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 1 
 
 A 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE, 
 
 Sfc.
 
 V-. 5, .1. 
 
 r.o . 9 • ^
 
 ^.3.-v: 
 
 i , (t. OS. 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MALAYAJV LAJVGUAGE, 
 
 WITH 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION AND PRAXIS. 
 
 
 By WILLIAM MARSDEN, F.R.S. 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE MALAYAN DICTIONARY, AND OF THE HISTORY OF SUMATRA. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 Printed for the AUTHOR by Cox and Baylis, 75, Great Queen-Street, Lincoln's-Inn-Fields ; 
 
 and sold by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, Palernosier-Row ; 
 
 and Black, Parry, and Co. Booksellers to ihe Honourable East-India 
 
 Company, Leadenhall-Strect. 
 
 1812.
 
 >A a. .T. 
 
 ■■J'
 
 S/C7 
 
 M^Sf 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Malayan, or, according to the pronunciation of the 
 natives, the Maluyii language (of whicli a Dictionary was 
 lately, and a Grammar is now offered to the public) prevails 
 throughout a very extensive portion of what is vaguely termed 
 the East-Indies, including the southern part of the peninsula 
 beyond the Ganges, now bearing the name of the Malayan 
 peninsula, together with the islands of Sumatra, Java, borneo, 
 CELEBES, and innumerable others, as far to the eastward as the 
 MOLUCCAS, emphatically termed the Spice-islands, to the south- 
 ward, as the island of timor, and to the northward, as the 
 PHILIPPINES ; forming collectively the Malayan archipelago. 
 This great insular region may also not inaptly receive the ap- 
 pellation of the Hither Polynesia, as distinguished from the 
 Further Polynesia or vast expanse of Soiith-sea islands, be- 
 tween which, NEW guinea may be considered as the common 
 boundary. The name of Polynesia, as applied to this tract, 
 was first used by m. de brosses, and afterwards adopted by the 
 
 late Mr. A. DALRYMPLE. 
 
 It must at the same time be understood that the islands of this 
 archipelago, for the most part, especially those of the larger 
 class, and the peninsula itself, have also their own peculiar lan- 
 guages, (whether radically differing or not, will be hereafter exa- 
 mined) spoken by the inhabitants of the inland country, whilst the 
 
 a Malavan 
 
 ■i f^.s i~ r-.^ .s
 
 ii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Malayan is generally employed in the districts bordering on tlie 
 sea-coasts and the mouths and banks of navigable rivers. It is 
 consequently the medium of commercial and foreign intercourse, 
 and every pei'son, of whatever nation, who frequents a port of 
 trade must negociate his business in this tongue, either speaking 
 it himself or employing an interpreter. From hence it is that, 
 by comparison with a similar prevalence of a dialect of Italian or 
 Catalonian along the shores of the Mediterranean, it has com- 
 monly received the appellation of the Imgua franca of the East. 
 On the continent of India however it has not obtained any foot- 
 ing, or is known only to those merchants and seamen who are 
 engaged in what is denominated the Eastern trade. 
 
 That the Malayan language has obtained this extensive cur- 
 rency is attributable in the first place to the enterprising and 
 commercial character of the people, who either by force of arms 
 or in the spirit of mercantile speculation, have established them- 
 selves in every part of the archipelago convenient for their pur- 
 suits ; and perhaps in an equal degree, to the qualities of the 
 language itself, being remarkably soft and easy of pronunciation, 
 simple in the grammatical relation of its words, and in the 
 construction of its sentences, plain and natural. The attention 
 indeed to smoothness of utterance is so great that not only, in 
 the formation of derivatives, letters are systematically changed 
 in order to please the ear, but also in words borrowed from the 
 continental tongues, the Malays are accustomed to polish down 
 the rougher consonants to the standard of their own organs. 
 
 As a written language the Malayan has been cultivated with 
 no inconsiderable degree of care, and however the dialects as 
 spoken may vary from each other in the sound of certain vowels 
 (as will be noticed particularly in the gramjvjar), or by the 
 
 adoption
 
 INTRODUCTION. iii 
 
 adoption of local and barbarous terms from the inland people or 
 from Europeans, there is a striking consistency in the style of 
 writing, not only of books in prose and verse, but also of epis- 
 tolary correspondence, and my own experience has proved to me 
 that no greater difficulty attends the translation of letters from 
 the princes of the Molucca islands, than from those of Kedah or 
 Tran^ganu in the peninsula, or of 3IenaHgklhcm in Sumatra. 
 Nor is this uniformity surprising when we consider that none of 
 the compositions in their present form can be presumed more 
 ancient than the introduction of the Mahometan religion in the 
 fourteenth or, at soonest, the thirteenth century, at which period 
 the Arabic mode of writing must likewise have been adopted ; 
 for although it cannot be doubted that the Malays, as well as the 
 other natives of these countries, made use of a written character 
 previously to that great innovation, yet the general style of com- 
 position must have received a strong tincture from its new dress, 
 and this Arabian garb being similar throughout the different 
 islands, we are naturally led to expect a more marked resem- 
 blance in the language so clothed than in the original nakedness 
 of the oral dialects. 
 
 The antiquity of these dialects we are entirely without the 
 means of ascertaining, so modern is the acquaintance of Euro- 
 peans with that part of the East. The earliest specimen we 
 possess is that furnished by the circumnavigator pigafetta, the 
 companion of Magellhan, who visited the island of Tedin in the 
 year 1521, and whose vocabulary, in spite of the unavoidable 
 errors of transcription and printing, accords as exactly with the 
 Malayan of the present day as those formed by any of our 
 modern travellers, and proves that no material alteration in the 
 tongue has taken place in the course of three centuries. In the 
 
 vocabulary
 
 iv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 vocabulary collected by tbe Dutch navigators at Tern'di, in 1599 
 (" servant de promptuaii'e a ceux qui y desirent naviguer, car la 
 langue Malayte s'use par toutes les Indes Orientales, principale- 
 ment ez Molucques ") we equally find an entire identity with the 
 modern dialect. 
 
 Having described the language as confined in general to the sea- 
 coasts of those countries where it is spoken, and consequently as 
 that of settlers or traders, we are naturally led to inquire in what 
 particular country it is indigenous, and from whence it has ex- 
 tended itself throughout the archipelago. Many difficulties will 
 be found to attend the solution of this question, partly occasioned 
 by the bias of received opinions, grounded on the plausible asser- 
 tions of those who have written on the subject, and partly from 
 the want of discriminating between the country from whence 
 the language may be presumed to have originally proceeded, and 
 that country from whence, at a subsequent period, numerous 
 colonies and commercial adventurers issuing, widely diffused it 
 amongst the islands whose rich produce in spices, gold, and 
 other articles attracted their cupidity. From the peninsula espe- 
 cially, where trade is known to have flourished for several cen- 
 turies with extraordinary vigour and to have occasioned a corres- 
 pondent population, these migrations took place, and it was 
 natural for those travellers who in early times visited Tilulacca, 
 Johor, and other populous towns in that quarter, to bestow on 
 it the appellation of the bialayan peninsula, or (with much less 
 propriety) the peninsula of Malacca^ and to consider it as the 
 motlier country of the Malays, which in fact it is with respect 
 to the colonics it has so abundantly sent forth. But subsequent 
 investigation has taught us that in the peninsula itself the bia- 
 LAYS were only settlers, and that the interior districts, like those 
 
 of
 
 INTRODUCTION. v 
 
 of the islands in general, are inhabited by distinct races of men. 
 Among these are the drang betiua or aborigmes noticed by Mr. 
 RAFFi.ES in his valuable paper on the Maldyu nation, printed in 
 the Asiat, Res. vol. xii. " The Malays (says this gentleman, 
 whose recent appointment to a situation of as great trust and 
 importance as a nation can confide to an individual, justifies the 
 opinion that in a former work I had an opportunity of expressing 
 with regard to his talents) seem here to have occupied a country 
 previously unappropriated ; for if we except an inconsiderable 
 race of Caffries, who are occasionally found near the mountains, 
 and a few tribes of the drrmg henna, there does not exist a ves- 
 tige of a nation anterior to the Malays, in the whole peninsula. 
 As the population of the Malay jyeninsula has excited much 
 interest, my attention has been particularly directed to the 
 various tribes stated to be scattered over the country. Those on 
 the hills are usually termed Samang, and are woolly headed; 
 those on the plain, vrai^g henna, or people belonging to the 
 country; the word henna being applied by the Malays to any 
 extensive country, as henna China, heni'ia Keling : but it appears 
 to be only a sort of Malay plural to the Arabic word hen or heni, 
 signifying a tribe. The early adventurers from Arabia fre- 
 quently make mention in their writings of the different tribes 
 they met with to the eastward, and from them most probably the 
 Malays have adopted the term orang henua." From the paucity 
 of their numbers as here described we are led to remark that 
 they must have been reduced in an extraordinary degree, either 
 by wars or by proselytism (which tends to confound them with 
 the Malays) since the days of the Portuguese government. I must 
 further take the hb^rty of observing with respect to the word 
 ^ henua^ (as being of importance in the present investigation) 
 
 b that
 
 vi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 that it is entirely unconnected with the Arabic ^^ henl " sons or 
 tribe," from wliich it cannot be derived by any rule or analogy 
 whatever ; but is, on the contrary, a genuine Malayan term, 
 signifying " country, region, land," or one of those radical 
 words which the Malayan has in common with the other East- 
 insular or Polynesian languages, being found not only in the 
 JBisai/a and other dialects of the Philippines, but also in the 
 South-sea languages under the form (differing more in appear- 
 ance than reality) of " whennua " and " yeniia." To render it 
 applicable to " persons," the word drang must be prefixed, and 
 drang henna signifies literally and strictly " the people of the 
 land," as distinguished from foreign settlers or invaders ; and 
 this phrase alone affords no weak proof (if others were wanting) 
 that the Malays do not regard themselves as the original inha- 
 bitants, but as the occupiers only, of the country. 
 
 In the neighbouring island of Sumatra, on the contrary, 
 the kingdom which occupies the central part and claims a para- 
 mount jurisdiction over the whole ; which in ancient times was 
 of great celebrity, and even in its ruins is the object of super- 
 stitious veneration with all descriptions of inhabitants ; this 
 kingdom of Menangkahau is entirely peopled with Malays, the 
 language there spoken is Malayan only, and no tradition exists 
 of the country having ever been inhabited by any other race. 
 So strong indeed is the notion of their own originality, that they 
 commence their national history with an account of Noah's 
 flood, and of the disembarkation of certain persons from the 
 Ark, at a place between the mouths of Palemhang and Jamhi 
 rivers, who were their lineal ancestors ; which belief, however 
 futile, serves to shew that they consider themselves as the drang 
 lenua or people of the soil, indigence non advence. 
 
 From
 
 INTRODUCTION. vii 
 
 From such a Malayan country rather than from any maritime 
 estabhshments, which ahvays hear the stamp of colonization, we 
 might be justified in presuming the Malays of other parts to 
 have proceeded in the first instance ; but it happens that we are 
 not obliged to rest our opinion upon this reasoning from proba- 
 bilities, for we have in support of it the authority of the native 
 historians of the peninsula, the most distinguished of whom 
 assert in positive terms that the earliest Malayan settlers there, 
 by whom the city of Singa-pura was founded at njong tanah or 
 " the extremity of the land," in the twelfth century, migrated 
 in the spirit of adventure from Sumatra, where they had pre- 
 viously inhabited a district on the banks of the river Maldyu, 
 said, in the style of mythology, to have its source in the moun- 
 tain of Mahd-meru. For some details respecting this emigra- 
 tion, the transactions that succeeded, the expulsion of the 
 Malays from Singa-piira, in the reign of their fifth king, Sri 
 Iskander Shah, by the forces of the king of Majapdhit, at that 
 time the principal monarch of java, their founding the city of 
 Malacca in J 253, and also respecting the connexion still under- 
 stood to subsist between Manangkdhau as the parent state, and 
 that of Rembau, a district situated inland of Malacca, " the 
 raja of which, as well as his officers receive their authority and 
 appointments from the Sumatran sovereign," I must take the 
 liberty of referring the reader to the History of Sumatra (ed 
 3. p. 325 to 345), in which he will find the authorities for what 
 is here advanced, collected and discussed. It is not however tc 
 be confidently expected that an opinion so much at variance witt 
 those hitherto prevailing on the subject, will be adopted without 
 further and strict investigation. To the advocates for the supe- 
 riority of the Malays oi' the peninsula and of their language 
 
 over
 
 viii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 over what they term provincial dialects, I have only to say that 
 it is by no means my intention to contest that superiority, how- 
 ever ideal, which may have been acquired by a more extensive 
 intercourse with other nations, but only to state the grounds for 
 a belief that the generic name of Maldyu, now so widely disse- 
 minated, did not in its origin belong to that country, but to 
 the interior of the opposite island, where, in the neighbourhood 
 of the mountain of Suifgei-pagu, so celebrated for its gold mines, 
 and from whence rivers are said to flow towards either coast, it 
 is found as a common appellative at this day, and particularly 
 belongs to the great tribe of Sungei-pagil Malayu, of whom an 
 account is given in the work of valentyn, v deel, " Beschry- 
 vinge van Sumatra," p. 13, 14. 
 
 In discussing this subject it becomes necessary for me to ob- 
 serve upon some passages in a paper " on the Languages and 
 Literature of the Indo-Chinese nations " printed in vol x. of the 
 Asiat. Researches. The untimely and unfortunate loss of its 
 ingenious author, under circumstances the most favourable for 
 the prosecution of his inquiries, I deeply regret, and the more 
 pointedly as I feel myself called upon, in defence of my own, to 
 question the correctness of several of his opinions that appear 
 to have been too hastily adopted, and which I wished him to 
 have brought to the test of local knowledge. " The Menang- 
 Jcuboiu race (he states) who seem at an early period to have ruled 
 the whole island of Sumatra, whose chief assumes the title of 
 Maha Raja of Rajas, and derives his origin from Lankapura, 
 speak a dialect of Malayu which differs considerably from that 
 of the peninsula; but which seems, as far as I can judge, to 
 coincide in many respects with the Jaxva or Javanese language. 
 The race have probably derived their origin from Langkapiira 
 
 in
 
 INTRODUCTION. ix 
 
 in Java." In support of Dr. leyuen's favourite system, the 
 object of whicli is to derive the language and literature of the 
 Malays from java, the dialect of Menaiigkuhau is here asserted 
 to have much more affinity to the Javanese than to the Malayan 
 of the peninsula ; but all who are acquainted with these coun- 
 tries must know that the Javanese, although a radical affinity 
 exists and many words are common to both, is a distinct lan- 
 guage from the Malayan, not reciprocally understood by the 
 natives (the Javans usually acquiring the latter for the purposes 
 of intercourse), and written in a different character; whilst, on 
 the contrary, the dialect of Malayan spoken in Sumatra differs 
 from that of the peninsula in proiuinciation merely or the more 
 or less broad terminating vowels, as remarked by Mr. raffles. 
 It must further be remarked that in the same page where Dr. 
 LEYDEN read that the Maharaja derived his origin from Larigka- 
 pilra (Hist, of Sum. p. 340) he must have likewise seen that it 
 is situated (according to the pompous edict, and whether imagi- 
 nary or not is of little importance) between Palcmhang and 
 Jainhl, on the eastern coast of Sumatra, and by no means on 
 Java, where no such name is to be found. 
 
 It is not a little remarkable that in the correspondence of the 
 Malays, and I allude especially to the chiefs of the various dis- 
 tricts of the peninsula, whose letters I possess in great numbers, 
 the term " malayu" as applied to themselves or other eastern 
 people, very rarely occurs, and that instead of it they familiarly 
 employ the phrase of o/yw^ de-haivah angin, signifying the " lee- 
 ward people," or literally, " the people beneath the wind," in 
 contradistinction to the orang de-citas angm, " windward people," 
 or those " above the wind." From whence this meteorological 
 rather than geographical distinction has arisen, or upon what 
 
 c principle
 
 X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 principle of trade wind or monsoon it is to be justified, I am una- 
 ble to determine ; nor is the consideration of equal moment with 
 that of ascertaining the region to which the distinction is applied. 
 The earliest notice of it is to be found in the asia of de bar- 
 Ros, sixth Book of the second Decade, where we are told that 
 " previously to the founding of the city of Malacca, that of 
 Singa-pura was resorted to by the navigators of the western seas 
 of India, as well as by those of countries lying to the eastward 
 of it, such as Siam, China, Chiampa, Cumboju, and the many 
 thousand islands scattered over the eastern ocean. On these two 
 regions of the globe the natives (of the eastern part) bestow the 
 appellation of de-hawah arigin and atas aiigin, signifying below 
 the wind and above the wind, or Western and Eastern. For as 
 the principal navigation in these seas is either from the Bay of 
 Bengal, on the one side, or from the great gulf which extends 
 itself towards the coasts of China and far to the northward, on 
 the other, they with reason considered that quarter in which the 
 sun rises, the upper, and that in which he sets the nether side 
 with respect to the situation of Singa-pilra." Unfortunately 
 however for this plausible solution it happens that the Portu- 
 guese historian, who was not locally acquainted with the coun- 
 try, has misconceived the relative circumstances, which are 
 exactly the reverse of what he has stated, the leeward people 
 being situated, not towards the setting but the rising sun. By 
 VALENTYN, the elaborate Dutch oriental historian, who com- 
 posed his great work on the spot, we are informed (v. deel, 
 Beschryvinge van Malakha, p. 310) that " the Malays are 
 commonly named orang de-buwah aiigin, leeward people or 
 eastcrlings, and the inhabitants of the western countries, espe- 
 citilly the Arabians, drang atas aiigin, windward people or Aves- 
 
 terlings ;"
 
 INTRODUCTION. xi 
 
 terlings;" but he does not attempt to explain the mcanhig of the 
 terms, or to assign any grounds for the distinction. These two 
 authorities being thus obviously at variance with regard to the 
 specific application, it becomes necessary to have recourse to 
 that of the natives themselves, by whom the terms are so fre- 
 quently employed. In a hook containing a digest of their cere- 
 monial law, founded on the precepts of the koran, the following 
 passage presents itself: " Pada segala 7iegrl lang de-batvah aiigin 
 orang meng-korban-kan karbau Itu ter-afzal deri-pada lembTi in 
 all the countries beneath the wind the people sacrifice the buflfalo 
 in preference to the ox." Now as it is well known, and will be 
 admitted, that the karbau or buffalo is the animal usually killed 
 both for food and sacrifice in the farther East, and that, on the 
 other hand, it is not a native of Arabia, it follows that the negri 
 de-bdwah angin must apply to the former, and cannot to the 
 latter or western country. 
 
