ANTIIHOPOLOGY LIBRARY n THE TESTIMONY OF MODERN SCIENCE TO THE UNITY OF MANKIND; BEING A SUMMARY OF THE COXOLUSIONS ANNOUNCED BY THE HIGHEST AUTHORITIES IN THE SEVERAL DEPARTMENTS OF PHYS- IOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, AND COMPARATIVE PHI- LOLOGY IN FAVOR OF THE SPECIFIC UNITY AND COMMON ORIGIN OF ALL THE VARIETIES OF MAN. BY J. L. CABELL, 11 D. PROFESSOR OF COKPARATnT: ANATOMY A^D PHYSIOLOGY, IN' THE UNIVERSTTY OF VIRGINU. WITH AN INTRODUCTORY NOTICE BY JAMES W. ALEXANDER, D. D. ^jtunb itroduced into St. Do- * J. C. Prichard. Loc. cit, pp. 27, 28. I 44 T H E U N I T Y F mingo at the first discovery of tliat Island in 1493, and successively to all the places where the Spaniards formed settlements. These ani- mals multiplied with great rapidity, and soon infested the forests in large herds. At length, under the influences of their wild state, they have resumed the characters of the original stock ; that is, their appearance very closely resembles that of the European wild boar, from which the domesticated breeds have sprung. Their ears have become erect ; their heads are larger, and their foreheads vaulted at the upper part ; their color has lost the variety found in the domestic breeds, the wild hogs of the Ameri- can forests being uniformly black. The hog which inhabits the high mountains of Paramos bears a striking resemblance to the wild boar of France. His skin is covered with thick fur, often somewhat crisp, beneath which is found in some individuals a species of wool. Thus the restoration of the original characters of the wild boar, in a race known to have sprung from domesticated swine brought over to Amer- ica by the Spaniards, removes all reason for THE HUMAN SPECIES. 45 doubt, if any had existed, as to the identity of the wild and domesticated stocks in Europe, and we may safely proceed to compare the physical characters of these races as varieties, which have arisen in one species. We note, then, the restoration of one uniform black color, and the change from sparse hair and bristles to a thick fur with a covering of wool. But besides these, we note a very remarkable change in the shape of the head. Blumenbach long ago pointed out the great difference between the cranium of the domestic swine and that of the primitive wild boar, and remarked that this difference is quite equal to that which has been observed between the skull of the Negro and the European. In addition to numerous other points of difference, the enormous length of the wild boar's tusk, amounting sometimes to ten or twelve inches, is a very conspicuous one. Swine, continues Blumenbach, in some countries have degene- rated into races, which in singularity far exceed anything that has been found strange in bodily variety among the human race. Swine with sohd hoofs were known to the ancients, and are 46 THE UNITY OF yet found in Hungary and Sweden. Dr. Bacli- man has ascertained that these have recently occurred as an accidental variety on the Red River. The European swine, first carried b}^ the Spaniards in 1509 to the island of Cubagua, at that time celebrated for its pearl-fishery, have there degenerated into a monstrous race, with toes which were half a span in length."* We are informed by Dr. Bachman, that " the cattle in Opelousas, in Western Louisiana, have, without a change of stock within the last thirty years, produced a variety of immense size, with a peculiar form and enormous horns, like the cattle of Abyssinia. They have now formed a permanent race, and we were very recently informed that all the other breeds had disap- peared from the marshy meadows of Opelou- sas."f Illustrations on this point might be multiplied to an almost indefinite extent. Dr. Bachman, indeed, avers, as the result of his extended * We have borrowed the above account of the varieties of swine from Dr. Prichard. -}• J. Bachman, D. D. Op. cit., p. 181.' T U E H U M A N S P E C I E S . 47 observations on this subject, that " every verte- bratecl animal, from the horse down to the canary-bird and gold-fish, is subject in a state of domestication, to very great and striking varieties, and that in the majority of species, these varieties are much greater than are ex- hibited in any of the numerous varieties of the human race." So, too, one of the first physiologists of the age expresses himself thus : " The longer the action of external influences," tending to pro- duce variations of species, " is continued, the more constant does the particular variety be- come, and the more does it acquire the charac- ter of a tj^pe. To these external influences be- long the climates or zones in which the animals hve Climate modifies also the ' habitus ' and size of animals. Cattle transported from the temperate zones of Europe, — for example, from Holland or England to the East Indies, — are said to become considerably smaller in their succeeding generations. On the other hand, the skin of the cattle carried to South America, has, in a series of generations, gradually be- 48 THEUNITYOF come so much changed in its properties that the Brazilian hides now supply the best leather. The gu'mea-i[>\g,Caviaape7'ea, which in its native country is of a grey color, since its introduction into Europe has become changed into a variety marked with brown, black and white spots. The elevation of the locality above the sea, also, independently of the degree of latitude, has an influence over the forms of animals. But the food also modifies the form and nutri- tion of animals ; hence, in the low countries of Holland, East Friesland and Holstein, the cattle are remarkable for their large size. . . The concurrence of different conditions of internal as well as external nature, which cannot be seve- rally defined, has produced the existing races or Jixed varieties of the different species of animals ; the most remarkable of which varieties are to be met with in those species which are susceptible of the most extended distribution over the sur- face of the earth."* We may, then., regard it as an established * J. Miiller, M. D., Elements of Physiology, translated by W. Baly. . London, 1842, p. 1664. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 49 fact that under the mfluence of causes some- thiies appreciable, though often quite unknown, animals may acquire structural characters, dif- fering in many respects from those of the parent stock, and then transmit such peculiarities to their own offspring with entire constancy, so as to give rise to a new breed. It is interesting to remark that not only are the structural charac- ters of animals of the same original stock hable to undergo variations, accidental in their origin, yet afterwards regularly transmitted to their offspring, but that the same may be predicated of certain physiological and psychological traits ; although the limits of possible departure from the typical characters of the original stock are doubtless more narrow in respect to these qualities, than they are in respect to bodily conformation. Sir Charles Lyell states that some of his countrymen, engaged in conducting one of the principal mining associations in Mexico, — that of Real del Monte, — carried out with them some English greyhounds of the best breed, to hunt the hares which abound in that country. The great platform, which is the 3 50 THE L NIT Y OF scene of sport, is at an elevation of about nine thousand feet above the level of the sea, and the mercury in the barometer stands habitually at the height of about nineteen inches. It was found that the greyhounds could not support the fatigues of a long chase in this attenuated atmosphere ; and before they could come up with their prey, they lay down gasping for breath ; but these same animals have produced whelps which have grown up, and are not in the least degree incommoded by the want of density in the air, but run down the hares with as much ease as the fleetest of their race in England.* Dr. Prichard relates a parallel case, exemplifpng the gradual process of acclima- tization and the subsequent regular transmis- sion, by descent, of the newly acquired power. Within the present century geese were first introduced on the plateau of Bogota. At first the eggs laid were very few, and scarcely a fourth part of these was hatched ; of the young goslings, more than half died in the first month ; the second generation, produced by the sur- * Sir C. Lyell. Principles of Geology. London, 1850. P. 672. T H E H U M A N S r E C I E S . 61 vivors, was more successful, and the breed has gradually approximated to the vigor of the same stock in Europe. We may remark, in passing, that this ten- dency to the regular transmission to offspring of characters acquired by the progenitors of a stock, in the gradual process of acclimatization, furnishes an entirely satisfactory explanation of the alleged immunity enjoyed by our negroes from attacks of yellow fever and malarious dis- eases. The phenomenon is but another instance of the general principle which has just been stated. The power of resisting certain mor- bific influences connected with climate, though acquired with difficulty, and as the result of a gradual change taking place through numerous successive generations, may yet, when once fully acquired, be regularly transmitted to off- spring, and thus become characteristic of a race. That the character should be so tenacious as to resist the opposite influences of other climates through a series of generations, need not ex- cite surprise, when it is remembered that a pos- itive character once stamped upon the system 52 THEUNITYOF is not easily lost by merely withholding the conditions which originally produced it, and that the process by which it was riveted upon certain races of African negroes, extended through many centuries. It accords with this view, that our negroes are not wholly exempt from attacks of these diseases, as was proved in the disastrous epidemic in Norfolk and Ports- mouth during the summer of 1855. Of course this partial immunity cannot, consistently with the recognized principles of science, be invoked as a mark of specific difference betw^een the African and other races, for specific tests admit of no exception.* Sir Charles Lyell records several curious and interesting instances of " acquired instincts be- come hereditary r The inhabitants of the banks of the Magdalena employ a mongrel race of * It should be observed here that the above statement is not invali- dated by the alleged fact that yellow fever is not an African disease; for, as has been remarked by Dr. Barton, of New Orleans, " althon^-h the yellow fever proper hardly exists in Africa, an equivalent malijnant type of fever does, to which the negroes are habituated." {Report on the smntari/ condition of New OrJeam, hy Dr. E. H. Barton. M Edition. Supplement p. 274.) The truth of this statement is entirely irrespective of Dr. Barton's peculiar opinions on the contested question of the identity of yellow and bilious fevers. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 63 dogs to hunt the white-hpped pecari. The ad- dress of these dogs consists in restraining their ardor, and attaching themselves to no animal in particular, but keeping the whole herd in check. Now, among these dogs some are found, which, the very first time they are taken into the woods, are acquainted with this mode of attack ; where- as, a dog of another breed starts forward at once, is surrounded by the pecari, and, whatever may be his strength, is destroyed in a moment. The actions of a pointer may be referred to a mere modification of a natural habit, but the same explanation will not apply to the case of the retriever ; and yet it has been satisfactorily ascertained, that the peculiar faculty which characterizes this breed, though originally im- pressed upon the animal with great labor and difficulty, is now inherited by the offspring, so that a young whelp, separated very early from its parent, and kept constantly under the eyes of an eminent naturalist, (M. Magendie.) per- formed its part when first carried to the field, with as much steadiness as dogs that had been duly trained.* * Lyell. Op. eit.. pp. 571, 572. 54 T H E U N I T Y F From a vast array of parallel facts, recorded by himself and others, Dr. Prichard deduces the following conclusions, the accuracy of which cannot be successfully contested : "I. That when certain animals are transported to a new region, not only individuals, but also races, re- quire to be harmonized in physical constitution to the climate. II. This acclimatization, as it is termed, consists in certain permanent changes produced in the constitution of animals, which bring it into a state of adaptation to the cli- mate. III. A restoration of domestic animals to the wild state causes a return towards the original characters of the wild tribe. IV. Per- manent changes or modifications in the func- tions of life, may be effected by long-continued changes in the habitudes which influence these functions, as exemplified in the permanent pro- duction of milk by the domesticated breeds of cows, which has been produced by an artificial habit continued through several generations. V. Hereditary instincts may be formed, some animals transmitting to their offspring acquired habits, and thus the psychical as well as the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 55 physical character of the races undergo varia- tion through the influence of various causes on the breed."* But let it be noted, that the existence of any number of varieties within the limits of an as- sumed single species, whether the diversities respect the physical or the psychical characters of the races, and whether they be brought about by obvious causes or depend upon some inappreciable tendency to spontaneous varia- tion, does not in any degree tend to throw a doubt upon the doctrine of " permanence of species ;" for, however wide may be the limits of variation, there is yet a limit in every case ; and, moreover, all the varieties of any single species, however numerous and diversified, do yet retain, as a common heritage, the unmis- takable distinguishing marks of that species. The possibility of identifying all the diversified breeds of dogs, as one species, furnishes a strik- ing exemplification of this remark. We shall presently see that this is the ground taken by F, Cuvier, Owen, and a large majority of the * Prichard. Loc. cit., pp. 39, 40. 66 THEUNITYOF most eminent naturalists of the age. It is true that Messrs. Nott and Gliddon, with singular complacency, affirm that these great men knew nothing of the "monumental history" of man and other animals, including the dog, as pro- served among the antiquities of Egypt ; but, in- asmuch as most of these eminent savans have lived and written since the publication of the researches of modern Egyptologists, and Owen's latest and most emphatic utterances have been made subsequently to the appearance of even the " Types of Mankind," we are not at liberty to assign such an explanation of their zoologi- cal errors. We have extended our remarks to an incon- venient, and we fear a tedious length, in illus- tration of the doctrine that varieties, when kept separate by breeding inter se, are often as per- manent as species ; because the denial of this fact is a cardinal point with those who deny the unity of the human species. Admit this doctrine, which it does appear to us no reason- able mind can now reject, and the "monu- mental history, " discovered in Egypt, only THE HUMAN SPECIES. 57 proves that some of the now existing varieties of men and dogs had their origin prior to the date of the inscriptions. Assign to these the earhest date you please, there must, of course, have been several centuries between that period and the commencement of the world's history. The inscriptions prove that such and such va- rieties existed so many thousand years ago. Granted. We ourselves contend that certain varieties are permanent. But when you con- clude that, because the types have not changed since those inscriptions were made, therefore they were created as distinct species, we can- not withold an expression of surprise that you overlook the obvious flaw in your argu- ment, and we protest against the manifest peti- tio principii. Sir C. Lyell has shown that species, susceptible of modification, may be greatly altered in a few generations,* Indeed, in all the instances of such variations, in which the process has been made known, the maxi- mum amount of change was reached in a com- paratively short time, and thenceforward the * Principles of Geology, p. 570. 3* 58 THE HUMAN SPECIES. newly acquired characters were regularly trans- mitted by descent. We have already cited a number of instances from among the lower animals. We shall in the sequel have occa- sion to refer to the occurrence of similar phe- nomena in the human family, within historic and even modern times.* * See Appendix B. CHAPTER II. MEANS OF DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN SPECIES AND PERMANENT VARIETIES. The fact that varieties may occur within the limits of a single species and be permanently perpetuated being thus established on incon- trovertible evidence, the question presents it- self, How are we to recognize such groups ? or in other words, How can we ascertain whether two groups of individuals, possessing numerous points of resemblance, but yet marked by some distinctive features, are distinct species, or are only permanent varieties of one species? Of course, the most satisfactory and conclusive test would be authentic historical evidence, going back to the origin of a given race. This test is especially important, as not only settling the question in any particular case in regard to which authentic evidence may have been col- 60 T 11 E U N I T Y F lected, but as verifying data, which, on the grounds of analogy, we may apply to other cases where direct historical evidence is want- ing. It furnishes us with examples of known variation, and indicates at the same time the extent and direction of possible changes that are yet compatible with specific unity. It has brought to light the interesting fact, that there is a great diversity in respect to capacity for vai'iation among animals, even those that are most nearly allied to each other in other par- ticulars. Hence, some not possessing this ca- pacity are restricted to particular conditions of climate, food, etc., while others are more widely dispersed, simply because they have the power of adapting their physical and psychical consti- tutions to a wider range of conditions.* It also proves that " some mere varieties are pos- sibly more distinct than certain individuals of distinct species. "f A most admirable exposi- tion of the final causes of this providential arrangement is found in the chapter of LyelFs *W. B. Carpenter. Varieties of Mankind. fLyell. Op. cit., p. 559. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 61 Principles of Geology, to which ^Ye are indebted for many of the facts and arguments already given. " If it be a law, for instance, that scanty sustenance should check those indi- viduals in their growth, which are enabled to accommodate themselves to privations of this kind, and that a parent, prevented in this man- ner from attaining the size proper to its species, should produce a dwarfish offspring, a stunted race will arise, as is remarkably exemplified in some varieties of the horse and dog. The difference of stature in some races of dogs, when compared to others, is as one to five in linear dimensions, making a difference of a hundred-fold in volume. Now, there is good reason to believe that species in general are by no means susceptible of existing under a diver- sity of circumstances, which may give rise to such a disparity of size, and, consequently, there will be a multitude of distinct species, of which no two adult individuals can ever depart so widely from a certain standard of dimen- sions as the mere varieties of certain other species — the dog, for instance. Now we have 62 T H E U N I T Y F only to suppose that what is true of size may also hold with regard to color, and many other attributes, and it will at once follow that the degree of possible discordance between varie- ties of the same species may, in certain cases, exceed the utmost disparity which can arise between two individuals of many distinct spe- cies. The same remarks may hold true in regard to instincts : for, if it be foreseen that one species will have to encounter a great variety of foes, it may be necessary to arm it with great cunning and circumspection, or with courage, or other qualities capable of develop- ing themselves on certain occasions ; such, for example, as those migratory instincts which are so remarkably exhibited at particular periods, after they have remained dormant for many generations. The history and habits of one variet}' of such species may often differ more considerably from some other than those of many distinct species, which have no such lati- tude of accommodation to circumstances."* The horse, the dog. horned cattle, swine, and * Lyell. Op. cit p. 560 THE HUMAN SPECIES. 63 in a word all the domesticated animals which follow man in his migrations, and like him manifest a power of accommodation to widely varied conditions of climate, exhibit also, as has already been intimated, an extraordinary ca- pacity for variation, so that mere varieties arising within the limits of any one of these species, — say the hog, in regard to which we have already cited unquestionable facts that will serve to illustrate the point now under con- sideration, — will exhibit differences far greater in apparent significance than in other cases would suffice to indicate specific distinctions. The question now recurs whether, when his- torical proof cannot be had, there is any other mode of ascertaining whether two or more groups of somewhat dissimilar animals are dif- ferent but allied species, like tigers and leopards, or are only permanent varieties of one species, like the different breeds of hogs which are known to have sprung from a common stock. Adverting to the fact that it is the constancy of a differential character, however intrinsically unimportant it may appear, wliich serves to in- 64 T H E U N I T Y F dicate the distinction of species, we are pre- pared to understand that, next to historical evi- dence tracing a given stock through a long in- terval of time and under great variations of ex- ternal conditions, so as to note the successive changes it may have undergone, the most im- portant source of information is found in ob- taining an assemblage of as many forms as possible of each type, with the view of com- paring them with each other for the sake of de- termining whether the supposed specific charac- ters are constant and well-marked throughout, or whether diverse forms tend to run together by intermediate gradations. We are indebted to Dr. Carpenter for an apt illustration of the principle in question. " Two Terebratulae (a genus of Brachiopod Bivalves) are brought to us from different parts of the great Southern Ocean, the one of which has the edges of the valves of the shells thrown into deep plications, whilst in the other they are quite smooth. Now in most other Bivalve Molluscans such a differ- ence would be justly admitted to afford a valid specific character, and the conchologist, who T H E H U M A N S P E C I E S . 65 had only these two shells before him, would be fully justified, by the usual rules of the science, in ranking each as a distinct specific type. But as his collection extends, intermediate forms come into his possession ; and at last he finds that he can make a continuous series, passing, by the most gradual transition, from the smoothest to the most deeply plicated form. Thus, then, the supposed validity of this dis- tinction is altogether destroyed ; and it becomes evident that the most plicated and the smoothest of these Terebratulae must be regarded as be- longing to one and the same species, notwith- standing the marked diversity of their extreme forms."* It is on similar grounds that the most emi- nent naturalists admit the specific unity of all the diversified varieties of the dog. As was well remarked by F. Cuvier, there is no alternative between adopting this conclusion and falling into the absurdity of admitting at least fifty species of dogs, all distinguished by permanent differences, and yet capable of unlimited cross- *^" W. B. Carpenter. Ubi supra. 66 THE UNITY OF breeding. Prof. R. Owen insists upon the same doctrine. Adverting to the extraordinary dif- ferences in cranial conformation between the large greyhound on the one hand and the smaller spaniel on the other, he adds: "But 3'et under the extremest mask of variety so superinduced, the naturalist detects in the den- tal formula, and in the construction of the cranium, the unmistakable generic and specific characters of the Canis familiarisr'^ It is also pertinently remarked by Sir Charles Lyell " that the numerous races of dogs which we have pro- duced by domesticity are nowhere to be found in a wild state. In nature we should seek in vain for mastiffs, harriers, spaniels, greyhounds, and other races, between which the differences are sometimes so great, that they w'ould be readily admitted as specific between wild ani- mals ; yet all these have sprung originally from a single race, at first approaching very near to a wolf if indeed the wolf be not the true type, which at some period or other was domesticated by man."f We have just seen, it * Zoological Transactions, voL iii. f Lyell's Principles of Geology. London, 1850, p. 548. T II E II U M A N S P E C I E S , 67 is true, that the authors of the " Types of Maii- kmd" attempt to discredit the conclusions of naturahsts with reference to the specific unity of the dog, by having recourse to Egyptian monumental inscriptions, which, however, only serve to show that some of the now existing varieties had already arisen prior to the date of those inscriptions. They do not touch the question of their origin, and we are, therefore, constrained to treat the question on princi- ples, the validity of which is full}^ recognized by all philosophical naturalists. Let it be ob- served, too, that whatever be the original causes of these variations, even when some of them appear to depend on climate, as soon as they become permanent they are transmitted irre- spectively of the continued operation of the causes which had given rise to them ; so that breeds originating in different localities, under the influence of different conditions connected with climate, after being once established will be perpetuated without change in one and the same climate. A noteworthy and interesting exception to this remark is found in the case 68 T H E U N I T Y F of the lapse of domesticated breeds into the wild state, when the varieties dependent on do- mestication are likely to merge into one com- mon type, which approximates more or less closely to the original stock whence the domes- tic breeds had sprung. According to Dr. Car- penter,"^ this change has taken place in various parts of the world in the case of dogs, (the very case, namely, in which Dr. Nott contends that types are so permanent,) which were intro- duced from Europe and which have since be- come wild ; but it has been particularly noticed in Cuba, where the exact period at which the dog was introduced, that of tlie invasion by the Spaniards at the end of the fifteenth century, is known. The same fact is mentioned by Sir Charles Lyell.f with respect to the horse, the ox, the boar and the dog. With reference to this partial exception to the permanency of well-established varieties it should be observed, first, that in all the recorded instances of its oc- currence several varieties of the same original ^ * "W. B. Carpenter's Zoology, vol. i. p. 35. f Lyell. Op. cit., p. 563. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 69 stock were intermingled in tliis process of res- toration to the wild state ; and secondly, that the wild state was the original condition of the primordial types. Lest any of our readers should consider the demonstration of the princi- ple now under review unsatisfactory by reason of the doubt which has been recently expressed as to the specific unity of the dog, we will cite the somewhat parallel case of the common wolf. According to Dr. Bachman, "The common wolf (Canis lupus) has been described by Linnaeus, Buffon, Cuvier, and all the eminent naturalists who have written on the mammalia of Europe, as identical with the wolf of America. Sir John Richardson, De Kay, and recently Audu- bon and Bachman, on the history of American quadrupeds, agreeing with the views of Euro- pean naturalists, have placed all the large North American wolves (not including the small prairie wolf) as varieties of the European wolf; and even Col. Smith himself says, ' Our somewhat extensive researches led us to subscribe' to the opinion of the Prince of Wied ' that they are the same.' This wolf is like man, a cosmopo- 70 THEUNITYOF lite, and has spread over a considerable portion of the world Its geographical range is wider than that of any species among the inferior animals, and is only exceeded by that composing the human race. Let us now examine how these changes in cli- mate, food, or some other influences at present hidden from our knowledge, affect this species. In color, it is white in the northern regions, and in the elevated countries on both continents. In the temperate latitudes of Europe and America, it is grey. It is black in the South, as in Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana. In the western part of Missouri it is clouded, and has been named Canis iiubilh. In Texas it is red. These varieties differ widely in size, those of the North being nearlj^ double the size of those of the South. They differ in the conformation of the head and the skull. In an examination to which we were invited, of the wolves pre- served in the British Museum, and those con- tained in the gardens and museum of the Zo- ological Society of London, all the naturalists ]n'esent expressed their surprise and perplexity THE II U -M A N SPECIES. 7l at the vast differences existing not only in color, but in size, form, and skull in different speci- mens. In cold climates their heads were broader and muzzles shorter than in those found farther south ; still we found individuals which, like links in a chain, connected all these varieties so closely that they could not be separated into different species. Thus naturalists, after an ex- amination for two hundred years of all the varieties of the wolf, are obliged to admit that this wide-roaming animal, which changes its form and color at every remove to new regions, is one and the same species."* But sometimes it is not practicable to obtain such a collection of varied types as will serve to connect two dissimilar specimens about whose specific unity we may be in doubt, and yet the difficulty may depend more upon the slender- ness of our observations than on the non-exist- ence of the transitional forms. In such cases we sometimes rely, provisionally at least, on the apparent significance of the differential characters, our judgment being mainly deter- * J. Bachmau, D. D. Op. cit.. p. 12!. 72 THEUNITYOF mined by the value of similar differences in the case of nearly allied animals whose specific rela- tions have been established on other grounds. This, however, is a very equivocal test, by reason of the fact already stated, that differ- ences which in one tribe are significant of spe- cific diversity, are, in another tribe, quite com- patible with specific unity. Conclusions founded on such data only must, therefore, be held as provisional, and subject to future confirmation or correction. A much more valid ground of distinction is often obtained by observing whether there is any character in one of the given races which is never absent in any of the individuals of that race, and never present in those of the other. This test, it will be observed, is similar to that just considered, which respects the gradational merffino; of races into one another, in that it requires the observation of a large number of individuals ; but it does not impose the necessity of collecting numerous links in a chain connect- ing remote extremes. A single demonstration of the inconsistency of any given character in- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 73 validates it as a ground of specific distinction. Now, let it be observed that this test, like that derived from a gradational series, is far more valid in its positive than in its negative applica- tion. The discovery of a gradational series of intervening links serving to connect extreme races, and the demonstration of the inconstancy of any alleged differential character, are far more valid in establishing specific unity, than the mere failure to do either could avail to prove specific diversity, since the failure might depend on too limited or inaccurate observations, even though, by the aid of monumental inscriptions, we had succeeded in going back to an extremely early date in the world's history. We proceed now to consider the value of physiological and psychological peculiarities in the discrimination of species. These, it has been well remarked, often afford a much surer criterion than can be obtained by the examina- tion of structural characters, since it is more easy to believe that the forms of organs and the color of the skin may vary, than that the essen- tial nature of the animal can be changed. We 4 74 • T H E U N I T Y F should therefore regard identity, or close cor- respondence in physiological characters, as out- weighing in favor of specific unity a very con- siderable amount of structural difference that might otherwise seem to favor the idea of a specific distinction. This principle is so gene- rally admitted by the most profound and trust- worthy naturalists, that the few who advocate the doctrine of multiple human species, being constrained to admit the physiological unity, find it necessary, as we have already seen, to use the term species in a different sense from that in which it had been generally accepted. They grant that physiological conformity de- monstrates unity of essential nature, but they contend that there may be original varieties, and these they term species. Now we grant that originally distinct types are properly to be ranked as distinct species, but we deny that physiological unity can be predicated of such. "We shall attempt to show that such unity always coincides with unity of origin. By far the most important physiological test of specific relationship is derived from a law of THE HUMAN SPEC I^eU-K" jl v J^ 1$ uJ reproduction. We know that the most diverse breeds, if belonging to the same original stock, breed together without repugnance, and pro- duce offspring as prolific as either of the parent races. We also know, that with few exceptions animals of different though closely allied species have an invincible repugnance to each other, and never, except under restraint, or by means of deception, cross their breeds. The lion and the tiger resemble each other so nearly that even Cuvier is said to have been unable to distinguish the cranium of one from that of the other, and yet no one has ever heard of a cross between these nearly allied species. In a few cases, however, mainly by the intervention of man, allied species have been induced to unite, with the result of producing a hybrid offspring, partaking to some extent of the characters of both parents. Generally, these hybrids are either entirely barren, or they produce offspring only when joined with one of the parent stocks. " In one or two instances, indeed, a mule has produced offspring by union with a similar animal, but this is probably the extreme limit, since until 76 THEUNITYOF recently no one has pretended that a hybrid race could be perpetuated. It is, moreover, a remarkable fact, that hybrid individuals are sel- dom found in a state of nature, being almost always the result of the artificial interference of man with nearly allied species of the domesti- cated animals.'"^' Thus in an attempt to obtain a cross between the ass and a female zebra, it was found necessary to paint the ass with stripes before the zebra could be induced to receive him, and it is well known to be commonly necessary to blindfold mares when they are brought into connection with the ass.f He who " made the beast of the earth after his kind, and the cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind,''^ and pro- nounced it all " good," has taken care to inter- pose an adequate barrier to the possibility of confounding the beautiful order and symmetry of His work in the production and perpetuation of monstrous mongrels, by implanting in ani- mals of diverse species an instinctive and almost * Carpenter, t J. Bacliman. Op. cit.. pp. 53, 54. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 77 invincible aversion to sexual intercourse, and has still further guarded against the consequen- ces of the violent interference or the cunning devices of man by affixing the seal of sterility on the offspring of such unnatural union. Dr. Morton of Philadelphia is almost the only naturalist of any eminence in our own day who has attempted to controvert this position ; and it deserves remark that he did it avowedly to support a foregone conclusion. The study of human crania had been with him a cherished speciality. It was, perhaps, to be expected, that in his almost exclusive devotion to this study, he should form an exaggerated estimate of the value of the craniological peculiarities of the different races of men, the discovery and expo- sition of which form tlie principal, if not the only title, to his permanent reputation as a man of science. Accordingly we find him, in the " Crania Americana," denying that such peculi- arities could have been acquired, and contend- ing that they were impressed upon the imme- diate descendants of Noah, This last position, we now learn, was onlv taken as a concession 78 THEUNITYOF to the religious prejudices of the theological world; his real opinion, as subsequently avowed in a private letter to Dr. Nott, published in the "Types of Mankind," being, that there was a plural origin for the different races of men."* When at length Dr. Morton wished to make a public avowal of this opinion, he found that the power of unlimited cross-breeding among the races stood mightily in the way of his finding popular acceptance for his now doctrine of multiple human species. It was then necessary to overthrow the almost universally accepted doctrine of the sterility of hybrids ; and with such prepossessions, which, doubtless, were all the stronger that he had felt himself constrained to withhold the avowal of them for so long a time, he entered upon the inquiry with refer- ence to the laws of hybridity, and published his first results in Silliman's Journal, in 1847. It so happened that Dr. Bachman, who is ad- mitted to stand in the very front rank of Ameri- can naturalists, and to be without a rival in the special department of mammalian zoology, had ' Types of Munkind. By Nott and Gliddon. Memoir of Morton. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 79 made extended and original experiments on this subject some years prior to the date of this publication. These investigations were made, he avers, without reference to the question of the unity or diversity of the human races, and without the least bias of judgment as to the probable result, his only object being to satisfy his mind in regard to the true origin of the many striking varieties that existed in the vari- ous departments of nature, and which had be- come as permanent as the species themselves. He wished to ascertain whether the admixture of two species might not produce a fertile off- spring, which would in this way propagate what might be regarded as a new species. He sub- jected plants, birds, and quadrupeds to those modes by which two different species could pro- duce offspring. In this way he succeeded in obtaining, either by his own labors or by receiv- ing from others who had produced them, a Inrger number of hybrids than any other person in this country. They proved sterile in every instance but one, — the hybrid between the China and common goose, — and this proved to be only 80 T H E U N I T Y F partially and temporarily fertile. Supposing at first that it was perfectly fertile, Dr. Bachman recommended it to the neighboring planters as an improved breed which produced eggs seve- ral weeks earlier than the common goose. After five years' trial, however, he ascertained that many of the hybrids laid eggs which were not impregnated. The true hybrids, in many instances, were only prolific with the pure breeds, and many were absolutely sterile. Those planters who had not a considerable number of the originals of either species in their flocks, complained that their geese ceased to be prolific, and laid dear eggs. At length the hybrid productions are regarded as ruinous to the flock, the difl^erent species are beghming to be kept separate, and the common goose is everywhere in Carolina rooting out the China goose, the former being more prolific than the hybrids.* At the date of Dr. Morton's first essay on hybridity these investigations of Dr. Bachman had not been made public. Believing that Dr. * J. Bachman, D. D. Op. cit. ■• THE HUMAN SPECIES. 81 Morton would, by his own industry and through the aid of his friends, at the extensive Library of the Academy of Natural Sciences and else- where, collect all the cases of hybridity that were on record. Dr. Bachman determined not to interrupt his labors until they had been con- cluded, and accordingly remained silent for eight months. At length, however, in 1850, he replied publicly to Dr. Morton's essays, in several chapters of a work on the "Unity of the Human Race Examined on the Principles of Science," to which we have already more than once referred. He examines in detail all the facts collected by Dr. Morton, and shows conclusively that many were incorrect, and oth- ers unsustained by satisfactorj' evidence. In- deed, Dr. Morton had collected nearly all his examples from so great a distance that it was next to impossible either to verify or refute them. But " why," significantly asks Dr. Bach- man, " carry us to Egypt, to the steppes of Tartary, to the island of Java, and the wilds of Paraguay and Yucatan, to ascertain the truth of the relations of Maga and De la Malle, the 82 T H E U N I T Y F Beytrage of Rudolphi, the rambles of Captain Stedman, or the interested collector who sent to Temminck his specimens of wild and tame cocks and curassoes ? Our own country has been settled for more than two hundred years. We have imported all the domesticated animals and poultry of Europe, and several of their wild species exist in our forests. Our fauna is larger, and we possess every variety of latitude, from polar cold to tropical heat. How many hybrids have we found in the woods ? We are under the impression that we possess two spec- imens of a hybrid between the grey rabbit and the swamp rabbit, but as no more of a similar kind were obtained, we presume they never jDropagated. We were, moreover, led to sup- pose, after carefully examining a pair in the Museum at Zurich, that the bird found at long intervals on the continent, which was described by Leisler under the name of Tetrao i7iterme- dius, might prove a cross between the wood grouse, {Tetrao urogalius,) and the%lack cock, {Tetrao tetnx,) owing to the fact that both spe- cies are very rare in many neighborhoods, and THEHUMANSPECIES. 83 that the individuals of each might associate to- gether in the absence of their own species."* Subsequently, however, Dr. Bachman found that he had been mistaken in regarding the Tetrao intermedius as a hybrid. Temminck, an authority quoted by Dr. Morton himself, had proved it to be a true and pure species, and when this was pointed out to the latter by Dr. Bachman, he admitted the error he had been led into. Dr. Bachman also satisfied him that another of his supposed hybrids, that between Motacilla lugubris and Motacilla alba, was not a hybrid at all, but a true species described by Gould. Again, Dr. Morton had denied the statement of Dr. Bachman, that naturalists agree that Capra aegagrus was the origin of all our domesticated goats. He now admitted his mistake. " I stand corrected," he wrote, in May, 1850, "with regard to Capra aegagrus, which is by general consent admitted to be the source of the common goat." "These," re- marks Dr. Bachman, "were admissions that ought to have cooled the ardor of even Dr. Si J. Bachman, D. D. Op. cit., p. 102. 84 T H E U N I T Y F Nott. Thus his facts contmiially diminished, until he had only the dog to lean upon, in sup- port of his theory of fertile hybrids."* With reference to the dog tribe, he says: "The Wolf, the Jackal, and the Fox, all intermix with each other ; so does the common Jackal with the Jackal of Senegal." "It is certain, there- fore, that dissimilar species of the dog tribe are capable of producing a fertile hybrid offspring." Dr. Morton's principal authority for this state- ment was Col. Hamilton Smith, the author of the description of the mammalia in the Natu- ralist's Library. The zoological writings of this gentleman are very justly characterized by Dr. Bachman as displaying much reading and re- search, exhibiting the result of extensive travel, and desultory, but not minute and thought- ful, observation. He seldom gives authorities, and is so rapid that he cannot thoroughly ver- ify his facts. He is fond of fanciful theories, which he holds pertinaciously, and supports by all manner of facts and reasoning. For abun- * Ejid. Charleston Medical Journal and Review for September, 1854., p. 641. T II E II U M A N S P E C I E S . 85 dant proof of these statements we refer to his late work on the Natural History of the Hu- man Species, in which he seems inclined, on the whole, to f\ivor the doctrine of the unity of the species, but strange to say, finds his great- est difficulty in the way of fully adopting this conclusion, in the character of the ancient flat- head Indians of South America. But even Dr. Morton beheved that they were of the same race with other tribes now in existence who dis- figure the heads of their children in this man- ner.* Col. Smith says : ''We are 'inclined to believe there are sufficient data to doubt the opinion that the different races of domestic dogs are all sprung from one species, and still more that the Wolf was the sole parent in question ; on the contrary, we are inclined to lean, for the present, to the conjecture that several species, ab origi- ne, constructed with faculties to intermix, in- cluding the Wolf, the Buansu, the Anthus, the Dingo, and the Jackal, were the parents of do- mestic dogs. That even a dhole, or a thous • Bacliman. D. D. T'nify of the Hum:m Race, etc., p. 296. 86 THE UNITY OF may have been the progenitor of the greyhound races ; and that a lost or undiscovered species, al- hed to Canis tricolor ov Hyaena vejiatica of Bur - chell, was the source of the short-muzzled and strong-jawed races of primitive mastiffs."' No reasons are stated for those gratuitous " conjec- tures,^^ as the writer candidly characterizes them, at the same time that he says " his mind is in- clined to lean to them ;^^ and yet, on the strength of these bare " conjectures," Col. Smith is quot- ed by Dr. Morton as high authority for his dogmatic assertion that " dissimilar species of the dog tribe are capable of producing a fertile hybrid offspring." In view of so convincing a demonstration of the errors and fallacies of Dr. Morton's essays on this subject, we cannot withhold the expression of our surprise that "Dr. Nott's ardor" was not cooled. And yet so it was, — for in 1851, he writes in Debow's Review: "I have just received and read Dr. Morton's reply to Dr. Bachman's essay on the question of Hybridity as a Test of Species. It is the most perfect refutation I have ever seen, and it is to be hoped that no one will ever waste THE HUMAN SPECIES. 87 time again in advocating the idea that prohfi- cacy among races affords an evidence of com- mon origin." He has, however, himself found it necessary to employ a portion of his own time in contributing an elaborate chapter on this subject in the " Types of Mankind," and more recently still, has continued the discus- sion in a note to the American editor of Go- bineau's "Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races," notwithstanding the alleged completely satisfactory settlement of the question which had resulted from Dr. Morton's last paper. We are not disposed to doubt that his time was wast- ed. The body of naturalists have not agreed with him, either as to the merit of Dr. Morton's paper, or as to the soundness of the doctrine which he advocated. We are indebted to an intelligent naturalized citizen of the United States for the republica- tion of the suggestive treatise by the Count A. de Gobineau, " On the Intellectual and Mor- al Diversity of Races," which he has enriched by an instructive analytical introduction, and to 88 T H E U N I T Y F which Dr. IsTott has contributed an Appendix.* From a hasty perusal of this interesting trea- tise, we are disposed to unite in the commen- dation bestowed upon it by the American edi- tors. The testimony of the author on the sub- ject now under consideration, is to the foUow- ing effect: ''The observations of naturahsts seem to have well established the ftict that half- breeds can spring only from nearly allied spe- cies, and that even in that case they are con- demned to sterility. It has been fiu'ther ob- served, that even among closely allied species, where fecundation is possible, copulation is re- pugnant, and obtained generally either by force or ruse ; which would lead us to suppose that, in a state of nature, the number of hybrids is even more limited than that obtained by the intervention of man. It has therefore been concluded, that among the specific characteris- tics we must place the faculty of producing prolific offspring." * The Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races. From tlie French of the Count A. de Gobineau ; with an Analytical Introduction and copious Historical Notes. By H. Hotz. Philadelphia, 1856. T H E H U M A N S P E C I E S . 