportunity, when, by one 
 spring, he seizes his prize, and carries 
 him off in defiance of the yells and blud- 
 geons of surrounding spectators. Some 
 of the leopards are nearly as large as the 
 panther, and others, as small as the com- 
 mon hunting leopard ; but except in size, 
 there does not appear to be sufficient
 
 QUAD"RUPEDS. 2S3 
 
 reason to describe them as distinct va- 
 rieties. If the form of the spots be a 
 sufficient criterion, they would all be 
 described by some authors as panthers. 
 
 Felis Ocelot — The size of a common cat. 
 Colour, bright yellow, clouded with brown 
 streaks, longitudinally on the back, and in 
 other respects, the same as the Ocelot No. 
 1, of Hamilton Smith, (Griffiths Cuvier ;) 
 so that these animals do not appear to 
 be peculiar to the new world, as stated 
 by Mr. Smith. One of them which was 
 taken when young from the forest, and 
 presented to Mr. Liptrott, of the 30th 
 regiment, became quite tame, and is still, 
 I believe, in his possession. 
 
 Felis Serval, or Mountain cat. The 
 animal to which I here refer, is somewhat 
 different to any of the figures which are 
 given by authors. It is twice the size 
 of the common domestic cat ; of a dusky 
 grey colour, with dark stripes along the 
 back, and long coarse hair. 
 
 The domestic cat is of an ash-grey, with 
 stripes of darker grey, diminishing in 
 size and intensity towards the extremi-
 
 224 QUAUnUPEDS. 
 
 ties. The beautiful species known by the 
 name of Persian cat are now becoming 
 quite common in Kemaon, from the num- 
 bers of them that have been lately intro- 
 duced. Their docility and faithfulness 
 render them an exception in these respects 
 to the general character of the genus to 
 which they belong. 
 
 Viverra Maries — The pine martin. 
 Musky weasel, commonly called in India, 
 the musk-rat. It is the smallest of the 
 Weasel tribe, and is w^ell known from the 
 strong smell of musk which it diffuses. 
 
 Lutra Vulgaris — Common otter. 
 
 Liitra Lutreola — Smaller otter. Ottei*s 
 are very numerous in all the rivers of 
 Kemaon, so that a small trade might be 
 afforded by the collection of their fur, as 
 well as of the skins of leopards, tigers, &c. 
 
 Ursus — The bear. A bear is found in 
 Kemaon ; and whether it belongs to any 
 of the three peculiar species lately dis- 
 covered by Dr. Wallicli, M. Duvauncel, 
 Dr. Buchanan, and Sir J. S. Raffles, to 
 inhabit the mountains of India, I cannot 
 pretend to determine. It is larger than
 
 QUADRUPEDS... 225 
 
 the Ursus Thibefanus of the two first men- 
 tionetl naturalists ; while it is farther dis- 
 tinguished from that species by its power- 
 ful limbs and claws, and by its disposi- 
 tion to climb trees. The hair on the 
 back is an inch and half long, straight 
 and glossy black. It is long and coarse 
 on the fore-legs and anterior part of the 
 shoulders, from which situations to the 
 ears, a ridge of long and thickly set hair 
 extends along each side of the neck. A 
 white stripe passes along the front of the 
 chest and neck, and is crossed by a trans- 
 verse stripe of the same colour on the 
 throat. The head is small in proportion 
 to the size of the body ; the nose is elon- 
 gated, but not more so than that of a 
 mastiff dog ; but upon the whole, I think 
 we may consider this animal to be the 
 Ursus Labiatus. The bears in Kemaon 
 are exceedingly numerous, and emerge 
 from their dens in May or June, and 
 remain in open forests and thickets till 
 December. On making their appearance, 
 their first food is esculent roots, young 
 shoots, and the blossoms of the Rhodo- 
 2 G
 
 226 QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 dendroiij as well as honey and ants. In 
 the months of June and July, while these 
 supplies continue, the bears are frequently 
 seen on the branches of trees in retired 
 places ; but in August they approach the 
 villages in quest of grain, more especially 
 Indian-corn, an article of which they 
 are very fond : accordingly, when this 
 grain is ripening, a few bears usually 
 establish themselves in the nearest thicket 
 that can afford them concealment during 
 the day ; from this they emerge at night, 
 committing the most destructive depre-" 
 dations on the gardens, and thus excit- 
 ing the just indignation of an enemy, 
 to whom they often pay the forfeit of 
 life. 
 
 On two or three occasions I have acci- 
 dentally surprised these animals in their 
 native haunts, and invariably found them 
 disposed to avoid personal contact. On 
 other occasions, I have accompanied friends 
 on excursions to shoot them, when it 
 appeared that unless too closely pressed^ 
 they shewed no disposition to attack 
 their pursuers. 
 
 i
 
 QUADRUPEDS. 227 
 
 There was a story prevalent at Petora- 
 gur, of a bear who took up his position 
 in a thicket in that neighbourhood, and 
 who killed four men in different attempts 
 to dislodge him. Another instance of a 
 bear who having entered a corn mill, and 
 on being disturbed by a man who sud- 
 denly entered, the bear seized and killed 
 him, ate a portion of the body, and threw 
 the remainder into the river. 
 
 Both these circumstances occurred dur- 
 ing my residence in Keniaon, but whether 
 these were black bears or not, I am quite 
 unable to say. Such instances of the 
 ferocity of bears in Kemaon are extremely 
 rare, and may be considered as excep- 
 tions to the nature of the animals. In 
 both cases, however, we may suppose the 
 attack to have been made upon the bears ; 
 and as the natives of Kemaon usually 
 enter into such conflicts with swords 
 alone, it is only to be wondered, that a 
 creature of such power as the bear, is not 
 more frequently successful. 
 
 In December, they retire to their dens, 
 which are usually situated in the most 
 2 G 2
 
 228 QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 inaccessible and solitary places. From 
 their enormous size, their great numbers, 
 and the ease with which they may be 
 procured, it is much to be regretted that 
 such a profitable source of trade should 
 be altogether neglected*. 
 
 * " The hunting of the bear,"'"' says Buflfon, " with- 
 out being very dangerous, is extremely lucrative when 
 performed with success. The skin is a valuable fur, 
 and the quantity of oil drawn from a single bear is 
 considerable. The flesh and fat are boiled together in a 
 caldron, and the oil is easily separated. "'"' " Afterwards,"'"' 
 says M. du Pratz, " the oil is purified, by throwing it, 
 wlien very warm, into a quantity of salt and water ; a 
 detonation ensues, and a thick smoke rises, which carries 
 off the disagreeable odour of the grease. While the 
 smoke ceases, and while the grease is still warm, it is 
 put into a pot, where it is allowed to remain for eight 
 or ten days. At the end of this period, a clear oil is 
 seen swimming on the top, which is taken off Avith a 
 ladle. This oil is equally good, and answers the same 
 purpose as the best olive oil. Beneath, we find a lard 
 as white, but a little softer than hog's lard. It serves 
 for culinary purposes, and has no bad taste or smell."" 
 M. Dumont, in his Memoirs of Louisiana, agrees 
 with M. du Pratz, and adds, that " from a single 
 bear they obtain more than 120 pots of oil."" — VI. 
 Buff. Ill, 112.
 
 QUADHUPEDS. 229 
 
 Cervus ^1/5— Spotted axis. A species 
 of elk is also found to inhabit the higher 
 ranges of mountains ; but except two 
 young individuals, which were not suffi- 
 ciently developed to denote the characters 
 of their species, I have not had an oppor- 
 tunity of seeing any of them. 
 
 Capra Hircus — Common goat. 
 
 Capra Riversa — Long-horned whidaw 
 goat, or shawl goat. This animal is not a 
 native of the province, but it is occasion- 
 ally brought down from Thibet. 
 
 Ovis Aries, or common sheep. They 
 are used by the Thibetans for transmitting 
 merchandize between Hindustan and Tar- 
 tary. Each sheep carries about eight 
 pounds. Borax is the article with which 
 they are loaded on their way to Hindustan ; 
 but on their return to Thibet, they carry 
 rice and other grains, which are not produ- 
 ced in their own frozen regions. 
 
 Common Ox, belongs to the small Indian 
 breed, but is considerably less than the 
 same species in the plains. 
 
 Bos Buhahis — The buffalo. These ani-
 
 230 QUADRUPEDS, 
 
 mals are very common in the domestic 
 state in Kemaon. 
 
 Sus Scrqfa — Tlie wild boar. 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 Boa Miirina — Rat boa. 
 
 Coluber Gramineus~Gv2i^^ snake.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE INSECTS OF 
 KEMAON. 
 
 Scarabceus Goliathiis, or goliali beetle. 
 It makes its appearance about twilight 
 during the warm season, and continues 
 till September. 
 
 S. Melolontha. — ^^J'he cockchafFers appear 
 annually a few weeks before the setting 
 in of the rains. They appear, after sun- 
 set, to rise out of the ground with a hum- 
 ming noise, which they continue until 
 they alight on some devoted plant, which 
 they continue to devour until every atom 
 of the foliage disappears- they then quick- 
 ly decamp to other plants of the same 
 species, (should the insects not be suffi- 
 ciently numerous to attack them all simul- 
 taneously,) and so on in succession, until
 
 232 INSECTS. 
 
 they either convert the most fruitful and 
 promising plantations into desert, or be- 
 come themselves destroyed by some for- 
 tunate change of weather, which usually 
 happens in Kemaon, before their depre- 
 dations are very seriously extended beyond 
 one or two species of plants : the chesnut 
 tree is always selected as the first victim. 
 There are two varieties of this destinic- 
 tive insect, which are only distinguished 
 from each other by size ; the one is an 
 inch in length, and tlie other only about 
 half an inch. 
 
 S. Auratus, or golden beetle. 
 
 S. Fullo, or variegated beetle ; and vari- 
 ous other species that would come under 
 this head are very common in Kemaon. 
 
 Bijrrhus Pijhila and B. Scropu/arice. 
 
 Silpha Vcspillo. 
 
 Cassida Virida — Green cassida. 
 
 C. Maroinata — This insect changes from 
 the bright sparkling lustre of the most 
 beautiful gem, to dull ; but still elegant 
 colours, by keeping in the cabinet. 
 
 Coccinella Scptonpunctata — Seven spotted 
 lady-bird. This very handsome, but
 
 INSECTS. 233 
 
 mischievous little insect, is even more 
 destructive to fruit trees in Kemaon, and 
 to gardens in general, than it is in Eng- 
 land ; nor can any pains or attention save 
 the foliage of the peach-trees at Lohooghat, 
 annually, from being destroyed by it. 
 
 Chrysomela Betuke, and several other 
 very brilliant species of this genus, are 
 met with during the rains. 
 
 Ceraynbyx Gigas — I think I have seen 
 a specimen of this insect, A second fine 
 species of this genus occurs in Kemaon ; 
 it is larger than the C. Da?nicornis, but 
 without the projecting curved jaws of that 
 insect. It has two sharp spines on the 
 thorax. The upper extremities of the 
 wing-sheaths are rough, and spiny. The 
 colour of the whole insect is cream 
 yellow ; but in large specimens, a dark- 
 brown appears from beneath the colouring 
 matter. 
 
 C. Coriarius. 
 
 C. JEdilis. 
 
 C. Moschatiis — Cerambyx is here a nu- 
 merous and splendid genus. 
 2 H
 
 234) INSECTS. 
 
 Leptura Aquatica. 
 
 L. Arcuata, and numerous insects of 
 this genus, as Leptura liasfata, L. Arie- 
 tis, &c. ' 
 
 Lampyris Noctiluca — Common glow- 
 worm. Flying glow-worms are also very 
 numerous during the months of July and 
 August. 
 
 Cmitharis Bipiistulafa — Green cantharis. 
 
 Carabus Bimaculatus. 
 
 TenebrioGlobosus — A black insect, shaped 
 like an hour-glass, very common in the 
 gardens during July and August. 
 
 Forjicula Aiiricularia — Common earwig. 
 
 Mantis Oratoria, or Camel-cricket. This 
 insect is sometimes seen of a green colour; 
 sometimes grey, yellow, &c. It possesses 
 in Kemaon the same pugnacious propen- 
 sities ascribed to it in other countries, and 
 when an adversary is presented to it, it 
 seldom condescends to fight, but com- 
 mences eating him outright. 
 
 Gryllus Migratorius. — The common 
 Locust. This insect often makes its 
 appearance immediately before, or just 
 after, the rains. I have not known any
 
 INSECTS. 235 
 
 very extensive injury to result from lo- 
 custs in Kemaon. s 
 
 G. Acrida — The grasshopper, with the 
 elongated conical head. 
 
 Scdtoria of Cuvier are very common 
 and familiar insects during the whole 
 year. 
 
 G. Dotnesficus — ^The house cricket. 
 
 Cicada Spumaria — Cuckoo-spit cicada. 
 
 C'unex FlavicoUis. 
 
 C. Anmilatus. 
 
 C. Lee hilar his — Common bug. 
 
 Aphides — ^^fhese are not so numerous as 
 might be expected. 
 
 Aphis Rosa', and A . Salicis, are, however, 
 common species. 
 
 LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS 
 
 Embrace in Kemaon, probably, most of 
 the select and beautiful varieties that have 
 been found in all other parts of the world. 
 1 . Papilio, or Butterfly. Of this splendid 
 genus, my collection, which was made in 
 the course of a few weeks, consists (per- 
 haps) of upwards of fifty different varie- 
 ties, and two-thirds of these exceed in 
 2 H 2
 
 236 INSECTS. 
 
 beauty the most select species that have 
 been found in EnHand. 
 
 The Troes, or Trojans, and the Achivi, 
 (Greeks, J are the largest, and by far, the 
 most splendid ; this applies to one species 
 of the latter in particular, whose upper 
 wings measure four inches, and are of a 
 deep velvet black colour, divided into 
 rays of greyish black, with blood-red spots 
 on the lower wings. A second species, 
 about the same size, is a dark -green colour, 
 changing in tlie centre of the wings into 
 azure blue, with eye-like spots on the 
 inner margins of the lower wings, dis- 
 playing a deep black centre, surrounded 
 with blood-red and white rings. 
 
 The following are a few of the remain- 
 ing species. 
 
 P. Machaon — Presenting many elegant 
 varieties. P. Hector, P. Piera, P. Leitus, 
 P. Brassica.', P. Midamus, and others of 
 the divisions Danai Candidi and Danai 
 Festivi. In short, if we were to enumer- 
 ate all the varieties of this genus, that are 
 seen on every tree and flower in Kemaon, 
 it w^ould be only to transcribe the names
 
 INSECTS. 237 
 
 of perhaps the whole of the most splen- 
 did species that have been described by 
 authors ; and to this might be added seve- 
 ral new kinds, were the requisite atten- 
 tion paid to the subject. 
 
 The genus Sphinx also presents some 
 elegant species. 
 
 The succeeding genus, Plialoena, or Moth 
 tribe, are scarcely less numerous and 
 beautiful than the butterflies ; and in this 
 we recognize nearly all the species de- 
 scribed by authors. 
 
 LibeUula Varia, or great variegated Dra- 
 gon-fly. I have seen this insect above 
 four inches long ; the body was annulated, 
 not striped, and the colours of the rings 
 were light-green and bluish black. 
 
 LibeUula Virgo, L. Pnel/a, and other 
 elegant examples ; some with bright scar- 
 let, others with light-blue bodies, tipped 
 with black, and wings of the most brilli- 
 ant green, are common during the rains. 
 Nothing can surpass the agreeable effect 
 of an assemblage of these insects, when 
 mingling their various colours on the sur- 
 face of a mountain stream. Here the
 
 238 INSECTS. 
 
 contemplative mind might embrace, at 
 one view, a wondrous range of excellence 
 in nature — from those incomprehensible 
 powers, which elevated the strata of moun- 
 tains from beneath the waters of the deep, 
 to those which give beauty to the struc- 
 ture of the insect — what versatility, and 
 yet what perfection prevails ! 
 
 Other genera of Neuropterous insects 
 are common in Kemaon, as some of the 
 species of Ephemera, many of those of 
 Phryganea, Hemerobius, Myrmeleon, fM. 
 grande,J and Panorpa. 
 
 Of the order Hymenoptera may be 
 mentioned Cynips Viminalis, and a peculiar 
 species that is very destructive to the 
 leaves of the peach-tree. 
 
 Sirex, Ichneumon, and Chrysis, are 
 genera which atford in Kemaon various 
 species of insects. 
 
 Vespa Vulgaris, or Common wasp, is 
 often met with ; but the V. Hohatica are 
 still more commonly seen, their nests being 
 usually placed over the doors and windows 
 of houses. The most important of this order 
 of insects is the following variety :
 
 INSECTS. 239 
 
 Apis Mcl/ijica, or Common bee. Kemaoii 
 is so well adapted to the nature and wants 
 of the bee, that honey and wax might 
 be made valuable articles of commerce, 
 with but common industry on the part 
 of the peasantry ; but no attention is 
 paid by them to the bee, or to the pro- 
 duct of its labour, further than that they 
 avail themselves of the honey as a com- 
 mon article of food, as long- as it is found 
 in the forests. 
 
 Apis Lapidaria, and A. Terresfris, are 
 also common varieties. 
 
 The genus Formica, or Ant, also affords 
 many varieties. 
 
 Ord. DiPTERA, genus Q^stnis, or Gad-fly, 
 affords numerous species : also the suc- 
 ceeding genus, of which Tipula Crocafa, 
 and T. Cornicina, are very familiar ex- 
 amples. 
 
 Musca, or Fly. It is almost unneces- 
 sary to say, that this is very common 
 genus, especially during the months of 
 July, August, and September. M. Carna- 
 ria, and M. Vomitoria, Linn., constitute a 
 very serious grievance in the houses.
 
 240 INSECTS. 
 
 Taba?ius Bovinus, and other insects of 
 this genus, are very tormenting, especially 
 to strangers. There is a very small species, 
 scarcely the size of a gnat, met with in 
 all the warmer valleys. It leaves a red 
 mark, that remains on the skin for weeks, 
 after the infliction of the wound. 
 
 Pans:onia Long-irosfris. 
 
 The genus Culex affords the common 
 
 gnat. Canops Irritans. 
 
 Lepisma Saccharinum , or Wood-fish, is 
 very numerous in libraries in Kemaon ; 
 though I have not observed it in other 
 parts of India. It is said to be destruc- 
 tive to books ; but I have found its ravages 
 confined to substances containing starch, 
 such as paste-board. 
 
 Termes — T. Bcllicosus, and T. Arborum, 
 are both very common. The buildings 
 of the first species, called ants' nests, may 
 be seen in all the forests and shaded 
 places. They are usually four or five feet 
 high, of pleasing proportions, resembling 
 diminutive towers of gothic architecture. 
 During the month of August, in tolerably 
 dry seasons, I have seen the atmosphere
 
 INSECTS. 241 
 
 for the space of a few hours in the after- 
 noon, for several successive days, quite a 
 living' mass of these insects. After the 
 clitFerent individuals remained about 
 twenty minutes, or half-an-hour in the 
 air, they fell, lost their wings, and disap- 
 peared in the earth, where a few may 
 have succeeded in establishing new com- 
 munities. 
 
 Acarus Exiikerans, or Itch-mite. — This 
 insect is not at all uncommon in Kemaon, 
 if we may be allowed to suppose it to be 
 the ring-worm. 
 
 Aranca Diadema — ^The insect here re- 
 ferred to, differs from the A. Diadema of 
 Linn., or indeed of any other author that 
 I have had an opportunity of consulting ; 
 but its peculiarity is confined merely to 
 the distribution of colour on its body. A 
 broad red stripe passes from the middle 
 of the abdomen, obliquely upwards to the 
 back. Deep blue and yellow are dis- 
 tributed, like the delineations of tortoise- 
 shell, on the back. 
 
 In autumn, this insect covers almost 
 every shrub and tree with its web, which is 
 2 I
 
 242 INSECTS. 
 
 composed of a highly superior silk, both 
 as to histre, elasticity, and strength. Its 
 colour is a bright golden yellow. 
 
 During the early part of the last cen- 
 tury, it was proposed to cultivate the 
 spider for the manufacture of silk ; but 
 the scheme was abandoned, on finding it 
 difficult to domesticate tlie insects suffi- 
 ciently. A considerable quantity of silk 
 might, however, be annually collected in 
 Kemaon from the wild insects, without 
 any expence whatever. 
 
 Scorpio. Of this I have seen but one 
 species in Kemaon, namely, Scorpio 
 Europceus. 
 
 Julus Indicus. 
 
 Of the genus Lumbricus, L. Terrestris, 
 or earth-worm, is the only common species. 
 
 Hinido Sanguisuga, or horse-leech, and 
 a small variety of //. Medicinalis, are quite 
 a plague during the rains ; at which sea- 
 son, they abound in such numbers, that 
 it is impossible to walk in the open air 
 without exposing the feet to their attacks; 
 nor are shoes, or even boots, a sufficient 
 protection.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 GENERAL A^EW OF THE BIRDS OF 
 KEMAON. 
 