 To my readers in general, who have not formed any previous 
 opinion, I should deem it unnecessary to adduce further proofs, 
 but as some of my friends abroad, to whom I proposed a ques- 
 tion on the subject of these relative terms, furnished me with 
 explanations not very consistent with each other, one of them 
 (whose practical knowledge of the language as well as the man- 
 ners of the natives has seldom been equalled) assuring me that 
 they referred to the superior and inferior ranks of people in so- 
 ciety, I shall transcribe a passage or two from the correspon- 
 dence of the Malayan princes of the peninsula, which may 
 perhaps be thought decisive. " Govrand'or jjillaic plnang tang 
 memegang parentah kompani dan lang menolong raja-raja de- 
 haivah angin ini dan onashiir-lah ivarta-nia de-baimh angin da7i 
 de-atas angin the governor of Pfdo Pmung who exercises the 
 
 authority
 
 xii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 authority of the Company ; who gives assistance to the chiefs 
 of these leeward countries, and whose fame is celebrated both 
 beneath the wind and above the wind." And again : " Ada 
 shekh tlga Jang andak piilang ka arabi maka andak-lah anak 
 klta tolong tumprwg-kan ka-jmda kapal tajig andak pergi ka- 
 sablak atas angin suna there are three sheiks who wish to return 
 to Arabia. Will my son have the goodness to assist them with 
 a passage by a ship proceeding towards those windward (western) 
 parts ?" Here at least there can be no ambiguity with respect 
 to the geographical appropriation of the term. 
 
 On the Avestern coast of Sumatra the name of Zrajig atas 
 angin is commonly applied to the inhabitants of a maritime dis- 
 trict in the neighbourhood of the country from whence the prin- 
 cipal quantity of gold is procured, and has been generally un- 
 derstood to have a reference to the direction of the westerly 
 monsoon, supposed to vary several points above and below In- 
 dra-pura. Suspecting however that this might have been an 
 opinion gratuitously adopted, or an accommodation of the fact 
 to the etymology, I requested Mr. charles hollow ay, an in- 
 telligent gentleman, then chief of Padang, to let me know the 
 acceptation of the phrase amongst the inhabitants of that place, 
 situated as it is within the district of which we are speaking. 
 To this he replied, that " the atas atigin, people were not consi- 
 dered as drang durat or " natives of the land," like those of 
 Menaiigkahau, but generally as adventurers, being a mixture of 
 all nations, residing at the mouths of the rivers and along the 
 sea-shore, from Ayer Aji as far to the northward as JJdi'u-s, 
 where the Achlncse territory commences; and that a 3Ienangka- 
 hau man would feel very indignant at being confounded with 
 people of this description :" froui whence it is evident that they 
 
 have
 
 INTRODUCTION. xiii 
 
 have no claim to be excepted from the foregoing* definition of 
 western foreigners, or settlers from Arabia, Persia, and the 
 coasts of the peninsula of India, attracted by the richness of the 
 trade, and intermixed with the natives of the country by mar- 
 riages, or rather, perhaps, in these days, the progeny of such 
 hiixture. 
 
 Upon the subject of these terms Mi", raffles has judiciously 
 observed to me that in their collective sense they are equivalent 
 to the Arabic expression ^\jij£. arahu cijem, denoting all man- 
 kind, as Greeks and Barbarians, Jews and Gentiles ; which is 
 perfectly true as to the universality, but the Malays do not, in 
 imitation of those arrogant phrases, assume to themselves a su- 
 periority over the rest of the world ; for however, as Maho- 
 metans, believing in one God, they might be inclined to rank 
 themselves above all polytheists, this sentiment cannot apply to 
 other Mahometans of the continent of India, much less to their 
 religious instructors the Arabians. Their expression must be 
 considered as a mere local designation, serving to draw a line 
 between the countries and people situated to the eastward of 
 ^fAm-head or entrance of the straits of Malacca, who are the 
 drang de-bawali angin, and those situated to the westward of 
 that meridian, who are the drang de-atas angin. Precision, at 
 the same time, is not to be looked for in matters of this nature, 
 and I am unable to determine whether tegu, siam, camboja, 
 COCHIN-CHINA, and CHINA itself are in fact understood to be 
 comprehended in the former division, or whether it is re- 
 stricted (as seems from their writings the more probable) to the 
 Malayan and east-insular countries only. 
 
 The appellation of 3Ialdyu is given in common both to the 
 people and the language, but there are other terms applicable 
 
 d only
 
 xiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 only to the latter, of which that of Jaivl or hhasa jdiv'i is the 
 most deserving of notice, being- employed in writings to denote 
 the vernacular language of the Malays, especially that of books, 
 as distinguished from all foreign languages. In this sense it is 
 that the author of the ^^j>,\ i1^< or " Mirrour of the Faithful" 
 (as quoted by werndlv) informs us that he composed his book 
 (in the year 1009 — ]G01) in the bhasajaiul, with the design of 
 facilitating the knowli <lge of the Almighty to all searchers of 
 divine truths who might not understand the Arahic or the Per- 
 sian ;" and in tiils sense, likewise, one of the princes of the 
 peninsula requests the chief of Pfilo P'mong to translate into the 
 vernacular dialect a letter from the Governor General of Ben- 
 gal, there not being any one in his dominions who covild read 
 Persian. Of the acceptation, therefore, of the worAjdwi there 
 should appear no room for doubt, although much diversity of 
 opinion has existed with respect to its specific meaning and ety- 
 mology. 
 
 Some have contended for its being a derivative from the name 
 
 of JAVA; but nothing is more evident, from the whole tenour of 
 
 the Malayan writings, than that the term of ^^ (_^^j hlulsa 
 
 jdwl, notwithstanding the affinity of sound, is entirely distinct 
 
 from that of jU- ^l^- hhusajdwa or language of java. I have 
 
 even met with them contrasted in the same sentence, where a 
 
 thing was said to be called by one name in the jdim or Malayan, 
 
 and by such another in the juiva or Javanese. It may likewise 
 
 be observed, that although in Sanskrit and Persian it is common 
 
 to form adjectives by annexing t to the substantive, and to say 
 
 Bengali, Hindustani, Konkanl, as applied, (no matter how 
 
 vulgarly) to the languages of bengal^ Hindustan, or the 
 
 konkaNj no such formation takes place in the Malayan, nor 
 
 could
 
 INTRODUCTION. xv 
 
 could //awl by any rule of grammar be a derivative from j'diva. 
 Indeed it is sufficient for shewing how little stress should be laid 
 upon the affinity of sound in this instance, to mention that tiie word 
 j'dwJ is likewise the common teim for " cattle/' and jjwJ-JuwJ for 
 the '^Jlcus racemosa" neither of which are presumed to have been 
 introduced from java. werndly confesses himself much at a 
 loss with respect to its derivation, and after discussing several 
 conjectural etymologies, gives it as his opinion, that if it has a 
 coiinexion with the name of y(/7t;a or JAVA, it must have arisen 
 from the circumstance of that name having in ancient times 
 been applied to Sumatra, as we learn from marco polo, and 
 which he thinks is corroborated by the Arabic term for gum 
 benzoin or benjouin, being i_fjU ^U luhdn juivl ; whereas it is 
 well known that the article is not produced in java, but abun- 
 dantly in the northern parts of Sumatra. According to Mr. 
 BAFFXrES " the word jakwi is the Malay term for any thing 
 mixed or crossed ; as when the language of one country is writ- 
 ten in the character of another, it is termed V hdsa jahioi or 
 mixed language ; or when a child is born of a Kiling father 
 and Malay mother, it is called anak jahivi, a child of mixed 
 race. Thus the Maldyu language being written in the Arabic 
 character is termed h' hdsa jaJnvV 
 
 The appellations hitherto mentioned, whatever their shades of 
 difference may be, are employed to distinguish this language 
 from those which are foreign to it, but there are also terms 
 Avhich serve to distinguish the various styles (rather than dia- 
 lects) of the language itself, as spoken by different ranks or 
 classes of people in the same country. These are, the hhdsa 
 dulam, hhusa haii^sdwan, hh'sa ddgang, and hhiisa kachfik-an. 
 
 The hhiisa dcilam or courtly style takes its name from the 
 
 word
 
 XVI 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 word Jb dulam, signifying " a royal palace or court," and not, 
 as has been supposed by the author of the dissertation " on the 
 language and literature of the Indo-Chinese nations," from the 
 preposition dulam " in." From this misconception of the word 
 he was led to consider it as the " language of the interior," and 
 to frame, as its correlative, the term hhasa luar, to denote an 
 " exterior " or vulgar language of the coasts, which, although 
 the woids are intelligible, I can venture to say, does not exist 
 as a phrase. (See Asiat. Res. a^oI. x. p. 189.) The style of 
 courts is by no means imcommon in books, because the princi- 
 pal characters, both male and female, iiitroduced in romances 
 and heroic poems, are always of royal, if not of divine lineage, 
 and the language they speak, as well as that in which they are 
 addressed by their compeers and their attendants, must be suita- 
 ble to the condition of such personages. 
 
 The Lhasa haiigsawan or style of the politer classes of society, 
 does not in its general tenour differ materially from that of the 
 court, but is at the same time distinguished from it by some 
 expressions in the former applicable only to royalty, such as 
 li^ tltah or ju-o sahda for cj\^ kata to say, u-Lwj santap for ^^U 
 mdJcan to eat, jj>^ her-adu for jj^j tldor to sleep, c:,Xvo mangkat 
 or i_L& ilang for cijU miiti deceased, defunct. 
 
 The hhasa diigung, as the term implies, is that of merchants 
 who trade from port to port, whose language is simple in its 
 construction, and perspicuous, as their dealings require, but less 
 elegant and less grammatical than the preceding. It necessa- 
 rily admits the use of many foreign names for articles of mer- 
 chandise, such as \^Ai heldiiwa for veludo velvet, aAJL> sakelut 
 scarlet cloth, Jjj real a Spanish dollar. The language spoken 
 by European gentlemen may be considered as belonging to this 
 
 division ;
 
 INTRODUCTION. xvii 
 
 division ; but, respected as they are in their pohtlcal capacity, 
 when their manners accord with the dignity of their situations, 
 they ought to adopt the style of the hluisa hangsuwan, which 
 would be much facilitated by the habitual perusal of good 
 writings. 
 
 The basest and most corrupt style is termed hlusa kachfik-un, 
 from j^l^ kdchiik to jumble together, as being the mixed jargon 
 of the bazars of great sea-port towns, where an assemblage of 
 people of all nations render themselves intelligible to each other 
 by a sort of language of convention, of which Malayan is the 
 basis. Into this low dialect a number of European words and 
 phrases found admittance during the time of the Portuguese 
 domination in India, a list of which is subjoined to the Dutch 
 and Malayan vocabulary of Justus heurnius, originally pub- 
 lished in 1650; and even the superior styles are not entirely 
 exempt from them, as the words ''te7npo," ^'■senlior" ^'masque" 
 and a few others occur in the correspondence of persons of rank. 
 Several Dutch terms have been in like manner adopted ; but, 
 from the more confined limits of our establishments, the English 
 innovations have hitherto been very inconsiderable. Books are 
 in ceneral free from the influence of these barbarisms. 
 
 Havina' thus described the exterior circumstances of the Ian- 
 guage, as they lespect the country where it was spoken at the 
 period of the earliest Malayan emigration on record, and those 
 extensive regions where it prevails at the present day ; as well 
 as the appellations by which it is distinguished from other orien- 
 tal tongues, both by foreigners and by the natives themselves ; 
 it now remains to examine its component parts, and to point out 
 those more original languages from whence we may presume it 
 
 e 
 
 to
 
 xviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to be derived, or which have contributed to its improvement 
 and to that degree of copiousness of which it may fairly boast. 
 
 A paper which the Asiatic Society of bengal did me the 
 honour of printing in the fourth volume of their researches, 
 contained the ideas I had formed on this subject, and which I 
 have not since found reason to vary from in any material point ; 
 but as some of them have been controverted and partly misun- 
 derstood, I shall here endeavour to restate more explicitly the 
 grounds of my opinion, and to obviate such objections as have 
 been urged to my analysis of the lane uage. 
 
 That the words of which it consists may be divided into three 
 classes, and that two of these are hindu and arabic, has been 
 generally admitted. The doubts that have arisen respect only 
 the third, or that original and essential part which, to the Ma- 
 layan, stands in the same relation as thesAxoN to the English, 
 and which I have asserted to be one of the numerous dialects of 
 the widely extended language found to prevail, with strong fea- 
 tures of similarity, throughout the archipelago on the hither 
 side of ]Vew Guinea, and, with a less marked resemblance, 
 amongst the islands of the Pacific Ocean or South Sea. This 
 language, which, in its utmost range, embraces Madagascar 
 also to the westward, may be conveniently termed the Polyne- 
 sian, and distinguished, as already suggested, into the Hither 
 (frequently termed also the I^ast i/isular language) and the Fur- 
 ther Polynesian. To shew the general identity or radical con- 
 nexion of its dialects, and at the same time their individual dif- 
 ferences, 1 beg leave to refer the reader to the tables annexed 
 to a paper on the subject which I presented so long ago as the 
 year 1/80 to the Society of Antiquaries, and is printed in vol. vi. 
 
 of
 
 INTRODUCTION. xix 
 
 of the Archseologia; also to a table of comparative numerals in 
 the appendix to vol. iii. of Capt. Cook's last voyage ; and like- 
 wise to the chart of ten numerals in two hundred languages, by 
 the Rev. R. Patrick, recently published in valpy's Classical, 
 Biblical, and Oriental Journal. These, however, should be 
 considered rather as illustrations than proofs of what has been 
 stated, the subject requiring a more detailed examination of 
 their respective vocabularies. 
 
 It may be asked, with what propriety the Malayan, which 
 has been described as a language of the coasts, and contrasted 
 with the Polynesian prevailing in the interior of the islands, can 
 at the same time be ranked as one of its dialects; especially 
 when upon comparison it will be found to vary much more from 
 them than they do from each other. This cannot be better ex- 
 plained than by pursuing further the analogies of our own 
 tongue. The English was in its origin a dialect of Teutonic 
 spoken in Lower Saxony, which, at subsequent periods, has 
 been enriched by a great accession of Norman, Greek, and 
 other terms, and in consequence of the political prosperity of 
 the nation, and its intercourse with foreigners, has been so 
 changed from its primitive rude state, as to be no longer under- 
 stood by the inhabitants of that country which gave it birth. 
 Let us now suppose large establishments of English merchants 
 settling at Embden, Bren)en, Hamburgh, and Lubeck, and 
 there becoming of so much commercial importance as to render 
 their own the general language of communication with traders 
 from all other parts. Under such circumstances the English 
 would be to the natives of Lower Germany (assuming that these 
 have remained stationary) what the Malays are to the ancient 
 population of the islands ; children of the same stock, but 
 
 estranged
 
 XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 estranged from their bretliren by the acquisition of foreign ha- 
 bits, and again frequenting them under the advantages of their 
 new condition. 
 
 In one respect, however, the analogy fails ; for whilst we 
 possess some historical account of the expeditions which contri- 
 buted to people Great Britain with its present race, we are en- 
 tirely without record or tradition of the course of population 
 amongst these islands, prior to the comparatively modern pas- 
 sage of the Malays from Sumatra to the opposite shores of the 
 peninsula^ at a period when their language had already received 
 those accessions which distinguish it from the generahty of the 
 insular dialects. Whether, in times much earlier, tribes of Bat- 
 tas, Rejcaigs, or JLampongs migrated to Java, Borneo, and the 
 Moluccas, or whether the current ran in a contrary direction 
 and conveyed inhabitants to Sumatra from the more eastern 
 islands, must remain to be decided upon grounds of general 
 probability alone, although some of the superstitious tales of the 
 natives of the Philippines point to the former as the birth-place 
 of the parents of the human race. (Hist, of Sumatra, ed. 3. 
 p. 302.) But whatever pretensions any particular spot may 
 have to precedence in this respect, the so wide dissemination of 
 a language common to all, bespeaks a high degree of antiquity, 
 and gives a claim to originality as far as we can venture to apply 
 that term, which signifies no more than the state beyond which 
 we have not the means, either historically or by fair inference, 
 of tracing the origin. In this restricted sense it is that we are 
 justified in consi(!ering the main portion of the Malayan as ori- 
 ginal or indigenous ; its affinity to any continental tongue not 
 having yet been shewn ; and least of all can we suppose it con- 
 nected
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXI 
 
 nected with the monosyllabic or Indo-Chinese, with which it 
 has been classed. 
 