89 Such testimony compelled Dr. Nott to re- open the discussion. He assumes that Count Gobineau was not "posted up" on the subject of hybridity, — though, let it be remembered, he had previously asserted that Dr. Morton had so completely settled that question in 1850, as to make it a " waste of time" for any one to advocate the old doctrine again. Dr. Notttheii takes occasion to expound and defend the doc- trines of his school. "We contend," he writes, " that there is a regular gradation in the pro- lificness of the species, and that, according to the best lights we possess, there is a continued series from perfect sterility to perfect pro- lificacy. The degrees may be expressed in the following language : " I, That in which hybrids never reproduce ; in other words, where the mixed progeny be- gins and ends with the first cross. " II. That in which the hybrids are incapable of producing i7iter se, but multiply by union with the parent stock. "III. That in which animals of unquestion- ably distinct species produce a progeny which 90 THE UNITY OF are prolific viter se, but have a tendency to run out, " lY. That which takes place between close- ly approximate species; among mankind, for example, and among those domestic animals most essential to human wants and happiness ; here the prolificacy is unlimited,"* About the first two propositions there is no dispute. We admit the correctness of the third, with this qualification, however, that the fertility is partial and temporar}^, rarel}' if ever extending through more than two generations, and consequently the " running out" is rapidly accomplished. The fourth proposition we wholly object to, and call for proof. It will scarcely be credited, that after so much boast- ing as characterizes the writings of Dr, Nott on this subject, he should find it necessary to resort to such a device as this, in order to establish his position. He argues, namely, that the specific diversity of the human races is established b}^ the permanence of their types, and as these races are prolific ifiter se, therefore * Op. cii. Appendix by Dr. Nott. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 91 different species, provided they be " proximate," are prolific indefinitely. In other words, he begs the question as to the main point, — namely, the specific relations of the different races of men, — in order to settle an incidental and sub- ordinate one, and then, with an extraordinary perversion of the simplest rules of logic, returns with the questionable data thus acquired, to fortify the position he had already unwarrant- ably assumed. Precisely the same objection applies, of course, to his only other example, that of the races of Canis famUiaris. We have already seen that the most reliable zoologists assert with confidence the specific unity of all these varieties, notwithstanding the evidence afforded by the Egyptian monuments in regard to the early origin of several of these varieties, evidence which was quite as well known to them as it is to Dr. Nott ; and yet the latter, arbitrarily assumhig their specific diversity, finds it easy enough, of course, to establish the unlimited fertility of such " proximate species" as these. Accordingly he triumphantly ex- claims : " Now I say that man and the dog, to 92 THEUNITYOF say nothing of other examples, form that Hnk of perfect prohficacy of tv/o species which is called for. I would ask in all candor, what more perfect proof does the case admit of? We have pointed out a regular gradation in the laws of hybridity, and we then produce species that are perfectly prolific, and which, according to all the criteria by which species can be tested, are distinct.'' This last assertion is certainly cool, in view of the fact that nearly all the most eminent zoologists of the age mam- tain the opposite doctrine. We have dwelt at some length upon this topic, because of the strenuous efforts which are now making, under cover of Dr. Morton's name and reputation, to discredit conclusions which had been long accepted as axioms in Natural History. For yet further details we refer our readers to Dr. Bachman's writins-s on this subject in his monograph on the " Unity of the Human Race," and in his contributions to the Charleston Medical Journal and Review, from the year 1850 down to the present time. We are satisfied that the facts which he has THE HUMAN SPECIES, 93 accumulated are sufficient to convince any un- biased mind that there is not the shghtest ground for accepting the new doctrines so earnestly but so unsuccessfully advocated by Dr. Morton and his followers.* Having dwelt at such length on this subject, we must content ourselves with stating merely * The writer of a memoir of Dr. Morton, iu '• Types of Mankind," speaks of Dr. Bachman in terms of bitter contempt, alleging that he is more of a theological polemic than a naturalist, and averring that "he has his punishment in general condemnation and impaired scien- tific standing." We feel bound to say that we have seen nothing in the tone or expressions of Dr. Bachman's scientific papers to justify the discourteous epithets applied to him by the authors of " Types of Mankind;" and as to his rank as a naturalist which Dr. Morton's fi-iend and biographer so directly depreciated, we need only take the testimony of Dr. Morton himself, who, addressing Dr. Bachman through the pages of the "Charleston Medical Journal and Review," for May, 1850, used the following language: " I fully reciprocate the kind sentiments you have expressed with respect to myself, for no difference of opinion can diminish my esteem for you as a pian, or lessen my admiration for one u-ho, hy common coment, glands in the front rank of American Zoolog'j.'" Nor was this an exaggerated compli- ment, betokening the instinctive courtesy ratlier than indicating the de- liberate judgment of the writer ; for it will be admitted by every unprej- udiced student of natural history to be only a just tribute to the learned and indefatigable author of the '■ Quadrupeds of North Amer- ica." So flir as the '• scientific standing" of any one has been " im- paired," as the result of the discussion on liybridity, it is certainly not that of Dr. Bachman. On the other hand, as sincere admirers of Dr. Morton, we rejoice that his title to a lasting reputation rests on better grounds than the loose and inaccurate statements and inconsequential reasonings of his essays on " Hybridity considered with Reference to the Unity of the Human Species " 94 T H E U N 1 T Y O F the conclusions of Dr. Prichard, respecting other points of physiological conformity. The accuracy of these conclusions will not be ques- tioned by any one who is conversant with the evidence on which they rest. "A certain uni- formity of constitution, or a constant adherence, within a particular range of variety, to certain laws of the animal economy, belongs to the specific character of each original race. Par- ticular species have certain limits with regard to the average duration of life, the circum- stances connected with reproduction, such as the number of their progeny, the times and frequency of breeding, the period of gestation in mammifers, and in birds that of sitting upon eggs, and in the length of time during which they suckle or watch over their young. The progress of physical development and decay is likewise ordained by nature to take place in each species according to a certain rule. The periods at which individuals arrire at adult growth, the different changes which the consti- tution undergoes at particular ages, the periods of greatest vigor and of decline, and the total THE HUMAN SPECIES. 95 duration of life, are given, though with individ- ual exceptions and varieties, to every species of animals. There are exceptions and varia- tions, but these are within certain prescribed limits and obey definite laws. On the other hand, it may be observed as a very general fact, that animals belonging to tribes which nearly resemble each other, but yet are specifi- cally distinct, differ in a decided manner with respect to the same particulars."* Yet another test of the specific relations of animals is furnished by their agreement or dif- ference in psj^chological characteristics. Among the lower animals we find every species charac- terized by the possession of instincts and pro- pensities peculiar to itself, and these instincts often differ remarkably in species presenting the closest structural alliance. On the other hand, in the several varieties of domesticated animals belonging to one and the same species, notwithstanding strongly marked diversities of physical structure, we may recognize instincts which are fundamentally the same, although « J. C. Prichard. Op. cit., p. 65. 96 THE UNITY OF they may have been modified by the contmued influence of man, and by the new circum- stances in which the animals are placed.* The principles which it has been our aim to 6et forth and illustrate in the foregoing re- marks, and which are now generally recognized as among the axioms of Xatural History, are drawn up by Dr. Carpenter in a series of formal propositions, an abridgment of which, with a few slight modifications, we will now present, as a summary recapitulation of the whole subject. 1. Two races can be regarded as specifically distinct only when the characters which sepa- rate them are transmitted with complete uni- formity from parent to offspring ; when there are no intermediate gradations tending to con- nect them : and when no such tendency to variation has manifested itself in either race, as shall make it probable, or, at an}^ rate, possible, that their differences may be the direct result of external influences, or may be attributed to an unusual divergence in the character of the offspring from those of the parents. * J. C. Pricliard. Loc. cit ; and Carpenter, " V'lridi&t of Munldnd 4 THE HUMAN SPECIES. 97 2. On the other hand, two races may un- doubtedly be regarded as specifically identical when, however great the differences m stature, conformation, psychical character, etc., pre- sented by their respective types, these types are connected with each other by intermediate gradations so close as to render it impossible to establish a definite boundary line between the collections of individuals which are assembled around them. 3. Again, two races may undoubtedly be regarded as specifically ideritical, when, in either race, varieties present themselves which ex- hibit the distinctive characters of the other race ; since we then have evidence that, although these peculiarities are so generally transmitted from parent to offspring, each race possesses a certain degree of permanence, yet they are not thus uniformly inherited ; and, consequently, there is nothing to prevent the transformation of the one race into the other, if the circumstances which have originated the variation, even in a single case, should act with sufficient potency on tlie whole mass. 5 98 THEUNITYOF 4. No character can be safely adopted, as justifying the assumption of the specific diver- sity of two races, which has been found by experience to undergo considerable variation in either race, even though such modification should not proceed to the extent of conversion into the character of the other ; for if a limited amount of change in external conditions be found capable of effecting a certain degree of alteration, the probabilit}- is strong that the higher difference may have had its origin in the more potent operation of the same class of causes. 5. The very fact of the extensive dispersion of a race, and of its existence under a great variety of external conditions, implies a marked capacity for variation ; since, without such ca- pacity, the race could not continue to flourish. 6. Among the domesticated races of quad- rupeds, which are particularly susceptible of the influences tending to produce permajievt varieties, the characters most susceptible of variation are stature — general conformation oj the body — conformation of the skull — quantity. THE H L' M A N SPECIES. 99 texture and color of the hairy covering — psychical character, as shown in the increase of intelli- gence, in the acquirement of new methods of action, and in the disappearance of some of the natural imtificiive propensities. 7. The several races of animals which, ac- cording to the foregoing criteria, are accounted as belonging to the same species, breed freely and spontaneously with each other, when al- lowed to do so ; and the offspring are fertile, not only with either of the parent races, but with each other. On the other hand, although propagation may take place between individuals of undoubtedly distinct species, yet there is little spontaneous tendency to such admixture ; for each animal will select one of its own species in preference to one of another species. The hybrid offspring are deficient in generative power ; so that, although a mule may be fertile when paired with an individual of either of the parent races, it is seldom or never fertile with one of its own kind. Thus the peculiari- ties introduced by hybridity are speedily merged into those of the parent stocks ; and no 7iew 100 THE HUMAN SPECIES. race has ever been known to originate from this kind of union. 8. Among all those races which are entitled to rank as permanent varieties only, the physio- logical conformity is often closer than the struc- tural, 9. So, again, among the varieties of the same species, there is, with subordinate differences such as can usually be traced to external agen- cies and particularly to human influence, a very close psychical conformity ; the capaci- ties of the several races being fundamentally the same, although varying in their degree of relative development,* * See Carpenter on the " Varieties of Mankind " for a somewliat Tuller summary. CHAPTER III. A.PPLICATIOX OF THE FOREGOIXG PEIXCIPLES TO THE TXTESTIGATIOX OF THE SPECIFIC RELATIONSHIPS OF THE RACES OF MEX. We propose now to make an application of the general principles which have been enunciated in the preceding chapters, to the solution of the problem of the specific relationships of the races of mankind. In our remarks, designed to illus- trate the general propositions, we have antici- pated much that might otherwise be appro- priately stated in this connection. A few words will, therefore, suffice for the present applica- tion, at least with respect to many of the several heads. We remark, then, in the first place, that inasmuch as the records of profane history do not extend back to the origin of any of the leading divisions of the human family, we can [101] 102 THEUNITYOF not, of course, expect a direct and authorita- tive solution of the question from that quarter. We might, indeed, consult the Mosaic narra- tive, and quote the incidental testimony of St. Paul, and this too without violating the principle announced in our first chapter, that the inquir}^ should be pursued as one of pure science, and not as a theological speculation. It is one thing to demand assent to a scien- tific proposition, on the ground that its de- nial involves a conflict with some theological dogma, and quite a different thing to admit certain historical facts on the testimony of the sacred writers. The claims of the Bible to be regarded as a genuine and authentic narrative, should be tested by the same canons which serve to authenticate any other history. If these claims be substantiated, we cannot see on what fair grounds its record of simple facts can be set aside in any inquiry in which these facts have a most important bearing. Men of science may reasonably object to the admission of theo- logical doctrines, which rest upon particular modes of interpreting the simple facts ; but THE HUMAN SPECIES. 103 we repeat it, if the record be duly accredited, the facts are just as vahd in matters of science as though they were reported in profane his- tory, and this, too, even wiien we set aside altogether the fact of the inspiration* of the sacred writers. Judging Moses simply by the . extraordinary agreement of his cosmogony, when properly read in the liglit of modern hermeneutics, with the deductions of modern geology, in which respect it is in amazing con- trast with the cosmogonies of all other ancient writers, we should be bound by the rules of the most positive philosophj^ to give due weight to such interesting facts, and to admit both the credibility and the authority of the sacred historian.* And yet, inasmuch as for reasons already stated we prefer, in general, to support the Scriptures by the results of scientific researches, to aiding science even in its narrative department by means of the sacred writings, we shall not insist upon mak- ing this very legitimate use of the facts there ' See a Review of the " Six Days of Creation," of Prof Taylor Lewis, by Prof Dana, in the Bililiotheoa Sacra for Jan., 1846, p. 110. 104 THE UNITY OF recorded, though we have thought proper to state and defend the position which has just been indicated. In this connection we are called upon to notice the indefatigable attempts of the authors of the " Tj'pes of Mankind," to persuade the reading public that reliable history has spoken unmistakably in favor of the views of the diver- sity-theory party. We refer to the use made by them of the fact, that the negro and three other leading types of men were accurately delineated on the monuments of Egypt several thousand years ago. But as we have already had occasion to remark, the famous " monu- mental history of man "' throws no light at all upon the obscure question of the origin of the different leading human types. Whatever date be assigned to these inscriptions, there must have been an antecedent period quite long enough to have given origin to any num- ber of types. We can easily imagine various explanations of the manner in which different types might have arisen in the period anterior to the date of the Egyptian monuments, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 105 whether under the influence of Ucatural causes, favorable to the development of an orighial coDstitutioual tendency to spontaneous varia- tion, or in virtue of a more direct and miracu- lous interposition of God in the case of the three sons of Noah, in accordance with a com- mon interpretation of the curse of Canaan, and the blessing of Shem and Japheth, as recorded in Genesis ix. : 25-27. But we do not feel called upon to indulge in any speculation on this point. We hold, in accordance with the principles recognized by the best naturalists, as just cited at length, that the specific unity of permanent varieties may be established in nu- merous instances in which there is no historical record of the origin of the several variations. It is, moreover, a significant fact, that while the oldest monumental records extend back, according to Birch and Lepsius, to about 3890 B. C, no Jiegro deli?ieatio?i, as admitted by the authors of " Types of Mankind," (p. 259,) is found earlier than the 24:ih century B. C. Just here we are constrained to call attention to their apparently disingenuous way of recording this 106 THE UNITY OF fact. So far from adverting to the interval of more than a thousand years hefwoen the date of the oldest negro delineation and that of the earlier records, the}" speak of the former as "con- temporary with the earliest Egyptians ;" whereas it is seen that the monumental inscriptions, so far from demonstrating the contemporaneous origin of the black and white races, furnish a strong presumption against this doctrine. Ac- cordingly BuNSEN and Lepsius, whom the authors of the " Types of Mankind" were con- strained to accredit as the most eminent and reliable of living Egyptologists, are both earnest advocates of the specific unity and of the com- mon origin of the human races ; and yet, in the teeth of this fact, Nott and Gliddon com- placently ascribe the same opinions as expressed by Prof. Owen, Count Gobineau, and others, to their ignorance of the " monumental history of man." But, though it was not necessary for our gene- ral argument to demonstrate the origin within historic times of any of the leading t3"pes of mankind, we are not without evidence of the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 107 appearance of new varieties within a compara- tively recent period. The Hon. J. R, Poinsett made to Dr.'Bachman the following statement ; " I saw in the capital of Mexico a regiment of six hundred men, called Los Pintados, who were all spotted with blue spots in some part of the body. These people are found along the Pacific coast just north of Acapulco." " These persons were all in fine health, t,nd propagated their varieties from generation to generation. "What there was in the food, the climate, or the geological structure of the we=?tern coast of America to produce this strangely-colored va- riety in the human species we are unable even to conjecture. It was certainly not disease, as Mr. Poinsett represents them as a regiment of tine, healthy-looking men, in which there was not a solitary individual who was not spotted in this manner. If our opponents who are busily engaged in making new species of men, should, on this hint, begin to speculate on the position this new species of Homo macidatus should occupy in our nomenclature, we would just remind them that they have originated 108 THE UNITY OF since the discovery of America, inasmuch as they are a mixture of Spanish and Indian blood."* Dr. jSTott asserts, that "the genus Homo em- braces many primordial types or species which have remained permanent and untrandtional through all recorded time, and despite the most opposite moral and physical influences." But we have just seen that the argument intended to be expressed in the latter part of the sen- tence does not by any means sustain the asser- tion which prefaces it. For " all recorded time" does not cover the entire history of an}' one species, if we exclude, as this gentleman does exclude, all the writings of Moses. The alleged fact, if it were true, — and we have seen that, according to the statements of Lepsiusand Birch, and by Dr. N'ott's own admission, it is wholly with- out " monumental" proof as regards the negro race for at least one thousand years, — would only furnish a slight presumption in favor of his opin- ion : and this presumption would even then be easily set aside by numerous and convincing * J. Bachman, D. D. On the Unity of the Human Race, etc.. p. 1S2. T H p: human species. 109 considerations. But in j^oint of fact, the asser- tion that the types of men have remained " per- nianent and itntransitional through all recorded time" is directly opposed to the statements of the most eminent ethnologists and travellers. Thus Dr. Carpenter states, as the result of the researches of Prichard, Latham, and others, that "the Magyar race in Hungary, which is not now inferior in mental or physical characters to any in Europe, is proved by historical and phil- ological evidence to have been a branch of the great northern Asiatic stock, which was ex- pelled about ten centuries since from the country it then inhabited (bordering on the Uralian mountains), and in its turn expelled Slavonian nations from the fertile parts of Hun- gary, which it has occupied ever since. Hav- ing thus exchanged their abode, in the most rigorous climate of the old continent — a wilder- ness in which the Ostiaks and Samoiedes pursue the chase during only the mildest sea- son — for one in the south of Europe, amid fertile plains abounding in rich harvests, the Magyars grad^ially laid aside the rude and sav- 110 THE UNITY OF age habits whicli they are recorded to have brought with them, and adopted a more set- tled mode of Ufe. In the course of a thousand years, their type of cranial conformation has been changed from the pyramidal (or Mongol) to the elliptical (or Caucasian) ; and they have become a handsome people, with fine stature and regular European features, with just enough of the Tartar cast of countenance, in some instances, to recall their origin to mind. Here it may be said that the intermixture of the conquering with the conquered race has had a great share in bringing about this change : but the Magj'ars pride themselves greatly on the purity of their descent ; and the small infusion of Slavonic blood, which may have taken place from time to time, is by no means sufficient to account for the complete change of type which now manifests itself. The women of pure Mag- yar race are said by good judges to bo singu- larly beautiful, far surpassing either German or Slavonian females. A similar modification, but less in degree, appears to have taken place among the Finnish tribes of Scandinavia. These THE HUMAN SPECIES. Ill may be almost certainly affirmed to have had the same origin with the Lapps ; but whilst the latter retain (although inhabiting Europe) the nomadic habits of their Mongolian ancestors, the former have adopted a much more settled mode of Hfe, and have made considerable advances in civilization. And thus we have in the Lapps, Finns, and Magyars, three nations or tribes, of whose descent from a common stock no reasonable doubt can be entertained, and which yet exhibit the most marked differ- ences in cranial characters, and also in general conformation, — the Magyars being tall and well made, as the Lapps are short and uncouth."* Hugh Miller, advocating the doctrine that the Caucasian type was the type of Adamic man, and that all the varieties of the species, in which we find humanity " fallen," according to the poet, "into disgrace," are varieties that have lapsed from the original Caucasian type, avers that "there are cases in which not more than from two to three centuries have been * W. B. Carpenter Op. cit , p. 1328 ; where also several other in- stances are cited. 112 THEUNITYOF found sufficient thoroughly to alter the original physiognomy of a race," and quotes a striking and well-known case in point: " On the plan- tation in Ulster, in 1611, and afterwards, on the success of the British against the rebels in 1641 and 1689,'' says a shrewd writer of the present day, himself an Irishman, "great multitudes of the native Irish were driven from Armagh and the south of Down, into the mountainous tract extending from the Barony of Fleurs east- ward to the sea ; on the other side of the king- dom the same race were exposed to the worst effects of hunger and ignorance, the two great brutalizers of the human race. The descend- ants of these exiles are now distinguished phys- ically by great degradation. They are re- markable for open projecting mouths, with prominent teeth and exposed gums ; and their advancing cheek-bones and depressed noses bear barbarism on their very front. In Sligo and Northern Mayo, the consequences of the two centuries of degradation and hardship ex- hibit themselves in the whole physical condition of the people, affecting not only the features THE HUMAN S r E C lllS'.r ^ ^' -frA "* '^ '^ but the frame. Five feet two inclies on an average — pot-bellied, bow-legged, abortively featured, their clothing a wisp of rags — these spectres of a people that were once well-grown, able-bodied, and comely, stalk abroad into the daylight of civilization, the annual apparition of Irish ugliness and Irish want." Agassiz and Dr. Morton agree that all the aboriginal tribes of America, except only the Esquimaux, had a common origin, and yet the widest diversities are admitted to exist among them as to the capacity of the cranium, shape of the head, stature, color, and character of the hair. Dr. Morton himself bears very decided testimony on most of these points.* Catliu, speaking of the Mandans of the Upper Mis- souri, whose fairness of complexion is prover- bial, says : " A stranger in the Mandan village is first struck with the different shades of com- plexion and various colors of hair which he sees in a crowd about him, and is at once al- most disposed to exclaim that ' these are not * S. G. Morton. " Physical Type of the American Indians" ; in Schoolcraft's "Indian Tribes," vol.ii. 114 THE UNITY OF Indians.' There are a great many of these people whose complexions appear as light as half-breeds ; and amongst the women particu- larly, there are many whose skins are almost white, with the most pleasing symmetry and proportion of featm^es ; with hazel, with grey, and with blue eyes — with mildness and sweet- ness of expression, and excessive modesty of demeanor, which renders them exceedingly pleasing and beautiful." Their "hair is gene- rally as fine and as soft as silk." " There ar-e very many," how^ever, " of both sexes and of every age, with hair of a bright silvery grey." " I have ascertained that this strange phenom- enon is not the result of disease ; but that it is unquestionably a hereditary character which runs in families, and indicates no inequahty in disposition or intellect." * The same phenomenon of a gradational se- ries, exhibited under such circumstances as to demonstrate the transitional character of the features usually regarded as typical, is striking- ly exemplified in the case of the African tribes. * Catlin's Nortli American Indians. Vol. I., p. 94. THE HUMAN SPECIES, 115 These are very generally admitted to have sprung from a common stock. Thus the Chev- alier Lepsius, in a letter to Dr. Nott (Types of Mankind, p. 233), uses the following language : "You speak of a gradation of the African tribes from the Cape to the northern portion of the Continent. It is a curious fact, that the languages of the Hottentots and of the Bosje- mans are essentially different from those of all the rest of the continent up to the equator. And what is, perhaps, still more curious, their language bears certain characteristic traits which elsewhere are only found in the lan- guages of North-E astern Africa. In my opin- ion, the tvhok continent had, at a certain epoch, a parent poimlation, and consequently analogous tongues. At a later period Asiatic tribes immigrated on the side of the North- East. The mixture of races gave rise to the numerous tribes and to the scattered and ap- parently incoherent languages which are now found in the broad belt between the line and tlie fifteenth degree of north latitude. These languages have lost their African charac- 116 THEUNITYOF ter without acquiring that of Asia ; but the ba- sis of the languages and of the blood is African." According to Dr. Shaw, as quoted b}^ PracH- ARD,'-'" while "the Kabyles in general are of a swarthy color, with dark hair, those who inhabit the mountains of Auress, or Mons Aurarius, though they speak the same language, are of a fair and ruddy complexion, and their hair is of a deep yellow." Dr. Prichard appends this comment: "Writers who labor under the preju- dice which regards all physical characters as permanent, adopt the supposition, 'perfectly groundless as it is, that the xanthous Berbers of Mount Auress are the remains of the Yandals who were conquered by Belisarius. The Tua- rj\i are in some parts white, in others black, but without the features of negroes." The Berberines, or Nubians of the Nile, ap- pear to be the descendants of the Nobatse, who were brought fifteen centuries ago from an oasis in the Western country by Diocletian, to inhabit the vahey of the Nile. They are one of those races whose complexion is a mixture * J. C. Prichard. Op. cit., p. 271. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 117 of red and black, and whose physical characters bear some analogy to those of the Egyptians. They are, however, much darker in color than were that nation, though the shade of both varied. Brown, a most accurate writer, de- scribes the people in the Island of Elephantine as black, but, in the opposite Assouan, of a red color, with the features of Nubians. Dr. Riip- pell thus describes their physiognomy : "A long oval countenance ; a beautifully curved nose, somewhat rounded towards the tip ; hps rather thick, but not protruding excessively ; a re- treating chin ; scanty beard ; livel}^ eyes ; strongly frizzled but never woolly hair ; a re- markably beautiful figure, generally of middle size, and a bronze color, are the characteristics of the genuine Dongolawi." The most inter- esting fact connected with this race is, that they appear, if we may place reliance on his- torical evidence, to furnish an instance of the transition from the physical character of the ne- gro to one very similar to that of the ancient Egyptians.^'' * J. C. Prichard. Op. cit , pp. 273-275. See also "Researches into 118 THE UNITY OF The proof of this last statement is given by Dr. Prichard, in his Physical History of Man, and is entirely satisfactor}-. "Has the change which has taken place," he asks," inthe phj^sical character of the Nubian race arisen from an abode during so many ages in a climate differ- ent from that of their native wilderness, aided by the modifying influence of civihzation and the habits of a settled and agricultural life, or is it to be ascribed to intermixture of race ? Those who are fully persuaded to regard all the varieties of physical structure which distinguish human races as permanent characters, will im- mediately decide in favor of the latter alterna- tive ; but if we regard that point as still unde- termined, and form our opinion from the cir- cumstances and probabilities of the particular case in question, we shall adopt, unless I am mistaken, a different inference. It may be ob- served, in relation to this inquiry, that it is not easy to conceive how the abode of Arab hordes in different parts of Nubia could produce a the Physical History of Man," by the same Author. Vol. ii.. pp. 172- 183, for an analysis of the evidence relating to the history and ethnog- rap'.iy oftliis people. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 119 general modification in the physical character of the whole Barabra race. Occasional inter- marriages have doubtless taken place, and the result has been manifest in individuals ; but these incidental crossings of breed coukl hardly modif}^ the whole nation. It is known that the impression of one such mixture is lost in a few generations. In order that the blending of families belonging to different stocks may pro- duce a third tribe of intermediate character, it is requisite that the two parent races should be mixed in nearly equal proportions ; since when a few families of one stock are from time to time blended with a large population belong- ing to another, the impression is speedily effaced, and the offspring becomes assimilated to the greater number. Hence, intermixtures of whole nations or of considerable numbers or masses can hardly take place in such a way as to give rise to a uniform intermediate stock. The result is always that in one locality one physical character, and in another a different type, predominates. It is perhaps for this rea- son more probable that the uniform and gen- 120 THE UNITY OF eral change of physical character which the Nubian nation has undergone since their re- moval from Kordofan to the Nile has arisen from a different cause ; and this supposition seems to be confirmed by all that we can learn respecting the past and present circumstances and relations of the two races of jjeople who are sujjposed to have become intermixed. Ac- cording to Burckhardt, Nubia was conquered or overrun, after the reduction of Egypt, by several Arab tribes, among whom the principal were the Djowabere and El Gharbye, who for some centuries waged continued warfare with each other. In the meantime the Barabra, as we learn from many authorities, remained a separate people, and maintained the Christian religion, to which they had been converted in the sixth century.'^ Saldi El Assouany, * See Gibbon, Decline and Fall. Chap, xlvii. — After adverting to the relapse of the Nubians into paganism, and their subsequent adop- tion of ilohammedauism. preferring its ti-iuinphs to the degradation of the cross. Gibbon asserts, on the authority of Buffon, that tliey are pure Negroes, as black a.s those of Senegal, with flat noses, thick lips and woolly hair. Such phy.4cal characters doubtless belonged to them originally, but it is needless to add that Buffon' s assertions are entitled to no weight in opposition to the testimony of Eiippell (wlio resided long among the Barabra) respecting the actual character- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 121 whose description of Nubia and Ethiopia is largely cited by Macrizi, says that the Nubians of his day were Jacobite Christians, and he de- clares them to be a people of superior intelli- gence to the neighboring nations, Salamoum, king of Dongola, according to the information collected by Burckhardt, was a powerful Chris- tian prince at the end of the thirteenth cen- tury. Ibn Batuta, who travelled in their coun- try, found the Nubians a Christian people, about the middle of the fourteenth century. The present inhabitants are Moslemin, and they pretend, like other Mohammedan nations, to be of Arabian origin ; but Macrizi says, that the greater number of genealogists state them to be descendants of Ham, by which it was meant that they were a genuine African peo- ple. It would seem that in former times a total difference in religion and manners must istics of this people. The description giyen of them by modern travel- lers leaves no room for doubt. Accordingly, it is now universally conceded that they are no longer Negroes, the change being ascribed by some, as we have seen, to intermixture of races ; while Nott and Gliddon, driven by the necessities of their system, gratuitously assert that they never were Negroes, and that the present type is aboriginal. See Types of Mankind, p. 199. 6 122 THE UNITY OF have prevented the Barabra and their Arab conquerors from becoming mixed. In modern times we are assured that the two races remain quite distinct, and that intermarriages between the Arabs and Berberins are very rare occur- rences. This is the testimony of Dr. Riippell, whose information is to be depended upon. The habits of the two races are totally differ- ent. The Barabra are husbandmen, who live together in small villages on the banks of the Nile, and occupy themselves in tilling the land. The free Arabs hold them in contempt, and think it beneath them to speak the language of the Barabras."* We have thought proper to quote at some length the arguments of the learned and cau- tious Prichard, relating to the origin of the Barabra and their subsequent change of type, as a specimen of his method of thorough inves- tigation, but inasmuch as our limits will not permit us to follow him in his detailed survey of the other African tribes, we avail ourselves * J. 0. Prichard. Physical History of Mankind. London, 1851. Vol. ii., pp. 181, 183. THE HUMAN SPECFES. 123 of an admirable summary of results, which we find in an able article of the Southern Quar- terly Review, for January, 1855. Making a rapid circuit of the vast African continent, and under the guidance of reliable travellers whose authority cannot be questioned glancing at its multitudinous tribes, the writer shows that " in the whole range we discover the same end- less variations and gradational blendings be- tween the widest extremes, exhibited by all the other people of the earth. In color, they vary through every shade, between the appropriate European that sometimes appeared in Egypt, and still exists in the neighborhood of Mount Atlas, and the polished ebony of the thoroughly dyed negro. In physiognomy, they range be- tween the elegant Grecian outline, and the exaggerated monstrosity of prognathous devel- opment. In texture of hair, they exhibit every grade, from the soft Asiatic and even auburn locks of some Egyptians and of the Auranian Berbers, through the long and plaited ringlets. of the Morooran Kaffirs, the short and crisp curls of the Nubian Berberines, the thick and 124 THE UNITY OF frizzled half wolf-like covering of the diflfused Gallas, and the still more woolly-head growth of the sagacious Fellahs, to the thoroughly developed negro tufts of the Guinea tribes. In every important particular that marks varieties of men, the inhabitants of Africa vary with such indefinite blendings of one grade into another, between the Caucasian standard and the lowest negro specimen, that it is impossible to draw a line of division at any point of the skull, and affirm, here one type ends and an- other begins."* Baron Humboldt (who, by the way, is quite as well acquainted wath the monumental history of man as Dr. jSTott can be) says : " Whilst at- tention was exclusively directed to the extremes of color and of form, the result of the first vivid impressions, derived from the senses, was a tendency to view these diff'erences as charac- teristics, not of mere varieties, but of originally distinct species. The permanence of certain iypes, in the midst of the most opposite influ- ences, especially of climate, appeared to favor *^' Southern Quarterly Review, January, 1855. p. 1-48. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 125 this view, notwithstanding the shortness of the time to which the historical evidence appHed ; but, in my opinion, more powerful reasons lend their weight to the other side of the question, and corroborate the unity of the human race. I refer to the many intermediate gradations of the tint of the skin^ and the form of the skull, which have been made known to us by the rapid progress of geographical sciences in mod- ern times ; to the analogies derived from the histor}^ of varieties in animals, both domesti- cated and wild ; and to the positive observations collected respecting the limits of fertility in hybrids. The greater part of the supposed contrasts to which so much weight was formerly assigned, have disappeared before the laborious investigations of Tiedemann on the brain of negroes and of Europeans, and the anatomical researches of Yrolik and Weber on the form of the pelvis. When we take a general view of the dark-colored African nations, on which the work of Prichard has thrown so much light, and when we compare them with the natives of the Australian Islands, and with the Papuans 126 THE UNITY OF and Alfourans, we see that a black tint of skin, woolly hair, and negro features, are by no means invariably associated." " Mankind are there- fore distributed in varieties, which we are often accustomed to designate by the somewhat vague appellation of races."* Such being the unanimous testimony of travellers with respect to the actual diversities, in almost every conceivable shade of gradation, among tribes admitted to have sprung from a common stock, is it not surprising that even the prejudiced authors of the " Tyi)es of Mankind," should hazard the assertion that the types of men are untransitional If In point of fact, the * Humboldt's Cosmos, Sabine's translation, Vol. i., p. 351. Having argued convincingly in favor of the specific unity of men, this illus- trious philosopher adds the following reflection : " By maintaining the unity of the human species, we at the same time repel the cheer- less assumption of superior and inferior races of men.'' This passage is quoted in the " Types of Mankind," with such comments as to imply that the tender sensibility of the amiable savant in view of the cheer- lessness of the diversity doctrine was the main or only cause of his rejection of it, wholly ignoring the positive statements which we have, in part, quoted, and wliich immediately preceded the sentence in question. t We do not overlook the fact that Dr. Nott, in asserting that liuman types are " untransitional," has reference exclusively to the question of changes actually taking place in any given type. He, of course, cannot deny that these types closely approximate in a grada- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 127 shades of difference are so numerous, and they run into each other by such gradational changes, that it is utterly impossible to agree upon the number of distinct varieties. No two ethnol- ogists make the same classification. Now this fact strikes us as furnishing a satisfactory refu- tation of the views so confidently promulgated by the new school of American ethnologists. If anatomy, zoology, the laws which regulate the geographical distribution of animals and the monumental literature of Egypt, prove, the ex- istence of numerous primeval types of men, of course they indicate the exact number, since they do not announce an abstract proposition, but teach by actual examples. But is there even an approximation to accordance among the leading advocates of the doctrine of a plurality of spe- cies or of origin among the various races of tional series, but he would contend that this fact is not inconsistent with the fixedness of each element of the series. It is our aim to vin- dicate the recognized principles of Natural History, by showing that this recently asserted doctrine leads to a manifest absurdity. For, as Prichard well says. '" all the diversities which exist are variable, and pass into each otlier by nv:endhle gradations ; and there is, moreover, scarcely any instance in which the actual traimtion cannot be proved to /ww taA;en pZoce. ^Natural History of Man. 1813. P. 473. 128 THE UNITY OF men? Agassiz makes eight primeval types, and in so doing, involves himself, as we shall see in the sequel, in numerous difficulties and some absurdities. Dr. Morton made five groups, each subdivided into numerous families, twenty-two in all, without distinctly affirming which were distinct species. Dr. Nott, alluding to this clas- sification, says, a^Dologetically : " Some classifi- cation of races, however arbitrary, seems to be almost indispensable for the purpose of convey- ing clear ideas to the general reader, yet the one here adopted by Morton, if accepted with- out proper allowance, is calculated to lead to grave error. He has grouped together races which between themselves possess no affinity whatever, that present the most opposite cranial characters, and which are, doubtless, specifically different." Jaquinot, quoted by Dr. Nott, makes three species only, of the genus Homo, the Caucasian, Mongol, and Negro. Dr. Nott is disposed to adopt this provisionally, as being simple, but adds that Jaquinot, being ignorant of the monu- mental history of man, classes together races THE HUMAN SPECIES. 129 which (although somewhat similar in type, having presented distinct physical characteris- tics for more than three thousand years,) cannot be regarded as one of the same species, any more than his Caucasians and Negroes." But besides the evidence of the transitional nature of human types exhibited in the grada- tional series of such types, the same fact is in- dicated by the want of constancy among indi- viduals of the same tribe, in the characters alleged to be typical. While we admit, to a cer- tain extent, the permanency of types, so that as a general rule, — to which, however, there are, as we have seen, some notable exceptions, — the races are not in danger of losing their typical characters, we yet contend that not one of these characters nor any particular combination of them, has that degree of constancy which is es- sential to render them valid as tests of specific distinction. Those who deny the specific unity of man, sometimes challenge the advocates of the doctrine to point out a single instance in which an individual belonging by birth to a particular race, has manifested the aggregate of the char- G* 130 THEUNITYOF acters held to be typical of another race. It would, indeed, be next to a miracle if such a phenomenon were to occur. On the mere prin- ciple of probabilities, the chances of the spon- taneous recurrence of so complex a combination of characters, ivhere there ivas tio hereditary tendetic// to their production, would be almost in- finitely small. It suffices to show that in the limits of one and the same race there are oc- casional deviations from every one of its typical characters, and of course from any particular combination of them, to discredit each and all as grounds of specific distinction.'"'*' Dr. Carpenter, in his able article on the " Varieties of Mankind"," in the English " Cy- clopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," gives figures of skulls of Englishmen, preserved in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, * It should be borne in mind that after the possible variations from a given primordial organic form shall have been realized, and shall have given rise to subordinate groups of definite characters, the latter are not necessarilj' mutually convertible, though originally derived from a common type. The very fact of the acquisition of a certain set of characters may, and doubtless often does, operate as a bar to any other kind of variation, and consequently to the mutual conversion of many mere varieties of the same species. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 131 some of wliicli present the characteristics of the pyramidal or Mongol type, and others those of the prognathons or Negro type. Any man may recognize similar deviations, in any large and mixed crowd of persons, all of whom may be of pure Caucasian blood. Again, Dr. Morton compared the capacity of the cranium in a number of skulls belonging to different races, and while the average capacity of the elliptical skull of the white races was greatest, and that of the Hottentot and Austra- lian the smallest, yet the largest Negro skull was very much larger than the smallest Euro- pean, and even possessed two cubic inches more capacity than the largest Anglo-American. It was a singular result, that the family exhibiting the largest skull, — namely, the Germans, — also exhibited one, its minimum, which approached very nearly to being the smallest of all that were examined in any of the families. Conversely, the Peruvians, whose minimum and average were the lowest, also rose in some instances very nearly to the maximum. It is quite evi- dent, therefore, that there is no approach to 132 THEUNITYOF that constancy in the dimensions of the cranial cavity which is requisite to constitute this a vaUd test of sjoecific distinction. We shall be constrained to come to the same conclusion in regard to every other structural character which has yet been invoked, such as Dr. Neill's mark of a division of the articulating surface of each occipital condyle into two facets, by either a groove or a ridge, it being found by him in thirty only out of eighty-one African crania, while it was also found in four pure Egtjptimi, and in three aboriginal American skulls.* The hue of the skin has, perhaps, a better apparent claim to be regarded as a fixed and permanent mark than any which has been yet referred to, but even this character has not that degree of constancy which is requisite for a specific distinction. For, as we have already seen in another connection, American Indians, admitted by all to have sprung from the same stock, exhibit every shade of color from " tlie almost black Charruas, on the southern shores * American Journnl of the l^fedical Sciences. Jan , 1850. