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 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS 
 
 SCIENTIFIC AND GENERAL 
 
 EDITED FOR THE 
 
 Canncil of the llonnl (Bcogvaj-^hiral <S0ci£tj) 
 
 DOUGLAS W. FRESHFIELD, Hon. Sec. R.G.S. 
 
 AND 
 
 CAPTAIN W. J. L. WHARTON, R.N., F.R.S., 
 
 Hydrographer to the Admiralty. 
 
 SEVENTH EDITION 
 BEVISEB AND ENLARGED 
 
 LON DON : 
 
 THE KOYAL GEOGRATHICAL SOCIETY, 
 1, SAVILE now, w. 
 
 AND AT ALL BOOKS!' LLERS'. 
 
 1893. 
 
 Price Eight Shillings ; to Felloics, at the Office of the Socitly. Fire ShiUiigs.
 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
 
 SECTIONS AND AUTHORS. 
 
 I. PRELIMINARY HINTS. By Douglas W. Freshfield, Hon. Sec. 
 
 Boyal Geographical Society ....... ]-7 
 
 II. HINTS ON OUTFIT, including Notes on Water Travel and 
 Mountain Travel. Compiled by Douglas W. Freshfield, icith 
 the aid of E. Whymper, J. Thomson, H. H. Johnston, J. Coles, 
 and others .......... 8-37 
 
 Orthography of Geographical Names 38-43 
 
 III. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS, By Surgeon-Major Tnos. 
 
 Heazle Parke, hon. d.c.l., hon. f.r.c.s.i., &c. . . . 44-82 
 
 IV. SURVEYING AND ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. By John 
 
 Coles, f.r.a.s., Instructor to the Royal Geographical Society, in- 
 cluding Notes by Capt. Pratt, r.e., Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin- 
 Austen, F.R.S., Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, r.e., k.o.b., Francis 
 Galton, F.R.S., and Gen. J. T. Walker, c.b., f.r.s. . . . 83-320 
 V. PHOTOGRAPHY. By W. F. Donkin, m.a., f.c.s., late Lecturer in 
 Chemistry at St. George's Hospital. Revised and brought up to date 
 by J. Thomson, Instructor in Photography, R.G.s. . . . 321-331 
 
 VI. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. By H. F. Blanford, f.rs., 
 with notes by C. E. Peek, m.a., a Committee of the British 
 Associstiou, and R. H. Scott, F.R.S, ...... 332-379 
 
 VII. GEOLOGY. By VV. T. Blanford, f.r.s 380-393 
 
 Memorandum on Glacier Observations. Issued by the Committee 
 
 of the Alpine Club 394-396 
 
 VIIL NATURAL HISTORY. 5;/ H. W. Bates, f.r.s. Eeuised by ?. L. 
 Sclater, f.r.s. With Notes by G. E. Dobson, m.a., m.b., f.r.s.. 
 Sir W. H. Flower, f.r.s., Osbert Salvin, f.r.s., Lieut.-Col. 
 H. H. Godwin-Austen, f.r.s., and J. Ball, f.k.s. . . . 397-418 
 
 IX. ANTHROPOLOGY. By E. B. Tylor, d.c.l., f.r.s., including Notes 
 by H. W. Franks, c.b., f.r.s., J. G. Frazer, H. H. Johnston, 
 
 and Francis Galton, f.r.s. 419-4.54 
 
 Paper Moulding of Monuments, or "Squeezes" By A. P. 
 
 Maudslay ......... 455-460 
 
 X. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. By J. S. Keltie, Assistant- 
 Secretary, Eoyal Geographical Society ..... 461—470 
 
 ^2091178
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION 1. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preliuixary Hints (by Douglas W. Freshfielil, Hon. Sec. R.G.S.). , 1-7 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Hints on Outfit, including Notes on Water Travel and Mountain 
 
 Travel (compiled by Douglas W. Freshfield) .... 8-37 
 
 General Remarks, 8 — Methodical Arrangement, 9 — Security against 
 Breakage, Sec, 9 — Economy, 11 — Catalogue of Outfit, 11 — Pro- 
 visions, 11 — Clothing, 12 — Stationery, &c., 12 — Presents and 
 Ai'ticles of Barter, 13 — Camp Equipments, Tents, Cooking Stoves, 
 Filters, Tools, Arms, 13-15 — Some Requisites for a Tropical Tour, 
 16 — Some Requisites for a Tour in Cold Climates, 17 — List of 
 Mr. Whymper's South American Outfit, 17 — Tuckett " Insect 
 Puzzler," 23 — Mr. Mummery's Tent, 23 — Mr. J. Thomson's Notes, 
 23 — Mr. H. H. Johnston's Notes, 25 — Canoeing and Boating, by 
 J. Coles, 30-32— Mountain Travel, by D. W. Freshfield, 35. 
 
 Orthography of Geographical Names ...... 38-43 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Medical and Surgical Hints (by Surgeon-Major Thomas Heazle 
 
 Parke) 44-82 
 
 Personal Care of Health ........ 44-51 
 
 Head and Spine should be protected with great care, 45 — Avoid 
 Chills, Draughts, and Wettings, 46 — Use Mosquito Curtains, 47 — 
 Nocturnal Exposure to be avoided as much as possible, 48 — 
 Immersion in Cold Water to be avoided as much as possible in Hot 
 Climates, 48 — The Quantity of Food and of Drink should be care- 
 fully regulated, 49.
 
 VI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Medical Diseases. ......... 51-65 
 
 Cold in the Head, 51 — Bronchitis, 52 — Pneumonia, 52 — Pleurisy, 53 
 — Rheumatism, 53 — Colic, 54 — Constipation, 54 — Dysentery, 54 — 
 Fever, 55 — Allections of the Liver : Congestion, Abscess, 57 — 
 Night Blindness ; Snow Blindness, 57 — Ophthalmia, 58 — Piles, 59 
 — Prickly-heat, GO — Ring-worm, 60— Sea-sickness, 60— Sleepless- 
 ness, 61 — Sunstroke, 61 — Parasites, 62— Care of Infants and 
 Children, 62. 
 
 Surgical Diseases and Injuries . 65-76 
 
 Bleeding (Ha}morrhage), 65 — Blisters on the Feet : Boils and Car- 
 buncles, 67— Bruises, 67 — Burns, 68— Chilblains and Frost-bites, 
 68 — Concussion of the Brain, 68 — Drowning, 69 — Fractures; Dis- 
 locations, 70 — Parasites, 73 — Rupture, 73 — Snake-bite, 74 — 
 Sprains, 75— Ulcers, 75— Wounds, 76. 
 Rules for the Preservation of Health in the Tropics . . 76-77 
 List of Useful Articles ........ 77-80 
 
 Transport 80-82 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Surveying and Astronomical Observations (by John Coles, F.R.A.S., 
 
 and others) • 83-320 
 
 Part 1. — Instruments used in Surveyinij ...... 83-132 
 
 Preliminary Remarks, 83 — Scientific Outfit, 84 — Examination of 
 Instruments, 90 — Packing, 91 — Instruments and their Adjustments : 
 Prismatic Compass, 92 — Pocket Compass, 93 — Observations with 
 the Prismatic Compass, 93 — Hypsometrical Apparatus, 94 — To use 
 the Boiling-point Thermometer, 95 — Aneroid, 96 — Boylean-Mariotti 
 Barometer, 97 — George's Mercurial Barometer, 99 — Sextant, 100 — 
 Adjustments of the Sextant, 102 — Index Error, 103 — Box or Pocket 
 Sextant, 105— Artificial Horizon, 107— Sextant Stand, 108— Transit 
 Theodolite, 108 — Adjustments of the Theodolite, 111 — Everest 
 Theodolite, 118 — Adjustments of Everest Theodolite (by Captain 
 Pratt, R.E.), 118— Tacheometer, 120— Plane Table, 124— Plane 
 Tables used in the Indian Survey Department, 126 — Form for Field 
 Book for Plane Table Surveying, 129 — Watches, 130.
 
 CONTENTS. Vll 
 
 PACK 
 
 Part 2. — Plane Trigonometry and Preliminary Remarks . , . 133-151 
 
 Plane Trigonometry, 133 — Extemporary Measurements : To set oft' a 
 Right Angle from any point on the Ground by means of a Rope, 
 139_To find the Meridian by a Watch, 139— To find the Meridian 
 by the Sun without Instruments, 139 — To find Distance of Inacces- 
 sible Object with a Measuring Line, 140 — Rough Methods of 
 Measuring, 141 — Distance by Sound, 142 — Table of Rough Triangu- 
 lation (by F. Galton, F.R.S.), 143 — Ascertaining Heights by Angles 
 of Elevation, 145 — Flashing Signals, 146 — Measurement of the 
 Number of Cubic Feet of Water conveyed by a River in each 
 second, 146 — Map Projections, 148. 
 
 Part 3. — Surveying 152-187B 
 
 Mapping a Country, 152 — Route Survey with Prismatic Compass, 
 Boiling-Point Thermometer and Aneroid, 153 — To Plot the 
 Bearings, 155 — Hints on Use of Sextant in Surveying : To measure 
 the Angular Distance between two objects, 159 — Table for as- 
 certaining Heights and Distances by the Sextant, 160 — Surveys 
 with Sextant and Prismatic Compass : Projection, Scale, 163 — 
 Route Survey, 164 — District Survey, 164 — Special Survey of a 
 small Tract of Country, 171 — Survey of Plot of Ground containing 
 Ruins, &c., 172 — Surveying with the Plane Table : Orienting the 
 Table, 175— Broken Survey, 180 — Concluding Remarks, 181 — 
 Lieut. -Col. Godwin-Austen's Remarks on Plane Table, 181 — Sur- 
 veying with theTacheometer, 185 — Surveying a Country and Fixing 
 Positions by means of Latitudes and Azimuths, 187a. 
 
 Part 4. — Astronomical Observations ...... 188-311 
 
 Necessity for Astronomical Observations, 188 — Sextant Observations, 
 Telescope Observations, 189 — Observations of Heavenly Bodies with 
 the Sextant, 190 — Observations for Latitude : — Latitude by Meridian 
 Altitude of Sun, 191 — To Find Time of Meridian Passage of Star, 
 192— Latitude by Meridian Altitude of a Star, 193 — Circum- 
 meridian Observations, or Observations near the Meridian, 194 — 
 Latitude by Altitudes of a Star or Planet, near the Meridian, 195 — 
 Latitude by Double Altitudes of Sun, 197a— Time, I'd^— Observa- 
 tions for Finding Time and Longitude : — To Find Error of Watch by 
 Absolute Altitudes, 200 — Longitude by Chronometer, from Alti- 
 tudes of the Sun, 202 — Longitude by Chronometer, from Altitudes
 
 VUl CONTENTS. 
 
 of ;i Star, 204— Kciual Allituaes of Sun, Star or Planet, 206— 
 To Kind Error of Watch by Equal Altitudes of tho Sun, 208— To 
 Find Error of Watch by Equal Altitudes of a Star, 210 — Equal 
 Altitudes of a Star on the same side of the Meridian, 210 — Kate, 
 2'11 — Longitude by Meridian Distance, 212 — Longitude by the 
 Occultation of a Star, 213 — Lunar Observations, 218 — Longitude 
 by Lunar Distance, 223 — To Compute the Altitude of a Heavenly 
 Body, 225 — Computation of Moon's True Central Altitude, 227 — 
 Longitude by Moon Culminating Stars, 229 — Longitude by Eclipses 
 of Jupiter's Satellites, 235 — Observations for Bearings: To Find 
 True lieariiig of a Peak or any other Object by means of its Ob- 
 served Angular Distance from the Sun, 236 — Finding the Error of 
 the Compass by the Sun's Azinnith, 239 — On Observations with 
 Theodolites or Altazimuth Instruments (by Gen. J. T. \Valker, 
 R.E.), 240— Explanation of the Tables, 256— 7'a6/fS, 261. 
 Determination of Heights (by F. Galton, F.n.s.) .... 312-320 
 By the Temperature of Boiling Water, 312 — By Barometer or 
 Aneroid, 317. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 PHOTOGRAruY (by W. F Doukiu, 31. A., revised by J. Thomson) . . 321-331 
 
 General Remarks, 321— Camera, 322— Hand Cameras, 323— Focussing 
 Cloth, 324 -Camera Stand, 324— Small Circular Level, 324 — 
 Lenses, 324 — Focus, 326 — Exposure Tables, 326 — How to keep 
 Plates and Films dry, 327 — Apparatus and Chemicals for Develop- 
 ment, 328— Taking a Picture, 329— Exposure, 330 — Cost of Photo- 
 graphic Outfit, 331. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 Meteorology and Climate (by H. F. Blanford, F.R.S., and others) . 332-379 
 General Remarks, 332 — Instruments and Outfit, 333 — Barometric 
 Observations, 338 — Oscillations of the Barometer, 340 — Temperature 
 Observations, 340 — Most important Elements of Climate in respect 
 of Temperature, 342 — Humidity Observations, 343 — Rain, Snow, 
 Hail, Dew, &c., 345 — Winds, 347 — State of'the Sky and Atmosphere, 
 Cloud, &c., 349— Storms, 351— Special Observations, 353— Table 
 showing the Pressure of Aqueous Vapour in Inches of Mercury at 
 Lat. 45° for each degree Fahr. from -30° to 119° 357— In-
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 structions issued by K. Meteorological Society (note by. C. E. Peek), 
 358 — Table of Relative Humidity, 362 — Hints to Meteorological 
 Observers "in Tropical Africa, by a Committee of the British Asso- 
 ciation, 368 — Note by Robert H. Scott, f.r.s., 376 — List of Meteoro- 
 logical Stations and Observations, 1893, 377. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 Geology (by W. T. Blanford, F.u.s.) ....... 
 
 General Remarks, 380 — Outfit, 381 — Collections, 382 — Mountain 
 Chains, 387 — Volcanoes and Volcanic Rocks, 388 — Coasts, 388 — 
 Rivers and River Plains, 389 — Lakes, 389 — Evidence of Glacial 
 Action, 390 — Deserts, 391 — Early History of Man in Tropical 
 Climates, 392 — Permanence of Ocean Basins, 392 — Atolls or Coral 
 Islands, 393. 
 
 Memorandum on Glacieu Observations (issued by the Committee of 
 the Alpine Club) ......... 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 Natural History (by W. H. Bates, f.r.s., and others. Revised by P. L. 
 Sclater, F.R.S.) ......... 
 
 Outfit, 397 — Where and what to Collect, 399 — Mammals and Birds, 
 401 — Preserving Mammals, &c., in Alcohol, 404 — Preparation ot 
 Skeletons of Animals (by Sir W. H. Flower, F.R.S.), 406 — Reptiles 
 and Fishes (by Osbert Salvin, F.R.S.), 407 — Laud and Freshwater 
 Mollusca (by Lieut. -Col. H. II. Godwin-Austen), 409 — Insects, 410 
 —Botanical Collecting (by J. Ball, F.R.S.), 412— Fo.ssils, 416— 
 General Remarks, 417 — Observations of Habits, &c., 417. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 380-393 
 
 394-396 
 
 397-418 
 
 419-454 
 
 Anthropology (by E. B. Tylor, d.c.l., and others) .... 
 General Remarks, 419 — Physical Characters, 419 — Language, 423 — 
 Arts and Sciences, 426 — Society, 431 — Religion and Mythology, 
 437 — Customs, 439 — Queries on Anthropology (by A. W. Franks, 
 C.B., F.R.S,), 440— Ethnological Questions (by J. G. Frazer), 443 — 
 Hints on Anthropology (by H. H. Johnston), 445 — Statistics of 
 Strength, Stature, &c. (by F. Galton, F.R.S.), 448 — Note on Finger 
 Prints (by F. Galton, f.r.s.), 454. 
 
 Paper Mouldings of Monuments or "Squeezes" (by A. P. Maudslay) 455-460
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Industry and Commerce (by J. S. Koltie, Assist. Sec. R.G.S.) . . 461-470 
 General Remarks, 461 — Minerals and Metals, 463 — Vegetable Pro- 
 ducts : — Character of Surface, 464 — Forests, 464 — Timber, 464 — 
 Fibres, Fruits, Chemicals, &c., 464 — Other Vegetation, 465 — 
 Marshes, Deserts, Irrigation, 465 — Agriculture, 466 — Animal Pro- 
 ducts : — Domestic Animals, 467 — Fisheries, 467 — Trade, 468 — 
 Climate, 468 — Facilities and Hindrances to Commercial Develop- 
 ment : — Water Communication, 469 — Roads, 469 — Railway Routes, 
 469— Labour, 469— Currency, Tarifls, &c., 470— Inhabitants, 470.
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTPvATIONS AND MAPS. 
 
 The Tuckett " Insect-Puzzler " . 
 
 Spectacles for Preventing Snow-Blindness ..... 
 
 Extemporary Splints, for Setting Broken Limb .... 
 
 Prismatic Compass ......... 
 
 Pocket Compass ......... 
 
 Hypsometrical Apparatus . . . 
 
 George's Mercurial Barometer ....... 
 
 The Sextant .......... 
 
 Box or Pocket Sextant ........ 
 
 Transit Theodolite ......... 
 
 Diagram Illustrating Method of Adjusting Vertical and Horizontal wires 
 
 of Telescope of Theodolite ....... 
 
 Diagrams showing Appearance of Sun's Upper and Lower Limbs in Tele 
 
 scope of Theodolite ........ 
 
 Transit Theodolite with Level Carried on Vernier Arm ... 
 Everest Theodolite ......... 
 
 Tacheometer .......... 
 
 Diagram Illustrating Method of Measuring Distances with Tacheometer 
 Staff to be used in Measuring Distances with Tacheometer 
 
 The Plane Table 
 
 The Indian Plane Table 
 
 Specimen of Portion of Plane Table Work ..... 
 Diagrams Illustrating Pi-oblems in Plane Trigonometry, and Findin 
 
 Heights and Distances ....... 
 
 Diagram showing Method of Setting-off a Right Angle by means of 
 
 Rope .......... 
 
 Diagram Illustrating Method of Finding the Meridian by the Sun, withou 
 
 Instruments ...... . . 
 
 Diagram Illustrating Method of Finding Distance of an Inaccessible Objec 
 
 with a Measuring Line ....... 
 
 Diagram accompanying Table of Rough Triangulatiou . 
 Diagram Illustrating Principle of Conical Projection 
 
 PAGE 
 
 22 
 
 58 
 
 70 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 
 95 
 
 98 
 
 101 
 
 105 
 
 109 
 
 111 
 
 115 
 116 
 119 
 121 
 122 
 123 
 125 
 127 
 128 
 
 133-138 
 
 139 
 
 140 
 
 141 
 144 
 151
 
 Xll 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS. 
 
 Map Illustrating Ruute Surveying with Prismatic Compass, Boiling-Foint 
 
 Thermoinoter, &c. ........ 
 
 Chart of the WorUl, showing Lines of Equal Magnetic Variation, 1893 
 Diagrams Illustrating Method of Measuring Horizontal Angles betwee 
 
 Terrcstial Objects, with a Se.xtant ..... 
 Diagrams Illustrating Col. Sir Chas. Wilson's Article on Surveys witl 
 
 Sextant and Prismatic Compass (Principle of Survey, Trigonometrical 
 
 Problems, &c.). ..... 
 
 Diagram showing Principle of Plane Table Survey 
 
 Diagrams Illustrating Methods of Orienting and Fixing Position on Plane 
 
 Table 
 
 Map to Illustrate Method of Surveying a Country and Fixing Positions b 
 
 Means of Latitude and Azimuths 
 Diagram sliowing that Errors, caused through Faulty Method of Makins 
 
 the Contact in Lunar Observations, are not Eliminated by Taking Dis 
 
 tauces East and West of the Moon 
 Bellows Camera ..... 
 Koss Rapid Symmetrical Photographic Lens 
 Zeiss Photographic Lens 
 Screen for Hanging Thermometers 
 Meteorological Charts, showing Isothermal and Isobar 
 
 with Prevailing Winds for January and July 
 Screen or Thatched Shelter for Meteorological Instruments 
 Vernier of Fortin's Barometer ..... 
 General Collecting Case (Natural History) . 
 Drying Presses for Botanical Specimens 
 Illustrations of Paper Moulding Process, or " Squeezes " 
 Star Maps : The Northern Constellations. 
 The Southern Constellations. 
 
 ric Lines, 
 (4 charts.) 
 
 gethe 
 
 158 
 158 
 
 1(31 
 
 165-171 
 174 
 
 170-178 
 187a 
 
 'J19 
 322 
 325 
 325 
 336 
 
 356 
 370 
 372 
 404 
 413-414 
 456-458
 
 PKEFACE TO SIXTH EDITION. 
 
 In issuing to the Fellows of the Eoyal Geographical Society and the 
 public the sixth edition of Hints to Travellers it seems desirable to give 
 a brief historical sketch of the various changes the work has gone 
 through before it reached its present form. 
 
 As long ago as 1854 the Council of the Society, in consequenco of the 
 frequent questions addressed to them by intending travellers, requested 
 the late Admiral Fitzroy and Lieutenant Eaper, K.N., to consider what 
 instrumental outfit might best be recommended to explorers. Their 
 report, together with suggestions submitted to them by Admirals Smyth 
 and Beechey, Colonel Sykes and Mr. Francis Gal ton, was printed in 
 vol. xxiv. of the Journal of the Society, and separately circulated in 
 pamphlet form under the title of ' Hints to Travellers.' 
 
 The exhaustion of this first edition led, in 1864, to the revision and 
 enlargement of the original work by a Committee of Council, consisting 
 of Sir George Back, Admiral Collinson and Mr. Francis Galton. Their 
 'Hints' were prefaced by the remark that they were addressed to a 
 person who, proposing to explore a wild country, asks what astronomical 
 and other scientific outfit he ought to take with him, and what observa- 
 tions he may attempt with a prospect of obtaining accurate results. 
 Hints on Photography by Dr. Pole, and on the Collection of Objects in 
 Natural History by Mr. Bates, were added.
 
 XIV PREFACE. 
 
 Tho success of this volume resulted in the publication, in 1871, of a 
 third edition under the same editorship. This edition was followed in 
 1878 by tlie fourth, published under the sole editorship of Mr. F. Galton, 
 and in a now form more convenient for pocket use. 
 
 In preparing the fifth edition the Council, anxious to increase the 
 usefulness of the volume, and to make it meet the, in some ways, higher 
 requirements of a new generation of young travellers, many of whom had 
 received scientific instruction in the Society's office before leaving 
 England, appointed an Editorial Sub-Committee, consisting of Colonel 
 H. H. Godwm Austen, Mr. J. K. Laughton, and Mr. Douglas W. 
 Freshfield, to remodel the * Hints.' 
 
 The first object of those charged with the direction of this edition 
 was to furnish such help as might be possible within the compass of a 
 convenient pocket-book to the intelligent explorer who, in the hope of 
 obtaining from his travels valuable geographical results, has been at 
 some pains to acquaint himself with the use of instruments. The Hints 
 on Surveying, the principal portion of the work, were placed in the 
 hands of Mr. Coles, late E.N., the Society's Map-Curator and Instructor 
 in Practical Astronomy and Surveying. 
 
 The Hints on Collections in Natural History were expanded, and 
 Hints on how and what to observe in other sciences. Geology and 
 Anthropology, added by Mr. W. T. Blanford and Mr. E. B. Tylor 
 respectively. The section on Photography was re-written by Mr. W. F. 
 Donkin, who had, in the High Alps, had exceptional experience in taking 
 photographs under circumstances of great difficulty, both as to transport 
 and exposure. Since the success of every journey depends primarily on 
 the health and suitable equipment of the members of the expedition, the 
 Editors decided further to enlarge the scope of the work by supplying 
 Hints on Medical Treatment and Precautions, and on General Outfit. 
 The former, drawn up by Surgeon-Major Dobson, have been found of 
 great value.
 
 PREFACE. XV 
 
 This fifth edition is now exhausted. The changes and additions made 
 in it having met with general approval, the present Editors have not 
 attempted to make any material alteration in the character of the book. 
 It has received at their hands such correction as time and the progress of 
 science and discovery render needful, and such additions as experience 
 suggests may be of use. The various sections have been revised, and 
 enlarged in most cases, by their authors. The hints on Meteorology have 
 been re-written by Mr. H. F. Blanford. Captain Abney has brought up 
 to date the late Mr. W. F. Donkin's notes on Photography, and Mr. 
 J. S. Keltic has supplied new hints on Commercial Geography. An 
 index has been added. 
 
 In a work of this character omissions must of necessity be discovered. 
 In order to reduce their number and importance as far as possible, it has 
 throughout been the aim of the Editors not only to intrust each chapter 
 to a competent hand, but also to provide for its being read and revised 
 before publication by high independent authorities in the same branch of 
 knowledge. This course could not have been carried out without the 
 cordial assent and co-operation of their responsible contributors, to 
 whom, as well as to the many gentlemen who have given the benefit of 
 their advice, the Council desire to return their grateful acknowledgTuents. 
 
 Any corrections or additions which may suggest themselves to readers 
 should be communicated to the Secretary of the Society, 1, Savile Eow, W., 
 for the use of the Editors of the next Edition. 
 
 Douglas W. Freshfield. 
 June, 1889. W. J. L. Wharton.
 
 PREFACE TO SEVENTH EDITION. 
 
 In the present edition )m]iortant additions and corrections have been 
 made, hut no material alteration has been made in the general 
 arrangement. The various sections have been revised and brought 
 up to date, and the Medical Hints have been re-written. 
 
 Douglas W. Feeshfield. 
 W. J. Ij. Wharton.
 
 HINTS TO TEAVELLEES. 
 
 I. 
 
 PEELIMINAEY HINTS. 
 
 By Douglas W. Freshfield, Hon. Sec. E.G.S., 
 President of the Alpine Club. 
 
 This work will come into the hands of very different readers. In the 
 first place it will undergo the criticism of the small body of what may be 
 called " professional " travellers, men trained in at least the elements of 
 surveying, practised in general observation, and experienced in the shifts 
 of travel. By them, it is hoped, it may be accepted as a handy, and at 
 times a suggestive j^ocket-book. But travellers such as these now form 
 only a small proportion of the Englishmen and Englishwomen who, 
 on biisiness or pleasui-e, yearly extend their wanderings over the globe. 
 One of the results of the rapid multiplication of lines of ocean steamers 
 and of railways in distant seas and far-off countries has been to make it 
 easy for men of comparatively brief leisure to undertake a share in 
 exijloration in the coiu'se of a vacation tour. The goal of ten years ago 
 has become a starting-point; Merv has a railway station and several 
 inns ; excursion steamers run — or will shortly run — to Alaska and Mount 
 St. Elias. India has become commonplace, and Members of Parlia- 
 ment spend their holidays in Siberia, Brazil, Korea, or the Antipodes. 
 The vacation travellers, or tourists, who are tempted by modern facilities 
 into imperfectly-known regions are numerous, and their opportunities 
 for collecting valuable information arc great, while their power of 
 profiting by them is as a rule far from commensurate. 
 
 The children's story of "Eyes and Ko Eyes" is constantly being 
 exemplified in the recent literature of travel. It would be extravagant 
 indeed to expect all travellers to take up scientific sm-veyor's work^ 
 
 B
 
 2 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 however desirable it may be to increase the number of those who flo so. 
 Again, few Englishmen would liave the patience to emulate the native 
 Indian surveyor who measures the distances traversed over many 
 hundred miles by ceaselessly counting his own paces. But topography 
 and g6odcsy are but a part, even if tlic foundation, of modern geography. 
 It is a loss, both to himself and to others, when a traveller does not 
 observe, or fails to take notes of, the objects and the people he meets 
 with ; when he brings back no fresh facts as to topography, natural 
 history, climate, customs, and antiquities; when he uses neither the 
 pencil nor the camera to record the scenery, the buildings, or the people 
 he has met with in his journey. The aim of this volume is to assist all 
 travellers to make their travels more pleasant to themselves and more 
 profitable to others by increasing at once their interests and their means 
 of observation. Non omnia possumus omnes ! Each will take, doubtless, 
 his own special line. Yet it may be well to point out that there is no 
 one more in need of warning and advice than the specialist or 
 "scientist" who confines himself to one branch of knowledge. He is 
 apt not ouly to miss opportunities in other branches, but he frequently 
 impairs the soundness of his observations in his own subject by failing 
 to take into account, accurately and intelligently, natural agencies or 
 phenomena which interact with those that he especially studies. There 
 is yet another class for whom this work is intended, those residents 
 abroad whom duty compels to spend large portions of their lives in 
 remote localities, and who have, therefore, the best opportunities for 
 collecting and presenting complete and accurate information concerning 
 distant regions. These ' Hints ' have been discovered by Lieutenant 
 Youughusband in the hands of a Eussian Consul-General in Central 
 Asia! Certain additions, with a particular view to the advantage of 
 such far-oflf residents, have been made to the Medical Hints, the value of 
 which has been borne witness to by many of the travellers who have 
 used recent editions of this work. 
 
 The traveller, as soon as he has resolved where he means to go, should 
 read the best books on the country, and decide which, if any, it is worth 
 his while to take with him, and make extracts for his own use from 
 others. Still more important is it for him to study the best majDS, and 
 with these it is indispensable that he should jjrovide himself, mounted 
 for use ; a map that cannot be kept in the pocket is of little service. If
 
 PEELIMINARY HINTS. 6 
 
 he is residing in England, the traveller will find the needful books and 
 maps at the Eoyal Geographical Society, the officials of which will give 
 him any information in their power, and put him in communication with 
 those who can give more. Pie will do well also to consider the question 
 of language, and, if possible, to learn something beforehand of any that is 
 likely to be specially useful to him ; at any rate, to provide himself with 
 a dictionary and phrase-book, where such exist. If he is no draughts- 
 man — indeed in any case — he can, and ought to, take some lessons in 
 photography, which, though an art in the hands of only a few, is a 
 tool of the utmost value in most branches of discovery for the many. 
 Such lessons can be procured through the Eoyal Geographical Scciety's 
 Scientific Instructor. The Society's Secretary, Mr. Keltie, is also in- 
 structed to arrange lectures in botany and geology for intending 
 travellers.* 
 
 The would-be explorer should, by all means, after a sufficient reference 
 to the best sources of information, form a detailed scheme of what he 
 intends, or rather hopes, to do. How far this scheme should be adhered 
 to is a question to be governed by circumstances and personal advice. 
 Local advice should be given its due weight, taking into account the 
 individual character, and official or other particular bias of the informant, 
 and also bearing in mind, on the one hand, that where danger from 
 inhabitants is concerned, the conditions of travel are apt to vary from 
 year to year, and that the latest news is generally the surest ; on the 
 
 * The following is the advertisement issued by the Society witli regard to the 
 terms of these lessons (1889). 
 
 Arrangements have been made for the instruction of intending travellers in 
 the following subjects : — 
 
 1. Surveying and Mapping, including the fixing of positions by Astronomical 
 
 observations. By Mr. John Coles, Map Curator of the Society. 
 
 2. Geology, including practical training in the field. By Mr. W. Topley, of 
 
 the Geological Sui-vey ; President of the Geologists' Association. 
 
 3. Botany. Applications should be made to the Director, Eoyal Gardens, Kew. 
 
 4. Photography. By Mr. John Thomson, Author of ' Photographic Illustra- 
 
 tions of China and its People,' and other works. 
 The lessons are given on days and at hours arranged between the Instructor 
 and the pupil. The fee to pupils is, for each lesson of an hour, 2s. 6d. Tickets 
 for the lessons must be previously procured at the Offices of the Society. 
 
 B 2
 
 4 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 other, that residents are apt to over-estimate obstacles they have never 
 themselves faced. The unknown, in mountains and elsewhere, is often 
 the impossible even for educated Englishmen — much more is it so for the 
 native inhabitants. 
 
 In the selection of his field the professional traveller who seeks wholly 
 new ground need, as yet, be at no loss for choice, even outside the Arctic 
 and Antarctic regions. The interior of New Guinea is still almost 
 virgin to Europeans ; several of the East Indian Islands, particularly 
 liorneo and Formosa, large portions of Tibet, and the native states 
 on the northern frontier of India and Upper Burmah, present many 
 purely topographical problems. Africa is still very far from being ex- 
 hausted, if the mysteries to be solved in it are gradually being narrowed. 
 South and Central America seem at last to attract their fair share of 
 enterprise ; and the ranges on the Pacific coast of North America are, 
 from the scale of their glacial phenomena, certain soon to be studied 
 in detail. But the old conception of geography which looked on it as 
 pure topography, as equivalent to surveying and map-construction, is 
 fast dying out, and travellers, as well as geographers, are becoming 
 familiar with the idea that their business is to furnish a picture of the 
 earth's surface as it is, and in relation to its inhabitants. To this 
 knowledge, as set forth in such a work as M. Eeclus's 'Geographic 
 Universelle,' an acquaintance with the topography of a countiy is only 
 a preliminary. It may seem a paradox, yet it is true, that there is 
 hardly a country in Europe the materials for the geography of which 
 are complete. In England itself, to give a single instance, we do not 
 yet know the depths of our inland waters. Large tracts of the Alps 
 and the Pyrenees were within the last twenty-five years, mapped for 
 the first time with any approach to accuracy by private and individual 
 energy. The Balkan Peninsula is far from being exactly described. A 
 little further afield in Morocco, Asia Minor, the Western Caucasus, Syria 
 east of the Jordan, in the easily-accessible western portions of Northern 
 America— in short, in regions within a fortnight of London, there is still 
 room for any number of intelligent observers. 
 
 Next to the choice of the field for travel comes another primary 
 matter on which hints are hardly likely, perhaps, to be serA-iccable, yet, 
 which is the most important of all — the choice of a companion. Those 
 who have never travelled at all together will always, before entering ou
 
 PRELIMINARY HINTS. 5 
 
 any prolonged partnership, bo wise to test their sympathy or powers of 
 mutual accommodation, in some short excursion. Of course diversity 
 of studies -will lead to greater richness in results. A first-rate photo- 
 grapher — a first-rate specialist of any kind — is apt to get absorbed in 
 his work ; it is everything that his companion should be industrious 
 with his note-book, and handy in camp. A botanist, or an entomologist, 
 is very apt to see nothing more than a few yards distant ; a mountaineer 
 to overlook any feature less than two miles high! Where tastes are 
 diverse each will learn from his companion, and the common result will 
 be enriched. 
 
 A few commonplaces, drawn chiefly from the writer's own limited 
 experience, may perhaps be added usefully here. In all dealings with 
 camp-servants and natives be first of all patient, nest just and firm, 
 dealing praise and blame alike sparingly, but heartily. Never lose 
 your temper — except on purpose, and avoid banter. When you have 
 to communicate through an interpreter, endeavour to be present yourself 
 at all important discussions. Arrange for your transport for as long 
 periods as convenient, and pay whenever possible by distance, and not by 
 time, if you want to get on. Do not let your visit be an expense, but 
 rather a source of profit, in some way or other, to your hosts. The 
 present you intend to give on leaving may be judiciously shown and 
 hinted at beforehand; it will increase the attention paid you, and be 
 more effective than if kept in reserve as a surprise. 
 
 Make it a rule to start as early in the day as possible. In many 
 climates clouds obscure the view, or the heat is intolerable in the 
 afternoon. And it is an advantage when camping to have plenty of 
 daylight after arrival. 
 
 Eemember that the first and best instruments are the traveller's own 
 eyes. Use them constantly, and record your observations on the spot, 
 keeping for the purpose a note-book with numbered pages and a map 
 (where the latter is procurable) always at hand in a buttoned pocket. 
 The more little rough sketches, outlines, sketch-maps you introduce into 
 your note-book the better. Put down, as they occur, all important 
 objects ; streams, their volume, colour ; mountain ranges, their character 
 and apparent structure and glaciation, the colour and forms of the land- 
 scape, prevalent winds, climate. Note all chcmgca in the physical aspect 
 of the country, soil, rocks, vegetation, flora, and fauna; the limits of
 
 G HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 tribes, their dwellings, places of worship, tombs, and particularly ancient 
 cemeteries, domestic furniture, customs, antiquities, &c. In short, 
 describe to yourself at the time all you see and learn in your diary. 
 
 I have puriDosely limited myself here to the most elementary sugges- 
 tions. I do not, of course, assume that any traveller will be without at 
 least a good watch, a compass, a thermometer, and an aneroid (an in- 
 strument ■which, carefully ivorn like a watch, from the commencement of 
 the joiirney, I have found more satisfactory than have most travellers, 
 and in which further improvements may be looked for). But I must not 
 trespass here on the province of the Scientific Instructor. Readers will 
 find all necessary information in the important section of this work which 
 Mr. Coles, under the supervision of my co-editor. Captain Wharton, k.n., 
 the Hydrographer to the Admiralty, and with the assistance of several 
 distinguished survey officers, has very carefully revised. 
 
 General instructions as to linguistic collections will be found among 
 the Hints on Anthropology. The traveller's business is to try and get 
 a native name for everything he sees. But to ascertain correctly the 
 native names for natiiral features, and even for villages, is often a very 
 troublesome task, and the most grotesque blunders may easily be made. 
 Pronunciation in a partially-understood tongue or dialect is imperfectly 
 heard, and a little knowledge leads astray. Names are frequently given 
 to districts rather than to individual hamlets. Streams are differently 
 named in different parts of their course. 
 
 But it is with mountain ranges, and, above all, with individual summits, 
 that the greatest difficulties arise. A summit, unless exceptionally con- 
 spicuous, has frequently no name apart from the chain or block to which 
 it belongs, or the i^ass nearest it. A chain or block will get a name from 
 the pasturage on its slope ; or it will be called after the valley at its 
 base ; or, more frequently, from the valley on the other side reached by 
 crossing it. In the latter case, it is obvious that it will probably have 
 two names. As a rule a name given to a massif , or group, should be 
 applied to its highest point. For that it is vertical, and not lateral, 
 extension that differentiates mountains, that their essential feature is 
 their height, and that their individuality resides in their highest point, 
 are very modern refinements. 
 
 Whatever further hints my experience suggests may best be included 
 in the chapters that follow. I will here only add a few words as to
 
 PRELIMINAKY HINTS. 7 
 
 the method and form to be adopted by the traveller in preparing the 
 permanent record of his journey after its completion. 
 
 The traveller, immediately on his return, should write out from his 
 notes a full diary. This done, let him lay it aside for a short time, and 
 read afresh all he can find on his subject. He "will then be ready to 
 take up again his own manuscript, and, if he sees his way to make an 
 interesting paper or volume, to come to the important decision whether 
 he shall retain the narrative form, or arrange his material otherwise. 
 Should he retain the narrative form — and it has many advantages — let 
 him erase repetitions ; enlarge on, or mass together, typical and instruc- 
 tive experiences ; insert, where most convenient, condensed summaries 
 of the results of his observations on special subjects, showing how and 
 where they modify, or enlarge, the conclusions of his predecessors. The 
 lecturer or author who furnishes a bare record of how he got over the 
 groimd, without iDausiug to give any definite picture of what he has seen 
 and learnt, is the terror of geographical meetings, and his book is 
 destined to comparative failure. His observations may serve as a basis 
 for maps ; he may have earned credit as an exact topographer ; but as a 
 geographer, in the higher sense of the word, he will have failed. 
 Statistics, and details of topography and distances, most valuable in the 
 study, should, as a rule, be omitted in reading a paper before a general 
 audience, which requires definite pictures sufficiently filled in to be 
 apprehended and remembered. If the traveller has to give many figures, 
 or much technical information not necessary to the general reader, let 
 him employ an appendix or footnotes. Finally let him attend himself to 
 his maps and illustrations, and not forget a good index.
 
 ( » ) 
 
 II. 
 
 HiNTS ON OUTHT. 
 
 INCLUDING NOTES ON WATEK TEAYEL AND MOUNTAIN TRAVEL. 
 
 Compiled hy DoUGLAS W. Fbeshfield, roith the aid of E. Whymper, 
 J. Thomson, H. H. Johnston, J. Coles, and ofhers. 
 
 Suggestions regarding a suitable outfit for a traveller must necessarily 
 be of the most general character, as each traveller requires a special outfit 
 according to the nature of his journey, its aims and duration, the numl>er 
 of iiersons composing the expedition, and the funds at command. An 
 outfit which might be very complete and suitable for an Arctic journey 
 or a very cold climate must obviously be unsuited for a journey in 
 tropical countries, though it might contain some articles useful in all 
 regions. And even where the conditions may not be so wholly dissimilar 
 as in the cases mentioned, as, for example, in Soiith America, Australia, 
 and Central Africa, the traveller will in each country require many 
 distinct articles, and find others superfluous. In all cases where special 
 information is needed, the intending traveller will do well to apply to 
 the officials of the Geographical Society, who, as a rule, are able to put 
 him into communication with the best authorities of all — his last pre- 
 decessors in the region he is about to visit. He may also obtain much 
 useful general information from Mr. F. Galton's 'Art of Travel,' and 
 Messrs. Lord and Baines's ' Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life.' For 
 more detailed information as to particular branches of his outfit — e.g., 
 Scientific Instruments, Photographic Apparatus, Medicines, or the para- 
 phernalia of a naturalist, he should also consult the chapters to which 
 references are hereafter given, and the Eeport on Eqxupment, published 
 (1892) by the Alpine Club, to which is appended a useful list of 
 addi-esses of trade-firms. His next step will be to visit some great 
 London outfitters — e.g., Messrs. Silver & Co. of Bond Street, the Jaeger 
 Company, Princes Street, Cavendish Square, who supply a special
 
 HINTS OX OUTFIT. » 
 
 mountain outfit, where he may see specimens of the goods that have 
 been supplied to travellers, and of the inventions they have devised. 
 
 It is not advisable to lay down any absolute rule as to whether the 
 traveller should complete his outfit at home or abroad. There may be 
 some occasions on which it may be best to complete abroad. Customs 
 duties in some countries, particularly Eussia and the United States, have 
 to be taken into account. But, inasmuch as far greater facilities of 
 purchase and for packing are to be had at home, the reasons would 
 have to be very weighty and exceptional which would render it desirable 
 to complete abroad. 
 
 Travellers, again, in some regions require to carry much of their food 
 with them, while in others they can obtain almost all necessary sustenance 
 on the spot. In some countries there are considerable facilities for 
 transport, and there is no need to reduce the baggage to very small 
 dimensions ; in others the difficulty of transport is amongst the greatest 
 to be encountered. These various considerations must all be taken into 
 account, and the leader of an exploring expedition will give the first proof 
 of his fitness by showing, by judicious selection, that be appreciates the 
 relative importance of particular articles. 
 
 In the arrangement and packing of the stores there are, again, con- 
 siderable opportunities for the exercise of sound judgment. 
 
 On this subject some hints may be offered under four heads, viz. : — 
 methodical arrangement, security, economy, and the catalogue. 
 
 1, MetlodkaJ Arrangement. — Articles likely to be in most frequent use 
 , should be packed together, care being taken not to bring articles likely 
 
 to injure one another into close contact. Tins must be kept apart from 
 anything breakable. Fragile articles (such as glass bottles) should be 
 packed in small separate boxes or cases, so that, should they be broken, 
 they may not leave a void which will cause all the contents of their case 
 to jumble aboiit. Chemicals and explosives should be kept sejiarate from 
 other things ; and, before being packed, inquiry should be made as to 
 regulations to whicli they will have to submit on ship-board, &c. If 
 the goods have to undergo customs examination, the traveller must be 
 present himself, or he risks the goods being disarranged and carelessly 
 repacked, and the eatables extensively tested by tasting. 
 
 2. Security agaiust (o) breakage, (h) damp, and (c) rol:)bery should be 
 studied whilst packing.
 
 10 HTNTB TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 a. To guard against hreakagc, packages shoukl be of reasonable dimen- 
 sions. For an inkand traveller 75 lbs. gross weight skould be about the 
 maximum of any single package. A horse or mule can take a (con- 
 veniently shaped) box of this weight on each side, and 50 to 60 lbs. 
 between them on the top. Where goods are intended to be carried by 
 porters, it is not recommended that any single package should weigh 
 more than 50 lbs. Heavier packages will almost certainly have to 
 submit to very rough treatment. Further security against breakage can 
 be had by sub-division, that is to say, by packing boxes inside boxes, tins 
 within tins, &c. Everything should be tightly packed, and all vacant 
 spaces filled up. Oblong boxes travel best. The air-tight packages 
 manufactured by Messrs. Silver & Co. are recommended, but for a 
 prolonged journey require to be protected by outer wooden cases. On 
 reaching the point beyond which goods must be carried over rough 
 country on the backs of animals or men, siich cases will conveniently be 
 exchanged for saddle-bags made of strong waterproof material. Each 
 pair of saddle-bags should be arranged with shoulder-straps for the use 
 of porters. A few large bags of the sort known in Tyrol as Rucksacks — 
 made of Willesden canvas, of which various approved sizes can be got at 
 Silver's — are most convenient for the carriage of small packages, and when 
 not in use are so light that they can easily be stowed away. It is 
 obviously desirable that some of the packages should be capable of 
 being kept under padlocks. Several canvas bags and several dozen 
 linen bags are very useful for packing. 
 
 I- b. To guard against damp (on ship-board, iu countries with heavy rains, 
 passage of rivers, &c.), all perishable things should, where practicable, 
 be enclosed iu tin and Holdcred, particulai' care heing taken that everything 
 is thoroughly dry before being soldered up. It pays the traveller well to 
 have his outer wooden cases made of the best deal, closely fitted, and 
 varnished or double varnished to prevent absorption of moisture by the 
 •wood. 
 
 c. Closely-fitted, well-made cases afibrd great trouble to thieves, and 
 gaping packages, with partly-exposed contents, invite robbery. Boxes 
 which are screived down are more secure than nailed boxes, as thieves are 
 frequently not provided with screwdrivers. Use trass screws, if possible, 
 for cases which have to be frequently opened and re-opened ; iron screws, 
 if used, should be tallowed before insertion ; they will then unscrew more
 
 HINTS ON OUTFIT. 11 
 
 easily. Articles of value should be kept out of sight as much as 
 possible. 
 
 3. Economy. — It is false economy for the traveller to buy any but the 
 best articles for his outfit, or to carry useless things. Many articles 
 may be put to double uses, and economy can be effected by selecting such 
 materials as can be most widely applied. For example, articles to be 
 used as presents may also be put to use on the journey. There should 
 be no waste space in the packages. Every interstice can be filled up with 
 articles which may be turned to account. For the finishing touches tow, 
 cotton-wool, and paper, crumpled into balls the size of walnuts, may be 
 advantageously emj)loyed, as all these materials can be used for a diversity 
 of purposes. If the traveller does not himself superintend the packing 
 of his goods, he must not expect foresight in these small but important 
 particulars. 
 
 4. The Catalogue of Outfit. — As each package is finished its contents 
 should be carefully catalogued, and the package numbered distinctly on 
 several sides, corresj)ondiug numbers to be entered in the catalogue. In 
 the event of the contents of a box being varied and numerous, roughly 
 classify them before entering. The traveller himself should carry the 
 catalogue on his i:)erson, and, where there are a large number of packages 
 and articles, it will be found of .advantage to form a classified catalogue 
 showing the disposition of the articles, as well as a numerical one showing 
 the contents of each package. 
 
 The articles which go to make up a more or less complete outfit may be 
 roughly classified under the following heads:—!. Provisions; 2, Clothing; 
 3, Instruments; 4, Stationery, note-books, books and maps; 5, Appli- 
 ances for collecting ; 6, Articles for presents or barter ; 7, Camp equii> 
 ments ; 8, Medicines ; and 9, Photographic Aj^paratus. 
 
 1. Provisions. — The following are good for all countries and all 
 climates : — tea (in tins) ; preserved milk (Milkmaid Brand), or cocoa and 
 milk (in tins); arrowroot; Liebig's extract (sold usually in jars, but will 
 keep equally in well-soldered tins) ; preserved soup in tins ; Bovril ; 
 Edwards' Desiccated soup; Silver's self-cooking soup tins (invaluable in 
 any emergency when a fire is impossible) ; sardines (in tomato sauce) ; 
 potted bloaters; Symington's i^ea-flour soup (excellent at low tempera- 
 tures, and requiring only one minute's boiling) ; lemonade efi"ervescing 
 powder (will keep perfectly if soldered in tin); oatmeal and baking
 
 12 HINTS TO tkavetj,7:es. 
 
 powder; driccl onions ; eating raisins; cliocolate in cakes; mustard, salt, 
 pepper, and curry powder ; marmalade in corked bottles ; Chelsea table 
 jelly ; Moir's fresh herrings; and Erbswurst. Jam in J lb. tins. 
 
 Kola-nut biscuits have marvellous effect in sustaining strength during 
 exertion. They arc to be had of M. Gaucher, St. Earnabe, Banlieu de 
 Marseille, and cost 2 fr. 50 c. the kilogi'am. 
 
 Preserved meats can now be procured in nearly all civilised towns, and 
 in most instances will keep for an almost unlimited length of time. 
 When purchasing, all tins should be inspected, and huJged or hattered ones 
 should he rejected. A convex end indicates putrefaction inside. The liest 
 course is to purchase direct from general providers or makers of esta- 
 blished reputations. A small box with screw-on lid for holding salt. 
 Empty provision-tins are often highly appreciated as presents, and the 
 larger can be utilised also for natural history specimens (birds and 
 mammals) ; the smaller for shells, insects, &c. 
 
 2. Clothing. — Woollen goods are to be preferred for all countries and 
 for all climates. Boots should be amply provided, and be got into wear 
 before departure ; they should be broad-soled, not too thick or heavy, 
 and one pair at least large enough to admit of two i^air of socks being 
 worn. Double socks and easy boots are the best prevention against frost- 
 bite or sore feet in long marches on rough grovmd. Porpoise hide is 
 worth the extra cost. A supi^ly of nails should be taken. An " ulster " 
 coat, one or two sizes larger than a fit, will be found useful to sleep in. 
 A stout mackintosh will keep all but the legs dry on a long march, and 
 in temperate climates at least is very serviceable. In the tropics the 
 light oil-skin coats now made will answer the same purpose. Travellers 
 who have been in, or near, the districts to be visited, should always be 
 consulted as to what specialities may be required. The People's Button 
 (A. & N. Stores) fastens to the clothes without the need for sewing. 
 Silver has a good form of Hus'if. Eubber-gloves. Leather-belt with 
 pouches, swivels, &c. Bootlaces. Have a pair of long, warm boots for 
 tent wear, and a pair of long over-all rubber boots for slipping on to go 
 out of the tent in snowy or muddy places. 
 
 3. Instruments. — (See Section TV.) 
 
 4. Stationery ; Note-hoohs ; Books and Maps; Despatch box, a small 
 copying roll, stylographic 2'>ens, and ink-bottle in uvoden case. — The descrip- 
 tions of paper most useful are bank-post, tissue, and botanical. Note-
 
 . HINTS ON OUTFIT. 13 
 
 books should be made out of bauk-postj be bound in parchment, and 
 have gilt edges. It will be found a great convenience to classify observa- 
 tions into separate books, or distinct divisions : (a) an angle-book for the 
 survey observations, barometric, &c. ; (b) a general note-book ; (c) notes 
 on and numbers of natural history specimens. Such classification must 
 be effected sooner or later if the observations are to be turned to account. 
 Tracing-liueu (sometimes called tracing-cloth) is more useful than 
 tracing-^joper. Strong envcloi3cs and of large size. Labels, adhesive 
 or tied, according to the climate, for bottles with natural history speci- 
 mens, should not be forgotten. Perry's ink pellets ; a little blue and red 
 ink for the map, and some indelible brown which can be painted over, a 
 good portable inkstand, and steel pens of various descriptions should be 
 taken. Brandauer's " Oriental Pens " are recommended for fine work. 
 Sketches and notes, particularly the records of angles, in pen-and-ink are 
 to be preferred to the same in pencil, as the latter often become illegible. 
 The nature and the extent to which the traveller should take books 
 and maps must be determined by his jDarticular circumstances. A few 
 sheets of sectional paper (i.e. paper with printed lines crossing at right 
 angles) will always be found of service for making maps and plans. 
 
 5. Apjjiiances for Colledinrj. — (See Section VIII.) 
 
 6. Presents and Articles for Barter. — Clasp-knives, of all sorts, are 
 esteemed. These are most advantageously obtained direct from Shelfield 
 and Birmingham manufacturers of repute. Spectacles are useful in 
 many countries. Small musical-boxes, hunting-whips, field-glasses, 
 flasks, tea, tobacco, coloured pocket-handkerchiefs, snow-spectacles, card- 
 board plates with coloured pictures, "Waterbury watches, and whistles, 
 are all frequently ai^preciated. Beads are good in many parts, but 
 judgment is required in pui'chasing only those sorts that are generally 
 in fashion. Information should be sought from previous travellers. 
 Birmingham and Venice are the principal centres of the bead manufactiu'C. 
 For almost all wild or partly-civilised countries special articles may be 
 usefully carried. Inquire beforehand. 
 
 A few simjile conjuring tricks, and the knowledge of how to show them 
 off, are often of the highest u.se to travellers in winning the esteem and 
 respect of their temporary hosts. 
 
 7. Camp Equipments ; Tents; Coolcing Stoves ; Filters; Tools; Ar7ns. — 
 For Africa and hot climates generally, and where the traveller can live in
 
 14 HINTS TO TRAVELLEKS. 
 
 his tent, it should be square, double-roofed, and fairly roomy (see p. 25). 
 For very rough travelling, or for journeys on which it is desirable to carry 
 only a moderate amount of impedimenta, the pattern of Whymper's 
 Alpine tent is recommended. Tents of this nature, 7x7x7 feet, form 
 a modeTate load for one man. Messrs, Silver have the pattern; the 
 material should be " Willesden canvas," which has been found altogether 
 waterproof. The tent should have a small window at the back. It is 
 well to have an extra mackintosh iloor loose. This should be one foot 
 larger than the floor of the tent, and have tapes attached, which tie to 
 corresponding loops on the canvas. Several extra waterproof sheets 
 of various sizes are sure to come in handy to cover luggage, &c. One 
 Whymper tent (Edgington's), for a mountain journey, for each man ; in 
 hot countries extra fly is needed. The tent should loe made to open at 
 both ends, and the floor should be continued up at both ends and fastened 
 so as to stand in a vertical position to a height of at least 6 inches. 
 Take two spare poles and spare Willesden canvas. A very light form of 
 tent, for the use of mountaineers and others, has been invented by Mr. 
 Mummery. It holds three men and weighs 3k lbs. Tents of this kind 
 may be seen at Edgington's ; they are capable of improvement by the 
 addition of a floor, 
 
 Jaeger's sleeping bags are warm enough for all ordinary cold. Eider- 
 down bags are recommended for greater cold; each bag to be made 
 with 2 lbs. of best eider-down ; a woollen cover to be sewn over the sattecn 
 lining both inside and outside the bag ; or, have two bags similarly made, 
 with 1 lb. of eider-down each, and use them singly or in combination. 
 
 Stool and Table. — An artist in troi^ical countries or snow regions must by 
 no means fail to carry some form of artist's umbrella or light sketching tent. 
 
 Bough Towels. — Buckingham's 1-snood, 4:-snood, 8-snood, and cable-laid 
 twines are recommended, 
 
 Eubber pocket-flasks holding one pint, 
 
 Kananga water (Japanese) to rub on hands and face, as a protection 
 against mosquitoes. Tins of mustard leaves. 
 
 Filter. — A good "traveller's filter" is desirable. The "Explorer" is 
 the most satisfactory for providing small quantities, Abyssinian pocket- 
 filters are recommended, but are of no use for the supply of large 
 quantities. A piece of mackintosh sewn up in a cone shape, with cane 
 or wire round the large end to distend it, and with a piece of sponge
 
 HINTS ON OUTFIT. 15 
 
 fitted in the neck, is better than nothing. Not only filter thoroughly, 
 but also boil the water. Too much trouble cannot be taken to obtain 
 pure Avater. More travellers have probably lost their lives through fever, 
 and through drinking bad water than from all other causes put together. 
 For carrying water for use on the march (or other liquids), Silver's 
 ebonite flasks, felt-covered, with attached straps and cups, are 
 recommended. 
 
 Cooking Stoves, &c. — Some knowledge of how to cut up an animal or 
 prepare a fowl for the pot is very useful; and the more the traveller 
 knows of simple cookery the better, for if he should not cook himself, 
 he will be in a position to teach others. He should, whether he will use 
 it himself or not, take pains to select before starting the form of portable 
 cooking apparatus best suited to his purpose. Handles should be riveted, 
 not soldered. Small bellows are useful. Enamelled iron cups and plates, 
 knives, forks, and spoons must be added. (For lanterns, see p. 72.) 
 Eob Eoy cooking-stove, and Warren cooking-pot. 
 
 A supply of fish-hooks and lines of different sizes is very useful ; given 
 out to the men in camp, they will often enable them to sui:)ply themselves 
 with food. 
 
 Take strong riding-whijDS, and strong twine and whipcord. The best 
 twine commonly made is called "page-cord" (used by compositors for 
 tying lip pages of type). If rope is wanted, use Manilla. 
 
 Tools, dtc. — A small leather roll, containing a chisel and a gouge or two, 
 a small hand- vice, two files, one A gimlet, bradawls, small metal punches, 
 and cold chisel, wire-nippers, j)incers, screwdrivers, French nails and 
 screws, and small fine saw, most serviceable for mending broken articles, 
 if the travellers can use them. Leather shoemaker's awl, waxed thread. 
 Small bellows, and a few bundles of firelighters. A light axe, and tin- 
 opener. Buck, Holborn Viaduct, supplies excellent tools. Gum and 
 liquid glue. Copper rivets of various sizes, and pinchers to cut the ends 
 off. Butcher's Terror for making uj) loads. Lead seals and vice. Leather 
 punch. Two-handed screw- diiver, a jemmy, link-spanner, leather punching 
 plyers. Materials and tools for mending and nailing boots, including 
 shoemakers' thread and cobblers' wax. 
 
 Arms and Ammunition. — The nature and extent of his battery will 
 be matters for the traveller himself to decide. For rough travel it is a 
 question whether muzzle-loading guns may not be better than breech-
 
 16 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 loaders. Should the latter be taken, a good double gun and a double 
 Express rifle are useful, and also a " Transvaal," with shifting barrels for 
 shot or bullet. Eevolvcrs are more useful for the moral effect they 
 produce than from any actual service they render. 
 
 8. Medicines. — (Sec Section III.) 
 
 9. Phvfof/raj)hic A]>paratus. — (See Section V.) 
 
 Tlic following preliminary lists of Eequisites, compiled chiefly from the 
 catalogues of some of our principal outfitters, make no ])retence to be in 
 any way complete. Some of the articles may be superseded by improved 
 appliances and new inventions, or may be superfluous for travellers who 
 have not the same means or aims of those who have supplied the lists. 
 
 The traveller need not be discouraged if unable to secure completeness, 
 for some of the greatest journeys have been made with very inadequate 
 resources. The object here is to give him the means of selection. In the 
 details of the process he must, as has been said before, guide himself by 
 the special circumstances of his journey. 
 
 The traveller, whose aim is to be in light marching order, may first be 
 given a general admonition to see that he has suitable warm and light 
 clothing, proper medicines, a serviceable cooking-aj^paratus, which need 
 weigh little more than a kettle, and concentrated forms of food to fall 
 back on in case of need, and such saddlebags or forms of packages as 
 may be suited for the mode of carriage he will employ. 
 
 So7ne Bequisites for a Tropical Tour — 
 
 Double-lined tent ; camp bedstead ; folding tables ; field hammock ; 
 mosquito curtains, or insect-jDuzzler, on ]\Ir. Tuckett's plan (see 
 post); head-gear and clothing (see p. ); stout shooting-boots; 
 canvas shoes; leech-gaiters,* rug, or plaid; lined umbrella, for 
 
 * Colonel Godwiji-Austen says: "An eifective way to prevent leeches attack- 
 ing the ankles and legs, is to wear woollen stockings ; then over them, round the 
 legs, ixitincas, the woollen bandages as worn in the Kaslouii- Himalaya, and now 
 served out to oiu- troops on mountain service in India. Then, lust, a jiair of 
 cotton socks tied above with tape. After adopting this plan in the Terai and 
 Assam I never got bitten." Stout cloth gaiters with straps, not buttons, are 
 preferred by many travellers to leather. They are lighter, warmer, and resist 
 snow better.
 
 HINTS ON OUTFIT. 17 
 
 sun;* bags, saddle, aud valise; hunting-knives; patent ebonite 
 water-bottle, covered in felt, -with cups ; waterproof despatcli-box. 
 
 Some Requmtes for a Tour in Gold Climates — 
 
 Whymper's tent; flannel shirts; under-waistcoats and drawers; 
 long lamb's-wool stockings ; woollen suit ; fur coat, gloves and 
 knitted sleeping-cap covering ears ; flannel or blanket belt ; 
 woollen jersey comforters ; Swiss woollen lined slippers, snow- 
 shoes; mocassins; hair eye-screens; wool, or fur rugs; warm 
 gloves, mittens, and portable lanterns. 
 
 Patent Norwegian cooking apparatus ; sleeping-bags of woollen 
 material or skeepskin, essential in high mountain excursions 
 (Mr. Tuckett's pattern may be obtained at Silver's) ; canteens, 
 fitted with enamelled iron ware ; waterproof bags ; tan canvas kit. ■ 
 
 See also Alpine Club Report. 
 
 List of Mr. Whtmpek's South American Outfit. 
 
 The following list of articles taken by Mr. E. Whymper is given as 
 representing the maximum outfit of a scientific explorer and mountaineer 
 in a semi-civilised country. Thougli few will be able, or need, to imitate 
 its completeness and scale, it may be useful for reference and selection, 
 and is therefore given here in extenso — with the exception of the photo- 
 graphic apparatus, which have been superseded by the progress of 
 the art. 
 
 Stationery, &c. — 
 
 Stencil-ink, brushes, and stencil-plates (various). 
 2 " Traveller's Inkstands" (Hachette's) ; inkstand in case. 
 Steel pens (various), including very fine sorts; stylographic pen. 
 Drawing pencils, brushes, pen-holders, aud letter-fasteners. 
 Parchment and gummed labels (various), 6 gross in all. 
 Tissue paper (useful for various purposes, including photographic 
 printing). 
 
 * For survey -work it should have a long handle, in two pieces or joints, the 
 lower joint bei'ig .spiked to fix more firmly in tlie ground. 
 
 c
 
 18 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Bank-post ; cream-laid pai)crs (various sizes) ; blotting-paper. 
 
 Stamped and plain envelopes (various) ; canvas envelopes. 
 
 4 doz. memorandum books ; sketch-books; gum; ox-gall; red tape. 
 
 Tracing-paper, and a roll of tracing-linen ; ferro-prussiate paper. 
 
 Drawing-pins; penknives; Chinese white and water-colours; 2-1'oot 
 steel rule. 
 
 Note-books, bound in parchment, with clasps; photographic register ; 
 journal and general note-books; daily notes; angle-book; boiling- 
 point book ; catalogue of collections. 
 
 Maps, Boohs, &c. — 
 
 Admiralty charts, maps, and works of importance, for reference on 
 the spot. 
 
 Dictionaries and grammars for languages spoken in country to be 
 traversed. 
 
 ' Hints to Travellers ' ; Lockyer's ' Astronomy ' ; Bethune's ' Tables ' ; 
 'Admiralty Manual'; 'Sailor's Pocket-Book'; Frome's 'Sur- 
 veying.' 
 
 Clothing, tfcc. — 
 
 9 towels; 12 flannel shirts; 2 white shirts; 16 jiairs angola socks; 
 26 pocket-handkerchiefs ; 3 neckties ; 6 shirt-collars ; 3 pairs 
 mountain-boots ; 1 pair ordinary boots ; 1 pair lawn tennis shoes 
 for shipboard ; A. suits, woollen, various thicknesses ; dress siiit ; 
 Panama straw-hat ; Arctic cap ; travelling-caj:). 
 Eed felt for tablecloth ; large sponge and several small pieces ; 
 tooth-brushes ; very thick woollen jersey ; 2 rowing " sweaters " ; 
 2 woollen comforters ; 2 neck-wraps ; 3 pairs knitted woollen gloves ; 
 1 pair woollen mits; 2 pairs leather gaiters (own pattern) ; 2 linen 
 masks (for snow) ; 2 woollen head-pieces ; folding felt slippers ; 
 cork soles ; small pieces of mackintosh (various) ; several hanks 
 whitey-brown thread ; several pieces inch- wide ta])e ; dusters and 
 cloths ; common pins, «ewing-needles, and packing-needles ; down 
 dressing-gown ; very long i;lster coat. 
 
 MisctUaneous. — 
 
 Two tents (own pattern) 7x7x7 feet, packed in stout canvas bags. 
 Sheepskin rugs laid down on felt.
 
 HINTS ON OUTFIT. 19 
 
 Waterproof sheet 10 x 10 feet. 
 
 „ „ 6 • 6 X 6 • 6 feet. 
 
 4 bags of forfar (to be stuffed with hay for beds). 
 4 „ „ ( „ „ „ pillows). 
 
 Various bags (to be filled with stoues or saud to keep tlie tents firm)- 
 i'our 100-foot leugths of Mauilla rope ; 6 ice-axes. 
 Various uiaekiutosh and leather courier-bags and knapsacks. 
 Mosquito-nets; various bags of forfar; tin flasks and cans. 
 
 2 pint ebonite bottles, felt-covered, with straps (Silver's). 
 Cooking apparatus (from Nares' surplus stores), with attached 
 
 pannikins, and small ditto. 
 Water-tank, with filtering sponge and tap; 2 pocket filters. 
 Salter's spring balance, Aveighing to 25 lbs. 
 Double gun, by Holland & Holland (rifle and shot), shot (various), 
 
 gunijowder, &c. 
 Night-lights and candles ;' folding camp-chair. 
 Insect-net; botanical collecting-book antl paper. 
 Knives for opening tins ; brass spirit-lamp. 
 Geological hammer. 
 
 li lbs. tobacco; cigars, cases, pouches, pipes; flint and steel. 
 14 cakes soa^) ; camphor. 
 Balls of sti'ong twine (various) ; screws and nails, various sizes. 
 
 3 gross glass bottles (various sizes) for insect collecting. 
 
 Medicines (various). 
 
 I'nscnls, (fcf. — 
 
 500 bead necklaces (amber, tuniaoise, &.r). 
 
 250 silvered and gilt crosses, various patterns. 
 
 150 pairs of earrings and brooches. 
 
 300 eye-protectors (green, blue, white, and neutral tint glasses). 
 
 72 gilt and silvered watch-chains. 
 
 21 pairs of spectacles and eye-glasses. 
 
 18 tin dishes fitting one inside another j 
 
 25 „ plates [ (used also in cookery). 
 
 36 „ spoons } 
 
 Silver toothpicks. 
 
 2
 
 20 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Keyless silver watch. 
 
 25 good pocket-knives, variou.s descriptions. 
 
 G corkscrews. 
 
 Small tape measures in brass cases. 
 
 Various plated goods. 
 
 1-2 circular looking-glasses. 
 
 12 mouse-traps. 
 
 J ndrutuotls. — 
 
 Silver lever watch; gold pocket-chronometer; independent seconds 
 
 watch. 
 Itepeating travelling clock, with alarum. 
 G-in. sextant (Cary). 
 3-iu. transit-theodolite (Casella). 
 2 theodolite stands. 
 2 mountain mercurial barometers, Fortin (Hicks). 
 
 I niercni'ial standard barometer. 
 
 I I boiling-point thermometers (various makers). 
 Henderson's boiling- water ap]:)aratus (Hicks). 
 
 8 aneroid barometers (Hicks, Casella, Hilger). 
 
 Telescope in sling case; field-glass in aluminium. 
 
 Thermometer in metal tube, for i)Ocket. 
 
 Case containing maximum, minimum, and clinical thermometer. 
 
 Prismatic compass ; various pocket-compasses. 
 
 Multiplying winch and measujing line. 
 
 Metallic measuring tape, 50 feet (Chesterman's). 
 
 Case of mathematical instruments. 
 
 Drawing-i^ens (various) ; Napier's com])asses. 
 
 Travelling combination pocket-knife ; corkscrew and whistle. 
 
 liussiau furnace. 
 
 Magnesium riband. 
 
 Small musical-box. 
 
 Screwdrivers (various). 
 
 Clothing, instruments, and valuables were packed in aii'-tight metal 
 uoiform-cases, with outer double-varviished wooden cases. Provisions 
 and the bulk of the goods were packed in tin, and soldered down, inside
 
 HINTS ON OUTFIT. 21 
 
 double-varnished close-fitting wooden cases. Cliemicals and articles 
 likely to be injured by damp were in double tin cases, soldered down 
 separately one over the other. The majority of the cases measured 
 28? X llf X IO5 indies. This was found a very convenient shape for 
 mule travelling. 
 
 The whole, including provisions, amounted to 42 packages. Gross 
 weight aboTit 2300 lbs. Total cost of journey £1750, exclusive of cost of 
 instruments and plant brought home in good condition. 
 
 All the articles enumerated in the above lists were taken out from 
 England, and scarcely anything, except part of our foorl, was purchased 
 in Ecuador beyond the following articles : — 
 
 Waterproof capes (ponchos); woollen ponchos; saddles; riding- 
 whips; machetas. 
 
 These articles could have been obtained of better quality and at less 
 cost in England. 
 
 Ed. "Whtmpee. 
 Fehruary, 1883. 
 
 The Tuckett '• Insect-Puzzlek." 
 
 The form of protection, described on next page, from insects and vermin 
 of all kinds is extremely portable, and has been found equally useful in 
 camp and in native huts. As it is not generally known, except to 
 Alpine travellers, it is described fully. It can be procured at Messrs. 
 Silvers. 
 
 Take two pieces of cedar or mahogany board, fV of :^n inch in thickness, 
 16 inches in length, and o in width, and attach them endwise to one 
 another by a hinge, or by ])ieces of stricg lacing through corresponding 
 holes, so that they may be folded together for economy of space. At the 
 centre of, and one inch from, the outer extremity of each board, insert very 
 securely a female screw in brass, into which can be screwed uprights of 
 bamboo, 18 inches in length, and about half an inch in diameter. By 
 means of these and three light detachf-d canes, each about 17 inches long 
 and furnished with sockets, an arch aliont 34 inches in height, and of 
 considerable strength, is funned.
 
 22 
 
 TTTXTS TO TT^AVET.LET^P. 
 
 If greater he.afl-room is desired, the length of the bamlioos mny be 
 increased, and other dimensions may l>e modified to snit individual 
 preferences. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 ,' Foot 
 
 Having inflated vpitli small portable bellows an india-rubber mattress, 
 7 feet in length, and 26 inches in width, made in two attaclied sections, 
 A and B, Fig. 1 (a cork one may be snbstitnted, or the contrivance may 
 be nsed without any mattress at all), place the nnited boards underneath 
 it at 10 inches to a foot from the head-end, as in Fig. 1, and the mattress, 
 
 or the weight of the body if no mattress is available, will keep the boards 
 and arch firmly in position. 
 
 Standing across the foot of tlie mattress, draw over and under it a 
 covering, made somewhat of the shape of the foot of a sock, of which the
 
 HINTS ON OUTFIT. 23 
 
 under portion in contact with the gronncl, and the sides and " toes " for 
 a height of a foot or more above the mattress when in position, are made 
 of strong unbleached linen, whilst the ripper part is formed of "nain- 
 sook." 
 
 Pull the bag thus constructed backwards under the'mattress, and over 
 the top of the arch (securing it to the summit of the latter hy pieces of 
 tajie sewn on inside), and then, creeping feet forenjost from behind 
 through the open end into the interior, draw in the pillow, reef up from 
 inside, by means of a tape, the open end of the bag, and, winding the 
 slack round until the material is tightly strained, secure the centre with 
 a bow. 
 
 Thus all access of vermin or mosquitos is absolutely ciit off in every 
 direction, and the protected person, invisible himself, but able to see 
 those outside, can sleep in peace, or read undisturbed, either by day or 
 by the light of a candle (placed outside on a chair or stool), which passes 
 freely through the "nainsook" envelope. 
 
 Such an arrangement in feverish districts affords at least some protec- 
 tion against malaria. (See p. 47.) 
 
 Mr. Mummery's Tent. 
 
 Mr. Mummery, of the Alpine Club, has devised and tested in actual 
 use a form of tent which holds three men easily, and weighs only Sj lbs. 
 Tents of this kind can now be purchased at Edgington's. The area 
 covered by the tent is 6 feet long by 4 feet wide. The end of the tent is 
 of the form of a rectangle surmounted by an isosceles triangle. 
 
 Me. J. Thomson's Notes. 
 
 The following outfit was provided by Mr. Thomson for his journey 
 across Masai Land in 1883: — For carrying my clothes, books, &c., 
 8 boxes, of different sizes, watertight, tcell roumhd at the edges, not more 
 than 10 inches deep, and not very wide, so that they may be easily 
 grasped when on the shoulder or head. The larger boxes are for carrying
 
 24 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 clothes only, tlic smaller for u mixture of clothes with heavier articles, 
 such as books, boots, &c. None of the boxes when filled to ■weigh over 
 60 lbs. 
 
 For clothing I have jirovided 1 ordinary suit of tweed clothes for the 
 colder regions, 3 suits of tropical tweeds, and as many of white drill ; 
 6 strong loose shirts, with pockets, and as many thin jerseys; G pairs 
 of thick wooUeu stockings or socks; 1 pair of strong boots, for wet 
 season; 2 pairs of lighter make, for the dry season, and 2 pairs of 
 canvas shoes for cam^D use, and when feet are sore. Heavy boots are to 
 be condemned for the tropics, as the feet soon become scalding hot, 
 making travelling in the heat of the day most painful. 
 
 Canvas gaiters are of great use, to keejo mud out of the boots when 
 tramping through sw^amps, and to protect the legs in thorny scrub. A 
 tropical waterproof and a comfortable ulster make up the clothing list, 
 with the addition of such minor articles as handkerchiefs, scarves, &c. 
 
 "We have next to consider camping requirements. 
 
 I have formed a very decided opinion as to the necessity of the African 
 traveller making himself as comfortable in cam]) as the circumsiances and 
 the exierd of the expedition will permit. The climate is so trying rmd 
 varied, that to attempt " to rough it " unnecessarily is simply to iuvite 
 disease, and too often death. 
 
 Impressed by exj^erience with these convictions, I have been careful to 
 select a fairly roomy tent, 9 feet long, of good canvas. An iron bedstead, 
 with cork bed, and two warm Austrian blankets. A folding chair, cami> 
 stool, and a small portable table. The latter is an immense convenience 
 when much writing has to be done. 
 
 For short, qiuck trips, in which I might be away from camp for a day 
 or two, I have provided a jjalkee hammock, which forms a bed and tent 
 in one. 
 
 For carrying any sick person an ordinary string hammock is taken. 
 A mosquito curtain makes iip the list of camj) furniture. 
 
 Instead of carrying an ordinary bucket canteen I have had a basket 
 fitted u]) with all the necessary articles. 
 
 I, of course, take with me a small medicine-case, specially fitted with 
 a view to the treatment of fevers, diarrhoea, dysentery, liver disease, &c., 
 and besides, I have been careful to have some of the more useful medicines 
 in separate bottles in case of accidents.
 
 HINTS ON OTTTFIT. 25 
 
 Among otlior useful articles, the following maybe mentioned: — Water- 
 proof gronnd sheets ; roll-np case of tools ; one • 577 Express rifle, one 
 •577 reduced to '450, a 12 bore gun, a revolver, with ammunition to 
 suit ; two axes ; a hunting knife ; two liill-hooks and two reaping-hooks, 
 to be used in camijing and cutting a way through jungle and forest; 
 diary and necessary stationery; some books, especially such as can bo 
 read and re-read. 
 
 These articles, with scientific instruments, photographic apparatus, &c., 
 form the chief part of my ecpiipment. 
 
 I have not thought it necessary to lay in a supply of stores, such as 
 tea, coffee, sugar, &c., as they can be got almost as cheaply in Zanzibar. 
 Goods for bartering miist also be got there, as I should otherwise run the 
 risk of taking out what woixldj to a large extent, prove to be xitterly 
 worthless. 
 
 As the country through w'hicli I have to pass is reported to 1)6 
 dangerous, I shall arm as many of my men as possible with short Snider 
 rifles, and take revolvers for myself and the leaders. 
 
 December 3, 1882. 
 
 Mk. H. H. Johnston's Notes. 
 
 I have been asked to add a few hints on an African outfit. Perhaps 
 the simplest plan will be for me to give a brief sketch of the way 
 in which I myself travel in the interior of Africa. I have made foui' 
 more or less extended journeys in Africa since 1879, visiting a great 
 deal of the northern part of the continent, the western and the eastern, 
 and my present form of outfit is one that experience, and perhaps 
 individual taste, have gradually formed to a character which I find 
 decidedly conducive to comfort and true economy. Firstly, it is to be 
 supposed that one's baggage must be packed in a -way that will render 
 it readily adaptable to porterage, either on the heads of human porters or 
 on the backs of beasts of burden. Consequently, the heaviest sci)arate load 
 should not be as a rule heavier nor larger than a man can carry, therefore 
 you sliould arrange to pack all your goods in parcels not weighing more 
 than fifty pounds. In exceptional instances, such as a tent or a bed, where 
 the article is one and indivisible, and exceeds the weight mentioned, it
 
 26 IITVIS TO TRAVEIJ.FKS. 
 
 mnst be fastened to a pole, and arranged so that two or more men — if 
 porters are tlic only means of transport — can carry it. For secnrity 
 against robbery, for compactness, lightness, and, above all, resistance to 
 damp, there is nothing better than air-tight tin cases, measuring about 
 forty inches by twenty-eight, with good locks and handles at each end. 
 Cases of this description are cheaply made by Messrs. S. W. Silver & Co. 
 It is well that there should be the same lock to all the boxes, so that 
 one key — which you can attach to your watch-chain or hang aroimd 
 your neck, keeping a duplicate in your dispatch box— opens all. 
 
 Special instructions are given in other ])arts of this volume as to a 
 scientific outfit for tlie prosecution of special studies in various branches 
 of science, so that I shall say nothing about this subject, the more so as T 
 thoroughly agree with the practical usefulness of the suggestions offered 
 therein by competent authorities. The directions in natural history 
 as to outfit and instruments I have particularly put to the test, and can 
 recommend them as thoroughly practical, and emanating from the mind 
 of an experienced traveller. As to photography and medicine, I would 
 caution the traveller against attempting to be too elaborate, seeing that in 
 all the fatigiTCs and worries of transport he may find his chemicals and drugs 
 a horrid nuisance. With regard to drugs, indeed, as you cannot hope to be 
 an accomplished physician and the healer of all ills with which you come 
 in contact, you would do well^to confine yourself to a few simple remedies 
 for simple forms of sickness, and these should be taken in large quantities. 
 Quinine is the traveller's sheet-anchor. It is best procured from Messrs. 
 Howard & Son, Stratford, E., who will, if necessary, supply it in a 
 compressed form in small cakes. This is by far the best and most con- 
 venient mode of carrying quinine about. To roll your dose of quinine up in 
 cigarette paper into a small pill, to moisten it with the tongue, and place 
 it at the root of the tongue and swallow it, is the matter of a minute. 
 Other useful and simple drugs that do not require mTich measuring or 
 preparing are : Cockles' pills, as an aperient, Lamplough's pyretic saline, 
 chlorodyne, opium, in the shape of laudanum, for sudorific purposes, 
 castor oil, sal volatile, and Dover's powders. Vaseline and zinc ointment 
 are excellent for the sores and ulcers of the tropics, and violet powder is a 
 good thing to dust over the body, especially between the folds of the skin, 
 where pei-spiration is likely to acciunulate, in order to absorb and sweeten 
 the excessive sweat poured out from the pores of the skin.
 
 HINTS ON OUTFIT. 27 
 
 As regards tents, the traveller must endeavour to judicionsly combine 
 comfort with portaliility. He had better go to Silver's or Edgington's in 
 tlie City, and choose for himself ; but he should take care that he assure Idm- 
 sdf, first, that the material of the tent is absolutely rain-proof, and secondly, 
 for hot climates, that it is double-lined, -with a space between the two linings. 
 Tliis is absolutely necessary for the tropics, or the interior of the tent nnder 
 the sun's rays becomes intolerable, unless there is a current of air passing 
 between the two linings. I obtained a cheap and comfortable tent for 
 my Kilima-Njaro expedition at ilessrs. Silver's. If possible, a second, or 
 even a third, tent should be taken for the use of one's personal servants, 
 and for housing such of the baggage as cannot be taken into one's own tent. 
 If an extra tent or two is placed at the disposal of the men, it has a 
 wonderful effect in reconciling them to the severe discomforts of a journey 
 in rainy weather. 
 
 Two most necessary items of any African outfit, however small, are 
 a portable table and a stout portable chair, and it would be better if the 
 traveller took two or three chairs with him (as they are very light and 
 portable) so as to be able to offer a seat to any native of importance who 
 may visit his tent — an attention generally much appreciated. 
 
 With regard to food : the traveller must be guided a good deal by his 
 own tastes in eating and drinking. He has every opportunity of pleasing 
 himself by selecting from the lists of provisions furnished by some 
 of the great provision merchants of London, such as Messrs. Fortnum 
 & Mason, Messrs. Crosse & Blackwell, and Messrs. J. T. Morton ; but I 
 woiild specially urge on him, if he is visiting the tropics, the absolute 
 necessity for extreme moderation in the use of alcohol. Indeed, it is 
 better to go to the extreme of abstaining altogether than to go to excess 
 in this matter, which is remorselessly punished by nature. At the same 
 time, alcohol is a valuable medicine and should not be excluded from the 
 traveller's repertory. For an expedition not likely to last more than a 
 year, the following amount will be found siifficient : — Two dozen of good 
 champagne, three bottles of sherry, four bottles of brandy, and four^of 
 whiskey. Claret, burgundy, and port travel badly, although as tonics 
 and blood-making wines they are among the best. If the traveller is in 
 any part of Portuguese Africa he will probably be able to obtain the 
 excellent Vinho Tinto of Lisbon, whicli can be recommended as a very 
 wholesome wine. Except under extraordinary circumstances, such as
 
 28 HTNTR TO TT7AVELT.E11S. 
 
 acoidonts, or deadly faintiioss, alfijlio] sliould never be taken in the day- 
 time, but reserved for the evening, and if the want of it is then felt, it 
 should preferably be taken in the form of champagne, or brandy or 
 whisky and water. The practice of so many German travellers of taking 
 small "quantities of neat brandy or other sjDirit in Africa is most deleterious, 
 and if pursued for any length of time will inevitably prove fatal. 
 
 If the traveller is a draughtsman, he should of course provide himself 
 with ])aper and artist's materials ; but these should be as simple as 
 possible, for the true artist can make an accurate and effective drawing 
 with very simple materials. These materials should consist of several 
 good stout note-books with paper of fair quality, ruled with faint blue 
 lines. Such will be very useful for hasty sketches made in conjunction 
 with written notes, and the traveller will find the blue lines assist him 
 greatly in the accuracy of his drawing. Two or three blocks of 'srhite 
 Whatman's paper, mounted with covers, and a pocket to contain loose 
 sheets, will be found sufficient for more elaborate drawings, either in 
 black and white, or in colour. These, for convenience, should be about 
 twelve inches by nine in size, and the paper shoiild be nearly smooth. A 
 good box of water-colours in tubes should be taken. The colours are 
 carried much better in tubes than in porcelain pans, for the latter are 
 liable to the attacks of insects, and are soon ruined by damp. The best 
 colours for ordinary purposes are the following : — Chinese Wliite, Lemon 
 Yellow, Mutrie Yellow, Orange Cadmium, Yellow Ochre, Eaw Sienna, 
 Burnt Umber, Vandyke Brown, Ivory Black, Antwerp Blue, French 
 Blue, Cobalt, Crimson Lake, Scarlet Vermilion, Indian Ecd, Venetian 
 Bed, and Emerald Green. An extra quantity of Chinese White and 
 liquid Indian Ink in small bottles, and Indian ]nk in stick, should be 
 taken for making black-and-white studies. The traveller will be siire to 
 make most of his minor and more rapid sketches in ink, and should be 
 sure that he has good writing-ink for the purjoose. Stephenson's black 
 ink is the best. For pencil notes the best pencils are F and H B, and 
 French Conte chalk in cedar. No. 1, will be found very useful, especially 
 when the work done in the chalk is gone over with a pen and finished in 
 ordinary black ink. This gives a very rich and solid effect to the drawing, 
 and, moreover, prevents the chalk from rulibing to a very great extent. 
 I have myself, in earlier days, lugged quantities of oil paints and canvas 
 about Africa with an amount of discomfort and worry quite dispropor-
 
 HINTS ON OUTFIT. 29 
 
 tionate to the small results of an occasional study in oils, wliicli, if you 
 are any artist at all, can be done almost as effectively in water colours. 
 Indeed, except for the special purpose of indicating the colour of a man's 
 skin, or of that of a bird, or mammal, or lizard, or the tint of a flower's 
 corolla, I should recommend all travellers to confine themselves to black 
 and white in their reproductions of the objects of interest or the scenery 
 that they meet with, and not to inflict on us the feeble, washy water-colour 
 pictures which they intend to represent the grandeurs of tropical scenery. 
 
 As regu'ds food for the mind I cannot too strongly recommend all 
 tmvellers to supply themselves with quantities of light literature. By 
 " light," I do not mean frivolous in character, but devoid of great material 
 weight, so that it can be easily packed and readily transported. There 
 are a great many standard works now published in cheap editions in 
 palmer covers, and these, together with a supply of good novels, sensa- 
 tional tales, old magazines, and reviews, should be taken. Although 
 the traveller should endeavour to supply himself with books that are 
 worth reading and re-reading, still, it is astonishing with what i^leasure 
 lie will pe]'use the veriest nibbish in the wilderness, and really crave 
 for anything that may serve to distract his mind at times from the 
 savagery around him. 
 
 Finally, I would recommend such travellers as have not the time to 
 work out a systematic equipment for themselves, and who desire to spare 
 themselves trouble as well as time in the matter, to consult with Messrs. 
 Silver, of Cornhill, on the subject. This firm has supplied travellers, 
 including myself, with their outfit, and knows — or ought to know by this 
 time — exactly what is needed for every i^art of the globe. As they retain 
 lists of all the articles supplied for various expeditions, any one, by referring 
 to these lists — as for instance the outfit of my Kilima-Njaro expedition — 
 will be sufticiently guided in their choice. 
 
 Tor further information on '>ntjU, especially in arid countries, the 
 intending traveller is referred to p]). 'J-11 of IMr. Gallon's ' Art of Travel ' 
 (5th Edition).
 
 30 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Canoking. — Bi) J. Coles. 
 
 Choice of a Vauoe. — In making choice of a canoe the traveller must 
 bear in mind that, in all i)robability, there will be rajtids in the river, 
 which will necessitate a portage being made, and that the canoe may 
 have to be carried over rough ground for a considerable distance. For 
 this reason, it is far better to take two canoes of moderate size than one 
 large one, beside which, a small canoe is much more easily handled in bad 
 water, and even should it become necessary to carry a large load, tliis can 
 easily be done by lashing two small canoes together, at about one yard 
 apart, and laying a platfoi'm across them, on which to place the stores, &c. 
 This, however, should not be done in dangerous and rapid rivers. The 
 following remarks do not, therefore, ajDply to large canoes, which, having 
 nearly the stability of a boat, may be handled in the same manner. 
 
 Paddles.— It will generally be found that the native paddles vrill be 
 best suited for the work. The double-bladed paddle, such as is used with 
 canoes in this coiuitry, is quite useless on a rapid and dangerous river. 
 
 Sail. — The sail should be made of duck, or some such light material, 
 fastened to a light yard at each end, and its hoist should be about twice 
 its breadth ; its size must be in proportion to the canoe, the hoist being 
 about one-fourth of the canoe's length. The mast should be as light as 
 possible, with a hole at the to^) for the halliards to pass through freely. 
 The end should be stepi^ed in a chock in the bottom of the canoe (when in 
 use), and it should be lashed to one of the stays, or cross-pieces of the 
 canoe. The sail should never be used unless the wind is steady and 
 abaft the beam, and the halliards should be taken to the after part of the 
 canoe in order to stay the mast, and secui'ed in such a manner that it 
 can be instantly let go, when the sail will at once fall, and imdue pressui-e 
 on the canoe relieved. 
 
 The Toiv-linc. — Too much attention cannot be paid to this important 
 article. It should be light, but of the best material (such as the rope 
 used by the Alpine Club), as its giving way at a critical moment ui a rapid 
 is sure to be attended with most serious results. 
 
 Loading the Canoe. — The packages should not exceed 50 lbs. in weight, 
 as they may have to be carried long distances over portages, and care 
 must be taken not to overload the canoe. Natives, who are aU good
 
 CANOEING. 31 
 
 swimmers, and have nothing to lose by a capsize, are very apt to put 
 more into a canoe than is safe, so that it is a matter in which the 
 traveller should use his own discretion. 
 
 In ascending a rapid river, keep close to one of its banks, and endeavour 
 to take advantage of eddies. It will often happen that, owiug to the 
 strength of the stream, no headway can be made with the paddles, in 
 which case recourse must be had to poling or tracking. In the event of 
 the former, the poles should be straight and tough, and as long as can be 
 conveniently carried in the canoe. Natives generally stand up to pole, 
 but this the traveller should not attempt to do, or he will in all pro- 
 bability eitlier fall overboard, or capsize the canoe, or both. In tracking, 
 as great a length of line as possible should be used, as a sheer of the 
 canoe in a rajjid, with a short line, will often end in a capsize. Only two 
 men should remain in the canoe, one in the bow with a ijole, and the 
 other in the stern with a paddle to steer ; this man should also have his 
 pole handy. The line should be made fast to one of the stays in the bow 
 of the canoe, and never to a toiving mast, as in a boat; as in passing round 
 bad corners, or places where there are snags, and where it is necessary to 
 give the canoe a wide sheer, the leverage of the mast, if the line were 
 fastened to the top of it, would pull the canoe over. The man in the 
 bow, however, should always have his knife handy to cut the tow-line, 
 should necessity arise for his doing so. In tracking, when a river passes 
 through sandy soil, the men on the line should keep at some little 
 distance from the edge of the banks, as it is likely to give way under 
 their weight, and precipitate them into the river. Several men lost their 
 lives in Fraser Iiiver, in the early days of the gold discovery, by 
 neglecting this precaution. 
 
 In crossing from one bank of a river to the other above a rai:)id, be 
 careful to ascend the river for a considerable distance before attempting 
 to do so; and then make the crew paddle as hard as they can, keeiting 
 the head of the canoe, if anything, rather down the stream, as in the 
 case of a rapid river you would only lose ground by trying to light 
 against it. 
 
 In descending a river, the traveller should keep a look-out ahead for 
 snags and places where the river is narrowed in between hills, as in such 
 places there is nearly sure to be a rapid which may be so bad as to 
 render navigation impossible. In all cases before descending an unknown
 
 32 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 rapid, he should land and inspect it throughout its entire leiiijth before 
 attempting to run it in the canoe. When descending a rapid, care must 
 be taken to keep steerage way on the canoe, as this will be needed to 
 avoid rocks, or whirlpools. These latter are very serious dangers, as tliey 
 generally do not remain fixed in one spot, but move about within a 
 certain distance of a centre. There are, however, in most cases, short 
 intervals when they break up, and tliat is the time to make a dash past 
 them. To attempt this when they are in full swing could only end in the 
 loss of the canoe and its occupants. 
 
 Boating. — By J. Coles. 
 
 When a traveller has to proceed for some distance overland before 
 reaching the river or lake he purposes to navigate, he must of necessity 
 l^rovide himself with a boat constructed in such a manner as to be 
 easily transported, either by being built in sections, that can be put 
 together and taken to pieces at pleasure, or by taking one of the 
 collapsible boats, sxich as Berthon's. If the former, he cannot do better 
 than to have one built of Spanish cedar, on the same plan as that which 
 was constructed for Mr. H. M. Stanley, by Mr. James Messenger, of 
 Teddington, with such modifications as may be necessary, when the 
 means of transport, and the nature of his journey, have been duly 
 considered. Collapsible boats, though very useftil for ferrying across 
 lakes or rivers, cannot, where a boat of other construction is available, 
 bo recommended for a continued exploration; they are, however, con- 
 structed of different sizes, and full particulars concerning them can 
 be obtained from the Berthon Boat Co., 50, Holborn Viaduct, E.C. 
 
 If the exploration is to be commenced at the mouth of a river, a whale- 
 boat will be found to be the best form of boat, for the following reasons. 
 Being steered by an oar, it is more easily handled in surf or a rapid ; it. is 
 generally faster than boats of the same size of ordinary build; it will 
 carry a good cargo, sail well off the wind, and is the best boat built for 
 crossing the bars of rivers, or lauding through a surf. Such a boat can 
 generally be purchased at foreign ports, with their oars and sail, and 
 should be well overhauled before starting. 
 
 Boat-sailing caunot be taught by any book, and certainly not by a
 
 BOATIXG. 33 
 
 few short notes of this description. The traveller, tliereforo, who intends 
 iising a boat for exploration, should gather some experience before 
 starting, which can be done at any fishing village on the coast. This 
 will be the more necessary if he intends to use his boat on a lake, or for 
 sailing along the coast, from the month of one river to another, and the 
 following hints may, it is hoj)ed, l)e usefnl to those who have had Imt 
 small exjjerience in boat-sailing. 
 
 When under sail, never, vwler any circvwstimces, allow the sheet to be 
 made fast; a turn should be taken round a cleat, and it should be held 
 by one of the crew ready to let go at any moment. Do not let the crew- 
 stand up, or sit on the gunwale. When about to round-to, remember 
 that you cannot carry the same canvas on a wind that you can before it. 
 If caught in a squall, put down the helm at once, ease tlie sheet, and if 
 the squall is a bad one, lower the sail while it is still shaking. When 
 apjn-oaching a danger, such as a rock, do not stand on if you are in 
 doubt about weathering it, but go about in time, and have an oar ready 
 to help the boat round if she appears likely to miss stnys. Never carry 
 too much sail, as there is considerable danger in doing so, and a boat will 
 often sail faster with a reef taken in, than she will when unduly pressed. 
 If necessary to take in a reef when sailing on <i icind, do not luff, biit 
 check the .sheet, lower the sail sufficiently to shift the tack, gather the 
 sheet aft so that the men may take in the reef without leaning over the 
 gunwale, shift the sheet, hoist the sail, while the sheet slack, and 
 do not haul the sheet aft until the men are again in their places. 
 
 liowing. — This can only be acquired by in-actice, and though the 
 traveller will seldom be called on to take an oar himself, circimistances 
 may arise when he may have to do so, and we would, therefore, advise him 
 to learn how to handle an oar before leaving England. Under ordinary 
 circumstances, rowing on a river is sufficiently sim])le, and calls for no 
 sjiecial instructions. The case, however, is very different when a river 
 bar has to be crossed, or a landing made on a beach where a surf is 
 breaking, and in either case it will be well to remember the following 
 hints. On aj^proaching the shore, a surf when .seen from seaward never 
 looks so bad as it really is. Where possible, a landing should not be 
 attempted until opposite a village where the natives will be ready to 
 assist the moment the l)oat touches the beach. When the surf is heavy, 
 the boat should be backed in, prilling a few strokes to meet each heavy 
 
 D
 
 34 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 sea, and then backing in again until the shore is reached. The great 
 thing to avoid is, letting the boat get broadside to the sea, as she will 
 then capsize; a steer-oar should always be used, as a rudder is of little 
 use in a surf, when backing in. 
 
 ]n crossinff a har, if there is a good, strong, fair wind, it will generally 
 be best to cross under sail ; but if the wind is light or variable, this should 
 never be attempted. Wiien rowing, tlic crow should be cautioned to 
 keep their oars out of the water when the sea breaks round the boat, and 
 to commence rowing again as quickly as possible afterwards. As even in 
 the most experienced hands a boat will often be swamped on a l)ad bar, 
 it will be well, before attemjiting to cross it, to prepare for a swim by 
 removing all siiperfluous clothing, and see that everything tliat will float 
 in the boat, should be left free to float, while things that will sink, such 
 as fire-arms, &c., should be securely fastened to the thwarts. 
 
 The remarks given on canoeing with regard to loading, to ascending 
 and descending rapid rivers, are equally applicable to boating under 
 similar circumstances, with the following exceptions. lu towing, a short 
 mast should be used to which the line is made fast; this is stepped in the 
 same place as the mast, and should be stayed, so as to resist the strain of 
 the tow-line. Paddles will often be found useful in weedy rivers where 
 the oars get entangled. As a whale-boat empty will weigh about five 
 hundredweight, more care must be taken at portages than in the case 
 of a canoe, which can be lifted bodily over obstacles. The stems of small 
 trees, or the oars should be laid down under the boat, and, where possible, 
 sharp rocks must be avoided or moved out of the way. In a rapid, two 
 men should be in the bow with poles ]-eady to fend oif from rocks, and 
 the most experienced man of the crow should be in the stern with the 
 steer-oar. 
 
 Although in the foregoing remarks special reference has been made to 
 whale-boats, the hints given are equally applicable to boats of other 
 construction, which should, however, for river work, crossing a bar, or 
 landing through a surf, be fitted with a steer-oar in addition to the 
 rudder. Awnings should be taken, but in rapid rivers, and when under 
 sail, they cannot be used.
 
 MOUNTAIN TRAVEL. 35 
 
 Mountain Tkayel. — By Douglas W. Freshfield. 
 
 Fresident of the Alpine Club. 
 
 The Highlands of Central Asia, and the ranges of western North 
 America, are among the fields likely next to attract explorers. If their 
 exploration is to be thorough, travellers must take with them some 
 knowledge of glacial phenomena. They must learn to know glaciers 
 and moraines when they see them, to distinguish between ice and neve, 
 permanent and temporary snowbeds. They must also be able to climb 
 summits sufficiently high to command the recesses of the chain and the 
 secrets of the snow world. In order to do this, they must be at the joains 
 to acquire at least the rudiments of the mountain craft which has been 
 brought to perfection by three generations of Alpine peasants. Without 
 these qualifications, even surveyors will find themselves obliged to leave 
 large and, to tlie physical geographer and geologist, singularly interesting 
 tracts of country ill-mapped and imperfectly explored, and they will run the 
 risk of bringing away very erroneous and incomplete impressions of the 
 phenomena of great mountain chains. The practised mountaineer is free 
 both from the fears and the rashness of the less experienced traveller, or the 
 native of the Himalayas, the Andes, or the Caucasus. He is not likely to be 
 deterred from visiting a remote valley because ice and snow, and possibly 
 steep and rocky ridges (held impassable by the native hunters), intervene 
 between him and it ; on the other hand, he will not start on such an 
 enterprise without every appliance that may enable him to conquer the 
 difficulties of the way ; he will not walk across a neve without a rope ; he 
 will not be frightened into retreat by the first crevasse, or stopped by a 
 hard-frozen slope. 
 
 Eopes and ice-axes, procurable at Hill's, 4, Haymarket, are essential. It 
 is still more essential that their proper use (up to the present time hardly 
 known outside Europe) should be learnt. This may best be done in an 
 Alpine tour, with an experienced glacier guide. Travellers without such 
 experience had best keep to frequented passes, or below the snow-level. 
 They will be most in danger when they perceive it least, and will imperil 
 the lives of themselves and their companions. Icecraft, like seaman- 
 ship, has to be learnt. A party of three is tlie smallest consistent with 
 safety above the snow-line; and, whatever the number, the majority 
 
 D 2
 
 36 HINTS TO TRAVKI.LKllS. 
 
 in any expedition of difficulty, sliould be experienced climliers. Such 
 expeditious will best be mddc from a base where the heavier higgage and 
 attendants are left. 
 
 The best scheme for mountain exploration is one wliich neither limits 
 the traveller to a single valley or district, nor carries him straight on 
 from point to point, but allows for various short expeditions from a 
 succession of centres, at which he can leave his camp and heavy 
 luggage. 
 
 The effect of rarefied air at great heights in reducing the i>ower.<3 of the 
 human frame is a subject on which precise knowledge is still wanting. 
 Probably no one has yet closely approached the limit' at which the 
 exertion of walking uphill becomes imx)Ossible to a person in normal 
 health and accustomed to great elevations. It lies, therefore, consideral>ly 
 above 23,000 feet. On the other hand, mountaineers agree that tlieir 
 powers diminish perceptibly as they ascend above ] 2,000 feet. In l)e 
 Saussure's generation both he and his guides were, at 15,000 feet, on 
 Mont Blanc, unable to do more than advance a few yards at a time, 
 while men of science now spend three days and nights on the summit 
 of Mont Blanc, and modern climbers feel little or no inconvenience 
 2000 feet higher on the difficult peaks of the Caucasus, and can still 
 climb and observe between 22,000 and 23,000 feet in the Karakoram. 
 Probably up to 18,000 feet the body acclimatizes itself to the uiii:)er 
 air ; and " training " is therefore one of the best preventives of mountain- 
 sickness. Chlorate of potash lozenges are said to have been used with 
 advantage as a palliative. The inconveniences felt on liigh ascents arise 
 in some part from indigestion, and light but frequent meals (e.r/. soup 
 at starting, peptonised meat sandwiches and chocolate and cold tea 
 during the climb) will be found very efficacious in avoiding bodily dis- 
 comfort. A scientific investigation of the jDrocess by which the human 
 frame adapts itself to high altitudes has recently been made by M. Yallot. 
 (See Levasseur's ' Les Alpes,' Paris, 18S9 ; Geographical Journal, 
 January, 1893 ; and Mr. Conway's forthcoming work on the Karakoram.) 
 The subject is comjDlex, involving both local and jDersonal conditions, 
 and demands further experiment and research; all dogmatic statements 
 must at present be received with reserve. 
 
 Next to the rarity of the air frostbite is the most formidable enemy 
 of the climber who attempts great altitudes. Satisfactory foot-gear has
 
 MOUNTAIN TEAVEL. 37 
 
 not yet been devised. Some modification of Arctic expedients suitable 
 for rock-climbing is ^vanted. The feet must not be compressed and the 
 circulation impeded. Generally foreign mountaineers jiaj more attention 
 than Englishmen to climbing-shoes and crampons. The ordinary hob- 
 nail is good enough for most places where an explorer ought to go, but 
 crampons may undoubtedly often enable their wearers to reach a point 
 which would be unattainable to them by stepcutting. They can be 
 obtained of the Albion Iron and Wirework Co., Eed Lion Street, E.C. 
 The straps should be of hempwebbing, not leather, f inch wide, to be 
 obtained at Buckingham's. 
 
 The siDecial requisites for snow and ice expeditions are included in 
 Mr. Whymper's List. His tent, alpine sleeping bags, snow spectacles, felt- 
 covered water-bottles, self-cooking souptins, chocolate, warm covering 
 for hands and feet, strongly nailed and easy boots, cloth gaiters, soap-cerate 
 plaister, Lloyd's cold cream for sunblistering, are among the chief 
 requisites for high exploration. Take plenty of spare dark glasses for 
 use by porters in crossing snow passes. Field-glasses are much appre^ 
 ciated as presents by most mountain people, and spare ones should be 
 taken. 
 
 Lirectious as to the observations, which may easily and profitably be 
 made with regard to the present and past nature and extent of glacial 
 action, the rate of movement of glaciers and the advance or retreat of 
 their extremities, the snow- level, the extent and limit of forests and plants 
 in mountain districts, and the relations of ranges to winds, rainfall, and 
 climate, will be found in subsequent sections. (See p. 394.) 
 
 General information on many subjects, both scientific and practical, 
 connected with mountaineering, is given in a compact form by the late 
 Mr. John Ball in his Introduction to 'The Alpne Guide,' published 
 separately by Messrs. Longmans (2s. 6(/.), or, of more recent date, in the 
 " Introductory Sections " to Murray's 'Switzerland' (Edition 1892), and 
 the Badminton Volume on Mountaineering (1892), edited by Mr. Clinton 
 Dent. The last-mentioned book should be studied carefully by any 
 traveller proposing to himself serious mountain exploration. He will 
 find a special chapter from my pen devoted to ' Mountaineering beyond 
 the Alps.'
 
 ( 38 ) 
 
 OETHOGEAPHY OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 
 
 In 1885 the Council of tlie E.G.S., impressed with the necessity of 
 endeavouring to reduce the confusion existing in British maps with 
 regard to the spelling of geographical names, in consequence of the variety 
 of systems of orthography used by travellers and others to rei)resent 
 the sound of native place-names in different parts of the world, formally 
 adopted the general principle which had been long used by many, and 
 the recognition of which had been steadily gaining gi'ound, viz. that in 
 writing geographical native names vowels should have their Italian 
 significance and consonants that which they have in the English language. 
 
 This broad principle required elucidation in its details, and a system 
 based upon it was consequently drawn up with the intention of repre- 
 senting the principal syllabic sounds. 
 
 It will be evident to all who consider the subject, that to ensure a fairly 
 correct pronunciation of geographical names by an EngUsh-speaking 
 person an arbitrary system of orthograjjhy is a necessity. It is hardly 
 too much to say that in the English language every possible combination 
 of letters has more than one possible pronunciation. A strange word, or 
 name, even in our own language is frequently niisijronounced. How 
 much more with words of languages utterly unknown to the reader. 
 
 The same necessity does not arise in most continental languages. In 
 them a definite combination of letters indicates a definite sound, and 
 each nation consequently has spelt foreign words in accordance with the 
 orthographic rules of its own language. 
 
 It was therefore not anticipated that foreign nations would effect any 
 change in the form of orthography used in their maps, and the needs of 
 the English-speaking communities were alone considered. 
 
 The object aimed at was to provide a system which should be simple 
 enough for any educated person to master with the minimum of trouble, 
 and which at the same time would afford an approximation to the sound 
 of a place-name such as a native might recognise. No attempt was made 
 to represent the numberless delicate inflexions of soiuid and tone which 
 belong to every language, often to different dialects of the same language- 
 For it was felt not only tliat such a task would be impossible, but that an 
 attempt to provide for such niceties would defeat the object.
 
 ORTBtOGRAPHY OP GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. S9 
 
 The adoption by others of the system thus settled has been more 
 general than the Council ventured to hope. 
 
 The charts and maps issued by the Admiralty and War Office, have 
 been, since 1885, compiled and extensively revised in accordance with it. 
 The Foreign and Colonial Offices have accei^ted it, and the latter has 
 communicated with the Colonies requesting them to carry it out in respect 
 to names of native origin. 
 
 Even more important, however, than these adhesions is the recent 
 action of the Government of the United States of America, which, after 
 an exhaustive enquiry, has adojited a system in close conformity with 
 that of tlie E.G.S., and has directed that the spelling of all names in their 
 vast territories shoixld, in cases where the orthography is at present 
 doubtful, be settled autlioritatively by a Committee appointed for the 
 purpose. 
 
 The two great English-speaking nations arc thus working in harmony. 
 
 Contrary to expectation, but highly satisfactory, is the news that 
 France and Germany have both formuhited systems of orthography for 
 foreign words, which in many details agree with the English system. 
 
 The Council of the K.G.S., by printing the Kules in 'Hints to 
 Travellers,' and by other means, have endeavoured to ensure that all 
 travellers connected with the Society should be made aware of them. 
 
 To this end, and with a view to still closer uniformity in geograj^liical 
 nomenclature in revisions of editions of published maps, a gigantic task, 
 requiring many years to carry out, the Council have decided to take steps 
 to commence tentatively indexes of a few regions, in which the place- 
 names will be recorded in the accepted form. 
 
 EULES. 
 
 The Eules referred to are as follows : — 
 
 1. No change is made in the orthography of foreign names in countries 
 which use Eoman letters : thus, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, &c., names 
 will be spelt as by the respective nations. 
 
 2. Neither is change made in the spelling of such names in languages 
 which are not written in Eoman character as have become by long usage 
 familiar to English readers : thus Calcutta, Cutch, Celebes, Mecca, &c., 
 will be retained in their present form.
 
 40 HIN'i'S TO TKAVKLLKl.'S. 
 
 3. Tlicj true huaud of the word as locally jirououiiced will l)C taken as 
 the basis of the spelling. 
 
 4. All approximation, liowever, to tlio sound is alone aimed at. A 
 system which -would attempt to represent the more delicate inflexions of 
 sound and accent would be so complicated as only to defeat itself. Those 
 who desire a more accurate ])ronunciation of the written name must 
 learn it on the spot by a study of local accent and peoiliarities. 
 
 5. The hrou'l features of the aijufera are : — 
 
 (rt) That vowels arc pronounced as in Italian and consonants as 
 in English. 
 
 (i) Every letter is pronounced, and no redundant letters arc in- 
 troduced. When two vowels come together, eaclj one is sounded 
 though the result, when spoken quickly, is sometimes scarcely 
 to be distinguished from a single sound, as in ai, au, ei. 
 
 (c) One accent only is used, the acute, to denote the syllable on 
 which stress is laid. This is very important, as the sounds 
 of many names are entirely altered by the misplacement of this 
 " stress." 
 
 6. Indian names are accei)ted as spelt in ' Hunter's Gazetteer of India,' 
 1881. 
 
 7. lu the case of native names in countries under the dominion of 
 other European Powers in whose maps, charts, &c., the spelling is given 
 according to the system adopted by that Power, such orthography should 
 be as a rule disregarded, and the names spelt according to the Briti.sh 
 system, in order that the proper pronunciation may be approximately 
 known. Exceptions should be in cases where the spelling has become by 
 custom fixed, and occasionally it may be desirable to give both forms. 
 
 8. Generic geograjihical terms, e.g. those for Island, Eiver, Mountain, 
 &c., should be as a rule given in the native form. In the case of Euro- 
 pean countries, translation into English, where this has been the custom, 
 should be retained, e.g., Capn Ortegal, not Cabo Ortegal, Piiver Seine, not 
 Fleuve Seine. 
 
 N.B. — On any i)riDted map or MS. document, an explanatory table 
 giving the English equivalents of the generic term.s used, should of 
 necessity be inserti'd.
 
 ORTHOGHAPHY OP GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 41 
 
 The following amplification of these rules explains their application : — 
 
 Pronunciation and Remarks. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 au 
 ao 
 aw 
 
 ch 
 d 
 f 
 
 g 
 li 
 hw 
 
 ah, a as m father 
 eh, a. as \nfate .. 
 
 English e; i as in ravine; the sound of 
 ee in heet. Thus, not Feejee, but 
 
 as in mote 
 
 long u as in flute ; the sound of oo in hoot. 
 
 00 or oil: should never be employed for 
 
 this sound . . Thus, not Zooloo, but 
 
 All vowels arc shortened in sound hy 
 
 doidiliiKj the follow! iig consonant. 
 Doubling of a vowel is only necessary 
 where there is a distinct repetition of 
 the single sound, 
 as in aisle, or English i as in ice .. 
 ow as in Itoio Thus, not Foochow, but 
 is slightly ditferent from above 
 when followed by a consonant or at the 
 
 end of a word, as in laio 
 
 is the sound uf the two Italian vowels, 
 but is frequently slurred over, when it 
 is scarcely to be distinguished li'om ei 
 in the English eight or ey in the English 
 they. 
 English h. 
 is always soft, but is so nearly the sound 
 
 of s that it should be seldom used. 
 If Celebes were not already recognised it 
 would be written Selehes. 
 
 is always soft as in church 
 
 English d, 
 
 English /. ph should not be used for the 
 
 sound of/. Thus, not Haiphong, but 
 
 is always hard. (Soft g is given hy J) . . 
 
 is always pronounced when inserted. 
 
 as in uhat ; better rendered by Inn than 
 
 by 'wli, or h followed by a vowel, thus 
 
 Uivang lio, not Wltang ho, or Tloang ho. 
 
 Java, Banana, Somali, Bari. 
 
 Tel-el-Kebir, Ole'leh, Yezo, 
 
 Medina, Levuka, Peru. 
 
 Fiji, Hindi. 
 Tokyo. 
 
 Zidu, Sumatra. 
 
 Yarra, Tanna, Mecca, Jidda, 
 
 Bonny.* 
 Nuulua, Oosima. 
 
 Shanghai. 
 
 Fuchau. 
 
 Macao. 
 
 Cawnpore. 
 Beirut, Beilul. 
 
 Cele'bes. 
 
 Chingchin. 
 
 Haifong, Nafa. 
 Galapagos. 
 
 Hwang ho, Ngan hwi. 
 
 * The 1/ is retained as a terminal in this word under Rule 2 above. The word is given as a 
 familiar example of the alteration in sound caused by the second consonant.
 
 42 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Letters. 
 J 
 
 k 
 
 kh 
 gh 
 1 
 
 m 
 n 
 ng 
 
 P 
 
 ph. 
 th 
 
 rionuiiciatiuii mid Kcmaiks. 
 
 Kxaiiij.k-B. 
 
 8h 
 
 t 
 
 zh 
 
 English > Dj sliould never be imt for Japan, Jinchuen. 
 
 . this sound. 
 
 English /•;. It shoulil always be put for 
 
 the hard c. Tlius, not Corea, but Korea. 
 
 The Oriental guttural Khan. 
 
 is another guttural, as in Uie Turkisli .. Dagh, Gliazi. 
 
 As in English. 
 
 has two separate sounds, the one hard as 
 
 in the English word finger, tlie other 
 
 as in singer. As these two sounds are 
 
 rarely employed in the same locality, 
 
 no attempt is made to distinguish 
 
 between them. 
 As in English. 
 
 As in loophole : Chemulplio, Mokpho. 
 
 stands both for its sound in thing, and as Bethlehem. 
 
 in this. The former is most common, 
 should never be employed ; qu (in quiver) Kwaugtuug. 
 
 is given as hw. I 
 
 When qu has the sound of h as in quoit, 
 
 it should be given by A-. 
 \ 
 
 }-As in English, 
 
 Sawiikiu. 
 Kikiiyu. 
 
 is always a consonant, as iu yard, and 
 therefore sliould never be used as a 
 terminal, i or e being substituted as the 
 sound may require. 
 
 Thus, not Mikinduiiy, wady, but 
 not Kmdy, but 
 English 2 Zulu. 
 
 Mikiudilui, wadi. 
 Kwule. 
 
 The French J, or as s in treasure. 
 
 Accents should not generally be used, 
 but where there is a very decided 
 emphatic syllable or stress, which 
 aft'ects the sound of the word, it should 
 be marked by an acute accent. 
 
 Muzlidaha. 
 
 Tougatabu, Galapagos 
 Palawan, Sarawak.
 
 ORTHOGKAPHY OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 
 
 43 
 
 Table of Sound Equivalents adopted for the Tkansliteeation of Geo- 
 GRAPHICAL Names by Great Britain, United States, France, Germany, 
 
 AND Spain. 
 
 au 
 ao 
 ei 
 
 b 
 c 
 
 ch 
 d 
 f 
 
 g 
 li 
 
 .1 
 
 k 
 kh 
 gh 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 ng 
 
 P 
 ph 
 kw 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 
 t 
 
 V 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 as in father 
 as in henkfit .. 
 as in ravine .. 
 as in mote 
 as in flute 
 as i in ice 
 as ow in how .. 
 as in Macao .. 
 as in eight 
 
 as in Engli.sh . . 
 
 soft 
 
 as in church .. 
 English d .. . . 
 
 „ / .. .. 
 
 hard g 
 
 always aspirated . . 
 English / 
 
 „ h 
 
 Oriental guttural . . 
 
 English I 
 
 „ 711 .. .. 
 
 ,, u 
 as in finger and singer 
 English p 
 as in loophole .. 
 English qv, in quiver 
 English ;• 
 
 ,, s 
 
 t 
 
 ,, V 
 
 „ w .... 
 
 _„ a; .. .. 
 as in yard 
 English 2 
 
 au 
 
 ao 
 
 ei 
 
 6 
 
 ii 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 ch 
 
 d 
 
 .1 
 k 
 kh 
 
 gli 
 1 
 
 P 
 
 ph 
 kw 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 CO 
 
 a a 
 
 a 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 or tch 
 d 
 f 
 
 It 
 
 h 
 urdj 
 
 k 
 
 kh 
 gh 
 
 I 
 lu 
 
 ai 
 au 
 ao 
 
 tsh 
 d 
 f 
 
 g 
 h 
 
 k 
 kh 
 s;h 
 ^1 
 
 ch 
 d 
 
 f 
 
 g 
 h 
 
 y 
 
 k 41 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 kw 
 
 qu 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 As ill I'lx'ucli
 
 ( 44 ) 
 
 III. 
 
 MEDIOAL AND SUEGIOAL HINTS. 
 
 By Surgn.-Majok Thos. Heazle Parkk, Hox. D.C.L., Hon. 
 F.E.C.S.L, &c.* 
 
 1. Pebsonal Care of Health. 
 
 It is very desiniblo that persons who are thinking of traveUiug or 
 residing in troi)ical climates should be sure that their physique warrants 
 the venture before making a change from the temperate residences of the 
 northern or southern hemisi)heres. Persons of good constitution and 
 regiilar and temperate habits can, undoubtedly, with judicious care 
 maintain a fair state of health in the tropics. And even those who have 
 been by no means very strong at home can with some extra care do very 
 well in most joarts of even the hottest climates, if peculiar circumstances 
 make the change otherwise very desirable. All immigrants to hot 
 climates should be instructed in certain invariable rules, deviation from 
 which is always accompanied by more or less risk. 
 
 The surface of the body should, as far as possible, be kept at an equable 
 temperature. On account of their non-conducting properties, the under 
 garments should be of wool, or a mixtiire of silk and wool, which is lighter. 
 As is well known, wool owes its non-conducting property to the tortuosity 
 of its fibres. All woollen garments, on this account, and especially the 
 looser ones, contain a large quantity of imprisoned aii-, which is the real 
 non-conductor. For the same reason, two or more fine woollen shirts 
 will be found much more efficient than a single coarse one, on account of 
 the layer of air retained between. The fine flannel shirts are, accordingly, 
 to be preferred, because the number worn can be so easily adjusted to 
 varying temperatiires ; and it is obviously much better on that account 
 to be provided with a large number of them, than a small number of 
 
 Tbid suctiuii WHS propurud shortlj' before the writer's premature death.
 
 MEDICAL AND SUKGICAL HINTS. 45 
 
 thick aud heavy ones. Sleeves can be dispensed with in the great 
 majority of the number; when several shirts are worn, one only should be 
 provided with sleeves. In regions where the temperature of the night 
 diifers but little from that of the day, a fine flannel shirt should be worn 
 next the skin, while the rest of the body and limbs may be protected with 
 any thin cotton or linen fabric. On the other hand, in the neighbourhood 
 of mountain ranges, or on high table lauds, when the diurnal range of 
 temperature is very considerable, care must be taken, either to wear a 
 complete woollen suit at all times, or to change before sunset. Sodden 
 chill is, in the exjDerience of the present writer, the most fertile source of 
 tropical fever. 
 
 Night clothes (pj'jamas) should consist of an India flannel shirt, opening 
 down the front, and secured with linen buttons or with tapes; and a 
 long, wide pair of trousers of the same material, provided with feet to 
 keep out insects, which can be conveniently drawn together by a running 
 string. In very warm regions, the latter garment may be of silk. 
 
 All flannel textures should be of wool throughout, and made to fit /•<.-, •?/ 
 loosely, as they necessarily shrink in washing. 
 
 Other garments which will be found useful are : lined and pei'forated 
 chamois-leather under-vests, which are excellent protection against cold, 
 penetrating breezes ; long woollen comforters, and a long, wide silk scarf for 
 winding around the waist. The latter is often used in very hot climates, 
 with a roomy woollen shirt next the skin — fitting loosely around the 
 neck, and reaching only to the hips — and a thin linen or calico trousers. 
 The scarf (Kamarband) is then swathed around the abdomen and loins in 
 two or three folds. In the majority of instances, a fine flannel shirt, 
 short, thin, loose calico drawers, a loose fitting Norfolk jacket buttoned 
 to the throat, and a pair of thin serge trousers or knickerbockers, will be 
 found to form a very eligible tropical suit ; gaiters or putties protect the 
 shin if necessary. 
 
 The head and spine should be prote.ted with great care. 
 
 A well-fitting ventilated pith helmet forms an excellent protection 
 against the vertical rays of tlie mid-day sun ; the more oblique rays of 
 morning and evening are shaded off by tlie use of a curtain descending 
 from the rim of the helmet. It can be folded up around the helmet, or
 
 46 HINTS TO TRAVELLEES. 
 
 removed during the middle period of the day, if more convenient. A 
 woollen spinal pad is absolutely necessary to protect the spinal cord from 
 the tropical sun. A white or green covered umbrella is also indispensable 
 to the troi")ical traveller. 
 The aa-my regulation helmet is the best known design. 
 
 Avoid chills, drart(ihts, and wettiufjs. 
 
 Wlicn on board ship, sleeping opposite open ports or under a wind 
 sail, is often followed by fever. At the time of landing, too, there is great 
 danger from the effects of the sudden change from the warm sea breeze 
 to the cold land breeze in the evening. I am convinced that a great deal 
 of the fever which gives many tropical coasts so bad a name among 
 European travellers might be avoided by having regard to this pre- 
 caution. On ai^proaching land, the traveller is very usually tempted, on 
 coming up from the almost Turkish-bath temperature of the saloon, 
 where he has been lolling about in the minimum quantity of dress, to 
 stand for some time on deck to enjoy this refreshing breeze. A large 
 proportion of the worst cases of tropical fever, dysentery, rheumatism, 
 and pleuro-pneumonic affections are ushered in in this way. Sleeping on 
 deck should be avoided. Evening chills are also a prominent factor 
 in the causation of disease in tropical highlands, where the fall of 
 temperature is usually very considerable. Also, in marching through 
 hilly districts of sub-tropical regions, where the ascent of an eminence is 
 necessarily attended by profuse perspiration, and the summit furnishes 
 the chilly breeze which rapidly checks it; the consequent dull, which the 
 work of descent is not sufficient to check, is very generally followed by 
 fever. 
 
 In crossing Equatorial Africa, the members of the Emin Pasha Relief 
 Expedition found that every v.-etting meant an attack offerer. The frequent 
 wading of streams was one of the prominent and oft-repeated difficulties 
 to be encountered; every such operation was followed by an attack of 
 fever — to man and beast alike! A drenching tropical shower had the 
 same effect. It need hardly be added that sitting in damp clothes should 
 be avoided. 
 
 On completing a day's journey — with or without a wetting — theimder- 
 clothing, at least, should be changed without a moment's delay.
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 47 
 
 Use of mosquito curtains. 
 
 The use of protective coverings against the attacks of this troj^ical jiest 
 is a consideration which cannot be too strongly impressed upon the in- 
 tending traveller. A well-prepared mosquito curtain will, of course, also 
 protect the person from the attacks of other troublesome insects. The 
 "Tuckett Insect-Pazzler," which has been described and figured on 
 page 22 (see Hints), will be found a thoroughly efficacious form of pro- 
 tection against the troublesome invasions of insects in general. The 
 traveller should also provide himself with mosquito netting, with which 
 he can envelop himself, if obliged to dispense with the carriage of any 
 elaborate apparatus. A protective covering can then be always impro- 
 vised by taking a piece of netting, about seven yards long by four wide, 
 the extremities of which should then be carefully united so as to form 
 a cylinder. One of these may be bound with calico, and furnished with 
 a running string; the other should be fastened up and confined by a 
 tightly strained copper wire fastened in a groove let into the outer margin 
 of a circular piece of flat deal board, about one foot in diameter ; to the 
 centre of this board the end of a strong coil of cord is fixed. Such 
 curtains can always be fixed in i^osition at a moment's notice, whenever 
 the traveller's bed or hammock has to be arranged for the night. The 
 long cord may be thrown over the cross-tie of a rafter of a hut, over 
 a branch of a tree, or be hitched to the pole of a tent, carrying with 
 it to any desired height the circular piece of board which siipports the 
 curtain, and tiae latter may then be spread over the bed and tucked 
 beneath it, or secured with a running string if necessary. 
 
 It has been said that the mosquito curtain will also be found pro- 
 tective against the malarial poison, but of this I am not at all convinced. 
 Apart from saving the traveller from immediate annoyance, the careful 
 use of the mosquito curtain is also preventive of the remoter evil of the 
 introduction of the hilharzia haemntohia into the circulation, with the 
 resulting evils of heematuria and anaemia. 
 
 Smoke of any kind keeps away insects, particularly when due to 
 burning cow-dung.
 
 48 HINTS TO TRAVELT.ERS. 
 
 In malarious diMrirts, the poison is more concentrah d at nigJU than during 
 the day — on this riccomd nocturnal expoKxrc s/u/td'l lie aroid<d as much as 
 2>ossihle, 
 
 Old asttlers ou tlie West African coast have lon^ recognised the danger 
 of venturing ont of dooi's when the sun is not above tlie horizon. In the 
 malarious districts of Italy, travellers find the danger of going about at 
 night. The hours immediately preceding sunrise are found to be the 
 most dangerous. The evident cause is, that the malarious vapours which 
 certainly alv/ays prefer low altitudes, although not absolutely confined 
 to them, are more concentrated at this period. They have a tendency 
 to keep close to the level of the soil ; they are carried upwards by the 
 ascent of the water-vapour during the day, and the condensation accom- 
 panying the cold of night carries them down to earth again. Accordingly, 
 the poison is more concentrated during the night. Dependent on this is 
 the fact, often learned l)y travellers in Italian hotels, that it is safer to 
 sleep at night in a top stoiy tliau in a lower one; and that when one is 
 obliged to travel at night it is miich better to travel on the top of the 
 diligence than inside. 
 
 Immersion in cold ivater is to he ai'uided as much as possible in hot climates. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that wading a river or exposure to a 
 drenching shower in Equatorial Africa is almost invariably followed by 
 fever— the same holds true even of a prolonged cold bath. Accordingly, 
 the rule for bathing should be that the water must not be quite cold, 
 and that the immersion should be short, and followed by a rapid and 
 vigorous rubbing with rough towels. In the case of persons who have 
 already siiffered from many attacks of fever, or from dysentery, or con- 
 gestion or other disease of the liver, or any otlier of the important viscera, 
 warm bathing should alone be used. Bathing should never be resorted 
 to during the process of digestion. 
 
 Whenever an accidental drenching from a tropical shower occurs, or 
 that the traveller has waded, or been accidentally immersed in, a stream 
 or an arm of a lake, he should, as soon as possible, remove all clothing 
 and be thoroughly dried with rough towels. Not only fevers, but the 
 introduction of parasites into the integument, is often a consequence of a 
 plunge into tropical waters.
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 49 
 
 The quantity and quality of food and of drink slioidd he carefully regulated. 
 
 The lassitude which is often so mvich felt by European residents within 
 the tropics too frequently tempts them to the abuse of alcoholic stimu- 
 lants and of highly-spiced food, as a means of getting rid of such feelings 
 for the time being. The habit is a most pernicious one, and all induce- 
 ments in that direction should be resisted from the beginning. Such 
 indulgence is one of the most fruitful causes of the permanent ill-health, 
 which is so often wrongly attributed to the mere residence in the hot 
 climate. There is no doubt that food should be used with greater 
 moderation in hot than in cold climates. Heat-producing articles of 
 diet, such as fats, should be taken in far smaller quantity. The meals 
 should never be heavy — especially diiring the heat of the day, when the 
 serious mistake of indulging in very liberal luncheons is far too frequently 
 made. Sufficient intervals of time should always separate consecutive 
 meals; even in temperate climes a space of at least five hours should 
 always be allowed between meals, and in trojDical regions the period 
 should be increased. 
 
 So long as the general health continues to be fairly well preserved, 
 there is no doubt that any over-indulgence in the use of alcoholic stimu- 
 lants is one of the most fatal errors into which the tropical resident can 
 fall. When not over-worked, or suffering from the prostration consequent 
 upon fever or other illness, hot coffee, tea or cocoa will nearly always be 
 found sufficiently refreshing. But, on the other hand, it miist be laid 
 down with corresponding emphasis, that a supply of alcoholic stimulants 
 is one of the most important additions to the traveller's outfit. "When 
 exhausted by the fever from which the European resident in the tropics 
 is pretty sure to suffer at one time or many, there is no doubt tliat the 
 judicious use of stimulants is of all means the most essential in appli- 
 cation, and the most efficacious in results. It is not merely that the 
 immediate use may make all the difference between life and death at the 
 time, but may save a constitution from being permanently broken. But 
 in order that these good effects may be obtained in the time of need, it is 
 necessary that the use of alcoholic stimulants should be medicinal, and 
 never looked upon as an ordinary adjunct to the essential dietary. When 
 a course of continued physical or mental exertion has to be maintained 
 for a considerable time, there is no doubt that the use of alcohol in 
 
 E
 
 50 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 .moderation is highly essential. Of the multitudinous forms in which 
 it is used at home, tlie purer specimens of whisky and brandy are 
 decidedly to be preferred, and they should always be well diluted. 
 Champagne will also be always found a grateful and a beneficial 
 beverage to the exhausted traveller. On the other hand, the uncon- 
 centrated alcoholic preparations, such as beer, porter, claret, &c. will 
 be found to give much less satisfactory results; they are much more 
 highly provocative of gastro-intestinal and hepatic derangements ; and 
 are, of course, less easily obtained of really good quality. 
 
 The cooking should always be conducted with gTeat care in the tropics ; 
 the stomach and liver are less able to bear any extra strain, such as 
 would be induced by the attempted digestion of imperfectly cooked food. 
 Besides, parasites are often introduced with ill-prepared articles of diet. 
 
 The use of drinlcinr] water must be attended to with great care in all 
 tropical climates. The surrounding luxuriance of animal and vegetable 
 life, which so usually prevails, generally furnishes the water with a larger 
 proportion of impurities than are to be found in corresponding i:)Ositions 
 in temperate climates, and the accompanying factor of high temperature 
 promotes all sorts of fermentation and moleciilar decomi^osition in its 
 chemical constituents. Accordingly, the water of the lakes, streams, and 
 pools of hot countries are extremely impure, and contain the seeds of all 
 kinds of gastro-intestinal diseases. On this accoiuit, all water should be 
 filtered and boiled before being used for drinking or cooking purposes. 
 The drinking of very cold water, to which there is often great temptation 
 when one is exhausted by prolonged heat and copious perspiration, should 
 be most carefully avoided. The feeling referred to often induces trojiical 
 residents to have recourse to wed water, which is always extremely 
 dangerous under such circumstances. The use of copious draughts of 
 water is also a habit to be deprecated : it certainly weakens the muscular 
 energy, and is always rapidly lost by perspiration, which tends to increase 
 the feeling of exhaustion. Hot or cold tea, without milk or sugar, is 
 usually one of the most grateful, and least injurious, of the beverages 
 which can be used by the tropical resident when working or journeying 
 under a hot sun. 
 
 In this connexion it should also be remembered that the jirocess of 
 freezing by no means destroys all the pathogenic microbes, so that the 
 fact that the water to be used has been procured by the thawing of ice
 
 MEDICAL AND SUEGIOAL HINTS. 51 
 
 by no means guarantees its freedom from disease-producing agents, as 
 many otherwise well-informed persons seem to think. Also, that in other 
 parts of the world, as well as in the tropics, it is often very necessary to 
 use all the above precautions with regard to drinkiug water on entering 
 an unknown district. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to observe that travellers in remote regions, and 
 more especially in tropical climates, are much more exposed to physical 
 ills and diseases than most residents at home, and that they are also more 
 likely to be placed beyond the reach of skilled medical and surgical aid 
 when the latter may be most required. It is especially for the use of the 
 non-professional traveller that the following pages have been written, in 
 which the symptoms and general treatment of the diseases and injuries 
 from which he is most likely to suffer are dealt with in simple, non- 
 technical language. 
 
 In recommending the medicinal remedies with which the traveller 
 should be provided before leaving home, I have chosen throughout the 
 tabloid preparations of the well-known firm of Messrs. Burroughs, 
 Wellcome, & Co., as I have found, after a very considerable experience of 
 tropical travel and exposure, which form the very severest tests of the 
 reliability of medicines, that they are the best I know of in constancy and 
 unchangeability of strength, as well as in their extreme portability for 
 purposes of transit. 
 
 A. — Medical Diseases. 
 
 Cold in the head (coryza), inflammation of the upper part of the wind- 
 pipe — the organ of voice or larynx (laryngitis), iiflammation of the branches 
 if the wind-pipe (bronchitis), inflammation of the lung (jmeumonia), and in- 
 flammation of the investing membrane of this organ — the pleura (pleuritis), 
 raay be conveniently considered together, forming, as they do, a con- 
 tinuous group of ailments due to exposure to chill, and affecting, as they 
 do, the various sections of the organs of respiration according to the 
 degree of exposure, the general susceptibility of the patient, or the special 
 vulnerability of the organ attacked. When a cold is confined to the head, 
 it can usually be cut short by retiring to bed early, taking a ten-grain 
 dose of Dover's powder (two five-grain tabloids), with hot drinks to pro- 
 mote the perspiration which the action of this drug produces, and the use 
 
 E 2
 
 62 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 of as many additional bed-clothes as can Itc conveniently borne. Care 
 should, of course, be taken to avoid chill on the following morning. In 
 tropical regions, five grains of quinine (bisiilphate tabloid) may be added 
 with advantage to the ordinary dose of Dover's powder. 
 
 Whcii the wind-pipe is affected, there is hoarseness of voice, cough, 
 pain in swallowing, and tenderness on pressure over the region of Adam's 
 apple. A similar treatment may be adopted, in addition to which the 
 upper i^art of the front of the throat sliould be kept well poulticed for a 
 day or two, and then wrapped up in cotton wool for some days longer. 
 
 When bronchitis exists, there is a good deal of coughing — at first dry, 
 and afterwards accompanied by frothy expectoration — with a sensation of 
 rawness and tenderness at the upper part of the breast-bone. In the 
 early stage of tliis condition, half tea-spoonful doses of paregoric elixir 
 (two fifteen-min. tabloids of tinct. camph. co.) will be found very bene- 
 ficial. The opium tinct. tabloids, of which two to four may be taken every 
 half-hour, will be found an excellent remedy during the first day of the 
 development of bronchitis, and w'ill often effectually cut short an attack. 
 As even what would appear to be ordinary feverish colds have, in 
 tropical climates, very often a tendency to become intermittent, the use 
 of quinine in addition to the other treatment employed is often very 
 desirable. The tabloids of quinine bisulph., which contain five grains 
 each, can be taken every third hour with the best result. 
 
 Fneumonia is always ushered in by severe and prolonged shivering, 
 during which the temperature rises rapidly, and the pulse and respiration 
 are greatly quickened. The face is flushed, the skin feels very hot and 
 peculiarly dry, the patient is prostrated by heavy sickness, and there is a 
 short cough, dry at first, but afterw'ards there is expectoration of a 
 moderate quantity of viscid, rust-coloured (blood-stained), and almost 
 frothless matter. 
 
 A patient attacked with pneumonia should take to bed at once. The 
 chest should be surrounded with a large poultice on the affected side. If 
 the fever is very high, with great restlessness and rapidity of breathing, 
 bleeding often gives moi-e relief than any other treatment. Quinine is 
 decidedly beneficial, a five-grain tabloid of the bisulphate should be 
 given every third hour; in cases where other complications exist, a 
 tabloid of digitalis tinct. should be given every hour for one or two days 
 when the temperature is very high.
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 53 
 
 Pleurisy is accompanied by a more moderate degree of fever and 
 general sickness than pneumonia ; its great characteristic symptom is tlie 
 " stitch in the side " which always accompanies it. It is also accompanied 
 by a short, dry cough, which the patient tries to restrain as it " catches " 
 in the side, and causes very acute pain. For the same reason the 
 respiration is shallow, as any attempt to draw a deep breath causes 
 extreme suffering. 
 
 This is more a disease of cold climates; it is very usually the result of 
 chill following severe exertion. The patient suffers greatly, and, on that 
 account, the most important symjitom in the early stage of the disease is 
 the pain. If leeches are procurable, the aiiplication of half-a-dozen to 
 the painful region of the chest is always an excellent remedy. After 
 this, five tabloids of the opium tincture should be taken every hour. 
 The movements of the chest during respiration should be checked by 
 carefully-applied adhesive plaster or bandage. 
 
 Bheumatism is another disease which very frequently follows exposure 
 to damp cold, and is on that account not so frequent in the tropics as in 
 temperate and cold climates. A decided predisposition to this affection 
 is generally traceable in the persons attacked. It is very often hereditary, 
 and tends to recur in the same individual. On that account it is very 
 necessary that persons with a tendency to this disease should use special 
 precautions. The acute cases are ushered in by shivering, with rise of 
 temperature, and general sickness; while the joints become painful, 
 tender, and afterwards swollen. It agrees with other feverish conditions 
 in the rapid pulse and resiDiration, constipation, scanty and high-coloured 
 urine, etc., but it differs from most of them in the j^resence of a profuse 
 and highly acid perspiration, which gives the patient a very characteristic 
 buttermilk-like smell. 
 
 The great remedy for acute rheumatism is soda salicylate. Four of the 
 five-gi'ain tabloids of soda salicylate should be taken every third hour. 
 This will nearly always correct the acute symptoms in two or three days. 
 If the symptoms subside sooner, the quantity of the drug should be 
 diminished ; if there is a pronounced tendency to delirium the quantity 
 should also be lessened at once. The joints should, at the same time, be 
 kept completely wrapped up in cotton wool, secured with oiled silk and 
 tiannel bandages.
 
 54 HINTS TO TRAVELLEKP. 
 
 Colic. 
 
 This is the name given to the well-known severe twisting or griping 
 IDains in the abdomen, usually due to iiTcgular development of gas 
 within tlie intestine, and dependent on constipation or the unhealthy 
 fermentation of some ill-chosen article of diet. Hot turpentine fomenta- 
 tions should be applied to the abdomen, and a turpentine enema will 
 nearly always cut short the symptoms. A full dose of opium should also 
 be given. 
 
 Constipation. 
 
 This condition is very frequent in tropical climates, where it is asso- 
 ciated with torpidity of the liver. It is also very generally met with on 
 board ship. One of the best remedies is the tabloid of cascara comp., of 
 which one may be taken three times a day. In addition to this an 
 occasional dose of a saline purge should always be used, or a large enema 
 of soap and water. 
 
 Dysentery. 
 
 This disease is essentially a specific inflammation of the lining 
 membrane of the lower segment of the bow^el, with a tendency to ulcera- 
 tion. The more severe cases are accompanied by extreme congestion of 
 the liver, which often proceeds to the formation of deep-seated abscess. 
 The most potent causes are bad and insufiBcient food, impure water, and 
 prolonged cliills. General debility and mental anxiety are predisposing 
 causes; and, accordingly, it has frequently proved one of the most 
 terrible scourges of retreating armies. 
 
 The disease may, or may not, be ushered in by diarrhoea. The most 
 characteristic symi^tom in the early stage is the sensation of burning 
 heat and darting pain in the vicinity of the lower orifice of the bowel. 
 This gives rise to the sensation of desire to strain, which continually 
 distresses the patient. The discharge from the bowel at first consists 
 chiefly of gelatinous mucus, which afterwards becomes blood-stained. 
 In bad cases, large quantities of blood are discharged, and even shreds of 
 the mucous membrane of the bowel are detached by ulceration or 
 sloughing, and are passed by stool — giving the evacuation a veiy offensive
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 55 
 
 and characteristic odour of decomjiosing flesh. In addition to this the 
 patient suffers from irregular shooting and griping pains in the abdomen, 
 which is also very tender on pressure. 
 
 Ipecacuanha is the specific remedy for acute dysentery. It should be 
 given in very large doses, fifteen to thirty grains (three to six of the five- 
 grain tabloids). The aiDplication of a hot poultice to pit of the stomach will 
 often prevent its being brought up again, which it is, otherwise, of course, 
 likely to be. Sometimes opium acts as an eifectual corrective to the 
 nausea ; so that it will be found that the " Dover's Powder " tabloids 
 will be retained when the others will not be. The dose should be 
 repeated at an interval of about six hours. The abdomen should always 
 be kept covered with poultices as liot as can be borne. Boiled milk 
 and arrowroot, or i^lantain flour, will form the safest diet during the 
 acute stage. It should be remembered, too, that attention to the diet 
 is of the last importance in this disease. Animal broths should only 
 bo used with great caution, if at all. When the dysentery is compli- 
 cated with malaria, as it very often is in the tropics, quinine should 
 also be given — large doses will often be well borne (three of the five- 
 grain tabloids of quinine bisulphate). 
 
 Fever. 
 
 The peculiar fevers from which travellers are likely to suffer arc more 
 especially those of the type generally known as malarial. I don't jiropose 
 to discuss the nature of the specific poison which produces these fevers. 
 Two broad divisions of malarial fever are generally recognised : the uiter- 
 ■mitfent, and the remittent. The former is poj^ularly known as ague, and 
 is characterised by the recurrence of definite periods of complete absence 
 of the elevation of temperature. The latter presents well-marked sub- 
 sidences of temperature; which, however, never descends to the normal 
 standard till the patient is entering upon the stage of convalescence. 
 
 A characteristic attack of ague is ushered in by a feeling of cold running 
 down the spine, the patient feels general malaise, he seems to shrivel up, 
 as the superficial blood-vessels all contract, the lips and finger-tij^s become 
 livid, the hair stands on end ("goose-skin") and severe pains are felt in 
 the temples and in the loins. During the whole of this stage of apjiarently 
 violent chilliness the temperature is rapidly rising. As this stage passes
 
 56 HINTS TO TRAVKLLKKS. 
 
 off, the superficial blood-vessels dilate; and, as an immediate consequence, 
 the surface becomes flushed, and the patient feels uncomfortably hd. The 
 skin is, however, still dry ; but, by-and-by, perspiration commences, 
 which soon becomes very profuse — constituting the siveatmf/ stage. 
 During' this latter stage, the temperature gradually falls till it has 
 reached the normal standard. When the fever has gone, the patient 
 feels weak and exhausted, with a great deal of muscular soreness. If 
 the hot stage is much prolonged, a hyjiodermic injection of pilocarpine 
 gives relief l)y inducing sweating. 
 
 The attacks sometimes repeat themselves with the greatest regularity. 
 The best treatment is the use of large doses of quinine, given a little 
 before the expected time of attack. The doses which may be borne are 
 sometimes enormous; the present writer has often taken as much as 
 60 grains at a single dose. The quinine should never be administered 
 during the paroxysm of intermittent fever : it never cuts short the attack ; 
 while, on the other hand, it increases the sickness and distress. The 
 patient should, of course, have rest in bad cases ; although it is wonderful 
 to observe how well the aflected person can go about, and do a good deal 
 of energetic work during an attack of African fever. Every one of the 
 white ofHcers of the Emin Pasha Belief Expedition had, over and over 
 again, the exi^erience of going through a hard day's work with a tempera- 
 ture of between 105° and 106° F., doing 15 or 20 miles march. 
 
 A full calomel purge at the beginning of an attack is often very useful. 
 "Where a sweating stage occurs, it is of course very desirable to prevent 
 any exposure to chill during, and for some time after, its course. lu bad 
 cases of remittent fever, it is very desirable that the patient should be 
 removed, even while the fever is on him, to a higher and drier locality ; 
 during the early stage of fever a large do.se of oi)ium is invaluable. 
 
 In cases of older standing, quinine sometimes appears entirely to fail as 
 a curative agent. In such cases, arsenical preparations are often extremely 
 useful. Two of the 1-50 gr. arsenious acid tabloids may be taken every 
 third hour for a considerable time. It must be remembered that arsenical 
 prepariitious should never be taken on an empty stomach. Warburg's 
 tincture is also most useful.
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 57 
 
 Affections of the Liver : Congestion, Abscess. 
 
 A large proportion of the cases of " liver " which occur in the tropics 
 are undoubtedly the results of over-stimulation by the excessive use of 
 hot condiments and alcoholic stimulants. There can be no question, 
 however, that the malarial poison affects this organ, and that many of the 
 worst cases are due to its influence; while in every case, the functional 
 weakness of the organ, induced by the action of this mysterious agency, 
 renders it more likely to be affected by the action of stimulants and other 
 agents which would have but a slight deleterious effect had it been in a 
 previously healthy condition. 
 
 Congestion of the liver is indicated by a sensation of fulness and 
 dragging under the false ribs on the right side ; the organ may, in thin 
 persons, be felt in this position ; it is somewhat tender on pressure ; there 
 is sometimes pain referred to the right shoulder ; usually a little jaundice — 
 most noticeable at the inner corners of the eyes. The patient suffers from 
 lassitude, indigestion, and a bud taste in the mouth. 
 
 "When abscess of the liver exists, the symptoms are sometimes very 
 obscure indeed ; but in the well-marked cases there will be night-sweats, 
 wasting, and hectic fever, with its characteristic oscillations of temperature. 
 If fluctuation is felt draw off the fluid with an " as])irator " or puncture. 
 
 Acute congestion of the liver should be treated by hot fomentations, 
 and the use of calomel and saline purges. The use of ipecacuanha is also 
 extremely beneficial in acute congestion and inflammation of the organ. 
 Large doses are indicated : a tive-grain tabloid may be taken every two 
 hoixrs for the first day, while the pit of the stomach, as well as the surface 
 over the liver, are kept covered with hot poultices. The patient should 
 be allowed absolute rest in all very acute cases. The diet should also be 
 restricted ; vegetable food is the safest. 
 
 Night Blindness : Snoiv Blindness. 
 
 Night blindness sometimes results from exposure to the glare of the 
 tropical sun — especially if long continued — in the case of persons debili- 
 tated by insufficient or bad food. Snow blindness, on the other hand, 
 follows over-stimulation of the retina by the glare from snow, when the 
 eyes have been for a long time exposed to it, either in Arctic regions, or at
 
 58 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 altitudes above the snow-line in temperate or tropical zones. Of course 
 the best treatment for all svich cases is the preventive one of wearing 
 protective spectacles. Travellers in snowy regions shoiald always be 
 provided with smoked glasses ; if these happen to get broken or lost, 
 some opaque substance may be smeared over the surface of an ordinary 
 pair, having a narrow horizontal slit of clear glass — in the Esquimaux 
 fashion, shown in the accompanying illustration. On snow it must 
 
 ct^ 
 
 be remembered that the perforated wire gauze sidt-s are essential for jiro- 
 tection from the refracted sun's rays. Elastic may be substituted with 
 advantage for the ordinary metallic attachments, between the glasses as 
 well as around the head. In the tropics a veil is sometimes attached to 
 the glasses, and can be worn as a protection from insects and from the 
 blistering of the face which is produced by the sun's heat. Blackening 
 the skin around the eyes, and the adjacent part of the nose, is a good deal 
 employed by natives of high mountain regions in some parts of the world 
 as a preventive treatment of snow blindness ; but it is, as will easily be 
 surmised, a very ineflScacious one. 
 
 Ophthalmia. 
 
 Ophthalmia, or conjunctivitis, is inflammation of the membrane which 
 covers the front of the eye-ball and the deep surface of the eye-lid. It is
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 59 
 
 characterised by gritty pain, i.e. a feeling as if sand or dust had got under 
 the eye-lid ; the affected eye is " blood-shot," and exposure to strong light 
 is intolerable. The eye waters profusely. When severe, it is accompanied 
 by a certain amount of headache, and even general fever. It is often due 
 to cold draughts of air, also to the particles of sand which are always 
 getting into the eyes in sandy regions (as in tropical deserts). It is also 
 produced by the irritation of flies, which swarm in legions about the 
 traveller during so much of his tropical wanderings ; and, as the worse 
 forms are undoubtedly highly contagious, flies carry about the germs of 
 the disease from eye to eye. 
 
 Careful washing of the eyes, and subsequent application of a solution 
 of borax, cocaine, or zinc, or the use of atropine discs, will be found a 
 satisfactory treatment if the disease has not been too long neglected. In 
 chronic cases skilled assistance will be necessary. 
 
 Piles. 
 
 This troublesome affection is common in tropical climates, dependent, 
 as it so usually is, on some sluggishness or arrest of the circulation within 
 the liver. Piles are dilatations of the veins in the neighbourhood of tlie 
 orifice of the lower bowel. These enlargements form painful tumours, 
 which are situated sometimes within, sometimes without, the orifice, and, 
 on that account, are usually distinguished as internal and external. The 
 former usually give rise to the more serious symptoms, as they often 
 bleed profusely, and leave the patient very weak and anaemic. Both 
 kinds are accompanied by sensations of heat and painful fulness in the 
 part, which are aggravated by movements of every kind. Their early 
 formation is promoted by sedentary habits, and neglect of the bowels. 
 
 When the piles are inflamed and acutely painful, leeching is one of the 
 best methods of palliation. The bowels should always be kept free while 
 piles exist ; but violent jjurging must be avoided, as the consequent irri- 
 tation and straining will cause increased growth of the piles, and an 
 increase of the distressing symptoms accompanying them. In piles of old 
 standing, surgical operation by a competent hand will be found necessary. 
 When relieved by treatment, the patient should study to prevent their 
 recurrence by keeping the bowels extremely regular, taking a fair amount 
 of open-air exercise, and general regular living, with cold water ablution 
 frequently.
 
 Co HINTS TO TKAVKI.MOkS. 
 
 Prickly-heat. 
 
 Tliis affection i.s often very troul)lesomc in the tropics. It may sometimes 
 be avoided by attention to tlie clothing — wearing light linen or cotton 
 garments instead of flannel, which can be done when the temperature is 
 equable. The annoying heat and itcldng are relieved by the application of 
 carbolic solution to the skin (about a table-spoonful of carbolic acid to a 
 pint of water). A good saline purge should always be administered at 
 the beginning of an attack. 
 
 Ring-vorm. 
 
 This disease is infectioiis, as it is propagated by spores. These spores 
 cut into the hair close to the skin, so that it becomes brittle, and breaks 
 ofif near the surface. The hairs close to the affected spots should be 
 plucked out one by one, so as to isolate it, and the part should then be 
 frequently dressed with strong carbolic lotion, painted with liniment 
 of iodine, or strong solution of corrosive sublimate. 
 
 Sea- Sickness. 
 
 As is well known, some travellers are martyrs to this extremely 
 distressing affection. Others suffer a little at first, but the symjitoms 
 wear off when they have become accustomed to the motion of the vessel. 
 Some do not suffer at all. A great deal depends then on the nervous 
 constitution of the patient. As every traveller from the British Isles has 
 first to encounter the trials of the surrounding ocean, it is, of course, 
 very desirable that he should be prepared to meet this early difficulty. I 
 have usually found that the best preventive preparation of the system 
 consists in having a saline purge administered on the day before the 
 intended embarkation, and a comfortable meal immediately before going 
 on board. A cup of strong tea, or strong black coffee, taken after 
 starting, is a very efficacious preventive remedy in many cases. AVhen 
 symptoms threaten, the horizontal position should be assumed at once, 
 with the head as low as possible ; a hot jar to the feet, and a hot poultice, or 
 sinapism, to the pit of the stomach, will then check the progress in most 
 cases. On this account, persons who are specially prone to sea-sickness 
 should, on getting on board, retire at once to their respective berths. A 
 tight belt is sometimes t;seful.
 
 MEDICAL AND SUEGICAL HINTS. 61 
 
 Sleeplessness. 
 This is often a distressing symptom, especially in the case of persons 
 already weakened by malarial and other affections, who are, indeed, the 
 most likely to suffer from it. It is also produced by excessive heat or 
 cold, the irritation of mosquito bites, the annoyances of other insects and 
 parasites, the abuse of tea and coffee, and, of course, indigestion. Cold- 
 ness of the feet is a potent cause. On this account it will often be found 
 that strong kneading of the feet and legs often acts as a powerful 
 sedative. The application of a hot-water bottle to the feet sometimes 
 acts like a charm in causing sleep. When there is troublesome indiges- 
 tion, the application of a hot poultice to the stomach has a similar 
 soothing effect. Oi^ium, bromides, chloral and sulphonal are useful. 
 
 Sunstrohe. 
 This deadly affection is by no means characteristic of sub-tropical 
 climates. The present writer has seen more cases by far in England than 
 in Africa, during nearly nine years' experience of the vicissitudes of the 
 " Dark Continent." It is said to be decidedly rare in the insular regions 
 of the trollies, as in Jamaica, Ceylon, etc., and the progress of the Emin 
 and Gordon Eelief Expeditious was singularly free from it. It must 
 always be looked out for when the surrounding temperature exceeds that 
 of the surface of the body, 98*4 E. It may be produced either by direct 
 cx]3osure to the sun's rays, or by the influence of a super-heated atmo- 
 sphere. Sometimes the patient falls down suddenly. In a larger pro- 
 portion of cases, premonitory symptoms are present: giddiness, sickness 
 of stomach, peculiar heat and dryness of the skin, blood-shot eyes, and 
 frequent micturition. In such cases, the attack can, probably in every 
 instance, be warded off by prompt treatment. The ijatient should at once 
 be drenched all over, especially on the head and along the spine, with cold 
 water, and this treatment should be kept up for a considerable time. A 
 large dose of calomel should also be placed at the back of the tongue, or 
 better, in very urgent cases, a turpentine enema should be given as 
 quickly as possible. The patient can then be made comfortable in bed, 
 with cold wet cloths wrapped around the head and adjusted along the 
 spine. They should be frequently changed and wetted, so as to prevent 
 them from getting warm, and this treatment should be persisted in till 
 the patient has been roused.
 
 02 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Parasites. 
 
 Worms arc nearly always introduced into the system through the 
 lucdia of unfiltcred water, or imperfectly-cooked food. The same may be 
 said of other internal parasites. There are exceptions, as we .shall see 
 later on. 
 
 Intestinal worms are divided into two great classes: the tape worm 
 and the round worm. Each of them gives rise to a series of intestinal 
 derangements, but the diagnosis of their existence can hardly ever be 
 made with certainty except when a part, or the whole, of a worm has 
 been passed with the evacuations from the bowels. Accordingly, the 
 great preventive treatment, obviously, is the careful adoption of proper 
 precautious with regard to food and drink. For curative treatment, the 
 liquid extract of male fern (thirty drops beaten up with yolk of egg), or 
 large doses of turpentine (one to two fluid ounces — two fluid ounces 
 b(>ing equal to a wineglassful), will be found effective. For the round 
 worm, a full dose of santonin (six grains for an adult), followed by a 
 purgative, is always eflficacious. 
 
 The guinea ivorm, which is a very common and very troublesome para- 
 site in the countries around the Eed Sea, is also introduced with food or 
 drink into the alimentary canal, but makes its way to the subcutaneous 
 connective tissue, which is the only place in which it develops. It gives 
 rise to very troublesome sores, and can be removed only by a careful pro- 
 cess of extraction, for which a skilled hand is always necessary. 
 
 Care of infants and children. 
 
 In the care of young children, the flrst thing to be thought of in 
 foreign climes, as at home, is the necessity for warm covering; the second 
 is the administration of proper food, and at regular intervals. The more 
 active tissue-changes accompanying the gi'owth of children is accom- 
 panied by the evolution of larger proportional quantities of heat than in 
 the adult. The greater proportion of surface to persons in early life 
 favours the dissipation of this heat by radiation. The heat-regulating 
 mechanism is not so well developed in very early life, and, accordingly, 
 a slight disturbance of the system causes a greater proportion of febrile 
 disturbance. The pulse is also disproportionately quickened in the
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 63 
 
 illnesses of childhood. Gastric disorders are also very easily induced at 
 this period of life, as the digestive organs are very delicate, and their 
 functions are easily deranged. On this account, the clothing, as well as 
 the diet, of young children should always be attended to with great care. 
 It is a terrible mistake to think, as many people seem to do, that rough 
 and ready treatment in very early life will help to make young people 
 more hardy afterwards. Excei^tionally robust constitutions may resist 
 the effects of these mistaken notions, but there is no doubt that the seeds 
 of chronic disease and of permanent delicacy of constitution are often 
 laid in this absurd management of childhood. Bare legs, bare necks, 
 and arms are too often displayed in childhood, and invite the future 
 development of rheumatic and tubercular affections. These parts should 
 always be protected— in the varying seasons, and in different climates, 
 according to temperature and surroundings — with thicker or thinner 
 clothing, as the requirements of the cases demand. 
 
 The abdominal organs are, as is well known, extremely susceptible to 
 the effects of extremes of temperature, and of local irritation, in child- 
 hood. On this account, a flannel binder should always be worn by 
 children in sub-tropical regions, where such influences are most likely 
 to be felt. The effects of chill are severely felt in childhood, but warm 
 drinks, rest, eqiiable temperature, gentle purgatives, and subsequent 
 careful feeding will nearly always suiflco to neutralise them. 
 
 The nervous system is also extremely susceptible in childhood. The 
 effects of reflex irritation due to some local cause, such as the cutting 
 of a tooth, or the presence of intestinal worms, are such as often to 
 give rise to most alarming symjitoms, such as convulsions, delirium, or 
 paralysis. The onset of fever in early childhood is also frequently 
 marked by a severe attack of convulsions. In estimating the severity 
 of febrile symptoms in childhood, too much attention should not be 
 attached to the rate of the pulse, which is very easily quickened to an 
 extreme degree at this early stage of life. 
 
 At the onset of any high fever in children, one of the best initial treat- 
 ments is the use of the hot pack. A blanket should be wrung out of 
 water as warm as can be borne without positive discomfort, and the child's 
 body may be wrapped in it, and the ends turned up and pinned, so that 
 no current of air can circulate between it and the skin. 
 