 Vultur Indicns — A brown vulture, seldom 
 seen, unless when the dead body of some 
 large animal lies exposed on the surface 
 of the ground, w4ien, especially in hot 
 w^eather, the vultures collect in large 
 numbers. 
 
 Vultur Percnopterus — A white vulture, 
 with yellow beak. 
 
 Falco Coronatus — Crowned eagle. F. 
 Chrysaetos, or golden eagle. F. Fulvus. F. 
 Mih'us, or common kite. I have not had 
 an opportunity of identifying more species 
 of this extensive genus. 
 
 Strix Bubo, or great horned owl. A 
 very fine example of this bird, I found to 
 be five feet ten inches across the wings. 
 2 I 2
 
 244 BIRDS. 
 
 Of smooth headed owls, there are numer- 
 ous varieties, which I cannot pretend to 
 distinguish. 
 
 The following description refers to a 
 species of shrike that is very common in 
 Kemaon. Upper part of the hody and 
 neck hluish grey, hecoming reddish grey 
 on the belly. Wing coverts black, slight- 
 ly tipped with white. Crown black, and 
 crested in front. Outer margins of the 
 win2C and tail feathers light-blue, slightly 
 streaked with black. Tail, the length of 
 the body. Legs grey, and beak yellow 
 at the point. 
 
 This bird is about the size of a magpie. 
 It resembles the grey shrike, and the 
 Lanius Neugeta of Brazil. 
 
 Ijanius Jocosus^ or bulbul. 
 
 Corvus Erythrorhijnchos, or red-billed 
 jay. C. Trugilegus, the rook. C. Corax, 
 or raven. Also the C. Gracuhis, or red- 
 legged crow ; but it is met with only in 
 the higher altitudes of the Himalaya, on 
 the verge of perpetual snow. 
 
 Oriolus includes many varieties of the 
 birds of Kemaon. Among the species of
 
 BIRDS, 245 
 
 this g-eniis may be mentioned the O. 
 Nfdipendii/iis, or hang-nest oriole. 
 
 O. Gulbula — Golden oriole, &c. 
 
 Gracula — Indian grakle, or minor. An 
 olive-green grakle, with a rufus yellow 
 belly ; throat w^hite, legs grey. It is 
 about ten inches long. 
 
 Alceclo — Kino -fisher. Of this g-enus the 
 Alcedo Rudis is the most common. 
 
 Cerithia Miivaria, or wall-creeper. 
 
 Trochilus, or humming-bird. In Ke- 
 maon, this is a very splendid genus, but so 
 numerous, that it would be impossible to 
 enter into an enumeration of the species. 
 
 Psittacus — The P. Giiianensis, or green 
 parakeet, is exceedingly common. 
 
 Caculus Canorus, or common cuckow. 
 
 Picus Viridis, or spotted wood-pecker, 
 and a small grey wood-pecker. Striated 
 on the shoulders, spotted wings with white 
 and black; breast grey; vent feathers red; 
 crown greenish yellow : tail black above, 
 but barred reddish yellow and black under- 
 neath. The length of this bird is about 
 five inches. 
 
 Passer es — ^The following examples of 
 the genus Alauda may be mentioned.
 
 246 BIRDS. 
 
 Alauda Arvensis, or sky-lark. A. Minor ^ 
 or lesser field-lark. Turdus Pilaris, or field- 
 fare, and Tardus Merula, the blackbird*. 
 
 Loxia Chloris — The greenfinch. Emheriza 
 CitrineUa, the yellow-hammer. 
 
 Fringilla Domestica — The sparrow, and 
 F. Montana, the mountain-sparrow. F. 
 Longicauda. Montacilla Cinerea, the grey 
 wagtail, and a variety of this species, 
 which may be described as follows : 
 
 Lower part of the body white. The 
 throat and lower feathers of the wing's 
 black ; two outer tail feathers white ; the 
 others black and tipped with white. A 
 white spot on the forehead ; beak black ; 
 legs white and slender. It is a little 
 larger than the common wagtail. 
 
 There is a species of Sturnus, or water- 
 ouzel, in Kemaon, about the size of a 
 
 * There is a species of turdus larger than the 
 thrush of Europe, in Kemaon. The following is its 
 description : upper part of the body, M'ings, and tail, 
 bluish or brownish grey ; the lower part spotted with 
 brown and light yellow ; outer tail feathers, greyish 
 white towards the tip ; quill feathers, outer margins, 
 light grey ; inner margins, blackish brown. This de- 
 scription is of the hen bird ; the cock Is smaller, and of 
 the same colours, but much brighter.
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 247 
 
 black bird, but heavier. Plumage short 
 and compact ; every part of the bird is a 
 dusky brown colour, except the legs, which 
 have a leaden hue and fishy lustre. 
 
 One of these singular birds was shot in 
 a small rocky river near Lohooghat, and 
 when wounded, it dived into the water, 
 where it remained a very considerable 
 time. It differs from the English water- 
 ouzel, (which is quite black, with a white 
 spot on the forehead,) in being entirely 
 brown. 
 
 Panis Crisfatus, or crested titmouse. 
 The genus Columba contains some species, 
 which I have not seen described, and 
 which I had not the opportunity of inves- 
 tigating. The following are, however, 
 very common and well known varieties. 
 C. Oenas, common pigeon ; C. Domestica, 
 domestic pigeon ; C Palumbus, the ring- 
 dove, or wood -pigeon ; C Turtiir, or turtle 
 dove. 
 
 A brown-spotted pigeon*, and another 
 variety which I suspect to be imperfectly 
 known, are occasionally seen. The latter 
 
 * Spotted-necked turtle — Hard wick.
 
 248 BIRDS. 
 
 is about the size of the domestic pigeon, 
 and coloured brown and white. 
 
 The order Gallinm is particularly rich, 
 both in genera and species. In the first 
 genus we have the Tetrao Pictus — Black 
 partridge. Perdix Chahoor*. The latter is 
 I believe peculiar to these mountains. 
 Tetraro Coturnix, or quail, and T. Lagopiis, 
 or ptarmigant. The succeeding genus is 
 equally splendid. Phasianus Gallus, or 
 wild cock. There is a species of pheasant 
 in Kemaon, without the caruncles on the 
 throat and crown of the head, while its 
 tail is compressed like that of the P. Gal- 
 lus. The head is crested and striped over 
 the eyes with red fleshy papillae, like the 
 common pheasant. Feathers on the upper 
 
 * Bill and legs red, throat yellow, and bounded by 
 a black stripe, which passes across the forehead and 
 breast, and a small tuft of brown feathers behind the 
 ears. Feathers on the belly bright yellow, barred with 
 brown and black. Each leg armed with a knob or bluut 
 spur. 
 
 f The Nepal pheasant, Mehagris Safynis, is sui>. 
 j)0sed to belong to this genus. — See Griffitirs Cuvier, 
 vol. viii. p. Un, Loud. 182U.
 
 eiedS. 249 
 
 part of the body black, and amarginated 
 with grey. Breast feathers long and 
 narrow, and striated with white at the 
 tips, and black at the bases. The hen 
 bird is brown. They nestle in trees, and 
 are about the size of the common cock*. 
 
 Nepal, ov horned pheasant — There is also a 
 large grey pheasant occasionally met with 
 on high naked ridges ; the tail is long and 
 wedge-shaped, and marked Avith dark- 
 grey eye-shaped rings. The head is 
 crested, and a stripe of red fleshy papillae 
 pass along the cheeks. It is called by 
 the natives Chikras. 
 
 Of the genus Scolopax, are the S. Rus- 
 ticola, or wood-cock. These birds make 
 their appearance in November, and con- 
 tinue till February. 
 
 S. Major, or great snipe. 
 
 S. Gallinago, or common snipe, and S. 
 Gallinula, or jack snipe. 
 
 * This bird is more numerous tliau all tlie other 
 varieties of phasianiis in Kemaon, which would not be 
 the ease if it were a hybrid, produced between the 
 common pheasant and the common cock ; for such a 
 bird would be incapable of reproduction, whereas this 
 species is known to breed. 
 2 K
 
 250 BIRDS. 
 
 Of water- fowls, the following species 
 are the most remarkable: Anas Boschas — 
 The wild duck. It is marked like the 
 domestic duck, but is nearly twice the 
 size, and much brighter in its colours. 
 
 Alias Crecca — The teal.
 
 AN 
 
 INQUIRY 
 
 INTO THE 
 
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF GOITRE.
 
 NOTE. 
 
 In the firat part of the YII. Vol. Cal. Med. Trans, are puhlished 
 tome conclusious derived from tlie earlier portion of the following 
 researches. 
 
 Since then, the subject has occupied mucli of my time and atten- 
 tion, without affording sufficient reasons to alter any of the main 
 facts contained in those conclusions, although they might certainly 
 be put in a less objectionable and dogmatic form ; but as I here take 
 the liberty of submitting to tlie public, the whole of my inijuiries on 
 the subject to which those conclusions relate, the necessity of making 
 any alteration in them is quite superseded. 
 
 I have here retained the Swiss name goitre, or rjotre, as the one by 
 which the disease is most universally and commonly known.
 
 PART III. 
 
 AN INQUIRY 
 
 INTO THE 
 
 NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE 
 GOITRE. 
 
 " 'Tis certaia that true knowledge is the knowledge of causes." 
 
 Bacon. 
 
 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Necessity of pursuing this inquiry on principles of induciivo 
 reasoning. Comparison between Lohooghat and Petoragur. Alti- 
 tude, temperature, aspect, rocks and waters, at Lohooghat, at which 
 place Goitre never occurs. Altitude, temperature, aspect, rocks and 
 ■waters, at Petoragur, where Goitre is contracted by a certain propor- 
 tion of those who temporararily reside tliere. Comparison between 
 800 strangers, an equal number of whom resided at each of the two 
 posts for the term of three years.
 
 254 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Theory of snow-water. Inhabitants of deep valleys and lofty ridge3 
 of granite, and gneiss, clay-slate and other aluminous and sili- 
 cious rocks are exempt from Goitre ; while in floetz districts, 
 where calcareous rocks prevail, one-eighth of the mass of population 
 are affected, although the people of the latter districts intermarry 
 with those of the first, are of the same castes and religion, and are 
 equally supplied with the requisites of life. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Statistic details of Shore valley, by which what has been stated in 
 regard to large tracts of districts, is traced to the spots on which 
 single villages are erected, XXVIIl. XXIX. 
 
 That affected villages are disposed (as much as possible amidst a 
 chaos of mountains) in lines parallel to the direction of the strata of 
 the earth, indicating thai these contain the source of the contagion, 
 XXIII. 
 
 That waters are the mediums by which the contagion is conveyed 
 to the constitution ; which is proved by instances of persons occupy- 
 ing the same village being exempt, or affected, according to the 
 source of the springs from which they receive their waters, IX. XII. 
 XXVIIl. 
 
 That water descending a short distance down rocky precipices, be- 
 fore taken for use, does not entirely lose its morbid effects; IX. 
 XXXI. XXXIII. (XLV. XLVI. Sec. iv.) while there is reason to 
 believe, that, those effects are modified more sensibly, by passing the 
 stream over cultivated land in artificial channels ; (XXX.) and hence, 
 that the noxious principle is not volatile, but fixed. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 The indications derived from the statistics of Shore Valley, are con- 
 firmed by inquiries in all the neighbouring places in which Goitre 
 is found to prevail ; the results therefore cannot depend on acci- 
 dental causes. A village of cretins discovered.
 
 SUMMAUY OF CONTENTS. 255 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 The misery which this endemic entails upon those who inhabit cer- 
 tain tracts of country. The identity of the disease in Kemaon, 
 with the endemic of Switzerland, Derbyshire, and other countries ; 
 and on comparison we find, the strata of rocks composing those 
 countries in which the Goitre prevails, are, as far as we are 
 acquainted, of a similar nature with those on which the affected villages 
 are erected in Kemaon. Influence which these strata are capable of 
 exercising on waters rendered probable from their nature, as well 
 as from their containing most of the celebrated mineral springs that 
 are known. Possible influence of these strata on the air in their 
 vicinity. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 General observations on waters, and the influence of their impu- 
 rities in causing endemic disorders. Difficulty of their accurate ex- 
 amination and imperfection of chemical tests, as well as of analyses 
 in discovering the active principles of certain celebrated mineral 
 waters. Sources of impurity of waters, and probable source of the 
 noxious principles in those waters that cause the Goitre. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 Examination of five of the waters suspected of causing the Goitre ; all 
 their physical characters but their specific gravity alone, indicate 
 something mineral in their nature, which is not confirmed by their 
 action on re-agents, and the quantity and nature of the extracts they 
 afford after evaporation. The only interesting result is, that there is 
 something peculiar in their constitution, that there is an uniformity 
 in their character, and in the principles which they contain, not to 
 be found in the same number of different waters taken from whole- 
 some springs, and different to the six wholesome waters which were 
 analysed for the purpose of comparison. Analysis of rain water at 
 Lohooghat, and interesting result.
 
 256 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 On the connexion of Goitre and cretinism : their nature and causfco 
 proved to be the same, the latter only differing in degree of inten- 
 sity. 
 
 Description of their phenomena, proximate cause. Predisposing cause 
 proved to be a scrofulous diathesis ; the objections of Dr. Pastiglione 
 to this view explained and removed. 
 
 Exciting cause, a noxious emanation from certain strata of the earth, 
 but whose nature, like that of all other contagions, eludes any 
 attempt at demonstration hitherto instituted. That waters are 
 obvious mediums by which the endemic contagion communicates 
 its effects to man.
 
 INQUIRY 
 
 INTO 
 
 THE CAUSES OF GOITRE. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY SECTION. 
 
 Before commencing the following re- 
 searches on the subject of Goitre, it may 
 not be devoid of interest to submit a brief 
 comparison between the military posts of 
 Lohooghat and Petoragur, including the 
 condition of health and local circum- 
 stances of the troops at each place. 
 
 To be successfully treated, the subject 
 of Goitre only requires to be taken up 
 systematically, and to be pursued inde- 
 pendent of theory, with a view merely to 
 the collection of data, or what Bacon 
 called — Forms. Such a method of inquiry 
 may be repugnant to the finer qualities of 
 the mind, which are naturally impatient 
 of the restraints of methodical philosophy, 
 2 L
 
 258 INTRODUCTORY SECTION. 
 
 but the records of medicine fully shew, 
 how inadequate the common mode of 
 reasoning has proved, when applied to the 
 elucidation of this disease. 
 
 Lohooghat is a small valley elevated 
 about 5,562 feet above the level of the 
 sea*, it is half a mile broad, and one and 
 a half long-, lying' in the direction of east 
 and west. Its mean temperature is about 
 60° Fahrenheit. It is surrounded by hills 
 that rise from five hundred to a thousand 
 feet above the cantonment, (which is situ- 
 ated in the centre of the valley,) except 
 on the west, where the circle is broken, 
 giving the whole the character of a cre- 
 scent, with its aspect to the west. 
 
 Clay-slate, containing occasional small 
 beds of gypsum and quartz, and covered 
 by a stratum of red ferruginous clay, and 
 a layer of vegetable mould, constitute all 
 the rocks that occur. Numerous springs 
 emerge from the clay-slate, causing streams 
 which unite in the southern extremity of 
 the valley, before they join the Racessa, or 
 Lohoo river ; these waters only contain 
 
 *Webb, vol. iv. Guograj)!!. Trans. Loud. p. 410.
 
 INTRODUCTORY SECTION. 259 
 
 a little eartliy matter, together with a 
 small portion of muriat of soda and sul- 
 phat of lime ; the whole solid extracts not 
 amounting- to more than i^ooo part of 
 the volume of water. 
 
 A detachment of two companies of the 
 3()th Regiment Native Infantry took pos- 
 session of this post in December, 1831, 
 and after three years subsequent residence 
 at Lohooghat, not one of the sepoys, or of 
 the numerous train of camp-followers, 
 consisting of about 400 men, women, and 
 children, had contracted the slightest affec- 
 tion of the thyroid gland. 
 
 The cantonment of Petoragur is fifteen 
 maritime miles, in a northerly direction 
 from Lohooghat, and is erected near the 
 summit, but rather on the southern accli- 
 vity of a low ridge, that extends into the 
 centre of Shore valley. The general level 
 of tiie valley is 5,000 feet, while the site 
 of the cantonment is 5,462 feet above the 
 sea. The situation is consequently more 
 open and commanding than that of Lo- 
 hooghat, there being no higher elevations 
 within the distance of three or four miles, 
 2 L 2
 
 260 INTRODUCTORY SECTION. 
 
 and from these, direct communication is 
 broken off by a broad expanse of richly cul- 
 tivated valley, which intervenes, except on 
 the west, where a mountain ridge, equal in 
 height to the loftiest elevations at Lohoo- 
 ghat, approaches within a mile; and it is 
 from this ridge that the eminence on which 
 the cantonment is erected is given off. 
 
 A lofty mountain, above 8,000 feet high, 
 forms at a distance of five miles the 
 southern boundary of the valley. On the 
 west, and north-west, altitudes of seven 
 thousand feet approach within from one 
 to two miles ; and on the east, and north- 
 east, we have altitudes of seven thousand 
 feet at three miles distance. On the 
 south-west, on the north, and on the 
 east, the mountains are divided by deep 
 chasms and ravines, which open the 
 lowest portions of the valley to the cur- 
 rents of air passing from these directions. 
 
 From simultaneous experiments made 
 at both places with thermometers, it may 
 be inferred, that the mean annual tem- 
 perature is at Petoragur about r 40' higher 
 than at Lohooghat. The rocks of which
 
 INTRODUCTORY SECTION. 261 
 
 this vicinity is composed, are clay-slate ; 
 supporting extensive cleposites of transi- 
 tion and floetz limestones, which give a 
 rugged aspect to the surrounding moun- 
 tains, as well as to the site of the can- 
 tonment. 
 
 Beds of greenstone and graphite, con- 
 taining copper and iron pyrites, are exten- 
 sively interspersed between the limestone 
 and slate. The pyrites are also found 
 disseminated through the strata seams 
 and rifts of the limestone ; while the 
 lower levels of the valley are composed 
 of beds of gravel — the debris of surround- 
 ing mountains cemented with calcareous 
 matter. An examination of four of the 
 principal springs, whose waters are used 
 by the residents in this cantonment, 
 proved them to contain a considerable 
 excess of carbonic acid, in combination 
 with very minute portions of alkaline and 
 earthy matters, so as only to afford one 
 part of solid extract out of from four to 
 eight thousand parts of water. Two of 
 the springs discovered a trace of iron and 
 sulphurated hydrogen gas.
 
 262 INTRODUCTORY SECTION. 
 
 This post was also occupied by two 
 companies of the same regiment, and 
 both detachments entered the hills to- 
 gether and were each of the same streng th, 
 and attended by the same number of 
 camp-followers. 
 
 During- the first year, no case of Goitre 
 occurred in either detachment ; at the 
 end of the second year, five cases were 
 discovered among* those composing- the 
 force at Petoragur ; and during- the next 
 six months, three or four more were 
 affected ; and at the end of the third year, 
 fifteen cases of Goitre had appeared at 
 the same place. 
 
 It will be seen from the annexed table, 
 that the whole number of sick admitted 
 into Petoragur Hospital, is nearly twice 
 that of the admissions into the Hospital 
 at Lohooghat ; and that dysentery, diar- 
 rhoea, and fevers, are above one-third moi-e 
 numerous at the former, than the latter 
 place — a circumstance which is indica- 
 tive of the greater intensity of endemic 
 disorders g-enerally in the district where 
 Goitre is found.
 
 
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 SECTION II. 
 
 INHABITANTS OF PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 
 
 In the Philosophical Transactions for 
 the year 1784, it was shewn by Mr. 
 Saunders, that the theory which ascribed 
 the cause of Goitre to the use of snow 
 water, was incorrect*. It would be useless 
 to enumerate the different theories which 
 have since been suggested, in order to 
 explain the cause of the complaint. A 
 reference to the latest of these will shew 
 
 * The merit is bestowed on Dr. Saunders, the author 
 of a celebrated treatise on mineral waters, which work 
 I have never had an opportunity of seeing-. Mr. 
 Saunders, a surgeon in the service of the East India 
 Company, refers to the frequency of Goitre in the 
 island of Sumatra, where snow never falls, long- before 
 Dr. Saunders's work on mineral could have been pub- 
 lislicd.
 
 PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 265 
 
 the little success that has attended the 
 inquiry. 
 
 It has perhaps been my good fortune 
 to be more favourably placed for conduct- 
 ing the inquiry, or more indefatigable in 
 collecting facts of a nature, that it would 
 have been utterly impossible to have 
 collected without great labour. Not in- 
 deed, such as deserves to be ranked either 
 scientific or literary, but bodily labour, 
 such as few could endure in a foreign 
 climate. 
 