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 133 of the Rio de la Plata, and some of the Cali- fornia tribes,'"''' to the fair Mandans of Upper Missouri, represented by Catlin as being almost white. The same phenomenon is exhibited among the African tribes, as has been already stated, and occasional instances occur as indi- vidual anomalies in which Xegroes become white after birth, not by a mere loss of the black col- oring matter, but " by a positive development of the coloring matter that characterizes the Xanthous variety, in which the complexion is fair and ruddy." The fact that dark-skinned people do not lose their characteristic hue by living for many successive generations in tem- perate climates, is not at all inconsistent with the supposition that this hue might have been originally acquired as the effect of climatic or other external conditions. For a positive mark once acquired is apt to be perpetuated by he- reditary transmission, and is, therefore, not lost by the mere withdrawal of the influences under which it v\^as originally formed. ••' Schoolcraft Indian Tribes, part ii., p. 320. "On the Physical Type of the American Tndianf," an article written by Dr. Morton him- se'.f 134 THE UNITY OF For a fuller statement of the argument under this head, we beg our readers to consult the works of Dr. Prichard, and Dr. Carpenter's article in the Cyclopa3dia of Anatomy and Physiology ; since the force of the argument depends upon the number of well authenticated observations relating to the inconstancy of this mark. The numerous pertinent facts cited by Dr. Carpenter suffice to demand our assent to his statement that, "on the whole, then, it must be concluded that the color of the skin is a character of such variable nature, that no positive line of demarcation can be drawn by its aid between the different races of mankind." There is still less constancy in the differential characters of the hair in the different races, so vauntingly paraded a few years ago before almost every scientific association in America, by Mr. P. A. Browne, of Philadelphia, who asserted that the form of the surface left by a transverse section of the hair of a wliite man is oval, that of the Choctaw and some other Amer- ican Indians, circular, the hair being cylindrical, and that of the Negro eccentricallj^ elliptical, his THE HUMAN SPECIES. 135 hair being quite flat. Again, he avers that the hair of the Negro is not true hair, but wool. Now Dr. Carpenter, who stands accredited be- fore the scientific world as a most skillfid and reliable practical microscopist, having employed a large portion of his time for the last twelve or fifteen years in the use of the microscope, as applied to the study of human and compar- ative anatomy, declares with emphasis that the form of the shaft of the hair varies not only in different individuals of the same race, but also in different hairs of the same individuals, be- ing sometimes cylindrical, sometimes oval, and sometimes (though more rarely) eccentrically elliptical or nearly flat.* And so, too, for the other characters referred to by Mr. Browne. We have thus shown that none of the alleged * Similar statements to those of Dr. Carpenter are made by Dr. Henry Goadtay, formerly Dissector of minute Anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons, of England, whose skill in the preparation and mounting of objects for microscopic examination is proverbial both in England and in this his adopted country. (Text book of Vegetable and Animal Physiology. By Henry Goadby, Professor of Vegetable and Animal Physiology, &c., in the State Agricultural Society of Michigan, &c., &,c. Xew York, 1858. P. 82.") The observations of my friend Dr. Julius Porcher, of South Carolina, made in 1854, and recently communicated to me by letter, establish the same conclusions. 136 THE UNITY OF differential characters exhibit that constancy which is requisite to their vaHditj as tests of specific diversity, but that, on the contrary, their habihty to occasional modifications within the limits of one and the same race, as well as their gradational changes in a series of races, the extremes of which may be very widely sep- arated from each other, go far to demonstrate the specific unity of all. Especially will this appear if we contrast this demonstrated inconstancy of the typical charac- ters of the human races with the unvarying constancy of those ti-aits which separate all the va.rieties of mankind, on the one hand, from the highest anthropoid brute on the other. This has been well done by Professor Richard Owen, the most philosoi^hical of the comparative an- atomists of the age, in his admirable lecture on the Anthropoid Apes, delivered before the Ethnological section of the British Scientific Association, an abstract of which is found in the luondon Aihenceum for September, 1854. "It is not without interest," said the lecturer, "to observe that, as the generic forms of the Quad- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 137 rumana aj^proach the Bimanous order, they are represented by fewer species. The Gibbons (Hylobates) scarcel}" number more than half a dozen species ; the Orangs (Pithecus) have but two species, or at most three ; the Chimpanzees (Troglodytes) are represented by two species. The unitij of the human species, is demonstrated hij the constancy of those osteological a7id dental char- acters to which the attention is inore particidarhj directed in the investigation of the corresponding characters of the higher quadrmnana. Man is the sole species of his genus — the sole representa- tive of his order." Our remarks on the value of structural pe- culiarities in the discrimination of species have covered so much space, that but little room is left for a notice of the physiological and psycho- logical conformities prevailing among the races of mankind. This part of the inquiry has been pursued with great diligence and success by Dr. Prichard and Dr. Carpenter, whose conclusions onl}', as to most of the points noticed, we can now quote. These authors have collected au- thentic statistics, which serve to establish a 138 THE UNITY OF most exact correspondence between the differ- ent races, as to the average duration of Hfe un- der the same conditions of cUmate, mode of life, etc.; as to the maximum longevity— the rate of mortality — the age at which the bod}' attains its maximum development — the epoch of the first menstruation (with a partial and easily explained exception in the case of the Hindoo females) — the frequency of the period- ical recurrence of that function — the epoch of life to which it extends ^the duration of preg- nancy — the fertility of mixed breeds — and finally, their liability to the same diseases. So wonderful a correspondence through so exten- sive a range of physiological susceptibilities and powers, covering, as it does, the whole phys- ical nature of man, proves conclusively the specific unity of his varied types, while a simi- lar comparison of even the lowest type of man with the highest anthropoid apes establishes beyond all question a marked difference of specific nature. Prof Mliller, of Berlin, the first, perhaps, of living physiologists, has well said : "From a physiological point of view, we may THE HUMAN SPECIES. 139 speak of varieties of men, no longer of races. Man is a species, created once, and divided into none of its varieties by specific distinctions. In fact the common origin of the Negro and the Greek admits not of rational doubt.'' * Professor Draper, of the University of New York, the author of a most original and valua- ble treatise on Human Physiology, comes to the same conclusion, which he announces with equal emphasis. "I do not, therefore," says he, "con- template the human race as consisting of varie- ties, much less of distinct species, but rather as offering numberless representations of the differ- ent forms which an ideal type can be made to assume under exposure to different conditions." And again he says : " If we admit that the same original germ may develop itself into countless forms, according as it has been exposed to dif- ferent physical agents, much more is it probable that the various races composing the human faiiiil}', exposed as they have been to different physical circumstances, may by degrees have assumed the discordant features they present, * See appendix C. for most interesting details. 140 THE UNITY OF although they have descended from one original stock." '^' He explains, too, in an exceedingly plausible hypothesis, the origin of the differ- ences in the color of the skin and shape of the liead, which distinguish many of the hnman races. The force of the argument based on physio- logical unity is felt to be so great, that an attempt has been made by those who deny the unity of the races to discredit some of the facts on which it rests. Apparently not quite satisfied with the results of their efforts to invalidate the fertility of mixed breeds, as a test of the specific unity of the parent races, they now shift their ground, and deny that mixed human breeds are indefi- nitely prolific. They now assert that the mu- latto is a mule, and that this hybrid breed will soon die out, unless replenished by the union of whites and blacks. Dr. Nott contends that when * Human Physiology, Statical and Dynamical, by J. W. Draper. New York. 1856. We must, however, qualify our assent to this writer's doctrine of tlie capacity of " the same original germ to develop itself into countless forms." We have already shown that there are limits of variation, and ihat with this apparent exception species are not only permanent but immutable. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 141 the species are "proximate," that is, as closely allied as is possible, consistently with the diver- sit}" of origin, " prolificacy is unlimited," but he denies that whites and blacks are "proximate" species, and holds that their offspring must be- come extinct in a few generations, by breeding inter se. In an essay on Hybridity, published in 1842, he maintained the following proposi- tions : "1. That mulattoes are the shortest-lived of any class of the human race. "2. That mulattoes are intermediate in intel- ligence between the blacks and whites. " 3. That they are less capable of undergoing fatigue and hardships than blacks and whites. '* 4. That the mulatto women are particularly delicate, and subject to a variety of chronic diseases. That they are bad breeders, bad nurses, liable to abortions, and that their chil- dren generally die young. "5. That when mulattoes intermarry, they are less prolific than when crossed on the parent stocks. " 6. That when a negro man married a white 142 THE UNITY OF woman, the offspring partook more largely of the negro type, than when the reverse connection had effect. "7. That mulattoes, like negroes, although imacclimated, enjoy extraordinary exemption from yellow fever, when brought to Charleston^ Savannah, Mobile, or New Orleans." In the chapter on Hybridity, in the "Types of Mankind," published twelve years later, Dr. Nott quotes these statements of his earlier writings on the subject, and adds the following commentary : " Almost fifty years of residence among the white and black races, spread in nearly equal pro2:)ortions through South Caro- lina and Alabama, and twenty-five years' inces- sant professional intercourse with both, have satisfied me of the absolute truth of the pre- ceding deductions. My observations, however, during the last few years, at Mobile and New Orleans, where the population differs essentially from that of the Northern Atlantic States, have induced some modification of my former opin- ions, although still holding to their accuracy so far as they apply to the iniEermixture of the THE HUMAN S P i: C I E S . 143 strictly white race (that is, the Anglo-Saxon or Teuton) with the true negro. I stated in an article printed in ' Debow's Commercial Review,' that I had latterly seen reason to credit the existence of certain affinities and repulsions'' among various races of men, which caused their blood to mingle more or less perfectly ; and that in Mobile, New Orleans, and Pensacola, I had witnessed rnanij examples of great longevity among mulattoes ; and sundry instances where their inter- marriages {contrary to my antecedent experiences in South Carolina) were attended with manifest prolificacy. Seeking for the reason of this posi- tive, and, at first thought, unaccountable differ- ence between mulattoes of the Atlantic and those of the Gulf States, observation led me to a rationale, namely, that it arose from the diver- sity of type in the ' Caucasian' races of the two sections. In the Atlantic states, the popu- lation is Teutonic and Celtic ; whereas, in our Grulf cities, there exists a preponderance of the blood of the French, Spanish, Portuguese, and other c/a?-A'-skinned races. The reason is simple to the historian. Our States along the Gulf of 144 THE UNITY OF Mexico were chiefly colonized by emigrants from Southern Europe. Such European colo- nists belonged to types genealogically distinct from those white-skinned 'Pilgrim Fathers,' who landed north of Florida. Thus Spain, when her traditions begin, was populated prin- cipally by Iberians. France received a con- siderable infusion of the same blood, now al- most pure in her Basque provinces. Italy's origins are questions in dispute ; but the Ital- ians are a dark-skinned race. Such races, blend- ed in America with the imported negro, gene- rally give birth to a hardier, and, therefore, more prolific stock than white races, such as the Anglo-Saxon produce by intercourse with ne- gresses. Bodichon, in his curious work on Algeria, maintains that this Iberian, or Basque population, although, of course, not negro, is really an African, and probably a Berber famil}', which migrated across the Straits of Gibraltar some 2,000 years before the Christian era ; and we might, therefore, regard them as what Dr. Morton calls a proximate race.'"^ * Types of Mankind, p. 373. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 145 Thus, though Dr. Nott candidly admits that he has of late witnessed many examples of great longevity among mulattoes, and sundry instances where their marriages were attended with manifest fertility, it does not in the least shake his confidence in his hastily adopted opinions, — but he finds a triumphant solution of the difficulty in his doctrine of organic repul- sions and affinities. If it were necessary to consider such a theory with any seriousness, we should object to the manifold assumptions and to the obvious contradictions involved in the present application of it. We need scarcely say, that the assumption of any large admix- ture of Iberian blood among the present popu- lation of the Gulf cities is a most gratuitous hypothesis, and that the same may be said of the allegation, on the simple authority of a surgeon in the French army, that the Iberian population is "really African," in opposition to the opinions of Arndt and Rask, distinguished Scandinavian ethnologists, that the Euskarians of the Biscayan provinces, with the Lapps and Finns of Scandinavia, are i-emnants of an abo- 7 146 T H E U N IT Y OF riginal Turanian population once, probably, occupying all Europe, but separated into two great divisions by the advance of the Indo- European tribes from the south-east corner into Central Europe.* But let us hear the testimony of Dr. Bach- man respecting the facts as he has observed them even in the Atlantic States. " Thus far," says he, after a residence of fifty 3'ears in Charleston, "we have found them (mulattoes) equally, if not more prolific, than the whites. "We have, according to the last census, 405,751 mulattoes in the United States. The experi- ment, therefore, for good or for evil, has been conducted on a large scale. TVe have in Charleston a large number of respectable fami- lies of free mulattoes. They have received good English educations, and some of their daughters have even been taught drawing and music. Their sons are mechanics. Many of the mem- bers of this community of mulattoes are upright » W. B. Carpenter. Op. cit. p. 1849. A principal contributor to Nott & Gliddon's " Indigenous Races of the Earth," M. Alfred Maury, comes to the same conclusion respecting the Tartar affinities of the Iberian people. See Appendix G, p. THE il U M A N S 1' E C 1 and virtuous, and are professors of^eligion. They have intermarried for several generations. We have ascertained that they continue to he, through every generation, on an average, fully as prolific as either the whites or blacks."* Let us now consider the argument founded * Charleston Medical Journal, July, 1855, p. 524. Prof. Dana, in his ''Thoughts on Species,'' from which we have already cited ex- tracts, makes some very striking remarks on the subject of hybiidity. Adverting to the great precision with which the purity of species has been guarded, he pertinently remarks : "It strikes us naturally with wonder, that even in senseless plants, witliout the emotional repug- nance of instinct, and with reproductive organs that are all out- side, the free winds being often the means of transmission, there should be a rigid law sustained against intermixture. The supposed cases of perpetuated fertile hybridity are so exceedingly few as almost to condemn themselves, as no true examples of an abnormity so abhor- rent to the system. They violate a principle so essential to the integ- rity of the plant-kingdom, and so opposed to Nature's whole plan, that we rightly demand long and careful study before admitting the excep- tions." . . " Again, in the animal kingdom, there is the same aversion in na- ture to intermixture, and it is emotional as well as physical. The sup- posed cases of fertile hybridity are fewer than among plants." . . . "It is fair to make the supposition that, in case of a very close proxim- ity of species, there might be a degree of fertile hybridity allowed : and that a closer and closer affinity might give a longer and longer range of fertility." But ^'this hypothesis seenw to be cu! short" by siich cases as that of the horse and the ass. " The short run of hybridity between these very closely related species, reaching its end in one single generation, instead of favoring the idea that perpetuated fortile hybridity is possible, is a speak- ing protect again. "it a principle tlutt iroidd ruin (he system if allowed free scope. Moreover, it is not reasonable to attribute such indefiniteness to nature's outlines ; for it is at variance with the spirit of her system. " Were such a case demonstrated by well-established facts, it would 148 THEUNITYOF on a comparison of the clifFerent races of men with respect to mental endowments. It has akeady been briefly stated, that among the lower animals every species is characterized by the possession of instincts and propensities peculiar to itself. So that in the several vai'ieties of one and the same species, notwithstanding strongly necessarily be admitted; and we would add, tliat investigations di- rected to this point are the most important that modern science can undertake. But until proved by arguments better than those drawn from domesticated animals, we may plead the general principle against the possibilities on the other side. If there is a law to be discovered, it is a wide and comprehensive law, for such are all nature's principles. Nature will teach it, not in one corner of her system only, but more or less in every part. We have therefore a right to ask for well-defined facts, taken from the study of successive generations of the interbreed- ing of species known to be distinct. Least of all should we expect that a law, which is so rigid among plants and the lower animals, should have its main exceptions in the highest class of the animal kingdom, and its most extravagant violations in the genus Homo; for if there are more than one species of man, they have become in the main indefinite by intermixture Man, by receiving a plastic body, in ac- cordance with a law that species most capable of domestication should necessarily be most pliant, was fitted to take the whole earth as his do minion, and to live under every zone. And surel}^ it would have been a very clumsy method of accomplishing the same result, to have made him of many species, all admitting of indefinite, or nearly indefinite hy- bridization in direct opposition to a grand principle elsewhere recog- nized in the organic kingdoms. It would have been using a process that produces impotence or nothing among animals for the perpetua- tion and progress of the human race. " There are other ways of accountiag for the limited productiveness of the mulatto, without appealing to a distinction of species. There are THE HUMAN SPECIES. 149 marked diversities of physical structure, we may recognize instincts which 2^x0, fundamentally the same, although they may have been modified in their manifestations by the new circumstances in which the animals are placed. Take for ex- ample the case of the dog, every known variety of which species is remarkable for susceptibility of attachment to man, contrasting in this re- spect with the most nearly allied species of the same genus, — the wolf, the fox and the jackal. It is unnecessary to refer to the kinds and ex- tent of modification which may be manifested by the different breeds of dogs in respect to this fundamental instinct of the entire species, causes, independent of mixture, which are making the Indian to melt away before the white man, the Sandwicli Islander and all savage peo- ple to sink into the ground before the power and energy of higher in- telligence. They disappear like plants beneath those of stronger root and growth, being depressed morally, intellectually, and physically, contaminated by new vices, tainted variously by foreign disease, and dwindled in all their hopes and aims and means of progress, through an overshadowing race. H'« ham therefore rcuson to believe, from man^s fer- tile intenniitiire, that he is one in impedes ; and that all organic species are divine appointments which cannot be obliterated, unless by annihilating the individuals representing the species." (Bibliotheca Sacra, Oct., 1857.) We hail with lively satisfaction this emphatic expression of the ma- tured opinions of one whose authority in matters pertaining to the phi- losophy of natural history is second to that of no living votary of science. 150 THE UNITY OF since they are familiar to the most superficial ob- server. Here, then, is an instance of identity of psj^chical traits, proving a specific identity, among varieties so diversified in physical struc- ture as to suggest the idea of many different species. In like manner, the most proximate species are often recognized as distinct by the diversity of their psychical constitution. " It would not be easy to point out two species of animals confessedly distinct, which are more similar in their form and structure than the African and Asiatic elephants. Now the psy- chical qualities of these tribes differ. The Afri- can elephant, though partially tamed in ancient times for the purposes of warfare, has never been known to display that docile understand- ing and gentle temper which are so remarkable in the elephants of India, and particularly in those of Ce34on. The ox kind, and the bison and buffalo, are species nearly allied, though perhaps not so closely related as the different tribes of elephants. Similar differences in re- gard to psychical endowments exist between thes^ animals. One of the species above men- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 151 tioned is among the most subdued slaves and immemorial comj)anions of mankind ; the others are but imperfectly tamable by any means that have been devised."* In applying this test to the question of the re- lationship among the various tribes of mankind, it must be confessed that first impressions are adverse to the doctrine of specific identity, if this require a sameness of mental endowments. Thus the careful and candid writer, whom we have just quoted, draws the following contrast : " Let us imagine, for a moment, a stranger from another planet to visit our globe, and to con- template and compare the manners of its in- habitants, and let him first witness some bril- liant spectacle in one of the highly civilized countries of Europe, — the coronation of a monarch, the installation of St. Louis on the throne of his ancestors, surrounded by an august assembly of peers and barons, and mitred abbots, anointed by the cruse of sacred oil, brought by an angel to ratify the divine privilege of kings ; let the same person be • Prichard. Pliysical Historj^ of Mankind. Vol. I. 152 THE UNITY OF carried into a hamlet of Negro land, in the hour when the sable race recreate themselves with dancing and barbarous music ; let him then be transported to the saline plains, over which bold and tawny Mongols roam, differing but little in hue from the yellow soil of their steppes, brightened by the saffron flowers of the tulip and the iris ; let him be placed near the solitary den 6f the Bushman, where the lean and hungry savage crouches in silence like the beast of prey, watching with fixed eyes the creatures which enter his pit-fall, or the insects and reptiles which chance brings within his grasp ; let the traveller be carried into the midst of an Australian forest, where the squalid com- panions of kangaroos may be seen crawling in procession, in imitation of quadrupeds : can it be supposed that such a person would conclude the various groups of beings whom he had sur- veyed to be of one nature, one tribe, or the offspring of the same original stock ? It is much more probable that he would arrive at an opposite conclusion."* * Prichard. Natural History of Man. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 153 Prof. Draper, quoting the above lines, per- tinently remarks that "much would depend on the previous training of the illustrious stran- ger. If his mind had been imbued with a bet- ter philosophy than that which prevails in this, our lower world, he might look with an equal eye on the transitory fashions before him, and pen- etrate to the first principles of things through the false glare of pomp, or througli debasement and degradation, and so arrive at a conclusion precisely the opposite of the foregoing, in the same manner as Dr. Prichard himself. Beneath the feathers in the one case and the leaves in the other, he might discern the same ruling idea and detect the same human nature ; or if his vision could reach into the past, and recall the credulous Greek worshipping before the exquisitely perfect statues of the deities of his country, beseeching them for sunshine or for rain, and then turn to the savage Amaiman, who commences his fast by taking a vomit, and for want of a better goddess, adores a dried cow's tail, imploring it for all earthly goods — again the same principle would emerge, only 154 THE UNITY OF illustrated by the circumstance that the savage is more thorough, more earnest in his work. In fact, wherever we look man is the same."* Dr. Prichard illustrates the same general proposition by numerous examples, of which we can cite but a single one. He is describing the religious system of the Esquimaux: "It seems, on the whole, that the future state of the old pagan Esquimaux or Greenlanders was in a great measure a state of retribution, of rewards and punishments. Happiness and misery were at least not dispensed with indifterence to merit and demerit. Torngarsuk is the chief of spir- its, dwelling in his happy subterranean man- sion. His mother or wife is a mischievous being. This Proserpine of the north lives in a great house under the ocean, where by magic spells she can detain all the animals of the sea. In the oil-jar under her lamps, sea-birds swim about. Her throne is guarded by rampant seals, or defended by a great dog, who never sleeps but the twinkling of an eye. So many curious traits occur in the description of this * J. W. Draper. Op. cit. P. 570. T H E H U M A H S P E C I E S . 155 infernal goddess and her abode, which recall the Proserpine of classical mythology, and the Pattala of the Hindoos, and the subterranean scenes of enchantment among the Arabs, that we might well be inclined to derive these fables from a common source, if the resemblance be- tween them was not better accounted for by referring it to the common laws of the human mind, and to the tendency of the imagination to create similar fictions with reference to par- ticular subjects, and under the influence of cor- responding feelings and impressions. But this brings out so much the stronger a proof, that the mind is the same in different countries and in different races of men."* Our limits forbid us to follow this learned and reliable authority any further in his detailed analysis of the mental characters of the lower races. f We can only now add his summary conclusions. "We contemplate," says he, " among all the div^ersified tribes, who are en- dowed with reason and speech, the same inter- * Prichard. Physical History of Mankind. Vol. L, p. 190. f See Appendix D. 156 THE UNITY OF nal feelings, appetencies, aversions ; the same inward convictions, the same sentiments of subjection to invisible powers, and, more or less fully developed, of accountableness or respon- sibility to unseen avengers of wrong and agents of retributive justice, from whose tribunal men cannot even by death escape. We find every- where the same susceptibihty, though not always in the same degree of forwardness or ripeness of improvement, of admitting the cultivation of these universal endowments, of opening the eyes of the mind to the more clear and luminous views which Christianity unfolds, of becoming moulded to the institutions of religion, and of civilized life : in a word, the same inward and mental nature is to be recognized in all the races of men. When we compare this fact with the observations which have been hereto- fore fully established as to the specific instincts and separate psychical endowments of all the distinct tribes of sentient beings in the universe, we are entitled to draw confidently the conclu- sion, that all human races are of one species and one family."'* * J. G. Prichard. Natural Historvof Man. Loudon. 1843. P. 545. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 157 If this conclusion appears startling, in view of the reports given by travellers of those degraded forms of humanity to be found in Southern Africa and in Australia, it may, per- haps, lessen the force of the objection, to point to parallel cases existing in nearly all the great cities in the heart of civilized Christendom. This parallel between the most brutalized sav- ages and the "dangerous classes" of our large cities, was suggested by Dr. Carpenter, in the Edinburgh, Revieiu for October, 1848, and has since been extended in his notice of the " Vari- eties of Mankind," to which reference has been already several times made. This conformity as to the fundamental ele- ments of moral nature between the different races of mankind, is entirely consistent with a very large degree of diversity in moral and in- tellectual manifestations ; and the extent to which such a moral and intellectual diversity may, under the influence of causes common to a whole people, become the common heritage of a tribe, and thus ultimately characterize the 158 THE UNITY OF race, is a legitimate subject of curious, and it may be, very profitable study.* The evidence of this close conformity in the elements of psychical nature among all the races of men is regarded as so significant of their "moral brotherhood," as to have com- manded the assent of a large majorit}- of even that class of naturalists who, like Agassiz, con- sider these races as distinct in their origin, and as having been originally marked with the sajne physical peculiarities which now characterize them respectively. "We recognize," says this eminent zoologist, " the fact of the unity of mankind. It excites a feeling that raises men to a most elevated sense of their connection with each other. It is but the reflection of that divine nature which pervades the whole being. It is because men feel thus related to each other, that they acknowledge those obliga- tions of kindness and moral responsibility which rest upon them in their mutual relations. ■* See " Moral and Intellectual Diversity of the Races," by Count GoBixEAU. A further notice of this subject will be given in the second division of this essay. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 159 Where the relationship of blood has ceased, do we cease to acknowledge that general bond which unites all men of every nation ? By no means. This is the bond which every man feels more and more the farther he advances in his intellectual and moral culture, and which in this development is continually placed upon higher and higher ground, so much so, that the physical relation arising from a common descent is Anally lost sight of in the consciousness of higher moral obligations. It is this conscious- ness which constitutes the true unity of man- kind."* These are noble thoughts, expressed in elo- quent words. We cannot, then, but own our surprise that the distinguished writer has per- mitted his honored name to appear on the title- page of a work, the tendency, and we might, perhaps, without injustice, add, the undisguised object of which is, to revolutionize the practical moral convictions of mankind which he has thus so eloquently vindicated. So, too, the Westminster Review (April, 1856), * Christian Examiner. Boston. January, 1850. 160 THEUNITYOF while advocating the plurahty of origin, and the primeval diversities of the principal types of men, yet asserts their " strict unity, a unity manifested physically, intellectually and morally, a sameness from the beginning in instincts, pro- pensities, feelings, and faculties, hopes and fears, and everywhere the like reverent looking up- wards to a great unseen Cause, and constant adumbration of a future heritage." We might now, we think, reasonably chal- lenge the assent of our readers to the doctrine of the unity of the human species ; but inasmuch as that doctrine has been assailed of late from quarters of attack not yet noticed, we propose, in the second division of our subject, to ex- amine the grounds on which Prof. Agassiz, while recognizing the "unity of mankind," yet con- tends for primordial diversities of type. We hope to show that the very grounds on which natural zoological provinces are established, suffice to refute the idea of a multiple origin for identical species, and that there is no difficulty in accounting for the actual distribution of man over the face of the earth by natiu'al agencies, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 161 while the theory of Agassiz involves the idea of a needless repetition of the miracle of creation. Inasmuch, too, as he is the most conspicuous assailant of the argument in favor of the com- mon origin of mankind, derived from a con- sideration of linguistic affinities, we shall attempt to vindicate the validity of the philological proofs of such origin, and after again adverting to the actual moral and intellectual diversities of the races, shall aim to show that while the too ex- clusive contemplation of these admitted diversi- ties is apt to give the mind a bias in favor of the doctrine of the primeval distinctions of races, and while on a few points the only avail- able evidence in refutation of such an assump- tion may appear indirect or incomplete, yet when the entire argument is viewed with refer- ence to the mutual dependence of its several branches, and the obvious convergence of its separate lines, it will be found to lead to the necessary conclusion that all the varieties of man must have sprung from a common parent- age as well as own a common nature. Part II COMMON PARENTAGE OF THE HUMAN RACES. [163] COMMON PARENTAGE OF THE HUMAN EACES. CHAPTER I. PLUKAL OK SIKGLE ORIGIN^ OF IDENTICAL SPECIES AMONG PLANTS AND ANIMALS. In the former part of our argument we stated at some length the evidence in favor of the specific unity of the various races of mankind, and showed, as we cannot but think, that this doctrine, supported as it is by many indepen- dent hnes of argument all converging to this necessary conclusion, could no longer be consid- ered doubtful. Now in accordance with the idea involved in the definition of species as laid down by most philosophical and trustworthy nat- uralists, it has commonly been held that all the [1C5] 166 COMMON PARENTAGE OF varieties of identical species must have sprung from a common ancestry. Thus Dr. Prichaed, throughout his admirable writings, treats of spe- cific unity as tantamount to that of community of descent, and uses the terms interchangeably. But we are free to admit that the proof of orig- inal descent is an inference from observed facts rather than a necessar}^ deduction from the doc- trine of unity of species. If mankind belong to several species, the question is, of course, set- tled in favor of plurality of origin ; but the converse of the proposition does not follow of necessity. It is at least conceivable that in- stead of a single pair God may have formed any number of first men and women who were yet as specifically identical as if they had been born of the same parents. This question has been discussed with much earnestness by Prof. Agas- siz, who has repeatedly given expression, in lan- guage as decided as it is eloquent, to his con- firmed belief in the " Unity of Mankind."' Thus, in 1845, he declared: "There exists, then, a real difference between the inhabitants of the different continents, and the remarkable coinci- THE HUMAN RACES. 167 deuce which we have pointed out between their primitive distribution and the circumscription of- the faunas in the same continents, is a suffi- cient indication that their diversity may be traced upwards to the same primordial cause. But while this diversity has the same origin, has it also the same significance in man as among animals ? Evidently not. And here again the superiority of the human race and its greater independence in nature are revealed. Whilst animals are of distinct species in the diff'erent zoological provinces to which they belong, man, notwithstanding the diversity of his races, con- stitutes a single, identical species (une seule et meme espece) over the whole surface of the globe. In this respect, as in so many others, man ap- pears to us an exceptional being in this crea- tion, of which he is at once the object and the end." * But while thus distinctly insisting upon the specific unity of the races, he yet contend^ * Notice sur la Geographie des Animaux. L. Agassiz. Revue Suisse. 1845. Quoted by Dr. Bachman in the Charleston Medical Journal Review, for July, 1855. 168 COMMON PARENTAGE OF that the pecuharities of physical conformation observed among them, and certain facts con- nected with their geographical distribution, were not explicable on the hypothesis of a conniion origin, and that they required us to suppose that " men were created in nations," distributed over the face of the earth as we now find them distributed, after setting aside the known migrations of a few races. These several nations, however, were composed of in- dividuals possessing the same essential nature wherever they were created, but had that na- ture modified to some extent in accordance w^ith the special conditions in which each nation was destined to exist. Of late, Prof. Agassiz, in his " Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World, and their relation to the differ- ent Types of Man," has altered the phraseolo- gy in which he enunciates his propositTons. He now adopts Dr. Morton's definition of species as " a primordial organic form," and according- ly, he must recognize his primeval types of mankind as so many distinct species ; but the difference respects rather the use of terms tlian THE HUMAN RACES. 169 any change of opinion as to facts. He still contends for the " Unity of Mankind," main- taining that a strict unity as to moral nature, involving, therefore, the idea of a moral broth- erhood of all the races, is yet consistent with the idea of specific div^ersity according to the sense in which he now uses the word species, as applicable to all primordial types. We notice this apparent discrepancy between the early and later utterances of Prof. Agas- siz on this question, with no desire to convict him of a want of consistency with himself. We abhor that species of argumentum ad hominem which aims to discredit the actual opinions of an opponent by raking up his earlier, and it might be, his less matured views on the same subject. But in point of fact, we do not con- sider that in the present case there is any sub- stantial difference between the opinions an- nounced in 1845, and those promulgated in 1853. We have thought proper to quote the former, because we consider that they are expressed in language which conforms to common usage, while the latter are involved in some confusion, 8 170 COMMON PARENTAGE OF owing to the ambiguity of the terms in which they are couched. For while his recent state- ment asserts in terms the doctrine of muhiple species, it admits the unity of essential nature for all the so-called human species, which is tantamount to specific unity in the sense in which the term is commonly used. It is worthy of notice in this connection, that since the earlier enunciation of Prof. Agassiz' peculiar opinions, Sir Charles Lyell, and that eminent zoologist, the late Prof. Edward Forbes, had presented cognat considerations in opposition to the theory of multiple origins for the differ- ent varieties of an identical species. We cannot help suspecting that this fact had some weight with Prof. Agassiz, however uncon- sciously on his part, in inducing him to make the modification referred to, whereby, under cover of an ambiguity in the terms, he seem- ingly avoids the force of their convincing ar- guments. That he has not completely shifted his ground, appears from a remark let fall by him at the regular meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, held July 2, 1856, T II E H U M A N R A C E S . 171 as reported in the " Proceedings," Yolume YI.,' page 8. " Dr. Storer asked what was the northern geographical limit of Cistudo blandmgii. In 1842 he presented to the Society a specimen from Bradford, Massachusetts, until which time it had not been observed by naturalists north of South Carolina. "Prof. Agassiz replied that he had found the eggs in Massachusetts, and raised the ani- mal from them. There is no evidence of its existence between Massachusetts and Illinois, where it is again found. It has a circle of dis- tribution in the north-western States, and another disconnected range in Massachusetts. He thinks the animal maij have originated in the two different localities^ Here the Professor recognizes identity of species in individuals of different origin, because, we presume, of an identity in type. So, too, he asserts a di- versity of origin for different nations of man- kind, even where they exhibit the same physi- cal type. For while he attempts to demon- strate the existence of eight distinct types of 172 COMMON PARENTAGE OF man, which, notwithstanding their admitted " close unity'' and " moral brotherhood," he now designates as so many separate species, he further contends for an indefinite number of distinct creations of men and women within the limits of one and the same type. It is this last proposition which we shall now discuss. So far as specific diversity is ascribed to the human races in any other sense than that which by a con- ventional use attaches to the assumption of sepa- rate origins, we consider that we have sufficiently refuted the doctrine in our former article. In considering the positive grounds on which Prof. Agassiz relies to support the doctrine of a plural origin of mankind, we notice, in the first place, that which seems to have most in- fluence in giving a bias to his mind in relation to this subject, — namely, the alleged analogy of the inferior animals. He maintains that there is an otherwise inexplicable "coincidence between the circumscription of the races of man and the natural limits of different zoologi- cal provinces characterized by peculiar distinct species of animals." The existence of such THE HUMAN RACES. 173 natural limits for many species is, indeed, un- deniable, and the fact had not escaped the attention of philosophical naturalists of the last century. "It is an undoubted fact," says Buf- fon, "that when America was first discovered, its indigenous quadrupeds were all dissimilar to those previously known in the old world. The elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the camelopard, the camel, the dromedary, the buffalo, the horse, the ass, the lion, the tiger, the apes, the baboon, and a number of other mammalia, were nowhere to be met with on the new continent ; while in the old, the Amer- ican species, of the same great class, were no- where to be seen — the tapir, the lama, the pecari, the jaguar, the cougar, the agouti, the paca, the coati, and the sloth." The contem- plation of such facts soon led to the induction of a general law respecting the geographical distribution of animals and plants, — namely, "the limitation of groups of distinct beings to regions separated from the rest of the globe by certain natural barriers." " It will be observed," says Lyell, in quoting these statements of Buf- 174 COMMON PARENTAGE OF fon, "that this language respecting 'natural barriers,' which has since been so popular, would be wholly without meaning, if the geo- graphical distribution of organic beings had not led naturalists to adopt very generally the doctrine of specific centres, or in other words, to believe that each species, whether of plant or animal, originated in a single birth-place. Re- ject this view, and the fact that not a single native quadruped is common to Australia, the Cape of Grood Hope, and South America, can in noways be explained by adverting to the wide extent of intervening ocean, or to the sterile deserts, or the great heat or cold of the climates, through which such species must have passed, before it could migrate from one of those distant regions to another. It might fairly be asked of one who talked of impassable barriers, why the same kangaroos, rhinoceroses, or lamas, should not have been created simul- taneously in Australia, Africa, and South Amer- ica ? The horse, the ox, and the dog, although foreign to these countries until introduced by men, are now able to support themselves there T H E H U M A N R A C E S . 175 in a wild state ; and we can scarcely doubt that many of the quadrupeds at present peculiar to Australia, Africa, and South America, might have been continued in like manner to inhabit each of the three continents, had they been indigenous, or could they once have got a foot- ing there as new colonists."* It has been already mentioned that Prof. Agassiz, in his earlier writings on this subject, while he admitted the fact of the circumscription of most species within certain natural barriers, and thereby identified the different zoological provinces, yet contended that there were also numerous instances of identical species being found in more than one province and thus sep- arated by a wide extent of intervening water, or else of land impassable for such species by reason of its climate or sterility. Upon such facts he mainly relied as an analogical argument in favor of his doctrine of the multiple origin of a single human species. About the same time Prof. Edward Forbes was zealously en- gaged in investigating the laws of the geograph- * Lyell. Op cit., p. 608. 176 COMMON PARENTAGE OF ical distribution of organic beings, and contrib- uted to the " Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain" an elaborate and well-consid- ered paper " On the connection between the Distribution of the Existing Fauna and Flora of the British Isles, and the Geological Changes which have effected their Area, especially during the epoch of the Northern Drift." In this paper it is clearly shown : " 1st. That species of opposite hemispheres, placed under similar conditions, are representa- tive and not identical. " 2d. Species occupying similar conditions in geological formations far apart, and which con- ditions are not met with in the intermediate formations, are representative and not identical. " 3d. Wherever a given assemblage of condi- tions, to which, and to which only, certain spe- cies are adapted, are continuous, whether geo- graphically or geologically, identical species range throughout." He then argues that these facts "go far to prove " the doctrine of the relationship of all the individuals composing a species, and their THE HUMAN RACES. 177 . consequent descent from a single progenitor, or from two, according as the sexes miglit be united or distinct. Adverting to the notorious fact that the doctrine of the plural origin of identical species sprang out of apparent anom- alies and difficulties m distribution, he proceeds to show how these may be reasonably accounted for, without having recourse to such a supposi- tion. "There are three modes by which an isolated area may become peopled by animals and plants : 1st. By special creation within that area. 2d. By transport to it. 3d. By migra- tion before isolation." He clearly proves that where identical species are found in different localities under such circumstances as to pre- clude the idea of transport from one to the others, such outlying spots were once parts of a continuous area, the whole of which exhibited the conditions required for the support of the species in question, and that owing to subse- quent geological changes, such as the substitu- tion of land for water or water for land, or simply climatal changes, detached spots became isolated from the rest. This will be rendered 8* 178 COMMON PARENTAGE OF more intelligible by an example. " We have in the mountain districts of Scotland, England and Wales, a considerable flora and a portion of our fauna, which cannot be traced to the migration of animals and plants over the great Germanic plain, which accounts for the major part of our British species, seeing that they are not inhabitants of the ancient west of Europe, but of Scandinavia. How did they come ? The Alpine character of most of them forbids us by any stretch of probability to con- duct them across the Germanic plain from its most northern bound We have seen that the great Germanic and central British plains themselves were portions of the elevated bed of a preexistin'g sea, which sea, when we trace its relics, is found to have covered a great poTt of the British Isles as now exposed, so that during its existence our mountains must have been comparatively low islands. This was the sea of the Glacial period, properly so called, when the climate of the whole Northern and part of Central Europe was very different from what it is now, and far colder. The remains THE HUMAN RACES. 