 When purgation is required, mild doses of castor oil, of fluid magnesia,
 
 64 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 or of liriuorice powder, can always be used with advantage. Mercurials 
 are often abused in childhood, and should rarely be employed without 
 skilled advice. Opium is dangerous. A generous diet, with fresh air, 
 will prevent the development of rickets, wliich leaves such painful 
 deformity in the unhappy subjects who are affected by it. It is very 
 generally found in children who have been brought up on artificial foods 
 and milk. The milk of very delicate mothers will also predispose to its 
 development. Fresh air, with a well-selected and varied diet, including 
 the important factors of good cream and some cod liver oil, will be nearly 
 always found sufhcient to arrest the disease, if it has not already pro- 
 ceeded too far. 
 
 The distressing afiectiou known as spasmodic croup is specially common 
 among rickety children. It should be treated by a warm bath, tlie use 
 of a full emetic, inhalation of hot steam, application of hot sponges to the 
 throat, and, of course, rest in bed. Eepeated doses of chloral have a good 
 effect afterwards. 
 
 Convulsions are also treated by use of the warm bath, and sedatives, 
 such as a mixture containing chloral, with bromide of sodium or 
 ammonium. It must be remembered that disordered bowels, the presence 
 of intestinal worms, and the onset of fevers, are the commonest causes of 
 convulsions during childhood. 
 
 During teething, great care must be taken of delicate children. They 
 are frequently attacked by convulsions — sometimes by reflex paralysis. 
 These can, however, be nearly always checked by regular use of laxatives, 
 and of the warm bath. Lancing of the gums must be resorted to when 
 necessary. 
 
 Diarrlava is a common afiectiou of childhood, and usually requires a 
 treatment beginning with the use of a purgative, as it is very generally 
 dependent on the presence of some irritating substances in the bowels. 
 
 Thrush is nearly always due to some derangement of the stomach or 
 bowels. Attention to diet, following the administration of a castor oil 
 purgative, and the application of borax and honey to the interior of the 
 mouth, will be found effective treatment in almost every case. 
 
 Worms are often very troublesome, and especially in the tropics, where 
 intestinal parasites are oftener found than in temperate climates. They 
 give rise to intestinal derangements, disorders of appetite, flatulence, 
 griping pains, diarrhoea, restlessness, grinding of the teeth during sleep.
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 65 
 
 and other misleading symptoms which have been already referred to, 
 such as convulsions and paralysis. Two kinds of worms are compara- 
 tively frequent in children : the round worm, which is found high up in 
 the bowel, and the thread worm, which is always found near the lower 
 orifice. Santonin is an effective remedy for the former ; the latter is best 
 treated by an injection of some bitter fluid, such as infusion of quassia. 
 
 Wasting in children is generally associated with chronic diarrhoea; 
 and is, very usually, connected with an unhealthy condition of the in- 
 testinal glands. The limbs become extremely thin and worn, and the 
 abdomen tumid to an enormous degree. In such cases, great care must, 
 of course, be taken with the diet. Cow's milk is generally very badly 
 digested in such cases. Starchy foods, being fermentable, also disagree 
 very much. Condensed milk, diluted with thin, freshly-made barley- 
 water, is much easier of digestion. If cow's milk must be used, it should 
 always be diluted with water and given warm. The addition of lime- 
 water, about one-third the bulk, is often very useful for delicate children 
 — especially where a tendency to rickets is threatened, 
 
 B.— Surgical Diseases and Injuries. 
 Bleeding (Haemorrhage). 
 
 Serious bleeding is of two kinds: arterial and venous. Arteries are the 
 vessels which convey the blood from the heart away to the tissues. When 
 one of them is divided, the blood, which is bright red in colour, escapes 
 in jets, with considerable force and velocity ; so that, if the wounded 
 artery is a large one, there is great danger of immediate death. On the 
 other hand, when a vein is divided, dark-coloured blood flows out quietly 
 — it never spouts to a distance. The veins are the vessels which convey 
 the blood back to the heart from the tissues : they are connected with 
 the arteries by microscopic channels called capillaries. Bleeding from the 
 capillaries is very rarely at all dangerous. 
 
 When serious bleeding occurs, the patient should be at once placed 
 in the horizontal position, and pressure applied to the bleeding point. 
 When an artery is wounded, pressure should be applied to the bleeding 
 vessel on the side next the heart ; when a vein, it should be applied away 
 from the heart. The reason is obvious, if the direction of the blood
 
 66 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 current is renieml)ered. If the bleeding be from a puncture or a small 
 incision, direct pressure with the finger, and subsequent application of 
 pads carefully bandaged in position, is the best that can be done, till the 
 arrival of skilled surgical aid. Before this can be procured, continuous 
 pressure maybe absolutely necessary : will inevitably be, indeed, except 
 some special apparatus is at hand. If there are several persons present 
 to assist, the pressure can be taken by each in turn, as the exertion of 
 keeping it up, although apparently slight, is well known by those who 
 have had to practise it to be extremely tiring. If no other means are 
 procurable, the application of a tight Ijandage (in case of wound of a 
 limb) above the seat of injury will be an effective check to profuse arterial 
 bleeding. A^cnous bleeding can nearly always be readily checked by local 
 pressure. If an elastic bandage be carefully applied it will arrest any 
 hasmorrhage from a wounded limb. If a piece of India rubber tubing 
 can be procured and tightly applied above the seat of injury, in case of 
 wound of a limb, it will be found an effective method of arresting the 
 bleeding. The oldest form of tourniquet consisted in tying a hand- 
 kerchief around a wounded limb — then inserting one end of a stick 
 between the handkerchief and the skin, and twisting forcibly. The 
 effect is obvious, and will certainly jirevent fatal hsemorrhage if done 
 in time. Arterial bleeding from the j^alm is very troiiblesome. It may 
 be treated — till skilled assistance can be procured — by bandaging the 
 fingers, placing a rounded pad in the palm, on which the fingers are 
 then closed ; the bandage is then carried up to the elbow, when the 
 joint is flexed and secured in that position by the bandage. The arm 
 should then be supported in a sling. 
 
 In the case of wounds high up in the arm, or in the arm-pit itself, the 
 subclavian artery must be controlled by pressure against the first rib. 
 This is applied from above the collar-bone. In the case of serious wounds 
 high up in the lower limb, the femoral artery can always be secured by 
 pressui-e in the middle of the fold of the groin. In the case of the leg 
 below the knee, the latter joint should be firmly bent, and the limb well 
 bandaged from below upwards. A pad should be placed on the bleeding 
 point, and the knee firmly secured in the flexed position by the bandage. 
 
 Stimulants should be avoided after ha3morrhage, as they increase the 
 activity of heart, and tend to renew the bleeding.
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 67 
 
 Blisters on the feet. 
 
 These are generally caused by creases iu the socks, or some roughness 
 on the inside of the boot, during a long walk ; accordingly, the pre- 
 vention is obvious and easy. Great care should be used in the selection 
 of boots and socks, as blisters are very painful and annoying. When 
 they have been formed, they should be pricked — to let out the fluid — and 
 good adliesive plaster apjilied, which will protect the raw surface 
 effectually. ^Yhen the feet are naturally tender, and jDrone to form 
 blisters on slight iDrovocation, soaking them for some time in tepid salt 
 and water, before jDutting on the socks in the morning, has a very good 
 effect. Eubbing the insides of the socks with soft soap is also a very good 
 preventive. Knitted socks are the best. 
 
 For tender feet, of course, very comfortably fitting boots should always 
 be carefiilly selected before travelling. Broad and low heels, and elevated 
 and broad toe-caps are desirable features. It should also be remembered 
 that it is a decided mistake to wear too large boots for long walks. 
 
 Boils and carhuncles. 
 
 These well-known affections differ in degree rather than in kind. The 
 carbuncle is an exaggerated boil; it tends to spread considerably in some 
 cases, and is indicative of a feebler state of the general system. On this 
 account, the use of generous diet and stimulants is indicated where a 
 carbmicle forms. Both require iDrotection and poulticing. When the 
 carbuncle is extremely tense and painful, a free incision along the length 
 of its greatest diameter, or the destruction of the skin over its central 
 part by means of caustic potash, will be found the most effective means 
 of relief. 
 
 For boils, poulticing, free purgation, and a light, well-chosen diet are 
 the only general remedies that need be employed, also a small incision 
 to evacuate pus if necessary. 
 
 Bruises. 
 
 A bruise, when recent, should be treated with a cold lotion, irrigation 
 with cold water, or application of wet cloths — very porous and often 
 changed — or a more carefully-prepared evaporating lotion. 
 
 F 2
 
 68 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Burns. 
 
 Where an extensive l)nrii or scald lias occurred, the clothing of the 
 affected jiart should be removed by cutting, so as to cause as little irri- 
 tation of the burnt surface as possible. Lint (or rags of some kind, if 
 lint cannot be procured) should he thoroughly moistened with a mixture 
 of equal parts of olive oil and lime-water, and applied to the injured 
 surface. If this dressing is not to be had, flour or powdered starch 
 should be dredged over the surface till completely covered, and then pro- 
 tected from being rubbed off. 
 
 Chilblains and frost-hifes. 
 
 Chilblains are usually found on the fingers or toes, after exposure to 
 severe cold, when tightly compressed — by the gloves or boots, as the case 
 may be. Some persons are specially liable ; and the best way to promote 
 their formation certainly is to toast the semi-frozen fingers or toes, at 
 a fire or stove, before the circulation has been re-established. Similar 
 conditions, more aggravated and prolonged, lead to the development of 
 frost-bife. 
 
 Chilblains are checked in the beginning by painting with tincture of 
 iodine or strong solution of nitrate of silver. AVhen threatened, the part 
 should be well rubbed with snow, or with camphorated spirit. Ulcerated 
 chilblains can be effectively treated vrith boracic ointment spread on lint. 
 
 Frost-bite shovild be treated in the beginning by very vigorous friction 
 with snow or pounded ice. The affected parts should be then well 
 wrapped with cloths wet with cold water. It is extremely dangerous to 
 bring the frozen part near a fire. Afterwards, the part should be wrapped 
 in cotton wool. If the case is a bad one, or injudiciously treated, gangrene 
 always follows; if this is extensive, amputation will be necessary. 
 
 Concussion of the brain. 
 
 This term is given to the condition accompanying the partial suspen- 
 sion of the functions of the brain produced by the severe shaking of its 
 substance by a fall or blow. The patient lies in a semi-imconscious con- 
 dition, with cold, clammy skin, and very feeble pulse and breathing. He
 
 MEDICAL AND SUKGICAL HINTS. 69 
 
 can be somewhat roused by shouting into his ear, and cries out when 
 painful aijplications are made, but quickly relapses into insensibility. In 
 these cases, a large turpentine enema should be given at once, and a full 
 dose of calomel or croton oil (in a little mass of butter) placed on the 
 back of the tongue, when it will be swallowed by the reflex action of the 
 muscles. When reaction sets in, the head should be kept cold, with an 
 evaporating lotion or an ice bag, and the bowels still kej^t very free. 
 
 Stimiilants should be avoided in cases of concussion of the brain ; they 
 tend to cause too violent reaction, which would be followed by inflamma- 
 tion of the brain and its membranes. 
 
 Drowning. 
 
 It must be remembered that, in cases of submersion in water, the great 
 object is to restore the action of breathing. If the heart's action has not 
 completelj stopped, this can always be done by skilful treatment. In 
 order to succeed, it is absolutely necessary to quickly clear out the air 
 passages. For this purpose, it is well to place the patient in such a 
 position that the head is lower than the body, and the body itself on an 
 inclined i^lane, sloping downwards towards the head. In this position 
 the water will tend to drain from the air j^assages. The tongue should 
 instantly be drawn forward, and the mouth and nostrils cleared of froth 
 and mucus as completely as possible. The patient may be first placed on 
 his side, with the lower arm raised to the level of the face. The other 
 arm should then be firmly grasped between the elbow and shoulder, and 
 with it the patient should be drawn roiiud so as to lie on his back, the 
 arm being at the same time firmly drawn above the patient's head. He 
 should be then rolled round to his face, during which movement the arm 
 miast be brought down to the patient's side, and forcibly pressed against 
 it, while the patient is on his face. After some time, firm pressure should 
 be made by the knees against the back, between the shoulder-blades. 
 This series of movements should occupy a time of between three and four 
 seconds, and must be regularly repeated for about five minutes. At the 
 end of this time, a great part of the water will have drained away throughi 
 the mouth and nostrils. If breathing has not then been re-established, 
 the patient should be rolled on to his back, and the operator, standing 
 behind the head, should grasp the arms above the elbow, and raise them
 
 70 HINTS TO TRAVFJJ,KRS. 
 
 slowly ahovo the head as far as they can he drawn, hold them there for a 
 .second or so, and slowly depress them to tlic sides. AVhcn in contact with 
 the sides, they should l)e pressed as firmly as possil)]e af^ainst the cliest. 
 The same series of movements should then be r(^])eated about tAvcnty 
 times per minute, as in the other case. This manipulation should he 
 continued for eve7i several Jionrs, so as to establish rcsi)iration if possible. 
 
 Fractures and dislocations. 
 
 The commonest of all fractures is that of the coJJar-hone. The bones 
 of tlie limbs, and the ribs, arc also frequently broken. The nature of the 
 injury is known by the mobility of the fragments, and the yrutiiKj (which 
 may be hothfelt and hvanl) when the fragments are moved against one 
 another. When a fracture occurs, the ])arts should be brought liack 
 to their natural position as soon as possible, and firmly retained in that 
 position by means of splints and bandages. In case of fractures of the 
 arm-bone, and of the thigh-bone, there is a great tendency to shortenirifi 
 of theh'mb by the contraction of the muscles around the broken l)one, 
 which, if not carefully counteracted, causes over-riding of the broken 
 extremities. 
 
 Splints can be extemiwrised by cutting pieces of board of moderate 
 thickness into appropriate lengths. If boards are not procurable, rods or 
 straight sticks can be cut into corresponding lengths, and secured 
 
 together with strings, as shown in the figure. In case of fracture of 
 the thigh-bone permanent extension must be kept up, otherwise the 
 limb will be shortened. 
 
 If no other supports for a broken limb are jirocuralile, considerable 
 protection will be afforded by filling stockings or shirt sleeves with sand 
 or earth, and placing them on either side as the patient is lying down. 
 Bundles of rushes, strong reeds, or iron wires tied together, arc also 
 sometimes emjiloyed. 
 
 Fracture of the collar-hone should be treated by placing a large
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 71 
 
 pyramidal pad, about six inches long by three in thickness at the upper 
 end, in the arm-pit, and securing it with tapes tied over tlie opposite 
 shoulder. The elbow should then be brought forwards, and raised and 
 well supijorted by a broad triangular bandage, or handkerchief, used as a 
 sling, and with the ends tied over the opposite shoulder, at the root of the 
 neck. A flannel roller can then be passed loosely round the chest several 
 times, so as to secure the arm ft'om accidental movements. 
 
 Fracture of the ribs should be treated by wrapping a flannel roller 
 around the chest pretty tightly, so as to limit the movements of 
 respiration, which arc very painful. It should be secured by stitching, 
 and the upper turns should be fixed by broad tapes passed over the 
 shoulders and firmly stitched. Firm strapping of the side with adhesive 
 plaster is still better, and should be used if possible. 
 
 Fractures of the upjper arm may be treated by the application of several 
 narrow splints, well padded, and supported in position by a bandage 
 carried from the fingers to the arm-pit. Care must be taken that the 
 splints on the inner side do not chafe the folds of the axilla. The hand 
 and wrist should then be supported in a sling, but the elbow must be 
 allowed to hang free. 
 
 Fractures hetiveen the lurist and elbow must be treated by two splints, each 
 wider than the limb. One is placed behind; the other iu front. The 
 former reaches down to the finger-tips, the other not beyond the palm. 
 In seciTring them in position the thumb must be placed upwards, and the 
 whole limb, from elbow to wrist, supported in a sling, with the hand a 
 little above the level of the elbow. Too much pressure must never 
 be used in adjusting the bandages, and these should always include the 
 fingers. 
 
 Fractures of the loiver Jimb are much more serious; they require the 
 patient to keej) lying down till union has been effected, and they are 
 more likely to lead to permanent deformity if not very carefully treated. 
 Those of the thigh invariably produce shortening and permanent lame- 
 ness, if not treated by a skilled surgeon. 
 
 Fractures of the leg can usually be fairly well adjusted by extending the 
 limb so as to remove the deformity, applying a splint on each side, long 
 enough to reach from the knee to a little below the sole of the foot, and 
 bandaging them in such a ]iosition as to liave the great too in a line with 
 the inner border of the knee-cap. It is not, comparatively speaking, so
 
 72 HINTS TO TRAVELT.ERS. 
 
 hard to keep the limb in position, as in otlicr fractures; and, accordingly, 
 very crude apparatus, e.<j. an umbrella on each side, will often be found 
 fairly serviceable in tlic absence of properly-prepared splints. They may 
 also be tolerably well supported by thick pads on each side formed of a 
 great -number of layers of cloth of some kind (calico, etc.) and tied in 
 that position. When the accident occurs in the open air, the injured 
 limb should be tied to the sound one, till the patient is brought to a place 
 of security. 
 
 Compound fractures, i.e. fractures in which the broken ends are exposed 
 by a wouiid, or actually protruding through the skin, are very serious 
 injuries uiien occurring beyond the reach of skilled assistance. In such 
 cases, all dirt should be removed from the wound by syringing with tepid 
 water, to which a little weak carbolic solution should afterwards be 
 added, if procurable. The parts must then be adjusted by very careful 
 extension, and pressure, if the fragments protrude. Splints are then 
 applied as in other cases, but the bandage must not be carried over the 
 opening in the skin. This should be covered by a carbolized pad, and 
 kept loosely in place by a piece of flannel roller, so that there shall be 
 no obstacle to the escape of discharges. 
 
 Dislocations can hardly be discussed here with much advantage, as they 
 nearly always require skilled aid. The most frequent is that of the 
 shoulder, which is generally easy to diagnose. The patient cannot raise 
 his hand to his head, and the joint is rigid when anybody attemiits to 
 move it for him. This dibtinguishes the injury from a fracture. The 
 shoulder is flattened, and the elbow sticks out from the side ; while the 
 length of the limb is usually somewhat increased. The reduction can 
 generally be effected by placing the patient lying down, inserting the 
 unbooted heel of the foot of the same side in the arm-pit^ and drawing 
 the arm firmly and steadily downwards, while the heel is made to press 
 against tlie head of the bono in the outward direction. Dislocation of the 
 bones of the fore-arm backwards at the elbow joint is pretty common, 
 and can usually be redixced by placing the knee in front of the patient's 
 elbow, and making firm traction on the forearm — which is at the same 
 time flexed a little around the ojDerator's knee. The i^atient can be kept 
 sitting in a chair while this is done, and the operator can get his knee 
 into the required position by placing his foot on the side of the chair.
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 73 
 
 Parasites. 
 
 The jigger (Pulex penetrans) is one of the parasitic pests of tropical 
 climates, and often gives a great deal of annoyance. It lodges in the 
 skin, in whicli it burrows, and establishes so firm a hold that it must be 
 j-iicked out with a pointed instrument. After it has been dislodged, the 
 part should be well smeared with carbolic oil. 
 
 Ticks also give rise to a great deal of trouble by burrowing in the skin, 
 where they i^roduce intense itching and irritation. They are sometimes 
 found in the nostrils. They should be similarly treated. 
 
 Leeches abound in the long glass of certain tropical districts — notably 
 of India and Ceylon. They attach themselves to the skin, and have often 
 been known even to cveep into the nostrils, where their bites cause 
 considerable loss of blood. They are best removed by salt and water — 
 applied to the surface, or injected into the nostrils, as the case may be. 
 
 Fleas and hugs may be kept at a respectful distance by the use of 
 " Keating's Insect Powder." 
 
 Mosquitos are very abundant in many sub-tropical countries. They 
 must be warded off by the use of netting, as already described. 
 
 Midges can be dispersed by smoke. 
 
 Rupture. 
 
 A rupture is a protrusion of a portion of the intestine under the skin, 
 and is usually found in the groin. It is generally reducible, i.e. it can be 
 pushed back into the abdomen. It reappears when the pressure is re- 
 moved, especially if the patient is asked to cough. When reduced, a 
 properly fitting truss should be applied, and always worn during the day. 
 It can be taken off at night, after lying down; it should be again adjusted 
 in the morning, while the patient is still lying. 
 
 The great danger of rupture is that it may become strangulated. This 
 occurs when the bowels are neglected, or when a large portion of the 
 intestine is suddenly forced out by some severe exertion. If unrelieved, 
 this complication is always fatal. The existence of strangulation is known 
 by local pain and tenderness, development of severe colicky pains in the 
 abdomen (especially about the navel), vomiting, hiccough, and symptoms 
 of collapse. When this condition is observed, the jjatient's hips should
 
 74 HINTS TO TRAVETJ.ERS. 
 
 lie raised, hy supporting them with pillows till higher than the head, and 
 the tninoiir should Ije gently kneaded and pressed with the view of 
 getting back the protruded intestine. The treatment is considerably 
 aided by immersing the patient in a warm bath, and giving a full dose of 
 opium^-abont thirty or forty drops of the tincture, or in tabloid form. 
 Placing ice around the tumour for half an hour or so is often very 
 effective. If these means fail, surgical aid is absolutely necessary. 
 
 Snake-bite. 
 
 Provision should be made against snake-bites by wearing stout gaiters. 
 Bites of poisonous snakes are generally recognisable by the fact that the 
 fangs make well-defined circular punctures, while the other teeth make 
 only minute scratches. In the case of sea-snakes, which are generally 
 very vcuemous, the fangs are very small, so that this distinction is not 
 always available. 
 
 Sir Joseph Fayrer recommends the following treatment for snake- 
 bites : " Apply at once a ligature or ligatures, at intervals of a few inches, 
 as tight as you can i^ossibly tie them, and tighten the one nearest to the 
 wound by twisting it with a stick or other such agent. Scarify the wound, 
 and let it bleed freely. Apply either a hot iron or a live coal, or explode 
 some gunpowder on the spot, or apply either carbolic acid or some mineral 
 acid or caustic. Let the patient suck the wound whilst you are getting 
 the caustic ready, or if anyone else will run the risk, let him do it. 
 
 " If the bite be on a toe or finger, especially if the snake has been 
 recognised as a deadly one, either completely excise, or immediately 
 amputate at the next joint. If the bite be on another part, where a liga- 
 ture cannot be applied, or indeed if it be on the limbs above the toes or 
 fingers, cut the part out at once completely. 
 
 "Let the patient be quiet. Do not fatigue him by exertion. Give 
 eau-de-luce or sal-volatile, or carbonate of ammonia, or, even better than 
 these, hot spirits and water. There is no occasion to intoxicate the 
 person, but give it freely, and at frequent intervals." 
 
 Bites from jackals should be treated on the same principles as those 
 above recommended for snake-bite, as they are sometimes followed by 
 hydroi^hobia.
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 75 
 
 S2yrains. 
 
 These usually occur at the ankle joint. The affected joint should 
 always be raised on pillows, and treated with cold evaporating lotions 
 — thin cloths moistened with cold water and frequently changed, if 
 there are no other remedies at hand. If inflammation be developed, 
 warm fomentations will be foimd more soothing. Leeching may also 
 be necessary, and free purgation has always a good effect. The trouble- 
 some stiffness which often remains is best treated by friction and 
 kneading with the hand. This hand- friction will be found very bene- 
 ficial, if well applied at the moment of the occurrence of the injury ; 
 but, if inflammation has had time to develop, it should not be attempted 
 till this has subsided. 
 
 Ulcers. 
 
 Ulcers are often very troublesome in tropical climates. They occur 
 usually on the limbs, and especially on the lower limbs, where they 
 often spread from the most trifling abrasion of the skin, caused by a 
 puncture or a scratch, or by the bite of some i^arasitic insect. Their 
 spreading is, of course, greatly promoted by exposure to the sun "s heat, 
 the rubbing of the clothes — or of foreign bodies with which they may 
 come into contact. Want of sufficient nitrogenous food is also a potent 
 factor in the rapid development of large ulcers. 
 
 When the ulcer can be i3rotected, and rest can be given to the affected 
 part, a simple dressing of zinc ointn,ent, ointment of boracic acid, or 
 iodoform is usually effective. When the ulcer is deep and large, it may 
 be stimulated to healing by the application of lint or cotton-wool, 
 moistened with carbolic acid (one part of carbolic acid to twenty parts 
 of oil). In the huge gangrenous ulcers of which I have had to treat 
 an enormous number in Equatorial Africa, I have found nothing so 
 effective in checking their i:)rogress as the application of pure carbolic 
 acid to the edges and base. If very large, the whole surface should not 
 be so treated at once. Afterwards, the dressings above mentioned will 
 suffice, if rest and generous diet can be procured.
 
 76 HINTS TO TT^AYEIJ.KTIS. 
 
 Womids. 
 
 Slight, clean-cut wounds are best treated by bringing the edges 
 together, and securing them in contact by means of strips of adhesive 
 plaster carefully ajiplied, and then brushed with flexible collodion. If 
 there happen to be any dirt, or particles of any kind, engaged in the 
 wound, they should always be removed previously by very careful 
 washing. A weak carbolic solution should then be applied before the 
 parts are secured in position. If there be much bleeding, it must always 
 be checked before the wound is closed. The means for doing this have 
 been described under the head of " Bleeding." In cases of lacerated 
 wounds produced by the bites or gorings of wild animals, and in cases 
 of gun-shot wounds, great pains should always be taken in washing the 
 parts out thoroughly with carbolized water before bringing the edges 
 together. In such cases, stitches will be required to keep them in position. 
 Every shred of skin should be preserved with the greatest care. 
 
 In cases where there is much bruising, a good deal of inflammation is 
 likely to follow; and it is always useful, if the patient has not been 
 weakened by loss of blood, to administer a full saline purge. Bruises 
 without much breach of surface should be treated at first with cold 
 lotions ; when inflammation sets in, poultices will be required. 
 
 In all cases of deep wounds, it is well to have all instruments, the 
 operator's and attendants' hands, and all dressings applied, well soaked 
 in carbolic solution, about one of carbolic acid to twenty of water or oil ; 
 or in a solution of perchloride of merciiry, 1 in 2000 strength. 
 
 Rules for the Preservation of Health ix the Tropics. 
 (^From ' Experiences in Equatorial Africa,^ by T. H. Parke.) 
 
 Water. — All drinking-water, no matter how sparkling and pure, should 
 be invariably boiled to insure its freedom from dangerous constituents. 
 Cold weak tea, without sugar or milk, is best for the march. Water 
 should always be drawn from up stream, and from the centre if jDossible. 
 Two grains of permanganate of potash to the quart purifies water. If 
 muddy, use alum. 
 
 Sun. — No precautions can be too great for protecting the head from
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 77 
 
 the direct rays of the stin. The use of a proper head-dress and umbrella, 
 also a spinal pad for morning and evening sun, is judicious. 
 
 Chills, draughts, sitting in damp clothes, especially when heated after 
 violent exercise and coiDious perspiration, also cooling of the body 
 suddenly in any way, are certain to be followed by fever. 
 
 Clothing. — The bodily temperature should be kept as equable as 
 possible. Loosely-fitting woollen clothes are preferable. Light kamdr.- 
 band should be worn day and night. On halting after a march put on a 
 wrapper so as to cool gradually. Get under cover and change, if 
 jjossible. 
 
 Sleep as far as possible off the ground, and always under mosquito 
 curtains at night. 
 
 Diet should be plain: meat, fish, vegetables, well-boiled, fruit, rice, 
 and cereals. 
 
 Alcohol habitually, especially during the day, is most dangerous; 
 medicinally, on occasions, it is useful. 
 
 Tub in the early morning, or at the end of a march, before cooling, 
 never while digestion is going on, and always tepid if possible. 
 
 Camp. — Select highland plateau near water supply. Don't disturb 
 the soil. Avoid ravines. Never to leeward of a swamp, unless separated 
 by a belt of trees or a river. Site of latrine should be selected im- 
 mediately on halting, and covered with a hurdle and sods so as to exclude 
 flies, as they convey blood poison — leaving only a few openings, each 
 about one foot square. Directly tent is pitched hoe a gutter close to 
 the walls in case of rain. 
 
 Cleanliness. — Hair should be cut short. 
 
 List of Useful Articles. 
 
 (From ' Guide to Secdth in Africa,' by T. H. Parke.) 
 
 For One Person to take on an Expedition, calculated to last Two Years, and 
 making Four Men^s Loads not exceeding Sixty Pounds each. 
 
 Tent, measuring seven feet every way, two and a half feet walls, with 
 poles, and fly made from "green rot-proof" canvas; pole-strap, mallet, 
 twelve long galvanised pegs; not to exceed 60 lbs. in weight. The
 
 78 HINTS ro TRAVELLERS. 
 
 " Tortoise " is the best design for a large party. (Benjamin Edgington, 
 London.) 
 
 Valise, made from strong waterproof canvas, to hold "Parke Africa 
 bedstead," folding armchair (brass fittings), hair mattress, bell-shape 
 mosqiiito curtain, with the apex suspended from a hook, fine gauze to 
 make a few cylindrical veils for keeping off flies, etc. ; two long blankets; 
 waterproof ground sheet, about six feet by five feet, so as to improvise a 
 Tente D^Ahri if required; portable india-rubber bath, and basin; small 
 down pillow, with six washing covers, also clothes packed into valise 
 pillow. Not to exceed 60 lbs. in weight. (Eoss & Co., EUiss Quay, 
 Dublin.) 
 
 Canteev, containing three circiilar steel cooking-pots, nested, having 
 moveable handles; one coffee-grinder, one mincer, one gridiron, and one 
 ladle, with moveable handles ; three enamelled plates, shaped like saucers, 
 to fit one within the other ; one hot water plate ; knife, fork, and spoons 
 (tea, salt, and soup) ; three pudding-tins, nested ; enamelled teapot, and 
 kettle, one wicker-covered delf teapot, and cup and saucer; three 
 enamelled goblets, containing about a pint each, nested ; tins lined with 
 glass for salt, pepper, mustard, tea, coffee. Saccharine tabloids, grs. |, 
 most excellent substitute for sugar. The whole contained in galvani.sed 
 bucket, useful for drawing water, and covered by a lid which can be 
 utilised as a frying-pan. (Silver & Co., London.) 
 
 Box, portmanteau, or trunh, tin Japanned, air-tight, oblong in shape, or 
 solid leather, or basket-work covered with pig-skin, and lined with zinc, to 
 contain books {ejj. 'Qihle, Hints, large ' Whitaker,' &c.), i^apers, waterproof 
 envelopes, " toilet paper," ink in pellets, pencils, maps, ink-eraser, stylo 
 pen, gold nibs, sketching materials, matches in luminous boxes, clothes, 
 camphor blocks to keep away insects, etc. A waterproof canvas kit-bag 
 is most useful for clothes only. When packed not to exceed 60 lbs. in 
 weight. 
 
 Head-dress, Helmet, army regulation, with puggaree and curtain; night- 
 cap, and soft cap (deerstalker). (Hawkes, Loudon.) 
 
 Wuter-hotth, ebonite, covered with felt, to hold one quart. 
 
 Lantern, "Bercsford" folding, for oil or caudles. (Silver & Co., 
 Loudon.) 
 
 Belt, " Colonial " leather waist, with strap over right shoulder, sheath 
 for unclasped knife, holster for light revolver, and small pouch, con-
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 79 
 
 taining ammunition, a flint and steel, bi-convex burning glass, and alarm 
 whistle on swivels. 
 
 Hammock, portable field, and, made of cord, useful to sleep in or for 
 transport. 
 
 Filter, pocket asbestos or charcoal. 
 
 Umbrella, with three spare covers (green). 
 
 Knife, pochet, skeleton, containing one blade, corkscrew, tin-oi:)ener, 
 champagne opener (useful to open boxes, etc.), screw-driver, gimlet, 
 tweezers, brad-awl. 
 
 Boots : brown shooting, four pairs ; three jDairs of Veldtschoons : the 
 former to be smeared with dubbing. Spare laces and a pair of boot- 
 trees. 
 
 Leggings, leather, one paii- reaching to the knee, and one short pair 
 merely to cover the top of the boot. 
 
 Pyjamas, silk and wool, with feet to keep out insects, six suits. 
 
 Waterproof coat, warm overcoat and one knitted jersey. 
 
 KnickerhocJcers, woollen material three pairs, to be loose, and securely 
 fastened by buckle and strap beneath the knee to prevent insects getting 
 up ; one pair of moleskin knickerbocker-breeches for riding. 
 
 Drawers, calico, short and loose, half-dozen. 
 
 Stockings : knitted, shooting, six pairs ; socks, six pairs. 
 
 Waistcoat, chamois leather, buttoning to the throat. 
 
 Tennis suits, flannel, for lounging in camp, two. 
 
 Putties, light woollen material, in fancy colours, two pairs. 
 
 Shirts, silk and wool, well shrunken, and loose about the neck, one 
 dozen. 
 
 Vests, light silk, six. 
 
 Gloves, leather gauntlet, three pairs. 
 
 Kdmdrhcind, silk, two. 
 
 Handkerchiefs, red silk, two dozen. 
 
 Towels, two bath and six small. 
 
 Holdall, containing hair, shaving, and tooth brushes, scissors, razors 
 (two) with strop, comb, soap, sponge, and looking-glass. 
 
 Housewife, for needles of various sizes, bodkins, thread, buttons, jDalm 
 and sail needles, tape. 
 
 Napkins, table, one dozen. 
 
 Compass, pocket magnetic.
 
 80 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Field-glasses, one pair. 
 
 Fish-hooks of various sizes, with line and baits. 
 
 Flea-powder, two tins. 
 
 Baking-powder, to make bread rise. 
 
 Medicines, small pocket-case, in tabloid form. (Burroughs, Wellcome 
 & Co., London.) 
 
 Goggles, green colour, two jiairs. 
 
 Trap, American wire, for catching birds, rats, etc. 
 
 Circular spring, for weighing. 
 
 Tape measure. 
 
 Haversack, for carrying luncheon, etc. 
 
 Tools, and spare screws fitted in small leather hand-case. 
 
 Extras : Arrowroot, sago, beef tea, " Liebig," three tins of each ; 
 brandy, two bottles ; curry-powder, anchovy paste, Erbswurst, custard- 
 powder, " composition " foods, celery salt, etc. 
 
 Transport. 
 
 The prospective traveller should give attention to the ways and means 
 by which those debilitated by sickness, or rendered helpless by wounds or 
 other injuries, may be conveyed when movement is necessary. The mode 
 of transport should be regulated in such a way as to prevent, as far as 
 possible, any aggravation of the existing weakness or pain. The recum- 
 bent position is, of course, by far the best — the easiest and safest — for 
 almost all cases. It is only for wounds and other injuries of the upper 
 part of the body that the sitting posture can sometimes be preferred. 
 In such cases, the " four-hand seat " (or " sedan chair " of school-boys), 
 forms a comfortable conveyance. Two assistants are required; each 
 grasps his own left forearm just below the elbow, and with the disengaged 
 left hand grasps the right forearm of the other also below the elbow- 
 The patient is then raised into the seat so formed and supports himself 
 by placing his arms around the necks of the bearers. Two bearers can 
 also, of course, carry a patient who is prostrated by loss of blood or other 
 weakness, in the horizontal position for a short distance, by standing 
 side to side, and holding the forearms in a horizontal position, while the 
 patient himself partially supports himself by grasping the shotdders of 
 tlie bearer who is next his head.
 
 MEDICAL AXD SURGTCAL HINTS. 81 
 
 Of the modes of conveyance which are prepared for the transport of the 
 sick and wounded, the stretcher and hammock are the simplest. The 
 former, with the addition of a pole on each side, forms a very simple and 
 very efficacious means of transport for moderate distances. Two bearers 
 may be employed; four, if the services of so many are available. A 
 hammock, made from either cord or canvas suspended from a single pole, 
 is often employed, the ends supported on the shoulders of two bearers. 
 When nothing else can be procured, a great-coat, with the sleeves turned 
 inside out, and through which two rifles, poles or pikes are passed, will 
 be found to answer the purposes of an improvised stretcher fairly well. 
 In the use of all such modes of conveyance it is very desirable that the 
 movements of the bearers should be as gentle as possible. The steps 
 should always be short, and the front and rear bearers should always 
 break the step, by starting with opposite feet. This prevents dipping 
 from side to side, which would be, of course, very distressing to the 
 patient. 
 
 Animals can, of course, be employed as modes of convejance for the 
 sick and wounded. Whenever they are so utilised, the preference should 
 be given to the smaller ones — such as mules, ponies, and donkeys. The 
 invalid is then more readily raised into position, and more readily taken 
 down. It is hardly necessary to say that a steady, even gait, combined 
 with a fair amount of strength and power of endurance are to be looked 
 for ; and not at all such qiialities as high mettle, showy action, or speed. 
 A litter can be easily improvised, when the animal has been chosen. 
 The rai^idity and elficiency of the Arab method of conveying their 
 wounded from the field of battle has often been commented on, and is 
 well worth mentioning here. Mules are used for the purpose, and are 
 kept ready saddled. Two large sacks, stuffed with straw, grass, etc., 
 are firmly corded— one on either side of the pack-saddle, and the grooves 
 between these and the saddle are filled by stuffing of similar material. 
 On the litter so formed, a cloak is thrown, and the helpless invalid is then 
 placed across the animal, lying in the recumbent position on the bed so 
 prepared. This arrangement reduces the jolting of the patient to a 
 minimum. If the emergency is very great, the person so placed can be 
 secured by tying, and can then be conveyed at a gallop, otit of the reach 
 of shot, etc. When there is a large party of travellers, supplied with all 
 the luxuries of transport, there are usually no such difficulties met with 
 
 o
 
 82 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 as those I have implied. The presence of a sufficient number of 
 attenrlants, with animal transport, and properly-prepared litters and 
 cacolets, will obviate the necessity for the consideration already given. 
 
 "Wheeled conveyances may, of course, be utilised when there are roads. 
 Some other modes of conveyance may be mentioned, which have been 
 from time to time employed instead of the more primitive stretcher or 
 hammofk, viz. the Himalayan dandy, the trag-sitze of the Germans, the 
 New Zealand amoo, the Indian dooJey, the Chinese palanguin, etc., etc. 
 Any of these may be employed when at hand in the conveyance of the 
 sick and wounded. Ox hide and bamboo are nearly always at hand in 
 Africa, and are useful for making imj^rovised stretchers at the shortest 
 notice.
 
 ( 83 ) 
 
 IV. 
 
 SURVEYING AND ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 By John Coles, f.r.a.s., Instructor in Surveying/ and Practical Astronomy 
 to the Royal Geographical Society. 
 
 Part 1. 
 INSTEUMENTS USED IN SUKVEYING. 
 
 Preliminary Remarks. — The intending traveller who proiDoses to under- 
 take the survey of an unexplored country, should make himself acquainted 
 with the use and adjustments of every instrument he purposes to employ ; 
 he should have a knowledge of plane trigonometry, and those computa- 
 tions of practical astronomy which are necessary to enable him to fix his 
 position in latitude and longitude ; and although from his note- book he 
 may furnish cartographers with valuable material, yet, without such 
 previous training, it is scarcely possible for him to map the country 
 through which he travels, nor will he be able to take full advantage of these 
 ' Hints,' as the greater part of the matters dealt with will be beyond his 
 comprehension. The attainment of this necessary amount of knowledge 
 is by no means dilficult, and a few weeks of study, under proper instruc- 
 tion, ought, in most cases, to enable him, by the aid of the following 
 pages, to do useful geographical work. It is with this end in view that 
 this section of ' Hints to Travellers ' has been written in the simplest 
 form, in the hope that it may serve as an introduction to, without 
 at all superseding, the necessary text-books on practical astronomy.
 
 84 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 1. Scientific Outfit.* 
 
 Sextant for regular work — 
 
 A sextant of 6-inch radius, light in weight, by a first-rate maker, 
 divided on platinum, to ten minutes, to read with vernier to ten 
 seconds. It sliould have a moveable ground-glass screen in front 
 of the reading-off lens, to tone down a glaring light. The handle 
 must be large and convenient ; the box capacious enough to hold 
 the instrument with its index clamped to any part of the arc, and 
 the receptacle for the inverting telescope long enough to allow of 
 it being put into the box when set at focus. 
 
 Sextant for detached expeditions, and for taking altitudes when the other 
 sextant is in tise for lunars — 
 
 A sextant of 3-inch radius, graduated to 20' to read witli vernier to 
 20", in a leather case, fitted to slip on to a leather belt, to be worn 
 round the waist, when required. 
 
 Mercurial Horizon — 
 
 One of the common form with folding roof by a good maker, or the 
 form devised by Captain George, k.n., may be preferred. {See 
 p. 107.) Reserve : an iron bottle of pure mercury. 
 
 Watches — 
 
 A keyless silver half-chronometer watch, not too heavy, with an open 
 face and a second hand. The hands should be of black steel, long 
 enough to cover the divisions. The divisions should be very clear 
 and distinct. See that the second hand falls everywhere truly upon 
 the divisions. Heserve : at least two more good watches ; these 
 should be rolled tip separately, each in a loosely-wrapped parcel of 
 dry clothes, and they will never come to harm ; they should be 
 labelled, and rarely opened. The immediate envelope should be 
 
 • It will be inideistood that the necessity for taking all the articles herein 
 enumerated will depend ujion the nature of the journey.
 
 SCIENTIFIC OUTFIT. 85 
 
 free from fluff or dirt. Covers of chamois leather should be washed 
 before use. Three spare watch-keys; one might be tied to the 
 sextant-case, one wrapped up with each watch. {See p. 130 for 
 further particulars.) 
 
 ifew. .•—Chronometers are designedly omitted from this list, on 
 account of the proved difliculty of transporting them without 
 injury, and the frequent disappointments they have caused, even 
 to very careful travellers. 
 
 Compasses — 
 
 A prismatic compass, graduated on silver or aluminium, from 0^ to 
 360°. 
 
 Two pocket compasses, from I3 to 2 inches in diameter. The gradua- 
 tions on their cards should run from 0° to 360^, and not twice over 
 from 0° to 180°. A line for True North, temporarily marked on 
 the cards, in the position most appropriate to the magnetic varia- 
 tion in the country about to be visited, may be found convenient. 
 These compasses should be light in weight, have plenty of depth, 
 and be furnished with catches, to relieve the needle from its pivot 
 when not used. The needles should work smoothly and quickly : 
 such as make long, slow oscillations are to be avoided. Cards, 
 half black and half white, are recommended. (*S(e p. 93 for further 
 particulars.) 
 
 Steel Tape — 
 
 A 100-foot steel tape will be found very useful in measuring a 
 base, or when making plans. A fishing-line on reel for roughly 
 measuring a base, with knots at convenient intervals, will, under 
 certain circumstances, be useful. 
 
 Lantern — 
 
 All lanterns should be made of copper or brass, as they will 
 otherwise affect the compass reading when taking the hearing of 
 a heavenly body at night, and should be constructed for long 
 journeys and hot climates, to be used with oil, and furnished 
 with a large wick. A candle lantern is more convenient where
 
 86 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 candles can be carried. See that tliere is abundant supply of 
 air-holes in the sides ; these are essential when the lantern is set 
 upon the ground. Also that all the internal fittings can be 
 removed and cleaned, and that they are solidly made, not merely 
 soldered. It should be furnished with a reflector, to throw a clear 
 light forwards and downwards. A moveable shade of light green 
 glass will be found to be a great improvement, as it prevents the 
 light from dazzling the eyes, and enables the observer to take the 
 reading on the sextant with greater ease. A good lantern is most 
 iiiiiwrtant. For general purposes, the Italian Alpine Club lantern 
 is one of the best forms. A small ball of sj^are wick, oil of the best 
 quality obtainable, and wax tapers, for use on detached expeditions, 
 should also be taken. 
 
 Thermometers — 
 
 Several sling thermometers. 
 
 A pair of maximum and minimum thermometers, fitted in one 
 
 case. 
 Three short and stout boiliug-jjoint tlicrmometers, with apparatus 
 
 for boiling them. {See p. 95 for fiirther particulars.) 
 Two ordinary thermometers, which should be graduated from 10^ 
 
 or more below the freezing- to above the boiling-point. 
 Standard thermometers, at a charge of 17. each, graduated at the 
 
 Kew Observatory, may be obtained thence, on the application 
 
 of any Fellow of the Eoyal Society, or Member of the British 
 
 Association. 
 
 Aneroids — 
 
 Aneroids of ordinary construction should be of large pocket size 
 (2i inches across), capable of working without fracture over the 
 highest mountain pass that is expected. They can be obtained 
 graduated up to 20,000 feet at most instrument makers. At any 
 such height, however, their records are not to be depended on. 
 Aneroids are excellent for most differential observations, but 
 unreliable for ahsohde ones; they should be observed, as much as 
 possible, in conjunction with the boiling-point thermometers. Two
 
 SCIENTIFIC OUTFIT. 87 
 
 are required, because simultaneous observations are important. 
 Eecollect that such observations, taken even at distances of two 
 or three hundred miles apart, are of value, as the areas are 
 usually very large over which the barometer has nearly the same 
 height at the same moment of time Watkin's patent Aneroid 
 differs from the Aneroid of ordinary construction by having its 
 scale drawn on three concentric circles, instead of the usual 
 single circle. This arrangement admits an increased scale of 
 graduation, and consequently of closer and more accurate reading. 
 It is manufactured by J. J. Hicks, 8, Hatton Garden. For Baro- 
 meters, see " Additional Instruments " (p. 89). 
 
 Mapping Instruments — 
 
 A small case of drawing instruments, containing, among other 
 things, hair-compasses, drawing-pen, and a rectangular protractor, 
 with scales of chords, sines, tangents, &c., engraved on it. 
 
 Marquois's scales, for ruling parallel lines at definite intervals. 
 
 Protractors : one circular, of metal, and one of celluloid, of 5 or 6 
 inches in diameter; one of vulcanite, 5 inches, all graduated, like 
 your prismatic compass, from 0^ to 360°. 
 
 A graduated ruler of 1 foot or more, in metal : 2 dozen artist's pins. 
 Medium size measuring tape, say 12 yards ; pocket ditto, 2 yards. 
 
 Stationery, &c. — 
 
 An artist's board, not less than 8 inches by 13, made of light, well- 
 seasoned mahogany, and what cabinet-makers call "framed," to 
 rule and draw upon. 
 
 Plenty of good ordinary paper. Rexiorters' note-books ruled (not 
 " metallic," for prepared paper wants strength, and the leaves of 
 such books are very liable to become torn out and lost ; they are 
 also damaged by wet). They should be all of one size, say 
 7 inches by 4i, or larger, and numbered. A leather pouch, secured 
 to the waist-belt, having a flap buttoning easily over, to hold the 
 note-book in use. 
 
 Two (or more) MS. books of strong ruled paper, foolscap size, each
 
 88 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 with a leather binding; the pages should be numbered, and 
 
 journal observations, agreements, and everything else of value, 
 
 written in them. 
 Some sheets of blotting-paper cut up and put here and there in the 
 
 books. 
 Transparent cloth for tracing. 
 Plenty of brass pens and holders ; also fine drawing-pens (steel 
 
 crow-quills — Brandauer's Oriental pens are very good) and holder. 
 
 FH pencils; HB ditto. 
 Penknives. India-rubber cut up in bits. 
 Ink-powders of a kind that do not require vinegar. Eed ink. 
 Paints for maps, viz., Indian ink, sepia, lake, cobalt, gamboge, 
 
 oxgall, in a small tin case. 
 A dozen sable paint-brushes. 
 Materials for " squeezes," if travelling where inscriiDtions may have 
 
 to be copied (see page 455). 
 Paint and brush for marking on trees or rocks record of positions. 
 
 f}ooks, Maps, &c. — 
 
 Paper's Practice of Navigation ; or, in default of this, either Inman's 
 Navigation and Tables (bound together), or Norie's Navigation. 
 
 Chambers' Mathematical Tables are very comprehensive and useful. 
 
 Sliadwell'.s Cards of Formulae (Potter, 31, Poultry, Loudon) ; 
 Bethune's Tables for Tiavellers (Blackwood and Sons). 
 
 With the help of either of these two latter publications, the traveller, 
 who has a fair knowledge of mathematics, will thoroughly under- 
 stand what he is about, and may, on emergency, disi^ense with some 
 of the usual cumbrous tables, confining himself to ordinary 
 tables of logarithms. But we have recommended that all travellers 
 should be furnished with a complete set of tables, because they 
 afford at a single reference, what otherwise requires additional 
 trouble to obtain. 
 
 ' Nautical Almanac ' for current and future years, strongly stitched 
 in cloth. 
 
 Some small Almanacs, such as ' Whitaker's,' contain tables of the 
 position of sun and planets, and of stars to be occulted. One of
 
 SCIENTIFIC OUTFIT. 89 
 
 these is useful to aflfbrcl what is necessary to take on a detached 
 expedition, the required jmges being cut out of it. 
 
 More extended barometric tables than are given in this volume may 
 be procured at the instrument maker's, or cut out from Guyot's 
 elaborate Meteorological tables, published by the Smithsonian 
 Institution, New York. 
 
 Blank maps, ruled for the latitudes and longitudes of the proposed 
 route. 
 
 The best maps obtainable of the country you propose to visit. 
 
 Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry. 
 
 Mem. : — Chauvenet's Astronomy (New York, 2 vols.) is one of the 
 most complete and thorough of the mathematical works on astro- 
 nomical observations; it is, however, a book for previous study, 
 rather than for reference in the field. 
 
 Additional Ijistriimetits, not necessary, hut convenient. 
 Theodolites— {See p. 108.) 
 Barometer — {See p. 97.) 
 
 Barometers of Fortin's jDattern were successfully carried to great 
 heights by Mr. Whymper, in South America; but the risk of 
 breakage, at all times very great, is proportionally greater on 
 longer journeys. The Boyleau-Mariotti barometer is an extremely 
 portable instrument, and is well calculated for use at great eleva- 
 tions (see p. 97). Captain George's barometers, which are carried 
 with empty tubes and filled when required, are much more 
 portable than the ordinary form of mercurial barometers; but the 
 filling them is a work of time and delicacy, which may be diflicult, 
 or even impossible, on a mountain top with an icy wind blowing. 
 
 Care should be taken to see that all barometers read low enough to 
 be used at great elevations. 
 
 Telescope for observation of eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, &c. {see pp. 214 
 and 235). One with a two-inch object glass, clear aperture, by a 
 good maker. It should be mounted on a split tripod, and furnished
 
 90 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 with a Kelner eye-piece, of not less magnifying-power than 40, 
 and should be fitted with an arrangement by which it can, when 
 removed from the stand, be screwed finnly to a tree or other 
 support. The telescope should be tried on Jupiter, and found 
 •to give a satisfactory view of the satellites, before it is taken. 
 
 Plane tahJe.— Tv^o plane tables, and spare horse-hair for sight vanes. 
 They should be in strong canvas bags with leather-covered 
 corners, and furnished with straps, so that they can be carried 
 like a knapsack. For information as to use and the best form of 
 construction, see pp. 124-173. 
 
 Pedometer. — Apt to get out of order. If employed, at least three persons 
 should each carry one. 
 
 Clinometer. 
 
 Pocket level (Abney's), with a mirror to show where the bubble is, when 
 it is held to the eye. It also serves as a clinometer for the 
 measurement of slopes. 
 
 Jlain (jauge. 
 
 Examination of Instrumenti^. 
 
 Let every instrument be tested, and its errors determined and tabulated 
 at the Kew Observatory.* This is done for moderate fees. The following 
 are some of the present charges: — Watches, A class, £1 Is., B class, lOs. 6cZ. ; 
 ordinary thermometers. Is. ; boiling-point thermometers, 2s. M. ; marine 
 and portable barometers, 10s. &d. ; prismatic compasses, 2s. 6c?. ; theo- 
 dolites, 5s. ; superior sextants, 5s. Unifilars, dip circles, and other 
 magnetic instruments are also verified. The carriage of the instruments 
 to and from the Observatory must be paid. Address — " Superintendent 
 
 * This should be attended to by the traveller, especially in the case of ther- 
 mometers which have been previously examined at Kew Observatory, as it has 
 been found that their errors change considerably ; for instance, a boiling-point 
 thermometer which was tested in 1884 was found, in five years, to have increased 
 its error at some readings by no less than • 2 of a degi'ee, and in no part of the 
 scale by less than • 1 of a degree.
 
 EXAMINATION OF INSTEUMENTS — PACKING. 01 
 
 of the Kew Observatory, Eichmoiid, Siirrey." The establishment hes 
 ten minutes' walk from the Richmond railway station. Any persons 
 ordering instruments from opticians may direct them to be previously 
 forwarded to Kew for verification, either to the above address, or through 
 the receiving establishment at the Meteorological OflBce, 63, Victoria 
 Street, Westminster, S.W. 
 
 Packing. 
 
 It is difficult to give general rules, because the modes of transport 
 vary materially in different countries. Inquiry should be made by the 
 intending traveller at the Eoyal Geographical Society's rooms as to the 
 kind of packing best suited for his special purposes and field of 
 exploration. The corners of all the instrument cases should be brass- 
 bound; the fittings should be screwed, and not glued; and the boxes 
 should be large enough to admit of the instruments being taken out and 
 replaced with perfect ease. Instrument makers are apt to attend over- 
 much to comi^actness, making as much as possible go into a small solid 
 box, which can easily be i3ut on a shelf; but this is not what a traveller 
 wants, bulk being rarely so great a difliculty to him as weight. Above 
 all, it is most important that he should be able to get at his instru- 
 ments easily, even in the dark. He should notice particularly the manner 
 in which the instrument is jilaced in its box, before taking it out, and in 
 the case of a theodolite, observe the positions of the verniers, and the object end 
 of the telescope ; attention to this will prevent much loss of time and 
 possible injury to the instrument. Moreover, a large, light box sufiers 
 much less from an accidental concussion than a small and heavy one. 
 Thermometers travel best when slipped into india-rubber tubes in a brass 
 casing. A coil of such tubing will serve as a floor, to protect a case 
 of delicate instruments from the effects of a jar. Horse-hair is of use to 
 replace old packing, but it has first to be prepared by steeping in boiling 
 water, twisting into a rope, and, after it is firmly set, chojDping it into 
 pieces. The hairs retain their curvature and act as springs. Instruments 
 travel excellently when packed in loose, tumbled cloths.
 
 92 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 2. Instkuments, and theie Adjustments. 
 
 Compasses. 
 
 This instrument consists of a magnetic needle, A, balanced on a pivot, 
 B, carrying an aluminium ring, C, divided into 360°; it is graduated from 
 the south pole of the needle, — by west, north, and east to south again, 
 from QP to 360° ; the 0° is not shown on the ring, since it coincides with 
 360°. A prism, D, is fixed on one side of the box, E, mounted on a hinge- 
 joint, d ; it can be turned down when not in use, and is attached to a 
 plate, e, which slides up and down to suit the vision of the observer. In 
 the plate there is a slit through which the observer looks ; it has also an 
 
 Prismatic Compass, 
 
 arm with two dark glasses F, to protect the eye when taking a bearing 
 of the sun. On the opposite side of the box is a sight-vane G, having 
 a fine thread down its centre, and a mirror H, which slides on and ofi" as 
 required ; it can be used with its face up or down, so as to reflect images 
 of objects which cannot be directly observed. The sight-vane is also 
 fitted with a hinge-joint, and when shut down presses on a lever, which 
 lifts tlie needle off the pivot. In frout of the sight-vane there is a small 
 stud S, by pressing which with the finger the ring is brought to rest ;
 
 COMPASSES. 93 
 
 it also serves to check the vibration of the needle. The box E has a 
 cover I, which fits either the top or bottom, in which latter position it 
 is shown in the drawing, and with it the instrument can be held when 
 taking an observation. The prismatic compass is frequently fitted to 
 screw on to a light tripod, with a ball and socket adjustment, and can 
 then be used with great accuracy either for taking bearings, or as an 
 angular measuring instrument. 
 
 Pocket Compass. 
 
 A prismatic compass is not suited for taking bearings, except 
 through the prism, on account of the reversal of the figures, and their 
 arrangement from the south point ; it will therefore be convenient, for 
 taking rough bearings, for the traveller to provide himself with a pocket 
 compass having a card of the size and pattern shown above ; it should 
 be made of aluminium, which is both light and strong. The compass box 
 should be fitted with a lever to throw the magnetic needle off its centre 
 when the compass is not in use, and the glass should be thick, flat 
 crystal. For night work a luminous pocket compass will be found 
 useful. 
 
 Observations with the Prismatic Compass : — To take an observation with 
 the prismatic compass, first adjust the prism by sliding it up and
 
 94 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 down until the divisions on the circle are seen distinctly ; if a tripod 
 stand is used, screw the compass to the ball-and-socket joint, and 
 move the instrument until it is perfectly horizontal (the same pre- 
 caution must be taken if it is held in the hand) ; raise the sight-vane, 
 until ■ it is perpendicular ; look through the slit in the ])rism-plate, 
 and bring the thread of the sight- vane in a line with the object ; 
 wait until the magnetic needle comes to rest, and read the bearing 
 through the eye-hole in the prism-plate. A bearing thus taken shows 
 the angle which a straight line drawn from the observer, to the object, 
 makes with the magnetic meridian (called the magnetic bearing). 
 
 To get the true bearing the magnetic variation must be applied as 
 follows : — If the variation is east add it to the bearing, if west subtract it, 
 and the result in either case will be the true bearing. Thus : the magnetic 
 bearing of an object was 160^ and the variation 20"^ east, then 160° + 20° 
 = 180°, the true bearing: the bearing of an object was 160° and the 
 variation 20° west, then 160°— 20° = M0°, the true bearing; but since 
 the magnetic needle will be affected equally by variation within certain 
 limits of time and space, the difference of the bearing of any two objects, 
 taken from the same station, will be the angle subtended by them, as the 
 difference in their azimuths will not be affected by the variation. 
 
 Where i)ossible, the bearings should be taken at both ends of a base, or 
 line of bearing, the mean of which will be the correct bearing. When 
 the sun's azimuth or amplitude has to be taken, one of the dark 
 glasses should be placed before the slit in the prism-plate, and the 
 mirror should be moved on the sight- vane until the reflected image of 
 the sun is seen in the mirror through the slit in the prism-plate; the 
 bearing is then taken in the manner before described. Great care must 
 be observed when using this instrument to avoid all magnetic rocks, as 
 they may so affect it as to render bearings taken in their vicinity useless. 
 
 Eypsonfietrlcal Apparatus. 
 
 The boiling-point apparatus consists of a thermometer, A, generally 
 graduated from 180° to 215°* ; a spirit lamp, B, which fits into the bottom of 
 
 * When it is intended to be used at very great elevations, the thermometers 
 will have to be specially constructed with extended scales.
 
 HYPSOMETRICAL APPARATUS. 
 
 95 
 
 a brass tube, C, that supports the boiler, D ; and 
 a telescopic tube, E, which fits tightly on to the 
 top of the boiler. The thermometer is passed 
 down the tube, E, from the top until within a 
 short distance from the water, wliich it should 
 never touch, and is supported in that position 
 by an india-rubber washer, F. The steam passes 
 from the boiler up the tube, E, and escapes by 
 the hole, G. To pack this instrument for tra- 
 velling, withdraw the thermometer, and put it 
 into a brass tube, lined with india-rubber, having 
 a jiad of cotton-wool at each end ; take off the 
 tube, E, shut it up, and put the small end into 
 the boiler, D, which it fits, then withdraw the 
 spirit lamp, B, screw the cover over the wick 
 and replace it in C. The whole of this apparatiis 
 fits into a circular tin case, 6 inches long, and 
 2 inches in diameter. 
 
 To use the hoiling-2)oint thermometer: — Take 
 the apparatus to pieces, pour some water into 
 the boiler, D, about one quarter full is quite 
 sufficient ; then put the instrument together as 
 shown in the drawing, taking care that the 
 thermometer is just clear of the water, and 
 light the spirit lamp ; as soon as the water 
 boils, the steam ascending through the tube, E, 
 will cause the mercury to rise ; wait until the 
 mercury becomes stationary, and then read the 
 thermometer ; at the same time, take the tem- 
 perature of the air in the shade with an ordinary 
 thermometer. 
 
 If the traveller is visiting a region where the 
 elevations are very great, he should, when pur- 
 chasing this apparatus, see that the thermo- 
 meters are capable of registering a greater height 
 than those which are usually supplied, and that 
 the lamp is large enough to hold a good supply 
 
 An 
 
 IP^ 
 
 P
 
 96 HINTS TO TRAVELLEES. 
 
 of spirit, as it is a common fault to make it too small. A screen, 
 which may be made of tin to fold up, is most useful to place on the wind- 
 ward side, and at a very low temperature is almost indispensable, as the 
 heat is otherwise carried off too rapidly for the water to boil properly. 
 
 The Aneroid. 
 
 The general appearance of the aneroid is so well known that it re- 
 quires no special description; it is an excellent instrument for laying 
 down contour lines ; but for absolute heights it should be checked by the 
 boiling-point thermometer, because its index error is apt to change ; when 
 thus checked it is a valuable instrument for measuring heights up to 
 8000 feet, but at greater elevations it is generally unreliable. It should 
 be sent to Kew Observatory to be tested, and have its errors determined 
 before and after it has been used by a traveller for the purpose of measuring 
 heights, and during the journey every opportunity should be taken of 
 comparing them with mercurial barometers. 
 
 In the majority of cases, aneroids, even when they have been in the first 
 instance correctly graduated, do not read accurately against the mercurial 
 barometer at diminished pressures, and will be found almost always to 
 possess more or less considerable plus or minus errors. These errors are 
 tolerably constant in good instruments, though they are frequently 
 considerably augmented when low pressures have been experienced for a 
 length of time. 
 
 Aneroids should be treated with almost as much care as chronometers, 
 and shoiild not be allowed to dangle about the person, or to be shaken up 
 in pockets. If the watch size is employed, they can be conveniently 
 carried in extra watch pockets.* 
 
 Measurement of Heights with the Aneroid : — To measure the difference 
 in height between two stations, two instruments should be used, and 
 the readings taken simultaneously at both stations ; but it frequently 
 happens that this is impossible, in which case the observations should 
 be taken in the following manner : — Take the reading of the aneroid 
 and the temperature of the air, in the shade, at the lower station ; repeat 
 
 * On this subject the traveller will do well to read Mr. E. "Whymper's book, 
 ' How to use the Aneroid Barometer.' J. Murray, London.
 
 BAROMETERS. 97 
 
 this at the upper station, and again at the lower station on returning to 
 it, but before taking this last reading a short time should be allowed 
 to let the aneroid take up its proper working, as a descent will always in 
 a greater or less degree affect it. 
 
 In observing with the aneroid, the instrument should always be in the 
 same position, as, for instance, with its face vertical; merely altering 
 the position affects most aneroids with a very sensible difference of 
 reading. 
 
 On leaving a station to which it is not intended to return, the reading 
 of the aneroid should be taken, and the temperature in the shade ; during 
 the day's journey the difference between any reading and that taken 
 at starting will approximately give the difference of height unless there 
 has been some atmospheric change. This is only a very rough way of 
 ascertaining whether a party, passing through a hilly country, has ascended 
 or descended; for the accurate method of computing the difference of 
 height of two stations, see examples (p. 318). 
 
 The Boylean-Mariotti Barometer. 
 
 This instrument consists of a short centre glass tube, a lower open air 
 tube with diaphragm joined to it with a vulcanite covering for insulation 
 and a brass tube which covers the glass tube, and on which the graduations 
 and figures are engraved. Attached to this is a cistern filled with mercury, 
 which has a tap and a coarse screw adjustment. The total length of this 
 instrument is from twelve to fifteen inches, but for convenience of 
 carriage the cistern may be detached at pleasure, and carried separately. 
 
 To use the instrument : — At a convenient height for the eye, suspend 
 the barometer freely by a string tied to the brass ring at the top of the 
 instrument. Then turn on the tap of the cistern containing the mercury, 
 and, keeping the barometer steady and in a perpendicular position with 
 the left hand, with the right commence to turn the screw at the bottom 
 of the barometer from left to right, at the same time looking through the 
 small narrow slot just above the larger opening in the lower part of the 
 barometer. After turning the screw for some time, the mercury will be 
 seen to rise in the tube of the barometer, and, though much slower, to be 
 filling the lower part of the instrument, seen through the larger opening. 
 
 When the mercury has risen for a considerable height, watch carefully 
 
 H
 
 Georges Mercurial Barometer.
 
 BAROMETERS. 99 
 
 through the smaller and upper slot, and continue to turn the screw slowly 
 until a bubble is seen in this slot, taking care to keep the barometer 
 steady and in a perpendicular position. Let the top of this bubble just 
 reach the upper part of the slot, and then bring the lower edge of the 
 upper or lower vernier (whichever is most convenient) on a line with the 
 top of the mercury in the barometer tube, and take the reading in the 
 ordinary manner. The reading should be taken directly the haromtter is set, 
 as it is only true at that instant, and the barometer should not be handled 
 more than is absolutely necessary, as the heat of the hand alters the 
 temperature of the instrument, and consequently the reading. 
 
 Captain George's Mercurial Barometer. 
 
 To Fill : — Spiral Cord Method, Take the tube out of the tripod stand, 
 unscrew the short part of brass tube and take out the tube; insert 
 it carefully into the cistern with a screw-like motion through the rubber 
 plug until the end of the tube is opposite the mark in the middle of 
 the cistern. Then screw on the smaller half of the brass tube and pass 
 it down through the top of the stand (cistern uppermost) until it rests 
 on it. Take off the bottom of the cistern, and thrust the feather end of 
 the spiral cord down to the bottom of the tube. Now take the filterer 
 and pour the mercury down the orifice of the tube until the cistern and 
 tube are filled. Give the spiral cord circular motion from right to left 
 until it works itself out of the tube, when fill in mercury up to the top 
 of cistern. 
 
 Screw on the lower stopper tight, take the barometer out of the stand, 
 and invert it : try if it gives a sharp metallic click-like sound : if it does 
 there is a perfect vacuum ; if it does not, there will be air in the tube, and 
 the whole process must be repeated. Pass it upwards throiigh the centre 
 of the tripod stand, guiding the projecting arms through the notches, 
 and giving it a quarter turn, land it in its place, where it will swing 
 perpendicular. 
 
 Let it rest a few minutes, read off the upper scale first and then the 
 lower ; their difference is the true reading, if the zero is immersed in the 
 mercury ; but their sum if the zero is above the mercury in the cistern. 
 
 To Empty the Barometer. — Screw down the flange, and thus secure the 
 mercury in the cistern. 
 
 H 2
 
 100 HINTS TO TKAVKLLERS. 
 
 Take the barometer out of the stand. Keverse it carefully, and unscrew 
 the lower cap, tapping it gently to shake off the globules into the cistern. 
 
 Empty out the mercury into the wooden box, lioldirig the lore-finger 
 across the lower part of the orifice of the cistern. This pi-events its rush- 
 ing out too quickly, and avoids spilling the mercury. Place the empty 
 barometer in its stand. 
 
 Pour the mercury from the wooden box into the iron bottle. Secure it 
 by the screw plug. 
 
 Clean the tube and cistern, inside and out, and it will be ready for 
 re-filling again, or being stowed away in its stand and case. 
 
 The Sextant. 
 
 The principle on which the sextant is constructed is this : — that the 
 angle between the first and last directions of a ray which has suffered two 
 reflections in one plane, is equal to twice the inclination of the reflecting 
 surfaces to each other. The arc on which the angle is measured must 
 therefore be divided into double the number of degrees which properly 
 belong to an arc of the same extent. With this instrument we can 
 measure the angle between two objects, in whatever direction they may 
 be placed, provided the angle is within its limits. 
 
 With the aid of the following figure, the difierent parts of the sextant, 
 with their names, may be distinguished. 
 
 A is a plane mirror called the index glass ; it is set in a frame, and is 
 fixed on a centre perpendicular to the plane of the instrument ; it moves 
 with the index bar B C, the end of which C slides over the arc E F, which 
 is graduated (on an inlaid plate of platinum or silver) from 0" to about 
 140^ ; each of these degrees, according to the radius of the iustriiment, 
 is divided into 10' or 20', and these are subdivided by the vernier D 
 into 10" or 20"; these divisions on the arc are continued a short dis- 
 tance on the other side of zero (0^) towards F, forming what is termed 
 the arc of excess. The index is secured to the arc by a damp screw G, 
 which must be released when the index has to be moved over a large 
 portion of the arc. In order to obtain the slow motion necessary for 
 the accurate measurement of an angle, a tangent screiv, H, is fixed to 
 the index, but does not act until the index is fastened by the clami) screw. 
 
 I, is a fixed plane glass, the lower half of which, next to the frame
 
 THE SEXTANT. 
 
 101 
 
 of the iustrument, is silvered, and the upper half left clear. It is called 
 the horizon glass, and must be perpendicular to the plane of the instru- 
 ment, in such a position that its plane shall be parallel to the plane of the 
 index glass when the index points to zero (0^) on the arc; it is adjusted 
 by means of the screw K*. 
 
 L and M are coloured glasses of different depths of shade, any one or 
 more of which can be turned down in front of either the index or horizon 
 glass to moderate the intensity of the light before reaching the eye, 
 
 * The form and position of this screw differs very mucli in different sextants; 
 in many, the adjustment is made by two small screws bearing on the back of the 
 glass.
 
 102 HINTS TO TRAVELLER8. 
 
 when a bright object, such as the sun, is observed. N is a microscope 
 which is carried on a moveable arm O, and can be adjusted to read the 
 divisions on tlie gradiiated arc and vernier. The telescope T is carried 
 by a double ring, E, so constructed that it furnishes means of adjusting 
 the linfe of collimation : this ring is attached to a stem S, which can be 
 raised or lowered until objects seen by reflection, and directly, appear of 
 the same brightness. U is the handle which is sometimes fitted with a 
 brass centre, having a hole in it, to admit of its being fastened to a stand. 
 
 Adjustmen ts of the Sextant. 
 
 The principal are the following : — 
 
 1. To make the index glass perpendicular to the plane of the 
 
 instrument. 
 
 2. To make the horizon glass perpendicular to the plane of the 
 
 instrument, and parallel to the index glass when the index points 
 to zero (0°) on the arc. 
 
 3. To make the axis of the telescope parallel to the plane of the 
 
 instrument, in which the index moves. 
 
 1st Adjustment. — This adjustment rests with the maker; and being 
 once made cannot be deranged, except by a fall or blow, against which 
 every precaution must be taken. The instrument should, however, be 
 occasionally verified by the observer in the following manner: — Set the 
 index at 60^; and, holding the sextant in the left hand, with the right 
 move the index gently backwards and forwards, looking, as you do so, 
 obliquely into the index glass; then, if the image of the arc in the mirror 
 appears in perfect continuation of the arc itself, the adjustment is perfect; 
 when this is not the case, the index glass is out of adjustment. If the 
 derangement is great, the sextant is for the time being useless ; if small, 
 it may possibly be remedied by means of certain screws sometimes 
 fitted at the back of the glass ; but it is better to leave it alone, as an 
 inexperienced observer would most probably only make it worse. A 
 man who has a thorough knowledge of his instrument can take off 
 the frame, and, by hammering and tinkering, get it put square and 
 straight ; in replacing it, wedging it up, if necessary for perfect ad- 
 justment, with small folds of paper. A bad derangement may be put
 
 ADJUSTMENTS OF THE SEXTANT. 103 
 
 to rights in this way; but it is, very evidently, a thing not to be rashly 
 attempted. 
 
 2,nd Adjustment. — Having screwed in the telescope, look through it and 
 the horizon glass at the sun, or still better, a star, and move the index 
 backwards and forwards, on each side of zero (0°), when the reflected 
 image of the object ought to pass exactly over the object itself. If it does 
 not do this, but passes either to the right or left of it, the horizon glass 
 is out of adjustment, and its adjusting screw must be gently turned 
 until the reflected image does pass directly over the object itself. 
 
 Zrd Adjustment. — Screw the telescope firmly into the collar, turn the 
 eye-piece until two of the wires in the focus of the telescope are parallel to 
 the plane of the instrument. Select two stars, not less distant from each 
 other than 90^, bring them into exact contact at the wire nearest to the 
 plane of the instrument ; fix the index, and move the instrument so as to 
 throw the images upon the upjier wire ; if the contact remains perfect 
 the adjustment is perfect : if not, it must be rectified by the two opposing 
 screws in the double collar, taking care to slacken one before tightening 
 the other: the one to slacken is that on the side towards which the 
 contact opens. 
 
 Index Error. — When the index is set at zero (O'^) on the arc, the 
 horizon and index glasses should be parallel, and the two images of a 
 distant object, as a star, should exactly coincide; when this is not the 
 case, it may be remedied by turning a screw in the mounting of the 
 horizon glass. If this adjustment is not made, there will be an error 
 in the place of the beginning of the graduation; this is called the 
 Index Error; its amount is easily determined, and, as it affects all angles 
 alike, it is usual to admit the existence of this soi;rce of error, and apply 
 correction for it, in preference to making the adjustment. 
 
 Tojind the Index, Error by a Star. —Set the index at zero (0''), screw in 
 the telescope, and, with the tangent screw, make the two images of a 
 star, as seen through the telescope, coincide ; then the reading on the arc 
 will be the index error. Subtractive when the reading is to the left of 
 zero, additive when to the right. 
 
 By the Sun. — Clamp the index at about 30' to the left of zero, and 
 looking through the telescope at the sun, the images will be seen nearly 
 in contact ; make tliis contact perfect with the tangent screw, take the 
 reading, and call this " on the arc " ; next, set the index, at about 30' to
 
 104 HINTS TO TT{AVETJJ':TJS. 
 
 tlio riglit of zero, and make tlie contact of the two images perfect as 
 before, take tlie reading, and call it " off the arc " : half the difference 
 of these two readings is the Index Error. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 On the arc.. .. .. 33 10 On the arc. .. .. 29 30 
 
 Off the arc. .. .. 29 30 Off the arc. .. .. 33 10 
 
 2) 3 40 2) 3 40 
 
 Index corr. suhtract =1 50 Index corr. add =1 5 c 
 
 As a check on this observation, for inexi^erienced observers, it may be 
 noted that one-fourth of the sum of the readings on and off the arc 
 ought to be the sun's semi-diameter, as given in the 'Nautical Almanac' 
 
 Centering Error. — In addition to the foregoing, every sextant is 
 liable to errors caused by: — 
 
 1. The centre of the pivot of the index-bar carrying the vernier 
 
 not being identical with the centre of the arc. 
 
 2. Imperfect graduation of the arc. 
 
 3. Flexure of the whole instrument caused by irregular expansion 
 
 under the heat of the sun. 
 
 4. Shocks or blows which may cause bending of parts of the frame, 
 
 or of the index bar, and thus cause eccentricity between the 
 vernier and arc. 
 
 These errors are generally included in the term " centering error." 
 The original error included in [1] and [2] can be determined at Kew, 
 where apparatus for the purpose is established. Those under [3] and [4] 
 are manifestly variable. 
 
 In a good sextant the original error should be small, amounting only 
 to a few seconds, but instruments are made which have much larger 
 errors, and as these are enormously multiplied in their effect in some 
 observations, as e.g. lunars, a traveller should always have this error 
 determined before leaving England.
 
 THE BOX SEXTANT. 
 
 lOr 
 
 The Box or Pocket Sextant. 
 
 The box sextant is constructed on the same principle as the larger 
 sextant ; it is enclosed in a brass box, varying in size from 3 to 4 inches 
 in diameter, and from an inch and a half to two inches deep. 
 
 This instrument is very portable, light, and easily adjusted. It is 
 more correct than the compass for measuring horizontal angles, as an 
 angle can be read to within 1' by means of the vernier on the graduated 
 arc. It can also be used on horseback, and in all sorts of weather, 
 and, when not required for use, can either be carried in the pocket, or 
 slung in a leather case over the shoulder. 
 
 The instrument, as shown in the drawing, is ready for use : the cover, A, 
 is screwed on to the lower part of the instrument, and serves as a handle 
 when taking an angle ; B is a graduated iirc, divided into degrees and 
 half degrees; C is the index har, having a vernier at the end, divided to 
 read the angle to 1' ; D is a milled, screiv by which the index bar is 
 moved ; attached to the end of the index bar, on tlie inside of the box, 
 is the index glass, E ; the horizon glass, F, is also inside the box, one half 
 of which is silvered ; G is a small magnifying glass attached to the 
 top, to enable the observer to read the angle more clearly; there are
 
 106 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 dark glasses, to be iised when observing the sun, not shown in the 
 drawing. H is the adjusting screw, which is screwed into the top for 
 safety ; it is made with a square, like a watch-key, and when required 
 for use has to be removed from the position shown in the drawing; I is 
 the telescope, which should be fitted at the eye-end with a revolving disc N, 
 which is provided with shades of different intensity, to be used with the 
 artificial horizon ; in taking angles the instrument can be used without 
 the telescope, by drawing the slide, L, over the hole from which the 
 telescope has been removed. 
 
 Adjustments : — Having set the index at zero (0~) on tlie arc, select some 
 object that is sharp and perpendicular, as far distant as possible, to be 
 seen clearly; then, holding the instrument in a horizontal position, look 
 at this object through the eye-hole, and, if the reflected image coincides 
 with the object seen directly, the adjustment is so far correct. Then hold 
 the instrument the contrary way, or vertical, look at some object that is 
 level, and if the reflected and real objects are seen in a straight line this 
 adjustment is also correct ; but when this is not the case the adjustment 
 must be made by taking out the key, H, placing it in one of the keyholes, 
 M, either on the top or side of the instrument, and turning it gently 
 until the reflected image of the object coincides with the object seen 
 directly. If the reflected image reqiaires moving up or down, the key 
 must be inserted on the top of the instrument, but when it has to be 
 moved to the right or left the key must be inserted at the side. 
 
 These adjustments can be made, when no available objects, such as 
 those mentioned, are in sight, by the sun, using a suitable shade. Set the 
 index to zero, and move it until the reflected and direct images coincide ; 
 if the index then points to zero (0^) the instrument is in adjustment, if 
 not, make the coincidence with the key as above described. A bright 
 star may be used in preference to the sun, in which case no shade will be 
 required. 
 
 The adjustment by a terrestrial object is here given to meet the case of 
 an instrument having to be adjusted in the day-time when the sun is not 
 visible. Care should be taken when purchasing a box sextant to see that 
 the maker has made the box wide enough to admit a finger to wipe the 
 glasses, as dull reflectors much increase the ditficulty of observation.
 
 ARTIFICIAL HORIZONS. 107 
 
 Tlie Artificial Horizon. 
 
 The artificial horizon is a reflector, the surface of which is perfectly- 
 horizontal ; it is used in combination with the sextant for observing 
 altitudes. Though the principle of all is the same, there are several 
 forms of this instrument, the most common, as well as the best, being 
 a small shallow trough, containing pure, clean quicksilver,* which 
 reflects the image of a celestial body. This is protected from the 
 disturbing efi'ects of the air by a roof, the two sloping sides of which 
 are made of glass plates accurately ground to true planes : these must 
 be carefully examined to see that they are of uniform thickness and 
 density. Should the traveller have the misfortune to break one of his 
 glasses, and rej^lace it by one not tested, he must be careful to reverse 
 the roof between two observations, or once in a set. Captain George's 
 horizon, in which a glass plate floats on the surface of the mercury, is 
 in some respects more convenient ; but it is more liable to errors arising 
 from any disturbance communicated to the mercury by wind. 
 
 Another form of artificial horizon is the black plate. It generally 
 consists of a plane of black plate-glass set in a metal frame, and levelled 
 by a bubble. This form answers fairly well in the day-time, when the 
 sun is the object observed, but at night there is so much loss of light 
 with the black plate that it becomes extremely difficult to use in star 
 observations. In order to overcome this diflBculty, artificial horizons of 
 tliis class have been constructed with a brass ft-ame containing a black 
 plate on one side, for day observations, and a silvered mirror on the 
 other, for night. To the frame are attached fixed levels, by which it 
 can be brouglit to a true horizontal position. This is a very portable 
 instrument, but its use can only be recommended in the absence of 
 
 * If the quicksilver is not pure it gives an imperfect reflection, and its level 
 is apt to be untrue. The quicksilver of commerce is generally mixed witli lead, 
 bismuth and zinc, which have to be dissolved out of it by nitric acid ; it may, 
 however, in case of emergency, be rendered serviceable by shaking it for some 
 considerable time in a bottle with a little powdered sugar, or even sand, and 
 afterwards straining it through a piece of fine linen or chamois leather, but it is 
 a troublesome and not very satisfactory process.
 
 108 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 a mercurial horizon, and when the glass used in its composition has 
 been ground into a true plane, and tested at Kew Observatory in the 
 same manner as a sextant index-glass. Every care must be taken to 
 level, this instrument accurately, or all observations taken by means of it 
 will be of no value. Any form of artificial horizon that is used should 
 be kept clean and free from dust. 
 
 Should the artificial horizon be broken or lost, a substitute may be 
 formed by treacle or other viscous liquid, or even, in calm weather, by 
 water, in a tray or basin. 
 
 Sextant- Stand. 
 
 Though sextant-stands vary considerably in the manner in which they 
 are constructed, the object in all cases is the same, viz. : — to provide a 
 means by which the sextant can be fixed in any position convenient 
 to the observer, and also to give that steadiness, so important in sextant 
 observations, which is often wanting in the traveller's hand after a hard 
 day's journey, or an attack of fever. Gary, 181, Strand, has succeeded in 
 making a very convenient form of this instrument, and one that is in 
 many respects superior to the old form. The only adjustments are to 
 place the stand as level as possible, and in sucli a position that the plane 
 of the sextant shall be in the plane of observation. 
 
 Transit Theodolite. 
 
 The following are the names of the various parts of this instrument to 
 which reference is made in the remarks on its adjustments. 
 
 A is the Vernier-plate ; it is furnished with two vernitrs, a, 180^ apart, 
 graduated to read with the vernier, to 10". B is the Lower-phte ; it is 
 gradiiated into 360°, each degree being again subdivided into 10', and can, 
 with the vernier, be read to 10". These two plates combined are called 
 the Horizontal limb, and revolve independently of one another, biit when 
 required can be made to move together by tightening the Clamp-screw C; 
 the slow motion is obtained by the Tangent-screw D ; the lower plate has 
 also a Clamp E, and a Tangent-screw F. G G is the Tribrach System. 
 H is the Horizontal axis. There are three Levelling screws, 1, 1, I. K is 
 the Tripod, on which the instrument is firmly screwed ; underneath, in the
 
 109 
 
 Transit nieodolitc.
 
 110 HINTS TO TRAVEI;LERS. 
 
 centre, there is a hook (not shown in the drawing) from which to suspend 
 a plummet in order to indicate the exact position where the station peg 
 is to be driven into the ground. The vernier-plate carries a compass li 
 in its- centre between the supports of the Telescope ; it is graduated into 
 360°, and fitted with a screw M to lift the magnetic needle off its centre 
 when not in use. The two Frames N N carry the hcarin<js V for the 
 telescope, with its level P, and the graduated circles K, called the Verti- 
 cal limb, with its two verniers S S, and Microscopes m m. The vertical 
 limb is graduated from 0° to 90"^ through one quadrant, then again 
 from 90° to 0° in the next quadrant, and so on round the circle ; the 
 degrees are subdivided into 10', and, with the verniers, read to 10". The 
 horizontal axis of the telescope is formed of two cones, the larger ends of 
 which are attached to the telescope tube, while the small ends, called the 
 Pivots, p, are ground into two perfectly equal cylinders; the pivot which 
 does not carry the vertical limb is pierced, and allows the light of a lamp 
 to fall upon a small reflector (not shown in the drawing) which is screwed 
 into the centre, on the axis of the telescope, and inclined to it at an angle 
 of 45°, by which means the light is thrown directly down the telescope, 
 and illuminates the fine threads, or web, attached to a Diaphragm inside 
 the telescope, which is kept in its place and adjusted by the screws y y, 
 of which there are four. The Index-bar^ x, is fixed in its place by the 
 Clip-screws, z z. The vertical-limb is furnished with a Clamp and a 
 Tangent-screw, w; d d are Levels at right angles to one another ; / and h 
 are the small lantern and its holder, which fits into a slot in the frame 
 on the side opposite to the vertical limb ; g g are capstan-headed screws 
 for adjusting the telescope level. The telescope is brought to focus by a 
 milled screw (not shown in drawing) near the object-glass ; a diagonal 
 eye-piece is also supplied with the instrument, and is extremely useful 
 in astronomical observations ; i is a capstan-headed screw used in ad- 
 justing the axis of the telescope. 
 
 A very useful addition to the transit theodolite is to provide it with a 
 pair of micrometers in the eye-piece, by means of which the distance 
 between the observer and staff of known length can be measured in 
 the manner shown (page 122), in addition to which they increase the 
 efficiency of the instrvmaent for astronomical observation.
 
 THE TRANSIT THEODOLITE. Ill 
 
 Adjustments of the Theodolite. 
 
 Parallax. — This adjustment is made by moving the sliding tube of the 
 eye-piece until the threads of diaphragm are seen sharply defined against 
 the sky, and then by pointing the telescope at some object, and bringing 
 it to the proper focus by the milled-head screw near the object-glass. To 
 test the accuracy of this adjustment direct the telescope on some well- 
 defined object, about as far distant as the points to be fixed. Intersect 
 this object accurately by using the tangent screws, with the centre of the 
 threads in the diaphragm. Now move the head laterally as far as the field 
 of view will admit, at the same time watching the intersection of the 
 object with the threads. If the object remains stationary on the threads, 
 parallax has been eliminated; but if it does not, the parallax must be 
 removed by turning the focussing-screw until the object remains stationary 
 in whatever position the head of the observer may be. 
 
 Adjustment for Collimation. — Set the instrument as nearly level as can 
 be done with the eye, then clamp the lower plate B, and, having un- 
 clamj^ed the vernier-plate A, direct the telescope on some well-defined 
 object, and bring it into coincidence with the point of intersection of the 
 threads of the diaphragm ; take the reading on the horizontal limb 
 A B, suppose it to be 20^, then move the vernier-plate. A, half-round, turn 
 the telescope over, and again intersect the object, taking the reading on 
 the horizontal limb, suppose 200^ 2' 30", take the difierence between this 
 and the first reading + 180' (which in the present case would be 200°), 
 and tlie difference would be 2' 30" ; halve this difference, and subtract it 
 from the second reading, when it is greater than the first reading -I- 180°, 
 and add it when it is less ; this is the mean reading ( = 200'^ 1' 15") ; set 
 and clamp the instrument to this mean reading, and intersect the object 
 by means of the capstan-headed screws y y, which move the diaphragm, 
 taking care to loosen one before moving the other. Eepeat this operation 
 until the readings taken with the instrument in these two different 
 positions, face right and face left, differ from one another by 180'. 
 
 To make the vertical and horizontal wires respectively vertical and 
 horizontal. — As these wires are fixed in the diaphragm by the maker so 
 as to cut each other at right angles, it follows that to adjust one wire is 
 to adjust both, and this may be done by either of the following methods,
 
 112 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 the latter beinp; capable of the greater accuracy : — 1st Method. — Level 
 the instrument with care, and intersect any small, well-defined point 
 with the vertical wire, and see if it continues bisected along the wire 
 when the telescope is moved in a vertical plane. If this is not the case 
 the capstan-headed screws y y must be slackened suflBciently to allow the 
 diaphragm to be revolved until this condition is secured, when they 
 must again be tightened. It will now be found that the horizontal wire, 
 if properly placed by the maker, will continue to bisect an object on 
 which it has been placed when the instrument is turned in azimuth. 
 
 2nd Method. — Set up the theodolite as at T (see figure below) and level 
 it carefully. Set up a stake, with a mark on it, at such a distance that the 
 mark is distinctly visible, as at A. Ti^rn the telescope on it and accurately 
 cover the mark with the intersections of the cross wires in the diaplu'agm. 
 
 and clamp it in azimuth. Next turn the telescope over and set up 
 another stake, with a mark on it, at the same distance from the instru- 
 ment as A, and move the stake until the mark on it is accurately covered 
 by the intersection of the wires. If the collimation is in adjustment the 
 stake will be at B, but if not it will be in some other position, such as C. 
 In order to test this unclamp the vernier plate and turn the instrument 
 half round, and, ivithout turning the telescope over, sight to the mark on A, 
 and clamp the instrument in azimuth, turn the telescope over, and if the 
 collimation is out of adjustment it will point to the position D in the 
 figure as far to the right of B as C was to the left. This shows that the 
 collimation of the telescope is not perpendicular to its horizontal axis. 
 In order to correct this, measure the distance from C to D and set up a 
 stake at the middle point B, and and another stake midway between B 
 and D, at E. This will be one-fourth of the distance between C D, the
 
 ADJUSTMENTS OF THE THEODOLITE. 113 
 
 amount of adjustment required, and must be made by moving the vertical 
 wire to the right or left by the capstan-headed screws y y. The telescope 
 will then be on the line E F, both of which points are respectively equi- 
 distant from A and B, so that if the intersection of the cross-wires be 
 accurately placed on a mark on the staff at B and turned over, it will 
 strike the mark on the staff A, and the adjustment for collimation in 
 azimuth will have been made ; this is, however, seldom done at the first 
 trial, and the operation has generally to be repeated. In both of these 
 cases the adjustment has been made by the vertical wire. 
 
 Adjustment of the Telescope Level. — Level the instrument carefully on 
 the azimuth axis H, by means of the levels d d on the horizontal limb 
 A B ; next, take a pair of verticals, i.e. on faces right and left, to any well- 
 defined terrestrial object ; set the vertical circle E to the mean of these 
 readings, and clamp it ; now intersect the object, using the two screws z z, 
 which clip the limb of the vertical circle x, to the stud in the frames N N, 
 and not the tangent-screw W ; then repeat the process as before. 
 Eemember that after each pair of readings the mean is to be taken, and 
 the object intersected by the clii^-screws z z, and not by the tangent-screiu 
 W; and when the readings on the right face agree with the left face, 
 the index error will be 0. Next clamp the vertical circle E at 0^ 0' 0", 
 and bring the bubble of the telescope level to the middle of its run 
 by means of its adjusting screws g, and the level will be in adjustment. 
 
 With regard. to the clips z z, which keep the vernier s s in position, 
 never unscrew both after the adjustment has been made; but to release 
 the vertical circle before putting the instrument into its box, unscrew 
 only one of the clips, and mark it so that it may be known, and use 
 this same screw when setting up the instrument again. The other clip- 
 screw should never be touched ; and, indeed, it would be an improvement 
 if one of the clip-screws were fitted with a lock-nut, by which it would 
 be kept in its proper place, and at once be distinguished from the working 
 screw. 
 
 Adjustme7it of the Horizontal Limb. — Tighten the clamp-screw E, unclamp 
 the vernier-plate A, and turn it round until the telescope is immediately 
 over one of the parallel plate-screws I I ; bring the bubble in the tele- 
 scope level P to the middle of its run by turning the tangent-screw W ; 
 turn the vernier-plate 180'', so as to bring the telescope again over the 
 same screw, but with its ends in a reverse position. If the bubble of 
 
 I
 
 114 HINTS JO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 tlic telescope level does not rem.iiii in the mifldlc of its run, bring it back 
 to tluat position, halfhy one of the parallel plate-screws I I, and half by 
 the tangent-screw W. This operation must lie repeated until the bubble 
 remains accuralely in the ceuti-e of its run in both positions of the tcle- 
 Rcopo; now turn the vernier-plate A until the telescope is directly over 
 another of the parallel plate-screws, and l)ring the bubble to the middle 
 of its run by turning this screw.* The bubble should now retain its 
 position, while the vernier-plate is turned completely round, showing 
 that the internal azimuth axis, about which it turns, is truly vertical. 
 Clamp the vernier-plate to the lower plate by turning the clamp-screw C, 
 and loosen the clamp-screw E ; move the instrument round its azimuthal 
 axis, and if the bubble retains its central position during a complete 
 revolution, the external azimuth is truly parallel with the internal; 
 "when this is not the case, the instrument must be sent to the maker, as 
 this fault cannot be remedied by the traveller. 
 
 It is most probable that the levels on the vernier-plate will now be 
 found out of adjustment, and the bubbles must be brought to the middle of 
 their run by turning the capstan-headed screws at the end of each of them. 
 
 IlorizontaUty of the Axis of fhe Teh-scope. — This is to be tested by the 
 striding-level, which is supplied with the instrument. Apply it to the 
 pivots y, and if the bubble is not in the middle of its run, bring it to 
 that position by turning the capstan-headed screws t Tinder the moveable 
 bearing. If there is no striding-level, this adjustment can be tested by 
 observing a long plumb-line, first making the intersection of the threads 
 in the diaphragm coincide with this line, and then, if the point of 
 intersection moves along the line when the telescope is elevated or 
 depressed, the adjustment is perfect ; if not, it must be made to do so 
 by turning the capstan-headed screws. 
 
 The adjustments can be tested in the following simple manner : — With 
 the plummet supplied with the instrument, find the exact central spot 
 over which the instrument stands ; drive a peg into this place, and fasten 
 a cord to the peg ; now go in any directiou, for say 40 feet, and drive in 
 another peg, stretch the line tight between these pegs, and then intersect 
 the line with the threads in the diaphragm, clamp the horizontal plates, 
 
 * If the theodolite is fumislied with four parallel plate-screws, they must 
 always be used in paira.
 
 ADJUSTMENTS OF THE THEODOLITE 115 
 
 and if the intersection remains perfect while the telescope is moved on its 
 axis the adjustments are so far correct. Next move the outer peg about 
 90" (witli the same radius) from its first position, and again drive it into 
 the ground and draw the line tight as before ; nncJamp the vernier-jDlate, 
 keeping the lower plate clamped, and rej^eat tlie previous operation ; if 
 the point of intersection of the threads in the diaphragm keeps on the line 
 while the telescope is moved on its axis, the theodolite is in adjustment, 
 if not, the adjustments should be gone over again. 
 
 Tlic Vernier of the Vertical Limb. — When the foregoing adjustments have 
 been made, set the vernier of the vertical limb to 0^ 0' 0", and bring the 
 bubble of the telescope level to the middle of its run by turning the clii? 
 screws. The instrument will now be in adjustment and ready for use. 
 
 All first-class instrument makers are very careful, for the sake of their 
 reputation, to see that the theodolite is in perfect adjustment when it 
 leaves their hands, and, with the careful treatment which this instrument 
 should always receive, is not likely to get out of order; it is, nevertheless, 
 necessary from time to time to test these adjustments. 
 
 Observations with the Transit Theodolite sliould always be taken 
 in pairs, with the vertical circle first to the right and then to the left, 
 and the mean of results should be taken. When a diagonal eye-piece 
 is used for observing altitudes of the sun, the lower limb has this ap- 
 
 y^B^. When observing 
 
 iiearance — M-^^ — 'iii<-l the upper limb this, upper 
 
 ■^ lqwehIlimb. ^ ^ 7n 
 
 13 
 
 altitudes of the sun with the inverting telescope, it must be remem- 
 bered that what appears to Ije the lower limb is really the upper. 
 
 th 
 
 „»:_ltl_ 
 
 UPPER LIMB. 
 
 and '-°*" 
 
 a 
 
 UMB. . Where the direct telescope is used the 
 
 reverse is the case. 
 
 An improved form of transit theodolite, made by Elliott Bros., 
 in which the level A is carried on the vernier arms instead of being 
 attached to the telescope, is shown p. 116. The magnetic needle B 
 
 I 2
 
 116 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 is also attached to the instrument in a different manner, being in all 
 respects similar to the one used with the plane tabic, and is described 
 
 page 126. This is so constructed that it can be attached, by the 
 hooks CC C, to the under part of the instrument. The adjustments of
 
 ADJUSTMENTS OF THE THEODOLITE. 117 
 
 this instrument are identical with those previously given for the more 
 common form of transit theodolite, with the exception of that for the 
 vernier arm level A, which is adjusted in the following manner : — First 
 set the instrument carefully by the levels on the vernier plate, and then 
 by means of the dip screws Z Z bring the bubble of the level, A, on the 
 vernier arms to the middle of its run. Next unclamp the vertical circle 
 and place the intersection of the hairs in the telescope, accurately, on 
 some well-defined distant object, take the reading of the vertical circle, 
 unclamp the instrument, turn it through 180°, turn the telescope over; 
 again cover the object with the intersection of the telescope hairs, and 
 take the reading of the vertical circle. The meau of these two readings 
 (face right and face left) will be the true reading to which the vernier of 
 the vertical arc must be set, by the tangent screw W. Then by means of 
 the chp screws ZZ again cover the object with the intersection of the 
 telescope hairs. This operation should be repeated until the reading of 
 the vertical circle is the same with the telescope in both positions. When 
 this has been accomplished, the bubble of the level on the vernier arms 
 must be brought to the middle of its run by the capstan-headed 
 screws Y Y at the end of the level-tube. 
 
 The magnetic needle is used in the following manner : — Attach it 
 underneath the vernier plate by means of the hooks C C C provided for 
 that purpose. Set the vernier of the horizontal plates to 360^, and then 
 keep the upper plate clamped. Unclamp the lower plate and turn the 
 whole instrument round until the magnetic needle points nearly to the 
 central division in the box, clamp the lower plate, and make the needle 
 point exactly to this division. The telescope will now point to magnetic 
 North, and if the ujiper plate is undamped and turned on to any object, 
 its magnetic bearing can be read from the verniers. Care must, of course, 
 be taken to keep the lower plate firmly clamped. 
 
 F is the striding level which can be used in levelling the transit axis. 
 G is the lantern which is placed on the stand H after it has been fixed to 
 the standards, and is used to illuminate the threads of the diaphragm, 
 through the hollow axis K, when star observations are being taken.
 
 118 HINTS TO TIIAVFJ,T>ET^S. 
 
 Everest TlieodoUte. 
 
 This iiistiument has distinctive features, as shown by the figure, p. 119. 
 The horizontal limh L consists of one plate only, on which the degrees 
 are graduated ; the verniers V are at the end of bars radiating from the 
 centre ; and another bar carries the damp C and the tangent-screw for 
 the verniers. At S, are shown the clamp and rIovj- motion screw of the 
 horizontal limb. The vernier bars are connected with the upper portion of 
 the instrument carrying the telescope NN, and vertical limh MM, which, 
 turning upon the same centre, show the angle traversed by the telescope. 
 
 The tripod support B is provided with foot screivs p p p. It 
 will be seen by the figure that the telescope and vertical limb are 
 supported in a manner very similar to the transit theodolite, the 
 horizontal axis connected with the telescope resting on two supports Y, 
 only one of which is seen in the drawing. These are supported by a 
 flat horizontal bar E, to which is attached a spirit level, only one end 
 of which is seen in the drawing. This level is for adjusting the axis 
 horizontally ; and, this being accomplished, the vertical arc M '^l, 
 attached to the telescope, moves with it in a vertical plane. 
 
 Adjustments of Everest Theodolite {furnishfd by Captain Pratt, B.E.). 
 
 1. Correction for Parallax. — Adjust the eye-piece to distinct vision of 
 cross hairs, and correct for parallax by means of the object-glass screw, 
 
 2. Making the Level of the Horizontal Lirnl) parallel to that Limb. — 
 Clamp the tribrach to axis, and unclamp the horizontal vernier-plate 
 Move the latter so that the horizontal limb's level may be over, or parallel 
 to, two foot-screws. By means of these screws bring the bubble to the 
 centre of level. Turn the vernier-plate lound 180-, and correct the level's 
 error half by the foot-screws and half by the level's capstan-headed 
 screws. Turn the vernier-plate back to its original position ; and if the 
 bubble is not now exactly in tlie centre, correct as before. Eepeat the 
 process till accuracy is obtained. 
 
 3. Levelling the Instrument, i.e., making its vertical axis truly vertical. — 
 Clamp the tribrach to axis, and unclamp the horizontal vernier-plate. 
 Level the horizontal limb's level bv the foot-screws. Turn the horizontal
 
 ADJUST3rENT8 OF THE EVEEEST THEODOLITE. 119 
 
 vernier-plate round 90^ and re-level. This will make the vertical axis 
 approximately vertical. Tlien bring the bubble of the vertical limb's 
 
 level to the centre of tube by the two antagonising screws at bottom of 
 vertical vernier-plate. Tru'u round 180°, and if the vertical limb's level 
 is disturlied, correct half of the error by the foot-screws and half by the
 
 120 HINTS TO TKAVELLERS. 
 
 two antagonistic screws. Turn tlio liorizontal plate 90'', and repeat the 
 process till accuracy is obtained. 
 
 If the bubble of the level attached to the horizontal plate is now dis- 
 turbed, bring it to centre of tube by the capstan-headed screw, so as to 
 make it an index of horizontality. 
 
 4. Vertical CoIIimation. — Unclamp the vertical limb, and make its level 
 horizontal by means of the antagonising screws. By means of the vertical 
 limb's tangent-screw get the horizontal spider-line to cover some well- 
 defined distant point. Eead off the angle on the vertical verniers. 
 
 Reverse the instrument on its bearings, re-level, and re-intersect the 
 same object. If now the vertical verniers read as at first, the vertical 
 collimation is correct. If not, the mean of the readings is the true angular 
 deviation from the horizoatal. By means of the vertical limb's tangent- 
 screw make the vertical verniers read this true deviation, and intersect 
 the distant point by means of the antagonising screws. 
 
 This will disturb the level of the vertical limb. Eestore its horizontality 
 by means of the capstan-headed adjusting screws. The verniers should 
 now read the same angle in both positions of the transit axis. If not, 
 repeat the process till accuracy is obtained. 
 
 5. Horizontal Collimation. — Intersect some well-defined distant point 
 with the spider-lines. Reverse the instrument on its bearings. If there 
 is any deviation from the intersection, correct half with the tangent-screw 
 of the horizontal limb and half with the capstan-headed screws which 
 move the diaphragm. Reverse the instrument on its bearings, and repeat 
 similar corrections till accuracy is obtained. 
 
 Tacheometer. 
 
 A Tacheometer is an instrument for measuring small angles. Of 
 many different types of tacheometers in use by surveyors the form 
 adopted by the Indian Government and made by Messrs. Troughton & 
 Sims is best suited to meet the requirements of the traveller. It consists 
 of a telescojye A, fitted with a pair of micrometers, B B, which are used for 
 measuring either vertical or horizontal angles, as they can be tiu-ned 
 through an angle of 90^, and fixed in that position by the screio C. 
 The telescope is mounted on standards D D, over a prismatic compass E, 
 and is furnished with a small circle, F, for taking vertical angles,] which.
 
 THE TACHEOMETER. 
 
 121 
 
 can be read to minutes. G is the screw by which it is clamped in alti- 
 tude ; H is the vertical slow motion sn-eio. The instrument is fitted with 
 a screw (not shown in the plate) for clamping it horizontally, and I is the 
 horizontal sloiu motion screw. The bearing of any object is read through 
 the prism N, There are three levelling screivs, K, which fit into a 
 
 tribrach L, that screws on a tripod M. The instrument is levelled 
 by means of the screws K, and a level attached to one of the standards 
 (not shown in the i^late). 
 
 There is a disc of glass visible in the field, divided in such a manner 
 that each division equals one revolution of the micrometer head, and
 
 122 
 
 IIINIS TO TRAVKT.T.ERS. 
 
 each micrometer licad is divided into 100 parts. These divisions arc 
 both vertical and horizontal, to suit the corresponding;- positions in wliich 
 the micrometers arc used. 
 
 Tbe measurement of distances by means of tlic taclieometer is ba.sed on 
 the solution of a triangle : — 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 c 
 
 In Fig. 1, suppose the instnunent to be at A, and a staff of known 
 length to be represented by BC ; tlien if the angle BAG is measured, and 
 the length of the staff BC is known, the distance AB can be easily 
 computed. In order, however, to measure the angle BAG, the value of 
 the micrometer divisions must be determined in the following manner : — 
 GarefuUy measure the distance AD from the instrument to a staff of 
 known length; measure the angle BAG subtended the staff with each 
 micrometer, carefully noting the number of divisions and decimals of a 
 division used with each. Divide the length of the rod by the distance AD 
 between the instrument and the rod, and multiply this by the cosecant of 
 1" = 206265, and the result will be the value of the angle BAG in seronds 
 as measured by that micrometer. Now divide BAG in seconds by the 
 number of micrometer divisions used in taking it, and the result will 
 be the value of each division of the micrometer in seconds and decimals of 
 a second. As the value of the divisions will not be exactly the same in 
 both micrometers their values must be separately determined. 
 
 Exmirple: — Number of divisions used (Eight Micrometer), 1157'1 ; 
 length of rod, 12 feet ; distance between rod and instrument, 9S8'2 feet. 
 
 Lo-; 12 = I •079181 
 Log distance ()'Ai-l = 2 "992642 
 
 2-086539 
 Cosecant of 1" = 206265 Log = 5-ji4425 
 
 The whole /_ = 25IT"46 = Log ;-4oos)64 
 
 N,.... r r., ,.< Value of each 
 
 II57' i> 25I'; 460 (2 17 1 ,. . . 
 
 -..rii ^ division. 
 
 20326 
 
 87550 
 809.)-;
 
 THE TACHEOMETER. 
 
 123 
 
 The same process would have to be gone through to find the value of 
 a division of the Left IMicrometer. 
 
 In combination with this instrument a rod of known length is generally 
 i;sed. Fig. 2 rej^resents such a rod. A A are two boards, one foot 
 square, painted white, with a black cross on each. These are fastened on 
 a bamboo, B B, in such a manner that the centres of the crosses shall be a 
 known distance apart. 
 
 When using the rod in a vertical position it will often be found con- 
 venient to fasten a stick to it, so that it shall extend aboiit two feet beyond 
 one of the boards. This, when placed on the ground, takes the weight off 
 the rod and lielps the assistant to keep it steady. 
 
 Any theodolite can be used as a tacheometer, by having hairs in the 
 diai:)hragm fixed at such a distance apart as to read one foot on a staflf 
 when it is one himdred feet distant from tlie instrument, two feet when 
 
 the staif is two hundred feet distant, and so on, and a theodolite fitted 
 in this manner will always give a proportion of 1 to 100 between the 
 reading on the r/raduated staff and the distance. As the power of the 
 telescope is usually small, the figures and marks on the graduated staff 
 can only be read at a comparatively short distance. 
 
 The following precautions must be taken, or no accurate results can be 
 obtained. The fixed hairs must be adjusted to read in the proportion of 
 1 to 100, or, what is the same thing, the staff must be marked to read one 
 foot, when it is 100 feet distant from a certain point. It is the determina- 
 tion of where this point is that is al)Solutely necessary, and the place from 
 which to measure the distance is arrived at in the following manner: — 
 Mark the ground immediately under the centre of the instrument by 
 dropping the plummet from the centre of the tripod, in the usual manner, 
 and from this measure a distance, in the direction the telescope points, 
 equal to the focal length of the object-glass, added to the distance from
 
 124 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 the object-glass to the vertical centre of the instrument. Thus, if the 
 focal length of tlic object-glass was 12 inches, and the distance of the 
 object-glass from the vertical centre of the instrument was 7 inches, then 
 the i^osition of tlie point from which to commence the measurement of 
 the 1(X) feet would be 19 inches from tlie place where the plummet let fall 
 from the centre of the tripod touched the ground. 
 
 To all distances measured in this manner a constant, equal to the focal 
 length of the object-glass + the distance of the object-glass from the 
 vertical centre of the instrument, must be added, otherwise there will be 
 an increasing error in each distance that is measured. (For instructions 
 for using this instrument in the field, see j). 185.) 
 
 Tlie rtane Table. 
 
 The plane table is, in substance, a drawing board fixed on a tripod, 
 so that lines may be drawn on it by a ruler placed so as to point to any 
 object in sight. Its advantage is, that it enables a survey to be made 
 without the aid of other instruments, and in less time. 
 
 All its other parts are mere additions to render this operation 
 more convenient, and accurate. Though the principle on which all 
 plane tables are constructed is the same, they vary considerably in 
 detail. Those, for instance, used by the United States Coast Survey, and 
 several of the European Governments, are very elaborate instruments, 
 fitted with parallel plates and levelling screws, having also a telescope in 
 the place of the ordinary sights. The plane table then becomes an 
 instrument of precision, but is much more liable to sustain injury from 
 accident than in its rougher form, not more so, however, than a theodolite 
 or sextant. The levelling screws enable the traveller to set up his 
 instrument much more expeditiously and accurately than he possibly 
 could without them, and with the telescope he will be able to see distant 
 objects that would otherwise be too indistinct to be made use of in the 
 survey. 
 
 'The Table. — A is a rectangular board of well-seasoned wood, and can, 
 within certain limits, be made of any size to STxit the work intended to be 
 done. To this board the paper to be drawn on may be attached either by 
 drawing-jMns, clamping-plates, or a hox-wnod frame, E, which is usually 
 graduated in the same manner as a protractor, and can be used to
 
 125 
 
 I'lane Table.
 
 126 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 uicaoiirc liorizontal angles, wlieii the fiducial edge of tlic ruler is ])laced 
 against a pin in a small hole, in a brass plate in the centre of the taVjle, 
 which is i)rovided for the purpose. A stud, on the under part of the 
 table, fits into a socket in the tripod, F ; the table can then be revolved 
 to any liorizontal position, and there fixed by tightening the large nut,G, 
 on the claraping-screw attached to the stud. 
 
 The Trijxxl, F, should be a split one, and for convenience of packing 
 tlie legs should telescoi)e. This arrangement is also convenient for 
 setting u]) the instrument on sloping ground. The screws for tightening 
 the tripod legs should be enlarged at tlie end so as to prevent their falling 
 out. In many cases it will be convenient to have the plane-table tripod 
 so made that it can be used for the other instruments. 
 
 'J'hc Alidade, B, is a flat ruler, having a fiducial edge, each end of 
 which carries a sight-vane. On the centre of the ruler is a small circular 
 level, C, to be used in setting up the table. In mountainous countries a 
 small telescope fitted on the alidade will be found very convenient, and 
 where this is not the case, the sight- vanes should be made considerably 
 longer than would be necessary if the instrument had to be used in a 
 comparatively level country. 
 
 The Compass, D, should have a needle aliout four inches long, contained 
 in a rectangular metal box, and is sometimes so arranged that when the 
 needle points to north it will be parallel to the outer straight edge of the box. 
 
 A pair of compasses, paper, india-rubber, pencils, a i^en-knife, and some 
 pins, complete the essentials for i)lane-table work. 
 
 It is not considered necessary, in these " Hints," to give any detailed 
 description of the more elaborate forms of the plane table, but any 
 person desiring information on the subject can obtain it by applying 
 to the Instructor at the Society's rooms. {For instructions for using this 
 instrument in t]ie field, seep. 173.) 
 
 Plane Tables used in the Indian ISurvey Department. 
 By Lieut.-Col. II. H. Godwin- Austen. 
 
 A. View of under part of the plane table, showing the brass plate in 
 the centre with socket-screw, counter-sunk and fixed by screws. 
 
 The board should be one inch thick, of well-seasoned wood — deal is 
 the lightest. Two bars are attached across the grain to prevent warping.
 
 127
 
 1>^ 
 
 o 
 
 F:3 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 <1 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 11 
 
 P-i 
 r/7 
 
 CS 
 
 
 !Z 
 
 o '^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 6
 
 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING. 
 
 129 
 
 •J8}8UI0JBa 
 
 JO piojaay 
 . I •pioiauy 
 
 2 "raoinjaqx 
 
 JO -on: 
 
 iniod 
 Snijiog 
 
 •aniix 
 
 •sssnojf 
 JO Jaqninii 
 
 no jaqninK 
 
 S a H
 
 inO HINTF5 TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 fixed by one screw in the middle, witli two at eacli end, working in a long 
 hole so as to allow of expansion and contraction. The screws should be 
 bevelled at the shoulder, and a slip of brass should l)e ])laced between the 
 shoulders of the screw and the wood to pn^vent counter-sinking. 
 
 B. View from above, as placed on the tripod-stand, with compass-box 
 in position. The stand is similar to that used for the photographic 
 camera, having folding legs and a triangular top of wood with aliole in the 
 centre for the clamping-screw, C, to pass through. A solid tripod-stand, 
 as shown in E, is, however, the best, and can be made veiw light and 
 strong, and it can be used when observing with the theodolite. 
 
 D is the sight-rule — as long as the i:)lane table— and packs inside the 
 waterproof case. The back sight has a narrow slit cut in it ; the fore 
 sight has a wider slit, with two small holes above and below to receive 
 the horse-hair or iine wire, which is easily adjusted and retained in 
 position by little pegs of wood. 
 
 Watches. 
 
 The keyless lialf-chronometer is the most suitable watch for a traveller 
 in wild countries. (The half-chronometer watch is a lever watch, with 
 compensation balance, and a carefully-tempered pendulum .spring.) 
 
 The ordinary pocket chronometer is expensive, and not calculated to 
 stand the rough usage to which most traveller.s' watches are subjected. 
 The objections to it are : (1) The extreme delicacy of the escapement 
 and liability to injury from rust or accident. (2) Its great liability 
 to stoppage from various causes, such as a sudden jerk when riding 
 or travelling over a rough country ; even if in the act of winding it 
 the holder should inadvertently give a circular motion to his hand in a 
 direction opposite to that in which the balance-wheel is moving at 
 the same instant, it may stop. (When a chronometer is once stopped it 
 will not start again unless a circular motion be given to it.) (3) The 
 impossibility of its repair when injured, excejit by high-skilled work- 
 men, and when very slightly injured, the consequent great disturbance 
 and irregularity in its rate. 
 
 Under favourable circumstances, and in skilled hands, pocket chrono- 
 meters have done good service, but this is exceptional. The minimum 
 price of a good pocket chronometer, in a silver case, is -15?.
 
 WATCHES. 131 
 
 Half-clironometers are not liable to stop from the before-mentioned 
 causes, and they are more easily repaired. They may be carried in the 
 pocket under conditions of rough usage, short of actual violence, and 
 under ordinary circumstances their performances are frequently but 
 little inferior to those of a chronometer at rest. 
 
 During the last thirty years, great improvements have been made 
 in the manufacture of the lever escapement, compensation balances, and the 
 pendulum springs, upon which the ability of a Avatch to keep a steady 
 rate in a great measure depends. The keyless mechanism has also been 
 perfected, and it is not necessary to open the case of a keyless watch in 
 order to wind it; thus the works receive increased security from dust 
 and damp, the two great enemies of all time-pieces. 
 
 The followicg is the description of such a watch as would be best 
 suited to a traveller. The watch should be a 16-size half-chronometer; 
 the bezel (or frame which holds the glass) should have neither hinge nor 
 spring, but should fit very closely over the watch-case, and snap tightly 
 when pressed home ; great care should be taken to see that the marking 
 of the minutes on the dial is correct, so that in whatever part of the hour 
 circle the minute hand shall point to a division, the seconds hand shall 
 at the same time point to 0. This perfect coincidence for the whole 
 circle of the dial is by no means common ; its absence is chiefly due to 
 eccentricity in fixing the dial-plate^ and the error is often so great as to 
 be a cause of annoyance to the traveller, who will have frequent 
 diflBculty in deciding as to which minute the seconds belong. The 
 seconds dial-plate should be sunk, and the glass should be thick flat 
 crystal. A good watch of this kind cannot be purchased for less 
 than 20?. 
 
 The keyless watch has many advantages over the old form, of 
 which the following are some: — It cannot be wound the wrong way. 
 It cannot be o^er-wound, and the case has not to be opened for 
 winding. When the glass and back are made to screw on, and the 
 windiDg-buttou is fitted with a screw cap, a watch of this kind has been 
 placed in water, and proved impervious to damp after several hours', 
 immersion. Should the winding mechanism get out of order, the watch 
 can be wound with a common key in the same manner as an ordinary 
 watch. The cost of a good watch of this description is 37Z. 
 
 Care should be taken to wind a watch at about the same hour every 
 
 E 2
 
 132 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 day, and af5 nearly as possible to subject it to the same daily treatment 
 ■with regard to its position in the pocket, or the place where it is laid 
 down at night. 
 
 In purchasing a watch be sure to go direct to the manufacturers, 
 and see that it has an "A" certificate from Kew Observatory. 
 Such watches as those mentioned can only be obtained of the best 
 makers. Cheaper watches, purporting to have corapenpation balances, 
 and the best pendulum springs, may be obtained from many shops ; 
 but it will often be found (when too late to rej^lace them) that they are 
 not all they profess to be, that they liave never been properly adjusted, 
 and are, in conseqiience, so affected by change of position and temperature, 
 as to be useless for scientific purposes.
 
 133 
 
 SUKVEYING AND ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Part 2. 
 
 Plane Trigonometry and Preliminary Remarks. 
 
 The following formulse are of frequent use in all surveying problems. 
 In right-angled triangles, B being the right angle, if either A or C is 
 known, the other is found by subtracting the known angle from 90^. For 
 the rest we have : 
 
 Case. 
 
 Given. 
 
 Required. 
 
 Solution. 
 
 ' { 
 
 Hyp. AC 
 
 Angles . . 
 
 BaseCB.. 
 Perp. AB 
 
 C B = A C X cos C. 
 A B = A C X sin C. 
 
 2&i{ 
 
 Base C B 
 Angles . . 
 
 Perp. A B 
 Hyp. AC 
 
 A B = C B X tan C. 
 A C = C B X sec C. 
 
 4 & 5 ! 
 
 Hyp. A C 
 Perp. A B 
 
 Angles . . 
 Base B C 
 
 sin C := A B -i- A C ; cos A = A B -r- A C. 
 BC=V(AC + AB) X (AC - AB). 
 
 ' 1 
 
 Perp. A B 
 Base BC 
 
 Angles . . 
 Hyp. AC 
 
 tan C =: A B -i- B C ; cot A = A B 4- B C. 
 A C :=; B C X sec C.
 
 134 
 
 HINTS '10 ti{am;i,ij:i;s. 
 
 Table II. 
 
 Case. ■ 
 
 Given. 
 
 Kequired. 
 
 Solution. 
 
 ■ { 
 
 The angles 
 
 Side B C 
 
 BC=:ABxsinAX cosec C. 
 
 and side A B. 
 
 Side A C 
 
 AC = ABX8inBx cosec C. 
 
 r 
 
 'J'wo sides 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 AB, BC.and 
 
 Angle A 
 
 sin A = sin C X B C -^ A B. 
 
 itill 
 
 angle C 
 
 Angle B 
 
 B = i8o° - (A + C). 
 
 1 
 
 opposite to 
 
 Side A C 
 
 AC = ABXsinBx cosec C. 
 
 I 
 
 one of them. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B-C A 
 
 
 Tivo sides 
 
 
 tan — — = (AC - AB) X cot y -5- (AC + A B), 
 
 
 A B, A C, 
 
 Angles 
 
 B + C A 
 
 4&S 
 
 and the 
 
 CandB 
 
 and, — 90° — : from which 
 
 
 included 
 
 
 B + C B-C B + C B-C. 
 
 
 Angle A. 
 
 
 B_ ^ + ^ :andC_ ^ , 
 
 
 
 SideBC 
 
 BC = ABXsinAx cosec C. 
 
 
 
 
 From half the sum of the three sides, subtract, separately, 
 each of the three sides. Multiply these four numbers (the 
 
 ' 
 
 All three 
 
 All the 
 
 half sum and the three remainders) together, and take twice 
 
 sides. 
 
 Angles 
 
 the square root of the product. This result, divided bv the 
 
 
 
 
 product of any two of the sides, gives the sine of the angle 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 between them. 
 
 In oblique-angled triangles, if two of tlie angles are known, the third 
 angle is found by subtracting the sum of the two from 180° ; for the rest 
 See Table II. 
 
 The foregoing equations may be solved by multiplication and division, 
 ■with a table of natural sine.s, cosines, &c. ; but, in order to avoid such a 
 tedious process, logarithms are usually emi^loyed. In calculating with 
 logarithms, multii^lication is performed by adding together the log- 
 arithms of the numbers to be mviltii:)lied : the sum is the logarithm of 
 the i^roduct : division is performed by subtracting the logarithm of 
 the divisor from the logarithm of the dividend ; the remainder is the 
 logarithm of the qiiotient. Tzrice the logarithm of a number is the 
 logarithm of its square ; and half its logarithm is the logarithm of its 
 square root. 
 
 The following are some of the most useful examples of the practical 
 application of the rules given in Tables I. and II.
 
 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 
 
 135 
 
 (1.) Wishing to ascertain the height of a point C (Fig. 1), which could 
 not be approached nearer than B, I observed the angle of altitude 
 C B D = 46^, and measured the distance from B to A = 200 feet, at which 
 place I found the angle C A B = 29^ 
 
 Having found the Z A C B as above, I then computed the length of B C 
 by Case 1, Table II. Then, as the / C D B = 90", I computed the height 
 C D by Case 1, Tahle I. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 From ^ C B D = 46 
 Take Z. C A B = 29 
 
 (2.) To measure the breadth of a river when standing at B (Fig. 2), a 
 short distance from it, I sent on a man with a staff to a distance which I 
 judged to be greater than the breadth of the river. I then motioned him 
 to the right and left until he was in such a position that the reflected image 
 of the staff was shown exactly over a tree on the opposite bank (as seen 
 directly), when I had 90^ on the arc of my sextant : having set my sextant 
 to 45", I walked in a straight line towards the staff until I reached a 
 position. A, whei'e, on looking through my sextant, I saw the reflected 
 image of the tree shown exactly over a maik set up at B (as seen directly). 
 I then measured the distance from A to B, which I found to be 220 feet ;
 
 136 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLKKS. 
 
 from this 1 subtracted 30 feet, the distance of the water, and this gave me 
 the breadth of the river, I'JO feet. 
 
 (3.) In order to measure the breadth of a river I set up a mark, A 
 (Fig. 3), close to the water ; from tliis jioint I measured a base of 200 yards. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 parallel to the course of the river, and set up another mark, B. The angles, 
 subtended by a rock on the o]iposite bank and each end of the base, were 
 A 75°, B 40^. I then computed the breadth of the river by Case 1 
 Table 11. 
 
 ZB 40 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 180 
 115 
 
 Z C = 6;
 
 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 
 
 137 
 
 (i.) To ascertain the height of an inaccessible point, A (Fig. 4), above 
 my position C, I measured its angle of elevation with a theodolite, and 
 
 Ftc;. 1. 
 
 S>— 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 found it to be ■iO : as a river behind me prevented my taking a base in 
 that direction, I measured one of 200 yards to the left of C and set up a
 
 138 HIN'J'S TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 mark D. The angles subtended by A, at each end of the base, were 
 found to be, C 94°, D 63°; with these angles and the base CD, I 
 computed the side BC by Case 1, Table 11. Then, as BC is the base 
 of the right-angled triangle A B C, I computed the height of the A 
 by Case 2, Tulle I. Should a sextant be used, the angles A C D and ADC 
 will be taken, and with these, and the base C D, compute the side 
 A C by Case 1, Talle II. Then as A C is the hypothenuse of the right- 
 angled triangle A B C, the height of the point A can be computed by 
 Case 1, Tahle I. 
 
 (5.) The distance between two inaccessible jieaks C and D (Fig. 5) 
 being required, I measured a base, A B, of 1000 yards, setting up a mark 
 at each end. I then measured the angles between the two peaks, at both 
 ends of the base, and found them to be : — at A, 37° and 93" ; at B, 43° 
 and 111°. In the triangle ABC, by subtracting the sum of angles A and 
 B, = 136°, from 180°, I found the angle C to be ii" ; by a similar process 
 I found the angle D in the triangle ABD to be 32^, and in the triangle 
 B C D, by subtracting 43°, the smaller angle, from 111°, the gi'eater, I 
 found the angle at B = 68°. Having thus found all the necessary data 
 in the triangle ABC, I computed the side CB {Case 1, Talle II.), and 
 in the triangle A B D, I computed the side D B (Ca.se 1, Talle II.). With 
 the sides C B and B D, of the triangle BCD and the included angle B, I 
 computed the side D C (the distance between the inaccessible peaks) by 
 Cases 4 and 5, Table II.
 
 139 
 
 Extemporary Measurements. 
 
 To set off a Bight Angle from any foint on the ground by nifans of a Bope. 
 
 To set off from any point A, a line at right angles to a given direction, 
 as A E, measure an equal distance on each side of A, in the same 
 straight line as A E, this equal distance being 
 about onefourth of the length of the rop?. Let C 
 and D be these points. Fasten the ends of the 
 rope at C and D, and having ascertained the 
 centre of the rope by doubling it, the centre 
 should be drawn out towards B, until nj B and 
 C B are tight. Then E A B will be a right 
 angle ; therefore, as we are thus able to set off 
 a right angle to any line, the distance of any c 
 inaccessible object may be obtained by either of "--, 
 the three following ways : — '~--. 
 
 To find the Meridian by a Watch. A . •' 
 
 When the sun is visible, the position of the ,.-''' 
 
 meridian line can be approximately determined ^'' 
 in the following manner by a watch set to 
 
 local time : — Turn the face of the watch to the sun in such a manner that 
 the hour-hand shall point to the sun, or, in other words, until the hour- 
 hand itself shall be directly over its shadow. Half-way between the 
 place of the hour-hand and XII. will be the south point in north 
 latitude, and the oj^posite point of the dial will be the north point. In 
 south latitude the reverse of this would be the case, while in the tropics 
 the i)osition of the north and south i^oints would depend on whether the 
 sun, when on the meridian, is north or south of the observer. "When 
 the sun is near the zenith this method would be of little use. 
 
 To find the Meridian by the tSun, filliout instruments. 
 
 Having levelled a piece of ground of sufficient size, plant a rod in a 
 truly perpendicular position, testing it with a plumb-line, and at an hour 
 or two before noon (say 10.30) mark accurately the extremity, C, of the
 
 140 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 shadow, B C, thrown by tlie rod when the sun is in the position S ; then 
 from the base, B, of the rod as a centre, with the radius B C, the length 
 of the sliadow, describe the circle, D C F, upon the ground. As the sun's 
 altitude increases, the shadow of the rod will fall within the circum- 
 ference of the circle, and will gradually grow shorter until noon ; after 
 which, as the sun's altitude decreases, the shadow of the rod will grow 
 longer until, at last, when the sun has attained the position S', it will 
 
 o 
 
 reach the circumference of the circle at the point D. Divide the arc 
 C D, into two equal jxarts, and from E, a point equi-distant from C and 
 J), draw a line through the centre B, and that line will coincide, approxi- 
 mately, with the true meridian. 
 
 To Jind the Distance of an inaccessible object with a Measuring Line. 
 
 By Fig. 1, p. 141. — From the line A D measure off the perpendiculars 
 A C, D E, ranging the point C in line with E B, then 
 
 AC X AD 
 ^ ^ - D E - A C" 
 
 By Fig. 2, p. I4l. — Fix any convenient points H and K. Join H K and 
 bisect it in J ; make J L = J F, and range I in line with H L and with 
 J G ; then L I = F G.
 
 EXTEMPORARY MEASURFMENTS. 
 
 141 
 
 By Fig. 3.— Set off O M at right angles to P, and M N at ri-ht 
 
 OW 
 
 angles to M P ; then O P = ^^ • 
 
 FIG. I 
 
 Bouffh Methods of Mrasuring. 
 
 Pongh angular measurements may be taken by the span at arm's 
 length. From the end of the thumb to the end of the middle finger 
 subtends an angle of 15"^ ; the full span to the end of the little finger 
 subtends an angle of 18°. This may be easily checked by siDanning round 
 the horizon ; twenty spans make the circuit. It is at all times well 
 to know the length of the different joints of the limbs. Suppose the 
 nail-joint of the forefinger to be 1 inch, the next joint will be IJ inches, 
 the next 2 inches, and from the knuckle to the wrist 4 inches ; in this 
 case the finger is bent, so that each joint may be measured separately, 
 though, when held straight, the distance from the tip of the forefinger to
 
 142 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 the wrist would be only 7 inches. The span with thumb and forefinger 
 wonhl be 8 inches, and with tlio tliumb and any of the other three 
 9 incites, or equal to the length of the foot ; from the wrist to the elbow 
 would be 10 inches, and from elbow to forefinger 17 inches, and from 
 collar-hone to forefinger 2 feet 8 inches ; lieight to the middle of the 
 kneecap 18 inches. From the elbow to the forefinger is usually called a 
 cubit, but it is seldom strictly so, an Englisli cubit being generally stated 
 as 18 inches. In b'ke manner the full stretch of the extended arms is 
 called a fathom ; but it is generally somewhat less. 
 
 Tlie pace is commonly supposed to be 2|- feet, but this is a most 
 uncertain mode of measurement. Very few men, ivithont practice, can 
 take correctly a hundred consecutive steps or paces of the same length. 
 Practice will determine the amount of ground covered in a certain 
 number of paces, if tried over known distances ; it of course varies, but 
 from experiment the mean has been found nearly as follows : 
 
 Pacing, at 30 inches per pace, of 108 in a minute, equals 270 feet, or 
 3 "008 statute, or 266 geographical miles per hour. 
 
 Pacing quickly, at 30 inches per pace, of 120 in a minute, equals 
 300 feet, or 3'41 statute, or 2'96 geographical miles per hour. 
 
 Pacing slowly, at 36 inches, may average 60 per minute, equals 180 
 feet, or 2"0i statute, or 1"78 geograj^hical miles per hour. 
 
 The height of a tree, or other accessible object, may be found ap- 
 proximately by walking away from it, until, with your back to the tree, 
 by bowing your head down as far as you can, and looking between your 
 legs, the tree top is just seen ; then pace the distance to the tree, and this 
 will be its height. This method is in common use in the logging camps 
 of North-West America, and from constant practice the backwoodsman 
 will tell to a few feet how far the toi? of a tree, he is going to cut down, 
 will reach. The legs must be kept straight, and only sufficient space left 
 just to see between them. 
 
 Distance hy Sound. 
 
 Sound travels at tlie rate of about 1090 feet in one second in calm 
 weather and temperature 32^ Fahr., and increases at the rate of 1 " 15 foot 
 for each degree of temperature above 32° ; a moderate breeze accelerates or 
 retards sound by about 20 feet in a second. When a gun is used
 
 KOUGH TKIANGULATION. 143 
 
 to measure distance it should always be pointed at an angle of aliout 
 ■45^ to the horizon. This method will be found most useful in making 
 rough surveys of winding rivers or lakes, where it is imiiossihle to land 
 on account of the dense undergrowth or the swampy nature of the banks. 
 Great accuracy may ))e obtained if a gun is fired at each end. Abase 
 for a small triaugulation can be measured by this means. 
 
 Table fok Eough Triangulation without the usual Instruments, 
 
 AND WITHOUT CALCULATION. Bl/ FrANCIS GaLTON, F.R.S. 
 
 A traveller may ascertain the breadth of a river, or that of a valley, or 
 the distance of any object on either side of his line of march, by taking 
 about 60 additional paces and by making a single reference to the Table 
 on page 144. 
 
 Suppose he is travelling from A to Z (Fig. I., p. 144), and wishes to 
 learn the distance from A to C ; and it may be, also the angle A. Let 
 him proceed as follows (referring now to Fig. II.). 
 
 1. Leave a mark at A. 2. Walk ten paces towards Z, and make 
 a mark, calling the place m. 3. Walk back to A. 4. Walk ten paces 
 towards C. 5. Walk to m, counting the paces to the nearest half-pace. 
 (This gives the measurement of the line a (Fig. I.), which is the chord of 
 the angle A, to radius 10.) 6. Walk 80 paces towards Z; make a mark, 
 calling the place n. 7. Walk ten paces towards Z, calling the place B ; 
 this completes 100 paces from A. 8. Walk ten paces towards C. 9. 
 Walk to II, counting the paces to the nearest half-pace. (This gives the 
 line h, which is the chord of the angle B, to radius 10.) 
 
 Now enter the Table with a at the side and h at the top, and read off 
 the distance A C, and the angle A if also required. 
 
 If the Table be entered with I at the side and a at the top, it gives B C 
 (and B). 
 
 Of course, the units need not be paces: feet, furlongs, miles, hours, 
 journey, or anything else will do as well ; and the units of A B need 
 not be the same as those of a and h. Also any multii)le or divisor of 
 100 for A B may be used, if the tabular number be similarly multiplied.
 
 144 
 
 KOUGH TRIANGULATION. 
 
 
 00 N 
 
 IV. O 
 ■■ M 
 
 O ir, 
 
 ONO 
 
 o 
 
 ■+I/N 
 
 
 t 1 
 
 ,' 
 
 - 2 o 
 
 fa -z 
 ' X2 
 
 
 o" o" 
 
 o o 
 
 O "vv 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 22^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 CNf- 
 
 
 l/§ 
 
 
 CO '■'N 
 
 CNO 
 
 -o 
 
 IfN rf 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 •r-O 
 ON ON 
 
 OvO^ 
 
 ON ON 
 
 o o 
 
 NO 0^ 
 
 o o 
 
 ^co 
 
 NO o 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 CNO 
 00 03 
 
 O M 
 
 o-a> 
 
 00 00 
 
 C7- CN 
 00 ON 
 
 »i- oc 
 
 ONO 
 5<CN 
 
 O 'A 
 
 o o 
 
 On ON 
 
 o - 
 
 83" 
 
 GO "^ O 00 
 
 O '- c4 n 
 
 CO O 
 
 '••N UN 
 M M 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 =3-^ 
 
 o o 
 
 U- ><V nC oo 
 
 00 00 t» oo 
 
 CO CO CO 00 
 
 oo 0^ 
 
 -^o 
 
 oo O 
 CO cr» 
 
 §2 2r 
 
 ^'N I^ N« O 
 
 o>o> o o 
 
 UN U\ 
 
 •4 M 
 
 oo 
 
 -r 
 
 
 
 09 
 
 o 
 
 ^r^■^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 pp 
 
 00 00 
 
 r^oo 
 
 ON- 
 
 r^oo 
 
 i#nnO 
 
 So? 
 
 O ON ^oo 
 30 00 OnOn 
 
 O ~1 u^ On 
 
 00 OO 00 CO 
 
 ~N ON 
 
 o O 
 
 ON ON 
 
 OD On 
 
 2 = 
 
 
 
 Ho 
 O 
 
 R5^ 
 
 1-c O 
 oo r- 
 
 o o 
 
 
 O ►- 
 
 r-co 
 
 n-nO 
 
 Nt\0 
 Ng^^ 
 
 r^oo 
 
 00 o> 
 r--oo 
 
 UN M 
 
 CO ON 
 
 a "N 
 
 ON so 
 Ono 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 nOO 
 
 
 OnO 
 
 C>co 
 
 WN UN 
 
 NOO 
 ITN V\ 
 
 oo 
 
 1^00 
 u^ u^ 
 
 00 ON 
 UN UN 
 
 O M 
 OO 
 
 O ~> 
 
 n3^ 
 
 P5 
 
 nS'?^ 
 
 oo ON 
 
 C-'OO 
 
 2^ 
 
 Sn^ 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 25, 
 
 IfN ITN 
 
 O On 
 
 •». UN 
 
 oooo 
 
 
 UNO 
 
 I- ON 
 us WN 
 
 oo 
 
 UN 1^ 
 UN UN 
 
 o I^ 
 oo 
 
 o-oo 
 
 Angle. 
 
 i8 58 
 31 56 
 
 5^ B^ 
 
 0-* 
 
 5:1 
 
 
 
 =11 
 
 
 
 OcSo 
 
 
 
 S2' 
 
 
 o •*> 
 10 
 
 o -t» 
 
 
 O -(" 
 
 <0 
 
 O H" 
 
 A 
 
 o -*• 
 
 e 
 
 o •♦• 
 
 H 
 ri 
 
 o ■♦• 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 
 10 
 
 0-* 

 
 ROUGH TRIANGULATION. 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 
 Examples. 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 (in paces). 
 
 6 
 (in paces). 
 
 7 
 
 A B. 
 
 A C. 
 
 Angle A. 
 
 B C. 
 
 Angle B. 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 JOi 
 
 I of 
 
 loo paces 
 
 50 miles 
 
 100 paces 
 
 1000 paces 
 
 67 paces 
 jji miles 
 
 68 paces 
 680 paces 
 
 ; 
 28 58 
 28 58 
 6} 22 
 t} 22 
 
 5 J paces 
 26i miles 
 92 paces 
 920 paces 
 
 1 
 31 56 
 
 41 
 41 
 
 Particular care must be taken to walk iu a straight line from A to B. 
 It will surprise most people, on looking back at their track, to see how 
 curved it has been, and how far B n is from pointing truly towards A. 
 It is important to sight some distant object in a line with Z when walking 
 towards it. 
 
 The triangle ABC must be so contrived that none of its angles are less 
 than 30°, or the chords of the angles at A and B will not be found in the 
 Table. These cases cease to give reliable results when the measurejnents 
 are rudely made, and have therefore been omitted. 
 
 Should a traveller have no Tables by him, he can always protract his 
 measurements to a scale on a sheet of paper, or even on the ground, and 
 so solve his problem. If real accuracy be aimed at, it is clear that it may 
 be obtained by careful measurements of the base and chords, combined 
 with a rigorous calculation, as was first suggested by Sir George Everest, 
 formerly Surveyor-General of India. (See ' Journ. E. Geog. Soc.,' 1860, 
 page 122.) 
 
 Ascertaining Heights hy Angles of Elevation. 
 
 When using an angle of elevation to ascertain the difference of height 
 of a mountain top and the position of the observer, it must be recollected 
 that, if at any distance, a large part of the mountain is below the hori- 
 zontal line, and therefore the perpendicular of a right-angled triangle will 
 only represent a portion of the height. To allow for this, the following 
 correction, which includes mean refraction and curvature, must- be added 
 to the true angle of elevation. 
 
 „ , . . 1 - distance in geog. miles x 100 
 Correction, in seconds of arc, = j
 
 146 HINTS JO riJAVELLERS. 
 
 Ex imple. — Observed ■with a tlieodolite the elevation of Kilimanjaro to be 
 6° 03' from a iiosition afterwards found to be 25 miles distant. 
 
 95 y 100 
 
 Correction = ^ = 625" = 10' 25" 
 
 Corrected elevation = 6^ 03' + 10' 25" = 6" 18' 25" 
 
 Constant log. (of 6046 ft.) 3-7815 
 
 Log. tangent 6° 13' 25" 9-0376 
 
 Log. 25 1-3979 
 
 Height above observer's position = 16,480 feet . log = 4 2170 
 
 Flashing Signals. 
 
 A flash from a small mirror is of the greatest use in surveying. Mirrors 
 mounted so as to turn in any direction are sold by opticians under the 
 name of heliostats, and a flash from one of two inches square may be seen 
 fifty miles. It requires, however, an intelligent person to direct the 
 mirror, and cannot therefore be worked by a native or untrained 
 European. Mirrors fitted for this purpose are made of accurately jjarallel 
 plate glass and a small hole is made in the amalgam and the plate pro- 
 tecting the back of the glass. 
 
 Planting the stand of the mirror fairly, the hole in the centre is looked 
 through, and a piece of paper working on a stick, which must be stuck in 
 the ground about ten paces distant, is brought into exact line with the 
 object to which it is desired to flash and when the observer is in 
 readiness to take the angle to the flash. The mirror is thentiirned about 
 until the flash from the sun illuminates the paper, when the observer at 
 the distant point will also see it. The flash must be kept carefully on the 
 paper until an answering flash shows that it has been seen and observed. 
 
 Two surveyors working together in this way can obtain most accurate 
 observations without any time being expended in erecting marks. In a 
 persistently cloudy climate, the method is, of course, of little use. 
 
 Measurement of the Number of Cubic Feet of "Water conveyed 
 by a elver in each second. 
 
 The data required are — the area of the river-section and the average 
 velocity of the whole of the current. All that a traveller is Likely to 
 obtain, without special equipment, is the area of the rivcr-seclion and the
 
 VOLUME OF RIVERS. 
 
 147 
 
 average velocity of the surface of the current, which is greater than that 
 of its entire body, owing to frictional retardation at the bottom. 
 
 To make the necessary measurements, choose a place where the river 
 runs steadily in a straight and deep channel, and where a boat can be 
 had. Prepare a few floats of dry bushes with paper flags, and be assured 
 they will act. Post an assistant on the river-bank, at a measured dis- 
 tance, of about half the estimated width of the river, down stream, in face 
 of a well-marked object. Row across stream in a straight line, keeping 
 two objects on a line in order to maintain your course. Sound at intervals 
 from shore to shore, fixing your position on each occasion, by a sextant- 
 angle between your starting-place and your assistant s station, and throw 
 the floats overboard, signalling to your assistant when you do so, that he 
 may note the interval that elapses before they severally arrive opposite to 
 him. Take an angle from the opposite shore, to give the breadth of the 
 river. 
 
 To make the calculation approximately, protract the section of the river 
 on a paper ruled to scale in square feet, and count the number of squares 
 in the area of the section. Multiply this by the number of feet between 
 you and the assistant, and divide by the number of seconds that the floats 
 occupied, on an average, in reaching him. 
 
 Important rivers should always be measured above and below their 
 confluei.ce; for it settles the question of their relative sizes, and throws 
 great light on the rainfall over their respective basins. The sectional 
 area at the time of highest water, as shown by marks on the banks, and 
 the slope of the bed, ought also to be ascertained. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Distance from Shoke j 
 
 Whence the boat started, mea-i 
 sured in feet / 
 
 Depth at those distances mea- 1 
 sured in feet / 
 
 Time required for float to drift) 
 opposite to assistant, mea-V 
 sured in seconds ) 
 
 Start- 
 
 
 
 
 ing 
 place. 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 90 
 
 160 
 
 240 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 i\ 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 iio 420 j 500 
 
 ij ! 29 ! 27 
 
 600 j 
 
 i 
 10 I 
 
 Oppo- 
 site I 
 Shore. 
 
 I 780 
 
 Ik 
 
 I Ave- 
 I I rage. 
 
 50 j — i8-4 
 
 Distance of assistant, in feet, ijo. 
 
 L 2
 
 148 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 By ijrotracting the data on the first two lines, on ruled paper as 
 described above, it will be found that the area of the section is 3260 feet, 
 or thereabouts; this, multiplied into 150, gives 489,000 cubic feet of 
 water as the contents of the river at any given moment between the line 
 of soundings and the assistant. As this amount passes by in 38'4: seconds, 
 the number of cubic feet per second is the former number divided by the 
 latter, which gives 12,734. 
 
 It must be distinctly understood that this number is only roughly 
 approximate, and that it is excessive. However, with the above data, 
 an engineer would be able to make a somewhat better calculation. In 
 the meanwhile, the traveller might consider the flow of the river in 
 question to be between 10,000 and 18,000 feet per second. 
 
 Map Pkojections. 
 
 Mercator's Projection. 
 
 On a sheet of cartridge paper, 13 inches by 20, it is proposed to con- 
 struct a map on Mercator's projection, on a scale of 10 miles to an inch 
 equatorial — i.e, 6 inches to the degree of longitude. 
 
 T • •+ f +1 AT ^ Lat. 31° to 33^ N. 
 LimitsoftheMap|^^^^3^,^^3g,^_ 
 
 Draw a base line, find its centre, and erect a perpendicular to the top of 
 the paper; the extremes of longitude 34° and 36^ added together and 
 divided by 2, give 35°, the central meridian, and which is represented by 
 the perpendicular ; on each side of it lay off 6 inches, and erect perpen- 
 diculars for the meridians 34 and 36; divide the base line into 10-mile 
 divisions, and the part from 35° 50' to 36° 00' into miles for the latitude 
 scale. 
 
 From Table A, take the following quantities : — 
 
 Lat. 31° to 32° = 1° 10' 4 = the distance between parallels 31° and '62° 
 ,. 32° to 33° = 1° ir-1 „ „ „ 32° .. 33° 
 
 2° 21' -5 „ „ „ 31° „ 33° 
 
 Having thus obtained the distances between the required parallels, 
 divide the map into squares of 10 miles each way, and the map is ready 
 for the projection of the route.
 
 MAP PROJECTIONS. 
 
 149 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
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 MAP PUOJECTLON.S 
 
 151 
 
 Conical Projection, 
 
 The conical projection, or cleYelopment, is 
 carried out thus : draw a straight line, A B, to 
 represent the central meridian of the intended 
 map, and after having decided on the scale on 
 which it is to be laid down, set off along this 
 line A B, from the point A, scales of equal parts, 
 for each 1^ or 5°, as the size of the scale may 
 admit. Also measure off from A towards B the 
 distance A C = 57-29578 x length of 1° in inches 
 X cot. lat. of A. Then with C as a centre, and 
 C A as a radius, describe an arc of a circle 
 through the point A, representing the parallel 
 of middle latitude, and divide it also into equal 
 parts indicating 1° or 5° of longitude, each l°of 
 longitilde being equal to 1° of lat. x cos. lat. of 
 A ; and from C draw the radiating lines, repre- 
 senting the meridian through the points laid 
 off on A E, and also concentric circles through 
 the points marked off on A B for each 1° or 5° 
 for the parallels of latitude. 
 
 For the Eectangular Tangential Projection, 
 see a pamphlet with Tables published by the 
 Ordnance Survey Department, "On the con- 
 struction and use of marginal sheet lines, for 
 the uniform projection of maps in any part_, of 
 the world."
 
 J.52 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 SURVEYING AND ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Paet 3. 
 
 SURVEYING. 
 
 Mapping a Country. 
 
 The surveys that are mostly possible for travellers are route surveys, 
 i.e., laying clown as much of a country as comes within the ken of a 
 traveller on his line of march. Such surveys, if of any extent, must be 
 assisted by astronomical observations to prevent the accumulation of 
 errors. {See p. 188.) 
 
 Route surveying can be accomplished in several ways, but in any case is 
 not an easy task for one who has no experience of ordinary surveying, as, to 
 be successful, it requires a knowledge of how to make the most of oppor- 
 tunities, of which method is applicable, and generally a mastery of the 
 various dodges by which alone an irregular survey can be made to give 
 a result fairly approximating to the truth. 
 
 The principle underlying all surveying is to start from a base line of 
 known length, and by means of angles or bearings to obtain rays to 
 conspicuous objects from both ends, by the intersection of which their 
 position can be fixed. Details are sketched in between. 
 
 The base line may be long or short, may be measured, either accu- 
 rately, by means of a tape, cord, chain, etc., or by astronomical observa- 
 tions ; or, roughly, by estimation of the distance walked in a straight line. 
 
 Tacheometer surveying is a method in which an extremely short base 
 is used, the angle subtended by it at a point at right angles to the centre 
 of the base being measui-ed from the point to be fixed ; in this case Hot 
 at a great distance from the base. 
 
 To aid the traveller, descriptions will be given of ; — 
 
 (1.) Route surveying with Prismatic Compass, p. 153. 
 
 (2.) Surveys with Sextant and Prismatic Compass, p. 162. 
 
 (3.) Surveying with a Plane Table, p. 173. 
 
 (4.) Surveying with a Tacheometer, p. 185.
 
 COMPASS SURVEY. 153 
 
 The scale of the intended survey is an important point. 
 
 This will yary much with circumstances, but the limits of scale for 
 ordinary route surveys may be roughly stated as from half an inch to 
 one-tenth of an inch to the geographical mile. 
 
 The geographical mile should be chosen, as it facilitates the intro- 
 duction of astronomical positions from time to time. 
 
 Whfle parts which seem to require more detail may be mapped on a 
 larger scale, and reduced into the general map, it will ordinarily be 
 found that a scale of a quarter of an inch will be the most convenient. 
 
 It is above all things necessary that a traveller should state distinctly 
 how his map has been made, the bases used, the instruments employed, 
 and generally all information that will enable the map compiler to judge 
 of the value of the work. The compiler has in most cases to fit the new 
 work into old, and without some information which enables him to 
 appraise the value of both, he is at a loss what to do when dis- 
 crepancies, which are unavoidable in such work, occur. 
 
 Some portions of a route map are certain to be less accurate than 
 others, and the traveller should append remarks on this head, because 
 the object of all travellers surveying is to add to correct mapping, and 
 not to displace previous work by the new, without regard to the accuracy 
 which may attach to it. 
 
 Any work incorporated from a previous map should be distinguished 
 in some way to avoid confusion, and if such work has been altered to fit 
 the explorer's positions, it should be stated. 
 
 Route Survey with Prismatic Compass, Boiling-point Tliermometer, 
 and Aneroid. 
 
 For the purpose of illustration, siippose the following to be an extract 
 from a traveller's journal : — 
 
 June 1st. — Camp at the foot of hill A, and 2| miles distant from its 
 summit, the magnetic bearing of which was 146°. 
 
 To measure the height of the hill A, above the camp, I read the 
 aneroid and thermometer, first at camp and then on its summit, with 
 the following results : — At camp, aneroid, 25*67 inches ; temperature in
 
 154 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 the sluade, 70" Fahr. ; at the summit of the hill, aneroid, 24-25 inches ; 
 temperature iu the shade, 65° Fahr. At the summit of hill A, I took 
 the following bearings, and a rough sketch of the country to the north, 
 marking all prominent objects with a letter corresponding to the letter 
 given to the bearing. 
 
 Bearings taken at A: G 351° 30'; F 340=; E 326°; D 308°; C 300°; 
 B 283°. All bearings magnetic. 
 
 June '2nd, 8 A.M. — Aneroid, 257 inches; temperature in shade 78° 
 Fahr. Struck camj), and travelled in a direct line towards hill marked 
 E in the sketch, and at a distance, which I estimated to be fifteen geo- 
 graphical miles, we arrived at the right bank of a river, where we camped 
 for the night. The country over which we have passed this day is 
 destitute of trees, sandy, with patches of grass here and there, and 
 gradually sIoidgs downwards from our last camp to our present position. 
 6 P.M. : aneroid, 25'98 inches ; temperature in the shade, 68" Fahr. ; took 
 the following bearings : — 
 
 Bearings taken at camp, 2, by river : D 270° ; B 204°; A 146°; G 100°; 
 F 8°. All bearings magnetic. 
 
 June 3rr/, 8 a.m. — Aneroid, 26"05 inches; temperature in shade, 78° 
 Fahr. Struck camp, and forded the river, which, after winding in an 
 easterly direction from the hill, marked D in the sketch, to a point one 
 and a half miles N.E. by E. of the ford, takes a bend to the S.E., passing 
 to the west of the hill marked G on the sketch. At a distance of one 
 mile below the ford, a large stream from the north flows into the river. 
 Continued to travel iu the direction of E, and at noon found that we had 
 arrived at a point whore C and F and our position were in one line of 
 bearing— 81^ and 261° magnetic. During our halt, boiled a thermometer 
 and read the aneroid, with the following results : water boiled at 201'3° ; 
 aneroid, 25-62 inches; temperature in the shade, 71^ Fahr. 3 p.m. 
 Resumed our journey, and at 6'30 p.m. reached the summit of the hill E, 
 where we camped ; estimated distance travelled, nineteen geographical 
 miles. Aneroid, 24"60 inches; water boiled at 202'3°; temperature in 
 the shade, 64° Fahr. Since leaving camp this morning, the country 
 through which we passed was covered with vegetation, and we had the 
 large stream to the right of us throughout the day. From this hill, E, 
 we can see that the river we forded this morning takes its rise in the 
 range of hills to the west of our present position, and flows with a wind-
 
 COMPASS SURVEY. 155 
 
 ing course through the valley at the foot of the hill D, and so past our 
 last camping-ground. 
 
 Bearings taken at E : C 236° 30', and southern end of summit of same 
 range, H 215° ; D 174° ; B 168° ; A 146° ; G 133° ; F 118° 80'. All bearings 
 magnetic. 
 
 June ith, 8 A.M. — Aneroid, 24*65 inches ; temperature in shade, 66° 
 Falir. Set out in a N.W. direction, and having no prominent object in 
 view on the line of march, I noticed the direction in which my shadow 
 was cast, and by this means, allo-ning for the sun's apparent motion, I 
 avoided making any general deviation from the direction in which I 
 wished to travel. Arriving at a small lake, we camped, having come an 
 estimated distance of twelve geographical miles. Fixed the position of 
 the lake by bearings of C and E.* Aneroid, 25'50 inches ; temperature 
 in shade, 70° Fahr. 
 
 Bearings taken at camp, near lake : C 195° 30' ; H 185° 34' ; E 113° 30', 
 All bearings magnetic. 
 
 To Plot the Bearings : — This can be done either on the true or magnetic 
 meridian. The bearings being magnetic, it saves much trouble, and also 
 chances of errors, to plot them from the magnetic meridian. 
 
 Through the station A draw with a pencil a line to rejjresent the 
 magnetic meridian in a direction convenient for the route. Place the 
 protractor with its centre mark on A, and the 360° on tlie magnetic line, 
 and set off the bearings observed. 
 
 The second camjD being in the direction of hill E, measure 15 miles, on 
 the scale adopted, on the Line drawn toward E, which will give the position 
 of Camp 2. 
 
 From this position lay off the bearings obtained, in a similar manner, 
 baviug first drawn a magnetic meridian through it parallel to the first. 
 The intersection of two lines of bearings of any one point, as taken from 
 two different stations, wall fix the position of that point with reference to 
 the stations. If the true meridian is used, the procedure is the same, but 
 each bearing must be corrected for the variation before laying-off, which 
 can be api:)roximately ascertained from the variation maj) (p. 158). 
 
 * Take 180° from C for its opposite bearing. Add 180° to E for its opposite 
 bearing.
 
 156 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 The line drawn through A will then represent the true meridian. In 
 both cases it should be stated on the map whether the meridian is true or 
 magnetic. 
 
 Each station where bearings are taken must be plotted in a similar 
 manner to Camp 2, that is, by bearing from the last station, and by 
 estimated distance. Having by means of the first two stations fixed hills 
 off the line of march, bearings of these will assist to obtain the position 
 of the third, and so on. When no object can be seen to march for, the 
 direction must be obtained by compass bearing of the lino of march 
 obtained from time to time. 
 
 The aneroid readings, and the boiling-point, furnish us with the means 
 of ascertaining the difference in height of two stations, which may be 
 computed by the tables (see pp. 313 to 320), or, where the height is not 
 considerable, by a simple arithmetical process as follows : — 
 
 Take the sum and difference of the aneroid readings, at the upper and 
 lower station, get the mean of the temperature in the shade at the two 
 stations. Then, sum of readings : difference of readings : : 55,000 : the 
 difference in height. Increase the result thus found by -^l^ of itself for 
 every degree that the mean temperature in the shade at the two stations 
 exceeds 55"^; subtract the like amount if it is below 55"^. The aneroid 
 readings, in the example, computed by the tables and this formula, will 
 show a fairly close agreement. 
 
 Approximate g Tables 
 
 Method. '^y laoies. 
 
 Feet. Feet. 
 
 A, above Camp 1 i6o8"5 .. .. 1603*8 
 
 1st Camp above 2nd Camp 310 .... 308 '8 
 
 Foot of Range above 2nd Camp .. .. 477' 2 .. .. 475 "9 
 
 Height of Range E ii48'2 .. .. ii45'o 
 
 „ by Boiling point .. .... ii55'3 
 
 E above Lake 959*2 .. .. 956-5 
 
 For plotting the work in the field, a scale of one inch to the geographical 
 mile will exhibit all the main features of a country traversed in a day's 
 journey. Special plans miist be drawn on a scale suited to the area they 
 are intended to represent ; but whatever scale is chosen for the field work, 
 it should be large enough to admit of considerable reduction in the fair 
 plan, as by this process all errors are diminished. The projection of maps
 
 COMPASS SURVEY. 157 
 
 is purposely omitted here, as it is dealt with separately (see p. 148) ; it will, 
 however, be of great assistance to the traveller if he provides himself with 
 a blank map, on the scale of ten geographical miles to an inch, of suflQcient 
 range in latitude and longitude to include the country he intends to 
 explore. He should also procure some paper ruled with dark lines into 
 inch squares, and then again subdivided into iive smaller squares ; this 
 will be useful to him for plotting his work in the field, and should be 
 made up in the form of an ordinary sketching-block. Should the lati- 
 tude and longitude of the point of departure be known, the latitude and 
 longitude of any place on his route can be approximately determined 
 by working the traverse as directed in articles 286 and 324 of Eaper, 
 or pages 115-120 of Norie. It must not, however, be supposed that 
 an accurate survey of a large tract of country can be made with tlie 
 aneroid, prismatic compass, and boiling-point thermometer; the most 
 that a traveller could expect to do with the aid of these instruments 
 would be to make a rough sketch of the country through which he 
 passed. But instances are not wanting where travellers, by a judicious 
 use of these simple instruments, have added very considerably to our 
 geographical kcowledge. The map of Schweinfurth's journey to the 
 Welle is an example of what can be done with the material furnished by 
 such observations. 
 