 During the course of the inquiries con- 
 tained in the foregoing part of this w^ork, 
 I was struck with the frequency of Goitre 
 in one portion of the district ; while the 
 other was almost perfectly exempt from 
 the complaint, although an equality of 
 moral as well as physical circumstances 
 appeared to affect the whole. The exter- 
 nal alpine characters of the province are 
 the same in every part, the inhabitants 
 all belong to the same tribes of Hindoos, 
 and are subject to fewer irregularities in 
 their mode of life than any other people 
 in the world. In such a field, there could 
 2 M
 
 266 INHABITANTS OF 
 
 be little merit in eliciting highly import- 
 ant facts connected with this intricate 
 subject. 
 
 That portion of Kemaon which lies on 
 the south of the Ramesa river, is com- 
 posed of siliceous and argillaceous rocks 
 of the primitive class. The oldest of these 
 is granite, which penetrates through the 
 newer members of the series, and forms a 
 lofty ridge about eight thousand feet high. 
 In the centre of this ridge there are 
 numerous small valleys, some of them 
 seven thousand, and others as low as three 
 thousand, feet above the sea, inhabited by 
 persons who, some to avoid the winter's 
 cold of their native mountains, and some 
 to avail themselves of pasture for their 
 cattle, descend into the plains, and are 
 absent from their villages for five months 
 every year. From inquiries which I 
 made amongst these people, I found them 
 to be aftbcted with Goitre in the propor- 
 tion of one in five hundred ; but as they 
 do not constantly reside in the moun- 
 tains, they are excluded from the more 
 minute statistic details.
 
 PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 267 
 
 The north-eastern acclivity of the chain 
 of mountains above-mentioned, is inter- 
 sected by numerous deep river valleys 
 and ravines, as well as by low mountain 
 ridges, which afford a climate more con- 
 genial to the feeling-s and wants of the 
 inhabitants, who here reside constantly 
 in their villages. Of these villages, forty- 
 six have been visited ; but two of their 
 number having been only occupied for 
 three or four years, are excluded from the 
 peneral view : so that the number of vil- 
 lages on the south of the Ramesa river, 
 which we are now to consider, amount 
 to forty-three, and contain a population 
 of 3,700 : of this number, which I examin- 
 ed, I found only seventeen persons affect- 
 ed with the Goitre, and these were exclu- 
 sively adults. The different localities of 
 these villages are as diverse as can well 
 be imagined. Some are erected on narrow 
 ridges, others in deep valleys, surrounded 
 by abrupt and lofty mountains ; others on 
 rugged declivities, between lofty peaks on 
 the one side, and dark ravines on the 
 other, into some of which the sun can 
 2 M 2
 
 &6S INHABITANTS OF 
 
 scarcely penetrate. The tlifFerent alti- 
 tudes of these villages vary from two 
 thousand to six thousand feet. 
 
 Let us now cross the Ramesa river, and 
 enter the district of Shore, whose geolo- 
 gical distinctions have been pointed out 
 in a former part of this work ; and we 
 find that an eighth part of the people 
 are affected with Goitre. Yet the whole 
 inhabitants of the province are equally 
 circumstanced with respect to religion : 
 they intermarry, have the same customs, 
 and are aftected alike by moral and poli- 
 tical influences ; and finally, the tract in 
 which the disease prevails, is the richest 
 and most fertile portion of the province. 
 
 The natives themselves impute to the 
 equality of waters, a powerful influence 
 over their state of health ; and when it is 
 recollected, that water and farinaceous 
 vegetables constitute the chief diet of 
 Hindoos, ai:iy impurity of that fluid would 
 produce effects more readily upon them, 
 than on persons whose food and habits 
 are less simple ; but whether they are 
 right, or wrong, in ascribing the preva- 
 
 4
 
 PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 269 
 
 lence of Goitre to the impurity of parti- 
 cular waters, I sliall not here stop to 
 inquire. A subject on which so many 
 conflicting- opinions exist, requires to be 
 elucidated by such facts as from their 
 number, force, and simplicity, can lead 
 to no erroneous interpretation ; and in 
 collecting- these facts, the method I adopt- 
 ed, on observing the prevalency of the 
 disorder in one great section of the dis- 
 trict, and its absence in another, was to 
 mark the physical characters by which 
 these places were distinguished from each 
 other. The consequence was, a perfect 
 agreement in external aspect, altitude, 
 and climatology, but a very marked dif- 
 ference in their geognostic relations ; and 
 this distinction, which was even traced 
 down to the very villages in which 
 the disease is found, with such perfect 
 nicety as to enable one almost to pro- 
 nounce a priori, on examining the rocks 
 of a neighbourhood, whether the inhabi- 
 tants of it are affected with Goitre or not. 
 In pursuing- the inquiry farther, it is 
 found that every village is not equally
 
 270 INHABITANTS OF 
 
 affected in the same neighbourhood, but 
 that some are quite exempt, and others 
 affected to the extent of half their popu- 
 lation ; and this difference is not found to 
 depend on any accidental or transitory 
 cause, such as usually influence epidemic 
 complaints ; but has always affected the 
 inhabitants of a particular village, while 
 those of adjoining hamlets have continued 
 perfectly, and permanently free from the 
 complaint. 
 
 That this does not altogether depend 
 on hereditary predisposition is rendered 
 certain, by the numerous cases of persons 
 who, having changed from a healthy to 
 an unhealthy village, have become the sub- 
 jects of the disease ; and from the tumors 
 of those affected becoming stationary, and 
 even disappearing entirely during a resi- 
 dence in a healthy village. The follow- 
 ing details of facts on which the foregoing- 
 statements are founded, will not, I trust, 
 (although they are tedious,) be thought 
 unworthy of attentive pei*usal. In order 
 that we may proceed on some fixed and 
 sure principles, I shq,ll not include in the
 
 miMITIVE ROCKS. 271 
 
 statistic notices, any village that has not 
 been inhalnted for at least nineteen years, 
 or since the period at which the province 
 fell into the hands of the British. For 
 the same reason, I shall also exclude the 
 villages adjoining- and connected with the 
 military posts ; but I shall avail myself 
 of these sources when they may serve to 
 illustrate any fact of importance. To 
 prevent the confusion of names on the 
 map, I shall distinguish the various groups 
 of villages to be noticed in this section 
 alphabetically. 
 
 A. Villages of Rykote and Patau, six 
 in number ; they are situated two miles 
 north of the military post of Lohooghat. 
 The Patau villages are erected on the 
 southern foot of a lofty mountain, and 
 those called Rykote are surrounded by 
 mountains distinguished by the same 
 name, which ascend from 1,000 to 1,500 
 feet above theui. The villages are ele- 
 vated about 6,000 feet above the sea, and 
 are erected on an iron-clay, derived from 
 the disintegration of clay-slate. Their 
 mean annual temperature is about 6'0".
 
 272 INHABITANT^ OF 
 
 They contain 200 inhabitants, all of whom 
 are free from Goitre. 
 
 B. Nine vilUiges situated on the N. W. 
 acclivity of the mountain called Gome- 
 dace : their names are Nakote, Gourouly, 
 Choka, Pimtolly, Jata, Borinkora, Nelto- 
 kora, Chopota, and Seiligna. They con- 
 tain 800 inhabitants. Four cases of small 
 Goitre only, have been found among- 
 them, and the four persons are aged ; they 
 informed me they acquired the disease in 
 their youth, while residing in a distant 
 part of the country. These villages are 
 erected on primitive and transition clay- 
 slates — mean altitude about^,4300 feet, 
 mean annual temperature about 64*'. 
 
 C. Four small villages on the eastern 
 declivity of Gome-dace. They contain 
 150 inhabitants, who are all free from 
 Goitre. These villages are erected on 
 primitive, and transition clay-slates — 
 mean altitude 3,800 feet. The situation 
 of these villages in the valley of the Mahi 
 Kalee river, renders their temperature 
 high, particularly as they are sheltered 
 from all but the north and south winds.
 
 PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 27S 
 
 D. Villages of Pansall, Cheemronly, 
 Konera, Leno Simela, Chomonnee, Lund, 
 Katee, and KatuUy, nine in number, 
 which contain 800 inhabitants. They are 
 situated on low ridges and deep ravines. 
 Mean altitude, about 3,700 feet. IMean 
 temperature*, J0°. They are erected on 
 primitive clay-slate : only three cases of 
 Goitre could be found amongst their 
 population. 
 
 E. Villaoes of Agee, Nina, Glioura, Rye, 
 Deortola, Gorong, Sutura, Chakora, Wal- 
 lishone, and a few others, contain 600 
 persons, amongst whom four persons are 
 affected. These villages are erected on 
 primitive clay -slate. Mean altitude, about 
 4,000 feet. 
 
 F. Villages of Ben tally, Jarig, Babra, 
 Goumana, Biouly, Guinora, Kakur, and 
 Barakote, situated in deep valleys, and on. 
 high ridges and declivities. They con- 
 tain 500 inhabitants, six of whom have 
 Goitre. They are erected on primitive 
 
 * Temperature does not always depend on altitude 
 in these cases, but rather on local circumstances, kucIi 
 as aspect, shelter from prevailing winds, &c. 
 2 N
 
 274 INHABITANTS OF 
 
 slate, siliceous sandstone, and transition 
 slate. Their altitude varies from about 
 .2,500 to 6,500 feet. 
 
 G. Jeercoonee is the name of a moun- 
 tain which is given off from the Sooee 
 group, about four miles N, W. of Lohoo- 
 ghat. It extends into the valley of the 
 Ponar river on the west ; is exceedingly 
 rugged, and for the most part inaccessible. 
 Deep ravines enclose it on three sides : 
 in these are situated, on the north, three 
 villages, which are named from the moun- 
 tain ; on the south are the villages of 
 Junera, Dootee, Thur, and Mura : in all 
 seven. They contain about 400 inha- 
 bitants, without a single case of Goitre. 
 Nothing can be more frightful than the 
 localities of these villages, from the lofty 
 cliffs and mountains which seem to over- 
 hang them ; while deep chasms lie at 
 angles of 30° below. The altitude of these 
 villages is from about 2,200 to 3,500 feet, 
 and their mean temperature about 70". 
 They are erected on primitive slate and 
 siliceous sandstone. 
 
 H. Rigong, Chimtouly, Bursolly, and
 
 PRIMITIVE HOCKS. 275 
 
 Popoulee. The two first are erected on 
 low ridges of transition slate, surrounded 
 by deep ravines and extensive forests ; 
 but the last is erected near the summit 
 of a mountain of hornblende-slate. These 
 villages contain 250 inhabitants, of whom 
 none are affected with Goitre. 
 
 The following table exhibits the result 
 of the details we have gone over in this 
 section, in a way that will be convenient 
 for comparison, with the result of similar 
 inquiries in other portions of the province 
 about to be detailed. 
 
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 SECTION III. 
 
 STATISTICS OF SHORE VALLEY. 
 
 The g-eneral situation of the district of 
 Shore, as well as its geological structure, 
 has been described. I shall now proceed 
 to notice the villages which are situated 
 in it, specifying the number of inhabitants 
 in each, and their circumstances in rela- 
 tion to Goitre ; but from the great extent 
 to which the disease here occurs, it will 
 be necessary to attend to more minute 
 particulars than were observed in the 
 last section, in order that nothing may 
 escape that might be calculated to aid 
 the inquiry. 
 
 I. A village, called Beesty, is situated 
 on the southern extremity of a low group 
 of hills, in the centre of the valley of
 
 278 STATISTICS OF 
 
 Shore. It is erected on clay-slate, and 
 supplied with water from the same rock. 
 It contains 60 inhabitants, all of whom 
 are free from Goitre, except an elderly 
 person, who came some years ago from 
 another part of the neighbourhood, and 
 the tumor has rather diminished than 
 increased during a residence in this 
 village. 
 
 II. Panda is half a mile north from the 
 last described, and is erected on clay- 
 slate ; but scattered blocks of limestone 
 partly cover the surface of the slate, and 
 a small bed of the limestone terminates 
 in a knoll, on which the village is erected. 
 It contains 25 inhabitants, and all are 
 free from Goitre. It is supplied with 
 water from clay-slate, and is elevated 
 about 100 feet above tlie leve! of tiie 
 valley. The inhabitants of this and the 
 last village belong- to the caste of Rajpoots. 
 
 III. Salmora, the name of a few huts, 
 situated at the northern extremity of the 
 valley, about a mile I'rom the last describ- 
 ed village. It is inhabited by two fami- 
 lies of distinct castes, seven persons in
 
 SHORE VALLEY. 279 
 
 each family, and four individuals of the 
 caste of Doms, and two of the Rajpoots, 
 have Goitre ; in all, six out of 14 indi- 
 viduals. This, like the former village, is 
 elevated a little above the valley, and 
 differs from it only in being erected on 
 transition limestone, from which rock it 
 is supplied with water. One of the Raj- 
 poots is deaf and dumb, with a large head, 
 and idiotic expression of countenance, 
 which are all symptoms of Cretinism. 
 
 IV. Celouly, a small village, situated 
 on the northern acclivity of the same 
 knolls on which the tw^o first hamlets are 
 erected. It is elevated 300 feet above 
 the valley. Its altitude and aspect render 
 its temperature less than that of any of 
 the former villages. It is erected on clay- 
 slate, from which it is supplied with water. 
 It contains 25 Rajpoot inhabitants, all of 
 whom are free from Goitre. 
 
 V. Murh, a larger village than any of 
 the foregoing ; it is situated close to IV., 
 but on the base of an opposite mountain, 
 and contains JO inhabitants, who belong 
 equally to the castes of Rajpoots and
 
 280 STATISTICS OF 
 
 Doms ; two of the former and three of 
 the latter are affected with Goitre. It 
 is erected on the jnnction of clay-slate 
 and limestone, and an extensive bed of 
 granatine, composed of dolomite spar, calc- 
 spar, and steatite, advances close to the 
 village. The basins of the springs are 
 situated in this rock, but the waters are 
 most likely derived from the substratum, 
 as the granatine in question is seldom 
 observed to afford springs. 
 
 VI. Goseragong — is situated a mile N. 
 N. E. of Murh, and contains 18 in- 
 habitants, 10 of whom are Rajpoots, and 
 the rest are Doms : seven of the former, 
 and five of the latter, have enormous 
 Goitres. Tlie inhabitants of this villaoe 
 assured me, that they seldom exceeded 
 the age of 50, being generally cut off by 
 this disease : and a person died of it only 
 a few days before my first visit. The 
 village is erected on a coarse conQ'lome- 
 rate of calc tuff and rolled masses. Lofty 
 precipices of alpine limestone ascend 
 abruptly behind it to the height of two 
 thousand feet ; but the site is not more
 
 SHORE VALLEY. 281 
 
 alpine than that of the seven villages at 
 Jeercoonee. (G. Sec. II.) Goseragong is 
 elevated about 200 feet above the level 
 of Shore valley, and has an open aspect 
 only on the S. E. ; its temperature is con- 
 sequently higher than that of the gener- 
 ality of villages in its vicinity, but in 
 none of these respects is it more objec- 
 tionable than either of the villages of 
 Jeercoonee. 
 
 Water is supplied for the use of this 
 village by a fountain, which issues from 
 the limestone rock. 
 
 VII. Teebee. This village is situated 
 three-quarters of a mile from VI., on an 
 arm of the same mountain which extends 
 into the valley. It contains 20 inhabit- 
 ants, seven of whom have large Goitres. 
 It is erected on clay-slate, coated with an 
 incrustation of calcareous matter, and is 
 elevated about 200 feet above the level 
 of Shore valley, and is watered by a 
 stream, which issues from the same source 
 as that which supplies VI. ; but in the 
 present case, it is taken for use after 
 2 o
 
 282 STATISTICS OF 
 
 running about a quarter of a mile in a 
 natural channel. 
 
 VIII. Satgalinge is erected on an arm 
 of a mountain which extends the same 
 distance into the valley as the last. It 
 has the same elevation, and is erected 
 on the same rock, and the localities of 
 both are close together, with a precisely 
 similar aspect. It contains 40 inhabit- 
 ants, and only two of them have Goitre. 
 It is supplied with water from a spring 
 in clay -slate. The inhabitants are Domes. 
 
 IX. Pan ere. The name by which three 
 small groups of houses are distinguished 
 in the north-western extremity of the 
 valley, at an elevation of about 200 feet 
 above it. Two of these groups contain 
 30 inhabitants, and four of these have 
 Goitre. They use the water of a stream 
 that descends a short way from its source, 
 in the limestone cap of the mountain 
 above them. The third portion of the 
 group contains 24 persons, and is furnish- 
 ed with water from a spring in clay-slate. 
 They belong to the Rajpoot caste, and are 
 free from Goitre. The 30 persons first
 
 SHORE VALLEY. 283 
 
 mentioned are Domes. Panere is built 
 upon clay-slate. 
 
 X. Bajeetee is erected on the southern 
 acclivity of a low ridge which intersects 
 the valley from east to west. It contains 
 20 Bramins, and 30 Domes : of the for- 
 mer, three, and of the latter, 13 are affect- 
 ed with Goitre. These people derive the 
 waters which they use for culinary pur- 
 poses from two distinct wells sunk near 
 the bed of a stream w^hich issues from 
 the limestone cap of the adjoining moun- 
 tain. The wells are so situated with 
 regard to the stream, that they do not 
 seem to be supplied by any independent 
 spring, but rather from the stream, par- 
 ticularly during the dry season. The 
 rock surrounding the wells, as well as 
 that on which the village is erected, is 
 clay-slate, coated with calcareous matter, 
 especially in all fissures, exposed surfaces, 
 and rifts of the strata. 
 
 XI. Popdeon is situated half a mile 
 west of X. and contains 80 inhabitants, 
 50 of the higher and 30 of the lower 
 caste; of the former, eight, and of the 
 
 2 o 2
 
 284 STATISTICS OF 
 
 latter, 10 are affected. There are no dis- 
 tinctions in the physical relations of the 
 inhabitants of the last village (X.) that 
 the persons of this do not possess in com- 
 mon with them. 
 
 XII. Panorah is a village which is situ- 
 ated in the western extremity of Shore 
 valley, about a mile west of the last. It 
 contains 70 high caste inhabitants, and 20 
 Domes ; of the former, one only is affected 
 with Goitre, while six of the latter have 
 large tumors. One of these swellings, which 
 was the largest, I had an opportunity of 
 seeing : measured two feet one inch round 
 the neck, and one foot eleven inches from 
 one angle of the under jaw, to the other 
 on the opposite side. 
 
 The Bramin, or high caste inhabitants 
 of this village, derive their water from a 
 spring in clay-slate ; and as the prejudice 
 of the Hindoos denies to Domes the pri- 
 vilege of partaking of the water of the 
 same spring, the excluded caste are forced 
 in this, as in many other cases in Kemaon, 
 to use this fluid from what they, as well 
 as the Bramins, believe to be impure
 
 SHORE VALLEY. 285 
 
 sources ; and in this instance, it is taken 
 from a stream that issues from the same 
 limestone caps that afford waters to the 
 two last-described villages. Panorah is 
 built on clay-slate, slightly coated with 
 calcareous matter. 
 
 XIII. Paruree. This village is lower 
 down in the valley than any of the fore- 
 going, and is about a quarter of a mile 
 south of the small knoll on which Bajeetee 
 is erected. 
 
 It contains sixty inhabitants of the 
 Braniin caste, and there is no case of 
 Goitre among them. This village is erect- 
 ed on clay-slate, and surrounded by fine 
 springs in the same rock. 
 
 XIV. Dungaunee contains 25 inhabi- 
 tants. They are free from Goitre. This 
 village is situated half a mile south of the 
 military cantonments, on the southern side 
 of the low ridge which intersects the val- 
 ley from west to east. It is supplied with 
 water from a spring in clay-slate. 
 
 XV. Bagalla is a village situated a little 
 lower in the valley than the last. It con- 
 tains 18 persons of the higher, and 22 of
 
 286 STATISTICS OF 
 
 the lower caste : none of them have Goitre. 
 It is surrounded by springs in clay-slate, 
 and erected on the same rock. 
 
 XVI. Kumora is situated a quarter of 
 a mile east of Dungaunee, and contains 
 70 inhabitants, of whom two are slightly 
 affected with Goitre. This village is ele- 
 vated 50 feet above the valley on a small 
 knoll forming part of the low ridge that 
 intersects the valley, and which has been 
 before mentioned : the ridge rises behind 
 this, and the following seven villages to 
 the height of about 200 feet above them, 
 at a distance of 300 yards in their rear. 
 This and the following villages are erected 
 on clay-slate, and plentifully supplied with 
 water from springs in that rock. The 
 first three in the list are situated close to 
 the limestone, which forms in tabular 
 masses the rugged cap of the ridge. 
 