 What has been said will I trust be thought sufficient for de- 
 fining the language to which this radical portion belongs. I 
 have been the more anxiovis to make myself clearly understood, 
 because on a former occasion I appear not to have satisfied the 
 mind of the ingenious author of the paper on the languages and 
 literature of the Indo-Chinese nations, who introduces the fol- 
 lowing remark : "In another paper published in the Archceo- 
 logia, vol. vi. this author has successfully exhibited a variety of 
 instances of coincidence, both in sound and signification, be- 
 tween the Malay and several of the eastern dialects. By at- 
 tempting to prove too much, however, I apprehend that he has 
 failed essentially. He has pointed out a few coincidences, but 
 has left the mass of tlie language totally unaccounted for ; and 
 as the few coinciding words may all have been derived from a 
 common source, it is perhaps a more natural inference to con- 
 clude that they have all been modified by some general language, 
 than, with sir wm. jones, to determine that the parent of them 
 all has been the Sanscrit." I confess that this passage does not 
 convey to my apprehension any very precise idea of the writer's 
 meaning, nor do I see, as I much wish, in what the force of 
 the objection consists. Can he have deemed it necessary for the 
 support of my conclusions that every coinciding word in these 
 dialects of the Polynesian should be enumerated ? That indeed 
 would have been attempting too much. The diction.aries of 
 Tagala, Bisuya, Pampanga, and other Philippine languages 
 are voluminous, and a considerable proportion of the number of 
 words they contain is similar to those spoken in Sumatra. To 
 have introduced them in a pa])er read to a learned society would 
 
 f have
 
 xxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 have led me beyond all reasonable bounds; and yet in omitting 
 to do it, "I have left the mass of the language totally unac- 
 counted for." That they *' may all have been derived from a 
 common source" can scarcely admit of a question; but what 
 ground is thence afforded for controverting my position that the 
 Malayan, in its original unmixed state, was one of its streams ? 
 That common source he has not pointed out, and an investiga- 
 tion of the component parts of the language as we now find it, 
 does not demand it from me; for who in ascertaining the ety- 
 mology of our own tongue is required to discover the origin of 
 the Teutonic dialects? 
 
 It is necessary to observe, with regard to the Polynesian or 
 general East-insular language, that it does not include those 
 spoken by the description of people termed Papua and Samang 
 by the Malays and Negritos by the HSpaniards of Manilla, whose 
 crisp or frizzled (rather than woolly) hair and dark skins, point 
 them out as a race totally distinct from the yellow coraplexioned, 
 long haired natives of whom we are speaking. These, as well 
 as the Haraforas and other savage tribes found in several parts 
 of the Archipelago, present a subject of research as curious as 
 it is obscure, but not being immediately connected with the 
 Malays or their language, they do not come within the scope of 
 this discussion. 
 
 We shall now direct our attention to those accessory tongues 
 from whence the Malayan acquired such a degree of improve- 
 ment, as removed it from the general level of the other cognate 
 dialects, and gave it a decided predominance in that part of the 
 East. Of these the earliest as well as the most important ap- 
 pears to have been, either directly or mediately, that great parent 
 of Indian language-, the venerable Sanskrit, whose influence 
 
 is
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxiii 
 
 is found to have pervaded nearly tlie whole of the Eastern (and 
 perhaps also of the Western) world, modifying and regenerating 
 even where it did not create. That the intercourse, whatever its 
 circumstances may have been, which produced this advantageous 
 effect on the Malayan, must have taken place at an early period, 
 is to be inferred not only from the deep obscurity in which it is 
 involved, but also from the nature of the terms borrowed, being 
 such as the progress of civilisation must soon have rendered 
 necessary, expressing the feelings of the mind, the most obvious 
 moral ideas, the simplest objects of the understanding, and those 
 ordinary modes of thought which result from the social habits of 
 mankind ; whilst at the same time it is not to be understood, as 
 some have presumed to be the case, that the affinity between 
 these languages is radical, or that the latter is indebted to any 
 HINDU dialect for its names for the common objects of sense.' 
 It is proper also to remark, that in some instances the words so 
 borrowed do not preserve the exact signification they bear in the 
 original, but acquire one more specific ; as ^j^^ saktt which in 
 Sanskrit denotes " power," is restricted in Malayan to *' super- 
 natural power," and \pl putru signifying " a son," is applied 
 only to the " son of a royal personage." 
 
 When in a paper written in the year 1/93 I pointed out " the 
 traces of the hindu language and literature extant amongst the 
 MALAYS," I presumed the discovery to be original, but soon 
 learned that I had been anticipated in my observation by the 
 revered president and founder of the Asiatic Society, who in his 
 eighth Anniversary Discourse had already made the remark 
 that " without any recourse to etymological conjecture, we dis- 
 cover that multitudes of pure Sanskrit words occur in the 
 
 principal
 
 xxiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 principal dialects of the Smnntrans." Justice however to our 
 predecessors in the study of oriental languages requires me to 
 state, that in the preface to the Vocabulary of heurnius, it is 
 distinctly mentioned that beside several words adopted from the 
 neighbouring dialect of java, the Malayan is largely indebted 
 to those of HINDUSTAN, and especially to the Sanskrit or sa- 
 cred laneuaoe of the Brahmans. 
 
 An investigation of the period when, and the means by which 
 so copious and useful a class of words was incorporated with 
 some of the rude East-insular dialects, is a subject worthy of 
 the talents of those able scholars whose inquiries, directed to 
 the attainment of genuine historical and philological truth, 
 adorn the pages of the Asiatic researches. From the Ma- 
 lays themselves, or their writings, it is to be apprehended that 
 little information respecting facts of so ancient a date can now 
 be procured, and if the books of the Hindus are equally silent, 
 we must be content to extract our knowledge from the sober 
 examination of intrinsic evidence. With this in view I must 
 here take the liberty of observing that much fallacious inference 
 appears to liave been drawn from the resemblance of the San- 
 skrit term Malaya to the name of the people of whom we are 
 speaking, which has induced some persons, whose authority 
 carries with it great weight, to consider the Malaya dwipa as 
 denoting the Malayan peninsula. But with all due deference, 
 on a point where my opinion must rest upon a comparison of 
 those passages in the researches or other published works, in 
 which the term occurs, I think it will be found to belong ex- 
 clusively to the mountainous region in the southern part of the 
 peninsula of India, known in the provincial dialect of the 
 
 country
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxv 
 
 country by the name of Malayulam, as is the language by that 
 of Maledima ; all being derivatives from the word mal<^, signi- 
 fying " a mountain." 
 
 The most obvious mode in which we might presume the lan- 
 guage of a more civilised to have been communicated, to a ruder 
 people, whose soil abounds with valuable productions, is that 
 of commercial intercourse, and we find accordingly, that when 
 Europeans first visited the Malayan ports, they describe them as 
 being crowded with vessels from the coasts of guzerat, Ma- 
 labar, and coROMANDEL, and with merchants from thence, 
 as well as from all other parts of the east, established on shore, 
 and occupying their respective kanipongs or quarters in the ba- 
 zars. From such habitual residence and the familiarity it must 
 occasion, there is no doubt but that many Avords convenient for 
 the purposes of trade may have been introduced, as in later 
 days from the connexion with Europeans themselves ; and it 
 would not be fair to deny that many others of a more general 
 nature might in the same manner have found their way ; but 
 when we pay attention to the terms which actually constitute 
 this portion of the Malayan, and which in the Dictionary are 
 distinguished by their proper character, we shall perceive that, 
 for the most part, they not only belong to a class of ideas supe- 
 rior to what the transactions of a hazar would require, but also, 
 in respect to their form and pronunciation, are stamped with 
 the mark of the purest days of the Sanskrit, undebased by the 
 corruptions of its provincial dialects ; as may be instanced in 
 the conversion of the letter y into / in the language of Bengal, 
 yug being there pronounced jf<g, and yujana (a geographical 
 term adopted by the Malays) pronounced jujun. For its pos- 
 sessing this latter quality I have (and trust I may long have) 
 
 g the
 
 xxvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the living authority of Mr. wilkins, as well as that of the 
 writings of sir william jones. Even Dr. leyden, though 
 rather an unwilling witness, admits that " the Sanscrit voca- 
 bles adopted in Malayu and Guzerdti, are generally preserved 
 purer in the former than in the latter ;" and again, that " in 
 many instances the Malayu form approaches nearer the pure 
 Sanscrit than even the Bali itself." 
 
 This Bali, or Pali, the sacred language of ava and siam, 
 has by some been supposed, from its geographical proximity, 
 the most likely channel through which the hindu terms (being 
 itself a dialect of Samkrit^ might have flowed into the Malayan 
 countries ; but independantly of the preceding objection, we 
 may ask whether it is probable that, from the circumstance of 
 vicinage, the occult and mysterious language of one country 
 should become popular in another, whilst the ordinary language 
 spoken by the bulk of the people should not have made any 
 similar progress. But in fact we have strong grounds for be- 
 lieving that the Malayan tongue had already received its acces- 
 sion of Sanskrit terms, before the spreading of its population 
 towards the North brought it into contact with the southern 
 dominions of Siam ; and since that period the two nations have 
 almost ever been at variance. From these considerations I 
 should strongly incline to coincide in opinion with Dr. eeyden, 
 who had studied the language, that " the greater part of the 
 words of Sanscrit origin found in Malayu, do not appear to 
 have been introduced through the medium of the Bali." Yet 
 as the discovery of truth and not the support of any system is 
 my object, I shall produce a document lately come to my hands 
 which will be thought of much importance in the future dis- 
 cussion of this question, and add materially to the argument of 
 
 those
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 xxvu 
 
 those who shall contend that the Bali or Pali has had a prin- 
 cipal share in contributing to the dissemination of the Hindu 
 language and mythology throughout the eastern islands. This 
 document is a letter from m. a. coupekus,* a servant of the 
 
 late 
 
 * " Mv np.AR SrR, CalcidUi, 25ik Uct. J 810. 
 
 I have the pleasure to send you a copy of two of my Java 
 drawings, taken fi"om two stones found, with more than an hundred of the same 
 kind, in the interior part of the island. The numerous inscriptions seen on the 
 back of many of these stones, as also on the back of several metal idols found at 
 the same place, but of a much smaller size, are in a language of which the cha- 
 racters are no longer known ; the language appearing to be entirely lost. A spe- 
 cimen of these characters, taken with the utmost possible exactness from two 
 stones, I forward also with this. They differ in all respects from the Javanese 
 and other characters in use amongst the natives of the neighbouring countries. 
 There is no hope that we shall get any information from these natives upon sub- 
 jects of antiquity, as they liave no proper records, nor have they preserved any 
 branch of learning, which they, or those inhabitants who in old times worshipped 
 the idols, undoubtedly possessed. I have proofs that they had even a knowledge 
 of astronomy ; but the present inhabitants are in respect of arts and sciences, 
 most ignorant and superficial beings. I had hopes that some learned gentleman 
 or Bramin here in Bengal would have been found able to ascertain the language 
 of the inscriptions, but it appears that the characters are also unknown in Ben- 
 gal; which I consider as a great loss to letters, as the inscriptions are so very 
 numerous and almost all perfectly visible : and I have no doubt that some inte- 
 resting historical events would be discovered. Amongst the idols found in Java 
 tliere are many of Brahma, Vismi, and other inferior deities of the Hindus; so 
 that all the benefit history has gained by this discovery is, that it proves beyond 
 doubt that the inhabitants of Java, in very remote times, were idolaters of the 
 Brahma sect. A native of the Lampung country (in Sumatra) seeing some of 
 those figures at my house in Batavia, informed me that many similar stones and 
 figures are to be seen in the interior part of Lampung. The same information I 
 got from an inhabitant of the 3lrisi country (inland of Palemhang) who had tra- 
 velled through the Lampung district, and had seen similar monuments there. 
 
 A'ery
 
 xxviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 late Dutch East-India Company, and a distinguished member 
 of the Batavian philosophical society, addressed to my friend 
 jvir. CHARLES HOLLOWAY of ^encooleu (froiu whom I received 
 it), accompanied with two well executed drawings made from 
 stone images of Siva or Mahadeva, and JBhavani, under the 
 appellations of JRhairava and Batu-Bharav^, and also with 
 copies of long inscriptions carved upon the back of these or si- 
 milar images. The characters and language of the inscriptions 
 are stated to be equally unknown to the natives of the interior 
 of Java (where they were found) and to the Brahmans of ben- 
 gal to whom he had shewn them. But upon examination the 
 characters prove to be no other than the square Pali, consi- 
 dered as sacred in the Binna or Ava country, and in Siain. 
 Of this my late worthy and ingenious friend col. m. symes, in 
 his account of an embassy to Ava, gives a specimen, taken 
 from a beautiful manuscript containing an account of the cere- 
 mony used in the consecration of rhahaans or priests ; which 
 Pali manuscript he afterwards presented to earl spencer, and 
 is now in the magnificent library of that nobleman. Being my- 
 self so fortunate as to possess an original alphabet and other 
 materials for ascertaining the language of the inscriptions, I 
 hope (with the aid of Mr. wilkins) to succeed in translating 
 
 them. 
 
 Very probable it is that the inhabitants of both islands, Java and Sumatra, be- 
 fore they had embraced the Mahometan faith, were of the religion of Brahma. 
 Will you let me have for a moment again the letter from Mr. Marsden, in order 
 to peruse the requests of that learned gentleman, and should I be able to furnish 
 him with any information, I shall be happy to embrace the opportunity. 
 
 I remain, &c. 
 To Charles Jlolloway, Esq. A. CouPEHUS." 
 
 Ci^cuUa.
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxix 
 
 them, and although not so sanguine as m. couperus in the ex- 
 pectation of discovering important historical documents, to be 
 enabled at least to determine whether the Pali was, in ancient 
 times, employed as the sacred or learned language of Java also. 
 Images of the same kind, brought from Balamhuung, at the 
 southern extremity of the island, and opposite to that of Bali 
 I remember to have seen in Sumatra ; but these were without 
 inscriptions, and did not at the time excite any particular atten- 
 tion. I have lately been informed that the officers commanding 
 Our troops in Java have frequently recognised in their marches, 
 figures (especially of Gancsa) to which they had been familiarly 
 accustomed on the continent of India ; and that no opportunities 
 have been lost of making drawings of these as well as fac similes 
 of ancient characters, wherever they hare been discovered. 
 
 " It is needless (says di". leyden) to adduce further instances" 
 (of the connexion of Malayan with Bengali, from which, in 
 truth, it is more remote than from any other Sanskrit derivative) 
 " as the Malay history and the language itself, exhibit traces 
 sufficiently clear, to direct us to the region with which the Ma- 
 lays had the most frequent intercourse, at an early period, and 
 from which their language seems to have received the most 
 considerable modifications, and that is the ancient kingdom of 
 Kalinga. Here I am again under the necessity of dissenting 
 from marsden's opinion : he says, " It is evident that from 
 the Telinga or the Tamul, the Malayan has not received any 
 portion of its improvement." I apprehend that the express re- 
 verse of this opinion is evident ; for the Malays, at this very 
 period, know the Coromandel coast by no other name than 
 Tanna Keling, the land of Keling or Kafmga : a multitude of 
 compositions current among them profess to be translations from 
 
 h the
 
 XXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the Basa-KeUng or KaUnga language ; and the Malayu lan- 
 guage contains a great number of words that are Tamul, Ma- 
 lay cilam and Tel'mga ; though neither Sanscrit, Hindiwi, nor 
 Guzerati ; and a variety that are only to be found in Telinga^ 
 the vernacular language of the KaUnga Desa." Had Di". leyden 
 favoured us with a list, however short, of these words borrowed 
 from the Telinga or the Tamul, which have no relation to the 
 Sanski'it, it would have given considerable weight to his asser- 
 tion. As it is, I can only say that such have very rarely occurred 
 in my limited examination of those languages. The word kappal 
 " a ship," which I find in a Tamul vocabulary, is obviously the 
 Ji^ of the Malays. I^avangum, the Telinga word for " cloves," 
 can be no other than %^ Idivang or hunga I'ncang ; but surely in 
 this instance it must be with the cultivator and not the consumer 
 that the word originated. I should almost venture to say the 
 same o{ padaua or padavu " a boat," which has a manifest af- 
 finity to ^J praii or parau ; for how can we suppose that these 
 islanders should borrow the most common term for their small 
 sailing vessels from the people of a distant continent ? The words 
 ^\j rugam modes in nmsic, 1^ I gam imaginary divisions of the 
 universe, J/ kfilam a pond, jOU manikam a precious stone, have 
 evident marks of their importation from the KaUnga Dcsa or 
 negr'i kling, but they are at the same time a barbarous form of 
 Sanskrit, and their number, I think, could not be doubled in 
 the pages of the Malayan Dictionary. 
 
 The extensive commercial intercourse by Kling (Teliitga or 
 Coromandel) vessels, between the ports of the continent of India 
 and those of Achin, Malacca, and others in the Straits, is matter 
 of notoriety, and it is likewise admitted that many translations 
 of Hindu stories have been made through the medium of the 
 
 languages
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxxi 
 
 languages of the peninsula ; but it docs not necessarily follow 
 that the Malayan " received its most considerable modifications" 
 from that quartei-. It must be observed that the Tamul, Te- 
 lingo, and Kanari (all essentially one tongue) are radically dif- 
 ferent from the Sanskrit, although from the abundant infusion 
 of religious and poetical terms, they have not uncommonly been 
 mistaken for its derivatives ; and if it were to the traders of the 
 Coromandel or Malabar coasts that it was indebted for its im- 
 provement, the words so communicated would obviously have 
 belonged in greater numbers to the radical or vulgar portion of 
 the language, than to the learned ; and even the Sajiskrit terms 
 that might have found their way along with these, would have 
 been affected by the peculiarities of orthography and pronun- 
 ciation which distinguish the Telinga from other corruptions, 
 and which, in fact, are observable in a few instances. But 
 Dr. LEYi>EN himself bears testimony to the superior purity of 
 those adopted by the Malays ; and with respect to their number, 
 he says (somewhat gratuitously) that a list of about fifteen ex- 
 amples given by me as a specimen, " might, Avith very little 
 labour, have been extended to fifteen hundred, or perhaps five 
 thousand." Upon assertions of this nature the columns of the 
 Dictionary form the best comment. 
 