179 of the marine animals found in the strata de- posited in that sea indubitably prove this fact, and, as will l>o seen presently, the flora of its islands as fully bears out such climatal evidence. This was the epoch of glaciers and icebergs, of boulders and groovings and scratches. It ex- hibited conditions, physical and zoological, sim- ilar, indeed nearly identical, to those now to be met with on the north-eastern coast of America, within the line of the summer floating ice. . . , Now it wa5 during this epoch that Scotland and Wales, and part of Ireland, then groups of lands in this ice-bound sea, received their Alpine Flora and a small portion of their fauna. Plants of sub-arctic character would then flour- ish to the water's edge, but when a new state of things commenced, when the bed of the glacial sea was upheaved, its islands converted into mountains, its climate changed, and a suit- able population of animals and vegetables dif- fused over its area, the plants of the colder epoch survived only on the mountainous regions which had been so elevated as therefore to re- tain climatal conditions similar to those which 180 COMMON PARENTAGE OF had existed when those regions were low ridges or islands in a glacial sea." Having stated with great clearness and pre- cision many other similar cases, Prof. Forbes sums up the whole in this abstract proposition : "7%e specific identity, to any extent, of the flora and fauna of one area with those of another, depends on both areas forming or having formed part of the same specific centre, or on their hav- ing derived their animal and vegetable population by transmission, through migration dver coyitinu- ous or closely contiguous land, aided, in the case of Alpine Floras, by transportation on floating masses of zee."* . * The interesting iact, tlius brouglit to liglit, of a iveaticard proyress of the great mass of British animals and plants, over a then unbroken land (the upheaved bed of the glacial sea), from the central Germanic plains, furnishes a satisfactorj' explanation of the jaeculiar poverty of the fauna of Ireland. For '• the accurate calculations of the late Mr. Thompson, of Belfast, concerumg the reptile .statistics of Ireland, England and Belgium, respectively, have succeeded in showing, with much presumptive reason, how the formation of St. George's Channel, heforc that of the German Ocean, interrupted the march of these wanderers to the far West, and debarred an immense proportion of them from an entry into Ireland, — which would otherwise have colonized that country equally with Eng- land." (WoLL.iSTOX. Variaiion of Sprcie-i. j>. 136.) This last named writer, while endorsing the general statement of Prof Forbes with respect to the existence of repreienLdioe species, ex- presses the conviction that the doctrine of representation has been too much relied upon ; and that whore beings of a nearly identical aspect THE U U M A N RAGES. 181 About the (late of the publication of this paper by Forbes, Prof. Agassiz was maiutain- ins: the doctrine of the radiation of identical species from several distinct centres. Thus in the Principles of Zoology by Agassiz and Gould, pubhshed a little later, we find the following statement : " There is only one way to account for the distribution of animals as we find them ; namely, to suppose that they are autochtlionoi ; that is to say, that they originated like plants on the soil where they are found. In order to explain the particular distribution of many ani- mals, we are even led to admit that they must have been created at several points of the same zone, as we must infer from the distribution of aquatic animals, especially that of fishes. If we examine the fishes of the different rivers of the United States, peculiar species will be found in each basin, associated with others which are common to several basins. Thus, the Dela- are detected in opposite divisions of tlie eartli, it is more often tlie case that members of them have been transported at a remote period (just as Forbes explains tlie case of identical species being found in detached spots), and liave l.)ecomo g-radaally altered by the circumstances in which they have been placed, than that the respective phases wero produced in situ on patterns almost conicident (lb. p 183.) 182 COMMON PARENTAGE OF ware river contains species not found in the Hudson. But, on the other hand, the pickerel is found in both. Now, if all animals originated at one point, and from a single stock, the pick- erel must have passed from the Delaware to the Hudson, or vice versa, which it could only have done by passing along the sea-shore, or by leaping over large spaces of terra firma ; that is to say, in both cases it would be necessary to do violence to its organization. Now such a supposition is in direct opposition to the immu- tabilit}^ of the laws of nature. . . . Even man, although a cosmopolite, is subject, in a certain sense, to this law of limitation. While lie is everywhere the one identical species, yet several races, marked by certain peculiarities of fea- tures, are recognized." * Now, however, hav- ing become satisfied, in view perhaps of the facts cited by Prof Forbes, that the species in the different provinces are not identical, he shifts his position a little, and no longer holds that the human races are "everywhere of one * Principles of Zoology. By L. Agassiz and A. A. Gould. Boston, 1848. P. 180. THE HUMAN RACES. 183 identical species," but doubtless regards them as ' representative,^ — and j^et, as we have already said, the difference is more in the use of terms than a substantial one ; for he still avers that his actual opinions "do not conflict with the idea of the unity of mankind," and "that the moral question of brothe.rhood is not affected by these views." Again, in 1850, he main- tained the unity of mankind w^ith great earnest- ness, and held "that the phijsical relation aris- ing from a common descent is finally lost sight of in the consciousness of higher moral obliga- tions, which consciousness constitutes the true unity of mankind. . . . We can therefore take it as a matter of fact, that, as we find men ac- tually living together in the world, it is not the physical relation which establishes the closest connection between them, but that higher rela- tion arising from the intellectual constitution of man."* Unless, therefore, he now attaches more weight to slight physical differences in the dis- crimination of species than to intellectual and moral characteristics, in direct contravention of * Christian Examiner, Boston, 1850. 184 COMMON PARENTAGE OF the principles so eloquently expounded in the passages just cited, and equally in conflict, as it appears to us, with the spirit and true mean- ing of the maxim announced in the chapter of his "Principles of Zoology," headed "Intelli- gence and Instinct," where it is said that " the constancy of species is n. phenomenon depending on the immaterial nature," * we must hold that his present opinions, though announced in a somewhat modified phraseology, are substan- tially the same as when, in 1848, he asserted that "man is everywhere the one identical species ;" and so holding, we consider that his doctrine of more than one birthplace for this one identical species is discredited by the striking facts and cogent reasoning of Prof. Forbes, whose admira- * 111 another passage of the same work this idea is brought out more distinctly. On page 9 of the first edition, or page — of the edition 1858, we find the following words: '"Besides the distinction to be de- rived from tlie varied structures of organs there are others less subject to rigid analysis, but no less decisive, to be drawn from the immaterial principle with which every animal is endowed. It is this which determines the constanqi of species from generation to generation, and which is the source of all the varied exhibitions of instinct and intelligence which we see displaj'ed, from the simple impulse to receive the food which is brought within their reach, as observed in tlie polyps, through the liigher mani- festations, in the cunning fox, the sagacious elephant, the faitliful dog, and the exalted intellect of man, which is capable of indefinite expan- sion." For continuation of this note, see Appendix E. THE HUMAN RACES. 185 ble paper in the work already cited/-' we would earnestly commend to tl>e attention of those who feel an interest in this question. Certain it is that this learned and talented naturalist has conclusively shown that the analogy of infe- rior animals and plants is altogether adverse to the hypothesis of a plural origin of identical species. We consider, therefore, that we might fairly rest our case on this incontrovertible ar- gument of Prof. Forbes ; but, in view of the fact that Agassiz has attempted to evade its force by substituting "representative" for "identi- cal" species, we propose to notice some of the special statements in his "Sketch of the Natural Provinces of tlie Animal World." His first statement is, "that the boundaries within which the different natural combinations of animals are known to be circumscribed upon the surface of the earth, coincide with the natural range of distinct types of man." We might well take exception to this statement, as taking for granted a material point which has not been fully demonstrated. It has not been ■'- Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Loudon, 1846. 186 COMMON PARENTAGE OF proved, nor, in our opinion, can it be proved, that there is any fixed relation between distinct types of men and definitely circumscribed re- gions. But not to insist upon this obvious ftillacy, let us inquire a little more closely into the facts which are relied upon to make out the alleged analogy. In the first place, we contend that the division of the earth's surface into eight " o;reat zooloo'ical realms," each subdivided into (DO ' a number of subordinate faunge, as set forth in the "Sketch," is purely arbitrary, so far, at least, as the precise limits of most of the realms are concerned. And this, it should be observed, is a point of great significance, since the argu- ment which we criticise consists in an alleged coincidence between these limits and the natural range of distinct types of man. Now if these limits be indeterminable, the asserted coinci- dence cannot be established, and the argument * falls to the ground. Accordingly it will be found, that in several instances the limits of the zoolo- gical provinces have evidently been assigned in view of the range of certain types of mankind T II E 11 U M A N R A C E S . 187 supposed to be definitely ascertained, and assumed to be coincident with the boundaries of the prov- inces. Thus a part of the doctrine which re- quired independent proof is quietly assumed, and then made use of to prove the rest. On what other ground than the recognition of the unity of type among all the American Indian tribes, and the consequent necessity of admitting for them a very extensive " natural range," can there be a plausible pretext for assigning to one zoological province the whole of the American Co*ntinent, save only the Arctic realm, which lies north of the isothermal line of 32" F.? N"o other reason can be given that will not invalidate the limits of most of his great realms, that will not, for example, require us to include the Arctic region in the same category with the whole of North America. For while we grant that a large majorit}^ of the species found in his Arctic 'realm are peculiar to it, it is undeniable that a very considerable number range through the Northern States of our Union, and not a few extend even to the Gulf of Mexico. We shall cite a number of examples, for which we are 188 COMMON PARENTAGE OF indebted to Dr. Bachman, the leading authority in all matters respecting the mammalian depart- ment of American zoology. " The common wolf {Canis lupus) exists in this same Ar-ctic realm, and has been found as far north as the foot of man has trodden. It crosses Behring Straits on the ice, while the natives have been but recently seen crossing it in canoes. It is found in Kamtschatka, the Kurille Islands, Japan and China. It inhabits the whole of the Russian Empire, Tartary, Austria, France, Germany, Italy, and, indeed, the whole of Eu- rope down to the tropics. It exists in America, from the furthest north, through Labrador and Canada — in the whole United States — in Ore- gon and California. It is common in Texas ; is noticed in Captain Sitgreaves' expedition, as existing in New Mexico ; it ranges down to the Isthmus of Panama, and how much further to the south we are not informed. The ermine is- another species, existing in the Arctic realm, which Prof. Agassiz has omitted to notice. It exists in every part of Europe where the wolf is found, and also throughout the whole of Asia THE HUMAN RACES. 189 north of the tropics." "In America it ranges from the most northern Umit attained by Frank- hn, Lyon, and Parry, to Mexico and Cahfornia." " This extensive range of two of the most common species found in his Arctic realm, will cover all the ground assigned by Prof. Agassiz to every tribe, form of skull, and shade of color, in his Arctic, Mongol, European, and American realms. Thus, if his doctrine of the diversity of human species could be found true, it would appear that man, endued with intelli- gence, possessing powers of invention, fond of navigation, omnivorous in his appetites, rest- less and migratory in his habits of locomotion, and subjecting the lower animals to his will, is restricted to a narrower range than the wolf, the ermine, aud many others that might be named."* But our main object in citing these examples 'of a wide range of certain species, forming a part of the Arctic fauna, was to demonstrate the purely arbitrary principles on which definite " J. Bachman, D. D., in Charleston Medical Journal and Review. July, 1855. p. 494. 190 COMMON PARENTAGE OF limits have been assigned to the so-called Arctic realm. Prof. Agassiz determines those limits by observing the natural range of a few species of animals and plants arbitrarily selected out of the entire fauna and flora, when a different selection would have totally changed the whole aspect of the case. We have just seen how it is with the wolf and the ermine, both belonging to his Arctic realm, and both passing widely beyond the arbitrary southern boundary, the isotherme of 32° F. But numerous other species may bo named, whose ranges utterly invalidate the boundaries of this so-called natural zoological province. The beaver, for- merly existing all over the United States, and still found over Oregon and California, in New Mexico, in Canada, and Labrador, is an exam- ple. It is also preserved in Russia, Norway, and Sweden, though nearly extinct in other parts of Europe, where it formerly abounded until destroyed by hunters. Another instance is that of the otter, which ranges over the whole of North and South America, " from pole to pole." Other species, existing in the THE HUMAN RACES. 191 Arctic regions^, and yet ranging far beyond the limits assigned to the Arctic realm of Prof. Agassiz, are the wolverine, the musk-rat, and the mink, among the mammalia ; the snow- goose, the Canada crane, the golden plover, the red phalarope, the raven, the great horned owl, and many other birds, and a large number of plants. The very plant selected by Prof. Agas- siz as characterizing his Arctic realm, the rein- deer moss, has a very extensive range in Asia, Europe, and America, having been found as far south as Virginia, and even in South Carolina.* Now the learned Professor himself admits as many as thirteen distinct faunoB in his great American realm. We are at a loss to conceive why these faunae should be associated into one great zoological province, from which the Arctic fauna is excluded, seeing that so man}^ of the species found in the latter range so extensively through the regions assigned to the former. Is it not apparent that the arrangement was forced upon him by the necessities of his system ? He considered the Esquimaux as representing one * Ibid. 192 COMMON PARENTAGE OF primordial type of man, and the various tribes of American Indians as another ; he had, there- fore, to make two zoological realms in correspon- dence with the range of these two types of man. Now we must insist that it is a glaring perversion of the simplest rules of logic to think of establish- ing, by such a procedure as this, the proposition that "the boundaries within which the different natural combinations of animals are known to he circumscribed upon the surface of our earth, coincide with the natural range of distinct types of man." After all, it turns out that the boundaries are wholly arbitrary, and the prov- inces are constructed with the express view of being made to " coincide " with the range, real or assumed, of the distinct types of man. But again, when Prof. Agassiz avers '• that the laws whicli regulate the diversity of animals and their distribution upon the earth apply equally to man, within the same limits and in the same degree,'' he surely overlooked numerous facts which can by no means be made to har- monize with this theory. Some of these are stated with so much pertinency and force by THE HUMAN Ft A C E S . 193 Dr. Bachraan, that we shall borrow his lan- guage : " Prof. Agassiz has rather too positive- ly conjectured that his Arctic man had been created in the snow-clad, cold, and dreary cli- mate in which he now resides — that he was an autochthon there, and that his progenitors never possessed a southern home. We contend this to be an utter impossibility, from the organization of the Esquimaux or any other variety of man ; the artificial means by which he must supply himself with food, clothing, and a shelter, and the intensit}^ of cold against which he must necessarily be protected." He then, in illustration of this point, makes copious extracts, of which we give a few specimens, from Richardson's " Arctic Expedition in search of Sir John Frankhn." " The Esquimaux wintering on the coast are in darkness at mid- winter ; the reindeer and musk-oxen have then retreated, and fish cannot, at that season, be [)rocured in their waters ; life, therefore, can only be maintained ifi an Esquimaux ivinter by stores iJTOvided in summer T* Dr. Bachman * J. Bnchinan. D. D. Op , cit. p. 502. 9 194 COMMON PARENTAGE OF justly contends that it is not in the range of probabiUty or even of possibility, without a succession of miracles, such as we have no riglit to look for, — save the miracle of man's first creation, — for the Arctic man, had he been created there, to have survived a single winter or even a single month. Even at the present day, with all the advantages which have been derived from ages of experience, transmitted from generation to generation ; with bows and arrows to slay the musk-ox and reindeer ; with harpoons for the whale, and spears for the seal ; with houses already erected, and clothing manufactured, we are told if the tribe has been improvident, or the seal fails to make his appearance at the mouth of his hole in the ice, or no whale is captured or driven ashore to supply his lanip, so essential to afford him warmth and light, the inhabitants of whole villages perish from cold and famine."* In like manner Dr. Pickering argues, that " the species of organic beings allotted to the various regions of the globe have in no in- * lb., p. 506. See, also, Dr. Kaue's Arctic Explorations: passim. THE HUMAN RACES. 195 stance been modified by climate or by other external circumstances ; but each has been orig- inally fitted, in structure and constitution, pre- cisely to the station in which it is naturally found. In a district exposed to extremes, whether of heat, cold, moisture, or aridity, the indigenous animal or plant has the means of avoiding them, or else is protected against them in its outer covering ; purposes accom- plished in various modes, some of which are sufficiently familiar. It will follow that if Eu- rope were the proper home of the white man, he would be born with natural clothing ; with, at least, some inherent provision securing the maintenance of life without aid from art. Ma?i then does not belong to cold and variable clU mates ; his original birth-place has been in a re- gion of perpetual summer, where the unprotected skin bears without suferitig the slight fiuctua- tions of temperature. He is, in fact, essentially a production of the tropics, and there has been a time when the human family had, not strayed be- yond t ese geographical limi sJ''-' ' C. i'.r:.;::iiN-; ?.! D. laces ol Man, etc. CHAPTER II. EVIDENCE OF COMMUNITY OF DESCENT DERIVED FROM LINGUISTIC AFFINITIES. We have thus seen that the analogy of other animals furnishes no argument against the doc- trine of a single birthplace for the human races since the difference in the circumstances de- stroys the force of the analogy. We are now prepared to go further, and to show that the new doctrine is itself utterly irreconcilable with some of the best established facts in modern science. We proceed to indicate a few out of very many striking facts and inductions fur- nished by the study of comparative Philology. The universality of spoken language, and es- pecially the existence of terms in every lan- guage expressive of abstract ideas and relations, have been justly regarded as pregnant tokens of the intellectual nature of all the varieties of [196] THE HUMAN RACES. 197 man. And when we find in the tongues of dif- ferent tribes the same words to express the same ideas, and similar grammatical construc- tions — we cannot avoid the conclusion that they must have had a common origin. Of course, such a fact did not escape the attention of the advocates of the new theory : let us see how they have attempted to get over it. In an ar- ticle published by Prof. Agassiz, in 1850, in the Christian Examiner, of Boston, we find the fol- lowing passage, which has since been cited by Nott and Gliddon with an air of triumph, as an " admirable expression of new and most inter- esting views on the natural origin of speech :" " As for languages, their common structure, and even the analog}' in the sounds of different languages, far from indicating a derivation of one from another, seems to us rather the neces- sary result of that similarity in the organs of speech which causes them naturally to produce the same sound. Who would now deny that it is as natural for men to speak as it is for a dog to bark, for an ass to bray, for a lion to roar, for a wolf to howl, when we see that no na- 198 COMMON PARENTAGE OF tions are so barbarous, so deprived of all hu- man character, as to be unable to express in language their desires, their fears, their hopes? And if a unity of language, any analog}^ in sound and structure between the languages of the white races, indicate a closer connection between the different nations of that race, would not the difference which has been observed in the struc- ture of the languages of the wild races — would not the power the American Indians have naturally to utter gutturals which the white man can hardly imitate, afford additional evidence that these races did not originate from a common stock, but are only closely allied as men, endowed equally with the same intel- lectual powers, the same organs of speech, the same sympathies, only developed in slightly dif- ferent ways in the different races, precisely as we observe the fact between closely allied spe- cies of the same genus among birds ? "There is no ornithologist who ever watched the natural habits of birds and their notes, who has not been surprised at the similarity of into- nation of the notes of closely allied species, THE HUMAN RACES. 199 and the greater difference between the notes of birds belonging to different genera and fami- Ues. The cry of birds of prey is ahke unpleas- ant and rough in all; the song of all the thrushes is equally sweet and harmonious, and modulated upon similar rhythms, and combined in similar melodies ; the chit of all titmice is loquacious and hard ; the quack of the duck is alike nasal in all. But who ever thought that the robin learned his melody from the mocking-bird, or the mocking-bird from any other species of thrush ? Who ever fancied that the field crow learned his cawing from the raven or the jack-daw ? Certainly, no one at all acquainted with the natural history of birds. And why should it be different with men ? Why should not the different races of men have originally spoken distinct languages, as they do at present, differing in the same proportions as their organs of speech are variously modified ? And why should not these modifications in their turn be indicative of primitive differences among them ? It were giving up all induction, all power of arguing from sound premises, 200 COMMON PARENTAGE OF if the force of such evidence were to be de- nied." But surely it cannot be necessary to point out the obvious fallacy of such analogical rea- soning as this. We admit that inarticulate cries are as " natural" to man as to other mammalians, and that a certain degree of simi- larity in the intonation of these sounds would not of itself indicate more than a generic affin- ity between the different classes of individuals giving utterance to them. We also admit that there is a special adaptation of man's vocal ap- paratus for the formation of articulate sounds, but we deny that there is any satisfactor}' proof that the adjustment is of such a kind as to lead to a natural and untaught manifestation of the power of using speech as a sign of thought, or to account for the universality of the phenomenon on the supposition that the races had separate origins. If, then, the alle- gations in the passage just cited respecting the identity or close affinity of the notes of different species of the same family were undeniable (Dr. Bachman proves to our satisfaction that V^ 01" THE ^ THE HUMAN ^ A C E^^^J J^" J y f)j^ g V they are very far from being so),* the fact would avail nothing in this controversy, since it is not the identity of intonation, nor the power of making similar articulate sounds, hut the cojnmon agirement in making, by a purely arbitrary system, certain sounds to represent the same ideas, which identifies the human races as scions from a common stock. And then the argument of Prof. Agassiz proves too much. If it accounts for the agree- ment in certain directions, it gains this appar- ent advantage only at the cost of leaving us the difficult, nay, impossible task, of accounting for differences which according to his theory ought not to exist. It is true that Agassiz seems to have anticipated this objection, and that he has set it aside in the most summary way, alleging, as we have seen, that the lan- iruaees of the different races differ in the same proportions as their organs of speech are va- riously modified ! If the Professor means to aver, as many persons unacquainted with Hu- * J. Bachjian, D. D. Charleston Medical Journal aud Review, No- vember. 1S54, p. 798. G* 202 COMMON PARENTAGE OF man Anatomy have been induced by the peru- sal of his remarks on this subject to believe, that the vocal organs of men of different races are characterized by appreciable differences of structure, we would respectfully ask, by whom have the observations been made which sub- stantiate the fact and demonstrate a constant relation between such peculiarities of structure and the languages spoken by different races ? That the habitual employment from infancy of a certain class of sounds belona-ino; to the native language of a people will be attended by an appropriate state of the vocal apparatus dif- fering from that induced by the habitual use of a distinct class of sounds, we are free to ad- mit ; but surely Prof. Agassiz cannot seriously think that any such structural modifications of the vocal organs peculiar to races are any more persistent than other acquired pecuharities due to systematic culture. That such structural peculiarities of the vocal apparatus in the dif- ferent races of man are not permanent, and therefore not in the least " indicative of primi- tive differences among them," we confidently THE HUMAN RACES. 203 assert, and we cannot but be surprised that Prof. Agassiz should have given expression, even in the heat of argument while defending a theory, to a statement so entirely unsupported by facts. Other advocates of the plural origin of man have assailed the unity-doctrine as maintained by all the best comparative philologists from a different point of attack. The Westminster Re- view, for April, 1856, in a notice of the " Types of Mankind," quotes the opinions of Crawfurd, author of a "History of the Indian Archipel- ago," in opposition to the carefully digested views of the late Baron William Humboldt, who, in his celebrated " Analysis of the Kawi Language," demonstrated the unity of the tongues of the numerous types of mankind now generally designated as the Malayo-Poly- nesian races. "The object," says the reviewer, "of Mr. Crawfurd's elaborate inquiry, which is con- ducted with great judgment and care, as well as learning, is the refutation of this hypothesis. In the opening of his labors, the author points 204 COMMON PARENTAGE OF out that language is neither a test of race, nor invariably identical with race, and that there is no indication of such supposed parent lan- guage or people in the regions referred to. Mr. Crawfurd differs fundamentally from the Ger- man philologers, as to the number and kind of words to be selected as tests of a common tongue. Baron William Humboldt contented himself with a vocabulary of one hundred and thirty-four words, the synonyms of which he traced through nine languages, four out of which were Polynesian dialects, for the basis of his colossal hypothesis. The terms exjoress- ing the first and simplest ideas of mankind, are those, our author considers, from the familiar- ity and frequency of the ideas they express, to be the most amenable to adoption. The per- sonal pronouns are equally objectionable tests, ' as they are the most interchangeable of all classes of words.' And the numerals must be excluded from earl}^ invented words, as they imply social advancement, and are the most likely words to be adopted by savages. The words chosen by our author, as tests of a unity THE HUM A N RACES. 205 of languages, arc those indispensable to their structure, without which they cannot be spoken or written — ' the prepositions, which represent the cases of languages of complex structure ; and the auxiliaries which represent times and moods.' 'After as careful an examination as I have been able to make of the many languages involved in the present inquiry, and duly con- sidering the physical and geographical charac- ter of the wide field over which they are spoken, with the social condition of its various inhabitants, I have come to the conclusion that the words which are common to so many tongues, have been chiefly derived from the lano-uasres of the most civilized and adven- turous nations of the Archipelago — the Malays and Javanese people very nearly allied. Li truth, these Malays are the maritime and com- mercial people of the great Indian and Pacific oceans, who have penetrated everywhere for aeres, who are known as traders and marauders in New-Guinea and New-Caledonia, as well as all intermediate islands, and whose enterprise and daring scarcely acknowledge any limits. 206 COMMON PARENTAGE OF And it is words from their language which have been introduced into all the others : fre- quently, it must be acknowledged, to express ideas entirely new to the people who have adopted them. Malay, therefore, is the great common element pei'vading, in various degrees, all the languages spoken in the vast regions we have described, whose introduction is nearly as easy to understand as it is to account for the English terms in the native languages of ISTorth America, Australia, or other countries to which English commerce and colonization have ex- tended.' ''* We have quoted the foregoing remarks both because we desire to present a fair statement of the argument of our opponents, and because they serve to show that the extraordinary doc- trine of Prof Agassiz on the natural analogies of languages is not relied upon even by those who agree with him in believing that the races of men are of distinct origins. Mr. Crawfurd and the Westminster reviewer grant that ver- bal coincidences, if properly chosen, may be * Westminster Review, April, 1856, p. 207. THE HUMAN RACES. 207 tests of unity, the main difference between them and the great lights of comparative philology having respect to the particular kind of words whose occurrence in several different languages would indicate the unity or common origin of the latter. We have just seen what are the peculiar views of Mr. Crawfurd as indorsed by the reviewer. We think it a significant fact, as serving to indicate the bias under which, it is probable, the views of Mr. Crawfurd were formed, that he lays great stress upon "the physical and geographical character of the wide field over which they (the languages of the Malayo-Polynesian races) are spoken." In a word, it is apparent that he had formed an opinion as to the diversity of races inhabiting "the wide field'' of the Indian Archipelago, prior to his inquiries into the value of linguistic affinities, and thus that his views on this latter topic, at variance as they are in many important respects with those of the most reliable philol- ogists of the age, were determined by circum- stances which denoted a foregone conclusion. We do not charge an}^ unfairness in this. It 208 COMMON PARENTAGE OF was perfectly legitimate to consider " the physi- cal and geographical character of the wide field over which the languages were spoken and the social condition of its various inhabitants," in investigating the source of the verbal coinci- dences detected in so many languages ; but we are fully satisfied that his mind received a wrong bias from the exaggerated estimate he formed of the difficulties in the way of accept- ing the doctrine of the ir ily of these races, presented by the widi'iiess of the field over which they were dispersed in isolated islands, some of which were separated from the rest by hundreds of miles of ocean ; and that under the influence of this prejudice he set about seeking for some other explanation of the ver- bal coincidences in their languages than that which rests upon a belief in their common origin ; although, with singular inconsistency, he finally adopts an explanation which supposes precisely that very dispersion of one race, the presumed impossibility of which has led to the rejection of the doctrine of a common origin, and had given rise to the untenable hypothesis THE HUMAN RACES. 209 of each subordinate race being an autochthon of the special area within which it was mainly circumscribed. From the almost contemptuous way in which the Westminster reviewer speaks of Baron W. Humboldt, one would suppose that this great scholar had actually no other basis for his " co- lossal hypothesis," as the reviewer terms it, of the unity of the Malayo - Polynesian dialects, than the discovery of the synonyms of one hun- dred and thirty-four words in nine languages, words, too, of a character the most reliable to be adopted from abroad. N"ow let us hear what a competent and trustworthy judge has pro- nounced with reference to this very work of the great philologist : " By a rare combination of philosophical thought," says the Chevalier BuNSEN, himself standing in the very front rank of the comparative philologists of the age, "philological accuracy, and of linguistic re- search, a method had been established for ana- Ivzino- a o'iven languao;e, and detecting its affin- ities with another of the same family. By this process, in the Semitic, and still more in Ja- 210 COMMON PARENTAGE OF plietic languages, the general observations of preceding philosophers on the characteristics and the relative advantages or imperfections of the languages of mankind had become entirely obsolete, being partly incomplete and partly erroneous, and all inaccurate, scientifically speaking. The great desideratum, then, was, that more accurate reflections should be made on those points by an eminent philosophical mind, with a full knowledge of all the modern discoveries. This want has been supplied in an admirable manner by the immortal postlmmous work of WilHani von Humboldt, the introduc- tion to his analysis of the Kawi language. The title of this introduction is, ' On the Diversity of the Constructions of Human Language, and its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind.' Beginning with the simplest ele- ments of speech, the illustrious author gradu- ally proceeds to the construction of a sentence, as the expression of intellect and thought," etc. "The researches of this work belong to the calculus suhlimis of Linguistic theory. It places Wilhelm von Humboldt's name in universal T H E H U M A X R A C E S . 211 comparative ethnologic philology by the side of that of Leibnitz."* Let us now inquire what is the kind of words usually adopted, as tests of a unity of tongues, by the most careful and profound philologists, and so summarily rejected by Mr. Crawfurd and the Westminster reviewer. It will be seen that the Humboldts, the Bunsens, the Miillers, and others who are the acknowledged heads in this department of ethnological inquiry, have by no means ignored the influence on languages resulting from the frequent or occasional inter- course of the races by wliich they were respec- tively spoken. Thus, Dr. Prichard, in one of the latest pro- ductions from his pen, — an elaborate " Report on the various methods of research which con- tribute to the advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that science to other branches of knowledsfe ; read before the British Scien- tiflc Association in 1847," — expressly notices, and appreciates at its true value, the influence * Report of the Brltisli Association for tlie Advancement of Science, 1847, pp. 163-4. 212 COMMON PARENTAGE OF of commercial and other kinds of intercourse in introducing words from one tongue into another ; and it is onl}^ where the circumstances exckide this explanation that another interpre- tation is put upon peculiar verbal coincidences. " Glottology," which, though an uncouth word, he considers a better expression than "Philol- ogy," as this latter has also another signification, " may be regarded almost as a new department of knowledge, since, although long ago sketched out and pursued to a certain extent, it has been wonderfully augmented in recent times ; and it is only through its later development that it comes to have any extensive relations with ethnology. Leibnitz is generally considered to have been its originator. The Adelungs, Vater, Klaproth, Frederick Schlegel, Bopp, and Jacob Grimm, have been among its most successful cultivators; and lastly, to William von Humboldt it owes its greatest extension and the character of a profound philosophical investigation. But it is not in this light that we have now to con- sider the results of philological researches. It is as an auxiliary to history, and as serving in T H E H U M A N R A C E S . 213 many instances to extend, combine, and confirm historical evidence respecting the origin and affinities of particular nations, that the compari- son of languages contributes to the advancement of ethnology. If ever we venture on the testi- mony of such relationship between languages as giving proof of ancient kindred between na- tions, it must be when historical considerations render the conclusion in itself probable, or indi- cate that it affords the most natural explanation of the phenomena observed. Great caution is requisite in drawing inferences of this kind, since we cannot always conclude that nations be- long to the same race from resemhlance or identity in their speech. We know that conquests fol- lowed by permanent subjugation have caused the people of some countries to lose their own languages and adopt those of their conquerors. The intercourse of traffic between dificreut countries, the introduction of a new rehgion and new habits of life, especially when rude and barbarous tribes have been brought into near connection with civilized ones, liave given rise to great modifications in many kmguages. 214 COMMON PARENTAGE OF It is only when we have good reason to believe that the resemblances between the idioms of any particular nations have arisen from no sim- ilar causes, that we are justified in founding on such phenomena an argument in favor of their affinity in descent. The reasons which may de- termine us to entertain this opinion may be of two kinds ; they may either arise from a con- sideration of the local position and previous his- tory of the tribes of people who are the subjects of our inquiry, or they may turn on the particu- lar sort of resemhlance or analogy discovered in their lans^ua9:es. "In the first place, if we learn from history that any two nations have been remotel}^ sepa- rated from each other from a very distant age, and have never been brought into intercourse, we may hence argue that the marks of resem- blance discovered in their languages can bear no other explanation than that of unity of de- scent. On this ground we hifer loithout doubt the common origin of the Polynesian Islanders and that of the Greeks, and Germans, and the Ariaii race of Hindustan. Secondly, phenomena THE HUMAN RACES. 215 are discoverable in languages themselves, which enable us to determine whether traits of resem- blance detected in their comparison were pro- duced by intercourse between nations, or arose in the gradual development of their languages, and thus prove a common origin in the tribes of people to which these languages belong. Analogies from which this last inference may he fairly drawn have in many instances been de- tected between languages which have acquired in the lapse of time such differences, that one dialect was unintelligible to people who spoke another idiom of the same stock. The follow- ing observations will perhaps explain as briefly as possible the principles which have either been expressed or followed tacitly by philologists who have entered upon such inquiries. "It is the prevalent opinion of philologists that the most extensive relations between lan- a'uao-es and those which are the least liable to be effaced by time and foreign intercourse, are the fundamental laws of construction both in words and sentences. Grammatical construc- tion, or the rules which govern the relations of 216 COMMON PARENTAGE OF words ill sentences, appears to be very enduring and constant, since a similar construction prevails through whole classes of lariguages which have few words in common, though they appear origi- nally to have had more. But beyond this there is a cognate character in words themselves, which sometimes pervades the entire vocabulary of a whole family of languages, the words being formed in the same manner and according to the same artificial rule. This may be exemph- fied in the monosyllabic structure of the Chinese and Indo-Chinese languages, and by the prin- ciple of the vocalic harmony pervading the lan- guages of High-Asia, and perhaps by the dis- syllabic structure of roots in the Syro-Arabian languages. Of grammatical analogy or simi- larity in the laws of construction of words in sentences, including the rules of inflection, we have examples in the languages of the aborigi- nal American nations, but perhaps the most remarkable specimen is to be found in the grammatical system of the Indo-EurojDean lan- guages.'" * * lleport of the British Association for the Advancement of f^cience, for 1847, pp. 239, 240. THE HUMAN RACES. 217 He then proceeds to point out the particular classes of words which resem- ble each other in languages of a common origin, and to show that they are gener- ally different in kind from those which one nation borrows from its neighbors. For " even where one people has derived from another a considerable proportion of its entire stock of words, there generally remains an indigenous or aboriginal vocabulary, or, if I may use the expression, a homebred speech, consist- ing of such words as children learn in early infancy, and in the first development of their faculties. This domestic vocabulary consists of the words of first necessity, such as those denot- ing family relations, ' father,' ' mother,' ' child,' '-brother,' 'sister;' secondly, words denoting various parts of the body ; thirdly, names of material and visible objects and the elements of nature, the heavenly bodies, etc.; fourthly, names of domestic animals ; fifthly, verbs ex- pressive of universal bodily acts, such as, ' eat,' 'drink,' 'sleep.' 'walk,' 'talk,' etc.; sixthly, personal pronouns, which are found to be among 10 218 CO M M o -\ 1' A i; i: n t a g e of the most durable parts of a language ; seventhly, numerals, especially the first ten, or at least the first five, for many nations appear to have bor- rowed the second five in the decade. As no human family was ever without its stock of such words, and as they are never changed within the narrow domestic circle for other and strange words, they are almost indestructible possessions, and it is almost only among tribes who have been broken up and enslaved, so that the family relations have been destroyed, that this domes- tic language can have been wholly lost. Tribes and families separated from each other have been known to have preserved such similar words for thousands of years in a degree of purity that admitted of an easy recognition of this sign of a common origin." It will be observed that Mr. Crawfurd and the Westminster Review are directly at issue with the great body of modern philologists, whose opiii- ions are represented in the report of Dr. Prichard, as to the kind of words which are least likel}' to be effaced by time and foreign intercourse. Let it also be observed that the principles an- THE HUMAN RACES. 219 nouiiced by the former are purely gratuitous and assumed to meet a case, while those so perspicuously expounded by Dr. Prichard result from a rigorous induction based on a most careful study of all the known languages of man. On this point, and incidentally on the general question of the unity of races, we have the weighty testimony of the most illustrious of liv- ing savans, Baron Alexander von Humboldt. " Languages compared together and consid- ered as objects of the natural history of the mind, and when separated into families according to the analogies existing in their internal structure, have become a rich source of historical knowl- edge ; and this is probably one of the most brilliant results of modern study in the last sixty or seventy years. From the very fact of their being products of the intellectual force of mankind, they lead us, by means of the elements of their organism, into an obscure distance, un- reached by traditionary records. The compara- tive study of languages shows us that races now separated by vast tracts of land, are allied to- 220 COMMON PARENTAGE OP gether, and have migrated from one common primitive seat ; it indicates the course and direc- tion of all migrations, and, in tracing the leading epoch of developments it recognizes, by means of the more or less changed structure of the lan- guage, in the permanence of certain forms, or in the more or less advanced distinction of the formative system, which race has retained most nearly the language common to all who had migrated from the general seat of origin." " The largest field for such investigations into the ancient condition of language, and con- sequently into the period when the whole fam- ily of mankind was, in the strict sense of the word, to be regarded as one living whole, pre- sents itself in the long chain of Indo-Germanic languages, extending from the Ganges to the Iberian extremity of Europe, and from Sicily to the North Cape." "From these considerations and the exam- ples by which they have been illustrated, the comparative study of languages appears an im- portant rational means of assistance by which scientific and genuinely philological investiga- THE HUMAN RACES. 221 tion may lead to a generalization of views re- garding the affinity of races, and their conjec- tural extension in various directions from one common point of radiation ^'^ We add, on account of its striking and pop- ular style of illustration, the testimony of an- other eminent scholar of Germany, Dr. Max MiiLLER, who has successfully investigated the relations of the languages of India. " The evi- dence of language," says this competent wit- ness, " is irrefragable, and it is the only evi- dence worth listening to, with regard to ante- historical periods. It would have been next to impossible to discover any traces of relationship between the swarthy nations of India and their conquerors, whether Alexander or Clive, but for the testimony borne by language. What authority would have been strong enough to persuade the Grecian army that their gods and their hero ancestors were the same as those of Kins: Porus, or to convince the Eno-Hsh soldier that the same dark blood was running in his veins and in those of the dark Bengalee ? And * Cosmos. Otte's Translation, Vol. II , pp. Ill, 112. 222 COMMON PARENTAGE OF yet there is not an English jury nowadays which, after examining the hoary documents of language, would reject the claim of a common descent and a legitimate relationship between Hindu, Greek, and Teuton. Many words still live in India and in England that have wit- nessed the first separation of the northern and southern members of the Arian family ; and these are witnesses not to be shaken by any cross-examination. The terms for God, for house, for father, mother, son, daughter, for dog and cow, for heart and tears, for axe and tree — identical in all the European idiotns — are like the watch-words of soldiers. We challenge the seeming stranger ; and whether he answer with the lips of a Greek, a German, or an In- dian, we recognize him as one of ourselves. Though the historian may shake his head, though the physiologist may doubt, and the poet scorn the idea, all must yield before the fact furnished by language."* * We are indebted to an able article in tlie Southern Quarterly Re- viein, for January, 1855. for the above extract from the writings of Dr. Max MiiUer, to none of which have we had direct access, except a lecture delivered before the British Scientific Association, in 1847, THE HUMAN RACES. 223 The valuable and interesting essay by the Chevalier Bunsen, to which reference has been made, contains numerous other passages which it would give us satisfaction to lay before our readers, but we must content ourselves with a few selections. The paper referred to is an elaborate " Report," read before the Ethno- logical section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Oxford, in June, 1847, " On the Results of the recent Egyptian Researches, in reference to Asiatic and Afri- can Ethnology, and the Classification of Lan- guages.' Referring to the forms, formative words and inflexions of the Egyptian language, in their natural order and connection, and to the "Egyptian roots which can be proved to have formed the heirloom of that nation, as they occur in monuments not more recent than the time of Moses, and in great part anterior to him by a thousand years and more," Bunsen says : " It is impossible to look on those forms " On the Relations of the BengaU to the Arian and Aboriginal Lan- guages of India." /■ 224 COMMON PARENTAGE OF and on those roots, with even a superficial knowledge of the Semitic and Indo-Germanic languages, and not to perceive that the Egyp- tian language is no more a Hebrew than a Sans- crit dialect, but that it possesses an affinity with each of them, such as compels us to ask the question, whether it is a more ancient for- mation than either or no ? This question be- comes the more interesting and important, when it must be considered as demonstrated that such an affinity cannot be explained by mere internal analogy ; that, on the contraiy, it is historical in the strictest sense of the word, — namelj', ])hysical^ or original. I mean that the affinity alluded to cannot rationally be explained by a real or supposed general analogy of languages, as the expressions of human thought or feeling, nor by the later influence of other nations and tongues. Now the Egyptian name of Egypt is Chmii, the land of Cham, which in Egyptian means black. Can we, then, have really found in Egypt the scientific and historical meaning of Cham, as one of the tripartite divisions of post-diluvian THE HUMAN RACES. 