 XVII. {a) Jakane, 30 inhabitants, all 
 free from Goitre. 
 
 XVIII. (b) Chouser, 50 inhabitants; no 
 case of Goitre. 
 
 XIX. {c) Beera, 40 inhabitants; no case 
 of Goitre.
 
 SHORE VALLEY. 287 
 
 XX. Boorikote, 100 inhabitants, no 
 Goitre. 
 
 XXI. Kaseena, 15 inhabitants; no 
 Goitre. 
 
 XXII. Kosooly, 25 inhabitants ; no 
 Goitre. 
 
 XXIII. Lailure, 100 inhabitants ; no 
 case of Goitre. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact in the history 
 of this disease in Kemaon, that as far as 
 we have yet proceeded, it will, on refer- 
 ence to the map, appear to extend in lines 
 parallel to the direction of the strata. 
 This important observation is strongly 
 indicative of the influence of particular 
 rocks on the remote cause of Goitre. The 
 villages which are exempt from the mor- 
 bid influence, are those which lie in a 
 line along the base of the central ridge of 
 the valley, beginning with Paruree (XIII.) 
 and extending eastward to Lailure (XXIII.) 
 and Murakote ; on each side of these are 
 the villages which are aflected. They 
 consist of two groups : one a mile distant, 
 in the S. E. portion of the valley ; and 
 the other the same distance in an oppo-
 
 288 STATISTICS OF 
 
 site direction ; and both are disposed in 
 lines parallel to the line of healthy vil- 
 lag-es we have just noticed, as well as to 
 the direction of the strata. 
 
 The locality of the three following vil- 
 lages in the S. E. portion of the valley, 
 bears a striking resemblance in external 
 appearance and geological structure, to 
 the site of those villages marked a, 6, c, 
 whose inhabitants may be said to be in- 
 sulated from the limestone strata, inas- 
 much as they derive their supply of water 
 from springs in another rock. 
 
 XXV. {d) Kutkora, 15 inhabitants, 5 
 Goitres. 
 
 XXVI. [e] Baldakote, 14 inhabitants, 7 
 Goitres. 
 
 XXVII. (/) Batuda, 16 inhabitants, 10 
 Goitres. 
 
 These three villages are those which 
 compose tlie south-western line, and are 
 erected on a conglomerate of calc-tufF, 
 inclosing fragments of clay-slate and 
 other rocks, and partly on clay-slate 
 coated with calc-tuff. A clay-slate moun- 
 tain supporting a tnassive cap of transi-
 
 SHOUE VALLEY. 289 
 
 tion limestone, ascends to an altitude of 
 300 above them ; pouring- out numerous 
 fountains, from which the immense beds 
 of calc-tufF, on which the villages stand, 
 have been derived. The waters are beau- 
 tifully clear and limpid, and are taken 
 for use as they jet from the rock. The 
 peculiarity in the rocks from which their 
 waters are derived, are the only relations 
 in which the inhabitants of the villasfes 
 fl?, e,f, differ from those of «, h, c : the 
 altitude, aspect, tempei-ature, religion, and 
 morals of the inhabitants of both groups 
 of villages being the same. 
 
 The villages on the north-eastern ex- 
 tremity of Shore valley, whose inhabit- 
 ants are affected with the disease, are the 
 following : 
 
 XXVIII. Deota. A lengthened village, 
 which occupies half a mile of the foot of 
 Durge mountain. One extremity of it is 
 inhabited by Bramins, the other by Raj- 
 poots and Domes. Of the first caste, there 
 are about 20 persons, all of whom are free 
 from Goitre ; of the second there are 40, 
 and tw^o-thirds are affected more or less; 
 2 P
 
 290 STATISTICS OF 
 
 and of the third caste, nearly the whole 
 are aftected, 40 in number : so that, in- 
 cluding the Bramins, there are only about 
 forty persons in this village exempt from 
 Goitre, out of a population of 100. To 
 what cause can we ascribe the immunity 
 of one caste of the inhabitants of this 
 village, and the almost universal affection 
 of the other two castes ? They are all 
 alike well fed, and have little toil ; their 
 land producing the requisites of life almost 
 without labour. Difference of caste does 
 not here imply a difference in pecuniary 
 circumstances, and consequently of the 
 comforts of life. In these respects, the 
 three castes in this village are on perfect 
 equality ; nor will hereditary predispo- 
 sition, acquired by intermarriages between 
 afl'ected parties, be sufficient to explain 
 the interesting fact : for the affected par- 
 ties are confined to the castes of Rajpoots 
 and Domes, who cannot intermarry ; while 
 the Bramins and Rajpoots may. 
 
 The village is raised about 100 feet 
 above the level of the valley, and the 
 mountain, at the foot of which it is situ-
 
 SHORE VALLEY. 291 
 
 ated, rises with a g-entle slope, and is not 
 in this vicinity at all rugged. It is chiefly 
 composed of transition limestone ; and the 
 village is erected on a conglomerated rock, 
 composed of calc-tulF, inclosing masses 
 and fragments of other rocks. There is 
 a spring situated in the valley, at the 
 distance of about a hundred yards from 
 the village, which from its first appear- 
 ance has the character of a mineral spring. 
 The water bursts forth with strong ebulli- 
 tion from numerous veins, in the quantity 
 of at least forty gallons a minute, and 
 communicates adhesive properties to the 
 sand and gravel by which it is surround- 
 ed*. The temperature and quantity of 
 the water is the same at all seasons. 
 
 The former inhabitants of this village, 
 aware perhaps of the noxious effects of 
 the spring, had an aqueduct formed, by 
 which water is conveyed into the Bramin 
 portion of the village, from a distant 
 source. The aqueduct being allowed to 
 go out of repair, the quantity of water 
 
 * This is merely the effect of calcareous tuffa, depo- 
 sited in loose aluminous and sandy earth. 
 
 2p2
 
 292 STATISTICS OF 
 
 it transmits is reserved exclusively for 
 the Bramins ; but during the rainy sea- 
 son, when water is plentiful, the Rajpoots 
 also use the water of the aqueduct ; but 
 the Domes have no alternative at any 
 season, but to use the water from the 
 spring. 
 
 The circumstances of this village, with 
 respect to Goitre, might of themselves be 
 sufficient to confirm the doctrine of mine- 
 ral waters ; but so much difference of 
 opinion has hitherto prevailed on the 
 subject, that it is not likely such evidence 
 alone will prove satisfactory, more espe- 
 cially as we are in the habit of over- 
 looking occasional facts, as decisive as the 
 above, though they have been brought to 
 light by philosophers, whose names would 
 have been sufficient security for their 
 truth ^ n any other question. 
 
 XXIX. Ninee. This village is also 
 erected on the foot of Durge mountain, 
 within a mile of the last described village. 
 It contains 80 inhabitants, and there is 
 not one case of Goitre among them. These 
 people belong to the Rajpoot caste ; their
 
 SHORE VALLEY. 293 
 
 villaj^e is erected on clay-slate, which is 
 partly detached from the base of the 
 mountain by a small ravine, only a few 
 yards wide. The mountain is here rug- 
 ged and inaccessible; the village is sup- 
 plied by a small but sufficient spring, in 
 clay-slate. 
 
 XXX. Chonda. Also on the foot of 
 Durge mountain, about two miles east of 
 Deota. Chonda is built on a conglomerate 
 of calc-tufF, inclosing fragments of slate 
 and limestone. The inhabitants use the 
 water of a stream which descends from the 
 acclivity of the mountain depositing calc- 
 tuff. For convenience, a few years ago, 
 a portion of the stream was conducted in 
 an artificial channel, through cultivated 
 land, to the village — a circumstance, which 
 there is some reason to believe, had mo- 
 dified the virulence of the water, for the 
 tumors of those afl^'ected have not increas- 
 ed latterly, as they used to do ; and chil- 
 dren continue free from the complaint : 
 of 25 inhabitants, seven are afi'ected. 
 
 XXXI. Sunn. A little village, about a 
 mile eastward of Chonda, on the opposite
 
 294 STATISTICS OF 
 
 side of the ridge on which Lailure is 
 erected. It is inhabited by a family of 
 Bramins, 10 in number, and five of them 
 have Goitre. Tliis village is also watered 
 by a stream which descends from the 
 mountain acclivity. 
 
 XXXII. OlielandCubulcola. Two small 
 hamlets, situated three miles eastward of 
 Sunn, in the direction of the strata. 'J'hese 
 two villages are situated in a most pleas- 
 ing amphitheatre, completely sheltered 
 from northerly and westerly winds, and 
 partly also from those of the south ; but 
 exposed to the full power of the sun, until 
 a few hours before he sets, when the valley 
 is left in shade. There are 25 inhabit- 
 ants in these villages, 13 of whom have 
 Goitre, and 10 of them are Cretins : of these 
 a whole family is deaf and dumb. Their 
 deafness appears to depend more on a 
 general insensibility to external impres- 
 sions, than on any morbid or preterna- 
 tural conformation of the ears. They 
 seemed also to be deficient in sight, and 
 quite insusceptible of the passions of joy 
 and fear. The mountains around the
 
 SHORE VALLEY. 295 
 
 locality of these villages are composed 
 chiefly of limestone. 
 
 XXXIII. Bagultolly, lies in continu- 
 ation of the same line, and two miles east 
 of the last-described, and probably about 
 1,500 feet below the level of Shore valley, 
 in what now may be called the valley of 
 the Mahi Kalee. Its aspect and locality 
 are confined by mountains, which from 
 this low situation seem, to be of great 
 height. 
 
 It is erected on clay-slate, and partly 
 watered by a spring in that rock, and 
 partly by a stream from the mountain. 
 It contains 25 inhabitants, four of whom 
 have Goitre. The little arable ground 
 around this village is in a high state of 
 cultivation. 
 
 XXXIV. BescoUy. This village is on 
 nearl}^ the same level with the last de- 
 scribed, but instead of being an inclosed 
 valley, it is situated on an exposed though 
 low ridge, composed of clay-slate, but 
 covered by the usual calcareous conglo- 
 merate, and watered by fountains that 
 are poured from the mountain acclivities :
 
 296 STATISTICS OF 
 
 these are composed of transition limestone, 
 along with which serpentine here makes 
 its appearance. Of 25 inhabitants in 
 this village, 10 of them are affected with 
 Goitre. 
 
 XXXV. Gooraght, situated two miles 
 N. E. of the last-described. It is built 
 partly on clay-slate, and partly on the 
 conglomerate which now contains, in ad^ 
 dition to the usual rocks, blocks of com- 
 mon serpentine. Water is procured from 
 the mountain acclivity. Of 24 inhabit- 
 ants, 10 have Goitre, and a father and 
 two sons are Cretins: the sons are both 
 deaf and dumb. 
 
 The two villages which we have noticed 
 last, are less interesting in a scientific 
 point of view, as the inhabitants at cer- 
 tain seasons are compelled to retire to 
 some neighbouring locality, in consequence 
 of the rapacity of wild beasts. I have, 
 however, added them to complete the 
 account of the population in this direc- 
 tion. For a similar reason I may add 
 the following villages, which are situated 
 in the eastern extremity of Shore valley.
 
 SHORE VALLEY. 297 
 
 They are permanently occupied, and are 
 a con ti aviation of the line of villages that 
 are exempt from the Goitre. The three 
 first are erected on clay-slate. 
 
 XXXVI. Chupuckea, 40 inhabitants, 
 no Goitre. 
 
 XXXVII. Suakote, 40 inhabitants, no 
 Goitre. 
 
 XXXVIII. Murakote, 40 inhabitants, 
 no Goitre. 
 
 Some blocks of overlying- limestone are 
 strewed about the neighbourhood of these 
 villages, but clay-slate affords a plentiful 
 supply of water for their use. 
 
 XXXIX. In the lowest part of the 
 water-shed of Shore valley, where the 
 different streams have collected their 
 waters into a river, which escapes through 
 deep chasms in the mountains, there is 
 found a partial sandstone formation, on 
 which the following two villages are 
 erected. 
 
 fa J Kotilla, 50 inhabitants, no Goitre. 
 fbj Ruena, 50 inhabitants, no Goitre. 
 XL. Deorcolla and Dingas are situated 
 lower down the valley of the small river 
 2 Q
 
 298 STATISTICS OF SHORE VALLEY. 
 
 just mentioned ; they are erected partly 
 on a magnesian limestone, and partly on 
 clay-slate. They are surrounded by many 
 of the highest mountains in Kemaon. The 
 two villages contain 40 inhabitants, and 
 none of them are affected with Goitre. 
 The surrounding acclivities are overspread 
 with overlying masses of limestone.
 
 
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 SECTION IV. 
 
 STATISTICS OF VARIOUS VALLEYS 
 AND DISTRICTS. 
 
 After a few more statistic notices of 
 the district which surrouiicls Shore valley, 
 we may then proceed to the analysis of 
 the whole of the details, and render them 
 into a more interesting shape than we 
 have yet been enabled to do. As far as 
 the nature of the subject may admit of 
 it, the remaining details shall be short- 
 ened, by generalizing the villages with 
 the valleys in which they are situated. 
 
 XLI. The great valley of the Ramgun- 
 gah river is situated eight miles west of 
 Shore. It is here, about 1,800 feet above 
 the level of the sea ; and the lowest vil- 
 lages are about 400 feet above the bed of 
 the river. The mountaiu acclivities on
 
 THE VALLEY OF RAMGUNGAH. 301 
 
 each side ascend at angles of about 20" to 
 the height of three or four thousand feet. 
 They are composed ahiiost entirely of 
 limestone, of the transition and fioetz 
 periods ; these rocks rest on primitive 
 slate, which occasionally crops from under 
 them. The direction of the valley is from 
 north to south, and of the strata from S. 
 E. to N. W. ; the limestone formations 
 consequently cross the valley obliquely. 
 There are in this valley eight villages, 
 viz. Bursar, Kuttygong, Tulsar, Sangur, 
 Domera, Chumalloo, and two others. 
 These villages are interspersed through 
 the valley, at different altitudes, and are 
 all erected on limestone. They contain 
 100 inhabitants, chiefly of the Rajpoot 
 caste, and 60 of them are affected with 
 Goitre. The following are the limestone 
 rocks found to compose this part of the 
 valley. 
 
 faj Extensive beds of the transition 
 rock. 
 
 CbJ Compact limestone, which abounds 
 in such quantity as to form the peculiar 
 alpine character of this portion of the 
 valley.
 
 302 STATISTICS OF THE 
 
 fcj Extensive deposites of calcareous 
 tuffa inclosing rolled masses of other rocks. 
 
 XLII. The valley of Kalapany. This 
 valley adjoins the northern extremity of 
 Shore, and extends six or eight miles 
 to the westward, where it falls into the 
 valley of the Ramgungah (XLI.) It is 
 probably one of the lowest inhabited 
 places in Kemaon, and is closely sur- 
 rounded by mountains, some of which 
 ascend six thousand feet above the river, 
 at angles subtending from 20° to 30°. 
 It contains few villages, and the pre- 
 sence or absence of Goitre is here marked 
 by the same concomitant circumstances 
 that have been observed in Shore valley. 
 The following are the two most consider- 
 able villages, and are most remarkable 
 in the contrast they present to each other 
 with respect to Goitre. 
 
 A. Beechelly. Situated in the lowest 
 part of the valley. It contains 70 inhabit- 
 ants, 30 of whom hav e Goitres. This vil- 
 lage is closely surrounded by mountains of 
 transition limestone, and is erected on 
 an alluvial deposite, which is formed of 
 the debris of other rocks, and cemented
 
 VALLEY OF BARABICE. 303 
 
 loosely with calcareous matter : 50 of 
 these persons are Rajpoots, the remainder 
 are Domes. 
 
 B. Reunna. Situated a mile to the 
 eastward of Beechelly ; contains 50 inha- 
 bitants, only one of whom has Goitre. 
 
 This village is as much inclosed by 
 surrounding mountains as the last, and 
 is only about 50 feet higher. 
 
 It is erected on the side of a knoll of 
 transition slate, and having no spring, 
 the inhabitants use the water of the river, 
 which comes from the valley of Bara- 
 bice. The inhabitants of this village are 
 Rajpoots. 
 
 XLIII. Valley of Barabice is situated 
 twelve miles north from the valley of 
 Shore, and is elevated about 4,000 feet 
 above the sea. It is somewhat of an oval 
 shape, extending about four miles from 
 east to west, and two miles from north to 
 south. The eastern extremity of the val- 
 ley is composed of clay-slate containing 
 beds of talc. There are five villasfes in 
 this end of the valley, which contain a 
 population of 152 ; and I could not per-
 
 304 STATISTICS OF THE 
 
 ceive, or learn upon inquiry amongst them, 
 that there was a single case of Goitre in 
 these villages. 
 
 The western extremity of the valley is 
 bounded by a low ridge, which is formed 
 of a coarse kind of satin spar (fibrous 
 limestone), and first lloetz limestone : these 
 rocks rest on clay-slate, and six villages, 
 which contain 192 inhabitants, are erect- 
 ed on them ; and out of this number, JO 
 are affected with Goitre : but it must not 
 be supposed, that these 70 persons belong 
 equally to the six villages. The follow- 
 ing two instances will illustrate the diver- 
 sity that prevails in this respect. 
 
 faj Ager. This village contains 50 in- 
 habitants, 40 of whom have large Goitres, 
 and twenty of them are Cretins. /They 
 use the water which issues from the drift 
 of an old copper mine, which is situated 
 in first floetz limestone. The people were 
 earnestly solicited to discontinue the use 
 of this water in future ; and I pointed out 
 a spring at some distance that they might 
 substitute for it, in the full confidence 
 of being benefitted by the change.
 
 VALLEY OF DEODARA, ETC. 305 
 
 (bj Diicyg-oiig, situated within half a 
 mile of Ager (a), on the same rock, and 
 contains the same number of inhabitants, 
 and not one of them aftected by the dis- 
 ease. They use the water of a spring* in 
 clay-slate, and belong- to the Bramin and 
 Rajpoot castes. 
 
 XLIV. The valley of Deodara is situ- 
 ated on the southern side of Shore valley, 
 from which it is only divided by a de- 
 tached mountain of clay-slate, with a slight 
 deposite of tabular limestone on its sum- 
 mit. The opposite side of the valley is 
 bounded by Takill, a very lofty mountain. 
 
 This valley contains two large villages 
 and several smaller ones. It is well 
 watered by numerous springs in clay- 
 slate. It contains 250 inhabitants, of 
 whom four persons only are affected with 
 Goitre, and these are confined to a small 
 village, which contains 20 inhabitants, 
 and which is erected immediately beneath 
 the limestone cap of the mountain which 
 divides the valley from Shore. 
 
 XLV. The valley of Goron is situated 
 on the western side of Shore valley, from 
 2 R
 
 306 STATISTICS OF THE 
 
 whicli it is separated by a considerable 
 ridge. It contains seven villages, and 179 
 inhabitants, 16 of whom have Goitre, and 
 nine of these affected persons belong to a 
 small village of 24 inhabitants, called 
 Majara : the inhabitants of this village 
 derive their water from a stream which 
 rises in the limestone of the Oudepore 
 mountains on the south side of the valley. 
 This valley is composed of a variety of 
 rocks ; but the villages are generally 
 erected on clay-slate, which abounds in 
 springs of pure water. 
 
 A village in this valley called Ghana, 
 is erected on the same granatin e as that 
 which occurs at Murh (V) : it contains 30 
 inhabitants, two of whom are affected with 
 Goitre. 
 
 XLVI. The valley of Roilputty extends 
 along the S. W. foot of Takill, and is 
 about seven miles distant from the valley 
 of Shore. It is extremely wild and al- 
 pine, and contains only two villages, 25 
 persons in each. 
 
 1st. Tomilly is erected on transition 
 slate, which contains no water : this fluid
 
 VALLEY OF BEECAAR. 307 
 
 is consequently procured from a stream, 
 which falls in a small but picturesque 
 cascade over the rocky precipices of lime- 
 stone that here form the declivity of 
 Takill. Six cases of Goitre are found 
 in this village, and a third of the whole 
 of the inhabitants approach nearly to the 
 condition of Cretins. 
 
 2nd. Kurkolly, the second village, is 
 erected on the same rock with the first, 
 but at a lower and more distant portion 
 of the valley. It is furnished with water 
 from the same rivulet, after it has run 
 about a mile and a half along the valley. 
 In this village there is but one Goitre. 
 
 XLVII. The valley of Beechar is con- 
 nected with the south-western extremity 
 of Shore valley, and is only divided from 
 it by a low narrow ridge. The water-shed 
 of the valley descends from the north- 
 west, and is composed of clay-slate : on 
 this is situated a village containing 40 
 inhabitants ; and all are free from Goitre. 
 On the lower side of the valley, and near 
 the base of a lofty mountain, are two vil- 
 lages erected on a knoll of argillaceous 
 2 R 2
 
 BEECHAR VALLEV. 
 
 slate, whose surface is coated with a slight 
 calcareous incrustation. One is occupied 
 by Bramins, the other by Domes ; about 
 20 of each sect. Five of the Bramins 
 and ten of the Domes are affected with 
 Goitre. Some of the tumors are extreme- 
 ly large, even in persons of the age of 
 ten years. Water is here afforded by 
 two springs, situated close together. They 
 resemble the spring at Deota (XXVIII.) 
 in almost every particular. The waters 
 boil up in such quantity as at once to 
 occasion a considerable stream. They 
 were surrounded by so much sand and 
 gravel, that I was unable to ascertain the 
 rock from which they emerge ; but lime- 
 stone is found within a short distance of i 
 the springs on the one side, and clay-slate 
 on the other, so that the geognostic posi- 
 tion of the veins from which the waters 
 issue, may be presumed to be situated 
 between these two rocks.
 