 The strongest argument however against the probability of 
 commerce having exerted so powerful an influence and produced 
 an effect so extensive, is to be drawn from the nature of the 
 words themselves, which are not confined to the names of things, 
 but more usually express moral feelings, intellectual qualities, or 
 ideas connected with mythology. Can it be supposed that mer- 
 cantile visitors should have taught these people to denote "joy" 
 and " sorrow" by the terms ;>uka-chiia -and duka-chita, " under- 
 standing"
 
 xxxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 derstantling" by hudi, " prudence" by hijaksana, " loyalty" by 
 satiivan, " kindred" by kulaivarga, " time" by kala, " cause" 
 by kilrna, or " penance" by tapa? Much less can we persuade 
 ourselves that the Sanskrit names of cities, districts, and moun- 
 tains in the interior of the country (particularly oi Jav(i) should 
 have been imposed by strangers of this description. Innovations 
 of such magnitude, we shall venture to say, could not have been 
 produced otherwise than by the entire domination and possession 
 of these islands by some ancient Hindu power, and by the con- 
 tinuance of its sway during several ages. Of the period when 
 this state of things existed we at present know nothing, and 
 judging of their principles of action by what we witness in these 
 days, we are at a loss to conceive under what circumstances they 
 could have exerted an influence in distant countries of the nature 
 here described. The spirit of foreign conquest does not appear 
 to have distinguished their character, and zeal for the conver- 
 sion of others to their own religious faith, seems to be incom- 
 patible with their tenets. We may, however, be deceived by 
 forming our opinion from the contemplation of modern India, 
 and should recollect that previously to the Mahometan irruptions 
 into the upper provinces, which first took place about the year 
 1000, and until the progressive subjugation of the country by 
 Persians and Moghuls, there existed several powerful and opulent 
 Hindu states, of whose maritime relations we are entirely igno- 
 rant at present, and can only cherish the hope of future disco- 
 veries, from the laudable spirit of research that pervades and 
 docs so much honour to our Indian establishments. 
 
 That the remains of superstitions and other traces of Hindu 
 occupancy should now be less frequently discernible in Sumatra 
 than in Java and Bali (where the practice of the wife's burning 
 
 on
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxxiii 
 
 on the pile of her husband, and other pecuhar customs still sub- 
 sist), may be the consequence of the earlier and more general 
 prevalence of the Mahometan religion in the former island ; or, 
 it may be fair to conclude, as well from the number of idols 
 found in the latter, as from the Sanskrit terms abounding in the 
 court-language of Java, that it, rather than Sumatra, may have 
 been the principal seat of these Hindu colonial possessions. To 
 this supposition a strong colour is given by the ancient, though 
 fabulous history, of which we find a translation in the Transac- 
 tions of the Batavian Society. The genealogy of the sovereigns 
 oiJava is there deduced fioni Batara TVisnu (Avatara Vishnu) 
 who was their first king of the race of deivas, as distinguished 
 from the kings of men. That by the former of these we should 
 imderstand the Hindu rulers of the island, who may have been 
 hrahmans, and by the latter, the native princes of the country, 
 will not be thought an improbable conjecture; and may serve 
 to explain a distinction not otherwise reconcileable to common 
 sense. We may further observe, that this mixture of mythology 
 with history being highly favourable to the composition of ro- 
 mances, not only the Javans but the Malays also, notwithstand- 
 ing their Mahometan prejudices, have been fonder of laying the 
 scenes of their adventures amongst the deivas and rakshasas, than 
 amongst the maleikat and^wi (angels and demons) of their more 
 recent superstition. 
 
 Having now considered the Malayan as having been, in its 
 primitive state, a dialect of the Polynesian, and subsequently, 
 but at a very remote and an unknown period, enriched by an ac- 
 cession of Sanskrit words, we shall find it destined, in times 
 comparatively modern, to experience a further change in con- 
 sequence of a great religious innovation which affected more or 
 
 i less
 
 xxxivr INTRODUCTION. 
 
 less a vast portion of the known world. This was the spreading 
 of the doctrine of the koran; not indeed rapidly, as in the west, 
 by the aid of the sword, but with a gradual progress, the effect 
 of persuasion rather than of force. Traders from the Arabian 
 coasts had probably in all ages frequented the eastern seas, al- 
 though no i-ecord of their voyages of an eai'lier date than the 
 ninth century has been preserved; yet there is not reason to 
 conclude that this casual intercourse had any influence upon the 
 languages of the islands. In the twelfth century however, the 
 new religion may be presumed to have gained considerable ground 
 amongst the inhabitants, as it appears that in the beginning of 
 the thirteenth, it was embraced and openly professed by some 
 of the princes, and even that those who preached it found the 
 means, in several instances, of raising themselves to the rank of 
 sovereigns. In the Annals of Acfiiii we are distinctly told that 
 in the year 601 of the hej'rah, answering to 1204, sultan Julian 
 Shah arrived from the western country, established islamism in 
 that capital, and marrying a native princess, transmitted the 
 crown to his son. From the Annals of Malacca we learn that 
 the conversion took place there during the reign of Muhammed 
 Shah, who ascended the throne in 1276; and the Javanese re- 
 cords inform us that the religion was first preached in their island, 
 so lately as 1406, by Sheikh Ibn Mulana, who had previously 
 visited Achin and Pasc in Sumatra, and Johor in the peninsula. 
 The effects produced by the introduction of this religion 
 amongst the Malays, were similar to those which took place in 
 Persia and many other countries where it has prevailed. The 
 use of the Arabic character superseded that of the ancient mode 
 of writing, and the language became exposed to an inundation 
 of new terms, for the most part theological, metaphysical, legal, 
 
 and
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxxv 
 
 and ceremonial, the knowledge of which is indispensable to those 
 who study the koran and its commentaries. These terms their 
 writers, in some species of composition, affect to introduce, as a 
 proof of their religious as well as their literary attainments ; but 
 few of them, comparatively, have been incorporated witlj. or con- 
 stitute a part of the language. On a former occasion I had 
 added that they are rarely employed in conversation ; an asser- 
 tion that may have been too general, as pedants are to be found 
 in all countries. In the preambles of letters there is no limita- 
 tion to the use of Arabic epithets ; but in the body or business 
 part they are much more sparingly employed ; and in books of 
 narration, such as the version of the Ramayana, as well as poetic 
 works in general (with the exception of those upon religious 
 subjects), they are by no means frequent. About the number of 
 twenty or thirty words may be pointed out as having a claim, 
 from their familiar recurrence, to be considered as Malayan by 
 adoption, (such as ^-Ci fikir or J^ jnkh' to think, ijU adnt cus- 
 tom, Jiic akal ingenuity, Uj dunya and JU alam the world, *lc 
 alam a flag and Umu science, i_J,L arif wise, ilXi sak doubt, ^ 
 fajer the dawn, iji kmvat vigour, jsi kadar value, rate, j^ kuhur 
 a grave, liys-' sejild prostration, j_v.»j sehah cause, ij^ surat writ- 
 ing) ; whilst those others, of which it has been justly said by 
 Di". LEYDEN, that " it is difficult to assign any bounds to their 
 introduction but the pleasure of the writer," must be regarded as 
 foreign words ostentatiously displayed ; like the French and 
 Latin with which the works of old German and Dutch authors 
 are chequered so profusely. The learner therefore is not to be 
 surprised at faihng to trace in the Dictionary many Arabic words 
 which he will find in manuscripts. Those occurring most fre- 
 quently have been inserted, but to have carried this to the full 
 
 extent
 
 xxxvi Introduction, 
 
 extent would have been to incorporate the bulk of the language, 
 and to encroach on the province of an Arabic lexicon. The 
 number of Malayan words, on the contiary, that have been trans- 
 ferred into other tongues, is very limited ; yet the following have 
 obtained an extensive currency, not only in India, but in many 
 parts of Europe : j^b damar, dammar, a species of resin ; ^_>IS 
 p-d', paddi, rice in the husk ; uJL siigu, sago ; ^ bamhu, the 
 cane ; jJ^S kampong an enclosure, vulgarly compound ; c jjf go- 
 do)ig, a warehouse, factory, vulgarly godovvn ; ^j^J kris or creese, 
 a weapon; ^^>^| ? ^j^ drang fdan a species of ape ; j.«l amuk and 
 ^ll« meng-amuk, to run a-muck, to murder indiscriminately, to 
 engage furiously in battle. 
 
 That the Malays before the introduction of Arabic writing 
 possessed an alphabetic character of their own, can scarcely be 
 doubted, although we are now ignorant what that character 
 was ; for whilst so many tribes similarly circumstanced, in Su-' 
 matra, Java, Celebes, and other islands, have retained even to 
 this day their proper alphabets (all exhibiting traces of a Nagri 
 origin), it is not probable that this race alone should have been 
 entirely unlettered ; and we should rather conclude that, from 
 the period of their conversion, being taught to regard with con- 
 tempt, not only their habits of idolatry, but their ancient lite- 
 rature also, the Malays suffered the memorials of it to sink 
 into oblivion. If what was thus neglected is to be searched 
 for amongst the existing alphabets, the Batta seems to have 
 the fairest pretensions (from vicinity) to be considered as that 
 which gave place to the less convenient character imported from 
 Arabia. 
 
 Respecting the general style of the language, which will be 
 best understood from the examples to be given in the praxis, we 
 
 may
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxxvii 
 
 may here briefly remark, that it is much more chaste and natural 
 than the phraseology of Asiatic languages in general, being free 
 (excepting only in the quaint and obscure puntuns or proverbial 
 sonnets) from forced conceits, and particularly such as depend 
 upon the ambiguous meaning of words, so prevalent and offensive 
 to good taste in Persian compositions. It may be said indeed, 
 that the Malayan style is never metaphorical, the imagery em- 
 ployed in poetic comparison being kept distinct from the subject, 
 in the manner of simile, and not figuratively interwoven with the 
 texture of the sentence. At the same time it must be allowed to 
 partake of many of the disadvantages incident to rude languages; 
 to be defective in precision, as well as in neatness of arrange- 
 ment, and to indulge in superfluous repetitions ; faults not incon- 
 sistent with that simplicity of construction which, with smooth- 
 ness and sweetness of tone, form its distinguished characteristics. 
 But further observations of this nature would be an anticipation 
 of what belongs to the department of Syntax and Prosody, and 
 in the sequel 1 shall confine myself to what concerns the progress 
 made by Europeans in fixing and communicating their know- 
 ledge of the tongue. 
 
 That the Malayan has not hitherto been cultivated in England 
 with the attention it deserves, must be attributed in a great degree 
 to the insuflSciency of the means provided for the instruction of 
 those who might wish to make it an o!)ject of study. The 
 Dutch, whose establishments in these parts preceded ours in 
 point of time, and, until the present extraordinary period, ac- 
 quired much greater importance, employed considerable pains in 
 perfecting their acquaintance with it, as well with a religious as 
 a political view, and published some works which shew the high 
 proficiency to which they attained. Of these the principal is a 
 
 k translation
 
 xxxvili INTRODUCTION. 
 
 translation of the whole Bible, executed with singular skill and 
 accuracy by the progressive labours of several learned men, and 
 finally, under the superintendance of g. h. werndly, printed in 
 the Roman character at Amsterdam in 1731-3, 4to. 2 vol., and 
 afterwards with the proper Malayan types, at Batavia in 1/58, 
 8vo. V vol. The same werndly was likewise the author of an 
 excellent Grammar, of which further mention will be made in 
 the sequel. With such advantages it is matter of no little sur- 
 prise that they should not also have furnished a work so essential 
 and indispensable to the study of this or any other language, as 
 a good Dictionary, formed from the genuine writings of the na- 
 tives, and expressed either in the proper character, or in such 
 consistent European orthography as might prove an adequate 
 substitute. What has hitherto been effected by them and by 
 ourselves in Malayan philology, will best appear from the follow- 
 ing enumeration of printed works, in the order of their publica- 
 tion ; nearly the whole of which are in my possession. 
 
 Subsequently to the appearance of some vocabularies found in 
 the works of the early voyagers, the first regular work in form 
 of a Dictionary, bears the title of " Spraeck ende ivoord-hoecky 
 in de Maleysche ende Madagaskarsche Talen," by trederick 
 HOUTMAN van Gouda, published at Amsterdam in 1604, 4to. 
 oblongo ; republished in 1673, Svo. under the title of " Dictiona- 
 rium, ofte JVoord ende Spnteck-hoeck, in de Duijtsche ende 
 Maleysche Tale;" and again at Batavia in 1/07, 4^0. The ori- 
 ginal edition contains, at the end of an address to the reader, 
 the autograph of houtman himself, who acquired his knowledge 
 of the language whilst a prisoner at Achin; and also that of 
 gotardus arthus, to whom the book belonged, and who re- 
 published the Dialogues it contains at Cologne, 1608, 8vo. which 
 
 likewise
 
 INTRODUCTION. xxxix 
 
 likewise appeared in English in 1614, 4to. under the title of 
 " Dialogues in the English and Malaiane languages : or certain 
 common formes of speech, first written in Latin, Malaian, and 
 Madagascar tongues, hy the diligence and painfull endeavour of 
 Master gotardus arthusius, a Dantisker, and now faithfully 
 translated into the English tongue by augustine spalding 
 Merchant." 
 
 The next original publication is that entitled " Vocabularium, 
 ofte TVoort-hoeck, naer ordre van den Alphabet hit 't Duytsch- 
 Maleysch ende Maleysch-DuytscJi. Als mede eenighe Gi'amma- 
 ticale ohservatien ;" first composed by Caspar wiltens, and 
 afterwards improved and published by Sebastian danckaerts. 
 's Gravenhaghe 1623, 4to. Batavia 1/06, 4*0- This vocabulary, 
 which, though not extensive, has considerable merit, was after- 
 wards translated into Latin, and published at Rome by the title 
 of *' Dictionarium Malaico-Latinum et Latino-Malaicum, cum 
 aliis quamplurimis. Opera et studio davidis haex," 1631, 4to. 
 The credit of an original composition being here improperly as- 
 sumed (although explained in the dedication), it becomes neces- 
 sary to correct a mistake into which d"". leyden has been led, 
 who says (p. 184), " The first attempt to form a grammar or 
 dictionary of it, as far as I know, Avas made by david haex, 
 who published in Malayu and Dutch, a vocabulary with some 
 grammatical observations. At the request of Cardinal Barberini 
 the Dutch was rendered into Latin." To this latter operation 
 only were the study and labour of haex directed, and the trans- 
 lation is evidently the performance of a person unacquainted with 
 the Malayan language. 
 
 " Vocabularium; ofte TVoorden-hoech, in't Dtiytsoli en Ma- 
 leys. Eertydts gecomponeenl et uyt-gegeven door casparum 
 
 WILTENS
 
 xl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 wiLTENs ende Sebastian um Danckaerts. Ende nu (met meer 
 dan drie dinjsent so ivoorden als manieren van sprekenj vermeer- 
 dert uyt de sckrifien van jan van hasel ende albert ruyl, 
 &c. door JUSTUM HEURNiuM." Amst. 1650, 4*0. Batavia I7O8, 
 4to. This, though modestly professing to be only an improved 
 edition of the preceding, has in fact a claim to be considered as 
 an original and much superior work. It was reprinted at Batavia 
 in 16/75 4to. with improvements by frederik gueynier, and 
 again, at the same place, in 1/08, with still further improve- 
 ments, by petrus van der worm ; in which state it is the best 
 Dutch and Malayan dictionary that has appeared. 
 
 " Grondt ofte kort Bericlit van de Mateische Taal, door 
 JOHANNES ROMAN." Amst. 1655, F^- 
 
 " Grammatica Malaica, tradens prsecepta brevia idiomatis 
 linguse in India Orientali celeberrimee, ab indigenis dictse Malajo, 
 succincte delincata labore johannis christoph. lobberi." Vi- 
 narise (Weimar) 1688, 8vo. This, we are told by vverndly, is-^ 
 a bad translation of the work of j. Roman (which I have not 
 seen), with some extracts from that of f. de houtbian, by one 
 who was quite a stranger to the language of the Malays. 
 
 " A Dictionary English and Malaxjo, Malay o and English. 
 To which is added some short Grammar Rules and Directions 
 for the better observation of the propriety and elegancy of this 
 language. By thomas bowrey." London I7OI, 4*o. This, 
 although the work of an illiterate person, possesses considerable 
 merit, and derived, as is evident, no advantage whatever from the 
 preceding publications, of the existence of which the author was 
 probably ignorant. His extensive knowledge of the language of 
 the peoj)le whose ports he frequented as a trader, he laudably 
 rendered permanent and useful to his countrymen by committing 
 
 to
 
 INTRODUCTION. xli 
 
 to paper all the words with which his memory furni:«>he{l him ;••■• 
 but he appears to have been entirely ignorant of the written 
 language, as even the short specimen of words in the original 
 
 character, 
 
 * Thus he speaks of himself. " By nineteeh years continuance in East-India, 
 wholly spent in navigation, and trading in most places of those countries, and 
 much of that time in the Malayo countries, Sumatra, Borneo, Bantam, Batavia, 
 and other parts of Java, by my conversation and trading with the inhabitants of 
 which places, I did furnish myself with so much of the Malai/o language as did 
 enable me to negociate my affairs, and converse with those people without the 
 assistance of a prevaricating interpreter, as they commonly are. In the year 
 1G88 I embarked at Fort St. George for England, which proving a long voyage, 
 and I being out of imployment, did at my leisure time set down all that came 
 into my memory of the Malayo language ; which together with some helps that I 
 have attained since, has furnished me with so much of that language as I think may 
 be of great use to trade and conversation in the Malayo country. . . .and I finding 
 so very few Englishmen that have attained any tollerable knowledge in the Malayo 
 tongue, so absolutely necessary to trade in those seas, and that there is no book 
 of this kind published in English, to help the attaining that language ; these con- 
 siderations, I say, has imboldened me to publish the insuing Dictionary, which I 
 am sensible has many imperfections, I having had very little help to assist me, and 
 not having had the opportunity of conversation with any Malayo since I begun 
 this work, nor in several years before." 
 