225 humanit}^? The Egyptian language attests a unity of blood with the great Aramaic tribes of Asia, whose languages have been comprised by scholars under the general expression of Se- mitic, or the languages of the family of Shem. It is equally connected by identity of origin with those still more numerous and illustrious tribes which occupy now the greatest part of Europe, and may, perhaps, alone or with other families, have a right to be called the family of Japhet. I mean that great family to which the Germanic nations belong, as well as the Greeks and Romans, the Indians and Persians, the Sclavonic and the Celtic tribes, and which are now generally called by some the Indo- Germanic, by others the Indo-European na- tions." " I take it for granted that the facts to which I allude bear out the consequence I deduce from them ; I mean, the assertion that the affinity of the Egyptian forms and roots with those of the Semitic and Indo-Germanic lan- guages, is one which can no more be explained by the general similarity existing, or supposed 226 COMMON PARENTAGE OF to exist between different languages, than that between German and Scandinavian, be- tween Greek and Roman, between Gothic and Sanscrit, which is disputed by nobody who has a right to speak on these subjects. I glor}^ in be- longing to a school which rejects altogether those etymological dreams and conjectures, those loose comparisons of languages, or rather of words, caught at random, which made the etymologies of the seventeenth century the laughing-stock of the eighteenth. By its ver}'- principle, the critical school admits of no claim to historical affinity between different lan- guages, unless this affinity be shown to rest upon deffiiite laws, upon substantial analogy, established by a complete examination of the materials. That school demands the strictest iwoof that these affinities are neither accidental tior merely ideal, but essential ; that they are 7iot the work of extraneous intrusion, but ifidigenous, as running through the whole original texture of the languages, compared accordirig to a traceable rule of analogy. The very method of this criti- cal school excludes the possibility of accideiital oi T 11 K HUMAN RACES. 227 mere ideal analogies being taken for proofs of a common historical descent of different tribes or nations y "It was Lepsius who, in his most acute essay, ' On the Egyptian Numerals,' first show- ed the deeply-rooted radical analogy which the ancient roots of the language of Egypt bear on the one side to the Indo-Germanic family, on the other to the Semitic." This is the identical Lepsius with whom the authors of "Types of Mankind" corresponded by letter, and on whose name they continually ring the changes, whenever they wish to ex- hibit his views on Egyptian chronology in con- trast with the Hebrew chronology as interpreted by Usher, Hales, etc. Well may Bunsen add : " That the strict historical connection be- tween the language of Egypt and those of the Semitic and Iranian tribes is no longer a matter of controversy among those who have studied these languages according to the principles of the critical school." "The theories about the origin of language have followed those about the origin of thought, 228 COMMON PARENTAGE OF and have shared their fate. The materiahsts have never been able to show the possibiHty of the first step. They attempt to veil their ina- bility by the easy but fruitless assumption of an infinite space of time, destined to explain the gradual development of animals into men ; as if millions of years could supply the want of the agent necessary for the first movement, for the first step in the line of progress ! No nuna- bers can effect a logical impossibility. How, indeed, could reason spring out of a state which is destitute of reason ? How can speech, the expression of thought, develop itself in a year, or in millions of years, out of unarticu- lated sounds, which express feelings of pleasure, pain, and appetite ?" " We disclaim the savage as the prototype of natural, original man. For linguistic inquiry shows that the languages of savages are de- graded, decaying fragments of nobler forma- tions. The language of the Bushman is a de- graded Hottentot language, and this language is likely to be only a depravation of the noble Kafre tongue." THE HUMAN RACES. 229 In a well-coiisidered train of reflection, he points out the ahnost inevitable consequences of an original diversity of languages, and con- trasting this imaginary state with the actual facts as exhibited by the results of researches in comparative philology, argues with irresisti- ble force against the theory of any such original diversity. " On the supposition of this original diversi- ty, the different languages, however analogous they might be as the produce of the working of the same human mind on the same outward world by the same organic means, would never- theless offer scarcely any affinity to each other in the skill displayed in their formation, and in the mode of it ; but their very roots, full or empty ones, and all their words, must needs be en- tirely different. There may be some similar expressions in those inarticulate bursts of feel- ings, not reacted upon by the mind, which the grammarians call interjections. There are, be- sides, some graphic imitations of external sounds, called onaniatopoetica, words the forma- tion of which indicates the relatively greatest 230 COMMON PARENTAGE OF passivity of the mind. There may be, besides, some casual coincidences in real words ; but the law of combination applied to the elements of sound gives a mathematical proof that, with all allowances, that chance is less than one in a million for the same combination of sounds sig- nifying the same precise object.'^ . . . Now, referring to what we have alread}' stated, as the result of the most accurate linguistic inquiries, such a coincidence does exist between three great families, spreading from the north of Eu- rope to the tropic lands of Asia and Africa. It * Dr. Young applied the mathematical test of the calculus of proba- bilities to the inquiry, "what number of words found to resemble one another in different languages will warrant our concluding them to be of common origin?'' and arrived at the following results: "Nothing whatever can be inferred with respect to tlie relation of any two lan- guages, from ihe coincidence of sense of any single word in both of them : the odds would be three to one against the agreement of any two words; but if three words appear to be identical, it would be then more than ten to one that they must be derived in both cases from some parent language, or introduced in some other way : six words would give more than seventeen hundred chances to one, and eight, near one hundred thousand; so that, in these cases the evidence would be little short of absolute certainty. In this way conclusive evidence has been furnished that the family of American languages has had a common origin with those of Asia. A lexical comparison has established an identity in one hundred and seventy words, although this study is yet in its infancy ; and this, relying on the correctness of V-r. Young's mathematical calculation, is an argument which cannot bo controvert ed." (SuYTif. Unity of the Human Races.) THE HUMAN RACES. 231 there exists not only in radical words, but even in what must appear as the work of an exclu- sively peculiar coinage, the formative words and inflexions which pervade the whole structure of certain families of languages, and are inter- woven, as it were, with every sentence pro- nounced in every one of their branches. All the nations which from the dawn of history to our days have been the leaders of civilization in Asia, Europe, and Africa, must consequently have had one beginning. This is the chief lesson which the hnowledge of the Egyptian language teaches ^ In the concluding paragraphs of this interest- ing Report, the learned author makes a brief reference to the difficult problem presented by the Chinese language ; and after announcing his unhesitating belief in the existence of a primitive connection between that and other formations, ends with these words : " We flatter ourselves that we have made good our assertion, that Egyptologic discoveries are most intimately connected with the great question of the primeval language and civiliza- tion of mankind, both in Asia and Africa, and 232 COMMON PARENTAGE OF that the}' give a considerable support to the opinion of the high, but not indefinite antiquity of human history, and to the hypothesis of the original unity of mankind, and of a common origin of all the languages of the globe." The reader cannot have failed to observe with what caution and care the conclusions of Bun- sen have been formed, and how, whenever there is the least room for doubt, he hesitates to dog- matize. Since the date of the paper from which the above extracts are taken, considerable prog- ress has been made towards a satisfactory dem- onstration of points in regard to which a more or less probable statement onl_y could then be made. For example, Bunsen, availing himself of the elaborate analysis by Miiller of the "Tu- ranian" languages, by means of which analysis all these dialects had been found "to converge toward the same centre of life," has been ena- bled to bring the languages of the JN'orth Amer- ican Indians into the same category. "The linguistic data," he says, "thus furnished, com- bined with the traditions and customs, and pai"- ticularly with the system of mnemonics (first THE HUMAN RACES. 233 revealed in Schoolcraft's work), enable me to say that the Asiatic origin of all these tribes is as fully proved as the unity of family among themselves." The unity thus made out for all the families of the earth, "is not simply a physical, external one ; it is that of thought, wisdom, arts, science, and civilization. By facts still more conclusive than the succession of strata in geology, com- parative philolog}^ proves what our religious records postulate, that the civilization of man- kind is not a patchwork of incoherent frag- ments, not an inorganic complex of various courses of development, starting from numerous beginnings, flowing in isolated beds, and des- tined only to disappear in order to make room for other tribes running the same course in mo- notonous rotation. Far beyond all other docu- ments, there is preserved in language that sa- cred tradition of primeval thought and art which connects all the historical families of mankind, not only as brethren by descent, but each as the depository of a phasis of one and the same de- velopment." * * Bunsen's '• Christianity and Mankind." Vol. IV.. p. 12G. 234 THE HUMAN RACES. We have thouoht it best, in the discussion of the philological aspect of the general subject, to let philologists speak for themselves, instead of running the risk of marring the argument by an analysis of our own, especially in view of the fact that the papers of Dr. Prichard and the Chevalier Bunsen, from which our principal ex- tracts are taken, presented a perspicuous and at the same time a popular exposition of the prin- ciples on which the argument should be based, and that too in so compendious form as to pre- clude abridgment, except in the way of selecting extracts. CHAPTER III. OBJECTIONS TO THE DOCTRINE OF THE COMMON PARENTAGE OP THE HUMAN RACES CONSIDERED. §1- Difficulties connected with the actual Geographical Dis- tribution of the Races. Having shown the insufficiency of Prof. Agas- siz' arguments in favor of the doctrine of dis- tinct origins for the typical races of men, and having in the last chapter indicated the striking significance of facts derived fi'om comparative philology in proof of the counter hypothesis of a common parentage for all human tongues and races, we now propose to consider some of the popular objections occasionally raised against this latter doctrine. The first of these to which we shall direct our attention has reference to the existing geograph- ical distribution of the races, and the adapta- tion of each indigenous race to its climate and country. It is held by some to be inconceiv- [235] 236 COMMON PARENTAGE OF able that human beings born in genial climes should have found any adequate inducement to select for their permanent home the inhospitable regions of the frigid zone, or the pestiferous soil of tropical Africa. It \vas considered equally improbable that men ignorant of the art of navigation should have braved the dan- gers of the ocean and have succeeded in reach- ing the shores of America, Australia, and the numerous and widely-separated islands of the Pacific. We propose to set aside these objec- tions to the time-honored doctrine of our fa- thers respecting the single origin of our race. We have already shown that observant nat- uralists have succeeded, to a considerable ex- tent, in elucidating the laws regulating the vari- ations undergone by species which are very widely distributed, and which for this very rea- son are subjected to a great variety of external influences. Setting aside the human races, " the best authenticated examples of the extent to which species can be made to vary may be looked for in the history of domesticated animals and cultivated plants. It usually hap- THE HUMAN RACES. 237 pens that those species, both of the animal and vegetable kingdom, which have the greatest pliabiUty of organization, those which are most capable of accommodatnig themselves to a great variety of new circumstances, are most service- able to man. These only can be carried by him into different climates, and can have their properties or instincts variously diversified by differences of nourishment and habits."'* Now we contend that the undoubted power possessed by the various races of men and by the domesticated animals to undergo acclima- tion in every quarter of the globe, not only indicates the possibility that the former may have sprung from a common origin, but, apart from all other considerations, furnishes a strong presumption in favor of this conclusion. For, as our readers will doubtless have inferred from the remarks of Lyell in the foregoing extract, it is contrary to the usual course of nature to multiply congeneric species, among the higher animal classes, in adaptation to var^dng exter- nal conditions, when a single species is endowed ■"- Lyell's Principles jfGeologj-. 8th ed. London. 1850. P. 561. 238 COMMON PARENTAGE OF with a latitude of accommoclaiioii to circum- stances. This view, as bearing upon the history of man's dispersion from his original birthplace, is strengthened by the remarkable fact that the country usually regarded as the seat of man's creation, and consequently as the centre whence all the families of the earth have radiated, is also " the native country of nearly all the grains, vegetables, fruits, and animals which have been transported b}' man in his wide migrations, and have supplied him with the comforts and luxu- ries of life. It is the native country of rice, wheat, pulse, and the vine, now everywhere in common use. There, also, nearly all the ani- mals are found in a wild state which have been domesticated, and all but the camel have been carried with him over the whole inhabitable world. These animals are the ass, goat, sheep, cow, horse, pig, dog, cat, etc. Those that were subsequently domesticated were from other countries, and their origin can be traced with- out difficult3^''* * J. Bachman, D. D. On the Unity of the Human Race, etc. Cbarlcston, 1850, p. 171. THE HUMAN RACES. 239 It has been alleged, however, that the na- tives of tropical and Arctic countries could not exchange residences without mutual destruc- tion. We reply, that it will depend on the de- gree of caution which is observed in undergo- ing gradual acclimatization. It is freely admit- ted that neither man nor his faithful companions, enjoying a like latitude of accommodation to varying external circumstances, could be safely transported at once from one climate to its op- posite extreme. We have adverted in another connection to the gradual acclimatization, recjuir- ing more than one generation for its accomplish- ment, that took place among the dogs carried from England into the attenuated atmosphere of the high table-land of Mexico. A case still more in point is mentioned by Dr. Bachman, who says : " We believe we were the first to attempt to introduce what is called the Muscovy duck into the northern part of the State of New York. These, birds which we had received from the south, were so sensitive to cold, being natives of Brazil, that several were frozen to death 240 COMMON PARENTAGE OF during the first winter, and the remainder were preserved in a warm room ; their successors, however, after the third generation, were con- stitutionahy enabled to hve in the pouhry-yard during the coldest winters. The red fox is possessed of a decidedly northern constitution, being found within the Arctic circle. About forty years ago his farthest southern limit was Pennsylvania. A wealth}^ gentleman residing on John's island, near Charleston, imported, a few years ago, from New York, a number of these foxes, and turned them loose on the island, where there was an abundance of food, and where they were left unmolested ; the transition, however, was too sudden for their northern constitutions ; they scarcely multiplied, and in a few years disappeared, hi the mean- time, however', a more riatural migration and ac- climatization was in progress. The red fox made its appearance in the more elevated parts of Vir- ginia; there it multiplied so rapidly that it has in certain localities become more common than the grey fox. The migrations towards the South co7itinued with increasing and unaccountable V^ or THE THE HUMAN ^ A C e|U ]^ J 7 ^J, S H rapidity. It was soon after fou'm^^l. North Carolina, then in South Carolina, and ive ascer- tained, on a visit to Georgia last summer, that it was multiphjing rapidly, not only in the higher hut middle portions of that State. ''^'^ In the same manner the grey fox, Vulpes vir- giniamis, which is a southern species, has been slowly migrating northward, until now it is found in the Canadas. Why human beings should have ever directed their wanderings to the regions of perpetual winter, we do not think it necessary to inquire. We will, however, venture to remark that, since the plan of God's wise providence has included the partial occupation by man of these inhospi- table climes, there is no more difficulty in con- ceiving that He may have effected this by dis- posing a portion of His rational creatures to select such a home than there would be in rec- ognizing His power to create a distinct "type" of mankind as an autochthon of the soil. In- deed, the difficulty is far less ; since the former supposition accords with the ordinary modes of * J. Bachman. Op. cit., p. 274. 11 242 COM M O N PARENTAGE OF God's providential action with respect to His rational creatures, while the counter hypothesis involves the idea of an apparently needless re- petition of the stupendous miracle of creation. We cannot, therefore, but be surprised that any well-informed naturalist should cite the case of the Esquimaux natives of the Arctic realm being- able to stand out with uncovered heads in the open air, as a proof that the race was created in that region. Nor does the other difficulty, which has been referred to, give us any serious embarrassment. In the absence of all historical records of the early migrations of the human family we can hope to show only how the dis- persion from a single centre may have taken place. The general question of the possibility of such a dispersion has been treated with mas- terly ability by Lyell, while Pickering, School- craft, Lieut. Maury, and others, have exhibited special facts bearing on the question of the ori- gin of the aborigines of our continent, and the route by which they accomplished their transit from the Eastern to the Western World, — a ques- tion presenting, we may observe, quite as much THE HUM A N RACES. 243 di{Ii( iilty as that which relert; to the origin of any other people on the globe. " In an early stage of society," says Lyell, " the necessity of hunting acts as a principle of repulsion, causing men to spread with the greatest rapidity over a country, until the whole is covered with scattered settlements. It has been calculated that eight hundred acres of hunting-ground produce only as much food as half an acre of arable land. When the game has been in a great measure ex- hausted, and a state of pasturage succeeds, the several hunter tribes, being already scat- tered, may multiply in a short time into the greatest number which the pastoral state is ca- pable of sustaining. The necessity, says Brand, thus imposed upon the savage states, of dis- persing themselves far and wide over the country, affords a reason why, at a very early period, the worst parts of the earth may have been inhabited."* Having thus indicated the probable deter- mining cause of man's early migrations, and the ♦ Lyell. Op. cit., p. 398. 244 COMMON PARENTAGE OF process by which they were effected, in as far as regards the peopling of a continuous conti- nent, he proceeds to point out the methods by means of which isolated islands and distant continents may have been reached by wander- ing tribes : Cook, Forster, and others, have remarked that parties of savages in their canoes must have often lost their way, and must have been driven on distant shores, where thev were fore- ed to remain, deprived both of the means and of the requisite intelligence for returning to their own country. Thus Captain Cook found, on the island of Wateoo, three inhabitants of Otaheite, who had been drifted thither in a ca- noe, although the distance between the two isles is 550 miles. In 1696, two canoes, con- taining thirty persons, who had left Ancorso, were thrown by contrary winds and storms or. the island of Samar, one of the Philippines, at a distance of 800 miles. In 1721, two canoes, one of which contained twenty-four, and the other six persons, men, women, and children, were drifted from an island called Farroilep to THE HUMAN RACES. 245 the island of Guaham, one of the Marians, a distance of 200 miles. " Kotzebue, when investigating the Coral Tsles of Radack, at the eastern extremity of the Caroline Isles, become acquainted with a per- son of the name of Kadu, who was a native of Ulea, an isle 1500 miles distant, from which he had been drifted with a party. They drifted about the open sea for eight months, according to their reckoning by the moon, making a knot on a cord at every new moon. Being expert fish- ermen, they subsisted entirely on the produce of the sea ; and when the rain fell, laid in as much fresh water as they had vessels to contain it." After detailing other well-authenticated facts of a similar character, Sir Charles Lyell pro- ceeds to say : "The space traversed in some of these in- stances was so great, that similar accidents might suffice to transport canoes from various parts of Africa to the shores of South America, or from Spain to the Azores, and thence to North America ; so that man, even in a rude state of societv, is liable to be scattered invol- 246 COMMON P A R E N T^V G E OF Lintarily by the winds and waves over the globe, in a manner singularly analogous to that in which many plants and animals are diffused. We ought not, then, to wonder that, during the ages required for some tribes of the human family to attain that advanced stage of civilization which empowers the navigator to cross the ocean in all directions with security, the whole earth should have become the abode of rude tribes of hun- ters and fishers. Were the whole of mankind now cut off, with the exception of one family, in- habiting the old or neiv continent, or Australia, or even some coral islet of the Pacifc, we might expect their descendants, though they should never become more enlightened than the South-sea Is- landers or the Esquimaux, to spread in the course of ages over the whole earth, diffused, partly by the tendency of population to increase, in a limited district, beijond the means of subsistence, and partly by the accidental drifting of canoes, by tides and currents to distant shores P This conclusion, it will be observed, is the result of a rigid induction from undeniable facts, which were not collected with the view of THE HUMAN RACES. 247 strengthening opinions previously adopted as a h. matter of religious faith ; for, as is well known, Sir Charles Lyell does not recognize the au- thority of tlie Bible in matters of science. The recent testimony of Lieut. Maury is strongly corroborative of the views of Sir Charles Lyell, while, at the same time, it indi- cates the probable origin of our American In- dians, and the route by which, drifting east- ward, they reached this western continent. The testimony is found in the replies of Lieut. Maury to a series of questions addressed to him by Mr. Schoolcraft, who introduces them in his magnificent work, with the following ex- planatory remarks : "The tradition of the origin of the empire (the old Mexican) in bands of adventurers from the 'Seven Caves,' rests upon the best author- ity we hare of the Toltec race, supported by by the oral opinion of the Aztecs in 1519.* An examination of it by the hghts of modern geo- * See Report of the British Scientific Association— Dublin Meeting, 1837. Paper by Rear Admiral Fitz Roy, p. 130.— '■ all aboriginal tribes have been found by travellers and the learned to derive their ori- gui more or less directly from Central Asia." 248 COMMON PARENTAGE OF graphy, in connection with the nautical theory of oceanic currents and the fixed courses of the winds in the Pacific, gives strong testimony in favor of an early expressed opinion in supjDort of a migration in high latitudes. It is now considered probable that those caves were seated in the Aleutian chain of islands. This chain connects the continent of Asia and Amer- ica at the most practicable points ; and it be- gins precisely opposite to that part of the Asiatic coast north-east of the Chinese Empire, and quite above the Japanese group, where we should expect the Mongolic and Tata hordes to have been precipitated upon those shores. On the American side of the trajet, extending south of the Peninsula of Onalasca, there is evidence, in the existing dialects of the tribes, of their being of the same generic'group with the Toltec stock. By the data brought to light by Mr. Hale, the Ethnographer to the United States Exploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes, and from other reliable sources, the philological proof is made to be quite apparent. The peculiar Aztec termination of substantives THE HUMAN RACES. 249 in tl^ which was noticed at Nootka sound, and which will be found in the specimens of the languages of Oregon, furnished by Mr. Wyeth, are too indicative, in connection with other re- semblances in sound, and in principles of con- struction, noticed by Mr. Hale, to be disre- garded. . . . Lieut. Colonel Charles Hamilton Smith, of Edinburgh, appears to have been the first observer to throw out the idea of the Chichimecs, a rude Mexican people of the Toltecan lineage, having migrated from this quarter, taking, however, the word ' caves' to be a figure denoting a vessel, catamaran, or canoe ; and not employing it in a literal sense. Lieut. Maury, U. S. N"., the chief director of the American Nautical Observatory at Washington, to whom I transmitted the work, with particu- lar reference to this chapter, puts a more literal construction on the tradition of Quetzalcoatl (respecting the adventurers from the Seven Caves), and brings to bear an amount of mod- ern observation on the point which it would be unjust to withhold from the reader." We give such extracts only, from Mr. Maury's 250 COMMON PARENTAGE OF letter, as bear specifically upon the question under consideration. "Colonel Smith had a stronger case than he imagined. Referring to the Chichimec legend of the Seven ' Caves,' he conjectures that the Chichimecs might originally have been Aleu- tians, and that ' Caves,'' if not denoting islands, might have referred to canoes. " The Aleutians of the present day actually live in caves or subterranean apartments, which they enter through a hole in the top. '■ Those islands grow no wood. For their canoes, fishing implements, and cave-\io\(\. uten- sils, the natives depend upon the drift-wood which is cast ashore, much of which is camphor wood. And this, you observe, is another link in the chain — which is growing quite strong — of evidence which for years I have been seek- ing, in confirmation of a "gulf-stream' near there, and which runs from the shores of China over towards our north-west coast. . . . I'll answer as best I can your several interroga- tories. 1st. You wish me to state whether, in my opinion, the Pacific and Polynesian waters THE HUMAN RACES. 251 could have been navigated in early times — sup- posing the winds had been then as they now are — in balsas, floats, and other rude vessels of early ages. " Yes ; if you had a supply of provisions, you could ' run down the trades ' in the Pacific on a log. There is no part of the world where nature would tempt a savage man more strong- ly to launch out upon the open sea with his bark, however frail. Most of those islands are surrounded by coral reefs, between which and the shore the water is as smooth as a mill-pond. " In reply to your second question, as to the possibihty of long voyages before the invention of the compass, I answer, that such chance voyages were not only possible, but more than probable. When we take into consideration the position of North America with regard to Asia, of New Holland with regard to Africa, with the winds and currents of the ocean, it would have been more remarkable that America should not have been peopled from Asia, or New Holland from Africa, than that they should have been. Captain Ray, of the whale- 252 COMMON PARENTAGE OF ship Superior, fished two years ago in Behring's Straits. He saw canoes, going from one conti- nent to the other. " Besides this channel, there is the ' gulf- stream,' like the current already alluded to, from the shores of China. Along its course westerly winds are the prevailing winds ; and we have well-authenticated instances in which these two agents have brought Japanese mari- ners in disabled vessels over to the coast of America. " Now look at the Indian Ocean, and see what an immense surface of water is exposed there to the heat of the torrid zone, without any escape for it, as it becomes expanded, but to the south. Accordingly, we have here the genesis of another ' gulf-stream ' which runs along the east coast of Africa. The physical causes at work, were there not some such as the form of the bottom, the configuration of the land, opposing currents of cold water, etc.. would give the whole of this current a south- easterly direction. We know tliat a part of it, however, comes into tlio Atlantic by what is T PI E HUMAN RACES. 253 called the Lagullas current. The whales, whose habits of migration, etc., I am investigat- ing, indicate clearly enough the presence of a large body of warm water to the south of New Holland. This is where the gulf-stream from the Indian Ocean ought to be ; and there I confidently expect, when I come to go into that part of the ocean with the thermometer, as we are preparing to do with our thermal charts, to find a warm current coming down from Mada- gascar and the coast of Africa. There was, then, in the early days, the Island of Madagas- car to invite the African out with his canoe, his raft, or more substantial vessel. There was this current to bear him along at first at the rate of nearl}', if not quite, one hundred miles a day, and by the time the current began to grow weak, it would have borne him into the regions of westerly winds, which, with the aid of the current, would finally waft him over to the southern shores of New Holland. Increas- ing and multipl}'ing here, he would travel north to meet the sun, and in the course of time he would extend himself over to the other islands. 254 COMMON PARENTAGE OF as Papua and the like. If I recollect aright, the GallijDagos Islands, though so near the coast and under line, with a fine soil and cli- mate, were, when discovered, uninhabited. Isow, that part of the coast near which they are, is peculiarly liable to calms and baffling winds, to the distance out to sea of several hundred miles ; there was no current to drift nor wind to blow the native from the coast, and lodge him here When we look at the Pacific, its islands, the winds and currents, and consider the facilities there that nature has provided for drifting savage man with his rude implements of navigation about, we shall see that there the inducements held out to him to try the sea are powerful. With the bread-fruit and the cocoa-nut — man's natural barrels there of beef and bread — and the calabash, his natu- ral water-cask, he had all the stores for a long- voyage already at hand. You will thus per- ceive the rare facilities which the people of those shores enjoyed in their rude state for at- tempting voyages."* * Ilisloiy, fonilition. and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, by TI, R. Sciiooi.craft. I-L. D. Part I , p. 26. THE HUMAN RACES. 255 "Thus," says Mr. Schoolcraft, "we have traditionary gleams of a foreign origin of the race of North American Indians from separate stocks of nations, extending at intervals from the Arctic Circle to the Valley of Mexico. Dim as these traditions are, they shed some light on the thick historical darkness which shrouds that period. They point decidedly to a foreign — to an oriental, if not a Shemitic, origin. Such an origin has from the first been inferred. At whatever point the investigation has been made, the eastern hemisphere has been found to con- tain the physical and mental prototypes of the race. Language, mythology, religious dogmas — the very style of architecture, and their cal- endar, as far as it is developed, point to that fruitful and central source of human dispersion and nationality. "It is no necessary consequence, however, of the principles of dispersion, that it should have been extended to this continent as the result of regular design. Design there may in- deed have been. Asia and Polynesia, and the Indian Ocean, have abounded, for centuries, 256 COMMON PARENTAGE OF with every element of national discord. Pesti- lence or predatory wars have piislied population over the broadest districts of Persia. India, China, and all Asia The isles of the sea have been the nurseries of nations. Half the globe has been settled by differences of temperature, oceanic currents, the search of food, thoughtless adventure, or other forms of what is called mere accident ; and not proposed migrations. All these are so many of the ways of Provi- dence, b}^ which not onl}'- the tropical and tem- perate regions, but the toi-rid and arctic zones have been peopled. He must have read history with a careless eye, who has not perceived the work of human dispersion to have been pro- moted by the discords of various races, and the meteorology of the globe, as affecting its lead- ing currents of winds and waves.'** Precisely similar views are expressed by Dr. Pickering, Ethnologist to the United States Exploring Expedition, who appropriates a chapter of his work on the "Races of Men, '^ History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, by H. R. Schoolcraft. LL.D. I\irt T.. pp. 22-2-±. THE HUMAN RACES. 257 and their Geographical Distribution," to a somewhat detailed notice of "Migrations by Sea." One section of this chapter is headed, " The North Pacific" and commences with these words : "To persons living around the Atlantic shores, the source of the aboriginal population of America seems mysterious ; and volumes have been written upon the subject. Had the author ii themselves made the voyage to the North Pacific, I cannot hut think that much of the dis- cussion would have been sparedP'^ Our quotations from Schoolcraft have been extended to such a length that we must forego the indulgence of a desire to give the testimonj^ of Dr. Pickering in detail. Let it suffice to say, that he concurs in the opinions of Schoolcraft and Maury as to the Eastern origin of the American Indians, and as to the route by which thev reached this continent on the Pacific coast. f * Races of Men, and their Geographical Distribution, by C. Picker- ing. Member of the United States Exploring Expedition. Bohn's edition, p. 296. f Evidences of the tempurarj' sojourn of the Aztecs on the borders of Lake Superior are believed to have been lately discovered, in local traditiiin.s, and especially in industrial remains disentombed at and neaa- 258 COMMON PA KENT AGE OF It is no disparagement of the high renown of Prof. Agassiz as a naturahst to say that, on such a question, the value of his opinions must be held to be subordinate to those of thought- ful travellers, who, having the other qualifica- tions, have also made " the voyage to the North Pacific," and have thus become cognizant, by personal observation, of all the data requisite for the solution of the problem. Sagacious and philosophical travellers who have pursued this inquiry are, we believe, nearly unanimous in their belief of the Mongolian origin of the American Indian. We wash it to be borne in mind, that if one part of the system so elabo- rately constructed by Professor Agassiz be thus disproved, the whole theory is brought under suspicion ; and when part after part comes in like manner to be refuted, the system is, of the copper mines of that region. The present Indian inhabitants knew nothing of the copper till the white men came there, and were aston ished when it was demonstrated that a former race were acquainted with the mines. Now it is believed that this former and more civilized race has been identified with the Aztecs, who, having landed on the north-western shore of North America, settled on the shores of Lake Superior, until they were pushed forward b}- the more warlike Ojibways, leaving traces at various points in their progress southward until they reached Mexico. T H E 11 u -M A X n A <: E s . 259 course, utterly discredited. We may thus, iu replying to the objections urged against the doctrine of a single origin for the human races, find "an easy way of carrying the war into Af- rica ;" but really, it seems needless to add any- thing to the remarks made in a preceding chap- ter in noticing the gratuitous character of the hypothesis to which Prof. Agassiz has given his sanction, § 2. INTELLECTUAL AND JIORAL DITERSITIES OF RACES. "The grand problem,'' according to one of the authors of ' The Types of Mankind,' " more particularly interesting to all readers, is that which involves the common origin of races ; for upon the latter deduction hang not only certain religious dogmas, but the more practical question of the equality and perfectibility of races. Whether an original diversit}' of races be admitted or not, iho, perma7ience of existing physical types will not be questioned by any archaeologist or naturalist of the present day; 260 COMMON PARENTAGE OF nor by such competent arbitrators can the consequent permanence of moral and intel- lectual peculiarities of types be denied. The intellectual man is inseparable from the physical man ; and the nature of the one cannot be altered without a corresponding change in the other." The same writer, Dr. J. C. Nott, has again made use of the same argument in the appen- dix to an American reprint of the interesting and suggestive essay of Count A. de Gobineau, on the "Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races." He regards "most of Count Gob- ineau's conclusions as incontrovertible." We are not prepared to dissent from this estimate of their value ; but we go further, — we adopt some very important ones which Dr. Nott re- jects ; for it so happens that this very work contains a refutation of his views respecting either a specific distinction or a plural origin of the races, or, at least, it demonstrates the entire consistency of all the known facts relat- incj; to the intellectual diversities of race with the idea of their specific unity and common THE HUMAN RACES. 261 descent. Assuming, on grounds which have been ah'eady stated,* that all mankind have sprung from a common parentage, the author contends that this fact is not inconsistent with the idea of permanent differences among the races, and justifies his position by referring to the analogous case of different children of the same parents. " If two men, the offspring of j the same parents, can be the one a dunce, the other a genius, why cannot different races, ; though descended of the same stock, be different also in intellectual endowments?" "All that is here contended for is, that tlie distinctive features of such races, in whatever manner they have originated, are now persistent. Two men may, the one arrive at the highest honors of the state, the other with every facility at his command forever remain in mediocrity ; yet these men may be brothers." In an admirable chapter on the "Influence of Christianity upon the Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races," the author avows with earnestness and force his unhesitating convic- * Supra p. 8S. 262 COMMON PARENTAGE OF tioii of the adaptedness of the Gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ to all, even the most hope- lessly inferior, of the races. He speaks with indignant warmth of those writers who (like the authors of "Types of Mankind," he might have said,) " dare to contradict the sacred promise of the Gospel, and deny the peculiar characteristic of our faith, which consists in its accessibility to all men. According to them, religions are confined within geographical limits which they cannot transgress. But the Chris- tian religion knows no degrees of latitude or longitude. There is scarcely a nation or a tribe among whom it has not made converts. Statistics, — imperfect, no doubt, but as far as they go, reliable — show them in great numbers in the remotest parts of the globe ; nomad Mongols in the steppes of Asia, savage hunters in the table-lands of the Andes, dark-hued natives of an African clime, persecuted in China, tortured in Madagascar, perishing under the lash in Japan. But this universal capacity of receiving the light of the Gospel must not be confounded, as is often done, with a faculty of THE HUMAN E A C E S . 263 entirely different character, that of social im- provement. This latter consists in being able to conceive new wants, which, being snpplied, give rise to others, and gradually produce that perfection of the social and political system which we call civilization. While the former belongs equally to all races, whatever may be their disparity in other respects, the latter is of a purely intellectual character, and the preroga- tive of certain privileged groups, to the partial or even total exclusion of others. With regard to Christianity, intellectual deficiencies cannot be a hinderance to a race. Our religion ad- dresses itself to the lowly and simple, even in preference to the great and wise of this earth. Intellect and learning are not necessary to sal- vation."* It gives us real pleasure to quote these lines from a work written in a truly philosophical spirit. We are not, indeed, fully prepared to ad- mit all the conclusions of the learned author ; not, however, that they are intrinsically inad- * Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races. By CouxT A. db GOBISEAU. Edited by H. HoTZ. P. 216. 264 COMMON PARENTAGE OF missible, but solely because the evidence does not appear to us to be entirely adequate to warrant some of his inductions.* We are not sure, for example, that he has not exaggerated the significance of the past as betokening the future inferiority, for all time, of certain races. With regard to some of these races, at least, it ^V i.does not appear to us that the experiment of testing the inveteracy of their resistance to the influences tending to improvement and * The late Hugh Miller seems to have arrived at conclusions similar to those of Count Gobineau, respecting Uie permanent inequality of the races. After enumerating and characterizing many of the inferior races, he proceeds to say : "All these varieties of the species, in w^hich v\e find humanity -fallen,' accordmg to the poet, 'into disgrace,' are varieties that have lapsed from the original Caucasian type. They are all descendants of man as God created him ; but they do not exemplify man as God created him. They do not represent, save in hideous caricature, the glorious creature moulded of old by the hand of the Divine Worker. They are fallen —degraded ; many of ihetn, as race!', hopdcsdij lost. For all experience seiTes to nhmv that when a tribe of iven falls beneath a certain level, it cannot come iiiio competition icith civiiizfd man, pressing outtcards from hi^ old centres to possess the earth, uilhoni becoming extinct before him. Sunk beneath a certain level, as in the forests of America, in Van Dieman's Land, in New South "Wales, and among the Bushmen of tlie Cape, the experience of more tli:in a hundred years demonstrates tliat its destiny is extinctiom— not restora- tion. Individuals may be recovered by the labors of some zealous missionary, but it is the fate of the race, after a few generations, to disappear. It has fallen too hopelesslj^ low to be restored." {Testi- mony of the Ricks. Edinburgh, 1857, p. 254. THE HUMAN RACES. 265 civilization has been sufficiently tried, and accordingly, while we freely grant that the question is fairly debatable, we must hold that no positive conclusion can be announced either way. But let it be granted that a most decided inferiority in intellect and in the capacity of social improvement is to be the permanent heir- loom of certain races, a point which is not only possible but quite probable, we yet con- tend that it proves nothing with respect to the origin of such diversities. We have shown that varieties among lower animals, known to have sprung from the same original stock, often mani- fest diversities even more considerable than those which separate the most degraded forms of humanity from the finest specimens of the most intellectual races, and also that the charac- teristics of these varieties, once formed, are as persistent as those of the species itself, even when the influences that gave rise to them have been long withheld. Who would expect to be able to convert the numerous existing varieties of the hog to the wild boar, except by an amal- gamation ? There is, therefore, nothing in the 12 266 COMMON PARENTAGE OF admitted fact of the permanency of the intel- lectual and moral inferiority of certain races, which in the least conflicts with the hypothesis of their common origin. We must here notice and condemn the in- sidious appeal addressed in " The Types of Man- kind" to the prejudices of ^slaveholders, as a most inadmissible argument in a discussion which should be purely scientific. We trust that those who, in the providence of God, have been placed in that part of our common country in which the African race is held in servitude, will not be induced by the weak reasoning of a shallow book to put them- selves in a false position before the Christian world, and foolishly to seize upon a scientific error, as a mode of asserting rights which have been guaranteed by the Federal Compact, and which are incideilt to relations recognized and sanctioned by the inspired Apostle to the gen- tiles.* * While thus protesting against the scientific error which asserts that the black man is an animal of different origin and species from his ■white master, we must protest with equal emphasis against the absurd and, in their consequences, wicked doctrines which modern fanaticism THE HUMAN RACES. 267 § 3. THE ALLEGED GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF A PREADAMITE RACE OF MEN EXAMINED. As if from some misgiving as to the adequacy of the argument so laboriously constructed on perversions of the facts of history and those which relate to the existing races of organic beings, the advocates of the diversity-theory, with a remarkable lack of discretion, invoke strives to erect upon the admitted truth of the unity of mankind. If the inferior races " cannot come into conipetition with civihzed man without becoming extinct before him, as Hdgh Miller so forcibly argues. — if, wliile only '• a few individuals may be recovered by the labors of some zealous missionary, it is the fate of the race, after a few generations, to disappear, for it has ft\llen too hopelessly low to be restored," — it certainly deserves thoughtful inquiry whether the singu- lar gro-\vth of the black population in the Southern States of our con- federacy, and the marked improvement of the race in physical and moral characteristics, may not have resulted from its contact with a superior race in the only relation that could exclude the fatal '• compe- tition ;" whether, in a word, tlie actual bondage of the blacks in Amer- ica was not intended, in the merciful and wise providence of God, as the onl}' means of extricating them from their otherwise inevitable '• destmy;" and of bringing them under the tutelage of a superior race without danger of becoming "'extinct before" such higher race. A little reflection on the subjects suggested by such inquiry would make patent duties and responsibilities on the part of every American citi- zen, nay, of every true Christian, with reference to American Slavery, fur diiferent from those sought to be inculcated by the zealous aboli- tionists of the day both in our country and in Europe. See Epistle of St. Paul to Philemon. 