 The weak points in this method of surveying are, the errors caused by 
 false estimates of the distance travelled, and those arising from the effects 
 of local attraction on the compass. Knowing these sources of error, 
 every care should be taken to guard against them. With regard to dis- 
 tance, the only safe way of estimating it is, by carefully noting the time 
 occupied in passing from one place to another. In almost all countries 
 bodies of men have a nearly uniform rate of progression, and by taking 
 an early opportunity of noting this rate, the distance traversed in 
 a known period of time can be fairly estimated. Schweinfurth, before 
 setting out on his great journey to the Welle, carefully noted the time 
 which it took him to pass over a known distance at a regular pace, to 
 which he had trained himself; and truly wonderful results have been 
 attained by native surveyors in India by following the same plan. The 
 only precautions that can be taken against the effects of local attraction 
 on the compass are, to be careful when taking a bearing to put all arms, 
 such as rifles, at some distance from the compass; as a general rule.
 
 158 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 where possible, to avoid all rocks; and to take bearings both forward 
 and backward on the route travelled, taking their mean as the magnetic 
 direction of the route. In a country thickly covered with forest it is 
 most difficult to distinguish landmarks. The traveller may, however, 
 sometimes leave a mark recognisable at some miles distance by giving 
 a little consideration to it, and knowing the direction in which he is 
 proceeding. 
 
 Enter every observation and change made in the general direction 
 travelled, with the date and time, in the journal ; as without attention 
 to this, much valuable information may be lost. When preparing MS. 
 to be sent home for publication, write each of the native names, at least 
 once, in printing character. Numerous errors and great loss of time 
 frequently result from the attempt to decipher proper names written by 
 travellers in their ordinary handwriting only. 
 
 The bearings given in the journal have been laid down on the annexed 
 map, corrected for 20° easterly variation, and will serve to illustrate the 
 manner in which this portion of the work is done.
 
 Scale Ilnch-jO Geo Miles 
 
 12 3 + 5 
 
 Published, ~by the Boval Geocp'ophuxJ/ Socintv ui "Sints to Tra^'eUers". JS53 .
 
 -1893. 
 
 trc. 
 
 15° 10" EVariatian..
 
 ( 159 ) 
 
 Hints on Use of Sextant in Subveying. 
 
 To measure the Angular Distance hetween two Objects. 
 
 When tlie horizontal angles between terrestrial objects have to be taken 
 with the sextant, the index is set to zero (0°), anil the instrument must 
 be held in the right hand in such a manner that its plane is i^arallel to 
 an imaginary line joining the two objects ; put back all the dark shades, 
 and, looking through the telescope collar and the horizon glass at the 
 right hand object, unclamp the index and move it slowly forward until 
 the reiiected image in the mirror of the horizon glass coincides with the 
 other object seen directly; clamp the index and make the coincidence 
 perfect with the tangent screw, then read the angle. Make it a rule to 
 commence taking the angles from the object farthest to the right, then 
 from the next farthest, and so on, always working from right to left. 
 By so doing mistakes will often be prevented in plotting the work, and 
 you will be able to recognise the objects from which angles have been 
 measured in your rough sketch. Avoid very large or very small angles, 
 as they may cause considerable errors in the i^ositions assigned. Should 
 it be required to measure the horizontal angle between two objects, one 
 of which is at a considerable elevation above the other, as a tree on a jDlain 
 and a mark on the toj:) of a hill, it will be necessary to select some object 
 immediately below the mark on the hill, and as nearly as possible on the 
 same level as the tree, and measure the angle subtended by them. If uo 
 object in a suitable position can be seen, select some point about 90^ or 
 100^ from one of the objects, and observe the angles between each object 
 and that point; the difference between these two angles will be the 
 horizontal angle, nearly. Should tlie angle be too large to be taken in one 
 measurement, the object to the right must be brought by reflection to 
 some well-defined mark, and the reading taken ; the angle must then be 
 measured between the mark and the other object; the sum of these 
 readings, after the index error for each measurement has been applied, 
 will be the angle required. Though the angles measured with the 
 sextant are seldom, strictly speaking, the true horizontal angles, yet the 
 errors arising from their obliquity are extremely small, if they have 
 been well chosen, and indeed would be scarcely discernible, in work
 
 160 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 plotted with the ordinary protractor, which is only divided to 30'. A 
 reference to the following diagrams will, it is hoped, make the previous 
 remarks on this subject more clearly understood. 
 
 In Fig. 1 let A B be two objects, the place of the ob.server; then the 
 objects would appear in tlie horizon glass as shown in Fig. 2, when the 
 angle was taken ; A being seen in the mirror, B by direct vision through 
 the unsilvered part. If the angle A B had to be taken by two measure- 
 ments, A C would have to be taken first, and then the angle COB; the 
 sum of these two angles, which is the angle A B, is the horizontal angle 
 between A and B', very nearly, because B is directly beneath B', and is 
 more nearly in the same horizontal plane as A. When a box sextant is 
 used the reflected image is seen above the object by direct vision. In 
 Fig. 8, if the horizontal angle between A and B had to be measured, select 
 a point such as C, more than 90° from A, and at 0, the place of the 
 observer, take the angles A C and B C ; the difference of these two 
 angles wall be more nearly the horizontal angle between A B at 0, thiin 
 the angle A B. 
 
 Table for ascertaining Heights and Distances by the Sextant. 
 
 Mui. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Div. 
 
 
 o / 
 
 / 
 
 
 I 
 
 45 oo 
 
 45 00 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 6i 26 
 
 26 u 
 18 26 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 71 M 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 75 58 
 
 24 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 •78 41 
 
 II 19 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 80 i2 
 
 9 28 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 82 52 
 
 •J 08 
 
 8 
 
 lO 
 
 84 17 
 
 5 4? 
 
 10 
 
 The sextant being set to any angle contained in the Table, any height 
 or distance of accessible or inaccessible objects may be obtained in a very 
 simple and expeditious manner. Make a mark on the object, if accessible, 
 to the height of the eye ; set the index to any angle from the Table, and 
 advance or go backwards from the object, until, by reflection, the top of 
 the object is brought by the mirrors to coincide with the mark fii-st made. 
 If the angle be greater than 45°, multiply the distance to the object by 
 the mimber in the next column to the angle in the Table ; if the angle be
 
 162 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 less than 45'', divide, and tlie result will be the height of the object from 
 the mark ; to which add the height of the eye. 
 
 If the object is inaccessible, set the index to the greatest angle in the 
 Table that the least distance from the object will admit of; move back- 
 wards and forwards until the top of the object is reflected level with the 
 eye ; at this place set up a staff equal to the height of the eye. Then set 
 the index to any of the lesser angles; go back in a line with the 
 object, until the top is made to apjiear on the level with the top of 
 the staff; fix here another mark ; measure the distance between the 
 two marks set up ; divide this by the difference of the numbers corre- 
 sponding to the angles made use of, and the quotient will be the height of 
 the object from the top of the staff; to which add the height of the eye. 
 
 If the index is set at 45°, the distance is equal to the height, minixs the 
 height of the eye. 
 
 At a given point to mark off a line perpendicular to any given direction. — 
 If this direction is not sufficiently distinguished by some natural object, 
 such as a tree, mark it by a flag set up as far off as convenient ; then, 
 standing at the given point, with the sextant set to 90°, make a man, 
 bearing a flag, stand in a line estimated as the perpendicular. Motion him 
 right or left until his flag can be seen, by reflection, to coincide with the 
 other. There let him plant his flag, so marking the direction of the 
 l^erpendicular. 
 
 Of course any other direction can be marked in the same way, setting 
 off the required angle on the sextant, instead of the 90°. 
 
 Surveys with Sextant and Pkismatic Compass.* 
 
 By Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, r.e., k.c.b. 
 
 A traveller who intends to devote a portion of his time to the survey 
 of the country he is about to visit, should consider before leaving home 
 what he is going to do, and how he will do it. The character of the 
 proposed survey, the projection to which it is to be referred, the scale or 
 scales to be adopted, the instruments to be used, should be carefully thought 
 
 * It will be understood, that if a small theodolite can be cai'ried, the work of 
 Burveying will be greatly facilitated.
 
 SEXTANT AND PKISMATIC COMPASS SURVEY. 163 
 
 over before commencing work, and there should be no hesitation when 
 once upon the ground. A decision on these points depends on various 
 considerations— such as the time and means at the disposal of the traveller, 
 the object in view, the nature and geographical position of the country, 
 &c. ; and the following notes are confined to a few hints which may be 
 useful in the field. 
 
 Projection. — When the extent of country to be laid down is small, it 
 may be treated as a plane-surface ; but when it is considerable, allowance 
 must be made for curvature, and some projection of the sphere, or a 
 portion of the sphere, adopted. The projection should be selected with 
 reference to the latitude and local peculiarities of the country to be 
 surveyed ; the sheet should be prepared before leaving home by a com- 
 petent draughtsman, and two or more copies of each taken, packed in a 
 round tin plan-case. It may happen, however, that a projection has to be 
 made in the field, and a few notes are given on the construction of 
 Mercator's, the Conical, and the Eectangular Tangential Projections 
 (see p. 148). In Mercator's Projection, the true proportions are preserved 
 between the meridians and the parallels, and the figures of the objects 
 delineated are in every part correct ; but the exaggeration at a distance 
 from the Equator is so great that, beyond 50° or 60°, a circular or 
 polar projection is i^referable. The advantage of Mercator's projection 
 is, that the bearing and distance of one place from another, as measured 
 on the map, is the same as on the globe itself; the traveller can thus 
 lay down his route upon it with great readiness. The Conical Projection 
 is well adapted for the representation of small portions of the sphere ; but 
 if the map is extended much above or below the middle latitude, the 
 distant parts will be greatly distorted. The Rectangular Tangential 
 Projection is well suited for maps on a scale of 10 miles to an inch ; and 
 the tables published by the late Sir Henry James provide the means of 
 readily constructing the sheets required. 
 
 l:icale. — For the fair plan, a scale of 10 miles to an inch is recommended, 
 for the field sketch or outdoor-work, a scale of 2 miles to the inch ; or, if 
 much detail is required, of 1 mile to the inch. The scale of 2 miles to 
 the inch has this advantage — that the ordinary sketching-card 12" x 15" 
 will contain sufficient ground— 21 miles x 30 miles— for the day's work 
 and most of the points to which bearings are taken. 
 
 The classes of Survey to which attention may be directed are — 1. A 
 
 M 2
 
 164 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 simple route-survey ; 2. A district-survey ; 3. A special survey of a small 
 tract of country ; and 4. A survey of a plot of ground containing rains, 
 &c. The only instruments supposed to be available are — sextant, watch 
 or chronometer, prismatic compass, measuring tape, aneroid, &c. 
 
 1. Houte Survey. — Arrived on the ground, the traveller must first fix, 
 with as much accuracy as possible, the position of some point on the 
 earth's surface to which his work may be referred. If he starts from 
 the coast-line, the position of some well-defined point can generally be 
 obtained from the Admiralty Charts, but if no such resource is available, 
 the position of his initial point must be determined by astronomical 
 observations. The latitude can be obtained by a good observer with a 
 6-inch sextant to about 100 yards on the earth's surface ; but the longitude 
 is seldom found by lunar distances to within ten minutes (10 miles on 
 the Equator). The position of the initial point. A, having been deter- 
 mined, work commences. The true bearing of some well-defined distant 
 peak, or other landmark, is obtained, and this having been made " zero," 
 a round of angles is taken with the sextant to conspicuous objects, some of 
 which should be in the direction of the proposed line of march, and, if 
 possible, near the first halting-place. Several observations of the zero- 
 point are made with the comi^ass, the needle being deflected each time, to 
 obtain the variation, and the aneroid read for altitude. All angles should 
 be booked at once in ink, and the names of the observed objects carefully 
 noted ; a rough outline-sketch of the peaks or other landmarks will be 
 foiiud useful in identifying points as the work proceeds. The initial 
 point. A, is pricked off on the sketching-card in a suitable position for 
 laying down the day's march, and surrounded by a circle ; the observed 
 angles are plotted ; and a magnetic meridian is di-awn ; all is then ready 
 for plotting the route. The compass is set up at A, and the sights of the 
 instrument are directed on some object, V , in the direction of the line of 
 march ; the bearing of V is read off and plotted from A on the field-sheet 
 by means of the protractor ; bearings are then taken to conspicuous objects 
 such as X, which appear to Lie near the line of march, and these are 
 likewise plotted. The march now commences in the direction of A V , and 
 is continued to the point h, where the route is found to turn to the right ; 
 the distance A h, measured during the march, is laid down upon the field- 
 sheet, and the point h, surrounded by a circle ; the compass is then set 
 up at h, and the bearing of an object, c', in the direction of the new line of
 
 SEXTANT AND PKISMATIC COMPASS SUKVEY. 
 
 165 
 
 march, read off and plotted from b on the field-sheet ; bearings are also 
 taken to objects, such as X, Y, on either side of the route, and plotted ; 
 the point X having also been observed from A, is now fixed. The march 
 is again taken ujd in the direction b c' until a point c is reached, at which 
 the road bends to the left, the distance b c laid down, and so on until camp 
 B is reached. At B, observations should be made in the evening for time 
 and latitude ; and in the morning, observations similar to those which 
 
 have been made at A. Should the camp be near one of the jDoints 
 observed to from A, the distance and true bearing of such point from B 
 should be determined, with a view of fixing its position. At certain 
 camps the longitude should be found by lunar distances, or other methods, 
 to serve as a check on the traverse-survey. Distances on the line of march 
 may be measured by counting or timing the paces of a man, or by counting 
 or timing the paces of a horse, mixle, camel, &c., whose length of step is
 
 166 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 known. Timc-mcasnrement will be found mcst convenient, and, with 
 care, will give very good results. Compass-hearings need only be taken 
 at every second station on the line of inarch. 01)jects on either hand 
 should, where possible, be fixed by three bearings. It is not desirable 
 to take compass-bearings to points more than 6 or 7 miles distant, as the 
 prismatic compass can seldom be depended upon to within one degree, 
 and an error of this amount in 6 or 7 miles would give an error of 'OS inch 
 on a scale of 2 miles to the inch. If the route runs near a peak, of 
 which the true bearing has been determined from A, it should be as- 
 cended, and a round of angles taken with the sextant, making A the 
 zero-point. When there is a mid-day halt, the meridian altitude of the 
 sun should be observed. If a field-sketch cannot be kept uy>, the route 
 should be entered in a field-book, and afterwards plotted, before details 
 are forgotten. A book — with every alternate page ruled into squares by 
 strong lines, and subdivided by finer lines, the smaller squares represent- 
 ing five minute intervals of time, the larger ones one hour — will be found 
 of great use in making a rough sketch of the route ; or a modification 
 of the form used in booking a traverse-survey may be adopted. In all 
 cases the bearings, distances, &c., should be clearly written in the book. 
 
 In this field- sketch the ground has been treated as a plane siu'face, and 
 as soon as convenient the work should be transferred to the projection on 
 the fair jilan. In doing this it becomes necessary to calcialate the latitudes 
 and longitudes of the camps, and other jjoints, from the material provided 
 by the survey ; when this has been done, the fixed points are laid down in 
 their true positions on the maj), and the detail reduced to the i^roj^er 
 scale. 
 
 2. District Survey. — The basis of any survey of an extensive district 
 should be a system of triangulation, and the first step is the measurement 
 of a base line. With no instruments except a sextant, tape and prismatic 
 compass, the best plan is to measure an astronomical base, and thence 
 extend the triangulation as far as may be necessary. Two suitable points, 
 A and B, lying nearly north and south of each other, are selected as the 
 ends of the proposed base ; the position of A on the earth's surfi^ce is 
 detei'mined at the jjoiut itself, the true bearing of B from A is obtained, 
 and B having been made zero, a round of angles is taken with the sextant 
 to conspicuous points ; camp is then moved to the vicinity of B, and 
 observations for latitude made at that jDoint ; the true bearing of A from B
 
 SEXTANT AND PKISMATIO COMPASS SUEVEY. 167 
 
 is then obtained, and a round of angles taken to the points previously 
 observed to from A. The length of the base A B can then be computed and 
 the position of several of the points observed to from A and B determined. 
 The fixed points are next laid down on the field-sheet, and the detail 
 filled in with the prismatic compass. In this way the triangulation may 
 be extended over the district to be surveyed, care being taken to 
 check the work occasionally by observations for latitixde at selected 
 points. 
 
 The following notes and problems* will be found useful in constructing 
 the map : — 
 
 Problem I. — Let A and B be two stations visible from one another, 
 AP = &, BP = a, their observed co-latitudes; the angles A and B their 
 
 reciprocal true azimuths; and A P B, or P, the required angular 
 difference of longitude. Then by spherical trigonometry — 
 
 Cot.iP=^^||±|tao.J(A+B) 
 
 which determines P. 
 
 Problem II. — The latitude and longitude of any point being known, that 
 of any other point within a short distance can be determined by i^lanc 
 trigonometry. Suppose the latitude and longitude of the camp at A to be 
 known, whence that of a neighboiiring peak or land-mark, C, is to be 
 determined ; the distance A C must be measured, and the azimuth N C A 
 observed, then the difference of longitude AB is the sine of A C B to radius 
 
 * Problems II.-V. are taken from Frome's ' Outline of a Trigonometrical 
 Survey,' revis'd by Major-General fcjir C. Warren, k.e.
 
 168 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 AC, and the difference of latitude B C is the co-sine to the same angle and 
 radius. 
 
 Froblem III. — The distance between two places is generally resolved 
 by plane trigonometry, the difference of latitude S L, and the azimuth, 
 S'S L, called the course, forming a right-angled triangle, in which S S', the 
 distance, is determined : the other side L S', termed departure, being the 
 sum of all the meridional distances passed over. 
 
 DEPARTORE s' 
 
 Problem IV. — Given the distance travelled on a given parallel of 
 latitude to find the difference of longitude. 
 Again, in the triangle A B C, let A B represent the distance or departure.
 
 SEXTANT AND PRISMATIC COMPASS SURVEY. 
 
 169 
 
 and the angles B A C be equal to the latitude, then A C, the hypothenuse 
 will be equal to the difference in the longitude. 
 
 Prohlem V. — Given the departure to find the diflference of longitude. 
 
 Also, if D B reijresent the distance, and C D the difference of latitude, 
 then BCD will be a right angle, and B C the departure, nearly equal to the 
 meridian distance in the middle latitude. If, then, in the triangle ABC 
 the angle A B C be measured by that middle latitude, A B, the hypothenuse 
 will be nearly equal to the difference of longitude between D and B. 
 
 For the variation of the compass, it is convenient to take a bearing of 
 the sun at sunset or sunrise ; or, if this cannot be done, an azimuth of 
 the sun at any time three hours before or after noon will answer equally 
 
 well. From the angular distance between the sun, when its own diameter is 
 above the horizon, and any well-defined peak, measured with the sextant 
 the true bearing can be obtained. 
 
 To find the sun's true amplitude for any day : — to the log-secant of the 
 latitude, rejecting the index, add the log-sine of the sun's declination 
 corrected for the time and place of observation. Their sum will be the 
 log-sine of the true ami^litude. If the true and magnetic amiDlitudes be 
 both north or both south, their difference is the variation ; but if one be 
 north and the other south, their sum is the variation; and to know 
 whether it be easterly or westerly, suppose the observer looking towards 
 that point of the compass representing the magnetic amplitude ; then, if 
 the true amplitude be to the right hand of the magnetic, the variation is 
 east, but if to the left hand, it is west.
 
 170 
 
 HINTS 'i'O TRAVELLERS. 
 
 In filling in a survey, the observer can fix liis position, C, by observing 
 two fixed points, A and B, and plotting from those points tlie opposite 
 bearings to tliosc observed; their intersection fixes tlie point required. 
 The nearer the two bearings meet at a right angle the more correct will 
 the point be determined, and, if a third fixed point is visible, a bearing to 
 it will act as a check on the other. 
 
 A third and accurate method of fixing the position is by the angles 
 subtended between three known objects. The instrument called the 
 station-pointer is generally used for this purpose ; but the position may 
 also be found with a pair of compasses and protractor, or, more simply. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 as follows, by means of a protractor and a sheet of tracing paper. Draw 
 a line through the centre of the paper ; place the protractor on it near to 
 the bottom of the sheet; lay off the right-hand angle to the right, and the 
 left-hand angle to the left of the centre-line ; rule pencil-lines, radiating 
 from the point over which the centre of the protractor has been placed, 
 to the points that have been laid off; then place the paper on the plan or 
 map, and move it about until the thi-ee lines coincide with the objects 
 taken; prick through the point that lay beneath the centre of the 
 protractor, and the observer's position is transferred to the plan. When 
 possible, the centre object should be the nearest.
 
 SEXTANT AND PKISMATIC COMPASS SURVEY. 
 
 171 
 
 Any object whose true bearing is ecast or west must be in the same 
 latitude as the i^lace of the observer. 
 
 Any object whose true bearing is north or south must be in the same 
 longitude as the observer. 
 
 3. S2)ecial survey of a small tract of country, with compass and tape 
 only. — First walk over the ground and examine it, with a view to the 
 selection of prominent points for stations, and of a level space for the 
 
 A B — Main line. 
 , jj j^ > — Principal triangles. 
 C c— Tie line. 
 
 measurement of a base. Having fixed upon a base, A B, set the compass 
 up at A, and take a round of bearings to B and other selected stations, 
 C, D, E, &c. ; then mark A on the field-sheet, in such a position as will 
 enable the whole sketch to go on the sheet, and protract the several 
 bearings from it. Mark A on the ground with a pile of stones or staff, 
 measure the base A B with the tape or by pacing, lay the distance down 
 on the field-sheet to the adopted scale, set the compass up at B, and take
 
 172 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 a round of bearings to A, C, D, E, &c. These bearings are now plotted, 
 and their intersections with the bearings from A fix C, D, E, &c. ; in this 
 manner a rough triangulation is established, and a number of points fixed, 
 by the aid of which the detail can be filled in. 
 
 The paper, or field-sheet, for sketching with a prismatic compass, 
 should have parallel lines at unequal distances ruled upon it, to be 
 considered as east and west lines. 
 
 4, Survey of a jjlot of ground containing ruins, &c. — In making a survey 
 with a tape alone, we are confined to the simplest geometrical figure — the 
 triangle, as it is the only one of which the form cannot be altered if the 
 sides remain constant. In carrying out such a survey, divide the svirface 
 into a series of imaginary triangles, as large as the nature of the ground 
 will admit of, and attend to the following rules : — 
 
 1. Do not be in a hurry to commence work, but walk over the ground, 
 and make a rough eye-sketch of it on paper. 
 
 2. Select two points, as far apart as possible, visible from each other, 
 and commanding a good view ; let the points be near the boundaries of 
 the ground, and so situated that the line joining them forms a sort of 
 diagonal; this becomes the main line. 
 
 3. Select a point on each side of the main line, near the boundary of 
 the work, to which lines can be measured from each end of it, thus giving 
 two largo triangles ; then measure a check, or tie line, from one of the 
 vertices to a point at, or near the middle of the opposite side. 
 
 4. On the sides of these triangles, erect smaller ones to embrace all the 
 ground to be surveyed. 
 
 5. Measure lines from any station laid down, or from any part of a line 
 connecting two of them in directions most convenient for obtaining the 
 detail, taking offsets to such objects as present themselves. 
 
 The interiors of large buildings should be measured in a somewhat 
 similar way, by dividing them into imaginary triangles, and measuring tie 
 lines. 
 
 The great principle in all surveys is to work from a whole to the parts ; 
 errors are thus subdivided and time and labour economised.
 
 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING. 173 
 
 The following symbols are recommended for adoption : — 
 
 Z 's signifies angles. 
 
 ^ a station in the triangulation. 
 
 © 
 
 fixed by 
 
 ■ latitude. 
 
 
 
 
 longitude. 
 
 ® » 
 
 
 lat. and long. 
 
 <> " 
 
 
 true bearing. 
 
 >l . 
 
 
 right tangent. 
 
 K .. 
 
 
 left „ 
 
 Surveying with the Plane Table. 
 
 (^For a description of this instrument, see p. 124.) 
 
 The first thing for the traveller to decide on, in commencing a survey, 
 is the direction and extent of his base ; and, as no special instructions 
 can be given for a base suitable for all sui-veys, it is a matter in which 
 he must exercise his own discretion, bearing in mind the following 
 points : that the length of the base line should not be out of proportion 
 to the distance of the points to be fixed, and that the fij'st jioints to be 
 fixed must be visible from both ends of the base line. The length of the 
 base should be accurately measured, or determined by observation. The 
 direction of the base line must depend on the positions of the points 
 to be fixed, as, when the angles subtended are either too obtuse or too 
 acute, a small error in the alignment will produce a large one in the 
 survey. 
 
 Having decided on a base line, call it A B (Fig. 1, p. 174), set up the 
 plane table over A, and arrange the board so that the direction of a h will suit 
 the jDOsition of the first portion of the survey. Level it by moving the legs 
 of the tripod, and using the circular level on the ruler. Clamp the table, 
 and mark a jDoint on the paper in any convenient position, to represent 
 A on the ground, call this a. Stick a pin in at a, and, placing the 
 fiducial edge of the ruler against this pin, turn the ruler about until the 
 other end of the base, B, can be seen through the slit on one of the alidade 
 sights, on the wii-eof the other sight, then draw a line along the fiducial edge
 
 174 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 from a towards h, and take the distance from A to B with the compasses 
 from the scale on wliich it has been decided to construct the map ; set it off 
 on the line just drawn, and mark it h ; then a 6 on the board will represent 
 the base line A B on the ground. Now set the sights in turn on the other 
 points it is desired to fix, and, keeping the fiducial edge of the ruler 
 against the pin at a, dra:w faint lines to each of them. To prevent 
 mistakes, these lines, called " rays," should be marked with reference 
 numbers indicating the object to which they arc drawn, or the name of 
 each object should be written against the line drawn to it. Having done 
 this, place the compass on the table, and turn it about until the needle 
 points exactly to the centre mark in the compass box, which will be 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 magnetic north, then draw a dark line upon the paper, along the edge of 
 the compass box, which can be afterwards used for orienting the table as 
 explained (page 179). 
 
 Having drawn all the rays at station A, remove the table to station B, 
 set it up and level it in the manner before described ; then stick a pin at 
 b, place the fiducial edge of the ruler against it, and against a. Unclamp 
 the table, and tiu-n it about until the sights are directed on A, then 
 clamp the table, and it will be in a position to continue the work. The 
 process of pivoting the ruler against the pin, and directing the sights on 
 the objects to be fixed, is to be repeated precisely in the same manner 
 as at station A, and the points where the rays drawn from b intersect the
 
 PLANE TABLE SUKVEYING. 175 
 
 rays drawn from a will be the position of eacli object on the map. Fig. 1, 
 p. 174, illustrates the manner in which the work is done. 
 
 To continue the survey by ohtaining fresh rays to objects from another 
 station.— First orient the table correctly, and find the position of that 
 station on the board. 
 
 By orienting is meant placing the table in such a position that the 
 north and south line on it shall correspond with the magnetic north and 
 south ; or, what is the same thing, so that the line drawn between any 
 two stations on the board shall be parallel to the line between the 
 stations on the ground. 
 
 The position on the board of the station at which the board is set up 
 can be found, and the board oriented in a variety of ways. 
 
 (1.) When the station has been fixed hy two rays from the ends of the base 
 or from other stations, all that has to be done is to place a pin in the 
 board at the station mark, lay the fiducial edge of the ruler against it 
 and against the mark on the board indicating the most distant station 
 from which a ray has been drawn, turn the board until the sights are in 
 a line with A, and clamp the board which is then oriented. 
 
 (2.) To find the joosition ivhen only one ray has been drawn to the station : — 
 Set up the table over the station to be fixed, say D (Fig. 1, p. 174) and 
 place the fiducial edge of the ruler along the ray that has been drawn, 
 say a, d, turn the table until the sights align on A, clamp the table which 
 will then be oriented. Place a pin in at b on the table and turn the ruler 
 about until it is aligned on B, and draw a line which will intersect the 
 line already drawn at d on the table, the position required. 
 
 Eepeating the last operation with other fixed stations will, if the lines 
 intersect, give certainty to the new position. 
 
 It may be mentioned that it is always preferable to choose a station 
 which has one ray already drawn to it, to fixing by any of the following 
 methods. 
 
 (3.) To find the position when no ray has been drawn to it, but ivith the 
 fixed 2Mints on the board, the following methods may be emjiloyed. 
 
 With three visible stations, ABC (Fig. 2), represented on the table by 
 ab c, the table can be oriented, and the position of an unknown point x 
 found. 
 
 First Method. — Fix a pin in the point b on the plane table, and 
 placing the ruler against it and the point a, with the object and sight
 
 176 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 towards n, turn tho table about until the point A is intersected ; then, 
 clamping the table in this position, turn the ruler and intersect the 
 point C, with the edge of the ruler still against the pin at h, and draw 
 the line b m : — Now remove the pin to the point a, and unclamp the 
 tabic, place the ruler against tho pin at a, and the point b, and turn 
 about the table until the point B is intersected (vide 2) ; clamp the 
 table again, and, having intersected the point C as before, draw the 
 line a n. Through the intersection x> of the lines a n and b m, draw 
 
 Fig. 
 
 the line c 'p q passing through the point c, and, placing the edge of 
 the ruler against this line, unclamp the table once more, and turn it 
 about until the point C is intersected {vide 3) ; now clamp the table, 
 and it will be oriented, and the unknown point x will be situated on 
 the line c p q; to find this point it is merely necessary to place the pin 
 at a, and intersect the point A ; draw the line A a x. The accuracy of 
 the operation is tested by intersecting the other point B in the same
 
 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING. 
 
 177 
 
 manner, and drawing the line B b x, wliicli should intersect the line A ax 
 on the line cp q, thus giving the position of x on this line. 
 
 When the point c, with regard to the point as, is situated on the other 
 side of the line A B or below it, the lines a n and b m will intersect on 
 the opposite side of the line a b, to that on which c is, and, if the point x be 
 situated within the triangle ABC, these lines (a n and bm) will diverge 
 instead of converge, in which case they must be prolonged in the opposite 
 
 Fig. ^.—{Good.) 
 
 direction until they intersect for the point p. The accuracy of this result 
 dejiends upon the length of the line c p. 
 
 Second Method. — Fasten a piece of tracing paper over the survey with 
 drawing-pins, stick a pin in at any point x on the table (Fig. 3), place 
 the fiducial edge of the ruler against it and point the sights in turn on 
 the stations ABC, on the ground, represented by a b c on the plan, 
 drawing lines towards yoii on each occasion until they meet at x. Now 
 take out the pins that fasten the tracing ]iaper to the board, and shift 
 
 N
 
 178 
 
 HINTS TO ']'i;avi;i,i,kus. 
 
 it about until cacli of the linos ijasses tlirongh its corrcsiK^nding station, 
 as shown ou Fig. '6. I'rick through x, which will be your i^osition on 
 tho plan. 
 
 Fig. i.-iBad.) 
 
 In using this method, however, care must be taken to select objects 
 placed so that the centre one shall be the nearer, or the position found 
 may be considerably in error. 
 
 For example, a position obtained by this method from objects as in
 
 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING. 179 
 
 Fig. 4 would be of little value, as x on the tracing paper could bo moved 
 considerably to the right and left without displacing the several lines on 
 the tracing paper oflf the stations a h c on the board. 
 
 For further information on this subject, see a pamphlet, ' On the 
 Station Pointer,' published by the Admiralty, and sold by J. D. Potter, 
 31, Poultry, E.G. 
 
 (4.) Orienting and fixiny by the Compass. — Set up the table over the 
 station X to be fixed, represented by x on the board (Fig. 5, i^. 178) ; place 
 the edge of the compass-box against a line drawn on the paper where the 
 needle pointed to north at one of the previous stations, imclamp the 
 table, and turn it about until the needle again points to north. Clamp 
 the table, which will then be oriented. Stick in a pin at a. Place the 
 fiducial edge of the ruler against it, and turn it until the sights point 
 to A on the ground; draw a line toAvards you by the ruler, and the 
 desired point will be somewhere on this line. 
 
 Stick a pin in at h, and with the fiducial edge of the ruler against it, 
 turn the sights on B on the ground, draw a line towards you by the 
 ruler, and the intersection with the line drawn from a will be x, the point 
 desired. Using C in the same way will prove the accuracy of the work. 
 
 Shiftijifj tJie Paper. — When one sheet is full and it becomes necessary to 
 replace it by a new one, to continue the survey, it may be done in the 
 following manner : — Draw a line through the farthest point fixed from 
 the last station. Take the sheet off the table and fix another on, drawing 
 a line upon it in a part most convenient for the work ; then cut the 
 sheet just taken off, by the line drawn on it ; apply this edge to the line 
 on the new sheet, and as they lie in that position, continue the lines from 
 the other station on the new paper, and prick through the positions of as 
 many stations that have been fixed on the old sheet as you conveniently 
 can. If the positions of three fixed points are thus transferred to the new 
 sheet, the place of a new station can be found in the manner shown in 
 Figs. 2 or 8. On each new sheet place the compass, and revolve the table 
 until the needle points to north, and then draw a dark line which will 
 represent magnetic north, unless the needle is deflected by the influence of 
 local attraction. The better plan, if provided with a watch and sextant, 
 will be to find the true bearings of some conspicuous object, in the 
 manner shown on i)age 236, and mark it on the table. 
 
 To joiji the sheets together, and thus form one rough ma^j, place the 
 
 N 2
 
 180 HINTS TO TRAVELLEKS. 
 
 edge of the sheet that has l)een cut accnrately against the h'ne drawn 
 on the new slieot, and with the aid of the rnler, Koe that the line 
 projected on the new sheet from the last station (on the sheet that 
 has been removed), is an exact continuation of tlie corresponding line 
 on thnt sheet. 
 
 Broken Survey. — The directions given above comprise briefly the 
 fundamental rules of more accurate plane-tabling. 
 
 A map, however, may be, and often must be, constructed without the 
 continuous connection of fixed points from sheet to sheet, as is above 
 suggested, and which, in the rough work of an ordinary journey, is 
 frequently imiwssible. 
 
 The traveller may often find that the station from which he wishes 
 to observe rays is beyond the limits of his last sheet, and that none 
 of his fixed points will fall upon it. 
 
 In this case he must assume a convenient point on his board as his 
 position, turn the board in a suitable direction with regard to what 
 he wishes to do, and sighting, if possible, one of his old stations, draw 
 a line towards it. Should another former station be visible, another line 
 should be drawn to it. The magnetic meridian must also be drawn by 
 means of the compass. These three lines will enable him to place his 
 new sheet in proper relation to his former one, by arranging them with 
 the meridian lines parallel, and moving one until the continuation of the 
 lines passes through the two former stations. They can then be pasted 
 together in that position, joining them by another strip of paper, if 
 necessary. 
 
 Even should there be no fixed stations in view, rays dravra to objects 
 he wishes to fix will be useful, always supposing that he can afterwards 
 fix the position by rays drawn from other stations, never omitting to 
 lilace the magnetic meridian on the sheet. 
 
 New bases must occasionally be measured, and it will be found that 
 one of the chief charms of such surveying lies in surmounting difliculties 
 in the construction of the map. Devices for so doing will suggest them- 
 selves in increasing niimbers as the ti'aveller gains experience. 
 
 Though reliance on the compass should be avoided if possible, from 
 its uncertainty, owing to local attraction, recourse must frequently be had 
 to it, and under favoural)le circumstances, iilane-tabling by its aid gives 
 excellent results.
 
 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING. 181 
 
 Concluding Remarks. — On leaving a station, the traveller, when possible, 
 should leave some distinguishing mark behind him, so that he may be 
 able to recognise it again. Where it is possible, as will freqiiently be the 
 case, he must carefully note the changes which take place in the 
 landscape during his march; he will also do well to write on the plane 
 table sheets the native names of such hills, or conspicuous objects, as 
 he may have fixed on the table, as natives generally know these oI)jects 
 again when viewed from another station, which, from their changed 
 appearance, a stranger would be very unlikely to do. Paper mounted 
 on very thin cloth, and cut to the size of the plane table, will be found 
 serviceable, as it will not easily tear, and can be rolled up and kept in 
 a tin case until wanted. The traveller should also provide himself with 
 a waterproof case into which he can slip the plane table in the event of 
 heavy rain. 
 
 From each station draw in the features of the ground around it as far 
 as you are able. Hough sketches, made in a sketch-book, will help to 
 complete the drawing, and the work from other stations, when you have 
 obtained the rays from them. 
 
 A pocket (or box) sextant is a valuable adjunct for plane-tabling, as in 
 certain cases the objects may be so crowded in one direction as to confuse 
 the rays if they are all drawn on the board. Angles measured and 
 recorded in a note-book can be plotted hereafter when working up the 
 plan in the tent. 
 
 The scale on which to work must depend entirely on the nature of the 
 country, and the objects in view. For a small tract of country, with 
 much detail, one inch to the mile is good. For more extended areas 
 two or four miles, or even more, to the inch is sufficient. 
 
 Remarks on the Plane TahJe. — By Lt.-Coh B. H. Oodwin-Ansten, F.R.S. 
 
 The Plane Table is one of the most useful instruments that an cxj^lorer 
 can take with him, and the most accurate for the large areas of country 
 he usually has to deal with ; not of the small size constructed in this 
 country, but one similar to tliose used in all extended survey operations 
 in India. Its excellence lies in simplicity, which recommends it strongly 
 for the traveller or for reconnaissaacc work. All additions made to it,
 
 182 HINTS TO TkAVELL-ERB. 
 
 all attempts at converting it either into a theodolite, or a level, detract 
 from its value, its portability, and possibility of repair if damaged. It is 
 a siiii])lo table and nothing more, and if required to be kept out of sight 
 will ])uss as such in the eyes of inquisitive natives — complicated brass 
 work readily excites suspicion, from the fact that they do not understand 
 what use it can be for, and any attempt to explain matters only increases 
 their distrust. 
 
 A plane table, 2 ft. G in. x 2 ft., can be made light, of good seasoned 
 deal (])aiiclled). The traveller should take two of this size, and have 
 his pai)er properly projected, with latitude and longitude on a scale of 
 8 or ]() miles to the inch, the former of which will embrace an area 
 of 232 X 184 miles, leaving an inch margin, although a plane talile 
 can be woiked up to the extreme edge. On this scale I have worked 
 successfully in Assam and the Naga Hills, and for fixing the jwsition of 
 peaks and hills, &c., at long distances it is invaluable. The tripod-stand 
 is available for the other instruments, but even this is not required on 
 all occasions, as a temporary tripod-stand can be made in a few minutes 
 with three sticks tied together in the middle.* Even when the atmo- 
 sphere is too hazy to see distant objects, or the traveller is passing 
 through a forest-country, traverse work with prismatic compass can l>e 
 projected upon the plane table, or the astronomical positions plotted in, 
 and the plane table work resumed as soon as circumstances }")ermit. 
 Better still than using a prismatic comj^ass, is to gum a fresh sheet of 
 paper by its edges upon the plane table, and on some convenient 
 scale, say 1 inch to the mile, the route can be sketched by back and 
 forward rays, and setting the plane table by compass. This route-sketch 
 can then be reduced and entered on the smaller scale plane table section. 
 
 A far wider area of country is sketched in by this method than by the 
 use of the prismatic compass, an instrument which cramps the observer 
 (es]iecially a young one), so that the result of such surveys is generally a 
 long line of route with but little work on either side, and that little con- 
 fined to a mere mile or two. It is improbable that error will creep into 
 the plane table work; whereas a few errors in recording prismatic compass 
 
 * AVlien surveying the Bhutan Himalaya from Darjiling to Punakha, after 
 losing my piano table stand in tlie snow, cro.ssing the Tegong-La, I worked on 
 very well with such a stand for several weeks.
 
 PLANE TABLE SUKVEYING. 183 
 
 bearings or distances can never be corrected, often never discovered, unless 
 the ground is gone over again. The plane table sketch is made on the spot, 
 the country is put in as seen by the eye at the time, and when the tra- 
 veller reaches camp, or his breakfasting-place, he can ink it in. If he be 
 travelling in a dangerous country, where he may have to leave any of his 
 equi]iment, and make for some other place — not an unlikely contingency 
 at times — he has only to keep a copy of his work on tracing cloth, tilling 
 it in from time to time to carry in his pocket. During the year of the 
 Indian Mutiny, when working in the Kashmir territory, under circum- 
 stances which rendered the survey liable to be stopped at any moment, we 
 followed this plan by Captain Montgoinerie's order, and, had anything 
 hajipencd, not a square mile of country finished would have been lost. 
 
 I do not think that the accuracy of plane table work, or the rapidity 
 with which it can be done, is known and appreciated in this country. 
 To show its accuracy, 1 once tested it over about 80 miles in direct line 
 on the scale of four miles to the inch, when carrying the triangulation 
 across the Naga Hills from Assam into Manipur. I worked with a piano 
 table, and fixed the points on it, at the same time sketching the country, 
 and it proved wonderfully exact Avhen the triangles came to be computed, 
 and the trigonometrical stations ijrojected on it. It does not take longer 
 to set lip and conuuence working on a plane table than to get out a 
 prismatic compass. About four times, or more, the number of bearings 
 can be taken with the Ibrmer than with the latter in the same time, 
 while the plane table bearings have the merit of being absolutely true, 
 and are all observed, and laid down the next moment, with a stroke of the 
 pencil, and after practice almost in the exact position on the pai>er. No 
 set of angles laid off with the best protractor can be so accurate. 
 
 The different value and extent of the work in Afghanistan, and at the 
 Cape, executed during the late campaigns, shows conclusively the value 
 of plane table survey over the prismatic compass. 
 
 As a practical illustration : — Working at the same time with an oflScer 
 of the Quartermaster-General's Department on service, making a sketch 
 of a fort and country round, my plane table survey was finished and 
 traced off when he had only begun the plotting in his tent. The run of 
 the mountain-spurs around such a position could never have been entered 
 on a plan produced from a field book. 
 
 There is no measuring, no counting of paces or noting of time by
 
 184 illNTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 a watcli, no auxicty about the record, when plane-tabling. Between 
 the intervals of setting up the board, the traveller can be botanizing, 
 geologizing, or collecting objects of Natural History, and in the evening, 
 when he comes in from his work of the day, he can sort and label his 
 specimens and write up his journal, the greater part of which leisure time 
 he would have to give up to the plotting of the day's work, if done with 
 prismatic compass. 
 
 One of the objections often brought against the use of the plane table, 
 is its size and weight. This would be true if the traveller had to 
 carry it himself. According to my experience in Asia, and what I 
 know of Africa, where laboiu- is, as a rule, plentiful and cheap, a plane 
 table 'can always be carried by a native of the country, who at the same 
 time would take the aneroid and boiling-point thermometers. In India 
 the giiides often carried the stand. It is seldom that a European is called 
 on to carry anything in a tropical country. The plane table can be 
 made as light as a gun or rifle, and reduced in size (2 ft. x 1^ ft.), together 
 with a light tripod-stand, could be carried by any lad of 15 or IG, as was 
 formerly the method of instruction at the E. M. C, Sandhurst. 
 
 Another objection raised is the possibility of its getting spoilt by wet. 
 This is very easily avoided. It should slip into a waterproof bag, and 
 if used in a very wet climate, such as the Khasi Hills, a small water- 
 proof sheet can be thrown over all. After working with it for years, and 
 having sketched many thousand square miles of every kind of country 
 from dead level plains to the highest parts of the Himalaya, I never got 
 one injured, and I never had one brought in by any of my assistants spoilt 
 or injured in the least. 
 
 There is nothing about it to be broken, or get out of order, the sight- 
 rule is of so simple a construction, any village blacksmith can make one 
 should it get lost; and I once had to do this, cutting out the woodwork 
 myself, and getting a native workman in the village to make the back 
 and forward sights out of copper coins. The staud is easily repaired. 
 The traveller should take a spare clamping-screw, and a spare compass. 
 
 The compass-box should be of narrow oblong form, having a perfectly 
 plane surface beneath, so as to lie flat on the board, not fixed to the 
 plane table (as was done in the Sandhurst pattern). The needle should 
 be at least 4 inches in length, and the north and south ends of the compass- 
 box should have an arc graduated a few degrees on either side of the central
 
 SURVEYING WITH THE TACHEOMETER. 185 
 
 line. At the first station where the plane table is set np and adjusted by 
 the surrounding projecting points or the first rays taken, the compass-box 
 is to be placed on some convenient part of the plane table, and moved 
 until the needle points exactly to the centre division of the graduated 
 arc. A pencil line should then be drawn along one side of the comjDass- 
 box, against which line it will always have to be laid when setting up the 
 plane table by it. 
 
 But here I may call attention to another strong point in favour of the 
 plane table, and that is, that it can be used quite independently of the 
 compass, in places where local attraction is great, and where, as I have 
 often found, the magnetic needle is quite unreliable, throwing the plane 
 table out many degrees, an error which would not be discovered if 
 working with a prismatic compass. With three fixed points on the plane 
 table, it can be set up in true position by interpolation (see jd. 175). 
 This method, however, should be resorted to only for filling in details. 
 For extended work, the plane table should be set up, wherever possible, 
 on rays taken from jjreviously fixed stations. 
 
 Surveying with the Tacheometeb. 
 
 (^For description of this instrument, see j). I'iO.) 
 
 The method of surveying with such a tacheometer as that shown 
 (page 121), is, as regards fixing positions of distant objects, the same 
 as with the jirismatic compass. This instrument has, however", this 
 advantage over the prismatic compass, that distant objects are seen much 
 more distinctly through the telescope, and the bearings can therefore be 
 more accurately taken than when the ordinary sight vanes, of the 
 prismatic compass, are used. In addition to which, the compass is 
 larger than the prismatic compass usually carried by the traveller. The 
 principal advantage of the tacheometer, however, will be found when it 
 is employed for fixing positions within comparatively short distances. 
 This is done by sending an assistant to the spot it is desired to fix, with a 
 staff such as is shown (fig. 2, p. 123), and with the micrometers, measuring 
 the angle it subtends when held (either horizontally or perpendicularly) 
 at right angles to the line of sight, at the same time taking the compass
 
 186 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 reading throngli the prism. With the angle measured by the micro- 
 meters, if a ten-foot staff has been used, knowing the value of the micro- 
 meter divisions, the distance of the object can be at once obtained from 
 table XXIV. With the distance so found, and the bearinf,' which has 
 been taken, the position of the object can be at once laid down on the 
 survey by setting out the bearing from the point of ol)servation, and 
 tlien measuring the distance, taken from the scale f)f the map. 
 
 With any other length of stafi" than ten feet, table XXIY. (p. 307) cannot 
 be used, and the distance of the object will have to be computed. It is 
 usual when observing the angle subtended by the staff, to measure half of it 
 with each micrometer, the sum of which measures, will, of course, be the 
 whole angle subtended. The distance from the staif is computed in the 
 following manner : — Multiply the total number of divisions used in each 
 micrometer by the value of a single division of that micrometer, add the 
 results together, and this will be the value of angle in seconds. Divide the 
 length of the staff, in feet, by the angle in seconds and multiply the 
 result by the cosecant of 1" = 206265. This will give the distance between 
 the instrument and the staff, in feet. 
 
 Kxamph: — Length of staff, 12 feet; divisions used, Left Micrometer, 
 581*9, value of each division, 2""31 ; Eight Microm.eter, 5752, value of 
 each division, 2"04. 
 
 Uiglit Micrometer. 
 575-2 
 
 2"04 
 
 2joo8 
 1 1 504 
 
 
 
 
 Left Micrometer. 
 
 
 
 
 581-9 
 
 
 
 
 2-JI 
 
 
 
 
 5819 
 
 
 
 
 i"457 
 IT638 
 
 
 IJ44-I89 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 '/Og. 
 
 I-og, 
 . 2;i 
 
 . 12 
 7-6 
 
 = i'o';9i8i 
 = J -400986 
 
 1I7J-408 
 IJ44-189 
 
 The aiiglf in seconds = 25i-;.59'j 
 
 j-6'j8i9? 
 Cosoc. 1"^ 206265 Log. = 5-314425 
 
 Log. distance in feet, 98j-2 = 2-992620 
 
 The rod, though convenient, is not, however, absolutely necessary, as 
 distances can be measured by this class of tacheometer without it, by 
 making an assistant set up two staves at a carefuUy-iueasured distance
 
 SURVEYlNa WITH THE TACHEOMETEE. 187 
 
 from one another, and at right angles to the line of sight. The angle sub- 
 tended by these staves is measured with the micrometers, and the distance 
 comiiuted in the manner already shown. 
 
 A tacheometer with ilxed hairs, such as described (page 123), may often 
 be used for measuring distances approximately when it is impossible to 
 read the markings on a graduated staff. This is done in the following 
 manner : — An assistant should be sent to the object, the distance of which 
 is required, and directed to place a staff in the ground. The surveyor 
 must then cover the staff with one of the fixed hairs in the instrument, 
 after which the assistant must move, very slowly, in a line at right 
 angles to the line of sight until he is covered by the second fixed hair, 
 when he might be stopped by some pre-arranged signal, and place another 
 staff there. He must then carefully measure the distance between 
 these two staves, whicli distance multiplied by the ratio between the 
 value of the hairs, which is generally 1 in 100, will be the distance of a 
 point, midway between the two staves, set up by the assistant, and the 
 observer. Thus, if the measured distance between the sfaves was 10 
 yards, the distance from the instrument would be 10 x 100 = 1000 yards. 
 
 Surveying on the tacheometer principle, but without a tacheometer, 
 may be carried to greater distances in the following manner. 
 
 Supposed a densely wooded plain over which it has been impossible 
 to preserve any record of the distance travelled, but with elevated 
 country at its extremities, the distance between points on the elevated 
 lands may be very accurately found by measuring a base on one at 
 right angles to the position on the second, of such a length that it will 
 subtend an angle of two or three degrees to an observer at the second 
 point ; and marking these ends either by choosing conspicuous trees or 
 other marks, or by flashing from them with a mirror, or by making fires. 
 The observer obtains the angle by a sextant or theodolite between the 
 ends of the base, and by simple riyht-angled trigonometry calculates the 
 distance.
 
 187a hints to travellers. 
 
 Surveying a Country and fixing positions by means of Latitudes 
 
 AND Azimuths. 
 
 Thi.s sj'stcra of surveying cau be used with advantage in a country the 
 surface of which is so varied as to present several prominent and distant 
 objects. 
 
 In order to use this method the traveller must first prepare a [Mercatoi's 
 projection that will inchide the area he intends to map. The reason for 
 making choice of Mercator's projection is, that a line of bearing drawn on 
 it will intersect every parallel and meridian at the same angle, thereby 
 allowing all relative bearings to be readily and correctly laid down by 
 straight lines, which could not be done on a map on any of the other pro- 
 jections in common use. After having prepared his projection, a reference 
 to the annexed map will show the traveller how he should proceed. 
 
 The first thing to do is to fix the position in latitude and longitude of 
 the starting point A. This may be done by traverse, or bearings from some 
 object, the position of which has been fixed, or by one of the methods 
 mentioned in this book. Having done this, he should from the summit 
 of A, look for some prominent and distant object, in the direction he is 
 about to travel, such as the hill B on the map, and find its true bearing 
 by measuring its angular distance from the sun by the method shown 
 (p. 236). If a sextant is used all such measurements must be reduced to 
 the horizon, as sliowu in the example p. 238. "When a transit theodolite 
 is emi)loyed no such reduction is required, and it will only be necessary 
 to make the hill B his zero point, and then observe the altitudes of the 
 sun, with the vertical circle face right, and face left, in pairs (as explained 
 p. 115), noting the times, altitudes, and horizontal angles. With the times 
 and altitudes he must compute the sun's true azimuth (p. 239), and by 
 applying the mean of the horizontal readings to this, he will obtain the 
 true bearing of B. 
 
 The next step will be to set off, indefinitely, this line of bearing from 
 A, and the point B will be somewhere on that line. Having thus obtained 
 the true bearing of B, the true bearing of any object in sight can be at 
 once known by measuring the angular tlistance between it and B. Or, 
 if furnished with a plane-table, regarding B as the other end of the base
 
 Tumei' A Shawe 
 
 J'ubUshAl l>y the Uovnl 4ie.npaj^hu\ti Sorifti in'Rints to Traveners",}893 .
 
 SURVEYING BY LATITUDES AND AZIMUTHS. 187B 
 
 and drawing rays to each object, marking each ray in such a manner as 
 to prevent any future mistakes as to the object through which the ray is 
 drawn. 
 
 We will now sui^pose that the traveller proceeds in the direction 
 indicated on the map, meeting with obstacles which prevent his keeping 
 in a direct line towards B, and that he allows his watch to run down, 
 thus losing his Greenwich time, or the time of such other j^lace as he has 
 chosen for his reference meridian, and that after several days' march he 
 finds liimself in the vicinity of B. There he will have an opportunity of 
 fixing the position of B, finding the error of his watch on his reference 
 meridian, and by using this station (B) as one end of his base, and drawing 
 rays on his plane table through the points from which rays were drawn at 
 A, making a sketch map of the country through which he has passed. In 
 order to do this he must ascend B, and take observation by north and south 
 stars for latitude. The mean of results so obtained ought to be very near 
 the truth. Suppose, in the present instance, that the latitude so found was 
 5° N., then by placing the straight edge on that latitude on each side of 
 the graduated meridians, and drawing a line between those two points, 
 its intersection with the line of true bearing of B drawn from A, will be 
 the place of B on the map. Again, placing the straight edge on the point 
 of intersection of this parallel of latitude and the line of true bearing of 
 B fi-om A, and then moving it until it is parallel with the graduated 
 meridian, it will cut the graduated parallel in the longitude of B, which 
 in this case is 30° E. Knowing the latitude and longitude of B, the error 
 of the watch on the reference meridian can be found by the methods given, 
 pp. '201, 209, 210. 
 
 The weak point in this system of surveying is, that it cannot be 
 employed when the direction of the line of route apjiJioaches east or 
 west, as the angle between the parallel of latitude and the line of bearing 
 would be too acute to give satisfactory results.
 
 188 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 SUKVEYING AND ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Part 4. 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Necessity for Astronomical Observations. 
 
 A TRAVELLER merely passing through a tract of country cannot hope 
 to make more than a rough map of a belt extending a short distance on 
 either side of his path. 
 
 Upon the estimation of the length of his daily march, and of its mean 
 direction, his map will mainly depend. 
 
 The degree of accuracy of these two important factors will depend upon 
 his experience, upon the trouble he takes to find means of ascertaining 
 his speed, and upon his power of estimating the mean value of a course 
 made up probably of an infinite number of windings and deviations. 
 
 When isolated or other well-marked hills exist, he may, however, on 
 camping for the night, be able to get a bearing with his compass of an 
 elevation at or near his point of departure in the morning, which will 
 give a greatly improved value to the direction of his day's march. 
 
 It is, however, evident, that after a few days, e.specially in densely- 
 wooded country, his position may be very much in error, and hence the 
 necessity, if he wishes his map to be in any degree trustworthy, of fixing 
 his position from time to time by astronomical observations, by sextant or 
 otherwise. 
 
 These have two objects : to obtain latitude and longitude. 
 
 The latitude observations, hereafter described, are comparatively 
 simple, and, in the case of latitude by meridian altitude, depend solely 
 on the altitude observed. 
 
 Longitude observations are, however, more complicated, and, whatever 
 method is employed, require accurate local time* This can be found by 
 altitudes of the sun or stars at some distance from the meridian, noting 
 the time by the watch, and by these observations the error of the watch 
 on local time is obtained. 
 
 ♦ An exception is the case of the method of moon culminating stars.
 
 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 189 
 
 By repeating the observation in the same spot after the lapse of a few 
 days, the daily rate of the watch can be obtained ; and, supposing the 
 watch to be in good order, and well taken care of on the march, this rate 
 will for some days afford a means of finding the difference of longitude 
 of any two places when observations for time have been taken. 
 
 The precise method of doing this will be hereafter described, but it is 
 not often that in an ordinary journey it can be employed, as it requires 
 a halt of several days from time to time, and, moreover, it is not easy to 
 ensure the watch from accidents. 
 
 The longitude is, therefore, more ordinarily obtained from lunars or 
 other " absolute " observations. 
 
 It must be remembered that in all observations with the sextant, 
 unless they are so taken as to eliminate the errors of the instrument, 
 great errors of result may occur. 
 
 With a sextant in good order and adjustment the errors are small, and, 
 if known, may be applied ; but the heat of the sun may induce tcm2)orary 
 errors, and shocks more serious and permanent errors, which, in some 
 observations, will have a disastrous effect. 
 
 The ordinary observations are : — 
 
 Sextant Ohservations. 
 
 For latitude . . . . Meridiau altitude of sun 
 ,, „ star 
 
 Circum-meridian altitude of suu 
 ,, ,, star 
 
 Double altitude of sun 
 For longitude .. .. Time by single altitudes of suu 
 „ „ ,, star 
 
 ,, equal altitudes of sun 
 
 ,, ,, ,, star 
 
 liUnar Observations. 
 For true bearing .. By altitude oC the sun 
 
 By observed angular distance of a ])eak, or any 
 other object from the sun 
 
 Telescope Observations : — 
 For longitude . . . . Occultations of stars by the moon 
 lOclipses of Jupiter's satellites 
 Moon culminating stars.
 
 190 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Observations of heavenly bodies with the sextant. 
 
 Before any good results can be expected from sextant ohservations, 
 the observer must be able to read the angles quickly and accurately; 
 the only way to become proficient in doing this, is by practising with the 
 instrument, esi^ocially at night, when the angles have to be read by tho 
 light of a lantern. 
 
 Methods of vUaining accurate rcstdls. — From the presence of the different 
 sources of instrumental error mentioned on p. 102, it is necessary, in 
 order to ensure accurate results, that observations should be taken so as 
 to eliminate them. 
 
 The precise methods will be described under the head of each observa- 
 tion, but the general principle is, that any altitudes for any pui'po.<5e 
 should 1)6 balanced by others taken in the opposite direction, either by 
 waiting until the heavenly body has travelled to the opposite side of tho 
 meridian, as in observations for time, or by observing another body on 
 tho opposite side of the zenith, as in meridian observations of a star for 
 latitiule. 
 
 Owing to the instrumental errors acting in different directions on the 
 results in each case, the mean of those results will be the true time, or 
 latitude, as the case may be. 
 
 For ordinary purposes of rough mapping, these niceties are not neces- 
 sary, but the traveller who wishes to obtain a good determination of 
 an astronomical position must pay regard to them. 
 
 To observe the altitude of the sun, rising an artificial horizon. — Fill the 
 trough of the horizon with quicksilver, and put on the roof. Put down the 
 suitable shades before the index and horizon glasses, set the index of the 
 sextant to zero (0°) ; then with the artificial horizon between yourself and 
 the sun, retire, looking into the horizon, until you see the sun's reflected 
 image in it ; look through the telescope collar, or ]ilain tube, and horizon 
 glass of the sextant at the sun itself; unclamp the index, and move it 
 forward. This will bring the reflected image down, follow it with the 
 eye until it slightly overlaps that in the horizon ; clamp the index, and 
 screw the inverting telescope into the collar (no time should be lost in doing 
 this, or the sun's image may pass out of tho field) ; then with the tangent 
 screw make the contact perfect. It is always better to bring the object
 
 OBSERVATIONS VOU LATTTITBE. 101 
 
 down into the liorizon without tlie telescope ; by so doing time is saved, 
 and tlie unpractised observer is less likely to bo mistaken as to which limb 
 he is observing. The following rule will, however, prevent any such 
 mistake : — -In the forenoon, or when the sun is rising, if the lower limb 
 is observed, the images are continually separating ; if the upper limb 
 is observed, they are continually overlapping; and the contrary in the 
 afternoon, or when the sun is falling. When the telescope is fitted with 
 a dark shade to screw on to the eye end, it should be used instead of the 
 moveable shades. If a roofed artificial horizon is used, the sides should 
 be plainly marked, and it should be reversed at each set of three altitudes, 
 except ivhen equal altitudes are observed to find the error of the watch, in 
 which case the observations must be taken with the same side of the roof 
 towards the observer.* In placing the horizon on the ground it should 
 have one of the glazed sides of the roof in a direct line with the sun, so 
 that its sides cast no shadow. Any object seen in the mercury appears 
 to 1)0 just as much below the horizontal plane as it really is above it ; 
 all angles, therefore, observed in an artificial horizon must be halved, 
 after the index correction has been applied. 
 
 The foregoing remarks apply equally to stellar observations, the only 
 diiference being that no dark shades are required. 
 
 Observations for Latitude. 
 
 The simplest observation is that for finding the latitude hy nieridian 
 altitude of the sun, star, or planet. Some twenty minutes before apparent 
 noon, when the sun is observed, or before the time of meridian passage 
 of a star or planet, the observer should begin to take careful obser- 
 vations, reading the angles from time to time until the body has reached 
 its greatest altitude; this will be the meridian altitude, and the time 
 when it was taken will be apparent noon, if the sun has heen observed. 
 
 Latitude by Meridian Altitude of Sun. 
 
 July 12th, 1882.— At a place in longitude by account 70° 00' W., the 
 meridian altitude of the Q was observed in quicksilver to find the 
 
 * Tills is by way of precaution against irregularities in the glass plates ; and, 
 with a roof of known excellence, is hardly necessary. 
 
 O
 
 Kr2 
 
 JIIMTS TO 'J'UAVHI,I,K1!S 
 
 liitilu(](.'. Tliur. bS'. Bar. 2'J G inclies. Index error — 2'. Observer south 
 of the 0. 
 
 H. H. 8. 
 
 Time of. A lip 1 11, .July i2tli .. o o o 
 
 W. Long, ill 'J'imc +4 40 o 
 
 G. App. Time, July 1 Jill .. 4 40 o 
 
 Alt. Q. in quickBilvur . . . . 1 14 49 2« 
 Index error — 2 00 
 
 Dccliiiatioii {V. i. NA.) 
 Correction 
 
 KcJuccd DccliiialiijiJ 
 
 21 57 56-8 N. 
 - 1 3T& 
 
 21 $(> 19 N. 
 
 Observed Altitud'-' . . 
 Kefraction — 1 
 
 Thcr. 88°, Bar. 29-6 ../ 
 
 2)114 41 28 
 
 = 57 2J 44 
 - cx) J4 
 
 Var. in I lioiir (NA.) 20-99 
 
 Hours and mill, of (j. A. '1' 4-66 
 
 Semidiameter 
 Parallax . . 
 
 12594 
 12594 
 8396 
 
 Zenith Distance 
 
 Corr. 
 
 6o)97'8iJ4 Declination 
 = I 37*8 Latitude 
 
 57 2J 10 
 
 + 15 46 
 
 57 i» 56 
 
 + 4 
 
 57 J9 00 
 
 90 00 00 
 
 J2 21 00 .S. 
 
 21 56 19 N 
 
 10 24 41 S. 
 
 To^Flnd Time of Meridian Passuije of Star. 
 
 When a star is observed for hititude, it is necessary to find the time of 
 its meridian passage, either by tables (which give an approximate result), 
 or, where accuracy is required, by the following method. 
 
 At a place in longitude 30° E. required the mean time of the meridian 
 passage oi Aldehiran, on November 29th, 1881. 
 
 h. H. sr. s. 
 
 CaseCi.) R. A. of .<lW«6araM + 24* = 28 29 11 
 
 Sidereal Time at Mean Noon 16 J4 2 
 
 Approx. JM. T. =: II 55 9 
 M. s. 
 lib. Retardation i 48'ijl 
 55ni. „ 9 01/ 
 
 1 57 
 
 II 5i 12 
 
 jo° E. Long., or 2b. Acceleration 4- 2c 
 
 Mean Tinio of Meridian ras.sago = II 5J n 
 
 Wbcii the ilar's 11. .V. is less (ban tbe Sidereal Time at Mean Noon, inercase it by 24 bonis.
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR LATITUDE. 393 
 
 At a place in longitude 60° W. required the mean time of the meridian 
 
 passage of Antares, on July 20th, 1881. 
 
 n. M. s. 
 
 Case (2.) 11. A. of ^nto'es i6 22 11 
 
 Sidereal Time at Mean Noon 7 5? 37 
 
 Approx. M. T. = 8 28 J4 
 M. .s. 
 8h. Retardation 1 i8-64-i 
 28ni. „ 4' 59/ 
 
 60"^ W. Long., or 4h. Acceleration* — o jg 
 
 I 2} 
 
 Mean Time of Meridian Passage = 8 26 32 
 * Wlien tlie Longitude isAV. subtract the acceleration, when E. add it. 
 
 Latitude hy Meridian Altitude of a Star. 
 
 July 10th, 1882.— At a place in longitude hy account 70^ 00 W., the 
 meridian altitude of a Aquarii was observed in quicksilver to find the 
 latitude. Ther. 34^. Bar. 30 inches. Index error + 3' 10". Observer 
 south of the star. 
 
 Alt. of -JlJ in Quiciisilvcv 90 59 42 
 
 Index error + i 10 
 
 2)91 2 52 
 
 45 31 26 
 Refraction— Tlier. J4°, Bar. 30 — 00 59-5 
 
 True Alt 45 30 26-5 
 
 90 00 00 
 
 Zenith Distince 44 29 35-58. 
 
 Declination o 5J IJ'4 S.' 
 
 Latitude 4; 22 46-9 S. 
 
 When the meridian altitudes of a star above and below the Pole can be 
 observed, half the sum of the corrected altitudes gives the latitude at 
 once, withoitt any computation. When the Pole Star can be observed 
 the latitude is very easily found by the rule and tables given in the 
 ' Nautical Almanac ' ; and as a fairly correct approximation without any 
 calculation at all, the corrected altitude of the Pole Star is the latitude, 
 if the star is observed when /3 and f, or still better, when ^3 and e Ursas 
 Minoris appear to the eye to be in the same horizontal line ; a method 
 which, as a roiigh observation, has the advantage of being indei)endont 
 of watch, tables, or 'Nautical Almanac' 
 
 o 2
 
 194 HINTS TO TRAVETJ>ERS. 
 
 Circum-meridian observations, or observations near the Meridian. 
 
 A latitude by mcridiau altitude depends only on one altitude, the 
 highest observed, and as this is liable to error, being only one observation, 
 a more accurate result can be obtained hij takincj sets of altitudes on either, 
 or both sides of the meridian, and noting the time corresponding to each 
 altitude by a watch whose error on apparent time at place is known. These 
 altitudes are taken in the manner previously described, and the observa- 
 tions should be commenced at about a quarter of an hour * before the 
 heavenly l)ody observed comes to the meridian, and may be continued until 
 it has passed it by a like space of time. As the sun or star will be rising 
 very slowly, the observations should be taken with deliberation, at aboixt 
 minute intervals. Should the sky become overcast, the observations on 
 either side of the meridian can easily be reduced to the meridian altitude, 
 and this circumstance adds considerably to the value of this class of 
 observation, as the meridian altitude may be lost. 
 
 A latitude obtained by either the meridian or circum-meridian altitudes 
 of the sun, or stars, which are all on one side of the zenith, i.e. all either 
 to the north or south of the observer, is liable to considerable errors from 
 the existence of instrumental errors. 
 
 To get a more certain result it is necessary to determine the latitude 
 from the mean of results of observation of north and south stars, by 
 which the instrumental errors are eliminated, and a very exact latitude 
 obtained. 
 
 By north and south stars are meant stars which pass the meridian to 
 the north and south of the observer's zenith. If their altitudes are nearly 
 the same the exactitude of the result will be much increased, on account 
 of the elimination of errors of refraction. 
 
 Latitudes by stars of the same altitude north and south afford the 
 traveller a fair means of ascertaining the centering error of his sextant 
 for the altitude observed, which is one half the difference of the latitude 
 by the respective stars. When the latitude resulting from the star on the 
 equatorial side of the observer is less than that from the star on the polar 
 side, the correction for centering error will be minus, and vice versa. 
 
 * Very good results may be obtained from observations with a star half an 
 hour or moi-e from tlie meridian, if the local time be accurately known.
 
 OBSEKYATIONS FOR LATITUDE. 
 
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 OBSERVATIONS FOR LATITUDE. 197 
 
 The following,' will illustrate the mair/::r in which this observation 
 is taken. Suppose that on the 1st of December, 1881, we wished to fix the 
 position of the Society's Observatory in Uxtitudc, by north and south stars. 
 On looking at the heavens \vc should see that y J'ci/Ksi and y Ccphtt were 
 well situated for that purpose, and with these stars' right ascensions and 
 the sidereal time at mean noon (taken from the ' Nautical Ahnanac '), we 
 sliould find that y Cephei passed the meridian, to the north, at 6h. 51m. 
 24s., and y Fegasi to the south at 7h. 23m. 57s., thus leaving an interval 
 of 32m. 33s. between the meridian passages. We should commence 
 observing altitudes of y Cej hei at 6h. B5m., and continue to do so until 
 7h. 5m. ; we should then turn to y Fegasi, and continue our observations 
 of that star imtil 7h. 40m. We should then compute the latitude by each 
 set of observations, and take the mean of their results as the true latitude. 
 This observation may be taken, at the same place, at considerable intervals 
 between the times of the two stars' meridian passage, and indeed days 
 have sometimes been allowed to elapse before the second set of altitudes 
 has been taken ; tl.e results, nevertheless, being quite satisfactory. When 
 possible, however, it is better that the two observations should be taken 
 consecutively, so as to ensure similar conditions of weather and refraction. 
 
 J.afifmh hi/ Douhh AUItmle. 
 
 When clouds i:)revcnt the altitude of the sun being observed at or 
 near enough to noon to obtain the meridian altitude, or when the sun 
 when on the meridian is too high for observation in artificial horizon, 
 the method known as double altitude may be very useful. This consists 
 in observing the altitude of the sun (or star) at two times differing not 
 less than two hours from each other. The latitude can be calculated 
 from these witli great exactness. The error of the watch or local time 
 is only required approximately.
 
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 OBSERVATIONS FOR LATITUDE. 
 
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 198 TflNTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Time. 
 
 Measures of time. — lu these pages reference is made to Mean, Apiiareut, 
 and Sidereal times, and it is possible that a few remarks on these 
 diftcrcnt measures of time may he useful to those travellers who have not 
 had the advantage of previous instruction. The first of these, Mean 
 time, is tlie easiest to understand, as it is that usually shown by watches 
 and clocks, and is reckoned by the average length of all the solar days 
 throughout the year. For the purposes of everyday life, the day is 
 divided into two periods of twelve hours each, and commences at 
 midnight. This is called the civil day, to distinguish it from the 
 astronomical day, w^hich commences at noon, and is counted through the 
 whole twenty-four hours from one noon to another. 
 
 Jpparent time is time measured by the sun, as, for instance, the time 
 shown by a sundial, and the difference between this time and the time 
 shown by an ordinary watch, is called the equation of time, or the interval 
 of time necessary to convert Mean time into Apparent time, or the 
 contrary. 
 
 Sidereal time is measured by the interval occupied by a star between 
 two consecutive passages over the same meridian, which is equal to 
 23h. 56m. 4"09s. of our ordinary, or mean time. It will thus be seen 
 that the sidereal hour is 9'83s. shorter than the Mean time hour, and the 
 Sidereal day 3m. 55" 91s. shorter than the Mean solar day. Tables for 
 converting Sidereal time into Mean time, and vice versa., are given in the 
 ' Nautical Almanac ' and most works on practical astronomy. 
 
 To Jind a lost Date. — It will sometimes happen that from one cause or 
 another, a traveller may lo.se count of the day of the mouth, in whidi 
 case (if provided with a sextant, artificial horizon, and ' Nautical Almanac ' 
 for the year), he may find it by one of the following methods : — 
 
 Find the latitude of the place by the meridian altitude of a fixed star 
 (for this it is not necessary to know the day, as a star's declination varies 
 but little). On the next day, at the same place, observe the meridian 
 altitude of the sun, from which find the true altitude, and subtract it 
 from 90° to get the sun's zenith distance ; then with the latitude found by 
 the star, and this zenith distance, the sun's declination may be found as 
 follows : — The difference between" the latitude by star and the sun's zenith 
 distance ec^uals the suii's decljuatiou. With the declinatiou thus found
 
 OBSERVATION;^ FOR TIME AND LONOITUDE. 199 
 
 search pago 1 for the month in tho ' Nautical Ahnanac,' ami opposite the 
 declination that most nearly agrees with the declination found as above, is 
 the day of the month. 
 
 This method cannot always be used in thL^ tropics, unless the traveller 
 is provided ivith a transit theodolite, as the meridian altitude of the sun 
 will, at times, be too great to be measured with a sextant, when using an 
 artificial horizon; neither can it be used with any degree of certainty at 
 those periods just before or after the sun has obtained its greatest 
 declination, viz., June 21st and December 21st. 
 
 Another simple method of finding the lost day, is to measure with a 
 sextant the angular distance between the moon and one of the heavenly 
 bodies whose distance from the moon is given in the lunar distance tables 
 of the ' Nautical Almanac' This observed distance must then be reduced 
 to the ajipureiit distance in tlie following manner: — When the sun is one 
 of the objects, add the semi-diameters of the sun and the moon to the 
 observed distance, but when a star or a planet is observed the moon's 
 semi-diameter must be subtracted when the distance to the moon's far 
 limb has been observed, but added when the near limb has been observed ; 
 the result in each case will be the apparent distance. Then (since the 
 true and apparent distances cannot difier by more than the sum of the 
 corrections of their altitudes), with the apparent distance found as above, 
 search the ' Nautical Almanac ' tables for the nearest given distance (of 
 the same body) to it, opposite which will be found the day of the month. 
 It must be remembered that the hours given in the lunar distance tables 
 are counted from noon, when the astronomical day begins : thus ,Tnly 18th. 
 XVli., astronomical date, is July 19th, 3h. a.m., civil date. 
 
 Observations for finding the Time and Longitude. 
 
 These are of two kinds. (1) Observations which have for their object 
 to find the difference of longitude between the place of the observer and 
 that of a place whose longitude is known. 
 
 (2) Observations to find the longitude directly, without reference to 
 any other position on the earth, or, as it is termed, absolutely. 
 
 The first, which are almost solely used at sea, require, when the time 
 since the rate of the chronometer was last ascertained is great, a good and 
 carefully-guarded timekeeper, and is known by the name of " n,ieridjan
 
 200 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 distance," or measuring the difference between the meridian of the phice 
 and that of the i)lace where the chronometer was last rated, whose longi- 
 tude is known. This method, wlicn applicable, is by far the Ijest, but in 
 travelling requires that a continuoiis chain of observations should be 
 taken' from the time of leaving a place whose position is known ; and as 
 a w^atch, carried either by a pedestrian, or on horseback, cannot be ex- 
 pected to keep an equable rate, the jwints where halts must be made for 
 rating must not be more than tive or six days apart. 
 
 It is therefore but little used in ordinary travelling, but, as it is of 
 great value on occasions, is described hereafter. 
 
 The sjcond method depends, in its various forms, almost entirely upon 
 the rapidity of the moon's motion in the heavens, and, while it gives the 
 longitude without reference to any previous observation, the result is 
 always more or less rough, unless a great many observations are made on 
 different nights, when the mean may approximate to the truth. 
 
 In any of these observations the true time at the place is required, and 
 the method of finding this will first be described. 
 
 To find Error of Watch ly Absolute Altitudes. 
 
 In finding local time by this observation it is not necessary that the 
 longitude of the place should be known with any great degree of 
 accuracy, as the Greenwich date, obtained by the longitude in time, 
 is only used for correcting the elements taken from the 'Nautical 
 Almanac,' and a considerable error in longitude wo aid not produce 
 any serious error in the declination or equation of time. The body 
 should be observed as far from the meridian as possible, because, when 
 nearly E. or W., errors, both of latitude and observation, produce the 
 least effects on the hour angle. As a general rule, this oUservation 
 should not be taken unless the sun or star is changing its altitude by at 
 least 6' in 1 m. of time. The readings of the barometer and thermometer 
 should be noted, but for an approximate result are not necessary. 
 
 July 5th, 1881, at a place in lat. 18° N., and approximate long. 14° W., 
 when a watch, supjiosed to be 2 h. 20 m. slow of local mean time, showed 
 5 h. 30 m. A.M., the altitude of the Q. was taken in an artificial horizon to 
 find apparent and mean time, and the error of the watch on each time at 
 the instant of observation. Index error + 6'. Ther. 75°, Bar. 29"2 
 inches.
 
 OBSERVATTONR FOR TIME AND r.ONttlTUDE. 
 
 201 
 
 H. M. 
 
 Approximate local time, July 4tb, allowinpl 
 
 for supposed error of watch J 9 5° 
 
 Long. 14^^ \Y. = + 56 
 
 G. D. App. time, July 4th = 20 46 
 
 Declination, July 5th 22 45 54 ^f. 
 
 Corr. by var. in i hour +46 
 
 Ucduceil Declination 
 Polar Dist 
 
 . . 22 46 40 N. 
 90 00 00 
 
 = 61 ij 20 N. 
 
 Kquation of Time, July 5th 4 ig'Ji 
 
 Corr. by var. in i hour — i • ;6 
 
 KeJuced Eq. Time 
 
 Observed Alt. Q in Art. ) . 
 
 Horizon .. } ^ 42 4° 
 
 Index Error 4- 6 o 
 
 Corr. Refraction 
 
 2 ) 60 52 40 
 
 ^o 26 20 
 .. - I ii 
 
 Jo 24 49 
 Semidiimeter + 15 46 
 
 Parallax 
 True Alt. 
 
 JO 40 j; 
 
 + 7 
 
 JO 40 42 
 
 Alt. 
 Lat. 
 P. D. 
 
 JO 40 42 
 
 18 00 00 
 67 1} 20 
 
 2)115 54 2 
 
 i Sum 57 57 i 
 
 i Sum— Alt 27 16 19 
 
 Sec. 
 Cosec. 
 
 Cosine 
 Sine 
 
 H. >[. s. 
 
 4 14 12 = Log. sine sq. 
 24 00 00 
 
 0-021794 
 0-0^5262 
 
 9-72481} 
 9-661068 
 
 91442917 
 
 App. time at place, July 4th 19 45 48 
 
 Time by watch 4- 12 h 17 jo 00 
 
 Watch slow on Apparent Time 
 
 App. time at place, July 4tli 
 Equation of time 
 
 15 48 
 
 H. M. S. 
 19 45 48 
 
 4- 4 i8-4 
 
 Mean time at place, July 4th 19 50 6-4 
 
 Time by watch 17 Jo 00 
 
 Watch slow on Mean Time 
 
 =: 2 20 6-4 
 
 AVlien tlie error of the watch on Greenwich, w on any other meriillan 
 and its daily rate, are known, the longitude may be found by absolute 
 altitudes of a heavenly body, as shown in the following examples : —
 
 202 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVEI.LERS. 
 
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 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIIME AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 203 
 
 
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 204 
 
 HTNT^; TO TRAVRTJ.ERS. 
 
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 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 205 
 
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 _ .2 
 
 
 
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 20 
 
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 Sh 
 
 ^K
 
 206 HINT8 'J'O TRAVEI.LER8. 
 
 E(jaal Altitudes of the. bun, Star, or Planet. — In consequence ot instru- 
 menUil errors, time obtained by absolute altitudes is sometimes con- 
 siderably in error. 
 
 To eliminate these, it is necessary to observe e^ual ulliludes of the 
 lieavenly body — that is, to note the time when it is at the same altitude 
 oast, and when west, of the meridian. 
 
 Tiiis necessitates a halt of some hours, and, in the case of a star, 
 observation in the night and early morning ; but when time and circum- 
 stances are favouraljle, the result will always be more satisfactory than 
 absolute altitudes. 
 
 This observation must be commenced when the heavenly botly ol)Ser\ ed 
 is three or four hours east of the meridian. Having placed the artificial 
 horizon in its proper position, bring down the reflected image of the 
 object with the sextant until it is in contact with the image in the 
 horizon, then advance the index until it points to a whole degree — for 
 example, 40° — and, looking through the telescope at the image reflected 
 by the sextant mirrors, wait until it attains this altitude, note the tinu', 
 advance the index 20', to 40° 20', and wait until this altitude is reached, 
 Jiote the time; again advance the index 20', to 40° 40', and in like 
 Jiianner wait till this altitude is attained, note the time. Repeat this 
 operation as often as convenient ; nine such observations will be ample. 
 The heavenly body observed will, of course, at some time, have the same 
 altitude when it is west of the meridian, and this will be the case when 
 it is ahout the same interval, in time, from it. The observer must there- 
 fore watch until the last altitude taken is again furnished, note the time 
 when this takes place, and couple it in his note-book with the time when 
 the heavenly body had the same altitude on the other side of the meridian ; 
 move the index hack 20' and wait until this altitude is furnished, note the 
 time, and again couple it with the time when the same altitude was 
 before taken, and so on through the set, moving the index hack after each 
 sight by the exact amount it was moved forward Avhen the object was 
 east of the meridian, or rising. When an artificial horizon is used, equal 
 altitudes of a star should be taken in preference to those of the sun. for 
 as the images of the star are bxit small luminous points, there cannot be 
 any great error in the observation if the} are made to touch, while in the 
 case of the sun, exact contai-ts are by no means so easy to make The 
 computation necessary to find the error of the watch, by equal altitudes
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOIl TIME AND LONGITUDE. 207 
 
 of a star, is extremely short and simple, and therefore best suited to the 
 ordinary traveller. As the declination of a star may, for the purposes of 
 this ohservation, be considered constant, there is no necessity to coniX)ute 
 the equation of equal altitudes, which must always be done in the case 
 of the solar observation. The number of minutes by which the index is 
 to be advanced or pxit back must depend on the rapidity with which the 
 heavenly body is changing its altitude ; it has here been mentioned as 
 20' to illustrate the manner in which the observation is taken ; but no 
 general rule can be given for this ; it is a matter in which the observer 
 must use liis own discretion. The same side of the roof of the artificial 
 horizon must always bo used for both sets of observations.
 
 208 
 
 MINTS TO 'J'KAVKI;LKI{S. 
 
 g 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 "^ 'B 
 
 •x 
 
 be 
 
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 p^ 
 
 
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 55 
 
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 8 
 
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 = 5 
 
 34 P. 
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 ^ 
 
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 5 : (g i:
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOK TIME AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 209 
 
 T » ^ II 
 
 3=2-3 II 
 
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 2 fe '* a 
 
 03 ^ — I— 
 
 ■^ ..2 3 
 
 
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 ^1 
 
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 I 
 
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 1^ o
 
 210 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 To find the Error of the Watch ty Equal Altitudes of a Star. 
 
 Exnmple.—On August 10th, 1879, iu lat. 51' 22' N., long. 00' 10' W., 
 Equal Altitudes of tlie star a Cy<jni were taken, when the watch showed 
 as undermentioned ; required the error for Mean Time at the place of ob- 
 servation when the star passed the meridian : — 
 
 Watch Times of Eqnal Altitudes. To find TiniP of Star's Transit. 
 
 H. M. s. Mun'li. lay. ii. M. .«. 
 
 a Ci/^rni E. of Meridian 8 4; 10 Star's R. A Viigust lolli 20 Ji 21-98 
 
 „ W. .. 1} 20 15 Sidereal Time. p. ii. X. A. ,, ,, 9 14 22-59 
 
 2)22 5 25 Time of Star's Transit at Place (nearly) 11 22 59'J9 
 
 10' \V. Longitude, in Time . . . . = +43 
 
 TlTie by Waich. of Star's! 
 
 Transit i -^ 4- ? Greenwich Date of Star's TransH (nearly) 11 jj J9-59 
 
 Mean Sun's R. A. To find Krror of Watch. 
 
 Month. Day. h. m. s. Month. Day. h. m. s. 
 
 .Sidereal Time, p. ii. N. A., August lo'th 9 14 22-59 Star's R. A. .. August lotli 20 i") 21-98 
 
 Aceleratijn i 11 h 4- i 48'42 Corrected Mean \ , 
 
 f..rG. D. of |2;m 4- i'78 0's R. A. / " " ^ "* ' 
 
 transit (2i) ( ^9 sec + o-ii 
 
 — ■ Corrected Date of Star's Trac- 1 ,, ..„p 
 
 Mean 0's K. A. corrected = 9 16 14-90 sit at Place i ^ 
 
 Therefore NVatch should show 1 1 
 But it shows 11 
 
 Error of Watch on Mean Time at ;3Za<-fj _ 
 when Star passed Meridian . . ••/""_ 
 
 24- 58 slow 
 
 Equal Altitudes of a Star on tht same side of the Meridian, on different 
 nights. — Observe the altitude of a star at any time, note the time and 
 the altitude. After an interval of some days— for example, four days — 
 set the index to the altitude noted, and take the time when the star 
 attains it; then, as a star comes to the meridian exactly 3m. 55' 91s. 
 earlier every day, multiply this interval by the number of days elapsed, 
 and subtract the product from the time when the first altitude was 
 taken; the result will be the time the watch should show. Any diflference 
 between this result and the time the watch shows is the error for the 
 interval, which, divided by the number of days, gives its daily rate; 
 thus, if a watch showed 9h. 50m. 8s., when an observation of a star was
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 211 
 
 taken June 20th, and on June 2J:th showed 9h, 34m. 10s., when the same 
 star had the same altitude, its daily rate would be 3 • 6s. losing : — 
 
 H. M. S. 
 
 ist time 9 5° 8 
 
 J m. 55-91 sec. X 4 = i> 4?"6 
 
 Time watch should show 9 34 24'4 
 2n(i time 9 J4 10 
 
 Losing in 4 da j's .. .. 14-4 .•. daily rate i'6sec. 
 
 This observation should only be taken when the star has a considerable 
 altitude, so as to reduce the errors caused by refraction, and can only be 
 used when a halt of some days is made, as any change in latitude would 
 be followed by a change of altitude. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 It is but of little practical use to find the precise time of your observa- 
 tion unless it is transferred to the watch. By taking the difference 
 between the time resulting from the observations, and that shown by the 
 watch, the error of the latter is found. 
 
 The true time of any subsequent, or previous observation taken within 
 a short time of the observation for time, can then be found by apjjlying 
 this known error to the watch time. 
 
 If, however, the time is required some days later, it is necessary to 
 know the rate of the watch, and this is obtained by repeating the observa- 
 tion for time in the same spot after a few days, when the difference of the 
 errors, divided by the time elapsed between the observations, will be the 
 rate of the watch. 
 
 H. M. S. 
 
 Thus, Error of W^atch at Ujiji on 24tb Sept., 8 a.m., was i 14 2i elow 
 „ „ „ 29th Sept., 8 A.M., was 1 15 17 ,, 
 
 Difference 5) 54 
 
 Rate of W^atch = 10 -8 losing 
 
 Then, supposing that observations for longitude, say, by lunars, were 
 obtained on the 26th without being able to obtain observations for time 
 
 q2
 
 -212 HINTS TO TKAVELLERS. 
 
 on the same day, the time can be found by applying the rate to the previou s 
 error, thus : — 
 
 H. M. S. 
 
 Wach showed iit time of observation for lunar about lo p.m. 9 i 50 
 
 H. M. 8. 
 
 Error of Watch on 24th = i 14 2? 
 
 2*6 days' rate = 28- 1 sees, losing .... 28-1 
 
 Error of Watch at time of lunar i 14 51-1 .. i 14 ii-i 
 
 True time at observation, 26tli 10 16 41 • i 
 
 Longitude by Meridian Distance. 
 
 The difference of longitude of two places is the difference of time 
 between them at the same instant. 
 
 If therefore you can transport the time at one place, by means of a 
 watch, to another jDlace, and obtain the true time at that second place, the 
 difference of those times is the difference of longitude between the two 
 places. 
 
 This is accomplished in practice, by finding the errors of the watch at 
 the two i^laces, either by absolute, or equal altitudes, and the rate, in any 
 case at one of them, though it is better to find it at both, and take the 
 mean. 
 
 The difference of longitude is then thus found. 
 
 Error of Watch at Mombasa, 
 
 8 A.M. 
 
 9 A.M. 
 
 erval 6 
 
 14th of Jul 
 20th „ 
 
 04 days 
 
 H. 
 
 ' . . . . 2 
 .. .. 2 
 
 18 
 I" 
 
 s. 
 
 J 2 slow 
 
 14 .. 
 
 Int 
 
 Difference = 
 
 6-04) 
 
 Daily rate = 
 
 I 
 
 18 
 
 ■;3 
 
 
 
 
 12-91 
 
 gaining 
 
 Error of Watch at Taveta, 4 p.m., July 2;th 2 8 5 slow. 
 
 „ „ ,, 8 A.M., July ioth 2 6 48 „ 
 
 Interval 4' 67 daj-s. Differences i 17 
 
 4-67) 71 
 
 Dally rate = i6-5 gaining 
 
 Former dally rate = 12*9 „ 
 
 2)29-4 
 
 Mean daily rate 14" 7 „
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND L0NC4ITUDE. 213 
 
 H. M. S. 
 
 Error of Watcb at iMombasa, July 2otli. 9 a.m. . . = 2 17 14 slow. 
 5 '3 days' mean rate — i 18 gaining'. 
 
 Error of Watch at Mombasa, July 25tli, 4 P.M. .. — 2 15 56 sl.w. 
 Taveta, „ „ ..=285 
 
 O / " 
 
 Meridian distance, or difference of l.onpitiide between) _ ,, _ . .- .- 
 
 Mombasa and Taveta '. I" 7 5i - \^JT ^^J^l 
 
 and as the watcli is less slow at Taveta than at Mombasa, Taveta is west 
 of Mombasa. 
 
 The Longitude of Mombasa bell fi J9 40 00 E. 
 
 Meridian distance, west i 57 45 W. 
 
 Longitude of Tavttii = }1 42 1? K. 
 
 Here we have supposed the rate to be obtained at both places. If, 
 however, it was only ascertained at one end, that rate would have to 
 be used. In the case supposed the result would be a difference of 10 
 seconds in the determination of the longitude of Taveta, or 2' 30" of 
 longitude. 
 
 This method can be used at any part of a journey to measure the 
 differences of longitude between two j)laces. If the longitude of one 
 of the places has been fixed by lunars, or other absolute methods, the 
 longitude of the other is known at once. If not, the longitude of either 
 of the places may be fixed hereafter, and the longitudes of the places 
 whose meridian distances have been measured will be in connection 
 with it, and not be scattered about with large individual errors, as 
 would be the case were they determined separately by one or two lunars. 
 Thus Consiil O'Neill, by means of a large number of lunars, settled, in 
 1884, the longitude of Blantyre, near Lake Nyassa, and any travellers 
 starting from this centre can, by means of a good watch, satisfactorily 
 determine the positions of places in connection with it. 
 
 Longitude hy the Occultation of a Star. 
 
 This is the best of the absolute methods of finding longitude, when 
 a sextant is available for ascertaining the local time. The following 
 describes the manner in which the observation is taken : — • 
 
 The moon in its monthly revolutions round the earth frequently passes
 
 214 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 between the earth and a fixed star so as to intercept a spectator's view 
 of the latter; the disappearance of a star from tin's cause is called an 
 immersion, and its reappearance from behind the moon is called an 
 emersion. A list of these phenomena is given in the 'Nautical Almanac,' 
 with 'the limits in latitude beyond which a star cannot bo occulted Ijy 
 the moon. As the elements refer to the moon and star, as they would be 
 seen from the earth's centre, they serve equally for all places on the 
 earth's surface. 
 
 This observation is much easier, and more certain in its results, than 
 the lunar observation ; as the instrument (the telescope) is one that 
 every jierson can use, and is not liable to any error, all that is required 
 is that the observer shall be certain that one instant he does see the 
 star and that the next instant he docs not (with an emersion the exact 
 contrary is the case). Neither is there much difficulty in recognising 
 the star, its position with reference to the moon being clearly pointed out 
 in the ' Njiutical Almanac,' and as the moon only moves its own diameter 
 among the stars in an hour, there is ample time after the star and moon 
 are in, ajiparent, close proximity to make sure of the star. Before, or 
 immediately after this observation, a set of sights should be taken 
 to find the error of the watch on apparent or mean time at place. 
 
 "When a traveller has decided to observe an occultation, he should, 
 during the day, find the local time of that phenomenon, by applying the 
 assumed longititde in time to the G.M.T. of conjunction in IJ.A. of the 
 moon and star, which he will find among the elements of occultations in 
 the ' Nautical Almanac,' adding the longitude in time if it be Ead, and 
 suUracting if it be West. An hour before the time so found, he should 
 point his telescope to that limb of the moon by which the star will be 
 occulted; it is necessary to take this precaution as his assumed longitude, 
 and therefore his time, may be considerably in error. The moon will be 
 seen to approach the star from west to east, until its eastern limb will 
 reach the star and occult it; note the instant when this takes place. 
 After a certain interval the star will re-appear on the other side of the 
 moon ; note this time also. Either of these observations are sufficient to 
 determine the G.M.T., and thence the longitude, in the manner shown in 
 the exami^le. When the star is occulted by the moon's dark limb, the 
 observation will afford most decisive results. At or near full moon a 
 star occulted by the bright limb is not so easy an observation. The
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 215 
 
 description of a telescope suitable for this observation is given on 
 p. 235. The example given is computed by Eaper's rule and 
 tables. It will be observed that several of the logs can be taken at one 
 opening of the book, and as only four jilaces of decimals are used', the 
 log sines, cosines, &c., can be taken at sight to the nearest 30" ; this is 
 not, however, the case with the proportional logs ; where they occur the 
 strictest accuracy must be observed, and the decimals of seconds must 
 not be neglected. This remark also applies to the MoonV, Declination, 
 Eight Ascension, Horizontal Parallax, and Remidinmeter.
 
 21 G 
 
 HINTS TO TRAYKLLER8. 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 O xJ 
 
 5 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 !^S 
 
 >, 
 
 
 CM 
 
 S 
 ■ S 
 
 J- t^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 I^ 
 
 f2(2 
 
 tn 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ■ ^ 
 
 - o 
 
 r* 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 tea 
 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 
 
 
 
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 pipi 
 
 
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 r-v 
 
 =4-1 
 
 NO 
 
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 e 
 
 C3 
 
 O 
 
 i CO CO 
 
 O 
 
 ■*-. 
 
 _o 
 
 -k^ 
 
 ^1- 
 
 o 
 
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 'S 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
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 o 
 
 ^ f "♦■ 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 o 
 
 <l 
 
 ?s 
 
 C ^ 
 
 o 
 
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 .1^ 
 
 (=, 
 
 §3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
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 O 3 
 
 S . 
 
 S fl 
 
 o 
 
 § -^^ 
 
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 s a 
 I ^ 
 
 CO fe 
 '^ CO 
 
 CO »i^ 
 
 o o 
 
 
 
 zo 
 
 ■^M 
 
 ^ 
 
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 CO + 
 
 00 
 
 a o 
 
 r- = C 
 
 
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 c<^e 
 
 •la 
 
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 S •" 
 S o^ 
 
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 ►^-■= 
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 .5 o'o 
 
 is:: 
 
 
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 3 c 
 
 
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 ul 8 •? 
 
 bob 
 
 o u- N 
 
 1/-. 00 
 
 ebb 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^S" 
 
 00 
 
 
 0-' 
 
 M -r 
 
 2 e: 
 
 »j-, 
 
 - 
 
 -1- 
 
 -r 
 
 ?2, 
 
 
 s 
 
 ~ 
 
 -r 
 
 
 r:: 
 
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 :: 
 
 c3 -_:" 
 
 t; 3-e: = 
 
 ■- - b I V 
 
 I = 
 
 =: s 
 
 * = 
 
 
 = II 
 
 ■^ ?8 I ?1 

 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 217 
 
 2+ I 
 
 *1 
 
 o I - 
 
 I II 
 
 
 o c> 
 b b 
 
 P ? 
 
 2 II 
 
 "S - b b~ 
 
 I r* o^ 
 I -^i-i 
 
 _a c 
 
 (5« 
 
 5 m 
 
 
 d a 
 
 00 oc O <:> rJ 
 
 ■ ^ b b '-f 2 
 
 ■•^ !*^ 
 
 ^.3 3 
 
 
 ir t^--- "^ 
 
 s ^ 
 
 uracy, 
 with 
 result 
 M.T., 
 ds dif- 
 st ob- 
 
 
 s3 
 
 CS -t^ o 
 
 »-e-c 2 1- o 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 —t o 
 
 Is^lii 
 
 
 
 ■- P-^ 0) >■■■" 
 
 
 i»l 
 
 "21=^^^^ 
 
 ■? 
 
 ^ «Bi 
 
 * iliii 
 
 5 
 
 a.s
 
 218 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Lunar Observations. 
 
 In this ohservation tlio observed distance is not only ]iaV)le to errors 
 caused by a defect of parallelism in tlie telescope, which always makes 
 the observed distance too great, but to all other instrumental errors, 
 some of which may very possibly be unknown to the observer, and as an 
 error in the distance, of whatever kind, produces about thirty times its 
 amount in longitude, it will be readily understood that but little value 
 can be attached to the results obtained from a single set of lunar 
 distances, even when the observation has l)een taken by a competent 
 person, as making the contact slightly above or below the centre of the 
 field, combined with the effects of irradiation, may very well caiase an error 
 of 20" in the observed distance, the effect of which would be, in average 
 cases, GOO" or 10' error of longitude. For these reasons lunar observa- 
 tions cannot be recommended to any person who has not acquired a perfect 
 knowledge of the use of the sextant, its errors and adjustments ; or who 
 is unable to remain at one place long enoiigh to take a series of distances 
 east and west of the moon. 
 
 To Measiire the Angular Distance bettveen the Moon and Sn7i. — As the 
 enlightened limb of the moon is always nearest to the sun, the angular 
 distance measured is always that of the near limbs; but since, on 
 account of her comi^aratively feeble light, it is necessary to observe the 
 moon by direct vision, and since the sun at the time of observation may 
 be either to the east or the west of the moon, the sextant has to be held 
 with its face up or down as the case may require. In north latitude, 
 when the sun is to the west of the moon, the instrument is held with its 
 face upwards ; but when the sun is to the east of the moon, it must be 
 held with its face downwards. In south latitude the opposite of this rule 
 must be followed. This is often much easier if the observer can hold the 
 sextant in his left hand; the position of the hand and wrist may otherwise 
 be cramped and almost painful. Before taking an observation, look at 
 the sun through the dark shades, and select those which reduce its 
 brightness in the greatest degree comi^atible with good definition; put 
 these down before the index glass; see that the inverting telescope 
 is adjusted to focus ; set the index to zero (0°) ; and hold the instrument 
 with its plane ijarallel to a line joining the sun and moon ; look at the 
 moon throi;gh the telescope collar and horizon glass, and move the index
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 219 
 
 slowly forward until the sun's reflected image makes a rough contact 
 with the moon, seen by direct vision through the unsilvered part of the 
 horizon glass; clamp the index^ screw in the telescope, and make the 
 contact perfect in the centre of the field with the tangent screw, moving 
 the sextant slowly round the axis of the telescope, hy which means the 
 reflected image of the sun will appear to pass the moon, and the accuracy 
 of the contact can be tested. 
 
 Betiueen the Moon and Star or Planet. — The angular distance between 
 a star or planet and the moon is always measured to the moon's en- 
 lightened limb, which is often the farthest from the star or planet. 
 When this is the case, the moon must be brought by reflection past the 
 star or planet before the contact can be made ; iu other respects the 
 observation is precisely similar to that already described, when the 
 angular distance of the sun is taken. 
 
 In observations of this class, the utmost attention must be paid to 
 accuracy, and a faulty habit of observation in making contacts of the 
 moon's limb with a star is not necessarily eliminated, as is very generally 
 supposed, and frequently stated, by taking distances east and west of the 
 
 * S'" I * S' * S" 
 
 M 
 
 moon. For example, if it is an observer's habit, in making a contact, to 
 place the star witbin the moon's disc, M, as at S', the distance S" S' is too 
 small, and the distance S'" S' too great; but sui^posingthe moon to be moving 
 in the direction from S' to S'", each distance will give too early a (ireenwicli 
 time, for each will give the time when the moon's limb was actually at S'. 
 When, however, the sun is the object observed east and west of the moon, 
 errors of this sort in observation, ■// constant, will be eliminated, since, as 
 the moon's enlightened limb is always turned towards the sun, such errors 
 would increase both distances and produce errors of an opposite descrip- 
 tion in the Greenwich time.* A single observation is of little value ; 
 
 * For further information on this subject, read the article on Lunnr Distances 
 in ' Chauvenet's Spherical Astronomy.''
 
 220 HINTS TO TRAVELT.ERW. 
 
 distances should always be observed in sets, with stars east and west of 
 the moon, and as nearly equidistant from it as possible ; the observer 
 should also note which limb of the moon has been observed, and whether 
 the star was east or west of it. The more nearly the two bodies approach 
 the same horizontal plane, the easier will be the observation to take, and 
 distances between 45° and 90° will be least liable to errors in obser- 
 vation. 
 
 The thermometer and the barometer (or its equivalent, a boiling-point 
 thermometer) should be noted, and the refraction corrected accordingly; 
 because, if thermometric and barometric corrections be omitted, in 
 observations made on a high and heated plateau, there may be serious 
 errors in the results. 
 
 A comi^lete pair of lunars, made wholly by one person, consists of the 
 following observations, in ndditlon to those for latitude. 
 
 An hour before beginning to observe, get everything in perfect order ; 
 see that the lamp is well trimmed, its air-holes free, and that it is filled 
 with oil. Also rehearse the expected observations, that no hitch may 
 occur after they have commenced. Then let the hand and eye have 
 ample time to repose, and go on as follows : — 
 
 1. Kead thermometer in air. 
 
 2. Adjust horizon-glass, if necessary. 
 
 3. Two pairs of observations for index error. 
 
 4. Three altitudes for time, star e. 
 
 5. Three altitudes for time, star w. 
 G. Three altitudes of moon. 
 
 7. Five lunar distances, star e. of moon. 
 
 8. Five lunar distances, star "w. of moon. 
 
 9. Three altitudes of moon. 
 
 10. Three altitudes for time, star w. 
 
 11. Three altitudes for time, star e. 
 
 It is not absolutely necessary to take all of these altitudes, and it 
 may often happen tliat the traveller may be prevented by circum- 
 stances from observing the altitudes of the moon and the other heavenly 
 bodies, in which case they can be comj^uted as shown on p. 225. 
 For this purpose, however, it is necessary that the latitude of the 
 place, and the exact local time when the distances were observed, should
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 221 
 
 be known. The time can be found in the manner shown on p. 201. 
 The observation for time, the latitude of the place, and which limb of the 
 moon was observed, should be carefully entered in the note-book for the 
 convenience of the computer. 
 
 Clearing the Lunar Distance hy Baper^s Rigorous Method. — As this is 
 one of the shortest, and at the same time a strictly accurate method 
 of clearing the Lunar Distance, it is here given for the benefit of those 
 travellers who may not have Eaper's work in their jjossession. 
 
 Having found the Greenwich date with the assumed longitude in time, 
 and the mean time at i^lace by a watch, the error of which on local time 
 has been found by previous observation, reduce thereto the moon's hori- 
 zontal parallax and semidiameter, and if the sun be one of the objects 
 observed, take its semidiameter from the 'Nautical Almanac' From the 
 observed altitudes get the apparent and true altitudes; from the 
 observed distance get the apparent distance. Add to, or subtract fi-om 
 the apparent altitudes as many seconds as are necessary to bring them 
 to odd or even minutes, then add tliem together and subtract their sum 
 from 180°, and the remainder will be the sum of the Apparent Zenith 
 Distances. 
 
 Increase or diminish the True Altitudes by the same number of seconds 
 as were added to or subtracted from their respective Aj^parent Altitudes ; 
 add them together and subtract their sum from 180°, and the remainder 
 will be the sum of the True Zenith Distances. 
 
 Add together the Log-secants of the Apparent Altitudes and the 
 Log-cosines of the True Altitudes ; the sum, rejecting tens in the index, 
 will be the Logarithmic Difference. 
 
 Increase or diminish the Apparent Distance by any quantity of seconds 
 necessary to bring it to an odd or even minute (noting the number of 
 seconds) ; to this add the sum of the Apparent Zenith Distances ; take 
 Half the sum, and from this Half Sum subtract the Apparent Distance — 
 call this Kemainder. 
 
 To the Log-sines of the Half Sum and Remainder add the Logarithmic 
 Difference, and the sum, rejecting tens in the index, will be the Log-sine 
 square of the auxiliary arc x. 
 
 Arc X may also be found without any special table of log-sines 
 square in the following manner: — When the sum of these three logs 
 has for an index a number above 20, reject 10 from such index, and
 
 222 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 then divide the sum by 2 ; this will give J the log-sine of the arc, which 
 multiplied by 2 will give auxiliary arc x ; this, of course, (.qqdies to 
 all cases ivhcre a lofj-sine square is mentioned. 
 
 Under x put the sum of the True Zenith Distances, take their sum and 
 difference and their Half Sum and Half Difference, add together the log- 
 sines of the Half Sum and Half Difference, and their sum is the log-sine 
 square of an arc, to which apply the same number of seconds by which the 
 Apparent Distance was increased or diminished to bring it to an odd or 
 even minute, subtracting them if the Apparent Distance was increased, 
 but adding them if diminished, and the result will be the true distance 
 nearly. Take the difference between the proportional logs in the 
 ' Nautical Almanac ' against the two distances between which the 
 computed true distance falls. With this difference and the portion of 
 time just found, enter the table of corrections for second differences 
 (' Nautical Almanac ' or table 57 Eaper), and take out the seconds. ^Yhen 
 the proportional logs in the ' Nautical Almanac,' are increasing, subtract 
 these seconds from the True Dist., nearly; when they are decreasing, add 
 them, the result will be the M. T. at Greenwich.
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 223 
 
 
 « 
 
 (=^g 
 
 s - « 
 
 "^ ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 an 
 
 
 ■I s 
 
 ^1 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 c, 
 
 S ir-. 
 
 
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 ra 
 
 
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 vO I 
 
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 03 "^C^r- 
 
 r4 5 C3 • 
 
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 r4 
 
 ri 
 
 
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 224 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 2-0 
 2 ts 
 
 c-o a* 
 
 M«5 
 
 CO V3 .= 
 
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 di.-5 
 
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 m •• — " ^ fe 
 
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 III 111! II
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 225 
 
 To compute the Altitude of a Heavenly Body, 
 
 It frequently happens that, at the time when a hinav distance is 
 required, the altitude of one, or both, of the bodies may be so high or 
 so lo'^ as to prevent their being taken in an artificial horizon, in which 
 case the altitude should be computed, the error of the watch on M. T. 
 at place having been previously determined; and since the Altitudes 
 employed in clearing the lunar distance are not required to the same 
 degree of precision as those used in finding the time, it Mill be sufficient 
 if they are computed within 20" or 30" of the truth. 
 
 Rule. — Having taken from the 'Nautical Almanac' the declination, 
 E.A., Sidereal Time, Semi-diameter Horizontal Parallax, &c., as required, 
 correct the same for the approximate Greenwich Date. 
 
 Find the Hour Angle as follows : — " 
 
 For the the apparent time from Noon is the Hour Angle. If p.m. 
 the mean time at place converted into ajDp. time with the equation of 
 time will be the hour angle, but if a.m. the apparent time thus found, 
 expressed astronomically, must be subtracted from 24 hours to give the 
 hour angle. 
 
 For the Moon, Star, or a Planet : — 
 
 To the Sidereal time at noon on the given day (page ii. N. A.) accelerated 
 for Greenwich date (table 23 Paper) add the mean time at place, tin's 
 sum will be the Eight Ascension of the Meridian ; subtract from the P. A . 
 of the Meridian the P. A. of the object, and the result will be the west 
 hour angle of the object ; which subtract from 24 hours when the east 
 hour angle is required. 
 
 The True Altitude may now be computed as follows : — 
 
 To find arc 1. — To the log cosine of the object's hour angle add the log 
 cotangent of the latitiide ; their siun (rejecting 10 in the index) will be 
 the log tangent of arc I. 
 
 To find the true Altitude.' — Add together the log sine of the Lati- 
 tude, the log secant of arc I., and the log cosine of the difference 
 of arc I. and the Polar Dist. ; their sum will be the log sine of the 
 true Alt. 
 
 N.B. — "When the hour angle is more than 6 hours, or 90°, take the log 
 cosine of the sum of arc I. and the Polar Dist.
 
 22f) HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 From the Triic Altitude to Jlnd the A2J2J'ire'nt Altitude: — 
 
 The corrections must be apijlied in reverse order, and with contrary 
 signs to those with which tlio true is derived from the Ai:)parent Altitude. 
 
 For the Sun or for a FUinet. — Subtract the Parallax in Altitude, and 
 add the Kefraction. 
 
 For a Star. — Add Eefraction. 
 
 For the Moon. — Take out the correction in Alt (table 39 Eaper), and 
 subtract it from the True Altitude of tlie Moon, this gives onhj the 
 apjiroximate ai)parent altitude ; en'er the same table 39 again with this 
 approximate apparent altitude, and take oiit the correction again, wjiich 
 subtract from the true altitude — the result gives the Ai:)parcnt Alt.
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR Ti:\[E AND LONGITUDK. 
 
 22- 
 
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 228 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 IS 
 
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 g a 
 
 
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 b - 
 
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 h6 <
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 229 
 
 Longitude by Moon Culminating Stars. 
 
 The observation can be taken with the transit theodolite, which must, 
 however, be accurately set up in the plane of the meridian. This can be 
 done by either of the following methods : — 
 
 By Meridian Passage of the Pole Star. — Find the mean time of the 
 meridian passage of the pole star in the manner shown on p. 193. 
 Level the instrument, and if tliis be carefully done the line of collimation 
 will move in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, and will pass through 
 the zenith, then by making it also pass through the celestial pole, and 
 clamping the horizontal plates when it is in that position, the movements 
 of the telescope will be restricted to the plane of the meridian. This is 
 done by turning the telescope on to the pole star, and covering it with 
 the point of intersection of the telescope wires at the time (previously 
 ascertained) of its upper or lower culmination, and then firmly clamping 
 the horizontal plates. The meridian line should now be laid out to the 
 north and south of the observer by sending a man with a lantern and a 
 staff" in both directions, and making him drive the staff into the ground 
 at the spot where the observer sees the lantern in a central position on 
 the cross wires of the telescope. 
 
 By High and Loiv Stars. — This method is accurate, and will be found 
 convenient when the i^ole star cannot be observed. Having placed the 
 instrument approximately in the meridian, choose two stars differing 
 considerably in declination, and but little in right ascension. Note care- 
 fully the time that each star passes the central wire ; take the difference 
 of these times, to which apply the rate of the watch, due for the interval, 
 and convert this into a sidereal interval by Eaper, table 23, or by the 
 ' Nautical Almanac ' table of time equivalents. Take from the ' Nautical 
 Almanac ' the apparent right ascensions of the stars, and subtract the 
 less from the greater. If this difference agrees exactly with the sidereal 
 interval obtained by the watch, the telescope will move in the meridian, 
 but when this is not the case^ and the interval shown by the watch is less 
 than the difference of the stars' right ascensions, the telescope must be 
 moved to the west; if the contrary be the case the telescope must be 
 moved to the east. This must be repeated until the sidereal interval, 
 computed from the watch times of transit, and the difference of the stars' 
 right ascensions taken from the * Nautical Almanac,' agree exactly ; the
 
 230 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 telescope will then move in the plane of the meridian. Select a star as 
 near the zenith as possible for the " high star," as when the instrument 
 is truly level the telescope will be on the meridian when pointing to the 
 zenith, no matter how much it may differ from the meridian when in any 
 other position. 
 
 Bjl Meridian I'assage of uni/ Star. — Any star may be used if the local 
 time is accurately known, and the time of the star's meridian passage 
 carefully computed (as shown, j). 122). The observation is precisely the 
 same as for the pole star, but it would be well to take more than one 
 star ill order to correct any errors that may have been made in observa- 
 tion or computation. Though the results of such oltservations as these 
 are susceptible of a gieat degree of precision, yet absolute accuracy must 
 not be expected. 
 
 By Stars East and West of the Meridim. — If local time is not accu- 
 rately known, the true meridian may be found in the following manner: — 
 Carefully level the transit theodolite, and set the 360° division as nearly 
 true north as you can get it by the attached magnetic needle, then clamp 
 the lower plate, and unclamp the vernier jDlate ; select any star at some 
 considerable distance cast of the meridian, and cover it with the inter- 
 section of the threads in the diaphragm, damp the vertical circle, and take 
 the reading on the horizontal plate; then, after the necessary interval, 
 watch the star until it is again covered with the intersection of the 
 threads in the diaphragm west of the meridian, take the reading, and 
 then the theodolite will point just as far west of the meridian as it 
 originally did to the east, and a jDoint midway between these two horizontal 
 readings will be in the true meridian. Care must be taken to k. ep the 
 vertical circle and the lower plate clamped during the interval between 
 these two observations. Having thus found the true meridian it can be 
 marked as previously directed. Owing to tlie constant change in the sun's 
 declination it is unsuited for finding the meridian by this method. 
 In the following : — 
 
 JR indicates right ascension of the heavenly body. 
 
 3)| ,, the moon's bright limb. 
 
 T' , ajiproximate longitude in time. 
 
 T ,, longitude in time. 
 
 C ., the difference of ^i?. 
 
 B ,, the mean of the second differences of ^U.
 
 OBSEEVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONfllTUDE 231 
 
 The Observation: — Haviug the instrument set in the plane of the 
 meridian, proceed as follows : — 
 
 From the list of " Moon Culminating Stars," given in the ' Nautical 
 Almanac,' select the star whope transit you intend to observe, and calcu- 
 late the local mean time of its meridian passage in the manner shown on 
 p. 192. Take from the ' Nautical Almanac,' page IV., the moon's meridian 
 passage (upper), and from this subtract the time* of the moon's semi- 
 diameter passing the meridian, hefure full moon, but add it after full 
 moon, the result will be the mean time of transit of the moon's bright 
 limb ; but if the meridian of place of observation is at any great distance 
 from the meridian of Greenwich, or any other meridian, from which the 
 difference of the longitude is to be found, then it will be necessary to 
 correct this in the manner shown in the explanation of page IV., given at 
 the end of the ' Nautical Almanac' All this should be done some time 
 before the transits are to be observed. 
 
 If the instriiment is fittel, as it should be, for taking transits, it will 
 have four wires, one horizontal and three vertical, in the place of the 
 usual web, and the exact time of the contact of both the moon's bright limb 
 and the star must be observed at each of the three vertical wires, and the 
 means taken as the true time of observed transit. Be sure to be ready 
 at the instrument some time before the first object comes to the meridian, 
 and make a note of the difference between the declination of the moon 
 and the star, as when the moon transits before the star, it will only be 
 necessary to move the vertical circle by that amount to ensure the star 
 coming into the middle of the fie^l, but if the star transits first, its alti- 
 tude must be computed beforehand, and for this the latitude must be 
 known, thus : — Add together the complement of the latitude of the jilace 
 of observation and the declination of the star, when they are of the same 
 name, or taking their difference when of contrary names ; the altitude to 
 be reckoned from the south point of the horizon when the latitude is 
 north, and the contrary when south ; but when the sum exceeds 90° it is 
 to be taken from 180°, and the altitude is to be reckoned from the north 
 in north latitude, and the south in south latitude. 
 
 Having taken the observation, take the difference between the observed 
 mean of the times of transit of the ))] and ^ , this will be the mean time 
 interval ; accelerate this (Table 23 Eaper, or Time equivalents N.A.), and 
 the result will be the sidereal interval.
 
 232 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Put down the JR of the star observed, and under this put the sidereal 
 interval just found. When the moon transits before the star subtract 
 the interval from tlie star's JR, but when the moon transits after the 
 star add it, and the result will be the JR of the moon's bright limb at 
 transit at place, under which put the preceding Al of the moon's bright 
 limb, taken from col. 4 (N.A.) "Moon Culminating Stars," and take 
 the difference, which turn into seconds and decimals of a second, and 
 call C. 
 
 Take from the fourth column of the table of " Moon Culminating 
 Stars " (N.A.) the JR of the moon's bright limb for four successive 
 culminations, so that two may precede and two follow the JR of moons 
 liright limb at transit at place of observation ; jmt these below each other 
 in regular order, and subtract each of these quantities from the following 
 for the " First Differences," and called the middle term A ; subtract each 
 of the " First Differences " from the following for the " Second Differ- 
 ences," and take half the sum, or mean of the "Second Differences," and 
 call it B. The subtraction necessary to obtain the " differences " must 
 be made as in algebra, i.e., by changing the sign of the quantity to be 
 subtracted, and giving the result the sign of the greater quantity ; take 
 care to prefix the proper sign to B, 
 
 It should be remembered that the right ascensions of the moon's bright 
 limb, taken from the ' Nautical Almanac,' must be those of the same 
 limb (I. or II.) * as that observed. Near the full moon, when the limb 
 marked in the ' Nautical Almanac' changes from I. to II., there may be 
 one or two right ascensions not marked for the limb required. In this 
 case the requisite right ascensions may be found by adding to, or sub- 
 tracting from, the right ascension of the limb given in the 'Nautical 
 Almanac,' twice the sidereal time of the moon's semidiameter passing 
 the meridian (col. 7 " Moon Culminating Stars," ' Nautical Almanac '), 
 and the result will be the right ascension of the other limb. 
 
 To the constant log 4:'635480 (the log of 12 hours expressed in seconds) 
 add the ar-co-log of arc A expressed in seconds, and the log of C ; the 
 sum of these three logs, rejecting 10 in the index, will be the log of 
 approximate longitude in time, which call T'. 
 
 * The Roman figures I. and II. indicate the limbs of the moon which come 
 first or last to the meriiiian.
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 233 
 
 Enter table No. XXIII. (p. 305) with Bat the top, and the approximate 
 longitude in time, T', at the side, and find the corresponding correction, to 
 the log of which add the constant log 4"635480 and the ar-co-log of A, 
 and the sum, rejecting 10 in the index, will be the log of the correction 
 to be applied to the approximate longitude in time with the same sign as 
 B, and thus the correct value of T will be obtained, which will express 
 the longitude of the place if it be west of Greenwich, but if the longitude 
 is east we must subtract this value of T from 12 hours to obtain the 
 true longitude in time east of Greenwich. 
 
 This method, tchich is entirely independent either of local or Greenwich 
 time, includes all that is necessary to find the difference of longitude 
 between any two meridians where observations have been taken, but as 
 the elements in the ' Naiitical Almanac ' have been most accurately com- 
 puted, it is better to take Greenwich as the other meridian. 
 
 The jDrinciple upon which the longitude is found in this method is 
 similar to that which is used in a common hmar observation, and depends 
 on the observed motion of the moon ; but in the present problem, this 
 motion is ascertained by observing the time when the moon's bright limb 
 passes the meridian, instead of measuring the angular distance of the 
 moon from the sun, star, or planet. The variation of the moon's right 
 ascension, corresponding to a change of 15° in the longitude, is given 
 very accurately by the ' Nautical Almanac ' for every transit of the 
 moon's limb at Greenwich. This variation is about 2m. in time for Ih. 
 of longitude, and wiieu the difference of the times of transit under 
 different meridians has been found by observation, it is easy to obtain the 
 corresponding longitude.
 
 234 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Kxaiiqih . 
 
 November 28th, 1884, the transits of tlie ])| and the * e Piscium were 
 taken over three wires of a transit theodolite to determine the longi- 
 tude of the place ; the times being taken by an ordinary watch. 
 
 Transit, of ])| 
 
 H. M. s. 
 
 8 12 4';-T 
 
 8 ij oi'6 
 
 8 1} i6-6 
 
 J) J9 05-9 
 
 Mean 8 ij oi-gT 
 
 Obsd Local M. T. of Transit ) 
 of 6 I'iscium ^ 
 
 Obsd. Local M. T. of Transit / 
 ot j)| ( 
 
 Mean Time I nterval . . . . = 
 
 Acot'leration 
 
 SiJcre.il Iiiterv.;! . . . . = 
 
 H. M. t 
 
 s 23 rt 
 
 8 
 
 U 
 
 01 
 
 97 
 
 o 
 
 lo 
 
 J? 
 
 76 
 
 
 + 
 
 I 
 
 ••74 
 
 o 
 
 lO 
 
 it 
 
 •50 
 
 Transit of e Piscium 
 II. M. s. 
 8 2J 2J-9 
 8 2J J7'7 
 8 2J 516 
 
 {) 
 
 5r2 
 
 AltMM 8 25 !7'7! 
 
 isit ol ^ ^ov. 1 
 
 ^'e.R <oL 4> o 56 5926 
 
 lanac) ' 
 
 (ireenwiih Transit of 
 
 28th, 1884 {■ 
 Nautical Almanac). 
 " I 's Transit before ^ (Sidereal 1 _ 
 
 Interval) S 
 
 Ki of •i^l at Transit at I'lace = o 
 
 Pr. c dfng M of % (col 4 Nauti- / ^ 
 
 cil Almanac) — S 
 
 Liifr. of M 
 
 c = 
 
 10 JT50 
 
 46 21-7^) 
 45 ;4"J9 
 
 oD_rrn 
 
 Nov. 
 
 2 preceding iE of 51 ^ 
 2 following JR of 51 \ 
 
 Day. 1884. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 S. 
 
 27th L. C. 
 
 iH 
 
 i5-4" 
 
 28th U. C. 
 
 45 
 
 54- !9 
 
 28rh L. C. 
 
 I I? 
 
 56-2; 
 
 29th U. C. 
 
 I 42 
 
 4,-88 
 
 + 27 18 98 
 
 A.+ 28 01 -86 
 
 4- 28 49-')j 
 
 2nd DifT. 
 
 sees. 
 4- 42-88 
 4- 4T77 
 
 2) 90-65 
 B = 4-45:2 
 
 Constant Log 
 
 A expressed in seconds 
 
 1681-86 Ar. Co. Luj 
 sees. 
 
 C 27'J7-- ■■ I'M 
 
 sees. 
 Approximate T' .. .. 70J-0 .. = Lo 
 Correction 4- 7 ' 7 
 
 = 4-6ji4ao 4-6}548o 
 
 = 6-7742U 6*7742ii 
 
 Equation from Table. 
 
 — i-4?7275 o"-J Log. 0.477121 
 
 sees. 
 
 = 2-846966 Corr. 4- 7-7 = Log = 0-8868 12 
 
 Longitude in Time T = 710-7 = 2 57 40-5 West.* 
 
 * Th' Longitude is West because the Ji 's Jl at Transit at^ place is greater than the 5 's 51 at iho 
 nearest U. C. (upper culmination) at (Ireenwich (which in this case was oli 4;iu. 54- 39-1.). If the 
 5 's j?l at transit at place had been less than the nearest U. C. at Greenwich, the Longitude would 
 have been East.
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR TIME AND LONGITUDE. 235 
 
 'fu find the LoiKjitude hy Kclipsts of Jupiter's Satellites * 
 
 In the 'Nautical Almanac ' will be found the configiu-ation of Jujiiter's 
 i^atellites for every day in the year, excej^t when Jnpiter is so close to the 
 sun that ids satellites are invisible; these diagrams are given for north 
 latitude, and must be reversed for south latitude When Jupiter comes 
 to the meridian before midnight, the whole eclipse (both immersion and 
 emersion) takes place on the east side of the planet ; when after midnight, 
 on the u'rst side. As an inverting eye-piece must be used, this will 
 ii.ppear to be reversed. Tlie error of the watch on mean time at place 
 should be found from observations of the sun's, or a fixed star's altitude ; 
 but if Jupiter is more than '6 hours from the meridian at the time of 
 making the immersion or emersion of one of his satellites, and if Jupiter's 
 altitude be taken at the instant of observing the immersion or emersion, 
 the use of a watch will be unnecessary, as the 'Nautical Almanac' will 
 furnish the Greenwich date required ; this, of course, can only be done 
 when there are two observers. As a rule, the first satellite is to be 
 preferred, as its motion is more rapid than that of the other three. The 
 ix])lanations given in tlie 'Nautical Almanac' are so clear that they leave 
 notliing to he added. 
 
 The ubser cation. — Having estimated the local time of the phenomenon 
 with the assumed longitude, and the time given in the 'Nautical 
 Almanac,' be ready some time before the eclipse will take place, with a 
 telescope having a magnifying power of not less than 40, and note the 
 instant of the disappearance or re-appearance of the satellite. It mi;st be 
 remembered that either of these events (being caused by the shadow of 
 the planet) may take place when the satellite is at a considerable distance 
 from Jupiter. Ihe difference between mean time at place when the 
 observation was taken, and the mean time at Greenwich given in the 
 ' Nautical Almanac,' is the longitude as shown in the following 
 exam]jle : — 
 
 Nov. 30, 1881, observed the emersion of the 1st satellite of Jupiter, 
 
 * " Tlii.s method, though easy and convenient, is not very accurate ; the eclipse 
 is not instantaneous, and the clearness of the air, and the power employed, affect 
 considerably tlie time of the phenomenon. Observers have been found to differ 
 40 sees, or 5U sees, in the same eclipse.'' — Eaper.
 
 236 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 at 2h. 25m. 4sec., tlio error of the watch on local mean time being 
 36m. 33sccs. slow. 
 
 ir. H. s. 
 
 Time by Watch 2 25 4 
 
 Krror »t Watch + i'l ii 
 
 i I il 
 
 M. T. at Greenwich (' Naiuical Almanac ') lo 26 16 
 
 Longitude in Time 7 24 59 =; iii <) ■); w. 
 
 Observations for Bearings. 
 
 To find the True Bearing of a peah or any other object hy raeins of its 
 ohserved angular distance from the stm. 
 
 Observe the sun's altitude, then the angles between the object and the 
 nearer and farther limbs, and lastly the sun's altitude again ; noting the 
 times of each contact. If the object has any altitude observe it, and note 
 whether it is east or west of the sun. Half the sum of the times of the 
 observed angular distances is the mean time of the observation, and 
 half the sum of the angles observed is the apparent angle ; bnt if the 
 farther limb, only, be observed, the apparent angle is found by sub- 
 tracting the sun's semi-diameter; or if the nearer limb, by adding. 
 From the observed altitudes of the sun, the altitude at the time of the 
 observed angle is found by Simi^le Proportion. 
 
 "Witli time at place tind Greenwich date, either by the error and rate of 
 the watch, or with the longitude in time. 
 
 Take the declination from the 'Nautical Almanac' (if A]^}^. time is 
 used. Page I. ; if Mean time. Page II.) ; correct this for the Greenwich 
 date. From the observed altitude, find the True Alt. 
 
 I True Altitude, 
 Latitude, 
 Polar Distance ; 
 
 divide their sum by 2 for the half sum, and take the difference between 
 the polar distance and the half sum, which call remainder. 
 
 I Log secant of the Altitude, \ 
 
 Loo secant of the Latitude, I rejecting 30 from 
 
 Log cosine 0/ i suni, [ the index. 
 Log cosine of remainder,
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR BEARINGS. 237 
 
 Take out the log sine square of the sum of these four logs (table 69, 
 Eaper), or divide the sum by 2, and it will give the log sine of half the 
 true azimuth, which multiply by 2 ; in either case the result will be the 
 sun's true bearing. If the observed object has an altitude, 
 
 I Log sine of 6b jecfs alt., \ . 
 
 Log sine of 0's app. alt., [ i"ejecling 20 from 
 Log cosec, of api>. angle, ) " ' 
 
 and take out the siirn as a log sine : the result is the corrected angle. 
 
 If the observed object has no altitude, or if its altitude is very small, 
 this step is neglected, and the apparent angle is used as the corrected 
 angle. 
 
 Find the apparent alt. from the true alt. already found, from the 
 observed angular distance find the apparent distance, and from the cos 
 of the dist. from 0's centre, subtract the cos of the apparent altitude ; 
 the remainder will be the cosine of difference of bearings. If the sun be 
 East of the meridian, and the object more East, or the sun be West, and 
 the object more West, add the difference of bearing thus found to the 
 0's true bearing. In any other case, take the difference between the 
 sun's true bearing and the difference of bearings, and the result is the 
 true bearing of the object. 
 
 "When this observation is taken with a transit theodolite, the object, the 
 bearing of which is required, is made zero before taking the altitudes, and 
 the horizontal verniers are read after taking each altitude. As this gives 
 the horizontal angle between the object and the sun, it will only be 
 necessary to compute the sun's true bearing ; and by ajJiDlying the 
 horizontal angle to this, the true bearing of the object is obtained, and the 
 latter part of the work given in the example will be unnecessary.
 
 238 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVET.LERS. 
 
 Examph. 
 
 Cos difference of bearings 
 
 Cos apparent distance 
 
 Cos apparent alt. ot'-0- 
 July 15, 1881, r.M at place, angles and altitudes taken with a sextant 
 Lat. 51° 24' N., Long. 9' 39" W. 
 
 O Alt. in Quicksilver. 
 87 4; o-> 
 
 I ime. 
 H. M. s. 
 J ij 18 
 
 Obsd. Angular distance of an 
 
 object. ° ' " 
 
 Ea«t of the Sun 109 12 10 
 
 Year. Month. Day. 
 
 \?,ii, July i; .. 
 Error of Watch . . . . 
 Month. Day. 
 G. M. T. July i; 
 
 n. Jl. 
 
 - ij 
 
 IJ 5 
 
 Obsd. Alt. in Quicksilver Q 87 45 00 
 Iniex Error — 2 10 
 
 Obsd. Alt. 
 Refraction 
 
 Semidiameter 
 
 Paralbx . 
 True Alt. 
 
 2)87 42 50 
 
 - 43 51 
 
 4; 50 2i 
 
 4^> 
 
 44 '> 17 
 
 Month. Day. ° ' " 
 
 Declin.itlon July 15th (Page ii.X.A.) 21 28 52 N 
 Correction by Hourly Diff.forGM.T. — i 17 
 
 North Polar Di-t. 
 
 21 27 iS 
 
 90 00 CO 
 
 = 68 n 25 
 
 O's True .Vliitude 44 6 17 
 
 Latitude 51 24 00 
 
 N. I'olav Distance . . 68 J2 25 
 
 Sec. o- 1458} 4 
 Sec. o- 204899 
 
 2)164 2 42 
 
 4 ^um 
 I Sum 
 
 .. .. = 82 I 21 
 N. P. Di.-t. li 28 56 
 
 Cos. 9'i42J4i 
 Cos. 9" 
 
 J2?4i 
 
 57865 
 
 6 Q '.-■ True Bcaring=Log. Sin. S luare (69")t) 
 
 = s. 66° J4' 45" \y 
 
 9-478 
 
 Obsd. Alt. Q 4J 51 2; 
 
 Semidiameii r + i; 46 
 
 Apparent Alt. © 
 
 cb-erved angular distance of obiect from the near limb^ ^^ ^ 
 
 o( the snn, corrected for Index einir ) 
 
 O's Stmidiameter 
 
 + 15 46 
 
 Distance f I om O's centre 109 25 46 
 
 Q's Apparent Altitude 44 " n 
 
 o / 
 
 Diffireiice of Bearings 6224 
 
 Co^ 9-52198? 
 
 Cos 9 856056 
 
 9-665927 
 
 Difference of Bearings* = 62 24 
 
 (* If the obsd. angular distance is greater 
 
 than 90°, subtract this Difference of " , 
 
 Bearings from i8o°.) '^ * 
 
 True bearing of O S. 66 ;? W. 
 
 Object East of O ii7 ?6 
 
 True Bearing of Object S. 51 i E. 
 
 t Figures In brackets refer to the number of the table in " Paper."
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR FINDING ERROR OF COMPASS. 239 
 
 Finding the error of the Compass hy the 0's Azimuth. 
 
 The observation for finding the sun's true bearing and error of the 
 compass is the same as that for finding apparent time, with this 
 addition, that the bearing of the sun's centre, at the time of observation, 
 must be taken with a prismatic or other compass. 
 
 August 12th, 1881, P.M. at place, the following observntious were taken 
 to find the error of the compass : — 
 
 o / O / 
 
 Latitude 64 5 X. ncaring of (t) Jf. 71 6 W. 
 
 180 00 
 
 Times hy Watch. Alt. Q Ai-t. Horzn. 
 
 H. it. s. o ' " S. 108 54 W. 
 
 5 19 56 52 27 00 ■ 
 
 5 21 54 52 J 00 
 
 5 2} n 51 41 20 
 
 })i6 5 I J) 15^ "I 20 
 
 Mean = ; 21 40 Mean . . . . = 52 ? 46 
 
 Error of Watch + 41; Inties Krror — + 2 00 
 
 G. M. T., August 12 5 25 5; 2)52 5 46 
 
 — ^^^^^— * When the 
 
 ° ' " Ob.-d. Alt. ..26 2 5? true Azimuth 
 
 O's Declination, Augu-t 12 . . 14 52 8 N refraction . . — i 59 is to the left 
 
 Corr. by Hourly Diff. — 4 4 of the magnetic 
 
 " - 26 o 54 the vaiiation is 
 
 Reduced Declination '4 4^ 4 ^- Semi-diameter .. + ij 49 W. ; when the 
 
 90 00 00 ■ — true Azimuth 
 
 26 16 4 J is to the right 
 
 North Polar Distance . . .. = •;; 11 56 Pa'allax .... 4- 8 of the magnetic 
 
 ■~"™~^~^^^ the variation is 
 
 Tine Alt .. = 26 16 51 East. 
 
 rj 
 
 Alt. . . 
 l>at. . . 
 N P I). 
 
 i Sum . . . . 
 iSum-N.l'. 
 
 = 26 16 51 Secant 0047J85 
 — (^ 5 00 Secant o"J59456 
 = IS n 56 
 
 2)i6s }i 47 
 
 = 82 46 5J-5 Cosine 9-099181 
 D = "J 34 57 '5 Cosine 9-996186 
 
 9-502208 = I.og. Sin. Square = S. 68 }i W. Q's Irue Azimuth 
 " S. io8 54 W. 0's Bearing. 
 
 Error of Compass = 40 16 W.*
 
 240 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 On Observations with Theodolites or Altazimuth Instruments. 
 By General J. T. Walker, r.e., c.b., f.r.s., ll.d. 
 
 In the opening pages of these Hints, lists of instruments have been 
 given which travellers of little experience are recommended to provide 
 themselves with, and the sextant has been more particularly recommended, 
 as the traveller will have oi^portunities of practising with it under the 
 tuition of the officers of the ship which is conveying him to his destination. 
 
 The suitability of this instrument for observations, both on land and 
 sea, is thus a great advantage for any person who has not had an oppor- 
 tunity of learning the use of his instruments before starting on his 
 expedition ; and should he not have a sufficient knowledge of the methods 
 of reducing the observations and calculating the results, he will find the 
 simplest and easiest rules for his guidance in the several works on 
 navigation, which are specially devised to enable the reduction of ob- 
 servations with sextants to be made by persons possessing little or no 
 knowledge of the principles on which the rules are based. 
 
 But the extent of the regions of terra incognita in which inexperienced 
 travellers can operate with the greatest advantage is constantly becoming 
 more and more narrowed and diminislied, and geographical science now- 
 a-days frequently requires that the rough outlines which have hitherto 
 sufficed for her purposes, should not only be amplified and filled in, but 
 rectified by more exact and reliable observations. The traveller must, in 
 such cases, be provided with an instrument of greater capabilities than 
 the sextant, and he should have thoroughly learnt the use of this instru- 
 ment and the method of reducing the several kinds of observations which 
 may be made with it, before he commences operations. If he has no 
 better instruments nor greater skill than his predecessors, his results may 
 differ widely from theirs, but they will not be more worthy of confidence. 
 
 An altazimuth instrument — or a theodolite possessing a complete 
 vertical circle as well as a horizontal circle — is in many respects superior 
 to a sextant. 1st, it measures horizontal angles directly, thus avoiding 
 the labour of reducing oblique angles to the horizon; and a round of 
 several angles can be measured with far less trouble than with the 
 sextant, 2ndly, it measures small vertical angles of elevation or de-
 
 THEODOLITE OBSERVATION'S. 
 
 24] 
 
 prcssion of objects which frequently could not be seen l)y reflection from 
 a mercurial horizon for the measurement of the double angle by a 
 sextant. 3rdly, its telescopic power is usually far higher than that of a 
 sextant, and is always much more effective, the instrument being held 
 steadily on a stand instead of loosely by hand. 4thly, it may be so 
 manipulated as to eliminate the effects — without ascertaining the magni- 
 tudes — of constant instrumental errors, such as eccentricity, collimation, 
 and index errors. And 5thly, the influence of graduation errors may, 
 when great accuracy is required, bo reduced to a very considerable ex- 
 tent by systematic changes of the zero settings of the horizontal circle. 
 
 The disadvantages of the altazimuth instrument as compared witli the 
 f extant are its greater cost and balk and weight; but in many instances 
 these disadvantages will be more than counterbalanced by its superior 
 capabilities. 
 
 The following table gives tlie relative cost, weight, telescopic power, 
 and precision of graduation of Messrs. Troughton and Simms' instruments 
 of both classes. 
 
 Instrument. 
 
 AVeight of 'Weight 
 with Box. of Stand 
 
 f7-incb(raUius)soxtaiit 
 \ Artificial horizon 
 
 j-inch (diameter) tran 
 sit theodolite . . . 
 ^-inch „ „ 
 
 5-inch „ „ 
 
 6 inch ,, „ 
 
 lbs. 
 
 ~i 
 i to 10 
 
 Price Telescopic Eeadlngs of 
 Powers. Verniers. 
 
 Details. 
 
 22 10 
 
 79 o 
 31 O 
 
 -)0 o 
 
 5 to 10 
 
 14 
 10 to 16 
 
 I' 
 1' 
 
 jO" 
 
 pViihout transit axis 
 I level, and lamp. 
 rWilh transit axis 
 I level, and lamp. 
 Do. 
 
 The Messrs. Casella construct certain very light and cheap altazimuth 
 instruments, with 3-inch circles, power 5, weight Avith box 4 lbs., weight 
 of stand 3^ lbs. divided to 1', price under £20. 
 
 For astronomical observations the sextant is decidedly preferable to 
 very small altazimuth instruments, but the latter are to be preferred 
 for the measurement of horizontal angles and terrestrial elevations or 
 depressions. 
 
 The traveller must necessarily adapt his equipment to his require- 
 P'ients,and to the facilities he will possess for carrying instruments about. 
 
 s
 
 242 HINTS TU TKAVKLLKUS. 
 
 llo may find it couveniont to employ a ecxtant for astronomical, and a 
 very siuall light altazimuth for terrestrial observations. But, whenever 
 l)ractical)lc, an altazimuth of moderate size, which may be used as a 
 universal instrument, would undoubtedly be the most convenient and 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Trigonometrical operations arc, as a rule, far simijlcr and more easily 
 reduced, and lead to more accurate results than astronomical olisorvations. 
 A continuous triangulation, or a traverse with measured angles and 
 distances, is necessarily imi)ossil)le when the ex])lorer lias to pass through 
 a country very rai>idly; but he may frequently remain for .several days 
 at one place, and may then have ojiportunities of greatly extending the 
 scope of his operations by executing a triangulation. Suppose him to be 
 in view of a range of hills which lie may not have an opportunity of 
 cx])loring, distant say 50 to 100 miles; he may have already endeavoured 
 on his line of march to fix points on the range by bearings, but from the 
 absence of prominent landmarks has found a difficulty in identifying the 
 points observed, and thinks he may have mistaken one hill for another 
 in consequence of their changes in appearance as viewed from positions 
 at some distance apart. If, during his few days' halt, he can manage to 
 do a little triangulation, he may fix the general outlines of the entire 
 range relatively to his halting-place with very respectable accuracy. Ho 
 has first to measure a base and determine by triangulation the positions 
 of three stations lying in a direction nearly parallel to that of the range, 
 and at distances of 2 to 5 miles apart ; then at each of these stations he 
 must measure the angles between the other stations and a series of points 
 on the entire length of the range.* Though no very prominent landmarks 
 
 * He .sliould make u sketch of the outline of the raugo in liis book of observa- 
 tious ; iuul as lie will probably bo unable tn ascertain the names of the hill 
 siniunils at such a distanco from tlicra, and many of them may have uo unnios, 
 he liad belter number them in the order in which they are observed, and refer to 
 llii lu always by these numbers, until he can coutidenlly replace a inuuber by a 
 name. Exaggerated sketches of the outlines of the ohjeets intersected by tljc 
 telescope arc frequently of use to facilitate identification on proceeding to the 
 next station. 
 
 Tile ])ositions of places situated within or beyond the range of hills which arc 
 invisible to tlie traveller, but are known to his native guides and assistants, may
 
 THEODOLITE OBSERA A'J'IONS. 243 
 
 may be visible, still the telescope will show a imml)cr of objects — trees, 
 masses of rock, and peculiarities of the ground — sufficiently clearly to 
 J )ermit of their being recognised and identified at stations of observation 
 which are so close to each other ; and though the triangles will be very 
 acute-angled, the angles may easily be measured with sufficient accuracy 
 to give the distances of the points on the ranges from the stations of 
 observation with a small percentage of error, whenever the marks are 
 truly identified ; and as there will be two triangles to each point, and 
 therefore, double values of the side common to both triangles, any 
 mistakes — whether of identity, or of reading, or calculation— will be at 
 once shown mp. 
 
 Whenever a break of continuity occurs in the triangulation or travers- 
 ing, astronomical observations must be resorted to. Much may be done 
 by a judicious introduction of latitudes and azimuths, more i:)articularly 
 where there is considerable northing and southing, for then good differ- 
 ences of longitude may be obtained from the azimuths and differences of 
 latitude. A prominent peak, visible from great distances all round, 
 may be made to serve as a connecting link between regions which cannot 
 l)c continuously connected, by measuring its azimuth and distance from 
 a base-line in each region ; the addition of latitudes, at the azimuth 
 stations, strengthens the work. 
 
 The G-inch subtense theodolite hj Messrs. Troughton and Simms has 
 been much used in exi^lorations connected with the operations of the 
 Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, and given great satisfaction, being 
 sufficiently accurate for all desirable purposes, and not too heavy to be 
 easily carried. It is adapted for determinations of time and longitude 
 by the method of zenith distances, and also by that of meridional transits, 
 tlie former being best suited for the traveller when ho can only devote 
 a few hours to the operations, the latter when he is halting for a long time 
 at one ])lace ; the two methods lead to strictly independent results, so 
 that when both are employed they serve to check each other. It is also 
 well suited for latitude and azimuth observations ; in fact, it can be 
 
 be approximately determined by making a native point the theodolite, as a gun, 
 in the direction of the place and state the distance beyond or on this side of tlie 
 range. 
 
 s 2
 
 244 HINTS TO TKAVELLERS. 
 
 cmiiloycd in any of the investigations which an cxi^lorcr may have to 
 undertake by means of astronomical observations. 
 
 It is specially provided witli a pair of micrometers in the eye-piece of 
 the telescope, for the purpose of measuring small angles, and more par- 
 ticularly those subtended by.objects of known dimensions, by means of 
 wliich the distance between the object and the ol)server is readily deduced. 
 The system of micrometers is movea])le through an angle of 90", so as to 
 ]K'rmit of the measurement of either a horizontal or a vertical ol)ject. 
 Witli the aid of this ai)]iliancc, the instrument can be employeil in carry- 
 ing on a traverse without using any direct measuring ajiparatus, such as 
 a chain or perambulator, the distances to the back and forward stations 
 being determined by measuring the angles subtended by a pole of known 
 length, or between two poles at a known distance. In hilly and broken 
 ground in crossing rivers or other obstacles, and generally wherever a direct 
 measurement is impracticable, this method of procedure is most con- 
 venient. With one of these instruments a traverse of the line of country 
 ])assed over by the British army in the Abyssinian expedition, was carried 
 from Adiserat to Magdala, a distance of nearly 300 miles, withotxi any break 
 of continuity, the daily rate of progress averaging 5 miles, and being 
 occasionally as much as 8 miles. The difference of latitude between the 
 origin and terminus as determined from these operations only differed 
 by about a quarter of a mile from the value determined astronomically. 
 Whenever a halt occurred in the movements of the army, the instrument 
 was used as a theodolite in triangulating, to fix the positions of all hills 
 and other prominent objects around the halting-place ; it was also used 
 for various astronomical observations.* 
 
 * These instruments being furnished with a pair of raicrometci's, wliich can bo 
 uscil either horizontally or vertically, are all the more valuable for astronomical 
 observations ; for the micrometers give two additional wires over whicli the stars 
 may be observed, and these wires can be set at pleasure to any distance from the 
 fixed wires in the diaphragm wliich may be best suited to the rale of movement 
 of the star. For pairs of observations — face right and face left — no reductions to 
 the centre wire are necessary ; and thus greater accuracy is obtained witli very 
 slight additional troulile of observing, and still less of computing.
 
 THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS. 245 
 
 Beraarks on the Manipulation of Altazimuth Instruments. 
 
 Observations with these instruments should always be made iu pairs, 
 with the face of the vertical circle alternately to the right and left of the 
 observer. Thus, supposing that in the first observation, or round of 
 observations, the face of that circle is to the right of the observer, the 
 telesco]^c should be immediately afterwards moved through 180^ in 
 azimuth, and turned over in altitude, which will bring the face of the 
 circle to the left of the observer, and then a second observation, or round 
 of observations, should be taken ; the mean of the two measures, face 
 right and face left, will be free from coUimation, index, and other instru- 
 mental errors. 
 
 In measuring horizontal angles between objects of nearly the same 
 altitude, as landmarks not much above or below the horizon, a change of 
 face is not absolutely necessary, and may be dispensed with if Ihe observer 
 is hurried ; but when such angles are measured between objects of very 
 different altitudes— as a terrestrial referring mark and a star — and when- 
 ever altitudes are measured, whether of terrestrial or celestial objects, the 
 observations should invariably be taken in both positions, alternately 
 " face right" and "face left," and the final result deduced from the moan, 
 in order that the instrumental errors may be eliminated. There is no 
 necessity to determine the magnitude of these errors, as in the sextant ; 
 in an instrument which has to travel far over bad ground the adjustments 
 are liable to alter from time to time, but they are not likely to alter in 
 the interval between two consecutive observations, and the errors arising 
 therefrom will be eliminated in the mean of the pair. 
 
 In what follows regarding astronomical observations with these instru- 
 ments, a complete observation will be understood to imply the mean of 
 a i)air of ol)servations, one with face right, the other with face left, taken 
 continuously without any considera1)le pause between them, the entire 
 operation being considered as one observation.
 
 24(5 HINTS TD TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Dcter/uinatioiis of Time, Azhauth, jAditmle and LoiKjUade, with a Suhti-nse 
 
 Theodolite. 
 
 Tlie subtense theodolite may be employed either as a transit instrument, 
 or as an altazimuth instrument ; it is adajjted for all astronomical 
 observations, excc])ting those of "luaar distances," Avhich can only be 
 performed by a sextant or a reflecting circle, and occultations, which 
 require larger telescopes. 
 
 Thus a description of each of the varioiis kinds of observations which 
 can be made with transit and altazimuth insti-uments, with full details 
 of the methods to be employed in the corresponding reductions, would 
 fill a Yolume, and be much more than is required for a book which merely 
 purports to give hints to travellers. Those who wish to learn full 
 particulars of each of the several methods of observation, and of the 
 reductions, cannot do better than study Chauvenet's 'Sj^herical and 
 Practical Astronomy,' which is one of the most valuable works on the 
 subject in the English language : it gives ample instructions for observa- 
 tions of all kinds, the rudest and most hurried, as well as the most 
 relincd and elaborate, and it supplies corresponding formulae — approxi- 
 mate as well as rigorous — for the reduction of the observati(jns. 
 
 As these Hints are merely intended to indicate the simplest and most 
 expeditious methods by which a traveller who is able to carry a suitable 
 altazimuth instrument about with him, can take the astronomical 
 observations which are essentially necessary for his geographical ex] dera- 
 tions, they will be restricted to determinations of time, latitude and 
 longitude by the measurement of zenith distances, and of azimuths by 
 horizontal angles; formula)— some approximate but all sufficiently 
 rigorous for the purpose, and adapted mostly from Chauvenet — will also 
 be given, for the reduction of the observations. 
 
 Latitude Observations, the time being unknown. — The instrument being 
 duly levelled and brought approximately into the meridian, set the 
 telescope on any star — or on the siin — when approaching culmination, 
 and follow it until the maximum altitude is reached ; take the zenith- 
 distance reading on the vertical circle, change face quickly, and make a 
 second observation ; the mean of the two will be a " complete observation " 
 of zenith distance. Two or tiireo pairs of tibservations may be taken to
 
 THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS. 247 
 
 circumpolai- stars, as their zenith distances will not alter sensibly during 
 an interval of a quarter to half an hour ; for other stars the observations 
 should be restricted to one pair, and stars should not be observed when 
 within 25^ of the zenith, A single pair of observations with the 6-incli 
 transit theodolite should give a determination within 20" of the truth ; 
 greater accuracy may be obtained by observing additional stars, more 
 particularly when the stars are selected so as to form pairs of nearly 
 equal distance from the zenith, north and south. 
 
 Latitude Observations, the time being knoivn. — (l.) Observe the zenith 
 distance of the Pole-star in any position, and reduce to the meridian by 
 the tables in the ' Nautical Almanac' 
 
 [2.) Take circum-meridian observations of the zenith distance of any 
 star, alternately face right and face left, and note the time of each obser- 
 vation; compute the reduction of the zenith distance at the time of 
 observation to the distance on the meridian, and take the mean of the 
 reduced results as the determination of the meridional zenith distance. 
 Three or four pairs of observations may generally be made in succession 
 to the same star ; but the nearer the star is to the zenith the more 
 accurately should the times be known — it is not desirable, therefore, to 
 observe stars within 10° of the zenith. Here, too, pairs of north and 
 south stars of nearly equal zenith distance will give the best results. 
 
 Time. — Take pairs of observations of the zenith distance of a star, 
 noting the chronometer time of each, and adopt the mean of the times as 
 the time corresponding to the mean zenith distance, with which, the 
 latitude of the place, and the star's declination, the star's hour angle 
 must be computed by either of the well-known formulae : thus the local 
 time and the chronometer error will be determined. For these obser- 
 vations stars are most favourably situated which are easterly or westerly, 
 and not very near either to the horizon or to the meridian ; and greatest 
 accuracy is obtained when two stars are observed at nearly the same 
 altitude, one to the east, the other to the west. With a pair of observa- 
 tions the chronometer error should be determined within 1 second when 
 a 6-inch transit theodolite is used. 
 
 Longitude. — Take pairs of observations of zenith distance, face right 
 and face left, on a star, for the determination of local time and clirono- 
 meter error; then take other pairs of observations of zenith distance on 
 the moon; in each instance adopt the mean of the chronometer times as
 
 248 HINTS TO TKAVELLEKS. 
 
 tlic time of the "complete obscrviitioii" of zenith distance. Eotli moon 
 and stai- sliould be as nearly easterly or westerly as possible, and always 
 materially nearer the prime vertical than the meridian; and they should 
 be snlliciently aV)0ve the horizon to prevent the o1>servations being 
 sensibly affected by errors of refraction. The operations should com- 
 mence and close with star observations, for time and chronometer rate. 
 The effect of instrumental errors will probably be sensibly reduced when 
 the star and the moon are (m the same side of the meridian, and nearly 
 at the same zenith distance. If time permits, ol)servations should be 
 taken both east and west of the meridian; and both before and after full 
 moon. 
 
 Tlie best time for observing tlu; moon is when the direction of the 
 resultant of her motion in right ascension and declination is pointing 
 towards the zenith of the observer. 
 
 The sidereal time when this occurs may be readily found, graj^hically, 
 by drawing on a chart of the heavens a tangent to the moon's orbit, at 
 some point near its mean position on any given day, and producing the 
 tangent to cut the declination circle passing through the observer's 
 zenith ; then the hour circle passing through the point of intersection 
 gives the sidereal time of observation. It will ordinarily suffice to drop 
 a perpendicular from the point indicating the moon's position on the 
 ecliptic, and draw through that point a line at right angles with the 
 perpendicular to cut the declination circle. It will be found that the 
 most favourable time occurs when the moon 'is near the prime vertical, 
 and the least favourable when she is near the meridian. In north lati- 
 tudes the moon is most favourably situated when west of the meridian if 
 her motion in declination is from south to north, and when east of the 
 meridian if the motion in declination is from north to south. 
 
 A few observations taken daily on several days are preferable to several 
 observations on a single day. 
 
 Azimuth, time and latitude heirtg uitl-nown. — Observe the angles between 
 a referring mark* and a star, when the star is at the same altitude east 
 
 "■ A good referring mark mey be made of a cross witli a hole of | to ^ an inch 
 in diameter in the centre, to wliich observations can be taken by day and by 
 night, being rendered visible at night by a bull's-eye lantern placed behind tlie 
 hole and directed to the observer. TJ'.e stem of the cross should be vertical, and
 
 THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS. 249 
 
 and west of the meridian ; several pairs of observations may be taken at 
 consecutive altitudes, half with face right and half with face left. Or the 
 angles may be measured between a referring mark and a circumpolar 
 star at the times of its maximum elongations east and west. The mean 
 of the two angles at opposite positions gives the angle between the star 
 and the meridian, and thence the azimuth of the referring mark, without 
 any calculations whatever. In the first case, however, an interval of 
 several hours must be allowed to elajjse between the observations east 
 and west ; and as twelve hours must necessarily elapse between the 
 opposite elongations of a circumpolar star, few stars will ordinarily be 
 visible at both elongations. 
 
 It may therefore be desirable to adopt a third and more expeditious 
 method, as follows: — Measure the angles between the referring mark and 
 two circumpolar stars at their respective elongations, selecting stars which 
 are nearly in opposition or nearly in conjunction, and will attain their 
 maximum elongations at nearly the same time, that the observations may 
 bo completed quickly ; then, with the observed value of the angle between 
 the stars, and the given declinations of the stars, the azimuths of Ijoth 
 may be readily computed, as shown at page 235. 
 
 Azimuths, latitude being knowv. —Ohsevve the angle between the re- 
 ferring mark and a circumpolar star at maximum elongation, and compute 
 tlie azimuth of the star. To stars near the pole two or three pairs of 
 observations, face left and face right, may be taken before the star moves 
 sensibly from the position of maximum elongation. 
 
 Azitnuth, latitude and time being known. — Any star may be observed in 
 any position, but the best results will be obtained when a circumpolar 
 star is observed at a short distance from the elongation ; -the angle between 
 the position of the star at the observation and at the elongation may be 
 computed by the last formula at page 255. 
 
 Azimuth, latitude and star's altitude being linown. — Observe the angle 
 between the referring mark and an east or west star, and measure the 
 vertical angle of the star simultaneously by observing the star at the 
 
 driven firmly iuto the ground. The distance from the station of observation 
 should be at least lialf a mile, and the station should be marked by a pin driven 
 into the gronnd, over which the theodolite must be carefully centered whenever 
 set up for horizontal obicrvatiou.s.
 
 250 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 intersection of tlie liorizontal and vertical wires of the tlieodolite ; change 
 face and repeat the measures of the horizontal and vertical angles, taking 
 the mean of each as a "complete observation." The star should not l)e 
 at a high altitude; it should be situated near the prime vertical, and 
 rather on the side towards the apparent pole than on the opposite side. 
 
 This method is extensively practised in the Indian Surveys for the 
 determination of verificatory azimuths for revenue surveys, for which it 
 has been found more convenient than any other method. The observa- 
 tions are usually taken between sunset and dark, when there is sufficient 
 light to dispense with lamps for illuminating the wires of the telescojie 
 or indicating the referring mark ; a lamp to illuminate the graduations 
 of the circles is, however, generally necessary. 
 
 General llemarhs. — The observed zenith distances should always be 
 corrected for refraction; barometer and thermometer readings should, 
 therefore, be taken during the observations, for the better determination 
 of the I'efraction. When no barometer is at hand, the height of the 
 station of observation should be given, as deduced by the boiling point 
 or otherwise, or even approximately estimated. It may be well to 
 remember, in determining latitude by observing pairs of north find south 
 stars of the same zenith distance, that the means are uninfluenced by 
 refraction, and therefore corrections for refraction may be dispensed with. 
 
 Formuhti and Examples. 
 
 Latitude hi/ Circum-meridian Observations of a Star. 
 
 Let (f) be the true latitude, C the true zenith distance on the meridian, 
 Co the observed zenith distance corrected for refraction, S the declination 
 of the star,* ^„ an approximate value of (p, = 8 ± Cu, t the hour angle of 
 the star. 
 
 Put A = ^s to cosS ^^^ ,,^ ^ _^ ^.^, ^^^ 
 sm Co sin I 
 
 Then C=L- ^ "*> and <p = 8 ± C 
 
 * When the suu is observed, the ilfclination corresponding to the mean of the 
 times of obseivutiou should be used.
 
 THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 251 
 
 The values of m are given in table X. (p. 280). 
 Alternative forms of m, ] m = cosec i" versin t. 
 
 adapted for various} = "00055!!^, when < is given in seconds of time, 
 logarithmic tables. ■' =2t- nearly, „ „ minutes „ 
 
 Supposing /( observations to be taken, then, since A is constant, 
 
 ^ _ /• . mj + ^2 + • • • • + '»n 
 
 ^ — io ~ -^^ • 
 
 ^a;amjj?c.— CiRCUji-MEMDiAK Observations for Latitude to ;3 Urs.h3 Minouis 
 North of the Zenith. 
 
 Left 
 Right 
 
 Left 
 
 Rigiit 
 
 Left 
 
 Kigi.t 
 
 Circle Readings 
 
 Mean Zenitli 
 Disti\nces 
 of Pairs of 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Alt. 
 Z. i). 
 