 A copy of this Dictionary full of manuscript corrections, made at an early 
 period, as appears by the writing and the orthography, accidentally came into 
 my possession. At the end of the first or English and Malayo part, the following 
 extraordinary memorandum occurs. " Soe far Corrected by henry smith. My 
 Dictionary which y"- foregoing should have bin onely the Coppy off, is so strangely 
 perverted thro' Ignorance of the genuine Elegancy and Meaning of the Wordes 
 in this language, that it would have puzled a learned Malaycr to have pickt out 
 the meaning of the short sentences, for they are very concise in there discourse 
 useing noe circumlocutions or tautalogie." The hand-writing of the memoran- 
 dum is the same with that of the corrections, which are for the most part judicious, 
 and the name is written in the style of a signature. Nothing further respecting 
 this HENKY SMITH has evcr come to my knowledge. 
 
 1
 
 xlii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 character, printed at the end of his hook, he acknowledges to 
 have been prepared for him at Oxford by that learned and inde- 
 fatigable orientalist, thomas hyde. Owing to his want of suf- 
 ficiency in this and some other respects, he has unavoidably fallen 
 into numerous errors, and the sentences he has employed to ex- 
 emplify the words, being of his own composition, and not quota- 
 tions, are for the most part incorrect or vulgar, and uncouth ia 
 their phraseology. 
 
 " 3Ialeische TVoord-hoek Sameling. Collectanea Malaica 
 Vocabularia. Hoc est Congeries omnium Dictionariorum Ma- 
 laicorum hactenus editorum. Non tantum vulgariorum Belgico- 
 Malaicorum, verum etiam rarissimorum hucusque incognitorum." 
 ANDREAS LAMBERTUs LODERUS, Typogr. Batavise 1707-8, 4to. 
 II partes. This usefid collection contains the republication of 
 nearly all the Vocabularies that had then appeared, and of which 
 many had become extremely scarce. 
 
 ** Maleische Spi'aakkimst , uit de eige Schriften der Maleiers 
 opgemaakt ; mit eene Voorreden, behelzende eene inleiding tot 
 dit werk, en een Aanhangsel van twee Boekzalen van boeken in 
 deze tale zo van Europeers, als van Maleiers geschreven. Door 
 GEORGE HENRiK WERNDLV." Amst. 1736, 8vo. Of this Gram- 
 mar I cannot speak in terms too favourable. It is the perform- 
 ance of a person who, united to a perfect acquaintance with the 
 Malayan, a knowledge of the principles of general grammar, 
 and who ventured, in framing one for that language, to disen- 
 gage himself from the trammels of European regimen, and to 
 draw his rules from the language itself The fault of the work, 
 a very pardonable one, is redundance. To the instruction it 
 affords I confess myself materially indebted. Tiie plan of my 
 own Grammar had been sketched, and the parts filled up, before 
 
 I became
 
 INTRODUCTION. xliii 
 
 I became acquainted with werndly's, or could read the lan- 
 guage in which it is composed; but I afterwards compared the 
 whole of what I had written, with his observations, strengthen- 
 ing my opinions by his sanction, and where we differed, availing 
 myself of his judgment when it appeared sounder than my own. 
 In making this avowal I am not by any means afraid of being 
 considered as his copyist by persons who shall take the trouble 
 of examining the two grammars with this view. 
 
 " Niemve fFoordenschat in Nederduitsch, Maleidsch en Por- 
 tugeesch." Batavia 1780, 8vo. This work, mentioned by Thun- 
 berg, I have not seen. 
 
 *' Resa uti Europa, Africa, Asia, forratted ifrdn dr 177^ til 
 
 1779' Af CARL PETER THUNBERG." Upsala 1789-93, 8vo. IV 
 
 vol. Vol. II. p. 260-90. A Vocabulary and Dialogues, Swedish 
 and Malayan. The list of words collected by this ingenious na- 
 turalist is rather more accurate than what we find in the genera- 
 lity of books of travels. 
 
 " A short Vocabulary, English and Malayo, with Grammar 
 Rules for the attainment of the Malayo language." Calcutta 
 1798. Of the merits of this work I have not had an opportunity 
 of judging. 
 
 *' A Grammar of the Malay tongue, as spoken in the Pe- 
 ninsula oi Malacca, the islands of Sumatra, Java, Sorneo, Pulo 
 Pinang, &c. compiled from bowkey's Dictionary, and other au- 
 thentic documents, manuscript and printed." London 1800, 4to- 
 
 " A Dictionary of the Malay tongue, as spoken, &c. In two 
 parts, English and Malay, and Malay and English. To which 
 is prefixed, a Grammar of that language. By john howisox, 
 M. D." London, printed by S. Rousseau, 1801, 4*0. It is not 
 easy to speak in terms sufficiently measured of this publication, 
 
 but
 
 xliv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 but the interests of literature and of oriental education require 
 that its real character should be explained. The long period 
 that had elapsed since the appearance of bowrey's work, its 
 consequent scarcity, and the want of any better to supply its 
 place, rendered the reprinting it, notwithstanding its imperfec- 
 tions, an expedient measure, and it was accordingly undertaken 
 or encouraged by a late worthy, but not learned bookseller. It 
 was suggested to him that the original might be improved by 
 annexing the Malayan characters to the words as they stood in 
 the Roman orthography ; and this, if properly executed, would 
 have been highly judicious. But, unfortunately, those persons 
 who were employed for the purpose being ignorant of the lan- 
 guage, instead of giving the words in the mode of spelling used 
 by the natives and to be found in their writings, composed them 
 of such Persian characters as best suited their idea of the sounds ; 
 and consequently when right, it is only by chance. For the 
 most part, instead of words known to the language, tliey are 
 merely capricious combinations of letters, some of which (such 
 as the Persian c_> jh employed throughout for uJ) have no con- 
 nexion with the Malayan alphabet, whilst all those peculiarly 
 belonging to it, and not to be met with in Arabic founts, are 
 entirely omitted. Although it is diflicult to convey to those who 
 are not conversant with the language an adequate notion of the 
 grossness of this proceeding, the Arabian or Persian scholar will 
 be sensible of it when he perceives that such words as JjLc wis- 
 dom, iXnA j.^ life, are here written J^l andj^^; whilst the com- 
 mon Malayan words i_J1 what, S\ the verb substantive, and cuf 
 a fort or castle, arc written ^bj, iAc, and <Ojj. The injury done 
 by a work of this description, to the literary reputation of the 
 country amongst foreign oriental scholars need not be insisted 
 
 upon ;
 
 INTRODUCTION. xtr 
 
 upon ; but that which may be sustained by the servants of the 
 East-India Company and others, into whose hands it may have 
 been put for instruction, is a consideration of much more im- 
 portance. MI". HowisoN having borne a respectable character, 
 iand being designated in the Advertisement prefixed, as a learned 
 and ingenious gentleman whose " friendly assistance" enabled 
 the real Editor to lay his specimen before the public, there is 
 reason to believe that he was not a principal in the transaction, 
 although he was induced to let it go into the world with the 
 sanction of his name, 
 
 " A rough Sketch of part of an intended Essay towards as- 
 certaining, deducing, elucidating, and correctly establishing the 
 Rudiments of the Juh,ivee or Juhivee language, vulgarly called 
 the MALAY language." By j. s. (shaw). Prince of Wales 
 Island, I8O7, 8vo. If the reader does not anticipate the merits 
 of this singular work from the foregoing title, his judgment may 
 be assisted by the following short extracts. " It has been ge- 
 nerally asserted, says this author, that the Malays have received 
 their alphabetical characters from the Arabians : I think that I 
 have many strong reasons to shew the contrary ; and am, there- 
 fore, induced to believe, that the Arabians and Persians have 
 borrowed their present characters from the Malays." " It has 
 occurred to me, he adds, from the evident antiquity of the 
 Juh,ivee language, in which are to be found the roots of old 
 Persian and Sanscrit derivatives, &c. that the Malays might, 
 probably, be from the primeval stock of t/avan, one of the sons 
 of t/aj)heth, who was the third son of Noah." His opinion of 
 the work last noticed will appear not to differ materially from 
 my own (for we can all see the mote in our brother's eye) when 
 
 m he
 
 xivi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 he speaks of a word " maiked as a pronoun by Mr. bowrey, 
 and by his copyer, the plagiarist, under the name of howison." 
 It is not, however, in the copying, but the perverting his origi- 
 nal, that the demerit consists, m.^. shaw's claim to originality 
 is certainly undisputed. 
 
 " A comparative Vocabulary of the Barma, Maldyu and Thai 
 languages." (By J. c. leyden, m. d.) Serampore, 1810, 8vo- 
 The object of this work, as the learned author informs us, was 
 to facilitate the compilation of a series of Comparative Vocabu- 
 laries of the languages of the Indo-Chinese nations, and of the 
 tribes which inhabit the eastern islands ; for which purpose it 
 was deemed advisable to print and circulate those of the JBir- 
 man and Malay languages in their proper character, together 
 with the Siamese or T'hdi, of which no types have hitherto been 
 cut, in the Roman. The plan reflects credit on those who formed 
 it, and the execution of that part which fell to the lot of ur. 
 LEYDEN, is a proof of his talents as a philologist, and of his in- 
 defatigable industry. It may at the same time be fairly doubted 
 whether vocabularies of this elaborate nature, where the original 
 text only is given, do not serve rather to display the acquire- 
 ments of the editor, than to attain, in the best manner, the end 
 proposed, of collecting information by means of persons whose 
 pursuits may lead them into those countries. They seem to pre- 
 sume, on the part of the traveller, a perfect acquaintance with 
 the written character, which is not to be expected, or even if 
 he should possess it, a more simple vocabulary, in any familiar 
 tongue, would equally answer his purpose ; whilst on the other 
 hand, if unskilled in the literature of the country he visits, as must 
 generally be the case, the book will present to him no other than 
 
 a dead
 
 INTRODUCTION. xl 
 
 Vll 
 
 a dead and iiselcss letter. Practically speaking also, there is an 
 obvious advantage in furnishing- him with such a vocabulary as 
 will facilitate his operations by enabling him to wpite down the 
 words he acquires on the same page with the original terms : an 
 attention of which I experienced the benefit, in printed vocabu- 
 laries, with blank spaces, circulated, many years since, in all 
 accessible parts of the world, for the same useful purpose. These 
 I accompanied also with a short list containing about fifty of the 
 most obvious words, to be filled up by those who, from want of 
 time or energy, might be deterred from the labour of a more 
 extensive task. With regard to the Malayan part, the terms are 
 in general judiciously chosen, and were, I have reason to be- 
 lieve, communicated to him by Mr. raffles, with whom he 
 resided at Pulo Pinang, during the few months of his visit to 
 the eastward, for the recovery of his health ; a period unremit- 
 tingly employed by him in cultivating the languages spoken there, 
 which, to a less acute scholar, would have sufficed only for ac- 
 quiring the colloquial phrases of the current dialect. The or- 
 thography in the Malayan character (with which that gentleman 
 had no concern) is, on the other hand, much to be censured; 
 although an attempt is made to justify this departure from the 
 best standard of writing, in the following passage : "In the 
 Barna and Malayu series, the most usual native orthograplty 
 has been generally adopted. In several instances, however, in 
 which it appeared to be very likely to lead to mistakes, a less 
 common orthography has been used, which in general is more 
 auricular than the other, but which, with few exceptions, may 
 be found in some manuscripts." But who, it may be asked, 
 even in the most familiar epistle, much less in what is to be 
 
 committed
 
 xlviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 committed to the press and to serve for the instruction of others, 
 would think of defending incorrect speUing, by reference to the 
 authority of some iUiterate or careless scribes ? The professed 
 reason is to render the pronunciation more plain, by the inser- 
 tion of letters not used in the genuine orthography. To what 
 description of persons is this to prove convenient ? To the Eu- 
 ropean proficient and to the learned native it must appear trifling 
 at the least. Those who are altogether unacquainted with the 
 character are of course out of the question ; aud there remain 
 only such as are beginning to study the wiitten language, to 
 whom it can be in any way applicable, aud who are thus to be 
 taught a mode of spelling, which it will afterwards require stil! 
 greater pains to unlearn. It is clearly admitted that the Ma- 
 layan orthography is by no means so fixed as not to warrant 
 some latitude in this respect, but the least experienced juro-tulis 
 would not venture to write bU for ci;lo the eye, Ul; for »U name, 
 UIj for uJb father, U-j^ for ^_5^l« mankind, sj\^ ^1 (a vulgar 
 equivoque) for jL> jil a virgin, i.;;j for ^_^^ froth, ^^^-^jl for ^^\ 
 dew, jLLt for AXo a palace. On the first aud most important 
 word in the vocabulary, likewise, I think it incumbent on me 
 to remark, that the name of God is Improperly rendered by the 
 word ^jj tuhan. It is well known that these people, who for- 
 merly worshipped the ci-^^^o dhvuta deities or demi-gods, were 
 indebted to the Arabs for their belief in One supreme Being, 
 and that ^\ uUah or (more usually with the Malays) ^Ui ^\ 
 allah taiila God the most High, and ^ hua (from the Hebrew) 
 are the genuine Mahometan terms for God or Jehovah. The 
 word ^^ tuhan. It is true, is often figuratively (by metonymy) 
 employed for God, but is precisely equivalent in Its use to our 
 
 expression
 
 INTRODUCTION. xlix 
 
 expression of " The Lord, Dominus," as in the phrase of 
 Jlc^Ji-i ^y tuhan sakali-an alam " The Lord of all worlds," or 
 in the compound ^js^V* mahd-t/lhan " The mighty Lord," and 
 should not have been substituted, in a vocabulary, for the essen- 
 tial name of the Deity. 
 
 Of my own qualifications for this attempt to furnish a Malayan 
 Grammar and Dictionary, less imperfect than what have been, 
 in most instances, produced by those who have gone before me 
 in the same career, I shall speak as briefly as possible. During 
 the period of my residence in Sumatra, at a very early time of 
 life, I devoted somewhat more than the common attention ne- 
 cessary for all stiangers, to the attainment of the language of 
 the country, under the guidance of an elder brother (long since 
 lost to me and to the world *), who had himself made an ex- 
 traordinary proficiency, although not in the habit of committing 
 his acquirements to writing. With this advantage I acquired a 
 competent facility in communicating with the natives, and was 
 master of their epistolary correspondence ; but it was not until 
 my return to England in the latter end of 1779? t^'^t I applied 
 myself to the study of their literature, or laid any regular grounds 
 for the composition of tlie present works. These, amidst a va- 
 riety of pursuits and serious occupations, by which their pro- 
 gress has been too long retarded, have gradually pi'ofited by 
 my advancement of knowledge in the superior parts of the 
 language, and from simple beginnings, have increased in bulk 
 and improved in matter and form, to the state (very far indeed 
 
 n from 
 
 * Mr. JOHN MAUSDE^ died in London on the 13th April 1786, having then 
 nearly completed his fortieth year.
 
 1 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 from a perfect one) in which they are now offered to the notice 
 of the pubhc, and more especially of those persons whose duty 
 calls them to the Eastern limits of the British empire, who are 
 best qualified to appreciate the utility of my labours, and to 
 supply their deficiencies. To such, individually, I shall say, in 
 the apposite address of Horace, 
 
 . Si quid novisti rectius istis, 
 
 Candidus iniperti ; si non, his utere mecum. 
 
 CONTENTS.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 The Malayan Alphabet ---_----.---. 3 
 
 Of Consonants and Vowels -----_--_-__ 14 
 
 Orthographical Marhs ------_-.---_- 20 
 
 Division of Words --------------- 26 
 
 Parts of Speech ------------ ---.27 
 
 Nouns ---_-_------_---.., 29 
 
 Adjectives ---------------.-. 37 
 
 Comparison of Adjectives -----------.. 38 
 
 Numerals ------------.----. 39 
 
 Pronouns --------_-.-.---.- 42 
 
 — — — — o/" Me jFiVj* Person ------------ 43 
 
 o/" fAe Second Person ----------- 46 
 
 — — — o/" the Third Person ------.---. 48 
 
 Demonstrative or Definitive -------.-"--- 50 
 
 Verbs ---_---------.----- 52 
 
 Verbs Substantive ---_----------. 58 
 
 Distinctions and Relations of the Verb ------._- 60 
 
 Inflexions of the Transitive Verb •--_-_---. 70 
 
 i-i Intransitive Verb ---------- 78
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Adverbs or Modals -.-- 87 
 
 of Time - 88 
 
 of Place - - - ih. 
 
 • Miscellaneous -..-----.---.- ih. 
 
 Prepositions or Directives ------------- 91 
 
 Conjunctives ----------------- 95 
 
 Interjections or Exclamatio7is --- 97 
 
 Particles --_-.-.-_--.:. ib. 
 
 ■ — prefixed --------------- 98 
 
 «- — annexed --------------- 99 
 
 Of Syntax - - - - - 101 
 
 Of Dialects 113 
 
 Of Prosody --- US 
 
 . Quantity -------------- ib. 
 
 Versification ------------- 126 
 
 Rhyme _---_ 134 
 
 Praxis ----- ,-.--.- 137 
 
 A GRAMMAR
 
 A 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 3IALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 ^PREVIOUSLY to treating of words, which are the proper subject of 
 Grammar, it is necessaiy to describe the characters or letters, in 
 respect to their form and sound, by which the words are expressed in 
 writing. The Malays have for this purpose adopted the alphabet of the 
 Arabians, whose literature has in all countries accompanied the intro- 
 duction of the Mahometan religion ; but many of its peculiar sounds, 
 and especially the gutturals, being little suited to the soft pronunciation 
 of the East-insular languages, they are never to be found in the ortho- 
 graphy of indigenous Malayan words, and even to those Arabic terms 
 which the Malays have borrowed from their instructors they give a 
 smoothness of utterance that nearly prevents their being recognised by an 
 Arabian ear. On the other hand there existed in these languages several 
 nasal and other sounds, for Avhicli the alphabet, in its original state, had 
 no corresponding letters, and to remedy this defect they were under the 
 necessity of making additions to it ; not indeed by the invention of new 
 
 B forms.
 
 2 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 forms, but by a slight and obvious modification of those characters whose 
 sounds approached the nearest to their own, and belonged to the same 
 oro^ans of speech ; a liberty in which they were justified by the example 
 of the Persians, who had not, however, occasion to carry their alterations 
 to the same extent. 
 