268 COMMON PARENTAGE OF the aid of Geology and Palaeontology, More than a century ago Bishop Berkeley wrote a memorable passage, in which he inferred, on grounds which maybe termed strictly geological, the recent date of the creation of man. " To any one," says he, " who considers that on dig- ging into the earth, such quantities of shells, and in some places, bones and horns of animals, are found sound and entire, after having lain there in all probability some thousands of years ; it should seem probable that guns, medals, and implements in metal or stone might have lasted entire, buried under ground forty or fifty thou- sand years, if the world had been so old. How comes it then to pass that no remains are found, no antiquities of those numerous ages preceding the Scripture accounts of time ; that no frag- ments of buildings, no public monuments, no intaglios, no cameos, statues, basso-relievos, medals, inscriptions, utensils or artificial works of any kind are ever discovered, which may bear testimony to the existence of those mighty empires, those successions of monarchs, heroes, and demigods, for so many thousand years ? T H E II U M A N R A C E S . 269 Let us look forward and suppose ten or twenty thousand years to come, during which time we will suppose that plagues, famine, wars, and earthquakes shall have made great havoc in the world, — is it not highly probable that at the end of such a period, pillars, vases, and statues now in being, of granite or porphyry or jasper, (stones of such hardness as we know them to have lasted two thousand years above ground, without any considerable alteration), would bear record of these and past ages ? Or that some of our current coins might then be dug up, or old walls and the foundations of buildings show themselves, as wehs as the shells and stones of the primeval world, which are preserved down to our own times ? "* In quoting these lines, Lyell adds a very emphatic expression of his own confident opin- ion to the same effect: " That many signs of the agency of man would have lasted at least as long as ' the shells of the primeval world ' had our race been so ancient, we may feel as fully persuaded as Berkeley ; and we may anticipate * Alcipliron. or the Minute Fhilosopher. 1732. Vol. IL, pp. 84, 85. 270 COMMON PARENTAGE OF with confidence that man}^ edifices and imple- ments of human workmanship, and the skele- tons of men, and casts of the human form, will continue to exist when a great part of the pres- ent mountains, continents and seas have disap- peared. Assuming the future duration of the planet to be indefinitely protracted, we can foresee no limit to the perpetuation of some of the memorials of man.""' These or similar objections, for they are so obvious as to have occurred to every reflecting mind cognizant of the facts, appear to have suggested to the authors of "The Types of Mankind" the expediency of collecting the scattered statements which have been occasion- ally published of the discovery of osseous and industrial remains of man in diluvial drifts, and especially of human fossil bones imbedded in various rocky strata along with the vestiges of extinct species of animals. Hence the most extraordinary chapter in this extraordinary work, a chapter bearing the title, "Geology and Paleontology in connection with human ori- * Principles of Geology, p. 740. THE HUMAN R A C E S.„ ^ _^^271 ((UlTI7EESiT gins," Among the cases of alleged fossil men the most celebrated are the Guadaloupe skele- tons which, says Dr. Usher, the author of the chapter under consideration, " have been pro- nounced recent in a manner the most sum- mary.'' In point of fact they are unhesitatingly pronounced " recent" by all the most competent geologists, who have moreover assigned the best reasons for their verdict. Thus Lyell, repre- senting the general opinion of Geologists, says of these Guadaloupe skeletons, that "they are found in a kind of rock which is known to be daily forming, and which consists of minute fragments of shells and corals, incrusted W'ith a calcareous cement resembling travertin, by which also the different grains are bound to- gether. The lens shows that some of the frag- ments of coral composing this stone still retain the same red color ivhich is seen in the reefs of living coral which surround the island. The shells belong to species of the neighboring sea intermixed with some terrestrial kinds which now live on the island. The human skeletons still retain some of their animal matter, and all their phosphate of lime. 272 COMMON PARENTAGE OF " Similar formations are in progress in the whole of the West - Indian Archipelago, and they have greatly extended the plain of Cayes, in St. Domingo, where fragments of vases and other human works have been found at a depth of twenty feet. In digging wells also near Catania, in Sicily, tools have been discovered in a rock nearly similar."* We need scarcely add that the case of Prof. Agassiz' fossil man of Florida meets with no better acceptance among geologists, to say nothing of Dr. Dowler's estimate of 57,600 years as the age of the sub-cypress Indian dis- entombed at New- Orleans. This whole argu- ment is, indeed, so ver}'^ weak, and is based upon such questionable data, that even the Westminster Reviewer, while adopting the general conclusions of the book, is constrained to discredit the facts and reasoning of the chap- ter under consideration. Prof. Richard Owen, referring both to the general question of the existence of fossil hu- man skeletons and to the specific instance con- * Principles of Geology, p. 734. THE HUMAN RACES. 273 sidered by Sir Charles Lyell, announces the present opinion of geologists in the following summary : " Human bones have been found in doubtful positions, geologically considered, such as deserted mines and caves, in the detritus at the bottom of cliffs, but never in tranquil, undisturb- ed deposits, participating in the mineral charac- ters of the undoubted fossils of these deposits. The petrified skeletons in the calcareous concretes of Guadaloupe are of a comparatively recent origin." So much for the geological proof of the indefinite antiquity of the human race. §4. ARGUMENT FOUNDED ON THE " LONG CHRONOLOGY" OF EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. In this connection we take occasion to com- ment briefly on the attempt made by Nott and Gliddon to prove the existence in Egypt of a nation in an advanced state of development and civilization at the early date of 3,800 years be- fore Christ, whence they infer the prior exist- ence of man for an indefinite number of years. 10='= 274 COMMON PARENTAGE OF This is indeed the prominent idea of their book, the acceptance of which they make the touch- stone by which they test the fitness of the first savans of the age to draw legitimate deductions from the speciahties to which they have devoted their Kves. Their position is thus stated by Dr. Nott : " The spurious systems of Archbishop Usher on the Hebrew Text, and of Dr. Hales on the Septuagint, being entirely broken down, we turn, unshackled by prejudice, to the monu- mental records of Egypt as our best guide. Even these soon lose themselves, not in the prim- itive state of man, but in his middle or per- haps modern age ; for the Egyptian Empire first presents itself to view about 4,000 years before Christ, as that of a mighty nation, in full tide of civilization, and surrounded by other realms and races already emerging from the barbarous state." Truly this is taking a sufficiently bold and dog- matic tone. Let it be contrasted with that of leading Egyptologists, who, while recording their somewhat hesitating acceptance of the long chronology, do yet, with the cautious reserve of true science, candidly avow the incomplete- THE HITMAN RACES. 276 ness and uncertainty of the proof. Thus Ken- rick* says of the hsts of Manetho, which are the foundation of Egyptian chronology, that they comprehend, besides the period of Gods, Manes, and Heroes, thirty dynasties, from Menes downward to the younger Nectanebus. In some of them the names of all the kings are given, with the length of their reigns, in years^ and the sums of each dynasty; in others the names do not appear, but the numbers of the kings and the sums of their reigns are pre- served. The historical facts are very brief; of most of the kings nothing whatsoever is re- corded, and the synchronisms noted appear to be due to the Christian chronologers (who had copied Manetho's lists) rather than to Manetho himself, whose original works are all lost. The sum of all these dynasties varies, according to our present sources, from 4,684 to 5,049 years ; the number of kings from 300 to 350 and even to 500. " It is evidently impossible to found a chronolo- " Aucient Egypt under the Pharaohs, by John Kenrick, M. A. 1852. 276 COMMON PARENTAGE OF gy on such a basis, but Syncellus tells us that the number of generations included in the thirty dynasties was, according to Manetho and the old Egyptian chronicle, 113 ; and the whole number of years 3,555. This number falls much short of what the summation of the reigns would furnish according to any reading of the numbers, but is nearly the same as 113 generations would produce at the average of thirty-two years to each. That Manetho would have access to all the documentary and monu- mental evidence which the temples and public records supplied (B. C. 322-284,) we cannot doubt, but that from these it was practicable in the third century before the Christian era to de- duce a chronology extending backward to the foundation of the monarchy, is hy 7io means pro- bable. . . . When we compare him with the monuments, although there is sufficient ac- cordance to vindicate his integrity, there is also sufficient discrepancy to prevent implicit reliance in the absence of monuments. "If we suppose that an accurate record of the successive reigns and the length of each THE HUMAN RACES. 277 was preserved from the very commencement of the monarchy, we might easily deduce the chronology of the whole interval from Menes to Nectanebus, by adding together the length of all the reigns. But this implies that all the reigns were consecutive ; that there either were no joint or rival sovereignties, or that if they existed, only one was fixed on as the legitimate monarch, and his years alone entered in the suc- cession. A history of Great Britain in which the years of the kings of England and Scotland before the union of the crowns, or those of the Stuart and Brunswick princes since the revolu- tion, were added together, would present a very false chronology."* "It was acutely observed by Bunsen, that where a correspondence exists between the names of Eratosthenes and those of Manetho, it is always in the dynasties which the latter calls Theban or Memphite ; and that where the names are lost, the numbers show that there has been no such correspondence in the others. And hence he infers that only those who be- * Aucient Egj'pt under the Pharaohs, pp. 79, 80. 278 COMMON PARENTAGE OF longed to the two ancient capitals of Egypt were the true sovereigns of the country, whose reigns give its real chronology ; while the others (Elephantinites, Heracleopolites, Xoites), though called kings, never exercised a real su- premacy, and being contemporaneous with the Thebans or Memphites, do not enter into the chronological reckoning. Notwithstanding the ability with which this attempt to reconcile Eratosthenes and Manetho is supported, we can- not feel such confidence in its soundness as to make it the basis of a history. We shall, there- fore, treat the dynasties of the latter as being, what he evidently considered them to be, suc- cessive, unless where there is some internal or independent evidence of error ; admitting at the same time that no great reliance can be placed on a chronology which professes to ascend to the very commencement of the reign of mortal kings in Egypt. But there appears no evidence that Manetho wilfully tampered with facts known to him, to favor an astronomical or an histori- cal theory ; his system may be baseless, but it is not fictitious."* * AnoioDt Eiivpt under tlio Pharaohs, p. 82. THE HUMAN RACES. 279 We cannot too highly commend the tone of candor and the spirit of cautious generahzing indicated in these passages, from a writer admit- ted by Gliddon himself to rank high among modern Egyptologists. We do not design to discuss the question of consecutive or contem- poraneous dynasties in regard to which there appears to be a slight difference of opinion be- tween Kenrick and Bunsen, but we may ob- serve, in passing, that Bunsen's idea, as ex- plained in the preceding paragraph, is carried out to a much greater extent by another Egyp- tian traveller and scholar, Mr. Samuel Sharpe, whom Gliddon characterizes as a man " of vast classical erudition and keen criticism." We are frank to confess that we have not given sufficient attention to this subject to estimate the value of ihe evidence on the two sides. Our main object has been to call the attention of our readers to the modest and cautious style of reasoning ex- hibited by an unprejudiced inquirer after truth, in striking co.itrast with the rude and offensive dogmatism of the pretentious work we have felt it our duty to criticise. We might con- 280 THE HUMAN RACES. ditionallj admit the correctness of Manetho's list as one of successive dynasties, and that of the " long chronology system" founded thereon, without touching the question of the origin of the human varieties, or without impugning either the integrity of the sacred text or the authenticity of its narrative ; since it was not unusual for the sacred historians to give incom- plete genealogical lists, one or more names being omitted in most of such lists as are given in the Bible ; for it was their object rather to indicate the general line of succession than to furnish the materials for the construction of a chrono- logical table. CHAPTER lY. APPRECIATION OF THE SCIEJNTTIFIC CHARACTEE OF THE WRITINGS OF NOTT AND GLIDDON, WHICH RELATE TO ETHNOLOGY SUMMARY RECAPITULATION OF THE AR- GUMENTS IN FAVOR OF THE UNITY OF JIA>^KIND. The many and glaring scientific faults of the volume '*' which, sustained by the apparent sanc- tion of so eminent a naturahst as Prof. Agassiz, and by the free and unwarranted use of other great names, has been made the medium of in- stilling into the minds of the young men of America a rank infidelity, under cover of the pretended authority of science, have been to some extent pointed out in the process of the specific criticisms which we have made on its several departments. We cannot, however, refrain from noticing a few other evidences of a gross departure from the fair reasoning, and from the calm, patient and humble spirit * "Types of Mankind," by Nott and Grliddoa [281] 282 COM il UN P A H E X T A G E OF which ought to characterize and do always characterize true science. It is habitual with the principal contributors to this work, to dog- matize with a boldness and energy proportional to the slenderness of the evidence on wliich their opinions are based, this trait bemg con- spicuously manifested in respect to subjects about which the most learned and unprejudiced ethnologists have either come to an entirely dif- ferent conclusion, or else find it necessary to speak w^ith the utmost diffidence and caution. Another prominent characteristic which ren- ders that work highly offensive to Christian readers is, the disposition manifested on almost every page to treat with bitter contempt all who believe in the inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. It is well known that a large number of Bibli- cal scholars have maintained, on grounds irre- spective of scientific difficulties, that the Noa- chian deluge was partial in its extent, covering only those portions of the earth then inhabited by the human family. Dr. Nott is unwiUing to give " Sectarians," as he terms all believers in the genuineness, authenticity, and inspiration of THE HUMAN Races. 283 the Scriptures, the benefit of this exegesis. He grows warm at the very idea of their escaping from the diffieulties which his science raises up against the possibihty of a universal deluge. His colleague is even more malignant and de- nunciatory. Speaking of the book of Genesis, he says: " Viewed as a literary work of ancient humani- tifs loftiest conception of creative power, it is sublime beyond all cosmogonies known in the world's history. Yiewed as a narrative inspired by the Most High, its conceits would be pitiful and its revelations false ; because telescopic astronomy has ruined its celestial structure, physics have negatived its cosmic organism, and geology has stultified the fabulous terrestrial mechanism upon which its assumptions are based. How, then, are its crude and juvenile hypotheses about human creation to be re- ceived? "* jN^ow, when it is remembered that this same gentleman tells us that his " former pursuits (in Muslim lands) were remote from natural * Types of Mankind, p. 565. 284 COMMON PARENTAGE OF science," and such as to disqualify him from sharing the labors of its votaries, it must be admitted that he is sufficiently presumptuous to characterize, in such terms, conclusions em- braced by many of the most eminent geologists of the present day. Thus, Prof. Dana demon- strates, in an elaborate comparison of the " two records," — that of geology, and that of written revelation, — the most exact and wonderful coin- cidence between the cosmogony of Moses, rightly interpreted, and the facts of the most advanced modern science, a coincidence which would be utterly inexplicable on any other hypothesis than that of the inspiration of the sacred historian. "If," says he, "but little flexibility is allowed to the Hebrew by the ex- egetical student, the record will stand firm, sus- tained by Nature and the God of Nature. We call it flexibility ; yet we have the authority of some learned Biblical scholars for concludino- that the liberal rendering required by science is the only correct rendering of the original words of Moses. Our own faith in both records THE HUMAN RACES. 285 is the more confirmed the deeper we pursue our investigations." Again: "The first thought that strikes the scientific reader is, the evidence of Divinity, not merely in the first verse of the record, and the successive fiats, but in the whole order of creation. There is so much that the most recent readings of science have for the first time ex- plained, that the idea of ma?i as the author, be- comes utterly ijicomprehensible. By proving the record true, science pronounces it divine ; for who could have correctly narrated the secrets of eternity but God himself?'"* " Indeed," says Dr. Hitchcock, " I have never met with a single attempt, in any language, by any respectable geologist, to adduce the facts of the science to the discredit of revelation. Many of them are, doubtless, sceptical ; but they have not done this thing, as they are charged. If it has been done at all, it is by men of no reputa- 3 Bibliotheca Sacra, Jan., 1856, pp. 118 and 110. Prof. Dana ascribes to rrof. Arnold Guyot the credit of having enunciated tho best views lie had met with on the harmony between science and the Bible, and avow.s liimself indebted to that savant for the thought ox- pros3ed in ihe latter paragnipli. 286 COMMON PARENTAGE OF tion as geologists." He then adds in a note : " How easy would it be to substantiate these statements by quotations from the most eminent geological writers of the last fifty years ; such as Jameson, Silliman, Buckland, Conybeare, Mantell, Sedgwick, Lyell, MacCulloch, Miller, &c. But I will refer only to a recent work by two eminent French geologists, C. D'Orbigny and A. Gente, published in Paris in 1851, en- titled ' Geologie appliqu^e aux Arts et k I'Agri- culture.' Coming from a city generally regarded as the centre of European scepticism, and whose learned men have been considered as unfriendly to the Bible, it is gratifying to find that these authors, after a laborious attempt to bring reve- lation and geology into harmony, pass the fol- lowing noble eulogium upon the sacred volume : ' In view of the chronological agreement be- tween Genesis and the most authentic o-eologi- cal facts, we cannot but accord to this m3^steri- ous book something profound and supernatural. If the mind is not convinced, it at least bows reverently before such writings, brought out in an age when we cannot suppose the first ele- THE HUMAN RACES. 287 ments of the natural sciences were known, and which embraces a development of the principal events of which our globe has been the theatre. We find in Genesis something so simple, so touching, and so superior in respect to morality and philosophy, that the sceptic, astonished moreover at the genius that could foretell facts which scientific researches should demonstrate so many ages afterwards, is forced to acknowl- edge that there is in this book the evidence of inspiration secret and supernatural ; an inspira- tion which he cannot comprehend, which he cannot explain, but which strongly affects him, presses upon him, and controls him.' " * Another feature in this book which calls for critical notice and emphatic condemnation, even though it depends as we suppose on the care- lessness of the writer rather than any inten- tional design to mislead the ignorant or super- ficial reader, consists in frequently using names of high scientific standing, in such a connection as to produce the impression that their sanction * Hitchcock. Religious Truth Illustrated from Science ; p. 82, and note. 288 COMMON PARENTAGE OF is given to the opinions advocated in the book, when, in point of fact, the reverse is often the case. A most glaring instance of this is ex- hibited in quoting a playful passage from a private letter addressed to Dr. Morton by Dr. Pickering, then recently arrived in Egypt. " I had not been three hours in the country," writes Dr. Pickering, "before I arrived at the con- clusion that the ancient Egyptians were neither Malays nor Hindoos, but Egyptians !" Mr. Gliddon, being about to introduce this letter, before he names the writer or gives its contents, tantalizes the reader, whom he wishes to prepare for some marvellous discovery, by saying : "It is invested with the signature of a voya- ger long blanched under the harness of scien- tific pursuits ; who, as naturalist to the United States Exploring Expedition, had sailed round the world, and beheld ten types of mankind, before he wrote, after exploring the petro- glyphs of the Nile : ' I have seen in all eleven races of men,' etc. Qualified to judge, through especial training, varied attainments, and habits THE HUMAN RACES. 289 of keen observation, that, in natural history, are preeminent for accuracy, iho. first impressions of the gentleman from whose letter to his attached friend we make hold to extract a few sentences, (preserving their original form,) are strikingly to the point." Now, the words, ''first impressions,^^ which we have italicized, are significant. Whatever importance was attached to these impressions by Dr. Pickering himself, when they were thus playfully stated in his letter, in December, 1843, it is certain, that at the later date of his official Report, under the title of "Races of Men, and their Geographical Distribution," jDublished in 1848, he did not use the term " races" as equiv- alent to primeval types ; for, in the very work containing the short passages quoted by Gliddon, there is another passage which he does not quote. After adverting to the permanency of varieties, declaring that within his own observation he had found no tendency in varieties to revert, in the course of successive generations, to the original type, (a zoological principle ignored or denied by the authors of 13 290 COMMON PARENTAGE OF " The Types of Mankind," inasmuch as a rec- ognition of it would invahdate their famous argument of a diversity of species, as founded on the permanency of types,) Dr. Pickering goes on to say : "There is, I conceive, no middle ground be- tween the admission of eleven distinct species in the human family and the reduction to one. The latter opinion, from analogy with the rest of the organic world, implies a central point of origin. Further, zoological considerations, though they do not absolutely require it, seem most to favor a centre on the African continent. Confirmatory circumstances of a different char- acter are not wanting." * These ' confirmatory circumstances' he pro- ceeds to indicate ; but we omit them, as not material to our present purpose, which is merely to show that this author, thus avowing his belief in a single central origin of the human races, has been placed in a false position, in order to lend weight to the rash and weak conclusions, for the promulgation of which the * Pickering. Races of Men, etc., Bohn's edition, p. 315. THE H U M A X RACES. ■ 291 work of Xott and Gliddon has been so labori- ously compiled. A similar instance of carelessness in quot- ing another eminent naturalist, whose opin- ions are stated in such a connection as to bear the appearance of sanctioning the peculiar views of these writers, is found on page 457, where Dr. Nott, after disclaiming any desire to degrade any type of humanity to the level of the brute creation, adds that, nevertheless " it cannot be rationally affirmed that the orang- outan and chimpanzee are more widely sepa- rated from certain African and Oceanic Ne- groes, than are the latter from the Teutonic or Pelasgic tribes. But," he continues, " the very accomplished anatomist of Harvard University, Dr. Jeffries Wyman, has placed this question in its true light." Then follows a correct citation of Dr. Wyman's remarks, in which, strange to say, we find these words : "Any anatomist who will take the trouble to compare the skeletons of the Negro and Orang, cannot fail to be struck at sight with the wide gap which separates them. The difference between the cranium, 292 COMMON TARE NT AGE OF the pelvis, and the conformation of the upper extremities, in the Negro and Caucasian, sinks into insignificance when compared with the vast difference which exists between the conformation of the same parts in the Negro and the OrangV The itahcs are ours. This is, we admit, " to place this question in its true light," but it is the reverse of the position assumed by Dr. Nott, who yet quotes this passage to sustain his position ! Some of the characteristics which we have attributed to this work, as invalidating its title to be acknowledged as a product of genuine science, are exhibited in a concentrated form in a final summary of what the writer calls "legitimate deductions" "from the facts now accessible." It is unnecessary to notice most of these, as they have been fully answered in the course of our argument. The fifth among them is thus expressed : " That permanence of type is accepted by science as the surest test of SPECIFIC character." This we meet with an emphatic denial ; unless by an arbitrary defini- tion the writer restrict the application of type THE HUMAN RACES. 293 to distinct species, in which case he assumes in his definition the thing to be proved, and then makes a show of demonstrating it, by merely quoting his arbitrary definition. If he means by " type" any distinctive character or combi- nation of characters which is found to be per- manent, we deny that science has shown perma- nency of type to be any more characteristic of species than of certain varieties, which for that reason are called permanent varieties, the ex- istence of which within the limits of a single species, as of the hog, horse, cow, yea, and Man, is admitted by the great body of men of " sci- ence," in every centre of learning in Europe and America — men, too, representing every branch of " science" which bears at all upon the question ; in Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, Flourens, MIiller, Owen, Carpen- ter, Draper, etc. ; in Natural History and Geology, Ed. Forbes, Lyell, Hitchcock, Dana, etc. ; in Philology, Wm. Humboldt,* Grimm, * Mr. Gliddou has attempted to show (Indigenous Races of the Earth, pp. 402-409), that William Humboldt has pronounced "a ma- ture opinion" adverse to the doctrine of the single origin of mankind, and that this opinion is " endorsed" by his illustrious brother. We do 294 COMMON PARENTAGE OF Latham, Gallatin, etc. ; in General Ethnology, Alexander Humboldt, Prichard, Pickering, Schoolcraft, etc. ; and in Egyptology, Bunsen, Lepsius, and others, who are further accredited for their vast philological erudition, and have announced their firm belief in the unity of the races, as legitimately deduced from their lin- guistic researches. " There is," says the saga- not, however, erase their names from the above Hst (which miglit be indefinitely extended), because, in the first place, whatever may have been their doubts as to the possibility o^ proving the descent of all man- kind from a single pair, it is certain that they have both advocated the community of origin of races now distinguished by permanent typical characters, and this is the question to which immediate reference is had in the foregoing passage ; and because, second Ij^, they have elsewhere expressed themselves in such terms as to warrant the belief that they had a very decided leaning towards the doctrme of a single origin of all the human races. Thus, for Alexander Humboldt, see the passage from Cosmos already quoted (Supra p. 220), and for Wm. Humboldt, note the following concession of Gliddou himself, which, despite its hypothetical form, is yet significant. He says (op. cit., p. 423), " Even under the supposition that Wilhehn von Humboldt, in his now past generation, when writing 'on the Dimsifi/ of Languages and Peoples,' may have speculated upon the possibility of reducing both into one original stock, it will remain equally certain that, in such an assumed conclusion, he was biassed by no dogmatical respect for Myths, Fictiox, or Pretekded Tradition; and furthermcire, that, if he grounded his results on the ■Katri Sprache,' he inadvertmitly built upon a quicksand, !is sub.sequent researches have established." In other words, Mr. Glid- don can tolerate a man's bolieving in ilie single origin of mankind, prov'ded only lie hold the statum. nts of the Holy Bible to be "myths, lii'tion. and pretended tradition."' !Such is the animus with which this V, ork of so-called " science" is undertaken. THE HUMAN RACES. 295 cious Hugh Miller, "a species of superstition which inclines men to take on trust whatever assumes the name of science." With such per- sons, those who make the most positive asser- tions in matters of science are most hkely to be trusted. They seem not to be aware that the "positivism" of genuine science consists, not in confidence and boldness of assertion, but in demanding rigorous proof for every conclu- sion, whether it be expressed by affirmative or negative propositions. Another of the " legitimate deductions" of Dr. Nott is in these words : "10. That Prolif- icacy of distinct species iyiter se, is now proved to be no test of common origin." No one that we ever heard of has pretended that the power of mixing the breeds in different species is a test of common origin. No believer in the unity of the human races has ever committed the absurdity of maintaining that ''distinct spe- cies^^ could by any possibility have a common origin. They do maintain, however, that dis- tinct varieties, no matter how different in type, may breed inter se indefinitely ; and they hold 296 COMMON PARENTAGE OF that the converse is true, namely, that where animals of distinct type are shown to be capable of crossing their breeds without limit, they are thus proved to be mere varieties of one species . In the introduction to Part I. of the work which we have felt it our duty to criticise. Dr. Nott reproduces a passage from his "Biblical and Physical History of Man," in which he dis- misses rather contemptuously the idea of ex- plaining the diversity now seen in the white, black, and intermediate colors, on the supposi- tion of a miracle or direct act of the Almighty, in changing one type into another. And yet this gentleman does not hesitate to assert the primeval origin of such types, as if this mode of origin were any the less miraculous. The formation of man out of the dust of the earth was the crowning work of creative skill, the highest exhibition of miraculous powder. In- asmuch as it has been shown that man has the power of undergoing acclimation in every habitable quarter of the globe, and had the means of facilitating his migrations from his original birthplace, while moreover he is con- THE HUMAN RACES. 297 stitutionally susceptible of undergoing variations in bodily structure and in intellectual and moral tendencies, which variations, once acquired, are subsequently perpetuated by descent, it is con- trary to the observed ways of Providence to multipl}^ miracles, and especially the highest miracles, in order to achieve a result which was clearly practicable by natural processes. Nor is this method of reasoning purely a 'priori in its application to the question under consideration. Community of languages and other reliable data, such as most significant re- semblances between the monuments of early races in every quarter of the globe, furnish abundant proof of extensive migrations of the human family in ante-historic times, and this fact explains as fully as can be required the circumstance so much insisted upon by Prof. Agassiz, that "the earliest migrations recorded in any form, show us man meeting man where- ever he moves upon the habitable surface of the globe, small islands excepted," without the ne- cessity of having recourse to the untenable hy- pothesis of a frequent repetition of the great 13* 298 COMMON PARENTAGE OF miracle of man's creation.* When a new coral island emerges above the sea-level to become covered with vegetation and to receive a popu- lation of animated beings, it is not by a new creation of species but hy various means of transport of individuals from more or less re- mote countries, that the flora and fauna of the island are established. In view of the results of the critical exami- nation which we have now made, at some con- siderable length, of the theory which assigns a diversity of origins for the different races of mankind, it must, we think, be conceded, that tlie advocates of that theory have failed at every point to make out their case. In point of fact the task they aimed to accomplish was a most difficult one. There was. in the nature of things, but one conceivable way of demonstra- ting positively the truth of that theory, and that was confessedly precluded by the absolute in- accessibility of evidence. We refer to histori- cal records going back to the first creation of the several distinct types of man, and proving * See AppeudLx F. THE HUMAN RACES. 299 that they were separately created. In default of this they have gone back as far, it is freely admitted, as they could go, and, finding evi- dence that distinct types existed at this early period, they have inferred that the distinctions were original. We have already more than once exposed the fallacy of this reasoning, by showing, first, that irrespectively of the hypothe- sis of miraculous interposition, and proceeding on the supposition that the existing types have sprung from natural causes bringing about va- riations, a comparatively short time is abun- dantly adequate to give rise to such variations ; and secondly, that once produced, they may have all the tenacity and permanence of spe- cific characters, except, of course, where the breeds are mixed. Now, inasmuch as the ear- liest monumental records do not go back to the creation of any one type, it is manifestly to beg the whole question to say that they prove an original diversity of types. We have thus provisionally granted the " permanency" of the human types, as we can well afford to do, in conformity with the analogy of " permanent va- 300 COMMON PARENTAGE OF rieties" amono; lower animals. But here we must put in a caution. Not all varieties among animals are permanent. Many cases of varia- tion, slowly assumed under the influence of causes operating through several generations, exhibit the phenomenon of the hereditary trans- mission of the acquired peculiarities with con- siderable tenacity, and yet under the prolonged influence of opposite circumstances may grad- ually lose such peculiarities. This may, for aught we know to the contrary, be the case with the human varieties. It is quite certain that the monumental inscriptions of Egypt do not settle this question either way. It is a lit- tle remarkable that reliance is so confidentl}^ placed on these monuments, when it is clear that no one can iioint out at this day the ac- tual lineal descendants of the individual men of the negro and other races depicted on them. For aught that can be proved to the contrar}'-, the actual descendants of the blacks who lived contemporaneously with the authors of the in- scriptions may now exhibit the characteristics of any other type. We have no genealogical T H E H U M A N K A C E S . 301 tables by whicli we can icleiitif}- the descendants in historical times of the blacks of that early period. This being so, what right have they to as- sert dogmatically that the types have not changed in the persons of the descendants of those very men ? All that the monuments prove is, that in that day there was a negro type identical with one now existing, which im- plies, it may be, the continued operation some- where of the causes which originally produced that type, but certainly does not prove the un- changeableness of the type in any given line of successive individuals. It is premature, by very many centuries, perhaps, to assert that this type will not change in such a line of succes- sion, the individuals in which shall be subjected for generation after generation to new influences of climate, soil, and mode of life. The African race in the United States will ultimately, but not in our day, solve this problem. Many acute observers, as Sir Charles Lyell, for example, are confident that they already see a change. We doubt this: tor even if a change were in prog- 302 COMMON PARENTAGE OF ress, it is yet too soon to substantiate the proofs. But even on the supposition of perfect fixedness of tj-pe, the question of origin is left exactly where it was before. "Well, then, this monumental argument not availing the advocates of " diversity," what re- source is let them ? Why, absolutely no posi- tive ground whatsoever : and the}' are driven to the expedient of trying to prove a negative for each of the positive arguments in favor of the unity doctrine which they oppose. Let us sup- pose that they succeed in showing the insuffi- ciency of the physiological proof of the unity of man ; they must then attack the historical argu- ment, the philological, the geological, and so on in succession, gaining nothing of advantage un- til they have overthrown each and every one. And if they succeed in all this, — a most violent supposition, truly, — there yet remains as an impregnable citadel, that innate conviction of brotherhood which, in the eloquent language of Agassiz, "is but the reflection of that Divine nature which pervades man's whole being." We perceive, then, that success in the task these THE HUMAN RACES. 303 gentlemen have assigned to themselves is mani- festly hopeless. A failure at any one step is fatal ; and, as we have seen, they fail everywhere. On the other hand, the proof of man's unity is cumulative. There are various independent proofs. Each being more or less complete in itself, any one would suffice to sustain the doc- trine we contend for. The sum of all strength- ens belief into conviction. And when we con- sider them in their mutual relations as parts of one whole, and all converging to one common and necessary conclusion, further resistance be- comes irrational and further doubt absurd. We conclude our discussion of the subject with a passage from a discourse by an eloquent living divine,* in which the relation of the doctrine of the Unity of Mankind to the nature and office of the Lord Jesus Christ is most impressively set forth. " The unity of tlie human race must be con- sidered a finidamental and an accepted truth. Every department of knowledge has been searched for evidence, and all respond with a o Rev. R. J. 3rekinridge, — " Discourse on the Black Race." 304 C M xM N PARENTAGE OF uDi.bnn testimony. The physical structure, constitution and habits of the race — the mode in which it is produced, in which it exists, in which it perishes — everything that touches its i! mere animal existence, demonstrates the abso- lute certainty of its unity — so that no other generalization of physiology is more clear and more sure. Rising one step, to the highest manifestation of man's physical organization — his use of language and the power of connected speech — the most profound survey of this most complex and tedious part of knowledge, conducts the inquirer to no conclusion more indubitable than that there is a common origin, a common organization, a common nature, underlying and running through this endless variety of a com- mon power, peculiar to the race and to it alone. Tliiis a second science — philology — has borne its marvellous testimony. Rising one more step, and passing more completely to a higher region, we find the rational and moral nature Ijbf men of every age and kindred, absolutely "the same. Those great faculties b}^ which man alone — and yet by whicli (}verv man — perceives THE HUMAN RACES. 305 that there is in things that distinction which we call true and false, and that other distinction which we call good and evil ; upon which dis- tinctions and which faculties rests at last the moral and intellectual destiny of the entire race ; belono-ing to us as men, without which we are not men, with which we are the head of the visible creation of God. So has a third science — a science which treats of the whole moral con- stitution of man, embracing in its wide scope many subordinate sciences — delivered its testi- mony. If we rise another step, and survey man as he is gathered into families, and tribes, and nations, with an endless variety of develop- ment, we still behold the broad foundations of a common nature reposing under all — the grand principles of a common being ruling in the midst of all. So a fourth, and the youngest of the sciences — ethnology — brings her tribute, .^nd now, from this lofty summit, survey the whole track of ages. In their length and in tlieir breadth, scrutinize the recorded annals of mankind. There is not one page on which one 306 CO M M X F A i; i: x t age of fact is written — which favors the historical idea of a diversity of nature or origin — while the whole scope of human story involves, assumes, and proclaims, as the first and grandest historic truth, the absolute unity of the race. And then, mounting from earth to heaven, ask God — the God of truth, and he will tell you, that the foundation truth of all his work of creation and of providence is the sublime certainty that our race was created in his own image, and of one blood ; and thereupon, when they had fallen, he offered to them a common salvation, through his only begotten Son, made manifest in their common nature. " A bond of common brotherhood unites every portion of the race ; it is felt the most keenly by those who are the most exalted ; and even in the most abject, its weak pulsations will still live to attest the depth of the truth, that our race is one. It is in the life and doc- trine of Jesus Christ that this profound instinct of human nature finds itself exalted into one of the grandest truths of religion, and invested THE H U AI A N R A C E S . 307 with the sanction of heaven. In Him, the con- ception of this universal brotherhood, — which nature teaclies, and all knowledge fortifies, — becomes a precious, living truth" APPENDIX. Note to Page 36. " The causes which give rise to the varieties of spe- cies, says Prof. J. Miiller, of Berlin, the first, per- haps, of living physiologists, " are partly seated in the organisms of the animals themselves, and partly ex- ternal conditions, such as the food, the elevation above the sea, and the climate. Each species of plants and animals possesses within itself a power of variation within a certain limit, quite independently of any ex- ternal influences. To this cause are to be referred the varieties of form which may present themselves in the offspring of one act of generation. In each individ- ual of a species there is an innate capability of pro- ducing such varieties as these, since each individual of a species does not produce by generation the mere rep- etition of itself, but generates the new beings in ac- cordance with laws which regulate the whole species. Thus from the same parents there may be produced individuals with fair and others with dark hair ; some of spare and slender figure, and others of plump and stout robust form ; individuals of different tempera- ments, and with ditTerent features, eyes, mouth, and nose, with hair in eome instances curly, and in others straight. The n:o.-t common varieties arising in this [309] 310 A I' r r: .\ d i x way from internal causes, arc the fair and the dark haired. Fair persons are occasionally met with amongst races for the most part characterized by black hair, — for example, amongst the Mongolians; and Dr. Prichard adduces several examples of fair-complexion- ed negroes who were not albinos. It is true that these varieties are chiefly due to the parents being indiAnd- uals of diiferent complexions, and to the characteris- tics sometimes of one and sometimes of the other be- ing predominant in the offspring. But even when the parents have the same complexion, a certain variety of forms and internal properties may present itself in the offspring. In consequence of the mingling of these different varieties in marriage, their peculiarities are not preserved and are not propngated as constant, fix- ed types. It is easy to conceive the conditions which must be combined in order, independently of climate, food and locality, to convert these accidental varieties into persistent types. The longer individuals of the same stock continue to unite in marriage, without for- eign admixture, the longer will the type to which they belong be preserved. In this ivay, and independently of all external influences, a race will he formed. Some- times when the type has become fixed through a se- ries of generations in the members of a family, even the admixture of a foreign type is not sufficient to ef- face the fixed characters of a family, and the foreign element becomes lost in the older fixed type. Hence we see in many royal families, that in spite of their union by marriage with other houses, the type of the family features is in a remarkable Avay preserved, and transmitted from generation to generation — as, for ex- ample, in the Bourbon family, and equally in many princely houses of Germany. It was previously shown how one family, being isolated by the intermarrying of its members exclusively, with each other, might pro- duce a nation or tribe with general distinguishing oliaraeter. History teaches us how the national type A r P E N P I X , 311 once formed is preserved in spite of individual varia- tions through thousands of years, and that, except when niodihed by admixture with other types, it is maintained unchanged." — J. Midler ^ Elements of Phys- iology. Translated hy W Baly. London^ 1842. 312 APPENDIX. 15. Note to Page 58. Although the facts and authorities cited in the text amply suffice to sustain the doctrine of permanent varieties within the Hmits of a single species, we can- not deny ourselves the satisfaction of referring to a more recent authority — not accessible to us at the date of the first publication of this essay in the Protestant Episcopal Quarterly Ecview — we allude to a treatise " On the Variation of Species," by T. Vernon Wollaston, M. A., F. L. S. Adverting to the tendency, manifested in certain quarters, to regard every differ- ence, if at all permanent, as a specific one, this emi- nent naturalist considers '* that a revival of our first principles is occasionally necessary, if we would not restrict (however gradually and imperceptibly) that legitimate freedom which nature has had chalked out for her to sport in, or strive to impose laws of limita- tion in one department which we do not admit to be coercive in another." He shows that the /ac^ of varia- tion, besides being probable on the ground of analog3% is demonstrated by experience, and then proceeds to inquire into the causes of variation. These and cer- tain collateral questions having been investigated in a masterly manner, he warns the reader, upon concluding, that it is merely loithiu specijic bounds that he would advocate a freedom of development in obedience to in- fluence from without; and conclusively shows that the ehanare, sometimes brought against the advocates of variation, of a leaning to Lamarck's transmutation theory, is most unwarrantable, and that, on the con- APPENDIX. 313 trarj, the actual reverse is nearer the truth. For " those very hyper- accurate defiuers who recognize a ' species ' wheresoever the minutest discrepancj^ is shadowed forth, will be found eventually (however unaware of it themselves) to have been the most deter- mined abettors of that dogma — seeing that their species, if such they be, do most assuredly pass into each other." We have not the means of knowing whether the able and learned author had especial reference to the argument of Prof. Agassiz, who, in his " Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World" (Types of Mankind, by ISTott & Gliddon) charges most pre- posterously that the doctrine of the specific unity of the human races "runs inevitably into the Lamarckian development theory," but we are fully satisfied with his summary way of disposing of the charge by whom- soever preferred, and of indicating an easy method of retort. His own opinions, respecting the fixedness of species as com.patible with the fact of variation, are thus expressed in the last paragraph of his instructive little treatise. "But, whatever.be the several ranges within which the members of the oi'ganic creation are free to vary, we are positively certain that, unless the definition of a species, as mvolving relationship, is no more than, a delusion or romance, their circumferences are of necessity real, and must be indicated somewhere — as strictly, moreover, and rigidly, as it is possible for anything in nature to be chalked out. The whole ]iroblem, in that case, does in effect resolve itself to this — where, and how, are the lines of demarcation to l>e drawn? No amount of inconstancy, provided its limits bi fixed, is irreconcilable with the doctrine of specific similitudes. Like the ever-shifting curves which the white foam of the nntiring tide describes upon the shore, races may ebb and flow ; but they have their l:>oundaries in cither direction, beyond which they can never pass. And thus in every species we may detect, to a greater or less extent, the emblem of instability 14 314 APPENDIX. and permanence combined. Althougli perceived, when inquired into, to be fickle and fluctuating in their component parts, in their general outline they remain steadfast and unaltered, as of old — Still cbanging, yet unclianged ; still doomed to feel Endless mutation, in perpetual rest," The Westminster Eeview (January, 1857, p. 154,) pre- faces a highly commendatory notice of Mr. Wollas- toa's little volume with the following pertinent re- marks: "An opinion is gradually extending amongst those naturalists who look beneath the surface of their pursuit, that species-making has been carried both by botanists and zoologists, to far too great an extent ; and that the whole subject of the influence of climate, habits of life, and other external conditions, as well as of the capacity for variation inherent in each type of form, requires a thorough reinvestigation. Thus Dr. Jos. D. Hooker, in his " Introductory Essay on the Flora of New Zealand," has recently well remarked, that "the naturalist who has the true interest of sci- ence at heart, not only feels that the thrusting of an uncalled for synonym into the nomenclature of science is an exposure of his own ignorance, and deserves censure, but that a wider range of knowledge and a greater depth of study are required to prove those dis- similar forms to be identi(;al which any superficial ob- server can separate by words and a name." In the same essay, this accomplished botanist expresses the opinion that the reported number of 100,000 distinct species of flowering plants will be reduced at least one half by the careful com})arisou of the Floras of differ- ent countries. In the annual address to the Micro- scopical Society given almost contemporaneously (Feb- ruary, 1855,) by its then President, Dr. Carpenter, a similar doctrine was expressed in almost identical terms ; and we are glad to find that Mr. Wollaston, APPENDIX. 