 Alt. 
 
 z."d. 
 
 Alt. 
 Z."l). 
 
 54 10 2ot 
 
 3; 4; J5/| 
 
 j; 45 ou 
 
 54 'o 50^1 
 
 54 II o) 
 
 3; 45 15/ 
 
 35 45 io\ 
 
 54 10 40/ 
 
 54 10 io\ 
 
 a 45 50/ 
 
 IMean . . 
 Refraction . . 
 
 ^0 = 
 — A«i = 
 
 ii 47 
 
 35 47 
 
 35 47 
 
 35 47 
 
 35 47 
 
 Cinonometer. 
 
 {'' 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 47 
 
 4- 
 
 2; 
 42 
 
 35 
 
 48 
 
 5 
 2f 
 
 If. s. 
 
 45 47 
 
 47 I 
 
 48 55 
 51 JO 
 54 37 
 
 56 22 
 
 57 4? 
 53 48 
 
 o 18 
 
 2 10 
 
 in Minutes 
 of Time. 
 
 7-2 
 6-0 
 4-1 
 1-5 
 1-6 
 34 
 
 5-6 
 
 7-3 
 9-2 
 
 Data. 
 
 ^H of Star .. 
 Ohron. Krror 
 
 Cliron. Time 
 of Transit 
 
 51 14 
 1 46 
 
 i = 35 47 44 
 
 
 Mean . . ji- ; 
 
 log cos 4>Q ■ • 
 los COS 5 . . 
 log cosec ^"0 
 
 log A 
 
 log 62-6 .. 
 
 ^ = 
 
 31-3 X 2 = 62-6. 
 38^58' 53" X. 
 
 log Am 
 
 y^- 
 
 53 
 
 74 
 35 
 
 46 37 
 48 5 
 
 38 
 
 58 32 
 
 .. 9-8906 
 .. 9-4192 
 
 .. 0-2J28 
 
 .. 9-5426 
 .. l-7'/>5 
 
 .. 1-3391 
 
 For the above formula ( should ba less than 20 minutes, and ^ greater than 10°. 
 
 * Tlie circle; rciiding's will be alternately ;iltiimles and zt-iiith distances ± tjio 
 index cn-or of tlic in.stiumtnt, which error is eliiuiiiated in the iii(;an of a pair of 
 C)l)sorvatiou3
 
 252 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Longitude by Lunar Zenith Distances. 
 
 The local time and the chronometer error having been fletermined from 
 the star observations. 
 
 Let fo = the observed zenith distance of the moon's limb. 
 e = the local sidereal time of the observation of C„. 
 Li = an assumed value of the longitude. 
 A L, = the required correction of Lj. 
 L = the true longitude = Li + A Lp 
 (f) = the latitude. 
 
 Find the Greenwich time corresponding to 8 and Lp for wliieh take 
 
 S = the moon's declination. \ ^^.^^^ ^j^^ 
 
 TT = the moon's equatorial horizontal parallax. / , Nont Aim ' 
 S = the moon's geocentric semi-diameter. J 
 
 Let Si be the moon's apparent semi-diameter, and tt, tlie corrected 
 parallax, 
 
 then Sj = S + A S, and ttj = tt + Aw; 
 
 and the values of A S and A tt maj' be interpolated from the following 
 tables which are abridged from Chauvenet. 
 
 Also put Si = S + e^ TTi sin </> cos 6, in which log e- = 7"8244; and let 
 r be the refraction for the apparent zen. dis. ((, ; 
 
 and let (, = Co + '' ± ^'u 
 and Ci = f 2 — TTi sin d ; 
 
 then the hour angle, t, is found from the equatioii 
 
 sin^ 1 1 = ^"' ' ^^' + ^^ - ^'^^ ^"' ^ t^^' - ^"^ -^'^\ 
 cos (p cos 6, 
 
 after which the moon's right ascension, .Tl, is fonnd by the formula 
 
 Ai = e - t.
 
 THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 253 
 
 N'alues of A S, always + . 
 
 Value of A tt, always + . 
 
 Apparent 
 
 
 Horizontal Semi-diameter. 
 
 
 Lati- 
 tude. 
 
 Equatorial Parallax. 
 
 Zen. Dis. 
 
 of Mix.n. 
 
 . > " 
 
 ; // 1 )' 
 
 , „ ! , „ 
 
 • > n 
 
 , ■ > 
 
 
 14 JO 
 
 15 15 JO 
 
 16 16 JO 
 
 17 
 
 
 5? 57 6t 
 
 o 
 
 „ 
 
 „ 
 
 „ 
 
 M <r 
 
 „ 
 
 
 
 II 11 
 
 1/ 
 
 o 
 
 ir7 
 
 14-6 
 
 1,-6 
 
 ib-l 17-7 
 
 i8-8 
 
 
 
 O'O O'O 
 
 o;o 
 
 lo 
 
 ir? 
 
 '44 
 
 15-4 
 
 16-4 17-5 
 
 i8-6 
 
 10 
 
 o-j o-j 
 
 04 
 
 20 
 
 12-9 
 
 ir8 
 
 14-7 
 
 15-7 
 
 i6-7 
 
 17-7 
 
 20 
 
 1-2 1 I-J 
 
 i'4 
 
 JO 
 
 11-8 
 
 12-7 
 
 iJj 
 
 14-4 
 
 >5-4 
 
 16 -J 
 
 io 
 
 2-7 ^ 2-9 
 
 J-i 
 
 4^ 
 
 IO-5 
 
 11-2 
 
 I2-0 
 
 12-8 
 
 n-6 
 
 14-4 
 
 40 
 
 44 1 4*7 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 8-3 
 
 V4 lo-i 
 
 107 11-4 
 
 I2-I 
 
 50 6-2 6-7 ' 7-2 
 
 60 
 
 6-9 
 
 -•J 
 
 7-9 
 
 8-4 ' 89 
 
 9-5 
 
 60 80 8-6 9-2 
 
 70 
 
 4-7 
 
 51 
 
 5-4 
 
 5-8 6-1 
 
 6-5 
 
 70 1 9'4 lo-i io'8 
 
 8o 
 
 2-4 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-8 
 
 j-o j-2 
 
 J-4 
 
 80 lo'j ii-i II-9 
 
 'P 
 
 0- I 
 
 o-I 
 
 o-i o-i 0-2 
 
 0-2 
 
 90 i:;-6 ii'4 12-2 
 
 The Greenwich mean time corresponding to the moons M must be found 
 from the ' Xautical Almanac ' ; with this, and the local mean time a value 
 of the longitude is determined, wiiich, however, is approximate only, as t, 
 is computed with an approximate value of 8 depending on the assumed 
 longitude. Put L2 for the approximate value of the longitude which is 
 thus determined, and 
 
 . „ ., . J, ^ . -L c I- [ '^^ the Greenwich mean 
 
 put jS = the increase of ni a unit of time ,. „ ,, , ,. 
 
 ^ ^ K time of the observation 
 
 -'' t )) y Qf ^1^,^ moon ; 
 
 and X 
 
 alsolet«=JLji^^-ilE_M; 
 1 5 A ( Sin t tan t ) 
 
 then A L, = -' ~ ', and L = L, -F A L,. 
 
 I + a ^ ' 
 
 These forraulse are demonstrated in Chauvenet, vol. i. pages 383 to 385; 
 and M'hen several observations have to be I'educed, they entail less labour 
 of comi^utation than any other formula.
 
 254 HINTS 'j'o ti!Avi;m-ki;s. 
 
 Kmiiijih: — III latitiulc r/) = 38" 58' 53" N. and iis.suiii(;<l loiicjitiulc !>, = 
 5 li. 6111. west of (Jrcemviclijon IMay 2iid, 1849, the moon liciiig cast of the 
 meridian, the zenith distance of the moon's upper limb was oKservcd to 
 I10 57^^ 47' 28"5", when the local mean time was 5 h. 33 m. 2i"6 s., and tlie 
 local sidereal time 6 = 8 h. 16 m. 14*61 s. 
 
 Approximate Greenwich mean time, "^ ' " 
 
 10 h. 39 m. 2 1-6 s. Bar. 30-45 in.j („ =57 47 28-5 
 
 for which we find from the Att. Therm. 63'' F.| r = + 1 30*9 
 
 'N.A.'S = +3^47' 47-6" Ext. „ 65'^F.)Si=+ 15 24-5 
 
 S = 15 i6"4 
 
 TT = 56 3-1 ^2 = 58 4 23-9 
 
 - TTj sni Ci = - 47 38-1 
 
 and from the tables on page wo iiutl 
 
 A S = +8-1 Ci = 57 16 45-8 
 
 A TT = + 4'4 
 
 e"7risin(/) | ' ^ " S 
 
 cos 5 (- + '^' 
 
 With these values cf <%, f„ and (/> we liud— 
 
 11. M. S. 
 
 / = - 3 19 53-64; 
 but e = 8 16 1 4 • 6 1 ; 
 whence the computed M= n 36 8-25. 
 The corresponding Greenwich mean time for this value ) "■ ^'• 
 
 ofthe^is .: r° ^'^ -^^■" 
 
 The local mean time is .. •• •■ •• .. 5 33 2i'6 
 
 3 48 i-7 
 
 Whence the approx. long L.J is 5 627'i 
 
 • M. S. 
 
 "• "■ >"■ [increase of yR, in i = 2-014 = ^• 
 For the GrceuAvich mean time 10 39 48-7) ^ " „ 
 
 I „ ,, = lO'OI = p. 
 
 Whence n — — o'33i7 : and since L.^ — Lj = 4- 27"i s., 
 
 b. II. M. s. 
 
 A Li = 40-6, and L = 5 6 4o-6.
 
 THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS. 255 
 
 Fvi' in alls for tlic rediKtion of Azimuth Observaiivits. 
 
 ( 1 ) AVhen a star is observed at au elongation. 
 
 jjct A l>o the azimuth, S the declination, cf) the latitude. 
 
 mi • A cos 8 
 
 Then sui A = 
 
 cos cf) 
 
 (2) When a star is observed at a short distance from the elongation. 
 Let t be the hour angle at the time of elongation, 
 
 then cos t = ,' — i. 
 tan S 
 
 Let d the the difference between the hour angles at the times of elonga- 
 tion and of observation, and d A the corresponding difference of azimuth, 
 
 then tan d A = — 2 sin-— sec (j) cot S cosec t ; 
 
 2 
 
 whence ii d t in expressed in minutes of time, and k is a constant, 
 log K being = "29303 + log sec + log cot S + log cosec /, 
 
 d A" = -K {d ty. 
 
 (3) When two stars are observed at their elongations. 
 
 Let their azimuths be Aj aud A^, and their declinations t\ and 8.^, 
 
 then sin A, = ' ' sin A.,. 
 cos 8.^ 
 
 The value of A, + A^ or of A, — A^ is given by the observations, Aj + 
 A.J if the stars are at opposite elongations, Aj — A^ if they are at the same 
 elongation. Suppose that we have 
 
 Ai ± Ao = rn 
 
 then cot A, = cot »? ± '- cosec m, 
 cos §1 
 
 or cot A, ■= cot m ± ^—J- cosec m. 
 cos o.
 
 256 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Exri.ANATlDN OF THE TABLES. 
 
 Table I. contains the sun's declination, to tlie nearest minute, for the 
 years 1893-94-1)5 and '96 ; the declinations for the years 1897-98-99 and 
 1900, and are almost equally correct. 
 
 Table II. contains the equation of time fur 1893-94-95 and '90 to the 
 nearest second, and will serve very well for common purposes for the 
 4ih or 8th years after. The error will be greatest from the latter end 
 of May to the middle of July, to 2 sees, or 8 sees, in a period of four 
 years. The words "add" or "sub." indicate the manner in Avhich the 
 equation is to be applied to cq^pureut time to convert it into mean time. 
 
 Table III. contains the sun's mean right asccnsicjn. The months are 
 given at the top of the table, the days in the side column. It will be 
 found useful for ascertaining the approximate time of an object's meridian 
 l)assage, but where accuracy is necessary recourse must be had to the 
 ' Nautical Almanac' 
 
 To find the app>roxim'tfe time of a star passing the meridian, subtract 
 the sun's right ascension from the star's right ascension (increasing the 
 star's right ascension by 24 hours if it is less than the sun's right 
 ascension), and the remainder will be the approximate time of the star 
 passing the meridian. 
 
 Table IV. contains the mean places of 50 stars of the first and second 
 magnitudes for the 1st of January, 1894, with their annual variation in 
 right ascension and declination. 
 
 Tables V. and VI. — Table V. contains the approximate times of the 
 meridian passages of 50 of the principal stars for the 1st of the month. 
 To find the time of passage on any other day, subtract the portion of time 
 corresponding to the day of the month in Table VI. from the time in 
 Table V. As the times given in these tables ai'e apparent, they must be 
 converted into mcuu time by applying the equation of time as dii'ccted 
 in Table II. should the mean time of meridian passage be required. 
 The result arrived at by the use of these tables is only approximate, but 
 will seldom be as much as 2m. in error. 
 
 N.B. — The altitude of any star when passing the meridian may be found 
 by adding together the comjilement of the latitude of the place of observa- 
 tion and the declination of the star, when they are of the same name.
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES. 257 
 
 or takiug their difference when of contrary names ; the altitude to be 
 reckoned from the south point of the horizon when the hxtitude is north, 
 and the contrary when south ; but when the sum exceeds 90^ it is to be 
 taken from 180"^, and the altitude is to be reckoned from the north in 
 north latitude, and the south in south latitude. When using the 
 artificial horizon, the altitude to which the index of the sextant is to be 
 set must, of course, be double the altitude found by this method. 
 
 Table YII. contains the refraction for the barometer at 30 inches, and 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer at 50". The two small tables at the side 
 contain corrections when the barometer differs from 30 inches or the 
 tliermometer from 50". 
 
 Table YIII. exhibits half the time that a celestial body continues above 
 the horizon when the latitude and declination are the same name ; or 
 below it when they are contrary names, and affords the means for com- 
 puting the rising and setting of the sun, moon and stars, and the length 
 of the night or day. 
 
 To find the time of the ;:u)i/s rising or setting, enter Tal)le VIII. with 
 tlie latitude and declination, and the tabular value will show the apparent 
 time of the sun's setting when the latitude and declination are the same 
 name, or of its rising when the latitude and declination are of contrary 
 names, and this, subtracted from 12 hours, will give the api^arent time 
 of the sun's rising in the former case, and of its setting in the latter. 
 
 Double the time of rising will give the length of the night. 
 
 Double the time of setting will give the length of the day. 
 
 Eaample. — Eequired the (ap^Darent) time of the sun's rising and setting, 
 and the lengtli of the day and night in lat. 46' n., and the declination 
 18" N. 
 
 Tabular value answering to lat. 46 and decl. 18" is 7 h. 19 m. Hence 
 in lat. 46^ N., decl. 18" n., time of sunset is 7 h. 19 m., and that of sunrise 
 12 h. — 7 h. 19 m. = 4 h. 41 m. 
 
 The same is true for lat. 46° s., dec). 18° s. 
 
 Conversely, both for lat. 46° n., decl. 18° s., and for lat. 46° s., decl. 
 18'" N., the time of sunrise is 7 h. 19 m., and that of sunset is 4 li. 41 m. 
 
 In the first pair of cases the length of the day is 7h. 19 m. x 2 = 
 14 h. 38 m., and that of the night is 4 h. 41 m. x 2 = 9 h. 22 m. ; and in 
 the second pair, conversely, the length of the night is 14 h. 3S m., and that 
 of the day 9h. 22 m. 
 
 T
 
 258 HINTS TO TKAVELLER.-^. 
 
 To Jhid the time of a dar's riainfj and scUivfj, subtract tlie snii's right 
 ascension, Table III., from the star's right ascension, Table IV. (increasing 
 the star's right ascension by 24 hours if it is less than the sun's right 
 ascension), and the remainder will be the apj^roximate time of the star's 
 passing the meridian ; then the latitude and declination found in this table 
 will give the time the star takes in ascending from the horizon to the 
 meridian, and descending from the meridian to the horizon, when the 
 latitude and declination are the same names ; therefore, if these hours and 
 minutes be subtracted from the time of its passage over the meridian, the 
 remainder will be the apparent time of its rising; and, if added, the sum 
 will be the time of its setting. 
 
 When the latitude and declination are of contrary names, the time 
 found in the table will be the half of the continuance of the star below 
 the horizon ; consequently it is to be subtracted from 12 hours to give 
 half the time of its continuance above the horizon. 
 
 Example. — At what time (apparent) does the slar fi Leon is rise and 
 set on May 30th in lat. 46° n. ? 
 
 II. M. 
 
 Star's E. A ir 43 
 
 Sun's E. A 427 
 
 Star's approximate meridian passage 7 16 
 
 Time in table answering to lat 46^ N. and stars j 
 declination 15° 15' N / 
 
 Ecmainder = time of star's rising 00 12 
 
 Sum = timc of star's setting 14 20 P.M. 
 
 or 2 20 A.M.
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES. 259 
 
 Example. — At what time (apiDai'cut) does the star o 02>hiti''Ju rise aud 
 set on May 1 2th, iu lat. 30 s.? 
 
 ir. jr. 
 
 Star's E. A 17 29 
 
 Suu's E. A 3 15 
 
 Star's approximate meridian passage ' . . 1 4 1 4 
 
 Time answering in table to 30° s. lat., and star's i 
 
 declination 12'^ 39' n. = 6li, 30 m. which, snb- > 5 30 
 
 traded from 12, gives 5 h. 30 m J 
 
 Etmainder = time of star's rising 8 44 
 
 Sum = time of star's settiug 19 44P^- 
 
 or 7 44 -^-M. 
 
 Table IX., giving the distance of the horizon as seen over water from 
 different heights above it, will be found very iiseful both in checking 
 exaggerated estimates of the width of lakes Avhose 'opposite shores are 
 invisible, and also as a rude means of judging the distance of objects seen 
 across water. 
 
 Table X. gives the values of 2 sinMialf-hoiUMUigle ^ ^^^ -^ ^^^^^ -^^ 
 
 sm i 
 finding the latitude by altitudes of the sun, or of stars when they are near 
 the meridian. 
 
 Table XI. gives the number of geographical miles, or minutes of the 
 equator, contained in a degree of longitude under each parallel of 
 latitude on the supposition of the earth's spheroidal shaj^e with a com- 
 pression of ^iz- 
 
 Table XII. is for converting statute into geographical miles. 
 
 Table XIII. is for converting geographical into statute miles. 
 
 Table XIV. contains a comi^arison of Fahrenheit, Eeaumur, and 
 Centigrade thermometer scales. 
 
 Table XV. contains a comparison of English and French barometer 
 scales to hundredths of an inch. 
 
 Table XVI. contains a comparison of metres and English feet. 
 
 Table XVII. contains a comparison of kilometres and English statute 
 miles. 
 
 T 2
 
 200 HINTS TO TRAVKLLERS. 
 
 Tabic XVIII. contains a comparison of Russian vcrsts and English 
 statute miles. 
 
 Tal)le XIX. contains a comparison of kilogrammes and pounds, 
 avoirdujwis. 
 
 Tabic XX. contains foreign moneys, ■with equivalents in British 
 currency. 
 
 Table XX [. contains the difference of latitude and departure for the 
 course at each degree. It will also be found useful for the con- 
 version of one measure of length into another, thus: at GP, the dist. 
 and dep. correspond to statute and geographical miles; at 77"', dist. and 
 dep. correspond to English and Danish feet; at 68"^, dist. and dep. 
 correspond to Dutch and English feet ; at 66', dist. and dep. correspond 
 to French metres and English yards; at 70', dist. and dep. correspond 
 to toises and fathoms; at 25', dist. and dep. correspond to English feet and 
 arsheens ; at 35', dist. and dep. correspond to versts and geographical 
 miles; at G6', dist. and dep. corresi^ond to brazas and fathoms, or to 
 varas and yards. These tables can also be used in solving, approximately, 
 cases of right-angled triangles, as also in verifying the results of questions 
 of the kind when obtained by logarithms. 
 
 Table XXII. contains natural sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents, 
 secants, and cosecants for each degree. 
 
 Table XXIII. is used to facilitate finding the longitude by moon 
 culminating stars; for the manner in which it is used, see p. 233. 
 
 Table XXIV. This table contains the angles subtended by a 10 ft. 
 rod, at distances from 50 to 1500 feet. The angles are given for every 
 foot from 50 to 200 feet, for every two feet from 200 to 402 feet, and for 
 every yard from 402 to 1500 feet. To use the table, search column for 
 the angle measured, and opposite to this will be found the distance in feet. 
 In that part of the table, where the distances are only given for every 
 second or third foot, intermediate distances can be found by interpolation. 
 
 Table XXV. contains useful constants. 
 
 Tables XXVI. and XXVII. contain the tines occupied in tlie trans- 
 mission of letters and parcels by post from London to certain ]->laces 
 abroad.
 
 TABLES. 
 
 2G1 
 
 Table I. — Declination of the Sun for the Years 1893 and 1807 at Mean Noon 
 
 AT Greenwich. 
 
 )ay. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Seiit. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 ; 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 22 53 s. 
 
 16 57 s. 
 
 7 7.JS. 
 
 4 44 J^' 
 
 15 I4>-. 
 
 22 8n. 
 
 23 6n. 
 
 17 55N. 
 
 8 7J'- 
 
 3 23 s. 
 
 14 36 s. 
 
 21 54... 
 
 2 
 
 22 5J 
 
 16 40 
 
 7 
 
 5 8 
 
 15 32 
 
 22 16 
 
 23 I 
 
 17 39 
 
 7 45 
 
 3 46 
 
 14 55 
 
 22 i 
 
 I 
 
 22 4V 
 
 16 22 
 
 6 J7 
 
 5 30 
 
 15 49 
 
 22 23 
 
 22 56 
 
 17 24 
 
 7 23 
 
 4 9 
 
 15 14 
 
 22 U , 
 
 4 
 
 22 40 
 
 16 4 
 
 6 14 
 
 5 53 
 
 16 7 
 
 22 30 
 
 22 51 
 
 17 8 
 
 7 I 
 
 4 32 
 
 15 a 
 
 22 19 
 
 5 
 
 22 ^4 
 
 i; 46 
 
 5 51 
 
 6 16 
 
 16 24 
 
 22 37 
 
 22 45 
 
 16 52 
 
 6 39 
 
 4 56 
 
 15 51 
 
 22 27 
 
 6 
 
 22 26 
 
 15 27 
 
 528 
 
 6 39 
 
 16 41 
 
 22 43 
 
 22 39 
 
 16 35 
 
 6 16 
 
 5 19 
 
 16 9 
 
 22 34 
 
 7 
 
 22 19 
 
 15 8 
 
 5 4 
 
 7 I 
 
 16 57 
 
 22 49 
 
 22 a 
 
 16 18 
 
 5 54 
 
 s 42 
 
 16 27 
 
 2241 
 
 8 
 
 22 II 
 
 14 49 
 
 4 41 
 
 7 24 
 
 17 14 
 
 22 54 
 
 22 26 
 
 16 I 
 
 5 31 
 
 6 5 
 
 16 44 
 
 22 47 
 
 9 
 
 22 2 
 
 14 30 
 
 4 17 
 
 7 4''' 
 
 17 30 
 
 22 59 
 
 22 19 
 
 15 44 
 
 5 8 
 
 6 28 
 
 17 I 
 
 22 53 
 
 lO 
 
 21 5J 
 
 14 It 
 
 ^ 54 
 
 8 8 
 
 17 45 
 
 2J 4 
 
 22 12 
 
 15 26 
 
 446 
 
 6 50 
 
 17 18 
 
 22 59 
 
 1 1 
 
 21 44 
 
 n 51 
 
 3 30 
 
 8 30 
 
 18 I 
 
 23 8 
 
 22 4 
 
 15 9 
 
 4 23 
 
 7 IJ 
 
 17 35 
 
 2} i 
 
 12 
 
 21 J4 
 
 U Jl 
 
 3 7 
 
 8 52 
 
 i3 16 
 
 2J 12 
 
 21 55 
 
 14 51 
 
 4 
 
 736 
 
 17 51 
 
 23 8 
 
 I I 
 
 21 24 
 
 IJ II 
 
 243 
 
 9 14 
 
 18 31 
 
 23 15 
 
 21 47 
 
 14 n 
 
 i 37 
 
 758 
 
 18 7 
 
 2J 12 
 
 '4 
 
 21 IJ 
 
 12 50 
 
 219 
 
 9 36 
 
 18 4; 
 
 23 18 
 
 21 37 
 
 14 14 
 
 i 14 
 
 8 20 
 
 18 23 
 
 23 16 
 
 15 
 
 21 2 
 
 12 io 
 
 I 56 
 
 9 57 
 
 18 59 
 
 2} 21 
 
 21 28 
 
 IJ 55 
 
 2 51 
 
 8 43 
 
 i3 38 
 
 23 19 
 
 V> 
 
 20 50 
 
 12 9 
 
 I 32 
 
 10 18 
 
 19 13 
 
 23 23 
 
 21 l8 
 
 13 36 
 
 2 27 
 
 9 S 
 
 18 53 
 
 23 21 
 
 n 
 
 25 J 8 
 
 II 48 
 
 1 8 
 
 10 39 
 
 19 27 
 
 23 24 
 
 21 8 
 
 ij 17 
 
 2 4 
 
 9 27 
 
 19 8 
 
 23 23 
 
 i3 
 
 23 26 
 
 II 27 
 
 045 
 
 II 
 
 19 40 
 
 23 26 
 
 20 58 
 
 12 57 
 
 I 41 
 
 9 49 
 
 19 22 
 
 23 25 
 
 19 
 
 20 14 
 
 11 5 • 
 
 21 s. 
 
 II 21 
 
 19 53 
 
 23 27 
 
 20 47 
 
 12 38 
 
 I 18 
 
 10 10 
 
 19 36 
 
 23 26 
 
 23 
 
 20 I 
 
 10 44 
 
 3^'. 
 
 II 42 
 
 20 5 
 
 2? 27 
 
 20 35 
 
 12 18 
 
 54 
 
 10 n 
 
 19 50 
 
 23 27 
 
 21 
 
 19 4" 
 
 10 22 
 
 27 
 
 12 2 
 
 20 18 
 
 23 27 
 
 20 24 
 
 II 58 
 
 31 
 
 10 5J 
 
 20 3 
 
 23 27 
 
 22 
 
 19 ii 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 12 22 
 
 20 29 
 
 23 27 
 
 20 12 
 
 II 38 
 
 8x. 
 
 II 14 
 
 20 16 
 
 23 27 
 
 2! 
 
 19 19 
 
 9 i8 
 
 I 14 
 
 12 42 
 
 20 41 
 
 2? 26 
 
 20 
 
 II 18 
 
 16 s. 
 
 II 35 
 
 20 28 
 
 23 26 
 
 24 
 
 19 5 
 
 9 16 
 
 I J7 
 
 13 2 
 
 20 52 
 
 23 25 
 
 >9 47 
 
 10 57 
 
 39 
 
 II 56 
 
 20 40 
 
 23 25 
 
 25 
 
 18 50 
 
 8 5J 
 
 2 I 
 
 13 21 
 
 21 3 
 
 23 24 
 
 19 ^4 
 
 10 36 
 
 I 3 
 
 12 17 
 
 20 52 
 
 23 24 
 
 26 
 
 18 J5 
 
 8 31 
 
 2 25 
 
 13 4' 
 
 21 13 
 
 23 22 
 
 19 21 
 
 10 15 
 
 I 26 
 
 12 38 
 
 21 3 
 
 23 22 
 
 27 
 
 18 19 
 
 8 8 
 
 248 
 
 14 
 
 21 23 
 
 23 19 
 
 19 7 
 
 9 54 
 
 I 49 
 
 12 58 
 
 21 14 
 
 23 19 
 
 23 
 
 18 i 
 
 746 
 
 3 It 
 
 14 19 
 
 21 li 
 
 23 16 
 
 18 53 
 
 9 JJ 
 
 2 13 
 
 IJ 18 
 
 2t 25 
 
 23 16 
 
 29 
 
 17 47 
 
 
 3 35 
 
 '4 il 
 
 21 42 
 
 23 U 
 
 18 39 
 
 9 12 
 
 2 36 
 
 13 38 
 
 21 35 
 
 23 13 
 
 p 
 
 17 Ji 
 
 
 358 
 
 14 56 
 
 21 51 
 
 23 10 
 
 18 25 
 
 8 50 
 
 2 59 
 
 13 58 
 
 21 45 
 
 2J 9 
 
 ;i 
 
 I- 14 
 
 
 4 21 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 18 10 
 
 8 29 
 
 
 14 17 
 
 
 23 4
 
 202 
 
 HINTS TO TIIAVKLLHKS. 
 
 TaIU.I'; I. (riiHlhlitnl). — Dl.Cl.lNA TKiN iil' TIIK SlN I'lili TIIK YkAKS I Mil ANP IS'.t.S AT 
 
 j\Ikan Niidn at Gi;i;i;:;\vi(,'h. 
 
 Jun. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 
 o 
 
 , 
 
 t 
 
 I 
 
 22 
 
 59P. 
 
 17 IS. 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 54 
 
 16 44 
 
 i 
 
 22 
 
 48 
 
 16 26 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 42 
 
 if) 8 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 J5 
 
 15 50 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 15 32 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 15 IJ 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 M 54 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 '4 r, 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 55 
 
 14 15 
 
 II 
 
 21 
 
 46 
 
 n 56 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 }(> 
 
 IJ }(■> 
 
 1} 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 n 15 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 12 55 
 
 I) 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 12 35 
 
 i6 
 
 20 
 
 5J 
 
 12 14 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 41 
 
 I' 5i 
 
 i8 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 11 J2 
 
 >9 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 11 10 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 10 49 
 
 21 
 
 19 50 
 
 10 2- 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 37 
 
 10 5 
 
 2J 
 
 19 
 
 2j 
 
 9 43 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 9 21 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 54 
 
 8 59 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 8 37 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 2J 
 
 > 8 14 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 7 51 
 
 29 
 
 17 
 
 51 
 
 I •• 
 
 }0 
 
 17 
 
 35 
 
 
 il 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 April. 
 
 7 29^* 
 7 f' 
 6 4J 
 6 20 
 5 57 
 5 ii 
 5 10 
 4 47 
 4 23 
 4 o 
 3 36 
 i 12 
 
 2 49 
 2 25 
 
 2 I 
 
 I 38 
 1 14 
 
 o 50 
 o 27 
 
 03 s, 
 
 O 2IX. 
 
 44 
 
 1 8 
 1 32 
 
 1 55 
 
 2 19 
 
 2 42 
 
 3 6 
 3 29 
 
 3 52 
 
 4 16 
 
 4 39^'- 
 
 5 2 
 5 25 
 
 5 43 
 
 6 II 
 6 33 
 
 6 56 
 
 7 18 
 
 7 41 
 
 8 3 
 8 25 
 
 8 47 
 
 9 9 
 9 30 
 9 52 
 
 10 13 
 10 34 
 
 10 55 
 
 11 16 
 II 37 
 
 11 57 
 
 12 17 
 12 37 
 
 12 57 
 
 13 17 
 13 36 
 
 13 55 
 
 14 14 
 
 14 3i 
 
 14 51 
 
 May. 
 
 15 ION. 
 
 15 27 
 
 "5 45 
 
 16 3 
 
 16 20 
 16 37 
 
 16 53 
 
 17 10 
 17 26 
 17 42 
 
 17 57 
 
 18 li 
 18 27 
 18 42 
 
 18 56 
 
 19 10 
 19 24 
 
 19 37 
 
 19 50 
 
 20 2, 
 20 15 
 20 26 
 20 38 
 
 20 49 
 
 21 o 
 21 II 
 21 21 
 21 31 
 21 40 
 21 49 
 21 58 
 
 June. ; July. Aug. .Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 22 6n. 
 22 14 
 22 21 
 22 28 
 22 35 
 22 41 
 22 47 
 22 53 
 
 22 57 
 
 23 3 
 23 7 
 23 II 
 23 14 
 23 17 
 23 20 
 23 22 
 23 24 
 23 26 
 23 27 
 23 27 
 23 27 
 23 27 
 23 26 
 23 25 
 23 24 
 23 22 
 23 20 
 23 17 
 23 14 
 23 10 
 
 23 l^i 
 2} 2 
 
 22 58 
 22 52 
 22 47 
 22 41 
 22 35 
 22 28 
 22 21 
 22 13 
 22 5 
 21 57 
 21 49 
 21 40 
 21 30 
 21 21 
 21 10 
 21 O 
 20 49 
 20 38 
 20 27 
 20 15 
 20 3 
 19 50 
 
 19 37 
 
 19 24 
 
 19 II 
 
 18 57 
 
 18 4J 
 
 18 28 
 
 18 13 
 
 17 58.N. 
 17 43 
 17 27 
 17 12 
 16 55 
 16 39 
 16 22 
 16 5 
 15 48 
 15 30 
 15 13 
 14 5; 
 14 37 
 14 18 
 13 59 
 1 13 40 
 13 21 
 13 2 
 12 43 
 12 23 
 12 3 
 
 II 45 
 II 22 
 II 2 
 10 41 
 
 10 20 
 
 I 9 59 
 
 1 9 38 
 
 '■ 9 17 
 
 3 55 
 
 8 34 
 
 8 12N. 
 
 7 50 
 7 28 
 7 (^ 
 644 
 
 6 21 
 
 5 59 
 5 36 
 5 14 
 4 51 
 4 28 
 
 4 5 
 } 42 
 3 19 j 
 2 56 I 
 2 33 
 2 10 
 I 46 
 I 23 
 I o 
 o 36 
 o 13N. 
 
 O lOS. 
 
 34 
 ° 57 
 
 1 21 
 
 I 44 
 
 2 54 
 
 3 17s- 
 
 3 41 
 
 4 4 
 4 27 
 
 4 53 
 
 5 13 
 5 }^> 
 
 5 59 
 
 6 22 
 
 6 45 
 
 7 8 
 7 30 
 
 7 53 
 
 8 15 
 8 37 
 
 8 59 
 
 9 21 
 
 9 45 
 10 ; 
 10 27 
 
 10 43 
 
 11 9 
 II 30 
 
 11 51 
 
 12 12 
 12 33 
 
 12 53 
 
 13 13 
 13 33 
 
 13 53 
 
 14 13 
 
 14 32s. 
 
 14 SI , 
 
 15 10 
 15 23 
 
 15 47 
 
 16 5 
 16 22 
 16 4:^ 
 
 16 57 
 
 17 14 
 17 31 
 
 17 47 
 
 18 3 
 18 19 
 
 18 34 
 ' 18 49 
 
 19 4 
 19 i3 
 19 33 
 
 19 4<> 
 
 20 o 
 20 13 
 20 25 
 20 37 
 
 20 49 
 
 21 I 
 21 12 
 
 i 21 22 
 
 21 ?3 
 
 , 21 42 
 
 21 52s 
 
 22 I 
 22 9 
 22 18 
 22 25 
 22 33 
 22 39 
 22 4'j 
 22 52 
 
 22 57 
 
 23 2 
 
 23 7 
 
 23 II 
 
 23 15 
 
 23 18 
 
 23 21 
 
 i 13 23 
 
 23 25 
 23 26 
 23 27 
 23 27 
 23 27 
 23 27 
 23 26 
 23 24 
 23 22 
 23 20 
 23 17 
 23 13 
 23 10 
 23 5
 
 TABLES. 
 
 263 
 
 Tablk I. {emit! lived). 
 
 -Declination of the Svn for the Yeai;s 1895 and 1S09 at 
 Mean Noon at GriKENWicii. 
 
 Day 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 Juno. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 ( 
 
 / 
 
 TT 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 25 I S. 
 
 17 5S. 
 
 7 34 s- 
 
 4 ii^- 
 
 15 5X. 
 
 22 
 
 4x. 
 
 2} 8x. 
 
 18 2N. 
 
 8 17N. 
 
 3 I2S. 
 
 14 27 s. 
 
 21 50s. 
 
 2 
 
 22 55 
 
 16 48 
 
 7 II 
 
 4 56 
 
 15 23 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 23 3 
 
 17 47 
 
 7 55 
 
 3 35 
 
 14 46 
 
 21 59 
 
 I 
 
 22 50 
 
 16 }0 
 
 6 48 
 
 5 19 
 
 15 41 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 22 59 
 
 17 31 
 
 7 a 
 
 3 58 
 
 15 5 
 
 22 7 
 
 4 
 
 22 44 
 
 16 ij 
 
 625 
 
 5 42 
 
 15 59 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 22 54 
 
 17 15 
 
 7 II 
 
 421 
 
 15 24 
 
 22 16 
 
 5 
 
 22 r, 
 
 15 54 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 5 
 
 16 16 
 
 22 
 
 ii 
 
 22 48 
 
 16 59 
 
 6 49 
 
 4 45 
 
 15 42 
 
 22 23 
 
 6 
 
 11 30 
 
 ■ 5 36 
 
 5 J9 
 
 6 28 
 
 16 a 
 
 22 
 
 40 
 
 22 42 
 
 16 43 
 
 627 
 
 5 8 
 
 16 
 
 22 31 
 
 7 
 
 22 22 
 
 15 17 
 
 5 16 
 
 6 50 
 
 16 49 
 
 22 
 
 46 
 
 22 36 
 
 16 26 
 
 6 4 
 
 5 31 
 
 16 18 
 
 22 38 
 
 8 
 
 22 15 
 
 14 59 
 
 4 52 
 
 7 n 
 
 17 6 
 
 22 
 
 51 
 
 22 30 
 
 16 9 
 
 542 
 
 5 54 
 
 16 36 
 
 22 44 
 
 9 
 
 22 6 
 
 14 39 
 
 4 29 
 
 7 35 
 
 17 22 
 
 22 
 
 57 
 
 22 23 
 
 15 52 
 
 5 19 
 
 6 17 
 
 16 Si 
 
 22 50 
 
 10 
 
 21 57 
 
 14 20 
 
 4 5 
 
 7 58 
 
 17 38 
 
 23 
 
 I 
 
 22 15 
 
 15 35 
 
 4 56 
 
 6 39 
 
 17 10 
 
 22 56 
 
 II 
 
 21 43 
 
 14 
 
 i 42 
 
 8 20 
 
 17 53 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 22 7 
 
 15 17 
 
 4 34 
 
 7 2 
 
 17 27 
 
 23 I 
 
 12 
 
 21 39 
 
 ij 41 
 
 i 18 
 
 8 42 
 
 18 9 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 21 59 
 
 14 59 
 
 4 II 
 
 7 25 
 
 17 43 
 
 23 6 
 
 U 
 
 21 29 
 
 13 20 
 
 2 55 
 
 9 i 
 
 18 24 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 2^ 50 
 
 14 41 
 
 348 
 
 7 47 
 
 17 59 
 
 2J 10 
 
 14 
 
 21 l3 
 
 13 
 
 2 31 
 
 9 25 
 
 18 33 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 21 42 
 
 14 23 
 
 3 25 
 
 8 10 
 
 18 15 
 
 23 14 
 
 15 
 
 21 7 
 
 12 40 
 
 2 7 
 
 9 47 
 
 13 53 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 21 a 
 
 14 4 
 
 3 2 
 
 832 
 
 18 31 
 
 23 17 
 
 i5 
 
 20 56 
 
 12 19 
 
 I 44 
 
 10 8 
 
 19 7 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 21 23 
 
 13 45 
 
 2 39 
 
 8 54 
 
 i3 46 
 
 23 20 
 
 17 
 
 20 44 
 
 II 58 
 
 I 20 
 
 10 29, 
 
 19 20 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 21 13 
 
 13 26 
 
 2 i; 
 
 9 16 
 
 19 I 
 
 23 22 
 
 i8 
 
 20 J2 
 
 II 37 
 
 56 
 
 10 50 
 
 19 34 
 
 23 
 
 ^5 
 
 21 3 
 
 13 7 
 
 I 52 
 
 9 33 
 
 19 15 
 
 23 24 
 
 19 
 
 20 20 
 
 II 16 
 
 32 
 
 II II 
 
 19 47 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 20 52 
 
 12 47 
 
 I 29 
 
 10 
 
 19 29 
 
 23 26 
 
 20 
 
 20 7 
 
 10 54 
 
 gs. 
 
 II 32 
 
 19 59 
 
 2J 
 
 27 
 
 20 41 
 
 12 28 
 
 I 5 
 
 10 22 
 
 19 43 
 
 23 27 
 
 21 
 
 19 54 
 
 10 32 
 
 15N. 
 
 II 52 
 
 20 12 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 20 29 
 
 12 8 
 
 42 
 
 10 43 
 
 19 56 
 
 23 27 
 
 22 
 
 19 40 
 
 10 II 
 
 39 
 
 12 12 
 
 20 24 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 20 18 
 
 II 48 
 
 19N. 
 
 II 4 
 
 20 9 
 
 23 27 
 
 2j' 
 
 19 26 
 
 9 49 
 
 I 2 
 
 12 32 
 
 20 i$ 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 20 6 
 
 II 27 
 
 5.?. 
 
 II 25 
 
 20 22 
 
 23 27 
 
 24 
 
 19 12 
 
 9 27 
 
 I 26 
 
 12 52 
 
 20 47 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 19 53 
 
 II 7 
 
 28 
 
 II 46 
 
 20 34 
 
 23 26 
 
 25 
 
 18 57 
 
 9 4 
 
 I 50 
 
 13 12 
 
 20 58 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 19 40 
 
 10 46 
 
 52 
 
 12 7 
 
 20 46 
 
 23 25 
 
 26 
 
 18 42 
 
 8 42 
 
 2 13 
 
 ij 31 
 
 21 8 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 19 27 
 
 10 2; 
 
 I 15 
 
 12 28 
 
 20 58 
 
 23 23 
 
 27 
 
 18 27 
 
 8 19 
 
 2 37 
 
 iJ 51 
 
 21 18 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 19 14 
 
 10 4 
 
 I 38 
 
 12 48 
 
 21 9 
 
 23 20 
 
 28 
 
 18 II 
 
 7 57 
 
 i 
 
 14 10 
 
 21 28 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 9 43 
 
 2 2 
 
 13 8 
 
 21 20 
 
 23 18 
 
 29 
 
 17 55 
 
 .. 
 
 i 24 
 
 14 28 
 
 21 38 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 18 46 
 
 9 22 
 
 2 25 
 
 13 28 
 
 21 30 
 
 23 14 
 
 30 
 
 17 ^9 
 
 .. 
 
 I 47 
 
 14 47 
 
 21 47 
 
 23 
 
 II 
 
 18 32 
 
 9 I 
 
 2 43 
 
 13 48 
 
 21 40 
 
 23 II 
 
 il 
 
 17 22 
 
 •• 
 
 4 10 
 
 •• 
 
 21 56 
 
 
 • 
 
 18 17 
 
 8 39 
 
 
 14 8 
 
 •• 
 
 23 6
 
 2G4 
 
 HINTS TO TRAYELLEKS. 
 
 Tauli: I. (rnnh'intril). — Dkcmnation op the Sun for the Yeai.-s 1800 and 1000 at 
 Mean Noon at GiiEENwrcii. 
 
 Day. 
 __ 
 
 Jan. 
 
 I'd). 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 .June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dcr. 
 
 
 / 
 
 > 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 ; 
 
 / 
 
 , 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 1} IS. 
 
 17 9 s. 
 
 7 17s. 
 
 4 5IN. 
 
 15 i9>;. 
 
 22 lOX. 
 
 23 4>''- 
 
 17 5IX. 
 
 8 IX. 
 
 3 29 s. 
 
 14 42.'. 
 
 21 57 s. 
 
 2 
 
 22 57 
 
 16 52 
 
 654 
 
 5 14 
 
 15 31 
 
 22 18 
 
 23 
 
 17 35 
 
 7 J9 
 
 3 5J 
 
 15 I 
 
 22 5 
 
 } 
 
 22 51 
 
 I*) i,- 
 
 631 
 
 5 31 
 
 15 54 
 
 22 25 
 
 22 55 
 
 17 19 
 
 7 17 
 
 416 
 
 15 19 
 
 22 14 
 
 4 
 
 22 45 
 
 16 17 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 
 
 16 12 
 
 22 31 
 
 22 50 
 
 17 3 
 
 655 
 
 4 J9 
 
 15 38 
 
 22 22 
 
 5 
 
 22 39 
 
 15 59 
 
 5 44 
 
 6 23 
 
 16 29 
 
 22 38 
 
 22 44 
 
 16 47 
 
 6 32 
 
 5 2 
 
 15 56 
 
 22 79 
 
 6 
 
 22 32 
 
 15 41 
 
 5 21 
 
 6 45 
 
 16 45 
 
 22 44 
 
 22 38 
 
 16 30 
 
 6 10 
 
 5 25 
 
 16 14 
 
 22 36 
 
 •7 
 
 22 24 
 
 15 22 
 
 5 5« 
 
 7 8 
 
 17 2 
 
 22 50 
 
 22 31 
 
 16 14 
 
 5 47 
 
 548 
 
 16 32 
 
 28 4! 
 
 8 
 
 22 17 
 
 "5 } 
 
 4 M 
 
 7 30 
 
 17 18 
 
 22 55 
 
 22 24 
 
 IJ 56 
 
 5 25 
 
 6 II 
 
 16 49 
 
 22 49 
 
 9 
 
 22 8 
 
 14 44 
 
 4 II 
 
 7 52 
 
 17 34 
 
 23 
 
 22 17 
 
 15 39 
 
 5 2 
 
 6 J4 
 
 17 6 
 
 22 55 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 14 25 
 
 i 47 
 
 8 14 
 
 17 50 
 
 23 5 
 
 22 9 
 
 15 21 
 
 4 J9 
 
 657 
 
 17 23 
 
 23 c 
 
 II 
 
 21 50 
 
 14 5 
 
 } 24 
 
 8 36 
 
 18 5 
 
 23 9 
 
 22 I 
 
 15 4 
 
 4 16 
 
 7 19 
 
 17 J9 
 
 23 5 
 
 12 
 
 21 41 
 
 u 4; 
 
 3 
 
 8 58 
 
 18 20 
 
 23 13 
 
 21 5J 
 
 14 45 
 
 3 5J 
 
 7 42 
 
 17 55 
 
 2J 9 
 
 li 
 
 21 }l 
 
 u 25 
 
 2 36 
 
 9 20 
 
 18 35 
 
 23 16 
 
 21 44 
 
 14 27 
 
 3 30 
 
 8 4 
 
 lo II 
 
 2J U 
 
 M 
 
 21 21 
 
 IJ 5 
 
 2 13 
 
 9 42 
 
 18 49 
 
 23 19 
 
 21 35 
 
 14 8 
 
 3 1 
 
 8 27 
 
 i3 27 
 
 23 16 
 
 15 
 
 21 10 
 
 12 44 
 
 I 49 
 
 10 3 
 
 19 3 
 
 23 21 
 
 21 25 
 
 13 50 
 
 2 44 
 
 8 49 
 
 18 42 
 
 23 19 
 
 i6 
 
 20 59 
 
 12 24 
 
 1 25 
 
 10 24 
 
 19 17 
 
 23 23 
 
 21 15 
 
 IJ 31 
 
 221 
 
 9 II 
 
 18 57 
 
 23 22 
 
 '7 
 
 20 47 
 
 12 J 
 
 I 2 
 
 10 45 
 
 19 30 
 
 23 25 
 
 21 5 
 
 IJ II 
 
 I 58 
 
 9 JJ 
 
 19 12 
 
 23 24 
 
 i8 
 
 20 35 
 
 II 42 
 
 38 
 
 n 6 
 
 19 44 
 
 23 26 
 
 20 54 
 
 12 52 
 
 I J4 
 
 9 55 
 
 19 26 
 
 23 25 
 
 '9 
 
 20 2J 
 
 II 21 
 
 14s. 
 
 II 27 
 
 19 56 
 
 23 27 
 
 20 43 
 
 12 32 
 
 I :i 
 
 10 16 
 
 19 40 
 
 23 26 
 
 20 
 
 20 10 
 
 10 59 
 
 ION. 
 
 II 47 
 
 20 9 
 
 23 27 
 
 20 32 
 
 12 12 
 
 48 
 
 10 38 
 
 19 SJ 
 
 23 27 
 
 21 
 
 19 57 
 
 10 36 
 
 3} 
 
 12 8 
 
 20 21 
 
 23 27 
 
 20 20 
 
 II 52 
 
 24 
 
 10 59 
 
 20 6 
 
 2J 27 
 
 22 
 
 19 4J 
 
 10 16 
 
 57 
 
 12 28 
 
 20 }} 
 
 23 27 
 
 20 8 
 
 II 32 
 
 IX. 
 
 II 20 
 
 20 19 
 
 23 27 
 
 2J 
 
 19 29 
 
 9 54 
 
 I 20 
 
 12 48 
 
 20 44 
 
 23 26 
 
 19 56 
 
 II 12 
 
 22 s. 
 
 ,,41 
 
 20 ji 
 
 2J 26 
 
 24 
 
 19 15 
 
 9 J2 
 
 I 44 
 
 J3 7 
 
 20 55 
 
 23 25 
 
 19 4? 
 
 10 51 
 
 46 
 
 12 2 
 
 20 43 
 
 2J 25 
 
 25 
 
 19 I 
 
 9 10 
 
 2 8 
 
 13 27 
 
 21 6 
 
 23 23 
 
 19 {0 
 
 10 30 
 
 I 9 
 
 12 23 
 
 20 55 
 
 23 23 
 
 26 
 
 18 46 
 
 847 
 
 2 31 
 
 13 4(> 
 
 21 16 
 
 23 21 
 
 19 17 
 
 10 10 
 
 I JJ 
 
 12 4J 
 
 21 6 
 
 23 21 
 
 27 
 
 18 JO 
 
 8 25 
 
 2 55 
 
 14 5 
 
 21 26 
 
 23 18 
 
 19 3 
 
 948 
 
 I 56 
 
 IJ 4 
 
 21 17 
 
 23 18 
 
 28 
 
 18 .'5 
 
 8 2 
 
 3 18 
 
 14 24 
 
 21 35 
 
 23 15 
 
 18 49 
 
 9 27 
 
 2 19 
 
 ij 24 
 
 21 28 
 
 2J 15 
 
 29 
 
 17 59 
 
 7 }<) 
 
 3 41 
 
 14 45 
 
 21 45 
 
 23 12 
 
 1 1835 
 
 9 6 
 
 24; 
 
 IJ 4J 
 
 21 38 
 
 23 12 
 
 30 
 
 17 4? 
 
 .. 
 
 4 5 
 
 15 I 
 
 ' 21 5} 
 
 2; 8 
 
 18 21 
 
 8 44 
 
 J 6 
 
 14 J 
 
 21 47 
 
 2J 7 
 
 }l 
 
 17 26 
 
 
 4 28 
 
 
 22 2 
 
 
 18 6 
 
 8 2? 
 
 
 14 22 
 
 .. 
 
 2? 3
 
 TABLES. 
 
 265 
 
 Taulk II. — Equation of Time for the Yeau 1893 fok Aitakent] 
 Noon at Greenwich. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Marcb. April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 ni. F. 
 
 ni. s. 
 
 ni. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. B. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. s. 1 
 
 ni. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 I 
 
 4 o 
 
 1} 52 
 
 12 26 
 
 3 48 
 
 3 4 
 
 2 23 
 
 3 37 
 
 6 4 
 
 14 
 
 10 28 
 
 16 20 
 
 10 40 
 
 2 
 
 4 28 
 
 li 59 
 
 12 -4 
 
 J 30 j 5 II 2 14 
 
 3 49 
 
 6 
 
 ii 
 
 10 47 
 
 16 21 
 
 10 17 
 
 3 
 
 4 56 
 
 14 5 
 
 12 I 
 
 J 12 i 18 
 
 2 4 
 
 360 
 
 5 55 
 
 53 
 
 II 6 
 
 16 21 
 
 9 53 
 
 4 
 
 5 25 
 
 14 II 
 
 II 47 
 
 2 55 h 2J 
 
 I 54 
 
 4 10 
 
 5 50 
 
 I 12 
 
 II 24 
 
 16 20 
 
 9 29 
 
 5 
 
 5 50 
 
 14 15 
 
 II 34 
 
 2 37 
 
 ^ ^9 , I 44 
 
 4 21 
 
 5 44 
 
 I J2 
 
 II 42 
 
 16 18 
 
 9 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 16 
 
 14 19 
 
 II 19 
 
 2 20 
 
 i M 1 I jj 
 
 4 31 
 
 5 3a 
 
 I 52 
 
 II 59 
 
 16 15 
 
 8 38 
 
 7 
 
 6 42 
 
 1422 
 
 11 5 
 
 2 2 
 
 3 38 1 I 22 
 
 4 41 
 
 5 31 
 
 2 12 
 
 12 16 
 
 16 12 
 
 8 12 
 
 8 
 
 7 7 
 
 14 24 
 
 10 50 
 
 I 46 
 
 3 42 j I II 
 
 4 50 
 
 5 23 
 
 2 3} 
 
 12 33 
 
 16 7 
 
 7 45 
 
 9 
 
 7 J2 
 
 14:6 
 
 10 M 
 
 I 29 
 
 3 45 59 
 
 4 59 
 
 5 15 
 
 2 53 
 
 12 49 
 
 16 2 
 
 7 18 
 
 lo 
 
 7 56 
 
 14 26 
 
 10 19 
 
 I 12 
 
 3 47 47 
 
 5 8 
 
 5 6 
 
 3 14 
 
 13 5 
 
 15 56 
 
 6 51 
 
 II 
 
 8 20 
 
 14 26 
 
 10 5 
 
 56 
 
 3 49 J5 
 
 516 
 
 4 57 
 
 3 35 
 
 13 20 
 
 15 49 
 
 6 23 
 
 12 
 
 8 4J 
 
 14 26 
 
 9 47 
 
 41 
 
 3 50 23 
 
 5 23 
 
 4 47 
 
 356 
 
 13 35 
 
 15 41 
 
 5 55 
 
 li 
 
 9 5 
 
 14 24 
 
 9 }0 
 
 20 
 
 3 51 10 
 Add 
 
 5 31 
 
 4 36 
 
 4 17 
 
 13 49 
 
 15 32 
 
 5 26 
 
 '4 
 
 9 27 
 
 14 22 
 
 9 U 
 
 10 
 Sub. 
 
 3 51 3 
 
 538 
 
 4 25 
 
 4 38 
 
 14 2 
 
 15 23 
 
 458 
 
 15 
 
 9 48 
 
 14 19 
 
 8 56 
 
 5 1 -5 51 16 
 
 5 44 
 
 4 14 
 
 4 59 
 
 14 16 
 
 15 13 
 
 4 28 
 
 i6 
 
 10 9 
 
 14 15 
 
 8 J9 
 
 19 3 50 29 
 
 5 50 
 
 4 2 
 
 5 20 
 
 14 28 
 
 15 I 
 
 3 59 
 
 17 
 
 10 29 
 
 14 10 
 
 8 22 3i 3 4« 42 
 
 5 55 
 
 3 49 
 
 5 41 
 
 14 40 
 
 14 49 
 
 3 30 
 
 i8 
 
 10 48 
 
 H 5 
 
 8 4 47 j 3 46 1 55 
 
 6 
 
 3 36 
 
 6 2 
 
 14 52 
 
 14 37 
 
 i 
 
 19 
 
 II 6 
 
 1} 59 
 
 7 46 
 
 I ^ 43 I 8 
 
 6 4 
 
 3 23 
 
 624 
 
 15 2 
 
 14 23 
 
 2 30 
 
 20 
 
 n 24 
 
 IJ5J 
 
 ■7 28 
 
 I 1} J 40 I I 21 
 
 6 7 
 
 3 8 
 
 6 45 
 
 15 13 
 
 14 9 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 II 41 
 
 I J 46 
 
 7 10 
 
 I 25 1 ^ ^^ I 34 
 
 6 10 
 
 2 54 
 
 7 6 
 
 15 22 
 
 13 54 
 
 I 31 
 
 22 
 
 II 57 
 
 1} jH 
 
 6 52 
 
 I 37 ^ ^'^ ! I 47 
 
 6 13 
 
 2 39 
 
 7 27 
 
 15 31 
 
 IJ 38 
 
 I I 
 
 2} 
 
 12 12 
 
 1} 29 
 
 6>4 
 
 I 49 3 27 J .(^ 
 
 615 
 
 2 23 
 
 748 
 
 15 39 
 
 ij 21 
 
 31 
 
 24 
 
 12 26 
 
 1} 20 
 
 6 15 
 
 20 3 22 ; 2 12 
 
 6 16 
 
 2 7 
 
 8 9 
 
 15 47 
 
 13 J 
 
 I 
 Add 
 
 25 
 
 12 40 
 
 IJ 10 
 
 5 57 2 10 ; ^ "^ 2 25 
 
 6 17 
 
 I 51 
 
 8 29 
 
 15 54 
 
 12 4^ 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 12 5J 
 
 1} 
 
 5 39 
 
 2 21 ^1° 2 37 
 
 6 17 
 
 I 34 
 
 8 50 
 
 16 
 
 12 26 
 
 58 
 
 27 
 
 U 5 
 
 12 50 
 
 5 20 
 
 2 JO ^ ■? 1 2 50 
 
 6 16 
 
 I 17 
 
 9 10 
 
 16 5 
 
 12 6 
 
 1 28 
 
 28 
 
 ij 16 
 
 12 }S 
 
 5 2 
 
 2 39 ' 5^ 1 3 3 
 
 6 15 
 
 59 
 
 9 30 
 
 16 20 
 
 II 46 
 
 I 57 
 
 29 
 
 li 26 
 
 
 4 4? 
 
 2 48 2 48 J ,^ 
 
 6 U 
 
 41 
 
 9 5° 
 
 16 14 
 
 II 25 
 
 2 26 
 
 JO 
 
 1} j6 
 
 
 4 25 2 56 ^ 40 1 3 26 
 
 6 II 
 
 23 
 
 10 9 
 
 16 17 
 
 II 3 
 
 1 ^ ^' 
 
 31 
 
 «i 44 
 
 
 4 7' .. '^^^' .. 
 
 6 8 
 
 5 
 
 
 16 19 
 
 
 3 24
 
 20G 
 
 iriNTB TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 TahleJI. (rouluiiK'd). — Ei^uation of Time fou the Year 1801 fou Aitakknt 
 
 N00\ AT C4UEENWIC1I. 
 
 Day. 
 
 i[an. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. Aiiril. Jlay. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 'T. 
 
 
 m. E. 
 
 m. 8. 
 
 in. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. 8. 
 
 m. 8. m. s. m. s. 
 
 in. 8. 
 
 m. 8. 
 
 m. 8. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. Add Add 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 I 
 
 i 5J 
 
 IJ 50 
 
 12 28 
 
 i 52 
 
 3 3 
 
 2 25 J 36 
 
 6 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 22 
 
 16 19 
 
 10 45 
 
 2 
 
 4 21 
 
 a 57 
 
 12 16 
 
 i H 
 
 3 10 
 
 2 16 3 47 
 
 6 3 
 
 27 
 
 10 41 
 
 16 19 
 
 10 22 
 
 3 
 
 4 49 
 
 14 4 
 
 12 J 
 
 J 16 
 
 3 16 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 58 
 
 5 59 
 
 46 
 
 10 59 
 
 16 19 
 
 9 58 
 
 4 
 
 5 i6 
 
 14 9 
 
 II 50 
 
 2 53 
 
 J 22 
 
 156 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 54 
 
 I 5 
 
 II i3 
 
 16 19 
 
 9 34 
 
 5 
 
 5 4J 
 
 14 14 
 
 II J7 
 
 2 41 
 
 3 28 
 
 145 
 
 420 
 
 548 
 
 X 25 
 
 II 36 
 
 16 17 
 
 9 9 
 
 6 
 
 6 lo 
 
 14 18 
 
 II 2J 
 
 2 24 
 
 J 32 
 
 I 34 
 
 4 30 
 
 5 42 
 
 I 45 
 
 II 5J 
 
 16 15 
 
 844 
 
 ■7 
 
 6 }6 
 
 14 22 
 
 II 8 
 
 2 7 
 
 3 31 
 
 I 2J 
 
 4 40 
 
 5 35 
 
 2 5 
 
 iz 10 
 
 16 II 
 
 8 i3 
 
 8 
 
 7 I 
 
 14 24 
 
 10 5J 
 
 I 50 
 
 3 4° 
 
 I 12 
 
 450 
 
 5 27 
 
 2 26 
 
 12 27 
 
 16 7 
 
 7 51 
 
 9 
 
 7 26 
 
 14 26 
 
 10 j8 
 
 I JJ 
 
 3 4J 
 
 I 
 
 4 59 
 
 5 19 
 
 2 46 
 
 12 4J 
 
 16 2 
 
 7 25 
 
 lo 
 
 7 51 
 
 14 27 
 
 10 2J 
 
 I 17 
 
 J 46 
 
 49 
 
 5 7 
 
 5 10 
 
 3 7 
 
 12 59 
 
 15 57 
 
 6 58 
 
 II 
 
 8 15 
 
 14 27 
 
 10 7 
 
 I 
 
 3 4? 
 
 37 
 
 5 i'^ 
 
 5 I 
 
 3 28 
 
 13 15 
 
 15 50 
 
 6 JO 
 
 12 
 
 8 38 
 
 14 26 
 
 9 51 
 
 45 
 
 J 49 
 
 24 
 
 5 2J 
 
 451 
 
 3 49 
 
 IJ JO 
 
 15 43 
 
 6 2 
 
 1} 
 
 9 I 
 
 14 25 
 
 9 J4 
 
 29 
 
 } 50 
 
 12 
 Add 
 
 5 Ji 
 
 441 
 
 4 10 
 
 13 44 
 
 15 34 
 
 5 34 
 
 14 
 15 
 
 9 2i 
 
 9 44 
 
 14 22 
 14 20 
 
 9 17 
 9 
 
 14 
 Sub. 
 I 
 
 3 51 
 
 3 50 
 
 I 
 IJ 
 
 5 37 
 5 +4 
 
 4 30 
 418 
 
 431 
 4 53 
 
 13 58 
 
 14 12 
 
 15 25 
 15 15 
 
 5 5 
 
 436 
 
 i6 
 
 10 4 
 
 14 16 
 
 8 4J 
 
 16 
 
 3 50 
 
 26 
 
 5 50 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 14 
 
 14 25 
 
 IS 4 
 
 4 7 
 
 n 
 
 10 24 
 
 14 II 
 
 8 26 
 
 JO 
 
 3 48 
 
 39 
 
 5 55 
 
 3 53 
 
 S 35 
 
 1437 
 
 14 J3 
 
 3 38 
 
 i8 
 
 10 4} 
 
 14 6 
 
 8 8 
 
 44 
 
 3 47 
 
 52 
 
 6 
 
 3 40 
 
 556 
 
 14 49 
 
 14 40 
 
 3 8 
 
 19 
 
 II 2 
 
 14 
 
 7 50 
 
 57 
 
 3 44 
 
 I 5 
 
 6 4 
 
 3 27 
 
 6 18 
 
 15 
 
 14 27 
 
 2 39 
 
 20 
 
 II 19 
 
 rJ54 
 
 in 
 
 I 10 
 
 3 41 
 
 I 18 
 
 6 7 
 
 3 13 
 
 6 39 
 
 15 10 
 
 14 IJ 
 
 2 9 
 
 21 
 
 II 36 
 
 li 47 
 
 7 14 
 
 I 2J 
 
 3 38 
 
 I 31 
 
 6 10 
 
 2 58 
 
 7 
 
 15 20 
 
 13 58 
 
 I 39 
 
 22 
 
 II 52 
 
 IJ J9 
 
 6 56 
 
 I 35 
 
 3 34 
 
 I 43 
 
 613 
 
 2 4J 
 
 7 21 
 
 15 29 
 
 13 42 
 
 I 9 
 
 2J 
 
 12 8 
 
 IJ JO 
 
 6 J7 
 
 I 47 
 
 3 29 
 
 I 56 
 
 615 
 
 2 28 
 
 7 42 
 
 15 37 
 
 IJ 25 
 
 39 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 12 22 
 12 j6 
 
 IJ 21 
 IJ 12 
 
 6 19 
 
 6 
 
 1 58 
 
 2 9 
 
 3 24 
 3 18 
 
 2 9 
 
 2 22 
 
 6 16 
 
 617 
 
 2 12 
 I 56 
 
 8 3 
 8 2J 
 
 15 45 
 
 15 52 
 
 13 8 
 12 49 
 
 9 
 
 Add 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 12 49 
 
 IJ 2 
 
 5 42 
 
 2 19 
 
 3 12 
 
 2 J5 
 
 6 17 
 
 I 39 
 
 8 4. 
 
 15 58 
 
 12 JO 
 
 051 
 
 27 
 
 IJ I 
 
 12 51 
 
 5 2J 
 
 2 29 
 
 3 5 
 
 2 47 
 
 6,7 
 
 I 22 
 
 9 4 
 
 16 3 
 
 12 II 
 
 I 21 
 
 28 
 
 1} 12 
 
 12 40 
 
 5 5 
 
 2 J8 
 
 2 58 
 
 3 
 
 6 16 
 
 I 5 
 
 9 24 
 
 16 8 
 
 II 50 
 
 150 
 
 29 
 
 IJ 2J 
 
 
 5 47 2 47 
 
 2 51 
 
 3 12 
 
 615 
 
 47 
 
 9 4J 
 
 16 12 
 
 II 29 
 
 220 
 
 30 
 
 IJ JJ 
 
 
 4 28 2 55 
 
 243 
 
 3 24 
 
 613 
 
 29 
 
 10 3 
 
 16 15 
 
 II 7 
 
 2 49 
 
 Ji 
 
 IJ 42 
 
 
 4 10 
 
 ■■ 
 
 2 J4 
 
 
 6 10 
 
 II 
 
 
 16 17 
 
 
 J 18
 
 TABLES. 
 
 267 
 
 Table II. (conlhnicd). 
 
 -Equation op Tjme for the Year 1805 for Aitarent 
 Noon at GREENwrcii. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Jan. IVb. March. 
 
 April. M:iy. June. .July. Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 m. s. in. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. 8. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m s. m. 6. 
 
 111. S. 
 
 ni. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 111. s. 
 
 1 
 
 Add Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 sab. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 I 
 
 i 45 i; 48 
 
 12 }2 
 
 3 57 
 
 3 
 
 2 27 
 
 3 33 
 
 6 8 
 
 J 
 
 10 17 
 
 16 19 
 
 10 50 
 
 2 
 
 4 15 iJ 56 
 
 12 19 
 
 J 39 
 
 3 8 
 
 2 18 
 
 3 45 
 
 6 4 
 
 22 
 
 10 j6 
 
 16 20 
 
 10 28 
 
 i 
 
 4 43 14 2 
 
 12 7 
 
 3 21 
 
 3 14 
 
 2 8 
 
 3 56 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 10 55 
 
 16 20 
 
 10 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 10 14 8 
 
 II 54 
 
 3 3 
 
 J 20 
 
 I 58 
 
 4 7 
 
 5 55 
 
 ' ^ 
 
 II 14 
 
 16 20 
 
 9 40 
 
 5 
 
 5 il 14 I J 
 
 11 40 
 
 2 45 
 
 J 26 
 
 I 48 
 
 4 17 
 
 5 49 
 
 I 21 
 
 II J2 
 
 16 18 
 
 9 16 
 
 6 
 
 6 } 
 
 14 17 
 
 11 26 
 
 2 28 
 
 3 31 
 
 137 
 
 4 27 
 
 5 4J 
 
 I 41 
 
 II 50 
 
 16 16 
 
 8 50 
 
 7 
 
 6 30 
 
 14 21 
 
 II 12 
 
 2 II 
 
 3 36 
 
 127 
 
 4 37 
 
 536 
 
 2 I 
 
 12 7 
 
 16 IJ 
 
 8 25 
 
 8 
 
 655 
 
 14 2i 
 
 10 57 
 
 I 54 
 
 3 40 
 
 I 15 
 
 4 47 
 
 528 
 
 2 22 
 
 12 24 
 
 16 9 
 
 7 59 
 
 9 
 
 ■7 20 
 
 14 25 
 
 10 42 
 
 I 37 
 
 3 43 
 
 I 4 
 
 456 
 
 5 20 
 
 2 42 
 
 12 40 
 
 16 4 
 
 7 32 
 
 lO 
 
 7 44 
 
 14 26 
 
 10 26 
 
 I 20 
 
 3 4*^ 
 
 52 
 
 5 4 
 
 512 
 
 3 3 
 
 12 56 
 
 15 59 
 
 7 5 
 
 II 
 
 8 8 
 
 14 26 
 
 10 10 
 
 I 4 
 
 3 43 
 
 40 
 
 5 13 
 
 5 2 
 
 3 24 
 
 IJ 12 
 
 15 52 
 
 637 
 
 12 
 
 8 J2 
 
 14 26 
 
 9 54 
 
 48 
 
 3 50 
 
 23 
 
 521 
 
 4 53 
 
 3 45 
 
 13 27 
 
 15 45 
 
 6 9 
 
 u 
 
 8 54 
 
 14 24 
 
 9 38 
 
 J2 
 
 3 51 
 
 16 
 
 5 28 
 
 4 42 
 
 4 6 
 
 13 41 
 
 15 37 
 
 5 41 
 
 14 
 
 9 16 
 
 14 22 
 
 9 21 
 
 17 
 
 3 52 
 
 3 
 Add 
 
 5 35 
 
 4 32 
 
 4 27 
 
 13 55 
 
 15 23 
 
 5 12 
 
 15 
 
 9 38 
 
 14 19 
 
 9 4 
 
 2 
 
 Sub. 
 
 3 51 
 
 9 
 
 5 41 
 
 4 20 
 
 448 
 
 14 9 
 
 15 18 
 
 4 43 
 
 i6 
 
 9 58 
 
 14 16 
 
 8 46 
 
 IJ 
 
 3 51 
 
 22 
 
 5 47 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 9 
 
 14 22 
 
 15 7 
 
 4 14 
 
 IT 
 
 10 18 
 
 14 12 
 
 8 29 
 
 17 
 
 3 50 
 
 35 
 
 5 53 
 
 356 
 
 5 30 
 
 1434 
 
 14 55 
 
 3 44 
 
 i8 
 
 10 j8 
 
 14 7 
 
 8 II 
 
 041 
 
 348 
 
 48 
 
 553 
 
 3 43 
 
 5 51 
 
 14 46 
 
 14 AS 
 
 3 15 
 
 19 
 
 10 56 
 
 14 I 
 
 1 ■'^■^ 
 
 055 
 
 3 45 
 
 I I 
 
 6 2 
 
 3 30 
 
 6 12 
 
 14 57 
 
 14 JO 
 
 2 45 
 
 20 
 
 II 14 
 
 liSS 
 
 ' 736 
 
 I 8 
 
 3 42 
 
 I 14 
 
 6 6 
 
 3 16 
 
 6 3J 
 
 15 7 
 
 14 15 
 
 2 15 
 
 21 
 
 II }l 
 
 IJ 48 
 
 , 7 18 
 
 I 20 
 
 3 39 
 
 I 27 
 
 6 10 
 
 J 2 
 
 654 
 
 15 17 
 
 14 I 
 
 I 45 
 
 22 
 
 II 48 
 
 13 41 
 
 7 ° 
 
 I 33 
 
 3 35 
 
 I 40 
 
 6 13 
 
 2 47 
 
 7 15 
 
 15 26 
 
 13 45 
 
 I 15 
 
 2} 
 
 12 4 
 
 13 }} 
 
 641 
 
 I 44 
 
 3 30 
 
 1 53 
 
 6 15 
 
 2 32 
 
 7 36 
 
 15 34 
 
 13 28 
 
 45 
 
 24 
 
 12 18 
 
 13 24 
 
 6 23 
 
 j 
 
 I 55 
 
 3 25 
 
 2 7 
 
 6 17 
 
 2 16 
 
 7 57 
 
 15 42 
 
 13 II 
 
 15 
 Add 
 
 25 
 
 12 }} 
 
 13 15 
 
 6 5 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 19 
 
 2 19 
 
 6 18 
 
 2 
 
 8 18 
 
 15 49 
 
 12 53 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 12 46 
 
 J3 5 5 47 
 
 2 16 
 
 J 13 
 
 2 32 
 
 6 i3 
 
 I 44 
 
 8 38 
 
 15 55 
 
 12 34 
 
 45 
 
 27 
 
 12 58 
 
 12 54 5 28 
 
 2 26 
 
 J 6 
 
 2 45 
 
 6 18 
 
 I 27 
 
 8 58 
 
 16 I 
 
 12 15 
 
 I M 
 
 28 
 
 13 10 
 
 12 43 5 10 
 
 236 
 
 2 59 
 
 2 57 
 
 6 17 
 
 I 10 
 
 9 18 
 
 16 6 
 
 II 55 
 
 I 44 
 
 29 
 
 IJ 21 
 
 .. 
 
 4 52 
 
 2 44 
 
 2 52 
 
 3 9 
 
 6 16 
 
 52 
 
 9 38 
 
 16 II 
 
 11 34 
 
 2 13 
 
 3° 
 
 13 31 
 
 .. 
 
 4 a 
 
 2 S3 
 
 2 44 
 
 3 21 
 
 6 14 
 
 34 
 
 9 58 
 
 16 14 
 
 II 13 
 
 242 
 
 JI 
 
 13 4° 
 
 
 4 15 
 
 , •• 
 
 2 35 
 
 •• 
 
 6 II 
 
 16 
 
 
 16 17 
 
 •• 
 
 3 II
 
 268 
 
 HINTS TO TllAVELLEKS. 
 
 Taduc II. (amIhiintJ). — Equation of Time roit the Yeau 189G for Aivahent 
 Noon at Greenwich. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Marcli. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 .June. 
 
 July. 1 Aug. 
 
 Scjit. 
 
 oa. 
 
 -Nov. 
 
 lAC. 
 
 
 ni. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 ni. s. 
 
 m. 8. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. 8. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 m. 8. 
 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Add 
 
 Add 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub, 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 I 
 
 3 4° 
 
 13 47 
 
 12 23 
 
 3 44 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 20 
 
 3 41 
 
 6 4 
 
 19 
 
 10 33 
 
 16 20 
 
 10 34 
 
 2 
 
 4 8 
 
 13 54 
 
 12 n 
 
 3 26 
 
 3 12 
 
 2 II 
 
 3 52 
 
 5 59 
 
 38 
 
 10 52 
 
 i6 20 
 
 10 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 36 
 
 14 I 
 
 11 53 
 
 3 8 
 
 3 19 
 
 2 I 
 
 4 3 
 
 5 54 
 
 57 
 
 II 10 
 
 16 20 
 
 946 
 
 4 
 
 5 3 
 
 14 7 
 
 II 44 
 
 2 50 
 
 3 25 
 
 I 5« 
 
 4 14 
 
 5 49 
 
 I 17 
 
 II 28 
 
 16 19 
 
 9 21 
 
 5 
 
 5 }o 
 
 14 12 
 
 II 30 
 
 2 33 
 
 3 30 
 
 I 40 
 
 4 24 
 
 545 
 
 137 
 
 II 46 
 
 16 17 
 
 8 56 
 
 6 
 
 5 57 
 
 14 17 
 
 II 16 
 
 2 15 
 
 3 34 
 
 I 29 
 
 4 34 
 
 5 36 
 
 157 
 
 12 3 
 
 16 14 
 
 8 30 
 
 n 
 
 6 2i 
 
 14 20 
 
 II 1 
 
 I 58 
 
 3 38 
 
 I 18 
 
 4 44 
 
 5 29 
 
 2 17 
 
 12 20 
 
 16 10 
 
 8 4 
 
 8 
 
 649 
 
 14 23 
 
 10 46 
 
 I 42 
 
 3 42 
 
 I 7 
 
 4 53 
 
 5 22 
 
 2 37 
 
 12 36 
 
 16 5 
 
 7 38 
 
 9 
 
 7 14 
 
 14 25 
 
 10 31 
 
 I 25 
 
 3 45 
 
 55 
 
 5 2 
 
 5 13 
 
 258 
 
 12 52 
 
 16 
 
 7 10 
 
 lO 
 
 7 39 
 
 14 27 
 
 10 i; 
 
 I 9 
 
 3 47 
 
 43 
 
 5 II 
 
 5 4 
 
 3 19 
 
 13 8 
 
 15 53 
 
 6 4J 
 
 II 
 
 8 J 
 
 14 27 
 
 9 59 
 
 53 
 
 3 49 
 
 31 
 
 5 19 
 
 4 55 
 
 3 40 
 
 13 23 
 
 15 46 
 
 6 15 
 
 12 
 
 8 26 
 
 14 27 
 
 9 43 
 
 37 
 
 3 50 
 
 i3 
 
 5 26 
 
 4 45 
 
 4 I 
 
 1338 
 
 15 38 
 
 5 47 
 
 JJ 
 
 8 49 
 
 14 26 
 
 9 26 
 
 22 
 
 3 50 
 
 6 
 Add 
 
 5 33 
 
 4 34 
 
 4 22 
 
 .352 
 
 15 29 
 
 5 18 
 
 14 
 
 9 12 
 
 14 24 
 
 9 9 
 
 7 
 Sub. 
 
 3 50 
 
 7 
 
 5 4= 
 
 4 23 
 
 4 43 
 
 '4 5 
 
 15 20 
 
 4 50 
 
 15 
 
 9 34 
 
 14 22 
 
 8 52 
 
 8 
 
 3 49 
 
 20 
 
 5 46 
 
 4 JI 
 
 5 4 
 
 14 i3 
 
 15 9 
 
 4 20 
 
 i6 
 
 9 55 
 
 14 J 8 
 
 3 35 
 
 22 
 
 3 48 i 3i 
 
 5 52 
 
 3 59 
 
 5 25 
 
 14 31 
 
 14 58 
 
 3 51 
 
 n 
 
 10 15 
 
 14 14 
 
 8 18 
 
 36 
 
 3 47 
 
 46 
 
 5 57 
 
 3 46 
 
 546 
 
 14 43 
 
 14 46 
 
 3 22 
 
 l3 
 
 10 35 
 
 14 10 
 
 8 CO 
 
 50 
 
 3 44 
 
 59 
 
 6 I 
 
 3 33 
 
 6 8 
 
 14 54 
 
 14 33 
 
 2 52 
 
 19 
 
 10 5J 
 
 '4 4 
 
 7 42 
 
 I 3 
 
 3 41 
 
 I 12 
 
 6 5 
 
 3 19 
 
 6 29 
 
 15 5 
 
 14 19 
 
 2 22 
 
 20 
 
 II 12 
 
 13 53 
 
 7 24 
 
 I 15 
 
 3 38 
 
 I 25 
 
 6 9 
 
 3 5 
 
 6 50 
 
 15 15 
 
 14 5 
 
 I 53 
 
 21 
 
 II 29 
 
 13 52 
 
 7 6 
 
 I 28 
 
 3 34 
 
 I 38 
 
 6 12 
 
 2 50 
 
 7 II 
 
 15 24 
 
 13 49 
 
 I 23 
 
 22 
 
 II 45 
 
 13 44 
 
 6 43 
 
 I 40 
 
 3 30 
 
 I 50 
 
 6 14 
 
 2 35 
 
 7 32 
 
 15 33 
 
 13 33 
 
 53 
 
 ^} 
 
 12 I 
 
 13 36 
 
 6 29 
 
 I 51 ' 3 25 
 
 2 3 
 
 6 15 
 
 2 19 
 
 7 53 
 
 15 41 
 
 1} 16 
 
 23 
 Add 
 
 24 
 
 12 16 
 
 13 27 
 
 6 n 
 
 2 2 3 20 
 
 2 l6 
 
 6 16 
 
 2 3 
 
 8 14 
 
 15 49 
 
 12 58 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 12 JO 
 
 ij l3 
 
 5 S3 
 
 2 13 3 14 
 
 2 29 
 
 617 
 
 ' 47 
 
 8 34 
 
 15 55 
 
 12 40 
 
 37 
 
 26 
 
 12 44 
 
 13 8 
 
 5 34 
 
 2 23 3 8 
 
 2 41 
 
 617 
 
 1 30 
 
 855 
 
 16 I 
 
 12 21 
 
 I 6 
 
 27 
 
 12 56 
 
 12 58 
 
 5 15 
 
 2 32 3 I 
 
 2 53 
 
 6 16 
 
 1 12 
 
 9 15 
 
 16 6 
 
 12 I 
 
 I 36 
 
 28 
 
 13 8 
 
 12 47 
 
 4 57 
 
 2 42 2 54 
 
 3 5 
 
 615 
 
 5; 
 
 9 35 
 
 16 II 
 
 11 40 
 
 2 5 
 
 29 
 
 13 19 
 
 12 35 
 
 4 39 
 
 2 50 ' 2 46 
 
 3 18 
 
 6 13 
 
 37 
 
 9 54 
 
 16 14 
 
 11 19 
 
 2 35 
 
 }o 
 
 13 29 
 
 
 4 20 
 
 2 58 2 38 
 
 3 29 
 
 6 10 
 
 19 
 Sub. 
 
 
 10 14 
 
 16 17 
 
 10 56 
 
 3 4 
 
 JI 
 
 13 38 
 
 
 1 "* ^ 
 
 .. 1 2 29 
 
 
 6 7 
 
 
 16 19 
 
 
 3 32
 
 TABLES. 269 
 
 Table III. — Sun's Meax Eight Ascensiox. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July- 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Ifov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 h. m. 
 
 h. 
 
 in. 
 
 h. m. 
 
 h. 111. 
 
 li m. 
 
 h. ni. 
 
 h. m. 
 
 h, m. 
 
 b. m. 
 
 h. m. 
 
 b. m. 
 
 b. m. 
 
 I 
 
 i8 46 
 
 20 
 
 58 
 
 22 48 
 
 42 
 
 2 33 
 
 4 J5 
 
 6 40 
 
 8 4; 
 
 10 41 
 
 12 29 
 
 14 25 
 
 16 29 
 
 2 
 
 18 50 
 
 21 
 
 02 
 
 2252 
 
 45 
 
 2 37 
 
 4 40 
 
 6 44 
 
 8 49 
 
 10 44 
 
 12 32 
 
 14 29 
 
 16 33 
 
 J 
 
 1854 
 
 21 
 
 06 
 
 22 56 
 
 49 
 
 2 40 
 
 4 44 
 
 6 48 
 
 8 52 
 
 10 48 
 
 12 36 
 
 14 33 
 
 16 37 
 
 4 
 
 18 59 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 22 59 
 
 53 
 
 2 44 
 
 448 
 
 6 52 
 
 8 56 
 
 10 52 
 
 12 40 
 
 14 31 
 
 16 42 
 
 5 
 
 19 i 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 2J 0; 
 
 56 
 
 2 48 
 
 4 52 
 
 6 56 
 
 9 00 
 
 10 55 
 
 12 4} 
 
 14 41 
 
 16 46 
 
 6 
 
 19 8 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 2J 07 
 
 I GO 
 
 2 52 
 
 456 
 
 7 00 
 
 9 04 
 
 ic 59 
 
 12 47 
 
 '4 45 
 
 16 51 
 
 7 
 
 19 12 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 2J 10 
 
 I 04 
 
 2 56 
 
 5 03 
 
 7 04 
 
 9 08 
 
 ir 02 
 
 12 51 
 
 14 49 
 
 16 55 
 
 8 
 
 19 16 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 2J 14 
 
 I 07 
 
 J oo 
 
 5 04 
 
 7 09 
 
 9 12 
 
 II 06 
 
 12 54 
 
 14 53 
 
 16 50 
 
 9 
 
 19 21 
 
 21 
 
 io 
 
 2? 18 
 
 I 11 
 
 ? 04 
 
 5 08 
 
 7 13 
 
 9 15 
 
 11 10 
 
 12 58 
 
 14 57 
 
 17 04 
 
 10 
 
 19 25 
 
 21 
 
 i4 
 
 li 21 
 
 I 15 
 
 3 08 
 
 5 13 
 
 7 '7 
 
 9 19 
 
 II 13 
 
 13 02 
 
 15 01 
 
 17 08 
 
 II 
 
 19 29 
 
 21 
 
 ;3 
 
 2} 25 
 
 I 18 
 
 3 II 
 
 5 '7 
 
 7 21 
 
 9 23 
 
 11 17 
 
 13 05 
 
 15 "5 
 
 17 IJ 
 
 12 
 
 19 J4 
 
 21 
 
 4i 
 
 2J 29 
 
 I 22 
 
 3 15 
 
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 7 25 
 
 9 27 
 
 II 20 
 
 13 09 
 
 15 O) 
 
 17 17 
 
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 19 j8 
 
 21 
 
 46 
 
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 I :6 
 
 J 19 
 
 5 25 
 
 7 29 
 
 9 31 
 
 II 24 
 
 13 13 
 
 15 I J 
 
 17 21 
 
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 19 42 
 
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 5 29 
 
 7 33 
 
 9 34 
 
 II 28 
 
 I J 16 
 
 15 n 
 
 17 26 
 
 15 
 
 19 47 
 
 21 
 
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 2J 40 
 
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 3 27 
 
 5 33 
 
 7 37 
 
 9 38 
 
 II 31 
 
 13 20 
 
 15 2r 
 
 17 30 
 
 i6 
 
 19 51 
 
 21 
 
 58 
 
 2J 4J 
 
 I 37 
 
 3 31 
 
 5 37 
 
 741 
 
 942 
 
 II 35 
 
 13 24 
 
 15 25 
 
 17 35 
 
 17 
 
 19 5; 
 
 22 
 
 02 
 
 23 47 
 
 I 40 
 
 3 35 
 
 5 42 
 
 7 45 
 
 9 46 
 
 II 33 
 
 13 28 
 
 15 30 
 
 17 J9 
 
 l8 
 
 20 00 
 
 22 
 
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 2J 51 
 
 I 44 
 
 3 39 
 
 5 4^ 
 
 7 49 
 
 9 49 
 
 II 42 
 
 13 31 
 
 15 34 
 
 17 4J 
 
 19 
 
 20 04 
 
 22 
 
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 2J54 
 
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 5 50 
 
 7 53 
 
 9 53 
 
 II 46 
 
 IJ 35 
 
 15 33 
 
 17 43 
 
 20 
 
 20 o3 
 
 22 
 
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 2j ;8 
 
 I 51 
 
 i 47 
 
 5 54 
 
 7 57 
 
 9 57 
 
 II 49 
 
 13 39 
 
 1542 
 
 17 52 
 
 21 
 
 20 12 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 02 
 
 I 55 
 
 J SI 
 
 5 58 
 
 8 01 
 
 10 oo 
 
 II 53 
 
 13 4J 
 
 15 46 
 
 17 57 
 
 22 
 
 20 17 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 05 
 
 I 59 
 
 3 55 
 
 6 02 
 
 8 05 
 
 10 04 
 
 II 56 
 
 13 46 
 
 15 50 
 
 18 01 
 
 2J 
 
 20 21 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
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 2 03 
 
 3 59 
 
 6 07 
 
 8 09 
 
 10 08 
 
 12 00 
 
 13 50 
 
 15 55 
 
 18 06 
 
 24 
 
 20 25 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 ij 
 
 2 o5 
 
 4 03 
 
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 8 13 
 
 10 12 
 
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 Ii 54 
 
 15 59 
 
 18 10 
 
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 20 29 
 
 22 
 
 J2 
 
 16 
 
 2 10 
 
 4 07 
 
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 8 17 
 
 10 15 
 
 12 07 
 
 13 58 
 
 16 03 
 
 18 15 
 
 26 
 
 20 a 
 
 22 
 
 J6 
 
 20 
 
 2 14 
 
 4 II 
 
 6 19 
 
 8 21 
 
 10 19 
 
 12 II 
 
 14 02 
 
 16 07 
 
 18 19 
 
 27 
 
 20 ii 
 
 22 
 
 40 
 
 on 
 
 2 18 
 
 4 15 
 
 623 
 
 8 25 
 
 10 23 
 
 12 14 
 
 14 o5 
 
 16 12 
 
 18 23 
 
 28 
 
 20 42 
 
 22 
 
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 27 
 
 2 21 
 
 4 19 
 
 6 27 
 
 8 29 
 
 10 26 
 
 12 18 
 
 14 09 
 
 16 16 
 
 18 28 
 
 29 
 
 20 46 
 
 22 
 
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 031 
 
 2 25 
 
 4 23 
 
 631 
 
 833 
 
 10 io 
 
 12 22 
 
 14 13 
 
 16 20 
 
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 20 50 
 
 
 
 i4 
 
 2 29 
 
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 l3 41
 
 270 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVEI.LKKS. 
 
 Tai!Le IV. — *Mean Places uf 50 of thk I'iiiN-cii'AL Fixed Stars kor 
 Januaiiy 1st, 18D1. 
 
 Name. 
 
 a Amiroiunlrt', 
 
 y Pegasi (Algcnib) .. ., 
 
 a Phociiicis 
 
 a Cassiopeiiu (vai.) .. .. 
 
 P Ceti 
 
 a Ursa3 Minoris (^Polaris) 
 
 a Eridani (Achenmr') 
 
 a Arletis ., ., .. .. 
 
 a Persei 
 
 a Tauri (^Aldebaran) ., .. 
 a Aurigre (Capella) .. ., 
 p Orionis (Rigel) .. .. 
 P Tauri 
 
 5 Orionis 
 
 a CjlumbiC 
 
 a Orionis (vav.1 
 
 a ATgCis {Canopus) .. .. 
 a Canis Majoiis (.SiVtus) . . 
 € Cauis Majoi is 
 
 6 Canis Majoiis 
 
 a- Geminorum {Castor) . . 
 a Canis Minoris {Procyim) 
 p GcmhwTum (Pollux) .. 
 
 I Argils 
 
 a Hydra! 
 
 Mag. Kight Asc. lAnn. Var. Dcclluatton. Ann. Var. 
 
 2,i 
 
 li. m. s. 
 o 2 54'4; 
 
 o 7 46-57 
 
 o 21 2-5J 
 
 o J4 2</44 
 
 }Z 16-09 
 
 1 20 4-50 
 
 1 J3 45-95 
 
 2 I ii"7g 
 
 3 16 4J-I9 
 
 4 29 50-22 
 
 5 8 51-42 
 5 9 26-58 
 5 19 35-42 
 5 26 J5'i9 
 5 35 48"69 
 
 5 49 25-95 
 
 6 21 35-84 
 6 40 28-55 
 
 6 54 27'55 
 
 7 4 4-87 
 7 27 50-21 
 7 }} 45-12 
 1 33 49-77 
 9 14 15-22 
 9 22 22-68 
 
 + J-09 
 
 3-08 
 2-97 
 
 i-oi 
 24-12 
 2-24 
 3-J7 
 4-26 
 
 i-44 
 4-43 
 2-38 
 
 3-79 
 3-06 
 2-18 
 J-25 
 I-3J 
 2-64 
 2-j6 
 
 2-44 
 3-84 
 3-14 
 
 3-68 
 1-61 
 2-95 
 
 4-28 }o 18-72 
 4-14 35 J8-77 
 -42 52 55-20 
 4-55 57 20-86 
 -i3 34 6-94 
 4-88 44 33-83 
 -57 Y^ Ji'Ji 
 4-22 57 39'46 
 + 49 28 59-95 
 4- 16 17 44-97 
 4-45 53 22-82 
 — 8 19 23-07 
 4-23 31 2-89 
 — o 22 40-73 
 
 -34 " 50-75 
 -t-7 23 12-70 
 -52 38 16-30 
 -16 34 18-14 
 -28 49 41-32 
 -26 13 30-48 
 4-32 7 I4"38 
 4-5 2947-65 
 4-28 16 54-7; 
 -58 49 53-16 
 -8 II 57-73 
 
 4-1990 
 
 20-03 
 
 19 -55 
 
 19-79 
 
 19-81 
 
 18-84 
 
 18-33 
 
 17-18 
 
 13-07 
 
 7-50 
 
 4-ot 
 
 4-39 
 
 334 
 
 2-91 
 
 2-o3 
 
 0-95 
 
 -1-89 
 
 4-73 
 
 4-7t 
 
 5-54 
 
 7-53 
 
 9-01 
 
 8-44 
 15-04 
 
 15-44 
 
 * Tliese Mian Places are not to be used for finding time.
 
 TABLES. 
 
 271 
 
 Table IV. (continued). — *Mean Places op 50 of the PiiiNcirAL Fixed 
 Staks for January 1st, 1894. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Mag. 
 
 A.nn. Var. 
 
 Declination. 
 
 Ann. Var. 
 
 + 3-19 
 
 + 12 29 6-07 
 
 -17-47 
 
 2-j2 
 
 -59 7 38-17 
 
 1 18-87 
 
 ^•74 
 
 4-62 19 2j-I2 
 
 19-39 
 
 3-06 
 
 4-15 9 5i'2o 
 
 20-I0 
 
 m 
 
 4-54 17 2'83 
 
 20-02 
 
 r29 
 
 -62 so 41-75 
 
 20-00 
 
 3-15 
 
 -10 j6 28-91 
 
 18-87 
 
 2-J7 
 
 4-49 50 32-45 
 
 i8-o6 
 
 4-18 
 
 -59 51 4i'38 
 
 17-57 
 
 2-7i 
 
 4-19 44 i-80 
 
 18-185 
 
 4-oj 
 
 -60 23 42-68 
 
 15-04 
 
 J-22 
 
 -8 59 30'os 
 
 13-48 
 
 2-54 
 
 4-27 4 17-04 
 
 12-29 
 
 r48 
 
 -19 JO 54-j6 
 
 lo-il 
 
 3-67 
 
 -26 II 47-27 
 
 8-27 
 
 6 -JO 
 
 -68 49 56- 71 
 
 7-12 
 
 4 98 
 
 -55 25 44-69 
 
 J -82 
 
 2-78 
 
 4-12 j8 i4'24 
 
 2-8j 
 
 2-OJ 
 
 4-38 41 6-J7 
 
 4- J -20 
 
 i-',! 
 
 -26 25 40--6 
 
 4-18 
 
 2-9J 
 
 4-8 J5 18-11 
 
 9-30 
 
 4-78 
 
 -57 4 27-18 
 
 II-2t 
 
 i-8o 
 
 -47 28 26-22 
 
 17-29 
 
 JJJ 
 
 — JO II j-05 i 
 
 19-01 
 
 2-98 
 
 4-14 38 5-47 
 
 19-3? 
 
 li. m. s. 
 
 a Leonis {Reg uha) 1 1,2 10 2 4}-6o 
 
 7) Argus (var.) j 1-6 104056-95 
 
 a Ursse Majoris 2 10 57 11 • 10 
 
 /3 Leon is 2 11 4J 39- 16 
 
 ■y Ursse Majoris 1 2,3 11 48 15-31 
 
 a' Ciucis I 122042-21 
 
 o Virgiuis (.^pica) , ,. i ij 19 36'4J 
 
 >) UrsEB Majoris 2 ij 4J 21-85 
 
 /3 Ceutauri i 13 56 20-57 
 
 a BoiJtis (^7-ciM>-Ms) I I 141049-55 
 
 a2 Centauri 1 14 j2 24-66 
 
 /3 LibriE ' 2 15 11 i8-io 
 
 a Coronae Borealis (A?p/iecca). . .. 2 15 30 11-96 
 
 /31 Scorpii 2 15 59 i6-jj 
 
 o Scorpii (Jntares) 1,2 16 22 54-39 
 
 a Trianguli Australis 2 16 37 26-48 
 
 ^ Arse J 17162940 
 
 a Opliiuchl 2 17 30 0-79 
 
 a Lyrse ( I'e^a) 1 18 jj 20-9; 
 
 cr Sagittarii 2,; 1848 41-47 
 
 a Aquila; (AUair) 1,2 19 45 j6-65 
 
 a I'avonis 2 20 17 15-71 
 
 a Gruis I 2 I 22 1 33-07 
 
 a Piscis Australis (/•'omaWiai<<) .. ' 1,2 ' 22 51 47-56 
 
 a Pegasi (i/dJiai/) .. .. .. .. 2 225928-80 
 
 * These Mean Places are not to be used for finding time.
 
 272 
 
 HINTS TO THAvr.LLEllS. 
 
 r^ -+ r^ -r li-. "^ ^'N -r 
 
 - o* •^ r« 
 
 00 r* ^ O 
 
 •>^ 00 vo M 
 
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 ■ O ■'> O r4 ^i^ ci 
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 w oo 'T^ 
 
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 oooooococo OcT'O^O O O 
 
 u^»j%\cor^cooo O O O O 
 
 vO M ri sO 
 
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 r4 ri r4 r4 ri 
 
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 OT^. 
 
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 fs 
 
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 ^ 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 v^ 
 
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 VO 
 
 
 
 x^ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
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 M M 
 
 IH 
 
 fg 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 " 
 
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 M 
 
 IH 
 
 
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 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
 
 
 
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 2 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ^^ 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 c 
 
 
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 ei 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
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 s 
 
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 S 
 ^ 
 
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 3 
 
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 8 
 
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 cc 
 
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 n 3, 
 
 p 
 
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 5 
 
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 -=1 
 
 o 
 
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 d 
 
 fe 
 
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 S 
 
 fi 
 
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 p 
 
 d 
 
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 ?- 
 
 cj 
 
 d 
 
 P- 
 
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 u « 
 
 d 
 
 ec 
 
 I e 
 
 QC 
 
 L 8 
 
 ci 
 
 <a. 
 
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 d 
 
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 Cj 
 
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 13 
 
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 274 
 
 HINTS TO TKANKl.LKUS. 
 
 TaULE VI. — CoRUECTIO>f FOIl THE DaY OF THE ]MoNTII, TO BE Suhliaded FROM 
 THE APPAUENT TIME OF A StAU's MERIDIAN PASSAGE ON THE FIRsT DAY OF 
 THE MONTH. 
 
 Days 
 
 Jah. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 li. ni. 
 
 Ii. ni. 
 
 li. HI. 
 
 li. m. 
 
 li. HI. 
 
 li. m. 
 
 h. ni. 
 
 li. m. 
 
 li. HI. 
 
 "n. m. 
 
 li. iji. 
 
 li. m. 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 ij 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 IJ 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 •7 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 2} 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 2} 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 JO 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 }0 
 
 9 
 
 is 
 
 J2 
 
 }0 
 
 029 
 
 JO 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 }I 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 J2 
 
 35 
 
 10 
 
 jg 
 
 }6 
 
 }} 
 
 }^ 
 
 033 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 }2 
 
 33 
 
 }() 
 
 J9 
 
 II 
 
 4} 
 
 40 
 
 }G 
 
 }<) 
 
 041 
 
 41 
 
 j3 
 
 }6 
 
 J7 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 044 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 4; 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 IJ 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 49 
 
 46 
 
 4J 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 14 
 
 56 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 54 
 
 5; 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 048 
 
 52 
 
 57 
 
 15 
 
 I I 
 
 56 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 OS4 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 53 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 I I 
 
 16 
 
 I 5 
 
 I 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 I 2 
 
 I I 
 
 57 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 I 
 
 I 6 
 
 17 
 
 J 9 
 
 I i 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 I 2 
 
 I 6 
 
 I 5 
 
 I I 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 I 4 
 
 I 10 
 
 18 
 
 I li 
 
 I 7 
 
 I 2 
 
 I 2 
 
 1 6 
 
 I 10 
 
 I 9 
 
 I 5 
 
 I I 
 
 I 3 
 
 I 9 
 
 I 15 
 
 19 
 
 I 18 
 
 I II 
 
 I 6 
 
 I 6 
 
 I 10 
 
 I 14 
 
 I 13 
 
 I 8 
 
 I 5 
 
 I 6 
 
 I 13 
 
 I 19 
 
 20 
 
 I 22 
 
 I 15 
 
 I 10 
 
 I 10 
 
 I 14 
 
 I 19 
 
 I 17 
 
 I 12 
 
 I 8 
 
 1 10 
 
 I 17 
 
 I 24 
 
 21 
 
 I 26 
 
 I 19 
 
 I 14 
 
 I 13 
 
 I 18 
 
 I 23 
 
 I 21 
 
 I 16 
 
 I 12 
 
 I '4 
 
 I 21 
 
 I 28 
 
 22 
 
 I ii 
 
 I 2J 
 
 I 17 
 
 I 17 
 
 I 22 
 
 I 27 
 
 I 25 
 
 I 19 
 
 1 16 
 
 I 18 
 
 I 25 
 
 I r- 
 
 2i 
 
 I 35 
 
 I 26 
 
 I 21 
 
 1 21 
 
 I 26 
 
 I 31 
 
 I 29 
 
 I 23 
 
 I 19 
 
 I 21 
 
 I }0 
 
 1 37 
 
 24 
 
 I 39 
 
 J }o 
 
 I 24 
 
 I 25 
 
 I }o 
 
 I 35 
 
 I 3; 
 
 I 27 
 
 I 2} 
 
 I 25 
 
 I 34 
 
 I 41 
 
 25 
 
 I 4J 
 
 I 34 
 
 I 28 
 
 I 28 
 
 I 34 
 
 I 39 
 
 ' 37 
 
 I 31 
 
 I 26 
 
 1 29 
 
 I j8 
 
 I 46 
 
 26 
 
 I 47 
 
 1 J8 
 
 I i2 
 
 1 32 
 
 I 38 
 
 I 44 
 
 I 41 
 
 I 34 
 
 I ;o 
 
 I 33 
 
 I 42 
 
 I 50 
 
 27 
 
 I 51 
 
 142 
 
 I 35 
 
 I 36 
 
 1 42 
 
 I 48 
 
 I 45 
 
 1 J3 
 
 I 34 
 
 I 37 
 
 1 47 
 
 I 55 
 
 28 
 
 I 56 
 
 1 45 
 
 I 39 
 
 1 40 
 
 146 
 
 1 52 
 
 I 49 
 
 I 42 
 
 I 37 
 
 I 41 
 
 I 51 
 
 J 59 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 43 
 
 I 44 
 
 I 50 
 
 I 5i 
 
 I 53 
 
 I 45 
 
 I 4« 
 
 I 44 
 
 I 55 
 
 2 3 
 
 io 
 
 2 4 
 
 .. 
 
 1 46 
 
 I 47 
 
 I 55 
 
 2 
 
 I 57 
 
 I 49 
 
 I 44 
 
 I 48 
 
 I 59 
 
 2 8 
 
 31 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 I 50 
 
 
 I 59 
 
 
 2 I 
 
 1 52 
 
 
 I 51 
 
 
 2 12
 
 TABLES. 
 
 275 
 
 Table VII. — Mkan Astronomical Eefraction. 
 
 (liai ometer, }o inches ; Fahrenheit's Thermometer, 50^.) 
 
 A pp. 
 
 Refr. 
 
 A pp. 
 
 Kefr. 
 
 A pp. 
 
 R? 
 
 fr. 
 
 App. 
 
 .Uefr. 
 
 Ait. 
 
 
 
 Alt. 
 
 
 
 Alt. 
 
 
 
 Alt. 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 , 
 
 „ 
 
 / 
 
 , 
 
 ,, 
 
 / 
 
 , 
 
 „ 
 
 / 
 
 , 
 
 J, 
 
 00 
 
 34 
 
 17 
 
 4 CO 
 
 II 
 
 47 
 
 6 55 
 
 
 30 
 
 10 03 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 
 i; 
 
 4 05 
 
 II 
 
 36 
 
 7 CO 
 
 
 25 
 
 10 10 
 
 5 
 
 i; 
 
 20 
 
 JO 
 
 23 
 
 4 10 
 
 II 
 
 26 
 
 7 °5 
 
 
 20 
 
 10 20 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 JO 
 
 28 
 
 41 
 
 4 IS 
 
 II 
 
 15 
 
 7 10 
 
 
 16 
 
 10 JO 
 
 
 06 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 07 
 
 4 20 
 
 11 
 
 05 
 
 7 15 
 
 
 II 
 
 10 40 
 
 
 or 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 41 
 
 4 25 
 
 10 
 
 55 
 
 7 20 
 
 
 07 
 
 10 50 
 
 
 5'^ 
 
 I 00 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 4 30 
 
 10 
 
 46 
 
 7 25 
 
 n 
 
 cj 
 
 II 00 
 
 
 52 
 
 I 10 
 
 23 
 
 09 
 
 4 35 
 
 10 
 
 37 
 
 7 30 
 
 6 
 
 59 
 
 II 10 
 
 
 48 
 
 I 20 
 
 22 
 
 02 
 
 4 40 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 7 35 
 
 6 
 
 54 
 
 II 20 
 
 
 44 
 
 I JO 
 
 21 
 
 00 
 
 4 45 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 7 40 
 
 6 
 
 5? 
 
 II JO 
 
 
 40 
 
 I 40 
 
 20 
 
 02 
 
 4 50 
 
 10 
 
 lo 
 
 7 45 
 
 6 
 
 4'' 
 
 II 40 
 
 
 36 
 
 I 50 
 
 It; 
 
 09 
 
 4 55 
 
 10 
 
 02 
 
 7 50 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 II 50 
 
 
 32 
 
 2 00 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 5 00 
 
 9 
 
 54 
 
 7 55 
 
 6 
 
 38 
 
 12 00 
 
 
 28 
 
 2 10 
 
 '7 
 
 34 
 
 5 05 
 
 9 
 
 46 
 
 8 00 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 12 10 
 
 
 25 
 
 2 15 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 5 10 
 
 9 
 
 38 
 
 8 0; 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 12 20 
 
 
 21 
 
 2 20 
 
 16 
 
 51 
 
 S IS 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 8 10 
 
 6 
 
 27 
 
 12 JO 
 
 
 18 
 
 2 25 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 5 20 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 8 15 
 
 6 
 
 2J 
 
 II 40 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 }0 
 
 16 
 
 II 
 
 5 25 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 8 20 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 12 50 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 2 JJ 
 
 IS 
 
 52 
 
 s 30 
 
 9 
 
 09 
 
 8 25 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 I J 00 
 
 
 08 
 
 2 40 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 5 35 
 
 9 
 
 02 
 
 8 30 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 I? 10 
 
 
 05 
 
 2 45 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 5 40 
 
 8 
 
 55 
 
 8 35 
 
 6 
 
 09 
 
 I J 20 
 
 
 02 
 
 2 50 
 
 14 
 
 59 
 
 5 45 
 
 8 
 
 48 
 
 8 40 
 
 6 
 
 06 
 
 IJ JO 
 
 
 59 
 
 2 55 
 
 14 
 
 4J 
 
 5 50 
 
 8 
 
 42 
 
 8 45 
 
 6 
 
 03 
 
 IJ 40 
 
 
 56 
 
 J 00 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 5 55 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 8 50 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 IJ 50 
 
 
 5J 
 
 3 05 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 6 00 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 8 55 
 
 
 57 
 
 14 00 
 
 
 50 
 
 i 10 
 
 ij 
 
 55 
 
 6 05 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 9 00 
 
 
 54 
 
 14 10 
 
 
 47 
 
 i IS 
 
 13 
 
 41 
 
 6 10 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 9 05 
 
 5 
 
 51 
 
 14 20 
 
 
 45 
 
 J 20 
 
 13 
 
 27 
 
 6 ij 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 9 10 
 
 
 48 
 
 14 JO 
 
 
 42 
 
 i 25 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 6 20 
 
 8 
 
 06 
 
 9 IS 
 
 
 45 
 
 14 40 
 
 
 40 
 
 3 30 
 
 13 
 
 oo 
 
 6 25 
 
 8 
 
 01 
 
 9 20 
 
 y 
 
 42 
 
 14 50 
 
 
 37 
 
 i 35 
 
 12 
 
 47 
 
 6 JO 
 
 7 
 
 56 
 
 9 25 
 
 
 39 
 
 15 00 
 
 
 J5 
 
 3 40 
 
 12 
 
 34 
 
 6 35 
 
 •; 
 
 50 
 
 9 JO 
 
 
 36 
 
 15 10 
 
 
 32 
 
 3 4; 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 6 40 
 
 7 
 
 45 
 
 9 35 
 
 
 33 
 
 15 20 
 
 
 30 
 
 3 50 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 6 45 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 9 40 
 
 
 31 
 
 15 30 
 
 
 28 
 
 3 55 
 
 II 
 
 58 
 
 6 50 
 
 7 
 
 35 
 
 9 50 
 
 
 25 
 
 IS 40 
 
 
 25 
 
 u 2
 
 276 
 
 tIINT8 TO TRAYEl.Lf:ftS. 
 
 Tarli: VII. — Mean Astronomical Refraction. — continued. 
 
 (Daiom. 30 inches ; Therm, 50° F»hr.) 
 
 Cdrrectlons whon Harom. 
 differs from jo inches or 
 Therm, from 50° Fahr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Bauometeu. 
 
 A pp. 
 Alt. 
 
 Ilcfr. 
 
 A pp. 
 .\lt. 
 
 Kefr. 
 
 A pp. 
 Alt. 
 
 liefr. 
 
 App. 
 Alt. 
 
 For each inch above or 
 Ix'low 30 inches : — add, 
 if aljovc 30 ; subtract, if 
 be'.ow. 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 11 
 
 ' 
 
 1 // 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 15 50 
 
 i 2J 
 
 J I 00 
 
 I J7 
 
 57 00 
 
 J7-9 
 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 
 ii 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 i 
 i 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 16 00 
 
 J 21 
 
 Jl JO 
 
 I J5 
 
 58 CO 
 
 ?6-5 
 
 16 10 
 
 i iq 
 
 J2 CO 
 
 I J? 
 
 59 00 
 
 35-1 , 
 
 16 20 
 
 3 17 
 
 J2 JO 
 
 I Ji 
 
 60 00 
 
 JJ-7 
 
 16 JO 
 
 i 15 
 
 JJ 00 
 
 I ?o 
 
 61 00 
 
 J2-4 
 
 16 40 
 
 J I? 
 
 J? io 
 
 I 28 
 
 62 00 
 
 ji-o 
 
 16 50 
 
 i II 
 
 J4 00 
 
 I 26 
 
 6? CO 
 
 29-8 
 
 j^ 
 
 17 03 
 
 J 09 
 
 34 50 
 
 I 25 
 
 64 CO 
 
 28-5 
 
 55 
 
 Co 
 
 1 
 
 17 JO 
 
 J 01 
 
 35 00 
 
 I 2J-2 
 
 6; 00 
 
 27-2 
 
 6; 
 
 
 18 00 
 
 2 58 
 
 j; 30 
 
 I 21-7 
 
 66 00 
 
 26-0 
 
 ^? 
 
 
 18 JO 
 
 2 5? 
 
 36 00 
 
 I 20-2 
 
 67 00 
 
 24-8 
 
 ' 
 
 
 19 CD 
 19 J3 
 
 2 48 
 2 -14 
 
 36 30 
 
 37 00 
 
 I l8-8 
 
 68 CX3 
 
 2J-6 
 
 
 
 I IT4 
 
 69 CO 
 
 22-4 
 
 
 
 20 00 
 
 2 59 
 
 37 JO 
 
 I i6-o 
 
 70 00 
 
 21-J 
 
 
 THERMOMETEn. 
 
 20 JO 
 
 2 j; 
 
 J8 CO 
 
 I 14-6 
 
 71 00 
 
 20-I 
 
 
 
 21 00 
 
 2 5? 
 
 J8 JO 
 
 I iJ-3 
 
 72 00 
 
 i9"o 
 
 App. 
 
 For each 10 degrees al ovc or 
 
 21 JO 
 
 2 27 
 
 39 00 
 
 T I2"0 
 
 75 CO 
 
 IT9 
 
 Alt. 
 
 below 50° Fahr. : — iiifc- 
 
 22 CO 
 
 2 74 
 
 39 30 
 
 I io'7 
 
 74 00 
 
 16-7 
 
 
 tract, if atx>vc 50° ; add. 
 
 22 30 
 
 2 20 
 
 40 CO 
 
 I 09-5 
 
 75 CO 
 
 76 00 
 
 15-7 
 f4-6 
 
 
 if below. 
 
 2J 00 
 
 2 17 
 
 41 00 
 
 I 07" I 
 
 
 
 2J JO 
 
 2 IJ 
 
 42 00 
 
 I 048 
 
 77 00 
 
 ij-5 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 24 OO 
 
 2 10 
 
 45 CO 
 
 I 02'6 
 
 78 00 
 
 12-4 
 
 20 
 
 
 24 JO 
 
 2 07 
 
 44 00 
 
 I oo'4 
 
 79 0° 
 
 TI'J 
 
 2; 
 
 
 25 00 
 
 2 0,- 
 
 45 00 
 
 58-4 
 
 80 00 
 
 lO'J 
 
 30 
 
 
 25 }o 
 
 2 Ol 
 
 46 00 
 
 5<^-i 
 
 8t 00 
 
 eg- 2 
 
 35 
 
 
 lb 00 
 
 I 59 
 
 47 00 
 
 54'4 
 
 82 00 
 
 o8'2 
 
 40 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 
 26 JO 
 
 I 56 
 
 48 CO 
 
 52-6 
 
 8! 00 
 
 07*2 
 
 
 27 CO 
 
 I 54 
 
 49 OO 
 
 50-7 
 
 84 00 
 
 o6'i 
 
 
 27 JO 
 
 I ii 
 
 50 00 
 
 49-0 
 
 8? 00 
 
 o;m 
 
 55 
 
 
 28 00 
 
 I 49 
 
 51 00 
 
 47-3 
 
 86 00 
 
 04-1 
 
 60 
 
 
 28 JO 
 
 I 47 
 
 52 00 
 
 45-6 
 
 87 00 
 
 oj-i 
 
 65 
 
 
 29 03 
 
 I 45 
 
 55 00 
 
 44-0 
 
 88 00 
 
 02'0 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 29 JO 
 
 I 4J 
 
 54 CO 
 
 424 
 
 89 oo 
 
 OfO 
 
 
 
 JO 00 
 
 I 41 
 
 55 00 
 
 40-9 
 
 90 00 
 
 oo-o 
 
 
 
 JO JO 
 
 I 59 
 
 56 00 
 
 39-4 
 
 
 

 
 TABLES. 
 
 277 
 
 Table VIII. — Semi-diurnal and Semi-noctoknal Arches, showing the time of 
 
 THE Rising and Setting op the Sun, Moon, or Equatorial Stars. 
 
 Dkclinatiox. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 IJ 
 
 Lat. 
 
 o 
 
 h. 
 
 m. 
 
 h. 
 
 m. 
 
 h. 
 
 ni. h. ni. 
 
 li. m. 
 
 h. m. 
 
 h. m. 
 
 h. m. 
 
 b. m. 
 
 h. m. 
 
 !i. ni. 
 
 1). ni. 
 
 h. ni. 
 
 h. in. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 X 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 1 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 J 
 
 J 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 3 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 I 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 3 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 7 
 
 6 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 i 
 
 6 i 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 7 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 i 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 7 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 f) 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 3 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 7 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 i 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 7 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 13 
 
 6 II 
 
 12 
 
 u 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 J 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 7 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 10 
 
 6 II 
 
 6 12 
 
 IJ 
 
 •4 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 i 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 7 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 10 
 
 6 II 
 
 6 12 
 
 61J 
 
 14 
 
 ii 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 3 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 5 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 10 
 
 6 11 
 
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 11INT8 TO TKAVELLERS. 
 
 TaKLIO \'1II. {r(ndilini'll). — SKMI-DH KNAI. and SEMI-XOCTUltNAI, AlilJUES, SHUWlNfi 
 
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 8 58 93 9 9 9 15 
 
 60
 
 TAULKS. 
 
 '27i) 
 
 Table IX. — Distance of thk Sea Horizon uncoijrecied Foit effects of 
 
 liEFltACTION.* 
 
 Ileiglit. 
 
 Dis- 
 tance. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Dis- 
 tance. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Dis- 
 tance. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Dis- 
 tance. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Dis- 
 tance. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Dis- 
 tancc. 
 
 Feet. 
 1 I 
 
 .Mile.=. 
 
 Feit. 
 ^90 
 
 Miles. 
 21 
 
 Feet. 
 1487 
 
 Miles. 
 41 
 
 Feet. 
 329? 
 
 Jliles. 
 61 
 
 Feet. 
 9032 
 
 Miles. 
 101 
 
 Feet. 
 17608 
 
 Miles. 
 141 
 
 3-5 
 
 
 428 
 
 22 
 
 1561 
 
 42 
 
 3513 
 
 63 
 
 9393 
 
 103 
 
 18111 
 
 14; 
 
 8-0 
 
 
 468 
 
 2} 
 
 1636 
 
 43 
 
 3740 
 
 65 
 
 9760 
 
 105 
 
 18622 
 
 145 
 
 14-2 
 
 
 510 
 
 24 
 
 1713 
 
 44 
 
 3974 
 
 67 
 
 10135 
 
 107 
 
 19140 
 
 147 
 
 22-1 
 
 
 550 
 
 25 
 
 1792 
 
 4; 
 
 4213 
 
 69 
 
 10518 
 
 109 
 
 19664 
 
 149 
 
 .11 -9 
 
 6 
 
 598 
 
 26 
 
 1872 
 
 46 
 
 4461 
 
 71 
 
 10908 
 
 III 
 
 20197 
 
 i;i 
 
 4ii 
 
 7 
 
 645 
 
 2- 
 
 1954 
 
 47 
 
 47"' 
 
 7; 
 
 11304 
 
 113 
 
 207 j6 
 
 15J 
 
 56-6 
 
 8 
 
 694 
 
 28 
 
 20J9 
 
 48 
 
 4976 
 
 75 
 
 11709 
 
 115 
 
 21232 
 
 155 
 
 ''•7 
 
 9 
 
 744 
 
 29 
 
 2124 
 
 49 
 
 5249 
 
 77 
 
 12120 
 
 117 
 
 2l8j6 
 
 157 
 
 88-5 
 
 10 
 
 797 
 
 30 
 
 2212 
 
 50 
 
 . 5524 
 
 79 
 
 12538 
 
 119 
 
 22397 
 
 159 
 
 107 
 
 II 
 
 850 
 
 31 
 
 2JOI 
 
 51 
 
 5808 
 
 81 
 
 12966 
 
 121 
 
 22964 
 
 161 
 
 127 
 
 12 
 
 906 
 
 }1 
 
 239} 
 
 52 
 
 6098 
 
 83 
 
 13397 
 
 123 
 
 23540 
 
 163 
 
 M9 
 
 1} 
 
 964 
 
 3 J 
 
 2485 
 
 53 
 
 ('i9-i 
 
 85 
 
 i;8;6 
 
 125 
 
 24121 
 
 165 
 
 17! 
 
 14 
 
 I02i 
 
 34 
 
 2581 
 
 54 
 
 6700 
 
 87 
 
 14282 
 
 127 
 
 247II 
 
 167 
 
 !()■) 
 
 15 
 
 1084 
 
 35 
 
 2677 
 
 55 
 
 7012 
 
 89 
 
 14737 
 
 129 
 
 25307 
 
 169 
 
 226 
 
 16 
 
 "47 
 
 36 
 
 2775 
 
 56 
 
 7332 
 
 91 
 
 15197 
 
 131 
 
 25911 
 
 171 
 
 256 
 
 «7 
 
 1211 
 
 37 
 
 237; 
 
 57 
 
 7656 
 
 93 
 
 15664 
 
 133 
 
 26521 
 
 173 
 
 287 
 
 18 
 
 1278 
 
 38 
 
 2977 
 
 53 
 
 7987 
 
 95 
 
 16139 
 
 IJ5 
 
 27139 
 
 175 
 
 3>9 
 
 19 
 
 IJ46 
 
 39 
 
 3081 
 
 59 
 
 8330 
 
 97 
 
 16622 
 
 137 
 
 27764 
 
 177 
 
 J 54 
 
 20 
 
 1416 
 
 40 
 
 3186 
 
 60 
 
 8678 
 
 99 
 
 17111 
 
 139 
 
 28J96 
 
 179 
 
 (Aj)proximately the distance visible in miles is the square root of the height in feet, an acci- 
 dental relation easy to remember.) 
 
 * The effects of refraction at low angles are very variable, but in ordinary Ciises, if the height 
 of observer be supposed to be increa.sed by one-third, the distance of the visible .=ea horizon will 
 not exceed the tabular value corresponding to the revised entry. Extraordinary cases are lliise of 
 mirage, &c., for which no general lule can be given.
 
 280 
 
 HINTS TO tram;lij:ks. 
 
 Ml 
 
 
 I ^A l/^^o r-OO O *^ «*» '*! »r.O i^oo O ' 
 
 « l^NsC t-30 O 
 
 r« r^ .^ ^ -r -r 't -r ■^ -r -r -i" tr, ^r^ »rv I/-, If , M-, u". u-,0 OnO^JsC^^OO^ 
 
 . I 
 
 -co a^ O M *^ ^ irsNO r-00 O^^ r^ ^*\ ^ ifisO r-00 O t^ <^ '^ "t- ir ^o oo C^ 
 ^%0^ r-r—r-r-r-r-r^r-r-oocooooooooooooo c^c^^c^O^^C*^^ 
 
 o* O »-• n ■^"^'O r-"00 O Q »^ n 
 
 OOOOOOOM.-.MMWMM 
 
 
 »r\0 r-r-ooo^Ow f^ '^ •f irvso r-00 c^^o wr**^ *^lf^o r-00 ^ o *^ 
 0OO3CO00000O ONO^OOOOC^Oa^O^OO O O O QOQO QO*-«- 
 
 ri )^^ *^ -^ irwo r^OO ^ O O 1 
 
 N \f\\C> r^co C^ O I 
 
 ; r 
 
 , Tf iTi'O r- r-oo O^O mmm <^<^■*f■^r^ »*s%0 r-oo O^^^Q >* * 
 " CO CO oo 00 00 00 O^ 0>^0^C^ ^ CT^CT*O^C^ C^CT* 3* '^ 
 
 OCCOOOCOCOOOOOOOOO C^0^C^0^OC^CT^CT*C^C^C*CT*^*0 O O O O O O 
 
 ~ ^ 
 
 xr> r^oo COC^OOi-inM'^ ■^T^Ir^^O^O ^»<g g^O 0»-««N '^'^'^fv 
 
 o 
 
 M^H„MM(S(sn(Sr4r4<sr4fiNr4nr*<s(sr*n(sc4r*<sr<r*r4 
 
 g 
 
 »*"OOnOO vOvOO nOOnOOO sO <C >C>00 r- i^ r- t-- 1- r- r- 1— r- r^ r- 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 ^C O r^r-30 ooa^a^OOw««^•^"^ n- •*• u-^^ »'^sO >0 r- r-30 00 O O O — 
 
 
 O r- r— oo JO 00 O ^ O O 
 
 •^ »s^ -^ -^ ir\ u%so o r- r- r-oo oo c^ C 
 
 C^O^^^O^^C^C^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 > u^o O r- r- r-oo ooo^ct^O 00^-i-tr»r« 
 ~r^ IT* r- r- i-* r- 1— t-* r- r-30 oo oo oo oo oo co 
 
 OOOOOMwwr* 
 
 »riir\U-tinir\ir»irt>r\i 
 
 ^ ir\0 \0 O r^ r-00 OC CO C7* 
 
 ^ ^ ^ -f.T^■^t 
 
 ^ m»o O-O r— r-r— r— oocooo C^C^C^ 
 
 •ppnoooc; 
 
 
 COOOOOOOOOOO 0^a^^l^l3^0^0^0 O O O O O O 
 
 ri n ri r* N n N (v\^*>f*\»^'^'*\«N'*>'*''^'^'^^'f^"t""^^^^ 
 
 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 O w r^ «^ "f »^'0 r-00 c^ O «-• N <^ Tf- i'^>o r-oo o^o « f* i^ ^ »/^^c r-oo
 
 TABLES. 
 
 281 
 
 M-iO r- :?" O "-< ^'^ "^ ir^^O CO ON O HI »A « 
 
 rwC O O O ^ ■^ ^ O 
 
 > r-oo c^ M rv»^ ff-^ i—oo O '-' ' 
 
 
 O^n '^t »^0 CO o o ' 
 
 ' "^ l<^0 r^ O^ O '-' M 't->'''0 r^oo o '-' *^ '■- »'nO r-- 
 -■ 30CO c^c^c^oc^c^C^C*•0 O O O o o O 
 
 OOOOOOOOO 
 
 •^ "^ »^«C CO ^ O tH ' 
 
 <5s0O<?O^OOOO<5OO'OO^<5^0'O<)O^O'»COOO'O'«0O'O 
 
 •^ rf- ij^O CO On O 
 
 > ■^i^'O r-oo O f 
 
 \ ^ TrT^-f-^<rTf•t-^T^Tfl 
 
 r<^ -^ irsO r-OO OO r» '-iTj-ir\sO 
 
 ^lr^lrtU^u^tolr^lr^u^u^t#^u^u^lr^lr^u^t 
 
 
 O M ^ «^ irvvo r*00 O^ O M ri f^ Ti- iTiO r^oo O O m n ^ ^ ir»0 r-oo O C 
 1^ 1^ r-r^ r-"r^ t— r^ r— ao cooooooooooooooooo o^(:y^<^o^<y^o^o^O'^<y^^i 
 
 r» ^A Tf tTN ir^O r^co On O w rJ *^ T^ itnO t^oo C7^ O w r4 »^ -^ \t\\n r-co O^ O w 
 
 ■^ ir\0 r^ r-oo Cn O >-< r» »vs "^t- ir\sO O r^oo C^ O w i 
 
 \ u^ u^o nD vO O O O O \0 vO nO >0 
 
 
 O O O O O 
 
 ON O »H r) rJ »v^ ■^ l*^^o r- r-oo 0*0 w ri N f^-^iri-o r-r-oo O^O •-• 
 
 ■*f >f^O O r-co 0*ONO wM '^•M,Tf ir-sO <; r- 00 O^ 0> O "-I ' 
 
 ^'^O OO'OOO^sO'O'OOO^'O r— c^i^ 
 
 r* (S *s r4 c4 < 
 
 I (N M PJ r< 
 
 NO nO r-oo ooONO M >-« •^•^■^WN i^o r-oo oo O^ O O ' 
 rir4r)r4nMnr4<sp4tsr<Mc^(^r4Nnc4C]NN( 
 
 300 i^O O MNrlf^rATj-iA »r\>0 r- 
 
 - 1- 1^00 oooooocoocoocoooooooooe 
 
 ;oO ONO O >-> ri n '^'I'-t-irvO 
 
 JOOCO OnOnOnOnOn^Cn^Cnon 
 
 h- rJ rJ <^ f^ n- >'^ \*^^0 nO t- r-00 OnOO O i-- »-' n r^ '■'\ -rf- ff- V^ »'nO 
 1-1--r'^f■^--1-■^1-'r'r■^-r'^■^u^^^u^u-,»*-^^^^#^»<-^^^u^^^u^ 
 
 0'-<>-"r»r*»^i^rt-Tf-ir\ wnsC nO t^ t^OO CO OnCnO O *-■ t-" r^ N ^*\ -^ -r ir- tr\ 
 
 > »r\0 sO r^ r^oo < 
 
 * -^ -rftrs VwO 
 
 ;oooooooooooooocooooooooo onononOnOno^ono^ononono^o^On 
 
 OnCnO O O 1- Mr«nr< •^•^*^-1-'l-^tr\ itinD O nC i 
 
 > 00 00 ON O^ ONQ O 
 
 »r\ lr\*0 OO'O'OnOnOOO^nOOOOnOO^OOOvO^nOO'OOnO'O 
 
 l^-f■<f^Tt-■^T^-t-Tt--i-1-rt-r^'r■^ 
 
 $^'-? 
 
 ■^"^'i-^'=f1--^f-1-'^-^-f 
 
 -r-r-oooococo OnO^cncnO O O O 
 
 \ f^ ■+-t*Tt'r}-'i--«^u^lrMr\»r\ ir^O \0 O nO \0 O 
 
 TfTt•N^lnu^^AU^w^v^u^t'^ itnO OiOOnOnOvOOO r-i 
 
 -r^r-*oo 00 
 
 CT* O •- <** '^ "^ t*^v£^ r-oo O O "-i r) ^^ -^ ^r^^O t— 00 0*0 >- n »^rfir\0 I- CO On
 
 282 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 OCL, 
 
 
 
 H P 
 
 f=^ 'k. 
 
 p. P5 
 
 W « 
 
 
 9 K 
 
 
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 o * 
 
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 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ^ V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b- 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
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 l« 
 
 ^ 
 
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 o f- 
 
 
 
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 -^ 
 
 ir\ 
 
 v£) 
 
 
 00 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 oc 
 
 00 
 
 CC' 
 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 rl 
 
 vO 
 
 M 
 
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 T 
 
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 n 
 
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 CO 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 J oj 
 
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 c . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 >-• 
 
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 M 
 
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 -r 
 
 f^ 
 
 ^ 
 
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 c> 
 
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 c> 
 
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 '0 
 
 '0 
 
 ^ 
 
 C> 
 
 "0 
 
 
 
 OC 
 
 oc 
 
 cc 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 fca 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ir\ 
 
 ir\ 
 
 
 u^ 
 
 
 
 ir% 
 
 t**, 
 
 ir\ 
 
 •" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 30 
 
 
 
 
 
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 TABLES. 
 
 283 
 
 Table XII. — Table for converting Statute into GEOCRArnicAL ^Miles. 
 
 Stat. M iles. 
 
 Geo. Jliles. 
 
 Stat. Miles. 
 
 Geo. Miles. 
 
 Stat. Miles. 
 
 Geo. Miles. 
 
 Stat. Miles. 
 
 Geo. Jlilcs. 
 
 i-co 
 
 87 
 
 15-25 
 
 11-50 
 
 25-50 
 
 22-11 
 
 37-75 
 
 32-78 
 
 1-2; 
 
 I -03 
 
 1)50 
 
 11-72 
 
 25-75 
 
 22-36 
 
 38-00 
 
 33-00 
 
 1-50 
 
 l-io 
 
 1375 
 
 II -94 
 
 26-00 
 
 22-58 
 
 38-25 
 
 33-21 
 
 1-75 
 
 1-52 
 
 14-00 
 
 12-16 
 
 26-25 
 
 22-80 
 
 38-50 
 
 3!-4J 
 
 2-03 
 
 1-74 
 
 14-25 
 
 I2-J7 
 
 26 50 
 
 23-01 
 
 38-75 
 
 3!-65 
 
 2-25 
 
 1-9; 
 
 14-50 
 
 12-59 
 
 26-75 
 
 23-23 
 
 39-00 
 
 3{-87 
 
 2-50 
 
 2-17 
 
 14-75 
 
 I2-8I 
 
 27-00 
 
 23-45 
 
 39-25 
 
 34-08 
 
 2-75 
 
 2-J9 
 
 15-00 
 
 li-oi 
 
 27-25 
 
 23-66 
 
 39-50 
 
 34-30 
 
 j-oo 
 
 2-60 
 
 15-25 
 
 13-24 
 
 27-50 
 
 23-88 
 
 39-75 
 
 34-52 
 
 }•!$ 
 
 2-82 
 
 15-50 
 
 13-56 
 
 27-75 
 
 24-10 
 
 40-00 
 
 34-7J 
 
 J-50 
 
 J -04 
 
 15-75 
 
 1^-63 
 
 28 00 
 
 24-31 
 
 40-25 
 
 34-95 
 
 ^•75 
 
 J-26 
 
 16-00 
 
 13-89 
 
 28-25 
 
 24-53 
 
 40-50 
 
 35-17 
 
 4-00 
 
 J-48 
 
 16-25 
 
 14-11 
 
 28-50 
 
 24-75 
 
 40-75 
 
 35-J8 
 
 4-25 
 
 J-70 
 
 16-50 
 
 ira 
 
 28-75 
 
 24 9-7 
 
 41-00 
 
 3=;-6o 
 
 4-50 
 
 J -91 
 
 16-75 
 
 14-55 
 
 29-00 
 
 25-18 
 
 41-25 
 
 35-82 
 
 4-75 
 
 4-12 
 
 17-00 
 
 14-76 
 
 29-25 
 
 25-40 
 
 41-50 
 
 36-04 
 
 5-00 
 
 4-^4 
 
 17-25 
 
 14-98 
 
 29-50 
 
 25-64 
 
 41-75 
 
 36-25 
 
 5-25 
 
 4-56 
 
 17-50 
 
 15-20 
 
 29-75 
 
 2i-83 
 
 42-00 
 
 36-47 
 
 5-50 
 
 4-78 
 
 17-75 
 
 15-41 
 
 JO-CO 
 
 26-05 
 
 42-25 
 
 36-69 
 
 5-75 
 
 4-99 
 
 I8-O0 
 
 15-63 
 
 30-25 
 
 26-27 
 
 42-50 
 
 36-90 
 
 6'oo 
 
 5-21 
 
 13-25 
 
 15-85 
 
 io-5o 
 
 26-48 
 
 42-75 
 
 37-12 
 
 6-25 
 
 5-4J 
 
 18-50 
 
 16-06 
 
 ^0-75 
 
 26-70 
 
 43-00 
 
 37-34 
 
 6 -50 
 
 5-64 
 
 18-75 
 
 i6-23 
 
 ji-oo 
 
 26-92 
 
 4? -25 
 
 37-55 
 
 6-75 
 
 5-86 
 
 19-00 
 
 16-50 
 
 31-25 
 
 27-13 
 
 4? -50 
 
 37-77 
 
 •J-OO 
 
 6-o-i 
 
 19-25 
 
 16-72 
 
 31-50 
 
 27-35 
 
 43-75 
 
 37-99 
 
 7-2? 
 
 6-^0 
 
 19-50 
 
 16-93 
 
 ii-75 
 
 27-57 
 
 44-00 
 
 38-21 
 
 7 '50 
 
 6-ii 
 
 19-75 
 
 17-15 
 
 32-00 
 
 27-79 
 
 44-25 
 
 38-42 
 
 7-75 
 
 6-7J 
 
 20-00 
 
 i7-i7 
 
 32-25 
 
 28-ot 
 
 44-50 
 
 38-64 
 
 8-00 
 
 6-95 
 
 20-25 
 
 17-58 
 
 32-50 
 
 28-22 
 
 44-75 
 
 38-86 
 
 8-2S 
 
 7-16 
 
 20-50 
 
 17-80 
 
 32-75 
 
 28-44 
 
 28-66 
 
 45-00 
 
 39-07 
 
 8-50 
 
 TJ8 
 
 20-75 
 
 18-02 
 
 33 -oo 
 
 45-25 
 
 39-29 
 
 8-75 
 
 7-60 
 
 21-00 
 
 18-24 
 
 33-25 
 
 28-37 
 
 45-50 
 
 39-51 
 
 900 
 
 7-81 
 
 21-25 
 
 18-45 
 
 33-50 
 
 29-09 
 
 45-75 
 
 39-72 
 
 9-25 
 
 8-oj 
 
 21-50 
 
 18-67 
 
 iJ-75 
 
 29-31 
 
 46-00 
 
 39-94 
 
 9-50 
 
 8-25 
 
 21-75 
 
 18-89 
 
 34-00 
 
 29-53 
 
 46-25 
 
 40-16 
 
 9-75 
 
 8-47 
 
 22-00 
 
 ig-io 
 
 34-25 
 
 29-74 
 
 46-50 
 
 40-38 
 
 lo-co 
 
 8-68 
 
 22-25 
 
 19-32 
 
 34-50 
 
 29-96 
 
 46-75 
 
 40-59 
 
 10-25 
 
 8-90 
 
 22-50 
 
 19-54 
 19-76 
 
 34-75 
 
 30-18 
 
 47-00 
 
 40-81 
 
 10-50 
 
 9-12 
 
 22-75 
 
 35-00 
 
 30-39 
 
 47-25 
 
 41-03 
 
 10-75 
 
 9-i} 
 
 2J-00 
 
 19-97 
 
 35-25 
 
 30-61 
 
 47-50 
 
 41-24 
 
 II -OD 
 
 9-55 
 
 2r25 
 
 20-19 
 
 35-50 
 
 30-83 
 
 47-75 
 
 4«-f> 
 41-68 
 
 11-25 
 
 9-77 
 
 23-50 
 
 20-41 
 20-62 
 
 35-75 
 
 31-0^ 
 31-26 
 
 48-00 
 
 11-50 
 
 9-99 
 
 2r75 
 
 36-00 
 
 48-25 
 
 41-8, 
 
 11-75 
 
 10-20 
 
 24-00 
 
 20 -J4 
 
 36-25 
 
 31-48 
 
 48-50 
 
 42-11 
 
 12-03 
 
 10-42 
 
 24-25 
 
 2i-o6 
 
 36-50 
 
 31-70 
 
 48-75 
 
 42-33 
 
 12-25 
 
 10-64 
 
 24-50 
 
 21-28 
 
 36-75 
 
 31-9' 
 
 49-00 
 
 42-55 
 
 12-50 
 
 10-85 
 
 24-75 
 
 21-49 
 
 37-00 
 
 32-13 
 
 49-25 
 
 42-76 
 
 12-75 
 
 11-07 
 
 25-00 
 
 2I'7I 
 
 37-25 
 
 32-35 
 
 49-50 
 
 42-98 
 
 li-oo 
 
 11-29 
 
 25-25 
 
 21-9? 
 
 37-50 
 
 32-56 
 
 49-75 
 
 50-00 
 
 43-20 
 43-42
 
 284 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Tablk XIII. — Fan convioiiting Geoguaphical into Statutk Miles. 
 
 Geo. Miles. 
 
 Stat. Miles. 
 
 Geo. Miles. 
 
 Slat. Miles. 
 
 Geo. Miles. 
 
 Stat. Miles. 
 
 Geo. Miles. 
 
 Stat. Miles. 
 
 l-oo 
 
 1-15 
 
 ir25 
 
 15-26 
 
 25-50 
 
 29-3*^ 
 
 37-75 
 
 43 -M 
 
 1-2S 
 
 i"44 
 
 H-50 
 
 15-54 
 
 25-75 
 
 29-66 
 
 38-00 
 
 45-63 
 
 1-50 
 
 I-7J 
 
 ir75 
 
 15-8J 
 
 2') -00 
 
 29-94 
 
 38-25 
 
 45-92 
 
 i-IJ 
 
 2-OI 
 
 14-00 
 
 1612 
 
 26-25 
 
 3023 
 
 38-50 
 
 44-20 
 
 2-O0 
 
 2-iO 
 
 14-25 
 
 16-41 
 
 26-50 
 
 30-52 
 
 38-75 
 
 44-49 
 
 2-25 
 
 2-59 
 
 14-50 
 
 16-70 
 
 26-75 
 
 30-81 
 
 39-00 
 
 44-78 
 
 2- SO 
 
 2-88 
 
 14-75 
 
 16-98 
 
 27-00 
 
 31-09 
 
 39-25 
 
 45-07 
 
 2-75 
 
 i"i7 
 
 15-00 
 
 17-27 
 
 27-25 
 
 31-33 
 
 39-50 
 
 45-35 
 
 3-0O 
 
 i-45 
 
 15-25 
 
 17-56 
 
 27-50 
 
 31-67 
 
 39-75 
 
 45-64 
 
 yiS 
 
 i-7+ 
 
 15-50 
 
 17-85 
 
 27-75 
 
 3t-95 
 
 40-00 
 
 45-95 
 
 l-$o 
 
 4-oj 
 
 15-75 
 
 18-14 
 
 28-00 
 
 32-24 
 
 40- 25 
 
 4621 
 
 i-lS 
 
 4-J2 
 
 i6-oo 
 
 18-42 
 
 28-25 
 
 32-5? 
 
 40-50 
 
 46-50 
 
 4-00 
 
 4-61 
 
 16-25 
 
 18-71 
 
 28-50 
 
 32-3r 
 
 40-75 
 
 46-79 
 
 4"25 
 
 4-89 
 
 16-50 
 
 19-00 
 
 28-75 
 
 33- 10 
 
 41-00 
 
 47-07 
 
 4-50 
 
 5-18 
 
 16-75 
 
 19-28 
 
 29-00 
 
 33-39 
 
 41-25 
 
 47-36 
 
 4"75 
 
 5-47 
 
 17-00 
 
 19-57 
 
 29 25 
 
 33-68 
 
 41-50 
 
 47-66 
 
 5-00 
 
 5-76 
 
 17-25 
 
 19-86 
 
 29-50 
 
 3r9^ 
 
 41-75 
 
 47-95 
 
 5-25 
 
 6-o4 
 
 17-50 
 
 20-15 
 
 29-75 
 
 34- 25 
 
 42-00 
 
 48-23 
 
 5- 5" 
 
 6-j} 
 
 17-75 
 
 20-44 
 
 io-00 
 
 34- 54 
 
 42-25 
 
 48-52 
 
 5"7; 
 
 6-62 
 
 18-00 
 
 20-7? 
 
 30-25 
 
 34-82 
 
 42-50 
 
 48-81 
 
 6-0O 
 
 6-qi 
 
 18-25 
 
 21- 01 
 
 JO- 50 
 
 35 II 
 
 42-75 
 
 49-09 
 
 6-25 
 
 7-20 
 
 18-50 
 
 21-^0 
 
 Jo-75 
 
 35-40 
 
 4roo 
 
 49-38 
 
 6-50 
 
 7-48 
 
 13-75 
 
 21-59 
 
 JIOO 
 
 35-68 
 
 45-25 
 
 49-6- 
 
 6-75 
 
 7'77 
 
 19-00 
 
 21-88 
 
 Jl-25 
 
 35-97 
 
 45-50 
 
 49-95 
 
 7-00 
 
 8-o5 
 
 19-25 
 
 22-17 
 
 ji-50 
 
 j6-26 
 
 45-75 
 
 50-24 
 
 7-25 
 
 8-J5 
 
 19-50 
 
 22-45 
 
 31-75 
 
 36-55 
 
 44-00 
 
 50-33 
 
 7-50 
 
 864 
 
 19-75 
 
 22-74 
 
 32-00 
 
 36-83 
 
 44-25 
 
 50-82 
 
 T75 
 
 8-92 
 
 20-00 
 
 2J-OJ 
 
 32-25 
 
 37-12 
 
 44-50 
 
 51- 10 
 
 8-00 
 
 9-21 
 
 20-25 
 
 zyn 
 
 32-50 
 
 37-41 
 
 44-7; 
 
 51-39 
 
 8-25 
 
 9-50 
 
 20-50 
 
 2r6i 
 
 32-75 
 
 37-69 
 
 45-00 
 
 51-68 
 
 8-50 
 
 9-79 
 
 20-75 
 
 21-89 
 
 33-00 
 
 37-98 
 
 45-25 
 
 51-96 
 
 8-75 
 
 10-07 
 
 2I-00 
 
 24-18 
 
 3J-25 
 
 38-27 
 
 45-50 
 
 52-25 
 
 9'co 
 9-25 
 
 10- j^ 
 
 21-25 
 
 24-47 
 
 33-50 
 
 38-55 
 
 45-75 
 
 52-54 
 
 10-65 
 
 21-50 
 
 24-76 
 
 33-75 
 
 38-84 
 
 46-00 
 
 52-83 
 
 9-50 
 
 10-94 
 
 21-75 
 
 25-04 
 
 34-00 
 
 39-13 
 
 46-25 
 
 53-11 
 
 9"75 
 
 11-2} 
 
 22-00 
 
 25-J? 
 
 34-25 
 
 39 42 
 
 46-50 
 
 53-40 
 5369 
 
 lo-oo 
 
 11-51 
 
 22-25 
 
 25-62 
 
 34 "50 
 
 39-70 
 
 46-75 
 
 10-25 
 
 11-80 
 
 22-50 
 
 25-91 
 
 34-75 
 
 39-99 
 
 47-00 
 
 55-97 
 
 10 50 
 
 12-09 
 
 22-75 
 
 26-20 
 
 J5-0O 
 
 40-28 
 
 47-25 
 
 54-26 
 
 10-75 
 
 12-i8 
 
 2J-OD 
 
 26-48 
 
 35-25 
 
 40-56 
 
 47-50 
 
 54-49 
 
 IIOO 
 
 12-67 
 
 2r25 
 
 26-77 
 
 35-50 
 
 40-85 
 
 ^17- 75 
 
 54-83 
 
 11-25 
 
 12-95 
 
 2J-50 
 
 27-06 
 
 35-75 
 
 41-13 
 
 48-00 
 
 55-12 
 
 11-50 
 
 ir24 
 
 2J-7? 
 
 27->'5 
 
 36-00 
 
 41-42 
 
 48-25 
 
 55-41 
 
 11-75 
 
 U-5J 
 
 24-00 
 
 27-64 
 
 36-25 
 
 41-72 
 
 48-50 
 
 55-70 
 
 I2-0O 
 
 lj-82 
 
 24-25 
 
 27 92 
 
 56-50 
 
 42-01 
 
 48-75 
 
 55-98 
 
 12-25 
 
 14-11 
 
 24-50 
 
 28-21 
 
 36-75 
 
 42-30 
 
 49-00 
 
 '^■'; 
 
 12-50 
 
 I4-J9 
 
 24-75 
 
 28-50 
 
 37-00 
 
 42-58 
 
 49-25 
 
 56-56 
 
 12-75 
 
 14-68 
 
 2500 
 
 28-79 
 
 37-25 
 
 42-77 
 
 49- 5C' 
 
 56-84 
 
 IJQO 
 
 14-97 
 
 25-25 
 
 29-07 
 
 37-50 
 
 43 -06 
 
 49-75 
 
 50-00 
 
 57-13 
 5742
 
 I'AbLES. 
 
 285 
 
 Table XIV. — Comparison of Thermometer Scales, 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Reaumur. 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Reaumur. 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Reaumur. 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3i 
 
 + 0-4 
 
 4- 0-6 
 
 67 
 
 4-15-6 
 
 4-19-4 
 
 o 
 
 -14-2 
 
 -17-8 
 
 34 
 
 0-9 
 
 I-l 
 
 68 
 
 l6-o 
 
 20-0 
 
 I 
 
 ir8 
 
 17-2 
 
 3S 
 
 13 
 
 1-7 
 
 69 
 
 16-4 
 
 20-6 
 
 2 
 
 IJi 
 
 i6-7 
 
 J6 
 
 1-8 
 
 2-2 
 
 70 
 
 16-9 
 
 21-1 
 
 } 
 
 12-9 
 
 i6-i 
 
 31 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-8 
 
 71 
 
 17-i 
 
 21-7 
 
 4 
 
 12-4 
 
 i;-6 
 
 i8 
 
 2-7 
 
 3-3 
 
 72 
 
 17-8 
 
 22-2 
 
 5 
 
 I2-0 
 
 i;-o 
 
 39 
 
 JI 
 
 i-9 
 
 7; 
 
 18-2 
 
 22-8 
 
 6 
 
 II-6 
 
 14-4 
 
 40 
 
 r6 
 
 4-4 
 
 74 
 
 18-7 
 
 2i-3 
 
 1 
 
 II-I 
 
 ir9 
 
 4t 
 
 4-0 
 
 5-0 
 
 75 
 
 19-1 
 
 2r9 
 
 8 
 
 IO-7 
 
 ir; 
 
 42 
 
 4'4 
 
 5-6 
 
 76 
 
 19-6 
 
 24-4 
 
 9 
 
 10-2 
 
 12-8 
 
 4 J 
 
 4-9 
 
 61 
 
 77 
 
 20 
 
 25-0 
 
 lo 
 
 9-8 
 
 12-2 
 
 44 
 
 5V5 
 
 6-7 
 
 78 
 
 20-4 
 
 25-6 
 
 II 
 
 9i 
 
 II-7 
 
 4? 
 
 5-8 
 
 7-2 
 
 79 
 
 20-9 
 
 26-1 
 
 12 
 
 8-9 
 
 II-I 
 
 ■\^> 
 
 6-2 
 
 7-8 
 
 80 
 
 2I-; 
 
 26-7 
 
 1{ 
 
 8-4 
 
 IO-6 
 
 47 
 
 6-7 
 
 8-3 
 
 81 
 
 21-8 
 
 27-2 
 
 14 
 
 8-0 
 
 lO'O 
 
 4''^ 
 
 7-1 
 
 8-9 
 
 82 
 
 22-2 
 
 27-8 
 
 I? 
 
 7-6 
 
 9-4 
 
 49 
 
 7-6 
 
 9'4 
 
 8j 
 
 22-7 
 
 28-j 
 
 i6 
 
 7-1 
 
 «•'> 
 
 50 
 
 8-0 
 
 lo-o 
 
 84 
 
 2J-I 
 
 28-9 
 
 17 
 
 6-7 
 
 8-i 
 
 5t 
 
 8-4 
 
 ID-6 
 
 85 
 
 2r6 
 
 29-4 
 
 i8 
 
 6-2 
 
 7-8 
 
 5J 
 
 8-9 
 
 II -I 
 
 86 
 
 24-0 
 
 30-0 
 
 19 
 
 5-8 
 
 7-2 
 
 5? 
 
 9-3 
 
 II-7 
 
 87 
 
 24-4 
 
 JO -6 
 
 2o 
 
 5"i 
 
 6-7 
 
 54 
 
 9-8 
 
 12-2 
 
 88 
 
 249 
 
 jii 
 
 21 
 
 4-9 
 
 6-1 
 
 55 
 
 10-2 
 
 12-8 
 
 89 
 
 25-; 
 
 Ji-7 
 
 22 
 
 4-4 
 
 5-6 
 
 56 
 
 10-7 
 
 IJ-J 
 
 90 
 
 25-3 
 
 J2-2 
 
 2i 
 
 4-0 
 
 5-0 
 
 57 
 
 II-I 
 
 IJ-9 
 
 91 
 
 26-2 
 
 32-8 
 
 24 
 
 r6 
 
 4'4 
 
 58 
 
 II-6 
 
 14-4 
 
 92 
 
 26-7 
 
 JJJ 
 
 25 
 
 Ji 
 
 i-9 
 
 59 
 
 12-0 
 
 15-0 
 
 9? 
 
 27-1 
 
 J {-9 
 
 26 
 
 2-7 
 
 JJ 
 
 6o 
 
 12-4 
 
 15-6 
 
 94 
 
 27-6 
 
 ^44 
 
 27 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-8 
 
 61 
 
 12-9 
 
 16- 1 
 
 95 
 
 28-0 
 
 J5-0 
 
 28 
 
 1-8 
 
 2-2 
 
 62 
 
 IJ-J 
 
 16-7 
 
 96 
 
 28-4 
 
 J5-6 
 
 29 
 
 I-J 
 
 1-7 
 
 6j 
 
 ir8 
 
 17-2 
 
 97 
 
 28-9 
 
 J6-. 
 
 ?'3 
 
 0-9 
 
 I-l 
 
 ^^4 
 
 14-2 
 
 17-8 
 
 98 
 
 29-J 
 
 J6-7 
 
 jl 
 
 -0-4 
 
 -0-6 
 
 f.; 
 
 14-7 
 
 18 -J 
 
 99 
 
 29-8 
 
 37-2 
 
 " 
 
 o-o 
 
 o-o 
 
 66 
 
 + 151 
 
 4-18-9 
 
 100 
 
 ..0-2 
 
 4-J7-8 
 
 x^ Reaumur = (32° 4- | x°) Fahrenheit ■= \x° Centigra<Ie. 
 
 x° Centigrade = (j2° 4- -| x°) Falirenheit = ^_ x° Reaumur. 
 
 x° Falirenlieit = J (x' - J2) Iti'-aumur = I (u:° — J2°) Centigrade.
 
 280 HINTS 'J'U TllAVELLEltS. 
 
 Taulk XV. — Van convekting Encij.sh Inciiks and Tkntiis into Millimethkh. 
 
 Kiiglisli 
 
 1 
 
 Knglish 
 
 
 Knglisli 
 
 
 I'.nglisl) 
 
 
 KnKlish 
 
 
 Inches 
 and 
 
 1 Alilliin. 
 
 indies 
 and 
 
 Millini. 
 
 intlifs 
 and 
 
 Millini. 
 
 inclics 
 and 
 
 iMilliin. 
 
 indifs 
 and 
 
 Millim. 
 
 tenths. 
 
 
 tonths. 
 
 
 tfiiths. 
 
 
 tenths. 
 
 
 tf.-nths. 
 
 
 12-0 
 
 304' 79 
 
 i6-o 
 
 406-39 
 
 20-0 
 
 507-99 
 
 24-0 
 
 609-59 
 
 28-0 
 
 •711-19 
 
 I 
 
 10T33 
 
 I 
 
 408-9} 
 
 I 
 
 510-53 
 
 I 
 
 6f2-|J 
 
 I 
 
 7'?-7J 
 
 2 
 
 ^09-87 
 
 2 
 
 411-47 
 
 2 
 
 513-07 
 
 2 
 
 614-67 
 
 2 
 
 716-27 
 
 3 
 
 JI2-4I 
 
 3 
 
 414-01 
 
 3 
 
 5i;-6i 
 
 3 
 
 617-21 
 
 i 
 
 718-81 
 
 4 
 
 JI4-95 
 
 4 
 
 416-5; 
 
 4 
 
 518-15 
 
 4 
 
 619-75 
 
 4 
 
 721-35 
 
 5 
 
 ii7-49 
 
 5 
 
 419-09 
 
 5 
 
 520-69 
 
 5 
 
 622-29 
 
 5 
 
 723-89 
 
 6 
 
 J2O-0J 
 
 6 
 
 421-6J 
 
 6 
 
 523-23 
 
 6 
 
 624-83 
 
 6 
 
 726-4} 
 
 ■7 
 
 J22-57 
 
 7 
 
 424-17 
 426-71 
 
 7 
 
 525-77 
 
 7 
 
 627-37 
 
 7 
 
 728-97 
 
 8 
 
 i25II 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 528-31 
 
 8 
 
 629-91 
 
 8 
 
 731-51 
 
 9 
 
 32-,-6s 
 
 9 
 
 429-25 
 
 9 
 
 530-85 
 
 9 
 
 632-45 
 
 '> 
 
 734-05 
 
 Ji-o 
 
 3 JO- 19 
 
 17-0 
 
 451-79 
 
 21-0 
 
 533-39 
 
 25-0 
 
 634-99 
 
 29-0 
 
 736-59 
 
 I 
 
 iJ2-7J 
 
 I 
 
 4M-J3 
 
 r 
 
 535-93 
 
 I 
 
 637-53 
 
 I 
 
 739-U 
 
 2 
 
 JJ"27 
 
 2 
 
 436-87 
 
 2 
 
 538-47 
 
 2 
 
 640-07 
 
 2 
 
 74' -67 
 
 J 
 
 3;7-8i 
 
 3 
 
 439-41 
 
 3 
 
 541-01 
 
 3 
 
 642-61 
 
 3 
 
 744-21 
 
 4 
 
 M°'!! 
 
 4 
 
 441-95 
 
 4 
 
 543-55 
 
 4 
 
 645 15 
 
 4 
 
 746-75 
 
 5 
 
 342-89 
 
 5 
 
 444-49 
 
 5 
 
 546-09 
 
 5 
 
 647-69 
 
 5 
 
 749-29 
 
 6 
 
 J45-45 
 
 6 
 
 447-03 
 
 6 
 
 548-63 
 
 6 
 
 650- 23 
 
 6 
 
 751-83 
 
 1 
 
 J4T97 
 
 7 
 
 449-57 
 
 7 
 
 551-17 
 
 7 
 
 652-77 
 
 7 
 
 754-37 
 
 8 
 
 ijo-si 
 
 8 
 
 452-11 
 
 8 
 
 553-7' 
 
 8 
 
 655-31 
 
 8 
 
 756-91 
 
 9 
 
 i5i-05 
 
 9 
 
 454-65 
 
 9 
 
 556-25 
 
 9 
 
 657-85 
 
 9 
 
 759'45 
 
 14-0 
 
 i?rs9 
 
 i8-o 
 
 457-19 
 
 22-0 
 
 558-79 
 
 26-0 
 
 660-39 
 
 30-0 
 
 761-99 
 
 I 
 
 J53MJ 
 
 I 
 
 459-73 
 
 I 
 
 561-33 
 
 I 
 
 662-93 
 
 X 
 
 764-53 
 
 2 
 
 360-67 
 
 2 
 
 462-27 
 
 2 
 
 56J-87 
 
 2 
 
 665-47 
 
 2 
 
 767 07 
 
 i 
 
 363-21 
 
 3 
 
 464-81 
 
 3 
 
 565-41 
 
 3 
 
 668- 01 
 
 3 
 
 769-61 
 
 4 
 
 365-75 
 
 4 
 
 46- -35 
 
 4 
 
 568-95 
 
 4 
 
 670-55 
 
 4 
 
 772-15 
 
 5 
 
 368- .-9 
 
 5 
 
 469-89 
 
 5 
 
 571-49 
 
 5 
 
 675-09 
 
 5 
 
 774-69 
 
 6 
 
 370-83 
 
 6 
 
 472-4? 
 