 The course of the Malayan writing, conformably to the known prac- 
 tice of the Hebrews, Syrians, and Arabians, is from the right hand to- 
 wards the left, in opposition to that of most of the people of India, and 
 particularly of the unconverted natives of the interior of Sumatra and 
 Java, whose alphabets, grounded on the principles of the Sanskrit or. 
 Deva-nagri, proceed, like the European, from left to right. 
 
 The letters of the Arabian alphabet, twenty-eight in number, are the 
 following, 
 
 and to these the Malays have added six, viz. ^ cS i_J 'i J ^, which the 
 learner will perceive to be judiciously formed from the cognate letters 
 CS ^ 9 0—5 by the simple expedient of increasing the number of 
 diacritical points. The several names and powers of all these letters, 
 according to the Malayan manner of pronouncing them, will be exhibited 
 in the following scheme, in the arrangement of which it has been judged 
 more practically useful to place each of the modified characters imme- 
 diately after its respective original, than to reserve them, as the Malay 
 scribes are accustomed to do, for the conclusion of the series ; and this 
 order of the letters, (warranted as it is by the example of the Persians, 
 who place their cj next to i_j, their _ next to „, and so of the rest) is 
 almost indispensable to the construction and use of a Dictionary, where 
 the middle as well as the initial letters must follow alphabetically •, for 
 
 it
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 it is obvious that much embarrassment would be experienced by those 
 who consult it, if letters so nearly connected in their use as _ and ^, 
 (_i and i_J, tU'and c^^ and which the Malays, by a negligent marking 
 of the points, are perpetually confounding, were, instead of adjoining 
 to belong to opposite extremities of the alphabet. 
 
 o» 
 
 THE MALAYAN ALPHABET. 
 
 Figure. 
 
 Power. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Forms according to 
 place and junction. 
 
 i 
 \ a, a 
 
 ^1 
 
 «/'/ 
 
 \j ^ U> U l\ 
 
 <_-> 
 
 6 
 
 C 
 
 hh 
 
 t_>^ c-^ y^ b '-rr^ 
 
 ej 
 
 ^ 
 
 b' 
 
 la 
 
 cj, i^ Jx ^ '•^^'^ 
 
 dj 
 
 J 
 
 u 
 
 so, 
 
 OJ iJ^ Jj \j C^ 
 
 Z 
 
 3 
 
 rr 
 
 jlm 
 
 z.il4^^t^ 
 
 .1- 
 
 u 
 
 cha 
 
 (v. fc » ♦• SiL 
 
 ^ h, hh 
 
 C 
 
 ha 
 
 c^^^V^ 
 
 t ^^ 
 
 il 
 
 kh'a 
 
 e r-v^' ^ ■€^ 
 
 li d 
 
 J^ 
 
 dal 
 
 Jj JJb J^ jJ jJo 
 
 j %, dz 
 
 1 
 
 Ji^ 
 
 zal 
 
 Jl ji^ AS J.' j 
 
 od 
 
 - ij 
 
 dh 
 
 ' 
 
 j/ 
 
 t 
 
 ra 
 
 jl pj^r'}}j^j 
 
 V 
 
 Li '^J 
 
 zz, za 
 
 ^j? J^?'J..j 
 
 u- ^ 
 
 r^ cr; 
 
 iin, i'un 
 
 ^J <L.J ^^.^ ^ (^^ = 
 
 * 
 
 sh 
 
 *. A 
 
 sh'm, ih'im 
 
 ^J^^^.^sJ^
 
 A GRAMMAPx OF THE 
 
 Figure. 
 
 Power. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Forms according to 
 place and junction. 
 
 U' 
 
 i, Ji 
 
 c:-;U jU 
 
 5«(/, jrif 
 
 u^j t,-^ t^V u^^ 
 
 J> 
 
 rf/ 
 
 cjU jIj 
 
 dlcid, dial, led 
 
 ^\ f^j.Si>yC i^U 
 
 U 
 
 I 
 
 IL 
 
 ta 
 
 ^ k^ L J!. \M, 
 
 u. 
 
 a 
 
 Hi 
 
 lla, la 
 
 lil 1:J lil Jii > liL- 
 
 t 
 
 «, ^, ), 6, ii 
 
 crr^ 
 
 din 
 
 c^ f tr' Jr*~ 
 
 t 
 
 gh, ghr 
 
 u^ 
 
 ghaln, ghnm 
 
 t~^ tr' t'-f^ tr^ 
 
 t 
 
 ng 
 
 li 
 
 nga 
 
 h e 'tr* ^ t^ 
 
 (-J 
 
 f 
 
 U 
 
 f-a 
 
 i_Jl u_al i__aJ ^ J i_iii 
 
 
 P 
 
 u 
 
 pa 
 
 A Al . /A A AAA 
 
 J 
 
 k, Id 
 
 uJ'i 
 
 kaf 
 
 Jf_, ^^ jJ l::^ ^;Jii 
 
 cJ 
 
 k 
 
 ^1^ 
 
 kaf 
 
 C^i_^^H£=^l^il.CG 
 
 cj- 
 
 g hard 
 
 if 
 
 g« 
 
 <);<: ^^j^ i^^ cJ:i^ 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 r^ 
 
 lam 
 
 J^ ^ s ^ ui r' uW 
 
 r 
 
 m 
 
 r: 
 
 mm 
 
 l»j j^^ ^J. ^« U ^ 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 
 nun 
 
 UJ ^^ c/ t'->^ cT^ 
 
 • 
 
 11, 0, %t^ 
 
 yj 
 
 wall 
 
 *j_jj j^y j!j 
 
 c< a 
 
 h soft 
 
 la 
 
 ha 
 
 oj ^ >1 ii^j A^ |»ji iU a;^ 
 
 c/ 
 
 ', ^> i' 
 
 c 
 
 la, ya 
 
 ^/J J J ^' J:*. V. ^r:'. 
 
 a 
 
 /U'rt 
 
 
 nid 
 
 e' ^. Ji "^^ d?;; 
 
 To
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 5 
 
 To ihe foregoing, the Malays, in imitation of the Arabians, are ac- 
 customed superfluously to add the compound character t^i Ihrn-aliJ- 
 
 hamzah. 
 
 ■ Beside the varieties of form nnd comKi^-croii a65f^ exhibited, there 
 ire manv *.Liicr« '^ [^•■c.v.tice, which those who are acquainted -with the 
 regular alpliabet will easily learn by the inspection of Malayan writings. 
 Some of them are produced merely from the haste, and others from the 
 capricious licence of the pen ; such as the use of an unindented slanting 
 stroke for the ^, of a curved stroke or small semi-circle over and under 
 the letters instead of two points, or the sliglit inversion of the extremity 
 of the J, in place of the final ^ or a, •which latter is likewise, in several 
 shapes, mude to connect with the j i, the^ j, and thcj, but irregularly, 
 tlie general rule being, tliat all the letters of the alphabet are in them- 
 selves susceptible of connexion with those which precede them in the 
 same word, but that seven of them, viz. j\j j j 1, are incapable of 
 forming a junction with any following letter. It remains now to ex- 
 plain and exemplify more fully the powers of the several letters of the 
 alphabet. 
 
 I a when it occurs at the end of a syllable, or in the body of a word, 
 is always long, and has then, as in ^b bapa father, cijU mati dead, l:J^ 
 kata to speak, the open sound of ci in the Italian and most other lan- 
 guages of the continent of Europe, but not generally quite so broad, 
 and coiTesponding perhaps more nearly with its sound in our woids 
 " brand, pant, harm, malice." Before ng however, it assumes one 
 somewhat broader, and in ^Ij bdiigun arise, 1[; langan the hand, jiU 
 wia7/^?7 dismay, is equivalent to that in our "want, warm, b.ill." At 
 the commencement of words it is short, unless when marked with the 
 
 C orthographical
 
 6 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 oithograj)hical character i meddah, denoting extension, by which the 
 length of the vowel-sound is doubled. In its short state (or that of 
 humaah, as it is termed) it assumes generall)', but with much qualifica- 
 tion, the sound of a l^^l.-^- ^..asion.Uy k^coraes .") in our words "at, 
 " act, and, after ;" in which case it is markea, o. — HprsujuJ to be 
 marked with the vowel fat-hah (') ; and in like manner, when marked 
 with kesrah ij], or dammali ('), it assumes the sound of "i in " imp, 
 •' inch, ill," or of « and o in " up, utter, only, obey," but not in " off, 
 *' dn, order," which an Arabian would represent by fat-liah. But all 
 these apparent intricacies of pronunciation owe their difficulty to the 
 rules by which grammarians attempt to define them, and vanish with 
 practice in the language. The whole system, indeed, of orthographic 
 notation, the refinement of Avhich is the subject of boast with the Ara- 
 bians, seems to be defective in simplicity, consistency, and even ingenious 
 contrivance. It maybe proper to observe here, that although in describ- 
 ing short vowels with our characters, as distinguished from long ones, the 
 prosodial nfiark is added to the a e lo and u, it has not been thought 
 necessary throughout the Grammar and Dictionary to apply a discri- 
 minating mark to any other than the long vowels, its absence being 
 sufficient to denote such as are intended to be short. 
 
 (_> ^, in the Avords ^ bibir lip, <_;\j blihi hog, »_J^J laba gain, has the 
 ordinar)' sound of that letter in the words " bib, ml), babble." 
 
 cij <, in jjy tolong assist, ttuj' t'Uali command, u:^lj' takut afraid, is 
 sounded as in " tent, tart, tatter." 
 
 c^s. The proper sound of this letter in the Arabic alphabet is nearly 
 that of the English th in the words " this, tiien," or the Greek thela^ 
 but by the Malays as well as the Persians it is pronounced as s, in the 
 
 Arabic
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 7 
 
 Arabic words ^ seneian Monday, t^^ salusa Tuesday, and a few 
 others which they have adopted: nor will this change be thought extra- 
 ordinary by those who have noticed the pronunciation by foreigners of 
 our word " Bath." 
 
 j, in the words oU jadi become, ^j raja king, ^js^ janj'i promise, 
 and wherever it occurs, is to be sounded precisely and uniformly as in 
 " jury, judge, joy, major ;" the English being perhaps the only Euro- 
 pean language that can represent' it by a single equivalent character. It 
 must be remarked, however, that we employ the g before certain vowels, 
 and also dg, to express the same sound, as in the words " gentiy, giant, 
 " badse." Care must be taken to avoid a common eiror of confound- 
 ing the English j with that of the Germans and Dutch, which answers 
 to our y, whilst for the the former have recourse to a most uncouth 
 combination of the letters dsch, and thus in a modern publication upon 
 Arabian coins, we may observe the laborious orthography oiHadschadsch 
 for -\^ Hajaj, a proper name, 
 
 _ (/;, as in " chance, church, torch," being the tsch of the Germans, 
 and the c before i and e of the Italians, does not belong to the Arabic 
 alphabet, but is a modification of their ^, by the Persians as well as the 
 Malays. The sound is one perfectly familiar to the oigans of these 
 people, as in ^j^>- churl to steal, _1^ kucha glass, tiXs?" chichak a lizard, 
 eia— I— chachat to puncture. 
 
 V V * 
 
 /i hard or hit, expresses an aspirate proceeding immediately from 
 the lungs, and consequently stronger than can be denoted by any roman 
 letter. It occurs only in such words as the Malays have borrowed from 
 the Arabic, as ^l-- hafi a pilgrim to Mecca, JW hal state, J^ haram 
 forbidden, ^ hak right ; but they do not affect to give it the forcible 
 
 utterance
 
 8 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 utterance of the Arabians or Persians, and it is consequently here ex- 
 pressed simply by the letter h, as in our ^'ords " hope, heart, heavy." 
 
 ^ kh is a hard guttural, like the ch of the Germans, and of which 
 likewise no direct example can be given In the pronunciation of English 
 words, although common in our Celtic dialects. The chaiacter is found 
 only in words borrowed from the Arabic, as^,^ kliabar news, L-^Jai 
 khafib preacher, ^J-.f^ khavfis Thursday. 
 
 d has the common sound of that letter in uur words " did, dead, 
 " added," and in all other European languages; as ob dada breast, t^jjJ 
 dur'i thoni, jj<o muda young. 
 
 J Z hard, or dz, as in " adze," is found only in Arabic words, as tulj 
 zat essence, ^j zakar memory. 
 
 id IS, always found in the alphabets \vritten by the Malays for element- 
 ary instruction, but rarely, if ever, occurs in their books ; and appearing 
 superfluous to the Dutch grammarians who have published Malayan 
 alphabets, it has been by them omitted. 
 
 J r has the same sound as in " run, bar, parent," in all Malayan 
 words, as i_J,j riipa appearance, ^Ji lar'i to run, ^b darah blood. 
 
 J z soft, as in " zeal, blaze, crazy," is found only in Arabic and Persian 
 words, as ^j zemFai time, .yj zabur psalms, 'ijj^j zanirud an emerald. 
 Instead of modifying the o, as the Malays (though uselessly) have done, 
 the Persians have added points to the j, and formed theirj, which has 
 the soft sound of the French 7. 
 
 ^ J, in the words <ijL ia/a/t wrong, jl-:U nuisak ripe, ,_^1 alas above, is 
 sounded as in " son, sister, oast," not as in " was, has, lose,' Avhere the s 
 partakes of z. The Arabic names of this and the following letter ^^^ sin 
 and ^-.i, sh'm, are I)y the Malays of the southern part of Sumatra pro- 
 nounced shn and shim. ^J:. sk
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. g 
 
 ji sh, as in " shine, bush, fashion," is the ch of the French, sch of 
 the Germans, and * of the Portuguese, and is so pronounced in »li, sliak 
 king, ij..^ shems sun, and some others borrowed from the Arabic, Per- 
 sian, and Sanskrit ; but more frequently it is softened to a simple 5, as 
 in iJ^aJOt setan satan, ijl^ sahadat testimony, ^jjj:, saksi a witness, ^^Jji, 
 iiksa punishment. 
 
 ^Ja s or ss, occurs only in Arabic words, as j^ sabar patient, ^ sah 
 proved, ^-i,^ sarfu grammar, and has then a sound somewhat harder than 
 our ss in " pass, tassel, kissing." 
 
 ^ dl also occurs only in words borrowed from the Arabic, and the 
 grammars of that language are not imiform with respect to its true 
 pronunciation, some expressing it by d, others by dz, whilst the Persians 
 give it the sound of a pure z. By the Malays, in most places, it is 
 pronounced as dl in the words li, ridla will, inclination, . .>->--; dlaif 
 weak, -JU- hadlir (by the Persians ha%ir) present, ready. In some parts, 
 however, the Malays give it a sound approaching nearer to the d than to 
 the dl in our words " faddle, meddle." 
 
 L t, both in the Malayan and the Arabic pronunciation, difiers little, 
 if at all, from that of the t:y, or our common ;, as in the words ^^ tufan 
 a storm, i_^. n ^U tahlb a physician, j^lt talak divorce. It is not used iri 
 any words properly Malayan, although not confined to such as are purely 
 Arabic ; for it may be observed, that when the Arabians adopt Greek 
 or other foreign terms, they represent the sound of t by this letter in 
 preference to the cj, as in ^^Jjaj kartas paper, jy^ or jy^ tambur a 
 drum, ^J^^\JO firnhdus Tripoli, ^jlL fidk talc. 
 
 Si tl occurs only in Arabic words, as^Ui manifest, which the Malays 
 pronounce tlahir, as in our words " battle, settle," the Arabians dahir 
 
 D (according
 
 lo A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 (according to the grammarians) and the Persians %ahir. In some parts 
 the Malayan sound approaches nearly to the /. 
 
 t ain. This vague letter, which has been the subject of much dis- 
 cussion amongst Hebrew scholars, is pronounced by the Arabians with 
 a peculiar hollow utterance from the interiour of the throat or fauces ; 
 but in this they are not imitated by the Malays, who pronounce the 
 words Jjic cikal cunning, i'jU Mat custom, «^Lc ibarat explanation, j^ 
 \shk love, Uj doa prayer, j^ umur life, without any effort, and as if 
 they were written with hnmzah and the ordinary vowels. Indeed, it 
 may be said that the guttural part only of the sound is represented by 
 the c, the vocal part being determined by the marks respectively applied 
 to it: as will be more clearly understood when the nature of these sup- 
 plementary vowels has been explained. It is here only necessary 
 further to observe, that not having any appropriate European character 
 for designating this mutable letter, it has been judged convenient to mark 
 the several voAvels which stand for it with a grave accent. 
 
 c gJi, g/n; is a rough guttural pronounced as in the Irish word 
 " lough" a lake, or with the Northumbrian articulation, and is peculiar 
 to Arabic and Persian words, as k_^;l* gJiaib hidden, c-JU ghulib vic- 
 torious, t--j.y^ ghefib foreign. 
 
 c ng, sounded when medial or final as in " kingly, longing, bringing," 
 is a stronger nasal than the final n of the French language, and prevails 
 much in original Malayan words, as cj^\ agung principal, ijLj birigong 
 half-witted, ^y iolong to assist, ^\ ayigin wind, cU nganga to gape, 
 ^j£ ngarun displeasure. At the beginning of a word the pronunciation 
 can only be acquired by use, although in fact the same as the medial. 
 Where it occurs in a situation that might give rise to doubt as to the 
 
 division
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. ix 
 
 division of the syllable, the two letters 7fg are marked with a connecting 
 circumflex, which is omitted (to avoid distinguishing signs not absolutely 
 necessary) where no such uncertainty can happen. It will not escape 
 the notice of the philologist, that this is one of the sounds, attributed to 
 the V ain of the Hebrews, of which the c^or *, through the medium of 
 the Arabic, is a modification. 
 
 t_J f, as in " fife, fifty, skiff," belongs only to words adopted from the 
 Arabic, as^^/F^7> to think, ^j^ fihak side, ij:ii fitnah slander; but 
 the Malays, who are not accustomed to pronounce they (any more than 
 the Arabians the p) commonly change it to p, and pronounce these 
 words plkir, pihak, pit7iah. The grounds of the convertibility of these 
 two letters, not articulated by the same organs, is by no means obvious ; 
 but it may be remarked, that the inhabitants of a small island {Pula 
 Ntas) near the coast of Sumatra, pronounce all Malayan words in which 
 the sound of p occurs asy, saying JqfU?i iov papan a board, fukul for 
 pukul to strike, fuluh for puluh ten. 
 