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 X X XI X X XX 

 
 310 
 
 RESULTS, 
 
 RESULTS ATTAINED FROM THE FOREGOING SECTIONS. 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 ABSTRACT VIEW OF THE INQUIRY GONE OVER. 
 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 £■5 
 
 i) 
 
 
 Si 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 x: 
 
 o" 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 2 s 
 
 '^ 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 Names of rocks. 
 
 "5 
 
 °,- 
 
 S. 
 
 o 
 
 •a 
 
 3 
 
 
 General remarks. 
 
 
 
 ^- *- , »_ 0) <u 
 
 
 
 S-S 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 |gi^?5 
 
 S.^ 
 
 « 
 
 -6* 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 l^^^^z% 
 
 S c 
 
 s 
 
 C3 
 
 §>. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3.0 3 «0 
 
 3'C 
 
 
 tu.a 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 
 1 Granite and gneiss— see 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 note at the end of Sec- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 tion II. ~ 
 
 <l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6500 
 
 68* 
 
 Doubtful, in consequence; 
 
 2 Hornblende slate and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of the temporary resi-l 
 
 mica slate, — 
 
 I 
 
 so 
 
 
 
 
 
 6000 
 
 
 dence of this portion of j 
 
 3 Clav-slate, — 
 
 71 
 
 3957 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 4100 
 
 78° 
 
 the population in the' 
 
 4 Steatiti' sandstone, ~ 
 
 3 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 3500 
 
 
 plains ; but the propor- 
 
 .i Granatine, ~ 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 4000 
 
 
 tion of Goitre is about 1 
 
 6 Parti.il sandstonp, ~ 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 500. 
 
 7 Transition floetz and al- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 luvial limestones, " 
 
 35 
 
 1160! 390 
 
 34 
 
 4000 
 
 78° 
 
 
 126 
 
 6.')43 430 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 OBSERVATION. 
 
 XLVIII. From the above abstract it 
 appears, that the proportion of the inha- 
 bitants of each rock, who are affected 
 with Goitre and Cretinism, will stand to 
 the healthy in the following- order : 
 
 Granite and gneiss — Goitre, jig ; Cre- 
 tins, none. 
 
 Mica-slate and hornblende-slate — Goitre^ 
 none ; Cretins, none. 
 
 Clay-slate — Goitre, i^^ ; Cretins, none. 
 
 Transition-slate — Goitre, 219 ; Cretins, 
 none. 
 
 Steatitic sandstone — Goitre, none ; Cre- 
 tins, none.
 
 RESULTS. 311 
 
 Calcareous rocks — Goitre, i; Cretins, sV. 
 
 Are we to suppose that these interest- 
 ing results are the effects of chance, or of 
 an accidental association of circumstances 
 confined to a particular spot ? When we 
 recollect that a space of upwards of a 
 thousand square miles has been made sub- 
 ject to the inquiry, and that in every 
 portion of this space, the same invariable 
 circumstances attended the presence of 
 the disease, and that its absence was in- 
 variably distinguished by the absence of 
 those circumstances, it is more philoso- 
 phic to view them in the light of cause 
 and effect.
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GOITRE AS IT OCCURS 
 IN KEMAON, WITH AN ATTEMPT TO 
 ACCOUNT FOR THE FOREGOING RE- 
 SULTS. 
 
 XLIX. It is not because the subjects 
 of this disease are in general peculiar to 
 remote districts, that they are the less to 
 profit by the zeal and sympathy of their 
 more fortunate fellow creatures. There 
 is a mistaken notion expressed by some 
 authors, who, speaking of the comparative 
 innocence of the disease, set forth its 
 unsightly appearance as its worst effects; 
 and thus they deprive the inquiry of that 
 interest which is felt in prosecuting re- 
 searches into the nature of other disorders. 
 Those who express themselves so, cannot 
 have had sufficient opportunities of wit- 
 nessing the misery entailed on the inha-
 
 GOITRE IN KEMAON. 313 
 
 bitants of tracts of country in which the 
 Goitre prevails to the extent it does in 
 Kemaon. There is no other disease for 
 which the people have greater dread, or 
 from which they are more anxious to be 
 relieved. It is true, the victim is not 
 suddenly cut off; the ultimate effects of 
 the disorder are, however, scarcely less 
 fatal than those of any other complaint 
 to which we are subject ; nor is the patient 
 entitled to less commiseration because his 
 suffering's are protracted. 
 
 The next object is to inquire whether 
 the Goitre in Kemaon be a peculiar 
 disease ; and this point will be best deter- 
 mined by a brief description of the nature 
 and treatment of the complaint. 
 
 The tumor does not always originate 
 in the thyroid g-land ; but in a third of 
 the cases I have seen, it appeared to 
 commence with a fulness of the base of 
 the neck, on one or both sides over the 
 middle of the clavicle : from thence the 
 swelling's ascend, and in a longer or a 
 shorter time, reach the situation of the 
 thyroid gland, when both tumors unite, 
 2 s
 
 314 DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 In its progress up the neck, the tumor 
 sometimes appears to become entangled, 
 as it were, in the folds of the fascia cervi- 
 calls ; it then becomes indurated and forced 
 between the ti*achea and oesophagus, where 
 it displaces these organs, and often proves 
 fatal by interrupting their functions before 
 it increases to any considerable size ; and 
 without even extending to the thyroid 
 gland, being apparently confined to the 
 lymphatics, which accompany the great 
 vessels of the neck. 
 
 In its more common form, the thyroid 
 gland is first affected, and the tumor 
 increases to a great size, without causing 
 much inconvenience, especially if it be 
 loose and pendulous ; but in many cases 
 of this form of the disease, the tumor is 
 probably compressed by the same cause 
 as was observed with respect to the first 
 variety, and dyspnoea becomes the most 
 prominent symptom ; the lips become 
 darker than natural, the eyes blood-shot 
 and protuberant, and the patient dies 
 from protracted strangulation. 
 
 The disease begins at any period of life
 
 GOITRE IN KEMAON. S15 
 
 after the age of three years, and never as 
 far as I have seen, arrives at its full size 
 sooner than six years from the time of 
 its commencement, but is generally much 
 slower : its progressive augmentation sel- 
 dom, however, becoming perfectly sus- 
 pended during a residence in an affected 
 village. 
 
 This description must be received as 
 in some measure empirical, the prejudices 
 of the Hindoos of Kemaon being such 
 as not to suffer the dissection of their 
 dead. 
 
 The usual size of a full-grown Goitre 
 is about one foot ten inches in circum- 
 ference, including the neck ; and about 
 two feet from one angle of the lower jaw 
 to the other of the opposite side, (measur- 
 ing under the tumor.) 
 
 Incipient tumors of only a few months' 
 or a year's duration are easily dispersed 
 by stimulating linaments, and a few al- 
 terative doses of calomel ; but without the 
 change of the accustomed water, these 
 means will only afford temporary relief. 
 
 L. From the above description, there 
 2 s 2
 
 316 GOITRE. 
 
 can be no reason to doubt the identity of 
 this disorder with the strumous endemic 
 of Switzerland ; and wherever it is found, 
 from Abyssinia and the Chinese Wall, to 
 Sumatra and Derbyshire, it appears to 
 present the same characters, and is less 
 under the influence of climate than per- 
 haps any other complaint. Does not this 
 fact establish the importance of the sin- 
 gular results of these statistic inquiries, 
 by opening a new field to our researches 
 into the nature of endemic contagion ? 
 
 The next point is to inquire into the 
 manner in which the results in question 
 are affected, by what is generally known 
 respecting the physical structure of those 
 countries in which the disease is endemial. 
 
 LI. From the writings of geologists, we 
 learn that alpine limestone does not occur 
 to any great extent in the mountains of 
 Ireland, nor in those of Scotland and 
 Wales ; and in these countries, Goitre is 
 unknown. In England, the disease is 
 known by the name of the Derbyshire 
 neck, and is principally confined to Der- 
 byshire, where the particular rock in
 
 GOITRE. 317 
 
 question forms the characteristic features 
 of the county*. 
 
 In the Alps of Switzerland and Tyrol, 
 where Goitre and Cretinism both prevail, 
 we have the authority of geologists, that 
 alpine limestone and nagelflugh compose 
 the greatest portion of the mountains. 
 Humboldt mentions (Pers. Narr.) that 
 nagelflugh covers the greatest part of 
 Switzerland to the height of a thousand 
 toises. Now this nage/Jiugh-\ is the same 
 
 * In Cumberland and Wales, there are more lofty 
 mountains than in any other part of England, Scorfell 
 and Snovvden being nearly 3,300 feet above the sea ; 
 while Axe-edge, the highest peak in Derbyshire, taken 
 by Colonel Mudge, is only 1,751 feet : so that Goitre in 
 that country cannot be owing to the height and mag- 
 nitude of its mountains, but the cause must be sought 
 in their structure ; accordingly, we find the mountains 
 of Derbyshire are composed of alpine limestone, while 
 those of Cumberland and Wales consist, for the most 
 part, of granite, clay-slate, porphery, and sienite. 
 
 At Fribourg, VaJteline, Berne, Pay-de-Vaux, Dres- 
 den, Savoy, and Piedmont, the most remarkable dis- 
 tricts in Europe for the prevalence of Goitre, alpine 
 limestone constitutes the principal rock formation ? 
 
 i* " Nagelflugh," says Professor Jameson, (Syst. Min. 
 1808,) " is usually composed of fragments of hmestoue,
 
 318 GOITRE. 
 
 rock (or nearly so) as that on which 
 the villages of Goseragong (VI.), Batuda 
 (XXVIL), Deota (XXVIIL), and Chonda 
 (XxKX.), are erected villages, whose inha- 
 bitants are affected with Goitre to the 
 extent of half their population. This 
 rock is composed in Kemaon of a basis 
 of calc-tuff, inclosing fragments of other 
 rocks, from the size of a grain of sand to 
 that of a mill-stone. These fragments 
 are either rounded or angular, and the 
 basis in which they are imbedded is 
 either solid or vesicular. The matrix of 
 the rock is a chemical deposite derived 
 from water, and the inclosed masses which 
 it contains appear, at first view, to indi- 
 cate some catastrophe by which they were 
 broken and precipitated to their present 
 situation. By attending more deliber- 
 
 more or less rounded, and of various magnitudes, ce- 
 mented together by a basis of calc-sinter. It occurs 
 always at a greater or less distance from limestone 
 mountains, and sometimes forms considerable tracts of 
 country." It appears abundantly at the foot of the 
 great hills of alpine limestone that bound Bavaria to 
 the south, and in many other places in the great lime- 
 Btonc range that passes through Tyrol, Styria, &c.
 
 GOITRE, 319 
 
 ately to the changes that are going on 
 in nature, the formation of nagelflugh 
 appears to be extended down to our own 
 time, as an alluvial deposite, occasioned 
 by the constant crumbling of rocks, and 
 rolling down of masses and fragments 
 separated by the chemical and mechani- 
 cal agencies of the atmosphere, and again 
 consolidated by the deposite of calc-tufF 
 from the waters of alpine limestone. 
 
 The different appearances which a rock 
 of this nature must necessarily assume, 
 has procured for nagelflugh a greater 
 variety of designations than any other for- 
 mation ; calcareous sandstone, breccia, con- 
 glomerate, and pudding-stone, are names 
 that have no doubt been applied to differ- 
 ent varieties of it by English writers. It 
 is best distinguished by being always 
 subordinate to alpine limestone, and it is 
 on this latter account only, that its con- 
 nexion with Goitre appears to be im- 
 portant. 
 
 LII. Alpine, or compact limestone*, 
 
 * It is the erster floetz-kalkstein, or first floetz- 
 limestone of Werner ; the lowest stratum of it is the 
 bituminous-marl-slate, or the copper-slate of the miners.
 
 320 GOITRE. 
 
 does not admit water by percolation, 
 through its solid substance by means of 
 porous or absorbent qualities ; but by 
 open rents and fissures, which communi- 
 cate with subterraneous caverns in the 
 centre of mountains, where it may either 
 remain for ages, or flow out by counter 
 fissures*. 
 
 * Speaking of alpine limestcme, Humboldt say-j, 
 (Pers. Narr.) " It is the rock that so often interrupts 
 the course of rivers, by engulphing them into its bosom." 
 
 " The whole of that enormous mass of limestone at 
 Craven (in Derbyshire), from Ingleborough to Whern- 
 side and Gordal, is intersected by perpendicular fissures, 
 which are narrow at the top, and become wider as they 
 descend, through which the water may be heard at a 
 vast depth below *******. Castleton and Poolshole, 
 near Buxton, and Yardas Cave, under Whernside, in 
 Craven, Gerdal, Scar, and Weathercock, in the same 
 district, can scarcely be called caverns, as they are open 
 to the day ; but the latter was formerly a cavern, of 
 which the roof has fallen in." " In all these caverns, and 
 others which I observed,"" (says Mr. Bakewell, Introd. 
 to Geolog. Lond. 1815,) " there is a stream of running 
 water ; and I am inclined to think, that the caverns have 
 been formed by the agency of water, percolating through 
 fissures ; and in the lapse of ages, excavating the softer 
 or more broken part of the rock."" 
 
 " The mines seem to be, or to have been, open chan- 
 nels, through which the waters pass within the earth,
 
 LIMESTONE UPON WATERS. 321 
 
 Water thus circulating through confined 
 caverns, without having undergone pre- 
 
 and like rivers, have their small branches opening into 
 them in all directions, which are by miners called 
 feeders of the load. Most mines have streams of water 
 running through them ; and when they are found dry, 
 it seems to be owing to the waters having changed 
 their course. ***** Sometimes the mine is lined with an 
 intermediate substance between the load and itself : this 
 is the wall of the load. *** The springs in these parts 
 are always hard, as abounding very much either in 
 stony, or sulphuro-saline particles." — Dr, NicholVs Ob- 
 serv. Nat. Hist, of Mines ^ 1728. 
 
 I might quote farther observations of Dr. Nicholl, 
 one of the most eminent physicians of his time, illus- 
 trative of the changes to which water is exposed in the 
 bosom of the earth ; but his papers may be consulted 
 in the Phil. Transac. 
 
 " The three rivers, as they are commonly called, in 
 Peakshole are only some parts of the cave deeper than 
 the rest, and receiving all their waters from the spring, 
 which comes from the farther end of the cave. The 
 waters which pass through Poolshole are impregnated 
 with particles of limestone, and so have incrusted the 
 whole cave in such a manner, that it appears like one 
 solid rock." — Nat. Hist. Derbyshire^ by J. Martyn^ 
 3729. 
 
 See also the eloquent description of the caves near 
 Bayreuth,by His Most Serene Highness the Margrave of 
 Anspach. — (Phil. Trans. 1794.) Also " Observations on 
 2 T
 
 S22 PROBABLE EFFECT OF 
 
 ■vious percolation, is likely to assume 
 chaDges dependant on the various vege- 
 table and animal impregnations with 
 w^hich it may be loaded : these engender 
 new agencies, which operate on the nu- 
 merous mineral substances with which 
 the water comes in contact. In the con- 
 finement of narrow caves and fissures of 
 limestone, the surface of this subtile fluid 
 
 the Nature of Intermitting and Reciprocating Springs, 
 by J. Atwell, F. R. S— (Phil. Trans. 1732.) " These 
 mountain caverns will account for the statement of 
 Pliny," (lib. xxxi. 4,) " that earthquakes pour out and 
 drink up waters." — See account of the great earthquake 
 at Naples, 1731.— Phil. Trans. 1733 and 1735, by Dr. 
 Cyrillus. 
 
 Mathias Bellus describes two caverns in Hungary. — 
 (Phil. Trans. 1739,) " The one emits noxious vapours, 
 and is overflowing with water, which deposites a 
 tophas. **** When subterraneous waters flowed from 
 the interior of the fountain in the hidden passages, the 
 gror.nd began to give way, and at length formed a new 
 opening, when it began again to emit noxious vapours, 
 destructive to birds and other animals. 
 
 " In the cavern is heard the murmuring noise of run- 
 nin<y waters, so that a river probably flows through 
 the interior passages, and at last loses itself in some 
 kind of shallow."
 
 LIMESTONE UPON WATERS. 323 
 
 becomes so much extended, that every 
 portion of the surrounding superficies is 
 exposed to its action. No other rocks 
 contain such extensive repositories of ex- 
 traneous fossil and metallic substances, 
 and no other formation of rocks contains 
 such extensive caverns and fissures, where 
 these foreign substances are exposed to 
 the slow action of this menstruum. Hence 
 the greater number of mineral springs 
 that abound in calcareous, than in any 
 other, rocks*. 
 
 LI 11. Having endeavoured to explain 
 the influence that alpine limestone is 
 capable of exercising on the waters of a 
 district, it remains to oflfer a few obser- 
 vations on the effect which calcareous 
 rocks may, under peculiar circumstances, 
 
 * Such as the mineral springs of Buxton, Matlock 
 Malvern, in Derbyshire — Bath, Bristol, and the springs 
 of Imaw in Suabia, Carlsbad in Bohemia, and the salt 
 springs of Konigshorn, (Klap.,) and those of Seltzer, 
 Sydchutz, Spa, Pyrmont, and the baths of Carolin iu 
 Bohemia, (Berg.;) and probably many other celebrated 
 mineral waters, whose physical topography I am unable 
 to refer to at present. 
 
 2 T 2
 
 324 SPECULATIONS REGARDING 
 
 exercise on the condition of the air in 
 their vicinity. i 
 
 The peculiarity of air in mountains has 
 been often brought forward as the excit- I 
 ing cause of Goitre, although no attempt ] 
 has ever been made to explain in what 
 the peculiarity alluded to consists, or why 
 it should exist, farther than that it is 
 supposed to be excited by a warm atmos- i 
 phere, in situations where the free circu- 
 lation of air is impeded ; but now that _ 
 we have traced the disease to a peculiar 1 
 constitution of strata, our notions on this 
 intricate point may soon become more 
 precise: and it deserves to be inquired 
 into, whether or not, the exhalations from 
 limestone rocks contain a larger propor- 
 tion of carbonic acid gas, than is found 
 to exist in the general atmosphere. 
 
 Peculiarities in the physical and che- 
 mical constitution of mountain rocks 
 have been hitherto quite overlooked as a 
 source of endemic contagion, which may 
 in some degree perhaps account for the 
 little success that has attended the re- 
 Bearches of philosophers upon the subject ;
 
 ATMOSPHERIC CAUSES. 325 
 
 for althoug;h it has been known in all 
 ages, that there is a difference in the air 
 in different places, by its effects on the 
 human constitution ; yet all that has ever 
 been demonstrated by the eminent men 
 that have entered upon the inquiry, was 
 the imperfection of our most refined che- 
 mical tests ; that in fact some farther 
 improvements must be made in chemical 
 science, before the nature of contagion can 
 be demonstrated. 
 
 Humboldt found the proportion of car- 
 bonic acid gas, in the atmosphere, to vary 
 from 01. to 0005. of the bulk of the 
 air ; but he does not appear to connect 
 this important variation with local pecu- 
 liarities of geological structure. 
 
 It is well known, that air containing 01 
 of its proportion of this gas extinguishes 
 light, and is speedily destructive of animal 
 life ; and as this volatile poison exists in 
 limestone, to the extent of 44 parts in 
 100 of the solid rock, it is possible to 
 conceive that a sufficient quantity of it, 
 to cause a more or less vitiated condition 
 of the air, may be extricated from lime-
 
 326 POSSIBLE EFFECT OF 
 
 s1;one by atmospheric heat, assisted by 
 such other causes as promote the decom- 
 position of the rock. 
 
 This g-as floats on the surface of the 
 earth in places from which it is extricat- 
 ed ; it is evolved by mineral springs, and 
 by all waters, which contain it ; and it 
 is separated from limestone, the great 
 repository in which it abounds in nature, 
 by heat ; and the important questions that 
 remains to be decided are, whether the 
 heat of the atmosphere is sufficient to 
 separate it in any noxious quantity ; and 
 whether if, by means of pyrites, assisted 
 by moisture and atmospheric heat, an 
 insensible evolution of carbonic acid gas 
 is not constantly taking place in certain 
 localities ? These, next to the examina- 
 tion of the waters, are points which are 
 entitled to careful attention. 
 