 6 
 
 574-03 
 
 576-57 
 
 6 
 
 675-6} 
 
 6 
 
 777-23 
 
 n 
 
 373-37 
 
 7 
 
 474-97 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 678-17 
 
 7 
 
 779-77 
 
 8 
 
 37;-9i 
 
 8 
 
 477-51 
 
 8 
 
 579-11 
 
 8 
 
 680-71 
 
 8 
 
 782-31 
 
 9 
 
 i78-45 
 
 9 
 
 480-05 
 
 9 
 
 581-65 
 
 9 
 
 683-25 
 
 9 
 
 784-85 
 
 I5-0 
 
 380-99 
 
 19-0 
 
 482-59 
 
 23-0 
 
 534-19 
 
 27-0 
 
 685-79 
 
 3I-0 
 
 787-39 
 
 I 
 
 383-53 
 
 I 
 
 485-1; 
 
 I 
 
 586-73 
 
 I 
 
 6g8-}3 
 
 1 
 
 789-9} 
 
 2 
 
 386-07 
 
 2 
 
 487-67 
 
 2 
 
 589-27 
 
 2 
 
 690-87 
 
 2 
 
 792-47 
 
 3 
 
 388-61 
 
 3 
 
 490-21 
 
 3 
 
 591-81 
 
 3 
 
 693-41 
 
 3 
 
 795-01 
 
 4 
 
 39' 'I? 
 
 4 
 
 49275 
 
 4 
 
 594-35 
 
 4 
 
 695 95 
 
 4 
 
 797-55 
 
 5 
 
 395-69 
 
 5 
 
 495-29 
 
 5 
 
 596-89 
 
 5 
 
 698-49 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 39*^ -23 
 
 6 
 
 497-83 
 
 6 
 
 590-43 
 
 6 
 
 701-03 
 
 
 
 •7 
 
 393 •/ 7 
 
 7 
 
 500-37 
 
 7 
 
 601-97 
 
 7 
 
 703-57 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 401-31 
 
 8 
 
 502-91 
 
 8 
 
 604-51 
 
 8 
 
 706-11 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 403-85 
 
 9 
 
 505-45 
 
 9 
 
 607-05 
 
 9 
 
 708-65 
 
 
 
 Parts to be added for Hlndi;edtus of an Incu. 
 
 •254 
 
 762 i-oi6 1-270 1-524 1-778 
 
 2-286
 
 TABLES. 
 
 287 
 
 TaBLK XVI. — CONVEKSIOX OF MtTIJES INTO ENGLISH FeET. 
 
 1 to 210. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Jletres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Mitres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 iletres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 I 
 
 r28 
 
 36 
 
 118-11 
 
 71 
 
 232-94 
 
 106 
 
 347-78 
 
 141 
 
 462-61 
 
 176 
 
 577-44 
 
 2 
 
 6-56 
 
 37 
 
 121-39 
 
 72 
 
 236-22 
 
 7 
 
 351 06 
 
 42 
 
 465-89 
 
 77 
 
 580-72 
 
 3 
 
 9-84 
 
 38 
 
 124-67 
 
 73 
 
 239-51 
 
 8 
 
 354-34 
 
 43 
 
 469-17 
 
 78 
 
 584-00 
 
 4 
 
 iri2 
 
 39 
 
 127-96 
 
 74 
 
 242-79 
 
 9 
 
 357-62 
 
 44 
 
 472-45 
 
 7c 
 
 587-28 
 
 5 
 
 i6'4o 
 
 40 
 
 131-24 
 
 75 
 
 246-07 
 
 10 
 
 360-90 
 
 45 
 
 475-73 
 
 80 
 
 590-56 
 
 6 
 
 19-69 
 
 41 
 
 134-52 
 
 76 
 
 24935 
 
 III 
 
 364-18 
 
 146 
 
 479-01 
 
 181 
 
 593-84 
 
 ■7 
 
 22-97 
 
 42 
 
 137-80 
 
 77 
 
 252-63 
 
 12 
 
 367-46 
 
 47 
 
 482-29 
 
 82 
 
 597-12 
 
 8 
 
 26-25 
 
 43 
 
 141-08 
 
 78 
 
 255-91 
 
 13 
 
 370-74 
 
 48 
 
 485-57 
 
 83 
 
 600-40 
 
 9 
 
 29-53 
 
 44 
 
 144-36 
 
 79 
 
 259-19 
 
 14 
 
 374-02 
 
 49 
 
 488-85 
 
 84 
 
 603-69 
 
 10 
 
 32-81 
 
 45 
 
 147-64 
 
 80 
 
 262-47 
 
 15 
 
 377-30 
 
 50 
 
 492-13 
 
 85 
 
 606-97 
 
 II 
 
 36-09 
 
 46 
 
 150-92 
 
 81 
 
 265-75 
 
 116 
 
 380-53 
 
 151 
 
 495-42 
 
 186 
 
 610-25 
 
 12 
 
 39-37 
 
 47 
 
 154-20 
 
 82 
 
 269-03 
 
 17 
 
 383-87 
 
 52 
 
 498-70 
 
 87 
 
 613-53 
 
 IJ 
 
 42-65 
 
 48 
 
 157-48 
 
 83 
 
 272-31 
 
 18 
 
 387-15 
 
 53 
 
 501 -98 
 
 88 
 
 616-81 
 
 14 
 
 45-93 
 
 49 
 
 160-76 
 
 84 
 
 275-60 
 
 19 
 
 390-4! 
 
 54 
 
 505-26 
 
 89 
 
 620-09 
 
 15 
 
 49-21 
 
 50 
 
 164-04 
 
 85 
 
 278-88 
 
 20 
 
 393-71 
 
 55 
 
 503 -54 
 
 90 
 
 623-37 
 
 1 6 
 
 52-49 
 
 51 
 
 167-33 
 
 86 
 
 282-16 
 
 121 
 
 396-99 
 
 156 
 
 511-82 
 
 191 
 
 626-65 
 
 n 
 
 55 -ri 
 
 52 
 
 170-61 
 
 87 
 
 285-44 
 
 22 
 
 400-27 
 
 57 
 
 515-10 
 
 92 
 
 629-9J 
 
 i8 
 
 59-06 
 
 53 
 
 173-89 
 
 88 
 
 288-72 
 
 23 
 
 4=3-55 
 
 58 
 
 518-38 
 
 9! 
 
 633-21 
 
 19 
 
 62-34 
 
 54 
 
 177-17 
 
 89 
 
 292-00 
 
 24 
 
 405-83 
 
 59 
 
 521-66 
 
 94 
 
 636-49 
 
 20 
 
 65-62 
 
 55 
 
 180-45 
 
 90 
 
 295-28 
 
 25 
 
 410-11 
 
 60 
 
 524-94 
 
 95 
 
 639-78 
 
 21 
 
 68-90 
 
 56 
 
 183-73 
 
 91 
 
 298-56 
 
 126 
 
 413-39 
 
 161 
 
 528-22 
 
 196 
 
 643-06 
 
 22 
 
 •;2-i8 
 
 57 
 
 187-01 
 
 92 
 
 301-84 
 
 27 
 
 416-67 
 
 62 
 
 531-51 
 
 97 
 
 646-34 
 
 2i 
 
 75-4^ 
 
 53 
 
 190-29 
 
 9! 
 
 305-12 
 
 28 
 
 419 96 
 
 63 
 
 534-79 
 
 98 
 
 649-62 
 
 24 
 
 78-74 
 
 59 
 
 193-57 
 
 94 
 
 308-40 
 
 29 
 
 423-24 
 
 64 
 
 538-07 
 
 99 
 
 652-90 
 
 25 
 
 82 -02 
 
 60 
 
 196-85 
 
 95 
 
 311-69 
 
 30 
 
 426-52 
 
 65 
 
 541-35 
 
 200 
 
 656-18 
 
 26 
 
 85-30 
 
 61 
 
 200-ij 
 
 96 
 
 314-97 
 
 131 
 
 429-80 
 
 166 
 
 544-63 
 
 201 
 
 659-46 
 
 27 
 
 88-53 
 
 62 
 
 203-42 
 
 97 
 
 318-25 
 
 32 
 
 433-08 
 
 67 
 
 547-91 
 
 2 
 
 662-74 
 
 28 
 
 91-87 
 
 63 
 
 206-70 
 
 98 
 
 321-53 
 
 33 
 
 436-36 
 
 68 
 
 551-19 
 
 3 
 
 666-02 
 
 29 
 
 95-15 
 
 64 
 
 209-98 
 
 99 
 
 324-81 
 
 34 
 
 4J9-64 
 
 69 
 
 554-47 
 
 4 
 
 669-30 
 
 io 
 
 98-43 
 
 65 
 
 213-26 
 
 100 
 
 328-09 
 
 35 
 
 442-92 
 
 70 
 
 557-75 
 
 5 
 
 672-58 
 
 31 
 
 101-71 
 
 66 
 
 216-54 
 
 lOI 
 
 331-37 
 
 U6 
 
 446-20 
 
 171 
 
 561-03 
 
 206 
 
 675-87 
 
 32 
 
 104-99 
 
 67 
 
 219-82 
 
 2 
 
 334-65 
 
 " 37 
 
 449-48 
 
 72 
 
 564-31 
 
 7 
 
 679-15 
 
 J J 
 
 I08-27 
 
 68 
 
 223-10 
 
 3 
 
 337-93 
 
 38 
 
 452-76 
 
 73 
 
 567-60 
 
 8 
 
 682-4; 
 
 34 
 
 III-55 
 
 69 
 
 226-38 
 
 4 
 
 341-21 
 
 39 
 
 456-04 
 
 74 
 
 570-88 
 
 9 
 
 685-71 
 
 35 
 
 114-83 
 
 70 
 
 229-66 
 
 5 
 
 344-49 
 
 43 
 
 4;9"33 
 
 75 
 
 574-16 
 
 10 
 
 688-99
 
 288 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLEns. 
 
 Tablk XVI. (continued). — Conversiox of MtTUES into English Feet. 
 
 211 to 420. 
 
 MetrcH 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Mctreb 
 
 Feet. 
 
 MetreS| 
 
 Feet. 
 
 2ll 
 
 692-27 
 
 246 
 
 807-10 
 
 28l 
 
 021 '93 
 
 316 
 
 1036-76 
 
 351 
 
 1151-60 
 
 386 
 
 1266-43 
 
 12 
 
 695-55 
 
 47 
 
 810-38 
 
 82 
 
 925-21 
 
 17 
 
 1040-05 
 
 52 
 
 1154-88 
 
 87 
 
 1269-71 
 
 li 
 
 698-83 
 
 48 
 
 8IJ-66 
 
 83 
 
 928-49 
 
 18 
 
 1043-33 
 
 53 
 
 1158-16 
 
 88 
 
 1272-99 
 
 14 
 
 702-11 
 
 49 
 
 816-94 
 
 84 
 
 95178 
 
 19 
 
 1046-61 
 
 54 
 
 1161-44 
 
 89 
 
 1276-27 
 
 15 
 
 705-39 
 
 50 
 
 820-22 
 
 85 
 
 935-06 
 
 20 
 
 1049-89 
 
 55 
 
 1164-72 
 
 90 
 
 1279-55 
 
 2l6 
 
 708-67 
 
 251 
 
 82J-5I 
 
 286 
 
 938-34 
 
 321 
 
 1053-17 
 
 356 
 
 1168-00 
 
 391 
 
 I282-8J 
 
 17 
 
 711-96 
 
 52 
 
 826-79 
 
 87 
 
 941-62 
 
 22 
 
 1056-45 
 
 57 
 
 1171-28 
 
 92 
 
 I286-II 
 
 l8 
 
 715-24 
 
 SJ 
 
 830-07 
 
 88 
 
 944-90 
 
 23 
 
 1059-75 
 
 58 
 
 1174-56 
 
 95 
 
 1289-39 
 
 19 
 
 718-52 
 
 54 
 
 833-35 
 
 89 
 
 948-18 
 
 24 
 
 1063-01 
 
 59 
 
 1177-84 
 
 94 
 
 1292-67 
 
 20 
 
 721-80 
 
 55 
 
 836 -6} 
 
 90 
 
 951-46 
 
 25 
 
 1066-29 
 
 60 
 
 II8I-I2 
 
 95 
 
 1295-95 
 
 221 
 
 725-08 
 
 256 
 
 839-91 
 
 291 
 
 954-74 
 
 326 
 
 1069-57 
 
 3C1 
 
 1184-40 
 
 396 
 
 1299-23 
 
 22 
 
 728-;6 
 
 57 
 
 845-19 
 
 92 
 
 958-02 
 
 27 
 
 1072-85 
 
 62 
 
 1187-69 
 
 97 
 
 1302-52 
 
 2J 
 
 731-64 
 
 58 
 
 846-47 
 
 95 
 
 961 -JO 
 
 28 
 
 1076-13 
 
 63 
 
 1190-97 
 
 98 
 
 1305-80 
 
 24 
 
 734-92 
 
 59 
 
 849-75 
 
 94 
 
 964-58 
 
 29 
 
 1079-42 
 
 64 
 
 1194-25 
 
 99 
 
 1309-08 
 
 25 
 
 738-20 
 
 60 
 
 853-03 
 
 95 
 
 967-87 
 
 30 
 
 1082-70 
 
 65 
 
 1197-53 
 
 400 
 
 1312-36 
 
 226 
 
 741-48 
 
 261 
 
 856-31 
 
 296 
 
 971-15 
 
 331 
 
 1085-98 
 
 366 
 
 120081 
 
 401 
 
 1315-64 
 
 27 
 
 744-76 
 
 62 
 
 859-60 
 
 97 
 
 974-45 
 
 32 
 
 1089-26 
 
 67 
 
 1204-0) 
 
 2 
 
 1318-92 
 
 28 
 
 748-05 
 
 63 
 
 862-88 
 
 98 
 
 977-71 
 
 a 
 
 1092-54 
 
 63 
 
 1207-37 
 
 3 
 
 IJ22-20 
 
 29 
 
 751-33 
 
 64 
 
 866-16 
 
 99 
 
 980-99 
 
 34 
 
 1095-82 
 
 69 
 
 1210-65 
 
 4 
 
 1525-48 
 
 JO 
 
 754-61 
 
 65 
 
 869-44 
 
 300 
 
 9S4-27 
 
 35 
 
 1099-10 
 
 70 
 
 1213-93 
 
 5 
 
 1328-76 
 
 2JI 
 
 757-89 
 
 266 
 
 872-72 
 
 301 
 
 987-55 
 
 336 
 
 1102-38 
 
 371 
 
 1217-21 
 
 406 
 
 1352-0; 
 
 32 
 
 761-17 
 
 67 
 
 876-00 
 
 2 
 
 990-83 
 
 37 
 
 1105-66 
 
 72 
 
 1220 49 
 
 7 
 
 1335-33 
 
 ii 
 
 764-45 
 
 68 
 
 879-28 
 
 3 
 
 994-11 
 
 38 
 
 1108-94 
 
 73 
 
 1223-78 
 
 8 
 
 1358-61 
 
 34 
 
 767-7} 
 
 69 
 
 882-56 
 
 4 
 
 997-39 
 
 39 
 
 1112-22 
 
 74 
 
 1227-06 
 
 9 
 
 1341-89 
 
 35 
 
 77I-OI 
 
 70 
 
 885-84 
 
 5 
 
 1000-67 
 
 40 
 
 1115-51 
 
 75 
 
 1230 34 
 
 10 
 
 1345- « 7 
 
 236 
 
 774-29 
 
 271 
 
 88912 
 
 306 
 
 1003-96 
 
 341 
 
 1118-79 
 
 376 
 
 1233-62 
 
 411 
 
 i548-4> 
 
 37 
 
 777-57 
 
 72 
 
 892-40 
 
 7 
 
 1007-24 
 
 42 
 
 1122-07 
 
 77 
 
 1236-90 
 
 12 
 
 I35J-75 
 
 38 
 
 780-85 
 
 75 
 
 895-69 
 
 8 
 
 1010-52 
 
 45 
 
 1125-35 
 
 78 
 
 1240-18 
 
 13 
 
 1355-01 
 
 i9 
 
 784- 1 J 
 
 74 
 
 898-97 
 
 9 
 
 1013-80 
 
 44 
 
 1128-63 
 
 79 
 
 1243-46 
 
 14 
 
 1358-29 
 
 40 
 
 787-42 
 
 75 
 
 902-25 
 
 10 
 
 1017-08 
 
 4; 
 
 1131-91 
 
 80 
 
 1246-74 
 
 15 
 
 1361-57 
 
 241 
 
 790-70 
 
 276 
 
 905-53 
 
 311 
 
 1020- j6 
 
 346 
 
 113519 
 
 3&1 
 
 1250-02 
 
 416 
 
 1364-85 
 
 42 
 
 795-98 
 
 77 
 
 908-81 
 
 12 
 
 1023-64 
 
 47 
 
 1138-47 
 
 82 
 
 1253-30 
 
 «7 
 
 1368-13 
 
 45 
 
 797-26 
 
 78 
 
 912-09 
 
 13 
 
 1026-92 
 
 48 
 
 1141-75 
 
 83 
 
 1256-58 
 
 18 
 
 1371-42 
 
 44 
 
 800-54 
 
 79 
 
 915-37 
 
 14 
 
 1030-20 
 
 49 
 
 1145-03 
 
 84 
 
 1259-87 
 
 19 
 
 1574-70 
 
 45 
 
 8oj-82 
 
 80 
 
 918 65 
 
 15 
 
 1033-48 
 
 50 
 
 1148-31 
 
 «5 
 
 1263-15 
 
 20 
 
 1577-98
 
 TABLES. 
 
 289 
 
 Table XVI. (continued). — Cunveusiun of Metres into English Feet. 
 421 to 630. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metret 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 JMetres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 421 
 
 1^3 1 -26 
 
 456 
 
 1496-09 
 
 491 
 
 i6io-92 
 
 526 
 
 i"25-75 
 
 561 
 
 1840-58 
 
 596 
 
 1955-42 
 
 22 
 
 1^84-54 
 
 57 
 
 i499-i7 
 
 92 
 
 1614-20 
 
 27 
 
 1729-03 
 
 62 
 
 1845-87 
 
 97 
 
 1958-70 
 
 2} 
 
 IJ87-82 
 
 58 
 
 1502-65 
 
 9J 
 
 1617-48 
 
 28 
 
 1732-31 
 
 65 
 
 1847-15 
 
 98 
 
 1961-98 
 
 24 
 
 ii9i-io 
 
 59 
 
 1505-95 
 
 94 
 
 1620-76 
 
 29 
 
 1735-60 
 
 64 
 
 1850-4} 
 
 99 
 
 1965-26 
 
 25 
 
 IJ94'J8 
 
 60 
 
 1509-21 
 
 95 
 
 1624-05 
 
 io 
 
 1738-88 
 
 65 
 
 1853-71 
 
 600 
 
 1968-54 
 
 426 
 
 iJ9r66 
 
 461 
 
 1512-49 
 
 496 
 
 1627-33 
 
 5JI 
 
 1742-16 
 
 566 
 
 1856-99 
 
 601 
 
 1971 82 
 
 2- 
 
 1400-94 
 
 62 
 
 1515-78 
 
 97 
 
 i6jo-6i 
 
 32 
 
 1745-44 
 
 67 
 
 1860-27 
 
 2 
 
 1975-10 
 
 23 
 
 1404-22 
 
 6j 
 
 1519-06 
 
 98 
 
 1633-89 
 
 JJ 
 
 1748-72 
 
 68 
 
 1863-55 
 
 5 
 
 1978-38 
 
 29 
 
 1407-51 
 
 64 
 
 1522-J4 
 
 99 
 
 1637-17 
 
 54 
 
 1752-00 
 
 69 
 
 1866-83 
 
 4 
 
 1981-66 
 
 JO 
 
 1410-79 
 
 65 
 
 1525-62 
 
 500 
 
 1640-45 
 
 j5 
 
 1755-23 
 
 70 
 
 1870-11 
 
 5 
 
 1984-94 
 
 4>'i 
 
 141407 
 
 466 
 
 1528-90 
 
 501 
 
 1645 • 7; 
 
 556 
 
 1758-56 
 
 571 
 
 1873-39 
 
 6o5 
 
 1988-22 
 
 n 
 
 141TJ5 
 
 67 
 
 I5J2-I3 
 
 2 
 
 1647-01 
 
 37 
 
 1761-84 
 
 72 
 
 1876-67 
 
 7 
 
 1991-51 
 
 a 
 
 1420 -6j 
 
 68 
 
 15^5-46 
 
 i 
 
 1650-29 
 
 38 
 
 1765-12 
 
 75 
 
 1879-95 
 
 8 
 
 1994-79 
 
 J4 
 
 I42r9i 
 
 69 
 
 1558-74 
 
 4 
 
 1655-57 
 
 59 
 
 1768-40 
 
 74 
 
 1883-23 
 
 9 
 
 1998-07 
 
 iS 
 
 1427-19 
 
 70 
 
 1542-02 
 
 5 
 
 165685 
 
 40 
 
 1771-69 
 
 75 
 
 1886-52 
 
 10 
 
 2001-35 
 
 4J6 
 
 I4JO-47 
 
 471 
 
 1 545 'JO 
 
 506 
 
 1660-13 
 
 54 1 
 
 1774-97 
 
 576 
 
 1889-80 
 
 611 
 
 2004-63 
 
 il 
 
 I4JJ-75 
 
 72 
 
 1548-58 
 
 7 
 
 1663-42 
 
 42 
 
 1773-25 
 
 77 
 
 I 893 08 
 
 12 
 
 2007 91 
 
 J8 
 
 I4J7-OJ 
 
 7} 
 
 1551-87 
 
 8 
 
 1666-70 
 
 45 
 
 1781-55 
 
 78 
 
 1896-36 
 
 13 
 
 2011 19 
 
 J9 
 
 1440-31 
 
 74 
 
 1555-15 
 
 9 
 
 1669-98 
 
 44 
 
 1784-81 
 
 79 
 
 1899-64 
 
 14 
 
 2014-47 
 
 40 
 
 144? -60 
 
 75 
 
 1558-4? 
 
 10 
 
 167J 26 
 
 45 
 
 1788-09 
 
 80 
 
 1902-92 
 
 15 
 
 2017-75 
 
 441 
 
 1446-88 
 
 476 
 
 1561-71 
 
 5" 
 
 1676-54 
 
 546 
 
 1791-37 
 
 58X 
 
 1906-20 
 
 616 
 
 2021 0; 
 
 42 
 
 i4;oi6 
 
 77 
 
 1564-99 
 
 12 
 
 1679-82 
 
 47 
 
 1794-65 
 
 82 
 
 1909-48 
 
 17 
 
 2024- J 1 
 
 4? 
 
 I45r44 
 
 78 
 
 1563-27 
 
 IJ 
 
 1683-10 
 
 48 
 
 1797-9} 
 
 83 
 
 1912-76 
 
 18 
 
 2027 60 
 
 44 
 
 1456-72 
 
 79 
 
 I57I-55 
 
 14 
 
 1686-33 
 
 49 
 
 i3ol-2i 
 
 84 
 
 191605 
 
 19 
 
 2050-88 
 
 4? 
 
 1460-00 
 
 80 
 
 1574-8J 
 
 15 
 
 1689-66 
 
 50 
 
 1804-49 
 
 85 
 
 1919-33 
 
 20 
 
 2054-16 
 
 44-5 
 
 i4')r28 
 
 481 
 
 1573-11 
 
 516 
 
 1692-94 
 
 551 
 
 1807-78 
 
 586 
 
 1922-61 
 
 621 
 
 2057-44 
 
 47 
 
 1466-56 
 
 82 
 
 1581-J9 
 
 17 
 
 1696-22 
 
 52 
 
 1811-06 
 
 87 
 
 1925-89 
 
 22 
 
 2040-72 
 
 43 
 
 1469-34 
 
 8j 
 
 1584-67 
 
 i3 
 
 1699-51 
 
 55 
 
 1814-34 
 
 83 
 
 1929-17 
 
 25 
 
 2044 -cx) 
 
 49 
 
 i47ri2 
 
 84 
 
 1587-96 
 
 19 
 
 1702-79 
 
 54 
 
 1817-62 
 
 89 
 
 1952-45 
 
 24 
 
 2047-28 
 
 50 
 
 I476'40 
 
 85 
 
 I59I-2J 
 
 20 
 
 1706-07 
 
 55 
 
 1820-90 
 
 90 
 
 195; -75 
 
 25 
 
 2050-56 
 
 451 
 
 1479-69 
 
 486 
 
 1594-5^ 
 
 521 
 
 1709-35 
 
 556 
 
 1824-18 591 
 
 1959-01 
 
 626 
 
 2053-84 
 
 52 
 
 1482-97 
 
 87 
 
 1597-80 
 
 22 
 
 1712-63 
 
 57 
 
 1827-46 
 
 92 
 
 1942-29 
 
 27 
 
 2057-12 
 
 5J 
 
 1436-25 
 
 88 
 
 i6oi-o3 
 
 23 
 
 1715-91 
 
 58 
 
 1830-74 
 
 95 
 
 1945-57 
 
 28 
 
 2060-40 
 
 54 
 
 1489-5} 
 
 89 
 
 1604-36 
 
 24 
 
 1719-19 
 
 59 1 
 
 1834-02 94 
 
 1943-85 
 
 29 
 
 2065-69 
 
 55 
 
 1492-81 
 
 90 
 
 1607-64 
 
 25 
 
 1-22-47 
 
 60 
 
 1857-50 95 
 
 1952-13 
 
 50 
 
 2066-97
 
 2;jo 
 
 iiiN'i's 'lo ti;a\j:li,ki;s. 
 
 'r.\r.i,i; XVI. {'■iiiiliiiiriJ). — CoNVKUoioN oi' .ArKTi;ii.s into ]On<;i.i.-ii Kkkt. 
 631 to 840. 
 
 Metres 
 
 I'CCt 
 
 Metres 
 
 1-cot. 
 
 Mitres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 jMi'trtB 
 
 I'Cft. 
 
 Metres 
 
 leet. 
 
 Mi Ires 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Oil 
 
 2o;o-i'i 
 
 666 
 
 2185-0-! 
 
 "<"• 
 
 2299-9' 
 
 7K' 
 
 24'4-"4 
 
 7v~ 
 
 2529-57 
 
 806 
 
 2644-40 
 
 r- 
 
 207J-5? 
 
 67 
 
 2188-^6 
 
 2 
 
 2303-19 
 
 37 
 
 2418-02 
 
 72 
 
 2i32-85 
 
 7 
 
 2647-6-^ 
 
 ii 
 
 2076-81 
 
 63 
 
 2191-64 
 
 3 
 
 2306-47 
 
 38 
 
 2421-50 
 
 75 
 
 25}fii3 
 
 8 
 
 2650-97 
 
 M 
 
 2080-09 
 
 69 
 
 2194-92 
 
 4 
 
 2309-75 
 
 3') 
 
 2424-58 
 
 74 
 
 2559-42 
 
 9 
 
 2654-25 
 
 iS 
 
 2o^j-i7 
 
 70 
 
 2198-20 
 
 5 
 
 2313-03 
 
 40 
 
 2427-87 
 
 75 
 
 2542-70 
 
 10 
 
 2657-5} 
 
 6?6 
 
 2086-65 
 
 671 
 
 2201-48 
 
 706 
 
 2316-31 
 
 741 
 
 2431-15 
 
 7-6 
 
 2545-98 
 
 811 
 
 2660-81 
 
 31 
 
 2o8(j-9J 
 
 72 
 
 2204-76 
 
 7 
 
 2319-60 
 
 42 
 
 2454-4} 
 
 "1 
 
 2549-26 
 
 12 
 
 2664 ■o<; 
 
 3» 
 
 209; -21 
 
 73 
 
 2208-05 
 
 8 
 
 2322-88 
 
 45 
 
 2457-71 
 
 78 
 
 2552-54 
 
 13 
 
 2%7-57 
 
 iV 
 
 2096-49 
 
 74 
 
 2211-33 
 
 9 
 
 2326-16 
 
 44 
 
 2440 -9'j 
 
 79 
 
 2555-82 
 
 14 
 
 2670-65 
 
 4" 
 
 2099-78 
 
 75 
 
 2214-61 
 
 10 
 
 2329-44 
 
 45 
 
 2444-27 
 
 80 
 
 2559-10 
 
 "5 
 
 2675-95 
 
 641 
 
 2IOJ-o6 
 
 676 
 
 2217-89 
 
 711 
 
 2332-72 
 
 746 
 
 2447-55 
 
 781 
 
 2562-58 
 
 816 
 
 2677-21 
 
 42 
 
 2I06-J4 
 
 77 
 
 2221-17 
 
 12 
 
 2336-00 
 
 47 
 
 2450-85 
 
 82 
 
 2565-66 
 
 17 
 
 2680-49 
 
 4J 
 
 2109-62 
 
 78 
 
 2224-4; 
 
 13 
 
 2339-28 
 
 43 
 
 2454-11 
 
 85 
 
 2568-94 
 
 18 
 
 2685-78 
 
 44 
 
 2112-90 
 
 79 
 
 2227-73 
 
 14 
 
 2342-56 
 
 49 
 
 2457-59 
 
 84 
 
 2572-22 
 
 19 
 
 2687-06 
 
 45 
 
 2ii6-i8 
 
 80 
 
 2251-01 
 
 15 
 
 2J45-84 
 
 50 
 
 2460-67 
 
 85 
 
 2575-51 
 
 20 
 
 2690-54 
 
 646 
 
 2119-46 
 
 6«i 
 
 2234-29 
 
 716 
 
 2349-12 
 
 751 
 
 2465-96 
 
 786 
 
 2578-79 
 
 321 
 
 2695-62 
 
 47 
 
 2122-74 
 
 82 
 
 2237-57 
 
 17 
 
 2352-40 
 
 52 
 
 2467-24 
 
 87 
 
 2582-07 
 
 22 
 
 2696-90 
 
 48 
 
 2126-02 
 
 8j 
 
 2240-85 
 
 18 
 
 2355-69 
 
 5J 
 
 2470-52 
 
 83 
 
 2585-55 
 
 25 
 
 2700-18 
 
 49 
 
 2I29-JO 
 
 84 
 
 2244-13 
 
 19 
 
 2358-97 
 
 54 
 
 2475-80 
 
 89 
 
 2588-63 
 
 24 
 
 2703-46 
 
 50 
 
 2IJ2-58 
 
 85 
 
 2247-42 
 
 20 
 
 2562-25 
 
 55 
 
 2477-08 
 
 90 
 
 2591-91 
 
 25 
 
 2706-74 
 
 651 
 
 2135-87 
 
 686 
 
 2250-70 
 
 721 
 
 2365-53 
 
 756 
 
 2480-36 
 
 791 
 
 2595-19 
 
 326 
 
 2710-02 
 
 52 
 
 2i;9-i5 
 
 87 
 
 2253-98 
 
 22 
 
 2368-81 
 
 57 
 
 2485-64 
 
 92 
 
 2598-47 
 
 27 
 
 2715-50 
 
 5 J 
 
 2142-4} 
 
 83 
 
 2257-26 
 
 23 
 
 2372-09 
 
 58 
 
 2486-92 
 
 95 
 
 2601-75 
 
 28 
 
 2716-58 
 
 54 
 
 2145-71 
 
 89 
 
 2260-54 
 
 24 
 
 2375-57 
 
 59 
 
 2490-20 
 
 94 
 
 2605-03 
 
 29 
 
 2719-87 
 
 55 
 
 2148-99 
 
 90 
 
 2263-32 
 
 25 
 
 2378-65 
 
 60 
 
 2495-48 
 
 95 
 
 2608-31 
 
 50 
 
 2725-15 
 
 656 
 
 2152-27 
 
 691 
 
 2267-10 
 
 726 
 
 2381-93 
 
 761 
 
 2496-76 
 
 796 
 
 2611-60 
 
 851 
 
 2726-4} 
 
 57 
 
 2155-55 
 
 92 
 
 2270-33 
 
 27 
 
 2385-21 
 
 62 
 
 2500-05 
 
 97 
 
 2614-33 
 
 52 
 
 2729-71 
 
 53 
 
 2158-83 
 
 95 
 
 2273-66 
 
 28 
 
 2388-49 
 
 63 
 
 2503-35 
 
 98 
 
 2618-16 
 
 55 
 
 2752-99 
 
 59 
 
 2I62-II 
 
 94 
 
 2276-94 
 
 29 
 
 2391-78 
 
 64 
 
 2506-61 
 
 99 
 
 2621-44 
 
 54 
 
 2736-27 
 
 60 
 
 2165-39 
 
 95 
 
 2280-22 
 
 30 
 
 2395-06 
 
 65 
 
 2509-89 
 
 8x> 
 
 2624-72 
 
 55 
 
 2759-55 
 
 66 1 
 
 2168-67 
 
 696 
 
 2283-51 
 
 7JI 
 
 2398-34 
 
 766 
 
 2513-17 
 
 831 
 
 2628 -co 
 
 856 
 
 2742-8? 
 
 62 
 
 2171-96 
 
 97 
 
 2286-79 
 
 32 
 
 2401-62 
 
 67 
 
 2516-45 
 
 2 
 
 2651-28 
 
 57 
 
 2746-11 
 
 6i 
 
 2175-24 
 
 93 
 
 2290-07 
 
 33 
 
 2404-90 
 
 68 
 
 25«9-73 
 
 3 
 
 2654-56 
 
 58 
 
 2749-59 
 
 64 
 
 .2178-52 
 
 99 
 
 2293-35 
 
 3-^ 
 
 2403-18 
 
 69 
 
 2523-01 
 
 4 
 
 2657-84 
 
 59 
 
 2752-07 
 
 65 
 
 2i8t-8o 
 
 700 
 
 2296-63 
 
 35 
 
 2411-46 
 
 70 
 
 2526-29 
 
 5 
 
 2641-12 
 
 4= 
 
 2:55-9^
 
 'j'AniJos. 
 
 291 
 
 Tauijo X\'I. {roiitidii'd). — CoNVEUsioN of IMimnos intu Kmjijsu 1'"klt. 
 841 to 1000, 
 
 >Ietrcs> 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Uilrvb 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres 
 
 Feet. 
 
 ^lctI-e^ 
 
 Feet. 
 
 IMctref 
 
 Feet. 
 
 1 
 
 Metres Feet. 
 
 1 
 
 841 
 
 2759-24 
 
 871 
 
 2857-66 
 
 901 
 
 2956-09 
 
 926 
 
 3038-11 
 
 951 
 
 3 1 20- 1. 
 
 976 
 
 3202-16 
 
 42 
 
 2762-52 
 
 7- 
 
 2860-94 
 
 2 
 
 2959-37 
 
 27 
 
 3041-39 
 
 52 
 
 3123-42 
 
 77 
 
 3:05-4 J 
 
 4; 
 
 2765-80 
 
 7} 
 
 2864-22 
 
 } 
 
 2962-65 
 
 28 
 
 3044-67 
 
 55 
 
 3126-70 
 
 78 
 
 3208-72 
 
 44 
 
 2769-08 
 
 74 
 
 2867-51 
 
 4 
 
 2965-93 
 
 29 
 
 3047-96 
 
 54 
 
 3129-98 
 
 79 
 
 ' 3212-00 
 
 45 
 
 2772-36 
 
 75 
 
 2870-79 
 
 5 
 
 2969-21 
 
 io 
 
 3051-24 
 
 55 
 
 3i;j-26 
 
 8o 
 
 3215-23 
 
 84') 
 
 2775-64 
 
 876 
 
 2874-07 
 
 9o5 
 
 2972-49 
 
 9; I 
 
 3354-52 
 
 956 
 
 3136-54 
 
 981 3218-56 
 
 41 
 
 2778-92 
 
 77 
 
 2877-35 
 
 7 
 
 2975-78 
 
 32 
 
 3057-80 
 
 57 
 
 3139-82 
 
 82 3221-84 
 
 43 
 
 2782-20 
 
 78 
 
 2880-63 
 
 8 
 
 2979-03 
 
 i3 
 
 30&1-03 
 
 53 
 
 3 14; -10 
 
 83 3225-12 
 
 49 
 
 2785-48 
 
 79 
 
 283r9i 
 
 9 
 
 2982-34 
 
 H 
 
 3064-36 
 
 59 
 
 3146-3S 
 
 84 3228-40 
 
 50 
 
 2788-76 
 
 80 
 
 2887-19 
 
 10 
 
 2985-62 
 
 35 
 
 3067-64 
 
 60 
 
 3149-66 
 
 S5 3231-69 
 
 851 
 
 2792-05 
 
 881 
 
 2890-47^ 911 
 
 2988-90 
 
 9;6 
 
 3070-92 
 
 961 
 
 3152-94 
 
 936 
 
 3234-97 
 
 5Z 
 
 2795 -JJ 
 
 82 
 
 2893-75 
 
 12 
 
 2992-18 
 
 il 
 
 3074-20 
 
 62 
 
 3156-22 
 
 87 
 
 3238-25 
 
 5J 
 
 2793-61 
 
 83 
 
 2897-03 
 
 IJ 
 
 2995-46 
 
 38 
 
 3077-48 
 
 63 
 
 3159-51 
 
 83 
 
 3241-53 
 
 54 
 
 2801-89 
 
 84 
 
 2903-31 
 
 14 
 
 2998-74 
 
 39 
 
 3080-76 
 
 64 
 
 3162-79 
 
 89 
 
 3244-81 
 
 55 
 
 2805-17 
 
 85 
 
 2903-60 
 
 15 
 
 3002-02 
 
 40 
 
 3084-05 
 
 65 
 
 3166-07 
 
 90 
 
 3248-09 
 
 856 
 
 2808-45 
 
 886 
 
 2906-88 
 
 916 
 
 3005-30 
 
 941 
 
 3087-3; 
 
 966 
 
 3169-35 
 
 991 
 
 32=;i-}7 
 
 51 
 
 23II-7J 
 
 87 
 
 2910-16 
 
 17 
 
 3008-53 
 
 42 
 
 3090-61 
 
 67 
 
 3172-63 
 
 92 
 
 3254-65 
 
 58 
 
 2815-01 
 
 88 
 
 29U-44 
 
 l3 
 
 3011-87 
 
 45 
 
 3093-89 
 
 63 
 
 3175-91 
 
 93 
 
 3257-93 
 
 59 
 
 2818-29 
 
 89 
 
 2916-72 
 
 19 
 
 3015-15 
 
 44 
 
 3097-17 
 
 69 
 
 3179-19 
 
 94 
 
 3261-21 
 
 (k> 
 
 2821-57 
 
 90 
 
 2920-co 
 
 20 
 
 3018-4; 
 
 45 
 
 3100-45 
 
 70 
 
 3182-47 
 
 95 
 
 3264-49 
 
 861 
 
 2824-85 
 
 891 
 
 2923 ■ 28 
 
 921 
 
 3021-71 
 
 946 
 
 3103-73 
 
 971 
 
 3185-75 
 
 996 
 
 3267-73 
 
 62 
 
 2823 •14' 92 
 
 2926-56 
 
 22 
 
 3024-99 
 
 47 
 
 3107-01 
 
 72 
 
 3189-03 
 
 97 
 
 3271-06 
 
 6; 
 
 28JI-42 9} 
 
 2929-84 
 
 23 
 
 3028-27 
 
 4'- 
 
 3110-29 
 
 73 
 
 3192-31 
 
 93 
 
 3274-34 
 
 (H 
 
 2834-70 94 
 
 2933-12 
 
 24 
 
 J031-55 
 
 40 
 
 311J-57 
 
 74 
 
 3195-60 
 
 99 
 
 327';-62 
 
 65 
 
 2837-93 95 
 1 
 
 2936-40 
 
 25 
 
 5034- 8; 
 
 >^ 
 
 ;ii6-3i 
 
 7^ 
 
 5 193 -88 
 
 1000 
 
 5280-90 
 
 86-; 1 
 
 2841-26 896 
 
 2939-69 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 2844-54 97 
 
 2942-97 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 2847-82 98 
 
 2946-25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 69 1 
 
 2851-10 99 
 
 2949-53 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TO 
 
 2854-38 90D 
 
 2952 81 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 2
 
 21)2 HINTS 'JO TKAVKI-LKKS. 
 
 'I'ai;!,!; X\I[. t'().NVi:u?io\ ok KiLOiiiiXKE.s into English Stati;te JIii.k- 
 
 Kilo- 
 luctrcs. 
 
 Euglisli 
 Statute 
 Miles. 
 
 Kilo- 
 mctrcs.j 
 
 Knglish 
 Statute 
 Miles. 
 
 Kilo- 
 metres.' 
 
 Kuglish 
 Statute 
 Miles. 
 
 Kilo- 
 
 English 
 Statute 
 Miles. 
 
 Kilo- 
 metres, 
 
 Kuglibli 
 Statute 
 Miles. 
 
 0-62 
 1-24 
 
 1-86 
 2-49 
 311 
 3-"J 
 4-^5 
 4"97 
 5-59 
 6-21 
 6-84 
 7-46 
 8-o8 
 8-70 
 9-J2 
 
 9-94 
 10-56 
 1118 
 n-8i 
 I2-4J 
 
 62-14 
 124-28 
 
 621 -jS 
 
 1242-77 
 
 2} 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 26 
 2- 
 28 
 2<J 
 30 
 
 a 
 
 34 
 35 
 
 J6 
 
 37 
 J8 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 J 00 
 400 
 
 3000 
 4000 I 
 
 13-05 
 
 4« 
 
 ij-67 
 
 42 
 
 14-29 
 
 43 
 
 14-91 
 
 44 
 
 15-53 
 
 45 
 
 16-16 
 
 46 
 
 16-78 
 
 47 
 
 17-50 
 
 48 
 
 18-02 
 
 49 
 
 18-64 
 
 50 
 
 19-26 
 
 51 
 
 19-88 
 
 52 
 
 20-51 
 
 53 
 
 21-13 
 
 54 
 
 21-75 
 
 55 
 
 22-37 
 
 56 
 
 22-99 
 
 57 
 
 2 J -61 
 
 58 
 
 24-23 
 
 59 
 
 24-86 
 
 60 
 
 186-42 
 
 500 
 
 248-55 
 
 600 
 
 1864-15 
 
 50C0 
 
 2485 53 
 
 6ooo 
 
 25-48 
 
 26-10 
 26-72 
 
 27-34 
 27-96 
 28-58 
 29-21 
 
 29-83 
 30-45 
 31-07 
 31-69 
 32-31 
 32-93 
 
 33-55 
 
 34-18 
 34-90 
 35-42 
 36-04 
 36-66 
 37-28 
 
 310-69 
 372-83 
 
 3106-91 
 3728-30 
 
 72 
 73 
 74 
 75 
 76 
 77 
 78 
 79 
 80 
 
 700 
 800 
 
 37-90 
 33-5} 
 39-15 
 39-77 
 40-39 
 41-01 
 41-63 
 42-25 
 42-88 
 43-50 
 44-12 
 
 44-74 
 45-36 
 
 45-98 
 46-60 
 47-23 
 47-85 
 48-47 
 49-09 
 
 49-71 
 
 434-97 
 497-11 
 
 7000 I 4349-68 
 8000 I 4971-06 
 
 81 
 82 
 83 
 84 
 85 
 86 
 87 
 88 
 89 
 90 
 
 91 • 
 
 1 
 
 92 j 
 
 93 I 
 
 94 I 
 
 «! 
 
 I 
 
 96 I 
 
 97 1 
 98 
 
 99; 
 loo 
 
 900 
 1000 
 
 50-33 
 50-95 
 
 51-57 
 52-20 
 52-82 
 
 53-44 
 54-06 
 54-68 
 55-30 
 55-92 
 56-55 
 57*17 
 57-79 
 53-41 
 
 59-03 
 59-65 
 60-27 
 60-90 
 61-52 
 62-14 
 
 559-24 
 6:1 -33 
 
 9030 I 5592-44 
 10,000 6213-82
 
 TABLES. 
 
 203 
 
 Table XVIII. — Conversion op Ru.s9ian Yersts into English Statute 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Versts. 
 
 English 
 Statute 
 Miles. 
 
 Versts. 
 
 English 
 Statute 
 Miles. 
 
 Versts. 
 
 English 
 Statute 
 Miles. 
 
 Versts. 
 
 English 
 Statute 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Versts. 
 
 English 
 Statute 
 Miles. 
 
 I 
 
 0-66 
 
 21 
 
 13-92 
 
 41 
 
 27-18 
 
 61 
 
 40-44 
 
 8i 
 
 53-69 
 
 2 
 
 i-Ji 
 
 22 
 
 14-58 
 
 42 
 
 27-84 
 
 62 
 
 41-10 
 
 82 
 
 54-36 
 
 3 
 
 1-99 
 
 23 
 
 15-25 
 
 4? 
 
 28-50 
 
 63 
 
 41-76 
 
 83 
 
 55-02 
 
 4 
 
 2-65 
 
 24 
 
 15-91 
 
 44 
 
 29-17 
 
 64 
 
 42-42 
 
 84 
 
 55-68 
 
 5 
 
 i-n 
 
 25 
 
 16-57 
 
 4; 
 
 29-83 
 
 65 
 
 4J-09 
 
 85 
 
 56-34 
 
 6 
 
 3-93 
 
 26 
 
 17-23 
 
 46 
 
 30-49 
 
 66 
 
 43-75 
 
 86 
 
 57-01 
 
 1 
 
 4-64 
 
 27 
 
 17-90 
 
 47 
 
 31-16 
 
 67 
 
 4441 
 
 87 
 
 57-67 
 
 8 
 
 5-jo 
 
 • 28 
 
 18-56 
 
 43 
 
 31-82 
 
 68 
 
 45-08 
 
 83 
 
 58-33 
 
 9 
 
 5-97 
 
 29 
 
 19-22 
 
 49 
 
 32-48 
 
 69 
 
 45-74 
 
 89 
 
 59-00 
 
 10 
 
 5-6J 
 
 io 
 
 19-89 
 
 50 
 
 33-14 
 
 70 
 
 46-40 
 
 90 
 
 59-66 
 
 II 
 
 7-29 
 
 31 
 
 20-55 
 
 51 
 
 33-81 
 
 71 
 
 47-06 
 
 91 
 
 6032 
 
 12 
 
 7-9; 
 
 32 
 
 21-21 
 
 52 
 
 34-47 
 
 72 
 
 47-73 
 
 92 
 
 60-93 
 
 IJ 
 
 8-62 
 
 3 J 
 
 21-88 
 
 53 
 
 35-13 
 
 73 
 
 48-39 
 
 93 
 
 61-65 
 
 14 
 
 9-28 
 
 M 
 
 22-54 
 
 54 
 
 35-80 
 
 74 
 
 49-05 
 
 94 
 
 62-31 
 
 IS 
 
 994 
 
 35 
 
 23-20 
 
 5; 
 
 36-46 
 
 75 
 
 49 72 
 
 95 
 
 6297 
 
 i6 
 
 io-6i 
 
 36 
 
 23 86 
 
 56 
 
 37-12 
 
 76 
 
 53-38 
 
 96 
 
 63-64 
 
 17 
 
 11-27 
 
 37 
 
 24-53 
 
 57 
 
 37-78 
 
 77 
 
 51-04 
 
 97 
 
 64-30 
 
 i8 
 
 II-9J 
 
 38 
 
 25-19 
 
 58 
 
 38-45 
 
 73 
 
 51-70 
 
 98 
 
 64-95 
 
 19 
 
 12-59 
 
 39 
 
 25-85 
 
 59 
 
 39-11 
 
 79 
 
 52-37 
 
 99 
 
 65-63 
 
 20 
 
 ii-26 
 
 40 
 
 26-52 
 
 60 
 
 39-77 
 
 80 
 
 53-03 
 
 100 
 
 66-29 
 
 lOO 
 
 66-29 
 
 300 
 
 198-86 
 
 500 
 
 231-44 
 
 700 
 
 464 02 
 
 900 
 
 596-59 
 
 200 
 
 132-58 
 
 400 
 
 265-15 
 
 600 
 
 397-73 
 
 800 
 
 550-30 
 
 1000 
 
 666-88 
 
 lOOO 
 
 662-88 
 
 JOOO 
 
 1988-64 
 
 5000 
 
 3314-39 
 
 7000 
 
 4640 15 
 
 9000 
 
 5965-91 
 
 2O0O 
 
 1325-76 
 
 4000 
 
 2651-52 
 
 6ooo 
 
 3977-27 
 
 8000 
 
 5JOJ-0J 
 
 10,000 
 
 6628-79
 
 :204 HINTS TO TKA\ Ki,i,i;i;s. 
 
 TaUI.E XIX. — Foi! CONVKRTI.VG K ir.OGKAMMES INTO TulXUS A VuMMH TOIS. 
 
 Kilogs.l 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 JO 
 
 4° 
 50 
 6o 
 
 ■73 
 8o 
 
 •ODO 2-205 4'439 6'6i4 8"8i8 
 22'o46| 24-251 26-455 28-66o io'865 
 
 II -02; 
 j3-o5y 
 
 ij-228 I5-6J2 i-;-6j7 19-842 
 J5"274 i--4'^ J9'68} 41-888 
 
 44-092J 46-297 48 502 50-706 52-911 55-116 57-^20 59-525 6i'729 Of 
 
 66-1J9, 68-J4? 70-548, 'ii-lSi 74"957j 7ri62 
 
 83'i85! 90-^89 92-594 94-799 97-ooj: 99-208 
 
 iio*2ji, 112-456 114-640 116-845 119-050 121-254 
 
 IJ2-277 U4'482 1^6*686 ij8-89i 141-096^ i4rjoo 
 
 I54'i2i 156-528 I58-7JJ i6o-9;7 i6}-i42 165-547 
 
 176-570 173-574 180-779' 182-984 185-188 187-59J 
 
 I I 
 
 1V3-416 2o->C:o 202-825 205-050 207-254 209-459 
 
 9?4 
 
 79-566 81-571 85-776 85980 
 
 101-415 105-617 105-822 108*026 
 
 125-54^ 125-665 127-868 150-075 
 
 145505 ^"•■Jio 149 9'4 i52««9 
 
 167-551 169-556 171-960 174-165 
 
 189*597 191-802 194-007 196-211 
 
 211-644 215-848 216-055 218-258 
 
 f'dinilrif. 
 Austria .. 
 |{eli;iiim . . 
 Canada, etc. 
 <'liina .. 
 Donniaik 
 
 France . . 
 
 Germany 
 
 <!re-^c? 
 
 Ifollana 
 
 India 
 
 Italy . . 
 Norway . . 
 I'orliigal 
 liussia .. 
 .Spain 
 .Sworten . . 
 Switzcrlaiul 
 Turkey . . 
 
 United States 
 
 T.-vr.i,E XX. — FouEtGX M'ixev.s. 
 \ViTii lv;ri\ AT.Kxrs IN- J?.':it:.«h Cirijkncv. 
 
 /'n'nrlpal Coins. 
 
 TOO new kreuzors = i flurin 
 
 100 centimes = 1 franc 
 
 ICO cents = i dollar . . 
 
 1600 — 1700 copper cash = t Haikwan tael 
 
 loo Ore = 1 Krone . . 
 /loo centimes = I franc 
 (Milliard =: f. 1000 mills. = ^40,000,000. 
 j North German or Prussian thaler 
 j South Gern)an florin 
 j Imperial Rrichsniark =: 100 Pfennigc 
 ( Jni]>erial gold piece of 20 marks . . 
 
 100 centimes = I franc 
 
 loo cents or 20 stivers = 1 florin . . 
 
 192 pie =: 64 pice = 16 anniis = i 11 peo 
 The lac is ico.ooo jiii>c(s. 
 
 loD centcsimi =: i liia 
 
 100 Ore =: I Krone . . 
 
 loDO Reis = I milrei 
 
 100 copecs = I silver rouble 
 
 100 centisimos = i peseta =: 4 rcali s 
 
 loo ore = I Krone . . 
 
 100 rappen or centimes = i franc 
 
 ICO piastre = i lira, vat-ialilf 
 fioo cents = 1 dollar (S) hi ;inhl . . 
 1 10 dollars =; I e.ijrlo . . 
 
 Ster ii.R. 
 .t. ,1. 
 
 4 c 
 4 ic 
 
 9I 
 
 1 8 
 I i 
 
 o 9!
 
 tablp:s. 
 
 295 
 
 Table XXI. — Traverse Table : Difference of Latitude and Departure. 
 
 D. 
 
 1 1 
 
 -'g- 
 
 2 Dog. 
 
 i Deg. 
 
 4 Peg. 
 
 5 
 
 I leg. 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dpp. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 I 
 
 oro 
 
 00-0 
 
 01 -o 
 
 oo-o 
 
 oi-o 
 
 OO-I 
 
 OI-O 
 
 OO-I 
 
 oi-o 
 
 co-i 
 
 2 
 
 02'0 
 
 co-o 
 
 O2-0 
 
 OO-I 
 
 02-0 
 
 OO-I 
 
 02-0 
 
 CO- 1 
 
 02 -0 
 
 00-2 
 
 ; 
 
 oj-o 
 
 oo-i 
 
 cj-o 
 
 00- I 
 
 oj -o 
 
 00-2 
 
 oj-o 
 
 00-2 
 
 oj-o 
 
 OO-J 
 
 4 
 
 04-0 
 
 COT 
 
 04-0 
 
 OO-I 
 
 04-0 
 
 00-2 
 
 04-0 
 
 OO-J 
 
 04-0 
 
 OO-J 
 
 5 
 
 05 'O 
 
 OO-I 
 
 05-0 
 
 O0-2 
 
 05-0 
 
 OO-J 
 
 05-0 
 
 OO-J 
 
 05 -o 
 
 004 
 
 
 
 o6'o 
 
 OO-I 
 
 o5-o 
 
 O0-2 
 
 06-0 
 
 OO-J 
 
 06-0 
 
 O0-4 
 
 06-0 
 
 C0-5 
 
 ■7 
 
 07-0 
 
 co-i 
 
 07-0 
 
 CO- 2 
 
 07 'O 
 
 00-4 
 
 07-0 
 
 00-5 
 
 07-0 
 
 oo'6 
 
 8 
 
 o8-o 
 
 OO-I 
 
 08-0 
 
 oo-j 
 
 08 -o 
 
 00-4 
 
 08-0 
 
 00-6 
 
 08 -o 
 
 007 
 
 9 
 
 09-0 
 
 00-2 
 
 09-0 
 
 oo-j 
 
 090 
 
 00-5 
 
 03-0 
 
 co-6 
 
 09-0 
 
 0O-8 
 
 lo 
 
 IO"0 
 
 00-2 
 
 lo-o 
 
 oo-j 
 
 lo-o 
 
 00-5 
 
 10-0 
 
 00-7 
 
 lo-o 
 
 00-9 
 
 2o 
 
 20-0 
 
 00 3 
 
 20-0 
 
 00-7 
 
 20-0 
 
 OI-O 
 
 20-0 
 
 01-4 
 
 19-9 
 
 01-7 
 
 30 
 
 JO'O 
 
 00-5 
 
 300 
 
 01 -o 
 
 JO-0 
 
 OI-6 
 
 29-9 
 
 02-I 
 
 29-9 
 
 02 -6 
 
 ■40 
 
 40 'O 
 
 03-7 
 
 40-0 
 
 01 -4 
 
 39-9 
 
 02 -I 
 
 39-9 
 
 02 8 
 
 J9-8 
 
 0;-; 
 
 50 
 
 50-0 
 
 00-9 
 
 50- 
 
 01-7 
 
 49-9 
 
 02-6 
 
 49-9 
 
 oj-5 
 
 49 8 
 
 "44 
 
 Co 
 
 Oo-o 
 
 oi-o 
 
 6o'o 
 
 02-1 
 
 59-9 
 
 o;-i 
 
 59-9 
 
 04-2 
 
 59-8 
 
 oj-2 
 
 70 
 
 70'o 
 
 OI-2 
 
 70-0 
 
 02-4 
 
 69-9 
 
 oj-7 
 
 69-8 
 
 04-9 
 
 69- 7 
 
 06 -I 
 
 80 
 
 8o-o 
 
 01-4 
 
 80-0 
 
 02-8 
 
 79-9 
 
 04-2 
 
 79-8 
 
 05-6 
 
 79 7 
 
 07-0 
 
 90 
 
 90-0 
 
 01 -6 
 
 . 89-9 
 
 oj-i 
 
 89-9 
 
 04-7 
 
 89-8 
 
 o6'j 
 
 89-7 
 
 078 
 
 100 
 
 IC>0"0 
 
 01-7 
 
 99 '9 
 
 or 5 
 
 99-9 
 
 05-2 
 
 99-8 
 
 07-0 
 
 996 
 
 o3-7 
 
 200 
 
 200-0 
 
 oj-5 
 
 199-9 
 
 07-0 
 
 199 7 
 
 IO-5 
 
 199-5 
 
 14-0 
 
 199-2 
 
 17-4 
 
 ioo 
 
 JOO'O 
 
 05-2 
 
 299-8 
 
 lO-J 
 
 299-6 
 
 15-7 
 
 299 -J 
 
 209 
 
 293-9 
 
 26-1 
 
 400 
 
 J99-9 
 
 07-0 
 
 J99-8 
 
 14-0 
 
 m-s 
 
 20-9 
 
 399-0 
 
 27-9 
 
 J98-5 
 
 34-9 
 
 5CX5 
 
 499 '9 
 
 08-7 
 
 499-7 
 
 17-5 
 
 499-3 
 
 26-2 
 
 498-8 
 
 34'9 
 
 498-1 
 
 4) -6 
 
 600 
 
 599'9 
 
 10-5 
 
 599-6 
 
 20-9 
 
 599-2 
 
 n-4 
 
 598-5 
 
 41-9 
 
 597-7 
 
 52-J 
 
 700 
 
 699-9 
 
 12-2 
 
 699-6 
 
 24-4 
 
 C99-0 
 
 j6-6 
 
 698 -J 
 
 48-8 
 
 697-3 
 
 61-0 
 
 803 
 
 '!99"9 
 
 14-0 
 
 799-5 
 
 27-9 
 
 798-9 
 
 41-9 
 
 798-1 
 
 55-8 
 
 797 -0 
 
 '. 69-7 
 
 900 
 
 899-9 
 
 15-7 
 
 699-5 
 
 3'-4 
 
 898-8 
 
 47-1 
 
 897-8 
 
 62-8 
 
 896-6 
 
 78-4 
 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 88 
 
 Lat. 
 Deg. 
 
 D-.p. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 1). 
 
 89 
 
 Vg. 
 
 87 
 
 Dcg. 
 
 86 
 
 Deg. 
 
 85 
 
 Dog.
 
 290 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVET.T.ERS. 
 
 Table XXI. (mntliincd). — Traverse TAiaE: Jh'ffcnncfi of Jjolllude and 
 
 Departure 
 
 11. 
 
 6 r 
 
 %■ 
 
 71 
 
 '■f.'- 
 
 8 Deg. 
 
 9 l^Pg- 
 
 10 Deg. 
 
 
 Ut. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 I 
 
 OfO 
 
 oo-i 
 
 01 -o 
 
 co-i 
 
 01 -0 
 
 OO'I 
 
 01 -o 
 
 00-2 
 
 01 -0 
 
 O0-2 
 
 2 
 
 02 -o 
 
 00-2 
 
 02*0 
 
 00-2 
 
 02 -o 
 
 OO'j 
 
 02-0 
 
 00-3 
 
 02-0 
 
 00-3 
 
 J 
 
 oj-o 
 
 00 -J 
 
 oj-o 
 
 00-4 
 
 oj-o 
 
 00-4 
 
 Oi-o 
 
 O0-5 
 
 03-0 
 
 00-5 
 
 4 
 
 04-0 
 
 00-4 
 
 04-0 
 
 00-5 
 
 04-0 
 
 00-6 
 
 04-0 
 
 00-6 
 
 03-9 
 
 C0-7 
 
 5 
 
 o;-o 
 
 00-5 
 
 05-0 
 
 00-6 
 
 05-0 
 
 00-7 
 
 04-9 
 
 00-8 
 
 04-9 
 
 00-9 
 
 6 
 
 06 -0 
 
 00-6 
 
 o6-o 
 
 00-7 
 
 05-9 
 
 00-8 
 
 05-9 
 
 oo"9 
 
 05-9 
 
 OI-O 
 
 7 
 
 o';-o 
 
 00-7 
 
 06-9 
 
 00-9 
 
 06-9 
 
 oi-o 
 
 06-9 
 
 01 -I 
 
 06-9 
 
 01-2 
 
 8 
 
 o8-o 
 
 00-8 
 
 07-9 
 
 01 -o 
 
 07-9 
 
 01 -I 
 
 07-9 
 
 01-3 
 
 07-9 
 
 01-4 
 
 9 
 
 09-0 
 
 oo'9 
 
 089 
 
 01 -I 
 
 08-9 
 
 01 -J 
 
 08-9 
 
 01-4 
 
 08-9 
 
 01-6 
 
 10 
 
 09-9 
 
 oi-o 
 
 09-9 
 
 01 -2 
 
 09-9 
 
 01-4 
 
 09-9 
 
 01-6 
 
 09-8 
 
 01-7 
 
 20 
 
 19-9 
 
 02-I 
 
 19-9 
 
 02-4 
 
 19-8 
 
 02-8 
 
 19-8 
 
 03-1 
 
 19-7 
 
 03-5 
 
 lo 
 
 29-8 
 
 oj-l 
 
 29-8 
 
 or 7 
 
 29-7 
 
 04-2 
 
 29-6 
 
 04-7 
 
 29-5 
 
 05-2 
 
 40 
 
 jy8 
 
 04-2 
 
 39-7 
 
 04-9 
 
 i9-6 
 
 05-6 
 
 39-5 
 
 06-3 
 
 J9'4 
 
 06-9 
 
 50 
 
 49-7 
 
 05-2 
 
 49-6 
 
 o6-i 
 
 49*5 
 
 07-0 
 
 49-4 
 
 07-8 
 
 49-2 
 
 08-7 
 
 60 
 
 59-7 
 
 06-J 
 
 59-6 
 
 07-J 
 
 59-4 
 
 08-4 
 
 59- J 
 
 09-4 
 
 59-1 
 
 IO-4 
 
 '0 
 
 69-6 
 
 ovi 
 
 69-5 
 
 08-5 
 
 69-^ 
 
 09-7 
 
 69-1 
 
 ii-o 
 
 68-9 
 
 12-2 
 
 80 
 
 79-6 
 
 08-4 
 
 79-4 
 
 09-7 
 
 79-2 
 
 II-I 
 
 79 "o 
 
 12-5 
 
 78-8 
 
 13-9 
 
 93 
 
 89-5 
 
 09-4 
 
 89- J 
 
 li-o 
 
 89-1 
 
 12-5 
 
 88-9 
 
 14-1 
 
 88-6 
 
 156 
 
 I DO 
 
 99-; 
 
 10-5 
 
 99-i 
 
 12-2 
 
 99-0 
 
 ir9 
 
 988 
 
 15-6 
 
 98-5 
 
 174 
 
 200 
 
 198-9 
 
 20-9 
 
 198-5 
 
 24-4 
 
 198-1 
 
 27-8 
 
 197-5 
 
 iI-3 
 
 197 
 
 in 
 
 JOO 
 
 298-4 
 
 Ji-4 
 
 297-8 
 
 ^6-6 
 
 297-1 
 
 41-8 
 
 296-3 
 
 46-9 
 
 295-4 
 
 52-1 
 
 400 
 
 J97-8 
 
 41-8 
 
 397 '0 
 
 48-7 
 
 396-1 
 
 55-7 
 
 J95-I 
 
 62-6 
 
 i9r9 
 
 69-5 
 
 ;co 
 
 497 -J 
 
 52-j 
 
 496 -i 
 
 60-9 
 
 495-1 
 
 69-6 
 
 493-8 
 
 78-2 
 
 492 -4 
 
 86-8 
 
 6oo 
 
 596-7 
 
 62"7 
 
 595 "5 
 
 7?! 
 
 594- '•« 
 
 8}-5 
 
 592-6 
 
 9J-9 
 
 593-9 
 
 104-2 
 
 ■joo 
 
 696-2 
 
 7r2 
 
 694-8 
 
 85-J 
 
 69}- 2 
 
 97-4 
 
 691-4 
 
 109-5 
 
 689 4 
 
 121-6 
 
 800 
 
 795-6 
 
 8j-6 
 
 794-0 
 
 97-5 
 
 792-2 
 
 iii-j 
 
 790-2 
 
 125-1 
 
 787-8 
 
 138-9 
 
 900 
 
 895-1 
 
 94-1 
 
 89J-i 
 
 109-7 
 
 891-2 
 
 ii$-i 
 
 888-9 
 
 140-8 
 
 886-3 
 
 156-3 
 
 n. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 84 I 
 
 )eg. 
 
 8jl 
 
 leg. 
 
 82 Deg. 
 
 81 I 
 
 >eg. 
 
 80 I 
 
 )eg.
 
 TABLES. 
 
 21^7 
 
 Table XXI. (continued). — Traverse Table : Difference of Latitude and 
 
 Departure. 
 
 D. 
 
 II 
 
 Deg. 
 
 12 
 
 Dor. 
 
 ij 
 
 Deg. 
 
 14 Deg. 
 
 I? Deg. 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 I 
 
 OfO 
 
 00-2 
 
 oi-o 
 
 00-2 
 
 01 -0 
 
 00-2 
 
 OI-O 
 
 00-2 
 
 OI-O 
 
 ao-i 
 
 2 
 
 02 -o 
 
 00-4 
 
 02-0 
 
 00 "4 
 
 01-9 
 
 00-4 
 
 01-9 
 
 00-5 
 
 CI -9 
 
 00-5 
 
 J 
 
 02-9 
 
 00-6 
 
 02-9 
 
 00-6 
 
 02-9 
 
 00-7 
 
 02-9 
 
 00 7 
 
 02-9 
 
 00-8 
 
 4 
 
 oi-9 
 
 00-8 
 
 0J-9 
 
 0O-8 
 
 oi-9 
 
 00-9 
 
 0J-9 
 
 OI-O 
 
 oj-9 
 
 OI-O 
 
 5 
 
 04-9 
 
 oi-o 
 
 04-9 
 
 OI-O 
 
 04-9 
 
 01 I 
 
 04-9 
 
 01 2 
 
 04-8 
 
 oi-j 
 
 6 
 
 05-9 
 
 oi-i 
 
 05-9 
 
 OI-2 
 
 05-8 
 
 oi-i 
 
 05-8 
 
 01-5 
 
 05-8 
 
 01-6 
 
 7 
 
 06 9 
 
 oi-i 
 
 o6-8 
 
 01-5 
 
 o6-8 
 
 01-6 
 
 06-8 
 
 01 7 
 
 068 
 
 01-8 
 
 8 
 
 07-9 
 
 01-5 
 
 07-8 
 
 OI-7 
 
 07-8 
 
 01-8 
 
 07-8 
 
 OI-9 
 
 07-7 
 
 02 I 
 
 9 
 
 088 
 
 01-7 
 
 o8-8 
 
 01-9 
 
 08-8 
 
 02 -o 
 
 o3-7 
 
 02 -2 
 
 08-7 
 
 02-j 
 
 lO 
 
 09-8 
 
 01-9 
 
 09-8 
 
 02-1 
 
 09-7 
 
 02-2 
 
 09-7 
 
 .02-4 
 
 09-7 
 
 02-6 
 
 20 
 
 19-6 
 
 oj-8 
 
 19-6 
 
 04-2 
 
 19-5 
 
 04-5 
 
 19-4 
 
 04-8 
 
 I9-J 
 
 C5-2 
 
 JO 
 
 29-4 
 
 05-7 
 
 29-J 
 
 06-2 
 
 29-2 
 
 06-7 
 
 29-1 
 
 o7-i 
 
 39-0 
 
 0--8 
 
 40 
 
 in 
 
 07-6 
 
 39-1 
 
 08-j 
 
 J9-0 
 
 09-0 
 
 j3-8 
 
 09-7 
 
 j3-6 
 
 10-4 
 
 50 
 
 49-1 
 
 09-5 
 
 48-9 
 
 10-4 
 
 48-7 
 
 11-2 
 
 48-5 
 
 12-1 
 
 48-J 
 
 12-9 
 
 6o 
 
 58-9 
 
 11-4 
 
 58-7 
 
 12-5 
 
 58-5 
 
 IJ -5 
 
 58-2 
 
 14-5 
 
 58-0 
 
 15-5 
 
 •JO 
 
 68-7 
 
 ir4 
 
 68-5 
 
 14-6 
 
 68-2 
 
 15-7 
 
 67-9 
 
 16-9 
 
 67-6 
 
 18-1 
 
 8o 
 
 78-5 
 
 in 
 
 78-j 
 
 16-6 
 
 77-9 
 
 18-0 
 
 77-6 
 
 19-4 
 
 m 
 
 20-7 
 
 90 
 
 88-j 
 
 17-2 
 
 88-0 
 
 18-7 
 
 87-7 
 
 20-2 
 
 8tj 
 
 21-8 
 
 86-9 
 
 2;-? 
 
 100 
 
 98-2 
 
 19-1 
 
 97-8 
 
 20-8 
 
 97-4 
 
 22-5 
 
 97-0 
 
 24-2 
 
 96-6 
 
 25-9 
 
 20D 
 
 196 -J 
 
 J8-2 
 
 195-6 
 
 41-6 
 
 194-9 
 
 45 -o 
 
 194-1 
 
 48-4 
 
 195-2 
 
 51-8 
 
 JOZ, 
 
 294-5 
 
 57-2 
 
 291-4 
 
 62-4 
 
 292 -J 
 
 67-5 
 
 291-1 
 
 72-6 
 
 289-8 
 
 77-6 
 
 400 
 
 J92-7 
 
 76-J 
 
 391 -J 
 
 8J-2 
 
 J89-7 
 
 90-0 
 
 J88-1 
 
 96-8 
 
 J86-4 
 
 ior5 
 
 500 
 
 4<;o-8 
 
 95-4 
 
 489-1 
 
 io4'o 
 
 487-2 
 
 112-5 
 
 485-1 
 
 121-0 
 
 48J-0 
 
 129-4 
 
 600 
 
 589-0 
 
 114-5 
 
 586-9 
 
 124-7 
 
 584-6 
 
 IJ5-0 
 
 582-2 
 
 145-2 
 
 579-6 
 
 J55-J 
 
 700 
 
 687-1 
 
 ijj-6 
 
 684-7 
 
 145-5 
 
 682-1 
 
 157-5 
 
 679-2 
 
 169- J 
 
 676-1 
 
 181-2 
 
 800 
 
 785 -J 
 
 152-6 
 
 782-5 
 
 l66-i 
 
 779-5 
 
 180-0 
 
 776-2 
 
 193-5 
 
 772-7 
 
 207-1 
 
 900 
 
 m-i 
 
 171-7 
 
 880 -J 
 
 187-1 
 
 876-9 
 
 202-5 
 
 87rj 
 
 217-7 
 
 869 j 
 
 2J2-9 
 
 
 Pep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 n. 
 
 79 1 
 
 let;. 
 
 78 r 
 
 )eg. 
 
 77 T 
 
 >?. 
 
 76 T 
 
 )eg. 
 
 75 I 
 
 )pg.
 
 298 
 
 HINTS IT) TltAVEIJ-KHS. 
 
 T.\i5i,i: XXr. (c()ulhii(e(l).-~'i\i\VEiiS]i Table: Difference of Lntiltule nnd 
 
 Departure. 
 
 T). 
 
 16 llOK. 
 
 17 
 
 lot;. 
 
 i3 
 
 >rg. 
 
 19 I>tg. 
 
 20 Deg. 
 
 
 L.it. 
 
 Dcp. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dcp. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 ut7 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 I 
 
 01 'O 
 
 oo-j 
 
 OI-Q 
 
 00-J 
 
 oi-o 
 
 oo-j 
 
 00-9 
 
 oo-j 
 
 00-9 
 
 OO-J 
 
 2 
 
 01 9 
 
 00-6 
 
 01-9 
 
 00-6 
 
 019 
 
 00-6 
 
 01-9 
 
 00-7 
 
 01-9 
 
 00-7 
 
 3 
 
 02-9 
 
 co-8 
 
 02-9 
 
 00-9 
 
 02-9 
 
 00-9 
 
 02-3 
 
 oi-o 
 
 02 -8 
 
 OI-O 
 
 4 
 
 c;-8 
 
 01 I 
 
 oj-8 
 
 01-2 
 
 oj-3 
 
 01-2 
 
 oj-8 
 
 01 -j 
 
 oj-8 
 
 01-4 
 
 5 
 
 04-8 
 
 01-4 
 
 04-8 
 
 01-5 
 
 04-3 
 
 ci-5 
 
 04-7 
 
 01-6 
 
 04-7 
 
 01-7 
 
 6 
 
 05-8 
 
 01-7 
 
 05-7 
 
 OI-3 
 
 05-7 
 
 01-9 
 
 05-7 
 
 02-0 
 
 05 6 
 
 02-1 
 
 7 
 
 o6'7 
 
 01-9 
 
 06-7 
 
 02-0 
 
 06-7 
 
 02-2 
 
 06-6 
 
 02- J 
 
 o6-6 
 
 02-4 
 
 8 
 
 07-7 
 
 02-2 
 
 07-7 
 
 02-; 
 
 07-6 
 
 02-5 
 
 07-6 
 
 02-6 
 
 07-5 
 
 02-7 
 
 9 
 
 08-7 
 
 02-5 
 
 o3-6 
 
 02-6 
 
 08-6 
 
 02-8 
 
 08-5 
 
 02-9 
 
 o3-5 
 
 OJ-I 
 
 lO 
 
 09-6 
 
 02-8 • 
 
 09-6 
 
 02-9 
 
 09-5 
 
 oj-i 
 
 09-5 
 
 033 
 
 09-4 
 
 03 -4 
 
 20 
 
 19-2 
 
 05-5 
 
 19-1 
 
 05-8 
 
 19-0 
 
 06-2 
 
 18-9 
 
 05-5 
 
 18-8 
 
 06-3 
 
 JO 
 
 28-8 
 
 oZ-i 
 
 28-7 
 
 08-8 
 
 28-5 
 
 09-3 
 
 28-4 
 
 09-8 
 
 28-2 
 
 lo-j 
 
 40 
 
 J8-5 
 
 li-o 
 
 38 -J 
 
 II-7 
 
 j8o 
 
 12-4 
 
 37-8 
 
 ij-o 
 
 37-6 
 
 iJ-7 
 
 50 
 
 48-1" 
 
 irs 
 
 47-8 
 
 14-6 
 
 47-6 
 
 15-5 
 
 47-3 
 
 16-J 
 
 47-0 
 
 171 
 
 60 
 
 57-7 
 
 16-5 
 
 57-4 
 
 I7'5 
 
 57-1 
 
 13-5 
 
 56-7 
 
 19-5 
 
 56-4 
 
 20-5 
 
 '0 
 
 67-; 
 
 19- J 
 
 66-9 
 
 20-5 
 
 66-6 
 
 21-6 
 
 66-2 
 
 22-8 
 
 65-8 
 
 2J-9 
 
 80 
 
 76-9 
 
 22-1 
 
 765 
 
 23-4 
 
 76-1 
 
 24-7 
 
 75-6 
 
 26-0 
 
 75-2 
 
 27-4 
 
 qo 
 
 86-5 
 
 24-8 
 
 86-1 
 
 26-j 
 
 85-6 
 
 27-8 
 
 85-1 
 
 29-3 
 
 84-6 
 
 jo-8 
 
 100 
 
 96-1 
 
 27-6 
 
 95-6 
 
 29-2 
 
 95-1 
 
 30-9 
 
 94-6 
 
 32-6 
 
 94-0 
 
 34-2 
 
 200 
 
 192 -J 
 
 5;- 1 
 
 191 J 
 
 58-5 
 
 190-2 
 
 6i-8 
 
 189-1 
 
 65-1 
 
 187-9 
 
 68-4 
 
 JOO 
 
 288-4 
 
 82-7 
 
 286-9 
 
 87-7 
 
 285-3 
 
 92-7 
 
 28} -7 
 
 97-7 
 
 281-9 
 
 102 -6 
 
 400 
 
 384-5 
 
 iio-j 
 
 382-5 
 
 ii6-g 
 
 380-4 
 
 I2!-6 
 
 378-2 
 
 IJO-2 
 
 375-9 
 
 ij6 8 
 
 500 
 
 480-6 
 
 IJ7-8 
 
 478-2 
 
 146-2 
 
 475-5 
 
 1 54 -5 
 
 472-8 
 
 162-8 
 
 469-8 
 
 171-0 
 
 600 
 
 576-8 
 
 165-4 
 
 573-8 
 
 175-4 
 
 570-6 
 
 185-4 
 
 567-3 
 
 195-3 
 
 563-8 
 
 205 -2 
 
 •;oo 
 
 672-9 
 
 192 9 
 
 669-4 
 
 204-7 
 
 665-7 
 
 216-J 
 
 661-9 
 
 227-9 
 
 657-8 
 
 239-4 
 
 800 
 
 769-0 
 
 220-5 
 
 765-0 
 
 233-9 
 
 760-8 
 
 247-2 
 
 756-4 
 
 260-5 
 
 751-8 
 
 273-6 
 
 900 
 
 865-1 
 
 248-1 
 
 860-7 
 
 263 1 
 
 856-0 
 
 278-1 
 
 851-0 
 
 293-0 
 
 845-7 
 
 307-8 
 
 1) 
 
 Dep. 
 74 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dcp. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 7: I 
 
 L,t. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 71 1 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dop. 
 
 7= I 
 
 Lat. 
 
 '-, l>>\i;'. 
 
 i.p.
 
 TABLES. 
 
 2!)9 
 
 Table XXI. (roi(fiimed). — Tkaverse Table: Difference of Latiiude and 
 
 Departure. 
 
 D. 
 
 21 Dog. 
 
 22 
 
 Deg. 
 
 23 Deg. 
 Lat. Dep. 
 
 24 Deg. 
 
 25 Deg. 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dtp. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 l;ep. 
 
 I 
 
 oo'9 
 
 00-4 
 
 00-9 
 
 00-4 
 
 00-9 
 
 00-4 
 
 00-9 
 
 00-4 
 
 00-9 
 
 00-4 
 
 2 
 
 01-9 
 
 00-7 
 
 01-9 
 
 00-7 
 
 01-8 
 
 00-8 
 
 01-8 
 
 00-8 
 
 01-8 
 
 00-8 
 
 J 
 
 02-8 
 
 01 -I 
 
 02-8 
 
 i oi-l 
 
 02-8 
 
 01-2 
 
 02-7 
 
 01-2 
 
 02-7 
 
 01-3 
 
 4 
 
 oy] 
 
 01-4 
 
 oj-7 
 
 01-5 
 
 03-7 
 
 01-6 
 
 C3-7 
 
 01-6 
 
 03-6 
 
 01-7 
 
 5 
 
 04-7 
 
 01-8 
 
 04-6 
 
 01-9 
 
 04-6 
 
 02-0 
 
 04-6 
 
 02-0 
 
 04-5 
 
 02 -I 
 
 6 
 
 05-6 
 
 02 -2 
 
 05'6 
 
 02-2 
 
 05-5 
 
 02-3 
 
 05-5 
 
 02-4 
 
 05-4 
 
 02-5 
 
 7 
 
 05-5 
 
 02 -5 
 
 06-5 
 
 02-6 
 
 06-4 
 
 02-7 
 
 06-4 
 
 02-8 
 
 o6-3 
 
 03-0 
 
 3 
 
 07-5 
 
 02-9 
 
 OT4 
 
 oj-o 
 
 07-4 
 
 03-1 
 
 07-3 
 
 0; • 3 
 
 07-3 
 
 03-4 
 
 9 
 
 08-4 
 
 OJ-2 
 
 08 -J 
 
 oj-4 
 
 08-3 
 
 o;-5 
 
 08-2 
 
 03-7 
 
 o3-2 
 
 oj-8 
 
 lO 
 
 on 
 
 or6 
 
 09 -J 
 
 , oj-7 
 
 09-2 
 
 or9 
 
 05- 1 
 
 04-1 
 
 o)-i 
 
 04-2 
 
 20 
 
 ri-) 
 
 07-2 
 
 13-5 
 
 07-5 
 
 13-4 
 
 07-8 
 
 18-3 
 
 08 • I 
 
 l8-l 
 
 08-5 
 
 jO 
 
 28-0 
 
 10-8 
 
 27-8 
 
 11-2 
 
 27-6 
 
 II-7 
 
 27-4 
 
 12-2 
 
 27-2 
 
 12-7 
 
 4^ 
 
 m 
 
 14 -J 
 
 i-i 
 
 15-0 
 
 36-8 
 
 15-6 
 
 j6-5 
 
 16 -3 
 
 j6-? 
 
 16 -9 
 
 50 
 
 4f,-7 
 
 17-9 
 
 46-4 
 
 18-7 
 
 46-0 
 
 19-5 
 
 45-7 
 
 20-3 
 
 45-5 
 
 2I-I 
 
 6o 
 
 56-0 
 
 21-5 
 
 55-6 
 
 22-5 
 
 55-2 
 
 23 -4 
 
 54-8 
 
 24-4 
 
 54'4 
 
 25-4 
 
 ■]o 
 
 65-4 
 
 25-1 
 
 64-9 
 
 26-2 
 
 64-4 
 
 27-4 
 
 63-9 
 
 28-5 
 
 63-4 
 
 29-6 
 
 8o 
 
 74-7 
 
 28-7 
 
 74-2 
 
 30-0 
 
 7J-6 
 
 31-3 
 
 73-1 
 
 32-5 
 
 72-5 
 
 33-3 
 
 <jo 
 
 84-0 
 
 n-1 
 
 8J-4 
 
 3J-7 
 
 82-8 
 
 35-2 
 
 82-2 
 
 36-6 
 
 81 -6 
 
 38-0 
 
 loo 
 
 9J'4 
 
 J5-8 
 
 92-7 
 
 37 5 
 
 92-1 
 
 39-1 
 
 91-4 
 
 40-7 
 
 90-6 
 
 42-3 
 
 200 
 
 186-7 
 
 71-7 
 
 185-4 
 
 74-9 
 
 184-1 
 
 78-1 
 
 182-7 
 
 81-3 
 
 181-3 
 
 84-5 
 
 300 
 
 280-1 
 
 107-5 
 
 278-2 
 
 112-4 
 
 276-2 
 
 117-2 
 
 274-1 
 
 I22-0 
 
 271-9 
 
 126-8 
 
 403 
 
 J7r4 
 
 i4r3 
 
 J70-9 
 
 149-8 
 
 368-2 
 
 156-3 
 
 365-4 
 
 162-7 
 
 362-; 
 
 169-0 
 
 50D 
 
 466-8 
 
 179-2 
 
 465-6 
 
 187-3 
 
 460-3 
 
 195 '4 
 
 456-8 
 
 20; -4 
 
 453-2 
 
 2II-3 
 
 6oo 
 
 560-1 
 
 215-0 
 
 556 -i 
 
 224-8 
 
 S-^r-i 
 
 2i4-4 
 
 548-1 
 
 244-0 
 
 54? -8 
 
 253-6 
 
 ■JOO 
 
 65r5 
 
 250-9 
 
 649-0 
 
 262-2 
 
 644-4 
 
 27r5 
 
 639-5 
 
 284-7 
 
 634-4 
 
 295-8 
 
 8oo 
 
 746-9 
 
 286-7 
 
 741-7 
 
 299-7 
 
 736-4 
 
 312-6 
 
 430-3 
 
 325-4 
 
 725-0 
 
 338-1 
 
 9DO 
 
 840-2 
 
 J22-5 
 
 8M-5 
 
 337-1 
 
 828-5 
 
 351-7 
 
 822-2 
 
 366-1 
 
 815-7 
 
 380-4 
 
 
 Hop. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Pep. 
 
 67 r 
 
 Lat. 
 )eg. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 n. 
 
 ^9 1 
 
 )cg. 
 
 (,?. 1 loy:. 
 
 66 r 
 
 >.tc. 
 
 '''o-
 
 300 
 
 HINTS TO TRAYEIJ.KHS. 
 
 Table XXI. (continued). — Travkrse Tarlk : Difference of Latitude and 
 
 Departure. 
 
 D. 
 
 26 ])eg. 
 
 27 Deg. 
 
 28 Deg. 
 
 29 Deg. 
 
 30 Deg. 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. ' 
 
 1 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 rep. 
 
 I 
 
 00-9 
 
 00-4 
 
 00-9 
 
 00-5 
 
 00-9 
 
 0O-5 
 
 00-9 
 
 005 
 
 009 
 
 0O-5 
 
 2 
 
 of8 
 
 00-9 
 
 01-8 
 
 C0-9 
 
 01 -8 
 
 00-9 
 
 01-7 
 
 01 -o 
 
 01-7 
 
 oi-o 
 
 i 
 
 02-'7 
 
 oi-j 
 
 02-7 
 
 01-4 
 
 02-6 
 
 01 -4 
 
 02-6 
 
 01-5 
 
 o2"6 
 
 01-5 
 
 4 
 
 oi-6 
 
 01 -8 
 
 oj-6 
 
 01-8 
 
 oi-5 
 
 01-9 
 
 03-5 
 
 01-9 
 
 03 -5 
 
 02 -o 
 
 5 
 
 04-5 
 
 02 -2 
 
 04-5 
 
 02-j 
 
 04-4 
 
 02-3 
 
 04-4 
 
 o2'4 
 
 .04-3 
 
 02-5 
 
 6 
 
 05-4 
 
 02-6 
 
 05-j 
 
 02-7 
 
 05-3 
 
 02-8 
 
 05-2 
 
 02-9 
 
 05-2 
 
 oj-o 
 
 7 
 
 o6-j 
 
 oj-i 
 
 06-2 
 
 or2 
 
 o6-2 
 
 OJi 
 
 06-1 
 
 03-4 
 
 06 I 
 
 03-5 
 
 8 
 
 07-2 
 
 oj-5 
 
 07-1 
 
 oj-6 
 
 07-1 
 
 o}-8 
 
 07-0 
 
 03-9 
 
 o6"9 
 
 04-0 
 
 9 
 
 o8-l 
 
 oj-9 
 
 08-0 
 
 04-1 
 
 0T9 
 
 04-2 
 
 07-9 
 
 04-4 
 
 07 8 
 
 04-5 
 
 lo 
 
 090 
 
 04-4 
 
 08-9 
 
 04-5 
 
 o8'8 
 
 04-7 
 
 08-7 
 
 04-8 
 
 08-7 
 
 05*0 
 
 20 
 
 i8-o 
 
 08-8 
 
 17-8 
 
 09-1 
 
 17-7 
 
 09-4 
 
 17-5 
 
 09-7 
 
 17-3 
 
 lo-o 
 
 JO 
 
 2T0 
 
 Ii-2 
 
 26-7 
 
 ir6 
 
 265 
 
 14-1 
 
 26-2 
 
 145 
 
 26-0 
 
 I5-0 
 
 40 
 
 j6*o 
 
 17-5 
 
 J5-6 
 
 18-2 
 
 3S-} 
 
 i8-8 
 
 35-0 
 
 19-4 
 
 34-6 
 
 20-0 
 
 5° 
 
 44-9 
 
 21-9 
 
 44-6 
 
 22-7 
 
 44-1 
 
 2}-; 
 
 43-7 
 
 24-2 
 
 43-3 
 
 25-0 
 
 6o 
 
 5r9 
 
 26-i 
 
 5r5 
 
 27-2 
 
 5ro 
 
 28-2 
 
 52-5 
 
 29-1 
 
 52-0 
 
 30-0 
 
 -o 
 
 62*9 
 
 io■^ 
 
 62-4 
 
 31-8 
 
 61-8 
 
 32-9 
 
 6i-2 
 
 33-9 
 
 60-6 
 
 35 -o 
 
 8o 
 
 ■;i-9 
 
 J5'i 
 
 7I-J 
 
 36-3 
 
 70-6 
 
 37-6 
 
 70-0 
 
 j8-8 
 
 693 
 
 40-0 
 
 90 
 
 80-9 
 
 irs 
 
 80-2 
 
 40-9 
 
 79-5 
 
 42-3 
 
 78-7 
 
 43 -6 
 
 77-9 
 
 45 -0 
 
 lOO 
 
 89-9 
 
 4r8 
 
 89-1 
 
 454 
 
 88-j 
 
 46-9 
 
 87-5 
 
 48-5 
 
 86-6 
 
 50-0 
 
 200 
 
 179-8 
 
 87-7 
 
 1-8-2 
 
 90-8 
 
 176-6 
 
 939 
 
 174-9 
 
 97-0 
 
 173-2 
 
 100 
 
 JOO 
 
 269-6 
 
 iii-5 
 
 267 -J 
 
 Ij6-2 
 
 264-9 
 
 140-8 
 
 262-4 
 
 145-4 
 
 259-8 
 
 150-0 
 
 400 
 
 J59-5 
 
 I75-J 
 
 356-4 
 
 i8i-6 
 
 355-2 
 
 187-8 
 
 349-8 
 
 193-9 
 
 346-4 
 
 200-0 
 
 500 
 
 449"4 
 
 2iq-2 
 
 445-5 
 
 227-0 
 
 441-5 
 
 : 234-7 
 
 437-3 
 
 242-4 
 
 433 -o 
 
 250*0 
 
 600 
 
 5J9"i 
 
 26J-0 
 
 5J4-6 
 
 272-4 
 
 529-8 
 
 281-7 
 
 524-8 
 
 290-9 
 
 519-6 
 
 300-0 
 
 700 
 
 629-2 
 
 306-9 
 
 62J-7 
 
 JI7-8 
 
 618-1 
 
 328-6 
 
 612-2 
 
 359-4 
 
 6o6-2 
 
 350-0 
 
 8oo 
 
 719-0 
 
 iio■^ 
 
 712-8 
 
 363-2 
 
 706-4 
 
 3756 
 
 699-7 
 
 387-8 
 
 692-8 
 
 400-0 
 
 900 
 
 808-9 
 
 394-5 
 
 801-9 
 
 408-6 
 
 W7 
 
 422-5 
 
 787 -2 
 
 436-3 
 
 7-9-4 
 
 450-0 
 
 D. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 ! Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 64 I 
 
 ")efr. 
 
 fji 1 
 
 :>eg. 
 
 62 
 
 Peg. 
 
 61 1 
 
 'eg. 
 
 60I 
 
 ")pg.
 
 TABLES. 
 
 301 
 
 Table XXI. (roiiliimeil). — Tkavkksk Taule : Difference of LaiHwle and 
 
 Departure. 
 
 D. 
 
 31 
 
 Ag. 
 
 J2 
 
 Deg. 
 
 }} 
 
 )eg. 
 
 M 
 
 [Jeg. 
 
 ;f I'tir. 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dcp. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 J)ep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 L'cp. 
 
 I 
 
 oo'9 
 
 co-5 
 
 00-8 
 
 oc-5 
 
 co-8 
 
 00-5 
 
 00-8 
 
 00-6 
 
 00-8 
 
 00-6 
 
 2 
 
 OI-7 
 
 01 -o 
 
 01 -7 
 
 01 -I 
 
 01-7 
 
 ot-i 
 
 01-7 
 
 01 -I 
 
 01 -6 
 
 01 -I 
 
 } 
 
 02-6 
 
 01 -5 
 
 02-5 
 
 01 -6 
 
 02-5 
 
 OI-6 
 
 02-5 
 
 01-7 
 
 02-5 
 
 01-7 
 
 4 
 
 or 4 
 
 02 -I 
 
 or 4 
 
 02-1 
 
 03-4 
 
 02-2 
 
 03-3 
 
 02-2 
 
 03-3 
 
 02-3 
 
 5 
 
 04 -J 
 
 02-6 
 
 04-2 
 
 02-6 
 
 04-2 
 
 02-7 
 
 04-1 
 
 02-8 
 
 04-1 
 
 02-9 
 
 6 
 
 05-1 
 
 OJ-I 
 
 05-1 
 
 or2 
 
 05-0 
 
 03-3 
 
 05-0 
 
 03-4 
 
 04-9 
 
 or4 
 
 7 
 
 oi-o 
 
 oj-6 
 
 05-9 
 
 or7 
 
 o;-9 
 
 03-8 
 
 05-8 
 
 03-9 
 
 o;-7 
 
 04-0 
 
 8 
 
 06-9 
 
 04-1 
 
 06 -8 
 
 04-2 
 
 0O-7 
 
 04-4 
 
 06-6 
 
 04-5 
 
 o5-6 
 
 04-6 
 
 9 
 
 07-7 
 
 04-6 
 
 07-6 
 
 04-8 
 
 07-5 
 
 04-9 
 
 07-5 
 
 05-0 
 
 07-4 
 
 05-2 
 
 10 
 
 o3-6 
 
 05-2 
 
 08-5 
 
 05 -i 
 
 08-4 
 
 05-4 
 
 o8-; 
 
 05-6 
 
 o3-2 
 
 05-7 
 
 20 
 
 '"■I 
 
 10- j 
 
 17-0 
 
 10-6 
 
 16-8 
 
 10-9 
 
 16-6 
 
 11-2 
 
 i5-4 
 
 11-5 
 
 }o 
 
 25-7 
 
 15-5 
 
 25-4 
 
 15-9 
 
 25-2 
 
 16-3 
 
 24-9 
 
 16-8 
 
 24-6 
 
 17-2 
 
 40 
 
 Hi 
 
 20-6 
 
 3r9 
 
 21-2 
 
 n-; 
 
 21-8 
 
 3J-2 
 
 22-4 
 
 32-8 
 
 22-9 
 
 53 
 
 42-9 
 
 25-8 
 
 42-4 
 
 26-5 
 
 41-9 
 
 27-2 
 
 41-5 
 
 28-0 
 
 41-0 
 
 28-7 
 
 60 
 
 51-4 
 
 30-9 
 
 50-9 
 
 31-8 
 
 50-3 
 
 32-7 
 
 49-7 
 
 33-6 
 
 49-1 
 
 34-4 
 
 70 
 
 6o-o 
 
 36-1 
 
 59-4 
 
 37-1 
 
 58-7 
 
 38-1 
 
 58-0 
 
 39-1 
 
 57-J 
 
 43-2 
 
 80 
 
 63-6 
 
 41-2 
 
 67-8 
 
 42-4 
 
 67-1 
 
 4r6 
 
 66-3 
 
 44-7 
 
 65-5 
 
 45-9 
 
 90 
 
 77-1 
 
 46-4 
 
 76-j 
 
 4r7 
 
 '5'} 
 
 49-0 
 
 74-6 
 
 50-3 
 
 7i-7 
 
 51-6 
 
 I03 
 
 8,-7 
 
 51-5 
 
 84-8 
 
 5ro 
 
 83-9 
 
 54-5 
 
 82-9 
 
 55-9 
 
 81-9 
 
 -7-4 
 
 200 
 
 171-4 
 
 lOJ-O 
 
 169-6 
 
 io6-o 
 
 167-7 
 
 108-9 
 
 165-8 
 
 111-8 
 
 i6{-8 
 
 114-7 
 
 ,'03 
 
 257-2 
 
 154-5 
 
 254-4 
 
 159-0 
 
 251-6 
 
 163-4 
 
 248-7 
 
 167-8 
 
 245-7 
 
 1721 
 
 400 
 
 i42-9 
 
 206 -o 
 
 JJJ9-2 
 
 212-0 
 
 ass 
 
 217-9 
 
 331-6 
 
 223-7 
 
 327-7 
 
 229-4 
 
 500 
 
 428-6 
 
 25r5 
 
 424-0 
 
 265-0 
 
 419-i 
 
 272-3 
 
 414-5 
 
 279-6 
 
 409-6 
 
 286-8 
 
 600 
 
 5I4-J 
 
 J09-0 
 
 508-8 
 
 318-0 
 
 503-2 
 
 326-8 
 
 497-4 
 
 JJ5-5 
 
 491 -s 
 
 i44-i 
 
 •joo 
 
 6oo-o 
 
 360-5 
 
 595-6 
 
 370-9 
 
 587-1 
 
 381-2 
 
 580-3 
 
 591-4 
 
 57r4 
 
 401-5 
 
 «oo 
 
 68,-7 
 
 412-0 
 
 678-4 
 
 4Zi-9 
 
 670-9 
 
 4J5-7 
 
 663-2 
 
 447-4 
 
 655-3 
 
 458-9 
 
 .;oo 
 
 ■/-I-5 
 
 46J-S 
 
 763-2 
 
 476-9 
 
 754-8 
 
 490-2 
 
 746-1 
 
 503 -3 
 
 737-2 
 
 516-2 
 
 D. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dap. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dp. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 59 t 
 
 eg- 
 
 58 r 
 
 eg. 
 
 57 r 
 
 eg- 
 
 56 D 
 
 eg. 
 
 55 r 
 
 'eg.
 
 :50ii 
 
 HINTS TO TJ{A\'I;M,K US. 
 
 Tadi.k X.XI. (rii)///////r,/). -'I'uaveksi'; TAiii,i;: J)il)'fnnrr nf JtnlHniU mid 
 
 n. 
 
 l,i(. Dp. 
 
 ;7 
 
 iK-p. 
 
 3a 
 
 >ig. 
 
 39 
 
 .,.g. 
 
 4- 
 
 "■g. 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Hep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 iJcp. 
 
 Dp. 
 
 I 
 
 03-8 
 
 00 -6 
 
 OT-3 
 
 00-6 
 
 co-8 
 
 co-6 
 
 00-8 
 
 00-6 
 
 00-8 
 
 00-6 
 
 2 
 
 01 -6 
 
 01-2 
 
 CI -6 
 
 01-2 
 
 01-6 
 
 01-2 
 
 01-6 
 
 01 -3 
 
 01-5 
 
 01-3 
 
 j 
 
 o:-4 
 
 • OI-8 
 
 02 -4 
 
 01-8 
 
 02-4 
 
 01-8 
 
 02-3 
 
 01-9 
 
 02 -3 
 
 Of 9 
 
 4 
 
 oj • 2 
 
 02-4 
 
 OJ-2 
 
 02-4 
 
 03-2 
 
 02-5 
 
 03-1 
 
 02-5 
 
 o;-i 
 
 02-6 
 
 5 
 
 04-0 
 
 02-9 
 
 04-0 
 
 o;-o 
 
 03-9 
 
 03-1 
 
 03 -9 
 
 03-1 
 
 oj-8 
 
 03-2 
 
 6 
 
 04-9 
 
 f>r5 
 
 04-8 
 
 o;-6 
 
 04-7 
 
 03-7 
 
 04-7 
 
 03-8 
 
 04-6 
 
 03-9 
 
 7 
 
 oi-v 
 
 04-1 
 
 05-6 
 
 04-2 
 
 05-5 
 
 04-3 
 
 05-4 
 
 04-4 
 
 05-4 
 
 04-5 
 
 8 
 
 c6-5 
 
 04-7 
 
 o5-4 
 
 04-8 
 
 o5-3 
 
 04 9 
 
 o6-2 
 
 05-0 
 
 06-1 
 
 05-1 
 
 9 
 
 o"-J 
 
 05-3 
 
 07-2 
 
 05-4 
 
 07-1 
 
 05-5 
 
 07-0 
 
 05-7 
 
 06-9 
 
 05-8 
 
 lO 
 
 of. -I 
 
 05-9 
 
 o3-o 
 
 oO-o 
 
 07-9 
 
 06-2 
 
 07-8 
 
 o'n 
 
 07-7 
 
 o6-4 
 
 20 
 
 16 -2 
 
 11-8 
 
 i6-o 
 
 120 
 
 15-8 
 
 12-3 
 
 15-5 
 
 12-6 
 
 15-3 
 
 12-9 
 
 JO 
 
 24-j 
 
 17-6 
 
 24-0 
 
 18-1 
 
 23-6 
 
 18-5 
 
 23-3 
 
 189 
 
 23-0 
 
 19-} 
 
 4° 
 
 32-4 
 
 2j-5 
 
 JI-9 
 
 24-1 
 
 31-5 
 
 246 
 
 311 
 
 25-2 
 
 30-6 
 
 25-7 
 
 50 
 
 40-5 
 
 29-4 
 
 39-9 
 
 30-I 
 
 39-4 
 
 30-8 
 
 33-9 
 
 31-5 
 
 38-3 
 
 321 
 
 6o 
 
 48-5 
 
 35J 
 
 4"-9 
 
 36-1 
 
 47-3 
 
 36-9 
 
 46-6 
 
 37-8 
 
 46-0 
 
 33-6 
 
 ■JO 
 
 56-6 
 
 41-1 
 
 5; -9 
 
 42-1 
 
 55-2 
 
 43-1 
 
 54-4 
 
 44-1 
 
 5; -6 
 
 45-0 
 
 8o 
 
 64-7 
 
 47-0 
 
 63-9 
 
 48-1 
 
 63-0 
 
 49-3 
 
 62-2 
 
 50-3 
 
 61-3 
 
 5'-4 
 
 ")0 
 
 72-8 
 
 52-9 
 
 71-9 
 
 54-2 
 
 70-9 
 
 55-4 
 
 69-9 
 
 56-6 
 
 68-9 
 
 57-9 
 
 lOO 
 
 80-9 
 
 58-8 
 
 wg 
 
 60-2 
 
 73-8 
 
 61-6 
 
 77-7 
 
 629 
 
 76-6 
 
 64-3 
 
 2CO 
 
 i6i-8 
 
 117-6 
 
 159-7 
 
 120-4 
 
 157-6 
 
 123-1 
 
 155-4 
 
 125-9 
 
 151-2 
 
 128-6 
 
 JOO 
 
 242-7 
 
 176-3 
 
 239-6 
 
 180-5 
 
 236-4 
 
 184-7 
 
 233 I 
 
 188-8 
 
 2:9-8 
 
 192-8 
 
 400 
 
 ni-(> 
 
 23; -I 
 
 319-5 
 
 240-7 
 
 315-2 
 
 24'>-3 
 
 310-9 
 
 251-7 
 
 3o'v4 
 
 257-1 
 
 500 
 
 404-5 
 
 293-9 
 
 399-3 
 
 300-9 
 
 394-0 
 
 307-8 
 
 388-6 
 
 314-7 
 
 383-0 
 
 321-4 
 
 60 D 
 
 48,-4 
 
 i52"7 
 
 479-2 
 
 361 -I 
 
 472-8 
 
 369-4 
 
 466-3 
 
 377-6 
 
 459-6 
 
 385-7 
 
 7 CO 
 
 566-3 
 
 411-4 
 
 559-0 
 
 421-3 
 
 551-6 
 
 4310 
 
 544-0 
 
 440-5 
 
 5J5-2 
 
 450-0 
 
 8oo 
 
 647-2 
 
 470-2 
 
 638 -9 
 
 481-5 
 
 630-4 
 
 492-5 
 
 621-7 
 
 503-5 
 
 612-8 
 
 514-2 
 
 900 
 
 728-1 
 
 529-0 
 
 718-8 
 
 541-6 
 
 709-2 
 
 554-1 
 
 699-4 
 
 566-4 
 
 639-4 
 
 578-5 
 
 
 D?p. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 D.p. 
 
 L:U. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dop. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat 
 
 i). 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 54 1 
 
 X^2. 
 
 53 1 
 
 > K- 
 
 ;: [ 
 
 ),.m;_ 
 
 ;i 1 
 
 ' -• 
 
 5? I 
 
 )eg.
 
 TABLKS. 
 
 303 
 
 TA!ii,i; XXI. {fnuliiiiiiil). — TiJAVKKSK Tai;!,!; : Diffciium nf Liditiiiln end 
 
 J)l [KlliHl' . 
 
 1). 
 
 41 l'"g. 
 
 42 Deg. 
 
 4 J Ueg. 
 
 44 l^«o'- 
 
 45 Lieg. 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 I)?l>. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 I 
 
 O0-3 
 
 00-7 
 
 00-7 
 
 00-7 
 
 00-7 
 
 OD-7 
 
 00-7 
 
 00-7 
 
 O0-7 
 
 00-7 
 
 2 
 
 01 -5 
 
 01 -J 
 
 01-5 
 
 oi-i 
 
 CI -5 
 
 01-4 
 
 01-4 
 
 CI 4 
 
 01-4 
 
 CI -4 
 
 3 
 
 oi-j 
 
 02-0 
 
 02-2 
 
 02-0 
 
 02-2 
 
 02-0 
 
 02-2 
 
 02 I 
 
 02-1 
 
 02-1 
 
 4 
 
 Oi'O 
 
 02-6 
 
 03-0 
 
 02-7 
 
 02-9 
 
 02-7 
 
 02-9 
 
 02-3 
 
 02-8 
 
 02-8 
 
 5 
 
 o;-8 
 
 o}-} 
 
 oj-7 
 
 oj-j 
 
 03 ■ 7 
 
 03-4 
 
 03-6 
 
 03-5 
 
 03-5 
 
 o;-5 
 
 6 
 
 04-5 
 
 0J-9 
 
 04-5 
 
 04-0 
 
 04-4 
 
 04-1 
 
 04-3 
 
 04-2 
 
 04-2 
 
 04-2 
 
 7 
 
 05-J- 
 
 04-6 
 
 05-2 
 
 04-7 
 
 05-1 
 
 04-8 
 
 05-0 
 
 04-9 
 
 04-9 
 
 04-9 
 
 8 
 
 o5"o 
 
 05-2 
 
 05-9 
 
 05-4 
 
 C5-9 
 
 05-5 
 
 05-8 
 
 05 -6 
 
 05-7 
 
 05-7 
 
 y 
 
 o6-8 
 
 05-9 
 
 0G-7 
 
 06-0 
 
 o')-6 
 
 06-1 
 
 06-5 
 
 06-3 
 
 06-4 
 
 0^.-4 
 
 lO 
 
 o7*5 
 
 06 -6 
 
 07 4 
 
 06-7 
 
 07-j 
 
 06-8 
 
 07-2 
 
 05-9 
 
 07-1 
 
 07-1 - 
 
 20 
 
 15-1 
 
 ij-i 
 
 14-9 
 
 ir4 
 
 14-6 
 
 13-6 
 
 14-4 
 
 13-9 
 
 I4-I 
 
 14-1 
 
 ^o 
 
 22-6 
 
 iy-7 
 
 22-j 
 
 20-1 
 
 21-9 
 
 20-5 
 
 21-6 
 
 20-3 
 
 21-2 
 
 21-2 
 
 4^ 
 
 30-2 
 
 26-2 
 
 29-7 
 
 26-8 
 
 29-j 
 
 27-3 
 
 28-8 
 
 27-3 
 
 23-3 
 
 28-3 
 
 50 
 
 i7-7 
 
 J2-8 
 
 J7-2 
 
 irj 
 
 36-6 
 
 34-1 
 
 36-0 
 
 34-7 
 
 35-4 
 
 35-4 
 
 6o 
 
 45-3 
 
 39-4 
 
 446 
 
 40-1 
 
 45-9 
 
 40-9 
 
 45-2 
 
 41-7 
 
 4--4 
 
 42-4 
 
 'O 
 
 52-8 
 
 45-9 
 
 52-0 
 
 46-8 
 
 51-2 
 
 47-7 
 
 50-4 
 
 48-6 
 
 49-5 
 
 49-5 
 
 8o 
 
 60-4 
 
 52-5 
 
 59-5 
 
 53-5 
 
 58-5 
 
 54-6 
 
 57-5 
 
 55-6 
 
 56-6 
 
 50-6 
 
 <P 
 
 67-9 
 
 59-0 
 
 66-9 
 
 60-2 
 
 65-8 
 
 61 -4 
 
 64-7 
 
 62-5 
 
 63-6 
 
 63-6 
 
 1C<3 
 
 7i'5 
 
 65-6 
 
 74- i 
 
 66-9 
 
 'J-i 
 
 68-2 
 
 71-9 
 
 69-5 
 
 70-7 
 
 70-7 
 
 loo 
 
 150-9 
 
 i;i-2 
 
 148-6 
 
 liJ-8 
 
 146-3 
 
 136-4 
 
 MJ-y 
 
 138-9 
 
 141-4 
 
 141-4 
 
 JOO 
 
 226-4 
 
 196-8 
 
 222 9 
 
 200-7 
 
 219-4 
 
 204-6 
 
 215-8 
 
 2o3-4 
 
 2I2-I 
 
 212-1 
 
 400 
 
 joi-9 
 
 262-4 
 
 297 -J 
 
 267-7 
 
 292-5 
 
 272-8 
 
 287-7 
 
 277-9 
 
 282-8 
 
 282-8 
 
 P3 
 
 rrr-i 
 
 J28-0 
 
 371-6 
 
 3}rf> 
 
 365-7 
 
 34t-o 
 
 359-7 
 
 347-3 
 
 35 J -6 
 
 353-6 
 
 God 
 
 452-8 
 
 }<);■(> 
 
 445-9 
 
 401-5 
 
 4J8-8 
 
 409-2 
 
 4?i-6 
 
 416-8 
 
 424-3 
 
 42-1-3 
 
 700 
 
 528-i 
 
 459-2 
 
 520-2 
 
 468-4 
 
 511-9 
 
 477-4 
 
 503-5 
 
 486-3 
 
 495-0 
 
 495 -o 
 
 803 
 
 60; -3 
 
 524-8 
 
 594-5 
 
 5J5-J 
 
 535-1 
 
 545-6 
 
 575-5 
 
 555-7 
 
 565-7 
 
 565-7 
 
 goo 
 
 679-2 
 
 590-5 
 
 668-8 
 
 602-2 
 
 653-2 
 
 613-8 
 
 647-4 
 
 625-2 
 
 636-4 
 
 636-4 
 
 D. 
 
 D.p. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Laf. 
 
 Dep. 
 47 I 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Dep. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 D-p- 
 
 Lat. 
 
 49 E 
 
 e,. 
 
 431 
 
 )sg. 
 
 46 I 
 
 )ii. 
 
 45 I 
 
 eg.
 
 304 
 
 HINTS TO I'KAVKLLERS. 
 
 Tablk XXII. — Natural Sinks, Tangents, Secants. et< 
 
 l)eg. 
 
 1 ^. 
 Sine. 
 
 Cosec. 
 
 Tan. 
 
 Cotaii. 
 
 Sf<:ai,t. 
 
 Co.-iii. 
 
 
 o 
 
 o-oo 
 
 infinite. 
 
 o-oo 
 
 infinite. 
 
 I-OOOOO 
 
 1-00000 
 
 90 
 
 I 
 
 0-0174; 
 
 57-2986 
 
 0-01745 
 
 57-2899 
 
 I -00015 
 
 0-99984 
 
 89 
 
 2 
 
 o-o;489 
 
 28-6537 
 
 0-03492 
 
 28-6362 
 
 1 -00060 
 
 0-99939 
 
 88 
 
 J 
 
 o-o52i? 
 
 19-107J 
 
 0-05240 
 
 19-0811 
 
 I -00157 
 
 0-99862 
 
 87 
 
 4 
 
 0-06975 
 
 i4-»5; 
 
 0-06992 
 
 14-3006 
 
 1-00244 
 
 0-99756 
 
 86 
 
 ? 
 
 o-o87i; 
 
 II-47J7 
 
 0-08748 
 
 H-4J03 
 
 1-00381 
 
 0-99619 
 
 85 
 
 6 
 
 0-10452 
 
 9-5667 
 
 0-10510 
 
 9-5m 
 
 1-00550 
 
 0-99452 
 
 84 
 
 1 
 
 0-12186 
 
 8-2055 
 
 0-12278 
 
 8- 144 J 
 
 1-00750 
 
 0-99254 
 
 83 
 
 8 
 
 0-U917 
 
 7-1852 
 
 0-14054 
 
 7-115} 
 
 1-00982 
 
 0-99026 
 
 82 
 
 9 
 
 o-i?64} 
 0-17364 
 
 6-3924 
 
 0-15838 
 
 6-3137 
 
 I -01246 
 
 0-98768 
 
 Rl 
 
 10 
 
 5-7587 
 
 0-17632 
 
 5-6712 
 
 1-01542 
 
 0-98480 
 
 80 
 
 II 
 
 0-19080 
 
 5-2408 
 
 0-19438 
 
 5-1445 
 
 1-01871 
 
 0-98162 
 
 79 
 
 12 
 
 0-20791 
 
 4-8097 
 
 0-21255 
 
 4-7046 
 
 I -02234 
 
 0-97814 
 
 78 
 
 IJ 
 
 0-22495 
 
 4-4454 
 
 0-23086 
 
 4-3JI4 
 
 1-02630 
 
 Q-974J7 
 
 77 
 
 14 
 
 0-24192 
 
 4i»5 
 
 0-24932 
 
 4-0107 
 
 1-OJ06I 
 
 0-97029 
 
 •J6 
 
 If 
 
 0-25881 
 
 3-8637 
 
 0-26794 
 
 3-7J20 
 
 1-03527 
 
 0-96592 
 
 75 
 
 16 
 
 0-2756J 
 
 3-6279 
 
 0-28674 
 
 3-4874 
 
 1-04029 
 
 0-96126 
 
 74 
 
 17 
 
 0-29237 
 
 3-4203 
 
 0-30573 
 
 3-2708 
 
 1-04569 
 
 0-95630 
 
 73 
 
 18 
 
 0-J0901 
 
 3-2360 
 
 0-32491 
 
 3-0776 
 
 1-05146 
 
 0-95105 
 
 72 
 
 19 
 
 ■ 0-32556 
 
 3-0715 
 
 o-344?2 
 0-36397 
 
 2-9042 
 
 1-05762 
 
 0-94551 
 
 71 
 
 20 
 
 0-34202 
 
 2-9238 
 
 2-7474 
 
 I -06417 
 
 0-95969 
 
 7o 
 
 21 
 
 0-35836 
 
 2-7904 
 
 0-38386 
 
 2-6050 
 
 1-07114 
 
 0-9JJ58 
 
 69 
 
 22 
 
 0-37460 
 
 2-6694 
 
 0-40402 
 
 2-4750 
 
 1-0785} 
 
 0-92781 
 
 68 
 
 2} 
 
 0-39073 
 
 2-559J 
 
 0-42447 
 
 2-3558 
 
 I -08636 
 
 0-92059 
 
 67 
 
 24 
 
 0-40673 
 
 2-4585 
 
 0-4^522 
 0-46630 
 
 2-2460 
 
 I -09463 
 
 0-91354 
 
 66 
 
 25 
 
 0-42261 
 
 2-3662 
 
 2-1445 
 
 1-10337 
 
 0-90630 
 
 65 
 
 26 
 
 0-43837 
 
 2-2811 
 
 0-48773 
 
 2-0503 
 
 I-II260 
 
 0-89879 
 
 64 
 
 27 
 
 0-45399 
 
 2-2026 
 
 0-50952 
 
 1-9626 
 
 I-I2232 
 
 0-89100 
 
 63 
 
 28 
 
 0-46947 
 
 2-1300 
 
 0-53170 
 
 1-8807 
 
 I-I3257 
 
 0-88294 
 
 62 
 
 29 
 
 0-48480 
 
 2-0626 
 
 0-55430 
 
 I • 8040 
 
 J-I4J35 
 
 0-87461 
 
 61 
 
 30 
 
 0-50030 
 
 2-0300 
 
 0-57735 
 
 1-7320 
 
 1-15470 
 
 0-86602 
 
 • 60 
 
 31 
 
 0-51503 
 
 I -9416 
 
 0-60086 
 
 1-6642 
 
 1-16663 
 
 0-85716 
 
 59 
 
 J2 
 
 0-52991 
 
 1-8870 
 
 0-62486 
 
 1-6003 
 
 1-17917 
 
 0-84804 
 
 58 
 
 JJ 
 
 0-54463 
 
 1-8360 
 
 0-64940 
 
 1-5398 
 
 I -19236 
 
 0-83867 
 
 57 
 
 ^4 
 
 0-55919 
 
 1-7882 
 
 0-67450 
 
 1-4825 
 
 I -20621 
 
 O'829o} 
 
 56 
 
 ii 
 
 0-57J57 
 
 I-74J4 
 
 0-70020 
 
 I -4281 
 
 1-22077 
 
 0-81915 
 
 55 
 
 J6 
 
 0-58778 
 
 1-7013 
 
 0-72654 
 
 1-3763 
 
 1-23606 
 
 0-80901 
 
 54 
 
 J 7 
 
 o-6oi8l 
 
 I -6616 
 
 0-75J55 
 
 1-3270 
 
 1-25213 
 
 0-79863 
 
 5J 
 
 J8 
 
 0-61566 
 
 1-6242 
 
 0-78128 
 
 1-2799 
 
 I - 26<pi 
 
 0-78801 
 
 52 
 
 i9 
 
 0-62952 
 
 1-5890 
 
 0-80978 
 
 1-2348 
 
 1-28675 
 
 0-77714 
 
 51 
 
 40 
 
 0-64278 
 
 1-5557 
 
 0-83909 
 
 1-1917 
 
 1-30540 
 
 0-76604 
 
 50 
 
 41 
 
 o-6;6o5 
 
 1-5242 
 
 0-86928 
 
 1-1503 
 
 1-32501 
 
 0-75470 
 
 49 
 
 42 
 
 0-66913 
 
 1-4944 
 
 0-90040 
 
 1-1106 
 
 I-J4563 
 
 0-74314 
 
 48 
 
 4J 
 
 0-68199 
 
 1-4662 
 
 0-93251 
 
 1-0723 
 
 1-36732 
 
 0-73135 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 0-69465 
 
 •-4595 
 
 0-96568 
 
 1-OJ55 
 
 I -39016 
 
 0-71953 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 0-70710 
 
 1-4142 
 
 1-00300 
 
 I -OODO 
 
 I-4I42I 
 
 0-70710 
 
 45 
 
 1 CosiE. 
 
 Secant. 
 
 Cotan. 
 
 Tan. 
 
 Cosoc. j 
 
 Sine. 
 
 Deg.
 
 TABLES. 
 
 305 
 
 Table XXIII. 
 
 T' = A 
 
 pprox. 
 
 
 
 
 B = 
 
 Mean 
 
 OF Secoot) Differences. 
 
 
 
 
 Lonf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 Time. 
 
 im 
 
 2" 
 
 jm 
 
 4- 
 
 5m 
 
 6m 
 
 ,m 
 
 8m 
 
 9m 
 
 lom iim 
 
 12m 
 
 H. M. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 ~~7" 
 
 '^ 
 
 " 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 0. o 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 O.IO 
 
 II-50 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.1 
 
 4-5 
 
 4.9 
 
 0.20 
 
 ir.40 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.4 
 
 J. 2 
 
 4.1 
 
 4-9 
 
 5-7 
 
 6.5 
 
 7-3 
 
 8.1 
 
 8.9 
 
 9-7 
 
 o.^o 
 
 II. io 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 }.e 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.0 
 
 7-2 
 
 8.4 
 
 9.6 
 
 10.8 
 
 12.0 
 
 IJ.2 
 
 14.4 
 
 0.40 
 
 11.20 
 
 1.6 
 
 J.I 
 
 4-7 
 
 6. J 
 
 7-9 
 
 9-4 
 
 II. 
 
 12.6 
 
 14.2 
 
 15.7 
 
 17-3 
 
 18.9 
 
 0.50 
 
 II. 10 
 
 1-9 
 
 3-9 
 
 5.8 
 
 7.8 
 
 9-7 
 
 II. 6 
 
 IJ.6 
 
 15.5 
 
 17.4 
 
 19.4 
 
 21. J 
 
 23.3 
 
 1. 
 
 II. 
 
 2. J 
 
 4.6 
 
 6.9 
 
 9.2 
 
 11.5 
 
 ii-7 
 
 16.0 
 
 18. J 
 
 20.6 
 
 22.9 
 
 25.2 
 
 27-5 
 
 1. 10 
 
 10.50 
 
 2.6 
 
 5-3 
 
 7-9 
 
 10.5 
 
 IJ.2 
 
 15.8 
 
 18.4 
 
 21. 1 
 
 2J.7 
 
 26.J 
 
 29.0 J1.6 
 
 1.20 
 
 10.40 
 
 J.O 
 
 5-9 
 
 8.9 
 
 11.9 
 
 14.8 
 
 17.8 
 
 20.7 
 
 2J.7 
 
 26.7 
 
 29.6 
 
 J2.6 
 
 J5.6 
 
 l.io 
 
 10. JO 
 
 }.} 
 
 6.6 
 
 9.8 
 
 13.1 
 
 16.4 
 
 19.7 
 
 2J.O 
 
 26.2 
 
 29.5 
 
 J2.8 
 
 j6.i 
 
 39-4 
 
 1.40 
 
 10.20 
 
 J.6 
 
 7-2 
 
 10.8 
 
 14.4 
 
 17.9 
 
 21.5 
 
 25.1 
 
 28.7 
 
 32.J 
 
 35-9 
 
 39-5 
 
 43-1 
 
 1.50 
 
 10.10 
 
 }-9 
 
 7.8 
 
 11.6 
 
 15.5 
 
 19.4 
 
 2J.J 
 
 27.2 
 
 JI.I 
 
 34-9 
 
 j8.8 
 
 42.7 
 
 46.6 
 
 2. 
 
 10. 
 
 4.2 
 
 8. J 
 
 12.5 
 
 16.7 
 
 20.8 
 
 25.0 
 
 29.2 
 
 3!. 3 
 
 37-5 
 
 41.7 
 
 45.8 
 
 50.0 
 
 2.10 
 
 9.50 
 
 4.4 
 
 8.9 
 
 I}. 3 
 
 17.8 
 
 22.2 
 
 26.6 
 
 il.I 
 
 3S-S 
 
 39.9 
 
 44.4 
 
 48.8 
 
 53.J 
 
 2.20 
 
 9.40 
 
 4-7 
 
 9.4 
 
 14. 1 
 
 18.8 
 
 2i-S 
 
 28.2 
 
 32.9 
 
 31.6 
 
 42.3 
 
 47-0 
 
 51.7 
 
 56.4 
 
 2.iO 
 
 9.30 
 
 4-9 
 
 9.9 
 
 14.8 
 
 19.8 
 
 24.7 
 
 29.7 
 
 M-6 
 
 39-6 
 
 44-5 
 
 49-5 
 
 54-4 
 
 59-4 
 
 2.40 
 
 9.20 
 
 5-2 
 
 10.4 
 
 15.6 
 
 20.7 
 
 25.9 
 
 JI.I 
 
 J6.j 
 
 41. 5 
 
 46.7 
 
 51.9 57.0 
 
 62.2 
 
 2.50 
 
 9.10 
 
 5-4 
 
 10.8 
 
 16.2 
 
 21.6 
 
 27.1 
 
 32.5 
 
 31-9 
 
 4J.3 
 
 48.7 
 
 54.1 49.5 64.9 
 
 }. 
 
 9. 
 
 5.6 
 
 II. 2 
 
 16.9 
 
 22.5 
 
 28.1 
 
 JJ-7 
 
 39-i 
 
 45.0 
 
 50.6 
 
 56.2 61.9 67.5 
 
 MO 
 
 8.50 
 
 5.8 
 
 II. 7 
 
 17-5 
 
 2J.J 
 
 29.1 
 
 J5.0 
 
 40.8 
 
 46.6 
 
 52.4 
 
 53. J 64.1 
 
 69.9 
 
 ?.20 
 
 8.40 
 
 6.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 18. 1 
 
 24.1 
 
 JO. I 
 
 j6.i 
 
 42.1 
 
 43.1 
 
 54.2 
 
 60.2 66.2 
 
 72.2 
 
 }.io 
 
 8. JO 
 
 6.2 
 
 12.4 
 
 18.6 
 
 24.8 
 
 JI.O 
 
 J7-2 
 
 45-4 
 
 49.6 
 
 55.8 
 
 62.0 68.2 
 
 74-4 
 
 J. 40 
 
 8.20 
 
 6.4 
 
 12.7 
 
 19. 1 
 
 25-5 
 
 JI.8 
 
 J8.2 
 
 44.6 
 
 50.9 
 
 57-3 
 
 63.7 
 
 70.0 
 
 76.4 
 
 i.50 
 
 8.10 
 
 6.5 
 
 IJ.O 
 
 19.6 
 
 26.1 
 
 J2.6 
 
 J9-I 
 
 4;-7 
 
 52.2 
 
 S8.7 
 
 65.2 
 
 71.7 
 
 78.J 
 
 4. 
 
 8. 
 
 6.7 
 
 IS-} 
 
 20.0 
 
 26.7 
 
 33-3 
 
 40.0 
 
 46.7 
 
 53.3 
 
 60.0 
 
 66.7 
 
 73-3 
 
 80.0 
 
 4.20 
 
 7.40 
 
 6.9 
 
 IJ.8 
 
 20.8 
 
 27.7 
 
 J4.6 
 
 41-5 
 
 48.4 
 
 55.4 
 
 62. J 
 
 69.2 
 
 76.1 
 
 8J.1 
 
 4.40 
 
 7.20 
 
 7-1 
 
 14.J 
 
 21.4 
 
 28.5 
 
 3S.6 
 
 42.8 
 
 49-9 
 
 S7.0 
 
 64.2 
 
 71.3 
 
 78.4 
 
 85.6 
 
 5. 
 
 7. 
 
 7-3 
 
 14.6 
 
 21.9 
 
 29.2 
 
 36-5 
 
 4J-7 
 
 51.0 
 
 S8.3 
 
 65.6 
 
 72.9 
 
 80.2 
 
 87.5 
 
 5.20 
 
 6,40 
 
 7-4 
 
 14.8 
 
 22.2 
 
 29.6 
 
 31.0 
 
 44.4 
 
 51.9 
 
 59-3 
 
 66.7 
 
 74.1 
 
 81. 5 
 
 88.9 
 
 5.40 
 
 6.20 
 
 7-5 
 
 15.0 
 
 22.4 
 
 29.9 
 
 i7-4 
 
 44.9 
 
 52.3 
 
 59-8 
 
 67.3 
 
 74.8 
 
 82.2 
 
 89.7 
 
 6. 
 
 6. 
 
 7-5 
 
 15.0 
 
 22.5 
 
 JO.O 
 
 37-5 
 
 45 -o 
 
 52.5 
 
 60.0 
 
 67.5 
 
 75.0 
 
 "•' 
 
 90.0
 
 306 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Table XXIII. (continued). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T = Approx. 
 ■ Long, in 
 
 
 a = MEAN OP SECOND L>IFFEKENCE8. 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 Tiine; 
 
 ^O'oo 
 
 20««<= 
 
 jbceo 
 
 40S?o 50»ec 
 
 isec 
 
 2"o 
 
 3.eo 
 
 4»eo '5M0 
 
 6"ec 
 
 l,.ec 
 
 ! 8"o 
 
 ' n'f 
 
 H. Mi 
 
 H. M. 
 
 « 
 
 n 
 
 li n II 
 
 II 
 
 // // 
 
 It 1 // 
 
 t " 
 
 • /, 
 
 /' 
 
 >• 
 
 p. 
 
 12. 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 0.0 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 0.0 
 
 0.0 ' 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 O.IO 
 
 11.50 
 
 O.I 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 O.J O.J 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 0.0 
 
 0.0 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.20 
 
 11.40 
 
 O.I 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 0.5 , 0.7 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 i 0.0 
 
 0.1 0.1 
 
 O.I 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.1 
 
 O.I 
 
 O.JO 
 
 11.30 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.6 0.8 I.O 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 I O.I 
 
 0.1 0.1 
 
 O.I 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.40 
 
 11.20 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.8 I.O I.J 
 
 0.0 j O.I O.I 
 
 0.1 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.50 
 
 II. 10 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.6 
 
 I.O , I.J 1.6 
 
 0.0 O.I 1 O.I 
 
 0.1 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 O.J 
 
 I. 
 
 11. 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.8 
 
 I.I 1.5 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.0 O.I j O.I 
 
 0.2 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 O.J 
 
 O.J 
 
 1. 10 
 
 10.50 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.9 
 
 I.J 1.8 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 O.I i O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.20 
 
 10.40 
 
 0.5 
 
 I.O 
 
 1.5 1 2.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 O.I i-O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 . I. JO 
 
 10. JO 
 
 0.5 
 
 I.I 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.2 
 
 2-7 
 
 O.I 
 
 0,1 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 O.S 
 
 ^ 1 ,40 
 
 10.20 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.6 
 
 O.I 
 
 O.I { 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 O.S 
 
 0.5 
 
 . 1.50 
 
 10.10 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 O.I 
 
 O.I \ 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 2. 
 
 10. 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.5 
 
 O.I 
 
 O.I 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.10 
 
 9.50 
 
 0.7 
 
 1-5 
 
 2.2 J.O 
 
 3.7 
 
 O.I 
 
 O.I 1 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.20 
 
 9.40 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 2. J 3.1 
 
 3-9 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 1 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 O.S 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 2. JO 
 
 9. JO 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.5 3. J 
 
 4-1 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.40 
 
 9.20 
 
 0.9 
 
 1-7 
 
 2.6 J. 5 
 
 4-3 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 O.J 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 O.S 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.50 
 
 9.10 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.7 J. 6 
 
 4-5 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 J. 
 
 9. 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.8 J. 7 
 
 4-7 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 J. 10 
 
 8.50 
 
 I.O 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.9 J. 9 
 
 4.9 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 J. 20 
 
 8.40 
 
 I.O 
 
 2.0 
 
 J.O 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 1 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 3.30 
 
 8. JO 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.1 
 
 J.I 4.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 3.40 
 
 8.20 
 
 I.I 
 
 2.1 
 
 J. 2 4.2 
 
 5-3 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 I.O 
 
 3.50 
 
 8.10 
 
 I.I 
 
 2.2 
 
 i-i 4-3 
 
 5-4 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 I.O 
 
 4. 
 
 8. 
 
 I.I 
 
 2.2 
 
 i-i 4-4 
 
 5.6 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 I.O 
 
 4.20 
 
 7.40 
 
 1.2 
 
 2. J 
 
 3.5 4-6 
 
 5.8 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 O.J 
 
 o.S 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 I.O 
 
 4.40 
 
 7.20 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.6 4.8 
 
 5-9 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0-8 
 
 I.O 
 
 I.I 
 
 5- 
 
 7. 1.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.6 4-9 
 
 6.1 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 O.S 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 I.O 
 
 I.I 
 
 6. 
 
 6. 1.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.7 5-0 
 
 6.2 
 
 O.I 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 0.9 \ I.O 
 
 I.I
 
 TABLES. 
 
 307 
 
 Table XXIV.— Angles subtended by a 10-ft. Eod at Distances feom 
 50 TO 1500 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Feet. ' 
 
 A 
 
 ngU 
 
 
 Feet. 1 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 ingl 
 
 e. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 
 / II 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 
 1 II 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 // 
 
 
 1 n 
 
 50 
 
 11 27 ij 
 
 92 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 24 
 
 144 
 
 
 58 44 
 
 191 
 
 2 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 276 
 
 2 4 33 
 
 SI 
 
 II 14 4 
 
 98 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 145 
 
 
 57 5 
 
 192 
 
 2 
 
 59 
 
 3 
 
 278 
 
 2 3 39 
 
 52 
 
 II I 7 
 
 99 
 
 5 
 
 47 
 
 15 
 
 146 
 
 
 55 28 
 
 193 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 7 
 
 280 
 
 2 2 46 
 
 53 
 
 10 48 38 
 
 100 
 
 5 
 
 43 
 
 46 
 
 147 
 
 
 53 51 
 
 194 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 12 
 
 282 
 
 2 I 54 
 
 54 
 
 10 j6 34 
 
 lOI 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 148 
 
 
 52 17 
 
 195 
 
 2 
 
 56 
 
 i3 
 
 284 
 
 2 12 
 
 55 1 
 
 10 25 3 
 
 102 
 
 5 
 
 37 
 
 32 
 
 149 
 
 
 50 43 
 
 196 
 
 2 
 
 55 
 
 23 
 
 286 
 
 2 12 
 
 56 ' 
 
 10 ij 5i 
 
 103 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 45 
 
 150 
 
 
 49 " 
 
 197 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 36 
 
 288 
 
 I 59 22 
 
 57 
 
 10 3 7 
 
 104 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 151 
 
 
 47 38 
 
 198 
 
 2 
 
 53 
 
 37 
 
 290 
 
 I 58 32 
 
 58 
 
 9 52 43 
 
 105 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 152 
 
 
 46 10 
 
 199 
 
 2 
 
 52 
 
 49 
 
 292 
 
 I 57 44 
 
 59 
 
 9 42 40 
 
 106 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 153 
 
 
 44 41 
 
 200 
 
 2 
 
 51 
 
 53 
 
 294 
 296 
 
 I 56 55 
 
 6o 
 
 9 n 58 
 
 107 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 154 
 
 
 43 12 
 
 202 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 IJ 
 
 I 56 8 
 
 6i 
 
 9 23 ^4 
 
 108 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 155 
 
 
 41 47 
 
 204 
 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 293 
 
 I 55 21 
 
 62 
 
 9 14 28 
 
 109 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 156 
 
 
 40 22 
 
 206 
 
 2 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 300 
 
 I 54 35 
 
 6j 
 
 9 5 42 
 
 no 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 157 
 
 
 38 58 
 
 208 
 
 2 
 
 45 
 
 16 
 
 302 
 
 I 5? 49 
 
 64 
 
 8 57 9 
 
 III 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 42 
 
 158 
 
 
 37 34 
 
 210 
 
 2 
 
 4J 
 
 42 
 
 304 
 
 I 5! 5 
 
 65 
 
 8 48 53 
 
 112 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 56 
 
 159 
 
 
 36 12 
 
 212 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 
 306 
 
 I 52 20 
 
 66 
 
 8 40 52 
 
 113 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 160 
 
 
 34 51 
 
 l\t 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 38 
 
 308 
 
 I 51 36 
 
 6-, 
 
 8 33 6 
 
 114 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 33 
 
 161 
 
 3 
 
 a n 
 
 2 
 
 39 
 
 8 
 
 310 
 
 I 50 53 
 
 68 
 
 8 25 33 
 
 11; 
 
 4 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 162 
 
 3 
 
 }2 12 
 
 218 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 312 
 
 I 50 II 
 
 69 
 
 8 18 ij 
 
 116 
 
 4 
 
 56 
 
 21 
 
 163 
 
 
 30 54 
 
 220 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 316 
 
 I 49 29 
 
 70 
 
 8 II 7 
 
 117 
 
 4 
 
 53 
 
 50 
 
 164 
 
 
 29 37 
 
 222 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 51 
 
 I 48 47 
 
 71 
 
 8 4 II 
 
 118 
 
 4 
 
 51 
 
 20 
 
 165 
 
 
 23 ■ 21 
 
 226 
 
 2 
 
 3i 
 
 28 
 
 318 
 
 I 48 6 
 
 1^ 
 
 7 57 28 
 
 119 
 
 4 
 
 "•l 
 
 57 
 
 166 
 
 
 27 5 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 320 
 
 I 47 25 
 
 73 
 
 7 50 56 
 
 120 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 29 
 
 167 
 
 
 25 52 
 
 228 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 46 
 
 322 
 
 I 46 45 
 
 74 
 
 7 44 34 
 
 121 
 
 4 
 
 44 
 
 6 
 
 168 
 
 
 24 38 
 
 230 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 32^ 
 326 
 
 I 46 6 
 
 75 
 
 7 38 22 
 
 122 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 47 
 
 169 
 
 
 23 25 
 
 2J2 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 I 45 27 
 
 76 
 
 7 32 20 
 
 I2J 
 
 4 
 
 39 
 
 29 
 
 170 
 
 
 22 13 
 
 234 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 55 
 
 328 
 
 I 44 48 
 
 77 
 
 7 26 28 
 
 124 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 14 
 
 171 
 
 
 21 2 
 
 236 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 330 
 
 I 44 10 
 
 78 
 
 7 20 44 
 
 12? 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 I 
 
 172 
 
 
 19 52 
 
 238 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 332 
 
 I 4J 32 
 
 P 
 
 7 15 9 
 
 126 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 51 
 
 i"J 
 
 
 18 13 
 
 240 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 336 
 
 I 42 56 
 
 80 
 
 7 9 43 
 
 127 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 174 
 
 
 17 34 
 
 242 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 r 42 19 
 
 81 
 
 7 4 25 
 
 128 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 
 '■'I 
 
 
 16 26 
 
 11^ 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 338 
 
 I 41 42 
 
 82 
 
 6 59 14 
 
 129 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 
 176 
 
 
 15 19 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 44 
 
 340 
 
 I 41 6 
 
 8} 
 
 6 54 II 
 
 130 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 177 
 
 
 14 13 
 
 248 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 37 
 
 342 
 
 I 40 31 
 
 84 
 
 6 49 16 
 
 IJI 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 178 
 
 
 13 8 
 
 250 
 
 2 
 
 '7 
 
 30 
 
 344 
 
 I 39 56 
 
 85 
 
 6 44 26 
 
 132 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 179 
 
 
 12 3 
 
 252 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 346 
 
 I 39 (> 
 
 86 
 
 6 39 44 
 
 13} 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 180 
 
 
 10 59 
 
 254 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 348 
 
 I 38 47 
 
 87 
 
 6 35 8 
 
 134 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 33 
 
 181 
 
 
 9 56 
 
 256 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 350 
 
 I 38 13 
 
 88 
 
 6 30 39 
 
 135 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 39 
 
 182 
 
 
 8 53 
 
 258 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 352 
 
 I 37 39 
 
 89 
 
 6 26 16 
 
 136 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 46 
 
 183 
 
 
 7 51 
 
 260 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 354 
 
 I 37 6 
 
 90 
 
 6 21 59 
 
 137 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 5^ 
 
 184 
 
 3 
 
 6 50 
 
 262 
 
 2 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 356 
 
 I 36 34 
 
 91 
 
 6 17 46 
 
 138 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 185 
 
 
 5 49 
 
 266 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 358 
 
 I 36 I 
 
 92 
 
 6 13 40 
 
 139 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 186 
 
 
 4 49 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 360 
 
 1 35 29 
 
 93 
 
 6 9 39 
 
 140 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 187 
 
 J 
 
 3 50 
 
 268 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 362 
 
 I 34 58 
 
 94 
 
 6 5 43 
 
 141 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 188 
 
 3 
 
 2 51 
 
 270 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 364 
 366 
 
 I 34 26 
 
 95 
 
 6 I 52 
 
 142 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 189 
 
 
 I 53 
 
 272 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 I 3J 55 
 
 96 
 
 5 ;8 6 
 
 143 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 190 
 
 
 56 
 
 274 
 
 2 
 
 ^ 
 
 28 
 
 368 
 
 I 33 25 
 
 Y 2
 
 308 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Table XXIV. (continued). — Angles subtended by a IO-it. Rod at 
 Distances prom 50 to 1500 Fei:t. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 ■ Aiiglfi. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 AngI 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Angl 
 
 e. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 
 / 
 
 n 
 
 
 / 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 // 
 
 
 / II 
 
 no 
 
 I n 
 
 54 
 
 495 
 
 1 9 
 
 27 
 
 666 ' 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 37 
 
 941 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 1224 
 
 28 5 
 
 ii^ 
 
 I J2 
 
 24 
 
 498 
 
 I 9 
 
 2 
 
 672 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 9 
 
 948 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 I2JO 
 
 27 57 
 
 Jib 
 
 I n 
 
 55 
 
 501 
 
 I H 
 
 37 
 
 678 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 42 
 
 954 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 1236 
 
 27 49 
 
 I 3t 
 
 25 
 
 504 
 
 I 8 
 
 12 
 
 684 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 960 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 48 
 
 1242 
 
 27 41 
 
 Hi 
 
 I 30 
 
 56 
 
 507 
 
 I 7 
 
 48 
 
 690 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 49 
 
 966 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 1248 27 }2 
 
 j8o 
 
 1 }o 
 
 28 
 
 510 
 
 I 7 
 
 24 
 
 696 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 2} 
 
 972 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 22 
 
 1254 27 25 
 
 J82 
 
 I 29 
 
 59 
 
 513 
 
 I 7 
 
 I 
 
 702 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 56 
 
 978 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 9 
 
 1260 
 
 27 17 
 
 J84 
 
 I 29 
 
 31 
 
 516 
 
 I 6 
 
 37 
 
 708 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 33 
 
 984 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 56 
 
 1266 
 
 27 9 
 
 386 
 
 I 29 
 
 ? 
 
 519 
 
 I 6 
 
 14 
 
 7 '4 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 9 
 
 990 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 43 
 
 1272 
 
 27 I 
 
 j88 
 
 I 28 
 
 i6 
 
 522 
 
 1 5 
 
 51 
 
 720 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 996 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 1278 
 
 36 S4 
 26 46 
 
 390 
 
 I 28 
 
 9 
 
 525 
 
 I ^ 
 
 29 
 
 726 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 21 
 
 1002 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 1284 
 
 V)2 
 
 I 27 
 
 41 
 
 ?28 
 
 I 5 
 
 6 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 57 
 
 ioo3 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 1290 
 
 26 39 
 
 J96 
 
 I 27 
 
 18 
 
 531 
 
 ' 4 
 
 45 
 
 li« 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 35 
 
 1014 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 54 
 
 A(,6 
 
 26 jl 
 
 I 26 
 
 48 
 
 534 
 
 I 4 
 
 32 
 
 744 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 12 
 
 1020 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 42 
 
 1302 
 
 26 24 
 
 J98 
 
 I 26 
 
 24 
 
 5!7 
 
 I 4 
 
 I 
 
 750 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 1026 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 1308 
 
 26 17 
 
 400 
 
 I 2? 
 
 56 
 
 540 
 
 I ! 
 
 39 
 
 756 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 28 
 
 io;2 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 18 
 
 1314 
 
 26 10 
 
 402 
 
 I 2; 
 
 31 
 
 54J 
 
 I ? 
 
 '9 
 
 762 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 7 
 
 ioj8 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 
 IJ20 
 
 26 2 
 
 405 
 
 I 24 
 
 53 
 
 546 
 
 1 2 
 
 58 
 
 7O8 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 1044 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 5? 
 
 1326 
 
 25 55 
 
 408 
 
 I 24 
 
 15 
 
 549 
 
 I 2 
 
 37 
 
 774 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 25 
 
 1050 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 45 
 
 1332 
 
 25 48 
 
 411 
 
 I 2J 
 
 38 
 
 552 
 
 I 2 
 
 16 
 
 780 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 4 
 
 1056 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 1338 
 
 25 41 
 
 414 
 
 I 2J 
 
 2 
 
 555 
 
 I I 
 
 56 
 
 786 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 1062 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 22 
 
 1344 
 
 25 34 
 
 417 
 
 I 22 
 
 26 
 
 558 
 
 I I 
 
 36 
 
 792 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 24 
 
 1068 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 II 
 
 1350 
 
 2; 28 
 
 420 
 
 I 21 
 
 51 
 
 i6i 
 
 I I 
 
 17 
 
 798 
 
 
 
 4? 
 
 5 
 
 1074 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 I 
 
 1356 
 
 25 21 
 
 42i 
 
 I 21 
 
 16 
 
 564 
 
 I 
 
 57 
 
 804 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 1080 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 49 
 
 I3f>2 
 
 25 14 
 
 426 
 
 I 20 
 
 42 
 
 567 
 
 I 
 
 38 
 
 810 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 26 
 
 1086 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 39 
 
 1368 
 
 25 7 
 
 419 
 
 I 20 
 
 8 
 
 570 
 
 I 
 
 19 
 
 816 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 1092 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 1374 
 
 25 I 
 
 4J2 
 
 I 19 
 
 35 
 
 573 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 822 
 
 
 
 4« 
 
 49 
 
 1098 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 !9 
 
 1380 
 
 24 54 
 
 4J5 
 
 I 19 
 
 2 
 
 576 
 
 59 
 
 41 
 
 828 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 31 
 
 1104 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 8 
 
 U86 
 
 24 48 
 
 4?8 
 
 I 18 
 
 29 
 
 579 
 
 59 
 
 22 
 
 834 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 13 
 
 1116 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 48 
 
 1398 
 
 24 j; 
 
 441 
 
 I 17 
 
 57 
 
 582 
 
 59 
 
 4 
 
 840 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 55 
 
 1122 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 1404 
 
 24 28 
 
 444 
 
 I 17 
 
 26 
 
 585 
 
 58 
 
 46 
 
 846 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 38 
 
 1128 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 1410 
 
 24 22 
 
 447 
 
 1 16 
 
 54 
 
 588 
 
 58 
 
 37 
 
 852 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 "34 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 1416 
 
 24 16 
 
 450 
 
 I 16 
 
 24 
 
 591 
 
 58 
 
 10 
 
 858 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 1140 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 1422 
 
 24 10 
 
 45J 
 
 I 15 
 
 53 
 
 594 
 
 57 
 
 52 
 
 864 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 47 
 
 1146 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 1428 
 
 24 4 
 
 456 
 
 I 15 
 
 2 J 
 
 597 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 870 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 31 
 
 1152 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 5' 
 
 M?4 
 
 2J 58 
 
 459 
 
 1 14 
 
 54 
 
 600 
 
 57 
 
 17 
 
 876 
 
 ° 
 
 39 
 
 •4 
 
 1158 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 41 
 
 1440 
 
 23 52 
 
 462 
 
 I 14 
 
 24 
 
 606 
 
 56 
 
 44 
 
 882 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 58 
 
 1 164 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 1446 
 
 23 46 
 
 465 
 
 1 1} 
 
 56 
 
 612 
 
 56 
 
 10 
 
 888 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 4? 
 
 1170 
 
 ° 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 1452 
 
 23 40 
 
 468 
 
 I IJ 
 
 27 
 
 618 
 
 55 
 
 38 
 
 894 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 27 
 
 1176 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 14 
 
 1458 
 
 23 35 
 
 471 
 
 1 12 
 
 59 
 
 624 
 
 55 
 
 5 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 12 
 
 1182 
 
 ° 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 1464 
 
 23 28 
 
 474 
 
 I 12 
 
 3: 
 
 6jo 
 
 ° 54 
 
 34 
 
 906 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 S6 
 
 1 188 
 
 ° 
 
 28 
 
 56 
 
 1470 
 
 23 23 
 
 477 
 
 I ]2 
 
 24 
 
 636 
 
 54 
 
 3 
 
 912 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 1194 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 47 
 
 1476 
 
 23 17 
 
 480 
 
 I II 
 
 37 
 
 642 
 
 53 
 
 33 
 
 918 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 27 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 39 
 
 1482 
 
 23 12 
 
 48J 
 
 I II 
 
 10 
 
 648 
 
 53 
 
 3 
 
 924 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 12 
 
 1206 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 1488 
 
 23 6 
 
 486 
 
 I 10 
 
 44 
 
 654 
 
 52 
 
 34 
 
 9?o 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 58 
 
 I2I2 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 1494 
 
 23 
 
 4«9 
 
 I 10 
 
 |8 
 
 660 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 936 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 45 
 
 1218 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 1500 
 
 22 55 
 
 -iV- 
 
 > 9 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 TABLES. 
 
 309 
 
 Table XXV. — Useful Constants. 
 
 Ratio of circumference to diameter of a circle 
 
 Log 
 , .. V- 
 n = 10800' -i-TT 
 
 log 
 . .. log 
 
 log 
 
 7r2 = 9' 869604401089 
 
 Arc of same length as radius = iSo-^. 
 
 180° -i- n- = Si"- 2957795 no 
 
 io8oo'-J-7r = J4J7'-7467707849 .. 
 
 648000" -7- TT = 2o6264"-8o62470964 
 
 Tropical year= j65d. 5h. 48m. 47s. '588 = i65d. '242217456 
 
 Sidereal year = j65d. 6h. 9m. los. -742 = }65d.-256i74!}2 .. .. log 
 
 24h. sol. t. = 24h. jm. 56s. •555J35 sid. t. = 24b. X I '0027^791 .. log 1002 
 
 24h. sid. t. = 24h. — (jm. 55s.-90944) sol. t. = i^h X 0-9972696 log 0-997 
 
 British Imperial gallon = 277-274 cubic inches log 
 
 10 lbs. of distilled water at 62° F. =: i gallon. 
 
 Length of sec. pend. in inches, at London, 39- 13929; Paris, J9M2S5; New York, 
 
 French metre = j -2808992 English feet = 39-3707904 inches. 
 
 I cubic inch of watir (bar. 30 inches. Kahr. therm. 62°) = 252-458 Troy grains. 
 
 =: 3-i4i592''5i59P- 
 
 = 0-497149872694 
 = 1-772453850906 
 
 = 648000" -j- Tf. 
 = 1-758122632409. 
 = 3-536273882793. 
 
 = 5*ii4425iJJi7'J 
 
 = 2-5625810. 
 = 2-5625978. 
 = 0-0011874. 
 = 9-9988126. 
 = 2-4429091. 
 
 39-1285,
 
 310 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Table XXVI. 
 
 -Approximate Time occupied in Course of Post from 
 London to certain Places Adroad. 
 
 Name 'of 
 
 ^ 2 
 
 & g 
 
 Name of 
 
 
 Name of g> 
 
 g Name of 
 
 5- o 
 
 Place. 
 
 o a 
 
 Place. 
 
 C W 
 
 Place. O 
 
 a Place. 
 
 e K 
 
 Accra .. .. 
 
 28 .. 
 
 Cape Palmes 
 
 20 .. 
 
 Manila . . ! 32 
 
 .. St. Vincent 
 
 
 
 Adelaide . . 
 
 34 ! .. 
 
 Cape Town 
 
 19 .. 
 
 Marseilles. . i 
 
 2 (Cape de 
 
 
 
 Aden . . . . 
 
 11 i .. 
 
 Garthagena 
 
 21 .. 
 
 Mauritius . . 22 
 
 Verd) . . 
 
 10 
 
 ^ , 
 
 Alexandria.. 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 Chicago . . 
 
 12 
 
 Melbourne sfi 
 
 .. St. Vincent 
 
 
 
 Algiers . . j 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 Colombo . . 
 
 17 .. 
 
 ;\Iexico . . 14 
 
 .. (We.-it Indies) 
 
 12 20 
 
 Atnbriz 
 
 47 
 
 
 Colon 
 
 19 1 
 
 .Mumbasa , . 
 
 22 
 
 Salonica . . 
 
 4 .. 
 
 Antigua 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 Congo 
 
 2G .. 
 
 .Monrovia . . 
 
 20 
 
 Samoa 
 
 47 .. 
 
 Arica — 
 
 
 
 Constanti- 
 
 
 Monte Video 
 
 23 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 12 .. 
 
 (vid Panama) 
 ( ,, Magellan) ! 
 
 35 
 
 
 nople 
 
 4 
 
 
 Montreal . . 
 
 9 
 
 Santanda . . 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 
 Coquimbo . . 
 
 42 
 
 
 Montserrat . . 
 
 14 
 
 7 Santos 
 
 23 
 
 
 Ascension . . [ 
 
 28 
 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 11 
 
 
 Moscow . . 
 
 3 
 
 16 Savanilla . . 
 
 22 M 
 
 Athens 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Deiagoa Bay 
 
 26 
 
 
 Mozambique 
 
 49 
 
 . . Seychelles. . 
 
 17 .. 
 
 Auckland(ui« 
 
 
 
 Denierara . . 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 Muscat 
 
 24 
 
 Shanghai— j 
 
 
 S. Francisco) ; 
 
 33 
 
 
 Dominica . . 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 >JapIes 
 
 2 
 
 3 (rid Van- 1 
 
 
 Baden-Baden 
 
 
 22 
 
 Falkland Is- 
 
 
 
 Natal.. .. 
 
 25 
 
 couver) . . j 
 
 36 . . 
 
 Baghdad .. 
 
 2t 
 
 
 lands 
 
 29 
 
 
 Newfound- 
 
 
 (vu'i Suez) ) 
 
 
 Baiiamas . . 
 
 14 
 
 
 Fiji .. .. 
 
 41 .. 1 
 
 land 
 
 •9 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 14 ..' 
 
 Bahia . . . . ^ 
 
 17 
 
 
 Genoa.. .. 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 New York 
 
 8 
 
 12 Singapore . . 
 
 26 .. 
 
 Balearic Is- 
 
 
 
 Gibraltar .. 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Smyrna . . 
 
 6 ... 
 
 lands 
 
 3 
 
 
 Gothenburg 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 (Halifax) 9 
 
 Suez . . . . 
 
 7 
 
 
 Bavbadof s . . 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 Grand Bassa 
 
 19 
 
 
 Odessa ... 3 
 
 12 Sydney . . 
 
 38 
 
 
 Barceliina . . 
 
 1 ' IG 
 
 Grenada .. 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 Old Calabar 
 
 ^5 
 
 Syracuse . . 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 Batavia 
 
 27 : . . 
 
 Grey Town 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 Oporto 
 
 .•J 
 
 2 Tamatave.. 
 
 27 
 
 
 Bathurst 
 
 12 1 . . 
 
 Guadeloupe 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 Ottawa . . 
 
 9 
 
 6 Telieran . . 
 
 22 .. 
 
 Beirut . . . . 
 
 8 j .. 
 
 Guayaquil. . 
 
 26 
 
 
 Palermo . . 
 
 2 
 
 22 Teneriffe . . 
 
 7 .. 
 
 Belgrade . . 
 
 2 i 9 
 
 Havana . . 
 
 - 12 
 
 
 Panama . . 
 
 19 
 
 8 Tiflis . . . . 
 
 10 .. 
 
 Belize . . . . 
 
 17 8 
 
 Hobart 
 
 37 
 
 
 Payta 
 
 26 
 
 Tobago 
 
 14 17 
 
 Benin . . . . 
 
 24 .. 
 
 Hong Kong — 
 
 
 
 Penang 
 
 24 
 
 Transvaal 
 
 
 Bergen.. .. 
 
 4 ! 12 
 
 via Brindisi 
 
 33 
 
 
 Pornambuco 
 
 15 
 
 (iiVJ Cape) 
 
 23 .. 
 
 Bermuda . . 
 
 15 
 
 
 ..Vancouver 
 
 40 
 
 
 Perth . . . . 
 
 34 
 
 . . Trieste 
 
 2 13 
 
 Bombay 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 Honolulu . . 
 
 20 
 
 
 Port-au- 
 
 
 Trinidad . . 
 
 13 21 
 
 Boston, 
 
 
 
 Iceland 
 
 10 
 
 
 Prince . . 15 
 
 Turin 
 
 1 3 
 
 U.S.A. .. 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 Jamaica . . 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 Port Said .. 6 
 
 Valparaiso — 
 
 
 Brindisi 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 King George's 
 
 
 
 Quebec 
 
 9 
 
 . . (ri('i Panama) 
 
 41 .. 
 
 Brisbane 
 
 39 
 
 
 Sound . . 
 
 31 
 
 
 Rangoon . . 
 
 24 
 
 .. (,, Magellan) 
 
 39 
 
 
 Buda-Pesth.. 
 
 2 
 
 '.'. 
 
 Karachi . . 
 
 20 
 
 
 Reggio 
 
 3 
 
 Vancouver 
 
 15 
 
 
 Buenos Ayi-es 
 
 24 
 
 
 Lagos . . . . 
 
 29 
 
 
 Rio de Janeiro 
 
 19 
 
 Venice 
 
 2 
 
 
 Cadiz . . . . 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 Lainu 
 
 20 
 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 18 
 
 . . Vichy . . 
 
 
 ■il 
 
 Cairo . . . . 
 
 6 
 
 
 Lima .. . . 
 
 31 
 
 
 St. Kitts . . 
 
 15 
 
 10 Vigo .. .. 
 
 3 
 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 Limon 
 
 24 
 
 
 St. Louis, 
 
 
 Washington 
 
 9 
 
 
 Callao— 
 
 
 
 Lindi . . . . 
 
 29 
 
 
 U.S.A. .. 
 
 9 
 
 Wellington 
 
 36 
 
 
 (vi(i Panama) 
 
 31 
 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 
 Winnipeg. . 
 
 13 
 
 
 C „ Magellan) 
 
 45 
 
 
 Madeira . . 
 
 4 
 
 
 (West Indies) 
 
 12 
 
 21 Yokohama— 
 
 
 
 Cameroons . . 
 
 30 
 
 
 Madras 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 St.Petersburg 
 
 2 
 
 22 (fiii Van- 
 
 
 
 Cape Coast 
 
 
 
 Malta.. .. 
 
 4 
 
 
 St. Paul de 
 
 
 couver) . . 
 
 32 
 
 
 Castle . . 
 
 26 
 
 
 Mandalay . . 
 
 28 
 
 
 Loanda . . 
 
 St. Thomas 
 
 45 
 
 16 
 
 (via Suez) 
 3 Zanzibar . . 
 
 43 
 21 

 
 TABLES. 
 
 311 
 
 Table XXVII, — Approximate Time occupied in the Transmission of Parcels 
 FROM London to certain Places Abroad. 
 
 Accra 
 
 Adelaide 
 
 Aden 
 
 Alexandria, via Gibraltar . . 
 „ via Brindisi . . 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Ajaccio 
 
 Antigua 
 
 Ascension 
 
 Baghdad 
 
 Barbadoes 
 
 Barranquilla 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Bathurst 
 
 Beirut 
 
 Belize 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Brindisi 
 
 Buda-Pesth, via Cologne . . 
 ,, via Hamburg . . 
 
 Cairo, via Gibraltar 
 
 „ ma Brindisi 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Cape Coast Castle .. .. 
 
 Cape Town 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 Colombo 
 
 Constantinople, via Gibraltar 
 „ via Marseilles 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 Delhi 
 
 Uemerara 
 
 Dominica 
 
 Drontheim 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Gothenburg 
 
 Grenada 
 
 Guadeloupe 
 
 Halifax (Nova Scotia) . . ' . . 
 
 Hong Kong . . 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Kiniberley , . 
 
 King George's Soiind . . . . 
 K!arachi 
 
 Days. Hours. 
 
 Days. Hours. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 45 
 
 12 
 
 26 
 
 44 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 43 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 Lagos 
 
 Lahore 
 
 Lisbon, by direct steamer . . 
 