 (_J j!) is pronounced as in " pen, papal, step," in the Malayan words 
 ui^jS pilput to blow, j_jtJ pJpi the cheek, 4_^' tan^kap to catch. In 
 epistolary and other common writing, it is by no means unusual to mark 
 this letter with only one instead of three points, thereby confounding it 
 ■with the preceding. 
 
 J k, as an Arabic letter, has a harder sound than that of cc or ck in the 
 words " accost, kick, dock, mocker," and may be better exemplified by the 
 kk in Habakkuk. When found at the beginning or in the middle, it shews 
 the word to be (with few exceptions) of Arabic origin, as Jj-* kabul 
 acceptable, jSi kadar value, jm fakir a religious mendicant ; but the 
 Malays ereploy it likewise for expressing a hard sound at the end of 
 
 their
 
 la A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 their own words, as j-,U viaiah ripe, j]lj balik to turn, ^^ kaldk pre- 
 sently ; which however is generally omitted in discourse, seems to form 
 no integral part of the word, and may be considered as an excrescence. 
 
 CS k is pronounced as in " king, make, token," in the words J' kiji 
 base, JU^ kapala head, Jl^ kc'tla time, ^'^ pakei to wear, cJy muka face. 
 CS g hard, as in " gag, get, gig, agog, gut," a letter unknown to the 
 Arabic, but common in the Persian as well as the Malayan language, 
 and a modification of the preceding cS, is uniformly so pronounced, as 
 in jS'lS pagar paling, jj;' gJla fool, jjj^ gilnong mountain, J'l agama 
 religion. The soft g in our words " gentle, region, age," is represented 
 by the letter . 
 
 J / has the sound we give to the letter in " lily, lolling, camel," in 
 the words <i]jl Ifiluli mud, JJ Itliii wax, J^ Idlu to pass, (^1:uj bantal 
 pillow. 
 
 A m is pronounced as in " mama, man, am, maim," in the words 
 j^U vidlu ashamed, uJj^ miilut mouth, >i-,< mmiim to drink. 
 
 ^ n, as in " nun, nonage, nation," in the words c:,^ nanti to wait, 
 Ky^ bunoh to kill, ^^U mdnu where, ^y tfilan companion. 
 
 ^ u, 0, w, has in the Malayan words j^^ susu milk, uJj^ kfilit skin, 
 (J-^^ gosok to rub, ijjj tdlo7lg to help, the sound of the Italian u and o 
 in " duo, punto," of the German in " gut, bruder, todt," of the Dutch 
 oe in " hoek, toen, stoel," and of the English oo in " loom, tool," or 
 of in " dont, moping, notice." When instead of the j the short 
 vowel danunah is apphed to thei consonant, as in ^^jj budt understanding, 
 u^xji idup alive, it is intended to express a vowel sound no more than 
 half the length of the former. As a consonant thcj is represented by 
 tf, and sounded as in " want, wool, dower," in the words y;j warna 
 
 colour,
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGfi. 13 
 
 colour, ^^j xvanjt fragrant, ^^ kaivan companion, j^ mawur the rose. 
 This letter does not often occur at the beginning of Malayan words as a 
 vowel sound, the ?7, in that situation, being expressed by ,1 or yj,, as in 
 t^jl ilbat physic, ^jJ^ unus unsheathed. 
 
 IS h being a softer aspirate than in our words " humble, host, heavy," 
 as in uJjlfc harap to trust, ^ hdnia except, JjsU rnahal dear, ^^ buUk' 
 can, and for the most part as imperceptible as in " honour, hour, 
 " honest," such words as ^JJ^ (ibis expended, jlys ulu the interiour 
 country, iJ^ ilang lost, are accordingly written Avithout the h. As 
 an evidence of the propriety of this, so far as the ear is concerned, it 
 may be observed that all travellers have agreed in spelling the word 
 iitmi (in the familiar name of di-ang~utan) without an aspirate, although 
 written ^y, hutan. When the final i' is marked with two points, it is 
 by the Arabs pronounced as /, and with them generally denotes a gram-' 
 matical distinction ; but the Malays frequently fall into the impropriety 
 of substituting this at the end of their radical words, for the proper cls t. 
 
 ^ I, y, has in the words 'j_Lj btlaJig tell, j_j tm^g a mast, ^J^^^ mimpi 
 to dream, the sound of the Italian i, in " si, dolci," the German in " mir, 
 " wir," and the English ec in " bee, seem, agree." For the short i, as 
 in ^ binchi to hate, u:,cv« miiita to ask for, the vowel kesrah is either 
 supplied or understood. As a consonant the ^ is best represented by 
 y, sounded as in " young, yes, bowyer," in the words jjl^ kayu wood, 
 %J[> bayang a shade, cij^U yakut a precious stone. Few Malayan 
 words, however, begin with this letter, the long vowel sound, in that 
 situation, being expressed by i_s\ or ji, as in JJ\ 'tpar son-in-law, cju» 
 tdo7ig the nose. At the end of words, when preceded hy fat-hah, it 
 takes the diphthongal sound in our words " eye, buy, my, high," which' 
 
 E it
 
 14 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 it has been judged most analogous and consistent to express by ei, as in 
 jl) balei a town-hall, ^i[} bagei sort. Where the ^ is preceded by 1, 
 and the sound is consequently more protracted, it is expressed by a/, as 
 in j)l 15.171 other, ^U main to play. 
 
 ^ 7iia, a soft nasal, as in our words " maniac, lenient, union," which 
 the Malayan has in common with the Sanskrit alphabet, but is unknown 
 to the Arabic, occurs in the words Jli nidla blaze, jSi 7uadar soundly 
 sleeping, (.::^U myut adrift, ^jIj buTiy'n- a squall, ^U hania except, and 
 most frequently in the common forms of the possessive, as j*,l>c 77iata'Via 
 his eye, ^^j rupa-Jiia its appearance. It is to be observed, that although 
 in the names of this and other consonants, the vowel a is annexed to give 
 them utterance, they are all equally susceptible of other vocal sounds, 
 and where the ^^j jiia takes i or e, it is more convenient to employ y in 
 the nasal part, and to write banyir rather than ba7iw\ 
 
 A la, or the letters J and \, with the orthographical mark s. hat7izah, 
 have already been sufficiently noticed, no reason appearing for assigning 
 to them conjointly a place in the alphabet. 
 
 From the foregoing examination of the letters it appears, that of the 
 thirty-four which compose the alphabet, thirteen are peculiarly and al- 
 most exclusively Arabic, six may be considered as peculiarly Malayan, 
 and fifteen are common to both languages ; and, consequently, that the 
 proper Malayan words are all expressed by twenty, or, if we reject the J 
 (which never occurs), by nineteen cliaracters. 
 
 Of Consonants afid Vojfels. 
 
 The common division of this and other alphabets into lingual, dental, 
 litbial, and guttural letters, seems to be more ingenious than uselVil, and 
 
 that
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 15 
 
 that into radicals and serviles, though essential to Arabic and Hebrew 
 etymology, has no relation to the structure or derivation of words in this 
 language. It will, however, be necessary to explain with some minute- 
 ness what relates to the distinction of consonants and vowels, and the 
 nature of those orthographical marks which affect their pronunciation. 
 
 The Arabians name the letters of the alphabet <-J^ huriif, and 
 consider them all as consonants, defining them to be susceptible of motion 
 or utterance (mobiles) by means of the vowels, but not of themselves 
 possessing that power, nor capable of forming syllables. These letters 
 or consonants (for there is no separate term) they distinguish into strong 
 and weak, comprehending in the former class all excepting \ a, j z7, and 
 ^ F, which three form the latter class or AYcak letters, and are no other 
 than those which we consider exclusively as vowels ; the two latter 
 assuming occasionally, with them as with us, the functions of consonants. 
 From this arrangement proceeds (as will hereafter appear) much of the 
 perplexity of Arabian orthography. 
 
 By vowels they understand certain supplementary characters placed 
 above and beneath the letters, serving to note the particular vocal sound 
 with which they are to be uttered. These are often by us termed vowel- 
 points, but injudiciously, as it is of importance to distinguish them from 
 those actual points which permanently accompany and constitute an 
 integral part of many of the characters, being equally necessary to their 
 complete formation with the point over our letter i, or the stroke across 
 our t. It must at the same time be observed, that neither the supple- 
 mentary vowels, nor the diacritical points, nor certain other orthogra- 
 phical marks (to be described in the sequel) were known to the ancient 
 Arabic or Cufic style of writing, but have been subsequently introduced 
 
 to
 
 i6 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 to supply the manifest defects of the original rude system: yet it may be 
 fairly doubted, whether the invention is not a very imperfect expedient, 
 inferior to the Sanskrit and Ethiopia syfiteras, where the effect of the 
 vowel is expressed by a modification of the consonant, and certainly tO' 
 the Greek and Roman, where the vowels assume their mdependant place 
 in the series of letters. 
 
 These vowels, by the Arabians named cj\^ harakdt in the plural, 
 from i^A harakat signifying motion, as giving motion or utterance to 
 the consonants, are by the Malays named (^l) bdris, which implies lines 
 or strokes parallel to each other, or military array, and also cyls:u> sinjdta 
 or weapons, from their resemblance, as may be presumed, to lances borne 
 in rank and file. They are by no means in common use with them, 
 but chiefly employed in quotations from the kordit and the writings of 
 its commentators, and also in expressing names of places, persons, or 
 things not familiar, as well as to mark the distinction between ordinary 
 words composed of the same letters but differently pronounced, which; 
 might otherwise be confounded with each other. They are three in 
 number, and have the Arabic names of iss^s fat-hah, HjJ^ kesrah, and 
 i^ dammah^ which the Malays pronounce dlammah. 
 
 i^fat-liah (') named also ^JiV^ ^^Jj bdris dc^u las or the stroke above, 
 has the sound of a generally and sometimes of e short, in our words "bad, 
 " banish, bet, bevy," and being placed over any of the strong letters, or con- 
 sonants as we should term them, enables them to take that vocal sound, 
 which in themselves they are not understood to possess, as in the words 
 J-j bahal ignorant, c:_a^- tampat place, ^^ besi iron, *aj j dendain desire. 
 The effect of its application to any of three weak letters (our vowels) will 
 be noticed when we come to speak of them more particularly.
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 17 
 
 Xj^ kesrah (,) named also jjljj j_^jlj baris de-bawah or the stroke 
 beneath, has a sound not difi'ering mucli from that of our short i in " bit, 
 " bidden, trip," (especially as pronounced in North Britain) but more 
 nearly resembling the short i of the Italians, as in the Malayan words Jilj 
 bintil a blister, cjjj dinding a wall, 'iGii' dnggi high. 
 
 <Utf daynrnah or dlammah {') named also ^^IjJbJ ^^Jj hurls de-adap-an 
 the stroke before or in front, has nearly the sound of u as pronounced 
 in " pudding, cushion, puss," (the u in " bud, turn, upper," being a 
 different articulation), of 00 in " wood, stood, foot," (which is shorter 
 than in " brood, cool, fool,") and of in " bolster, police, foment," 
 differing from that in " blot, hot, forgot," which would be more aptly 
 represented by a///' and fat-hah. The figure of dammah is that of a 
 small J, and its position above the consonant, but somewhat to the left, 
 or forward, as its Malayan name imports. Examples of its application 
 appear in tji-c^iJ tiintut to demand, j^ bunting pregnant, l:;;.^ tompat 
 to choke up, j^^ bonlar or buntar (the distinction of sound between 
 and u being often imperceptible) round, juj bonda or bunda mother; 
 and in the word ^r^?" chechintong a lock of hair, the three vowels have 
 their respective consonants. 
 
 Being applied to the several letters of the alphabet, they form syllables 
 that are considered as either pure or mixed. A pure syllable consists 
 of a consonant accompanied or followed (but never preceded in the same 
 syllable) by a vowel, or by what is termed a quiescent letter, or by both, 
 as cha, cj ii, ^^ nu, U ma, ^ ban. A mixed syllable consists of two 
 consonants, of which the latter is mute, with an intermediate vowel, or 
 with a vowel and a quiescent letter also intermediate, as j ban, %J peng, 
 ^ bin, cjj wat, ^Jj hm, ^^ji baun. Some mixed syllables are found to 
 
 F close
 
 i8 A GRAMiMAR OF THE 
 
 close with a liquid and a mute, as Lji sart or shart a condition, but this 
 occurs only in Arabic words. 
 
 From the foregoing it will appear that the manner of applying the 
 vowels to what are termed the strong letters (our consonants) is sufficiently 
 simple, but it is otherwise with regard to the three weak letters \ a, j u, 
 and ^ F, owing to their ambiguous properties, being sometimes moveable 
 and sometimes quiescent. By moveable Is understood that, like other 
 consonants, they are capable of being put in motion by the application 
 of vowels, and thereby forming syllables, as j wa, ^j ya. By quiescent 
 is meant the state in which they cease to be consonants in fact, are in- 
 capable of the application of the supplementary vowels (though they 
 may be affected by those belonging to the preceding consonant), and 
 perform the function of long vowels, in our acceptation of the terms, as 
 U ma, tj_ bit ij^ tci-n, jj rail. In this quiescent state it must be obvious, 
 in spite of definitions, that they differ in nothing essential but length of 
 pronunciation, from the three vowels denominated (for the sake of dis- 
 tinction only) supplementary ; fat-Jiali being the representative of \ a, 
 kesrah of j_y 7, and dammah of j il, which, with some change of shape 
 and size, are placed above and below the other characters, instead of 
 assorting with them, as in the orthographical system of most other 
 classes of language. 
 
 When the supplementary or short vowels applied to the weak letters 
 in their moveable state, or to the strong letters immediately preceding- 
 them in their quiescent state, are respectively, fat-hah to 1, kesrah to ^, 
 and (lajuniah to j, they are said to be homogeneous ; and, on the con- 
 trary, when they are dissimilarly or interchangeably employed, they are 
 said to be heterogeneous. Fat-halt being applied to 1 moveable (in 
 
 that
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. ig 
 
 that case denominated liamzah)., produces no sensible change in the 
 sound of that letter, which, however it may be classed by grammarians, 
 can never perform the office of a consonant in our acceptation of the 
 term, and it continues to be pronounced like a, as in sA abaci an age, J^l 
 ajal fate. When, on the other hand, kesrah or dammah is applied to 
 
 4 
 
 1, the proper sound of the letter is extinguished, and it takes that of the 
 
 * . '- _ . ' t 
 
 supplementary vowel so applied, as ^ji^\ istrt wife, A ibn son, ^\ 
 
 - ^i . " * * ' 
 
 utama excellent, *Ij1 iipatna like. When any of the three are applied 
 
 to J or i_s, which must in that case be moveable (or consonants), regular 
 syllables are formed in the manner of other letters, as in u:^j waktu 
 time, JUjj xvisal meeting, attainment, Ij yogia it behoveth. In some 
 instances of the application of fat-kaJi, particularly to the ^ final, the 
 proper sound of the letter gives place to that of the superscribed vowel, 
 as in ^\ju taala most high. 
 
 When one of the three weak letters in its quiescent state Is preceded, 
 in the same syllable, by a homogeneous supplementary vowel (belonging 
 to the adjoining consonant) they coalesce, and the effect produced is that 
 of lengthening the sound common to both, a^ y tfi, ^^ si, L« ma : but 
 when the quiescent letter is preceded by a heterogeneous vowel, the 
 mixture of their sounds produces a diphthong, as ^ hail, ^ pei. In 
 Malayan words however the long vowel sounds occurring much more 
 frequently than they do in Arabic, the diphthongs are more usually 
 formed by the association of two of the quiescent letters, than by one of 
 them with a supplementary vowel, as in^b bau smell, j:jU Jiaik ascend,' 
 ^U main to play, ^|^ serai a palace. It must at the same time be 
 observed that at the beginning of words, the long vowels ^1 and ^\, in- 
 stead of forming diphthongs, produce the simple long sounds of o, ii, 
 
 and
 
 20 
 
 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 and F, as in the words c^^! orang man, a^^ usah mindful, (_1-j1 tsap to 
 suck ; and also that ^ preceded hyfat-hah, instead of the diphthong ei, 
 sometimes takes the sound of the lona; e of the Italian and other Ian- 
 guages of the continent, as in ^^ yncrali red, j^ bcr suffer, jj tcr the 
 castle at chess, t^ balh-ang sulphur. 
 
 Where the vowel character appears doubled over or under the last 
 letter of a word, the Arabian grammarians mean to denote that it is to be 
 pronounced as if the syllable were terminated by the letter ^ nim, from 
 whence this form has obtained the name of j^ or nunnation, as cu tan, 
 ,^ sin, - jon ; but no instances of this occur in any pure Malayan 
 word. 
 
 Of Orthograpbical Marks. 
 
 The orthographical marks which now remain to be explained are those 
 called ^j=~jesm, >y\:sU teshdid, jj^a hamxah, Ly xvesla, ix< jyieddah, and 
 CS^\ angka. 
 