 A reference to the mineral topography 
 of all the villages in Kemaon which I 
 have examined, but one, seems to favour, 
 rather than negative, these views ; and 
 even with regard to the village of Ager 
 (XLIIL), the occupation of the inhabit-
 
 LIMESTONE UPON AIR. 327 
 
 ants as mitiers, to which they have been 
 brought up from childhood, may expose 
 them sufficiently to impure air, to occa- 
 sion much of their bodily infirmities, in- 
 dependent of any noxious evolution of 
 gas, in the way we were supposing it 
 possible to occur. 
 
 If there be difficulties in the way of 
 conceiving the possibility of the emission 
 of carbonic acid gas from limestone, its 
 absorption by lime-water may be sug- 
 gested, as a means by which it may be 
 attracted by the moisture on the surface, 
 and at the base of calcareous mountains. 
 
 The thin incrustation of calcareous 
 matter, so often observed on the surface 
 of clay-slate, composing the site of many 
 of the affected villages in Shore valley, 
 and its vicinity, may have been formed 
 by particles of lime having been partially 
 reduced by heat and drought on the 
 adjoining acclivities, and carried by the 
 winds to the knolls of slate, whose moist 
 and absorbent surfaces arrested their drift, 
 and converted them into a cement, by 
 the attraction of carbonic acid from the
 
 328 
 
 LIMESTONE UPON AIR. 
 
 general air. Until we are better inform- 
 ed, we should certainly not be too ready 
 to despise the effect, which such opera- 
 tions may have in animate, as in inani- 
 mate, nature; and attention to them might 
 assist in explaining the cause of this 
 disease in certain low tracts extending 
 along the base of the Alps, as well as the 
 Himalayas.
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE 
 EXAMINATION OF WATERS. 
 
 LIV. In the examination of the waters 
 of a province, or extensive district, it 
 may be necessary to keep in view the 
 geological distinctions by which the seve- 
 ral portions of it are characterised, as 
 any peculiarities in the qualities of waters, 
 when derived from springs in the earth, 
 must depend on the nature of the mineral 
 substances which compose their localities. 
 The importance of this observation has 
 always been known, and generally attend- 
 ed to ; but it may have derived additional 
 consequence from what has transpired in 
 the preceding sections. 
 
 Water constitutes the medium by which 
 living bodies are supplied with new ma- 
 2 u
 
 330 ON THE EXAMINATION 
 
 terials. Plants will not vegetate without 
 it, and most of those earthy, alkaline, 
 and metallic substances, which are com- 
 mon to spring-waters in general, have 
 been discovered to constitute a portion 
 of vegetable bodies. There is scarcely 
 reason to suppose, that these substances 
 are formed in vegetables by any property 
 of the living principle ; we must there- 
 fore believe them to be imbibed from the 
 soil through the medium of water and 
 food, and consequently to differ in some 
 degree with the mineral constitution of 
 the places in which vegetables grow. 
 
 The same observations apply to ani- 
 mals ; but as they are endowed with 
 locomotive functions, they may be sup- 
 posed to contain a greater variety of 
 extraneous substances : still, however, dif- 
 fering according to the rocks and soils 
 they inhabit. The presence of lime, sul- 
 phur, magnesia, silica, iron, and manga- 
 nese, in animal bodies, has been long- 
 known ; although their production is sup- 
 posed to be incompatible with the func- 
 tions of living organs. We are thus led
 
 OF WATERS. 331 
 
 to believe, that tliese extraneous substances 
 may differ in their proportions in living* 
 bodies, according- to the peculiarities of 
 geological structure in particular places; 
 as, however, a certain proportion of these 
 foreisrn matters is essential to the healthy 
 state of animals, so any deviation in this 
 respect may be the cause of endemial 
 disease, as Struma, Plica Polonica, and 
 Scorbutus. 
 
 Although waters, containing impregna- 
 tions to a degree that causes powerful 
 medicinal effects on the human consti- 
 tution, are found in almost every coun- 
 try, it is not a little surprising that the 
 several degrees of impurity between the 
 medicinal and the pure water should be 
 so much overlooked. The difficulty of 
 pointing out the various impurities, and 
 the unusual circumstance of any being 
 perfectly pure, is no doubt the cause of 
 the general indifference of physicians to 
 the quality of water. 
 
 It is remarked, (1 Berg. 112,) that the 
 complete analysis of water is one of the 
 most difficult operations in chemistry. 
 2 u 2
 
 332 ON THE EXAMINATION 
 
 The difficulties, or rather the imperfec- 
 tions, are occasioned by the minuteness 
 of some substances, and the evanescence 
 of others, with which water may be im- 
 pregnated. Bergman found the active 
 principle of the Lokarne water escape in 
 four hours through a glass vessel, though 
 corked and sealed in the most careful 
 manner, in a northern climate. Those 
 who deny the influence of particular 
 waters in causing the Goitre, merely 
 because they cannot demonstrate the noxi- 
 ous principle, and its modus operandi, 
 should recollect, that although snow was 
 found by the illustrious chemist above 
 mentioned, to form the purest natural 
 water, yet he would not venture to deny 
 the eiiects on animals ascribed to it, 
 merely from the deficiency of common 
 air in the water of newly-melted snow : 
 and although the noxious eftects of this 
 water has been found to be imaginary, 
 it serves to shew the importance attach- 
 ed to certain conditions of water, which 
 differ but slightly from a wholesome stand- 
 ard ; and should guard us against rash
 
 OF WATEHS. 333 
 
 conclusions, on a question of so much 
 difficulty. 
 
 The ancients observed the diminutive 
 size and sickly appearance of plants grow- 
 ing on mountains which contained metals : 
 and although this notion has been lately 
 condemned as fanciful, by an eminent 
 authority, I have observed some of the 
 most remarkable metalliferous mountains 
 in Kemaon, without a shrub; yet they are 
 surrounded by others of a more earthy 
 structure, which are clothed with dense 
 forests to their summits. 
 
 I have been led to make these remarks 
 from some facts, which tend to point out, 
 that the noxious principle in the waters 
 of alpine limestone is a subtile combina- 
 tion, derived perhaps from those strata of 
 the rock which are called by miners 
 copper-slate, so distinguished from the 
 quantity of metals which they contain, 
 particularly the ores of copper ; and in 
 describing the physical locality of the 
 springs which supply those villages, whose 
 inhabitants suffer most from Goitre, they 
 may be said to be generally derived from
 
 S34 ON THE EXAMINATION 
 
 the strata in question. In the first floetz 
 limestone in Kemaon, the metals are not 
 accumulated in large masses, in particular 
 repositories, such as veins ; but they are 
 disseminated in nodules, leaves, and small 
 particles throughout the strata seams and 
 interstices of the rock. Thus I have found 
 copper pyrites in the vicinity of Petora- 
 gur and Goseragong, and at the village 
 of Ager, ten miles distant from the former 
 places ; and the whole intervening space 
 (including the sites of most of the affected 
 villa^-es) may be considered as one great 
 repository, in which the metal is disse- 
 minated in the manner just described ; so 
 that every circumstance appears calcu- 
 lated to produce a vitiated state of the 
 waters, which here, at least, it might be 
 supposed, would be easily detected. Such 
 I am sorry to say is not the case, although 
 I have seen enough to justify the views 
 which are here expressed. 
 
 Mr. Saunders, in the account of his 
 journey to Boutan, (Phil. Trans. 1784,) 
 alludes to the frequency of Goitre in Su- 
 matra, which allusion destroyed the theory
 
 OF WATERS. 3S5 
 
 which referred the disease to the use of 
 snow-water. Now, although snow never 
 falls in Sumatra, it is a fact that goes 
 singularly to the support of the above 
 observations, and one, no doubt, that will 
 soon be converted into some new hypo- 
 thesis, that copper ore is most abundantly 
 disseminated in that island. 
 
 " The ore of copper," says Mr. Mac- 
 donald, (Asiat. Res. 417,) " is found on, 
 and under the soil of soft rock ;" again, 
 " the space affording the ore is consider- 
 able, extending over a degree in length, 
 and farther east, or into the country," 
 (Sumatra,) " than has yet been disco- 
 vered." 
 
 With respect to the remark of Werner, 
 in his celebrated Essay on Veins, that "the 
 water which flows from metallic veins 
 ought to carry along with it a quantity 
 of metallic particles, which, however, it 
 does not ; and even in those countries, 
 which contain the greatest number of 
 mines, the water rarely contains a small 
 portion of iron ; scarcely ever any par- 
 ticles of copper ; never silver, lead, tin.
 
 336 ON THE EXAMINATION 
 
 zinc, cobalt, mercury, or arsenic :" — with- 
 out entering into any speculative argu- 
 ment against this apparent paradox, it 
 is sufficient to mention, that metals in 
 their mineral state are insensible to the 
 most powerful chemical tests. Thus cop- 
 per pyrites and iron glance, as well as 
 iron pyrites, were reduced to the finest 
 powder, and mechanically suspended in 
 distilled water, to which prussiate of 
 potash was added, without affording the 
 slightest indication of their presence. The 
 same was repeated with tincture of galls, 
 with the same result. 
 
 It is mentioned by Klaproth, that even 
 iron, a metal for which we have such ex- 
 cellent tests, is capable (when in small 
 quantity, as in Carlsbad waters) of " elud- 
 ing the senses, as well as the efficacy of 
 re-agents, unless examined at the spring." 
 Hence it is, from the small quantity in 
 which they occur, and the imperfection 
 of analysis, that certain metals have not 
 been found in waters, rather than from 
 any incompatibility that can be supposed 
 to exist with regard to such mixtures.
 
 OF WATERS. 837 
 
 By adopting this natural conclusion, we 
 give additional scope to our researches 
 into the cause of endemic contagion, with- 
 out pledging ourselves to particular hypo- 
 thesis ; for although, in the present state 
 of our knowledge, we may suspect the 
 noxious effects of metallic salts and par- 
 ticles of pyrites in the waters of certain 
 districts, we are not insensible to other 
 peculiarities in the constitution of waters, 
 or to the power of other morbid causes 
 to which the inhabitants of particular 
 districts may be exposed. 
 
 Our knowledge of the active principles 
 of mineral waters, notwithstanding the 
 advances that have been made in their 
 analysis, is very defective, and philoso- 
 phers are by no means reconciled, as to 
 whether chemical analyses are capable of 
 discovering the cause of their effects. 
 " This question" (says Dr. Murray, than 
 whom few are so qualified to give an opi- 
 nion) " some have been disposed to de- 
 cide in the negative, from finding examples 
 of waters possessed of active powers, in 
 which analysis does not detect any ingre- 
 2 X
 
 338 ON THE EXAMINATION OF WATERS. 
 
 dient of adequate activity* ;" and Dr. 
 Murray mentions, as an instance, the cele- 
 brated Bath waters. 
 
 With such proofs of the imperfection 
 of the art, it may be vain to hope to 
 demonstrate by chemical analysis an agent 
 that requires years to develope a compa- 
 ratively local deformity : nor is the task 
 rendered less hopeless by what Dr. Mur- 
 ray says of the waters of Ilk ley, a mine- 
 ral spring of considerable celebrity, and 
 which is held in high estimation by 
 several eminent medical practitioners ; yet 
 he found this water uncommonly free 
 from all foreign matter, and during the 
 time he was engaged in the analysis. Dr. 
 Murray had himself proofs of its medi- 
 cinal efficacy. 
 
 * Edia. Phil. Transactions, vol. vi. pp. 352-3»
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 EXAMINATION OF THE WATERS OF 
 KEMAON. 
 
 LV. The first waters to be examined are 
 those of Goseragong'(VL), Deota .XXVIIL), 
 Ager (XLIIL), Batuda (XXVII.), and 
 Beechar (XLVII.) 
 
 General accounts of the situation and 
 appearance of these respective springs 
 have been already given ; but it may be 
 proper to recapitulate part of what has 
 been said, and to add such farther obser- 
 vations as may complete the account of 
 their physical characters. 
 
 1, Goseragong" water issues from a cre- 
 vice at the base of a lofty precipice of 
 limestone of the first floetz formation, 
 and the jet is situated at the junction of 
 2x2
 
 340 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS 
 
 that rock with clay-slate. The quantity 
 of water which issues is about two gallons 
 a minute, and its temperature is 67° Fah- 
 renheit at all seasons, which is about the 
 mean annual temperature of the place. 
 It is perfectly limpid, and sparkles brisk- 
 ly when poured into a glass. The taste 
 is slightly acid and agreeable, and a large ; 
 quantity of calc-tufF is deposited from the t 
 stream, as it falls down the surface of the 
 mountain. Its specific gravity is 1009. 
 2. Deota. The basin of this spring is 
 situated in a low part of the valley of 
 Shore, and is composed of red clay, 
 gravel, and marl, loosely cemented. The 
 spring has a lengthened form, extending J 
 in the direction of the neiphbourins* 
 strata ; and if two or three adjoining 
 springs of the same character be included, 
 the whole may be said to be about 300 
 yards long. The surface of the waters is 
 disturbed like boiling furnaces, from the 
 violence with which they issue from the 
 earth. The larger spring discharges 
 enough of water to put in motion the 
 most powerful machinery. Temperature,
 
 OF SUSPECTED WATERS. 341 
 
 65° Fahrenheit, which it retains at all 
 seasons. Taste less agreeable than Gose- 
 ragong" water ; but still sweet and equally 
 brisk, but less crystalline. After remain- 
 ing a certain time in corked bottles, it 
 deposites slight bluish grey flocculi*. Its 
 specific gravity is 1001. 
 
 3. Ager. This water issues from the 
 drift of an old copper mine, in the quan- 
 tity of about half a gallon a minute : the 
 source of the spring is between the first 
 floetz limestone and graphite, which con- 
 tains copper pyrites. It is perfectly 
 limpid, and sparkles when poured fresh 
 into a glass. 
 
 On standing for a few months in bottle, 
 a slight precipitate of ragged putrescent- 
 
 * These flakes were collected on a filter, dried, and 
 found to weigh about a tenth of a grain from a bottle 
 of water. They were very slightly soluble in nitric 
 acid ; the residue, which amounted to very nearly the 
 whole, was melted on charcoal, before the blow-pipe, 
 with borax, to which it gave a yellow colour. 
 
 The globule thus afforded, being reduced to powder 
 in a glass mortar, and dissolved in nitric acid, was tested 
 Avith prussiate of potash, and afforded a precipitate of 
 iron.
 
 342 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS 
 
 like matter descends slowly to the bot- 
 tom*. Its specific gravity is 10009. 
 
 4. Batuda. This spring is exactly 
 similar to that of Goseragong in all 
 particulars, the jet having the same geog- 
 nostic position, the water itself crystal- 
 line, acidulous to the taste, and possessed 
 of the property of forming calc-tuff„ Its 
 specific gravity is 10010. 
 
 d. Beechar. Here we have an almost 
 perfect agreement in the appearance of 
 the springs with those of Deota. The 
 water ascends ia perpendicular columns, 
 so as at once to form a considerable 
 stream. The source of the spring is situ- 
 ated between the strata of limestone and 
 clay-slate, and is concealed by an accu- 
 mulation of gravel slightly cemented with 
 
 * This flocculent matter from a bottle of Ager water 
 was collected and weighed, but though bulky, was too 
 light to make any sensible impression on the balance 
 (not a very delicate one). It was moistened with dis- 
 tilled water, and gave a red tinge to oxymuriate of 
 mercury. 
 
 On the application of the white flame of the blow- 
 pipe to this matter, it entirely volatilized, so that it may 
 be considered as of an ammoniacal nature.
 
 OF SUSPECTED WATERS. S4^ 
 
 calcareous tufTa. Temperature 6-i^ Fah- 
 renheit, when the general air in the shade 
 was 82** Fahrenheit, and it never changes : 
 it has consequently the character amongst 
 the natives, in common with the four pre- 
 ceding waters, of being a cold spring in 
 warm weather, and a tepid one in the 
 cold-season . The water is clear and very 
 faintly acidulous to the taste. Specific 
 gravity, 10011. 
 
 LVl. Effects of precipitants on these 
 waters. 
 
 (A) At the spring they very faintly 
 redden litmus, but the change is not 
 permanent. 
 
 (B) Goseragong water four hours in 
 bottle, at a temperature of 85° Fahrenheit, 
 but secured as carefully as possible with 
 a common cork, afforded, by the appli- 
 cation of lime-water, two grains of dry 
 carbonate of lime from three ounces of 
 the water. Beechar, Deota, and Batuda 
 waters, under similar circumstances, each 
 afforded about the same proportion. I 
 was unable to procure Ager water so fresh, 
 and this test was not applied to it, until
 
 344( ANALYSIS OF SUSPECTED WATERS. 
 
 after it remained two months in bottle, 
 when it afforded an opalescent precipi- 
 tate, which it was scarcely worth while 
 to weigh. 
 
 (C) Cold infusion of Brazil-wood is 
 rendered blue by all these waters. 
 
 (D) Infusion of turmeric is slightly 
 reddened by those of Beechar, Ager, and 
 Goseragong. 
 
 (E) Tincture of galls displays slowly, 
 copious, flocculent precipitates in all these 
 waters. The colours are first reddish 
 yellow, changing to greenish yellow, from 
 this to greenish blue, and eventually to 
 black. To complete these changes, a 
 shorter or longer time is required in the 
 different waters ; Beechar requires twelve 
 hours, Goseragong fifteen, Deota and Ba- 
 tuda about eighteen, and Ager about 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 (F) Prussiate of potash effects no change 
 in any of these waters, except an acid be 
 added ; a faint bluish tinge is then pro- 
 duced, and is more conspicuous in Gose- 
 ragong and Batuda, but sufficiently per- 
 ceptilile in each of the others.
 
 AISTALYSIS OF SUSPECTED WATERS. 345 
 
 (G) Nitrate of barytes occasions no 
 change in the appearance of any of these 
 waters. 
 
 (H) Oxalic acid causes a slight preci- 
 pitate in the waters of Goseragong, Deota, 
 Beechar, and Batuda ; but Ager water 
 retains its crystalline appearance under 
 this test. 
 
 (I) Nitrate of silver affords precipitates 
 in all these waters ; but the precipitate 
 is re-dissolved with eifervescence in nitric 
 or any acid : and these precipitates are 
 white, except that which is afforded by 
 Goseragong water, which has a tinge of 
 brown. The proportion of these preci- 
 pitates, from 500 grains of each of the 
 waters, is as follows : Deota, ^ of a grain ; 
 Ager, J ; Goseragong and Beechar, each 
 afford tV ; and Batuda about i? part of a 
 grain. 
 
 (K) Acetate of lead forms precipitates 
 from each of these waters, and the preci- 
 pitated lead dissolves with effervescence 
 in acetic acid. 
 
 (L) Carbonate of potash causes a slight 
 precipitate from Deota water, and carbo- 
 2 Y
 
 34:6 ANALYSIS OF SUSPECTED WATERS, 
 
 nate of ammonia produces an ash-coloured 
 cloud from that of Beechar. 
 
 INFERENCES. 
 
 1. From experiments A and B, con- 
 nected with some of their physical cha- 
 racters, it is evident, that disengaged 
 carbonic acid is present, which appears 
 from C and D, to be in excess with a 
 base ; and therefore, it requires that it 
 should be present in a quantity equal to 
 one-sixth of the bulk of the water, at least 
 so as to effect a change of colour in lit- 
 mus. — (Vide note from Kir., 4 tom., p. 
 200, ed. 1807.) 
 
 2. From experiments C and D ; as well 
 as those of F, I, K, alkalies are evidently 
 present : for although earthy carbonates 
 or sulphate of lime would change the 
 colour of Brazil-wood to blue, it does 
 not appear that these salts are present in 
 sufficient quantity ; and even if they were, 
 they could have no eftect on turmeric. 
 
 3. From experiments E and F, iron 
 is the only metal whose presence is clear-
 
 INFERENCES, 347 
 
 ]y indicated*. These precipitates are 
 probably modified by the presence of 
 sulphate of lime, although sulphuric acid 
 is not indicated by any of the other ex- 
 periments. 
 
 * I have carefully avoided the notice of any doubt- 
 fnl effect produced by re-agents in this inquiry, espe- 
 cially such effects as I had not the means of provinof 
 to be correct, or tracing to their causes. The prussiate 
 of potash, prepared after the simple manner directed by 
 Bergman, indicated a cupreous tinge in the waters of 
 Beechar, (Joseragong, and Ager : but I could discover 
 no mineral acid, with which copper coukl be combined ; 
 and I knew by synthetical trials, made for tlie purpose, 
 that particles of copper pyrites, if h^ld in suspension, 
 would yield no characteristic precipitate of copper with 
 this test. Under these circumstances, I took the liberty 
 tx) apply to the Medical Board, for permission to be 
 furnished with a small quantity of the prussiate of 
 potash, which is used for chemical purposes in the 
 Honorable Company's Dispensary in Calcutta ; and I 
 feel much pleasure in acknowledging the prompt and 
 courteous way in which the request was complied with. 
 