 Madras 
 
 Malta, via Gibraltar . . 
 
 Mandalay 
 
 Marseilles 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Melbourne 
 
 Messina 
 
 Muscat 
 
 Naples 
 
 Natal 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 Palermo 
 
 Penang 
 
 Perth (Western Australia) . . 
 
 Port Klizabeth 
 
 Port Said, via Gibraltar 
 
 „ "wia Brindisi. . .. 
 
 Quebec . . 
 
 tiangoon 
 
 ' 29 
 
 I ^^ I 
 
 1 4 to 8 
 
 Reunion 23or33 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 45 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 St. Kitts 
 
 St. Lucia (West Indies) 
 
 St. Thomas 
 
 5t. Vincent (West Indies) . . 
 
 Senegal 
 
 Shanghai 
 
 Sierra Leone . . .. ~.".~. 
 Singapore .. ... j.. , .. 
 Smyrna, via Gibraltar . . .. 
 ,, ma Marseilles 
 
 Sydney 
 
 Tobago 
 
 Trieste, via Cologne 
 
 ,, via Hamburg . . . . 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 Venice 
 
 Victoria (Vancouver Island) 
 
 Winnipeg .. 
 
 Zanzibar . . 
 
 Zurich 
 
 N.B. — The times given above do not include the interval between the arrival of a Parcel at its 
 place of destination and its delivery to the Addressee. Moreover, owing to Customs examination in 
 the country of destination, a parcel not unfrequently occupies in transmission a longer time than is 
 stated in the foregoing Table.
 
 812 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Tables* for the Determination of Heights. By Francis 
 
 G ALTON, F.R.S. 
 
 By the Temperature of Boiling Water. 
 
 Enter Table I., \). 313, Avitlithe boiling-point at each of the two stations, 
 and extract the numbers that stand opposite to them in the column headed 
 " Altitude, &c." The difference between these numbers gives the dif- 
 ference of height between the two stations, supj^osing the mean tempera- 
 ture of the intermediate air to be 32° Fahr. The correction for the 
 temperature of the air, when it differs from this value, is given in 
 Table II. We take the meanf of the thermometers (exposed in shade) at 
 the ujjper and lower stations, and we enter Table II. with that mean 
 value, and the number that stands opposite to it, in the colimm headed 
 " Multiplier," must be multiplied with the results obtained from Table I, 
 Thus :— 
 
 At station A the boiling-point — - i95°"i, tabular number = 9040 
 „ B „ = 2io°-3, „ = 887 
 
 Approximate difference of height = 8153 feet. 
 
 * These extended Tables will give much facility to the traveller both in 
 calculating altitudes, and in checking tlie index error of the aneroid, by mt ans 
 of the boiling-point thermometer. I have computed Table I. from Tables XXVI. 
 and II., in the liypsometric series in Gnyot's collection. It did not seem worth 
 while to correct the figures thence obtained for the slight excess of temperature, 
 viz.: o°*oi5 Fahr. of the French boiling-point over that of the English. It is 
 too small to be sensible in ordinary instruments, and it becomes totally un- 
 important in determining differences of level, or changes in the index error of an 
 aneroid. — F. Galton. 
 
 t This represents more nearly the average temperature of the intervening 
 column of air than any other v.ilue tliat can easily be specified. But it is only 
 an approximation of the truth.
 
 TABLES. 
 
 313 
 
 To correct for temperature of intermediate air : — 
 At station A, temp, of air = 65° Fahr. 
 „ B, „ =73° „ 
 
 2) 138 
 
 69 = mean temperature of intermediate air. 
 
 In Table II. the multijjlier corresponding to 69° is i"o82, and i'o82 x 
 8153 = 8821 (neglecting decimal fractions). 
 
 In those rare cases where greater altitudes are dealt with than are 
 included within the limits of the table, the traveller should allow 570 feet 
 for the difference between' 18 5° and 184°; 572 feet for that between 184° 
 and 183'^; 574 feet for the next interval, and so on. 
 
 Table I. 
 
 
 Altitude 
 
 
 
 Altitude 
 
 
 
 Altitude 
 
 
 
 above level 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate cor- 
 responding 
 height of 
 aneroid or 
 barometer. 
 
 
 above level 
 
 
 
 aliove level 
 
 
 Boiling 
 point 
 Falir. 
 
 at wliicb 
 water boils 
 
 at 212° 
 (temp, of in- 
 termediate 
 air being 
 
 Boiling 
 point 
 Fahr. 
 
 at which 
 water boils 
 
 at 212° 
 (temp, of in- 
 termediate 
 air being 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate cor- 
 responding 
 height of 
 aneroid or 
 barometer. 
 
 Boiling 
 point 
 Fahr. 
 
 at which 
 water boils 
 
 at 212° 
 (temp, of in- 
 termediate 
 air being 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate cor- 
 responding 
 height of 
 aneroid or 
 barometer. 
 
 
 32° F.). 
 
 
 
 52° F.). 
 
 
 
 n° F.). 
 
 
 185-0 
 
 14698 
 
 17-048 
 
 186-7 
 
 U7JJ 
 
 17-690 
 
 188-4 
 
 12772 
 
 18-35} 
 
 •I 
 
 14641 
 
 17-085 
 
 -8 
 
 13676 
 
 17-729 
 
 •5 
 
 12716 
 
 I8-39J 
 
 •2 
 
 14584 
 
 17-122 
 
 -9 
 
 13620 
 
 17-767 
 
 •6 
 
 12660 
 
 18-432 
 
 •i 
 
 I4?28 
 
 17-160 
 
 187-0 
 
 1J56J 
 
 17-806 
 
 •7 
 
 12603 
 
 18-472 
 
 •4 
 
 14471 
 
 IT 197 
 
 -1 
 
 H50& 
 
 17-844 
 
 •8 
 
 12547 
 
 18-512 
 
 •5 
 
 14414 
 
 i7"23=: 
 
 -2 
 
 13450 
 
 17-88; 
 
 -9 
 
 12490 
 
 18-552 
 
 •6 
 
 I4J57 
 
 17-272 
 
 •i 
 
 IJJ94 
 
 17-922 
 
 189-0 
 
 '24J4 
 
 18-592 
 
 •7 
 
 14J00 
 
 17-Jio 
 
 --I 
 
 iiJJ7 
 
 17-961 
 
 -1 
 
 12377 
 
 18-632 
 
 •8 
 
 14244 
 
 1-7-348 
 
 -; 
 
 1J281 
 
 18-000 
 
 •2 
 
 12321 
 
 18-672 
 
 •9 
 
 14187 
 
 iri^5 
 
 ■6 
 
 13224 
 
 I8-OJ9 
 
 i 
 
 12265 
 
 18-712 
 
 I86-0 
 
 14^0 
 
 17-42J 
 
 •7 
 
 IJ167 
 
 18-078 
 
 -4 
 
 12209 
 
 18-753 
 
 •I 
 
 1407J 
 
 17-461 
 
 -8 
 
 mil 
 
 18-117 
 
 -5 
 
 1215? 
 
 18-79} 
 
 •2 
 
 14017 
 
 17-499 
 
 -9 
 
 13054 
 
 18-156 
 
 -6 
 
 12096 
 
 18-83} 
 
 •i 
 
 U960 
 
 I7'5i7 
 
 188-0 
 
 12998 
 
 18-195 
 
 -7 
 
 12040 
 
 18-874 
 
 •4 
 
 ligoj 
 
 17-575 
 
 -1 
 
 12942 
 
 18-235 
 
 -8 
 
 11984 
 
 18-914 
 
 •5 
 
 ii8S7 
 
 17-614 
 
 -2 
 
 12885 
 
 18-274 
 
 •9 
 
 1 1928 
 
 18-955 
 
 •6 
 
 IJ790 
 
 17-652 
 
 •i 
 
 12829 
 
 18-314 
 
 190-0 
 
 H872 
 
 18-996
 
 314 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Table L — continued. 
 
 Altitude 
 j above level | 
 at which 
 Boiling water boils 
 
 point 
 Fahr. 
 
 igo"! 
 
 at 21 
 
 (temp, of in- 
 termediate 
 air being 
 n° F.). 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate cor- 
 responding 
 height of 
 aneroid or 
 barometer. 
 
 Altitude 
 above level 
 at which 
 Boiling water boils 
 point at 212° 
 Fahr. (temp, of in- 
 termediate 
 air being 
 J2° F.). 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate cor- 
 responding 
 height of 
 aneroid or 
 barometer. 
 
 igi-o 
 
 •4 
 •5 
 •6 
 ■1 
 •8 
 ■9 
 
 •i 
 
 ■4 
 
 •5 
 ■6 
 
 ■1 
 •8 
 
 •9 
 I9J-0 
 
 •J 
 
 •4 
 •5 
 •6 
 
 •7 
 •8 
 
 •9 
 194 -o 
 
 1I8I6 
 
 i9-o;6 
 
 194-5 
 
 9J7I 
 
 1 1 760 
 
 19-077 
 
 -6 
 
 9^5 
 
 1 1 704 
 
 19-118 
 
 -7 
 
 9260 
 
 11648 
 
 19-159 
 
 •8 
 
 9205 
 
 11592 
 
 19-200 
 
 -9 
 
 9150 
 
 II5J6 
 
 19-241 
 
 195-0 
 
 9095 
 
 11480 
 
 19-28J 
 
 -I 
 
 9040 
 
 II424 
 
 19-524 
 
 •2 
 
 8985 
 
 Iij68 
 
 19-365 
 
 •J 
 
 89 ?o 
 
 11J12 
 
 19-407 
 
 •4 
 
 8875 
 
 TI257 
 
 19-448 
 
 •5 
 
 8820 
 
 1 1 201 
 
 19-490 
 
 -6 
 
 876; 
 
 1 1 146 
 
 i9'5.'2 
 
 -7 
 
 8710 
 
 1 1090 
 
 I9"57! 
 
 ■8 
 
 865; 
 
 IIOJ4 
 
 19-615 
 
 •9 
 
 8600 
 
 10978 
 
 19-657 
 
 196-0 
 
 8545 
 
 10922 
 
 19-699 
 
 - 1 
 
 8490 
 
 10867 
 
 19-741 
 
 ■2 
 
 8455 
 
 io3ii 
 
 19-78} 
 
 -J 
 
 8j8l 
 
 io"55 
 
 19-825 
 
 •4 
 
 8526 
 
 10699 
 
 19-868 
 
 
 8271 
 
 10644 
 
 19-910 
 
 -6 
 
 8216 
 
 10588 
 
 19-952 
 
 •7 
 
 8161 
 
 105} J 
 
 19-995 
 
 -8 
 
 8107 
 
 10477 
 
 20-0J7 
 
 -9 
 
 8052 
 
 10422 
 
 20 -080 
 
 197-0 
 
 7997 
 
 ioj66 
 
 20-I2J 
 
 -1 
 
 7942 
 
 lOJIO 
 
 2o-i66 
 
 •2 
 
 7888 
 
 10255 
 
 20-208 
 
 •J 
 
 78?} 
 
 10199 
 
 20-251 
 
 •4 
 
 7779 
 
 10144 
 
 20-294 
 
 •5 
 
 -724 
 
 I0038 
 
 20-338 
 
 -6 
 
 7669 
 
 100; J 
 
 20- j8l 
 
 •7 
 
 7615 
 
 9978 
 
 20-424 
 
 -8 
 
 7560 
 
 992 J 
 
 20-467 
 
 •9 
 
 7506 
 
 9867 
 
 20-511 
 
 198-0 
 
 7451 
 
 9812 
 
 20-554 
 
 •I 
 
 7J97 
 
 9757 
 
 20-598 
 
 •2 
 
 7J4J 
 
 9701 
 
 20-641 
 
 •J 
 
 7289 
 
 9646 
 
 20-685 
 
 -4 
 
 72J4 
 
 9591 
 
 20-729 
 
 •5 
 
 7180 
 
 9556 
 
 20-77J 
 
 -6 
 
 7125 
 
 9481 
 
 20-817 
 
 •7 
 
 7071 
 
 9426 
 
 20-861 
 
 -8 
 
 7016 
 
 20-905 
 
 20-949 
 20-99J 
 21-038 
 21-082 
 21-126 
 21-171 
 21-216 
 21-260 
 
 21- J05 
 21-350 
 
 21-395 
 21-440 
 21-485 
 21-550 
 21-576 
 21-621 
 21-666 
 21-712 
 21-751 
 21-805 
 21-849 
 21-895 
 
 Altitude 
 above level 
 at which 
 Boiling water boils 
 
 r"^ , «'^'^° height of 
 tahr. (temp, of m- ^^.^oid or 
 ternifdiate 
 air being 
 32° F.). 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate cor- 
 responding 
 
 barometer. 
 
 198-9 
 
 199-0 
 
 ■4 
 -5 
 -6 
 
 •7 
 -8 
 
 -9 
 
 200-0 
 
 21-941 
 
 -2 
 
 21-987 
 
 • 5 
 
 22-033 
 
 ■4 
 
 22-079 
 
 ■5 
 
 22-125 
 
 -6 
 
 22-172 
 
 •T 
 
 22-218 
 
 -8 
 
 22-264 
 
 -9 
 
 22-311 
 
 202-0 
 
 22-358 
 
 •I 
 
 22-404 
 
 -2 
 
 22-451 
 
 •i 
 
 22-498 
 
 •4 
 
 22-545 
 
 •5 
 
 22-592 
 
 •6 
 
 22-639 
 
 •7 
 
 22-686 
 
 -8 
 
 22-734 
 
 •9 
 
 22-781 
 
 203-0 
 
 22-829 
 
 •I 
 
 22-876 
 
 •2 
 
 6962 
 
 69-38 
 
 6854 
 6800 
 6745 
 6691 
 6657 
 6533 
 6529 
 6474 
 6420 
 6566 
 6512 
 6258 
 6203 
 6149 
 6095 
 604 1 
 5987 
 595J 
 5879 
 5825 
 5771 
 5717 
 5f.63 
 5609 
 5556 
 5502 
 5443 
 5594 
 5340 
 5286 
 52J2 
 
 5 '78 
 5124 
 5070 
 5017 
 4964 
 491° 
 4856 
 4802 
 4749 
 469s 
 4641 
 
 22-924 
 
 22-971 
 
 23-019 
 
 23-067 
 
 25115 
 
 23-16; 
 
 23-211 
 
 23-259 
 
 23-308 
 
 23-356 
 
 25-405 
 
 23-45} 
 
 25-502 
 
 25-550 
 
 2} -599 
 
 23-648 
 
 25-697 
 
 23-746 
 
 2!-795 
 
 23-845 
 
 25-894 
 
 23-9t3 
 
 25-995 
 
 24-042 
 
 24-092 
 
 24-142 
 
 24-191 
 
 24-241 
 
 24-291 
 
 24-Ml 
 
 24-391 
 
 24-442 
 
 24-492 
 
 24-542 
 
 24-593 
 
 24-644 
 
 24-694 
 
 24-745 
 
 24-796 
 
 24-847 
 
 24-898 
 
 24-949 
 
 25-000 
 
 25-051
 
 TABLES. 
 
 315 
 
 Table I. — continued. 
 
 
 Altitude 
 
 
 
 Altitude 
 
 
 
 Altitude 
 
 
 
 above level 
 at which 
 
 Approxi- 
 
 1 
 
 above level 
 at whicli 
 
 Approxi- 
 
 
 above level 
 at which 
 
 Approxi- 
 
 Boiling 
 point 
 Fahr. 
 
 water boils 
 
 at 212° 
 temp, of in- 
 termediate j 
 air being | 
 
 mate cor- 
 responding 
 
 height of 
 aneroid or 
 barometer. 
 
 iJoilmg water boils 
 point at 212° 
 Fahr. (temp, of in- 
 termediate 
 air being 
 
 mate cor- 
 responding 
 
 height of 
 aneroid or 
 barometer. 
 
 Boiling 
 point 
 Fahr. 
 
 ! 
 
 water boils 
 
 at 212° 
 temp, of in- 
 termediate , 
 air being ' 
 
 mate cor- 
 responding 
 
 height of 
 aneroid or 
 barometer. 
 
 
 32° F.). 
 
 32" F.). 
 
 
 i 
 
 32° F.). 
 469 
 
 
 2C3-i 
 
 4588 75-IOJ 
 
 207-2 2516 
 
 27-179 
 
 211 -I 
 
 29-390 
 
 •4 
 
 4535 25-154 
 
 •3 ; 2464 
 
 27-231 
 
 •2 
 
 4n 
 
 29-449 
 
 •5 
 
 4482 1 25-206 
 
 -4 • 2411 
 
 27-286 
 
 -3 
 
 365 
 
 29-508 
 
 •6 
 
 4428 25-257 
 
 •5 ; 2358 
 
 27-341 
 
 ■4 
 
 Jn 
 
 29-566 
 
 •1 
 
 4J75 1 25-3°9 
 
 -6 2305 
 
 27-397 
 
 ■5 
 
 261 
 
 29-625 
 
 •8 
 
 4?22 1 25-J61 
 
 •7 
 
 2252 
 
 27-452 
 
 -6 
 
 208 
 
 29-684 
 
 •9 
 
 4268 25 -41 J 
 
 -8 
 
 2199 
 
 27-507 
 
 -7 
 
 156 
 
 29-744 
 
 204-0 
 
 4215 25-465 
 
 •9 
 
 2146 
 
 27-563 
 
 •8 
 
 104 
 
 29-803 
 
 •I 
 
 4161 25-517 
 
 208-0 
 
 2094 
 
 27-618 
 
 -9 
 
 52 . 
 
 29-862 
 
 •2 
 
 4107 , 25-569 
 
 •I 
 
 2041 
 
 27-674 
 
 2I2-0 
 
 
 
 29-922 
 
 •i 
 
 4053 ! 25-621 
 
 •2 
 
 1989 
 
 27-750 
 
 •I 
 
 - 52 
 
 29-981 
 
 •4 
 
 4000 25-674 
 
 •3 
 
 1956 
 
 27-786 
 
 •2 
 
 — 104 
 
 30-041 
 
 •5 
 
 3947 : 25-726 
 
 ■4 
 
 1884 
 
 27-842 
 
 -3 
 
 - 155 
 
 30-101 
 
 •6 
 
 38-M 25-779 
 
 •5 
 
 1831 
 
 27-898 
 
 •4 
 
 — 207 
 
 30-161 
 
 •7 
 
 3841 
 
 25-8;i 
 
 -6 
 
 1778 
 
 27-954 
 
 -5 
 
 - 259 
 
 30-221 
 
 •8 
 
 3788 
 
 25-884 
 
 •7 
 
 1726 
 
 28-011 
 
 •6 
 
 - 3" 
 
 30-281 
 
 •9 
 
 3735 
 
 25-9J7 
 
 -8 
 
 1673 
 
 28-067 
 
 -7 
 
 - 363 
 
 30-341 
 
 205-0 
 
 3682 
 
 25-990 
 
 •9 
 
 1621 
 
 28-125 
 
 -8 
 
 - 414 
 
 30-401 
 
 -I 
 
 3625 
 
 26-045 
 
 2C9-0 
 
 1568 
 
 28-180 
 
 •9 
 
 - 466 
 
 30-461 
 
 •2 
 
 3574 
 
 26-096 
 
 -1 
 
 1516 
 
 28-237 
 
 2I3-0 
 
 - 518 
 
 30-522 
 
 •i 
 
 3521 
 
 26-149 
 
 •2 
 
 1463 
 
 28-293 
 
 -I 
 
 - 570 
 
 30-583 
 
 •4 
 
 3468 
 
 26-202 
 
 -3 
 
 1411 
 
 28-350 
 
 -2 
 
 - 621 
 
 30-644 
 
 •5 
 
 3416 
 
 26-255 
 
 •4 
 
 1358 
 
 28-407 
 
 •3 
 
 - 673 
 
 30-705 
 
 -6 
 
 3363 
 
 26-309 
 
 ■5 
 
 1306 
 
 28-464 
 
 ■4 
 
 - 724 
 
 30-766 
 
 •1 
 
 3310 
 
 26-362 
 
 -6 
 
 1254 
 
 28-521 
 
 • i 
 
 - 776 
 
 30-827 
 
 -8 
 
 3256 
 
 26-416 
 
 •7 
 
 1201 
 
 28-579 
 
 •6 
 
 - 828 
 
 30-888 
 
 •9 
 
 3203 
 
 26-470 
 
 -8 
 
 1149 
 
 28-656 
 
 •7 
 
 - 880 
 
 30-949 
 
 206 -o 
 
 3151 
 
 26-523 
 
 •9 
 
 1096 
 
 28-693 
 
 -8 
 
 - 9J2 
 
 31-010 
 
 -I 
 
 3098 
 
 26-577 
 
 210-0 
 
 1044 
 
 28-751 
 
 -9 
 
 - 983 
 
 31-071 
 
 •2 
 
 3045 
 
 26-631 
 
 •I 
 
 992 
 
 28-809 
 
 214-0 
 
 -1035 
 
 31-132 
 
 •? 
 
 2992 
 
 26-685 
 
 •2 
 
 9'9 
 
 28-866 
 
 -1 
 
 -1086 
 
 31-194 
 
 •4 
 
 2939 
 
 26-740 
 
 •3 
 
 887 
 
 28-924 
 
 -2 
 
 1 -1138 
 
 31-256 
 
 •5 
 
 2886 
 
 26-794 
 
 •4 
 
 83 5 
 
 28-982 
 
 •3 
 
 -1189 
 
 31-318 
 
 -6 
 
 2833 
 
 26-848 
 
 •5 
 
 783 
 
 29-040 
 
 -4 
 
 ! -1241 
 
 31-380 
 
 ••] 
 
 2780 
 
 26-Qoj 
 
 -6 
 
 730 
 
 29-098 
 
 -5 
 
 ! -1293 
 
 31-442 
 
 •8 
 
 2727 
 
 26-957 
 
 •7 
 
 678 
 
 29-156 
 
 -6 
 
 -1J44 
 -1396 
 
 31-504 
 
 •9 
 
 2674 
 
 27-012 
 
 -8 
 
 626 
 
 29-215 
 
 -7 
 
 31-566 
 
 207-0 
 
 2622 
 
 27-066 
 
 •9 
 
 57J 
 
 29-273 
 
 -8 
 
 1 -1447 
 
 31-628 
 
 •I 
 
 2569 
 
 27-121 
 
 211-0 
 
 521 
 
 29-331 
 
 -9 
 
 -1549 
 
 31-690
 
 316 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Tablk II. — Correction fob Temperature of Intermediate Air. 
 
 Mean tempe- 
 
 
 Mean tempe- 
 
 
 Mean tempe- 
 
 
 Mean tempe- 
 
 
 rature of in- 
 termediate 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 rature of in- 
 termediate 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 rature of in- 
 termediate 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 rature of in- 
 termpdiate 
 
 Multiplier, 
 
 air. . 
 
 
 air. 
 
 
 air. 
 
 
 air. 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 0-97J4 
 
 J7 
 
 I-OIII 
 
 54 
 
 1-0433 
 
 70 
 
 I ■0866 
 
 21 
 
 0-9756 
 
 38 
 
 I-0I3i 
 
 55 
 
 1-0511 
 
 71 
 
 22 
 
 0-9778 
 
 J9 
 
 1-015; 
 
 56 
 
 1-05J? 
 
 72 
 
 1-0883 
 
 2J 
 
 0-9801 
 
 40 
 
 1-0177 
 
 57 
 
 1-0555 
 
 1i 
 
 1-0911 
 
 24 
 
 0-982; 
 
 41 
 
 1-0199 
 
 58 
 
 1-0577 
 
 74 
 
 i-c^?J 
 
 25 
 
 0-9845 
 
 42 
 
 1-0222 
 
 |9 
 
 1 -0599 
 
 "^f 
 
 1-0955 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 0-9867 
 0-9889 
 
 4J 
 
 44 
 
 1-0266 
 
 60 
 61 
 
 I -0622 
 1-0644 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 1-0977 
 1-0999 
 
 28 
 
 0-9912 
 
 45 
 
 1-0288 
 
 62 
 
 1-0666 
 
 73 
 
 I -1022 
 
 29 
 
 o-99?4 
 
 46 
 
 I-OJII 
 
 6} 
 
 I -0688 
 
 79 
 
 1-10A4 
 1-1066 
 
 JO 
 
 0-9956 
 
 47 
 
 I-OJJ} 
 
 ^4 
 
 1-0711 
 
 80 
 
 31 
 
 0-9978 
 
 48 
 
 I-OJ55 
 
 65 
 
 1-07JJ 
 
 81 
 
 I - 1088 
 
 J2 
 
 l-oooo 
 
 49 
 
 1-OJ77 
 
 66 
 
 I -0755 
 
 82 
 
 i-iiii 
 
 Ji 
 
 I-0022 
 
 50 
 
 I-OJ99 
 
 67 
 
 1-0777 
 
 8J 
 
 i-inj 
 
 H 
 
 1-004^ 
 1-0066 
 
 51 
 
 1-0422 
 
 68 
 
 1-0799 
 
 84 
 
 1-1156 
 
 35 
 
 52 
 
 I -0444 
 1-0466 
 
 69 
 
 1-0822 
 
 85 
 
 1-1178 
 
 J6 
 
 I-C088 
 
 5i 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wlicu the boiling point at the upper station alone is observed by the 
 traveller, he sometimes has the opportunity of availing himself of some 
 established observatory at no great distance, to serve as the lower station. 
 A memoir by E. Scott, f.r.s., Secretary to the Meteorological Office, pub- 
 lished with a map in Vol. XI. of the ' Journ. Roy. Meteor. Soc.,' shows the 
 distribution of stations past and present, over the globe. Bat these are 
 continually changing, so the intending traveller should seek the latest 
 information at the Meteorological Office, 63, Victoria Street, S.W. 
 
 Usually, however, the traveller has no option but to take the mean 
 height of the barometer, reduced to the sea-level, in the district in which 
 he is, and for the same season of the year, and to use this in the place of 
 observations at a lower station. He will find what he wants in the maps 
 of mean barometric pressure, reduced to sea-level, that are given in most 
 of the physical atlases. Berghaus' is the most recent of these; he 
 gives one chart for summer and one for winter.* The charts published 
 by the Meteorological Office refer to the ocean only, but they have the 
 advantage of being quarterly, and are therefore preferable whenever the 
 traveller's station is near the coast. It seems impossible to compress 
 the information given by these charts into a form suitable to these pages, 
 
 * See Meteorological Maps, p. 356.
 
 TABLES. 317 
 
 especially as the meau barometric height sometimes varies greatly in 
 neighbouring places. The distance from Takutsk in Siberia to the Sea of 
 Okhotsk is only 500 miles, yet in winter the calculated mean heights of 
 the barometer at these two places, when reduced to sea-level, differ as 
 much as o • 8 inch. From the latitude of Valdivia in S. America to Cape 
 Horn, the distance is 900 miles, and the mean difference of barometric 
 pressure is 0*5 inch. Vancouver is another district where the mean 
 barometer differs much at moderate distances. 
 
 Whenever the observations at the upper and lower stations are not 
 strictly simultaneous, or when the mean barometer is taken in place of 
 the lower station, the correction for diurnal variation must not be 
 omitted, especially in the troj^ics where, in other respects, the barometer 
 is very steady. The mean amount of diurnal variation in different parts 
 of the world is also given in Berghaus' maj^s. An error of one or two 
 hundred feet might often be caused by the neglect to allow for it. 
 
 The traveller cannot be too strongly urged to have his boiling-point 
 theimometer verified both before starting and after returning. Their 
 index error is apt to vary, the thermometer reading lower than it should 
 do after frequent use. This is especially the case for the first few years 
 after they are made. 
 
 By Barometer or Aneroid. 
 
 The small but complete Tables (pp. 319, 320) will be especially useful to 
 those who carry a mountain barometer and are anxious to make accurate 
 determinations, but are not furnished with larger tables. These are 
 calculated by Loomis, and are extracted from Guyot's collection. 
 
 Part I. gives the altitude, subject to correction, for the temperature of 
 the air, and for the other iniluences which are the subjects of Parts II., 
 ni., IV., and V. 
 
 Method of Computation. — (i) Take from Part I. the two numbers cor- 
 responding to the two barometric heights; (2) from their difference sub- 
 tract the correction found in Part II., with the difference between the 
 thermometers that are attaclied to the barometers {Mem. : this correction 
 is not wanted for aneroids, for their works are mechanically compensated 
 for temperature); (3) for the temperature of the intermediate air between 
 the two stations, multijily the nine-hundredth part of the value already 
 obtained by the difference between the sum of the temperatures at the 
 two stations and 64°. This correction is additive when the sum of the 
 
 temperatures exceeds 64°, otherwise it is subtractive; or, what comes 
 
 *
 
 318 HINTS TO TKAVELLERS. 
 
 to the same thing, use the multiplier already given in Table II., p. 316. 
 (4) For further precision take corrections from Parts III. and IV., also 
 from Part V., when the lower station is so high as to bring the case 
 within the range of that table : — 
 
 TT„„», c».ti».. Lower Station 
 
 ^Example i.) ^PP«^ ^Ution. ^^ ^^ 
 
 o o 
 
 Thennometer in open air 70-5 .. 77-5 
 
 Thermometer in barometer -Jo'^ .. 77*5 
 
 Inches. Inches. 
 
 Barometer 23-66 .. 30-046 
 
 Latitude 21°. 
 
 Parti, gives (^°''^°'?i^.''^?«« ^"^IfT 
 
 ^ I for 2j -66 inches 2i4o6'9 
 
 Difference 6242-8 
 
 Part II. gives for 77°-5 — 7o°-3 (= 7°-2) —16-9 
 
 Approximate altitude 6:25-9 
 
 6225 -9 X (17'^-'; -f 7o°-;-64°)=6-9i8X8r8 = +579--* 
 
 900 
 
 Nearly correct altitude .. .. .. 6805-6 
 
 Part III. gives for above altitude and latitude 21° -HJ'J 
 
 Part IV. gives for above altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4- 19- } 
 
 Part V. is not used in this case .. .. .. .. o-o 
 
 Correct height above sea 6838-2 feet. 
 
 (^Example 2.) 
 The Lower Station is in Lat. 30°, 4890 ft. above sea-level. 
 
 Upper Station. Ixiwer Station, 
 
 o o 
 
 Thermometer in open air 32 .. 89 
 
 Thennometer in barometer. . .. ,, .. .. 35 .. 89 
 
 Inches. Inches. 
 
 Barometer 15 '76 .. 25-07 
 
 Part L gives ff°'^ ^5 ■°2?"'=^^^ "9i9-J 
 
 ° lfori5-76mches 10791-3 
 
 Difference 12128 
 
 Part II. gives for 89° - 35° - 126 
 
 Approximate altitude . , . , . . 1 2001 
 
 12001^6 X (89° 4- 32° -64°) =13-3x57 = +758 
 
 900 
 
 Nearly correct altitude 12"; 59 
 
 Height of Lower Station . . . . . . 4890 
 
 17649 
 
 From Part III. 22 
 
 From Part IV 56 
 
 From Part V. 7 
 
 Altitude above the sea-level 177J4 
 
 For high elevations it is needless to pay attention to decimals. 
 
 • If Table II., p. 320, had been used, we should have written — 
 
 7T!-1+J?°^ = 74° nearly. 
 2 
 The corresponding multiplier is I "093 3 
 
 I 0933 X 6225-9 = 6806-8,
 
 TABLES. 
 
 319 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Argument, the observed Height of the Barometer at either Statics'. 
 
 Hches. Feet. Diff. Inches. Feet Diff. Inches.' Feet. | Diff. Inches. i Feet, 
 
 1396-9 
 16; J -^ 
 
 1867-6 
 2099-9 
 
 2JJ0-I 
 
 2553-J 
 2784-5 
 3008-7 
 32JI-I 
 
 M5I-6 
 
 3670-2 
 3887-0 
 4102-0 
 
 4,-26-9 
 
 4756-7 
 
 4944 '9 
 5151-4 
 5J56-4 
 5559-7 
 5761-4 
 5961-6 
 6160- ( 
 6J57-5 
 6555-2 
 6747-5 
 6940-3 
 7131-7 
 7J2I-7 
 
 7510-3 : 
 
 7697-6 
 
 7883-6 
 
 8068-2 
 
 8251-5 
 
 8433-6 
 
 8614-4 
 
 8794-0 
 
 8972- J 
 
 9149-5 
 
 9325-5 
 
 9500-5 
 
 9673-8 
 
 9846 - 2 
 
 10017-5 
 
 10187-7 
 
 10356-8 
 
 10524-8 
 
 10691-8 
 
 10857-7 
 
 .1022-5 
 
 11I86-? 
 
 236-4 
 234-i 
 232-3 
 
 230-2 
 228-2 
 226-2 
 224-2 
 222-4 
 220-5 
 218-6 
 2i6-8 
 215-0 
 213-3 
 211-6 
 209-8 
 208-2 
 206-5 
 205-0 
 203 -i 
 201-7 
 200-2 
 198-7 
 197-2 
 195-7 
 
 194-3 
 192-8 
 191-4 
 190-0 
 188-6 
 187-3 
 186-0 
 184-6 
 183-3 
 182-1 
 180-8 
 179-6 
 178-} 
 177-2 
 176-0 
 174-8 
 173-5 
 172-4 
 171-i 
 170-2 
 
 168-0 
 167-0 
 165-9 
 164-8 
 163-8 
 
 5-0 
 6-1 
 6-2 
 6-3 
 
 6-4 
 6-5 
 6-6 
 
 6-7 
 6-8 
 6-9 
 7-0 
 7-1 
 
 8-9 
 9-0 
 9-1 
 9-2 
 
 n 
 9-4 
 9-5 
 9-6 
 9-7 
 9-8 
 9-9 
 20-0 
 
 20-1 
 20-2 
 20-3 
 20-4 
 20-5 
 20-6 
 
 20-7 
 20-8 
 20-9 
 
 21-0 
 
 11186-3 
 11349-1 
 II5IO-9 
 11671-7 
 11831-5 
 11990-3 
 12148-2 
 12305-1 
 12461-0 
 12616-1 
 12770-2 
 12923-5 
 13075-8 
 15227-3 
 13377-9 
 I J527-6 
 13676-5 
 13824-5 
 
 15971-7 
 14118-0 
 14263-6 
 14408-3 
 14552-3 
 14695-4 
 14837-8 
 
 14979-4 
 15120-3 
 15260-3 
 15399-7 
 15538-3 
 15676-2 
 15813-3 
 15949-3 
 16085-5 
 16220-5 
 16354-8 
 1^88-5 
 16621-4 
 16753-7 
 16885-3 
 17016-3 
 17146-6 
 17276-3 
 17405-3 
 17533-7 
 17661-4 
 17788-6 
 17915-1 
 18041-0 
 18166-3 
 I829I-O 
 
 162-8 
 
 i6i-8 
 160-8 
 159-8 
 158-3 
 
 157-9 
 156-9 
 
 155-9 
 155-1 
 154-1 
 153-5 
 152-3 
 151-5 
 150-6 
 
 149-7 
 148-9 
 148-0 
 147-2 
 146-3 
 145-6 
 
 144-7 
 144-0 
 145-1 
 142-4 
 141-6 
 140-9 
 140-0 
 
 159-4 
 138-6 
 137-9 
 157-1 
 156-5 
 135-7 
 155-0 
 154-5 
 135-7 
 132-9 
 152-3 
 151-6 
 151-0 
 150-5 
 129-7 
 129-0 
 128-4 
 127-7 
 127-2 
 126-5 
 125-9 
 125-5 
 124-7 
 
 21-0 
 21-1 
 21-2 
 21-3 
 
 21-4 
 
 21-5 
 
 21-6 
 
 21-7 
 
 21-8 
 
 21-9 
 22-0 
 
 22-1 
 22-2 
 22-3 
 22-4 
 22-5 
 22-6 
 22-7 
 22-8 
 22-9 
 23-0 
 23-1 
 23-2 
 23-3 
 23-4 
 25-5 
 23-6 
 23-7 
 23-8 
 23-9 
 24-0 
 24-1 
 24-2 
 24-5 
 24-4 
 24-5 
 24-6 
 24-7 
 24-8 
 24-9 
 25-0 
 25-1 
 25-2 
 25-3 
 
 25-4 
 25-5 
 25-6 
 25-7 
 25-8 
 
 25-9 
 26-0 
 
 18291-0 
 18415-1 
 18558-7 
 18661-6 
 18784-0 
 18905-8 
 19027-0 
 19147-7 
 19267-8 
 19387-4 
 19506-4 
 19624-9 
 19742-9 
 I 19860-3 
 19977-2 
 20093-6 
 I 20209-4 
 20324-8 
 20439-6 
 20554-0 
 20667-8 
 20781-1 
 20894-0 
 21006-4 
 21118-3 
 212i9-7 
 
 21340-6 
 
 21451 -I 
 
 21501-1 
 21670-6 
 
 21779-7 
 21888-4 
 21996-6 
 22104-3 
 
 22211-6 
 22318-4 
 22424-8 
 22530-8 
 22636-4 
 22741-5 
 22846-5 
 22950-6 
 23054-4 
 
 25157-9 
 25261-0 
 23363-6 
 
 23465-9 
 25567-7 
 23669-2 
 25770-3 
 23871-0 
 
 124-1 
 123-6 
 122-9 
 122-4 
 121-8 
 121-2 
 120-7 
 120-1 
 119-6 
 119-0 
 118-5 
 118-0 
 1.7-4 
 116-9 
 116-4 
 115-8 
 115-4 
 114-8 
 114-4 
 115-8 
 115-5 
 112-9 
 112-4 
 111-9 
 111-4 
 110-9 
 II0-5 
 110-0 
 
 109-5 
 
 109-1 
 108-7 
 
 io8-2 
 107-7 
 107-5 
 106-8 
 106-4 
 106-0 
 105-6 
 105 -I 
 104-8 
 104-5 
 103-8 
 103-5 
 103 -I 
 
 102-6 
 
 102-5 
 101-8 
 101-5 
 101 -I 
 
 100-7 
 
 26-0 
 
 26-1 
 
 26-2 
 
 26-3 
 
 26-4 
 26-5 
 
 26-6 
 
 26-7 
 26-8 
 26-9 
 
 27-0 
 27-1 
 27-3 
 
 27-5 
 27-4 
 27-5 
 27-6 
 27-7 
 27-8 
 27-9 
 28-0 
 28-1 
 
 23-2 
 
 28-3 
 28-4 
 28-5 
 28-6 
 23-7 
 28-8 
 28-9 
 29-0 
 29-1 
 29-2 
 29-3 
 29-4 
 29-5 
 29-6 
 29-7 
 29-8 
 29-9 
 30-0 
 30-1 
 50-2 
 30-3 
 30-4 
 50-5 
 50-6 
 30-7 
 30-8 
 30-9 
 31-0 
 
 i 23871-0 
 25971-3 
 24071-2 
 
 . 24170-7 
 24269-8 
 24368-6 
 24467-0 
 24565-1 
 24662 • 7 
 24760-0 
 24857-0 
 24953-6 
 25049-3 
 25145-7 
 25241-2 
 25336-4 
 25431-2 
 25,-25-7 
 25619-9 
 
 25715-7 
 25307-1 
 25900-3 
 25993-1 
 26085-6 
 26177-7 
 26269-6 
 26361-1 
 26452-3 
 26543-2 
 26633-7 
 26724-0 
 26813-9 
 26903 - 5 
 26992-8 
 27081-9 
 27170-6 
 27259-0 
 27347-1 
 
 27434-9 
 
 27522-5 
 
 27609-7 
 
 27696-6 
 
 27785-3 
 
 27869-7 
 
 27955-7 
 
 28041-5 ; 
 
 28127-1 
 
 28212-3 
 
 28297-3 
 
 28382-0 
 
 28466-4 
 
 ico-j 
 
 99-9 
 
 99-5 
 99-1 
 98-8 
 98-4 
 
 98-1 
 
 97-6 
 97-5 
 97-0 
 96-6 
 96*2 
 95-9 
 95-5 
 95-2 
 94-8 
 94-5 
 94-2 
 93-8 
 93-4 
 95-2 
 92-8 
 92-5 
 92-1 
 91-9 
 91-5 
 91-2 
 90-9 
 90-5 
 90-3 
 89-9 
 89-6 
 89-5 
 89-1 
 88-7 
 88-4 
 
 87-6 
 87-2 
 86-9 
 86-7 
 86-4 
 86-0 
 
 84-7 
 84-4
 
 320 
 
 HINTS TO TEAVELLERS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 COKnECTION DUB TO T — ^T', OR THR DiFrRRRVOE OP THE TbMPKRATDURS OF THK RaROWETF.RS THRM8ELVE8 
 
 (not Fore THAT OF TIIK INTICItMRDIATK AIll) AT THK TWO STATIONS. 
 
 
 This Correction is 
 
 Negative when the Temperature at the upper station is 
 
 lowest, and vice versa. 
 
 T— T'. 
 
 Correction. 
 
 T— T'. 
 
 Correction. 
 
 T— T'. 
 
 Correction. 
 
 T— T'. 
 
 Correction. 
 
 T— T'. 
 
 Correction. 
 
 T— T' 
 
 Correction. 
 
 Falir. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2-i 
 
 14 
 
 J2-8 
 
 27 
 
 bi-2 
 
 40 
 
 9?-6 
 
 5J 
 
 12A-I 
 
 126-4 
 
 66 
 
 154-5 
 156-8 
 
 2 
 
 4-7 
 
 IS 
 
 i5i 
 
 28 
 
 65-5 
 
 41 
 
 96*0 
 
 54 
 
 67 
 
 J 
 
 7-0 
 
 i6 
 
 37-5 
 
 29 
 
 67-9 
 
 42 
 
 98-i 
 
 55 
 
 128-7 
 
 68 
 
 159-2 
 
 4 
 
 9"4 
 
 17 
 
 ^9-8 
 
 }o 
 
 70-2 
 
 4J 
 
 loo'7 
 
 5<> 
 
 iji-i 
 
 69 
 
 161-5 
 
 5 
 
 II-7 
 
 i8 
 
 42-1 
 
 ii 
 
 72-6 
 
 44 
 
 loj-o 
 
 57 
 
 ijr4 
 
 70 
 
 i6}-9 
 
 6 
 
 i^-o 
 i6*4 
 
 19 
 
 44-5 
 46-8 
 
 it 
 
 74-9 
 
 45 
 
 105 -J 
 
 58 
 
 ij;-3 
 
 71 
 
 166-2 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 a 
 
 77-| 
 
 40 
 
 107-7 
 
 59 
 
 IJ8-I 
 
 72 
 
 i63-6 
 
 8 
 
 18-7 
 
 21 
 
 49-2 
 
 H 
 
 79-6 
 
 47 
 
 IIO'O 
 
 60 
 
 140-4 
 
 7J 
 
 170-9 
 
 9 
 
 21*1 
 
 22 
 
 51-5 
 
 35 
 
 81-9 
 
 48 
 
 II2'4 
 
 61 
 
 142-8 
 
 74 
 
 I7J-J 
 
 lO 
 
 2J-4 
 
 2} 
 
 5r8 
 
 ib 
 
 84- } 
 86-6 
 
 49 
 
 114-7 
 
 62 
 
 145-1 
 
 75 
 
 175-6 
 
 II 
 
 2;-8 
 
 24 
 
 56-2 
 
 in 
 
 50 
 
 117-0 
 
 6} 
 
 147-5 
 
 76 
 
 177-9 
 
 12 
 
 28-1 
 
 25 
 
 58-5 
 
 38 
 
 89-0 
 
 51 
 
 119-4 
 
 64 
 
 149-8 
 
 77 
 
 i8o-} 
 
 IJ 
 
 Jo-4 
 
 26 
 
 60-9 
 
 39 
 
 91 -J 
 
 52 
 
 I2I-7 
 
 65 
 
 152-2 
 
 7» 
 
 182-6 
 
 
 
 
 PART III. 
 
 
 
 PART 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CORHF.CTION 
 
 DUE TO THE 
 
 Change of 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 PART V 
 
 
 
 
 GltAVlTV 
 
 FllOM 
 
 rHE Latitude of 
 
 Correc- 
 
 
 
 
 
 45° 
 
 OF 
 
 TO THE Latitude of the Place 
 Obsebvation. 
 
 tion FOR 
 I)E- 
 
 Cokkection due to the Height of the 
 Lower Station. 
 
 
 
 Positive from Lat. 0° 
 
 to 45°; 
 
 
 OF 
 
 Gkavitt 
 
 ON A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Negative J rom 
 
 Lat. 45 
 
 = to 90° 
 
 
 
 Always Positive. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 
 
 Verti- 
 
 CAX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Height of Barometer at Lower Station. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 io° 
 
 
 
 
 App. 
 
 0° 
 
 
 
 40° 
 
 45° 
 
 Always 
 Positive. 
 
 
 
 
 App. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 18 in. j 20 in. 22 in. 
 
 24 in. 
 
 26 in. 28 in. 
 
 Alt. 
 
 90° 
 
 80° 
 
 70° 
 
 60° 
 
 50° 
 
 Alt. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 1 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 1000 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-5 
 
 2-0 
 
 i-J 
 
 0-5 
 
 
 
 2-5 
 
 1-6 
 
 1-3 
 
 i-o 0-8 
 
 0-6 
 
 0-4 0-2 
 
 1000 
 
 2000 
 
 5-J 
 
 5-0 
 
 X-\ 
 
 2-6 
 
 0-9 
 
 
 
 5-2 
 
 3-1 
 
 2-5 
 
 2-0 
 
 i-S 
 
 i-i 
 
 0-7 o-j 
 
 2000 
 
 3000 
 
 7-9 
 
 7-5 
 
 4-0 
 
 1-4 
 
 
 
 7-9 
 
 V3 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-0 
 
 2-i 
 
 1-7 
 
 i-i 1 0-5 
 
 ^000 
 
 4 DOG 
 
 10-6 
 
 lo-o 
 
 8-1 
 
 5-3 
 
 1-8 
 
 
 
 IO-8 
 
 5-1 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-1 
 
 2-2 
 
 1-4 ; 0-7 
 
 4000 
 
 5000 
 
 U-2 
 
 12-4 
 
 lo-i 
 
 6-6 
 
 2-J 
 
 
 
 U-7 
 
 7-8 
 
 rt 
 
 5-0 
 
 3-8 
 
 2-8 
 
 1-8 0-8 
 
 5000 
 
 6300 
 
 15-9 
 
 14-9 
 
 12-2 
 
 7-9 
 
 2-8 
 
 
 
 i6-7 
 
 9-4 
 
 6-0 
 
 4-6 
 
 3-3 
 
 2-1 i-o 
 
 6000 
 
 7000 
 
 18-5 
 
 17-4 
 
 14-2 
 
 9-3 
 
 i-2 
 
 
 
 19-9 
 
 ii-o 
 
 8-9 
 
 7-1 
 
 5-4 
 
 3-9 ' 2-5 ' 1-2 
 
 7000 
 
 8000 
 
 21-2 
 
 19-9 
 
 16-2 
 
 10-6 
 
 3-1 
 
 
 
 23-1 , 
 
 12-5 
 
 10-2 
 
 8-1 6-2 
 
 4-4 2-8 1 !■} 
 
 8000 
 
 9000 
 
 2r8 
 
 22-4 
 
 i8-i 
 
 11-9 
 
 4-1 
 
 
 
 ^^'i i 
 
 14-1 
 
 II-4 
 
 9-1 { 6-9 
 
 S-O 1 i-2 
 
 1-5 
 
 9000 
 
 lOOOO 
 
 26-,- 
 
 24-9 
 
 20- J 
 
 Ii-2 
 
 4-6 
 
 
 
 1 29-8 1 
 
 15-7 
 
 12-7 
 
 lo-i 1 7-7 
 
 5-5 1 3-5 
 
 1-7 
 
 loooo 
 
 1 1000 
 
 29- 1 
 
 27-4 
 
 ll-i 
 
 14-6 
 
 5-1 
 
 
 
 33-3 
 
 17-2 
 
 14-0 
 
 ll-l 8-5 
 
 6-1 j-9 
 
 1-8 
 
 IIOOO 
 
 12000 
 
 ji-8 
 
 29-9 
 
 24-4 
 
 15-9 
 
 5-5 
 
 
 
 36-9 
 
 18-8 
 
 I5-J 
 
 I2-I 9-2 
 
 6-6 
 
 4-2 
 
 2-0 
 
 12000 
 
 IJOOO 
 
 M-4 
 
 ;2-4 
 
 26-4 
 
 17-2 
 
 6-0 
 
 
 
 40-6 
 
 20-4 
 
 16-5 
 
 ij-l lo-o 
 
 7-2 
 
 4-6 
 
 2-2 
 
 liOOO 
 
 14000 
 
 jyi 
 
 M-9 
 
 28-4 
 
 18-5 
 
 6-4 
 
 ° 
 
 44-4 
 
 21-9 
 
 17-8 
 
 14-1 IO-8 
 
 7-7 
 
 4-9 
 
 2-3 
 
 14000 
 
 IJOOO 
 
 39-7 
 
 iVi 
 
 30-4 
 
 19-9 
 
 6-9 
 
 
 
 48-J 
 
 2J-5 
 
 191 
 
 I5-I II-5 
 
 8-3 
 
 S| 
 
 2-5 
 
 15000 
 
 16000 
 
 42-4 
 
 ?9-8 
 
 32-5 
 
 21-2 
 
 7-4 
 
 
 
 52-3 
 
 25-1 
 
 20-J 
 
 l6-I 1 I2'i 
 
 8-8 
 
 5-6 2-7 
 
 16:00 
 
 17000 
 
 45-0 
 
 42-J 
 
 ?6-5 
 
 22-5 
 
 7-8 
 
 
 
 56-4 
 
 26-6 
 
 21-6 
 
 I7-I 1 13-1 
 
 9-4 
 
 6-0 2-8 
 
 17000 
 
 18000 
 
 47-7 
 
 44-8 
 
 2}-8 
 
 8-i 
 
 
 
 60-5 
 
 28-2 
 
 22-9 
 
 i8-l 1 lj-8 
 
 9-9 6-j 1 j-o 
 
 18000 
 
 19000 
 
 50-i 
 
 47-3 
 
 ^8-6 
 
 25-2 
 
 8-7 
 
 
 
 64-8 
 
 29-8 
 
 24-1 
 
 19-2 14-6 
 
 IO-5 6-7 ; j-2 
 
 19000 
 
 20000 
 
 5?-o 
 
 49-8 
 
 40-6 
 
 26-5 
 
 9-2 
 
 
 
 69-2 
 
 31-3 
 
 25-4 1 20-2 1 15-4 
 
 ii-o 7-0 j-i 
 
 20c 00 
 
 21000 
 
 55-6 
 
 52-? 
 
 42-6 
 
 27-8 
 
 9-7 
 
 
 
 7r6 ' 
 
 32-9 
 
 26-7 j 21-2 1 16-I 
 
 II-6 7-4 j-5 
 
 21000 
 
 22000 
 
 58-? 
 
 54-8 
 
 46-7 
 
 29-1 
 
 lo-i 
 
 
 
 78-2 
 
 34-5 
 
 28-0 , 22-2 : 16-9 
 
 12-1 7-7 rn 
 
 22000 
 
 2JO0O 
 
 tl 
 
 57-3 
 
 io-5 
 
 10-6 
 
 
 
 82-9 
 
 j6-o 
 
 29-2 2J-2 17-7 
 
 12-7 8-1 j-8 
 
 2JOOO 
 
 24COO 
 
 59-8 
 
 48-7 
 
 jl-8 
 
 ii-o 
 
 . 
 
 87-6 
 
 37-6 
 
 J0-5 24-2 18-5 
 
 ij-2 8-4 4-0 
 
 24000 
 
 25000 
 
 66-2 
 
 62-2 
 
 50-7 
 
 iJ-i 
 
 II-5 
 
 ° 1 
 
 92-5 
 
 39-1 
 
 il-8 
 
 25-2 
 
 1 
 
 19-2 
 
 ir8 
 
 8-8 
 
 4.| 
 
 25000
 
 ( 321 ) 
 
 PHOTOGEAPHY. 
 
 By W. F. DoNKiN, M.A., F.C.S., A.C., late Lecturer in Chemistry at 
 /St. Georye's Hospital. 
 
 Revised and brought up to date by J. Thomson, Instructor in 
 Ph fography JR.G. S. 
 
 The traveller who wishes to take photographs of the scenery he may- 
 pass through has first to decide on the size of plate he intends to employ, 
 for on this will depend the size and weight of all the necessary apparatus. 
 The smallest size that is worth taking is known as " quarter-jilate," 
 measuring 4? x 3i inches; the largest size which admits of the apparatus 
 being carried by one man is 7^ x 5 inches. Intermediate sizes are 5x4, 
 and 6i x 4f , or " half-plate." 
 
 On high mountain ascents, and in cases where scarcity of porters or 
 some other reason may compel the traveller to carry his own apparatus, 
 it may be advisable to have a " quarter-plate " camera, as, although the 
 pictures obtained are trivial in ajDpearance, excellent enlargements and 
 lantern slides can be produced from them. In countries where, as in 
 India, porterage is cheap and easily obtained, large sizes may be adopted, 
 such as 82 X 6^ or " whole-plate " ; but for general utility and convenience 
 7^ X 5 is recommended, and in the following remarks it will be assumed 
 that this is the size adopted.* 
 
 The next point to decide is as to the selection of the sensitized medium 
 for receiving the image— glass plates, celluloid, or other films. 
 
 The weight of the entire apparatus necessary for taking twelve pictures, 
 namely, camera, slides, 12 glass plates, lenses, leather case, and tripod 
 stand, will be from 20 to 25 lbs. The weight of glass plates 7j x 5 inches 
 averages 3 lbs. per dozen, and, as the traveller should take with him from 
 half a gross upwards, it is evident that the chief weight of the necessary 
 photographic impedimenta is solid glass. This weight may be much 
 
 * A " quarter-plate " camera ought to be taken to supplement the work of the 
 larger instrument, and to be used cither as a hand camera, or on a tripod stand.
 
 322 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLEKS. 
 
 diminished by using flexible celluloid films as the base for the 
 sensitive gelatine film. Without dou1)t, glass plates yield the best 
 results ; but celluloid films in the smaller sizes, up to 7^ x 5, approach very 
 nearly to glass in many respects, and have the advantage of being one- 
 twelfth the -weight and not liable to breakage. They are exposed in the 
 same slides, and require the same treatment as glass plates. 
 
 As, however, the production of good film negatives requires consider- 
 able skill and nicety of manii^ulation, it will be well for the traveller who 
 has not been able to attain cxpertness therein, to provide himself with 
 glass plates and flat celluloid films. The following list comprises all the 
 apparatus necessary for taking photographs ou dry gelatine-coated glass 
 plates or celluloid films. 
 
 IJei.lows CaME1!A. 
 
 1. A camera.- — This should be of the bellows-bodied fonn, of best 
 mahogany, thoroughly well seasoned, and it is very convenient for it to 
 be fitted with what is known as a reversive back. It should have a 
 moveable front, capable of shifting both vertically and horizontally; and 
 a swing back ; that is to say, the frame carrying the focussing glass and 
 sensitive plates must be capable of turning on a vertical axis through 
 several degrees in each direction away from the normal. There are now 
 many good eamei'a-makers in Loudon ; among the best may be named 
 Mr. Meagher, of 21, Southampton PiOw, Eoss, of Bond Street, and Mr. 
 Hare, of 26, Calthorjie Street, Gray's Inn Eoad. 
 
 The essential points reqiiired in a camera for travelling are lightness 
 combined with strength, rigidity when extended for use, and absence of 
 loose parts and screws. When the form of camera allows it, the tripod 
 head is better dispensed with, and a turn-table let into the base board. 
 If this be not the case, have all screws in duplicate. A convenient screw
 
 PHOTOGEAPHY. 323 
 
 is made for fixing the camera to the stand. The thread of the screw is 
 turned off close to the shoulder, so that the screw revolves in the aper- 
 ture in the head of the stand, and need never be withdrawn. A second 
 focussing screen should also be taken, or some fine emery with which to 
 grind down a glass plate in case of breakage. 
 
 Hand cameras. — It is necessary to supplement the note on hand 
 cameras, as they are now extensively used, and excellent work done with 
 them. Hand cameras are designed to carry a dozen or more plates or 
 films in flat sheets or in spools, so arranged inside the camera as to 
 bo changed after each exposure by simply turning a milled head, or 
 moving a lever. The Key camera made by the Platinotype Company is 
 certainly one of the best; it is fitted with metal dark slides for carrying 
 plates or films, and is well spoken of by Mr. Conway. It may be had either 
 to carry plates or flat films. These metal slides are light, not easily 
 damaged, and offer greater security against damp than an ordinary hand- 
 camera where slides are not used. Where the film takes the form of a 
 roll, the Luzo hand-camera is excellent, but rolled films are not recom- 
 mended for travellers' use in hot and humid climates, for reasons which 
 I will note later on. Mr. Conway's experience of the Key camera for work 
 in high mountain ranges proves its capabilities for the general work of 
 exploration. He says: "A traveller who carries glass plates and flat 
 films will probably bring home a larger percentage of good negatives from 
 a long mountain journey than one who relies upon spools of films." There 
 can be no question about the force and accuracy of this statement. My 
 own experience goes to prove that a camera arranged for glass plates 
 and flat films is best. There is a certain facility in using rolled films, 
 bvit the risk of failure is great. The Key camera should be fitted with 
 a rising front for taking elevated objects in correct drawing when the 
 instrument is level. Mr. Conway advises that " the angles of the double 
 backs of tills camera should be made stronger than they usually are. 
 The shutter spring should be carefully tested for quality before starting, 
 and a duplicate spring taken, which the traveller should learn to adjust." 
 
 In addition a light tripod stand should be taken for supporting the 
 camera when longer exposures are required than can be given in the 
 hand. A very satisfactory compromise has been adopted by Capt. Abney 
 between using the camera in the hand and on a tripod. He rests the 
 camera on top of a walking stick when making hand exposures, with the 
 
 z 2
 
 324 HlN'l'S TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 result that he overcomes all tremor caused by pulsation, and so secures 
 2)hotographs full of sharp detail. There are a number of excellent hand- 
 cameras made, those by Ross, Eouch, and Watson may be mentioned. 
 
 2. Glides for holdimj the sensitive plates. — These are frames which slide 
 into the back of the camera in place of the focussing glass, which is 
 removed. They each hold two sensitive plates, back to back, with an 
 opaque partition between them, so that a dozen plates will require six 
 slides or " double backs." 
 
 In order to secure the camera against the admission of light when the 
 plate is being exposed, cover the camera entirely with the focussing cloth 
 leaving the lens free, and pull out the shutters of the slides under the cloth. 
 
 8. A focussing doth. — This is used for keeping out the light while 
 focussing, being thrown over the camera and the head of the operator. 
 It is generally made of black velvet, but waterj^roof sheeting is much 
 better. It should have rings sewn on to one edge, or some arrangement 
 by which it may be attached to the camera so as not to be blown away. 
 
 4. Camera-stand. — There are many varieties of tripod stands, with legs 
 either folding or sliding into a small compass. For mountainous country 
 it is of great advantage to have a stand with sliding legs, as they can be 
 readily altered in length so as to stand firmly on slopes or rocky ground. 
 Kenuett's is a good form of sliding stand, and is made in two or three 
 different sizes. The smallest size, weighing about 3 lbs., and measuring 
 33 in. long when closed, and standing about 4 ft. 6 in. high, is steady 
 enough to support a 7^ x 5 camera without perceptible vibration in a 
 moderate wind. That of Hunter & Sands is another very good pattern. 
 
 5. A small circular cup level, let into the wood of the camera, for level- 
 ling the camera on the tripod. 
 
 Lenses. — There are many lenses in the market, and as it is imijossible 
 to do good W'Ork with an inferior lens, it is necessary to exercise gi-eat 
 care in selecting this part of a photographic outfit. Lenses known as 
 rectilinear or symmetrical are the most useful to a scientific explorer, and 
 are equally well fitted for producing jiictorial effect in his work. 
 
 Ordinary portrait lenses are designed specially for rapid work, and this 
 is attained at the cost of qualities in a lens most iiseful to an explorer. 
 The so-called portrait combination should therefore be avoided, and there 
 is all the more reason for this as rapid rectilinear and symmetrical lenses 
 are well adapted for out-door portraiture. 
 
 Eectilinear and symmetrical lenses give true images of objects to be
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 325 
 
 photographed free from distortion, so that straight lines are reproduced 
 as straight lines. In this way they are invaluable where accurate measure- 
 ments have to be taken from photographs produced by them. 
 
 Eoss and Dalimeyer's ordinary symmetrical and rectilinear lenses aro 
 excellent for all sorts of landscape work and for photographing buildings, 
 exterior and interior. In using a camera 7i in. x 5 in. the following 
 lenses are recommended : — 
 
 a. Eoss's portable symmetrical, 5 in. focus. (This embraces an angle 
 of about 55'' on the long diameter of the plate, and is useful for confined 
 situations and iuterior.s, but should seldom be used for an open land- 
 
 Ross Rapid Syjimetbical. Zeiss Lexs. 
 
 scape.) h. Dalimeyer's single meniscus lens, 7 in. focus. (This includes 
 an angle of about i5" on the Tl in. plate, and will be found the most 
 universally useful lens for ordinary landscapes, giving a brilliant image 
 with great depth of focus.) r. Dalimeyer's rapid rectilinear, of about 
 II in. focus, including about 37^. d. Zeiss's anastigmat, made by Eoss, 
 consists of a double front lens and a triple back lens. It is intended for 
 portraits, groups, copying, and general outdoor work. The combinations 
 being brought closely together, gives them great illuminating power. 
 They have an angular aperture of from 858 to 908, and can therefore be 
 used as wide-angle lenses when desired. In consequence of the peculiar 
 system of correction for ol)lique pencils adopted in these lenses they 
 bebave somewhat differently from the usual types with regard to the 
 mode of compensating the effect of the resulting aberrations between 
 centre and margin of the field. This is, of course, only possible in tJie
 
 326 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 case of i^erfcctly plane objects. In all other cases— landscape, instan- 
 taneous work, or interiors — the centre should be focussed, and rather for 
 objects at a distance than for near objects. Considerable economy may 
 be effected by purchasing lenses second-hand from respectable dealers, 
 such as Messrs. Watson & Son, 313, High Ilolborn ; Mr. Morley, 70, Upper 
 Street, Islington, or Messrs. Hunter & Sands, of 20, Cranbourne Street, all 
 of whom can be recommended with confidence. 
 
 Focus.- — In place of giving a strictly scientific definition of the term 
 focus or "focul length" applied to a lens, it will be sufficient for the scope 
 of this paper to say that focul length means the distance between the 
 diaphragm of a rectilinear or symmetrical lens, and the ground-glass 
 screen of a camera. That is when the image of an object, say one 
 hundred yards in front of the lens, is seen most distinctly on the focussing 
 screen of the camera. 
 
 Exposure tables. — Exposure tables are based on the focul length of a 
 
 lens, in relation to the diameter of the diaphragm of a lens. Thus, if 
 
 the focus is eight inches and diameter of diaphragm one inch, the relation- 
 s- 
 ship will be expressed by ^ or by the uniform standard number 4, and 
 
 so on, as in table. 
 
 U i; Nus 
 
 4 
 
 / 
 8 
 
 8 
 / 
 
 i6 
 
 / 
 i6 
 
 n 
 f 
 
 22-6 
 
 64 
 / 
 32 
 
 128 
 / 
 
 45-2 
 
 256 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 64 
 
 Such tables are useful guides to the relative duration of exposure with 
 diaphragms of different sizes applied to the same lens. They afford 
 no clue, however, to time of exposure to be given with any particular 
 lens or diaphragm. This can be best ascertained by experience, as 
 duration of exposure of a plate or film in the camera depends on the 
 ■sensitiveness of the plate, the time of day, the sun, the state of the atmos- 
 phere, the nearness or distance of the object to be photographed, etc. 
 To take an extreme case of the dift'erence of time required to impress the 
 plate with the image of an exterior view and that of an interior, a 
 landscape open and well lighted may be taken in the fraction of a second, 
 while a dimly-lighted interior with the same lens would require an hour, 
 both being taken with plates coated with the same emulsion.
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. o27 
 
 Sensitive plates or films. — Gelatine plates are now made commercially 
 by a large number of firms and of great excellence ; they keep indefinitely 
 before exposure, and for a long time afterwards and before development, 
 and under some circumstances (as for instantaneous pictures, portraits, 
 and dimly-lighted interiors) will give results which could hardly be 
 obtained at all on collodion. Gelatine plates are made of various degrees 
 of sensitiveness ; the slowest plates are best for ordinary landscape work. 
 They are generally su])plied in parcels of a dozen each, packed face to 
 face with strips of folded paper between opposite edges. The card boxes 
 in which they are usually joackcd are an insufficient protection against 
 injury and damp. In all cases it is advisable, and for sea voyages and 
 damp climates essential, to have each package of a dozen plates soldered 
 down in a tin case, and afterwards packed in a light wooden box with 
 tow or cotton wool, and the box screwed (not nailed) down. In packing 
 them up again after exposure or after development, a good plan (due to 
 Captain Abney) is to provide oneself with a numljer of cardboard frames 
 exactly the size of the plates, made of strips of card about I in. wide, one 
 of which is inserted between every two face to face. The packages thus 
 made up should be soldered down again, and treated with at least as 
 much care as the original plates. Should there be no available means 
 of resoldering the boxes, it will be better to have tin boxes with the lid 
 turned well down, the joinings to be closed by strong well-gummed paper. 
 It will also be well to be provided with a supply of waterproof paper, or 
 cloth, as an additional precaution in packing and in case of emergencies. 
 
 Sensitive films in rolls or spools are made by the Eastman and other 
 companies, and may be used successfully in their proper roll-holders when 
 they can be kept perfectly dry. Flat films made by Fitch, Edwards and 
 others have many advantages for travellers. The celluloid of which 
 they are made is very much lighter than glass, and in exposure and 
 development may be treated in the same way as a glass plate.* When 
 plates can be carried, the extra weight is compensated for by greater 
 certainty of success, and general excellence in the photographs. 
 
 How to keep jil (lies and films dry. — When the traveller has a long journey 
 before him, and the prospect of storing his plates and films for months 
 
 * A new film has just been iutroduceil l)y Thomas, (if Pull ]\Iall, ami is sairl 
 not to jiossess the defects of celluloid.
 
 328 HINTS TO THAVKIJ.EHS. 
 
 both before and after exposure, it is of the greatest importance tliat pre- 
 cautious sliould be taken against tlio iuroads of damp. Tliis applies 
 with full force when the country to be explored has a hot, humid climate. 
 Plates and lilms that have absorbed moisture, causing decomposition in the 
 sensitive gelatine coating, are frequently brought back to this country to 
 be developed, and are the most fruitful cause of failure. The remedy is 
 simple, but can only be applied when jDacking and repacking the plates. 
 Some guarantee should be sought from makers of plates and films that 
 they are i^acked perfectly dry, and that the i:)acking used is also dry. 
 Assuming that work has to be done in a damp climate and that the plates 
 have been ex])osed in the camera and require to be rei:)ackod, they should 
 be dried in a box containing a small quantity of chloride of calcium. The 
 box used for drying may be also designed to carry the camera and outfit. 
 It should have a lid with a rim of rubber padding, so that by putting the 
 lid on and a weight on it, the box would be fairly air-tight. Stack the 
 exposed plates, or films, in the bottom of box, so separated as to permit 
 the passage of air between. Place a cujd or saucer on the bottom of box 
 containing chloride of calciiim. (The chloride should be first dried 
 on a piece of iron over a fire.) Put on the lid and allow the plates to 
 remain for an hour or more. Dry all the packing materials, remove the 
 plates from the box and repack. The chloride will have absorbed the 
 moisture in the plates, and rendered them quite dry and safe for preserv- 
 ing for an indefinite length of time. 
 
 Apparatus and chemicals for development. — The development of the 
 plates or films after exposure in the camera requires practice and experi- 
 ence in order to secure the best results. Instructions for development 
 are sent out with all commercial plates or jiapers, but many failures 
 would certainly result from attempting to work by these without some 
 preliminary practice at home. As plates, Arc, will keep after exposure 
 (if well protected from damp) for 18 months, or longer if properly 
 packed, it is not, of course, necessary to develop them en route, 
 although if the traveller possess sufficient skill, and if ample water- 
 supply and other facilities can be secui-ed, it will be advantageous for 
 many reasons to do so. On a long journey, use of convenient resting- 
 places may be made to develop from time to time a few plates selected 
 from the whole, both as tests for exposure and ns ]>roof that all the 
 apparatus is in order. The following list comprises all that is
 
 PHOTOrJRAPHY. .■)29 
 
 cabsohitely required for developing 8 or 10 dozen gelatine plates:-- 
 Three papicr-macho dishes, two S-ounce glass measures, three 6-ounce 
 bottles, containing strong solutions of i)yrogallic acid, potassium 
 bromide, and ammonia respectively, 1 lb. hyposulphite of soda, and 
 i lb. alum, both in crystals, 4 or 5 feet of indiarubber tubing and a spring 
 clip, to make a syphon for a water-supply from a jug or can, a basin 
 or tub to serve as a sink, a folding rack for draining the plates. 
 
 There is a very convenient new developing agent in the market called 
 Eikonogen, sold in tubes, and may be used as follows : — Break the tube 
 over a sheet of paper, empty completely both halves by means of press- 
 ing the tube between the fingers, withdraw the small joieces of wadding 
 falling therefrom and put the whole quantity of the powder in a bottle 
 containing 100 cubic-centimetres (Sg ounces) distilled water. (Eain-water 
 or soft pump- water may also be used.) After being shaken from 3 to 5 
 minutes, the powder will dissolve, and the developer is then ready for use. 
 If the plates are over-exposed, increase the quantity of water from 150 to 
 200 cubic-centimetres, and, if necessary, add a few drops of a solution of 
 bromide of potassium (1 : 10). The developer may be used several times. 
 
 The traveller is recommended for advanced study of photography, sucli 
 works as that by Captain Abney or by "W. K. Burton, which may l)e had 
 from any photographic dealers. 
 
 The aim of the traveller-photographer should be the production of good 
 negatives. It often requires years of study on the part of professional 
 operators (with advantages impossible to the traveller) before thoroughly 
 good negatives are habitually jn'oduced ; and it must not be supposed 
 that a person taking up photography for the first time, in a few hurried 
 moments before departure on a journey, will attain other than very 
 unsatisfactory results. 
 
 The operations necessary for taking a picture are briefly as follows : — 
 Having selected the position from which the view is to be taken (for valuable 
 hints as to the artistic production of pictures see Eobinson's ' Pictorial 
 Effect in Photography '), the tripod stand is first set up, and the head ap- 
 proximately levelled by means of the pocket level, altering the position or 
 length of the legs as may be necessary. The camera is next screwed on 
 to the stand, and the lens selected which on trial is found to include the 
 required amount of subject. For groups or portraits a long focus lens 
 with wide aperture, such as Dallmeyer's " Rapid rectilinear," 11 in. focus,
 
 380 HINTS TO TRA.VELLERS. 
 
 sliould be used. The next operation is to focus the pieturo accurately on 
 the ground-glass screen of tlie camera. The focussing-cloth is thrown 
 over the head and the camera., so as to exclude the light as much as 
 possible, and while looking at the inverted image on the ground glass 
 the milled head of the rack adjustment is turned till the image appears 
 as sharp as possible. The camera is now turned about on its vertical 
 axis till it exactly includes the view intended to be taken, and the screw 
 is tightened. It may be necessary to raise or lower the front of the 
 camera carrying the lens in order to include olyects at a high or low 
 elevation ; if the vertical range of this sliding front is insufficient, tlie 
 camera must be tilted ; but, if this is done, care must be taken to set the 
 focussing-screen vertical again by means of the swing back, and to re- 
 adjust the focus. The full aperture of the lens should always be used 
 for focussing, and if the image is not sharp all over the plate it will be 
 necessary to insert a diaphragm in the lens, using the largest that will 
 effect the required object. Having then put the cap on the lens, the 
 hinged frame carrying the focussing-glass is turned over, and one of the 
 slides carrying the sensitive plates is inserted in its place. The slides 
 should be exposed as little as possible to the light, especially avoiding 
 direct sunlight ; however carefully constructed, it is difficult to make 
 them absolutely light-tight. The shutter of the slide is then withdrawn, 
 and the exposu.re made by removing the cap from the lens for the 
 required time. The time of exposure must be estimated according to 
 circumstances, and it requires considerable experience to judge of it ac- 
 curately. A record should be kept in a note-book of every plate exposed, 
 giving the number, date, time, exposure, subject, &c. If the plates 
 cannot be developed the same evening, and the slides are wanted for 
 fresh plates, they must be packed up again, and should be numbered. 
 This is best done by marking the number on the back with a bit of dry 
 soap, or on the film with a lead pencil. The image on the plate after 
 exposure is latent and invisible, and has to be develojied. This is effected 
 by pouring on the plate, laid in one of the flat dishes, a dilute 
 solution containing pyrogallic acid, ammonia, and potassium bromide. 
 The excellence of the result largely depends on the due proportion 
 between these constituents, and here more exi^erience is perhaps neces- 
 sary than in any other part of the process. The image having 
 been fully developed, the plate is well washed, and then immersed in
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 331 
 
 a solution of alum, which hardens the film. After another thorough 
 washing it is "fixed" by immersion in a solution of sodium hypo- 
 sulphite, which dissolves out the unchanged bromide of silver, and 
 being once more well washed it is finished, and must be set up in the 
 rack to dry spontaneously. On no account must heat be applied, not 
 even the warmth of sunlight, or the film will melt. When dry it must 
 be varnished to protect the film. The printing operations are best deferred 
 till the return home, as they would involve the carriage of a large 
 amount of extra apparatus. It is generally best to get the printing done 
 by a professional printer ; but, if the traveller prefers to print from his own 
 negatives, he will find full instructions in ' The Art and Practice of 
 Silver Printing,' by Eobinson and Captain Abney. 
 
 As regards the expense of a photographic outfit, such as that described 
 above, the following may be taken as average prices for the largest size 
 recommended, namely, for plates Is x 5 inches : — 
 
 Camera 4 to 5 guineas. 
 
 Double slides, about 1 guinea each. 
 
 Lenses, as described above, No. 1, 3/. 10s. ; No. 2, 3/. 15s. ; No. 3, V. 
 These may generally be obtained second-hand, in good condition, at a 
 reduction of 25 or 30 per cent, on these prices. 
 
 The above may be arranged to pack into a solid leather case, conveniently 
 in the form of a knapsack, measuring about 16 in. wide, 12 in. high, and 
 5 in. deep. This can easily be carried on the back of one man, and is of 
 a more convenient shape than the cases generally sold for the purpose. 
 
 Tripod stand, 25s. 
 
 Lantern, from 2/. to 10s. 
 
 Gelatine plates, about 3s. per dozen. 
 
 Apparatus and chemicals for development, about 15s. 
 
 Total, exclusive of the plates, about 25?. 
 
 The plates and other apparatus, with the exception of the knapsack and 
 its contents, and the tripod stand, are best packed for travelling in a 
 strong basket, which is much better than a box, being more elastic and 
 lighter. It will weigh, when packed with the apparatus and a gross of 
 71 X 5 plates, about 60 lbs. 
 
 Travellers interested in anthropology might read Mr. E. F. ira Thurn's 
 recent paper on the Anthropological Uses of the Camera, published in 
 the ' Pro-jeedings of the Anthropological Society.'
 
 ( r!82 ) 
 
 VI. 
 
 METEOKOLOGY AND CLIWATE. 
 
 Bij H. F. Blanfokd, f.r.s. 
 
 Before starting on his journey, the traveller should set before himself 
 what he contemplates as the precise aim and object of liis meteorological 
 observations, and arrange his outfit and plan of operations accordingly. 
 This object may be, either (1) a simple record of the weather, (2) a 
 knowledge of the local climate, or (3) the prosecution of certain special 
 meteorological inquiries, for which the places he proposes to visit may 
 afford peculiar advantages. 
 
 Since the climate of a country is the average of all its weather conditions 
 at each season, the observations which are recpiired for the first object 
 need only to be made systematically and guarded with certain precautions 
 in order to furnish a valuable contrilmtion towards the second also; and 
 it may therefore be assumed that, as a general rule, this too is desired. 
 To accomplish the third object, some previous scientific knowledge and 
 practice will generally be necessary, and this will best be gained by a 
 preliminary training under competent guidance. Some suggestions on 
 this head will be given in the sequel. 
 
 Assuming, then, that a knowledge of the climate is the object immediately 
 in view, the following particulars will more especially claim the traveller's 
 attention. 1st, the temperature of the air, including the mean temperature, 
 its diurnal and annual range, and its variability from day to day. 2nd, 
 the humidity of the air at different seasons, and its changes ; 3rd, the 
 rainfall, including under this head snow, hail, dew, and other forms of 
 precipitation ; 4th, the direction and force of the wind ; 5th, the cloudi- 
 ness or serenity of the sky, with observations of fog and dust-haze ; 6th, 
 the frequency of storms. The intensity of the sun's heat and the cooling 
 of the earth at night are also very important elements of climate, but the
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 333 
 
 instruments for measuring them are fragile, and especially liable to de- 
 struction. And inasmuch as, in the absence of direct observation, the 
 sun's intensity and the nocturnal cooling may be, to a certain extent, 
 inferred from the temperature range and some other of the foregoing 
 observations, their actual measurement can hardly be recommended 
 except under special circumstances to be noticed presently. The varia- 
 tions of the pressure of the atmosphere are of less importance as an 
 element of climate, but they hold a first place in connection with weather 
 changes, and with the movements of the atmosphere ; and, inasmuch as 
 the barometer (or aneroid) atfords the readiest means of determining the 
 elevation of a i:)lace, it will form j^art of the outfit, of most travellers, and 
 will be here noticed among tlie more indispensable instruments. 
 
 Instruments and outfit.- — For the purposes specified in the foregoing 
 paragraph, the following insptruments are requisite : — 
 
 1 self-registering maximum thermometer. 
 1 „ „ minimum „ 
 
 1 dry and wet bulb hygrometer. 
 
 2 sling thermometers. 
 
 1 thermometer for earth temperatures. 
 
 1 rain-gauge. 
 
 1 aneroid. 
 
 1 pocket compass. 
 
 Also a portable stand and screen for the thermometers; half a yard of 
 thin muslin and a skein or two of lamp wick cotton for renewing the 
 covering of the wet bulb thermometer, a pocket note-book for noting down 
 the readings of the instruments and other casual observations, and a 
 ruled register for posting them as a permanent record. 
 
 The instruments above enumerated will suffice for ordinary purposes 
 if the journey is not likely to be very prolonged, and the means of trans- 
 port such as will not expose them to great risk. If otherwise, all but the 
 rain-gauge should be provided in duplicate. An ordinary reading lens, of 
 about 2 in. diameter and 4-in. focus, is sometimes useful for the accurate 
 and rapid reading of the thermometers. And if the country is one where 
 no good mercurial barometer is likely to be met with, and circumstances 
 admit of one being set up at a fixed station, whicli can bo referred to at 
 intervals, or even the beginning and end of the journey, for the comparison
 
 334 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 of the aneroid, it will be a most useful adjunct; but even the most port- 
 able forms of the mercurial barometer are so fragile, and their transport 
 on land journeys is attended with so much risk, that, as a general rule, 
 they can hardly be recommended for the purposes of travel. 
 
 Small self-registering thermometers for travellers are prociirable from 
 the best London makers, and are as trustworthy as the larger observatory 
 instruments, while they are more portable. The best form of maximum 
 thermometer is that which has the tube constricted just above the bulb, 
 so that the column, in contracting after attaining the maximum tem- 
 perature, breaks at this point. The more usual pattern (Phillip's) has an 
 air-bubble about an inch below the top of the column. This is apt to 
 shift in travelling, and sometimes to escape from the column, and the 
 instrument then ceases to be self-registering. Six's thermometer, which 
 combines the maximum and minimum in one bent tube, partly filled with 
 mercury and partly with spirit, is also liable to be deranged in travelling, 
 and is not more portable than the separate instruments of small size. 
 
 The minimum thermometer should be a spirit thermometer of the form 
 known as Eutherford's, which has an index of black glass immersed in 
 the spirit column. This is also very liable to derangement in travelling, 
 and sometimes even when suspended for observation, owing to the 
 separation of the column. But it is easily rectified after a little practice ; 
 and the traveller should learn to do this before starting on his journey. 
 The thermometer must not be immersed in warm water, or otherwise 
 heated, any such proceeding being attended with great risk, while it is 
 rarely effectual. The following method is safe and certain. 1st, If the 
 column is separated but the index remains in the spirit, grasp the in- 
 strument firmly by the upper end of the scale, taking care not to press on 
 the tube ; then, holding it at arm's length above the head, swing it down 
 with a sudden jerk towards the feet, and repeat this till all the jxarts are 
 reunited. Then let it stand half an hour, bulb downwards, to allow the 
 last film of spirit to drain from the tube. 2nd, If the iudex has left the 
 spirit and become fixed in the upper part of the tube, first grasp the 
 instrument by the bulb end, and, proceeding as just directed, pass about 
 half the column to the upper end of the tube. Having thus released and 
 reimmersed the index, reverse the instrument and pass sj^irit and index 
 back together. 3rd, If an air bubble has penetrated to the bulb, hold 
 the instrument upright and strike the bottom of the scale smartly on the
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 335 
 
 palm of the left hand repeatedly, until the whole of the air is driven into 
 the tube. Then proceed as before for reuniting the column. Sometimes, 
 when in use, a drop of colourless spirit, separated by evaporation, becomes 
 lodged at the upper end of the tube, causing the thermometer to give too 
 low a reading ; and this may escape observation unless carefully looked 
 for. Before suspending the thermometer, and also before taking a reading, 
 the tube should always be closely examined to ascertain that the column 
 is entire. Mercurial thermometers are much less liable to derangement. 
 
 The hygrometer should consist of two separate thermometers (not 
 mounted on the same frame), and they should be suspended not less than 
 6 inches apart. The wet bulb should be provided with a small bottle 
 having a narrow neck for the water sujjply (not an open cup). The muslin 
 and wick should be renewed as often as they become dirty. The dry bulb 
 serves to show the temi^erature of the air at the time of reading, and the 
 difference of its reading and that of the wet bulb affords the data for 
 computing the humidity of the air. The hygrometer can only be used for 
 camp observations. For observations on the march, one of the sling 
 thermometers should be fitted with muslin as a wet bulb. These ther- 
 mometers being without attached scales are very portable. Each should 
 have its own case, of thin brass tube closed at each end, and india- 
 rubber lined, with a plug of cotton at top and bottom. 
 
 Every thermometer should be furnished with a table of corrections for 
 all parts of its scale. The verification can be effected at the Kew Obser- 
 vatory on payment of a small fee. It cannot, however, be assumed that 
 the corrections thus determined will remain constant, since thermometers 
 undergo a slow change that may continue for many years. But as this 
 change affects all parts of the scale equally, when an instrument has once 
 been verified throughoiit, it is sufficient at any subsequent time to revcrify 
 its freezing-point, by immersing the bulb and lower part of the scale in 
 crushed, melting ice. Any change, thus determined in the correction of 
 the freezing-point, may be applied as a further correction to all parts of 
 the scale. 
 
 Travellers in Arctic and Antarctic regions, in Siberia and Canada, in 
 the winter, in any country indeed in which the temperature often falls 
 below 0° Fahr., should employ spirit thermometers only, and these should 
 be verified down to the freezing-point of mercury ( — 37"9°). This too 
 may be effected at Kew.
 
 336 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 The readinc; of a thermometer may vary many degrees at one and the 
 same place and time, according to the mode of exposure. If bung with- 
 out protection, it will be unduly heated in the day-time, and unduly 
 cooled at night, and if inside a tent it will probably not show the full range 
 of the air's temperature. If, then, circumstances admit of the traveller's 
 taking with him a light screen for the suspension of the maximum and 
 minimum thermometers and the hygrometer, it is very desiral)le to do 
 so. The accompanying figuro represents such a screen, 5 ft. high, 
 suitable for countries where the winds are moderate or liglit, such 
 as are most tropical countries. It is constructed of bamboos or rods of 
 
 light wood, cords and canvas, which may easily be made up before 
 starting, and It is easily renewed or repaired. The canvas roof should be 
 trijjle or quadriiple according to the thickness of the material. Such a 
 screen will atibrd sufficient protection at night, or even in the day, if set 
 up in the shade, and it will throw off rain ; but iu the sun it will require 
 a thick mat as an additional iirotection on the roof. A light frame between 
 the uprights carries the instruments. 
 
 The chief advantage of this form of screen is its portability, and it is 
 suitable only for camp use. Wherever an observatory can be set up for 
 some weeks or months, the best form of screen is a louvrcd box, with a
 
 METEOKOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 337 
 
 double roof, having an air-space between the roofs. This should be fixed 
 to four posts firmly planted in the ground ; the door, which should also 
 be louvred, opening on the side away from the sun. 
 
 The best form of rain-gauge is that known as Symons', with a receiving 
 funnel 5 in. in diameter. But if it be important to reduce the size 
 to the lowest limit for the sake of portability, a large bottle with a funnel 
 of 3 or even 2 inches diameter screwed on the neck will give fairly good 
 results. The size of the bottle will depend on the average heaviness of 
 the rainfall in the country visited. In the tropics during the rainy 
 season 3 or 4 inches in the twenty-four hours is by no means un- 
 frequent, and sometimes as much as this may fall within an hour, and 35 
 inches in a single day have been recorded on the plains of Northern India ; 
 but in most extra- tropical countries 2 inches in twenty-four hours is an 
 unusual fall. A bottle or other receiver that will hold C inches of rainfall 
 will suffice in most places, the contents being measured and emptied once 
 a day ; and, in the event of any fall exceeding this, care must be taken to 
 measure it more freqiiently. The funnel, if not exceeding 3 inches diameter, 
 maybe of brass. If larger, its mouth should be strengthened with a stout 
 brass ring, to prevent deformation. Any alteration of its form diminishes 
 its size, and therefore falsifies the record. The glass in which the rainfall 
 is measured must be graduated to suit the size of the funnel; but, incase 
 of accident, any truly graduated glass, such as an ajjothecary's 2 oz. or 
 4 oz. glass, may be substituted, and the rainfall being recorded as fluid 
 ounces, drachms, &c., may be converted into inches by a simple calcula- 
 tion, the diameter of the funnel being known. 
 
 The most convenient form of barometer for travelling is the pocket 
 aneroid. Those by the best makers give fairly constant readings, but no 
 aneroid can be depended on as unchangeable. It should be compared 
 with a standard mercurial barometer as late as possible before starting, 
 and recompared, as often as opportunity may offer, with any mercurial 
 barometer, the correction of which to the Kew or some other acknow- 
 ledged standard is known. Comparison with an uncorrected mercurial 
 barometer is of little use, since all mercurial barometers have some 
 small scale error, and some a large error. The comparison should be 
 made with the reading of the mercurial barometer, corrected for tem- 
 perature (to the freezing-point), and reduced to the standard value, 
 and the correction thus determined should l>e applied to all tlie aneroid 
 
 •2 A
 
 338 H1NT8 TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 leadings. An aneroid should not require any temperature correction, 
 if compensated. 
 
 Any correction thus determined holds good, however, only so long as 
 the instrument is exposed only to temporary variations of pressure, the 
 average pressure being not greatly changed. It has been ascertained by 
 Mr. Whymper that when an aneroid is subjected to a great reduction or 
 increase or decrease of pressure, and so kept for many days, its error 
 gradually augments, until it may become two or three times as great as 
 when the change was first effected. If, therefore, the traveller remains 
 long on a high plateau or mountain range, his aneroid will continue 
 falling quite independently of any further reduction of atmospheric 
 pressure ; and in like manner when after such sojourn he returns to low 
 altitudes, some weeks will elapse before the instrument recovers its 
 original average readings at the higher pressure, and it may be found to 
 have imdergone a permanent change. The readings of an aneroid are 
 therefore to be depended on only so long as it has not been exposed to 
 great differences of pressure for prolonged periods. 
 
 Barometric observations. — Before reading a mercurial barometer, care 
 must be taken that the instrument is quite vertical, which will be the 
 case if it is suspended freely from the top, or in gimbals on an axis 3 or 
 4 inches above its centre of gravity. It must have a uniform tem- 
 perature, to ensure which it ought to be suspended in the shade for at 
 least half an hour before reading. The mercury-level of the cistern 
 must be adjusted to the fiducial point at each reading, and in setting the 
 vernier the eye must be exactly on the level of the top of the column 
 to avoid errors of parallax. The reading of the thermometer attached 
 to the barometer must always be noted simultaneously with that of 
 the scale and vernier, as this is required to correct the reading for 
 temperature. 
 
 In taking readings of an aneroid, the instrument should always have 
 the same position, preferably the horizontal, and the eye must be verti- 
 cally over the index. If it has been at rest for some time previous to 
 reading, the case shoidd be gently taj^ped with the finger before reading. 
 
 The variations in the readings of a barometer transported from place 
 to place in the course of a land journey ai-e influenced both by changes of 
 elevation, and by those of the weather, the effects of the former being, in 
 general, much more considerable than those of the latter. If, then, the
 
 METEOEOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 339 
 
 barometer is used for the puriDose of ascertaining elevation, no'great 
 accuracy can be expected, unless the effect of weather-changes can be 
 ascertained and eliminated, and this is only possible, even in an approxi- 
 mate degree, when its readings can be compared with those made simul- 
 taneously at some not very distant station of reference, the elevation of 
 which is known. And, on the other hand, unless the elevation of the 
 station of observation is accurately known (or the average barometric 
 reading of the site and season of the year) the barometer is useless as a 
 weather glass, except in so far as any conclusion can be based on the 
 simple fact of a rise or fall between consecutive readings at the same 
 place. Hence, in travelling through a country far distant from any fixed 
 observatory, the barometer is used chiefly for hypsometrical purposes, 
 and in computing elevations it is necessary to assume a mean barometric 
 value at the sea-level. This is generally taken at 30 inches ; but this 
 assumption sometimes involves a large error, which may seriously vitiate 
 the computed result. Especially is this the case in the interior of great 
 continents, particularly Asia, when the mean sea-level value of the 
 atmospheric pressure in July is more than an inch below the mean of 
 January, an amount of change which would be produced by an ascent 
 through about 1000 feet. 
 
 In such cases it would much improve hypsometrical determinations if, 
 instead of assuming the constant value of 30 inches for the sea-level 
 datum, its value be taken from a barometric chart showing the average 
 distribution of atmospheric pressure for the month of observation in that 
 part of the world. Several such charts have now been published, the 
 latest and probably the best being those drawn up by Professor Hann, and 
 published in the recent edition of Berghaus's 'Physical Atlas.' These 
 include charts of the average distribution of pressure for January and 
 July, and since these represent the extreme phases of the anniial oscilla- 
 tion, the values for other months obtained by interpolation will involve 
 only a small error in most parts of the Northern Hemisphere. But for 
 tlie interior of Australia, Africa, and South America there exist no data 
 for compiling such charts, and the best assumption that can be made is 
 that, about the time of the equinoxes, the sea-level pressure on these con- 
 tinents is probably about the same as in the same latitudes on the ocean, 
 two- or three-tenths lower in the heart of the country in Januai-y 
 (midsummer) and as much higher in July (midwinter). 
 
 2 A 2
 
 840 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Between tlic tropics, tlie oscillations of the barometer with irregular 
 changes of weather, excc])t during the passage of a cyclone, are compara- 
 tively small ; in general not exceeding from one- to two-tenths above or 
 below the average (equivalent to one or two hundred feet of elevation; ; 
 l)ut in the temperate and arctic zones they often amount to upwards of 
 an inch, and in these parts of the world barometric determinations of 
 heights from isolated readings are siabject to uncertainty thi'ough a large 
 range of possible error, unless the simultaneous observations of fixed 
 stations, laid down on weather charts, supply the means of correction. 
 These oscillations are greater in winter than in summer. The longer the 
 period over which the observations extend, the smaller will be the pro- 
 bable error of the computed result. 
 
 In all parts of the world, except perhaj^s in the neighbourhood of the 
 poles, the barometer has a regular daily oscillation, independently of the 
 weather. Except, however, in the tropical and sub-tropical zones (say 
 between 40^ N. lat. and 30° S. lat. over coutiueuts and within narrower 
 limits on the ocean), this oscillation is too small to need special attention 
 in hypsometrical determinations, especially if the far greater irregular 
 oscillations are unknown. In the troiDics, however, it is both absolutely 
 and relatively more important, and should be taken into account, both in 
 computing elevations and in interiDreting the barometric changes with 
 reference to the weather. The barometer rises from 3 or 4 a.m. to 
 between 9 and 10 a.m., then falls to between 4 and 5 p.m., rises again to 
 10 P.M., and again falls till about 3 a.m. Where greatest, as in Southern 
 India, the fall from the forenoon to the afternoon amounts to about -^ 
 of an inch ; the other changes are less, but the exact amount and also 
 their relative amounts vary not only with the latitude, but under the same 
 latitude from place to place. In valleys between mountains, the midday 
 fall is greater than on plains, and on mountain j^eaksand crests consider- 
 ably less, and in these latter positions the barometer stands higher before 
 nliduight than at any other epoch of the twenty-four hours. Some data on 
 this head are given in the section on hyiisometry. On the sea, the night 
 and day oscillations are more nearly equal than on laud. 
 
 Tcmperatnre observations. — The readings of thermometers are under- 
 stood to show the temperature of the air, and the sling thermometer does 
 this very nearly, even in the sunshine, and very accurately in the shade. 
 But thermometers suspended and at rest are affected by radiation from
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 341 
 
 all objects round about them, and these may raise their temperature in the 
 daytime above that of the air, and unduly lower it at night. They must 
 in any case be fully screened from the sun and the sky, and from any 
 strong reflection of sunlight, and at the same time the air must be allowed 
 to pass over them freely. Inside a tent, the night temperature will generally 
 be higher than that of the air outside ; in the daytime it may be higher 
 or lower, according to circumstances, but it will rarely be the same. The 
 use of the screen, describe d above, is to afford a tolerably uniform exprsure, 
 and a sutRcient, but not excessive, protection. In order to ascertain how 
 far it fulfils this purpose, simultaneoiis readings should sometimes be 
 taken with the sling thermometer and the suspended thermometers, 
 and the two comj^ared. The results of such comparisons should always 
 be entered in the register. 
 
 The thermometers should always be suspended at the same height above 
 the ground. In the warmer hours of the diiy, when the sun is shining, 
 the ground and the air in contact with it are much warmer than that 
 a little distance above it, and the temperature decreases rapidly within 
 the first few feet; while at night time, and especially on clear nights, 
 the reverse holds good. The u.?e of the screen eus^ures uniformity in this 
 respect also. 
 
 Readings of the self-registering thermometers can be made only in 
 camp or at a halting station. In settled weather, and almost invariably in 
 tropical countries, the lnwest temperature of the twenty-four hours occurs 
 shortly before simrise, and the highest from one to three hours after noon. 
 As the maximum and minimum temperatures are understood to be the 
 extremes of the twenty -four hours, implying that tlie instruments have been 
 exposed throughout this period, if such is not the case, the fiict should 
 be noted against the reading, together with the hours of exposure. 
 
 In addition to the maximum and minimum temperatures, it is desirable 
 to take readings of the actual temperature at certain fixed hours. The best 
 hours are either 6 a.m. and 2 and 10 p.m., or 7 a.m. and 2 and 9 p.m., these 
 being the hours that are very generally observed at regular observatories, 
 and having the further advantage that the arithmetical mean of the 
 three readings is, on an average, very nearly the true mean temperature 
 of the day. But whatever hours are selected should be regularly adliei'cd 
 to, so that the readings of different days may be comparable with each 
 other.
 
 342 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 In camp, tlio air temporatnrc reading may be taken from the dry bulb 
 of the hygrometer or the sling thermometer, or botli. On the march, the 
 hitter instrument alone should l)e used. 
 
 The use of the sling thermometer is as follows. Each thermometer has 
 a strin'g a couple of feet long attached to a glass ring at the upper end of 
 tlie tube ; tlie end of this being secured by a few turns round the finger, 
 the instrument is swung round a dozen times or so and rapidly read off. 
 It is then again swiing and the reading repeated, and so on, until the read- 
 ing remains constant, and this final value is entered in the note-ljook. It 
 is best to select shade for this purpose, but it is the peculiar advantage 
 of the sling thermometer that its indications are but little affected by 
 the sun. 
 
 The temperature of the air is much infliicnced by the character of the 
 site ; and this should always be noted in the register. On hill summits 
 and hill ridges the diiirual range of temperature is less than on a plain, 
 and considerably less than in a narrow valley. Hence at night, and 
 especially in the winter, it is often warmer a few hundred feet up a hill- 
 side than at lower levels. More particularly is this the case in a still 
 atmosphere. In certain mountainous countries, the winter temperature 
 in a valley may be no higher than at 5000 feet above it, and lower than 
 at all intermediate elevations. With these exceptions, the temi^erature 
 generally decreases with elevation, but the ratio is very variable. On 
 moifntains the average rate of decrement is 3° in every 1000 feet, 
 but in rainy weather it is often less than this, and in hot, dry weather, 
 especially if a Fohn wind is blowing, it may be as much as 4" or 5° in the 
 1000 feet. On plains and table-lands it varies as a rule between 2' and 3"^ 
 per 1000 feet. 
 
 In respect of temi^erature the most important elements of climate 
 are : — 
 
 1st. The mean temperature of the year, and of each month. 
 2nd. The annual range of temperature, which may be expressed either 
 
 as the difference of the highest and lowest readings in the 
 
 year or that of the mean temperatures of the warmest and 
 
 coolest months. 
 3rd. The extreme temperatures of each mouth and their difference, i.e., 
 
 the monthly range.
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 343 
 
 4th. The mean daily range, and the greatest in each month. 
 
 5th. The variability of temperature, which, in the case of observations 
 extending over short periods, is best shown by the amount 
 of the mean change from day to day, i.e., the average difference 
 of the mean temperatures of consecutive days. 
 
 Most of these data express conditions that have an important influence 
 on vegetable life and almost equally so on human health and comfort. 
 The real annual and monthly mean temperatures can of course be 
 ascertained accurately only from many years' registers. But, in most 
 places, an approximation to the mean annual temperature may sometimes 
 be obtained by taking the temperature of perennial springs, fed by 
 percolation from the surface (not mineral springs). 
 
 In connection with non-periodical changes of temiJerature, it should 
 be noted how they are related to changes of wind. This relation may 
 be different at different seasons. Thus, in Northern India, the West and 
 North-west winds are tlie cooler winds of the winter months, but the hot 
 winds of the spring and summer. 
 
 Humidity observations.- — The observations of the dry and wet bulb 
 thermometers may be made either with the hygrometer suspended in the 
 screen, or with the sling thermometers, as already described; the wet 
 bulb being swung slowly, and, if necessary, re-wetted between each 
 swinging. The hours of observation should be the same as for tempera- 
 ture; and the mean of the three values comj)uted from each pair of 
 observations separately will be very nearly the true mean of the twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 In a calm atmosphere some care is necessary to obtain trustworthy 
 readings of the wet-bulb thermometer. A single thickness of muslin 
 should be fitted closely over tlie bulb, and both it and the wick that 
 supplies it with water should be quite clean, and especially free from 
 grease, in order that they may take up the water readily and remain wet, 
 however rapid the evaporation. The softest and purest water obtainable 
 should be used, since hard water gradually deposits a stony encrusta- 
 tion, which is removed with difiiculty. The air must not stagnate 
 aroiTud the hygrometer, since, in still air, the wet bulb gives too high a 
 reading. 
 
 From tbe simultaneous readings of the dry and wet l)ulb thermometers
 
 .')44 HINTS TO TRAVKLLKRS 
 
 (duly corrected for the errors of the instruments) the liumidity of tlie 
 air is deduced by a simple computation. It may he expressed in four 
 different ways. First, as the pressure of the vapour present in the air 
 (expressed in decimals of an inch of mercury) ; second, as the weight 
 (grains) of vapour in each cubic foot of air ; third, as the dew-point of 
 the air, or that temperature at which the vapour would begin to condense ; 
 and fourth, as a percentage of the quantity that would saturate the air 
 at the observed temperature. The first three express the ahsohife, the 
 last the relative humidity. The last is perhaps most important in relation 
 to the weather, and as affecting vegetation and bodily comfort. 
 
 The ijressure of the vapour in the air maybe computed liy the following 
 formula, in which t and t' , are the corrected readings of the dry and wet- 
 bulb thermometers respectively, / the tension of saturated vapour at 
 temperature t, to be taken from the table at the end of this section, and 
 h the height of the barometer. For this last, a rough approximation (to 
 the nearest inch) is sufficient. For wet-bulb temperatures above 32°, 
 the formula is 
 
 and for those below 32^^ 
 
 0-480(^-0, 
 ^-•^-"1130-f ^'' 
 
 0-480 (<-0 
 ^ ~'~ 1240-2 -<' "' 
 
 F is the tension of the vapour present in the air. This being computed, 
 the relative humidity is given by the formula 
 
 Numerous tables are published by which the observer may be saved 
 the labour of computing both these values. 
 
 Professor Nordenskiold is of opinion that in Arctic climates, with the 
 temperature far below the freezing-point, the ordinary hygrometers do 
 not give trustworthy results. When exposed in the usual way in a 
 louvred box, it is impossible to keep the case clear of snow, and thus 
 the air, which may have been originally quite dry, must here be saturated 
 with moisture from the evaporation of the snow. He recommends, there- 
 fore, that in order to determine the true humidity, future travellers to
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 345 
 
 these regions should weigh tlie water which a given measure of air con- 
 tains, by passing a measured quantity through tubes containing some 
 desiccating substance, such as dehydrated sulphate of copper or i^umice 
 soaked in sulphuric acid. This requires a delicate balance, in addition 
 to the aspirator and absorption tubes, and can, of course, only be carried 
 out conveniently either on board a ship or at an observatory temporarily 
 established on land, but it has the advantage that, by means of a tube of 
 sufficient length, the air to be tested can be drawn from any required 
 height above the surface, at such a height as to be above the influence 
 of the snow dust that whirls about near the ground surface. The use 
 of this apparatus, which is very simple, should be learned in a physical 
 laboratory. 
 
 The humidity of the air varies with small changes of site and elevation 
 even more than the temperature, especially in the neighbourhood of 
 sheets of water, swamps, etc. In moimtain tracts, with greater changes 
 of elevation, the relative humidity, as a rule, increases gradually with the 
 height, while the absolute humidity generally decreases. In settled 
 weather the relative humidity is greatest when the temperature is lowest 
 (viz., just before sunrise), and lowest at the hottest hours of the day, 
 varying inversely as the temperature. The absolute hiimidity is highest 
 in the early afternoon in damp climates, in dry climates usually in the 
 evening. It often varies with the wind direction in a very marked 
 degree, even in the interior of continents, and all such changes should 
 be especially noted. 
 
 Plain, snow, hail, dew, t&c. — The rain-gauge must be exposed in an 
 open place, as far as possible from trees, and not too near a tent. The 
 aperture of the funnel should be quite level and about 1 foot above 
 the ground. For ob\aous reasons it is desirable to siirround it with 
 a temporary fence, at a distance of at least three feet when not 
 exceeding three feet in height. A gauge of 5 inches diameter and 
 upwards will serve to collect a small fall of snow, and, when melted, 
 the snow water is measured as rain ; but with a heavy fall the funnel 
 soon becomes choked, and collects no more. In this case, if the gauge 
 has a cylindrical receiver of the same diameter as the funnel, it may be 
 inverted over the snow, where not drifted or otherwise disturbed, and 
 pressed down so as to cut out a cylindrical mass of the thickness of the 
 sheet, which may be melted and measured in the usual way. Failing
 
 34G HINTS TO TRAVELLETiS. 
 
 this, the thickness of the snow, wliere undisturbed, may he gauged 
 with a 2-foot rule, and each foot of snow counted as 1 inch of 
 rainfall. This ratio is approximately valid, when the measurement 
 is taken immediately after the fall, but oven then is only a rough 
 approximation. 
 
 In the case of hail, the form, size, and internal structure of the 
 hailstones should bo noted, and, if possible, sketches should be made 
 of some of the largest as soon as possible after their fall, and before 
 they have had time to melt. The forms of hailstones are very 
 various, and their mode of formation is still far from being satisfactorily 
 explained. 
 
 The hours of rainfall, &c., should be noted in the register. In the tropics, 
 there is often a very decided tendency to rain at certain hours of the day 
 or night, differing at different seasons of the year. The time of least 
 frequency is the hour or two before midnight. The quantity that falls in 
 short intervals of time, such as an hour or less, is also a very marked 
 feature of certain climates. 
 
 In nearly all parts of the world there is more rain, snow, hail, &c., at 
 certain seasons of the year than at others, and in most tropical countries 
 this a]inual variation is very marked. Wherever this is the case, the 
 seasons of ploughing, sowing, transplanting, &c. crops, are determined 
 by that of the rainfall, and where there is more than one rainy season 
 certain crojjs are special to each. It should always be ascertained, if 
 possible, what are the usual seasons of rain and their duration ; also 
 what characteristic changes of wind accompany rain and dry weather 
 respectively. 
 
 Mountain ranges exert a very important infiuence on the distribution 
 of rain. Whatever be the characteristic direction of the damp wind, the 
 rain is heaviest on the windward face of the range and the plains at its 
 foot, and often entirely restricted to them ; the quantity and frequency 
 of the falls increasing with proximity to the mountains, and in the case 
 of lofty ranges reaching a maximum at a certain elevation, above which 
 it decreases. In India and Java this elevation is between 3000 and 
 4000 feet; in England apparently about 1500 feet. Wherever possible, 
 it is important to ascertain this height, which may be approximately 
 indicated by the character of the vegetation. In snowy ranges the 
 height above which snow remains unmelted throughout the summer
 
 METEOROLOGY AXD CLIMATE. 347 
 
 should also be ascertained, bearing in mind that glaciers often descend 
 much below this limit. 
 
 The occurrence of dew should always be noted in the register. Its 
 quantity may be roughly estimated as light or heavy, or it may be 
 measured by exposing a weighed mass of dry wool or cotton-wool spread 
 over a surface of definite dimensions, and re-weighing after exposure; 
 but this requires a delicate balance, and the observation is of a kind more 
 suited to the means and appliances of a fixed observatory than to those of 
 the traveller. 
 
 Windfi. — The direction of the wind may be easily obtained by a pennant 
 or flag, the drift of smoke, or better than either, by observing the move- 
 ment of low clouds with a compass. In order to do this accurately, 
 select some prominent object, such as a tree-toji or the top of the tent- 
 pole, and take up a position such that the apparent movement of the 
 cloud is either directly downwards towards it or directly up from it. Then 
 the direction of the tree or pole as taken by the compass is that towards 
 which the cloud moves in the former and from which it travels in the 
 latter case. Generally the surface-wind blows from a point a few 
 degrees to the left of that indicated by low clouds in the Northern 
 Hemisphere ; to the right in the Southern Hemisphere. At night the 
 movement of the clouds across the face of the moon affords a good means 
 of observation. 
 
 A very important class of observations, which should be recorded as 
 often as opportunity may serve, is the movements of the high cirrus or 
 feather cloud. This may be oliserved in the same way as that of the 
 lower clouds ; but the observation takes longer, since, owing to the great 
 elevation of the cirrus, its apparent movement is very slow. Tliese clouds 
 show the movements of the atmosphere at elevations of 30,000 feet and 
 upwards— movements which are much less variable than those of the 
 surface winds ; and a knowledge of the directions prevalent in different 
 parts of the world is much required for determining the greater and more 
 ])ersistent movements of the atmosphere. 
 
 Another method of observing the movements of clouds, both high and 
 low, with ease and great accuracy, is by using a portable nephescope. 
 This consists of a plate of thick glass, about 1 foot in diameter, having 
 two lines engraved across its siirface, and rubbed in with white paint, to 
 indicate the four cardinal points. The glass is blackened on the back
 
 348 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVETJ.ERS. 
 
 and mounted in a light brass frame, which is supported by three adjustable 
 screws for levelling. A small pocket spirit-level is carried with the 
 instrument, and also a small leaden disk with a vertical pin about an inch 
 higli fixed to its margin. To observe with this instrument, the mirror is 
 levelled and adjusted in azimuth, and, a small cloud having been selected, 
 the observer takes up a position such that its reflection coincides with 
 the cross-lines in the centre of the mirror. The disc is then placed on 
 the mirror so that the point of tlie pin is between the eye and the cross. 
 When suificienfc time has elapsed for the cloud reflection to have 
 travelled some little distance across the mirror, the observer takes up 
 the same position as at first, which the pin and cross-lines enable him to 
 do accurately. The direction in which the image has travelled across the 
 mirror is accurately that of the cloud's movement. 
 
 The force of the wind on land may be estimated as, 1, Calm ; 2, Light ; 
 3, Moderate ; 4, Fresh ; 5, Strong ; 6, Gale, and noted in the corresponding 
 numbers. At sea, a more definite scale extending to 12 numbers, known 
 as Beaufort's Numlers, is employed, but this is hardly applicable on land, 
 except on the coast. Their approximate values in miles per hour are as 
 follow : — 
 
 0. Calm . 
 
 1. Light air 
 
 2. Light breeze 
 
 3. Gentle breeze 
 
 4. Moderate breeze 
 
 5. Fresh breeze 
 
 6. Strong breeze 
 
 7. Moderate gale 
 
 8. Fresh gale . 
 
 9. Strong gale . 
 
 10. Whole gale . 
 
 11. Storm . 
 
 12. Hurricane , 
 
 to 5 miles per hour 
 
 6 to 10 „ 
 11 to 15 „ 
 16 to 20 „ 
 21 to 25 „ 
 26 to 30 „ 
 31 to 36 „ 
 37 to 44 „ 
 45 to 52 „ 
 53 to 60 ., 
 61 to 69 „ 
 70 to 80 „ 
 80 miles and upwards per hoiir. 
 
 At most places, the winds undergo a more or less regular variation in 
 the course of day, and at some this is sufficiently marked to be obvious 
 to the casual observer. It may affect the rate of movement or the 
 direction, or both. All such instances are worthy of being noted, together
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 349 
 
 with the hours at which the changes occur, the local geograi)hical features 
 that influence them, and the character of the weather when they are 
 most developed, and when they are suppressed. The traveller should 
 also ascertain what winds are most prevalent at each season, and their 
 character as damp or dry, hot or cold. 
 
 At some localities, chiefly in the neighbourhood of mountain ranges, very 
 strong but dry winds, sometimes accompanied with fine weather, blow at 
 certain seasons of the year, but only in certain states of the atmosphere. 
 Such are the Fohn in Switzerland and the Tyrol, the Bora in the Adriatic, 
 and the Mistral at the mouths of the Ehone and on the northern coast of 
 the Gulf of Genoa. The first of these is a warm, dry wind, the second 
 much less warm, and the third, though dry, very cold. The Fohn and the 
 Bora blow down from mountains, and are heated more or less in virtue 
 of the compression which the air undergoes in descending from the higher 
 to the lower level. There is reason to believe that similar strong winds 
 are exi^erienced in the neighbourhood of other mountain chains in tem- 
 pei'ate and Arctic climates, and indeed such have been described both in 
 Greenland and the Caucasus. The Mistral, which blows in the winter and 
 spriug, owes its stormy character to the juxtai:iosition of the cold plains 
 of Central and Southern France and the relatively warm Mediterranean 
 Sea ; and it is restricted to the lower course of the Rhone and the coasts 
 of the Gulf of Genoa. A stormy wind of the opposite character blowing 
 from the cooler sea to the heated land is common in the spring in the 
 north of the Bay of Bengal. All such cases should be noted by the 
 traveller. 
 
 State of the sky and atmosphere, Cloud, &c. — The cloudiness or serenity 
 of the sky is most conveniently recorded by estimating the ijrojjortion that 
 is covered with cloud as so many tenths of the exi^anse included within G0° 
 of the zenith, or within two-thirds of the total distance between the zenith 
 and the horizon. The zone within 80° of the horizon is excluded, since 
 distant clouds are foreshortened in plan, and cannot be estimated on the 
 same scale as those overhead. The quantity is recorded in the numbers 
 to 10, zero indicating a cloudless sky, and 10 one entirely overcast. In 
 this estimate, clouds of all kinds and at all elevations arc included indis- 
 criminately, and it is desirable, therefore, at the same time, to note the 
 leading characters of the clouds, since certain forms are characteristic of 
 fine weather, while others portend unsettled weather. This distinction is
 
 350 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 taken as tlie basis of the scheme of cloud classification drawn up by 
 Messrs. Hildebraudsson and Archibald, which is as follows : — 
 
 a. Discrete tending to rounded forms 8. Extended and sheet-like forms 
 
 (^principally in dry weather'). (rainy weather). 
 
 A. Highest clouds, mean height 30,000 feet. 
 
 1. Fibre cloud \_Cirrus or mare's 2. Thin cloud veil \_Oirro stratus'], 
 tail]. 
 
 B. Medium elevation 13,000 to 20,000 feet. 
 
 3. Small globular cloudlets, shining 
 
 white like silk, 20,000 feet [Cirro- 5. Thicker ash-coloured, or bluish- 
 cumulus, mackerel sky]. grey sheet, 17,000 feet \_Strato- 
 
 4. Larger globular, like white wool, citrics]. 
 
 13,000 feet \_Cu7aido-ci7Tus']. 
 
 C. Lower clouds, 5000 to 7000 feet. 
 
 6. Great rounded masses or rolls of 7. Ragged sheets of grey cloud from 
 grey cloud [_Strato-cuimdus']. which rain commonly falls 
 
 [Nimbus]. 
 
 D. Clouds in ascending air currents. 
 
 8. Heap cloud [Cumulus]. Summits at 6000 feet. Bases at loOO feet. 
 
 9. Storm (thunder) clouds [C«?/mZo-/i{m6ws]. Summits 10,000 to 
 
 16,000 feet, bases 4500 feet. 
 
 E. Elevated fogs. Below 3500 feet [Stratus]. 
 
 The elevations given are furnished by measurements made in Northern 
 Europe, and would probably differ in other latitudes, being greater in the 
 tropics. But Mr. Abercromby finds, as the result of his wide experience 
 in different parts of the world, that cloud forms are much the same every- 
 where, save only that some forms are more prevalent in lower and others 
 in higher latitudes. 
 
 Fogs, as is well known, are restricted to damp climates and cold 
 weather; but sometimes they present peculiarities that are worthy of
 
 METEOEOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 351 
 
 attention. A remarkable instance of tlie kind occurs in Assam, where, 
 in the cold season, the atmosphere often remains perfectly clear till about 
 half an hour after sunrise, when, in the course of a few minutes, everything 
 is obscured by a thick fog, which may remain undissipated for some 
 hours. The writer is not aware of a similar phenomenon having been 
 recorded elsewhere. 
 
 In some very dry countries where fogs are unknown, the atmosphere is 
 nevertheless frequently or even constantly obscured by a more or less 
 dense haze up to heights of many thousands of feet. Such is the case in 
 the dry season in Northern India, and in the almost rainless region of 
 Yarkand and Kashgar, it is described as being constantly so thick that, 
 according to Dr. Henderson, hills only five miles distant are barely visible ; 
 and Mr. Shaw also states that the Pamir mountains, at the distance of 
 twelve miles, appear to be a distant range of which the outline only is 
 distinguishable. On the other hand, in the almost equally dry salt desert 
 {Kavir) of Persia, the atmosphere is usually remarkably clear. There can 
 hardly be much doubt that the haze consists of fine dust, but the conditions 
 which determine its j)revalence in some countries and its absence in 
 others, deserve more attention than they have yet received. 
 
 Storms. — In the case of storms, we must distinguish between temporary 
 squalls (thunder-storms with or without hail, dust-storms, &c.), such as 
 occur chiefly in hot summer weather in all j^arts of the world, and especially 
 in the tropics, and those more extensive disturbances, which are inarked 
 by a more or less considerable depression of the barometer, which often 
 travel some thousands of miles over land and sea, and on tropical seas 
 develop into those formidable and destructive storms, long known as 
 hurricanes in the West Indies, as typhoons in the China seas, and 
 generally during the last thirty or forty years as cyclones. Tornadoes or 
 whirl-winds, cloud-bursts and water-spouts which, within restricted 
 limits, arc even fiercer and more destructive than tropical cyclones, ajipcar 
 to be essentially related to the former in their mode of origin, though the 
 whirling of the air, which is one of their chief characteristics, has led 
 many writers to class them with the latter; but the blizzards of the 
 Xorthern American States and their Asiatic counterparts, and the Buran 
 or Purga of the Siberian tundras, are a severe winter form of the storms 
 of the cyclonic class. 
 
 Thunder-squalls appear to be local eddies of the atmosphere, but
 
 352 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 there is yet much to be learned respecting their mode of origin, and tlic 
 circumstances that give rise to them. In many cases, and especially 
 those of the more severe forms, they appear to be determined by the 
 juxtaposition of a cold and dry with a warm and damp air current. 
 Such has been shown by Lieut. Finlay to be the condition that always 
 accompanies the destructive tornadoes of the United States, and it 
 l)robably holds good also in Bengal, where, however, tornadoes are com- 
 paratively infrequent. The nor -westers of Bengal and the dust-storms 
 of North-western India are also probably due to the existence of a dry 
 and comjiaratively cool air current above, and a warm damp atmosphere 
 at the earth's surface. These and similar squalls of the temperate zone 
 are preceded by strong, sometimes violent, gusts of wind blowing outwards 
 from beneath the storm-cloiad, and also by a rapid rise, followed by 
 irre^^ular oscillation of the barometer. Hail sometimes falls in these 
 squalls, as a rule from the front part of the storm, succeeding the gusts, 
 and in these cases a peculiar sound is often heai'd on the approach of the 
 storm, which is generally attributed to the hurtling of the hail-stones in 
 the storm-cloud. The formation of hail is far from being satisfactorily 
 explained. The most probable hypothesis is that of Professor Ferrel, viz., 
 that there is in the stjrm- cloud a violent eddying uprush of air of the 
 nature of a tornado, and that the hail-stones formed by the dynamic 
 cooling and condensation of the vapour thus carried up, after being 
 thrown off from the summit of the eddy, are caught up again and again 
 and enlarged by further condensation, until they attain such a size as to 
 escape the indraught around the vortex. Observations on the tempera- 
 ture and humidity of the air, taken at short intervals (such as iive minutes) 
 on the approach of a thunderstorm, and those of the general and internal 
 movements of the storm, that will help to throw light on the genesis of 
 hull, may be of much value. A similar remark ajiplies to the rarer 
 phenomena of water-spouts and tornadoes. The direction of their 
 internal movement shoidd also, if possible, be noted, wliether clockwise or 
 anti-clockwise. 
 
 In the case of the more extensive cyclonic storms, the extension of our 
 present knowledge is to be looked for chiefly from the greater development 
 of the system of weather charts. These of course cannot be constructed 
 from the isolated observations of a traveller, but it may sometimes happen 
 that such observations may furnish a useful link in the evidence elsewhere
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE 353 
 
 furnished by permanent observations or by shi^js. Where the ravages of 
 a cyclone are visible in fallen trees or other objects it may be useful to 
 note the compass direction of their fall, as an indication of the wind 
 direction when strongest. And in the neighbourhood of the sea-coast, if 
 the storm has been accompanied by a storm-wave, which has flooded the 
 land, the height of the inundation should be ascertained from the marks 
 left on trees, buildings, &c. 
 
 S^yerJal observations — There are many subjects connected with meteor- 
 ology and the physics of the atmosphere, for the investigation of which 
 other parts of the world aiford more favourable conditions than are to bo 
 found in our own islands. Many of these, however, demand not only 
 prolonged residence at the place of observation, but also a familiar ac- 
 quaintance with physics and methods of i)hysical ex2)erimentatiou, siach 
 as can only be gained by long study and practice ; and any notice of them 
 would be beyond the scope of these hints. But there are one or two 
 subjects of inquiry, to which, although somewhat special, travellers may 
 contribute valuable information, and which demand nothing more than 
 some time and attention, and such ordinary precautions as are implied 
 in the proper use of even the simplest instruments. 
 
 Among the more important of these are the sun's heating-i^owcr, the 
 temperature of the ground, and the diurnal variations of air-temperature 
 and humidity, and the atmospheric pressure. On each of these a few 
 suggestions will be offered. 
 
 The absolute measurement of the heat received from the sun, i.e. its 
 quantity in terms of heat-units per second or other units of time, is a 
 problem that has hardly yet been satisfactorily solved. Several forms of 
 actinometer have been devised for the purpose, but it is at least doubtful 
 whether any are free from serious error, while their use requires 
 an amount of skill that demands long training; but even a good 
 relative measurement, such as may be made with simjile instruments, 
 is of much value, and may be undertaken by any one who will devote 
 some little pains to the subject. Especially is it desirable to oljtain 
 relative measurements at different elevations on mountains, and at 
 different hours of the day; and as an element of climate the datum is one 
 of great importance. For this purpose, the requisite instruments arc two 
 mercurial thermometers in vacuum tubes, the one having the bulb coated 
 with lamp-black, the other uucoated. With this exception, the instru- 
 
 2 B
 
 854 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 ments should be exactly similar in all respects ; the bulbs and their 
 enclosures of the same dimensions, thickness and materials, and 
 exhausted to the same degree, to as high a vacuum as possible. They 
 should not be self-registering, hut made to read as ordinary mercurial 
 tlicrmnmcters, and they should be verified (as complete iustruments) and 
 furnishod with tables of corrections. They should be exposed on a stand 
 about i foot high, being about G inches apart, the Indbs free of the stand, 
 so that they may be equally affected by all objects around. The instru- 
 ments should be wiped with a soft cloth before exjiosure. An universal 
 sun-dial is an useful adjunct. 
 
 The observations will consist of simultaneous readings of the two 
 instruments, and a reading of the air temperature as shown by the 
 ordinary shaded thermometer. Tlie readings should be taken at apparent 
 noon (as given by the ' Nautical Almanac,' or by a sun-dial truly adjusted 
 for the magnetic variation, and at equal intervals, one, two hours, &c.), 
 before and after, provided the sky is clear. The depth of the sky tint 
 should be noted at the time of observation, and also the existence of haze 
 and thin cirrus cloud, and the movement of the latter whether towards 
 the sun or otherwise. These facts may be recorded according to the 
 following notation, devised by Mr. Hennessey for the guidance of the 
 actimometric observers at Leli : — 
 
 A — signifies a perfectly clear sky, or, if small patches of cloud be 
 
 visible, they are not within 50° of the sun. 
 B — signifies that small patches of cloud are occasionally seen to rise, 
 and float generally towards the sun ; that they become invisible 
 in certain positions not less than 30° from the sun, but that 
 their tracks if continued would pass well clear if the sun. 
 C — has the same meaning as B, with the exception that the tracks 
 
 point to the sun. 
 (I — means no haze. 
 7, — means that haze can be seen in the far distance, but only along a 
 
 portion of the horizon. 
 c — means that haze is visible all round the horizon, or at any rate in 
 
 opposite directions, but not overhead. 
 The numbers 1 to 4 are used to indicate blueness of the sky : 4 stands 
 for deep blue, and 1 for pale blue-white, with 2 and 3 for inter- 
 mediate tints.
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. o55 
 
 The temperature of the ground surface may be taken with an ordinary 
 mercurial thermometer (duly verified for error), laid on the ground 
 slightly inclined, the bulb just immersed in the surface layer of soil, 
 but not quite covered ; this may be read just before sunrise and about 
 1 P.M., these being the times of minimum and maximum temperatures > 
 also, if convenient, at intermediate hours ; or maximum and minimum 
 self-registering thermometers may be exposed in like manner, but in this 
 latter case, the minimum (spirit) thermometer must be removed during 
 the daytime, or it will probably burst with the high temperature of the 
 heated ground. The spot for these observations must be unshaded at all 
 hours of the day. 
 
 Temperature observations of the ground beneath the surface are 
 valuable only when they can be continued for at least a twelvemonth 
 at the same spot. In such cases it is desirable to obtain observations 
 from a dei^th of about 3 feet 6 inches, which is about the limit, below 
 which the diurnal variation becomes insensible, though, it must be 
 remarked, this limit must vary with the conductivity of the soil and 
 the amplitude of the daily variation at the surface. A good arrange- 
 ment for obtaining such temperatures is to sink a square wooden tube 
 to the required depth, leaving the end jDrojecting 6 inches above tlio 
 surface, the upper end being covered witli a loo-^ely-fitting wooden cap 
 In sinking the tube, care should be taken not to disturb the ground 
 around, except on one side, and on that side not to a greater width than 
 is necessary. The thermometer should have its bulb protected by a 
 copper shoe, and should be sunk in the lower end of a wooden jjlug 
 nearly as long as the tube, and nearly filling it. If the thermometer is 
 merely suspended by a cord or wire, leaving the greater part of the tube 
 iinfiUed, the circulation of air inside the tube will vitiate the observed 
 temperatures. A tliermometer mounted in the way described can be 
 withdrawn and read without suffering any change, and it can then be 
 replaced and left till the next reading. One reading a day, at a fixed 
 hour, will suffice. 
 
 It is often stated that the mean annual temperature of the ground at 
 any place (or its -temperature at such a depth as to be just below the 
 limit of any annual oscillation) is also the mean temperature of tlio 
 atmosphere, excepting, of course, in the neighbourhood of hot springs, 
 of active volcanoes, and similar disturbing causes. But this is by no 
 
 2 B 2
 
 350 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 means always the case. It has been found that everywhere in India 
 the ground temperature exceeds tliat of the air by amounts varying from 
 8° to G", and it is at least probable that, to some extent, a similar rule 
 holds good generally in the tropics, the excess being greater in dry than 
 in damp regions. For this reason, the temperature of such perennial 
 springs as may be assumed to have the mean ground temperature cannot 
 be always accepted as representing that of the atmosphere. 
 
 The observation of the diurnal variation of temperature, humidity, 
 and other elements, especially the barometric pressure, is a very valuable 
 contribution to meteorology. In tropical countries, where the diurnal 
 variation is most considerable, even a few days' observations will show 
 the leading features of the oscillation in fine weather ; but the longer the 
 period over which they extend, the more trustworthy is the result. 
 Observations may be recorded either hourly or every two hours through- 
 out the twenty-four hours, and, if not repeated on consecutive days, the 
 first and last of every set of observations should be made at the same 
 hour, so that each hourly set will comprise twenty-five readings, each 
 bi-hourly thirteen readings. These observations will necessarily reqiiire 
 that the work be shared by two or more observers, unless autogi-aphic 
 instruments are employed. The barometric oscillation will be shown 
 fairly well by a good self-recording aneroid, which marks the pressure 
 continuously on a drum driven by clockwork ; but this register should, 
 if possible, be controlled by the readings of a mercurial barometer about 
 the hours of maximum and minimum pressure. The larger self-recording 
 instruments are siiitable only for permanent observatories.
 
 Tuinier A Shacwe
 
 n
 
 THE GLOBE FOR JULY. 
 
 
 100 ISO JdO 160 
 
 I 1 1 1 1 T-^-t 1 1 1 1 r ] 
 
 — ;t«) 
 
 ^~ ' lio ^ ^ a& .1^ aflo" 
 
 'luvnei* (!fc Shaww
 
 o
 
 'lurncr AShawe
 
 IS0BAR1C LINES AND PRI 
 
 €
 
 Tui-iit?r <!t Sliawv
 
 ISOBARIC LINE.S AND PREVAILING WINDS OF THE GLOBE FOR , 
 
 o
 
 METEOKOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 
 
 357 
 
 Table showing the Peessure of Aqueous Vapouk in inches op Mehccey at 
 latitude 45'^ for each degree fahrenheit from —30° to 119°. 
 
 o 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inches, 
 
 — JO 
 
 0-0099 
 
 
 
 0-0440 
 
 JO 
 
 o-i6')5 
 
 60 
 
 0-5192 
 
 90 
 
 I -4128 
 
 -2) 
 
 o"Oi05 
 
 I 
 
 0-0461 
 
 31 
 
 0-I7J8 
 
 61 
 
 0-5J79 
 
 9» 
 
 1-4578 
 
 -28 
 
 o-oiii 
 
 2 
 
 0-0482 
 
 n 
 
 0-1815 
 
 62 
 
 0-5572 
 
 92 
 
 I - 5040 
 
 -27 
 
 0'0ii7 
 
 J 
 
 0-0504 
 
 }} 
 
 0-1888 
 
 63 
 
 0-5771 
 
 9} 
 
 i'55i4 
 
 -26 
 
 0-0I2J 
 
 4 
 
 0-0527 
 
 i4 
 
 0-1964 
 
 64 
 
 0-5976 
 
 94 
 
 1-6001 
 
 -25 
 
 o-oijo 
 
 5 
 
 0-0551 
 
 35 
 
 0-204 J 
 
 65 
 
 0-6187 
 
 95 
 
 1-6502 
 
 -24 
 
 O-0IJ7 
 
 6 
 
 0-0577 
 
 J6 
 
 0-2125 
 
 66 
 
 0-6405 
 
 96 
 
 1-7017 
 
 -2J 
 
 0-CI44 
 
 7 
 
 0-0604 
 
 J7 
 
 0-2210 
 
 67 
 
 0-6630 
 
 97 
 
 1-7546 
 
 -22 
 
 0-0152 
 
 8 
 
 o-o6j2 
 
 J8 
 
 0-2297 
 
 68 
 
 0-6862 
 
 93 
 
 1-8088 
 
 -21 
 
 o-oi6o 
 
 9 
 
 0-0661 
 
 }9 
 
 0-2388 
 
 69 
 
 0-7101 
 
 99 
 
 1-8646 
 
 -20 
 
 o-oi68 
 
 10 
 
 0-0691 
 
 4'' 
 
 0-2482 
 
 70 
 
 0-7347 
 
 100 
 
 1-922 
 
 -19 
 
 0-0177 
 
 II 
 
 0-072J 
 
 41 
 
 0-2579 
 
 71 
 
 0-7601 
 
 tot 
 
 1-980 
 
 -l8 
 
 0-0186 
 
 12 
 
 0-0756 
 
 42 
 
 0-2679 
 
 72 
 
 0-7862 
 
 102 
 
 2-041 
 
 -•7 
 
 0-0196 
 
 1} 
 
 0-0790 
 
 43 
 
 0-278} 
 
 13 
 
 0-8131 
 
 103 
 
 2-10} 
 
 -i6 
 
 0-0206 
 
 14 
 
 0-0825 
 
 44 
 
 0-2890 
 
 74 
 
 0-8409 
 
 104 
 
 2 -166 
 
 -'5 
 
 0-0217 
 
 15 
 
 o'o362 
 
 45 
 
 o-}ooi 
 
 75 
 
 0-8695 
 
 105 
 
 2-231 
 
 -'4 
 
 0-0228 
 
 16 
 
 0-C901 
 
 46 
 
 0-3116 
 
 76 
 
 0-8989 
 
 106 
 
 2-298 
 
 -1} 
 
 0-02J9 
 
 '7 
 
 0-0942 
 
 47 
 
 0-^235 
 
 77 
 
 0-9292 
 
 107 
 
 2-366 
 
 -12 
 
 0-0251 
 
 18 
 
 0-0985 
 
 48 
 
 0-3J58 
 
 78 
 
 0-9604 
 
 108 
 
 2-4J7 
 
 — II 
 
 0-026} 
 
 19 
 
 o-iojo 
 
 49 
 
 0-3485 
 
 79 
 
 0-9925 
 
 109 
 
 2-509 
 
 — lO 
 
 0-0276 
 
 20 
 
 0-1076 
 
 50 
 
 0-3616 
 
 80 
 
 I -0255 
 
 110 
 
 2-583 
 
 -9 
 
 0-0289 
 
 21 
 
 0-1124 
 
 51 
 
 0-3751 
 
 81 
 
 1-0595 
 
 in 
 
 2-659 
 
 -8 
 
 0-ojo} 
 
 22 
 
 0-II74 
 
 52 
 
 0-3891 
 
 82 
 
 1-0945 
 
 112 
 
 2-736 
 
 -7 
 
 o-o}i8 
 
 2J 
 
 0-1226 
 
 5i 
 
 0-4036 
 
 83 
 
 1-IJ05 
 
 • 13 
 
 2-817 
 
 -6 
 
 O-OJiJ 
 
 24 
 
 0-1282 
 
 54 
 
 0-4186 
 
 84 
 
 1-1675 
 
 "4 
 
 2-898 
 
 -5 
 
 O-0M9 
 
 25 
 
 0IJJ9 
 
 55 
 
 0-4MI 
 
 85 
 
 1-2056 
 
 115 
 
 2-982 
 
 -4 
 
 o-oj66 
 
 26 
 
 o-ii99 
 
 56 
 
 0-4501 
 
 86 
 
 1-2447 
 
 116 
 
 3-067 
 
 -J 
 
 0-0J8? 
 
 27 
 
 o'i46i 
 
 57 
 
 0-4666 
 
 87 
 
 1*2850 
 
 117 
 
 3-156 
 
 -2 
 
 0-0401 
 
 28 
 
 0-1526 
 
 58 
 
 0-4836 
 
 88 
 
 1-3264 
 
 ii8 
 
 3-246 
 
 - I 
 
 0-0420 
 
 29 
 
 0-1594 
 
 59 
 
 0-5011 
 
 89 
 
 1-3690 
 
 119 
 
 J'JiS
 
 358 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Note hy Mr. Cuthhert E. Peek. 
 
 As some travellers m<ay not be able to take luith rerjularity the series of 
 observations, recommended in the preceding article, a less complete form 
 is siibjoined which will give very valuable information with regard to the 
 country traversed, provid-ed the few simple conditions are carefully ful- 
 filled. The following instructions and a very convenient form of note- 
 book are published by the Eoyal Meteorological Society, '22, Great George 
 Street, Westminster. 
 
 Instructions to Observers at Cumatological St.\ticins. 
 
 Instruments Required. 
 
 Maximum Thermometer divided on the stem and verified. 
 
 Minimum „ „ „ „ 
 
 Dry Bulb 
 
 Wet Bulb 
 
 Eain Gauge „ 
 
 Stevenson Thermometer Screen. 
 
 Conditions to he Fulfilled. 
 
 Tliermometer Screen. — To be placed over grass in a freely exposed 
 situation. 
 
 Should never be in the shade, and must not be placed near any wall. 
 
 To be firmly mounted on foiu- stout posts, at such a height that the 
 bulbs of the dry and wet thermometers shall be four feet above the 
 ground, and the door open to the north. 
 
 The thermometers to be placed as near the centre of the screen as 
 possible. The most suitable arrangement is to mount the maximum and 
 minimum thermometers on two small uprights in front of the dry and 
 wet bulbs, in such a way that the scales of the latter can be seen above 
 the former.
 
 METEOEOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 359 
 
 The maximum and minimum thermometers to be hung quite hori- 
 zontally. 
 
 The screen must be painted white, and should be repainted during the 
 spring of each year. 
 
 Wet Bulb Thermometer. — The bulb to be covered with a single piece of 
 fine muslin ; and have a conducting thread of three or four strands of 
 darning cotton tied in the form of a noose round the neck of the bulb 
 over the muslin, the ends of the thread passing into a water receptacle 
 through a small orifice at the top, placed about three inches from the 
 bulb. 
 
 Clean rain water alone to be employed. 
 
 The muslin and conducting thread to be soaked in boiling water prior 
 to use, and to be changed at least once a month, and more frequently if 
 there is any appearance of dirt or deposit. 
 
 When the temperature is below 32", the bulb to be wetted about an 
 hour he/ore the time of observation, so that a coating of ice may be 
 formed round the bulb. 
 
 Rain Oaiige. — The rain gauge to be of copper, and have a funnel of 
 five or eight inches diameter. 
 
 It is desirable that it have also a deep rim to retain snow. 
 
 The gauge to be placed in an open and well-exposed situation, free 
 from trees, walls, and buildings, and firmly fixed so that it cannot be 
 blown over. 
 
 The top of the funnel to be one foot above the ground, and quite level. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 The observations to be made once daily at 9 a.m. local time. 
 
 After the readings have been entered in the note-book, the instruments 
 to be looked at again to see that no mistake has been made. 
 
 The maximum and minimum thermometers to be set ; the former by 
 holding the bulb downwards, and gently shaking the instrument, and 
 the latter by holdiog the bulb upwards and allowing the index to flow 
 to the end of the spirit. 
 
 The thermometers to be read to tenths of degrees. The reading of the 
 maximum thermometer to be entered in the return to the previous day.
 
 360 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 the readings of the other thermometers being entered to the day on which 
 they are read. 
 
 Cloud. — Tlie amount of clond to be estimated according to the scale 
 0-10, 0, representing a cloudless sky, and 10 a completely covered or 
 overcast sky. 
 
 The rainfall to be entered to i\\Q previoufi day. 
 
 When snow falls, that which is collected in the funnel to be melted V)y 
 adding a known quantity of warm water, and entering the difference as 
 rain. If the snow has drifted, a section of the snow should be obtained 
 in a place where it has not drifted, by inverting the funnel and turning 
 it round, and melting what is enclosed. It is also desirable to measure 
 with a rule the depth of snow in several places where it has not drifted, 
 and enter the amounts in the " Eemarks." 
 
 Weather. — Notes on the general character of the weather during the 
 day, and any phenomena such as fog, snow, thunder, &c., to be given in 
 the " Eemarks" column. 
 
 The following symbols to be used for brevity: 
 
 Eain 
 
 K Thunderstorm 
 
 :^< Snow T Thunder 
 
 A. Hail ^ Lightning 
 
 A Soft Hail = Fog 
 
 4» Snow Drift 
 
 — » Ice Crystals 
 
 ^ Strong Wind 
 
 ^-^ Eainbow 
 
 u 
 
 ,^ Dew 
 
 
 1—1 Hoarfrost 
 
 
 V Silver Tliaw 
 
 
 ~ Glazed Frost 
 
 O 
 
 Solar Halo 
 
 VL' 
 
 Lunar Halo 
 
 07 
 
 Lunar Corona 
 
 ^ 
 
 Aurora 
 
 Note. — The observations must be ioken punctiuilJy at 9 a.m. local time, 
 and with great care. As there must not be any break or omissions in the 
 observations, it is desirable that there should be a well-trained deputy to 
 take them in the absence of the regular observer.
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 
 
 361 
 
 Form. 
 
 Climatological Observations at 9 a.m. (Local Time) made at 
 cluring 18 . Heii^ht above Sea-level 
 
 feet 
 
 
 Thermometeus. 
 
 o 
 
 11 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 '5 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 &c. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 O-IO 
 
 ]n. 
 
 
 Sums 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maximum Temperature ('corrected') on 
 
 Minimum Temperature (corrected) on 
 
 Mean Temperature (Mean Max. and I\Iin.) 
 
 Means 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mean Range of Temperature 
 
 Index Errors 
 
 
 
 Means 
 Corrected. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of Rainy Days 
 
 
 ' 

 
 362 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Taijle of 
 
 Difference between the Readings of 
 
 
 0-2 0-4 ' 0-6 ' o'i 
 
 I-O I*2 ! 1-4 16 
 
 2*0 2-2 ' 2*4 ' 2-6 I 2*8 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 99 
 99 
 99 
 99 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 95 
 
 97 
 97 
 97 
 
 88 84 
 
 90 
 90 
 90 
 91 
 91 
 
 9J 
 9} 
 93 
 9J 
 94 
 94 
 
 81 
 
 78 
 
 «4 
 
 82 
 
 «7 
 
 8,- 
 
 89 
 
 «7 
 
 89 
 
 «7 
 
 89 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 90 
 
 92 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 9' 
 
 92 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 91 
 
 9J 
 
 92 
 
 9} 
 
 92 
 
 89 
 
 89 
 
 67 
 
 64 
 
 7? 
 
 -I 
 
 7« 
 
 7<> 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 81 
 
 3o 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 84 I ij 
 84 &}
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 
 
 363 
 
 Relative Humidity. 
 
 
 THE Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i; 
 
 
 1:1 
 
 3-2 
 
 1:1 
 
 3-6 
 
 3-8 
 
 4-0 
 
 4-2 
 
 4'4 
 
 4-6 
 
 4-8 
 
 5-0 
 
 5-2 
 
 5-4 
 
 5-6 
 
 5-8_ 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 2? 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 n 
 
 20 
 
 •■ 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 »4 
 
 13 
 
 1 2 
 
 22 
 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 
 43 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 3? 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 '9 
 
 26 
 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 58 
 
 36 
 
 M 
 
 ?3 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 
 58 55 
 
 S3 
 
 51 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 ,. 
 
 !o 
 
 
 65 6} 
 
 6f 
 
 60 58 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 ;i 
 
 5a 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 32 
 
 
 •/I 1^9 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 34 
 
 
 74 72 
 
 ';i 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 6ft 
 
 64 
 
 'ij 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 r 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 ;6 
 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 7J 
 
 71 
 
 7° 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 38 
 
 
 76 
 
 7; 
 
 74 
 
 7^ 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 '4 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 4'J 
 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 t6 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 42 
 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 44 
 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 7> 
 
 70 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 4ft 
 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 4« 
 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 50 
 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 7& 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 52 
 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 &•) 
 
 65 
 
 54 
 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 56 
 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 58 
 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 60 
 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 62 
 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 ^A 
 
 
 8j 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 66 
 
 
 8J 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 
 8j 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 7; 
 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 7« 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 
 
 84 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 ?^ 
 
 
 84 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 
 85 
 
 84 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 78 
 
 
 85 84 
 
 8 J 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 80
 
 864 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Tai!LE of Relative 
 
 Difference between the Readings ok 
 
 c« 
 
 6-0 6-2 
 
 6-4|6-6 6-8 
 
 T2 , 7-4 t6 7-8 
 
 3-0 8-2 8-4 I 8-6 8-8 
 
 69 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 61 
 62 61 
 
 29 I 28 
 
 3^ 36 
 
 45 ; 44 
 
 49 48 
 
 56 54 5J 
 
 57 5& I 55 
 
 57 , 5& 
 
 58 57 
 
 59 i 58 
 
 59 58 
 
 60 59 
 
 61 1 60 
 
 65 64 
 
 65 I 64 
 
 66 65 
 
 70 ■ 69 
 
 6? 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 M 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 », 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 64 
 
 6? 
 
 64 
 
 6? 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 ; 
 
 7. 
 
 7 
 
 6 ; 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 9 1 
 
 15 
 
 •4 
 
 '4 ; 
 
 2? 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 ?o 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 n 
 
 }(> 
 
 J6 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 4? 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 '^l 
 
 50 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 49 ' 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 5? 
 
 52 
 
 5t 
 
 54 
 
 5} 
 
 5^ i 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 5J 1 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 to 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 61 
 
 65 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 6? 
 
 62 
 
 6l 
 
 64 
 
 6! 
 
 62 
 
 5 4 
 
 6 
 8 8
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 
 
 365 
 
 HujiiDiTY. — Continued. 
 
 THE Dey and Wet Bulb Thebmometers. 
 
 9-0 9-2 9-4!9-6 9-8 
 
 5 5 5 5 
 
 7 1 \ ^ ^ 6 
 
 10 lo 
 
 i8 17 
 27 26 
 
 4,i 42 
 
 44 4J 
 
 46 I 45 
 
 47 I 46 
 
 48 i 47 
 
 49 I 48 
 
 50 ! 49 48 
 
 51 ; 50 I 49 
 
 52 ' 51 
 
 5J I 52 i 51 
 
 15 15 
 
 24 I 2J 
 
 H io 
 
 J? M 
 
 J8 il 
 
 40 39 
 
 41 40 
 4J 42 
 44 45 
 4i 44 
 
 47 46 45 
 
 47 46 
 
 48 47 
 50 49 48 
 
 50 49 
 
 54 5J 52 51 50 
 
 55 '54 5J 52 5' 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 5? 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 5f 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 5t' 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 5J 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 5") 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 S6 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 " 
 
 59 
 
 59 1 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 5b 
 
 60 59 58 57 
 60 60 I 59 58 
 
 lo-o I 10-2 10-4 ' IO-6 
 
 28 
 
 n 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 4' 
 
 42 
 
 [i'2 II '4 ii'6 II 
 
 4J 
 
 42 
 
 i ■♦' 
 
 4' 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 4? 
 
 4J 
 
 45 
 
 4-' 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 49 
 
 49 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 5? 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 SJ 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 51 1 
 
 54 
 
 5? 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 54 
 
 5J 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 51 
 
 5J 
 
 55 1 
 
 54 
 
 51 
 
 5J 
 
 40 
 42 
 
 4J 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 ?} 52 
 
 54 55 
 
 5') 55 
 
 57 56 
 
 58 57 
 
 40 
 4' 
 42 
 4! 
 45 
 
 49 ' 48 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 50 
 50 
 51 
 52 
 52 
 
 a»i
 
 366 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVFJ.T.ERS. 
 
 Tahle of Eklative 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Difference 
 
 BETWEEN 
 
 THE 
 
 Eeadings 
 
 OF 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I2-0 I2'2 
 
 12-412 6 
 
 12-8 
 
 ij-o 
 
 15 2 
 
 13-4 
 
 ir6 
 
 13-8 
 
 14-0 
 
 14-2 
 
 14-4 
 
 14-6 
 
 14-8 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 . . 1 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ; i ^ 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JO 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 9 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 J2 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 15 15 
 
 i; 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 iJ 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 
 i4 
 
 2J 
 
 2} 
 
 22 21 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 '7 
 
 >7 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 
 Jfi 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 ^i 
 
 It 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 
 J8 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 
 40 
 
 JI 
 
 J I 
 
 50 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 
 4^- 
 
 ?2 
 
 }I 
 
 51 
 
 }o 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 
 44 
 
 J4 
 
 33 
 
 5J 
 
 52 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 51 
 
 }o 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 ^ 26 
 
 26 
 
 
 4'^ 
 
 Ji 
 
 J4 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 }i 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 
 4« 
 
 J6 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 54 J4 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 38 
 J9 
 
 57 
 58 
 
 36 
 
 58 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 36 
 
 It 
 
 33 
 35 
 
 33 
 35 
 
 32 
 34 
 
 32 
 35 
 
 51 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 31 
 
 50 
 31 
 
 
 54 
 
 40 
 
 J9 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 
 56 
 
 4' 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 39 J9 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 54 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 
 58 
 
 4? 
 
 42 
 
 4« 
 
 40 40 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 55 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 • 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 59 
 
 J8 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 57 
 
 J6 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 i5 
 
 
 62 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 4f 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 r, 
 
 36 
 
 J6 
 
 
 64 
 
 4? 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 
 66 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 38 
 
 
 68 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 59 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 
 70 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 •^f 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 59 
 
 
 ■;2 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 •♦^ 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 
 ■f 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 V' 
 
 46 
 
 '^l 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 
 76 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 "»! 
 
 '^1 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 
 73 
 
 50 
 
 49 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 '*2 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 49 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 45 

 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 
 
 367 
 
 Humidity. — Continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE Dry and 
 
 Wet Bulb Thermometers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ si 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ° 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 i 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £« 
 
 
 .S-o 
 
 15-2 15-4 156 
 
 15-8 
 
 i6-o i6-2 i'j-4 i6-6 i6-8 
 
 17-0 
 
 172 
 
 '"•4 
 
 I7-6 
 
 12:^_ 
 
 i8-o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ....... 
 
 
 
 •• 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 }0 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 n 
 
 
 15 
 
 »5 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 13 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 
 2o 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 17 17 
 
 16 16 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 ij 
 
 13 
 
 3& 
 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 19 19 
 
 18 18 
 
 >7 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 •5 
 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 
 2; 
 
 2J 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 21 21 
 
 20 20 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 i8 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 i" 
 
 40 
 
 
 J4 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 22 22 
 
 21 21 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 
 2 5 
 
 25 
 
 ?4 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 23 23 
 
 22 21 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 '9 
 
 20 
 
 44 
 
 
 :0 
 
 26 
 
 2; 
 
 25 
 
 2i 
 
 24 24 2! 2; 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 4'3 
 
 
 28 
 
 2~ 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 2 3 23 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 43 
 
 
 :9 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 jc 
 
 
 JO 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 52 
 
 
 jr 
 
 ?o 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 25 
 27 
 
 54 
 
 
 3i 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 3t 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 iO 
 
 
 J4 
 
 JJ 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 5 a 
 
 
 !5 
 
 J4 
 
 34 
 
 3t 
 
 3? 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 JO 
 
 30 
 
 .29 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 28 
 
 60 
 
 
 J5 
 
 j; 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 35 
 
 J! 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 ?i 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 62 
 
 
 36 
 
 J6 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 13 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 JO 
 
 "A 
 
 
 ?7 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 J4 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 
 J8 
 
 J7 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 i} 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 68 
 
 
 J8 
 
 38 37 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 J3 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 ? J 
 
 70 
 
 
 59 
 
 39 J 8 
 
 !8 
 
 i7 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 JJ 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 34 
 34 
 35 
 
 72 
 
 
 40 
 
 40 39 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 !4 
 
 74 
 
 
 41 
 
 40 4-5 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 J 5 
 
 35 
 
 76 
 
 
 4' 
 
 41 40 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 39 38 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 iS 
 
 35 
 
 78 
 
 
 42 
 
 41 41 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 39 38 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 80
 
 368 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 In the Table is given the relative humidity for every 2° of temperature 
 from 20° to 80°, and for every two-tentlis of a degree of difference between 
 the dry and wet-bulb readings from 0''*2 to 18° "0. 
 
 To use the Table : Ijook in the column on the left or right for the 
 nearest degree to the dry-bulb reading ; then carry the eye horizontally 
 along until the column is reached corresponding to the difference between 
 the readings of the dry and wet-bulb thermometers, when the relative 
 humidity will be found. Intermediate readings can be interpolated in 
 the usual way. 
 
 Example: Dry-bulb 58° -5, wet-bulb 52° -7, the difference is 5° -8. 
 Having found 58° in the column on the left or right, run the eye along 
 this line until the column under 5° '8 is reached when the relative 
 humidity will be found, viz., 67. 
 
 Hints to Meteorological Observers in Tropical Africa, with 
 Instructions for taking Observations. 
 
 Prepared hy a Committee of the British Association for the Adoanccment of 
 Science, I89I. E. G. Eavenstein, f.r.g.s., Chairman ; Baldwin 
 Latham, c.e., f.g.s. ; G. J. Symons, f.r s. ; H. E. Mill, d.sc , 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 The Committee appointed by the British Association are prepared to 
 supply a few competent and approved observers in Tropical .\frica with 
 the following instruments : — 
 
 1. A Fortin's Barometer. 
 
 2. A Dry Bulb Thermometer. 
 
 3. A Wet Bulb 
 
 4. A Maximum ,, 
 
 5. A Minimum „ 
 0. A Eain Gauge. 
 
 The Thermometers are placed within a cage of galvanised iron, ready 
 for suspension under shelter. 
 
 The corrections to be applied to the readings of the instruments 
 furnished by the Committee have been ascertained, and will be forwarded 
 to each observer. Observations, however, shoiild be entered in the
 
 METEOEOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 360 
 
 Begister as actually recorded by the instrument, and without applying 
 any of these corrections. 
 
 Observers making use of instriiments not supplied by the Committee, 
 are earnestly requested to furnish a description of them (maker's name 
 and number), with such notes on their errors as may be in their possession. 
 
 Every opportunity for comparing the instruments at a station with 
 other instruments in the possession of travellers and others should be 
 availed of. 
 
 The Committee will be happy to make careful ahstracfs of any Meteoro- 
 logical Journals from Africa which may he intrusted to them. 
 
 They will also forward (gratis) copies of these ' Hints,' and of their 
 ' Eegister,' to any observer who may apply for them. 
 
 Descriptions of certain instruments, not as a rule supplied by the 
 Committee, will be found in 'Hints to Meteorological Observers,' pre- 
 pared under the direction of the Council of Eoyal Meteorological Society 
 by W. Marriott. London (Stanford), 1892. Price Is. These instruments 
 are the Kew barometer, Philips's maximum thermometer, black and 
 bright bulb thermometers in vacuo, grass minimum thermometer, 
 Symons's earth thermometer, percolation gauge, Eobinson's anemometer, 
 and the sunshine recorder. 
 
 Notes on Mounting the Instruments. 
 
 Fortin's Barometer should be mounted in a room not subject to sudden 
 or great changes of temperature. Care should be taken to suspend the 
 instrument vertically, to place it in a good light and not near a fire- 
 place, or where it is exposed to the sun. 
 
 It is to be fixed at such a height that the observer can read the vernier 
 comfortably when standing upright. 'J'lie height of the cistern above the 
 ground should be noted in the register. 
 
 Barometers should be carefully handled. Before moving one first turn 
 the screw below the cistern until the mercury fills the tube, then turn 
 the barometer carefully over, and carry it with the cistern end upwards. 
 
 Thermometers. — The thermometers are placed within an iron cage, wliich 
 should at all times be kept locked, so as to prevent interference with the 
 instruments. This cage is suspended under a thatched shelter, which should 
 be situated in an open spot at some distance from buildings, must be well 
 
 2 (;
 
 370 
 
 HINTS TO TKAVELLERS. 
 
 ventilated, and guard the instruments from being exposed to sunshine or 
 rain, or to radiation from the giound. A simple hut, made of materials 
 available on the spot, would answer this purpose. Such a hut is shown in 
 the accompanying drawing. A galiled roof with broad eaves, the ridge of 
 whicli runs from north to south, is tixed upon four posts, standing four 
 feet apart. Two additional posts may be introduced to support the ends 
 of the ridge beam. The roof, at each end, projects al)Out 18 inches. In 
 
 -i — 9—ifee( 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 Ground Plan 
 
 Circular Hut 
 
 ¥ 
 
 Front V;en' " 
 
 Side Vie w 
 
 it are two ventilating holes. The tops of the posts are connected by bars 
 or rails, and on a cross-bar is suspended the cage with the instruments. 
 These will then be at a height of six feet above the ground. The gable 
 ends may be permanently covered in with mats or louvre work, not 
 interfering with the free circulation of the air, or the hut may be 
 circular. 
 The roof may be covered with palm-fronds, grass, or any other material
 
 METEOEOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 371 
 
 locally used by the natives as building material. The floor should not be 
 bare, but covered with grass or low shrubs. 
 
 Care should be taken to fix the cage firmly, so that the maximum and 
 minimum thermometer may not be disturbed by vibration. 
 
 Bain Gauge. — It should be firmly fixed in the ground with the top of 
 tlie rim one foot, or if on bare soil one foot three inches, above it, and 
 perfectly horizontal. 
 
 Wind Vane. — The vane should be placed where it is freely exposed to 
 tlie action of the wind, and not interfered with by local conditions. It 
 should be higher than the trees or buildings near it, and under any 
 circumstances about 25 feet above the ground. Its north point is readily 
 obtained by means of a compass, applying, as a matter of course, the local 
 variation. 
 
 Instructions for Taking the Observations. 
 
 Hours of Observation . — At stations of the second order the instruments 
 are to be read at 7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m., with the exception of the 
 maximum and minimum thermometers and the rain gauge, which are 
 only read at 7 a.m. 
 
 At climatological stations the observations are made only once daily, 
 viz., at 9 a.m. 
 
 Register. — All the original observations should be written down at the 
 time in a properly ruled r.ote-book, which should be preserved for 
 reference in case any question should arise about them afterwards. 
 
 In entering the observations in the register supplied by the Committee 
 it is absolutely essential that they be correctly copied from the original 
 note-book, and carefully checked. 
 
 The first Monthly Register should be accompanied by a description of 
 the station and of its environs, as also an account of the situation, &c., of 
 the instruments. Any subsequent changes in the latter should be duly 
 noted. 
 
 Fortiris Barometer. — 1. Note (to nearest degree) the reading of attached 
 thermometer. 
 
 2. Bring surface of mercury in the cistern into contact with the 
 ivory point which forms the extremity of the scale by turning the screw 
 at the bottom of the cistern. The ivory point and its reflected image in 
 
 2 c 2
 
 372 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 the mercury should api)ear just to toucli each other and form a double 
 cone. 
 
 3. Adjust the vernier scale so that its two lower edges shall form a 
 tangent to the cojii-ea; surface of the mercury. The front and back edges 
 of the vernier, the top of the mercury, and the eye of the observer are then 
 in the same straight line. 
 
 4. Take the reading, and enter the ohservntion as read without either 
 correcting it to freeziug-iioint or reducing it to the sea-level. 
 
 The scale fixed to the barometer is divided into inches, tenths, and 
 half-tenths, so that each division on this scale is eqiial to 0050 inch. 
 
 The small movable scale or vernier attached to the instrument enables 
 the observer to take more accurate readings ; it is tnoved by a rack and 
 pinion. 
 
 Twenty-four spaces on the fixed scale corresi3ond to twenty-five 
 spaces on the vernier ; hence each space on the fixed scale is larger than 
 a space on the vernier by the twenty-fifth part of 0"050 inch, which is 0"002. 
 Every long line on the vernier (marked 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) thus corresponds 
 -to G-dlO inch.
 
 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE. 373 
 
 If the lower edge of the vernier coincides with a line on the fixed scale, 
 and the upper edge with the twenty-fourth division of the latter higher 
 up, the reading is at once supplied by the fixed scale as in Fig. 1, where 
 it is 29"500 inches. 
 