315 the accomplished author of the " Insecta Maderensia," has made it a special object of inquiry during his res- idence in the Madeira Islands," " We can cor- dially recommend tlie perusal of his little volume to every naturalist, whatever may be his special object of pursuit, who aims to exercise his intellect by grap- pling with those higher problems of the science which seem to us to be at least as serviceable for the culture and discipline of the mind as the abstractions of mathematics, or the barren investigation of what is par excellence designated as 'scholarship,' as if there was nothing in the volume of creation worthy to ex- -ercise the higher faculties of the human intellect." In like manner Prof. Dana, of Yale College, has clearly shown that liability to variation is not only not inconsistent with the permanence of species, but is in fact " j^art of the law of species." He first shews that in the inorganic world " each ele- ment is represented by a specific amount or law^ of force, and that we even set down in numbers the precise value of this force as regards one of the deepest of its qualities, chemical attraction,'' and then, turning to the organic world, deduces the same idea as essential to species, from the following considerations: "The individual is involved in the germ-cell from which it proceeds. That cell possesses certain inherent qualities or powers, bearing a definite relation to external nature, so that when having its appropriate nidus or surrounding con- ditions, it will grow, and develop out each organ and member to the completed result ; and this, both as to chemical changes, and the evolution of the structure which belongs to it as subordinate to some kingdom, class, order, genus and species in nature. The germ- cell of an organic being develops a specific result; and like the molecule of oxygen it must correspond to a measured quota or specific law of force. We can- not, indeed, apply the measure, as in the inorganic king- dom, for we have learned no method or unit of com- parison. But it must nevertheless be truej that a 316 APPENDIX. specific prcdetcriiiiiRd amount, or condition, or law of force is an equivalent of every germ-cell in the king- doms of life. We do not mean to say that there is but one kind of force; but that whatever the kind or kinds, it has a numerical value or laAV, although human arithmetic may never give it expietsion. A species among living beings, then, as well as among inorganic bodies, is based on a specific amount or con- dition of concentred force defined in the act or law of creation.'''' " What now," he asks, "may we infer with regard to the permanence or fixedness of species from a gen- eral survey of nature ? Let us turn again to the inor- ganic world. Do we there find oxygen blending by indefinite shadings with hydrogen or with any other element ? Is its combining number, its potential equivalent, a varying numbci-, usuallj^ 8, but at times 8 and a fraction, 9, and so on ? Far from this ; the number is as fixed as the universe. There are no in- definite blendings of elements. There are conibina- tions by multiples and sub-multiples, but these prove the dominance and fixedness of the combininti; num- bers. . . . This being true for inorganic nature, it is necessarily the law for all nature, for the ideas that pervade the universe are not ideas of central iety but of unity and universality beneath and through diver- sity. The units of the inorganic woiid, are the weighed elements and tlieirdefinile compcninds or their molecules. The units of the organic world are species^ which exhibit themselves in their simplest condition in the germ-cell state. The kingdoms of life in all their magnificent proportions are made fi-om these units. W^ere these units caj^able of blending with one another indefinitely, they would no longer be units, and species could not be recognized. The system of life would be a maze of complexities ; and whatever is grandeur to a being that Could comprehend the infinite, it would be unintelligible chaos to man." APPENDIX. 317 After adverting to the fact that everywhere in nature "the purity of species has been guarded with great precision," and adducing proofs which we shall quote in another connexion, he proceeds to consider the variations of species. The principles j ust laid down tcacli that each species has its specific value as a unit, whicli is essentially permanent or indestructible by any natural source of change ; and therefore, that variations have their limits, and cannot extend to the obliteration of the fundamental characteristics of a species. "Variation is a characteristic of all things finite, and is involved in the very conditions of existence. No substance or body can be wholly independent of every or any other body in the universe. , . . All the natural forces are closely related as if a common family or group, and are in constant mutual interplay. The degree or kind of variation has its specific law for each element ; and in this law the specific nature of the element is in a degree expressed. There is to each body or species, the normal or fundamental force in which its very nature consists ; and, in addition, the relation of this force to other bodies, or kinds, amounts, or conditions of force, upon which its variations de- pend. One great end of inorganic science is to study out the law of variables for each element or species. For this law is as much a part of an idea of the species as the fundamental potentiality ; indeed, the one is a measure of the other. " So again, a species in the organic kingdoms is sub- ject to variations, and upon the same principle. Its very development depends on the appropriation of material around it, and on attending physical forces or conditions, all of which are variable through the whole of its history Liability to variation is hence part of the law of species; and we cannot be said to comprehend in any case the complete idea of the type until the relations to external forces are also known. The law of variables is as much an expres- 318 APPENDIX. sion of the fundamental qualities of the sj^ecies in or- ganic as in inorganic nature ; and it should be the great aim of science to investigate it for every species. It is a source of knowledge which will yet give us a deep insight into the fundamental laws of life. Varia- tions are not to be arranged under the head of accidents ; for there is nothing accidental in nature ; what we so call, are expressions really of profound law, and often betray truth and law which we should otherwise never suspect. This process of variation is the external re- vealing the internal, through tlieir sympathetic rela- tions : it is the law of universal nature reacting on the law of special nature, and compelling the latter to ex- hibit its qualities-, it is a centre of force manifesting its potentiality, not in its ow^n inner workings, but in its outgoings among the equilibrating forces around, and thus offering us, through the known and physical, some measure of the vital within the germ. It is therefore one of the richest sources of truth open to our search. The limits of variation, it may be difficult to define among species that have close relations. But being sure that there are limits — that science, in look- ing for law and order written out in legible characters, is not in fruitless search, we need not despair of dis- covering them. The zoologist, gathering shells or molluscs from the coast of Eastern America and that of Japan, after careful study, makes out his list of identical species, with the full assurance that species are definite and stable existences."* * BiBLiOTHECA Sacra — October, 1857. Thoughts on Species, by J. D. Dana. An able writer in the Princeton Review, for January, 1859, while adopting the idea intended to be conveyed by Prof. Dana's definition of Species objects to the phraseology in which it is expressed. He does not approve of the '• disposition among naturalists to merge sub- stances into forces." "Matter,"' be urges, " however incapable of definitionor conception in itself considered is not mere force." We fully accept this latter proposition as an undeniable truth. We are, moreover, of opinion that those naturalists who have speculated most APPENDIX. 319 largely on the nature and correlations of forces have been the least disposed to substitute forces for substances, or to merge the latterinto the former. On the contrary, by insisting upon the existence and op- eration of the one they have most eflectively exhibited the province of the other as a necessary medium. Now. as will be seen by the fore- going citations. Prof. Dana by no means ignores the material germ-ceU whicli, in developing a specihc result. "' must correspond to a measured quota of force;" and when he adds that "a species its based upon (not is) a definite amount or condition of force " the expression does not seem to be obnoxious to the objection urged by the Reviewer. 320 APPENDIX. c. Note to Page 125. To furnish such of our readers as may not have access to the works of Dr. Pricharcl or those of Dr. Carpenter, with a specimen of the very careful manner in which they have collected and analyzed the facts on which the conclusions cited in the text are based, we will here introduce a quotation from each, relating, one, to the average duration of human life, the other, to the epoch of the first menstruation. " The average duration of human life is nearly the same in the different races of men. But in order to estimate the facts which bear upon this subject, an ac- count must be taken of the vast influence which climate alone exercises on the rate of mortality. It is well known that the proportional number of individuals who attain a given age, differs in different countries ; and that the warmer the climate, other circumstances being equal, so much the shorter is the average dura- tion of life. Even within the limits of Europe the dif- ference is very great. In some instances, according to the calculations of M. Moreau de Jonnes, the rate of mortality, and inversely the duration of life, differ by nearly one half from the proportions discovered in other examples. The following is a brief extract from a table joresented to the Institute by this celebrated calculator : Table c.r-i, biting the Annual Mortality in different Countries in Europe. In Sweden, from 1821 to 1825, - - 1 Prussia, " 1821 to 1824, - - - 1 Enoland, " 1821 to 1831, (Porter & Rickmau)! France, " 1825 to 1827, - - 1 Roman States, 1829 . - - - 1 Scotland, 1821 1 "The difference between twenty-eight and fifty is death in ,45 u u 39 li a 51 a li 39.5 11 n 28 i( a 50 APPENDIX. 321 very considerable ; but even the latter rate of mortality is considerably greater than that which the data col- lected by M. Moreau de Jounes attiibute to Iceland, Norway and the northern parts of Scotland. " No adequate data have yet been collected for esti- mating the comparative longevity of different races of men, after making suitable allowances for the influence of climates ; but facts are easily to be found, which prove that no great diiference exists in this respect between the most dissimilar tribes. It was calculated by Bnffon, with reference principally to white men, that a third part of the human race die before the age of ten years ; one half before that of thirty -five ; two thirds before fiftj'-two ; and three fourths before sixty- one years of age. A very different computation has been made by later writers. According to Hufeland's estimate, out of a hundred individuals born, fifty die before their tenth year, and six only live to be above the age of sixty. "Many instances of longevity in Europeans have been collected by Mr. Easton, from whose work I have taken the first of the following tables. He has dis- covered the following numbers of persons who have reached the ages below stated : From 100 to 110, both inclusive, - - 1,310 « 110 to 120 267 " 120 to 130 - - - - - 84 " 130 to 140 26 " 140 to 150 7 " 150 to 160 ----- 3 " 160 to 170 2 " 170 to 180 - ... - 3 Instances of Longevity in Negroes. Mallura Daiiflo, King of Eabbah, - - 115 Eobert Lynch, Jamaica, . - . 160 Catherine Lopez, Jamaica, ... 134 Margaret Darby. Jamaica, - - - 130 Mulatto at Fredcricktown, N. A., in 1797, - 180 Tom, a slave of Mrs. Bacon, South Carolina, 130 Joseph Ban, Jamaica, ... 145 Catherine Hiatt, Jamaica. - - - 150 14* {Natural Hisf -f ""— -- ""^^ "''" ^ 322 APPENDIX. In his " Physical Ilistorj^ of Manlviiid," Dr. Prichard shows that similar instances of longevity occur among the other races. He denies the accuracy of Dr. Rush's statement, that longevity is more rare among the Indians of North America than among white people, except when the lower longevity is plainl}- attributable to accidental causes, and to the peculiar state of certain tribes, from whom, perhaps. Dr. Rush's information was derived. Don Felix de Azara seems to have formed this opinion of the natives of South America, In describing the Charruas of Paraguay, he says that they never lose their hair, which only becomes grey by half in persons aged about eighty years. The Mexicans, says Clavigero, become grey-headed and bald earlier tlian the Spaniards; and although most of them die of acute diseases, it is not very un- common among them to attain to the age of a hundred ^^ears. We have a similar observation from M. de Humboldt respecting the native Americans. He says, " It is by no means uncommon to see at Mexico, in the temper- ate zone, half way up the Cordillera, natives, and es- l)ecially women, reach a hundred years of age. This old age is generally comfoitable ; for the Mexican and Peruvian Indians preserve their strength to the last. While I was was at Lima, the Indian, Ililario Pari, died at the village of Cliiquata, four leagues distant from thq town of Arequipa, at the age of one hundred and forty- three. He had been united in marriage for ninety years to an Indian of the name of Andrea Alea Zar, who attained the age of one hundred and seventeen. This old Peruvian went, at the age of one hundred and thirty, from three to four leagues daily, on foot." He then cites instances occurring among the Laplanders, and concludes, on the whole, that there are not any well-marked differences in respect to longevity between the different races of men, which can furnish a constant APPENDIX. 323 cliaractei'. "It would appear that the same law, as to the duration of life, has been imposed by Providence on all nations of men. In this point of view they ap- pear as one species. Even in different climates the ten.' dency to exist for a given time is the same ; the duration of life varies only from the circumstance, that the ex- ternal causes which bring about an accidental and premature catastrophe, or which wear out the health and impair the bodily frame, are more rife or more potent in one climate than in another." — {Nat. History of Man, p. 483.) The other point in regard to which we have proposed to cite statistical evidence, has respect to the epoch oj the first menstruation. On this subject, says Dr. Car- penter (Cyclopfedia of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. iv., pp. 1389, 1340), " an inquiry has been most in- dustriously prosecuted by Mr. Robekton ; and its results, published from time to time, as they were ob- tained, have been lately collected in a form which admits of easy comparison. — {Essays and Notes on the Physiology and Diseases of Women and on Practical Midivifry. 8vo, London, 1851.) It appears, from the evidence which he has brought together, that there is no considerable difference either in the average period of puberty, or in the earliest date of menstruation, among the greater number of tribes who are scattered over the whole of the habitable globe, from the equa- torial to the polar regions, and that neither has a cold climate that influence in retarding it, nor a warm one in accelerating it, which is popularly attributable to these agencies respectively. The only well-marked exception to this general rule, occurs in the case of the Hindoo females, among whom the first menstruation, on the average, is about two years earlier than in this country (England). But this only arises from the fact ihat a larger jfioporiion of first menstruations among Hindoo females, takes place in the earlier years of that period over which the commencement of puberty is 324 APPENDIX. distributed in European females, the distribution in the latter being more equable, as will be seen by tlie fol- lowing table, furnished by Mr. Eoberton : iges. Hindustan. Englai 8 - 3 9 - 8 14 10 - 18 55 11 - 80 77 12 - - 145 142 13 - 139 - 263 14 - - 105 396 15 - 45 - 417 16 - 24 340 17 - 18 - 215 18 - 5 138 19 - 3 65 20 - 1 33 21 - 2 9 22 - — 4 23 - 1 1 597 2,169 While the average age of puberty in the Hindoo female is thirteen years, and in the British fourteen years and eleven months, the per centage of menstrua- tions under eleven j^ears is nearly the same in both countries, so that the current idea of the very earl// puberty of Hindoo females is quite incorrect; and the difference in the average arises solely from the fact, that the greatest number of first menstruations occur among Hindoo females in the 12th, 13th and 14th years, whilst among the females of this country the larger proportion presents itself in the 14th, 15th and 16th years." After showing that this difference cannot be owing to climate, for the West Indian Islands have a higher mean annual temperature than Calcutta and the Dekhau, Mr. Eoberton ascribes it, with great show of reason, to the early marriages in Hindustan, it being a law of the Shastras that females shall be given in marriage hefo7-e the occurrence of menstruation. It can scarcely be questioned that sucli a premature sexual A p r E N D I X . 325 excitement will have a lendency to accelerate the epoch of puberty; and that when this is constantly acting through a long succession of generations, an eaiij ]u^berty may come to be a character of race. Again, '' when it is recollected," says Mr. Koberton, "that the consummation of marriage among the Hindoos has taken place, at the latest, on the arrival at puberty, during a lapse of more than three thousand years, and that the practice is sanctioned b}' ancient laws and consecrated by custom, it is easy to conceive that those females who were latest in reaching puberty would be the least sought after for wives — that such women wonld not be unlikely in many instances to remain unmarried — and that thus Hindoo women would grad- ually come to consist, in a proportion different from that in Europe or elsewhere, of such as by constitution are early nubile. To me there seems nothing extrav- agant or far fetched in this supposition. The produc- tion of a like state of things in England, in any par- ticular district, is quite conceivable. Nothing is bettei established, than that early or late puberty is a flimily peculiarity. Let us, then, only suppose families, pos- sessing this kind of constitution, to intermarry, and the peculiarity in question would be propagated, extended, and transmitted; and so a race, distinguished by it, would be produced," — (Op. cit., p. 129.) "It is a jus- tification of this view," adds Dr. Carpenter, "that the mean age of puberty should differ in Bengal, and the Dekhan, to the extent of nearly a year, being twelve years six months in the former province, and thirteen years five months in the latter, notwithstanding its warmer latitude ; for although formal marriages take place at a very early age throughout India, the custom is so ftir modified in the Dekhan, that consummation is not effected until after the first menstruation has ap- peared." — (Op. cit., vol. iv., p. 1340.) 326 APPENDIX Note to Page 155. Speaking of Sir Isaac Newton, the Marquis de I'Hopital, himself a great contemporary mathemati- cian, asked: "Does he eat, and drink, and sleep like other peo})le ? I represent him to myself as a celestial genius, entirely disengaged from matter." Can such a "celestial genius," one may reasonably ask, "be of the same original parentage with the Bushman, who lives in holes and caves, and devours ants' eggs, locusts and snakes?" "Can the Quniqua or Saboo, whose lan- guage is described as consisting of certain snapping, hissing, granting sounds, all more or less nasal, be of the same descent as those whose eloquent voices 'ful- mined over Greece' or shook the Roman Forum ? " It should not surj^rise us that when we contemplate exclusively the patent diversities of races and over- look the less obvious but more significant evidences of a common nature, we should shrink from the conclu- sion to which a deeper insight into the facts must yet inevitabl}^ conduct us. We have cited in the body of this essay facts whicli illustrate the argument in favor of the specific identity of diverse races, based upon a rigid analysis of their mental and moral manifestations, and shewing that these may be traced to the powers with which all men are endowed, however imperfectly they may be developed in some of the savage tribes. An- other mode of proof consists in demonsti-ating the possibility of the mutual conversion, within certain limits, of the higher and lower states of humanity. Dr. Carpenter has pointed .out a very striking ex- ample of the near affinity which may exist between the ^tSt LIBff^ APPENDIX. %lfl^327^ most degraded " outcasts of humanity, and races con- siderably advanced in civilization and intelligence. We refer to " the relationshi]) of the Bushman of the Cape of Good Hope, to the Hottentot population who tenanted that region previously to the arrival of the European colonists." The following is a graphic ac- count given of them by one who has had ample op- portunities of observation: "The residence of the Bushman is still amongst inaccessible hills, in the rude cave or cleft of the rock — on the level karroo, in the shallow burrow, scooped out with a stick, and sheltered with a frail mat. He still, with deadly effect, draws his diminutive bow and shoots his poisoned ar- rows against man and beast. Disdaining labor of any kind, he seizes when he can on the farmer's herds and flocks, recklessly destroys what he cannot devour, wallows for consecutive d:iys with vultures and jack- als amidst the carcasses of the slain, and, when fully gorged to the throat, slumbers in lethargic stupor like a wild beast, till, aroused by hunger, he is compelled to wander forth again in quest of prey. When he cannot plunder cattle, he eagerly pursues the denizens of the waste, feasts indiflferenth^ on the lion or the hedgehog, and failing such dainty morsels, philosoph- ically contents himself with roots, bulbs, locusts, ants, piec3s of hide steeped in water, or, as a last re- source, he tightens his 'girdle of famine,' and, as Pringle says — • " ' He lays him down, to sleep away, In languid trance, the weary day.' " " Whether this precarious mode of existence may or may not, have influenced the personal appearance and stature of the Bushman it is difficult to say, but a more wretched-looking set of beings cannot easily be imagined. The average hoight of the men is consider- ably under five feet, tliat of the women little exceed- 328 APPENDIX. ing four. I'heir shameless state of nearly complete nudity, their brutalized habits of voracity, filth, and cruelty of disposition, appear to place them completely on a level Avith the brute creation, Avhilst the 'click- ing' tones of a language, composed of the most unpro- nounceable and discordant noises, more resemble the jabbering of apes than sounds uttered by human be- ings."* " Now, there is ample evidence that the Cape Bush- men are a degraded caste of the Hottentot race. They agree with the Hottentots in all the peculiarities of physiognomy^, cranial conformation, etc., by which the latter are characterized ; and a careful comparison of the languages of the two races has shown that there is an essential affinity between them. It has been as- certained by Dr. Andrew Smith, tliat many of the Bushman hordes vary their speech designedly, by affecting a singular mode of utterance, (employing the peculiar clapping or clicking of the tongue, which is characteristic of the Hottentot language, so incessantly, that they seem to be giving utterance to a jargon con- sisting of an uninterrupted succession of claps,) and even adopting new words, in order to make their mean- ing unintelligible to all but the members of their own community. According to the same authority, nearly all the South African tribes who have made any ad- vances in civilization, are surrounded by more barba- rous hordes, whose abodes arc in the wilderness and in the fastnesses of mountains and forests, and who con- stantly recruit their numbers by such fugitives as crime and destitution may have driven from their own more honest and thriving communities. In this man- ner it has happened that within a comparatively recent period many tribes of Hottentots have been degraded into Bushmen, through the oppressions to which they have been subjected at the hands of their more civil- • * Lieut. Col. E. E. Napier's Excursions in Southern Africa. APPENDIX. 329 ized neighbors. Now, altliougli of the Hottentots themselves we are accustomed to form a very low esti- mate, — our ideas of them having been chiefly derived from the intercourse of the Cape settlers with the tribes which have been their nearest neighbors, and which have unfortunately undergone that deterioration which is so often found to be the first result of the contact of civilized with comparatively savage na- tions, — it appears from the accounts of them given by Dutch writers at the time of the first settlement of the Cape, that they were a people considerably advanced in civilization, and possessed of many estimable quali- ties. " The testimony of Lieut. Col. Napier is very strong as to their merits as soldiers when officered by Euro- peans. It has been frequently said that the Hottentots differ from the higher races, in their incapacity to form or to receive religious ideas. This is, however, by no means true. The early Dutch settlers describe them as having a definite relio-ion of their own; and it was their obstinate adhesion to this which was the real ob- stacle to the introduction of Christianity among them. AVhen the attempt was perseveringly made and rightly directed, the Hottentot nation lent a more willing ear than any other race in a similar condition has done to the preaching of Christianity ; and no people has been more strikingly and speedily improved by its recep- tion." {W.B. Carpenter, hoc. Git, p. 1342.) Dr. Peichaed also makes similar statements, on the authority of the Dutch voj'ager Kolben, respecting the intelligence, fid^iity and amiability of the Hottentots at the time of the first settlement of the Dutch colony. Ho fui-ther quotes an account of a Hottentot boy, who w;is bred up by the Governor Vander Stel, in the habits and religion of the Dutch, but who, subse- quently, after his return to the Cape, stripj^ed off his European dress, clothed Tiimself in sheep-skin, and emphatically renounced the society of civilized men 330 APPENDIX. and tlie Christian religion, declaring that he would live and die in the manners and customs of his fore- fathers. Now this would be taken, by those who are eager to discover fresh proofs of the unchangeableness of human types, as an evidence of a striking moral diversity between this people and the races suscep- tible of civilization ; whereas, as Prichard sagaciously remarks, we really trace here one characteristic trait of nature, as it exists in all the other races. " A sort of instinctive and blind attachment to the earliest im- pressions made upon the mind is one of. our strongest intellectual propensities. In the example above cited, it ajipears to have been equally powerful in the mind of the Hottentot as it is known to be in more cultivat- ed nations. Yet this has not prevented the spread of Christianity in the same race of people, when intro- duced among them under different circumstances." {J. C. Prichard, Physical History of Mankind.) APPENDIX 331 E. Note to Page 184. It thus appears that Prof. Agassiz, in insisting upon the ph3-siological and psychological unity of men while he yet contends for primeval distinctions of physical types, confers upon subgenera^ as composed of represe) dative or closely approximate species, the distinction which has heretofore, by the common con- sent of naturalists, been assigned to species^ of being the true units of organic nature. In view of this posi- tion, it strikes us as an exhibition of a singular lack of fitness on the part of Prof. Agassiz, when he argues that the doctrine of the specific unity of the human races ''runs inevitably into the Lamarekian develop- ment theory." Such a charge, as directed against the doctrine in" question, seems to us preposterous, and may be made to recoil with irresistible force upon Prof. Agassiz himself In asserting the specific unity of man, we insist that the tests of such unity are con- stant and undeviating, but that without touching these characters, there are others which vary within certain restricted limits, and that the varieties thence arising mav, under fiivorable circumstances, acquire the fixed- ness of species. Now, where in all this is there a lean- ing to the development theory? On the other hand, if Prof Agassiz' types of men be primordial, and repre- sent so many distinct species, these must be admitted to be liable to transmutation, since it is quite certain that they run into each other by insensible gradations, and that the actual transition has been known to take 332 APPENDIX. place in several instances. It is Ms doctrine, then, and not ours, which " runs inevitably into the development theory." And so, indeed, is his doctrine accepted by those who have no objection to its logical consequences. M. Paul Broca, rehearsing in Dr. Brown-Sequard's "Journal de Physiologic, for July, 1858," the argu- ments of " Types of Mankind," rejects the doctrine of fixedness of species. Prof. Agassiz seems to us to be less logical than some of his followers. APPENDIX. 333 F. Note to Page 298. Having on such slender evidence asserted tlie fact of the discovery of fossil men, Dr. Usher, as if in allusion to the remarks of Bishop Berkeley, proceeds to affirm that " authentic rdics of human art have been, at last, found in the diluvian drift." He refers to the re- searches of Dr. Daniel Wilson, in Scotland, and tbose of M. Boucher de Perthes, in France, as proving the existence of Pre-Celtic races, and "a surpassingly an- cient people." In answer to this statement, let it suf- fice to reproduce the comments of a writer in the Westminster Review, no unfriendly critic, but one whose prejudices incline him to adopt the conclusions of Usher, Nott, Glidilon, &c., with reference to the in- definite antiquity of human races. The reviewer says: " It may be seriously questioned, whether any Brit- ish barrow, yet opened, can belong to a period beyond two or three thousand years before the Christian era, whilst there are reasons for believing that they mostly fall much within such period. Assuming this view, which we admit is not supported by such positive data as could be desired, to be not very grossly inaccurate, we may well require evidence of the inost unexcep- tionable character, where an antiquity is claimed for human remains, to which that of the Egyptian pyra- mids is a mere trifle. In the admirable work of Squier and Davis, on the ' ancient monuments of the Missis- sippi valley,' the subject of the age of these monuments is discussed in a cautious manner, yet the writer.-; are 334 APPENDIX. disposed to claim for them an antiquity considerably greater than that of our British barrows, principally from finding the bones in a less firm condition. With- out denying that they may be quite f.s old as these primeval monuments of our country, or even older, we may observe that the experience of English anti- quaries is in favor of not relying with too much con- fidence on this state of preservation of bones, without taking the conditions of interment into account. At the same time, the bones of ancient Britons are only rarely found in a perfect and firm state ; and the hills and downs of this countr}' must present quite as favorable features for the preservation of human re- mains as the teri'aces of the river valleys of the United States. The reasoning based on the mound-builders never having selected the lowest of these terraces for their works, whence it has been inferred that this last terrace was formed subsequently to the erection of the mounds, always appeared to us weak and inconclusive." "Such subjects as these offer a shining field for the work of the imagination ; and Dr. Usher, earnest in support of a favorite hypothesis, in quoting freely from the writings of one of our continental neighbors, seems to be quite regardless of national propensities, — other- wise, he would have hesitated before he endorsed with his countenance some of M. Boucher de Perthes' Celtic haiHiners and pickaxes, which are neither more nor less than fragments of the antlers of deers, each retaining one of its tines ; so as to make them hammers arid pick- axes in forin alone, just as much as the pexoter toys of children are tongs and pokers and fnjing-pansJ'' (West- minster Review, April, 1856.) We may now observe that the undoitbted monu ments of early races unknown to history furnish us with many significant indications of their common origin. Our limits preclude extended specifications, but we invite the attention of our readers to an inter- esting article in the " Protestant Episcopal Quarterly APPENDIX- 335 Review and Churcli Register," for Ootobc^r, 1858, " on the Monuments of Lost Races." One or two facts only we can cite here. Among the ornamental carvings on some of the monuments seen by Mr. Stephens, in Central America, he was struck by the representatioy-is of the dcphan(s trunk. "And in one place, he discovered, near the base of an obelisk idol, a colossal stone head of a crocodile. Neither of these creatures, it will be re- membered, belonged, at the age of the discovery, to the An-ierican continent." These facts furnish, in our opinion, a conclusive proof of the eastern origin of the builders of the monuments. In Peru it was found "that the mummied dead were buried in a sitting posture, whether in rock-hewn sepulchral chambers, or in galleries beneath vast mounds of earth or stone." Now, in the Loo Choo Islands, as recently explored by otfiicers of our gov- ernment, were found "neglected rock-tombs," and the singular old custom of burying the dead in a sitting posture, and that remarkable style of architectui-e known in Europe as the " Old Cyclopean." The Cyclopean buildings found in Italy and Greece, and indicating the existence in those countries of ante- historical races have, says Niebuhr, "a great resem- blance in style to those of ancient Egypt, especially to the peculiar colossal nature of Egyptian architecture. We, moreover, find in them pointed arches instead of vaults, just as in Egyptian buildings." In connexion with this subject, we might adduce the monuments and traditions among the most diverse and widely scattered nations relating to the flood. The traditions exist among nearly all the races of the earth, and in many, often very many, and most signif- icant circumstantial details agree with the Scriptural account of the Noachian deluge. Among the monu- ments which relate to the same catastrophe may be mentioned the Apamseau Medal, struck during the s^ 36 APPENDIX. reign of Philip tlie Elder, at the town of Apamea, in Phrygia. " This city is known to have been formerly called Cibotus, or "the ark," and it is also known that the coins of cities in that age exhibited some leading point in their mythological history." "It was," says Bryant, "undoubtedly named Cibotus, in memorj^c^f the ark, and of the history with which it is con- nected. And in proof of this, we shall iind that the pco]ile had preserved more particular and authentic traditions concerning the flood, and the preservation of mankind through Noah, than are to be met with elsewhere. ***** Upon the reverse (of the coin) is delineated a kind of square machine floating upon the water. Through an opening in it are seen two persons, a man and a woman, as low as to the breast ; and upon the head of the woman is a veil. Over this ark is a kind of triangular pediment, upon which sits a dove ; and below it another, which seems to flutter its wings, and holds in its mouth a small branch of a tree. Before the machine is a man following a woman, who by their attitude seem to have just quitted it and to have got upon dry land. Upon the ark itself, underneath the persons there inclosed, is to be read, in distinct characters, N£2E," being the very word for Noah used in the Greek tongue. {Analysis of Ancient Mythology^ by Jacob Bryant Esq., vol. III., p. 47. See also Kitto's Daily Bible Illustrations. New York : E. Carter & Bi'others, 1854, — volume on the An- tediluvians and Patriarchs, for various monuments and traditions of the flood.) Now with regard to traditions relating directly to the question of the affiliations of races, we find certain significant and interesting statements in a paper read before the Ethnological section of the British Scientific Association, at Dublin, in August, 1857, by Eear- Admiral FiTZROY. This experienced traveller says: "In the West of America, the natives look to the west as the place from which they came, and bury APPENDIX. 337 their dead towards the west (placing them ' towards the spirits of their ancestors,' as they say): while the natives of the east coast of Patagonia point to the east- ward as the quarter whence they came, and then bury their dead on the highest hills to the eastvyard for a similar reason. It is remarkable that none of them derived their origin from their present localities in America. In Africa, the natives point to the north as the place of their origin. And, briefly, all aboriginal tribes have been found by travellers and the learned, to derive their origin more or less directly from the central regions of Asia," p. 181. 15 338 APPENDIX. G. (Reprinted from the " Prot. Episcopal Review and Church Reg. ," for October, 1857 ) Lidigenons Baces of the Earth ; or, New Chapters of Ethnological Inquiry ; including Monographs on Special Departments of Philology, Iconography, Cranioscojyy, Pcdcmntology, Pathology, Arehmology, Comparative Geography, and Natural History: con tributed by Alfred Maury, Bibliothecnire do I'lnstitut de France, etc., etc., Francis Pulsky, Fellow of the Hungarian Academy, etc., etc., and J. Aitken Meigs, M. D., Librarian of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, etc., etc, (with communications from Prof. Jos. Leidy, M. D., and Prof L. Agasbiz, LL.D.) Presenting fresh Investigations, Documents, and Ma- terials, by J. C. NoTT, M. D., and Geo. R. Gliddon, Authors of "Types of Mankind." Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. London : Triibner & Co. 18.57. Under tlie above title, covering, as our readers will perceive, an imposing array of the names of several distinguished collaborators, a new work has been put fortli by tlic authors of the "Types of Mankind," wherein a second and more flagrant attempt is made to propagate their infidel opinions respecting the claims of the Bible to be received as the inspired Word of God. Under the cover of a pretended discussion of cei'tain ethnological problems, occasion is taken to heap obloquy and contempt upon the sacred Scriptures, and all who hold these in reverence. Such, at least, is the staple of that large portion of the work which appears under the name of Gliddon, as we shall demonstrate by means of a few specimens selected almost at ran- APPENDIX. 389 dom. It gives us mucli jjleasure to add, that the paper of Dr. Nott on Acclimation (his only contribu- tion to the work) is unobjectionable in its tone and spirit, though, in our opinion, its conclusions are far from being sustained by the facts on which they are based. Having so recently taken a survey of the entire ground of the discussion between the respective ad- vocates of the unity and the diversity of the human races, we shall coniine ourselves on the present occa- sion to such topics as are immediately suggested by the statements of the work whose title heads this article. One or two general remarks may be premised before we enter upon the task of special and detailed criti- cism. We observe, then, in the first place, that while the attempt is obviously made throughout the work to justify the promise of its imposing title, the careful and sagacious reader of these "New Chapters," will fail to recognize a single new argument, or to find any new support to the arguments advanced in the " Types of Mankind" in favor of the diversity doctrine, which arguments, as we have seen, in our notices of the lat- ter work, do not bear the test of critical scrutiny. Our second preliminary general remark relates to the changed tone of the writers, when referring to the present state of the discussion as between them and the believers in human unity. For, strange as it may sound to the readers of the "Types of Mankind," even Gliddon himself admits that "the diversity view is not yet absolutely proven" — that the proofs of di- versity are chiefly of a negative character — and that " these questions being still sub judice^ some discovery in science now unforeseen, may hereafter establish unity upon a certain basis." Concessions of equal or greater significance aro made by other contributors to the work, as will be seen below. Prof. Agassiz, in a letter of three pages, merely reiterates the two principal statements of his " Sketch. 340 APPENDIX. of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World," pub- lished in the " Types of Mankind." We refer, of course, to his labored attempt to demonstrate a coincidence be- tween the boundaries of the natural zoological prov- inces and " tlie natural range of the distinct types of man," and to his most extraordinary assertion that the linguistic affinities of races are not significant of a community of origin, but are merely the necessary re- sults of a common generic nature ; it being, in his opinion, just as natural and spontaneous for different tribes of men, even though of diverse origin, to speak alike as it is for different species of ducks to " quack." Having heretofore noticed and, as we think, fully re- futed both these statements, we find in the letter un- der consideration little else that demands special re- mark. An attempt is made to create a presumption in fiivor of the specific diversity of the different types of man by adverting to the parallel case of the orang ou- tangs of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, which, on the au- thority of Professor Richard Owen and Dr. Jef- freys Wyman, are held to belong to at least three distinct species. Prof Agassiz avers " that the orangs differ from one another in the same manner as the races of man do ; so much so, that, if these orangs are dif- ferent species, the different races of men which inhab- it the same countries, the Malays and the Negrillos, must be considered also as distinct species." This, at first view, seems a very plausible argument, but it will not bear examination. Its whole strength lies in the quiet assumption implied by the words which we have italicized. But we may be permitted to call for the proof of the assertion tliat the " orangs differ from one another in the same manner as the races of man do," and especially for the evidence sustaining the con- verse proposition that tbey resemble one another in the same manner as the races of man do, since the argu- ment is utterly without value unless the proposition be applied in both forms. We will, then, inquire of APPENDIX. 341 tJie learned Professor whether these specijicalhj different orangs have ever been known to cross their breed and pro- dxice a prolific offspring^ and whether it has ever been shown that there is as close a correspondence between them in respect to physiological and psychological characters as we have made out for all the varieties of man. If, as is doubtless the fact, very little is known on these subjects, we protest against the obvious fal- lacy of such analogical reasoning as this. After all, too. Professor Owen and Dr. Wyman may be wrong insupposing that these orangs are of different species, as undoubtedly they w^ould themselves be convinced were it possible to prove that the orangs resembled and differed from each other in the same manner as the races of men do. Professor Agassiz himself admits that " they are considered by some of the most emi- nent zoologists as constituting only one single species ;" and that such " is the opinion of Andreas Wagner, who, by universal consent, ranks as one of the high- est authorities in questions relating to the natural his- tory of the Mammalia." The truth is. Professor Ag- assiz violates one of the simplest rules of logic, in attempting to elucidate the specific relations of the human races by referring to the case of the orangs. It is a futile effort to explain the obscurum per obscurius. We often, indeed, throw light upon questions relating to the human functions by comparing these with the simpler manifestations of life in lower animals ; but where, as in the case under consideration, we know a great deal more about the varieties of man than we do of the anthro]ooid brutes, so far, at least, as the tests of specific relationships are concerned, it is pre- posterous to reason from the less known to the better known. We are quite indifferent as to what may be the final decision of naturalists on this question of the specific relations of the orangs Either they all belong to one single species, as AYagner believes, in which case the argument of Professor Agassiz would refute his 342 APT END IX. present conclusions, or thej belong to more tnan one species ; but if this should be demonstrated, the lyroof would consist, not exclusively or mainly in the slight anatomical differences by which they are marked, but chiefly in the absence of those evidences of specific unity ivhich have been so abundantly substantiated in the case of the human races. In immediate juxtaposition with the letter of Prof. Agassiz appears one from Dr. Joseph Leidy, Pro- fessor of Anatomy in the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania. This accomplished palae- ontologist expresses a somewhat hesitating belief in the indefinite antiquity of man, but candidly admits the utter inadequacy of the proof of this doctrine. Thus he says: " While engaged in palseontological researches, I sought for earlier records of the aborig- inal races of man than have reached us through vague traditions or through later authentic history, but with out being able to discover any positive evidenx^es of the exact geological period of the advent of man in the fauna of the earth. The numerous facts which have been brought to our notice touching the discovery of human bones, and rude implements of art, in association with the remains of animals of the earlier pleiocene deposits, are not conclusive evidence of their contemporaneous ex- istence.'''' Again, after expressing the conjecture that " primitive races of man may have already inhabited the intertropical regions," at a period coeval with the Glacial epoch of the northern hemisphere, he admits that '■'■ no satisfactory evidence has been adduced in favor of this early appearance of ntan,^^ but adds, that he is " strongly inclined to suspect that such evidence will yet be discovered. When such discovery shall have been made, it will be time enough to consider the method of reconciling the fact \\ii\\ the teachings of the Scriptures. At present, we claim the benefit of Dr. Leidy's admission that no such evidence has yet been discovered. A p r E N D I X . 