 The prussiate of potash thus procured, I found to be 
 very powerful in discovering the smallest quantity of 
 the salts of copper in solutions. Yet it did not confirm 
 the cupreous indication of the other alkali; but I found 
 both preparations equally incapable of detecting the 
 presence of metals in their mineral state. 
 
 2 Y 2
 
 348 INFEEENCES. 
 
 4. Experiments G, I, K, prove the 
 almost total absence of any of the mine- 
 ral acids, either combined or free, in 
 any of these waters. The precipitates in 
 I and K, are evidently occasioned by an 
 alkali, assisted probably in all but Ager 
 water, by a small quantity of lime. A 
 little earthy matter is indicated in Deota 
 and Beechar waters by experiments L. 
 
 5. From a review of the whole of the 
 foregoing, it appears, that the only sub- 
 stances in these waters are carboaic acid, 
 a small quantity of alkaline matter, a 
 little iron and lime (except in Ager water), 
 with a scarcely sensible portion of earthy 
 matter in Deota and Beechar waters. 
 
 LVIII. Principles of these waters col- 
 lected by evaporation. 
 
 A wine bottle, or about 13.000* grains 
 
 * A quart of water (wine measure), at 62° Fahrenheit, 
 Barometer 30°, weighs 58-443 grains troy ; but these 
 waters were exposed to a temperature of above 80° 
 Fahrenheit, and at an elevation of 0,000 feet : so that 
 in assuming 13,000 grains as the weiglit of each bottle 
 of water evaporated, we may not be far from the truth. 
 Althouo-h a table of equivalents between the measure
 
 ANALYSIS OF SUSPECTED WATERS. 343 
 
 of each of these waters, were evaporated 
 to dryness by solar heat, to which they 
 were daily exposed in such a manner as 
 to guard against accidental impurities 
 falling into them. The following are the 
 quantities of solid extracts from each, 
 when dried at the temperature of 105** 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Ager water, 2 grains, equal to ^jgo o^ the whole. 
 Beechar ditto, 2j grains, equal to jj\j of the whole. 
 Goseragong ditto, 2 grains, equal to ^jq^ of the 
 
 whole. 
 Deota ditto, 1^ grains, equal to -g^^-g of the whole. 
 Batuda ditto, 2 grains, equal to jjoo of the whole. 
 
 These precipitates consist, first, of a 
 greyish yellow matter, which v^^as found 
 on the higher margins of the porcelain 
 vessels in which the evaporation was con- 
 ducted. It was tasteless, and insoluble in 
 water, but soluble with effervescence in 
 muriatic acid, from v^^hich it was preci- 
 
 and the weight of fluids, at different altitudes and tem- 
 peratures, would be highly useful in such inquiries ; here 
 of course we do not aim at perfect accuracy, and do 
 not pretend to have suffered any inconvenience from 
 the deficiency here alhided to.
 
 350 ANALYSIS OF SUSPECTED WATERS. 
 
 pitated by oxalic acid, and thus proved 
 to be carbonate of lime. 
 
 Second, below the carbonate of lime, 
 were slight metallic precipitates, distin- 
 guished by their lustre and iridescent 
 appearance. They were placed on char- 
 coal, and exposed to the white flame of 
 the blow-pipe, wdien they gave out an 
 aerial stream, which carried off a consi- 
 derable portion of them. The remainder 
 blackened in all but the extract from 
 Ager water, which, with that of Beechar, 
 gives a yeJlow colour to the glass of borax ; 
 while the others render that glass dark 
 green. Patches of metal are seen in the 
 globules thus produced from each of the 
 waters ; and these globules, separately re- 
 duced to powder in a glass mortar, and 
 dissolved in nitric acid, afford in their 
 solutions, under the application of the 
 prussiate of potash, some a purple, and 
 others a deep Prussian blue precipitate. 
 
 The gas which first escapes in this pro- 
 cess, is no doubt carbonic acid, from saline 
 particles of metal, or probably from ad- 
 hering portions of the earthy portion of
 
 ANALYSIS OF SUSPECTED WATERS. 351 
 
 the precipitates ; while the blackness 
 whicli the imperfect scoriae assumes, is 
 occasioned by the sulphur contained no 
 doubt in particles of pyrites. 
 
 The third constituent part of the ex- 
 tract of these waters, is found in largest 
 quantity near that portion of the bottom 
 of the vessel from which the last portion 
 of the water ascended, and consisted, as 
 well as I could ascertain, of carbonate of 
 soda, and a small quantity of carbonate of 
 potash, which gave a deliquescent appear- 
 ance at first to all the precipitates except 
 Batuda. 
 
 As to the proportion which each ingre- 
 dient in these waters bears to the aggre- 
 gate extract of the same water, it may 
 not be worth while mentioning-, and per- 
 haps might be affecting greater nicety 
 than the means adopted may justify : but 
 as it may afford a brief method of com- 
 parison, between the results of these and 
 similar researches, I may as well mention 
 them.
 
 352 ANALYSIS OF SUSPECTED WATERS. 
 
 1. Affer Water. j2. Goseragong Water. \ 3. Deota Water. 
 
 Carb. lime, -J Carb. lime, ^ ICarb. lime, \ 
 
 Carb. iron, \ Carb. iron, \ ICarb. iron, ^ 
 
 Carb. soda, ^ Carb. soda, "1 Carb. soda, "| 
 
 Carb. potash, and"! Carb. potash, I , Carb. potash, V 
 
 a trace of sulph. |. J. Earthy sulphu- [ * Earthy. J 
 
 lime and sulph. J | reous, J 
 
 4. Beecliar Water. 
 Iron, I 
 Carb. soda, 4 
 Carb. lime, "j 
 
 Carb. potash, > J 
 Sulph. earthy, J 
 
 .5. Batuda Water. 
 Carb. lime, "I ^ 
 
 Carb. magnes. J ^ 
 Carb. soda, \ 
 Carb. iron, 5 
 
 Beside the above minute quantities of 
 solid ingredients, carbonic acid is also to 
 be considered as present in more than or- 
 dinary proportion in these waters. Tlie 
 high atmospheric temperature to which 
 they were exposed, in carelessly corked 
 bottles, for some time before they were 
 submitted to experiment, as well as the 
 want of any pneumatic apparatus, tend 
 to render the quantity of carbonic acid 
 uncertain ; but an estimate may be formed 
 by its effects, even under these unfavour- 
 able circumstances, in saturating lime. 
 The quantity of calcareous earth thrown 
 down from lime-water, in the foregoing 
 experiments, must be considerably under 
 what would have been afforded, had pro- 
 per means been resorted to in order to 
 prevent the dissipation of the gas by the
 
 ANALYSIS OF WHOLESOME WATERS. 353 
 
 use of stopple bottles at the springs ; but 
 I regret to say, the removal of the troops 
 to which I was attached in Kemaon, de- 
 prived me of the opportunity of carrying- 
 into effect a few experiments (such as my 
 means enabled me to devise) with the 
 view of determining the gaseous contents 
 of these waters. 
 
 LIX. Having examined the waters of 
 those villages whose inhabitants are most 
 severely affected with Goitre, the ques- 
 tion is not, whether we have detected any 
 ingredient in them, which we can con- 
 ceive capable of causing the disease ; but 
 whether these waters differ in any of their 
 characters from spring waters in general, 
 and more especially from the waters of 
 those springs in their immediate vicinity, 
 which are used by other villages of the 
 same people, but who are free from the 
 complaint. Could such a difference be 
 established on clear and indisputable 
 principles, we might then congratulate 
 ourselves on having reached the second 
 tangible position in this interesting in- 
 quiry. 
 
 2 z
 
 354 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS 
 
 The waters now to be examined for the 
 purpose of comparison, are selected in- 
 differently from those localities whose 
 inhabitants are free from Goitre. 
 
 1. The water from the village of Paru- 
 ree (XIII.) 
 
 2. The water from Boorikote (XX.) 
 
 3. The hospital spring at Lohooghat*. 
 
 4. The spring situated between the 
 hospital and the lines at Lohooghat f. 
 
 5. The spring on the east of the lines 
 at Lohooghat, which is used by the troops 
 at that place]:. 
 
 6. The spring on the north of the lines, 
 at the same place, also used by the troops §. 
 
 These springs are all situated in clay- 
 slate, and the persons who use their waters 
 are perfectly free from Goitre. 
 
 * This water was used exclusively by the sick, and 
 by the servants attached to the Hospital. 
 
 -}• Used generally by officers, servants, and other 
 camp-followers. 
 
 I Used by the 6th Company 30th Regiment, during 
 the residence of the Regiment in Kemaon. 
 
 § Used by the Light Company of the Regiment, 
 during the same period.
 
 OP WHOLESOME WATERS. 355 
 
 Respecting spring's in clay-slate gene- 
 rally, it may be remarked, that they are 
 much more numerous than those in lime- 
 stone, in proportion to the extent of the 
 two rocks, and that they do not appear 
 to be derived from any great depth in 
 the earth. 
 
 Their temperature, consequently, falls 
 considerably during the winter, and rises 
 again in summer. They are usually met 
 with in sequestered spots, and covered 
 by dense cupolas of flourishing shrubs. 
 Their waters never rush from the earth 
 with violence, or in greater quantity 
 than to occasion a placid ripple from a 
 few extending' circles on their surface. 
 Their waters are clear, but rarely very 
 crystalline or sparkling ; and in all these 
 circumstances they form a striking con- 
 trast with the springs derived from lime- 
 stone, whose chemical properties are often 
 developed at first sight, by the immense 
 deposites of tufl" with which they are 
 connected, the ruined and broken cha- 
 racter of surrounding rocks, the want of 
 vegetation, and the violence and quantity 
 2 z 2
 
 356 ANALYSIS OF WHOLESOME WATERS. 
 
 of their waters. It would be tiresome, as 
 well as useless, to describe, separately, the 
 physical qualities of each of these waters : 
 they are all clear and agreeable to the 
 taste, and mix well with soap. 
 
 Of eleven different springs derived from 
 clay-slate, which I tried in various parts 
 of the province, including the six waters 
 above enumerated, the specific gravity of 
 nine w^as found to be 1001, and the 
 other two, from Paruree and Kumora, 
 (XIII. and XVI.) in the valley of Shore, 
 were each 10014. 
 
 EFFECTS OF RE-AGENTS ON THESE WATERS. 
 
 (A) They have no effect on the colour 
 of litmus. 
 
 (B) Lime-water affords no sensible pre- 
 cipitate when mixed with any of these 
 waters. 
 
 (C) Cold infusion of Brazil-wood is 
 changed from red to light-blue by Paru- 
 ree and Boorikote ; but the other waters 
 only render it bluish grey. 
 
 (D) The natural colour of turmeric is 
 unchanged by any of these waters.
 
 ANALYSIS OF WHOLESOME WATERS. 35? 
 
 (E) Prussiate of potash occasions no 
 alteration, with or without the addition 
 of acid or alkali, in any of these waters ; 
 but tincture of galls occasions a slight 
 precipitate in those of Paruree and Boo- 
 rikote. This is, during the first six hours, 
 light-coloured ; it then gradually darkens, 
 and in about forty-eight hours, it is found 
 to be greenish brown. 
 
 (F) Nitrate of barytes occasions no 
 change in the appearance of any of these 
 waters. 
 
 (G) Oxalic acid discovers no precipi- 
 tate in any of them. 
 
 (H) Nitrate of silver occasions preci- 
 pitates in these waters, which, with one 
 exception, are more or less insoluble in 
 nitric acid ; the insoluble precipitates are 
 in the following quantities, from three 
 ounces of each water. Large well, east 
 of the lines at Lohooghat, ^ of a grain. 
 Boorikote spring, ^ of a grain. Well, north 
 of the lines, Lohooghat Hospital spring, 
 and spring between the Hospital and the 
 lines at that place, each i^n of a grain. 
 Paruree spring affords with this test a
 
 358 ANALYSIS OF WHOLESOME WATERS 
 
 slight precipitate of a brownish hue ; but 
 the whole is dissolved in nitric acid. 
 
 (I) Acetate of lead affords copious pre- 
 cipitates from all these waters ; and the 
 follow i no- are the least soluble of them 
 in acetic acid. 1, Boorikote ; 2, Paruree : 
 the others are entirely dissolved in distilled 
 vinegar. 
 
 (K) Alkaline carbonates afford only a 
 slight separation of earthy matter from 
 Paruree water. 
 
 INFERENCES. 
 
 1. From experiments A and B, in con- 
 nexion with those of C and D, as well as 
 from some of their physical properties, it 
 is pretty evident that these waters contain 
 little or no disengaged acid. 
 
 2. Experiments C, H, and I, are in- 
 dicative of a minute portion of a neutral 
 salt, and a trace of muriatic acid is dis- 
 covered by experiment H, in all but 
 Paruree ; in which experiment, I, indi- 
 cates a slight trace of sulphuric acid. 
 This indication is not confirmed by ex-
 
 ANALYSIS OF WHOLESOME WATERS. 359 
 
 periiiient F ; but acetate of lead being- 
 more powerful than nitrate of barytes in 
 detecting sulphuric acid, the presence of 
 a sulphate in this and Boorikote waters 
 is scarcely to be doubted. 
 
 3. From experiment E, there cannot 
 exist a sensible portion of any of the 
 metals in these waters, unless the change 
 that takes place in those of Boorikote 
 and Paruree, under the application of 
 the tincture of galls, be considered a proof 
 of the presence of iron. It is, however, 
 in confirmation of the presence of sul- 
 phuric acid, as indicated by experi- 
 ment! : the ferruginous indication being 
 here probably modified by sulphate of 
 lime. 
 
 4. From experiments G and K, earthy 
 matter is not contained in any of these 
 waters, except in Paruree ; and here the 
 quantity detected by K, must be very 
 trifling. 
 
 The following solid extracts were derived 
 from the evaporation of 13,000 grains 
 of each of these waters, at a gentle sand 
 heat.
 
 360 ANALYSIS OF WHOLESOME WATERS. 
 
 1. Paruree afforded 1 i Alkaline and earthy car- 
 grain, which was constitu-K bonates,^; Sulphate of lime, 
 ted as follows : (_ § nearly ; iron, a trace. 
 
 2. Boorikote afforded f ( Earthy carbonates, ^ ; Sul- 
 of a grain, which was con- I phate of lime, f; iron, 
 stituted as follows : (^ scarcely a trace. 
 
 3. Hospital spring at { r. , , , n-,. „ 
 
 T 1 1 i 1 ^ » } sulphate of hme, | ; muri- 
 Lohooghat, 1 gram, com--j , ^ /? , i j ' 
 
 posed of, (_ ' ^* 
 
 4. Spring between the ( a a i , i?i- i »r 
 Hospital and the lines at-^ ^}^^f^^\^ of hme, | ; Mu- 
 T 1 1 . 1 • i riate of soda, 4. 
 Lohooghat, 1 gram. (^ ' ^ 
 
 5. Spring east of the r 
 
 lines, Lohooghat, used b}^ ) Muriate of magnesia, \ ? 
 the 6th Company, 30th i Muriate of soda, I . 
 Regt. N. I. I of a grain, v 
 
 6. Spring north of the r 
 
 lines, Lohooghat, and used ) Clay, \ ; Sulphate of lime, 
 by the Light Company, i i ; Muriate of soda, |. 
 30th Regiment, ] grain. ^- 
 
 It now appears from comparison, that 
 there is a difference in the nature and 
 quantity of extraneous matters contained 
 in the waters just noticed, which, though 
 slight, yet is sufficient merely to distin- 
 guish them from the waters of limestone. 
 When philosophers are reconciled, as to 
 whether chemical analyses are capable of 
 detecting the sources of the effects of 
 mineral waters, we may then venture to 
 speculate with more advantage on this 
 subject. That there are peculiar distinc-
 
 ANALYSIS OF RAIN WATER. 361 
 
 tions between the waters of different 
 rocks cannot be denied, and that these 
 are less conspicuous when reduced to che- 
 mical analysis, than when viewed in re- 
 ference to their physical and morbid 
 effects, is only another instance of the 
 imperfection of chemistry, as a means of 
 developing some of the more complete 
 elaborations of nature. No doubt, my 
 want of skill in the performance of che- 
 mical operations, as well as the want of 
 adequate apparatus, tended to render my 
 success much less than it mig-ht have 
 been. There is, however, one grand 
 defect in these analyses, which tends still 
 more to render their result unsatisfac- 
 tory ; namely, the smallness of the quan- 
 tities of the different waters examined. 
 
 APPENDIX TO THE FOREGOING ANALYSIS. 
 
 Having been unable to procure distil- 
 led water of sufficient purity for the 
 foregoing inquiries, owing to the imper- 
 fection of the best apparatus I could con- 
 struct ; I instituted a few preliminary 
 3 A
 
 362 ANALYSIS OF RAIN WATER. 
 
 comparisons between such distilled water 
 as I could procure, the water of melted 
 snow, and rain water. 
 
 As the result of these experiments, in 
 regard to rain water, is different to what 
 has been observed by others, it may not 
 be devoid of interest to describe the pro- 
 cess adopted, in order that the nature, 
 or at least the value of the difference in 
 question, may be rightly estimated. 
 
 The snow-water was procured in glazed 
 earthen vessels, soon after a heavy fall 
 that took place about the 20th December, 
 1833; after having been melted, the 
 water was placed in bottles, carefully 
 corked. 
 
 The rain water was collected in glazed 
 porcelain vessels, with every care, on the 
 7th July, 1834, a day on which nine 
 inches of rain fell at Lohooghat ; during- 
 the previous day, four, and the succeed- 
 ing day four and a half inches of rain 
 fell at the same place : so that any impu- 
 rities that this water contained, may be 
 supposed to have been derived from the 
 general qualities of the atmosphere. This
 
 ANALYSIS OF RAIN WATER. 363 
 
 water was left a month or six weeks in 
 loosely corked bottles. 
 
 A crystal, weighing 3 oz. 6 drs. 4 grs. 
 in air, at 72° Fahrenheit, was weighed in 
 each of these waters, at the same temper- 
 ature, and found to be 2 oz. 2 drs. 41 grs. 
 in the rain and distilled waters, and 
 half a grain heavier in the snow-water. 
 Each of these waters gave a perceptibly 
 blue tinge to the infusion of Brazil-wood ; 
 the snow-water, however, more obscure 
 in its effects than either of the others, 
 which, together w^ith its lighter specific 
 gravity, induced the belief of its being 
 the purest of the three. 
 
 In order to ascertain the cause of the 
 effect of the rain water on the delicate 
 test of Brazil-wood ; and recollecting that 
 Bergman had discovered rain water to 
 contain muriate of lime ; that Morveau 
 had discovered only sulphate of lime in 
 it, while in England it has been usually 
 found to contain carbonate of lime ; I 
 was anxious to ascertain the nature of 
 the impurity of this fluid, in a part of 
 the world so remote from those places 
 3 A 2
 
 364 ANALYSIS OF RAIN WATEK. 
 
 where the other trials had been made ; as 
 well as to know how far rain water might 
 answer as a substitute for distilled water, 
 in the researches in which I was engaged. 
 
 1. 13 000 grains, by measure, of rain 
 water, were evaporated spontaneously to 
 I'OOO, in a broad porcelain dish, when 
 a very slight deposite was found to have 
 taken place by the rough sensation it 
 occasioned to the end of the finger, on 
 rubbing the bottom of the vessel gently. 
 
 The supernatant fluid was decanted 
 and evaporated to dryness by a gentle 
 sand heat, when half a grain of a grey 
 precipitate was afforded. 
 
 2. This precipitate was at first partly 
 soluble in cold water, slightly deliques- 
 cent, and insoluble in distilled vinegar. 
 On standing for a time, it became dry, 
 and assumed the property of effervescing, 
 and dissolving quickly in acids. 
 
 3. After exposure to the blue flame of 
 the blow-pipe, it loses the property of 
 effervescing with acids, nor does it acquire 
 the property of lime ; for it retains its 
 solid and compact form if immersed in
 
 ANALYSIS OF RAIN WATER. 36o 
 
 water — if boiled, its size is increased 
 rather than diminished. 
 
 4. About a tenth of a grain was dis- 
 solved in sulphuric acid, when after 
 standing, a minute particle of selenite 
 was deposited, nearly equal in quantity to 
 what a thirtieth part of a grain of car- 
 bonate of lime would alFord. The clear 
 acid solution was then rendered turbid 
 by the addition of carbonate of potash. 
 
 SECOND SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 1, The dish in which the first part of 
 the evaporation was conducted, and to 
 which a slight precipitate adhered, was 
 washed with half an ounce of the same 
 water : the whole was filtered, when 
 scarcely any solid matter was collected. 
 The clear solution was first tested for 
 sulphuric acid, by instilling- a solution 
 of the nitrate of barytes, when no preci- 
 pitate or change took place. Alkaline 
 carbonates, if present, were then saturated 
 with nitric acid, and nitrate of silver 
 added, when an instantaneous precipitate 
 was formed, which thus detected muriatic 
 acid.
 