 If this coincidence does not take place, then read off the division on 
 the fixed scale, above which the lower edge of the vernier stands. In 
 Fig. 2 this is 29'750 inches. Next look along the vernier until one of its 
 lines is found to coincide with a line on the fixed scale. In Fig. 2 this 
 will be found to be the case with the second line above the figure " 2." 
 The reading of the barometer is therefore : — 
 
 On fixed scale 29-750 
 
 On vernier (12 X -002) .. .. -024 
 
 Correct reading 29-774 
 
 Should two lines on the vernier be in equally near agreement with two 
 on the fixed scale, then the intermediate value should be adopted. 
 
 5. Lower the merciiry in the cistern by ti:rning the screw at tlie bottom 
 until the surface is well below the ivory point; this is done to prevent the 
 collection of impurities. 
 
 Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Thermometers. — Eeadings should be entered 
 without ap])lying any corrections for the errors of the instruments. They 
 should be stated in degrees and tenths of degrees. 
 
 Five, or preferably ten, minutes before reading the Dry Bulb Thermo- 
 meter in damp weather it is to be wiped dry. 
 
 The Wet Bulb Thermometer requires special attention. The bulb 
 should be covered with a piece of the thinnest muslin. Eight threads of 
 darning cotton, in the form of a noose, should be loosely tied round the 
 neck of the bulb, and led through a small hole in the cover of the water 
 receptacle or cui?. Take. care to have this cup at all times filled with 
 clean rain or filtered water. • 
 
 The nmsiin and the conducting threads should be washed in boiling 
 water prior to use, and changed at least once a month, or whenever there 
 is any apj^earance of dirt upon them. 
 
 When the temperature sinks below freezing-point, wet the bulb with a 
 camel hair brush about an hour before use; this will produce a thin 
 coating of ice.
 
 374 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 After a frost the water in the receptacle should be thawed, and the 
 muslin and conductor washed, to restore ]n-oper action. 
 
 Maximum Thermometer (Ncgretti & Zambra's). — 1. See that the end of 
 the column nearest the bulb has not run away from it through vibration 
 or otherwise. If it has the thermometer should be tilted very gently 
 until the detached column comes in contact with the contraction in 
 the tube. 
 
 2. Eead at 7 a.m. or 9 a.m. by noting the point at which the end of the 
 column of mercury is lying. Enter to jirevious day. 
 
 3. Set, by holding tlie thermometer bulb downwards, and shaking it 
 until the mercurial column becomes continuous throughout. The end of 
 the mercury should then indicate the same temperature as the Dry Bulb 
 Thermometer. 
 
 Minimum Thermometer (Eutherford's). — 1. Eead at 7 a.m. or 9 a.m. by 
 noting position of the end of the indiQX furthest from the bulb. Enter to 
 the day on which read. 
 
 2. Set, by raising the bulb and allowing the index to slide to the end of 
 the column of spirit. When set, the end of the index furthest from the 
 bulb should indicate nearly the same temperature as the dry bulb. 
 
 Ruin Gauge. — The gauge should be examined daily at 7 a.m. or at 9 a.m. 
 During exceptionally heavy rains it may be necessary to measure the 
 contents of the gauge at more frequent intervals, but the total results 
 should in all cases be inserted in the register under the hours named. 
 
 The rain measured at 7 a.m. or 9 a.m. should be entered as having 
 fallen the previous day. 
 
 The measurement is effected by pouring the contents of the gauge 
 (bottle or can) into a glass measure, each division of which represents 
 ()"01 in. The reading to be taken midway between the two apparent 
 surfaces of the water. 
 
 If hail or snow should be collected in the funnel, it is to be melted and 
 measured as rain. This is done by adding to the hail or snow a measm-ed 
 quantity of hot water, and by afterwards deducting the quantity so added 
 from the total measurement. 
 
 Wind. — Note the direction from wliich the wind blows from the 
 indications of a freely-moving vane, or by observing the drift of 
 smoke by means of a magnetic compass, applying the correction for 
 variation.
 
 METEOKOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 
 
 375 
 
 The Force of the Wind is to be noted according to Beaufort's scale, as 
 follows : — 
 
 0. Calm . 
 
 1. Light Air 
 
 2. Light Breeze 
 
 3. Gentle „ 
 
 4. Moderate,, 
 
 5. Fresh „ 
 
 6. Strong „ 
 
 7. Moderate Gale 
 
 8. Fresh 
 
 9. Strong „ 
 
 10. Whole 
 
 11. Stonn . 
 
 12. Hurricane 
 
 Corresponding Velocity in 
 Miles per Hour. 
 
 . 0— 6 
 
 . 6—10 
 
 . 11—15 
 
 . 16—20 
 
 . 21—25 
 
 . 26—30 
 
 . 31—36 
 
 . 37—44 
 
 . 45—52 
 
 . 53—60 
 
 . 6i— 69 
 
 . 70—80 
 
 . 81 and ui:)wards. 
 
 Clouds. — HhQ pro} ortion oftliesky covered with cloud is to be estimated, 
 the scale adopted being 0—10, representing a perfectly cloudless sky, 
 and 10 showing that the tvhole sky is clouded. 
 
 The forms of cloiids should be described as defined by Howard, as 
 follows : — 
 
 Cirrus : — Parallel, wavey, or diverging fibres. 
 
 Cirro-cumulus : — A fleecy cloud. ■ 
 
 Cirro-stratus: — A thin veil of feathery or streaky cloud. 
 
 Cumulus : — A cloud of a convex or well-rounded shape. 
 
 Cumulo-Stratus : — A blending of Cirro-Stratus with Cumulus. 
 
 Stratus : — Clouds in continuous horizontal sheets. 
 
 Nimbus or rain cloud. 
 
 Under motion enter the direction whence the cloud is moving. 
 
 Weather. — Note any phenomena which may have occm-red since the 
 last observation. 
 
 Term-Baijs.— On the 1st, lltli, and 21st of each month hourly or 
 two-hourly observations should, if possible, be taken, those of the 21st 
 being the most important. This applies more especially to the barometer 
 and its attached thei-mometer, and to the dry and wet bulb thermometers.
 
 376 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Additional Observations. — If the station is favonraTily situated for 
 measuring the height of a lake-level or ascertaining the flooding of a 
 river, this should be done. Tliese observations should be made regularly 
 daily, but if tliis is imjjracticable, once a week is much better than none. 
 The water-gauge should' be divided into inches and tenths. The manner 
 of fixing it must depend entirely upon local circumstances: its zero 
 should coincide with the lowest level of the water, but in practice it will 
 generally be necessary to accept au arbitrary zero, and to indicate all 
 readings bi'low it by a minus sign. It is desirable that the zero of the 
 gauge sliould be referred to a bench mark cut in the face of a rock, or 
 failing that, in the trunk of a tree. 
 
 Well-measurements may prove of interest. Measure the distance from 
 the moiitli of the well to the surface of the water in it, and not the deptii 
 of the well. At stations on the sea-shore, on lakes or rivers, the tempera- 
 ture of the water may likewise be recorded. 
 
 Note hij Egbert H. Scott, f.r.s. 
 
 • Eoctract from the Eeport of the International Meteorological Conference 
 held at Munich, Septemher, 1891. 
 
 1. It should be stated what kind of instruments had been used for the 
 observations, their corrections should be given, if known; as well as 
 details as to the method of exposure. The height of tlie barometer above 
 sea-level should be given as accurately as possible. 
 
 2. Precise information as to the methods employed in the calculation 
 of means (the hours of observation and the formulie used for reductions) 
 should always be given. 
 
 It is further desirable to give the means for the separate hours of 
 observation (for temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure), to 
 facilitate the reduction to true means, which might be undertaken 
 subsequently. 
 
 3. In iniblishing means for several years, it is very desirable to give 
 the separate means for periods of five years each (lastra) (commencing 
 with the first year of each pentade : — 1881-5, 1886-90, &c.), in accordance 
 with the resolution of the Congress of Vienna. In this way it would bo
 
 LIST OF METEOEOLOGICAL STATIONS 377 
 
 Ijossible to obtain with the greatest facility simultaneous and corresponding 
 mean "values which are indispensable for any serious investigations on 
 the distribution of meteorological elements, especially temperature, atmo- 
 spheric pressure, and rainfall. 
 
 List of Meteorological Stations and Organisations, 1893; 
 Furnished by the Meteorological Office. 
 
 Asia. 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 Beirut E. H. West, Esq., M.A., Supeiiutendent, Lee Obser- 
 vatory, Syriau Protestant Colle2;e. 
 Cyprus The Chief Medical Officer, Larnaka. 
 
 China. 
 
 Zi-ka-wei Rev. F. S. Chevalier, S.J., Observatoire Mague'tique et 
 
 Me'teorologique, Zi-ka-wei, pres Shanghai. 
 HoDg-Kong .. .. Dr. W. Doberck, Government Astronomer, Observatory. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Tokyo M. Kobayashi, Director, Imperial Meteorological Ob- 
 servatory, Tokyo. 
 India. 
 
 Calcutta .J. Eliot, Esq., M.A., Meteorological Reporter to the 
 
 Government of India. 
 
 Africa. 
 West Africa. 
 Lagos The Colonial Surgeon, Colonial Hospital. 
 
 Algeria. 
 Algiers M. le Directeur du Service Me'teorologique. 
 
 South Africa. 
 
 Cape Town . . . . W. E. Fry, Esq., Secretary, Meteorological Commission. 
 WalfischBay .. .. Dr. Stapff. 
 
 East Africa. 
 Mauritius C. Meldrum, Esq., LL.D , F.R.S., Secretary, Meteoro- 
 logical Society.
 
 378 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 North Africa. 
 
 Cairo Administration des Services Sanitaires et d'Hygiene 
 
 Publique. 
 Madagascar. 
 
 Mojanga S. C. Knott, Vice-Consul. 
 
 Antananarivo . . . . Royal Observatory, M. Colin, S.J. 
 
 America. 
 North America. 
 Washington .. .. Weather Bureau. 
 Labrador (Six stations.) German Missionaries. 
 
 Canada. 
 Toronto C. Carpmael, Esq., M.A., jMetcorological Office. 
 
 South America. 
 
 Cordoba Sr. W. G. Davis, Oficina Meteorologica Argentina. 
 
 Porto Alogre .. .. Dr. G. Alves d'Azambuja, Porto Alegre, South Brazil. 
 Georgetown .. .. G. S. Jenman, Esq., Government Botanist's Office, 
 
 Georgetown, Demerara. 
 Rio de Janeiro . . . . Capt. Adolph Pinheiro, Bureau Hydrographique. 
 
 Central America, &c. 
 
 Havana Padre B. Vines, S.J., Director, R. Colegio de Belen, 
 
 Havana, Cuba. 
 
 Mexico The Director, Observatorio Central del Palacio 
 
 Nacional. 
 
 Tacubaya Sr. Angel Anguiano, Observatorio AstronomicoXacioual. 
 
 Tobago J. P. Tulloch, Esq., M.D., Colonial Surgeon. 
 
 Trinidad J. H. Hart, Esq., Superintendent, Botanic Gardens. 
 
 Belize St. Joseph's College. 
 
 Costa Rica . . . . Meteorological Institute. 
 
 Australasia. 
 New South Wales. 
 Sydney H. C. Russell, Esq., F.R.S., Observatory. 
 
 Queensland. 
 Brisbane C. L. Wragge, Esq., F.R.A.S , Government Meteoro- 
 logist. 
 South Australia. 
 
 Adelaide Sir C. Todd, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Superintendent of 
 
 Telegraphs.
 
 LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS. 379 
 
 Tasmania. 
 Hobart Hon. Secretary, Royal Society of Tasmania. 
 
 Victoria. 
 Melbourne .. .. R. J. Ellery, Esq., F.R.S., Observatory. 
 
 West Australia. 
 Perth M. A. 0. Eraser, Esq., Meteorological Reporter. 
 
 New Zealand. 
 Wellington . . . . Sir J. Hector, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Colonial Museum. 
 
 Java. 
 
 Batavia Dr. J. P. van der Stok, Director, Observatory. 
 
 Philippine Islands. 
 
 Manila The Director, Meteorological Observatory. 
 
 Sandwich Islands . . H. Cubb- Adams, Kaneohe (Oahu). 
 
 Fiji J. D. W. Vaughan, Suva. 
 
 Samoa Dr. Frank, Apia. 
 
 This list, of course, is very far from exhaustive. The Russian Government 
 has established a great number of stations throughout the Empire. The number 
 of places where observations are regularly taken is yearly increasing, and the 
 traveller will do well to inquire where such stations exist in the neighbourhood 
 of his explorations. — Euitoes.
 
 ( 380 ) 
 
 vn. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 By W. T. Blanford, f.b.s. 
 
 A TRAVELLER wlio lias iiot devotecl some time to studying geology in the 
 tield must not be surprised or disappointed if the rocks of any country 
 which he may happen to traverse appear to him a hoj^eless puzzle. If he 
 desires to investigate the geological structure of an unknown region, he 
 should previously devote some time to mastering, with the aid of a good 
 geological map and description, the details of a well-known tract. 
 
 Under the term " Geological Observations," two very distinct types 
 of inquiry are commonly confounded. The first of these, to which 
 the name of Geological Investigation ought properly to be restricted, 
 consists in an examination of the rocks of a country as a whole, so as 
 to enable a geological map, or, at all events, geological sections, to be 
 constructed. This demands a knowledge of rocks (petrology), some 
 acquaintance with the details of geological surveying, and, usually, with 
 the elements of palceontology — a science that, in its turn, requires a 
 preliminary study of biology, and especially of zoology. Despite all these 
 hard terms, any intending traveller who has a taste for geology — if he 
 has none he had better not waste time upon the subject — will find that a 
 few months' study in any good museum, a course of geological lectures, 
 and, above all, a few days in the field with a good geologist, will start 
 him very fairly equipped with the great requisite to all successful 
 scientific investigation, a knowledge of how to observe, and what to observe. 
 
 The term " Geological Observations "is, however, often, but incorrectly, 
 used in a second sense, which implies a restriction of the observations to 
 the useful minerals found in any country, or to what is termed economic 
 geology. Here also a preliminary knowledge of the elements of geological 
 science will be found very useful, and will frequently enable the traveller
 
 GEOLOGY. 381 
 
 to form much more trustworthy conclusions as to the nature and vahre of 
 mineral deposits than he could without such a guide. But the essential 
 point is to recognise a valuable mineral when seen, and for this some 
 knowledge of mineralogy is requisite. 
 
 Outfit. — The essential articles of a geologist's outfit are neither numerous 
 nor cumbrous. A very large proportion of the known geology of the 
 world has been made out with no more elaborate appliances than a 
 hammer, a pocket compass, with a small index to serve as a clinometer, a 
 ]')Ocket lens, a note-book and a pencil. No scientific observer has to 
 depend more on his own knowledge and faculty for observation, and less 
 on instrumental appliances, than a geologist. 
 
 The best hammer for general irariTOses should weigli from 1 to 2 lbs. 
 and should have a square flat end, and a straight cutting end— the latter 
 may be horizontal or vertical, according to fancy. The ends should be of 
 steel, not too highly tempered. The hole for the handle should be as large 
 as possible (with a small hole the handles are so weak as to be liable to 
 break), and the handle should be secured in the hole by a wooden wedge, 
 and an iron one driven into and across the wooden one. It is advisable 
 to take a few spare ash handles. Cut a foot-measure in notches on the 
 handle — this is very useful for measuring thickness of beds, &c. It is as 
 well to have more than one hammer in case of loss, and if fossil-collecting 
 is anticipated, at least one heavy hammer, with one end fashioned to serve 
 as a pick, three or four cold chisels of various sizes, and a short crow-bar 
 will be found usefi;l. Excellent geological hammers are those used by 
 the Irish Geological Survey, and made by Kennan, of Dublin. In London, 
 haiumers, chisels, &c., may be procured of J. E. Gregory, 88, Charlotte 
 Street, Fitzroy Square ; or of Messrs. Buck, 242, Tottenham Court Eoad. 
 
 A very good pocket compass, the shape and size of a watch, with a 
 clinometer arm, is made by Troughton and Simms, 138, Fleet Street. 
 The use of the clinometer is for measuring the angle of dip in rocks. 
 The elaborate instruments used for mininft,' purposes are imnecessary to 
 the geologist. If more accuracy of measurement is required than is 
 afforded by looking at a bed, a section, or a hill-side, and hokliug the 
 straight-edge attached to the compass parallel to the di]i. and if a siirface 
 can be found that affords the exact inclination, it is usiially practicable, 
 by means of a note-book laid on the rock surface, to obtain a plane suffi- 
 ciently close to that at which the beds di}) to enable the angle to be
 
 382 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 detei'uiined with a very sliort straight-edge. As a rule, except with very 
 low angles of dip, the variation in the inclination of the rocks themselves 
 exceeds the limits of error of the instrument. A little care, however, is 
 necessary in taking dips ; for the apparent dip seen in a section, such as 
 is often exposed in a cliff, may differ widely from the true dip, which will 
 only be shown if the section runs at right angles to the strike of the 
 beds. Dips seen on the sides of hills at a distance are but rarely correct 
 for the same reason. 
 
 A prismatic compass and an aneroid are frequently of great service : 
 the former to determine the position on the map, if one exists, and to 
 aid in making a rough map, if there is none ; and the latter to estimate 
 roughly the heights on the road travelled, especially in mountainous 
 countries, and also to measure the thickness of horizontal beds. Both 
 form a part of the oixtfit of most modern travellers. A good aneroid 
 gives sufficiently accurate determinations of height for a rough but 
 adequate geological section across any country, if the distances are 
 known. 
 
 Collections. — Geological specimens require little more than i^aper and 
 boxes for packing. Occasionally fossils or minerals are fragile, and need 
 tow or grass to protect them from injury ; but there is no risk from the 
 animal and vegetable enemies of zoological or botanical collections. The 
 only important point to be borne in mind is that every specimen should he 
 lahelled on the spot, or, at all events, in the course of the day on which it 
 is collected. Strong paper is best for labels, and these should not be put 
 up in contact with the rock-fragments themselves, or they will be worn 
 by sharp edges and become illegible, if not rubbed to fragments. Always 
 wrap each specimen in liajDer, or some substitute, then add the label, and 
 then au outer covering. The label,* if nothing else is written, should 
 always record the locality distinctly written. 
 
 * Travellers in tropical countries will do wisely to poison all their labels before 
 
 using them, to preserve them from attacks of insects and mites. "Washing with 
 a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate is an efficient plan. A large number 
 of labels, with the collector's name printed on them, may be taken, and if made 
 of strong thin paper they will not occupy much space. Bank-note paper is well 
 adapted for the purpose. Any writing should be, if possible, in ink : if not, a 
 very hard black pencil should be used.
 
 GEOLOGY. 383 
 
 A collection of rock specimens may show what kinds of rock occur in a 
 country, but the information afforded is very meagre, and, in general, of 
 very small value. Such collections, indeed, unless made by a geologist, 
 and accompanied by notes, are scarcely worth the carriage. If such 
 specimens are taken, care should be used to select them from the rocks 
 in place, not from loose blocks that may have been transported from a 
 distance, and no fragments of spar or crystals should be collected merely 
 because they are pretty. 
 
 In taking specimens of useful minerals, such as coal or metallic ores, 
 the traveller should always endeavour to jirocure them himself from 
 the place of occurrence, and if such are brought to him by natives, he 
 should, if practicable, visit the locality whence the samples were pro- 
 cured. The value of all useful minerals depends both on quality and 
 quantity ; the former can to some extent be ascertained from a sample, 
 but the amount available can only be estimated after a visit to the locality. 
 Most metallic ores occur in veins or lodes. These were originally cracks 
 in the rock, and have been irregularly filled with minerals, different from 
 those in the neighbourhood. It is, however, very difficult, and often 
 impossible, to estimate from surface examination whether the quantity 
 of ore occurring in veins is likely to prove large ; some idea may possibly 
 be obtained if underground workings exist. Many of the ores of iron, 
 some of those of other metals, and all coal and salt occur in beds, and 
 here it is important to see what is the thickness, and to ascertain whether 
 the mineral is equally pure throughout. Iron ores occur in most 
 countries, and unless very pure and within easy reach of water-carriage, 
 are not likely to be worth transport. The value of salt also depends on 
 facilities for carriage. Coal, however, may be of value anywhere ; but it 
 is improbable that seams of less thickness than four or five feet can be 
 of much use, except in countries where there is a skilled mining popula- 
 tion and a considerable demand for the mineral. It does not follow 
 because much thinner seams are sufiiciently valuable to be worked in 
 Western Europe that they would pay for extraction in a country where 
 the mechanical arts are less advanced. Still the occurrence of thm seams 
 is worthy of record, as thicker deposits may exist in the neighbourhood. 
 It must not be inferred, however, that a seam of small thickness at the 
 surface will become thicker below. The reverse is equally probable. 
 
 A blow-pipe is extremely useful for ascertaining the nature of ores, and
 
 384 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 for determining minerals generally, and a small blow-pipe case might 
 be added to a traveller's kit, if ho thinks it probable that he may- 
 meet with minerals in any quantity. But in general tliey are not to be 
 found in such in-ofusion as to render it difficult to carry away specimens 
 sufficient for determination at leisure. A blow-pipe, too, is of no use to 
 any one unacquainted with the method of employing it, though this is 
 easy to acquire.* 
 
 To form a rough idea of the valne of iron ore, see whetiier it is heavy; 
 to form some notion of the quality of coal, pile up a heap and set fire to 
 it. If it does not burn freely, the prospects of the coal being useful are 
 small. It may be antliracitic, and very valuable with proper appliances; 
 but anthracite is not of the same general utihty as bituminous coal. 
 Good coal should burn freely, with more or less flame, and should leave 
 but little ash, and it is preferable that the ash should be white, not red, 
 as the latter colour is often due to the presence of pyrites, a deleterious 
 ingredient. 
 
 Gold and gems have, as is well known, been procured in consider- 
 able quantities from the sands of rivers and alluvial deposits. The 
 deposits known to the natives of any country are often of small value, 
 and the rude methods of washing prevalent in so many lands suffice 
 to afford a fair idea of the wealth or poverty of the sand washed. 
 Gold and, wherever it is found, platinum occur in grains and nuggets, 
 easily recognised by their colour and by their being malleable ; but gems, 
 such as diamond, ruby, sapphire, are not so easy to tell from less valu- 
 able minerals. They may be recognised by their crystalline form and 
 hardness. A diamond is usually found in some modification of an octo- 
 hedron, and the crystalline facets are often curved ; rubies and sap- 
 phires are really differently coloured varieties of the same mineral, and 
 occux', when crystalline, in six-sided pyramids or some modification. A 
 diamond is the hardest of known substances ; nothing will scratch it, and 
 it will scratch all other minerals. Sapphire will scratch everything 
 except diamond. 
 
 * There are plenty of good works on the use of the blow-pipe. The best are 
 by Plattner and Scheerer, of both of which English translations have been pub- 
 lished. Of Vou Kobell's tables for the dLterminatioii of ujinerals, several trans- 
 lations have appeared,
 
 GEOLOGY. 385 
 
 In collecting fossils, it is useless to take many specimens of one kind 
 unless carriage is exceptionally plentiful. Two or three good examples of 
 each kind are usually suflScient, but as many kinds as possible should be 
 collected. Great care is necessary that all the specimens from one bed 
 be kept distinct from those from another stratum, even if the bed be 
 thin and the fossils in the two beds chiefly the same species. If there 
 is a series of beds, one above the other, all containing fossils, measure 
 the thickness roughly, draw a sketch-section in your note-book, apply 
 letters or numbers to each bed in succession on the sketch, and label the 
 fossils from that bed with the same letter or number. 
 
 Eemains of Vertebrata, especially of mammals, birds and reptiles, are of 
 great interest ; but it is useless to collect fragments of bones without 
 terminations. Skulls are much more important than other bones, and 
 even single teeth are well worth collecting. After skulls, vertebrae 
 are the most useful parts of the skeleton, then the limb bones. If com- 
 plete skeletons are found, they are usually well worth some trouble in 
 transporting. If fossil bones are found abundantly in any locality, and 
 the traveller has no sufficient means of transport, he will do well to carry 
 away a few skulls, or even teeth, and carefully note the locality for the 
 benefit of future geologists and explorers. The soil of limestone caverns, 
 and especially the more or less consolidated loam, rubble, clay, or sand 
 beneath the flooring of stalagmite, if it can be examined, should always 
 be searched for bones, and also for indications of man or his works. 
 
 The foregoing remarks are intended for all travellers, especially for 
 those who have paid little or uo attention to geology. It would be far 
 beyond the object of the present notes to attempt to give instruction in 
 the methods of geological observation ; all who wish to know more fully 
 what questions are especially worthy of attention, should consult tlie 
 article on Geology by the late Dr. Charles Darwin and Professor J. Phillips 
 in the ' Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry.' But a few hints may be 
 usefully added here for those who have already some knowledge of geology, 
 who do not require to have such terms as dip, strike, fault, or denuda- 
 tion explained to them, and who are sufficiently conversant with geo- 
 logical phenomena to be able to distinguish sedimentary from volcanic, 
 and metamorphic from unaltered rocks, and to recognise granite, gneiss, 
 schist, basalt, trachyte, slate, limestone, sandstone, shale, &c., in the field. 
 Assuming then that a traveller with some knowledge of field geology is 
 
 •2 r>
 
 386 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 making a Jourucy tliroiigli a tract of the earth's surface, the geology of 
 which is nnknowii, what will be the best method of procedure and the 
 principal points to which he should direct his attention? 
 
 On tlic whole, the most useful record of a journey, whether intended 
 for publication or merely as a memorandum, is a sketch geological map of 
 the route followed, with the dips and strikes of the rocks and approxi- 
 mate boundaries to the formations, supplemented by notes and sketch- 
 sections. Where, as is commonly the case in mountain-chains, and fre- 
 quently in less elevated portions of the country, the rocks are much 
 disturbed, and esi^ecially if the number of systems exposed is large and 
 the clianges frequent, no traveller can exj^ect to do more than gain a very 
 rough and general idea of the succession of beds in detail, and of the 
 structure; but by making excursions in various directions, whenever a 
 halt is practicable, by searching for fossils as a guide to the age and for 
 the identification of beds with each other, and by carefully noting the 
 general dij) and strike of the more conspicuous beds, it is often jjossible, 
 especially if an opportunity occurs of retracing the road followed, or of 
 traversing a iDarallel route, to make out the structure of a country that 
 at first appears hopelessly intricate. Dense forest is perhaps the worst 
 obstacle to geological exploration ; snow is another, though not quite so 
 serious a disadvantage. It is always a good plan to climb commanding 
 peaks ; the general direction of beds, obscure from the lower ground, not 
 unfrequently becomes much clearer when they are seen from above. 
 
 In level and undulating regions, on the other hand, it frequently 
 happens that enormous tracts of country are oceuiiied by the same 
 formation, and if the rocks are soft, and especially if they are horizontal, 
 or nearly so, little, if any, rock is to be seen in place. In this case 
 water-courses should be searched for sections, and the i^ebbles found in 
 the stream-beds examined, care being taken not to mistake transported 
 pebbles derived from overlying alluvium or drift for fragments of the 
 underlying rock. Where the same formation i>revails over large tracts, 
 it is usually easy, by examining the stones brought down by a stream, to 
 learn whether any other beds occur. It is astonishing how even a small 
 outcrop of hard rock at a remote spot in the area drained by a stream 
 will almost always yield a few fragments that can be detected by walking 
 two or three hundred yards up the stream-bed and carefully examining 
 the pebbles.
 
 GEOLOGY. 387 
 
 Kot unfreqiieutly different rocks support different vegetal ion, and by 
 noting the forms that are pecuhar, the constitution of hills at a consider- 
 able distance may be recognised. Thus some kinds of rock will be found 
 to support evergreen, others deciduous trees, others grass, whilst a fourth 
 kind may be distinguished by the poverty or want of vegetation. It is 
 not well to trust too much to such indications, but they may show which 
 hills require examination and which do not. The form assumed by the 
 outcrop of some hard beds is often characteristic, and may be recognised 
 at a considerable distance. 
 
 One most important fact should never be forgotten ; mineral character, 
 whether of sedimentary or volcanic rocks, is absolutely worthless as a 
 guide to the age of beds occurring in distant countries. The traveller 
 should never be led to suppose, because a formation, whether sedimentary 
 or volcanic, in a remote part of the world, is mineralogically and struc- 
 turally identical with another in Europe, or some country of which the 
 geology is well known, that the two are of contemporaneous origin. The 
 blunders that have been made from want of knowledge of this imiDortant 
 caution are innumerable. 
 
 There are a few points of geological interest well worthy of the investi- 
 gation of those who traverse unexplored, or partially explored, tracts of 
 the earth's surface. Amongst these are the following : — 
 
 Mountain- Chains. — -Few, if any, geologists now believe that mountains 
 were simply thrust up from below ; all admit that, at least in the majority 
 of cases, where great crumbling of the strata has taken place, there has 
 been lateral movement of the earth's crust. Bat the causes, extent and 
 date, of the lateral movements are still, to a great extent, matters of 
 conjecture, and every additional series of observations bearing on the 
 question is of importance. There are many mountain-chains of which 
 very little is yet known. In each case good sections are required, draAvn 
 as nearly to scale as jiracticable, through the range from side to .«ide, and 
 including the rocks on the flanks. The nature and distribution of all 
 volcanic and crystalline rocks, both in the range and throughout the 
 neighbouring areas, are especially noteworthy, and also the relations of 
 the later beds, if any, on the flanks of the mountains, to those constituting 
 the range itself, the derivation of the materials of the former from tlie 
 latter, and the relative amount of disturbance shown by the two, and by 
 the different members of each.
 
 388 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Volcanoes and I'olcanic Bocks. — It is almost needless to say that any 
 additional information on the distribution of volcanic vents, recent or 
 extinct, is of interest. In the case of extinct vents, the geological date 
 of the last eruptions should be ascertained if practicable. This may 
 sometimes be determined by finding organic remains or sedimentary beds 
 of known age interstratified with the ashes or lava-streams near the base 
 of the volcano. 
 
 Additional observations are needed as to the extent and age of those 
 enormous masses of stratified volcanic rocks that occur in some parts of 
 the earth, as in the western i)art of the Indian Peninsula, Xorth-eastern 
 Africa, the Western States of North America, and on a smaller scale in 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 Coasts. — The subject of the erosion of coasts is now fairly understood, 
 and there is no doubt that the importance of this form of denudation was 
 greatly overrated by many geological writers, who took their ideas of 
 geological denudation generally from the phenomena observed in the 
 islands, and on some of the coasts of Western Europe. Still, wherever 
 cliflfs occur, they afford good sections, and deserve examination. One 
 question w^ill usually present itself to almost every geological observer, 
 and that is, whether any coast he may be landing upon aifords evidence 
 of elevation or dein'ession. In the former case, beds of rolled pebbles or 
 of marine shells, similar to those now living on the shore, may be found 
 at some elevation above high-water mark. Very often the commonest 
 molluscs in raised beds are the kinds occurring in estuaries, which are 
 different from those inhabiting an open coast. Caution is necessary, how- 
 ever, that heaps of shells made by man, or isolated specimens transported 
 by animals (birds or hermit-crabs), or by the wind, be not mistaken for 
 evidence of raised beds. If the shore is steeji, terraces on the hill-sides 
 may mark the levels at which the sea remained in past times, but some 
 care is necessary not to mistake outcrops of hard beds for terraces. If 
 dead shells of species of mollusca, only living in salt-water estuaries, are 
 found in places now beyond the influence of the tide, it is a reasonable 
 inference that elevation has taken place. 
 
 The evidence of depression, on the other hand, unless there are buildings 
 or trees partly sunk in the water, is much less readily obtained, and 
 neither trees nor buildings are available as evidence, unless the depres- 
 sion is of comparatively recent date. The best proof is the fonn of the
 
 GEOLOGY. 389 
 
 coast. If deep inlets of moderate breadth occur, with rmmerous branches, 
 a little examination will frequently show whether such inlets are valleys of 
 snbaerial erosion, as they not ucfrequently are, that have been depressed 
 below the sea, A good and familiar example of such a depressed valley 
 is to be found at Milford Haven in South Wales. In higher latitudes, 
 care must be taken not to mistake glacier valleys, such as the friths and 
 lochs of Scotland, and the fiords of Norway, for valleys of subaiirial erosion 
 that have recently undergone subsidence. It is highly probable, even in 
 this case, that the valleys were originally formed by fresh-water denuda- 
 tion, and that they have been depressed, but their features have been 
 modified by the action of ice. 
 
 Rivers mid Rioer-Pluins. — At the present time a question of much 
 interest is the antiquity of existing land-areas, and some light may be 
 thrown upon this, if the relations of existing river-basins to those of past 
 times can be determined. If a stream cuts its way through a high range, 
 it is probable that the stream is of greater antiquity than the range, and 
 either once ran at an elevation higher than the crest of the ridge now 
 traversed, or else has cut its way through the range gradually during the 
 slow elevation of the latter. Where a river traverses a great alluvial 
 plain, it may fairly be inferred that a long time has been occupied in the 
 accumulation of the deposits to form the plain; but it remains to be seen 
 whether those deposits are not partly marine or lacustrine. If upheaval 
 has taken place over any portion of the plain, or if the river has cut its 
 bed deeper, sections may be exposed, and these should always be ex- 
 amined for fossil remains. Bones of extinct animals are not unfreqiiently 
 found in such deposits. 
 
 Lakes. — The mode of origin of lakes is always a subject of considerable 
 geological interest. Some lakes occupy areas of depression; others 
 valleys of erosion, the drainage from which has been stopped by local 
 elevation, by land-slips, or by deposits from tributaries, whilst very 
 many, and amongst them some of great size and depth, occur in 
 regions that have been covered by ice; and it is still a moot point 
 how far these lakes are due to partial changes in the elevation 
 of the country, some observers having adopted, while others dispute 
 the views of the late Sir A. Eamsay, who believed all these hollows to 
 have been scooped out by ice moving over the surface in the form of 
 a glacier or of an ice-sheet. Of the smaller lakes, some are dammed
 
 390 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 up by landslips, some by glacial moraines, and a few occupy volcanic 
 craters. 
 
 Evidence of Qlacial Action, — Closely connected with the subject of 
 lakes is that of glacial evidence generally. There is pro\)ably no geo- 
 logical 'qi;cstion which has produced more si^eculation of late years than 
 the inquiry into the traces of a comi:)aratively recent cold period in the 
 eartli's his-tory. Chisely connected with this inquiry is the equally im- 
 portant question as to the former occurrence of similar glacial epochs at 
 regular or irregular intervals of geological time. 
 
 The evidence of the last glacial epoch may be traced in two ways — 
 by the form of the surface, which has been modified by the action of 
 ice, and by changes that have taken place in tlie fauna and flora of the 
 coimtry in consequence of the alteration in the climate. The effects of an 
 ice-sheet, like that now occurring in Greenland, if such formerly existed 
 in comparatively low latitudes, miast have been to round off, score and 
 polish the rocks of the country in a peculiar manner, easily recog- 
 nised by those familiar with glaciated areas.* Glaciers, properly so 
 called, are confined to hilly or mountainous countries, and the valleys 
 formerly occupied by them retain more or less the form of the letter U 
 instead of taking the shape of the letter V, as they do when they have 
 been cut out by running water. The sides of the valley, when modified 
 by a glacier, have a tendency to assume the form of slopes unbroken 
 by ravines, and with all ridges planed away or rounded, whilst in ordinary 
 valleys of erosion by water, the sides consist of a series of side valleys or 
 ravines, divided from each other by sharp ridges running down to the 
 main valley. Large and small masses of rock, preserving to a considerable 
 exteut an angular form, but frequently polished and grooved by being 
 ground against the sides or bottom of the valley, are carried down by the 
 ice, and either left behind, perched ujihigh on the slopes of the valley, or 
 accumulated in a vast heap or bank, known as a terminal moraine, at the 
 spot where the ice has terminated. The nature of the rock will usually 
 show whether the fragments on the side of a hill or at the bottom of a 
 valley are derived from the higher parts of the drainage area, or whether 
 
 * Care should be taken that the peculiar scoring and grooving of rock surfaces 
 produced by the action of sand transported by the wind be not mistaken for 
 glacial evidence.
 
 GEOLOGY. 391 
 
 they have merely fallen down from the neighbouring slopes. In the latter 
 ease, they may be due to landslips ; in the former, their shape and the 
 erosion they have undergone will aid in showing whether they have been 
 transported by water or ice. 
 
 The surfaces that have been modified by earlier glacial epochs must 
 in general have been long since removed by other denuding agencies. 
 The most important evidence of former ice action consists in the 
 occurrence, embedded in fine sediment, of large boulders, occasionally 
 preserving marks of polish and striation, and usually, though not always, 
 angular. 
 
 It is well to scarcli in all mountain ranges for traces of glacial 
 action. In many mountain chains, even in comparatively low latitudes, 
 proofs have been found of the existence of glaciers, at a much lower level 
 than at present, dating from a comparatively recent geological period, 
 whilst in other mountain regions none have been recognised. The qiies- 
 tion also whether glacial action has been contemporaneous in the two 
 hemispheres is of the greatest importance, and the evidence hitherto 
 adduced is of a very conflicting character. 
 
 Deserts. — The great sandy or salt plains, with a more or less barren 
 surface, that occupy a large area in the interior of several continents, have 
 only of late years received due attention from geologists. A great thick- 
 ness of dejjosits must occur in many of thesj vast, nearly level, tracts, for 
 the underlying rocks are often completely concealed over immense areas. 
 The investigation of the deposits is frequently a matter of great difficulty 
 for want of sections ; but, where practicable, a careful examination should 
 1)0 made, and exact descriptions of the furmations exposed recorded. 
 Some, at all events, of these beds appear to be entirely deposited from the 
 air, and consist of the decomposed surfaces of rocks and the sand and 
 silt from stream deposits, carried iip by wind and then redeposited on the 
 surface of the country. Such deposits are very fine, formed of well- 
 rounded grains, and, as a rule, destitute of stratification. The geologist 
 who has especially described these formations. Baron F. von Eichthofen, 
 in his work on China, attributes to the loess of the Rhine and Danube 
 valleys a similar origin. It is usual to find beds due to water-action, 
 rain- wash and steam-deposits, interstratified with the subacrial accumu- 
 lations. Further observations on these formations are desirab'e. The 
 occurrence of blown sands, the origin of these accumulations, and the
 
 392 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 peculiar ridges they assume, usually at right angles, but in some remark- 
 able cases parallel to the prevailing winds, are questions deserving of 
 additional elucidation. 
 
 Early TKsitory of Man in Tropical Climates. — Very little has been dis- 
 covered as to the races of men formerly inhabiting tropical regions. It is 
 evident that a race unacquainted with fire could only have existed in a 
 country where suitable food was procurable throughout the year, and 
 this mu.st have been in a region possessing a climate like that found in 
 parts of the tropics at the present day. It is possible that an investi- 
 gation of the cave deposits in the troi^ics may throw some light on this 
 subject. " Kitchen middens," as they are termed — the mounds that have 
 once been the refuse heaps of human habitations — arc also worthy of 
 careful examination. 
 
 Permanence of Ocean-Basins. — Witliin the last few years some geologists 
 have adopted the theory that all the deep-sea area has been the same 
 from the earliest geological times, and that the distinction between the 
 depressions occupied by the oceans and the remaining undepressed portion 
 of the earth's crust, constituting the continents and the shallow seas around 
 their coasts, is permanent. This view is very far from being universally 
 or even generally accepted amongst geologists, although many who 
 hesitate to accept the theory as a whole admit that parts of the oceans 
 have in all probability been deep basins since the earth's crust was first 
 consolidated. 
 
 The argument on both sides depends upon theories to which travellers 
 can contribute but little except by observations on the geology, fauna, 
 and flora of oceanic islands, and by the investigation of coral-reefs and 
 especially of atolls. In ranges of hills or moiintains near the coasts both 
 of 'continents and islands and in all tracts where evidence of recent 
 elevation exists, search should be made for deep-sea deposits. These are 
 fine calcareous or argillaceous beds, often containing small Foraminifera 
 or Radiolaria, which, however, are generally extremely minute, and 
 require microscopical examination for detection. If any beds of con- 
 solidated calcareous ooze or especially if red or grey clay be found 
 associated with pelagic deposits, such as coral limestone, a few small 
 fragments of such beds should always be brought away for examination, 
 and any distinct fossil remains found in sunk beds, such as echinoderms 
 (sea-urchins or star-fishes) or sharks' teeth, should be carefiilly preserved
 
 GEOLOGY. 393 
 
 with some of tlie matrix. Deep-sea dei^osits have recently been discovered 
 in several parts of the world, for instance, the West Indies, the Solomon 
 Islands, and the islands of Torres Straits. 
 
 Atolls or Coral-Islands. — The remarkable coral islands of the Pacific and 
 Indian oceans consist usually of an irregular ring, part or the whole of 
 which is a few feet above the sea, and which encircles an inner lagoon of 
 no great depth in general. The outer margin of the reef aroimd each 
 island slopes rapidly, sometimes precipitately, to a depth of, usually, 
 several hundred fathoms. Darwin, taking these facts into consideration, 
 together with the circumstance that no coral reefs are known to be 
 formed at a greater depth than about 15 to 20 fathoms, showed that all the 
 facts of the case conld be explained by the theory that coral-islands were 
 formed in areas of subsidence. This view was generally accepted until 
 lately, when Mr. Miirray and other writers liave brought forward evidence 
 in favour of coral-islands being founded on shoals that may be areas 
 of elevation. 
 
 The only crucial test of depression would be a series of borings through 
 the coral limestone of a typical atoll to a depth of 300 or 400 feet. 
 Prof. J. D. Dana has shown that coral rock has been found at a 
 depth of more than 800 feet in borings near Honolulu in the Sandwich 
 Islands; but the case is not typical, and tlie cores from the borings did 
 not receive a sufficiently thorough examination to prove their origin as 
 reef- coral. Fresh observations on the limits of depth to which reof- 
 forming corals are confined would be valuable. Meantime any additional 
 details would be useful, such as careful soundings around atolls, so as to 
 give an accurate profile of the sea-bottom in the neighbourhood.
 
 394 TITNTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 MEMORANDUM ON GLACIER OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 hxned hy tJic Committee of the Alpine Chih. 
 
 The recent movements of glaciers may be noted by the following 
 signs : — 
 
 When the ice is advanciu?;, the glaciers generally have a more convex 
 outline, the icefalls are more broken into towers and spires, ayd piles of 
 fresh rubbish arc found shot over the grass of the lower moraines. 
 Moraines which have been comparatively recently deposited by advancing 
 ice are disturbed, show cracks, and are obviously being pushed forward 
 or aside by the glacier. 
 
 When the ice is in retreat, the marks of its further recent extension are 
 seen fringing the glacier both at the end and sides in their lower portions, 
 the glacier fails to fill its former bed, and bare stony tracts, often inter- 
 spersed with pools or lakelets, lie between the end of the glacier and the 
 mounds of recent terminal moraines. 
 
 Where a glacier has retreated to any considerable extent, careful ob- 
 servations of the form of its bed are of value. What is the natiire of the 
 rock surfaces exposed — convex or concave; are they rubbed smooth on 
 their leesides ; how far have the contours of the cliffs or slopes, or the 
 sides of any gorge, been modified where they have been subjected to ice- 
 friction? Is there any evidence that the ice has flowed over large 
 boulders, or loose soils, such as gravel, without disturbing them ? How 
 has it affected rocks of different hardness, for instance, veins of quartz in 
 a less hard rock ? Generally, do the appearances indicate that the glacier 
 has excavated, or only abraded and polished its bed ; that it has scooped 
 out new rock-basins, or only cleaned out, scratched, and preserved from 
 filling-up by alluvial deposits or earthslips, existing basins ? What is the 
 general character of the valley bottom and slopes above and below the 
 mo.st conspicuous ancient moraines ? 
 
 The depth of mountain lakes and the position of the point of greatest 
 depth should be ascertained wherever possible. The marginal rock 
 structure of lake basins, particularly near their outlet, is of some im- 
 portance with a view to ascertaining whether they are true rock basins,
 
 MEMORANDUM ON GLACIEE OBSERVATIONS. 395 
 
 or whether they are reservoirs formed by ancient moraines, earthslips, or 
 alluvial deposits. 
 
 The traveller or surveyor should, if possible, paint a mark and date on 
 any conspicuous rock in situ parallel with the termination of the glacier 
 at the time of his visit, marking the distance in yards of the ice from it. 
 The next visitor -will then be able to measure the movement that has 
 taken ])lace since his predecessor's visit. Leaving out of question elabo- 
 rate trigonometrical methods, such, for instance, as have been carried 
 out on the Ehone Glacier in Switzerland, the following plan gives very 
 valuable results, and demands no other instruments than a small jar of 
 paint, a brush, a measuring tape, and a pocket compass. To ascertain 
 the recent retreat of a glacier, measure the distance from the end of the 
 ice in front of the longitudinal axis of the glacier to the most advanced 
 terminal moraine, where vegetation first shows itself. The bare ground 
 recently left by glaciers is easily recognisable. The diminution of volume 
 is best measured by ascertaining the height of bare soil left on the sides 
 of the lateral moraines in the portion of the glacier within the zone of 
 vegetation. All photogi-aphic representations of the glacier end, and of 
 the ground which has been freed from the glacier ice, are of great value. 
 Those will be of most service that show the position of the glacier-snout 
 with relation to some conspicuous rock or other feature in the local 
 scenery. Each photograph should' be dated, and the bearings and 
 distance of the camera with reference to any such feature accurately 
 noted. 
 
 It is very important to investigate the state of various glaciers as regards 
 advance or retreat. Neighbouring glaciers often furnish very different 
 results in this respect, owing to the fact that steep glaciers anticipate in 
 their oscillations those the beds of which are less inclined. To ascertain the 
 oscillations of glaciers, it is necessary to fix the actual position of the ice- 
 snout at the end of the glacier with the greatest accuracy. Two methods 
 can be employed for this purpose, either of which may be selected accord- 
 ing to circumstances. 
 
 Paint some signs on large bouUlers, not too far from the end of the 
 glacier, and measure their distance from it by a taps (Richter's system), 
 or build a low wall of stones of a few yards in length, and, .say 15 to 20 
 inches in height, some distance from the ice-end, and measure this distance 
 (Gossefs .system). It is to be recommended that the stones of these walls
 
 396 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 should also be painted. If the traveller himself returns after some interval 
 — even after only two or three weeks — he will be able to judge of the 
 movement of the glacier, and he will have laid down a basis for further 
 observations by future travellers. 
 
 One of the results most to be desired is an exact knowledge of the 
 dates : 
 
 I. Of the maximum extension of the ice. 
 II. Of the commencement of retreat, 
 
 III. Of the minimum. 
 
 IV. Of the commencement of fresh increase. 
 
 In dealing with a mountain group, therefore, the traveller should note 
 (where he can get the information as to the past) the date of the commence- 
 ment of the actual movement of each glacier, and in all cases whether the 
 ice is ill advance, or retreat, or stationary. Of course the rate of forward 
 movement, or velocity of the ice, and the oscillations in the extension of 
 the ice must be kept carefully distinct. 
 
 Should time and circumstances permit, a series of observations of the 
 velocity of the ice is of value. These may be made after Tyndall's method, 
 by planting a line of sticks across the glacier, or by painting marks 
 on boulders, the position of which relatively to ascertained points on the 
 mountain-side has been accurately fixed. The size of the glacier, that is, 
 the area of its basin and its length, as well as the slope of its bed above, 
 as well as at the point measured, should be noted. The rate of movement 
 of the ice appears to be connected both with the volume of the glacier 
 and the inclination of its bed.
 
 ( 397 ) 
 
 VIII. 
 
 NATUEAL HISTORY. 
 
 By H. W. Bates, f.e.s. 
 
 Revised by P. L. Scla.tek, f.k.s. 
 
 In the present state of biological science, travellers wlio intend to devote 
 themselves specially to the zoological or botanical investigation of new 
 or little-known countries, require to be trained for the work beforehand, 
 and will be necessarily well-informed as to methods and appliances. It 
 is not for them that these ' Hints ' are drawn iip, but for general travellers 
 and explorers, who, whilst engaged chiefly in survey, wish to know how 
 best to profit by their opportunities of benefiting science by collecting 
 exami^les of new or rare species, and how to preserve and safely 
 transmit their specimens. The observations refer only to explorations by 
 land. 
 
 Outfit* — A double-barrel gxm ; for large aquatic birds, &c., a breech- 
 loader to be preferred, and wire cartridges. For Central Africa, and 
 regions where large mammals are found, a more powerful weapon is 
 also required. Mr. Thomson took with him on his Masai Land expedition 
 a breech-loading 8-gauge elephant gun, double- barrel, smooth bore, and 
 weighing about 11 lbs., and fitted with a thick Silver's patent anti-recoil 
 heel-plate ; with its leather cover, powder measure, bullet-fixer and 
 mould, &c. 
 
 If percussion-cap guns are used, fine powder in canisters, and fine shot, 
 must be taken from England ; coarse powder and shot can be had at any 
 
 * Implements, &c., for collecting and preserving birds, insects, &c., can be 
 obtained of Mr. Janson, 44, Great Kussell Street, W.C, or Messrs. Watkins 
 and Doncaster, 36, Strand, W.C. ; for the larger animals, as well as other articles 
 of general travelling outfit, of Messrs. Silver and Co., 67, Cornhill, and Old 
 Bond Street, W.
 
 398 TirNTS TO TRAVELLERP. 
 
 trading settlement. A good snpjily of the best caps and a few spare 
 nipples should be taken, as also the following articles : — 
 
 Arsenical soap in tin boxes; brushes of different sizes for applying 
 the same ; a small supply of carbolic acid, and a few insect " killing 
 bottles:"* Bottle of rangoou oil. Scalpels, scissors (including a pair 
 of short-bladed ones), needles and thread. Long straight forceps 
 (similar in form to curling irons), very useful for inserting cotton 
 into the necks of bird-skins, to avoid stretching them ; of two or three 
 sizes. Bone nippers and screw-driver. 
 
 A few small traps, with which to caj^ture small (mostly nocturnal) mam- 
 mals. The " Excelsior " and "Premier" traps, always set and baited, 
 are recommended, as they capture small mammals without injuring 
 them. For spring traps the " American wire-trap " is to l)e preferred, as 
 they are very light and of different sizes, and a large number weigh little 
 and occupy small space. 
 
 Stone jars for reptiles and fishes in spirit ; to fit four in a box, with 
 wooden partitions. If animals in spirit are to be collected largely, the 
 tin collecting-case described further on, and a supply of sheet-tin or zinc, 
 with a pair of soldering-irons and a sufficient quantity of soft solder, must 
 be taken instead of, or in addition to, stone jars. Cylindrical cases can 
 then be made of any size required. By means of the soldering apparatus 
 also empty powder-canisters, and other tin vessels, can be easily converted 
 into receptacles for specimens. 
 
 A short landing-net for water-molluscs and other small aquatic animals. 
 A stout hoop-net (the stick 4 or 5 feet long crossing the hoop) for cap- 
 turing insects on the wing and for sweeping herbage for Coleoptera, &c. ; 
 a few yards of silk gauze for nets in reserve. 
 
 * These bottles are for collecting all kinds of hard-bodied insects on an 
 excursion, and should be of a size to fit the pocket, strong, and with broad 
 mouths. The insecticide paste adhering to the bottom can be easily made by the 
 traveller. A pellet of cyanide of potassium (the size of a pea) must be dissolved 
 in water in the bottle, and suflioieut powdered pla&ter of Paris mixed with it 
 until the water is absorbed, when the whole sliould be pressed down into a hard cake 
 an inch iu thickness. A simpler plan is, a pellet of cyanide wrapped in paper 
 placed in the bottle half full of coarse-grained sawdust ; at a pinch, a small 
 quantity of spirits in the bottle will do; but the insects must on no account oe 
 left more than a day or two in the spirit.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 399 
 
 A supply of triaugular i^aper envelopes for Lepidoptera, &c. Boxes 
 of light wood of various sizes (about the size of cigar-boxes) for 
 storing and packing specimens. Tin boxes may be used in very damp 
 climates, provided the contents are well dried before storing; and the 
 general outfit of an expedition may be much lightened by having all the 
 provisions, and otlier consumable articles, packed in tin cases, and in 
 boxes and jars of such forms as may render them available for containing 
 specimens. 
 
 As a preservative against the attacks of insect vermin, a su^jply of 
 " Papier Preservateur " will be found most useful. Each box should be 
 wrapped in a sheet of this paper. 
 
 In humid tropical countries, where the ubiquitous ants are likely tO' 
 destroy specimens before they are ready to be jmcked away, drying-cages, 
 suspended from the roof of a hut or tent, are absolutely necessary. These 
 can be readily made from old packing-cases, but a few square feet of wire 
 gauze must be provided for the back and front of the cages, and the cord 
 by which they are suspended must be threaded through a small calabash 
 containing oil, to prevent ants from descending from the roof. The 
 cages may be so arranged as be taken to pieces and put together again 
 readily ; one, for birds, should be about 2 feet 6 inches long by 1 foot 
 6 inches high and 1 foot broad ; the other, for insects and other small 
 specimens, may be about one-third less. They should have folding doors 
 in front, with panels of wire giiuze, and the backs wholly of the latter 
 material; the sides fitted with racks to hold six or eight plain shelves,, 
 which in the smaller cage should be covered with cork, or any soft wood 
 that may be obtained in tropical countries. A strong ring fixed in the 
 top of the cage, with a cord having a hook attached at the end by which 
 to hang it in an airy place, will keep the contained specimens out of 
 harm's way until they are quite dry, when they may be stowed away in 
 their close-fitting boxes. 
 
 A few yards of india-rubber waterjiroof sheeting, as temporary coveriu"- 
 to collections in wet weather, or in crossing rivers. 
 
 A set of carpenter's tools for making boxes and packing-cases. 
 
 Where and lohat to collect. — The countries w^hich are now the least 
 known with regard to their natural history, are New Guinea and the 
 large islands to the east of it, Northern Australia, the interior of Borneo, 
 Tibet, Indo-Ohina, and other parts of Central Asia, Equatorial Africa,-
 
 400 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 and tlie eastern slopes of tlie Andes, from Bogota to Bolivia. A 
 special interest attaches to the indigenous productions of oceanic 
 islands, i.e. islands separated by a deep sea from any large tract 
 of land. Those who have opportunities could not fail to make in- 
 teresting discoveries by collecting specimens of the smaller animals 
 (insects, moUuscs, &c.) and plants in these isolated localities. Both in 
 continental countries and on islands the truly indigenous species ■will 
 have to be sought for on hills and in the remote parts, where they are more 
 likely to have escaped extermination by settlers and the domestic animals 
 introduced by them. In most of the better-known countries the botany 
 has been better investigated than tlie zoology, and in all there still remains 
 much to be done in ascertaining the exact station, and the range, both 
 vertical and horizontal, of known species of animals and plants. This 
 leads us to one point, which cannot be too strongly insisted on, namely, 
 that some effective means should be adopted by the traveller to record the 
 exact locality and date of every specimen he collects. AVith regard to the 
 larger dried animals this may be done by written tickets attached to 
 the sjjecimens ; if insects are pinned, a ticket may be fixed on the pins ; 
 and if packed unpinned in boxes, all taken in one place should be laid to- 
 gether, and a common label placed with them. When all the 
 specimens taken at one place can be put into a separate box, one memo- 
 randum upon the box itself will be sufficient. Keptiles and fishes should 
 have small parchment tickets attached to them before they are placed in 
 spirits, and the writing on them should be in pencil, not in ink. In 
 mountainous countries, the approximate height above the sea should be 
 noted, 
 
 A traveller may be puzzled, in the midst of the profusion of animal 
 and vegetable forms which he sees around him, to know what to secure 
 and what to leave. Books can be of little service to him on a journey, 
 and he had better at once abandon all idea of encumbering himself with 
 them. A few days' study at the principal museums before he starts on 
 his voyage may teach him a great deal, and the cultivation of a habit of 
 close observation and minute comparison of the specimens he obtains will 
 teach him a great deal more. As a general rule, all specimens which he 
 may meet with for the first time far in the interior should be preferred to 
 those common near the civilised jjarts, and he should bear in mind that 
 the few handsome kinds which attract the attention of the natives and are
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 401 
 
 offered for sale to strangers are almost sure to be of species well known i)i 
 European museums. He should strive to obtain as much variety as pos- 
 sible, and not fill his boxes and jars with quantities of specimens of one 
 or a few s])ecies. But as some of the rarest and most interesting species 
 have great resemblance to others which may be more common, he should 
 avail himself of every opportunity of comparing the objects side by 
 side. In most countries, as already remarked, the truly indigenous, and 
 often the rarest, species are to be found only in the mountains at con- 
 siderable elevations and in the primitive forests, the products of cultivated 
 districts being nearly all widely distributed and well known. In botany 
 a traveller, if obliged to restrict his collecting, might confine himself to 
 those plants which are remarkable for their economical ixses; always 
 taking care to identify the flowers of the tree or shrub whose root, bark, 
 leaves, wood, &c., are used by the natives, and preserving a few specimens 
 of them. But if he has the good fortune to ascend any high mountain 
 not previously explored, he should make as complete a collection of the 
 flowering plants as possible, at the higher elevations. The same may be 
 said of insects found on mountains, where they occur in great diversity — 
 on the shady and cold sides rather than on the sunny slopes— under 
 stones, and about the roots of herbage, esi^ecially near springs, on shrubs 
 and low trees, and so forth; for upon a knowledge of the plants and 
 insects of mountain ranges depend many curious questions regarding the 
 geographical distribution of forms over the earth. In reptiles, the smaller 
 Batrachians (frogs, salamanders, &c.) should not be neglected, especially 
 the extremely numerous family of tree-frogs; lizards may be caught gene- 
 rally with the insect sweeping-net ; the arboreal, or rock haunting species 
 seen out of reach, and the swift-running forms that inhabit sandy plains 
 may be brought down with a charge of dust-shot. Snakes should be taken 
 without injuring the head, which is the most important part of the body : 
 a cleft stick may be used in securing them by the neck, or they may be 
 shot, and on reaching camp they may be dropped into the jars of spirits. 
 As large a collection as possible should be made of the smaller fishes and 
 tortoises of lakes and rivers. 
 
 Mainmah and Birds. — An ordinary geographical expedition will hardly 
 have the means at its disposal for bringing home many specimens of the 
 larger animals. But many species in regions visited only by adventurous 
 explorers are still desiderata in the large museums of Europe; and 
 
 2 E
 
 402 HINTS TO THAVELL?]R8. 
 
 additional specimens of all genera of which tliere are numerous closely- 
 allied species {e.(j. rodents, antelope, deer, &c.), and of all the small 
 nocturnal mammals would be welcome to zoologists. If only portions 
 can be obtained, skulls with horns attached are to be preferred. In humid 
 tropica-l regions entire skins cannot be dried in time to prevent decay, 
 and it is necessary to place them rolled up in a small compass, in spirits. 
 The smaller birds shot on an excursion should be carried to camp in the 
 game-bag, folded in paper, the wounds, mouth and anus being first 
 plugged with cotton. Powdered calcined gypsum will here be found 
 very useful in absorbing blood from feathers, on account of the facility 
 with which it can be afterwards cleared from the specimens. Dull- 
 coloured and small birds are most likely to be new or interesting. 
 
 Immediately after killing a small mammal or bird, make a note of the 
 colour of its eyes and soft parts, and, if time admits, of the dimen.sions of 
 its trunk and limbs. It facilitates skinning of birds to break, before com- 
 mencing, the first bone of the wings a short distance above the joint, which 
 causes the members to lie open when the specimen is laid on its back on 
 the skinning-board. The animal should be laid with its tail towards the 
 right hand of the operator, and the incision made from the breast-bone 
 nearly to the anus. A blunt wooden style is useful in commencing the 
 operation of separating the skin from the flesh. When the leg is reached, 
 cut through the knee-joint and then clear the flesh from the shank as far 
 as can be done, afterwards washing the bone slightly with arsenical soap, 
 winding a thin strip of cotton round it, and returning it to the skin. 
 Repeat the process with the other leg, and then sever, with the broad- 
 bladed scissors, the s\)me above the root of the tail. By carefully cutting 
 into the flesh from above, the spine is finally severed without injuring the 
 slcin of the back, and it is then easy to continue the skinning up to the 
 wings, when the bones are cut through at the place where they had pre- 
 viously been broken, and the body finished as far as the commencement 
 of the skull. A small jiiece of the skull is now cut away, together with 
 the neck and body, and the brains and eyes scooped out, the inside washed 
 with the soap, and clean cotton filled in, the eyes especially being made 
 plump. lu large-headed parrots, woodpeckers, and some other birds, the 
 head cannot thus be cleaned ; au incision has, therefore, to be made either 
 on one side or ou the top of the head, through which the back of the skull 
 can be thrust a little away and then cleansed, the incision being after-
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, 403 
 
 wards closed by two or three stitches. The bones then remaining in each 
 wing must be cleaned, which must be done without loosening the quill- 
 feathers. It is much better to take out the flesh by making an incision 
 on the outside of the skin along the flesh on the inner side of the wing. 
 The inside of the skin must now be washed with the soap, and a neck of 
 cotton (not too thick) inserted by means of the long narrow forcej^s, 
 taking care to fix the end well inside the skull, and withdrawing the 
 empty forcejDS without stretching the skin of the neck, and thus dis- 
 torting the shape of the bird. Skins need not be altogether filled up with 
 cotton or any other material, but laid, with the feathers smoothed down, 
 on the boards of the drying-cage until they are ready to be packed in 
 boxes. Each skin should be kept in a separate roll of brown pajDer, and 
 store boxes should be lined with brown paper, which is avoided by insects. 
 In very humid climates, like that of Tropical America, oxide of arsenic in 
 powder is preferable to arsenical soaj), on account of the skins drying 
 more quickly; but it cannot be recommended to the general traveller, 
 owing to the danger attending its use.* 
 
 In mammals the tail offers some difficulty to a beginner. To skin it, the 
 root (after being severed from the spine) should be secured by a piece of 
 strong twine, which should then be attached to a nail or beam ; with two 
 pieces of flat wood (one placed on each side of the naked root), held firmly 
 by the hand and pulled downwards, the skin is made rapidly to give way 
 generally to the tip. The tails of some animals, however, can be skinned 
 only by incisions made down the middle from the outside. The larger 
 mammal skins may be inverted, and, after washing with the soap, dried in 
 the sun; as before remarked, it is often necessary to roll them up and 
 preserve them in spirit. 
 
 The skins of small mammals and birds, after they are (luite dry, may be 
 packed in boxes, which must be previously well washed inside with 
 arsenical soap, lined with paper, and again covered with a coating of the 
 soap and well dried in the sun. This is the very best means of securing 
 the specimens from the attacks of noxious insects, which often, to the 
 
 * For further information about collecting bh-ds, formula for making arsenical 
 soap, &C., we may refer the traveller to Hume's ' Collector's Vade Mecum ' 
 (Quaritcb, London. Price 2«.), and ' Directions for Collecting Biids,' issued by 
 the Smithsonian Institution, AVashingtoii, 1891-92. 
 
 2 E 2
 
 404 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 great disgust of the traveller, destroy what he has taken much pains to 
 procure. Wlien -wood is scarce, as in the interior of Africa, l)Oxcs may be 
 made of the skins of antelopes or other large animals Tiy stretching them, 
 when newly stripped from the animal, over a square framework of sticks, 
 and sewing up the edges: after being dried in the sun they make excellent 
 packing-cases. 
 
 Preserving Mammah, &c., in AIcoJiol. — In the interests of science the 
 preservation, in alcohol, of mammals, as well as of reptiles, fishes and 
 Crustacea, is to be preferred, and the traveller is earnestly recommended 
 
 General Collecting-Case. 
 
 fo adopt this plan, especially with regard to the smaller specimens, dried 
 skins of which are almost useless for scientific purposes. On this subject 
 Dr. G. E. Dobson sends us the following ' Hints * :• — 
 
 The general collecting case should be made of strong block tin, rect- 
 angular in form, about 2 feet x 1 foot x 1 foot 8 inches in height, having in 
 the top a circixlar aperture from 6 to 8 inches in diameter, closed by a 
 well-fitting brass-screw cap, the flange of which is made air-tight by a 
 well-greased leather collar. This should fit accurately into a similarly 
 shaped box of inch boards, having a simple flat lid (not projecting beyond 
 the sides), secured by eight long screws, and provided with a strong iron
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 40o 
 
 handle. This case should be filled with the strongest methylated spirits 
 procurable (in foreign countries over-proof rum, brandy, or arrack will 
 suit equally well). If circumstances admit, two or more such cases 
 should be taken, or four wide-mouthed earthenware jars placed in a 
 square wooden case and seijarated by light wooden partitions, having 
 their mouths closed by well-fitting bungs tied down with bladder and 
 skin. On arrival at the collecting station one of the jars should be half 
 filled with spirit from the tin case. Into this each specimen, as it is 
 obtained, having a long slit made in the side of the abdomen, should be 
 put, and allowed to remain 24 hours before being transferred to the 
 general collecting case. When the latter can hold no more, the specimens 
 should be removed one by one and packed in the moist state in the other 
 wide-mouthed jars, one above the other, like herrings in a cask, each 
 rolled in a piece of thin cotton cloth, in which a label, having the locality 
 and date written in pencil, should be placed. When the jar has been thus 
 filled to the mouth a glass or two of the strong spirit (kept in reserve) 
 should be poured in so as to fill up interstices, but not to appear on the 
 surface, which should be covered with a thick layer of cotton-wool. A 
 few drops of carbolic acid, if the spirit be weak, will greatly aid its preserv- 
 ing powers. The bung should then be replaced, secured round the margin 
 outside with a mixture of tallow and wax, and tied down securely with 
 bladder or skin, and the name of the collector and district written legibly 
 'outside. The jar is now ready for transmission to any distance, for 
 specimens thus treated will keep good in the vapour alone of strong spirit 
 for months. Other jars may be filled in like manner, and, finally, the 
 general collecting case. Incisions should invariably be made in the sides 
 (not in the centre line) of all animals, so as to allow the spirit to enter, 
 and no part of the intestines should be removed. In the case of tortoises 
 the opening may be made in the soft parts round the thighs ; if this be 
 not done the body soon becomes distended with gases. Froris should 
 always be first placed in weak spirit, and after being soaked for one or two 
 days, be removed to strong alcohol. Crabs should be rolled up alive in 
 thin cotton-cloths, secured by thread tied round ; they are then readily 
 killed by immersion in alcohol; if this be not done they lose many 
 of their limbs in their dying struggles. 
 
 Preparation of iSkehions of Animals, — In many cases it will be found 
 impossible to preserve the whole animal, especially if of large size, but it
 
 406 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 may advantageously be converted into a skeleton by attention to the 
 following directions of Sir W. H. Flower, f.r.s. : — 
 
 If the animal is of small size — say not larger than a fox — ^take off the 
 skin except from the feet below the wrist and ankle joints. If it is 
 intended to preserve the skin as a zoological specimen as well as the 
 skeleton, the bones of the feet should all be left in tlie skin ; they can be 
 easily extracted afterwards, and will be preserved much more safely in 
 their natural covering. Remove all the contents of the abdominal and 
 thoracic cavities ; also the larynx, gullet, and tongue. In doing this be 
 careful to leave attached to the base of the skull the chain of bones which 
 supports the root of the tongue. These may either be left in connection 
 with the skull, or cleaned separately and tied to the skeleton. Then 
 clear away, with the aid of a knife, as much as possible of the flesh from 
 the head, body, and limbs, without cutting or scraping the bones, or 
 separating them from each other. At any intervals that may be neces- 
 sary during this process it will be desirable, if practicable, to leave the 
 body in water, so as to wash away as much of the blood as possible from 
 the bones, and a few days' soaking in water frequently changed will be 
 an advantage. 
 
 The body, with all the bones held in connection by their ligaments, 
 should then be hung up to dry in a place where there is a free current of 
 air, and out of the way of attacks from animals of prey. Before they get 
 hard the limbs may be folded by the side of the body in the most con- 
 venient position, or they may be detached and placed inside the 
 trunk. 
 
 When thoroughly dry the skeletons may be packed in boxes with any 
 convenient light packing material between them. Each should be well 
 wrapped in a separate piece of paper or canvas, as sometimes insects will 
 attack the ligamentary structures and allow the bones to come apart. 
 
 If it can be avoided, skeletons should never be packed up so long as 
 any moisture remains in them, as otherwise decomposition will go on in 
 the still adhering soft parts, and cause an unpleasant smell. 
 
 If the animal is of larger size, it will be most convenient to take it 
 partially to pieces before or during the cleaning. The head may be 
 separated from the neck, the vertebral column divided into two or more 
 pieces, and the limbs detached from the trunk ; but in no case should 
 the small bones of the feet be separated from one another. The parts
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 407 
 
 should then be treated as above described, and all packed together iu a 
 
 canvas bag. 
 In the cetacea (porpoises, &c.), look for two small bones suspended in 
 
 the flesh, just below the vertebral column, at the junction of the lumbar 
 
 and caudal regions (marked externally by the anal aperture). They 
 
 are the only rudiments of the pelvis, and should always be preserved with 
 
 the skeleton. 
 
 If there is no opportunity of preserving and transporting entire 
 
 skeletons, the skulls alone may be Icept. They should be treated as 
 
 above described, picked nearly clean, the brain being scooped out through 
 
 the foramen magnum, soaked for a few days in water, and dried. 
 
 Every specimen should be carefully labelled with the scientific and 
 
 popular name of the animal, if known, and at all events, with the sex, the 
 
 exact locality at which it was procured, and the date. 
 
 For the i^urpose of making entire skeletons, select, if jDossible, adult 
 
 animals ; but the skulls of animals of all ages may be advantageously 
 
 collected. 
 
 Collectors of skins should always leave the skull intact. The common 
 
 practice of destroying its hinder part for the purpose of getting out the 
 
 brain is unnecessary, and greatly diminishes the value of the specimens. 
 Reptiles and Fishes. — -The following ' hints ' have been communicated 
 
 by Mr. Osbert Salvin, F.E.S., who collected these animals most successfully 
 
 in Guatemala : — ■ 
 
 Almost any spirit will answer for this purpose, its fitness consisting in 
 the amount of alcohol contained in it. In all cases it is best to procure 
 the strongest possible, being less bulky, and water can always be obtained 
 to rediTce the strength to the requisite amount. When the spirit sold 
 retail by the natives is not sufficiently strong, by visiting the distillery 
 the traveller can often obtain the first runnings (the strongest) of the 
 still, which will be stronger than he requires undiluted. The spirit used 
 should be reduced to about proof, and the traveller should always be 
 provided with an alcoholometer. If this is not at hand, a little practice 
 will enable him to ascertain the strength of the spirit from the rapidity 
 with which the btibbles break when rising to the surface of a small 
 quantity shaken in a bottle. When the spirit has been used this test is 
 of no value. When reptiles or fish are first immersed, it will be foitnd 
 that the spirit becomes rapidly weaker. Large specimens absorb the
 
 408 IITNTS TO TRAVELT-ERP, 
 
 alcohol vei'y speedily. The rapidity with which this ahsorption takes 
 place should be carefully watched, and in warm climates the liquid tested 
 at least every twelve hours, and fresh spirit added to restore it to its 
 . original strength. In colder climates it is not requisite to watch so 
 closely, but practice will show what attention is necessary. It will be 
 found that absorption of alcohol will be about proportionate to the rate 
 of decomposition. Spirit shoixld not be used too strong, as its effect is to 
 contract the outer surface, and thus, closing the pores, to prevent the 
 alcohol from penetrating through to the inner parts of the specimen. T/ie 
 principal point, then, is to ivatch that the strength of the spirit does not get 
 heIon> a certain p)oint luhile the specimen is absorbing alcohol when first put in. 
 It will be found that after two or three days the spirit retains its strength : 
 when this is the case, the specimen will be perfectly preserved. Spirit 
 should not be thrown away, no matter how often used, so long as the 
 traveller has a reserve of sufficient strength to bring it back to its requisite 
 strength. 
 
 In selecting specimens for immersion, regard must be had to the 
 means at the traveller's disposal. Fish tip to 9 inches long may be placed 
 in spirit, with simply a slit cut to allow tlie spirit to enter to the entrails. 
 With larger specimens, it is better to pass a long knife outside the ribs, so 
 as to separate the muscles on each side of the vertebrae. It is also as well 
 to remove as much food from the entrails as possible, taking care to leave 
 all these in. The larger specimens can be skinned, leaving, however, the 
 intestines in, and simply removing the flesh. Very large specimens pre- 
 served in this way absorb very little spirit. All half-digested food should 
 be removed from snakes and animals. In spite of these precautions, 
 specimens will often appear to be decomposing; but, by more constant 
 attention to re-strengthening the spirit, they will, in most cases, be 
 preserved. 
 
 A case (copper is the best), with a top that can be unscrewed and 
 refixed easily, should always be carried as a receptacle. The opening 
 should be large enough to allow the hand to be inserted ;■ this is to hold 
 freshly-caught specimens. When they have become preserved, they can 
 all be removed and soldered up in tin or zinc boxes. Zinc is best, as it 
 does not corrode so easily. The traveller will find it very convenient to 
 take lessons in soldering, and to be able to make his own boxes. If he 
 takes them ready made, they had best be arranged so as to fit one into
 
 NATUEAL HISTOEY. 409 
 
 another before they are filled. When moTing aboiit, all specimens should 
 be wrapped in calico or linen or other rags to prevent their rubbing one 
 against the other. This should also be done to the specimens in the 
 copper case when a move is necessary, as well as to those finally packed 
 for transmission to Europe. These last should have all the interstices 
 between the specimens filled in with cotton-wool or rags. If a leak should 
 occur in a case, specimens thus packed will still be maintained moist, and 
 will keep some time witliout much injury. Proof spirit should be used 
 when the specimens are finally packed, but it is not necessary that it 
 should be fresh, 
 
 Land and Freshwater MoIIusca* By LiEUT.-CoL. H. H. Godwin-Austen, 
 F.E.s. — Always most abundant on limestone rocks. Search for under the 
 larger stones lying about the ground, and under fallen trees and logs in the 
 woods and forests. Will be generally found adhering to the surface of the 
 stone or wood. Many species are often only 005 inch in length, so that 
 very close examination is necessary. In damp sjDots, generally in ravines 
 with a northerly aspect, the dead leaves when damp with dew in the early 
 morning may be turned over one by one, and the under surface examined 
 for minute species, and larger species will be found very frequently 
 on the surface of the groimd below the layer of decaying vegetable matter. 
 Tear off the bark of decaying trees also. In the drier parts of the country 
 some species are only to be found among the roots of shrubs, and at con- 
 siderable depth ; by digging them out and shaking the earth on to paper, 
 small shells may be found on close examination. At a dry place like 
 Aden, I should expect to find most of the laud-shells alive in such a 
 habitat. Look well in caves in limestone on the damp surface of the 
 rock; some forms hide themselves under a coating of earthy matter. 
 Search also on damp moss and rock near waterfalls. 
 
 Some species will be found high up on the bushes and trees. This is the 
 habit of certain African forms especially ; not so in India. A very good 
 idea may at first be obtained of the land-shells of a country by the 
 examination of the beds of the streams, either along the highest flood-line, 
 or in the fine sand and mud where it collects in the bed ; such land-shells 
 will usually be old and bleached, but the living specimens will not be far off. 
 
 * Much iiseful information may be found in the ' Manual of the Mollusca,' by 
 S. P. Woodward, f.g.s., one of Weale's series : an admirable book in a small form.
 
 410 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 The leaves and stems of water plants should be examined, and Conferv* 
 taken out of the water and well washed in a basin ; in this, and the mud 
 of ponds and still rivers, many minute shells may be found. 
 
 The best way of preserving minute shells is to put them into glass tubes 
 and use wool to stop them ; it is better than cork. Capital collecting tubes 
 can be made out of the smaller sorts of bamboo and the large grasses. 
 A certain number of every species (at least a dozen) should be preserved 
 in spirit for the sake of the anatomy. It is best to kill them first in water 
 and tlien put them into the spirit ; if this is not done they contract, so 
 that it is impossible to form any idea of the form of the mantle and 
 other parts, and they become so hard they are difficult to cut up. 
 
 A good method of keeping the small shells and slugs, especially in 
 spirit, is to put them into small tubes with labels, plug with wool, and 
 then place in a large jar, capable of holding three or four dozen such 
 small tubes. 
 
 Other small shells, ^ to f of an inch in diameter, may be put into pill- 
 boxes at once, for in a dry climate they very soon dry up. The very 
 large animals may be removed by boiling them in water, but when time 
 does not admit of attending to the cleaning of the shells, species such as 
 unios may be put into empty soup-tins and then filled up with dry 
 sand. 
 
 It is very important to make a few notes on the colour of the animal, 
 attaching a number for reference on the box or in the tube, and the 
 operculum, when present, should always be jjreserved. 
 
 With respect to slugs, note flie surface of the mantle, and always the 
 form of the extremity of the foot, whether pointed or provided with a 
 mucous pore; and again the lobes of the mantle. Preserve them in spirit 
 as above. Drawings from the living animal are invaluable, and should be 
 made if possible. Very little is known of the Asiatic forms ; they are of 
 much interest, and have been very little collected. 
 
 Insects. — Many of the most local and interesting insects of a country 
 are not to be found without a knowledge of their habits, and some are 
 nocturnal. In wooded and mountainous countries they must be searched 
 for in dead wood, luider logs, stones, fallen fruit, or moss, in folded leaves, 
 on sandy river banks, and under shingle, aboiit roots of herbage, in small 
 dead vertebrated animals, &c., &c. The best way of forming a collection 
 is to pin and set out the captures of each day before retiring to rest, and,
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 411 
 
 after drying them, to store the specimens in air-tight corked boxes. It is 
 only thns that good museum specimens can be obtained, and the colours 
 and fine hairy clothing with which many species are furnished preserved. 
 But on a journey of exploration this is quite impracticable, and all 
 travellers, including professional natural history collectors, now adopt 
 more summary and compact methods ; laying all the hard-bodied tribes 
 in prepared sawdust, and folding all the delicate-winged species in small 
 triangular paper envelopes. The former class should be collected in broad- 
 mouthed bottles, containing a minute piece of cyanide of potassium, or in 
 insect " killing bottles," as described in the foot-note at p. 398, it being 
 necessary to kill them speedily, to prevent their mutilating each other and 
 destroying their value as sijecimens. On reaching camp the contents should 
 be shaken out (into boiling water if not already killed), and then placed in 
 boxes, between layers of large-grained, or sifted and well-dried, sawdust. 
 . The under side of the lid of the box should be moistened with carbolic 
 acid, which will prevent the attacks of insects or moisture, and the sawdust 
 also sprinkled, but so as not to touch the specimens, the colours of which 
 would be tarnished by the acid. When the box is filled the lid may be lightly 
 nailed down, and it is then ready for transmission home. In collecting 
 ants, it is necessary to open nests at the time of swarming, and to secure 
 the winged individuals, as well as the wingless workers of various sizes, 
 of each species, the whole set being kept together and duly labelled. To 
 facilitate this, the set may be lightly gummed on cardboard before placing 
 them in sawdust. The more delicate-winged insects, such as butterflies, 
 moths, dragon-flies, &c., should be killed by pressing the breast under- 
 neath the wings with thumb and forefinger (taking great care not to 
 injure the wings), and then drojiping them with closed wings each into 
 its paper envelope (a supi3ly of which is to be taken on every excursion) ; 
 on reaching camp the envelopes, thus filled each with its specimen, 
 should be packed, without pressing them too tightly, in. boxes. Spiders 
 and Crustacea, land and fresh-water, may be collected in bottles con- 
 taining spirit, where they may remain ; but spirits should not be used 
 for any other class of insects, except in the case of si^ecimens intended 
 for dissection of the internal parts, as alcohol distorts the forms and 
 destroys the colours and pubescence. 
 
 Mountain travellers wiU have many opportunities of obtaining valuable 
 specimens of insects, but they cannot be expected to carry the usual
 
 412 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 relatively bulky collecting apparatus, Tlie poison-bottlo must be small 
 enougli to go into the waistcoat pocket, and the traveller should bo pro- 
 vided with a number of little "self-opening" tin toxes, ready filled with 
 sawdust, and a particle of naphthalin. Each box should be reserved for 
 the insects found on one day, or in one locality, and duly lalx.lled outside 
 and inside. It is impossible in the narrow limits of a mountaineer's tent, 
 and with the little time at his disposal, to j^ack insects in layers in a 
 larger box, or to make any of the arrangements wliich a professed 
 naturalist is accustomed to. 
 
 Botanical Collecting. By the late J. Ball, f.r.s. — To obtain good 
 specimens of dried plants iu a condition serviceable to scientific men, the 
 following are the chief points to be observed : — 
 
 1. Selection of Specimens. — The object is to give as much information 
 as possible respecting the plant which it is intended to collect. Small 
 plants not exceeding 16 inches in height should be collected entire ivith 
 the roots. Slender plants of greater dimensions may be folded to the 
 same length, and may often be collected entire. Of larger plants, shrubs 
 and trees, the object is to show as much as possible of the plant within 
 the limit of the size of your drying paper. As an universal rule, both 
 the flower and fruit (seed-vessel) should, if possible, be preserved. Of 
 those plants whereon the male and female flowers grow separately, 
 specimens of both should, if possible, be collected. 
 
 2. Conveyance of Specimens to Camp or Station. — Tin boxes made for the 
 purpose are generally used in Europe for carrying botanical specimens 
 until they can be placed in the drying press. They answer sufficiently 
 well in cool weather, but in hot countries specimens are often partly 
 withered before they can be laid out ; and a rough portfolio, into which 
 the plants can be put when (or soon after) they are gathered, is iiuich to 
 be preferred. 
 
 Such a portfolio is easily prepared with two sheets of millboard con- 
 nected by an endless tape, so as to be easily slung over the shoulder; 
 between these about thirty or forty sheets (60 to 80 folds) of thin soft 
 (more or less bibulous) paper may be carried and kept in place by a strap 
 or piece of twine. With two such i;)ortfolios a traveller can carry as many 
 plants as it is possible to collect with advantage in a day. As soon as 
 possible after being gathered, the specimens should be laid roughly 
 between the sheets of paper : except in the case of delicate flowers, no
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 413 
 
 special care is needed, and no harm comes of two or three being put 
 together. 
 
 3. The Drying Press. — The great object, both to secure good specimens 
 and to save labour and weight of paper, is to get the plants dried quickly ; 
 and for this one of the first conditions is to lose as little time as possible. 
 When practicable, the specimens should always be put in the press on 
 
 the same day on which they are gathered. The press should be made 
 with two outer gratings of iron wire ; the outer frame of strong wire, 
 about a quarter of an inch in diameter — the size being that of the paper 
 used. Between these the paper is laid. As to the choice of drying paper, 
 the general rule is, that the coarser it is the better, provided it be quite 
 or nearly quite free from size. 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 \ 
 _ 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 
 
 
 To enable the plants to dry quickly, the traveller should be provided 
 with light wooden gratings of the same size as the drying jiaper. I 
 think the size 18 inches x 12 inches is quite large enough. The iron 
 wire outer gratings may with advantage be a quarter of an inch longer 
 and broader to save the edges of the wooden gratings. 
 
 These should be made of light laths fastened with a few nails (all the
 
 414 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 better if these are of copper), the interstices should be rather less than 
 three-quarters of an inch, at all events not more. Their use is to allow 
 the air to circulate through the pile of plants tliat are Ijeing dried. One 
 should be inserted at each interval of about two inches (counting the 
 drying paper and the plants laid out for drying), and when this is done 
 the parcel may with advantage be exposed to the sun or placed near a fire, 
 as the case may be. In dry warm climates, the majority of plants may be 
 dried in the course of a few days, and will be fit to pack up, without any 
 need of changing the drying paper in which they were originally placed ; 
 but in damp weather, and in regard to plants of thick fleshy foliage, it is 
 usually necessary to change the paper more than once before the specimens 
 are thoroughly dry. 
 
 The pile of paper, with plants between each five or six thicknesses ot 
 paper, and gratings at intervals of about two inches, should be squeezed 
 
 1 li II II M II 1 r ! 
 
 1 1 1 1 ! r 1 1' :' 1' li 1' 1 
 
 
 ii II II r II ii ii 11 II 1 
 
 
 1 It II II 1, II II II II Ii 1 
 
 1 II II II II Ii II II II II 1 
 
 1 II II 11 II II II II |i 1' 1 
 
 b — a D p □ Li □ □ D d 
 
 GRATING SEEN FROM THE EDGE. 
 
 GRATING SEEN' FROM ABOVE. 
 
 between the outer (iron) gratings by means of two strong straps. Too 
 much pressure is not desirable. For a pile ten or twelve inches thick, 
 the parcel may be i^ulled nearly as tight as a moderate man can do 
 it; but in proportion as the thickness is less, the pressure should be 
 moderated. 
 
 Plants with fleshy leaves are very difficult to dry well. The best way 
 is to dip them in -water quite boiling for a minute or less, then to lay 
 them between a few sheets of drying paper with slight pressure, merely 
 to remove the exterior moisture, and then place them (when externally 
 dry) in the drying press. Plants collected in rain should be treated in a 
 similar way to remove outer moisture before it is attempted to dry them. 
 
 4. When once dry, plants may be packed away between paper of almost 
 any kind. Old newspapers answer very well. The only precaution 
 needed is to preserve them from insects.
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 415 
 
 The chief trouble in collecting plants is to get the paper already- 
 used thoroughly dry before it is again employed. The best resource in 
 dry climates is to stretch cords and hang these papers exposed to sun 
 and air. Artificial heat must be resorted to in wet seasons, but the 
 process is then slow and troublesome. 
 
 For a traveller wishing to make large collections, the time consumed 
 in changing the paper in which the plants are dried becomes an im- 
 portant consideration. I have adopted with advantage a suggestion of 
 the late Professor A. Gray to use, instead of ordinary drying paper, 
 sheets, cut to the proper size, of the paper-felt which is Txsed for laying 
 under carj^ets. The specimens when originally laid out for drying are 
 placed within sheets of thin paper without size, such as filtering paper, 
 and as a rule these do not need to be changed. One sheet of felt-paper 
 is generally sufficient between each layer of plants, and the operation of 
 changing the paper is very quickly effected. 
 
 It is an important rule to note the locality where the specimens have 
 been collected, with the date. If proper care be taken to keep together 
 all the specimens collected at the same time, it is not necessary to place a 
 separate scrap of paper within each sheet ; but it is advisable to do this 
 when the dried specimens are packed for transmission home. 
 
 5. Seeds. — Travellers may easily make valuable contributions to our 
 knowledge of the vegetation of distant countries by preserving seeds of 
 remarkable and unusual plants. The only precautions necessary are, to 
 select seeds that are fully ripe ; if enclosed in a seed vessel, or covering of 
 a succulent character, to take care that this is thoroughly dried before 
 they are packed ; and that they are preserved from moisture during the 
 homeward voyage. Small seeds may be enclosed in paper, the larger 
 kinds in canvas bags, and the whole wraj^ped in a piece of oiled cloth. 
 It is very desirable to keep each description of seed sejiarate, and to 
 note the place where it was gathered, with indications of altitude, soil, 
 and climate. 
 
 6. Bulls. — These are easily obtained, but, as a rule, they should be 
 taken only at the end of the growing season, and kept until the leaves 
 are quite withered. They should be packed dry in a small box with 
 shavings, or other elastic stuffing. The same treatment will suit the 
 pseudo-bulbs of some orchids. 
 
 7. Fleshy Tubers. — These and thick rhizomes may best be sent in boxes,
 
 416 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 wrapped in slightly moist materials, si;ch as cocoa-nut fibre, peat, or 
 leaf mould. 
 
 8. LivirKj riants. — As a general rule, these require to he established in 
 pots or boxes for some time before licing packed for transmission. They 
 travel best in wliat are called Wurdian cases; but an ordinary wooden 
 box covered with a glass toi"), and with sufficient moisture in the soil and 
 air to prevent excessive evaporation, is found to answer the purpose. 
 The cases should be kept on deck under some protection from the direct 
 heat of the sun. Tropical plants should be despatched so as to reach 
 England during the summer months. At other seasons they are liable 
 to perish from cold. 
 
 9. Succulent Plants, such as cacti, aloe, houseleeks, &c., survive for a 
 long time if packed without earth in a perfectly dry box, with sufficient 
 openings for ventilation. 
 
 10. Sqaall plants with woody roots and cuttings of larger species of 
 plants from the north or south temperate zones often travel successfully 
 when merely packed with a little soil, slightly moist, about the roots, and 
 a wrapping of damp moss, or similar substance, tied up in thick paper or 
 canvas. There is, however, much risk of failure in these cases where, on 
 the homeward voyage, it is necessary to pass through the tropics. 
 
 As a general rule, plants are more often injured by excess of moistui-e 
 than by being sent too dry. 
 
 It is desirable to make use of every favourable opportunity for sending 
 botanical collections of all kinds to England, as in hot countries they are 
 always exposed to risk of injury. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to mention that living plants, as well as seeds 
 and bulbs, should be placed in the hands of skilful gardeners after 
 reaching this country. The chance of preserving interesting specimens 
 is commonly much greater when they are sent to botanic gardens than 
 when entrusted to private cultivators. In all cases information as to the 
 soil and climate of the native home of the plant is a necessary guide to 
 proper treatment. 
 
 Fossils. — The collection of fossils and minerals (except in the case of 
 the discovery of new localities for valuable metals) is not to be recom- 
 mended to the traveller, if he is not a geologist. Fossils from an unex- 
 plored country are of little use unless the nature and order of super- 
 position of the strata in which they are found can be at the same time
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 417 
 
 investigated. In the cases, however, of recent alluvia! strata or the sup- 
 posed beds of ancient lakes, or deposits in caves, or raised sea-heachr s 
 containing shells or bones of vertebrate animals, the traveller will do 
 well to bring away specimens if a good opportunity offers. If the plan 
 of the expedition includes the collection of fossil remains, the traveller 
 will, of course, provide himself with a proper geological outfit, and obtain 
 the necessary instructions before leaving Europe. (See Section YII.) 
 
 General Bcmarks. — All collections made in tropical countries should lie 
 sent to Europe with the least possible delay, as they soon become de- 
 teriorated and spoilt unless great care be bestowed upon them. Dry skins 
 of aniinals and birds may be packed in wooden cases well lined and 
 padded with brown paper. Shells and skulls should be provided with 
 abundance of elastic padding, such as cotton. Boxes containing pinned 
 insects and Crustacea should be packed within larger boxes and sur- 
 rounded by an ample bed of hay or other light dry elastic material; un- 
 less this last point is carefully attended to, it is doubtful whether such 
 collections will sustain a voyage without more or less serious injury. 
 
 Ohaerv'itiona of Habits, &c. — Travellers have excellent opportunities of 
 observing the habits of animals in a state of nature, and these 'Hints' 
 would be very deficient were not a few remarks made upon this subject. 
 To know what to observe in the economy of animals is in itself an accom- 
 plishment which it would be unreasonalile to expect the general traveller 
 to possess, and without this he may bring home only insignificant details, 
 contributing but little to o\ir stock of real knowledge. One general rule, 
 however, may be ke])t always present to the mind, and this is, that any- 
 thing concerning animals which bears upon the relations of species to 
 tlieir conditions of life is well worth ob.serving and recording. Thus, it 
 is important to note the various enemies which each species has to con- 
 tend with, not only at one epoch in its life, but at every stage from birth 
 to death, and at different seasons and in dilferent localities. The way in 
 which the existence of enemies limits the range of a species should also 
 be noticed. The inorganic influences which inimically affect species, 
 especially intermittently (such as the occurrence of disastrous seasons), 
 and which are likely to operate in limiting their ranges, are also in- 
 portant subjects of inquiry. The migrations of animals, and especially 
 any facts about the irruption of species into districts previously unin- 
 habited by them, are well worth recording. The food of each species 
 
 2 F
 
 418 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 should bo noticed, and if any cliange of customary food is observed, owing 
 to tlic failure of the supply, it should be carefully recorded. The use 
 in nature of any peculiar physical conformation of animals, the object 
 of ornamentation, and so forth, should also be investigated whenever 
 opportunity occurs. Any facts relating to the interbreeding in a state 
 of nature of allied varieties, or the converse— that is, the antipathy to 
 intercrossing of allied varieties — would be extremely interesting. In 
 short, the traveller should bear in mind that facts having a philosophical 
 bearing are much more important than mere anecdotes about animals. 
 
 To observe the actions of the larger animals, a telescope or opera-glass 
 will be necessary. The traveller should bear in mind, if a microscope is 
 needed in his journey, that by unscrewing the tubes of the telescope in 
 which all the small glasses are contained, a compound microscope of 
 considerable power may be produced.
 
 ( 419 ) 
 
 IX. 
 ANTHEOPOLOGY. 
 
 BlJ E. B. TyLOR, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
 
 The characters of men's bodies and minds being matters of common 
 observation, Europeans not specially trained in anthropology, who have 
 happened to be thrown among little-known tribes, often bring home 
 valuable anthropological information. Though explorers, traders, and 
 colonists have maie their way into almost every corner of the earth, it is 
 surprising to find how many new facts may still be noted down by any 
 careful observer. If familiar with anthropological methods, he will, of 
 course, observe more and better. The hints here given will serve to 
 draw attention to interesting points which might otherwise be overlooked. 
 Directions for such investigation, drawn np in much greater detail, will 
 be found in the small British Association manual entitled: 'Notes and 
 Queries on Anthropology ' (Anthropological Institute, 3, Hanover 
 Square, W.). 
 
 Physical Characters. — On first coming among an unfamiliar race, such 
 as the Negroes, the traveller is apt to think them almost alike, till after a 
 few days he learns to distinguish individuals more sharply. This first 
 impression, however, has a value of i's own, for what he vaguely per- 
 ceived was the general type of the race, which he may afterwards gain 
 a more perfect idea of by careful comparison. Among tribes who for 
 many generations have led a simple uniform life and mixed little with 
 strangers, the general likeness of build and feature is very clof e, as may 
 be seen in a photograph of a party of Caribs or Andamancrs, whose 
 uniformity contrasts instructively witli the individualised faces of a party 
 of Europeans. The consequence is tl:at a traveller among a rude people, 
 if he has something of the artist's faculty of judging form, may select 
 grouiDS for photography which will fairlv represent the tvpe of a whole 
 
 ' 2 F 2
 
 420 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 tribe or nation. While such portrait-groups are admirable for giving tlio 
 general idea of a race, characteristic features belonging to it should be 
 treated separately. For instance, to do justice to the Tartar eye or the 
 Australian forelicad, the individual feature must be carefully sketched 
 or photographed large. 
 
 How dccei3tive mere unmeasured impressions of size may be is shown 
 by the well known example of the Patagonians, who, though really only 
 tall men (averaging 5 feet 11 inches), long had the repxitation of a race of 
 giants. Such measurements as any traveller can take with a measuring- 
 tape and a three-foot rule with sliding square are good if taken with 
 proper precautions. As the object of the anthropologist is to get a 
 general idea of a race, it may be in some respects misleading to measure 
 at random one or two individuals, who are perhaps not fair specimens- 
 If only a few can be measured, they should be selected of ordinary average 
 baild, full-grown but not aged. What is much better is to measure a 
 large number (twenty to fifty) of persons taken indiscriminately as they 
 come, and to record the measurements of each with sex, age, name, locality, 
 &c. Such a table can afterwards be so classified as to show not only the 
 average or mean size, but the proportion of persons who vary more or 
 less from that mean size ; in fact, it represents on a small scale the 
 distribution of stature, &c., in the whole people. Gigantic or dwarfish 
 individuals, if not deformed, are interesting as showing to what extremes 
 the race may rim. The most ordinary measurements are height, girth 
 round chest, fathom or length of outstretched arms, length of arm ivvm. 
 shoulder and leg from hip, length of hand and foot. The traveller may 
 find that such measuring of another race shows very dilTerent stature and 
 girth from that of his OM^n companions, who, if they are well grown Euro- 
 peans, may stand 5 feet 8 inches to 6 feet, and measure 84 to o6 inches 
 round the chest. Beyond this, he will find that the relative proportions 
 of parts of the body differ from those he is accustomed to. An example 
 of this is seen by placing Europeans and regroes side by side, and 
 noticing how much nearer the knee the nrgro's finger-tips will reach. 
 It will be found that body measurement needs skill in taking the corre- 
 sponding points, and in fact all but the simplest measures require some 
 knowledge of anatomy. This is especially the case with skuU measure- 
 ments. There are instruments for taking the dimensions of the living 
 head, and with care and practice the untraimd observer may get at
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 421 
 
 some of the more conspicuous, such as the rehitive lengtli and width 
 of the skull as taken by hatters. This roughly indicates the marked 
 difference between dolichokephalic or long-headed peoples, like the 
 African negro, and brachykephalic or short-headed peoples, like the 
 Kalmuks and other Tartars. Attention should be paid also to the degree 
 of prognathism or projection of jaw, which, in some races, as the 
 Australian, gives a " muzzle " unlike the English type. Where practicable, 
 native skeletons, and especially skulls, should be sent home for accurate 
 examination. How far this can bo done depends much on the feeling of 
 the people; for while some tribes do not object to the removal of bones, 
 especially if not of their own kinsfolk, in other districts it is hardly safe 
 to risk the displeasure of the natives at the removal of the dead— a 
 feeling which is not only due to affection or respect, but even more to 
 terror of the vengeance of the ghosts whose relics have been disturbed. 
 
 In describing complexion, such terms as " brown " or " olive," so often 
 used without further definition in books of travel, are too inexact to be of 
 use. Broca's scale of colours (see the Anthropological ' Notes and Queries ') 
 gives means of matching the tints of skin, hair, and eyes ; if this is not 
 forthcoming, the paint-box should be used to record them. Among rude 
 tribes, the colour of the skin is often so masked by paint and dirt that 
 the subject must be washed to see the real complexion. Hair is also an 
 important race-mark, varying as it does in colour from flaxen to black, and 
 also in form and size of the hairs ; for instance the American Indian's 
 coarse straight hair seems almost like a horse's tail in comparison with 
 the Bushman's hair with its natural frizz of tiny spirals. Locks of hair 
 should therefore be collected. The traveller, however, will often find 
 some difficulty in getting such specimens, from the objection prevalent in 
 the uncivilised world of letting any part of tlie body, such as hair and nail- 
 clippings, pass into strangers' hands lest they should be used to bewitch 
 their former owner. Even in such countries as Italy, to ask for a lock of 
 a peasant-girl's hair may lead to the anthropologist being suspected of 
 wishing to practise love-charms on her. 
 
 Differences of temperament between nations are commonly to be 
 noticed ; for instance, in comparing the shy and grave Malays with the 
 boisterous Africans. It is an interesting but difficult problem how far 
 such differences are due to inherited race-character, and how far to such 
 social influences as education and custom, and to the conditions of life
 
 422 HINTS TO TRAVELLERK 
 
 boing chcortiil or depressing. Nor has it yet been determined bow far 
 emotions are differently expressed by different races, so that it is worth 
 while to notice particularly if their smiling, laughing, frowning, weeping, 
 blushing, &c , differ perceptibly from ours. The acuteness of the senses 
 of siglrt, hearing, and smell, among wild peoples is often remarkable, but 
 this subject is one on which many accounts have been given which 
 require sifting. The skill of savages in path-finding and tracking 
 depends in great measure on tliis being one of their most necessary arts 
 of life, to which they are trained from childhood, as, in an inferior degree, 
 gipsies are with us. The native hunter or guide's methods of following 
 the track of an animal, or finding his own way home Ijy slight signs, such 
 as bent twigs, and kee])iug general direction through the forest by the sky 
 and the shtltered sides of the trees, are very interesting, though when 
 learnt they lose mvich of their marvellous appearance. The testing of the 
 mental powers of various races is an interesting research, for which good 
 opportunities now and then occur. It is established that some races aie 
 inferior to others in volume and com])lexity of brain, Australians and 
 Africans being in this respect below Europeans, and the question is io 
 determine what differences of mind may correspond. Setting aside the 
 contemptuous notions of uneducated Europeans as to the minds of " black- 
 fellows ■' or " niggers," what is required is, to compare the capacity of two 
 races under similar circumstances. This is made difficult by the fact 
 of different training. For instance, it would not be fair to compare the 
 European sportsman's skill in woodcraft and hunting with that of the 
 native hunter, who has done nothing else since childhood; whil\ nn 
 the other hand, the European, who has always lived among civilised 
 people, owes to his education so much of his superior reasoning powers, 
 that it is mostly impossible to get his mind into comparison with a 
 savage's. One of the best tests is the progress made by native and 
 European children in colonial or mi.ssionary schools, as to which it is 
 commonly stated that children of African or American tribes learn as fast 
 as or faster than European children up to about twelve, but then fall 
 behind. Even here it is evident that other causes besides mental power 
 may be at work, among them the discouragement of the native children 
 when they become aware of their social inferiority. The subject is one 
 of great imi^ortauce, both scientifically and as bearing on practical 
 government.
 
 ANTHKOPOLOGY. 423 
 
 Both as a matter of anthropology and of practical politics, the 
 suitability of particiilar races to particular climates is of great interest ; 
 sometimes this depends on one race being free from a disease from which 
 another suffers, as in the -well-known immunity of negroes from yellow 
 fever. Or it may be evident that tribes have become acclimatised, so as 
 to resist influences which are deadly to strangers ; for instance, the 
 Khonds flourish in the hills of Orissa, where not only Europeans but 
 the Hindus of the plains sicken of the malaria in the unhealthy season. 
 That such peculiarities of constitution are inherited and pass into the 
 nature of the race, is one of the keys to the obscure problem of the 
 origins of the various races of man as connected with their spread over 
 the globe. As yet this problem has not passed much beyond the stage of 
 collecting information, and no pains should be spared to get at facts thus 
 bearing on the history and development of the human species. European 
 medical men in districts inhabited by uncivilised races have often made 
 important observations of this kind, which they are glad to communicate, 
 though being occupied with i^rofessional work they do not follow them 
 up. In all races there occur abnormal varieties, which should be ob- 
 served with reference to their being hereditary, such as Albinos, whose 
 dead-whiteness is due to absence of pigment from the skin. Even such 
 tendencies as that to the occiirrence of red hair where the ordinary 
 hue is black, or to melanism or diseased darkening of the skin, are worth 
 remark. It is essential to discover how far these descend from i^arents 
 to children, which is not the case with such alterations as that of the 
 Chinese feet, which, in spite of generations of cramping, continue of the 
 natural shape in the children. 
 
 Lamjuwje. — Before coming to actual language, remark may be made on 
 the natural communication of all races carried on by pantomimic signs 
 without spoken words. This is the " gesture language " to which we are 
 accustomed among the deaf-and-dumb, and which sometimes also comes 
 into practical use between tribes ignorant of one another's languages, as 
 on the American prairies. It is so far the same in principle everywhere, 
 that the explorer visiting a new tribe, having to make frequent use of 
 signs to supplement his interpreter, or to eke out his own scanty know- 
 ledge of the native language, soon adapts himself to the particular signs 
 in vogue. He will observe that, as to most common signs, such as asking 
 for food or drink, or beckoning or warning off a stranger, he understands
 
 424 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 and is uudcrdtood quite naturally. Signs which are puzzling at first 
 sight will prove on examination to be intelligiblu. Some are imitative 
 gestures cut short to save trouble, or they may have a meaning which 
 was once evident, like the American Indian sign for dog, made by trailing 
 two forked fingers, which does not show its meaning now, but did so 
 in past times, when one principal occupation of tiie dog was to trail a 
 pair of tent-jDoles fastened on his back. Besides its practical use, the 
 gesture-language has much scientific interest from the perfect way in 
 which it exposes the working of the human mind, expressing itself by a 
 series of steps which are all intelligible. It wiU be particularly observed 
 that it has a strict syntax ; for instance, that the quality or adjective 
 must always follow the subject or substantive it is applied to. Thus, 
 " the white box " may be expressed by imitating the shape and opening 
 of a box, and then touching a piece of linen or paper to show its colour ; 
 but if the signs be i^ut in the contrary order, as in the English words, 
 the native will be perplexed. It is worth while, in countries where 
 gesture-language is regularly used, to note down the usual signs and their 
 exact order 
 
 In recording a vocabulary of a language not yet reduced to form in a 
 grammar and dictionary, the traveller may seek for equivalents of the 
 principal classes of words in his own grammar : verbs, substantives, 
 adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, &c. But the structure of the language 
 he is examining will probably differ from any he is familiar with, the 
 words actually used not coming precisely into these classes. The best 
 method is for the traveller to learn a simple sentence, such as, " the men 
 are coming," and to ascertain what changes will convert them into " the 
 men are going," " the womju are coming." He thus arrives at the real 
 elemjnts of the language and the method of combining them. Having 
 arrived at this point, he will be able to collect and classify current ideas, 
 such as the foUjwing: — 
 
 Actions -as stand, walk, sleep, eat, see, make, &c. 
 
 Natural Objects and Mements — as sun, moon, star, mountain, river, fire, 
 water, &i. 
 
 Man and other Animals — as man, woman, boy, girl, deer, buck, doe, 
 eagle, eagles, &c. 
 
 Farts of Body — as head, arm, leg, skin, bone, blood, &c.
 
 ANTHKOPOLOGY. 425 
 
 Trees and Plants. 
 
 Numerals (noticing how far they extend, and whether referring to 
 fingers). 
 
 Instruments and Appliances — as spear, bow, hatchet, needle, pot, boat, 
 cord, house, roof, &c. 
 
 Arts and Pastimes— as pictui'e, paint, carving, statue, song, dance, toy, 
 game, riddle, &c. 
 
 Family Belationsliips (as defined by native custom). 
 
 Social and Leyal Terms — as chief, freeman, slave, witness, punishment, 
 fine, &c. 
 
 Religious Terms — as soul, spirit, dream, vision, sacrifice, penance, &c. 
 
 Moral Terms — as truth, falsehood, kindness, treachery, love, &c. 
 
 Abstract Terms, relating to time, space, colour, shape, power, cause. &c. 
 
 The interjections used in any language can be noted, whether they are 
 organic expressions of emotion, like oh ! ugh 1 ur-r-r I or sounds the nature 
 of which is not so evident. Also imitative words which name animals from 
 their cries, or express sounding objects or actions by their sounds, are 
 common in all languages, and strike the stranger. Examples of such are 
 kah-kah for a crow, twoiik for a frog, pututu for a shell-trumpet, haitschu 
 for to sneeze. When such imitative words are noticed passing into other 
 meanings where the connection with sound is not obvious, they become 
 interesting facts in the development of language ; as, to take a familiar 
 example from English, the imitative verb io puff becomes a term for light 
 pastry and metaphorically blown-up praise. 
 
 It is only when the traveller has a long or close acquaintance with a 
 tribe, that he is able to .deal satisfactorily with the vocabulary and 
 structure of their language. To be able to carry on a conversation in 
 broken sentences is not enough, for an actual grammar and dictionary is 
 required to enable philologists to make out the structure and affinities 
 with other languages. It used to be customary to send out English lists 
 of thirty or forty ordinary words to have equivalents put to them in native 
 languages. As every detail of this kind is worth having, these lists 
 cannot be said to be quite worthless, but they go hardly any way toward 
 what is really wanted. They are liable to frequent mistakes, as when 
 the barbarian, from whom the white man is trying to get the term '' foot," 
 answers with a word meaning " my leg," which is carefully taken down
 
 426 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 and printed. Such poor vocabularies cannot even be relied on to show 
 whether a language belong.s to a particular family, for the very word 
 which seems to prove this may be borrowed. Thus, in various African 
 vocabularies, there appears the word snpun (or sometliing similar) with 
 the mej'ining of soap ; but this is a Latin word which has spread far and 
 wide from one country to another, and proves nothing as to original 
 connexion between languages which have adopted it. While it is best 
 not to under- rate the diflBculty of collecting such information as to a 
 little-known dialect as will be really of service to i)liilology, it must be 
 remembered that travellers still often have opportunities of i)reserving 
 relics of languages, or at any rate special dialects, which are on the point 
 of dying out unrecorded. Where no proper grammar and dictionary 
 has been compiled, it is often possible to find some European or some 
 interpreter fairly conversant with the language, with whose aid a voca- 
 bulary may be written out and sentences analysed grammatically, which, 
 when read over to intelligent natives and criticised by them, may be 
 worked into good linguistic material. It is worth while to jjay attention 
 to native names of i^lants, minerals, &c., as well as of places and persons, 
 for these are often terms carrying significant meaning. Thus ipecarAianha 
 is stated by Martius to be i-pe-caa-guene, which in the Tupi language of 
 Brazil, signifies " the little Avayside plant which makes vomit." 
 
 Arts and Sciences. — The less civilised a nation is, the ruder are their 
 tools and contrivances; but these are often worked with curious skill in 
 getting excellent results with the roughest means. Stone implements 
 have now been so siipplanted by iron that they are not easily found 
 in actual use. If a chance of seeing them occurs, as, for instance, 
 among some Californian tribe, who still chip out arrow-heads of obsidian, 
 it is well to get a lesson in the curious and difficult art of stone-imple- 
 ment making. In general, tools and implements differing from those of 
 the civilised world, even down to the pointed stick for root-digging and 
 planting, are worth collecting, and to learn their use from a skilled hand 
 often brings into view remarkable peculiarities. This is the ease with 
 many cudgel- or boomerang-like weapons thrown at game, slings or sj^ear- 
 throwers for hurling darts to greater distances than they can be sent by 
 hand, blow-tubes for killing birds, and even the bow-and-arrow, which in 
 northern Asia and America shows the ancient Scythian or Tartar form, 
 having to be bent inside out to string it. Though fire is now practically
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 427 
 
 made almost every where with flint and steel or lucifers,in some districts^ 
 as South Africa or Polynesia, jjeople still know the primitive method of 
 fire-making by rubbing or drilling a pointed stick into another piece of 
 wood. Europeans find difficulty iu learning this old art, which requires 
 some knack. As is well known to sportsmen, different districts have 
 their special devices for netting, trapping and other ways of taking game 
 and fish, some of which are well worth notice, such as spearing or shooting 
 fish under water, artificial decoys, and the spring-traps set with bent 
 boughs, which are supposed to have first suggested the idea of the bow. 
 While the use of dogs in hunting is found in most parts of the world, 
 there is the utmost variety of breeds and training. Agriculture in its 
 lower stages is carried on by simple i^rocesses; but interesting questions 
 arise as to the origin of its grain and fruits, and the alterations in 
 them by transplanting into a new climate and by ages of cultivation. 
 Thus iu Chili there is found wild what botanists consider the original 
 potato ; but while maize was a staple of both Americas at the time of 
 Colombus, its original form has no more been identified than that of 
 wheat in the Old World. The cookery of all nations is in principle known 
 to the civilised Eurojiean ; but there are special preparations to notice, 
 such as bucaning or drying meat on a hurdle above a slow fire, broiling 
 kibabs or morsels of meat on the skewer in the East, &c. Many peoples 
 have something peculiar in the way of beverages, such as the chewed 
 Polynesian 'kav(t, or the South American mate sucked through a tube. 
 Especially fermented liquors have great variety, such as the kumiss from 
 mare's milk in Tartary, the pomhe or millet-beer of Africa, and the kvass 
 or rye-beer of Russia. The rudest pottery made by hand, not thrown 
 on the wheel, is less and less often met with, bx;t ornamentation trace- 
 able to its being moulded on baskets is to be seen ; and calabashes, joints 
 of bamboo, and close-plaited baskets, are used for water- vessels, and even 
 to boil in. Among the curious processes of metal-working, contrasting 
 with those of modern Europe, though often showing skill of their own, 
 may be mentioned the simple African smelting-forge by which iron-ore is 
 reduced with charcoal in a hole in the ground, the draught being sup- 
 plied by a pair of skins for bellows. In the far East a kind of air-pump 
 is used, of which the barrels are hollowed logs. The Chinese art of 
 patching cast-iron Avith melted metal surprises a European, and the 
 Hindu manufacture of native steel {wuvtz) is a remarkable process. No
 
 428 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 nation now exists absolutely in the Bronze Age, but this alloy still 
 occupies something in its old place in Oriental industry. As an examjile 
 of the methods stiU to be seen, may be mentioned the Burmese bell- 
 founding, which is done, not in a hollow mould of sand, but by what 
 in Europe is called the cire perdue process, the model of the bell being 
 made in bees-wax and imbedded in the sand-mould, the wax being melted 
 and the hot metal taking its place. The whole history of machinery is 
 open to the traveller, who still meets with every stage of its development, 
 from savagery upward. He sees, for instance, every tilling implement 
 from the stake with iire-hardened point, and the hoe of crooked branch, 
 uj) to the modern forms of plough. In like manner he can trace the 
 line from the rudest stone-crushers or rubbers for grinding seed or 
 grain up to the rotating hand-mills or querns still common in the East, 
 and surviving even in Scotland. From time to time somi special con- 
 trivance may be seen near its original home, as in South America the 
 curious plaited tube for wringing out the juice from cassava, or the net 
 hammock which still retains its native Haitian name hamaca. Archi- 
 tecture still preserves in different regions interesting early stages of 
 development, from the rudest break winds, or beehive huts of wattled 
 boughs, up to houses of logs and hewn timber, structures of mud and 
 adobes, and masonry of rough or hewn stone. Even the construction of 
 the bough-hut or the log-house often has its peculiarities in the arrange- 
 ments of posts and rafters. Ami:)ng the modes of construction which interest 
 the student of architectural history is buiLling with rough unhewn stones. 
 Many examples of "rude stoue moauments" are to be seen on our own 
 moors and hills. The most familiar kinds are dolmens (i.e. " table-stones "), 
 formed by upright stones bearing a cap-stone ; they were bi;rial-places, 
 and analogous to the cists or chambers of rough slabs within burial- 
 m Hinds. Less clearly exijlicable are the single standing-stones or m>:nhirs 
 {i.e. " long-stones "), and the circles of stones or cromlechs. Ancient and 
 obscure in meaning as such monuments are in Europe, there are regions 
 where their construction or use comes down to molern times, especially 
 in India, where among certain tribes the deposit of ashes of the dead in 
 dolmens, the erection of menhirs in memory of great men, and even 
 sacrifice in stone circle?, are well-known customs. The traveller may 
 also sometimes have opportunities of observing the ancient architectural 
 construction by fitting together many-sided stones into what are some-
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 429 
 
 times called Cyclopean walls, a kind of building which feems to have 
 preceded the use of squared blocks, fastened together with cl- mps or with 
 mortar. Vaulting or roofing by means of courses of stones projecting 
 inwards one course above t-ie other (much as children build with their 
 wooden bricks), so as to form what architects call a " false arch," is an 
 ancient mode of constniction found in various parts of the world where 
 tlie '• true arch " with its keystone has not superseded it. It often 
 appears that rude nations have copied the more artistic buildings of 
 higher neighbjurs, or inherited ancient architectural traditions. Thus 
 traces of Indian architecture have found their way into the islands of 
 the Eastern Archipelago, and hollow squares of mud-built houses round 
 a courtyard in northern Africa have their pLm from the Asiatic caravan- 
 serai. In boat-building some primitive fo;ms, as the " dug-out," hollowed 
 by the aid of fire from a tree-trunk, and the bark-canoe, are found in 
 such distant regions that we cannot gui ss where they had their origin. 
 When, however, it comes to the outrigger-canoe, this belongs to a district 
 which, though very large, is still limited, so that we may at least guess 
 whereabouts it first came into use, and it is important to note every 
 island to which it has since travelled. So there is much in the peculiar 
 build and rig of Malay prahus, Chinese junks, &c., which is worth noting 
 as part of the history of ship-building. This may suffice to give a general 
 idea of the kind of information as to the local arts which it is worth 
 while to collect, and to illustrate by drawings and photographs of objects 
 too large to bring away. 
 
 Naturally, nations below the upper levels of culture have little or no 
 science to teach us, but many of their ideas are interesting as marking 
 stages in the history of the human mind. Thus, in the art of counting, 
 which is one of the foundations of science, it is common to find the 
 primitive method of counting by fingers and toes still in practical use, 
 while in many languages the numeral words have evidently grown up out 
 of such a state of things. Thus lima, the well-known Polynesian word 
 for five, meant " hand," before it passed into a numeral. All devices for 
 counting are worth notice, from the African little sticks for units and 
 larger sticks for tens, up to the ball- frames with which tlie Chinese and 
 Russian traders reckon so rapidly and correctly. It is a sign of lowness 
 in a tribe not to use measures and weights, and where these appear in a 
 rough way, it is interesting to discover whether vague lengths, siich as
 
 430 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 finger, foot, pace, arc used, or wlicthcr standard measures and weights 
 have come in. If so, these should be estimated according to our standards 
 with as much accuracy as possible, as it may thus become possible to 
 ascertain their history. In connection with this comes the question of 
 money; as to whether commerce is still in the rudimentary stage of 
 exchanging gifts, or has passed into regular barter, or risen to regular 
 trade, with some sort of money to represent value, even if the circulating 
 medium be only cowries, or bits of iron, or cakes of salt, all which are 
 current money to this day in parts of Africa. Outside the present higher 
 civilisation, more or less primitive ideas of astronomy and LM'OL'raphy will 
 be found to prevail. Among tribes like the American Indians the obvious 
 view suggested by the senses still prevails, that the earth is a flat round 
 disc (or sometimes square, with four quarters or winds) overarched V>y a 
 solid dome or firmament, on which the sun and moon travel — in inland 
 countries going in and out at holes or doors on the horizon, or, if the sea 
 bounds the view, rising from and plunging into its waves at sunrise and 
 sunset. These early notions are to us very instructive, as they enable us 
 to realise the conceptions of the universe which have come down to us 
 in the ancient books of the world, but which scientific education has tip- 
 rooted from our own minds. With these cosmic ideas are found among 
 the lowest races the two natural periods of time, namely, the lunar month 
 and the solar year, determined by recurring winters, sTimmcrs, or rainy 
 seasons. Such tribes divide the day roughly by the sun's height in the 
 sky, but among peoples civilised enough to have time-measures and the 
 sun-dial, there is a tolerably accurate knowledge of the sun's place at 
 the longest and shortest days, and, indeed, throughout the year. Tlie 
 astronomy of such countries as India has been of course described by 
 professional astronomers ; but among ruder nations there is still a great 
 deal unrecorded — for instance, as to the constellations into which they 
 map out the heavens. This likening stars and star-groups to animals and 
 other objects is almost univer.sal among mankind. Savages like the Aus- 
 tralians still make fanciful stories about them, as that Castor and Pollux 
 are two native hunters, who pursue the kangaroo (Capella) and kill him 
 at the beginning of the hot season. Such stories enable us to understand 
 the myths of the Classical Dictionary, while modern astronomers keep up 
 the old constellations as a convenient mode of mapping out the sky. As 
 to maps of the earth, even low tribes have some notion of their principle.
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 431 
 
 and can roughly draw the cliart of their own district, which they shoukl 
 be encouraged to do. Native knowledge of natural history differs from 
 much of their rude science in its quality, often being of great positive 
 value. The savage or barbarian hunter knows the animals of his own 
 region and their habits with remarkable accuracy, and inherited expe- 
 rience has taught him that certain plants have industrial and medicinal 
 uses. Thus, in South America the Europeans learnt the use of India- 
 rabber or caoutchouc, which the native tribes were accustomed to make 
 into vessels and playing-balls, and of the Peruvian bark or cinchona, 
 which was already given to patients in fever. 
 
 Here a few words may be said of magic, which, though so utterly futile 
 in practice, is a sort of early and unsuccessful attempt at science. It is 
 easy, on looking into the proceedings of the magician, to see that many of 
 them arc merely attempts to work by false analogy or deceptive associa- 
 tion of ideas. The attempt to hurt or kill a person by cutting or piercing 
 a rude picture or image representing him, which is met with in all the 
 four quarters of the globe, is a perfect example of the way in which 
 sorcerers mistake mere association of ideas for real cause and effect. 
 Examined from this point of view, it will be found that a large pro- 
 portion of the magic rites of tlie world will explain their own meaning. 
 It is true that this is not the only principle at work in the magician's 
 mind ; for instance, he seems to reason in a loose way that any extra- 
 ordinary thing will produce any extraordinary effect, so that the peculiar 
 stones and bits of wood which we should call curiosities become to the 
 African sorcerer powerful fetishes. It will often be noticed that arts 
 belonging to the systematic magic of the civilised world, which has its 
 source in Babylon and Egypt, have found their way into distant lands 
 more readily indeed than useful knowledge, so tliat they may even be met 
 with among barbaric tribes. Thus it has lately been pointed out that the 
 system of lucky and unlucky days, which led tlie natives in Madagascar 
 to kill many infants as of inauspicious birth, is adojited from Arabic 
 magic, and it is to be expected that many other magical arts, if their 
 formulas are accurately described, may in like manner be traced to their 
 origin. 
 
 Society. — One of the most interesting features of savage and barbaric 
 life is the existence of an unwritten code of moral conduct, by which 
 fiimilies and tribes are practically held together. There may be no laws
 
 4S2 HINTS TO TRAVET.LERS. 
 
 to punish ciime, and the local religion may no more concern itself 
 directly with men's behaviour to one another than it did in the South 
 Sea Islands. But among the roughest peojjle there is family affection, 
 and some degree of mutual help and trust, without which, indeed, it is 
 obvious that society would break up, perliaps in general slaughter. Con- 
 sidering the importance of this primitive mornlity in the history of man- 
 kind, it is unfortunate that the attention of travellers has been so little 
 drawn to it, that our information is most meagre as to how far family 
 affection nmoiig rude tribes may be taken to be instinctive, like that of 
 the lower animals, or how far morality is produced by public opinion 
 favouring such conduct as is for the public good, but blnming acts which 
 do harm to the tribe. It is desirable to inquire what conduct is sanctioned 
 by custom among any people, whether, for instance, infanticide is tho".ght 
 right or wrong, what freedom of behaviour is approved in youths and 
 girls, and so on. For though breaches of custom may not be actually 
 punishable, experience will soon convince any explorer among any rude 
 tribe that custom acts in regulating their life even more strictly than 
 among ourselves. The notion of even savages leading a free and un- 
 restrained life is contradicted by those who know them best ; in fact, tliey 
 are bound in every act by ancestral custom. While each tribe thus has 
 itf= moral standard of right and wrong, this differs much in different tribes, 
 and one must become intimately acquainted with any people to ascertain 
 what are really their ruling principles of life. Accounts have been often 
 given of the natural virtue and happiness of rude tribes, as in the forests 
 of Guiana or the hiUs of Bengal, where the simple native life is marked 
 by truthfulness, honesty, cheerfulness, and kindness, which contrast in 
 a striking way with the habits of low-class Europeans. There are few 
 phenomena in the world more instructive than morality tluis existing in 
 practical independence either of law or religion. It may still be pos-ilile to 
 observe it for a few years before it is altered by contact with civilisation, 
 which, whether it raises or lowers on the whole the native level, must 
 supersede in great measure this simple family morality. 
 
 The unit of social life is the family, and the family is based on a 
 marriage-law. Travellers who have not looked carefully into the social 
 rules of tribes they were describing, or whose experience has been of 
 tribes in a state of decay, have sometimes reported that marriage hardly 
 existed. But this state of things is not contirmed as descriptive of any
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 433 
 
 healthj' human society, ho-wever rude ; in fact, the absence of definite 
 marriage ajDpears incompatible with the continued existence of a tribe. 
 Tlierefore statements of this kind made by former visitors should be 
 carefully sifted, and marriage-laws in general deserve careful study. 
 The explorer will hardly meet with marriage at so low a stage that the 
 union can be described as little beyond annual pairing ; but where 
 divorce is almost unrestricted, as in some African tribes, there is more 
 or less api^roach to this condition, which is possible, though ixnusual, 
 under such laws as that of Islam. Polygamy, which exists over a large 
 part of the globe, is. a well-understood system, but information is less 
 complete as to the reasons which have here and there led to its opposite, 
 polyandry, as among the Toda hill-tribes and the Nairs in South India. 
 Among customs deserving inquiry are match-making festivals at spring- 
 tide or harvest, when a great part of the years marriages are arranged. 
 This is not only often done among the lon-er races, but traces of it remain 
 in Greece, where the dances at Megara on Easter Tuesday are renowned 
 for wife- choosing, and till lately iu Brittany, where on Michaelmas Day 
 the girls sate in a row decked in all their finery on the bridge of Penze, 
 near Morlais. The custom of bride-capture, where the bridegroom and 
 his friends make show of carrying off the bride by violence, is known in 
 Europe as a relic of antiquity, as in ancient Kome, Wales within the last 
 century or two, or Tyrol at the present day ; but in more barbaric regions, 
 as on the Malay peninsula or among the Kalmuks of North Asia, it may 
 be often met with, practised as a ceremony, or even done in earnest. On 
 the other hand, restrictions on marriage between kinsfolk or clansfolk are 
 more prominent among the lower races than in the civilised world, but 
 their motive is even now imperfectly understood. Partly these restric- 
 tions take the form we are accustomed to of prohibiting marriage between 
 relatives more or less near in our sense, but among nations at a lower 
 level they are apt to involve also what is called exogamy or "marrying- 
 out." A tribe or people— for instance, the Kamilaroi of Australia, or the 
 Iroquois of North America— is divided into hereditary clans, members 
 of which may not marry in their own clan. In various parts of the 
 world these clans are named from some animal, plant, or other object, 
 and anthropologists often call such names " totems," this word being 
 taken from the native name among Algonquin tribes of North America. 
 For an instance of the working of this custom among the Iroquois tribes, 
 
 2 G
 
 434 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 a Wolf was considered brotlier to a Wolf of any other tribe, and might 
 not marry a W^olf girl, who was considered as his sister, but he might 
 marry a Deer or a Heron. In contrast with such rules is the practice of 
 endogamy, or " marrying-in," as among the Arab tribes, who habitually 
 marry cousins. But it will be found that the two rules often go together, 
 as where a Hindu miist practically marry within his own caste, but at 
 the same time is prohilwted from marrying in his own gotra or clan. 
 Researches into totem-laws are apt to bring the traveller into contact 
 with other relics of the ancient social institutions in which the.se laws 
 are rooted, especially the practice of reckoning descent not on the fathei-'s 
 side, as with us, but on the mother's side, after the manner of the 
 Lycians, whose custom seemed extraordinary to the Greeks in the time 
 of Herodotus, but may be still seen in existence among native tribes of 
 America or in the Malay islands. Even the system of relationship 
 familiar to Europeans is far different from those of regions where forms 
 of the " classificatory system " prevail, in which father's brothers and 
 mother's sisters are called fathers and mothers. In inquiring into native 
 laws of marriage and descent, precautions must be taken to ensure 
 accuracy, and esi^ecially such ambiguous English words as " uncle " or 
 " cousin " should be kejjt clear of. 
 
 Another point on which travellers have great opportunity of seeing 
 with their own eyes the working of primitive society is the holding and 
 inheritance of property, especially land. Kotions derived from our 
 modern law of landlord and tenant give place in the traveller's mind to 
 older conceiDtions, among which individual property in land is hardly 
 found. In rude society it is very generally the tribe which owns a dis- 
 trict as common land, where all may hunt and pasture and cut fire-wood; 
 while, when a family have built a hut, and tilled a patch of laud round it, 
 this is held in common by the family while they live there, but falls back 
 into tribe-land if they cease to occupy it. This is further organised in 
 what are now often called " village communities," which may be seen in 
 operation io Russia and India, where the village fields are portioned out 
 among the villagers. Ttiose who have seen them can understand the 
 many traces in England of the former prevalence of this system in 
 " common fields," &c. There is the more practical interest in studying 
 the working of this old-world system from the light it throws on projects 
 of communistic division of land, which in such villages may be studied.
 
 ANTHKOPOLOGY. 435 
 
 and its merits and defects balanced. On the one hand it assiu-es a main- 
 tenance for all, while on the other it limits the population of a district, 
 the more so from the obstinate resistance which the council of " old men " 
 who manage a village always oppose to any improved method of tillage. 
 Not less perfectly do the tenures existing in many countries show the 
 various stages of landholding which arise out of military conquest. The 
 absolute ownership of all the land by a barbaric chief or king, which 
 may be seen in such a country as Dahome, whose subjects hold their 
 lands on royal sufferance, is an extreme case. In the East, feudal tenures 
 of land granted for military service still have much the same results as 
 in medicBval Europe. 
 
 At low levels of civilisation the first dawning of criminal law may be 
 seen in the rule of vengeance or retaliation. The person aggrieved, or his 
 kinsfolk if he has been killed, are at once judges and executioners, and the 
 vengeance they inflict stands in some reasonable relation to the offence 
 committed. Not only is such vengeance the great means of keeping order 
 among such rude tribes as the Australians, but even among half-civilised 
 nations like Abyssinians and Afghans the primitive law may still be 
 studied in force, carried oiit in strict legal order as a lex talionis, not 
 degraded to mere illegal survival in outlying districts like the " vendetta " 
 of modern Europe, carried on even now, in spite of criminal jurisprudence, 
 which for ages has striven to transfer punishment from jn-ivate hands to 
 the State. Whether among .savages, barbarians, or the lower civilised 
 nations, the traveller will find everywhere matter of interesting observa- 
 tion in the law and its administration. The law may be still in tlie state 
 of unwritten custom, and the senate or council of old men may be the 
 judges, or the power at once of lawgiver and judge may have passed into 
 the hands of the chief, who, as among the modern Kafirs, may make a 
 handsome revenue by the cattle given him as fees by both sides, a fact 
 interesting as illustrating the times when an European judge took gifts as 
 a matter of course. Among the nations at higher levels of culture in the 
 East, for instance, most of the stages may still be seen through which the 
 administration of law, criminal and civil, was given over to a trained 
 legal class. One important stage in history is marked by religion taking 
 to itself legal control over the conduct of a nation. The working of 
 this is seen among Oriental nations, whether Mohammedan, Brahman 
 or Buddhist, whose codes of law are of an ecclesiastical type, and the 
 
 2 G 2
 
 436 HINTS TO TKAVELLERS. 
 
 lawyers theologians. There is much to he learnt from the manner 
 in which such law is administered, and the devices are interesting 
 by which codes framed under past conditions of society are practically 
 accommodated to a new order of things, without professedly violating 
 laws held to be sacred, and therefore unchangeable. Ordeals, which have 
 now disappeared from legal procedure among European nations, are 
 often to be met with elsewhere. Thus in Arabia the ordeal by touching 
 or licking hot iron is still known (the latter is an easy and harmless 
 trick, if the iron is quite white-hot). In Burma, under native rule, the 
 ancient trial of witches by " swimming " went on till lately. In many 
 countries also symbolic oaths invoking evils on the perjurer are to be 
 met with, as when the Ostyaks in Siberia swear in court by laying their 
 hand on a bears head, meaning that a bear will kill them if they lie. It 
 shows the carelessness with which Europeans are apt to regard the 
 customs of other nations, that in English courts a Chinese is called upon 
 to swear by breaking a saucer, under the entirely erroneous belief that 
 this symbolic curse is a Chinese judicial oath. 
 
 The most undeveloped forms of government are only to be met with in 
 a few outlying regions, as among some of the lower Esquimaux or Eocky 
 Mountain tribes, where life goes on with hardly any rule beyond such 
 control as the strong man may have over his own household. Much 
 oftener travellers have opportunity of studying, in a more or less crude 
 state, the types of government which prevail in higher culture. It is of 
 e&pecial interest to see men of the whole tribe gathered in assembly (the 
 primitive agora) to decide some qiiestion of war or migration. Kot less 
 instructive are the proceedings of the council of old men (the primitive 
 senidi^, who, among American tribes or the hill tribes of India, transact 
 the business of the tribe ; they are represented at a later social stage by 
 the village-elders of the Hindus or the Eussians. Among the problems 
 which present themselves among nations below the civilised level is that 
 of the working of the patriarchal system, still prevailing among such tribes 
 as the Bedaween, while often the balance of power is seen adjusting itself 
 between the i^atriarchal heads of families and the leaders who obtain 
 authority by success in war. The struggle between the hereditary chief 
 or king and the military despot, who not only usurps his place but seeks 
 to establish hereditary monarchy in his own line, is one met with from 
 low to high levels of national life. The traveller's attention may be
 
 AJSTHROPOLOGY. 437 
 
 called to the social forces whicli do their work independently oi" men in 
 authority, and make society possible, even when there is little visible 
 authority at all. The machinery of government described in books is 
 often much less really powerful than public opinion, which controls 
 men's conduct in ways which are so much less conspicuous that they 
 have hardly yet been investigated with the care they deserve. 
 
 Beligion and Mythology. — While great religions, like Mohammedanism 
 and Buddhism, have been so carefully examined that European students 
 often know more about their sacred books than the believers themselves, 
 yet the general investigation of the religions of the world is very im- 
 perfect, and every effort should be made to save the details from being 
 lost as one tribe after another disappears, or passes into a new belief. 
 Missionaries have done much in recording particulars of native religions, 
 and some have had the skill to describe them scientifically; but the point 
 of view of the missionary engaged in conversion to another faith is un- 
 favourable for seeing the reasons of the beliefs and practices he is striving 
 to upset. The object of the anthropologist is neither to attack nor defend 
 the doctrines of the religion he is examining, but to trace their rational 
 origin and development. It is not only among the rudest tribes that 
 religious ideas which seem of a primitive order may be met with, but 
 these hold their place also among the higlier nations who profess a 
 "book-religion." Thus the English or German peasant retains many 
 ideas belonging to the ancestral religion of Thor and Woden, and the 
 modern Burmese, though a Buddhist, carries on much of the old worship 
 of the spirits of the house and the forest, which belong to a far earlier 
 religious stratum than Buddhism. It is in many districts possible for 
 the traveller to obtain at first hand interesting information as to the 
 philosophical ideas which underlie all religions. All over the world, 
 people may be met with whose conception of soul or spirit is that belong- 
 ing to primitive animism, namely, that the life or soul of men, beasts, or 
 things, resides in the phantoms of them seen in dreams and visions. 
 Quite lately, a traveller in British Guiana had serious trouble with one of 
 his Arawaks, who, having dreamt that another had spoken impudently 
 to him, on waking up went quite naturally to his master to get the 
 offender punished. So it is reported that our officials in Buiina have 
 considered themselves disrespectfully treated when the wife or servant 
 of the person they have come to see has refused to wake him, the
 
 438 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Englislimau uot understanding that these people hold early animistic 
 ideas, believing the soul to be away from the sleeper's body in a dream, 
 so that it might not find its way back if he were disturbed. As scientific 
 ideas of the nature of life and dreams are rapidly destroying these primi- 
 tive conceptions, it is desirable to collect all information about them for 
 its important bearing on the history of philosophy and religion. The 
 same m;iy be said as to the ancient theory of diseases as caused by 
 demons, and the cx^Dulsion and exorcism of them as a means of cure, 
 which may still be studied everywhere outside the scientific nations. In- 
 formation as to religious rites is of course valuable, even when the foreign 
 observer does not understand them, but if possible their exact meaning 
 should be made out by some one acquainted with the language, other- 
 wise acts may be confused which have really different senses, as where a 
 morsel of food offered as a pious offering to an ancestral ghost may be 
 taken for a sacrifice to appease an angry wood-demon. A people's idea 
 as to the meaning of their own rites may often be very wrong, but it is 
 always worth while to hear what they think of the purpose of their 
 prayers, sacrifices, purifications, fasts, feasts, and other religious ordi- 
 nances, which even among savage tribes have been long since stereotyped 
 into traditional systems. 
 
 Mythology is intimately mixed uj) with religion, which not only ascribes 
 the events of the world to the action of spirits, demons, or gods, but 
 everywhere individualises many of these beings under i")ersonal names, 
 and receives as sacred tradition wonder-tales about them. Thus, to 
 understand the religion of some tribes, we have not only to consider the 
 rude philosophy under which such objects as heaven and eartli or sun and 
 moon- are regarded as personal beings, whose souls (so to sjieak) are the 
 heaven-god and earth-god, the sun-god and moon-god ; but we have to go 
 on further and collect the religious myths which have grown on to these 
 superhuman beings. The tales which such a peoj^le tell of their origin 
 and past history may to some extent include traditions of real events, 
 but mostly they consist of myths, which are also worth collecting, as they 
 often on examination disclose their origin, or part of it. This is seen, for 
 instance, in the South Sea Island tale of the god Maui, whose death, when 
 he plunged into the body of his great ancestress the Night, is an obvious 
 myth of the sunset. The best advice as to native mythology is to write 
 down all promising native stories, leaving it to futui-e examination to
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 43D 
 
 decide wliicli are worth publishing. The native names of personages 
 occ^^rring in such stories should be inquired into, as they sometimes carry 
 in themselves the exj^lanation of the story itself, like the name of Great^ 
 Woman-Night in the Polynesian myth just referred to. Eiddles are some- 
 times interesting, as being myths with an explanation attached, like the 
 Greek riddle of the twelve black and twelve white horses that draw the 
 chariot of the day. It is not too much to say that everything which a 
 peoj^le thinks worth remembering as a popular tradition, and all the more 
 if it is fixed in rhyme or verse, is worth notice, as likely to contain some- 
 thing of historical value. That it may not be historically true is beside the 
 question, for the j)oetic fictions of a tribe often throw more light on their 
 history than their recollections of petty chiefs who quarrelled fifty years 
 ago. The myths may record some old custom or keep up some old word 
 that has died out of ordinary talk, or the very fact of their containing a 
 story known elsewhere in the world may give a clue to forgotten inter- 
 course by which it was learnt. 
 
 Customs. — It remains to say a few words as to the multifarious customs 
 which will come under the traveller's observation. It does not follow 
 that because these may be mentioned or described in books they need not 
 be further looked into. The fact is that accurate examination in such 
 matters is so new, that something always remains to be made out 
 especially as the motives of so many customs are still obscure. The 
 practice of artificially deforming the infant's skull into a desired shape, 
 which is not quite forgotten even in Europe, may be noticed with respect 
 to the question whether the form to which the child's head is bulged or 
 flattened is the exaggeration of the natural form of an admired caste or 
 race. If not, what can, for instance, have induced two British Columbian 
 tribes, one to flatten their foreheads and the other to mould them up to a 
 peak ■? In tattooing, an even more widespread practice, it is well to ascer- 
 tain whether the pattern on the skin seems to have been originally tribe- 
 marks or other signs or records, or whether the purpose is ornament. In 
 South-east Asia the two motives are present at once, when a man has 
 ornamental designs and magical charm-figures together on his body. With 
 regard to ornaments and costumes, the keeping-up of ancient patterns for 
 ceremonial jDurposes often affords curious historical hints. Thus in the 
 Eastern Archipelago, the old-fashioned garments of bark-cloth are used 
 in mourning by people who have long discarded them in ordinary wear,
 
 440 HINTS TO TRAVELLEKS. 
 
 and another case is found among some natives of South India, whose 
 women, though they no longer put on an apron of leaves as their real 
 ordinary garment, wear it over a cotton skirt on festival-days. Among 
 the amusements of a peoi:)lc, songs are often interesting musically, and 
 it is well to take them down, not only for the tunes but also for the 
 words, which sometimes throw light on old traditions and beliefs. 
 Dancing varies from spontaneous expression of emotion to complex 
 figures handed down by tradition and forming part of social and re- 
 ligious ceremony. The numl)er of popular games in the world is smaller 
 than would be supposed. When really attractive they may be adopted 
 from one people to another till they make their way round the world. 
 Any special variety, as of ball or draughts, should therefore be noticed, 
 as it may furnish evidence of intercourse by which it may have come 
 from some distant nation. 
 
 Though the subjects of anthropological interest are not even fully 
 enumerated in the present chapter, some idea may have been given of the 
 field of observation still open to travellers, not only in remote countries, 
 but even in Europe. In taking notes, the explorer may be recommended 
 not to be afraid of tedious minuteness, whereas the lively superficiality of 
 pojjular books of travel makes them almost worthless for anthropology.* 
 
 QuEBiES ON Antheopology.— 5// A. W. Franks, c.b., f.r.s. 
 
 Keej)er of British and Mediseval Antiquities and Ethnography, British 
 
 Museum. 
 
 I. Physical Character. 
 
 Average height of men and women in each tribe. 
 
 Woolliness of hair. 
 
 Prognathism. 
 
 Strength in lifting and carrying weights, &c. 
 
 * More extended accounts of the departments of the Science of Man here 
 noticed, and a list of works useful to advanced students, will be found in Tyler's 
 ' Anthropology : an Introduction to the Study of Man and Civilisation ' 
 (Macmillau and Co., 2ud ed., 1889). [Editors.]
 
 QUERIES ON ANTHROPOLOGY. 441 
 
 Speed in nmniDg. 
 
 Accuracy of aim. 
 
 Knowledge of numbers, weights, and measures. 
 
 II. Mode of Suhsistence. 
 
 Whether mainly by hunting, or by pastoral or agricultural pursuits. 
 Any instances of dwellings in caves. 
 
 Use of boats ; forms of boats and of paddles ; mode of paddling. 
 
 Any particular stratagems used in hunting, snares and traps ; imple- 
 ments for hunting ; use of dogs and of cross-bows, as well as bows and 
 arrows. 
 
 Fishing: nets; tish-hooks; spears; any javelins or arrows with loose 
 heads attached by a cord. 
 
 Modes of cooking, and implements used; any particular observances 
 ill cooking or at meals; any separation of sexes at meals. How is fire 
 pro iuced ? and are any persons charged with the preservation of it ? 
 
 Forms and construction of houses. Separation of the sexes. 
 
 Furniture of houses. 
 
 Plans of towns and fortifications. 
 
 Plants cultivated for food or manufactures ; agricultural implements. 
 
 III. Reli(/io)i (tud Cuafoms. 
 
 What are the idols and their names ? Is there any distinction between 
 them in importance? What worship is paid to them? and what offerings 
 are made, and on what occasions? 
 
 Are there any particular superstitions ? What fetishes or amulets are 
 used ? by whom are tliey made ? Are tliere any forms of divination, any 
 use of casting lots with cowries, ordeals by poison or otherwise? 
 
 Cannibalism, and motives for tlie same. 
 
 Funeral rites. Belief in a future state. Deposit of objects with the 
 dead, and whether deposited broken or whole, in or on the graves. 
 
 IV- Arts and M<ini(factures. 
 
 Mode of spinning and weaving ; patterns and materials employed. 
 
 Dyeing and nature of dyes. 
 
 Any mode of preparing and working leather.
 
 442 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Any knowledge of glass-making. If not acquainted with the manufac- 
 ture of glass, do they melt down broken European glass and beads to make 
 armlets and other ornaments ? 
 
 Musical instruments: their forms, nature, and names. 
 
 Knowledge of jjottery and mode of manufacture. 
 
 Use and manufacture of tobacco and other narcotics; forms of tobacco- 
 pipes: any ceremonies connected with smoking; use of snuff; snuff- 
 bottles. 
 
 Manufacture and trade in salt, wine, beer, or other liquors. 
 
 Knowledge of simples and medical remedies, cupping, &c. 
 
 Ivory and wood-carving. 
 
 Metallurgy : working in the various metals, whether by a special class 
 of people or tribes ; implements used in smelting, &c. Where are the 
 ores obtained ? 
 
 Is there any knowledge of precious stones ? 
 
 V. Personal Ornaments, Disfigurements, &c. 
 
 Are there any special marks made by tattooing or cicatrices to distin- 
 guish the various tribes ? are they the same in both sexes ? Drawings 
 of these marks would be very desirable, distinguishing each tribe. 
 
 Are the teeth filed or knocked out ? If the former, into what shapes 
 are they tiled ? when is the filing effected ? and is it the same for both 
 sexes ? 
 
 Is antimony used for the eyelids ? and how is it applied ? 
 
 Are ear -ornaments worn by either sex ? are they pendent or inserted in 
 the lobe ? Are there any nose or lip ornaments ? 
 
 Is the hair cut into any peculiar shape, or is its colour altered by 
 dyeing ? 
 
 Is any cap or protection worn on the penis, as by the Kafirs and other 
 tribes ? 
 
 Any peculiarities of dress for men and women ? any distinction between 
 married and unmarried ? 
 
 What protection is worn in battle ? What are the forms of the weapons ? 
 and is any missile weapon in use ? 
 
 Are any marks used as distinctions for bravery, success in hunting 
 or rank ?
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL QUESTIONS. 443 
 
 VI. Ivory and Wood Carving. 
 If elephant ivory is not of native origin, where is it obtained ? Are 
 any other materials of the same nature employed in carving, such as 
 walrus-tusk, cachalot teeth, &c. ? Are any very hard woods employed ; 
 and if so, how are they worked ? 
 
 VII. Money. 
 What kinds of money are in use ? Do the coins pass by weight as 
 bullion, or have they a recognised value ? Are any objects such as iron 
 bars or tools, salt, pieces of cotton, cowries, beads, wampum, &c., em- 
 ployed as a means of exchange ? If so employed, is there any recognised 
 way in which their value is certified, or is their value the subject of 
 bargain in each case ? 
 
 VIII. MisceUaneous. 
 
 Any knowledge of the stars and constellations ? 
 
 What games are in use ? and liow are they played ? 
 
 Are any ancient stone implements found among the natives ? and have 
 they any superstitious regard for them ? 
 
 Are any peculiar ornaments lased in dancing ? 
 
 Are there any modes of marking property ? 
 
 Are wooden pillows in use? and do their forms differ according to 
 tribes ? 
 
 It may be added that the native names will in all cases be very de- 
 sirable. 
 
 Ethnological Questions. — By J. G. Feazer. 
 
 {Supplementary to those o/Mr. Tyloe and Mr. Franks.) 
 
 1. Are the tribes, clans, or families named after common objects, as 
 animals or plants? Note down all such names. Have the tribes, clan?, 
 &c., any special beliefs or superstitions regarding the things whose names 
 they bear? e/j., if they are named after an animal, may they eat this 
 animal ? May person.s of the same name marry or have sexual connection
 
 444 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 witli each other? if not, wliy not? Note all cases of forbidden foods, 
 with tlie reasons assigned for the prohibitions. 
 
 2. Any ceremonies before the setting out or after the return of a 
 hiinting, fishing, or war party? Do the hunters, fishers, or warriors 
 perform any ceremonies, or observe any special rules as to diet, sleeping, 
 using certain words, &c., while they are hunting, &c. ? Are the persons left 
 at home boimd to observe any sjiecial rules during the absence of the 
 hunters, fishers, or warriors? Is a man who has killed an enemy or 
 any large game obliged to jDcrform certain ceremonies, or to observe a 
 special regimen for a time? Are men obliged to abstain from women 
 at these times (war, hunting, &c.), or at any other times ? if so, why ? 
 
 3. Any superstitious observances at cutting down trees, building 
 houses, clearing laud for cultivation, turning up the soil (by hoeing or 
 ]iloughing), sowing, ripening of the crops, and harvest? Any rules as 
 to eating the new corn, rice, yams, &c. ? Any ceremonies for the making 
 of rain or of fine weather ? If land is held in common, how is the 
 produce distributed ? 
 
 4. Any system of taboo? Who can impose a taboo? and for what 
 inirposes? Is it used to protect property? "What is the effect of 
 breaking a taboo ? 
 
 5. Any periodic festivals, as at the solstices, equinoxes, or New Year ? 
 Is the beginning of the New Year determined by any agricultural season, 
 as harvest or sowing ? Any period of general licence and lawlessness at 
 the New Year, or at any other time? Any periodical expulsion of evil 
 (ghosts, demons, &c.)? any general atonement or purification of the 
 district or village at certain times, as the New Year ? Anything in the 
 nature of a scapegoat (human or animal) at the New Y^'ear, or any other 
 time ? Any periodic extinction of fire and solemn kindling of a new or 
 sacred fire ? Is the fire formally extinguished on other occasions, as after 
 a death, during a drought, &c. ? Is it kept as a rule perpetually burning, 
 and is its accidental extinction unlucky ? 
 
 6. Has each jierson a guardian spirit, patron object, or fetish (animal, 
 plant, stone, &c.), with which he believes that his life is bound up ? 
 How is such a guardian spirit or fetish acquired? How is it treated 
 in ordinary life and on special occasions, as sickness, war, &c. "What is 
 the exact relation between it and the man ? and between it and the totem 
 (sacred animal, plant, &c.) of the tribe or clan ?
 
 HINTS ON ANTHROPOLOGY. 445 
 
 7. Are kings and chiefs supposed to be endowed with supernatural 
 powers, as the power of making rain and sunshine, causing the crops to 
 grow, &c. ? Are they put to death for failing to exert the§e powers, or 
 for any other reason ? Have they to observe any peculiar rules of life? 
 
 Hints on Anthropology. — By H. H. Johnston. 
 
 I DO not know that I can add any observations of interest to the 
 admirable resume of the study of anthropology contributed by 
 Mr. E. B. Tylor to this manual, but I may offer a few practical 
 suggestions to travellers intending to visit savage countries which may 
 be of use to them, and which arc based on my own practical experience 
 of the difficulty in dealing with the untutored savage. 
 
 Tliere is no more fascinating study than the psychology and physical 
 condition of races which belong to other varieties of man than our own ; 
 with differences in mental and bodily constitution which, but for their 
 variability, would be almost specific in character. Indeed, were it not 
 that there are so many gradations between the Aiab and Negro, or 
 the Dravidian and Australian, judged by our fashion of dealing with 
 other mammalian forms, the Negro or Australian (but that their con- 
 necting links with the white men and the yellow are still existing) would 
 be as much or more entitled to be constituted separate species of the 
 genus Homo as the chimpanzee, the bald ape, and the gorilla are 
 reckoned as distinct and different si^ecies of the genus Anthropopitheciis. 
 Consequently, while the ediicated man of science finds his mind broadened 
 and refreshed by contemplating other races whose schemes of morality 
 and social economy are based on widely different premises to his own, and 
 whose physical organisation is, in common with the race's j^sychological 
 condition, often admirably adapted to the nature of their surroundings and 
 the exigencies of their mode of life, while he will study without prejudice 
 the different phases of humanity in the different quarters of the globe with 
 the same dispassionate interest with which he would regard the forms of 
 life evolved under totally different conditions in another planetary body, the 
 inexjoerienced European is too apt to approach the study of anthropology 
 full of the prejudices with which his Eurojican mode of thought has been
 
 446 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 surrounded. He forgets that tlie duty of an ol)server is to collect facts 
 without bias, and not to give xis his own partial opinion of them. And 
 because these practices are inconvenient or inexijedient in our own 
 civilised condition of existence, that is no reason why he should neglect 
 to describe them, or qualify them as "nasty," "indecent," horrible," 
 " absurd," or " wicked," when he encounters them among the tenets of 
 alien races. He should remember that to the scientific mind nothing is 
 common or unclean, nor is one organ less decent than another. It is 
 the duty of every civilised traveller in countries newly opened up to 
 research, to collect facts, plain unvarnished facts, for the information of 
 those leading minds of the age who, by dint of great experience, can ably 
 generalise from the details contributed from diverse sources. 
 
 Europeans, who are among the first to penetrate little known, little ex- 
 ploited lands, inhabited by races totally differing from our o-«-n, have often 
 failed to rightly exercise the great privilege which fate has conferred on 
 them, by not securing a i^recise knowledge of the strange peojile with whom 
 they come into contact for the first time. Facts gathered under these 
 conditions may be invaluable and irreplaceable. But under all conditions 
 of examining into the characteristics of an alien race of men, the traveller 
 should present himself before them with a perfectly ojDen mind. He 
 should not seal up the timid confidence of the savage, and check — 
 perhaps fatally — the outpouring of what might be of the greatest interest 
 to the scientific student of humanity, by deriding or condemning such 
 and such a custom, according as it may appear ridiculous or reprehensible 
 to his own i:)rejudiced views ; nor need he unnecessarily ofi"end the natives 
 by informing them that they are ape-like, or indecently naked, or pre- 
 posterously clothed, or endowed with an offensive odour. He should 
 remember that he himself may appear to them equally hideous, and 
 may resemble a devil in their eyes, just as they resemble apes in his; 
 that they think his clothing iinnatural and imhealthy, when they 
 themselves can live so comfortably and cleanly, with nothing to cover 
 their own glossy, well-oiled skins, and he ought to be able to recognise 
 that the peculiar smell proceeding from his own body which, to his own 
 olfactory sense, does not exist, is painfully unpleasant in their savage 
 nostrils. 
 
 In collecting facts about anthropology, whatever you do, avoid vague- 
 ness. It is better to describe one custom, one style of architecture, one
 
 HINTS ON ANTHROPOLOGY. 447 
 
 individual's body, one religious ceremony -with minuteness, even to the 
 neglect of everything else (from the want of time), than to lay before us 
 on your return a series of vague general remarks that the scientific anthro- 
 pologist will toss aside in disdain. Where you can obtain precise body 
 measurements, as according to the rules laid down in the various manuals 
 of anthropology, such will prove of the greatest interest and value. 
 
 Always photograph, if you can, in preference to drawing. A really 
 careful drawing is of course as good as a photograph, but it will not be 
 received by scientific men with the same amount of trust in its authen- 
 ticity as a photograph ; moreover, to make a study of a man's face or 
 body that shall be as correct as a photograph, you must have had a 
 preliminary education in drawing, which few explorers have ever had 
 the leisure to undergo. Still, where it is impossible to use photography 
 or accurate anthropometric instruments, rough sketches or measure- 
 ments are not to be despised. They will, at any rate, serve to give some 
 idea of the race you have encountered. You will probably find tliat 
 savage races have the very strongest objection to be measured, and in 
 such cases it is better to abandon the idea altogether until you have 
 resided long amongst them. The same remark applies to both painting 
 and photography. All these practices must be gradually introduced to 
 the native mind, and not sprung upon it with alarming abruptness. 
 
 If possilile, your photographs of groups and individuals should betaken 
 instantaneously, and without deliberate posing, which will never represent 
 your subjects in their natural aspect. You should watch your oppor- 
 tunity with some one of the many handy little pocket-cameras now in 
 vogue, and photograph the natives in their most characteristic attitudes 
 and engaged in their customary occuixations. As in literary descriptions, 
 so in artistic representation, always avoid generalisation as much as 
 possible, and make careful minute studies of individuals rather than of 
 groups and assemblages of people. Endeavour to get into conversation 
 with the natives as much as possible, either directly, or throiigh inter- 
 preters. Encourage them to talk on any subject that interests them, and 
 write down phonetically words and phrases that fall from their mouths. 
 Savages often speak with much more clearness, slowness, and distinctness 
 than we do, and you will find it not very difficult, when you are used to 
 phonetic writing, to report whole conversations pretty much as they are 
 uttered. When you translate these afterwards, with the help of your
 
 448 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 interpreter, mauy curious facts and oxpressious and ideas will be brought 
 to light which you probably would not have elicited by direct questioning. 
 At the same time, question the natives when they are in a communicative 
 mood. Enquire into all the details of their lives. Take care, as I have 
 said before, not to repel them by any expression of your own opinion of 
 certain facts they may reveal, and you will collect a series of most valuable 
 memoranda on the condition of the uncivilised mind. Endeavour to 
 make your notes like your pictures and photographs. Write down things 
 of interest as you hear them or see them, and do not trust more than you 
 can help to the deceptive gloss of memory. 
 
 With regard to languages, where there is not time to make a profound 
 study of the forms of sjieech spoken around you, you may nevertheless 
 collect in a short time data very valuable to philologists. Tho.se who 
 intend to collect vocabularies in the districts they travel through (and 
 all who explore new countries should endeavour to do so), should have 
 these vocabularies printed in pamphlets, with six other blank columns on 
 the page, besides the column of English words, so that among related 
 languages the vocabulary will have a comparative character (words for 
 the same subject being placed side by side) that will enable the student 
 to ascertain the relative degree of relationship between the different 
 dialects at a glance. In compiling the vocabularies, the student should 
 be exceedingly careful as to orthography, and not perpetrate the 
 monstrosities in spelling of which English explorers, down to a quite 
 recent date, have been guilty. 
 
 Statistics of Strength, Stature, etc. — Bi/ Fraxcis Galton, f.r.s. 
 
 It is not in the power of a traveller to measure a large number of half- 
 savage natives individually, but it is well within his power to obtain 
 approximate and valuable statistics concerning their stature, strength, 
 keenness of eyesight, speed, accuracy of aim, and much else, by a very 
 simple process. It enables him to calculate with a degree of precision (that 
 only those who are familiar with such experiences would easily credit), 
 not only the usual averages, but also the proportion of the people whose 
 strength, stature, &c., exceeds any value that may be mentioned. The
 
 STATISTICS OF STRENGTH, STATURE, ETC. 449 
 
 observations consists of two (or better of three) " pass-tests." The calcu- 
 lations are made by the aid of the subjoined Table I. 
 