343 We arc pleased to have it in our power to state in this connection that Dr. Leidy agrees with Sir Charles Lyell, as to the recent age of the human hip-bone found near Natchez, in association with the remains of the Mastodon, Mylodon, Megalonjx, Ereptodon, and other extinct species. He does not, indeed, positively deny that it was contemporaneous with the remains of the extinct animals, but he regards the supposition of Sir Charles Lyell, with respect to its subsequent intro- duction among the latter, to be highly probable, and proves conclusively " that bones of recent animals, when introduced into the older deposits, may, in many cases, very soon assume the condition of the fossils belonging to those deposits. Thus fossilization, petri- faction, or lapidification, is no positive indication of the relative age of organic remains. The miocene vertebrate remains of the Himalayas are far more com- pletely fossilized than the like remains of the eocene deposits of the Paris basin; and the remains of the tertiary vertebrata of Nebraska are more fossilized than those of the secondary deposits beneath." The letters which have just engaged our attention appear in the Preface of the work. The first Chapter consists of an Essay "On the Distribution and Classi- fication of Tongues" — their relation to the Geographical Distribution of Paces ; and on the inductions which maybe drawn from these relations, by Alfred Maury, Librarian of the French Imperial Institute, Secretary- General of the Soci^t^ de Geographic de Paris." This is an intei-esting, and, in many respects, an instructive paper. AVc might admit the general accuracy of the facts brought together by the author without being led to his conclusions. On the conti'ary, we should derive from those facts views that differ in some respects very materially from those which he has announced. M. Maury, without attempting to demonstrate the jilural origin of mankind, assumes such origin as a postulate, and then aims to show that languages are 344 APPENDIX. susceptible of the same classification as trie races — that allied tongues belong to allied races — that the alliance of races adequate to explain affinity of tongues needs not to be that of blood nor even that which has re- sulted from long intercourse, but is merely that of a common grade of intellectual development. In other words, lie sustains the untenable hypothesis of Prof. Agassiz, to which allusion has just been made, and which we have seen has been sufficiently refuted by the convincing reasoning of the Chevalier Bunsen. Speaking of the Basque or Iberian tongue, he indi- cates a characteristic which serves to connect it with the Tartar tongues of Central Asia. Thus, he says : " It (the Basque tongue) composes ' de toutes pieces,' the idea-word; suppresses often entire syllables ; and, in this work of composition, preserving sometimes but a single letter of the primitive word, it presents those adjunctive particles that by philologists are termed postpositions — as opposed to prepositions — which serve to distinguish cases." In this manner it is that the Basque constructs its declension. This new characteris- tic reappears in another great family of languages which we shall discuss anon, namely,the Tartar tongues belong- ing to Central Asia. '■'■The Basque consequently denotes a very primitive intellectual state of the people who occupied Western Europe previously to the arrival of the Indo- Europeans ; and, were it allowable to draw an induction from an isolated characteristic, one might suppose that the Iberes were, as a race, allied to the Tartar. But this hypothesis, daring as it is, receives a new degree of probability fi'om the study of the second group of the European languages, foreign to the Indo-Germanic source, — namely, the Finnish group. This group is not restricted to a few idioms on the north-east of Europe. It extends itself over all the territory of northern Eussia, even to the extremity of Kamtschatka. Com- parison of the numerous idioms spoken by tribes spread over Siberia has revealed a common bond be- APPENDIX . 345 tween them, as well of grammar as of vocabulary. These tongues, which might be comprehended under the general appellation Finno-t/ajJonic (from the names of those occupying upon the map the two extremes of their chain) offer this same characteristic of aggluti- nation which has just been signalized in the Basque, but in a much less degree. They make use of that curious system of postpositions which appertains also to the ancient idiom of the Iberes. Those terminations destined to represent cases are replaced by prepositions distinct from the word, which in our languages pre- cede, on the contrary, the words of which they modify the case. It must be noted that the apparition of these postpositions invariably antecedcs, in the gradual for- mation of tongues, the employment of cases ; wliereas prepositions replace these when the tongue becomes altered and simplified. Cases are nothing, indeed, but the result of the coupling of the postposition to words. The organic march of the declension presents itself, therefore, throughout the evolution of languages, in the following manner, — namely, at first the root (or radical) ordinarily monosyllabic ; next, the radical fol- lowed by postpositions, corresponding to the period of agglutination; again, the radical submitted to the flexion — corresponding to the ancient period of our Indo- European tongues; and finally, the preposition followed by the radical, corresponding to the modern period of these same languages. It is to be noted that the postposititm (in relative age) never returns subse- quently to the preposition — any more than can the milk-teeth o:ro\v again in an old man after the loss of his molars. Thus, then, the age of the Finnish tongues and of the Basque is fixed. They were idioms of anal- ogous organization, and of which the arrest of devel- opment announces a sufficiently feeble degree of intellectual power. The brethren of the Aryas and Iranians, upon penetrating into Europe, had only, therefore, to combat populations living in a state anal- 346 APPENDIX. ogous to that in which we find the hordes of Siberia." We present this passage as setting fourth in a very striking manner the peculiar views of M. Maur3^ It will be observed that he holds the Iberes, as a race, to be allied to the Tartar tribes, and this too on the ground of linguistic affinities. But by such admitted alhance he does not intend to imply consanguinity, or the relationship of descent from a common stock ; he onl}^ refers to the afiinity of a common intellectual state. He recognizes, as other pliilologists do, two degrees of relationship among languages, — namely, "the relationship of words coupled with a conformity of the general grammatical system ; and this conformity without similitude of vocabularj^" When languages offer the former degree of relationship, he terms them daughters or sislers, im|)lying that they have sprung from a common stock; but when ihev are connected only through the second kind of relationship, he terms them allied, by which he implies nothing more than a similar mental organization in the tribes whicli speak them. The European languages of the Indo-Germanic stock furnish a striking instance of the former kind of relationship. On this point M. Maury speaks as de- cidedly as Prichard, Bunsen, or Max Miiller would speak. " This distiibution of languages in Europe," says he, "co-relative in their afllinity with the antique idioms once spoken from the shores of the Caspian Sea to the banks of the Ganges, is an incontestable index to the Asiatic ORIGIN of the peoples who speak them. One cannot here suppose a fortuitous circumstance. It isclearly seen that these tribes issuing from- Asia had impinged one against another ; and the Celts, as the most ayicient immi- grants on the European continent, have ended hy becoming its most occidental inhabitants.'''' *In view of such unexceptionable reasoning as this, we must largely quality the averment we have made that M. Maury sustains the singularly extreme views of Prof. Agassiz on the explanation of linguistic APPENDIX. 347 affinities. For he thus distinctly admits that a simili- tude of vocabulary, coupled with grammatical con- formity, is adequate to demonstrate community of origin. He, however, agrees with Prof. Agassiz in assuming that no amount of conformity in grammati- cal construction does of itself establish the fact of a common origin of the tongues in which such con- formity is found without similar words. On this point he is directly at issue with the great body of compara- tive philologists, nearly all of whom hold that the evidence furnished by this kind of conformity is often of more value in proving the common origin of lan- guages, than that supplied by the discovery of similar words. For the vocabularies are, for various and obvious reasons, far more liable to change than the system of grammatical construction, which, to a cer- tain extent, does, indeed, depend upon the degree of intellectual development and the modes of thought of a people, but by no means to such an extent as is as- serted in the gratuitous hypothesis of M. Maury. Similar modes of thought and an equal degree of intellectual development do not necessarily or natural- ly give rise to uniformity of grammatical construction among nations of different origin. Grammatical con- struction is by for too arbitrar}'- to permit us to adopt such an hypothesis. Moreover, this theory is suffi- ciently refuted by the fact that nations far advanced in knowledge and civilization have yet retained almost unchanged their earliest form of grammatical con- struction, which thus ceases to be a true exponent of their intellectual state. Thus " the Chinese, for in- stance, of all known languages, most completely pre- serves, in a fixed or stereotyped condition, that earliest phase in the development of speech, in which every word corresponded to or represented a substantial object in the outer world; and it cannot be denied that a considerable amount of intellectual development is to be found amidst that people. And from what is 348 APPENDIX. known of the ancient Egyptian language, this appears to have been nearly in the same condition. On the other hand, there are many languages of comparatively barbarous nations, even belonging to the same group with the Chinese, which possess much greater flexi- bility."* Now such facts are plainly incompatible with M. Maury's theory, according to which it is held, not only "that speech is with man as spontaneous as locomotion," but also that a similarity of intellectual development always produces a similarity of grammati- cal construction in the languages of races of diverse origin, and that primitive tongues change their gram- matical construction in advancing to higher phases of development in correspondence with the intellectual improvement of the peoples by whom they are spoken. This theory at first view seems plausible, and is recommended by a certain simplicity, but we must take care not to mistake an artificial simplicity, which ignores much that ought to be explained, for the true simplicity of nature, which includes in one harmonious system all the diversified phenomena pertaining to the subject to be elucidated. It may be a very simple thing, in, perhaps, more than one sense of the word, to assume that the linguistic affinities of certain races depend solely on their siniilaiity as to intellectual organization, but it is certain that such a theory can never truly satisfy a reflecting mind, and utterly fails to explain the diversities^ whether of kind or degree, which are observed among the laiiguages of these same races. If, then, it were really true, as is alleged by M. Maury, that the linguistic families coincide (with tolerable exactitude) with the more trenched divisions of mankind, and that the relationship between the allied tongues was, in many cases, a mere conformity « W. B. Carpenter, Cyclopsedia of Anatomy and Physiology. Vol iv., p. 1347. APPENDIX. 349 of grammatical construction without verbal corres- pondence, it would yet be far more natural to conclude that such conformity, in a matter so conventional as that of the mode of expressing the relations of words in a sentence, must have been the result of a common origin, than that two or more tribes of distinct origin should have spontaneously fallen into the same mode. But in point of fact, the conclusions of comparative philologists in respect to the descent of different races of men from a common stock are seldom based upon grammatical conformity alone, being almost always founded on the double conformity of grammatical con- struction and verbal correspondence. It is true that they often succeed in establishing community of origin in respect to races whose languages have few or no words in common, but then they do this by demon- strating the affinity of each with some third race by means of verbal correspondences such as suffice to prove a common descent. What this proof is, we haTe heretofore indicated by quotations from the writ- ings of Prichard and Bunsen. Inasmuch, however, as the point is yet contested by Prof Agassiz and the editors of the work we are noticing, we are induced to lay before our readers a very interesting and popular exposition by Dr. Latham of the views generally ac- cepted by comparative philologists on this subject. " The value of language," remarks this competent judge, " has been overrated — chiefl}^, of course, by the philologists. And it has been undervalued. The anatomists and archaeologists, and above all, the zoolo- gists, have done this. The historian, too, has not known exactly how to appreciate it, when its phe- nomena come in collision with the direct testimony of authorities — the chief instrument in his owm line of criticism. It is overrated when we make the affinities of speech between two populations absolute evidence of connection in the way of relationship. It is over- rated when wc talk of tongues being i/nmutaUe, and of 850 APTEXDIX. languages never dying. On the other hand, it is unduly disparaged when an inch or two of diiference of sta- ture, a difference in the taste for fine arts, a modifica- tion in the religious belief, or a disproportion in the influence upon the aftairs of the world, is set np as a mark of distinction between two tribes speaking one and the same tongue, and alike in other matters. Now, errors of each kind are common. The perma- nence of language as a sign of orisin must be deter- mined, like everything else of the same kind, by in- duction ; and this tells us that both the loss and reten- tion of a native tongue are illustrated by remarkable examples. It tells both waj^s. In St. Domingo we have Negroes speaking French ; and this is a notable instance of the adoption of a foreign tongue. But the circumstances were peculiar. One tongue was not changed for another ; since no Negro language pre- dominated. The real fact was a mixture of languages — and this is next to no language at all. Hence, when French became the language of the Haytians, the usual obstacle of a previously existing common native tongue, pertinaciously and patriotically retained, was wanting. It superseded an indefinite and conflicting mass of Negro dialects, rather than any particular Negro language Lastly — for I am illustrating, not exhausting, the subject — there died, in the year 1770, at Karczag, in Hungary, an old man named Varro ; the last man, in Europe, that knew even a few words of the language of his nation. Yet this nation was and is a great one; no less a one than that of the ancient Komanian Turks, some of whom invaded Europe in the eleventh century, penetrated as far as Hungary, settled there as conquerors, and retained their language till the death of this same Varro. The rest of the nation j'emained in Asia ; and th(3 present occupants of the parts between the Caspian and the Aral are their descendants. Languages, then, may be lost ; and one may be superseded by another APPENDIX. 351 On the other hand, the pertinacity with which lan- guage resists the attempts to supersede it, is of no common kind. Without g*>ing to Siberia or America, the great habitats of the broken and fragmentary fami- lies, we may find instances much nearer home. In the Isle of Man the native Manks still remains ; though dominant Norsemen and dominant Anglo- Saxons have brought their great absorbent languages in collision with it. In Malta, the laborers speak Arabic — with Italian, with English, and with a Lingua Franca around them. In the western extremities of the Pyrenees, a language neither French nor Spanish is spoken, and. has been spoken for centuries — possibly" millenniums. It was once the speech of the southern half of France, and of all Spain. This is the Basque of Biscay." " A reasonable philologist makes similarity of lan- guage strong — very strong — prima facie evidence in favor of conmuuiity of descent. When does it imply this, and when does it merely denote commercial or social intercourse? We can measure the phenomena of languages, and exhibit the results numerically. Thus, the ^jer centage of words common to two langua- ges may be 1, 2, 3, 4 — 98, 99, or any intermediate number. But now comes the application of a maxim : Ponderanda non numeranda. We ask what sort of words coincide, as well as how manyf When the names of such objects as fire^ coaler. su7i, moon, star, hand, tooth, tongue, foot, etc., agree, we draw an infer- ence very diiferent from the one which arises out of the presence of such words as ennui, fashion, quadrille, violin, etc. Common sense distinguishes the words which are likely to be borrowed from one language into another, from those which were originally com- mon to the two. There is a certain amount of French words in English, — that is, of words borrowed from the French. I do not know the percentage, nor yet the time requir- 352 A P P E NMJ I X . ed for their introduction ; and as I am illustrating the subject rather than seeking specific results, this is un- important. Prolong the time, and multiply the words ; remembeiing that the former can be done indefinitely. Or, instead of doing this, increase the points of con- tact between the languages. What follows? We soon begin to think of a familiar set of illustrations ; some classical and some vulgar : of the Delphic ship, so often mended as to retain but an equivocal iden- tity; of the Highlander's knife, with its two new blades and three new handles; of Sir John Cutler's silk stockings, degenerated into worsted by darnings. We are brought to the edge of a new question. We must tread slowly, accordingly. In the English words call-esi!, call-e//i (call-s,) and c&W-ed, we have two parts ; the first being the root itself, the second a sign of per- son^ or ten-'ie. The same is the case with the word fa- ther-5, son-5, etc. ; except that the -s denotes case ; and that it is attached to a substantive instead of a verb. Again, in wis-e?- we have the sign of a comparative ; in wis-es^, that of a superlative degree. All these are inflexions. If we choose we may call them inflexional elements ; and it is convenient to do so, since we can analyze words and contrast the different parts of them : for example, in call-s^ the call is radical, the -s inflex- ional. Having become familiarized Avilh this distinc- tion, we may now take a word of French or German origin — ^2iy fashion or itxdtz. Each, of course, is for- eign. Nevertheless, when introduced into English, it takes an English inflexion. Hence we say, if I dress absurdly it is fashions faidt ; also, 1 am wallz-'mg, I waltz-Qd, he waltz-es, and so on. In these ])articular words, then, the inflexional part has been English, even when the radical was foreign. This is no isola- ted fact. On the contrary, it is sufficiently common to be generalized, so that the grammatical pnrt of language has been accredited with a permanence which has been denied to the glossaricd or vocahidar. The one chan- APPENDIX. 353 ges, the other is constant ; the one is immortal, the other fleeting; the one form, the other matter. Now it is imaginable that the glo~sarial and grammatical tests maj be at variance. They would be so if all our English verbs came to be French, yet still retain- ed their English inflexions in -ecZ, -s, -ing, etc. They would be so if all the verbs were like fashion^ and all the substantives like quadrille. This is an extreme case ; still, it illustrates the question. Certain Hindu lanffuaoes are said to have nine tenths of the vocables common with a language called the Sanskrit, but none of their inflections; the latter being chiefly Tamul. What, then, is the language itself? This is a question which divides philologists. It illustrates, however, the difference between the two tests — the grammatical and the glossarial. Of these, it is safe to say that the for- mer is the more constant. Yet the philological meth- od of investigation requires caution. Over and above the terms which one language borrows from another, and which denote intercourse rather than affinity, there are two other classes of little or no ethnological value. 1. Coincidences may he merely accidentcd. The likelihood of their being so is a part of the doctrine of chances. The mathematician may investigate this ; the philologist merely finds the data. Neither has been done satisfactorily, though it was attempted by Dr. T. Young. 2. Coincidences may have an organic connection. No one would say that because two na- tions called the same bird by the name cuckoo, the term had been borrowed by either from the other, or by both from a common source. The true reason would be plain enough. Two populations gave a name on imitative principles, and imitated the same object. Son and brother.^ sister and daughter — if these agi'oe, the chances are that a philological affinity is at the bottom of the agreement. But does the same apply to papa and mamma, identical in English, Carib, and perhaps twen- tv other languages ? No. They merely show that 354 APPENDIX. the infants of different countries begin with the same sounds. Such — and each class is capable of great expansion — are the cases where philology requires caution,"* AYe have seen that Prichard, Bunsen, and other eminent philologists, who, on data derived from the study of languages, advocate the doctrine of a com- munity of descent for all the human tribes, enjoin a like caution in founding conclusions on mere verbal coincidences. And yet these eminent philosophers are rudely assailed, not indeed personally, but as members of a class, by Mr. Luke Burke, who avers that " a whole tribe of comparative philologists, with a fatuity almost inconceivable, have coolly withdrawn the science of ethnology from the control of zoology, and settled it to their own infinite satisfaction, as per catalogue of barbarian vocabularies." Mr. Gliddon, with characteristic complacency, indorses the charge, and applies it personally to Dr. Latham, whom he flippantly terms " an inexhaustible, learned, and labo- rious ethnological ' catalogue-maker.' " He seemingly forgets that even M. Maury, in favor of whose specu- lations, as an attempt to support the diversity doctrine, Mr. Gliddon is willing for the nonce to lay aside his usual expressions of contempt for comparative philol- ogy and its professors, fully admits the significance of "a similitude of vocabulary" in establishing a com- mon origin for difterent tongues. How much more rational is the system thus impotentl}^ assailed, than the gratuitous theory which asserts that it is just as natural for races of men presenting similai' typical characters to use spontaneously similar modes of speech without borrowing from a common source, as it is for all species of thrush " to sing thrushwA," as is alleged by Prof. Agassiz. Dr. Carpenter, indeed, men- * R. G. Latham. Man and his Migrations. New York. 1855 Pp. 87-94. APPENDIX. 355 tions a fact which is utterly irreconcilable with this theory : " It is not a little curious," he remarks, " that the linguistic affinity should often be strongest where the conformity in physical characters is slightest, and weakest where this is strongest. Thus, among the Malayo-Polynesian and the American Kaces, as already remarked, there are very striking difierences in con- formation, features, complexion, etc. ; and yet the linguistic affinity of the great mass of tribes forming each group is not now doubted by any philologist, though a doubt may still hang over some particular cases. On the other hand, the hiatus between the Turanian and the Seriform languages is very wide ; but the physical conformity is so strong between the Chinese and the typical Mongolian nations, that no ethnologist has ever thought of assigniiig to them a distinct origin. So, again, there would seem to be no near relationship between the American and the Tu- ranian languages ; but the affinity of the two stocks appears to be established by the transition link afford- ed by the E.-qtiimaux, which are Mongolian in their conformation and American in their language."* We do not overlook the fact that the comparison here made has reference to conformity or the want of it, in respect to "physical characters," whereas accord- ing to tht! special theory of M. Maury, the comparison is made witli reference to equality of " intellectual state;" but inasmuch as our opponents are adherents of that school of "positive" philosophy, which holds that the lihysiqiie determines the morale^ to such an extent that even linguistic affinities are to be explained on the ground of special resemblances " in the internal structure of the throat," they, of course, are estopped from raising any objection on that score to the signifi- cance of the fact noticed by Dr. Carpenter. W. B. Carpenter. Op. Cit., p. 1347. 356 APPENDIX. We have risen from the perusal of M. Maury's in- structive paper with a strengthened conviction of the value of tlie evidence derived from comparative phil- ologj^, in establishing a community of descent for the most diverse types of mankind. He has himself pre- sented most pregnant examples of such evidence, though, in blind adherence to a foregone conclusion, he refuses to perceive their real bearing. Chapter II. is entitled, " Iconographic Researches on Human Races and their Arts^'''' by Francis Pulszky, late Under Secretary of State in Hungary. In this paper the author attempts to establish the following facts : "I. That whilst some races are altogether unfit for imitative art, others are by nature artistical in differ- ent degrees. " II. That the art of those nations which excelled in painting and sculpture, was often indigenous and always national ; losing not only its type, but likewise its excellence, by imitating the art of other nations. "III. That imitative art, derived from intercourse with, or conquest by, artistic races, remained barren, and never attained any degree of eminence ; that it never survived the external relations to which it owed its origin, and died out as soon as intercourse ceased, or when the artistic conquei'ors became amalgamated with the unartistic conquered race. " IV. That painting and sculpture are always the result of a peculiar artistical endowment of certain races, which cannot be imparted by instruction to un- artistical nations. This htness or aptitude for art seems to be altogether independent of the mental culture and civilization of a people ; and no civil or r. ligious prohibitions can destroy the natural impulse of an artistical race to express its feelings in pictures, statuaiy, and reliefs." We are by no means satisfied that the author has succeeded in "establishing" his conclusions, but we APPENDIX. 357 do not care to argue this point, and are willing, for the sake of argument, but only for that reason, to concede his several positions. We yet hold that they lend no countenance to the doctrine of the plural origin or specihc diversity of men. The case would be perfectlj^ parallel to that of the permanency of any other characteristic, whether physical or moral, of well-established varieties. It has been shown tliat peculiarities, whether of bodily conformation or of physical temperament, may be transmitted to off- spring, even though they had been acquired by the progenitors. Not knowing the origin of the principal varieties of the human species, we cannot, of course, account for their diversities in respect to artistical capacity, any more than we can account for differences of stature, conformation of skull, color of skin, etc., each and all of which we have found to be invalid as tests of specific diversity. This conclusion is further strengthened by the consideration, that precisely par- allel phenomena are observed among individuals and famihes belono-ins; to the same race. The next paper (Chapter III.) is a sketch of the " Cranial Characteristics of the Baccs of Jlen^^^ by Dr. J. A. Meigs, Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in the Philadelphia College of Medicine. This paper embodies a notice of the additions and changes which the collection of human crania made by the late Dr. Samuel Morton, and now owned by the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, has undergone since the decease of its founder. We have attempted to show that Dr. Morton failed most egregiously to estab- lish the doctrine of diverse human species. That the " additions" made to his collection of crania have not materially strengthened the case, is virtually admitted by Dr. Meigs, as will appear from the following pas- sage of his prefatory letter addressed to Messrs. Nott and Gliddon. "In the treatment of my subject, you will observe that I have confined myself chiefly to a 358 APPENDIX. simple statement of facts, carefully and designedly ab- staining from tlie expression of any opinion upon the 'prematurely^ and perhaps, in the p)'>'^sent state of our hnoivledge, unwisely mooted questions of the origin, and primitive affi.liations of man. Not a little study and reflection incline me to the belief tliat long years of severe and earnest research are yet necessary before we can pronounce authoritatively upon these ultimate and perplexing problems of ethnology." Again, he admits " that diversity of cranial tjq^es does not neces- sarily imply diversity of origin. Neither do strong resemblances between such types infallibly indicate a common parentage." These admissions are all that we care for. In Chapter IV., Dr. Nott treats of " Acclimation ; or the comparative influence of climate, endemic and epi- demic diseases on the races of man.'''' With respect to this paper, which in the main is suggestive and high- ly interesting, we have to reiterate the two general re- marks which have been already applied to the preced- ing chapters. First, the A\-riter assumes the specific diversity of the human races, and, under the bias of this assumption, investigates the comparative influence of climate, etc., on these different races. As might be expected under these circumstances, he is ready to ac- cept on slender and disputed evidence any fact which seems to harmonize Avith his preconceived opinions. Thus, for example, ho asserts in one place that " ne- groes are comparatively exempt from all the endemic diseases of the South," in order to make it appear that such exemption is a specific characteristic of the race ; for he further contends that the exemption could not have been acquired by acclimation, as there is no ac- climation against malarious diseases. lie frequently refers to this as an incontestable fact, though in a note he candidly admits that the correctness of the state- ment is questioned by persons of large experience. " A medical friend (Dr. Gordon) who has had much APPENDIX. 359 experience in the diseases of the interior of Alabama, South Carolina, and Louisiana, has been so kind," he says, " as to look over these sheets for me, and assures me that I have used language much too strong with regard to the exemption of negroes. He says they are quite as liable as the whites, according to his ob- servations, to intermittents and dj^sentery," The other general remark, which the perusal of this paper sug- gests, is the one we have now so often repeated respect- ing the law of the transmission of the peculiar char- acteristics of " varieties." If the races of men differ- ed from one another in respect to acclimation and the susceptibility to certain kinds of disease, to a much greater extent than can be proved, or than is even al- leged by the most extreme advocate of the theory of hu- man diversity, the fact would by no means disprove the common origin of these races, but would be en- tirely explicable in consistency with the laws which determine the perpetuation of certain acquired peculi- arities. In other words, the susceptibility of a race to one class of diseases, and their exemption from anoth- er class, might be a part of the characters distinguish- ing it as a variety from other I'aces within the limits of a single species. That no specific distinction between the races can be founded on this alleged difference of sus- ceptibility to disease, is apparent from the fact that the phenomenon lacks the invaiiable constancy which is necessary to render it valid as a test of species. While most Negroes, for example, are exempt from liability to yellow fever, many full-blooded Africans do take the disease and die of it. "Moreover, the comparative immunity of the race finds a parallel in the phenom- ena often observed among individuals, and even whole families, belonoing to the white races. While, then, we recognize in the paper under consideration many interesting and important facts, we contend that few of them have any bearing upon the question of the single or plural origin of man, and that not one is in- consistent with the idea of unity of species and origin. 360 APPENDIX. The two remaining chapters are by Mr. Gliddon, and, like bis contributions to " Types of Mankind," are characterized by a great show of bibliographical knowledge, with a vast amount of irrelevant anecdote. The first of these chapters (Chapter V.) has the follow- ing pedantic title : "The Monogenists and the Po- LYGENISTS ; being an exposition of the doctrines of schools professing to sustain dogmatically the Unity or Diversity of Human Races; with an inquiry into the antiquity of mankind upon earth, viewed chronologically, historically, and pal^ontologically." This paper opens with an introductory citation of a passage from the French translation of Humboldt's " Cosmos," which passage he alleges, is entirely omit- ted in Sabine's translation, and is inaccurately render- ed in that of Ott^. The passage in question embraces one cited by the illustrious author from an unpublish- ed work, by his brother, William Humboldt, on the " Diversity of Languages and Peoples," which is in- terpreted by Mr. Gliddon as the expression of a "ma- ture opinion" on the part of these eminent savans, ad- verse to the doctrine of the single origin of mankind. We do not concede the accuracy of this interpretation of a fragmentary passage from an unpublished work. In order to make our own exegesis intelligible, it is necessary to giv^e the entire passage, and inasmuch as Mr. Gliddon denies the accuracy of Otte's rendering, we will cite his own version of M. Guigniaut's French translation of the "Cosmos," and give also his flippant comments, interspersed through the text, and distin- guished by being inclosed in brackets : " Geographical researches on the primordial seat, or, as it is said, upon the cradle of the human species, possess in fact a character purely mythic. ' We do not know,' says Wm. Humboldt, in a work as yet in- edited, upon the diversity of languages and of peoples, " we do not know, either historically, or through any {whatsoever) certain tradition, a moment when the hu- APPENDIX. 361 man species was not already separated into groups of peoples. [Ilehrew literature, in caramon with all others, is thus rejected, heing equally unhistorical as the rest?^ AVhether this state of things has existed from the ori- gin, {say beginning,) or whether it was produced later, is what cannot be decided through liistory. Some is- olated legends being reencountered upon very diverse points of the globe, without apparent communication, stand in contradiction to the first hypothesis, and make the entire human genus descend from a single pair, [cis for example, in the ancient book called ^Oenesis.^'\ This tradition is so widely spread, that it has some- times been regarded as an antique remembrance of men. But this circumstance itself Avould rather prove that there is not therein any real transmission of a fact, any-soever truly historical foundation ; and that it is simply the identity of human conception, which ev- erywhere leads mankind to a similar explanation of an identical phenomenon. A great number of myths Avithout historical link {say connection) whatever the ones and the others, owe in this manner their resem- blance and their origin to the parity of the imagina- tions or of the reflections of the human mind. That which shows still more in the tradition of which we are treating, the manifest character of fiction, {Old and New Testament narratives inchided, of course,) is, that it claims to explain a phenomenon beyond all human experience, that of the first origin of the human spe- cies, in a manner conformable to the experience of our own day ; the manner, for instance, in which, at an epoch when the whole human genus counted already thousands of years of existence, a desert island, or a valley isolated amid mountains, may have been peo- pled. Yainly would thought dive into the meditation of this first origin ; man is so closely bound to his species and to time, that one cannot conceive {such a thiyig as) an human being coming into the world with- out a family already existing, and without a past, {an- 16 362 . APFf^NDIX, tecedent, that is, to sucli man's advent.) This question, therefore, not being resolva"ble either by a process of reasoning or through that of experience, must it be considered that the primitive state, such as a pretended {cdludmg to the Biblical, necessarily) tradition describes to us, is really historical — or else, that the human spe- cies, from its commencement, covered the eai^th in the form of peoples? This is that which the science of languages cannot {[ecidiQ {as tlieologers sup2Josef)hj it- self, as {in like manner) it ought not either to seek for a solution elsewhere, in order to draw thence elucida- tions of those problems which occupy it." Setting aside for the present Mr. Gliddon's in- terpolations, we remark that not only no " mature opinion," but absolutely no opinion at all is expressed by the two brothers, on the subject of the origin of mankind, except to af&rm that the "phenomenon is beyond all human experience," and therefore "not re- solvable either by a process of reasoning or through that of experience." For while comparative philology is adequate to trace the relationship of languages, and thus to trace all languages to one primeval stock, or at least, when considered in connection with other criteria of the alliance of races, to demonstrate a community of origin for all, it does not " by ITSELF decide" that the entire human genus have descended from " a single pair," inasmuch as a primeval tongue might have been communicated to any number of individuals as well as to two. Now, as to Mr. Gliddon's interpolations, it is surely a suspicious sign that he is not satisfied to let the Ilum- boldts speak for themselves, without his gratuitous explanations. If they really intended to characterize the Holy Scriptures as ['"myths, fiction, and pretended tradition,''^ this would not be the proper occasion for the easy work of refuting such a charge. We should merely refer our readers to the standard works on the " Evidences of Christianity." But in point of fact, APPENDIX. 363 we have not the least idea that either brother meant to make any allusion to the Scriptures at all. We have seen that many of the most judicious theologians of the past and present ages acquiesce in the expe- diency of the rule that scientific researches should not be restricted by the supposed meaning of the Scrip- tures, and ought, therefore, to be pursued irrespectively of any apparent counter statements of the inspired record. Whatever Mr. Gliddon may do, it is certain that neither of the great savans whom he so flagrantly misrepresents, would have gone out of his way to speak contemptuously of the sacred volume. They. were discussing a scientific problem, on the pure prin- ciples of science. We have afiirmed that they did not, in this dis- cussion, express the opinion ascribed to them by Mr. Gliddon, and have endeavored to justify our affirma- tion by the language of the very passage cited by him. We now present further and fully confirmatory proof In this same work, the " Cosmos," Alexander Humboldt says : "The comparative study of languages shows us that races now separated by vast tracts of land, are allied together, and have migrated from one common primitive seat ; it indicates the course and direction of all migrations, and, in tracing the leading epoch of developments, it recognizes, by means of the more or less changed structure of the language, in the per- manence of certain forms, or in the more or less advanced distinction of the formative system, which race has retained most nearly the language common to all who had migrated from the general seat of origin." " The largest field for such investigations into the ancient condition of language, and consequently into the period when the whole family of mankind loas in the strict sense of the woixl, to be regarded as one living tuhole, presents itself in the long chain of Indo-Grer- manic languages, extending from the Ganges to the 364 APPENDIX, Iberian extremity of Europe, and from Sicily to the North Cape." " From ttiese considerations and tlie examples by "wbicli they have been illustrated, the comparative study of languages appears an important rational means of assistance by which scientific and genuinely philological investigation may lead to a generalization of views regarding the affinity of races, and their con- jectural extension in various directions from one com- mon point of radiation.''''* Mr. Gliddon is himself constrained to admit that Alexander Humboldt has expressed himself most un- equivocally in favor of the specific unity of mankind ; but he attempts to weaken the force of the admission by drawing the distinction between unity of species and community of origin. Quoting the following ex- pressions of Humboldt, — namely, "But, in my opinion, more powerful reasons militate in favor of the unity of the human species;" and again: "In sustaining the unity of the human species, we reject, as a neces- sary consequence, the distressing distinction of su- perior and inferior races," — Mr. Gliddon confesses that such "language admits of no equivoque," and adds: " But it is the accuracy of the first assertion, namely, 'the unity of the human SPECIES,' that, without some ventilation of the Baron's precise meaning, I cannot accept." But further, he incidentally lets fall a remark which proves that he knew William Humboldt as well as his brother to have a most decided leaning towards the doctrine of the radiation of the human races from one original centre. The remark is this: "But even under the supposition that Wilhelm von Humboldt, in his now past generation, when writing on the ^Diversity of Languages and of Peoples,' may have speculated upon the probability of reducing both into 'Cosmos — Otte's Translation, Vol. II., p. 111. New York. one original stock, it will remain eqi5'%l;^ceEtaifi^"fhat, - , in such assumed conclusion, be was biased by no dog- matical respect for jSIyths, Fiction, or Pretended Tradition ; and furthermore, that if he grounded his results on the ' Kami Sprache^'' he inadvertently built upon a quicksand, as subsequent researches have estab- lished." The animus of all this is patent. While Mr. Gliddon " cannot accept" certain scientific conclusions of the celebrated brothers, he is generously willing to tolerate such heresies in science, in consideration of the assumed fact that they agree with him in regarding and characterizing the Holy Scriptures as " myths, fic- tion, and pretended tradition." These eminent savans are entitled to but little consideration in matters of science Avhich have been the study of their lives, if their conclusions are distastefid to Mr. Gliddon ; but if they happen to use equivocal expressions which he can torture into a denial of the truth of the Scriptures, which they have never made a special study, they be- come pro hac vice an indisputable authority with that gentleman. "I cannot but congratulate myself," he complacently says, "that — however other great au- thorities may be found to agree with, or to contradict him, on the question of human monogenism or polyg- enism — in rejecting 'myths,' 'fiction,' and 'pretended tradition,' I find myself merely and implicitly follow- ing in the wake of Alexander von Humboldt." We thus see that after making a noisy effort to show that " theologers" had misrepresented the HUmboldts in ranking them on the side of monogenism, Mr. Glid- don has himself more than once admitted the very fact, for the assertion of which on the part of others he has raised an outcry of "literary dishonesty." We shall dismiss the subject of this gentleman's writings, and conclude our notice of the book, by quot- ing a few passages from one or the other chapter con- tributed by him, as specimens of his mode of scientific discussion : 366 APPENDIX. " BuNSEN — with whom philology and ethnology are synonyms through which we shall recover, some day, the one primeval language spoken by the first pair, who are now accounted ^heatorum in coelis'' — declares, ' that physiological inquiry, (one, as we all know, completely outside of the range of his high education and various studies,) although it can never arrive by itself at any conclusive result, still decidedly inclines, on the whole, towards the theory of the unity of the human race.' " To which, with very bad taste, to say no more, he ap- pends the following note : " ' Multse terricolis linguse, coelestibus una,' is another way of stating such axiom. How did this last writer know that people do talk one language in heaven? Can he show us whether the ' dead ' have speech at all ? Duiing some generations, the Sorbonne, at Paris, discussed, in school-boys' themes, a coherent enigma, namely: An sancti resurgant cum intestinis — not a less difficult problem for such youths' pedagogues 1 " In another paragraph he says : " Except as orthodox repellers of free investigation, the wn%-men have really no place in ethnological science, unless with Alexan- der VON Humboldt they use the term ' unity ' in a philosophical (or ' parliamentary') sense, and not in the one currently understood by theologers." In other words, Prichard, Lepsius, Bunsen, Max MiiLLER, and others, whose intellectual ability and im- mense erudition even Mr. Gliddon himself fully admits, have yet, according to him, no place in ethnological science, the very specialty to which they have devoted the labors of their lives, since they advocate the doc- trine of " unity" in the sense currently understood by theologians. Our next extracts present another instance of similar inconsistency and contradiction. They refer to the Chevalier Bunsen. Alluding to certain philological inductions which Bunsen considers to have been estab- lished by the researches of Dr. Max Miiller, Gliddon APPENDIX. 367 denies " the competency of any man living^ in the actual state of science^ to he considered a ''philologist'' if he enun- ciate such a doctrine^ He is not satisfied to question the correctness of this particular induction, but he denies the competency in general terms, of both Bunsen and Miiller, in their own special field of study. And yet a few pages further on, he couples the name of Bunsen with that of Lepsius, and characterizes them as " two world-renowned, and by myself, much-honored names,'' and adds ; "I have always felt proud to sit at their feet for instruction, received, as not a slight por- tion of what little I know has been, oftentimes with mine own feet under their respective mahoganies." Finally, after all this confident assertion, it appears that Mr. Gliddon has yet some misgivings as to the value of his various proofs of the plural origin of man- kind, — for he says : " For my own part, I have met with no reason to amend or change the position taken in the last course of lectures delivered in New Orleans, as regards my individual opinions on the unity or diversity of human origin. It was the following : " 1st. That every argument hitherto brought forward on the unity side, is either refuted or refutable ; but that, "2d. Whilst the reasonings in favor of diversity preponderate greatly over those against it, I do not, nevertheless, hold the latter to be, as yet, absolutely proven. " Lest such assertion should appear paradoxical, I would explain, that the proofs of diversity are chiefly of a negative character: and on the other hand, these questions being still sub judice^ some discovery in sci- ence, now unforeseen, may hereafter establish unity upon a certain basis" ! ! We are fully persuaded that this " unity" is already established on a perfectly certain basis. From the nature of the problem, it was to be expected that cer- 368 APPENDIX. tain difficulties should be encountered in the attempt to demonstrate the specific unity and common origin of diversified races of men distributed over the whole face of the earth. But when we examine the facts a little closely, even as they are presented to us separately, and as isolated phenomena, we do not find a single one which is inconsistent with the idea of a common origirj, while very many are of impossible explanation on any other hypothesis. If now we combine the separate facts and contemplate them in their mutual bearing, any other conclusion becomes utterly irrational and absurd. It is because some men fail to look at the question in this way, that they still refuse to perceive the incontestable proofs of the unity of mankind. This course appears to us as irrational as it would be to doubt the self-supporting powers of an arch because its constituent parts could not separately support them- selves in the same position. Even if ihe difficulties of mouogonism were much greater than they are, they would be small indeed compared with the contradic- tions and absurdities into which the advocates of po- lygenism necessarily fall. INDEX OF AUTHORS. Agassiz, L., 30, 99, 128, 158, 166, 181, 191, 197, 331, 339, Bachman, J., D. D., 31, 40, 41, 46, 69, 78, 146, 188, 200, 238, 239. Barton, Dr. E. H., 52. Berkeley, Bishop, 268. Bodichon, 144. Breckinridge, Rev. R. J., 303 Browne, Peter A., 134. Bryant, Jacob, 336. Buflfon, 120, (note) 173. Bunsen, 105, 223, 232, 277, 294. Burckhardt, 120. Carpenter, Dr. W. B., 23, 49, 60, 64, 68, 75, 96, 109, 130, 134, 135, 137, 157, 293, 314, 323, 326. Catlin, 113, 133. Crawfurd, J., 203. Cuvier, F., 55, 65. Cuvier, G., 29. Dana, Prof! J. D., 33, (note) 147, (note) 284, 315. Darwin, C, 38. Draper, Prof. J. W., 139, 153. Fitzroy, Rear Admiral, 336. Flourens, 293. Forbes, Prof. Edward, 170, 175. GaUatin, A., 294. Gente, A. & C. D'Orbigny, 286. Gibbon, 120, (note). Gliddon, G. R., (See J. C. Nott,) 283, 285, 293, (note) 360. Goadby, Dr. Henry, 135, (note). Gobineau, Count A. de, 87, 261. Guyot, Prof A , 285, (note). Hitchcock, President, 285, 293. [369] 370 INDEX OF AUTHORS. Hooker, Dr. J. P., 314. Humboldt, Alexander von, 124, 219, 294, 350. Humboldt, William von, 203, 210, 293, 360. Kenrick, John, 275. Kitto, J., 336. Latham, Dr. R. G., 349. Lawrence, Wm., 21. Leidy, Prof. Joseph, 342. Lepsius, ChevaHer, 105, 106, 115, 226, 294. Lyell, Sir Charles, 49, 52, 56, 57, 60, 66, 68, 170, 173, 237, 243, 269, 271, 293. Maury, Alfred, 343. Maury, Capt. M. F., 247. Meigs, Dr. J. A., 357. Miller, Hugh, 111, 264, 293. Morton, Dr. S. G., 31, 77, 93, 113, 128, 133 (note). Muller, Prof. J., 47, 138, 293, 309. Miiller, Dr. Max, 221, 232. Napier, Lieut. Col. E. E., 328. Neill, Dr. J., 132. Nott, Dr. J. C, 55, 68, 88, 105, 108, 115, 128, 140, 197, 273, 282, 291, 292, 295, 357. Owen, Prof Richard, 55, 66, 272, 340. Pickering, Dr. C. 256, 288, 294. I'oinsett, Hon. J. R., 107. Prichard, Dr. J. C, 37, 41, 50, 54, 94, 95, 109, 116, 134, 137, 151, 154, 166, 211, 293, 320, 329. Pulszky,F., 356. Eoberton, Dr., 323. Riippell, Dr., 117. Schoolcraft, H. R., 133, (note) 247, 255, 294, Sharpe, Samuel, 279. Smith, Col. Hamilton, 84, 249. Smyth, Rev. Thos., D. D., 230 (note). Usher, Dr. "Wm., 271, 334. Vrolik, R.. 125. Wollaston, T. Vernon, 180, 318. Wyman, Prof, 291, 340. Young, Dr., 230 (note). 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