 366 ANALYSIS OF RAIN WATER. 
 
 2. Another solution was now made by 
 dissolving, by means of nitric acid, a small 
 portion of precipitate No. 1, of first series 
 of experiments, in a few drachms of the 
 same water, when oxalic acid barely 
 afforded a slight indication of lime ; but 
 carbonate of ammonia, added afterwards 
 to the same solution, afforded a precipitate, 
 too slight indeed to be examined ; but 
 which, from the experiments already 
 related, may, as far as can be determined 
 from experiments on such a small scale, be 
 considered as carbonate of magnesia. 
 
 If the muriatic acid and lime, both of 
 which substances were detected in the 
 above experiments, were alone the only 
 contents of this water, they would be 
 melted on the slightest application of 
 heat ; but on mixing equal parts of car- 
 bonate of magnesia and muriate of lime, 
 a compound is formed, which is infusible 
 before the greatest heat of the blow-pipe, 
 and which presents analogous characters 
 to those of the extract from the rain 
 water. Thus the presence of magnesia 
 is probably for the first time indicated 
 in rain water.
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 ON THE CONNEXION BETWEEN GOITRE 
 AND CRETINISM, THEIR NATURE AND 
 CAUSES. 
 
 LX. From Goitre, as it appears in Ke- 
 maon, in its more distinct form, as well 
 as in conjunction with Cretinism, there 
 are many reasons for believing that both 
 complaints are intimately connected with 
 each other ; if not identically the same, 
 they are mere modifications of different 
 degrees of intensity of the same causes. 
 
 It may be remarked, that in those little 
 communities or hamlets, where Goitre 
 prevails to a certain extent, the people 
 are characterised by a want of enterprise 
 and bodily vigour, as compared with their 
 immediate neighbours, who are exempt 
 from the disease. The distinction in this
 
 36s GOITRE AND CRETINISM. 
 
 respect increases, not always, but in ge- 
 neral, with the extent and severity of 
 Goitre, until, at length, both mind and 
 body become so deformed, that the 
 unfortunate Cretin is scarcely to be 
 recognised as belonging to the human 
 species. 
 
 LXI. Mr. Bramley, in his excellent 
 account of the Goitre in Nepal, (an ad- 
 joining kingdom,) remarks in a note, 
 that he never saw" Cretinism, or any thing 
 approaching to it, in that country. If 
 instead of being attached to the court 
 of a foreign state, Mr. Bramley had been 
 so situated, that he could have passed from 
 the capital into the interior, and there 
 pursued his inquiries in the huts of the 
 scattered population, he would probably 
 have seen cause to have expressed a dif- 
 ferent opinion. Nay, if I had been 
 guided by information derived from old 
 residents in Kemaon, rather than by my 
 own labours, this treatise would have 
 contained a similar assertion ; and as to 
 information received from the common 
 natives of India, in particular, on any
 
 GOITRE AND CRETINISM. 369 
 
 thing- relating' to statistics, it is not only 
 not worthy of credit in a scientific point 
 of view, but had better in such investi- 
 gations be dispensed with altogether*. 
 
 Most of the conflicting opinions relat- 
 ing to this disease, have arisen from 
 authors and travellers resting their facts 
 on no better foundation, than that of the 
 mere statements they derive from others, 
 and thus but too often make popular 
 error the basis of general conclusionst. I 
 
 * I make these remarks generally, in order that we 
 may avoid, as much as possible, a very common source 
 of error. 
 
 -|- From Peeleabit to the confines of Rohilcund and 
 Huvdwar, is stated by Mr. Bramley, on the authority 
 of another author of great respectability, to be a link 
 in the chain of affected districts, in the plains of Hin- 
 dustan, extending from the 27° to 30° N. Lat. Yet I 
 have traversed the Tarai in this direction from Peele* 
 abit to Burmdeo pass, and from thence to the vicinity 
 of Rudeerpoor, crossing from thence to Moradabad, 
 without having met with a single case of Goitre ; al- 
 though 1 made it a point to visit every village of the 
 Tarai, or peculiar people, who are the only permanent 
 inhabitants of this unhealthy tract of country, I could, 
 during a march of at least 150 miles. Fairs are, how- 
 3 B 
 
 ^
 
 370 GOITRE AND CRETINISM. 
 
 was assured by persons, for whose opi- 
 nions I have great respect, that no such 
 beings as Cretins existed in Kemaon ; 
 yet in the course of my researches, (in 
 which I made it a maxim to take notliing- 
 for granted that 1 did not see and prove 
 by the evidence of my own senses,) I 
 discovered whole villages of these unfor- 
 tunate people. 
 
 LXII. In Goseragong, the people are 
 generally affected with Goitre, yet there 
 are no Cretins among them. The same 
 may be said of Deota ; but in the villages 
 of Salmora, Oliel, Goraght, Tomilly, and 
 Ager, which contain 138 inhabitants, 'JG 
 have Goitre, and 42 are Cretins ; while 
 there is not one of the latter class to be 
 found in any of those villages that are 
 exempt from Goitre. 
 
 Hence it appears, that in a population 
 in which Goitre prevails to the extent 
 
 ever, lickl in tlic Tarai, durinof tlic cold season, at 
 ■which the inhabitants of the mountains attend ; and 
 in this way, the mistake may have arisen. — See Cal. 
 Med. Trans, vol. vi. p. 182.
 
 PHENOMENA OF THE GOITRE. 371 
 
 of rather more than 50 per cent., 30 per 
 cent, are Cretins ; while in the remaining 
 portion of the people, amongst whom 
 Goitre does not extend to above nine per 
 cent., we have no Cretins. Thus far, it 
 is clear, that the two diseases are connect- 
 ed with each other, not merely ende- 
 mically, but they are complicated and 
 blended together in the same individuals. 
 
 LXIII. In describing the disease (XLIX.), 
 it is stated, that children are exempt 
 from it until the age of three years. 
 This is also in conformity with the ob- 
 servation of Mr. Bramley ; nor has any 
 authenticated instance occurred of Con- 
 genital Goitre, although a condition of 
 the bronchial gland of some of the lower 
 animals is congenital, a circumstance which 
 of itself forms a distinction between the na- 
 ture of the disease of animals and the Goitre 
 of the human subject, that we cannot 
 possibly overlook. 
 
 LXIV. Delicate, (apparently,) ill-fed, 
 
 and neglected children, in certain villages, 
 
 become aifected by the disease in the 
 
 course of a year or two after they are 
 
 3 B 3
 
 372 PHENOMENA OF THE GOITRE. 
 
 taken from the breast. It is usual for 
 them to have long- matted hair, large 
 joints, tumid abdomens, and slender 
 limbs o 
 
 The tumor on the neck makes greater 
 or less progress for a time ; but usually 
 becomes interrupted before it attains a 
 larger size than that of an orange, and 
 the general health now rapidly improves*. 
 In other cases, numerous bronchial glands 
 are simultaneously attacked ; and the 
 augmentation of the tumors, which soon 
 unite, suffer no abatement : while the 
 general dev^elopment of both mind and 
 body, is for the time suspended ; or the 
 materials of the latter are rather direct- 
 ed to the formation of irregular accumu- 
 lations, generally on the neck, than to 
 
 * Alibeit, from Human Dissections, divides the tu- 
 mors into simple and compound, according to the nature 
 of their contents. Compound bronchocele illustrates 
 these views ; Alibert having found such tumors to con- 
 tain calcareous, sarcomatous, and fatty matters, as 
 well as other heterogeneous contents, such as hair, &c. 
 Human dissections not being tolerated in Kemaon, I 
 can offer no remark on the pathological character of 
 these tumors.
 
 PHENOMENA OF THE GOITRE. 373 
 
 the uniform increase of the body. Nor 
 does this morbid action, this error loci, 
 sufter any interruption, until the subject 
 has attained the adult age. 
 
 LXV. With respect to the first of these 
 cases (LXIV.), the interruption to the 
 growth of the tumor does not take place 
 sometimes until it has reached its full 
 size. The necessary period for this varies 
 from ten to thirty years ; and often the 
 tumor continues slowly to increase during 
 the life of the patient, but so insensibly, 
 that at an advanced age, it is frequently 
 found of an inconsiderable size. In such 
 cases, the general health continues good ; 
 and hence, even in villages, where the 
 exciting cause may be supposed from the 
 number affected to be very intense, we 
 often find strong, robust, and otherwise 
 healthy adults with Goitre of every size 
 and shape — a circumstance which has er- 
 roneously induced some to believe, that 
 the disease is merely local ; and as these 
 are the sort of cases that usually occur 
 to common observation, the error in
 
 374 PHENOMENA OF CRETINISM. 
 
 question is by this means rendered the 
 more general. 
 
 LXVl. The second variety of the dis- 
 ease (LXIV.), or that which occasions the 
 peculiar condition called Cretinism*, is 
 
 * Foclere and others ascribe the weakness of the 
 mental energy of Cretins, to the state of the thyroid 
 gland — an opinion which Mr. A. Burns, as well as Mr. 
 Cooper, (Surg. Die.,) very properly suspect to be with- 
 out foundation, from the fact of Cretins having been 
 seen without much enlargement of the thyroid gland. 
 These eminent Surgeons were not, however, justified, 
 on this account, in considering the connexion between 
 Cretinism and Goitre, as merely accidental ; as if 
 mental imbecility were an essential symptom of Cre- 
 tini.sm. 
 
 The Cretins in Kemaon are characterised by general 
 deformity of the body ; hut especially of " the head 
 and neck ; countenance vacant, and stupid ; mental 
 faculties feeble, or sometimes idiotic ;" sensibility ob- 
 tuse ; mostly with enlargement of the thyroid gland. 
 
 This description, with the exception of the words iu 
 Italics, is from Dr. Good"'s Nosology. The deformity 
 of the head, a symptom of the general disorder, may of 
 itself give rise to "the mental faculties feeble," and 
 *' sensibility obtuse," as it is only in those who are 
 thus deformed, that these symptoms are very apparent. 
 
 It must, however, be remarked, that the " counten- 
 ance vacant and stupid," in Dr. Good's characters of
 
 PHENOMENA OF CRETINISM. 375 
 
 distinguished, from the last described, by 
 a greater intensity of all the symptoms. 
 The patient is invariably, and indeed ne- 
 cessarily, seized, during the first stage 
 of life, i. e. before the age of five years ; 
 and the disease continues without inter- 
 ruption throughout the stage of adoles- 
 cence. During this time, the living 
 materials of the body are wasted by a 
 depraved action of the absorbent system, 
 on the monstrous development of certain 
 organs ; while the natural growth of 
 others is proportionably prevented, or 
 suspended. Hence the limbs are short 
 and crooked, the spine distorted, the 
 head often of enormous size, the features 
 bulky and idiotic, and glandular swel- 
 lings are common on various parts of 
 
 Cretinism, are very arbitrary distinctions, and may 
 often be only the false effect of disproportionate features. 
 In proof of which, I have only to mention, that al- 
 though the Cretins of the village of Ager have these 
 characters in an extreme degree ; yet they perform 
 the practical duties of working a copper mine in their 
 vicinity — an occupation in which they display at least 
 some mechanical skill.
 
 376 PHENOMENA OF CRETINISM. 
 
 the body, but seldom entirely absent on 
 the neck, where the first signs of the 
 disease are displayed in the enlargement 
 of the bronchial glands*. The progress 
 of all this deformity usually continues 
 until the end of the period of adolescence, 
 when it happily is not farther extended. 
 
 Such physical derangement, affecting 
 three-fourths of a whole community, is 
 calculated to impair, in a moral point of 
 view, their intellectual faculties ; but 
 notwithstanding any allowance we can 
 make for this, there is still reason to fear 
 that, in the majority of cases, both mental 
 and corporeal functions suffer alike. Yet 
 the Cretins do not in general, even in 
 their most deplorable state, equal the 
 imbecility of natural idiots ; but on the 
 contrary, they retain at least the full 
 
 * Cretins are sometimes seen without any great 
 enlargement of the bronchial glands ; but such cases 
 are rare, and they are generally otherwise much de- 
 formed, so as not to be mistaken for congenital idiots. 
 Tumors on the elbows, knees, and other joints, as 
 well as along the course of the lymphatics, are com- 
 mon with the Cretins of Ager (XLIIL), and other 
 villaofes in Kemaon.
 
 PREDISPOSING CAUSE. 377 
 
 extent of mental power they acquired in 
 childhood, previous to the attack of the 
 disease. To this mercifid peculiarity in 
 the character of their affliction, which 
 thus spares to after-life the intellectual 
 integrity they acquired in infancy, they 
 owe that glimmering of reason, which 
 enables them to afford those offices of 
 humanity to each other, which their 
 unfortunate condition and retirement, 
 must call so frequently into requisition. 
 
 LXVII. From the above description 
 of the phenomena of the disorder, it 
 must be evident to those who are at all 
 conversant with what is at present known, 
 regarding the laws which regulate the 
 animal economy in health and disease, 
 that Goitre and Cretinism are but varie- 
 ties of the same disorder, and that the 
 proximate cause of both, is an error loci, 
 or derangement of the functions of the 
 absorbent system. 
 
 ON THE REMOTE CAUSE. 
 
 LXVIII. In conformity with the custom 
 of pathologists, the remote cause may b^ 
 3 c
 
 378 PREDISPOSING CAUSE. 
 
 divided into predisposing and exciting 
 causes. In the present instance, indeed, 
 this division is indispensable. 
 
 A. Predisposing cause. The liability of 
 some to certain diseases, and the immu- 
 nity of others, though equally exposed 
 to exciting causes, are facts that have 
 been universally observed in all ages, 
 and with respect to all diseases, even 
 including perhaps the plague*. 
 
 " There are many reasons to induce 
 us,"' (says Dr. Robertson,) '' to regard 
 Goitre sis a particular variety of Scrofula ; 
 in this country," (England,) " it is only 
 seen in highly scrofulous constitutions.'* 
 Now although I cannot venture the length 
 Dr. Robertson has gone ; although I 
 cannot venture to say, that Goitre is only 
 seen in Kemaon in highly scrofulous 
 constitutions ; yet I must bear testimony 
 to the accuracy of the remark to a certain 
 extent ; and beyond this, what is stated 
 (LXV.) will explain the cause of numer- 
 
 * Of tlie plague, Bacon observes, " Tis likewise 
 noticed to go in a blood, more than from stranger to 
 stranger."
 
 GOITRE AND SCROFULA. 379 
 
 ous healthy, or at least stout healthy- 
 looking- persons being- seen with Goitre. 
 The opinion of Dr. Robertson has often 
 been suggested without assigning adequate 
 reasons, and as often opposed on still 
 more inadequate grounds ; while the great 
 bulk of those to whom arguments on 
 both sides were addressed, were unable to 
 decide, for want of practical acquaintance 
 with the points at issue. I shall here 
 transcribe from Mr. Cooper's Surgical 
 Dictionary, the distinctions stated to 
 exist between Goitre and Scrofula, as 
 enumerated by Dr. Postiglione ; and to 
 save repetition, I shall take the liberty 
 to refer the reader to the articles in this 
 section, by comparison with which, each 
 of the supposed distinctions will be found 
 to give way. 
 
 " 1. Scrofula is a disease of the general 
 system, but Bronchocele is merely local." 
 
 This distinction is removed by what 
 is stated (LXV.), where the error is 
 accounted for, and explained : in farther 
 refutation (LXIV.) (LXVI.) (LXVIII.) 
 
 "2. Bronchocele begins at a later age
 
 380 GOITRE AND SCROFULA. 
 
 than Scrofula, and does not, like the latter, 
 spontaneously disappear*." 
 
 This distinction is completely refuted 
 by what is stated (LXIV.) (LXV.) and 
 (LXVI.) 
 
 ''3. Scrofulous g-lands often suppurate ; 
 Bronchocele rarely undergoes this change." 
 
 This is the only real distinction, and 
 is to be referred merely to a modification 
 of the effects of the same latent cause, 
 b}^ exciting' powers somewhat different in 
 their nature, and consequently in their 
 effects. 
 
 " 4. The thickening of the upper lips 
 of scrofulous subjects, is not an attendant 
 on Bronchocele." 
 
 I observed this character, in particular, 
 in some of the strangers who contracted 
 
 * All authors agree, that the usual period for Scro- 
 fula to appear, is between the age of three and seven 
 years : but that it may arise any time before puberty, 
 seldom afterwards ; so that here we have really no 
 distinction between Scrofula and Goitre. It might be 
 difficult to conceive, how a large tumor could spon- 
 taneously disappear ; but it is very common for the 
 augmentation of the tumor in Bronchocele to become 
 permanently suspended, without the aid of any remedy.
 
 GOITRE AND SCROFULA. 381 
 
 Goitre at Petoragur* ; but it is not, after 
 all, a more unequivocal sign of scrofulous 
 diathesis than many of those enumerated 
 (LXIV.) as characterising those who are 
 subject to the Goitre. 
 
 The only other distinctions between 
 Scrofula and Goitre, pointed out by Dr. 
 Pastiglione, are very trifling ; and the 
 whole of them, merely refer to the differ- 
 ence between the simple form of Goitre 
 and Scrofula ; but if the connexion of the 
 former with Cretinism be granted, as I 
 believe it must, the difficulty of longer 
 defending any sound distinction between 
 these diseases, except as varieties, is much 
 increased. 
 
 From what has been said during the 
 consideration of the predisposing cause, 
 we are led to the conclusion, that the same 
 inherent diathesis^ that under certain circum- 
 
 * The person alluded to (in the table attached to 
 the Introductory Section), page 263, who contracted 
 a larger Goitre at Petoragur, had not merely the thick 
 lips, but the expanded nostrils, and the strumous frown 
 on the brows. He was a servant in the employment 
 of the officer who commanded the post, and is still, I 
 believe, a camp-follower of the 30th Regiment.
 
 382 EXCITING CAUSE OF GOITRE. 
 
 stances gives t^ise to Scrofula, xvould, under 
 exposure to the exciting cause of Goitre, 
 occasion that peculiar form of disease. 
 
 B. Exciting cause. This cause has been 
 traced in the foregoing inquiry to certain 
 strata of the earth, under circumstances 
 that are calculated to convince us, that 
 the waters are the mediums by which it 
 is conveyed to the bodies of men ; but 
 that the analysis of such waters, like 
 those of some of the most celebrated 
 mineral springs*, are incapable of detect- 
 ing any ingredient to which we can 
 directly ascribe their effects, LIV. p. 329- 
 
 Finally, that having thus far traced the 
 source of the endemic, we have reached, 
 in regard to the exciting cause of Goitre, 
 the utmost limit of our knowledge of 
 endemic contagions generally : but whether 
 there be any other strata, capable of 
 yielding this peculiar contagion, than 
 those we have described ; and whether the 
 waters are the only mediums by which 
 it is conveyed, are points which still 
 remain to be determined. 
 
 * As the Bath waters, for instance.
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Fig. 1. Physiognomy of the Himalaya range. The red 
 line is intended to mark the inferior limit of snow. See 
 pages 27, 28, 29. 
 
 PLATE n. 
 
 Fig. 1 , Delineations on the surface of magnesian limestone 
 in the bed of the Ponar river. See page 91. 
 
 Fig. 2. Concentric disintegration of gneiss at Chompawut ; 
 a a a mark the strata seams, and b b b the enclosed nodules 
 of granite, or more compact gneiss. 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 Represents the strata of hornblende slate ascending from 
 the bed of the Ramessa river near the bridge, and assuming 
 a more horizontal form as it approaches the surface of the 
 declivity of the mountain, where it is subject to the greatest 
 pressure from above. This is referred to in pages 121 and 
 122. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 This plate represents the mountains on the north-eastern 
 boundary o^ Shore Valley. 
 
 A. Clay-slate. B. Granatine. C. Talc, and fibrous limestone. 
 D.Alpine limestone. E. abed of floetz limestone, which in 
 some places contains distinct concretions resembling small 
 fishes (one of which is presented to the Asiatic Society), and
 
 384 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 in others, lignites, and even whole trees. Of the latter, there 
 is, near the spot here represented, an immense exarajjle, about 
 45 feet long and six feet in diameter : it is called by the 
 natives, Mahadeo's Wand, 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 Figs. 1, 2, 3. Represent the side, the back, and the section 
 of a concretion resembling a fish, found in floetz limestone. 
 
 Fig. 4. Is a section of the rocks composing the bed of 
 the river that drains Shore Valley. 
 
 A. clay-slate. B. overlying limestone of the transition 
 period. C. magnesian limestone. D. floetz limestone. 
 
 PLATE VL 
 
 Impressions of leaves found in calc-tuff in Shore valley. 
 Fig. 4, represents what is supposed to be the impression of 
 the leaf of some unknown species, or perhaps genus, which 
 has probably become extinct. 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 Fig. 1. Is a shell from the same bed of tuff. It belongs 
 to a very numerous genus, many species of which are peculiar 
 to the fossil state. The other figures are leaves from the 
 calc-tuflf of Shore Valley. 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 Impressions of leaves from the newest layer of tuff.
 
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