 The simplest way of explaining the method is to work out an 
 example. Let us suppose that the traveller wishes to ascertain the 
 strength of the race of people he is among, as estimated by the weights 
 that different members of it are able to lift. For this purpose, he must 
 select two (or better, three) heavy objects, such as packages or stones, of 
 such weights that only a few of the natives will fail to hft the one, while 
 many of them will fail to lift the other. He must ascertain the exact 
 weights of these packages at his leisure, either before or after the experi- 
 ment. Call their weights respectively A and B. Then let him induce 
 adult male natives in crowds to try their strength upon them. He may, 
 to this end, good-humouredly, but discreetly, taunt them with accusations 
 of weakness, and offer small prizes to the strongest. He has lastly to 
 note (1) the number of the men who were submitted to the experiment, 
 (2) the number of those who failed to lift A, and (3) the number of 
 those who failed to lift B. This completes the observations. He must 
 then reduce these figures to percentages, viz., out of every 100 persons n 
 fail to lift A and m fail to lift B. 
 
 All the required results can be deduced from these data by the help 
 of Table I., according to the method summarised in Tables II. and 
 III., and exj^lained more fully as follows : — 
 
 The data in the first of the examples in Table II., are that 30 per cent. 
 (n) of the natives fail to lift 68 lbs. (A), and that 60 per cent. (?n) fail to 
 lift 77 lbs. (B). Call these percentages of w = 30 and 7n=60 by the name 
 of " grades 30'^ and 60° " (the reason for doing so is explained in the note 
 at the end of the last paragraph, p. 453). Then look in Table I. for the values 
 a and h corresponding to the grades 30° and 60° respectively ; they are a = 
 -078 and 6= +0-38. We have next to find the value of B-A divided 
 by h—a. To obtain B — A, we subtract 68 from 77, which gives 9 lbs. ; 
 to obtain h-a, we add + 0"78 to + 0-38, which gives 1-16, because the 
 subtraction of — 0'78 is the same thing as the addition of -f- 0'78. 
 Then dividing B — A by 6 — or,, that is 9 lbs. by 1-16, we obtain 7*8 lbs. 
 This determines the value of Q, which measures the varia^'Uity in strength 
 among the supposed natives, and it enables us to calculate how much the 
 strengths of the men who occupy tlie various grades, or class places, 
 exceed or fall short of the median strength of all of them. (The median, M, 
 
 2 H
 
 450 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 is i>ractically the same as the average, and will he here treated as such.) 
 To do so, we, in any desired case, multiply the tabular values in Table I. 
 by Q. Thus the tabular value corresponding to grade 4'' lieing — 2'60, it 
 follows that the inferiority in lifting power of the men who occupy 
 that grade, below the average power, is— 2'GO x G IIjs. = 15'6 Hjs. Lastly, 
 we are able by working backwards, to calculate the average strength of 
 all the men ; thus finding, as is shown in Table III., that the strength of 
 the man at grade 30° is Qxa = 7'8x7"8 = 6'l lbs. (or say 6 lbs.) below 
 the average of all the people, and knowing that the actual strength of 
 that man is 68 lbs., it follows that the average strength of all the men 
 is C8 + 6 = 74 lbs. Again, as the strength of the man at grade 60° 
 is Q X Z) = 7"8 X 3'8 = 3 lbs. above the average, and knowing that his 
 actual strength is 77 lbs., it follows that the average strength of all the 
 people is 77 — 3 = 74 lbs. as before. 
 
 The second example refers to stature ; it is treated in exactly the same 
 way as the first. In the third examj^le of weight, three test values have 
 been used. A, B, and C, and the values of Q and M are calculated 
 independently from the data of A and B, of A and C, and of B and C 
 respectively. It will be observed how nearly these three pairs of results 
 agree together, and that the three determinations of M are identical. 
 
 The data used in these examples are not fancifully invented for the 
 purpose, but are selected at hazard from a classified set of actual 
 measurements. The results obtained from them by the heljD of Table I. 
 are seen to be almost identical with those that had been arrived at 
 by the laborious measurements of very many individuals, after per- 
 forming the usual and somew-hat tedious arithmetic o2)erations. I ought 
 however, to say that the figures given in the examples as referring 
 to strength of lifting, in reality referred to strength of pull with the arm 
 as in drawing a bow, but they serve equally well as an example of the 
 method of working. I had no observations of lifting weights available. 
 
 Numerous other topics are suitable for inquiry by this method ; among 
 them are — 
 
 Keenness of eyesight — by distinguishing objects at different measured 
 distances. The experiment should be made in a full, but not dazzling, 
 light, and on a clear day. The objects may be cleanly cut squares of 
 white paper, say 1^ in. in the side, on a broad black ground. Some- 
 times the square is to be sho^vn with one of its diagonals in a
 
 STATISTICS OF STRENGTH, STATURE, ETC. 451 
 
 vertical line, sometimes with two of its sides vertical, the test being 
 the power of distinguishing between the two positions. The experimenter 
 should stand behind the man who is being tested, and should use an 
 opera-glass. An assistant changes the squares according to his signals. 
 Very little indeed is known witli certainty about the relative keenness of 
 eyesight of savages and civilised men, after due allowance has been made 
 for the advantage that the former have in their familiarity with the 
 appearance of distant game, and other common objects in their country. 
 Their power of vision has often been largely exaggerated, especially by 
 short-sighted and spectacled men of science, who have sometimes naively 
 wondered at the superior powers of ordinarily gifted men in distinguishing 
 what their own imj^erfect eyes were unable to see. 
 
 Piunning — -by noting the number of those in a foot-race who pass a 
 mark at a measured distance, on the way to the goal, in three different 
 measured intervals of time. 
 
 Accuracy of aim with arrows, spears, gun, sling, woomerang, &c. Here 
 it is necessary to pay separate regard to the horizontal and vertical 
 distances from the bull's-eye. 
 
 Distance of throw. 
 
 Endurance of fatigue of man and beast, by records of past performances 
 over two or more stages of similar country, but of different lengths. 
 
 The traveller should always take the opportunity of ascertaining the 
 grade he occupies among the natives in each respect, according to the same 
 tests that he employs with them. He should therefore let one of the 
 pass-tests be an object that he him.self can only just succeed with. The 
 experiments will then t(;ach him at once the proportion of the natives 
 who are his superiors or inferiors in each several faculty. On returning 
 home, he can be carefully tested afresh by approved laboratory methods, 
 and any errors in his own methods of testing the natives can be found 
 oixt, and the results he arrived at about them can be corrected accordingly. 
 
 Very great pains should be taken to ascertain and to specify the class 
 of persons who are submitted to measurement, as an accidental bias in 
 selection with resjject to occupation, nourishment, race, age, &c., may 
 have severally large effects upon the results. The group examined for 
 statistical purj^oses should always be as homogeneous as possible, and 
 it should be a perfectly fair sample of the sort of persons it i)rofesses 
 to illustrate. 
 
 2 H 2
 
 452 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLEES. 
 
 I. — Table of Deviations. 
 
 Tho Grades of Classification run from 0° to 100°. The Unit of Deviation, called Q, 
 is equal to half the difference between the Measures at the grades of 
 25° and 75°. 
 
 Grades 
 
 0° 
 
 1° 
 
 2° 
 
 3° 
 
 4° 
 
 5° 
 
 6° 
 
 7° 
 
 8° 
 
 9° 
 
 (f 
 
 Infinite 
 
 -3-45 
 
 -yo5 
 
 -2-79 
 
 — 2'6o 
 
 -2-44 
 
 -2-31 
 
 -2-19 
 
 -2-08 
 
 -1-99 
 
 10" 
 
 -I 90 
 
 -1-82 
 
 -l^^4 
 
 — I '67 
 
 -i-6o 
 
 -1-54 
 
 -1-47 
 
 -1-42 
 
 -1-36 
 
 -1-30 
 
 20° 
 
 -1-25 
 
 -I -20 
 
 -I-I5 
 
 — I-IO 
 
 -1-05 
 
 — fOO 
 
 -0-95 
 
 -0-91 
 
 -0-86 
 
 -0-82 
 
 30° 
 
 -o'-jS 
 
 -0-74 
 
 -0-69 
 
 -0-65 
 
 -o'6i 
 
 -0-57 
 
 -0-53 
 
 -0-49 
 
 -0-45 
 
 -0-41 
 
 40° 
 
 -0-38 
 
 -0-J4 
 
 — O'JO 
 
 —0-26 
 
 — 0-22 
 
 — 0*19 
 
 -0-I5 
 
 — o-ii 
 
 -0*07 
 
 —0-04 
 
 50° 
 
 O'OO 
 
 +0-04 
 
 + 0-07 
 
 + 0'II 
 
 + 0-15 
 
 +0-19 
 
 + 0-22 
 
 4-0-26 
 
 —0-30 
 
 4-0-34 
 
 60° 
 
 + 0-38 
 
 +0-41 
 
 + 0-45 
 
 +0-49 
 
 +0-53 
 
 + 0-57 
 
 4-0-6I 
 
 4-0-65 
 
 4-0-69 
 
 4-0-74 
 
 70° 
 
 + o-'i8 
 
 +0-82 
 
 + o*86 
 
 +0-91 
 
 + 0-95 
 
 + I-0O 
 
 4-1-05 
 
 + I-IO 
 
 4-I-I5 
 
 4-1-20 
 
 80° 
 
 + 1-25 
 
 + 1-30 
 
 + 1-36 
 
 + 1-42 
 
 + i-4'7 
 
 + 1-54 
 
 4- 1 -60 
 
 4-1-67 
 
 4-1-74 
 
 4-1-82 
 
 90° 
 
 + 1-90 
 
 + 1-99 
 
 + 2-08 
 
 + 2-19 
 
 +2-31 
 
 + 2-44 
 
 + 2-6o 
 
 4-2-79 
 
 4-3-05 
 
 -t-J-45 
 
 The 
 
 Table is to be read thus : — Grade 1°, tabular value = 
 10°, tabular value = —1-90 ; grade 11°, tabular value = 
 
 -3-45 
 •1-82. 
 
 grade 
 
 II. — Examples of Data. 
 
 Adult males. 
 
 Strength c 
 
 Stature 
 
 Weight j 
 
 (3 tests are used here') 5 
 
 The 
 lesser 
 test. 
 
 68 lbs. 
 65-8 ins. 
 125 lbs. 
 125 lbs. 
 139 lbs. 
 
 No. per 
 cent, who 
 fail is taken 
 
 as the 
 
 No. of the 
 
 grade in 
 
 Table I. 
 
 Tabular 
 value. 
 
 a 
 
 -0-78 
 
 -1-25 
 
 -1-90 
 -1-90 
 •■0-38 
 
 The 
 
 greater 
 
 test. 
 
 B 
 
 77 lbs. 
 69-2 ins. 
 1 39 lbs. 
 156 lbs. 
 
 i;f.lb?. 
 
 No. per 
 cent, who 
 fail is taken 
 
 as the 
 No. of the 
 grade in 
 Table I. 
 
 60° 
 7o<^ 
 40° 
 
 Tabular 
 value. 
 
 4-0-33 
 4-0-78 
 -0-38 
 4-1-25 
 4-1-25
 
 STATISTICS OF STRENGTH, STATURE, ETC. 453 
 
 III, — Calculations from the above Data compared with Observation. 
 
 Adult males. 
 
 B-A 
 
 b-a 
 
 B-A 
 
 h—a 
 
 =Q 
 
 QXa 
 
 QX& 
 
 A-Qa 
 
 or 
 B-Qb 
 =M 
 
 Obser- 
 ved 
 value 
 ofM 
 
 Obser- 
 ved 
 
 value 
 ofQ 
 
 Strength in lbs. 
 
 9 
 
 I -16 
 
 T8 
 
 - 6-1 
 
 + ro 
 
 74-1 
 
 74-0 
 
 7-6 
 
 Stature in inches . . 
 
 r4 
 
 2-0} 
 
 1-7 
 
 — 2'I 
 
 + I-J 
 
 67-9 
 
 67-9 
 
 1-7 
 
 
 14 
 
 1-52 
 
 9-2 
 
 -ITS 
 
 -i-5 
 
 142-5 
 
 14J 
 
 10- I 
 
 Weight in lbs 
 
 Three tests . . . . 
 
 31 
 
 ri5 
 
 9-8 
 
 -i8-6 
 
 + 12-3 
 
 143-6 
 
 143 
 
 lo-i 
 
 
 17 
 
 1-63 
 
 IO-4 
 
 - 4-0 
 
 + IJ-0 
 
 i4ro 
 
 143 
 
 lo-i 
 
 Mem. ; When making the subtractions, regard must be paid to the plus and 
 minus signs of the tabular values, bearing in mind that the subtraction of a 
 negative value is the same thing as the addition of a positive one. 
 
 Note. — Table I. is calculated on the basis of the theoretical law of frequency 
 of error, to which all variables tend to conform. That is to say, the deviations 
 at the several grades are always nearly constant in their proportions among 
 themselves, whatever the scale of the variability may be. Q is a measure of 
 that scale. It is called the " probable error" of any single observation, it being 
 an equal chance that the difference between any single observation, taken at 
 hazard, and the average of all the observations, exceeds or falls short of Q. 
 
 The Table may be briefly described as an inverse rendering of the well- 
 known values of the " probability integral," reduced to a scale in which the 
 probable error, and not the modulus, is the unit. It is widely applicable to 
 the measures of variable objects of the same general description. The details of 
 its construction are explained at length in the author's work, Natural Inheritance 
 (Macmillan, 1889), where Table I. is also printed. It is impossible to go further 
 into the subject here, except to explain why the number per cent, of those who 
 fail is considered to be equivalent to that of the grade corresponding to a bare 
 success. First suppose the class to consist of 100 men, then, as the grades run 
 from 0^ to 100°, the grade of the 1st man lies between 0° and 1°; that of the 
 20th man between 19° and 20° ; and that of the 100th man, between 99° and 100° 
 Now if the 20th man fails and the 21st man succeeds, the half-way position 
 corresponds to that of bare success, and it coincides with the 20th grade. Next 
 suppose the class to consist of 1000 men, and that the 200th is the last who 
 fails and the 201st the first who succeeds. The grade of the former is 19° -95, 
 and that of the latter is 20° "05; therefore, as before, the s-rade of bare success 
 i8 20°-0.
 
 454 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Fingeu-Prints. By Francis Galton, F.R.S. 
 
 As a means of providing against possible future difficulties connected 
 ■with identification, an intending traveller might ^vell take the small 
 trouble of having prints made of tlie bulbs of the fore, middle, and ring 
 fingers of his right hand, to be preserved at home with his photograph. 
 Finger-prints afford a perfectly sure means of personal identification, 
 those of no two persons being so much alike as to be indistinguishable by 
 an expert using a lens, the forks and other minute details in the fine 
 cajHllary ridges, continuing unchanged throughout life, and remaining 
 after death until effaced by decomposition. A letter of safe conduct 
 enclosing the prints of the person to whom it refers, is an easy safeguard 
 against its use by another whose prints are conspicuously different in 
 their general patterns. 
 
 Travellers who follow the usual course of instruction at the Eoyal 
 Geographical Society may have their prints taken there and preserved. 
 Any i)rinter who understands what is wanted would be able to take them 
 properly, if first instructed to spread the ink over his slab in a very thin 
 layer, lest the delicate furrow^s in the bulb of the finger should be clogged 
 with ink, and blot the impression when the finger is afterwards j^ressed on 
 paper. Distinctness in the impression is the primary object, and not 
 blackness. Good finger-prints are usually brown. There are other but 
 less good ways of taking impressions of the fingers. Thus a person may 
 ink them by lightly touching a pad used for inking oflice-stamps, and 
 then imiiressing them on paper. Or a j)iece of crockery, glass, or smooth 
 metal may be smoked modn-atcJy over a flame and the finger pressed on 
 the smoked surface and then on paper that has been rendered sliylithj 
 damp and adhesive by gum, weak glue, imste, or even by hcking it with 
 the tongue. Casts are not so serviceable as prints. Sealing-wax that 
 has been well and long stirred while aflame and then allowed to cool 
 on the surface, takes beautiful impressions without paining the fingers. 
 A surface of half-dried varnish takes permanent marks. Dough (as used 
 for bread seals) takes faint but fairly legible impressions.
 
 PAPEE MOULDINa. 455 
 
 Paper Moulding of Monuments, oe "Squeezes." 
 
 By A. P. Maudslay. 
 
 The paper which I have found to be most suitable for this purpose is 
 a hand-made paper commonly used for wrapping up oranges in Spain 
 when they are packed for export. It can be obtained from Messrs : 
 Batalla, of Cacagente, near Valencia, through the agency of Messrs, 
 H. King & Co., of Cornhill. But good moulds have been made by Mr. 
 Purdon Clarke with native made i^aper both in Egypt and India, and a 
 serviceable i^aper is now made in America, and, at a pinch, newspaj^er, 
 or almost any paper, will serve to take an impression if sufficient 
 13atience is exercised. 
 
 The process of moulding is a very simple one. Soak some sheets of 
 paper in water, and, after wetting the surface of the carving of which 
 you wish to secure a mould, cover it sheet by sheet with the wet paper, 
 beating in each sheet to the form of the carving with a clothes-brush. 
 As the paper will break, and leave portions of the carving bare, this 
 process must be repeated until none of the surface of the carving can be 
 seen. Then give the mould a good coat of paste, and, after waiting a few 
 minutes, lay on more sheets of wet pa^oer, beating them in as before ; a 
 second coat of paste is almost always needed, and then beat in more 
 sheets of paper. Leave the mould on the sculpture to dry thoroughly, 
 and, when dry, loosen it round the edges and pull it off. The mould 
 must be made thick enough to keep its shape when dry. 
 
 The above is a sufficient description of the in'ocess ; but the following 
 notes, which are the result of many experiments and considerable ex- 
 perience will be found of use. 
 
 Paper can only projierly be ajiplied for the purpose of moulding when 
 the carving is free from large contours and deep ixudercutting; but it is 
 wonderful what accurate results can be obtained even when large curves 
 and some undercutting have to be contended against. Where worn or 
 S])lintered parts of a wood-carving, or fissures in a stone, or deep under- 
 cutting which is not essential to the design, occur, it is often of advantage 
 to fill them up with clay or paper, to which a smooth surface can be 
 given, so that the mould will come away free from tiiem when it is dry ;
 
 456 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 and careful notes and mcaKurcnieiits will often enable one to restore the 
 contonr to a mould which has suffered some pressure in transport. In a 
 pro]icrly-made mould the detail of carving is never lost, unless the paper 
 itself is destroyed. 
 
 A shallow tin bath (or two made to fit inside one another), large 
 enough to hold an open sheet of paper, is useful for soaking the paper in. 
 Twenty sheets or more may be placed in the water at once, and may be 
 
 left there without harm for an hour or more ; but a few minutes' soaking 
 is quite enough. 
 
 I have several times had to mould in America the whole of a mono- 
 lithic mom;ment — one as much as tweuty-tive feet in height^ covered 
 with carving and hieroglyphic inscrij^tion, and have been perfectly 
 successful in reproducing it in plaster in England. Each face would be
 
 PAPER MOULDING. 
 
 457 
 
 marked out into three or more sections, and each section would be 
 moulded separately, great care being taken that each mould should con- 
 siderably overlap the margin of the other, so that when each section is 
 cast in plaster the edges of the cast can be cut away until the joint is 
 perfect. And each section should also overlap at the top and sides in 
 Xo. 1, and at the sides in No. 2, &c., for the same reason; and it is neces- 
 sary to pay careful attention to the beating in of the paper near the sides 
 and edges, as it is there that the layers are most likely to come apart 
 when dry. These edges can be trimmed down afterwards, if found too 
 bulky in packing. 
 
 The first sheets of paper should always be put on singly, and well 
 
 beaten in. If the carving presents many sharp angles, the paper will 
 again and again be broken away over them, and small scraps of paper may 
 be used for covering them up, until the whole section is covered at least 
 three papers deep in the thinnest place. The coat of paste should then be 
 given. If the paste is laid on when the mould is too thin, it will penetrate 
 to the stone, and prevent the mould coming off when dry. The paste 
 may be put on warm, but if too hot it draws the paper from the stone (if 
 it is a stone sculpture), air gets underneath the i^aper, and it is very 
 difficult to get rid of it again. Avoid, in putting on the first papers, 
 doubled edges or creases, and beat in well, so that the paper may work 
 into the grain of the stone or wood. It is easy to spoil a mould by
 
 458 
 
 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 scamping the work on it, but not easy to spoil it by overheating. After 
 giving a coat of paste with a brush, it is advisable to work in the paste 
 with the fingers, so as to be sure, from the smooth feeling, that it pene- 
 trates the paper over the whole surface. 
 
 After the first coat 'of paste has been applied, a good deal of time may 
 be saved by employing an assistant to beat out the paper for the further 
 
 thickening of the mould, for when thus beaten out, two or three thick- 
 nesses of paper can be laid on at the same time. Take about six sheets 
 together from the water, fold them, and then double them twice, and 
 slightly tear the wet doubled edges, so that when the sheets are laid open 
 again there are a number of small slits in the paper; then lay them out 
 together on any flat surface, and beat them out with a brush for a few
 
 PAPER MOULDING. 459 
 
 minutes. It is easy to separate them again into the required number of 
 sheets in thickness. 
 
 Another method which is equally good, if not better than the last, is, 
 after making the tears in the doubled sheets as before, to unfold them, 
 and then to roll them together and twist them up like a rope, and rub 
 them well between the hands ; then unroll them and beat them out for a 
 moment, separating as many sheets as are required. Either of these pro- 
 cesses loosens the fibre of the paper, whilst the slits prevent it stretching 
 unevenly. After this treatment it feels to the touch more like wet leather 
 than paper. 
 
 As the moiild grows thicker the pulpy paper will, from the continual 
 beating, find its way into, and fill up, the deeper cutting ; but it should 
 be most carefully watched that the mould is not left too thin over the 
 more prominent parts of the surface, and, with a little practice, the 
 thickness is easily judged by the touch. It is always well to use the 
 fingers frequently both in pressing the paper into its place and working 
 in the paste. 
 
 It is difficult to lay down any rule as to the thickness of a mould and 
 the number of coatings of paste necessary. If the mould is of large size, 
 and the carving presents prominent angles or large curves, it may need 
 an average of thirty sheets in thickness to preserve its shape, and three 
 or four coatings of paste; but if the carving is in low-relief on a flat 
 surface, less than half the thickness will suffice. 
 
 In hot weather, out of doors, a mould will take about twenty-four 
 hours to dry ; but it should be covered up at night from the dew. In 
 damp forests or in bad weather I have dried most of my moulds by 
 building up large wood fires at the distance of a few feet from the 
 sculjiture. 
 
 It is best to take off a mould when it is cool — in the morning or 
 evening. DonH he in a hurry about it. 
 
 If the mould is torn or broken in taking it off the carving, mend it 
 with paste at once. 
 
 When a mould is taken off, lay it to dry in the sun on a flat surface, 
 as there is usually some moisture left in it. If the mould is not flat in 
 shape, support it carefully, so as to preserve the contours. 
 
 When the mould is quite dry, it is advisable, but not necessary, to 
 give it, both back and front, one or more coats of boiled linseed oil.
 
 400 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Heat tlie oil before applying it, and it will then soak in well, and nse 
 rather a soft brush, and be careful in oiling the surface of the mould not 
 to rub too hard. 
 
 As the paper easily absorbs moisture, the moulds need to be carefully 
 packed. When at work in the forests of Central America, I usually 
 packed several sections of a mould together with tow, crumpled 
 moulding-paper, or other soft packing material between them, and sewed 
 them up in a sort of loosely-woven canvas (known to the sack-makers as 
 " scrims ") ; these packages were again sewn up in American cloth or 
 other water-proof material, and packed in light crates, for convenience 
 in carriage, and these were exchanged for strong boxes at the port of 
 shipment. 
 
 Moulds can be made with an ordinary black bristle clothes-brush ; but 
 such brushes wear out very quickly, and it is advisable to be provided 
 with several brushes of different shapes, with convenient curved handles 
 and flexible leather backs. 
 
 No explanation is given of the process of casting in plaster from a 
 paper mould, as this would naturally be entrusted to experts in England ; 
 but it may be added that a dozen or more casts can be easily taken from 
 a good paper mould without destroying it.
 
 ( 461 ) 
 
 X. 
 
 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 
 
 By J. S. Keltie, Assistant Secrttary, B.G.S. 
 
 The kind of information desired under this heading may be summed up 
 in the tkree following questions, so far as uncivilised or semi-civilised 
 countries are concerned : — 
 
 (1.) What are the available resonxces of the country that may be 
 
 turned to industrial or commercial account ? 
 (2.) What commercial products can find an available market in the 
 
 country ? 
 (3.) What are the facilities for or hindrances to intercourse between 
 
 the country and the rest of the world ? 
 Or, briefly, (1) Kesoui-ces ; (2) Wants ; (3) Accessibility. 
 
 These include the questions of suitability for immigration and coloni- 
 sation. 
 
 What is known as commercial geography is one of several special 
 applications of geographical knowledge. From this practical point of 
 view, therefore, the observations collected under other heads in this 
 book will be of service, especially if the requii-ements of commerce are 
 kept in view at the same time as the desl'hrata of science. From this 
 standpoint the sections on Meteorology, Geology, Natural History, and 
 Anthropology, should be consulted. Even general geographical and 
 topographical observations will be of practical service — the general lie 
 of the country, its altitudes, and its character at certain altitudes, its 
 mountains, hills, valleys, plains, rivers — if regarded from the special 
 standpoint of habitabiiity and possibilities of development. 
 
 The suggestions contained in this, as in the other sections of this 
 manual, are meant both for the ordinary explorer or traveller who may
 
 462 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 have to pass rapidly throngli a country and for those who may have 
 more opportunity for making leisurely observations. To the former the 
 following brief hints may prove serviceable : — 
 Observe and note — 
 
 1. As regards Eesotjeces — 
 
 Tlie extent or quantity, quality, facilities for raising or collecting, 
 for transport and shipment, &c., of 
 
 (a) The natural products, such as minerals and metals, especially 
 gold, silver, coal, iron, copj)cr, tin, nitre, gnano, phosphates, &c. ; 
 timber useful for various purposes ; vegetable products, useful for 
 food, fibres, dye-stuffs, or medicine — gums, resins, &c. ; animal 
 products useful for food, skins, fur, feathers; riverine or 
 lacustrine products, useful for food, oil, or other purposes. 
 
 (/;) Substances cultivated for food or for manufacturing purposes. 
 
 (c) Articles manufactured for clothing, for domestic, warlike, or other 
 
 purposes. 
 
 (d) Native methods of developing resources, of carrying on manu- 
 factures, and of transport. 
 
 (c) Practicability of developing the resources of the country by 
 European methods. 
 
 2. As to Wants : — 
 
 (a) What particular things used by the natives could be profitably 
 supplied from the outside ? 
 
 (h) What do the natives lack that might be introduced and supplied 
 from the outside ? 
 
 (c) In all cases be particular to note favourite materials, shapes, 
 colours, or other peculiarities, as of cloths, implements, orna- 
 ments, such as beads, anklets, &c. 
 
 3. As to Accessibility : — 
 
 Note the nearest ports and railways ; the character and con- 
 nections of native roads, if any; the navigability of rivers, 
 inlets, and lakes for various kinds of craft at various seasons of 
 the year; heights of passes, whether suitable for animals or
 
 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 463 
 
 only for porters, whether blocked at any season of year ; routes 
 likely to be suitable for railways. 
 
 In all cases where practicable, specimens of products should be obtained, 
 in order that specialists at home may judge of their industrial or com- 
 mercial value. 
 
 For those who may have more leisure for observation, some or all of 
 the following detailed hints may be useful : — 
 
 Minerals and Metals. — It is not necessary to add much here to what 
 has been said i;nder Geology. If the traveller is not himself competent, 
 or has no opportunity to test the value of these products, he should bring 
 home specimens; this, if possible, should be done in any case. Under 
 this section a look-out should be kept for any indication of naphtha, 
 asphalt, or mineral oils. From the commercial point of view the impor- 
 tant points are — 
 
 Quality : To what extent are minerals or metals, as gold, copper, iron, 
 phosphates, mixed up with other matter ? What is the yield per ton of 
 ore ? In the cavse of coal, how does it burn, and what is the percentage of 
 ash ? Next— 
 
 Quantity : Does the substance occur in sufficient quantity to make it 
 worth expenditure of capital and labour? The information must be 
 obtained by personal inspection. Finally — 
 
 Locality : Is the situation of the deposits easily accessible ? How are 
 they situated with reference to routes, existing or practicable ? and how 
 with reference to iDorts of embarkation ? Coiild they be worked with the 
 resources available in the country, or would labour and machinery require 
 to be introduced? If worked in the country, is there any neighbouring 
 market for the manufactured products ? What are the native processes 
 (if any) of obtaining and working minerals ? 
 
 We must again refer to the section on Geology for further details, and 
 the intending traveller would do well to take a few lessons before he 
 leaves, so as to be able to recognise the most common and useful minerals,, 
 and the conditions under which they usually occur; he will thus save 
 much time and trouble. 
 
 Vegetable Products. — The directions for observation and collection 
 given under the Botanical section should be attended to; and it is
 
 464 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 important that the traveller should be al)lc to recognise the chief classes 
 of plants, so that specialists may be able to pronounce generally on their 
 utility. 
 
 Character of Surface. — The general character of the surface of a country, 
 so far as its vegetation is concerned, should be clearly grasped. What 
 proportion, or, if possible, what area is under forest ? what under grass ? 
 what desert, or mountain, or marsh, or nncultivable ? what under cultiva- 
 tion? 
 
 Forests.— If of a generally forest or thickly- wooded character, are the 
 forests extensive and dense, with much undergrowth, as in tropical South 
 America? or easily penetrable as the forests of Europe and North 
 America ? Or are the trees scattered, either in clumps, or singly, as in a 
 great part of Central Africa ? Do they prevail over the country generally, 
 or are the river-banks only lined with dense tree vegetation ? Are tlio 
 forests only found in the low country, or do they cover the hills and 
 extend up the mountains ? 
 
 Timber. — Ascertain the leading characteristics of the trees of the forests. 
 What are the prevailing families, and, if possible, genera and species ? 
 What uses, if any, do the natives make of the woods ? Which do they 
 use for theii' houses, their furniture, their canoes, their weapons, their 
 ornaments ? How do the woods seem to stand tear and wear, the climate, 
 the attack of destructive insects, immersion in water ? Are there any 
 woods that would do for such jDurposes as railway-sleepers or tele- 
 graph-poles in the conditions which prevail in the country ? Any 
 ornamental woods suitable for cabinet purposes ? 
 
 Fibres, Fruits, Chemicals, &c. — Are there any plants the fibres of which 
 could be turned to account ? Any fruits adapted to human consumption, 
 and are they found in any quantity, or could they be cultivated ? 
 
 Are there any trees or other plants suitable for drugs or chemicals — 
 bark, leaves, juices, roots? What medicines, narcotics, or stimulants are 
 used by the natives ? how are they obtained and how prepared ? 
 
 Are there any species of useful plants growing wild— coffee, sugar, 
 cotton, vanilla, spices, &c. ? Any trees producing gums that might be of 
 commercial value, like gum arable, gutta-percha, or caoutchouc ? Or 
 any whose fruits yield oil, like the cocoa-nut and the olive ? Do the 
 natives make use of these juices ? What are the processes of extraction 
 and preparation ?
 
 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 465 
 
 Other Vegrtation. — ^When there is an undergrowth, its character should 
 be noticed, and the diseases, if any, to which trees are siibject. 
 
 Note what other vegetation exists besides that of trees. Are there any 
 plants like the turnip, the potato, the batata, which are useful as foods, or 
 for other purposes ? Specimens of any herbs likely to be useful should be 
 obtained, especially if they are used by the natives for medicine, for dyeing, 
 for poison, or other useful purposes. 
 
 Sometimes, as in Central and Western Australia, what arboraceous 
 vegetation exists, consists mainly of shrubs, the character of which 
 should bo noted. Do they hinder locomotion? Are their shoots useful 
 for forage ? Are they injurious to horses and cattle ? 
 
 When there is herbaceous vegetation of any extent, what is its 
 character ? Is it tall and coarse and reedy, like much of the African 
 grass? Or such as is found on the prairies and pampas? Or of a 
 troublesome spinifex character, as in Australia ? Or of a turf-like 
 character, like the grasses of Europe? What are the components of 
 this kind of vegetation, and how far is it likely to prove useful as fodder? 
 What uses do the natives put it to, either for their animals or for manu- 
 factures?. Do they use it for making mats or cloth? Are there any 
 plants mixed with it injurious to animals ? What is the condition of the 
 grass at different seasons of the year ? When is it at its best, its 
 strongest, its densest ? Is it liable to be parched up at any season ? To 
 what extent is its condition affected by the climate, by rainfall, by irriga- 
 tion, natural or artificial ? Is it easily removed, in order to make way for 
 other cultures ? Does it spread into the forest region, and has it any 
 special characteristics there ? How does it, as well as other useful 
 vegetation, vary with altitude or other local conditions ? 
 
 Marshes, Deserts, Irri(jation. — Note if marshes or peat-bogs, or other 
 special features of the surface exist to any extent, and whether the 
 drainage of marshes is practicable. 
 
 Where deserts exist, note their character. Are they sandy, gravelly, 
 rocky, salt ? What is the prevailing rock ? If the desert character of 
 the land (as is generally the case) seems due to want of water, is there 
 any artificial means likely to be available for supplying that want ? Is 
 there any storage of water and irrigation among the natives? and, if so, 
 how is it accomplished ? and what are the results ? Are tliere any sources 
 within roach, cither above or underground, from wlience a supply of 
 
 ■1 I
 
 460 lirXTS T(» TllAYELLERS. 
 
 water for irrigation purposes could bo obtained ? Iiidicsitc any exceptional 
 defects of quality in the supply of water. 
 
 Note if any part of the country is liable to periodical inundations. 
 At what periods of the year do they occur? Are these inundations 
 destructive, or are they utilised for agricultural purposes? Would it be 
 possible to regulate these inundations? 
 
 Agriculture. — The general outcome of all these observations is the 
 suitability of a country for agricultural development. What articles do 
 the natives cultivate, if any ? Has the cultivated land any special 
 character, or is it simply the ordinary land cleared of trees or grass, or 
 other wild growth? Note the methods and implements of culture used 
 by the natives ; the seasons of sowing and reaping, and preparing the 
 crops for use. Do they depend for water on rainfall or irrigation ? To 
 what altitudes is cultivation carried, and what are the crops that prosper 
 at these altitudes ? 
 
 From the point of view of colonisation and agriculture, precise in- 
 formation as to the nature of the soil is desirable. The proportion or 
 extent of a country suitable for agriculture might be noted. Observe, 
 as precisely as practicable, the nature and depth of the upper layer of 
 soil. The depth — it may be a few inches, or it may be two or three feet 
 — can easily be ascertained. A general idea may also be given of its 
 nature. Is it mostly vegetable mould, as it is likely to be in old forest 
 or grass countries? or jieaty? or marshy? If possible, also, ascertain 
 the depth of the subsoil down to the rock or clay, or other permanent 
 basis on which it rests. In a general way it might be observed whether 
 the soil is sandy, gravelly, stony, calcareous, marly, clayey. Also is 
 it compact, tenacious, or loose, and, above all, is it permeable or 
 impermeable to water ? Is the soil very dry or very moist ? or what is 
 its intermediate stage ? 
 
 If the natives carry on cultivation, ascertain, if possible, the yield per 
 ac.re of what they cultivate. Do they cultivate only for their own wants ? 
 If not, where and what is the nature of the market to which they send 
 the surplus ? 
 
 Does the country seem suitable for other cultures besides those carried 
 on by the natives ? 
 
 Animal Products. — If there are wild animals in the country, observe 
 whether the natives hunt them for what they yield in the way of food or
 
 INDUSTRY AND COMMEECE. 467 
 
 other useful products. Are there anj' ivory-yielding animals, or animals 
 whose skins can be turned to profitable account ? Could a suflBcient 
 supply for mercantile purposes be obtained by means of native hunters, 
 if properly encouraged ; or howwould it be best to work such resources ? 
 Are there any laws or customs enforced by the natives in hunting wild 
 animals? Are there any noxious wild animals, and to what extent do 
 they affect human comfort and human life ? 
 
 Domestic Animah. — It is important to know what domestic animals the 
 natives possess, how they are reared and fed, and what uses they are put 
 to. Also whether the country is good for horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry, 
 and approximately what is the extent, situation, and accessibility of the 
 grazing-lands. Are the pastures i^erennial ? To what extent do they 
 depend on rainfall, or irrigation, or on intermittent streams ? During 
 what months of the year are they available ? Are there any plants 
 among the pastures injurious to animals? Ai'e there any insects (like 
 the tsetse) or other animals injurious to cattle or horses ? Do horses or 
 asses exist among the natives, and what uses are they put to? If not, 
 would they be likely to flourish, if introduced? 
 
 Fisheries. — Information concerning fish and fisheries is desirable ; 
 and among fish, from the practical standpoint, are included shell-fish 
 (especially pearl shells), sponges, corals, and animals of the whale and 
 seal kind. If the natives practise fishing, either in lakes, rivers, or the 
 sea, ascertain the kinds of fish they capture, their methods and impale- 
 ments, and the particular seasons at which fishing is practised. Are the 
 fisheries, whether worked by the natives or not, likely to be of commercial 
 value ? 
 
 Trade. — Much of the information suggested above will be of service 
 from the special commercial point of view, especially with reference to 
 export. Information should be obtained concerning any manufactures 
 carried on by the natives besides what has been suggested above — 
 manufactures in metal, in wood, in clay, or stone; in materials derived 
 from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, what tliey are, what uses they 
 are put to, what processes are used, and to what extent, if any, they 
 form articles of trade. With regard to the import market, what generally 
 are the wants of the natives and what new wants might be created ? 
 If possible, some approximate estimate of the value of the leading 
 classes of imports, if there are any, should be obtained. 
 
 2 I 2
 
 468 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 Ascertain if any goods are brought iutu the country from the outside ; 
 if so, what they are, where they come fruiu, and as accurate an estimate 
 as possible of quantity, or value, or both. In tlie case of imports from 
 civilised countries, are those of any particular country preferred, and, if 
 so, why? Is it owing to anything special in quality, or pattern, or 
 cost, means of communication, or in quantity available? Is there 
 any special tribe of middlemen who prevent tlie inland people from 
 coming into direct relation with traders? Probably a market could 
 be created for outside manufactures which have not as yet been 
 introduced into the country ; or such manufactures might easily obtain a 
 market in preference to those of native make. Note especially the patterns 
 of articles of native make, as these are jDrobably adapted to the conditions 
 of the country., and should therefore be imitated or improved upon in 
 the case of imported goods, the quality of the latter being better, and 
 the cost, if possible, lower. Note also whether European metliods 
 might not be introduced with advantage for the manufacture of native 
 goods. 
 
 Climate. — This is an essential item, so far as the exploitation of tropical 
 and semi-tropical countries by Europeans is concerned. Its main elements 
 are determined by t emperature, latitude, altitude, and rainfall ; the character 
 of the surface should also be taken into account. Under Meteorology, the 
 main directions on the subject are given. The temperature at different 
 seasons and at different times of the day (say 9 a.m., 3 p.m., and 9 p.m.) 
 should be ascertained, and that at various altitudes. Eainfall obser- 
 vations are not of much service unless they can be obtained over a 
 continuous series of years. Ascertain the distribution of rainfall over the 
 year, and the limits of the rainy period of the year, when such period 
 exists, and, if possible, tlie quantity which falls in the different months of 
 tlie period; how does the rainfall differ with altitude and other topo- 
 graphical variations ? If a country is subject to droughts, it is important 
 to ascertain if there is any periodicity in these droughts, and how they 
 affect the resources and prospects of the country, and the condition of 
 the rivers. Would it be possible by storage of water, or other means, to 
 counteract to any extent the bad effects of drought ? 
 
 "What effect has the rainy period and the drought jjeriod on the native 
 inhabitants, and especially on Europeans ? As far as ]iossiblc, ascertain 
 the birth and death rate per annum.
 
 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 469 
 
 Facilities and Hindkaxces to Comjiebcial Development. — T'lider this 
 head the first consideration is Accessibility or Means of Communication. 
 Generally, the quickest, cheapet<t, and safest routes to a satisfactory 
 market should be ascertained. - 
 
 Water Communication. — Observe what natural means of communication 
 exist, what is the nature of communication between the country and 
 the outside world. If communication by sea is of importance, how is 
 the interior to be reached from the sea? Are there any deep inlets? 
 Is there practicable river communication? For what sort of ves.sels is 
 it adapted ? Are there any ol)structions in the river, and, if so, what is 
 their nature, and how could they be surmounted? What is the width 
 of the river, the depth of the water, and the force of the current, at 
 various distances from the mouth, and at the periods of the year when 
 the river is at its lowest and highest ? Are there any lakes that could 
 be utilised for communication ? 
 
 Eoads. — If there are native roads, state precisely what is their nature 
 under various conditions of weather ; their width ; what sort of vehicles, 
 if any, they are suited for, and where they lead to. If the country is 
 mountainous, ascertain the principal passes, what places they connect, 
 their exact heights at the highest point (not the heights of the mountains), 
 for what animals or vehicles they are practicable, or if only for porters, 
 and what is their condition at various seasons of the year. If the natives 
 have any vehicles, or vessels, or other means of transport, describe them. 
 
 Bailway Routes. — Observe, as far as possible, suitable routes for railway 
 or canal communication, as well as for good roads, and whether any 
 materials for railway construction are obtainable in the country. Possibly 
 the country, if an inland one, could be connected by road or rail with 
 some existing railway system. What are the nearest telegraph stations ? 
 
 Luboitr. — Another important consideration under this head is that of 
 labour — labour for the varied enterprises connected with the development 
 of a country's resources. Is labour obtainable within the country itself? 
 If so, to what extent, and on what terms ? Are the natives industrious, 
 and are they likely to labour under foreign siiperintendence ? Does 
 slavery or forced labour in any form exist? If not obtainable In the 
 country, how may it be most easily and cheaply obtained? Is the 
 country suited to manual labour by whites ? If there are only certain 
 kinds of labour in which whites may engage, state what they arc,
 
 470 HINTS TO TRAVELLERS. 
 
 To what extent could macliinery be used with advantage ? Is there 
 any water i^ower available ? or any animal power ? 
 
 Currency, Tariffs, &c. — Under this head also questions relating to 
 currency should be included, or whatever other medium of exchange 
 exists.- 
 
 Anotlier important consideration here is the question of tariffs, which, 
 in one shape or another, exist in nearly all uncivilised and semi-civilised 
 countries, from the hongo of Central Africa to the Customs duties of 
 Eastern countries. Precise information concerning these, both as to 
 exports and imports, is important. 
 
 Note, also, as precisely as practicable, the cost of living for Europeans 
 settling down for a time, and the expenses involved in travelling through 
 a country. 
 
 Tnhahitants. — Is there anything in the character of the natives — physical, 
 mental, or moral — likely to affect commercial intercourse or the industrial 
 development of the country ? Any prejudices or superstitions that should 
 be attended to? Anything in the attitude of natives to traders and 
 settlers deserving consideration ? Is the population nomadic or settled ? 
 What material, if any, do they ixse for smoking, and what is the nature 
 of their intoxicating drinks, if they have any ? Estimate, as nearly as 
 l^ossible, the population, the density per square mile, both for the country 
 as a whole and for the chief centres of population. Ascertain the nature 
 of any political or social organisation which exists. What are the terms 
 on which land can be acquired ? What are the prevalent crimes ? Under 
 the Anthropological section directions are given for ascertaining the 
 leading racial characteristics of the people.
 
 ( 471 ) 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abercrombv, Mr., reference to, iu cou- 
 nection with clouds, 350 
 
 Abney, Captain, his manner of holding 
 hand camera, 323 ; his work on photo- 
 graphy, 329 ; reference to book, " The 
 Art and Practice of Silver Printing," 
 by him and Mr. Robinson, 331 
 
 Abney's Level, 91 
 
 Abscess of the liver, medical treatment 
 for, 57 . 
 
 Abvssinian Expedition, theodolite n^ed 
 ('in, 24-4 
 
 Abyssinian pocket filters, 14 
 
 Accessibility of country, remarks on, iu 
 respect of trade, 462—163 
 
 Aetinometers, 353 
 
 Additional instruments (surveying), not 
 necessary, but convenient, list of, 89- 
 90 
 
 Adjustments of the sextant, 102-104 ; 
 of the box .^e.xtant, 106; of transit 
 theodolite, 111-117 
 
 "Admiralty Manunl of .Scientific In- 
 quiry," is, 89 
 
 Admiralty, jiamphlet on the station- 
 ■ pointer, published by the, 179 
 
 Africa, many portions of, still unex- 
 plored, 4 ; hints to meteorological 
 observers in tropical, with instructions 
 for taking observations, prepared by a 
 committee of the British Association, 
 368-376 
 
 African natives, boisterous temperament 
 of, 421 
 
 Agriculture, remarks on native, 427, 466 
 
 Ague, symptoms and medical treatment 
 for, 55 
 
 Air, rarefied, effects on the human frame, 
 36 
 
 Air-tight cases for travellers' outfit, 
 made by Silver & Co., 26 
 
 Aqueous vapour, table showing the pres- 
 sure of, in inches of mercury, at lati- 
 tude 45° for each degree Fahr. from 
 30° to 119°, 357 
 
 Alaska, excursion steamers to, I 
 
 Albinos, remarks on, 423 
 
 Albion Iron and Wii'ework Company, 
 crampons obtainable fron^, 37 
 
 Alcohol, preserving mammals, &c., in, 
 404-405 
 
 Alcoholic drinks, necessity for moderation 
 in, when travelling in tropics, 27, 49, 
 77 ; list of, for travellers, 27 ; should 
 always be taken by traveller as medi- 
 cines, 49 ; best kinds, 50 
 
 Alidade of plane table, description ot', 
 126 
 
 •'Alpes, Les," Levasseur's book of this 
 title, 36 
 
 Alpine ('lub, " Report of Equipment," 
 ]iublislied by the, 8 ; Memorandum on 
 glacier observations issued by the 
 committee of the, .394-396 
 
 "Alpine Guide, the," by Mr. John Ball, 
 37 
 
 Alpine peasants, their knowledee of 
 mountaiaeering, 35
 
 472 
 
 INDKX. 
 
 Alpine tour, equi]inieul for, remarks ou, 
 '.]b 
 
 Alps, private surveying of the, 4 
 
 Altazimuth instruments {see also Thr, - 
 dolites), remarks on the manipulation 
 of, by General J. T. Walker, R.K., 
 245 
 
 Altitude of a heavenly body, computins; 
 the, with example of com|iutation of 
 moon's true ceuti-al altitude, 22')- 
 228 
 
 America, North, glacial ])henomena of 
 the Pacific ranges of, 4 
 
 America, South and Central, geographi- 
 cal exploration in, 4 
 
 Amplitude, to tind the sun's true, 169 
 
 Andes, natural history specimens re- 
 quired from eastern slopes of, 400 
 
 Anemometer, Robinson's, 369 
 
 Aneroid, 5Ir. D. W. Freshtield's remarks 
 on the, 6 ; Watkin's Patent, 87 ; re- 
 marks on the, 96 ; measurements of 
 heights with the, 96-97; Mr. K. 
 Whvmper's book " How to use the 
 Aneroid Barometer," 96 ; ascertaining 
 heights by, on route survey, 153-158; 
 tables for the determination of height> 
 by, with examples, by F. Galton, F.R.S., 
 317-320; importance of, to geologist, 
 382 
 
 Aneroids taken by Mr. E. Whymper on 
 his S(Hith American journey, 20; for 
 travellers, how far reliable, 86; Mr. 
 H. F. Blanford's remarks on, 334, 337 ; 
 Mr. Whymper's investigations con- 
 cerning, 338 
 
 Angles subtended bv a 10 ft. rod at 
 distances from 50" to 1500 ft., table 
 giving, 307-308; example of use of 
 the table, 186 ; explanation of the 
 table, 260 
 
 Angular distance between two terrestrial 
 objects, measuring the, with a sextant, 
 159 
 
 Angular ■ measurements, rough, by the 
 span at arm's length, 141 
 
 Animal prockicts. hints on inquiring 
 into, 466—467 
 
 Anthropological Institute, address of, 419 
 
 "Anthropological Uses of the Camera," 
 Mr. E. F. im Thurn's paper entitled, 
 331 
 
 Anthropology, article on, by Dr. E. B. 
 Tylor, 419-440 ; reference to Dr. E. B. 
 Tylor's book on, 440 ; queries on, by 
 A. W. Franks, 440-443 ; hints on, bv 
 H. H. Johnston, 445-448 
 
 Ants, preserving natural history speci- 
 mens from attacks of, 399 
 
 Apparent time, explan-ition of, 198 
 
 Architecture, native styles of, 428-429 
 
 Arctic climates, ordinary hygrometers 
 unreliable in, according to Prof. Nor- 
 denskiold, 344 
 
 Arctic and antarctic regions, spirit 
 thermometers for, 335 
 
 Arm, fractured, how to set, 71 ; aj>- 
 proximate measurements of various 
 parts of a man's, 142 
 
 Arms and ammunition, most suitable for 
 travellers, 15-16 
 
 Arrowroot, for travellers, 11 
 
 Arsenical preparations sometimes neces- 
 sary in cases of fever, 56 
 
 Arsenical soap, for natural history col- 
 lecting, 398 
 
 " Art of Travel." Mr. F. Galton's book, 
 reference to, 29 
 
 Artificial horizon, form recommended, 
 84; description of different forms of : 
 roof, George's, black-plate, 107 ; sub- 
 stitutes for, 108 ; to observe the alti- 
 tude of the sun with a se.\tant. using 
 an, 190-191 
 
 Artist's board, 87 
 
 Artist's materials, ^Ir. H. H. Johnston's 
 list of, for travellers, 28 
 
 Artist's umbrella or light sketching-tent, 
 i-equired by artist in tropical countiies 
 or snow regions, 14 
 
 Arts and sciences, Dr. Tylor's hints on 
 observing native, 426-431
 
 INDEX. 
 
 473 
 
 Asia Minor, a fiekl for geograiihical ex- 
 ploration, 4 
 
 Astronomical observations, importance 
 of, to prevent accumulation of errors 
 in route surveys, 152; necessity for, 
 188-189; (lifFereut kinds of, 189; re- 
 marlvson sextant and artificial horizon 
 observations, 190-191 ; importance of 
 balancing, 190; observations for lati- 
 tude, 191-1978 ; for time and longi- 
 tude, 199-235; for bearings and azi- 
 muths, 236-239 ; theodolite observa- 
 tions by Gen. J. T. Walker, r.k., 
 240-255 
 
 Astronomy, native ideas of, 430 
 
 Atmosphere and sky, remarks on observa- 
 tions on the, 349 
 
 Atolls or coral islands, geological remark ■- 
 on, 393 
 
 Azimuth, finding error of compass by 
 sun's, example, 239 ; determination of, 
 with a subtense theodolite, 248-250, 
 255 
 
 Azimuths, surveying a country and 
 fixing positions by means of latitudes 
 and,'l87A-187B 
 
 Bags, large, similar to Rucksacks of the 
 Tyrol, useful to travellers, 10 
 
 Baines and Lord, Messrs., their book 
 " Shifts and E.xpedients of Camp Life " 
 refeired to, 8 
 
 Balancing astronomical observations, im- 
 portance of, 190 
 
 Bilkan Peninsula far from being exactiv 
 described, 4 
 
 Ball, John, F.R.S., his "Alpine Guide'' 
 referred to, 37 ; his hints on botanical 
 collecting, 412-1-17 
 
 Bar, remarks on crossing a, in boat, bv 
 J. Coles, 34 
 
 Barometer, Aneroid {see under Aneroid) 
 
 Barometer, Fortin's mercurial, taken by 
 Mr. E. Whymper on his S. American 
 journey, 20 ; Boylean-Mariotti, 89 ; 
 
 Fortin's, 89 ; George's, 89 ; Boylean- 
 Mariotti. description of, how to use, 
 97 ; tables for the determination of 
 heights by, with examples, by F. 
 Galton, F.R.S., 317-320; Mr. H. F. 
 Blanford's i-emarks on mercurial, 334, 
 337 ; oscillations of the, between the 
 tropics, 340 ; daily range of, 340 : 
 notes on mounting, 369 
 
 Barometric observations, Mr H. F. Blan- 
 ford's remarks, 338 
 
 Base line in surveying, measurement 
 of, 152 ; for plane table survey, 173 
 
 Bates, H. W., F.K.S., his article on natu- 
 ral history, revised bv P. L. Sclater, 
 F.R.S., 397-418 
 
 Bathing in tropics, Surgeon-Major Parke's 
 hints on, 48 
 
 Beads as presents for natives, and for 
 barter, principal centres of manufac- 
 ture, 13 
 
 Bearings, example of taking, with pris- 
 matic compass, on route survey, 153- 
 155; plotting the, 155; observations 
 for, with example, 236-239 
 
 Beaufort's numbers for indicating the 
 force of the wind, 349 
 
 Bedstead, folding, for tropical tour, 10; 
 iron, taken by Mr. J. Thomson on his 
 JIasailand journey, 24 
 
 Belt, " colonial " leather waist, 79 
 
 Berghau's physical atlas, reference to the 
 meteorological maps in, 316-317, 339 
 
 Berthon boat, the, 32 
 
 Bethune's tables for travellers, taken by 
 Mr. E. Whymper on his South American 
 journey, 18 ; referred to, 88 
 
 Bilharzia haematobia, introduction of the, 
 into the circulation prevented by use 
 of mosquito curtain, 47 
 
 Birds and mammals, remarks on collect- 
 ing, 401-404 
 
 Blanford, H. F., F.R.S., his article on 
 meteorology and climate, .'332-356 
 
 Blanford, W. T., V.R.S, his artiide <iii 
 geology, 380-393
 
 474 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Blank majjs for plotting route survey 
 work, 157 
 
 Bleeding (haemorrhage), ti-eatment in 
 case of, 65-66 
 
 Blisters on the feet, cause of and treat- 
 ment for, 67 
 
 Blizzards (see under Storms) 
 
 Blow-pipe, important to geological col- 
 lector, 383 ; works on the use of, 
 384 
 
 Boat for travellers, the choice of, 32 ; 
 loading a, 34 ; native methods of build- 
 ing, 429 
 
 Boating, note on, by J. Coles, 32-34 
 
 Boiling-point apparatus taken by Mr. E. 
 Whymper on his South American 
 journey, 20 ; description of, 94-95 ; 
 how to use, 95-96 
 
 Boiling-point thermometers, 86; how to 
 use, 94-96 ; for great altitudes, 94 ; 
 example of use of, on route survey, 
 153-158 ; tables for the determina- 
 tion of heights I)y, with examples, by 
 F. Galton, F.R.S., 312-317 (see also 
 Boiling-point Apparatus and Hi/psn- 
 metrical Apparatus) 
 
 P>oils and carbuncles, treatment for, 67 
 
 Books, importance of travellers consult- 
 ing the best, on the country it is in- 
 tended to visit, before starting, 2 ; Mr. 
 H. H. Johnston's remarks on the sort 
 of, to be taken for traveller's reading. 
 29 ; astronomical, surveying, &c., for 
 explorer, 88 
 
 Boots for travellers, 12, 79 : importance 
 of carefully selecting, 67 
 
 Bora, the wind known as the, 349 
 
 Borneo, parts of interior little known, 4: 
 natural history specimens required 
 from interior of, 399 
 
 Botanical collecting, hints on, by J. Ball, 
 P.K.S., selection of specimens, convey- 
 ance of specimens to camp or station, 
 412; the drying-press, 413-414; seeds, 
 bulbs, fleshy tubers, 415; living plants. 
 succulent plants, fossils, 416 
 
 Botanical specimens, drying-press for, 
 
 413-414 
 Botany, instruction given to intending 
 
 ti-avellers in, 3; hints on collecting 
 
 specimens, 412-417 
 Bovril, for travellers, 11 
 Boxes, best suited for travellers' stores, 
 
 &c., 10 
 Box, portmanteau or trunk, for traveller, 
 
 Surgeon-Major Parke's remarks on, 78 
 Box, or pocket sextant, description of, 
 
 105-106 ; adjustments of, 106 
 Boylean-Mariotti barometer, 89; de- 
 scription of, how to use, 97 
 Brain, concussion of the, treatment for, 
 
 68 
 Brandauer's Oriental Pens, for travellers, 
 
 13, S8 
 Breakage, how to pack stores, &c., so ns 
 
 to guard against, 10 
 Bride capture, custom of, amongst na- 
 tives, 433 
 British Association for the Advancement 
 
 of Sciedce, hints to meteorological 
 
 observers in tropical Africa, prepared 
 
 by a committee of the, 368—376 ; 
 
 members of the committee, 368 
 British Columbian natives, their custom 
 
 of deforming skulls of infants, 439 
 Broca's scale of colours for matchiusr 
 
 tints of native complexions, 421 
 Bronchitis, medical treatment for, 52 
 Bronze, native workings in, 428 
 Bruises, treatment for, 67 
 Buck, Messrs., their tools recommended 
 
 to travellers, 15 ; geological hammer, 
 
 chisels, &c., made by, 381 
 Buckingham's towels, for travellers, 14 
 Bulbs, hints on collecting, 415 
 Buran or Purga of the Siberian tundras, 
 
 351 
 Burmah, parts of Upper, unexplored, 4 
 Burns, treatment for, 68 
 Biirroughs, Wellcome & Co.. Messrs., 
 
 their medicines foi- travellers, 51. 
 
 80
 
 INDEX. 
 
 475 
 
 Burton, W. K., his v/oi"k on photo- 
 graphy, 329 
 
 Calomel, its use in fever cases, 56 ; its 
 use in case of sunstroke, 61 
 
 Cameras, photographic, for ti-avellers, 
 322, 323; cost of, 331 
 
 Camera stand, 324 
 
 Camp, best site for, in tropics, 77 
 
 Camp equipments, 13-16 
 
 Camp-servauts, general remarks on deal- 
 ings with, 5 
 
 Canoe, for travellers, choice of, loading a, 
 30 
 
 Canoeing, a note on, by J. Coles, 30-32 
 
 Canteen for travellers, Surgeon-Major 
 Parke's remarks, 78 
 
 Carbuncles and boils, treatment for, iu 
 
 Carpenter's tools, for making boxes and 
 packing-cases for natural history speci- 
 mens, 399 
 
 Gary's sextant stand, 108 
 
 Cascara comp. for constipation, 54 
 
 Casella, Jlessrs., cost, weight, &c., I'f 
 their small altazimuth instruments. 
 241 
 
 Catalogue of contents of travellers' pack- 
 ing-cases, preparing, 11 
 
 Caucasus, Western, a field for geographi- 
 cal exploration, 4 
 
 Celluloid films, photographic, 322 
 
 Centering error of sextant, 104; ascer- 
 taining the, 194 
 
 Chair, portable camp, important to tra- 
 veller, 27 
 
 Chambers' Mathematical Tables, 88 
 
 Chamois leather uuder-vests, protect 
 against cold, 45 
 
 Chauveuet's "Practical and Spherical 
 Astronomy," 89, 253 
 
 Chemicals, packing for travelling, 9 
 
 Chilblains and frost-bites, treatment for, 
 68 
 
 Children and infants, Surgeon-Major 
 Parke's hints on the care of, 62-64 
 
 Chills, sudden, a cause of tropical fever, 
 
 45, 77 
 Chinese art of patching cast-iron with 
 
 melted metal, 427 
 Chronometers, pocket, unsuitability of, 
 for travellers, 85 ; watch more suit- 
 able than, for traveller, cost of, 130 
 Circum-meridian observations of a star, 
 
 latitude by, example, 250-254 
 Circular spring, for weighing, 80 
 Climate (see also under Meteorclogy) ; ob- 
 taining a knowledge of, meteorological 
 observations for travellers, 332 ; as 
 affecting commercial prospects of a 
 country, remarks on, 468 ; remarks 
 on the suitability of a particular race 
 to a particular, 423 
 Clinometer, 90 
 
 Clothing for travellers, 12, 44-45, 77 
 Clouds, importance of observing high, 
 for gaining a knowledge of the upper 
 wind currents, 347 ; Mr. H. F. Blan- 
 ford's remarks on, elevations of, names 
 of, 350 ; system of indicating pro- 
 portions of sky covered with, 360, 
 375 ; names of different forms of, 375 
 Coal, remarks on, 383-384 
 Coasts, geological remarks on, 388 
 Cockle's pills, for travellers, 27 
 Cocoa and milk, in tins, for travellers. 
 
 11 
 Cold climates, travellers' outfit for, 17 
 Cold in the head, remedies for, 51 
 Coleoptera, nets for collecting, 398 
 Coles, John, F.R.A.S., Map Curator R.G.S., 
 lessons in surveying and -Astronomical 
 observations given by hira, to intend- 
 ing travellers, 3 ; his note on canoeing, 
 30-32; his note on boating, 32-34; 
 his section of this work, " Surveying 
 and Astronomical Observations," 83- 
 320 
 Colic, medical treatment for, 54 
 Collapsible boats, remarks on, 32 
 Collar-bone, fractured, treatment of, 70 
 Collecting case for preserving natural
 
 476 
 
 TVDKX. 
 
 history specimens in alcohol, Dr. G. E. 
 Doljson's remarks on, 404-405 
 
 Collecting natural history specimens, 
 where and what to collect, 399-404 
 
 Collections, geological remarks on, 382- 
 387 • 
 
 " Collector's Vade Mecum," Hume's re- 
 ference to, where to be obtained, 
 403 
 
 Collimation in transit theodolite, adjust- 
 ment for. 111; in Everest theodolite. 
 120 
 
 Commerce, industry and, article on, Lv 
 J. S. Keltie, 461-470 
 
 Commercial development, remarks on 
 facilities and hindrances to, 469 
 
 Compass, pocket, 79, 85, 93; prismatic, 
 85, 92-93 ; observations with the pris- 
 matic, 93-94; of plane table, ]2<;: 
 finding ei'ror of, by the sun's azimuth, 
 example, 239 (see also under Prismati'- 
 Compass and Pocket Compiiss) 
 
 Compass survey, example of, 153-158 
 
 Compasses, hair, 87 
 
 Complexion of natives, remarks on de- 
 scribing, Broca's scale of colours gives 
 m.eans of matching tints, 421 
 
 Compound fractures, treatment of, 72 
 
 Concussion of the brain, treatment for, 
 68-69 
 
 Congestion of the liver, medical treat- 
 ment for, 57 
 
 Conical projection, rules for construction 
 of maps on the, 151 ; Col. Sir C. W. 
 Wilson's remarks on, 163 
 
 Conjuring tricks, knowledge of, some- 
 times useful to travellers in winning 
 the esteem of natives, 13 
 
 Constants, table of useful, 309 ; ex- 
 planation of the table, 260 
 
 Constellations, native ideas of, 430 
 
 Constipation, medical treatment for. 54 
 
 Convulsions, infantile, treatment fur, 64 
 
 Conway, W. M., hi^ book on the Kara- 
 koram, 36 ; the Key Camera used by 
 him in Karakoram Distj'ict, 323 
 
 Cooking, importance of good, in tropics, 
 
 50 
 Cooking stoves suitable for travellers, 15 
 Cookery, some knowledge of simple, im- 
 portant to travellers, 15; native, 427 
 Coral islands or Atclls, geological re- 
 marks on, 393 
 Counting, native methods of, 429 
 Cow-dung, smoke from burning, keeps 
 
 away insects, 47 
 Crampons, for mountaineering, 37 
 Criminal law amongst natives, 435 
 Crosse & Black well, Messrs., their pre- 
 served meats, &c., 27 
 Croup, spas nodic, in children, treatment 
 
 for, 64 
 Cubit, length of English, 142 
 Currency, tariff's, &c., remarks on, 470 
 (.'ustoms examination of travellers' stores, 
 
 &-C., 9 
 Customs of natives, hints on observihir, 
 
 439 
 Cyclones, Mr. H. F. Blanford's remark^ 
 on, 351—352 
 
 Dahome, laws concerning lanJholding 
 by natives in, 435 
 
 Dallmeyer's photographic lenses, 325, 
 329 
 
 Damp, how to pack stores, &c., to pro- 
 tect them from, 10 
 
 Dana, Professor J. D., referred to in con- 
 nection with coral rocks, 393 
 
 Darwin, Dr. Charles, reference to article 
 on geology by him and Professor J. 
 Phillips in " Admiralty Manual of 
 Scientific Enquiry," 385 ; referred to 
 in connection with coral islands, 393 
 
 Date, to find a lost, 198-199 
 
 Declination of the sun at mean noon at 
 Greenwich from 1893 to 1900, table 
 giving, 261-264 ; explanation, 256 
 
 Deep-sea deposits, remarks on, 393 
 
 Dent, Clinton, the Badminton volume on 
 " Mountaineering," edited by, 37 
 
 Deserts, geological remarks on, S91
 
 INDEX. 
 
 477 
 
 Development of photographs, apparatus 
 and chemicals for, 328 
 
 Dew, Mr. H. F. Biandford's remarks on. 
 :547 
 
 Diamonds, remarks on, 384- 
 
 Diarrhoea in children, treatment for, 6-1: 
 
 Diary, hints to traveller on writinc; up 
 his, 7 
 
 Diet for travellers in tropics, 77 
 
 Ditference of longitude, table to find the, 
 when the departure and latitude aie 
 given, 1 50 
 
 Dips, geological, remarks on, 382 
 
 f)islocations and fractures, treatment of, 
 Surgeon-Major Parke's hints, 70-72 
 
 Distance, ascertaining, by sound, 142-14-3 
 
 Distances and heights of inaccessible 
 objects, trigonometrical formulaj for 
 ascertaining, 133-138; table for ascer- 
 taining, without the usual instruments, 
 143-145 ; table for ascertaining with 
 a sextant, 160 
 
 District survey. Col. Sir C. W. Wilson's 
 remarks on. 106-171 
 
 Diurnal variation of temperature, liu- 
 midity, atmospheric pressure, &e., 350 
 
 •Dobson, Dr. G. E., his remarks on collect- 
 ing-case for natural history specimens, 
 404-405 
 
 Doukiu, \V. F., his article on photo- 
 graph}', revised by J.Thomson, 321-331 
 
 Dover's powders for travellers, 26 ; for 
 cold in the head, 51 
 
 Drawers for travellers, 79 
 
 Drawing instruments, 87 
 
 Dreams, native superstitions concerning, 
 437-438 
 
 Drinking \\ater, Surgeon-Jlnjor Parke's 
 remarks on, 50 
 
 Drinks for tropical regions, 49 
 
 Drowning, how to restore respiration, 
 Surgcn-Major Parke's remarks, 69 
 
 Dry and wet bulb thermometers, remarks 
 on reading, &c., 373 (see also Thermo- 
 meters, and Wet and Drij Bulb Therm-- 
 meters) 
 
 Drying-cages for natural history speci- 
 mens, 399 
 
 Drving-press for botanical specimeu^. 
 413-414 
 
 Dysentery, its symptoms and medical 
 treatment, 54 
 
 E.VRTH, American Indian idea of the 
 shape of the, 430 
 
 East India Islands, interior of some, 
 little known, 4 
 
 Fustman & Co., Messrs , their photo- 
 graphic films, 327 
 
 Eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, longitude 
 by the, with example, 235-236 
 
 Economy in purchasing outfit, 11 
 
 E.lgington, Messrs , Whymper's and 
 Mummery's tents, made by, 14, 23 
 
 Edwards' dessicated soup for travellers, 1 1 
 
 Edwards' flat photographic films, 327 
 
 i.iJer-down sleeping-bags, 14 
 
 Iv konogcn, photographic developer named, 
 .329 ^ 
 
 Elliott Brothers, transit theodolite made 
 bv them, with level on vernier arms. 
 115-117 
 
 Emin Pasha Relief Expedition, members 
 of the, generally attacked by fever 
 after a wetting, 46 ; members with 
 fever march fifteen to twenty miles pei' 
 day, 56 
 
 Equal altitudes of the sun, star, or 
 planet, error of watch by, with 
 examples, 206-2 1 1 
 
 Ecjuatitin of time for apparent noon at 
 (ireenwich, from 1893 to 1896; table 
 giving, 265-268 ; explanation, 256 
 
 E'juatorial Africa, natural history speci- 
 mens required from, 399 
 
 Erbswurst for travellers, 12 
 
 Erosion of coasts, geological remarks on, 
 388 
 
 l^-ror of compass, finding the, by sun's 
 azimuth, example, 239 
 
 Error of watch, to find, by absolute alti- 
 tudes, with example, 200-201 ; T>y
 
 478 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 equal altitudes of sun, star, or planet, 
 
 with examiiles, 206-211 ; by equal 
 
 altitudes of a star on same side of the 
 
 meridian, on ditferent nights, 210-211 
 Esquimaux, low condition of laws 
 
 amongst, 436 
 Ethnological questions, bv J. G. Frazer, 
 
 443-445 
 Everest theodolite, description of, 118; 
 
 adjustments of, by Capt. Pratt, i;.E , 
 
 118-120 
 Explanation of the tables, 2.56-260 
 Explosives, packing, &c., for travelling, 9 
 " Explorer " filter, the most satisfactory 
 
 for providing small quantities of water. 
 
 14 
 Exposure tables, photographic, 326 
 Extemporary measurements, 139-143 
 Eyesight of natives, how to ascertain the 
 
 keenness of, 450-451 
 
 Fayrer, Sir Joseph, his treatment for 
 snake bite, 74 
 
 Feet, blisters on the, cause of and treat- 
 ment for, 67 
 
 Ferrel, Professor, his hypothesis concern- 
 ing the formation of hail, 352 
 
 Fever, often caused by chills, wettings. 
 &c.,46 ; importance of alcoholic stimu- 
 lants, when exhausted by, 49 ; intci-- 
 mitteut and remittent, medical treat- 
 ment for, 55 
 
 Field-book for route survey. Col. Sir 
 C. W. Wilson's remarks, 166 
 
 Field-glasses for travellers, 80 
 
 Films, photographic, different kinds of, 
 how to keep dry, 327 
 
 Filter, pocket, asbestos or charcoal, 79 
 
 Filtering and boiling drinking water, 
 importance of, 50 
 
 Filters for travellers, 14-15 
 
 Finger-prints as a means of identification, 
 note on by Francis Galton, F.R.S., 454 
 
 Finlay, Lieutenant, referred to in con- 
 nection with storms, 352 
 
 Fire making, native methods of, 427 
 Fish-hooks, lines, and baits for travellers, 
 
 1 5, 80 
 Fisheries, remarks on commercial import- 
 ance of, 467 
 Fishes and reptiles, hints on collecting, 
 
 &c., by Mr. Osbi;rt Salvin, f.r.s., 
 
 407-409 
 Fitch's flat photographic films, 327 
 Flashing signals, remarks on, 146 
 Flasks for travellers, 14, 15 
 Flea-powder, 80 
 Fleas and bugs, Keating's insect powder 
 
 keeps away, 73 
 Fleshy tubers, hints on collecting, as 
 
 specimens, 415 
 Flower, Sir W. H., f.r.s., his remarks 
 
 on preparation of skeletons of animals, 
 
 406-407 
 Focus in photography, definition of, 325 
 Focussing cloth, photographic, 324 
 Fogs, Mr. H. F. Blanford's remarks on, 
 
 350 
 Fiihn, the wind known as the, 349 
 Food for tropical countries, 49 
 Fore^ts and timber, remarks on com- 
 mercial imjjortance of, 464—465 
 Formosa, iuterior of, little known, 4 
 Fortin's mercurial barometers, taken bv 
 
 Mr. E. Whymper on his South American 
 
 journey, 20, 89 ; notes on mounting, 
 
 369; reading, 371-373 
 Kortnum and ^lason, preserved meats, 
 
 iSsc, to be obtained from, 27 
 Fossils, remarks on collecting, 385, 
 
 416-417 
 Fractures and dislocations, treatment 
 
 for, Surgeon-Major Parke's hints. 
 
 70-72 
 Franks, A. W., C.B., f.r.s., his " Queries 
 
 on Anthropology," 440-443 
 Fraser River, loss of life in, 31 
 Frazer, J. G., his "Ethnological Ques 
 
 tions," 443^45 
 Freezing does not destroy all the pathu- 
 
 genic microbes in water, 50
 
 INDEX. 
 
 479 
 
 Freshfield, Douglas W., his "Preliminary 
 Hints " to travellers, 1-7 ; " Hints on 
 Outfit," compiled by", 8-37; his note 
 on " Mountain Travel," 35 ; his 
 "Mountaineering- beyond the Alps" 
 referred to, 37 
 
 F'rome's surveying, taken by Mr. E. 
 Whymper on his South American 
 journey, 18; problems from, 167 
 
 Frostbite, mountaineers liable to, 36 ; 
 treatment for, 68 
 
 Galton, Francis, f.e.s., his "Art of 
 Travel " referred to, 8, 29 ; his table 
 for rough triangulatiou, with ex- 
 planation, 143-145 ; his tables for the 
 determination of heights by boiling- 
 point thermometer and barometer or 
 aneroid, with examples, 312-320; his 
 rules and tables for ascertaining sta- 
 tistics of strength, stature, &c., of 
 natives, 448—453 ; his note on finger- 
 prints as a means of identification, 454 
 Games, importance of inquiring into 
 
 native, 440 
 Gaucher, M., kola-nut biscuits td be 
 
 obtained of him, 12 
 Gelatine plates, photographic, 327 
 Gems and gold, remarks on, 384 
 '■■eography, native ideas of, 430 
 Geographical exploration, new ground 
 
 for, 4 
 Geographical miles, table for converting 
 into statute miles, 284; explanation, 
 259 ; should be chosen for scale of 
 survev, 153; table showing number 
 of, contained in a degree of longitude 
 under each parallel of latitude, on the 
 supposition of the earth's spheroidal 
 shape with a compression of ^, 282 : 
 explanation of the table, 259 
 Geographical names, travellers should 
 always endeavour to obtain the native 
 names of mountains, streams, villages, 
 &c., difficulties in doing this, 6; ortho- 
 
 graphy of, R.G.S. rules, 38-43 ; table 
 of sound equivalents adopted for the 
 transliteration of geographical names 
 by Great Britain, United States, 
 France, Germany and Spain, 43; 
 should be written by traveller in 
 printing characters, 158 
 
 Geological collections, remarks on, 382- 
 387 
 
 Geological map, remarks on making, 386 
 
 Geological outfit, list of, where to be 
 obtained, 381 
 
 Geology, instruction given to intending 
 travellers in, 3; article on, by W. T. 
 Blanford, f.k.s., 380-393; reference 
 to article on, in "Admiralty Manual 
 of Scientific Enquiry," by Darwin & 
 Phillips, 385 
 
 George's barometer, 89 ; how to fill, 99 ; 
 to empty, 99-100 
 
 Geta-ge's artificial horizon, 107 
 
 Glacial action, geological remarks on 
 evidence of, 390 
 
 Glacial phenomena, knowledge of, im- 
 portant to motmtain travellers, 35 
 
 Glacier observations. Memorandum on, 
 issued by the Committee of the Alpine 
 Club, 394-396 
 
 Glaciers, Mr. W. T. Blanford's remarks 
 on, 390; ascertaining oscillations of, 
 395 
 
 Glass plates, photographic, best results 
 obtained from, 322 
 
 lilasses for preventing night and snow 
 blindness, 58 
 
 Gloves, leather gauntlet, 79 
 
 Godwin-Austen, Lieut. -Col. H. H., his 
 remarks on preventing leeches from 
 attacking the ankles and legs, 16; his 
 article on j>lane tables used in the 
 Indian Survey Department, 126-130; 
 his remarks on surveying with the 
 plane table, 181-185 ; his hints on 
 collecting land and fresh -water 
 mollusca, 409-410 
 
 Goggles, green, for travellers, 80
 
 480 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gijld and gems, remarks on occurrenuii. 
 &c., 384 
 
 Gosset's system ut' ascertaining oscilla- 
 tions of glaciers, 395 
 
 Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 
 theodolite used on, 2-43 
 
 Gregory J. R., geological hammer, 
 chisels, &c., made by, 381 
 
 Ground, temperature of the. observa- 
 tions for, 355 
 
 Guinea Worm, cause of, treatment, 62 
 
 Gun, double, by Holland & Holland, 
 taken by Mr. E. Whymper on his S. 
 American journey, 19 
 
 Guns for natural history collector, 397 
 
 Guyot's meteorological and hvpsometrical 
 tables, 89, 312 
 
 Haijits of animals, observing the, -H7- 
 
 418 
 Hail, Jlr. H. F. Blanford's remarks on, 
 
 formation of, according to the hypo- 
 
 tliesis of Prof. Ferrel, 345, 352 
 Hair, traveller's, in tropics, should be cut 
 
 short, 77 ; of natives, remarks on, 421 
 Hair compasses, 87 
 Hammer, geologist's, best pattern, whiio 
 
 obtainable, 381 
 Hammock, portable. 79 
 Hand, approximate measurements d 
 
 various parts of a man's, 141-142 
 Hand cameras, for travellers, 323 
 Handkerchiefs, for travellers, 79 
 Hann, Prof., his meteorological maps re- 
 ferred to, 339 
 Hai'e's photographic cameras, 322 
 Haversack, for travellers, 8ft 
 Head and spine, necessity of protecting 
 
 from heat, 45 
 Health, personal cai"e of, 44 
 '• Health in the Trojdcs, Rules for the 
 
 Preservation of," by Surgeon-Major 
 
 Parke, 76-77 
 Heat received from sun. observation an 1 
 
 instruments for ascertaining, 353 
 Heights. VMiiih method of a-i'ortiiniu2. 
 
 pr.ictised by North-American back- 
 woods-man, 142 ; ascertaining, by 
 angles of elevation, with e.\am])le, 
 145-14ti ; tables for the determination 
 of, by boihng-point thermometer and 
 barometer or aneroid, by F. Galton, 
 F.R.S., with e.vamples, 312-320 
 
 Heights and distances of inaccessible 
 objects, trigonometrical formula for 
 ascertaining, 133-138 ; table for as- 
 certaining with a sextant, 160 
 
 Helmet, pith, for tropics, 45 ; the army 
 regulation for tropics, 46 ; for travel- 
 lers, 78 
 
 Henderson's boiling - point apparatus, 
 taken by Mr. E. Whymper on his 
 South American journey, 20 
 
 Henderson, Dr., reference to, in connection 
 with condition of the atmosphere in 
 Central Asia, 351 
 
 Hennessey, Mr., his system of indicating 
 the condition of the sky, 354 
 
 Hicks, .1. .]., the makpr of VVatkin's 
 Patent Aneroid, 87 
 
 Hill & Son. ^lessrs., ice-axes and rope* can 
 be obtained from, 35 
 
 "Hints to Meteorological Observers," 
 piepared under the direction of the 
 Council of the Kuyal Meteorological 
 Society by W. Marriott, reference to 
 this work, 369 
 
 Holdall, for travellers, 79 
 
 Honolulu, coral rock borings in, 393 
 
 Horizon, table giving distance of the sea, 
 uncorrected for effects of refraction, 
 279 ; explanation, 259 
 
 Horizon glass of sextant, adjustment ut, 
 102 
 
 Hoi-izontal limb of transit theodolite, 
 adjustment of, 113-114; ditco for 
 Everest theodolite, 118 
 
 Housewife, for travellers, 79 
 
 Howard & Son, Jlessrs., quinine obtained 
 from, their address, 26 
 
 Hume's ''Collector's Vale Mecum " re- 
 ferred to, where to be obtained, 403
 
 INDEX. 
 
 481 
 
 HuniiJity, table of relative, 362-367 ; 
 
 explanation of the table, 368 
 Humidity observations and readings of 
 
 wet and dry bulb thermometers, Mr. 
 
 H. F. Blanford's remarks, 34-3 
 " Hunter's Gazetteer of India," Indian 
 
 names of places to be spelt accordin^j 
 
 to, 40 
 Hunter & Sands, Messrs., second-hand 
 
 photographic lenses can be obtained 
 
 of, their address, 326 
 Hygrometers and humidity observations, 
 
 Mr. H. F. Blanford's remarks on, 335, 
 
 343-345 
 Hypsometrical apparatus, description of, 
 
 94-95; how to use, 95-9li (see also 
 
 j!ot/inj-point Apparatus <in<l Boih'ng- 
 
 ptoint Thermometer) 
 
 IcK-AxES, where obtainable, 3') 
 
 Ira Thurn, E. F., his paper on the "An- 
 thropological uses of the C.unera," 331 
 
 Immersion in cold water to be avoided 
 as much as possible in hot climates, 48 
 
 Inaccessible objects, trigonometrical for- 
 mula; for ascertaining heights and dis- 
 tances of, ] 33-138 ; to find the dis- 
 tance of, with a measuring line, 140 
 (see also under Heii/hts) 
 
 Inches and tenths into Millimetres, table 
 for converting, 286 ; explanation, 2.')9 
 
 Index-error of sextant, how to find, 103- 
 104 
 
 Index-glass of sextant, adjustment of, 
 102 
 
 India, native states on northern frontier 
 of, little known, 4 ; names of places in, 
 to be spelt accoriling to "Hunter's 
 Gazetteer of India," 4^1; Lieut. -Col. 
 H. H. Godwin-Austen's remarks on 
 plane tabling in, size of plane tables 
 used, 184-185; theodolite used in great 
 trigonometrical survey of, 243 
 
 India-rubber, 8S 
 
 Indian Government, form of tacheometer 
 adopted by the, 120 
 
 Industry and commerce, article on, bv 
 .1. S. Keltie, 461-470 
 
 Infants and children, Surgeon - JIajor 
 Parke's hints on the care of, G2-64 
 
 Infiammation f f the windpipe, lungs, &c , 
 treatment for, 51 
 
 Injuries, surgical diseases and, Surgeon- 
 Major Parke's remarks on, 65-82 
 
 Ink pellets. Perry's, 13 
 
 Inks recommended for travellei's, by Mr. 
 H. H. Johnston, 28 
 
 Insects, kept away by^ smoke, 47 ; net for 
 collecting, "killing-bottle" for, 398; 
 hints on collecting, 410-412 
 
 "Insect-puzzler," Tuckett's, 16, 21-23 
 
 Insect vermin, " Papier Preservateur " 
 as a preservative against, 399 
 
 Instruction to intending travellers given 
 by the Royal Geographical Society, 
 subjects, terms, instructors' names, 
 &c., 3 
 
 Instruments used in surveying, 83-132 
 
 Instruments and their adjustments. 92- 
 132 
 
 Ipecacuanha the specific remedy tor 
 acute dysentery, 55; its use in cases 
 of congestion and inflammatmii of the 
 liver, 57 
 
 Irish geological srfrvey, geological ham- 
 mers used by, 381 
 
 Iron ores, remarks on, 383-384 
 
 Italian Alpine Club lantern, 86 
 
 Itah, safer to sleep in top sturey ot 
 hotel in malarial districts of, 48 
 
 .LvCKALS, treatment for bites from, 74 
 
 .laeger & Co., their address, 8 ; their 
 sleeping-bags, 14 
 
 .lames. Sir Henry, reference to his tables 
 for the construction of maps on the 
 rectangular tangential projection, 163 
 
 Janson, Mr., outfit for coliecting and 
 2 K
 
 482 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 preserving birds, insects, &c., obtain- 
 able from, his address, 397 
 
 Jaw of natives, importance of observing, 
 421 
 
 Jigger (Pulex penetrans), annoyance 
 caused by, treatment for, 73 
 
 Johnston, H. H., his notes on travellers' 
 outfit, 25 ; his " Hints on Anthro- 
 pology," 445-44-8 
 
 Journal, travellers', importance of enter- 
 ing all details of survey in, 158 
 
 Jupiter's satellites, telesi ope suitable for 
 observing the ellipses of, 89 ; longi- 
 tude by the eclipses of, with example, 
 235-236 
 
 KamaRBAnd (scarf) for travellers, 45 : 
 should be woin in tropics day and 
 night, 77 ; silk, 79 
 
 Kananga water (Japanese), to rub on 
 hands and face as a protection against 
 mosquitoes, 14 
 
 Keating's insect powder, for fleas and 
 bugs, 73 
 
 Keltic, J. Scott, Assist. -Secretary R.G.S., 
 scientific lessons to intending travellers 
 arranged by him, 3 ; his article on 
 "Industry and Commerce,'" 461-470 
 
 Kennan, Mr., of Dublin, geological 
 hammers made by, 381 
 
 Kew Observatory, standard thermometers 
 tested at the, 86; examination of in- 
 struments at the, charges, &c., 90 ; 
 sextants tested at, 104 ; travellers' 
 watches should be tested at, 132 ; 
 verification of thermometei's at, 335 
 
 Key camera, made by the Platinotype 
 Company, used by Mr. W. M. Conway 
 in Karakorum district, 323 
 
 "Killing bottles," for collecting natural 
 history specimens, how to make the 
 paste, "^'C, 398 
 
 Kilogrammes into pounds avoirdujiois, 
 table for converting, 294 ; explanation 
 of the table, 260 
 
 Kilometres into English statute miles, 
 
 table for converting, 292 ; explanation 
 of the table, 260 
 
 "Kitchen middens," remarks on, 392 
 
 Knickerbockers, for travellers, 79 
 
 Knife, pocket, 79 
 
 Knives, clasp, as presents for natives, and 
 for barter, 13 
 
 Kola-nut biscuits, their effect in sus- 
 taining strength, where they can be 
 obtained, 12 
 
 Labels for natural historv specimens, 
 400 
 
 Labour, remarks on, as affecting com- 
 mercial prospects of a country, 469 
 
 Lakes, geological remarks on the beds, 
 etc., of. Sir A. Ramsay's opinion, 389 
 
 1 .amplough's pvretic saline, for travellers, 
 27 
 
 Language, importance of traveller ob- 
 taining some knowledge of that of the 
 country he intends visiting, before 
 starting, 3 
 
 Languages, Dr. Tyler's hints to travellers 
 on investigating native, 423-426 ; 
 hints on inquiring into native, 448 
 
 Lantern, "Beresford " folding, 78 ; suit- 
 able for observers, 85 ; for general 
 purposes, 86 
 
 Latham, Baldwin, C.E., one of the com- 
 mittee of the British Association for 
 preparing hints to meteorological 
 observers in tropical Africa, 368 
 
 Latitude, observations for, by meridian 
 altitude of sun, example, 191-192 ; by 
 meridian altitude of a star, example, 
 193; by meridian altitude of stars 
 above and below the pole, 193 ; bv 
 pole star, 193 ; circum-meridian ob- 
 servations for, 194; by altitudes of a 
 star or planet, near the meridian, 
 example, 195-196 ; by double altitudes 
 of the sun, example, 197-197B; with 
 a subtense theodolite, 246-247, 251 
 
 Latitudes, surveying a country and fixing
 
 INDEX. 
 
 483 
 
 positions bv means of, ami azimuths, 
 187a-187b" 
 
 Leech gaiters, for tropical lour, 16 ; 
 Lieut.-Col. Godwin-Austen's remarks 
 on, 16 
 
 Leeches, where found, how to remove 
 from skin, 73 
 
 Leg, fractured, treatment of, 71 
 
 Leggings, travellers', 79 
 
 Lens, photographic, importance of se- 
 lecting a good, different kinds, those 
 suited to travellers' requirements, 
 324-326; where second-hand lenses 
 can be obtained, 326 ; cost of, 331 
 
 Lepidoptera, boxes, &c., for coUectius, 
 399 
 
 Levasseur's book " Les Alpes," 36 
 
 1 evel for photographic camera, 324: 
 
 Levels, theodolite {see under Theodolites. 
 '1-0.) 
 
 Levelling the Everest theodolite, 118-120 
 
 Liebig's extract of meat, for travellers. 
 11,80 
 
 Litter, for transport of sick or w>niuded, 
 81 
 
 Liver, affections of the, medical treat- 
 ment foi-, 57 
 
 I.ncal attraction of compass, precautions 
 against effects of, 157 
 
 Lockyer's Astronomy, taken by Mr. E. 
 Whymper on his South American 
 journey, 18 
 
 Loess of the Rhine and Danube, forma- 
 tion of the, 391 
 
 Logarithms, use of, in plane trigonometi'v, 
 multiplication and division by, 13+ 
 
 Longitude, to find the difference of, when 
 the departure, latitude and distance 
 are known. 169 ; by chronometer, from 
 altitudes of sun, e.xample, 202-203 ; 
 by chronometer from altitudes of a 
 star, example, 204-205 ; by meridian 
 distance, with examples, 212-213; by 
 the occultation of a star, with example, 
 213-217; by lunar distance, with ex- 
 ample, 218-224; to compute the alti- 
 
 tude of a heavenly body, with example, 
 225-228; by moon culminating stars, 
 with example, 229-234; by eclipses 
 of Jupiter's satellites, with example, 
 235-236 ; with a subtense theodolite, 
 247-248, 252-254 
 
 I-ord and Baines, Messrs., their book, 
 '• Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life," 
 ret'errcd to, 8 
 
 Lunar distance, measurement of, between 
 the moon and sun, 218 ; between the 
 moon and star or planet, 219 ; com- 
 plete set of observations for, 220 ; 
 clearing the, by Raper's Rigorous 
 Method, computation for finding longi- 
 tude, 221-224; to compute the alti- 
 tudes, with example, 225-228 
 
 Lungs, inflammation of the, treatment 
 for, 51 
 
 -Magic, remarks on native, 431 
 ^lalarial fevers, symptoms and medica 
 
 treatment of, 55 
 Malarial poison, more concentrated in 
 
 districts at night than day, 48 
 .^L^lays, temperament of the, 421 
 -Mammals and birds, remarks on collect- 
 ing, 401-404; remarks on preservino; 
 
 mammals in alcohol, collectino--case, 
 
 404 
 ^Lul, early historv of, in tropical climates. 
 
 remarks on, 392 
 .Map, notes and problems useful in nna]) 
 
 construction. Col. Sir C. W. Wilson's 
 
 article, 167-171 
 -Map projections, rules and tables for the 
 
 construction of, 148-151; suitable for 
 
 plotting travellers' survey work. Col. 
 
 Sir C. W. Wilson's remarks, 163 
 -Mapping a country, general remarks on, 
 
 and example of a route survey, 152- 
 
 158 
 Mapping instruments, 87 
 Maps, importance of travellers consulting 
 
 the best of the country it is proposed 
 
 to visit previous tostartingr, nio<t snit- 
 2 K 2
 
 484 
 
 TNDKX. 
 
 able shoul<l be mounted for pockft, 2 ; 
 bebt obtainable of country to be visiteii 
 should be taken by explorer, 89; blank, 
 ruled for latitudes and longitudes, 
 should bo taken by explorer, 89 ; 
 blank,- for plotting work of route sur- 
 vey, 157 
 
 Marquois's scales, 87 
 
 Marriages, natives', 432—434 
 
 Marriott, W., his "Hints to Mete, ro- 
 logical Observers," referred to, 369 
 
 Maudslay, A. P., his article on paper- 
 moulding of monuments, or "squeezes," 
 455-460 
 
 Maximum and minimum thermometers, 
 86 ; remarks on setting, reading, &c., 
 374; Mr. H. F. Blanford's remarks on, 
 334 
 
 Meaghor's photographic cameras, 322 
 
 Mean time, explanation of, 198 
 
 Measurements of natives, hints on taking. 
 420 
 
 Measuring, rough methods of, 141-142 
 
 Meats, preserved, for travellers, 12 
 
 Medical diseases, Surgeon-Major Parke's 
 hints on, 51-65 
 
 Medical hints in previous edition of 
 this work, value of, 2 
 
 Medical and surgical hints, bv Surgeon- 
 M^jor Thos. H. Parke, 44-8*2 
 
 Medicines for African travelling, 24; by 
 Burroughs, Wellcome & Co., 80 
 
 Memorandum on glacier observations, 
 issued bv the committee of the Alpine 
 Club, 394-396 
 
 Mental powers of natives, remarks on, 
 422 
 
 Mercator's projection, rules and tables 
 for the construction of ma])s on, 148- 
 149 ; Col. Sir C. W. Wilson's remarks 
 on, 163 
 
 Mercurial horizon {sec nndcr Artificial 
 Horizon) 
 
 Meridian, to find the, by a watch, 139; 
 to find the, by the sun, without instru- 
 nients, 139-140 : fixinj the transit in- 
 
 strument or transit theodolite in the, 
 229-230 
 
 Meridian distance, longitude bv, with ex- 
 amjde, 212-213 
 
 Meridian passage of star, to find time of, 
 192 
 
 Merv, railway station and inns at, 1 
 
 Metal-working, native methods of, 427 
 
 Meteorological instruments for travellers, 
 Mr. H. F. Blanford's list, 333 ; screen 
 for, 336 ; Royal Meteorological So- 
 ciety's list of, o58 ; list of, for observers 
 in tropical Africa, 368 ; notes on 
 mounting, 369 
 
 Meteorological note-book, form of, 361 
 
 Meteorological observations, hints on, 
 359 : instructions for taking and re- 
 marks on hours of observation, regis- 
 ter, reading instruments, &c., 371- 
 377 
 
 Meteorological observers in tropical 
 Africa, hints to, prepared by a com- 
 mittee of the British Association, 368- 
 376 
 
 Meteorological Office, list of meteorolo- 
 gical stations and organisations fur- 
 nished' by the, 377-379 
 
 Meteorological stations over the globe, 
 reference to Mr. R. H. Scott's memoir 
 containing a list of, 316 
 
 Meteorologv and climate, article on, by 
 Mr. H. F. Blanford, f.R.s., 332-356; 
 Mr. C. E. Peek's note on, 35i-361 ; 
 Mr. R. H. Scott's note on, 376 
 
 Jlethodical arrangement of stores, &c., 
 for travelling, 9 
 
 Metres into English feet, table for con- 
 verting, 287-291 ; explanation, 259 
 
 Micrometer divisions of tacheometer, how 
 to find value of, 122 
 
 Midges, dispersed by smoke, 73 
 
 Milford Haven, the depressed vallev at, 
 389 
 
 Milk, preserved, for travellers, 11 
 
 Mill, H. R., D.sc, secretary of the com- 
 mittee of the Bi-itish Association for
 
 INDEX. 
 
 485 
 
 preparing hints to meteorological ob- 
 servers iu tropical Africa, 368 
 
 Minerals, remarks on collecting, 383- 
 384; remarks on commercial import- 
 ance of minerals and metals, 463 
 
 Minimum thermometers, Mr. H. F. Bhin- 
 ford's remarks on, 334 
 
 Mistral, the wind known as the, 349 
 
 Moir's fresh herrings, for travellers, 12 
 
 " Mollusca, Manual of the," by Mr. S. P. 
 Woodward, this book referred to, 409 
 
 Mollusca, land and freshwater, hints on 
 collecting, by Lieutenant - Colonel 
 H. H. Godwin-Austen, f.r.s., 409- 
 410 
 
 Money, remarks on native, 430 
 
 Moneys, table of foreign, with equivalents 
 in British curreucv, 294 ; explanation, 
 260 
 
 Monuments, rude stone, 428 
 
 Moon culminating stars, longitude by. 
 with example, 229-234 
 
 Moon's true central altitude, computa- 
 tion of, example, 227-228 
 
 Morality, remarks on native, 432 
 
 Morley, Mr., second-hand photogiaphic 
 lenses, to be obtained of, his address, 
 326 
 
 Morocco, a field for geographical ex- 
 ploration, 4 
 
 Morton, Messrs., preserved meats, &c., to 
 be obtained from, 27 
 
 Mosquito curtains, for tropical tour, 10 ; 
 Surgeon-Major Parke's remarks on, 
 doubtful if they are any protection 
 against malarial poison, 47 ; their use 
 prevents the introduction of Bilharzli 
 hxmatohia into the circulation, 47 
 Mosquitoes, Kananga water rubbed on 
 hands and face as a protection against, 
 14; l\ow to ward off, 73 
 Moulding (paper) of monuments, or 
 "squeezes," article on, by A. P. 
 Maudslay, 45.5-460 
 Mountain chains, geological riMnark> nn. 
 387 
 
 Mountain travel, note on, by Mr. D. \V. 
 Freshfield, 35-37 ; new fields for ex- 
 ploration, 35 
 
 " jNIountaineering," the Badmintony ohwna 
 on, 37 
 
 " ^Mountaineering beyond the Alps," Jlr. 
 D. W. Freshfield's chapter on, in the 
 Badminton volume on " Mountaineer- 
 ing," 37 
 
 Mounting meteorological instruments, 
 notes on 369 
 
 Mummery's tent, note on, 23 
 
 Murray, Mr., referred to iu connection 
 with coral islands, 393 
 
 Jlythology and religion of native races, 
 remarks on, 437 
 
 Narrativk of journey, hints on pre- 
 paring, for publication, 7 
 
 Natives, general remarks on dealings 
 with, 5 ; remarks on observing the 
 physical characters of, measurements, 
 complexion, hair, temperament, mental 
 powers, &c., 419-423 ; language, 423- 
 426; arts and sciences, 426-431; 
 society, 431-437 ; religion and mytho- 
 logy, 437-439 ; customs, 439-440 : 
 remarks on photographing, 447 ; rules 
 and tables for ascertaining statistics ot 
 strength, stature, &c., of, by F. Galtou, 
 F.R.S., 448-453 ; remarks on character, 
 prejudices, &c., of, as affecting com- 
 mercial prospects of a country, 470 
 
 Natural History, article on, by H. W. 
 Bates, F.R.S., revised by P. L. Sclatei-, 
 F.R.S., 397—418; outfit for collector, 
 397-399; where to obtain outfit, 397 ; 
 regions of which the natural history is 
 little known, 400 ; natives' knowledice 
 of, 431 
 
 Natural resources of a country, remarks 
 on, 462 
 
 Natural sines, tangents, .secants, &c.. 
 t-iible of, 304; explanation, 260
 
 486 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Nautical almanacs to be taken by ex- 
 plorer, 88 
 
 Negatives, photograjjhic, traveller's aim 
 should be to produce good, 329 
 
 Nets for collecting natural history speci- 
 mens,'398 
 
 New Guinea, little known of interior of. 
 4 ; natural history specimens required 
 from, 399 
 
 Night, exposure during, in malarial 
 districts, to be avoided, 48 
 
 Night blindness, its cause and cure, .57 
 
 Nordeuskiold, Prof., his ojiiuion of liyuri'- 
 meter readings in Arctic climates, o44 
 
 Norie's Navigation, 88 
 
 Northern Australia, natural historv 
 specimens required from, 399 
 
 Norway, fiords of, 389 
 
 Norwegian cooking apparatus for travel- 
 lers, 17 
 
 Note-books for travellers, 13 
 
 " Notes and Queries on Anthropology." 
 reference to this book, where it can be 
 obtained, 419 
 
 Observations, meteorological, hints on, 
 359 
 
 Occultation of a star, longitude by the. 
 with example, 213-217 
 
 Ocean basins, permanence of, remarks on. 
 392 
 
 Opium, its use in malarial fever, 56 
 
 Ophthalmia, its cause and medical treat- 
 ment, 58-59 
 
 Ordinary thermometers, 86 
 
 Orthography of geographical names, 
 R.G.S. rules, 38-41 
 
 Outfit, article entitled "Hints on," 8-37; 
 preparing catalogue of, showing con- 
 tents of packing-cases, 11 ; Mr. E. 
 Whymper's list of, for his journey 
 in South America, 17-21 ; w-eight. 
 where procured, 21 ; for mountaineer- 
 ing expedition, Mr. Freshfield's note. 
 37; surveying, 84-90; photographic, 
 
 331 ; meteorological, 333, 358, 368 ; 
 geological, 381 ; natural history, 
 397-399 
 
 1'aCING, average length of pace, practice 
 necessary for pacing at same length, 
 rate.s of, 142 
 
 Packing-cases, .size, &c.. of those taken by 
 Mr. E. Whymper on his journey in South 
 America, 21 
 
 Packing, stores, &c., for travelling, 9-11 ; 
 ciutfit, with a view to porterage, 25 ; 
 instruments, remarks on, 91 (for re- 
 marks on packinj natutal histury anct 
 other specimens, see under the respective 
 articles) 
 
 Paddles for traveller's canoe, 30 
 
 Paints for maps, 88 
 
 Paint and brush for marking on trees 
 and rocks, 88 
 
 Paiut-brushes, 88 
 
 Palkee hammock for short trips, 24 
 
 Pamirs, condition of the atmosphere iu 
 the, 351 
 
 Paper, ruled, &c., for explorer, 87 ; for 
 "squeezes," where it can be obtained, 
 455 
 
 Paper moulding of monuments, or 
 "squeezes," article on. by A. P. 
 Mauilslay, 455— loU 
 
 Parallax, adjustment for, in transit theo- 
 dolite, 111; correction for, in Everest 
 theodolite, 118 
 
 Parasites often introduced into the skin 
 through plunging into tropical waters, 
 48 ; medical treatment for, 62 ; dif- 
 ferent kinds of, how to treat, 73 
 
 Parcels, table showing approximate time 
 occupied in the transmission of, from 
 London to certain places abroad, 311 ; 
 explanation, 260 
 
 •'Parke Africa Bedstead," the, 78 
 
 Parke, Surgeon-Major Thos. H.. his 
 " Medical and Surgical Hints," 44—82 ; 
 his "Kules fur tlie Pre.>ervation of
 
 INDEX. 
 
 487 
 
 Health in the Tropics,'' 76-77 ; his 
 " List of Useful Articles " (from 
 "Guide to Health in Africa"), 77-8U 
 
 Patagonians, height of, 420 
 
 Pedometer, 90 
 
 Peek, Cuthbert E., M.A., his meteoro- 
 logical note, 35S-361 
 
 Pencils, black lead, recommended for 
 travellers, by Mr. H. H. Johnston, '2s 
 
 Penknives, 88 
 
 Pens for travellers, 13, 88 
 
 People's Button, the, recommended for 
 travellers, 12 
 
 Perlocation gauge, 369 
 
 Perry's ink pellets, 13 
 
 Persia, clear atmosphere near salt desert 
 (Kavir) of, 351 
 
 Philips's Maximum thermometer, 369 
 
 Phillips, Prof. J., and Dr. Chas. Darwin, 
 reference to their article on Geology 
 in "Admiralty Manual of Scieutitic 
 Enquiry,' 385 - 
 
 Photographic apparatus for travellers, 
 weight of, 321 ; cost of, 331 
 
 Photographic printing, 331 
 
 Photographing natives, hints on, 447 
 
 Photographs of glaciers, importance of. 
 395 
 
 Photography, instruction given to in- 
 tending travellers in, 3 ; article on, by 
 W. F. Donkin, M.A., revised by J. 
 Thomson, 321-331 ; works on, 329 
 
 Physical characters of natives, remarks 
 on observing, 419-423 
 
 " Pictorial Effect in Photography," Kobin- 
 son's work entitled, referred to, 329 
 
 Piles, cause of, treatment for, 59 
 
 Pins, artists', 87 
 
 Plane table, for explorer, 90 ; different 
 forms of, description of various parts 
 of, 124-126; form used in Indian 
 Survey Department, article bv Col. 
 H. H. Godwin -Austen, 126-130; 
 specimen of portion of plane table 
 work, 128; form of field-book, 129; 
 surveying with, article on, 173-185; 
 
 base line for survey, 174; orienting 
 and finding position on the table by 
 rays, 175-179; orienting by the com- 
 l)ass, 179 ; shifting the paper, 179 : 
 reliance on compass to be avoided, 
 180; broken survey, 180; scale, 181; 
 Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-.\ustea's re- 
 marks on Indian pattern of table, 
 accuracy of work, &c., 181-185 
 
 Plane trigonometry, formulte for the 
 solution of right-angled triangles, 
 133; ditto for oblique-angled triangles. 
 134; examples iu, 135-136 
 
 Plants, hints on collecting living, 416 : 
 collecting and preserving succulent, 
 416 (see also under Botanical Cullectinij) 
 
 Plates, photographic, sizes of, size re- 
 commended to travellers, 321 ; how to 
 keep dry, 327 ; cost of, 331 
 
 Platinotype Co., their Key camera re- 
 commended, 323 
 
 Platinum, remarks on, 384 
 
 Pleurisy, medical treatment for, 53 
 
 Plotting the bearings taken on route 
 sui'vey, 155-156 ; notes and problems 
 useful in map construction, Col. Sir 
 C. \V. Wilson's article, 167-171 
 
 Pueumonia, medical treatment for, 51 
 
 Pocket chronometei', taken by Mr. E. 
 VVhymper on his South American 
 journey, 20 ; watch more suitable 
 than, for travellers, 85, 130 ; cost 
 of, 130 
 
 Pocket compass for travellers, 85; de- 
 scription of, 93 
 
 Pole, latitude by meridian altitude of 
 stars above and below the, 193 
 
 Pole star, latitude by altitude of, 193 
 
 Polygamy amongst natives, 433 
 
 Pi sition, fixing the, by three-point 
 jiroblem, 170 
 
 Post, table giving approximate time 
 occupied in course of, from London 
 to certain places abroad, 310; expla- 
 nation, 260 
 
 Pottery, remarks on, native, 427
 
 488 
 
 FNTDEX. 
 
 Pratt, Captain, R.E., his remarks ou tlie 
 adjustments of the Everest theodolite, 
 118 
 
 Preliminary Hints, by D. W. Fresh- 
 field, 1-7 
 
 Preliinintiry Remarks to section on sur- 
 veying and astronomical observations, 
 83' 
 
 Presents and articles for barter, list of 
 those most likely to be useful and 
 valued by natives, 13 
 
 " Preservation of Health in the Tropics, 
 Rules for the," by Surgeon - Major 
 Parke, 70-77 
 
 Preserved meats, for travellers, 12 
 
 Prickly-heat, treatment for, 60 
 
 Printing, photographic, reference to 
 book "The Art and Practice of Silver 
 Printing." by Robinson and Abnev, 
 331 
 
 Prismatic compass, for travellers, 85 ; 
 descri))tion of, 92-93 ; observations 
 with the, 93-94 ; examples of use of, 
 iu route surveying, 153-158 ; j)re- 
 cautions against the effect of local 
 attraction, 157 ; Col. Sir C. W. Wilson's 
 article on Surveys with the Sextant 
 and, 162-173 ; importance of, to geo- 
 logist, 382 
 
 Projections (st'e Map Projections) 
 
 Property, native laws in respect of hold- 
 ing land, 434—435 
 
 Protractors, 87 
 
 Provisions, list of tinned, &c., suitable 
 for travellers, 11 
 
 Putties, light woollen, 79 
 
 Pyjamas i'or travellers, 45 ; silk and 
 wool, 79 
 
 Pyrenees, mapping of tracts of the, by 
 private enterprise, 4 
 
 " QuARTKR-PLATE " camera, 321 
 Quicksilvei', how to cleanse, 107 
 Quinine, important to traveller, where 
 best procured, how to take, 26 ; its 
 
 use in case of pneumonia, 52 ; its use 
 in malarial fever. 56 
 
 RAniATiON thermometers, 353-355, 369 
 
 Railway routes, importance of inquiry aa 
 to saitable, 469 
 
 Ilnin, snow, hail, dew, &c., Mr. H. F. 
 Blanfonl's remarks on measurement 
 of, 345 
 
 Rainfall, measurement of, efl'ect of moun- 
 tain ranges on, 345 
 
 Rain gauge, should be taken by explorer. 
 90; best form of, Mr. H. F.'lilanford's 
 remarks, 337 ; remarks on, 359 ; fixing 
 the, 371 
 
 I'anisay, Sir A., his theory of formation 
 uf lake-basins, 389 
 
 R.iper's Practice of Navigation, 88 
 
 Rapids, remarks on passing, in a canoe, 31 
 
 Rarefied air, etl'ects of, on the human 
 frame, 36 
 
 Rate of watch, finding the, 2O0-211 
 
 Ravenstein, E. G., Chairman of the Com- 
 mittee of the British Association for 
 preparing hints to meteorological 
 observers in tropical Africa, 368 
 
 Rectangular tangential ]irojection, 151; 
 Col. Sir C. W. Wilson's remarks on, 
 163 
 
 Reel us, M., his '• Geographic Universelie " 
 referred to, 4 
 
 Refraction, mean astronomical, table 
 giving, 275-276 ; explanation, 257 
 
 Register, meteorological, remark on, 371 
 
 Relative humidity, table of, 362-367 ; 
 explanation of the table, 368 
 
 Rtligion and mythology of native laces, 
 remarks on, 437 
 
 Reporter's note-books, 87 
 
 Reptiles and fishes, stone jars for, natural 
 history specimens. 398 ; hints on col- 
 lecting, &c., bv ilr. Osbert Salvia. 
 F.r.S., 407-409" 
 
 Resources, natural, of a countrv, remarks 
 on, 462
 
 INDEX. 
 
 489 
 
 Rheumatism, medical treatment for, 53 
 
 Rhone Glacier, method of ascertaining 
 movements of, 395 
 
 Ribs, fractured, treatment for, 71 
 
 Richter's system of ascertaining oscilla- 
 tions of glaciers, 395 
 
 Richthofen, Baron F. von, his ojiinion of 
 the formation of the loess of the Rhine 
 and Danube, 391 
 
 Rickets in children, how to jirevent, G+ 
 
 Riddles, importance of inquiring into, ■4-39 
 
 Riding-whips aud whipcord, for travellers, 
 15 
 
 Rifles, &.C., taken by Mr. J. Thomson on 
 his Masailand journey, 25 
 
 Right angle, to set off a, on the ground, 
 by means of a rope, 139. 
 
 Right ascension, sun's mean, table show- 
 ing, 269 ; explanation, 256 
 
 Ring-worm, infectious, treatment for, 'iu 
 
 River, measurement of the number of 
 cubic feet of water conveyed by a, in 
 each second, 14:6-14-8 ; remarks oii 
 managing canoe on dangerous, 31 
 
 Rivers and river plains, geological re- 
 marks on, 389 
 
 Roads, importance of, in respect to coni- 
 mei'ce of a country, 469 
 
 Robbery, how to guard stores, &c., fron', 
 10 
 
 Robinson's anemometer, 369 
 
 Robinson's works on photography referred 
 to, 329, 331 
 
 Rob Roy cooking-stove, 15 
 
 Rocks (see under Geology) 
 
 Rod or staff used in tacheometer survey- 
 ing, 123, 186 
 
 Rope, Manilla, recommended to travellers, 
 15 
 
 Ross, Messrs., their photographic camera>, 
 322, 324 ; their lense.s, 325 
 
 Kouch's hand camera, 324 
 
 Route survey. Col. Sir C. W. Wilson's 
 remarks on, 164—166 ; general re- 
 marks on, scales for plotting work, 
 notes should be given lor informatiun 
 
 of map compiler, 153 ; example of, 
 with prismatic compass, boiling-point 
 thermometer and anei-oid, 153-158; 
 sources of error in, 157 
 
 Rowing, remarks on, by J. Coles, 33 
 
 Royal Geographical Society, travellers 
 should consult the maps and books in 
 the collection of, before starting on 
 their journeys, 3 ; instruction for in- 
 tending travellers given by the, sub- 
 jects, terms, instructors' names, &c., 3 ; 
 their rules for spelling geographical 
 names, 38-41 
 
 Royal Meteorological Society, their 
 " Hints to Meteoiological Observers " 
 referred to, 369 ; meteorological in- 
 structions, &c., issued by the, 358-361 : 
 form of their meteorological note-book, 
 361 
 
 liubber pocket-flasks, for travellers, 14 
 
 Ruby, remarks on the, 384 
 
 Rucksacks, large bags similar to, useful 
 to travellers, 10 
 
 Ruins, &c., survey of a plot of ground 
 containing, by Col. Sir C. \V. Wilson, 
 171 
 
 Ruler, graduated, 87 
 
 Rupture, treatment for, danger of stran- 
 gulated, 73 
 
 Russia, customs duties in, referred to, 9 
 
 llutherford's minimum thermometer, 335 
 
 Sail for traveller's canoe, 30 
 
 Sailing, boat, remarks on, by J. Coles, 33 
 
 Sailor's pocket-book, taken by Mr. E. 
 Whymper, on his South Americ.iu 
 journey, 18 
 
 Salvin, Osbert, f.r.s., his hints on col- 
 lecting reptiles and fishes, 407-409 
 
 Sapphire, remarks on, 384 
 
 Scale of survey, remarks on, geographical 
 mile should be chosen, 153; scale of 
 map for plotting survey work. Col. 
 Sir C. W. Wilson's remarks on, 163 
 
 Scales suitalik' fur plotting route survey, 
 156
 
 490 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Schweinfurth, Dr., his route survey in 
 
 Welle region, referred to, 157 
 Sciences and arts, remarks on native, 
 
 426-431 
 Scientific outfit (surveying) for explorers, 
 
 84-91 
 Sclater, P. L., F.R.S., article on natural 
 
 history, revised by, 397-418 
 Scott, II. H., F.R.S., reference to his me- 
 moir containing a list of meteorological 
 stations over the globe, 316 ; his 
 meteorological note, extract from the 
 I'eport of the international meteoro- 
 logical conference held at Munich. 
 Sej.t., 1891, 376-377 ; his list of ine- 
 teorulogical stations, 377-379 
 Screen for meteorological instruments, 
 336, 369-370 ; for thermometers, i-e- 
 - marks on, 358 
 
 Screws for travellers' packing-cases, 10 
 Sea-horizon, distance of the, uncorrected 
 for eSects of refraction, table giving, 
 279 ; explanation, 259 
 Sea-level, barometer readings at, Mr. 
 
 H. F. Blanford's remarks, 339 
 Sea-sickness, how to prevent, treatment 
 
 for, 60 
 Sectional paper for mapping, 13 
 Seeds, hints on collecting, 415 
 Semi-diurnal arches, showing the time of 
 the rising and setting of the sun, moon, 
 or equatorial stars, table, 277-278 ; 
 explanation, 257 
 Sensitive plates or films, photographic, 
 
 remarks on, packing, &c., 327 
 Sensitized mediums for photography, 
 
 Tarious kinds, 321 
 Sextant, sizes recommended, 84 ; princi- 
 ple of construction, 100 ; description 
 of the, 100-102; adjustment of the, 
 102-104 ; to find index-error of, 103- 
 104; the centering-error of, 104; 
 hints on the use of, in surveying, 159- 
 162 ; measuring the angular distance 
 between two terrestrial objects with, 
 159 i table for ascertaining heights 
 
 and distances by, 160; sextant and 
 prismatic compass, siirvey.s with, ar- 
 ticle by Col. Sir C. Wilson, r.e., 
 K.C.B., 162-173; sextant observations, 
 list of, 189 ; observations of heavenly 
 bodies with the, methods of obtaining 
 accurate results, 190 ; to observe the 
 altitude of the sun, using an artificial 
 horizon, 19n-ll)l ; finding the center- 
 ing error of, 194; capabilities, &c., as 
 compared with theodolite, 240-241 ; 
 cost, weight, &c., of 7-iDch, made by 
 Troughton and Sirams, 241 
 Sextant, box or pocket, description of. 
 1(15-106; adjustments, 106; a valu- 
 able adjunct for plane tabling, 181 
 Sextant-stand, use of, Gary's form of, 108 
 Shadwell's cards of formulae, 88 
 Shaw, Mr., reference to, in counectiun 
 with condition of atmosphere in Pamirs. 
 351 
 Shelter for thermometers, 336, 369-370 
 Shirts for travellers, 45, 79 
 Sidereal time, explanation of, 198 
 Silver & Co., Messrs., travellers' outfit- 
 ters, 8; their air-tight cases for travel- 
 lers, stores, &c., 10 ; their self-cooking 
 soup tins, 11 ; their ebonite fiasks for 
 carrying water when on march, 15 ; 
 the Tuckett " Insect Puzzler," can be 
 procured of, 21 , their air-tight pack- 
 ing-cases, 26 ; traveller recommended 
 by Mr. H. H. Johnston to apply to, 
 concerning outfit, 29 ; implements for 
 collecting large animals obtainable 
 from, their address, their anti-recoil 
 heel-plate for guns, 397 
 Skeletons of animals, preparation of, 
 directions by Sir W. H. Flower, F.R.S., 
 405-407 ; skinning and preserving 
 mammals and birds, hints on, 402- 
 405 
 Skulls, different forms of natives', 
 421 ; deforming infants', by British 
 Columbian natives, 439 
 Sky and atmosphere, remarks on observa-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 tions on the, 349 ; Mr. Hennessey's 
 system of indicating tlie condition of 
 the, 355 
 
 Sleeping-bags, Jaeger's, and other kinds, 
 ll; for cold climates, Tuckett's, 17 
 
 Sleeping, on board ship, 46 ; off the 
 ground in tropics, importance of, 77 
 
 Sleeplessness, its cause and cure, 61 
 
 Slides for holding the photographic sensi- 
 tive plat(!s, 3l!4 
 
 Sling thermometer, use of, 34:: 
 
 Smoke, keeps away insects, 47 
 
 Smithsonian Institution, Guyot's meteoro- 
 logical tables published by, 89 
 
 Snake-bite, prevention of, how recognised. 
 Sir Joseph Fayrer's treatment for, 74 
 
 Snakes, hints on collecting, as natural 
 history specimens, 401 
 
 Snow-blindness, its cause and cure, 57 
 
 Snow, measurement of fall of, 345 
 
 Society, rules of native, hints on obtain- 
 ing knowledge of them, 431 
 
 Socks, best for travellers, 67 
 
 Sound equivalents, table of, adopted for 
 the transliteration of geographical 
 names by Great Britain, United States, 
 France, Germany and Spain, 43 
 
 Sound, rate at which it travels, ascer- 
 taining distance by, 142-143 
 
 Soup tins, Silver's self-cooking, 11 
 
 Soups, preserved in tins, for travellers. 
 11 
 
 South America, Mr. E. Whymper's outfit 
 for his journey in, 17-21; total cost 
 of this journey, 21 
 
 Span, average angle subtended by the 
 full, at arm's length, 141 ; approxi- 
 mate, length of the, in inches, 142 
 
 Spectacles for preventing night and 
 snow-blindness, 58 
 
 Splints, how to construct, 70 
 
 Sprains, treatment for, 75 
 
 " Squeezes," materials for, 88 ; paper 
 for, where it can be obtained, 455 ; 
 article on, by A. P. Maudslay, 45."j-460 
 
 St. Elias, Mt., accessible to tourists, 1 
 
 Standard thermometers, 86 
 
 Stanley, Mr. H. M., his boat made by 
 James Messenger, referred to, 32 
 
 Star, to find the time of meridian pas- 
 sage of, 192 ; longitude by chrono- 
 meter from altitudes of, example, 
 204-205 ; to find error of watch by 
 equal altitudes of, example, 211 ; 
 ditto by equal altitudes of, on the 
 same side of the meridian, on different 
 nights, 210-211 ; longitude by occul- 
 tation of, with example, 213-217 
 
 Stars, table giving mean jilaces of 50 of 
 the jirincipal fixed, for Jan. 1st, 1894, 
 270-271 ; explanation, 2.36 ; table 
 giving approximate times of meridian 
 passages of 50, of the 1st and 2nd 
 magnitudes on the first day of each 
 month, 272-273 ; explanation, 256 ; 
 table giving correction for the day 
 of the month to be subtracted from 
 the apparent time of a star's meridian 
 passage on first day of the mouth, 
 274 ; explanation, 256 
 
 Station pointer, use of in plotting survey 
 work, 170 ; pamphlet on the, 179 
 
 Stationery for travellers, 12, 87 
 
 Stature, strength, &c., of natives, tables 
 and rules for ascertaining, by F. 
 Galton, F.R.S., 448-453 
 
 Statute into geographical miles, table for 
 conveiting, 283; explanation, 269 
 
 Steel, Hindu manufacture of native, 427 
 
 Steel taj,-e, 85 
 
 Stockings for travellers, 79 
 
 Stores, arrangement and packing of, for 
 journey, 9 
 
 Storms, Mr. H. F. Blanford's remarks on, 
 351-353 
 
 Strength, stature, &c., of natives, rules 
 and tables for ascertaining, by F. 
 Galton, F.R.S., 448-453 
 
 Stretcher, for transport of sick or 
 wounded, 81 
 
 Sun, importance of protecting head from 
 rays of, in tropics, 77 ; to find the
 
 492 
 
 INDEX 
 
 ineridiau by the, without instruments, 
 140-141 ; to find the true amplitude 
 of the, 1(39; latitude by meridian alti- 
 tude of, example, 191-192; latitude 
 by double altitudes of tlie, examjile, 
 197-197B; longitude by chronometer, 
 from altitudes of the, example, '202- 
 203; to find error of watch by equal 
 altitudes of the, example, 208-209 ; 
 declination of the, at mean noon at 
 Greenwich from 1893 to 1900, table 
 giving, 261-264; explanation, 256; 
 table showing mean right ascension of, 
 269 ; explanation, 256 
 
 Sun's heat, observations and instrunii'iits 
 for ascertaining, 353 
 
 Sunshine recorder, 369 
 
 Sunstroke, how caused, treatment in 
 cases of, 61 
 
 Surgical Diseases and Injuries, remarks 
 on, by Surg.-Major Parke, 65-82 
 
 Survey, route, with prismatic coni)ia.-s. 
 boiling-point thermometer and ane- 
 roid, 153-158; route, 164-166; dis- 
 trict, 166-171; of a plot of ground 
 containing ruins, &c., 171 ; of a small 
 tract of country, 171 
 
 Surveying, R.G.S. instruction given to 
 intending travellers in, 3; general 
 remarks on, different methods of, 152 : 
 hints on the use of the sextant in, 159 ; 
 with the plane table, 173-185; sur- 
 veying a country and fixing positions 
 by means of latitudes and azimuths, 
 187a-I87b; "Surveying and Astro- 
 nomical Observations," by John Coles 
 and others, 83-320 
 
 Survey oi-'s note-book, 13 
 
 Surveys with sextant and prismatic 
 compass, article by Col. Sir C. Wilson, 
 R.E., K.C.B., 162-173; diflerent kinds 
 of, for explorers, 163 
 
 Swiss woollen-lined slippers for cold 
 climates, 17 
 
 Switzerland, Murray's handbook for, 37 
 
 Svmbols. recommended to be used in sur- 
 
 veying, 173; meteorological, indicating 
 the state of the weather, 360 
 
 Symington's pea-flour soup, for travellers, 
 11 
 
 Symons, G. J., F.R.S., one of the Com- 
 mittee of the British Association for 
 preparing hints to meteorological ob- 
 servers in tropical Africa, 368 ; his 
 rain gauge, 337 ; his earth thermo- 
 meter, 369 
 
 Syria, east of the Jordan, a field for 
 geographical exploration, 4 
 
 Table, small camp, important to travel- 
 ler, 27 
 
 Tables : Sound equivalents adopted for 
 the transliteration of geographical 
 names by Great Britain, L'nited States, 
 France, Germany and Sjjain, 43 ; for 
 rough trianguiation without the usual 
 instruments, and without calculation, 
 with explanation, by F. Galton, f.r.s., 
 143-145 ; to construct maps on Jler- 
 cator's projection, 149 ; to find dif- 
 ference of longitude when the depar- 
 ture and latitude are given, 150; giving 
 weight, cost, &c. , of Trough ton &Simm's 
 theodolites and 7-in. sextant, 241 
 
 At end of " Surveying and Astro- 
 nomical Observations'" section of this 
 work : — 
 
 I. Declination of the sun at mean 
 noon at Greenwich, from 1893 to 1900, 
 261-264; explanation, 256 
 
 II. Equation of time for apparent 
 noon at Greenwich, from 1893 to 1896, 
 265-268 ; explanation, 256 
 
 III. Sun's mean right ascension, 269; 
 explanation, 256 
 
 IV. Mean places of fifty of the prin- 
 cipal fixed stars for January 1st, 1894, 
 270-271 ; explanation, 256 
 
 V. Approximate times of the meri- 
 dian passages (in apparent time) of 
 fifty stars of the 1st and 2nd magni-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 493 
 
 tudes (pu tlie first flay ot" each nioutli, 
 272-273 ; explanation, 256 
 
 VI. Correction for the day of the 
 month to be subtracted from the ap- 
 parent time of a star's meridian 
 passage on the first day of the month, 
 274 ; explanation, 256 
 
 VJI. Mean astronomical refraction, 
 275-276 ; explanation, 257 
 
 VIII. Semi-diurnal arches, showing 
 the time of the rising and setting of 
 the sun, moon or equatorial stars, 
 277-278 ; explanation, 257 
 
 IX. Distance of the sea-horizon un- 
 corrected for efl'ects of refraction, 279; 
 explanation, 259 
 
 ,^ ^^ , ^2 Sin^ 1 hour ^ 
 
 X. Values of o-.'r ,280- 
 
 Sin 1 ' 
 
 281 ; explanation, 259 
 
 XI. Number of geographical miles, 
 or minutes of the equator, containeil 
 in a degree of longitude under each 
 parallel of latitude, on the supposition 
 of the earth's spheroidal shape with a 
 compression of ^, 282 ; explanation. 
 259 
 
 XII. For couvei'ting statute into 
 geographical miles, 283; explanation, 
 259 
 
 XIII. For converting geographical 
 into statute miles, 284; explanation, 
 259 
 
 XIV. Comparison of thermometer 
 scales, 285 ; explanation, 259 
 
 XV. For converting English inches 
 and tenths into millimetres, 286 ; ex- 
 planation, 259 
 
 XVI. Conversion of metres into 
 English feet, 287-291 ; explanation, 
 259 
 
 XVII. Conversion of kilometres into 
 English statute miles, 292 ; explana- 
 tion, 260 
 
 XVIII. Cenversion of Russian versts 
 into English statute miles, 293 ; ex- 
 planation, 260 
 
 XIX. For converting kilogiamim'.-. 
 into pounds avoirdupois, 294; explana- 
 tion, 260 
 
 XX. Foreign moneys with equi- 
 valents in British currency, 294; ex- 
 planation, 260 
 
 XXI. Traverse table: Difference of 
 latitude and departure, 295-303 ; ex- 
 planation, 260 
 
 XXII. Natural sines, tangents, 
 secants, &c., 304; explanation, ^60 
 
 XXIII. To facilitate finding the 
 longitude by moon culminating stais, 
 305; explanation, 2G0 
 
 XXIV. Angles subtended by a 10-ft. 
 rod at distances from 50 to 1500 ft., 
 307-308 ; explanation, 260 
 
 XXV^. Useful constants, 309 ; ex- 
 planation, 260 
 
 XXVI. Approximate time occupied 
 in course of post from London to 
 certain places abroad, 310 ; explana- 
 tion, 260 
 
 XXVII. Approximate time occupied 
 in the transmission of parcels from 
 London to certain places abroad, 311 ; 
 explanation, 260 
 
 For the determination of heights by 
 boiling-point thermometer and baro- 
 meter or aneroid, with examples, by 
 F. Galton, f.r.s., 312-320 
 
 Showing the pressure of aqueous 
 vapour in inches of mercury at Lat. 
 45° for each degree Fahr. from —30° 
 to 119°, 357 
 
 Relative humidity, 362-367 ; ex- 
 planation, 368 
 Tacheometer, description of, 120-121 ; 
 ))rinciple of measuring distances with, 
 122; to find value of micrometer 
 divisions of, 122 ; I'od used in measur- 
 ing distances with, 123 ; theodolite 
 fitted to use as, 123 ; surveying 
 with, 152, 185-187 ; computation for 
 liuding the distance of start', 186 
 Tape measure, 80
 
 494 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tattooing, native custom of, 439 
 
 Tea, as a drink in tropics, ."iO 
 
 Teething, care of cliililrcn during, G4 
 
 Telescope, astronomical, for explorer, 89 ; 
 adjustment of sextant telescope, 102 ; 
 ditto to theodolite telescope, 114 
 
 Telescope level of transit theodolite, 
 adjustment of, 113 
 
 Temperament of natives, remarks on the 
 difference of, 421 
 
 Temperature observations, Mr. H. V. 
 Blanford's remarks on, 340-343 ; of 
 the ground, observations for, 355 
 
 Tennis suits, flannel, for camp, 79 
 
 Tent, suitable for travellers, Whymper's 
 Alpine, for rough travelling, 14 ; 
 Whymper's, taken by him on his .South 
 American journey, 18 ; note on Jlr. 
 Mummery's, 23; Mr. H. H. Johnston's 
 remarks on the choice of a, 27; Surg.- 
 Major Parke's hints on, for travellers, 77 
 
 "Term days," meteorological, 375 
 
 Theodolite, Everest, descriiition of, 118 : 
 adjustments of, bv Capt. Pratt, R.i:., 
 118-120 
 
 Theodolite, transit, descrii)tion of various 
 parts of, 108-110; adjustments of, 
 111-117; observing with the, 115; 
 improved form of, with level on vernier 
 arms, 115-117; fitted to use as a 
 tacheometer, 123 ; constant to be 
 added to distances measured, 124; on 
 observations with, or altazimuth in- 
 struments, by Gen. J. T. Walker. 
 R.E., F.R.S., 240-2.^5 ; advantages and 
 disadvantages of, as compared with the 
 sextant, 240-241 ; list of price?, 
 weights, &c., of Troughton & Simms', 
 241 ; cost, weight, &c., of Casella's 
 small, 241 ; Troughton & Simms' 
 6-inch subtense used in great trigo- 
 nometrical survey of India, 243. 
 
 Thermometers, boiling-point, 86; diffe- 
 rent kinds of, 86 ; maximum and 
 minimum, 86 ; ordinary, 86 ; standard, 
 86 ; wet bulb, 358 ; for travellers, 
 
 334 ; Kow certificates for, 335 ; scref;n 
 for, 336 ; Mr. H. F. Blanford's remarks 
 on, and temjierature observations, 
 340-343; radiation, 353-355, .369; 
 wet and dry bulb, reading, &c., 373 ; 
 screen for, 358 ; notes on mounting, 
 369 ; thatched shelter for, 369-370 
 
 Thermometer scales, table giving com- 
 parison of, 285 ; explanation, 259 
 
 Thermometer screen, remarks on, 358 
 
 Thieves, packing stores, &c., to protect 
 them from, 10 
 
 Thigh, fractured, skilled surgical aid re- 
 quired for, 71 
 
 Thomas' new photographic film, 327 " 
 
 Thomson, John, lessons in photography 
 given by him, to intending travellers, 
 3 ; Mr. Donkin's article on photo- 
 graphy revised by him, 321-331 
 
 Thomson, Joseph, his notes on African 
 travellers' outfit, 23 ; gun, &c., taken 
 by, on his Masai journey, for collecting 
 natural history specimens, 397 
 
 Three-point problem, fi.xing position on 
 map by, 170 
 
 Thrush, treatment of children in cases 
 of, 64 
 
 Thunder-squalls, Mr. H. F. Blanford's 
 remarks on, 351 
 
 Tibet, large portions of, still unexploreil, 
 4; natural historv specimens required 
 from, 399 
 
 Ticks, treatment for, 73 
 
 Timber, forests, &c., remarks on com- 
 uierci.il importance of, 464-465 
 
 Time, explanation of mean, apparent, and 
 sidereal, 198 ; natives' ideas of reckon- 
 ing, 430 
 
 Time and longitude, observations for find- 
 ing, 199-236, 247-248, 252-254 
 
 Tin and soldered boxes, packing perL-'h- 
 able goods in, 10 
 
 Tools useful to travellers, where they 
 can be obtained, 15, 80 
 
 Topley, \V., lessons in geology given by 
 him to intending travellers, 3
 
 INDEX. 
 
 495 
 
 Tornadoes {sec under Storms) 
 
 " Totems," native, 433-434 
 
 Tow-line for traveller canoe, 30 
 
 Towels for travellers, 14, 79 
 
 'I'racing-linen or cloth, 13, 88 
 
 Transit-theodolite, 3-inch, taken by Mr. 
 £. Whymper on his South American 
 journey, 20 ; description of various 
 parts of, 108-110 ; adjustments of, 
 111-117; observing with the, 115; 
 improved form of, with level on vernier 
 arms, 115-117 {see also Theodolite) 
 
 Transport, facilities for, varies in different 
 countries, packing stores, &c., for tra- 
 velling, 9 ; sick and wounded, remarks 
 on, by Surgeon-Major Parke, 80 
 
 "Transvaal " gun," 16 
 
 Traps for catching birds, rats, &c., 80; 
 for collecting natural history speci- 
 mens, 398 
 
 Travellers, general hints and remarks to, 
 1-7 ; different kinds of, to whom the 
 "Hints to Travellers" may prove of 
 service, 1 ; their opport\inities of add 
 iug to geographical knowledge, 2 
 
 Travelling companion, remarks on the 
 choice of, 4 
 
 Traverse table, 295-303; explanation, 260 
 
 Triangulation {see also Tri(jonomctry), 
 table for rough, without the usual 
 instruments, and without calculation, 
 with e.\|)lanation, by F. Galton, f.r.s., 
 143-145 
 
 Trigonometry, plane, formulffi for the 
 solution of right-angled triangles, 133 ; 
 ditto for oblique-angled triangles, 134; 
 examples in, 135-136 
 
 Tripod for plane table, description of, 
 126 ; for hand cameras, 323 
 
 Tropical tour, requisites for, 16 
 
 Tropics, danger of abuse of alcoliolic 
 stimulants and highly-spiced food in, 
 49 ; Surgeon-Major Parke's hints on 
 food and drink for the, 49 ; oscillations 
 of the barometer between the, 340 
 
 Troughton & Simms, tacheometer made 
 
 by, for Indian Government, 120; list 
 giving weight, size, cost, &c., of their 
 theodolites and 7-in. sextant, 241 ; 
 geologist's pocket compass made by, 
 381 
 
 True bearing of a peak or any other ob- 
 ject by means of its angular distance 
 from the sun, with example, 236-238 
 
 Truss for rupture, 73 
 
 "Tub," best time for, in tropics, water 
 should be tepid, 77 
 
 Tuckett's " Insect Puzzler," for tropical 
 tour, 16; description of, 21 ; reference 
 to, 47 
 
 Turpentine enema in case of sunstroke, 61 
 
 Tylor, E. B., D.C.L., f.r.s., his article on 
 anthropology, 419-440 ; reference to 
 his book "Anthropology: an Intro- 
 duction to the Study of Man and 
 Civilisation," 440 
 
 Tyndall's method of ascertaining velocity 
 of glacier movements, 396 
 
 Typhoons {see under Storms) 
 
 L'l.ciORS, causes of, treatment for, 75 
 
 L'mbrella, lined, for sun, 16 ; special 
 form for survev work, 17 ; travellers, 
 79 
 
 L'nderclothing for travellers should be 
 made of wool, 44 ; necessity of 
 changing at once after getting wet, 46 
 
 L'nited States, customs duties in, re- 
 ferred to, 9 
 
 Useful articles, list of (from "Guide to 
 Health in Africa") bv Surgeon-Major 
 Parke, 77-80 
 
 \'alisk for travellers, Surgeon-Major 
 Paike's hints, 78 
 
 \'allot, M., reference to his investigation 
 of the process by which the human 
 frame adapts itself to high altitudes. 36 
 
 N'apour in the air, pressure of, formula 
 for computing, 344 
 
 N'egctable products, remarks on com- 
 mercial importance of, 463
 
 490 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Verniia- of tlio vertical limb of transit- 
 theodolitfi, adjustment for, 115 
 
 Versts into English statute miles, table 
 for converting, 20!'; explanation, 
 2G0. 
 
 Vertical and horizontal wires in transit- 
 theodolite telescope, adjustment of, 
 111-112 
 
 Vests, traveller's, 79 
 
 Volcanoes and volcanic rocks, geological 
 remarks on, 388 
 
 Waistcoat for travellers, 79 
 
 Walker, General J. T., R.E., F.R.S., his 
 article on observations with theodolites 
 or altazimuth instruments, 240-255 
 
 Wants of natives, importance of ascer- 
 taining, 462 
 
 Warburg's tincture, its use in malarial 
 fever, 50 
 
 Warren cooking-pot, 15 
 
 Watch, half-chronometer, for traveller, 
 84 ; more suitable than pocket chro- 
 nometer for travellers, description of 
 one for astronomical work, water-tight 
 case for, cost, Kew certificate for, 131- 
 132 ; to find the meridian by a, 139 ; 
 to find error of, by absolute altitudes, 
 wMth examjile, 200-201 ; to tind error 
 of, by equal altitudes of sun, star, or 
 planet, 20ti-211 
 
 Water, importance of obtaining pure, for 
 drinking, should be boiled as well as 
 filtered, 15 ; immersion in cold, to be 
 avoided as much as jiossible in hot 
 climates, 48 ; for drinking, Surgeou- 
 Major Parke's remarks on, 50 ; im- 
 portance of boiling drinking, 76; mea- 
 surement of the number of cubic feet 
 of, conveyed by a river, in each second, 
 146-148 
 
 Water-bottle for traveller, 17, 78 
 
 Waterbury watches, as presents for na- 
 tives, and for barter, 13 
 
 Water-colours, Mr. H. H. Johnston's list 
 of, for travellers' sketches^ 28 
 
 Water communication as art'ectint; com- 
 mercial prospects of a country, 469 
 Waterproof coat, for travellers, 79 
 Watkins & Doncaster, Messrs., outfit for 
 collecting and preserving birds, insects. 
 &c., obtainable of, their address, 397 
 Watkin's patent aneroid, 87 
 Watson & Son, Messrs., second-hand pho- 
 tographic lenses to be obtained of, 
 their address, 326 ; their hand-camera, 
 324 
 Weather, symbols indicating the con- 
 dition of the, 360 (see also under 
 Meteorology) 
 Weather charts, importance of, 352 
 Well measurements, remarks on, 376 
 Wet bulb thermometer, remarks on, 358 : 
 setting, reading, &c., 373; Mr. H. F. 
 Blanford's remarks on, 335, 343-345 
 {se} also H>/groineters, Thermometrr.--. 
 
 Wharton, Cai^t., W. J. L., R.X., v.n.n.. 
 Hydrographer to the Admiralty, sur- 
 veying section of "Hints to Travellers," 
 supervised by him, 6, 83-320 
 
 Whatman's paper, recommended lor 
 traveller's sketches, 28 
 
 Whips and whipcord for travellers, 15 
 
 Whitaker's Almanac, useful astronomical 
 tables in, 88 
 
 Whymper, Mr. E., list, weight, &c., of his 
 South American outfit, 17-21 ; cost 
 of his journey in South America, 21 ; 
 Fortin's barometers carried to great 
 heights by, 89 ; his book " How to use 
 the Aneroid Barometer," 96 ; his in- 
 vestigations concerning aneroids, 338 
 
 Whymper's tents, 14, 18 ; for travelling 
 in cold climates, 17 
 
 Wiliosden canvas, bags for travellers 
 should be made of, 10 
 
 Wilson, Col., Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.R., his 
 article on Surveys with ."e.xtant and 
 Prismatic Compass, 162-173 
 
 Wines, &c., Mr. H. H. .Johnston's list of, 
 for travellers, 27
 
 INDEX. 
 
 49' 
 
 Wind, system i>f imlicaUng- the force of 
 the, 375 
 
 Winds, observations on direction, t'orfe, 
 &p., names of difterent. 347 
 
 Wiad-vane, placing the, 371 
 
 Windpipe, inflammation ot the, treat- 
 ment for, 51 
 
 Woodward, S. P., F.G.S., his " Manual of 
 tlie Mollusca," 409 
 
 Wool, traveller's underclothing shouhl 
 be made of, 44 
 
 Woollen spinal pad, to protect spinal 
 cord from tropical sun, 46 
 
 Worms, medical treatment for intestinal. 
 
 tiieir origin, G2 ; in cliil Iron, treat- 
 ment for, 64 
 Wounds, treatment for, 7*) 
 
 Varkaxd and Kashgar, condition of the 
 atmosphere in neighbourhood of, 351 
 
 Vounghusband, Lieut., copy of " Hints to 
 Travellers " found by him in posses- 
 sion of a Russian consul-general in 
 Central Asia, 2 
 
 Zi;[ss's anastigmat (photographic lense), 
 
 •i I.
 
 
 he Royal (reographio
 
 -TU --1

 
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 could scarcely Lave believed that so mucli nourishment could have been 
 put in so little space, and in such a convenient form. 
 
 "I find the force value of the Soup is more than double that of an 
 equal weight of beef, and I am glad to find that NO CHEMICAL 
 PRESERVATIVE is used in your process of manufacture. 
 
 " I will be pleased to make tliem known whenever an opportunity occurs 
 in my lectures." 
 
 Samples Post Free on application to the Sole Manufacturers— 
 
 FREDK. KING & CO., LTD., 
 
 3, 4, 5, & 6, Camomile Street, London. 
 
 [To face last p. of matdr.
 
 Adveriisements. 
 
 L. CASELLA, 
 
 Surveying, Meteorological & Electrical Instrument Maker 
 
 To tbe Admiralty 
 other Government De- 
 Forelgn Government* 
 
 Ordnance, Board of Trade, and 
 
 1 irtments, various Observatories, 
 fnc Army, the Navy, (tc, &c. 
 
 Traveller's Transit 
 Theodolite. 
 
 Aktificial Hokizons. 
 
 Hypsometers. 
 
 Theodolites. 
 
 Traksit Theodo- 
 lites. 
 
 Levels. 
 
 Mountain Baro- 
 meters. 
 
 MaRIOTTE BAROrETEIl. 
 
 Aneroid Barometeks 
 
 Pocket Sexta>ts. 
 
 Altazimuth. 
 
 Alpine Set of Tumor - 
 jieters. 
 
 Clinical Thermo- 
 meters. 
 
 special Instrumenls 
 Explorers, Evgineei s, 
 supplied to the .)fembers 
 graphical and vthtr 
 
 147, HOLBORN- BARS, LCNDGN, E.C 
 
 Livingstone's Rain 
 
 Gauge. 
 Pbismatic Compasses. 
 Stewart's Compass 
 Clisometebs. 
 Air Meter. 
 
 Ta pf. Measures. 
 
 Telescopes and 
 Binoculars. 
 
 II' Circles. 
 
 Portable Elec- 
 trometer. 
 
 n^LIOGRAPHS. 
 
 Chronometers, 
 Marine and 
 Pocket. 
 
 Gix AND Torpedo 
 
 DiRECIOSS. 
 
 made for Travellers, 
 dr., dc., and as 
 </ the Royal Geo- 
 
 Societies. 
 
 ESCUTCHEON, LONDON."
 
 Advertisements. 
 
 THE TRAVELLER'S WATCH. 
 
 Described and recomiiU'Dik'd in tin- Chiiiittr ou Watfh.s coutaincd in tine 
 book, and as supplied to mem- 
 bers of theKoyal Geograpliical 
 Society. 
 
 In massive 18-ct. 
 Gold Cases £35, 
 
 In Silver Cases 
 £21. 
 
 Best London make. 
 Half Chronometer 
 
 uiovciiiciit, pivoted on 
 Rubies aud Diaiiiuiids. Htroiii; and satf Keyless wuik. Fine Chronometer 
 Balance, Breguet Balance Spring to prevent variatiou fruiu bard 
 wear, hunting, &c. Patent King Baud on movement to exclude dust or damji. 
 
 In Specially close-fitting cases — Himtiiig. Half-hunting, or Crystal Glass, 
 engine turned or polished. ExtraStrong 18-ct. Gold, £35, orSilver,£21. 
 For use Abroad, extra mainsprings and glasses are supplied free of charge. 
 
 As a high-claes, strictly accurate, and reliable Wateh, it is unsur- 
 passed for Pvxplorers, Travellers, Sportsmen generally, and Otlicers on 
 Foreign Service. 
 
 Speakiug of Benson's " Field" Watch, the editor of the Field says : 
 
 •'I can (i)iifiilently I'Conimeiiil Messrs. lieusun's IIuiitiii[; Watch as one that can be 
 depended on." — Field, Marcli 22, ISgi. 
 Forwarded to any part of the World on receipt of Draft (^postage and insurance paid by Hi\ 
 
 1LI.UST1!.\TED DOOII OF WATCHES. OHKOXOMKTK.US, CHUOiNOGliAl'US, CLOCKS, I'LATK 
 AM) .lEWia.I.KUV, SENT I'OST FllEK. 
 
 J. "MT. BEN'SON', 62&64, LUDGATE HILL, E.C. 
 
 iSlean, t\ivl. ru n.ljui.in,,, y. rt.„i ;/,,r,.-,. I,, «, T,- S,,,, , ,„;. V.,,;!.) 
 
 And at 28, ROYAL EXCHANGE, E.C. ; & 25, OLD BOND STREET, W.
 
 Advertisements. 
 
 Evj:nr thavelt^er siiotld rjnnr 
 
 He Patent "WatKln"|lneFoliiBaroinBteF 
 
 Tu he obtained of all 
 
 Price from £5 to £7. 
 
 It i> uiade in AVatili si7.(>, also 3 iu., 
 4 in.,tiDU 5 ill. diuiiietcr. 
 
 Til is Instrument is h igh h/ recomniemldJ 
 
 for TravelUrs and Engineers. 
 
 Copies of Testimonials foruarded on 
 
 applica'ion. 
 
 Among many unsolicited Testimonials 
 tlie folio ving has been received by the 
 maker: — 
 Edjkburgh, May 31, 1889. 
 
 Dear Sii:, — I have ju't returned from 
 a six weeks' i-tny at the Ben Nevis Ob- 
 servatory, and while there had an 
 opportunity of testing the admirable 
 qualities of your new " Watkin ' Ane- 
 roid. The result has been most ^tis- 
 factory, the extreme error noted being 
 only about ^?;^ of an inch. During my 
 stay at the Observatory the Aneroid 
 was frequently tested by taking it do« n 
 2000 feet and then comparing it with the 
 standard on my return. The results 
 obtained speak volumes for the high- 
 class workmanship and great accuracy 
 y<u have attained iu the manufacture 
 of this instrument. 
 
 (Signed) K. C. Mossmax, F.E.M.S., 
 Observer, Scott. Met. Soc. 
 Opticiana and Wholesale Houses. 
 
 MAKER OF ALL KINDS OF 
 
 Mercurial and Aneroid Barometers, Clinometers, 
 
 COMPASSES, 
 THEODOLITES, 
 THERMOMETERS, 
 BOILING-POINT APPARATUS, 
 MICROSCOPES, 
 
 HYGROMETERS, 
 RULES d TAPES. 
 
 Award »m1 
 
 GOLD MEDAL 
 
 liilornalional 
 
 I II volitions 
 
 Kxliibitiou, 
 
 loii«loii, 
 
 i,s,s.->. 
 
 SEXTANTS, 
 
 PLANE TABLES, 
 CHARTS, 
 RAIN AND WIND GAUGES, 
 TELESCOPES, 
 LEVELS, 
 PEDOMETERS, 
 
 ARTIFICIAL HORIZONS, dc, dc. 
 
 J. J. HICKS, 8, 9, & 10, Hatton Garden, LOKDON. 
 
 Illustrated Price Lists sent post frf e.
 
 Advertisements. ix 
 
 OUTFIT FOR AFRICA 
 BENJAMIN EDCINCTON'S 
 
 Doable-Hoof Hidge TeDt, 
 
 Specially suitable for use in Africa and Hot Climates. 
 
 As supplied to the Congo State and Railway Company, the Imperial 
 British East Africa Company, the principal Missionary Societies, anil 
 African Travellers and Explorers. Among others to 
 
 MR. H. M. STANLEY, CAPT. CAMERON, 
 
 Mr. H. H. Johnston. Capt. Stairs, Capt. Hore. Ueuts. "Wissmann. Becker, 
 Van de Yelde and Yon Francois, Major J. J. Leverson. R.E., Capt. 
 McDonald, Dr. Murray. Capt. Lang. Dr. Pruen, Mr. G. Grenfi-U 
 H.R.H. the Due d'Orleans. Mr. Theodore Bent, the Governor of the 
 Gambia, the Governor of Lagos, the late Bishop Hannington. the Right 
 Rev. Bishop Tucker, Rev. R. P. Ashe, Rev. W. H. Bentley, etc. 
 
 CAMP FURNITURE, 
 
 CANTEENS, COOKING UTENSILS, AND TOOLS. 
 
 CATALOGUES OX AFPLICATIOA. 
 
 BENJAMIN EDGINGTON,LTD., 
 
 2, DUKE STREET, foot of LONDON BRIDGE, LONDON, S.E.
 
 Advertisements. 
 
 SPRATT'S PATENT 
 SHIP BISCUITS 
 
 FOR 
 
 AND 
 
 DOG CAKES 
 
 FOR 
 
 ARE SUPPLIED TO THE 
 
 Expeditions of the 
 
 Royal Geographical Society. 
 
 These SHIP BISCUITS and also 
 DOG CAKES 
 
 WERE SUPPLIED TO 
 
 I>R. NANSEN 
 
 FOB HIS 
 
 ARCTIC EXI>EI>ITION.
 
 A dvertisements. 
 
 OF GREAT CONVENIENCE WHEN TRAVELLING. 
 
 CONCENTRATED 
 
 Peptonized 
 COCOA 
 
 & Milk 
 
 A delicious pre-digesttd Cocoa or Chocolate, which may be taken at 
 any hour with the greatest advantage and relish, by persons whose diges- 
 tive powers are weak from the effects of illness, age, residence in hot 
 climates, or other caiises. As a non-alcoholic stimulant or restorative, 
 it is unrivalled by any other form of Cocoa or Chocolate for flavour, 
 nutrition, and for general convenience in use, as it requires no addition 
 of milk or sugar, but only mixture with hot water. 
 
 In Tins, 2s. 6d., to make fifteen breakfast cups of Cocoa, op 
 ten or more breakfast eups of rich Chocolate. 
 
 Mso in Half Tins {samples'). Is. 6d. 
 
 ss .A. "^T o x:, "sr &i ]mcooxc,z3, 
 
 143, NEW BOND STREET, LONDON. 
 
 I .
 
 Advertisements. 
 
 RIFLES & PARADOX GUNS. 
 
 SEMI-SMOOTH BORE NON-FOULING RIFLING. 
 
 SPECIAL RIFLES AS RECOMMENDED BY MR. SELOUS 
 
 Shooting the long "450 solid bullet for heavy game, and the light 
 
 hollow point one for deer, &c. Sighted accurately to 400 yards. 
 
 See Mr. SELOUS'S NEW BOOK. 
 
 Special 'oOO Bore I^xjtress Itifles for South Africa, <fic. 
 
 "... Cornelius Van Rooynen, who Is as good a hunter as South Africa can produce, 
 uses nothing but a double -500 by Holland and Holland ; with this rifle he has shot every 
 kind of game in Africa, from a steinbuck to an elephant, and he will not believe the world 
 can produce its equal."— Mr. SELOUS'S NEW BOOK, "TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE 
 IN SOUTH AFRICA." 
 
 LARGE BORES FOR BIG GAME SHOOTING. 
 
 4, 8, £i.nd XO ^ox>es. 
 
 Mr. SELOUS says: — "Have a look at Holland's New Paradox Guns, shooting eight 
 and ten drams of powder, and a steel bullet coated with lead. I happened to see some 
 shot the other day and was much struck by their great accuracy." — Mr. SELOUS'S 
 NEW BOOK, "TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE IN SOUTH AFRICA," p. 432. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM SIR SAMUEL BAKER'S NEW BOOK, 
 
 "WILD BEASTS AND THEIR WAYS." 
 
 " The Paradox is a most useful weapon, as it combines a shot gun (shoots Xo. 6 shot 
 ■with equal pattern to the best cylinder bured gun) with a rifle that is wonderfully accurate 
 within a range of one hundred yards. Messrs. Holland have succeeded in producing a 
 ' Paradox ' No. 8, which burns ten drams of powder, and carries a very heavy bullet 
 with extreme accuracy. Tliis will be a new departure in weapons for heavy game." 
 
 Factory: 527 to 535, HARROW ROAD, W. 
 
 "This is the moat perfect and complete gun factory we have yet seen in London."— Field, 
 May 27, 1893. 
 
 ltLOJ^l^ILNJ:> & HOLLAND, 
 
 Winners of all the "Field" Rifle Trials, 
 
 98, NEW BOND STREET, LONDON.
 
 Advertisements. 
 
 BOVRIL. 
 
 BOVRIL LIMITED make special foods 
 for Travellers on short notice. Ex- 
 peditions can be supplied with preparations 
 adapted to the temperature they have to face 
 and the fatigue they have to undergo. Their 
 Emergency Food as supplied to Nansen would 
 never answer for the tropics : for these they have 
 campaigning rations yielding much less heat. 
 Mountain climbing requires quite a different 
 commissariat from yachting. 
 
 BovRiL Limited aim at supplying the greatest 
 amount of nourishment, animal and vegetable, in 
 the smallest amount of space. 
 
 Address: 30, FARRINGDON ST., LONDON. 
 
 Kevev travel witJiout BOVBIL ht your 
 hnvei'sack : it can be used as a driuTt or spread 
 on toast as a saudwicJi.
 
 A dvertisementn. 
 
 JAMES S. CARTER, 
 
 ALPINE BOOTMAKER & TOURIST'S OUTFITTER 
 
 /«, SOUTH MOLT(}\ ST., <kXF(Hll) ST., U. 
 
 THE ALPINE BOOT, 
 
 26s. 
 
 Patronised by the leading 
 Members of the English and 
 Foreign Alpine Clubs for 
 over thirty years. 
 
 PRICE LIST ON APPLICATION. 
 
 Iknapsach Slippers an^ 1baIf-:©oot5 mabc 
 specially b^ 3. S. (Tarter, 
 
 THE MOST USEFUL AND COMFORTABLE FOR TRAVELLERS. 
 
 ALPINE SLEEPING TENT, £5 lOs. 
 
 Is made from a model kindly supplied by E. Whymper, Esi^. 
 niiistiated I*rice LLsts I'ost-Vrcc on AppUcaiioii.
 
 Advertisements. 
 
 GARY & CO. 
 
 (HENRY PORTER), 
 
 Optical, Mathematical, 
 
 AND 
 
 Surveying Instrument Makers 
 
 I Bv Spkciai. Appointment to the Ailmiraltv, 'War (iftic-,-, India ofli.i-. I!...vm1 (;,-.. Lnaplii.al Siuictv. 
 Crown At.'.-iits for flu- r.ilnnii->, I'.ritisli Sr.utli Africa ( cMiiany. loii.irial l;ritisli Kast Africa ('oiii- 
 pany, IJriti^li >'..rtli lionin. (I'liiiiany, th.- I'l-nniaii ( ,,i ],(.r:iii..n, tli.- iVritral Honieo romj.any, 
 
 1 African Exiilxration (.'.iniiiaiiv. <iil liivirs I'r.itci torat.-, NiL''i- Cna^t I'mtictorate, African Jnttr- 
 nati.iiial Flotilla aQ.ITraiisii..rt Ci.mi'aiu. \aii.. UN Fon-itni ( 
 
 imi-iits, &(■ , &r 
 
 NEW PATTERN ALT-AZIMUTH THEODOLITE 
 
 With Portable Folding- Tripod Stand, very light. 
 
 designed expressly for the Traveller in rough 
 
 Countries, rrirc -C'i'J . roiiipfrti-. 
 
 THEODOLITES, 
 
 LEVELS, 
 PRISMATIC 
 COMPASSES, 
 ANEROID 
 BAROMETERS 
 
 ith SCALE OF 
 ALTITUDES. 
 
 sextants, 
 artific:al 
 
 horizons, 
 
 DRAWING 
 
 INSTRUMENTS, 
 PLANE TABLES, 
 TELESCOPES, 
 BINOCULARS, &c. 
 CAR^jr &. CO., 181, SXRAIND, ]L.OI>^I>ON^. 
 
 All these 
 
 Instruments are 
 
 specially 
 
 Manufactured 
 
 for the African 
 
 Explorer and 
 
 Surveyor, and are 
 
 such as we 
 
 supply to the 
 
 Royal 
 
 Geographical 
 
 Society. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 
 1765.
 
 Advertisements. 
 
 « <» ta <ft <ft « <ft « « o « « 4ftti» 
 
 Reeves' colour Box sketch Block. ^ 
 
 Contains nine Colours, ^|^ 
 Palette, Water Bottle ^ 
 and Cup, Sable Brush. 
 Pencil, Eubber and l^k 
 Whatman Sketch Block, ^^ 
 Pocket for Sketches, all |^^ 
 in one. ^9 
 
 MOST HA.NDY. |^ 
 
 Price, I2S. 6d. ^^ 
 
 FOR THE POCKET. ^^ 
 
 Sir James Linton, P.R.I., writes : — "Seems to me a most useful adjunct to the artist's ^M 
 
 outfit for summer out-of-door work. I will use it in the forthcoming hulidaj-, and I have ^^ 
 
 no doubt it will be of much service for notes, ttc." ~ ^^^ 
 
 REEVES d SONS, LIMITED, 113, CHEAPSIDE, LONDON. V 
 « « « « tft « tft tft <ft tft « ^ «« 
 
 >^^ CONDENSED *^^ 
 
 MILK 
 
 SWISS AND ENGLISH. THE BEST FOR ALL PURPOSES. 
 
 The only Brand supplied to Dr. F. Nansen 
 Y / for his Arctic Expedition. 
 
 LARGEST SALE IN THE WORLD. 
 
 mm 
 
 Walter Jvdv, I.d., 5, Queen ViCTORrA Streit, Lokdon, E.C, 
 Advertisement Contractors to Her Majesty's Government and the Royal Geographical Society.
 
 University of California 
 
 SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 
 
 Return this material to the library 
 
 from which it was borrowed.
 
 A 000 051 033 9