 ^y>-jesm or ^^ ja%am (as pronounced by the Malays) signifies ampu- 
 tation, and is also trrnipH uuL. ^^ .\j haris ttidti or the dead mark. Its 
 form is ('' or "), and being placed over any letter of a word, it denotes 
 that such letter is mute, dead, or deprived of the vov/el sound that 
 might otherwise be supposed to give it motion or utterance, and only 
 serves to close the syllable produced by the antecedent letter and its 
 supplementary vowel, forming what has been already described as a 
 mixed syllable, as oj bad, Ji tin, ^^J^^ sampei arrive, jjoJ tatidok horn, 
 «jii> b'mling a rampart. It may be applied to all letters capable other- 
 wise of receiving a vowel (of which this is the negation) but is never by 
 the Malays applied to the three weak letters, nor is the occasion for it in 
 
 their
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. si 
 
 their language so frequent as in Arabic, the genius of the former being 
 unfriendly to the recurrence of consonants without the intervention of a 
 vowel sound. 
 
 jjjJuU tcshdld (named also jLi shaddu) signifies corroboration, and being 
 placed over a letter in the form of (-), has the effect of doubling it; in 
 which case the former of the two sounds coalesces with the precedino- 
 syllable, and the latter, with its proper vowel, forms the subsequent one, 
 as in the words i.::^ tanwiat finished, i,;:.^^^ jennat paradise, j_f^ clicrrei 
 to separate. It may be applied to any of the strong letters excepting . 
 ch, 1 ng, and ^ nia, which letters, not being themselves of a simple 
 nature, could not be doubled without a harshness of sound ; and also to 
 the two weak letters j and ^, although not to i. When placed over 
 the J or ^^, the former half of the letter thereby doubled remains quiescent, 
 and the latter half becomes moveable, as in c^ biiwang or buang to throw 
 out, 'j_o' tiyang or fiang a pillar, c:.y muwat or muat to load, ^^ tiiwd 
 to reap : but double letters being in general so little necessary for ex- 
 pressing the liquid or fluid sound of the words, it would be uselessly 
 employing the learner's attention to enter further into the rules by which 
 the tcshdld might be applied ; for we should bear in mind that these 
 refined orthographical distinctions were invented for a class of languages 
 with which the Malayan has no radical connexion, nor scarcely any pro- 
 perty in common : yet are they elaborately taught by tl>e natives to every 
 youth who commences the study of his own with some tincture of the 
 Arabic language ; and a copious syllabarium, where all the sijijdla are 
 exhibited, is prepared for his exercise. Examples of this may be seen in 
 the Alphabetum Arabicum, printed at Rome in 1592 (with beautiful types), 
 and in Gladwin's Persian Moonshee, printed at Calcutta in i-jgS' 
 
 G Hcanxah
 
 •jst .A^ GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 -4- 
 
 . Hamzah ('), the most used by the Malays of all the orthographical 
 marks, is either an appendage of the moveable \, usually accompanying 
 its supplementary vowel, and consequently placed either above or below 
 that letter, or else it is the representative of or substitute for it, and in 
 its absencels placed in front of the preceding letter. So intimate indeed 
 is the connexion, in the opinion of grammarians, between the moveable 
 \ and this mark, that the former, being present, is made to assume the 
 name of hamzah, leses its proper efficiency, and, like a mere aspirate, 
 adapts its sound to that of the vowel with which the mark is accompanied, 
 as iJ\ ab, L_j\ ib, L»l ub or ob. This adaption, it is true, might take 
 place although the hamzah were omitted, and its use, when so applied, 
 seems to be no other than that of denoting the quality of this letter. In 
 this language, however, where the vowels are sparingly employed, the 
 chief use of the hamzah is to express (like our comma or apostrophe) the 
 elision of the \ moveable at the commencement of a syllable following 
 one of the three weak letters, 1, j, or ^ quiescent ; and also, but not 
 uniformly, following a consonant rendered mute by jesm ; which two 
 circumstances occ\ir most commonly in derivative words formed by an- 
 nexing particles (to be hereafter explained), as ^'^J.^ ka-semporm-an 
 perfection, ^J^}^ pe-karja-an performance, ^Jy:c^ ka-tantu-an certainty, 
 ^^ ka-nantt-an expectation, ^\iJ^ peng-adup-an presence, ^^^ pcw^- 
 tbia- comforter, CJ^j-J^ meng-nsik to tease. It also supplies the elision 
 of \ before . or j^ at the commencement of a word to which the particle 
 i-i sa (a contraction of cjL salu one) is prefixed, as fj^—. s'orang a man, 
 for «^ i«C sa-orang ; as well as in the instances of j^yS^ makTijar for 
 >-.! iJiU inaka vjar and he said, and u:,,,^^!)^ marlk'ttu for (.^-ol lSjj^ 
 77iar~ika tlu those people ; and, generally, wherever such elisions occur. 
 
 , ; Sometimes
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE^ 23 
 
 Sometimes the hainzah instead of being a substitute for \, represents 
 the t or j», which soft aspirate has nearly a similar sound, as^^^^^Jl* meng- 
 amhur to scatter, from j^ amhur or hambur \ ^^.X* meng-iinus to 
 unsheath. from ^JJ>^ unus or Inmus ; and thus also when the primitive 
 begins with U Jui, the \ being then quiescent or vowel, preserves its place 
 in the derivative, and the a only is represented by liamzah, as in ^^UU 
 ineng-dbis to consume, from ^^\a,aOis or hubis; jSLil* ineng-alau to drive 
 out, from jlU ^7/rtw or hdlau. It will not escape remark that hamzahy 
 according to the foregoing account of it, partakes much of the nature of 
 the Greek (') or splntus lenis, and that in respect to forra it is the 
 Arabic, s. aui diminished in size. 
 
 Jrfj loesl (""), by the Malays written and pronounced ,Lsj wcs[ah, sig- 
 nifies " union," and is applied only to the initial 1, which then becomes 
 entirely mute, and a junction takes place between the sound of the last 
 vowel of the preceding word and the next tbllowing consonant, whereby 
 the two words are made to coaleace. Its use is confined to Arabic 
 phrases, and chiefly, if not entirely (excepting in quotations), to the 1 of the 
 definitive particle Jl al, which under certain circumstances is modified in 
 pronunciation, as ^\ c_>\::^ kitdbi 'Inabi the book of the prophet, <(1J1 *«j 
 hismi 'lla/d in the name of God. For the rules by which the applica- 
 tion of this mark is governed, and particularly for those affecting the 
 letter J also, of the particle, according to which it is extinguished and 
 its place supplied by doubling what i% termed the solar letter which 
 follows it, as in the sequel of the phrase last quoted, *-»-jll i^r*^J^ 
 'Iraliniani 'Ira/umi the merciful and compassionate, the Arabic grammar 
 must be consulted. To the Malayan they may be considered as extras 
 neous.
 
 24, A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 .v< medd or i\x« ineddali [''^) signifies extension, and is in like manner 
 applicable to 1, whose sound is thereby lengthened. Its use may be 
 thus considered ; that the pronunciation of the syllable requiring tv.o 
 alifs, one of them moveable or consonant, and the other quiescent, but 
 the rules of orthography not admitting of such a repetition of the letter, 
 this mark is placed over the one I, to denote at the same time the elision 
 and the extension of sound, as in ^.^1 at/er water, uJl api fire, J^\ akhir 
 last. But in Malayan words the long sound of \ forming a syllable at 
 the beginning, is commonly expressed by U ha^ with the soft or imper- 
 ceptible aspirate to support the supplementary vowel, as in ^^la }iabh or 
 abis to finish, j^^U. hari or art day, *jU) hayam or J\ ayani a fowl. 
 
 In some writings, however, we may find a second and smaller \ placed 
 beside the greater, which the grammarians affect to consider as another 
 form of mcdd, and name it i_a!l j^o medd 'alif. This smaller \ is also 
 employed by itself, and placed above the other characters, whose junc- 
 tion frequently excludes it from occupying that place which the greater 
 \ would hold in the line, as in ^^.*s^J for ^Ue-; rahmdn merciful ; but 
 this seems to be nothing more than a fancy of the penman, and to have . 
 no influence on the pronunciation. When placed over ^_s final, it implies 
 that the letter, in Arabic words, is to be sounded like 1, as in ^jjUi- 
 tdcila most high ; but the Malays, on the contrary, sometimes introduce 
 this lesser \ instead of applying fat-halt to the preceding consonant, in 
 order to produce the diphthongal sound of ai or ei, as in J^S'lS pakei to 
 wear, /jjf giilei a curry. Finally, the meddah is employed in abbre- 
 viations of a sacred or mysterious nature, where one, two, or more words 
 are represented by their initial, medial, and final letters, as * a for *LJ1 <UU 
 aleihi 'sselam peace be upon him.
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 25 
 
 CX^-S (urgka (r) 01' the Arabian cipher 2, when used as an orthogra- 
 phical mark, denotes that the word to which it is apphed, although 
 written but once, must be doubled or repeated in the pronunciation. 
 This expedient proceeds from the frequency of these reduplications in 
 forming certain indefinite plurals, superlatives, and adverbs, and in ex- 
 pressing the continuance or repetition of action in verbs, as f <Ujj rumah- 
 riimah houses, Tc^li kala-kala words, X i'j^ putih-pudh very white, 
 ^^_J^■ tinggt-tinggi very high, T J^ mula-7nfda in the first place, T^l* 
 mdna-inaiia wherever, X J\s~ jalan-jdlan to walk about, T^^U. vidin-rmtn 
 to play or be at play. It must be observed at the same time with regard 
 to the verb, that where reciprocity of action is to be denoted by repetition, 
 a difference of form or inflexion takes place (as Avill be hereafter more 
 particularly explained), and instead of applying the cipher, the words 
 are written at length, as jJ^ jJj tdlong-mmolong to assist mutually. 
 When the cipher is applied to a derivative word, the primitive part 
 only, and not the particle prefixed, is repeated, as T^Lc^j ber-7nakan- 
 vidkan to eat much or frequently, r*Lo se-ldma-ldma so long as, for 
 ever, fciJfjJy per-turut-turut a train of followers, retiime. Where the 
 particle is annexed, tlie cipher may be equally applied and the repeti- 
 tion take place, as ^ftlXw^ ka-suka-suka-an hilarity, ^X isjyj per- 
 bilnoh-bunoh-an repeated murders ; but not with strict accuracy, because 
 a prosodial variation takes place, and the words should be, and more 
 frequently are written ^^'ILjLi ka-suka-sukd-an and ^^yS, ka-hunoh- 
 bunoh-an, without the aid of the cipher. When the particles 'j_c meng 
 and 'jj peng are prefixed to words marked with the cipher, in which 
 the particles are followed by a vowel-sound,, it is common to retain the 
 nasal ng in the repetition, and for TuJlc an inquisitive person, to write 
 
 H and
 
 26 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 A A 
 
 and pronounce (_jli (_Jl« pe?igapa-ngdpa, for r^^ to co'vitate, j^ j^*^ 
 mengira-nglra, and for rJU^ to continue flowing, to write yl J\Sic nieng- 
 dlir-iigdlir. 
 
 Thus much it has been thought necessary to say on the subject of the 
 elements of which words are composed, and of the characters and signs 
 by which they are expressed in writing. The words themselves, their 
 distinctions, qualities, and uses in serving to convey, either by themselves 
 or by their combination, intelligible and correct meanings (the proper 
 object of Grammar) must now be considered. 
 
 Division of tVonvs. 
 
 The most obvious and general division of the language is into primitive 
 and derivative words. By primitive or simple words are to be under- 
 stood all words, of whatever part of speech, in their original and unmo- 
 dified state, whether indigenous or adopted from other languages, as 'i^jl 
 h-ang man, ij\j tanah earth, ^^jj budi understanding, ^ besdr great, 
 cu^b" tdkut afraid, cJ\ aku I, ^\s~jdlan to walk, j^ liiar out, i\ akan 
 unto, i^ well alas I By much the greater proportion of primitive Malayan 
 words are dissyllables, pronounced with a slight stress or accent on the 
 former of the two, as iU mdkan to eat, Ji^ pukul to strike, cjU pd- 
 da?ig a plain, i_iJ pmang betel-nut ; whilst monosyllables, as uLiy brat 
 heavy, SjU-jflM/i far, i\^ ^r/Zi renown ; and trisyllables and polysyllables 
 (not composed), as jJUj bendtang a beast, ^^ betma female, ^\j^ serdya 
 at once, j\ti«i^ kalanggdra inquisitive, are very rare. 
 
 Derivative words are formed from the primitives, by prefixing or 
 annexing certain inseparable and otherwise non-significant particles, 
 which will be enumerated and explained in their proper place, it being 
 
 sufficient
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 27 
 
 sufficient to notice here, that prosodial and other changes in the ortho- 
 graphy of the primitives frequendy attend their application, as ^JsJ 
 ka-ada-an existence, from j) ada to be, ^J^ ka-lapar-an famine, from 
 yll! Idpai- hungry, ^^y tiirun-han to lower, from ^^^y turun to. descend, 
 j-i<JU viengampong to collect, from 'j_m^ kampong an inclosure, J^^^ 
 viemukid to beat, from JS^S pukul strike. 
 
 What are properly named compound words, formed by the junction 
 of two or more significant terms, are not fr.equent in this language, and 
 the few that occur consist either of such as convey nearly a repetition of 
 the same idea (often borrowed from different languages), as c:-**^ suka- 
 chita joy, j_yjj Jic akal-budi understanding, jj ddl Idak-leteli languid ; 
 or else of words which have become connected in their signification by 
 familiar use, and made to coalesce in sound by the elision of a vowel, as 
 t_fjl^j din 'ciri break of day, ci->Jl)j^ martk 'ttii those persons, they ; to 
 which may be added l::-o/1> iya-itu. that is to say, <_jL-i;j harang-siapa 
 whosoever, ^b ^ sapu-tarigan a handkerchief. There are also a few 
 words of three as well as of two syllables, which occasionally drop the 
 first, especially in conversation, as y%ij rtmau for y^iji, arlniau a tiger, 
 ^j*^ tmmn for ^^^.♦-iua aiitwiun a species of cucumis, *^U marah for i,U\ 
 amarah angry, Joj riiigan for ^jn aringan light in weight, ^^ piinia 
 for ^^\ ampunia own, ,j^ mas for ^j^\ amas gold, J natn for ^'\ 
 anam six. 
 
 Parts of Speech. 
 
 The usual division of speech, in the oriental languages, is into three 
 parts only, viz. the noun, the verb, and the particle ; the first including 
 the adjective, and the last all other words ; but this seems much too 
 
 general
 
 28 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 general for the purposes of useful distinction, and although the division 
 into eight parts, which was found applicable to the Greek and Latin, 
 and from them has been adopted into the modern languages of Europe, 
 is not perfectly suited either to these or to the Malayan, I am induced 
 from a consideration of the advantage that attends the employment of 
 known and current terms, to conform in great measure to the principles 
 of this division, instead of attempting a classification entirely new. 
 
 Some difficulty arises from a numerous description of words presenting 
 themselves, which in their primitive or crude state are not confined to 
 one particular part of speech, but are common to two or more, as JW 
 jdlan to walk and jalan a road, <JL salali wrong and sdlah a fault, jSJ 
 iidor to sleep and tidor asleep. This, however, is no more than occurs 
 in English, where the words " love, dark, dry, wish," and innumerable 
 others, are at the same time noun and verb, substantive and adjective, 
 adjective and verb, and may be employed in the one or the other ca- 
 pacity as the construction requires ; and as in their derivative form the 
 parts of speech to which Malayan words of this description belong, are 
 determined in general by the particles (prevalent in proportion as the 
 style is correct and grammatical), it will not be necessary to consider 
 them as a distinct class, but as belonging to the several parts of speech 
 to which they may be eventually referable, either from their place in the 
 sentence or the changes they undergo. 
 
 The following are the parts of speech into which, without departing 
 too much from accustomed distinctions, the language may be divided. 
 
 Nouns or the names of things, the objects of sense and thought. 
 
 Adjectives or the qualitlves of nouns. 
 
 Numerals or terms of number. 
 
 Pronouns
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 89 
 
 Pronouns personal and demonslralive, including the Article. 
 
 Verbs or affirmatives of being, acting, or sufTering. 
 
 Adverbs or modals. 
 
 Prepositions or directives. 
 
 Conjunctions or connectives. 
 
 Interjections or exclamations. 
 
 Inseparable Particles or formatives. 
 
 Of Nouns. 
 
 Nouns in this language cannot properly be said to possess the distinc- 
 tions cither of gender, number, or case. The absurdity of attributing 
 difference of sex to things, or to the names of things not organised by na- 
 ture to reproduce their kind, did not suggest itself to the framers or 
 methodisers of the Malayan tongue. The real difference existing in 
 animate beings, as well as that presumed to exist in vegetables, is denoted 
 by appropriate words expressive of the sex, as ti/K! laki-laki man, male, 
 ^^^jS peraynpuan woman, female, j::^ jantan the male, and ^^ betma 
 the female of animals in general, as c/K) c^j\ orang laki-ldki a man 
 (distinguished from a woman), ^j^/ \j^ orang peravipuan a woman 
 (distinguished from a man), ^j^i*- ^^ kuda jantan a stallion, ^^ ^X 
 kJida betma a mare, ^us- *j3 %<zm jantan a cock, ^^ ^A ayam bctina 
 a hen, ij/Kl J^i ganja laki-laki the male hemp-plant. Should it be 
 maintained that kuda betma a mare is effectively the feminine of the 
 noun kUda jantan a horse, that daughter is the feminine of son, and 
 queen of king, we may answer, without denying the propositions, that 
 such a distinction of terms does not belong to grammar, but like other 
 names of things, they are best sought for in a dictionary. 
 
 I Number
 
 30 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Number is not denoted by any variety of termination or change in the 
 form of the noun, but by separate words expressive of plurality or sin- 
 gularity, such as ^[i baniak many, 'ijj bdraiig some, or by specific 
 numerals. An indefinite plural, however, of a peculiar kind is some- 
 times employed, which consists in a duplication of the noun, and has 
 already been noticed in speaking of the cipher used to signify it, as 
 Tcyb bcitu-balu stones, r_lj raja-raja princes, Tcjl^ kdta-hdta words. 
 The opinion may indeed be hazarded, that in this language the noun in 
 its simple state, without any accompanying term to limit or extend its 
 signification, is more properly to be considered as plural than singular ; 
 or, that in prder to the determining its number, the application of a terra 
 expressing singularity is more commonly necessary than one of indefinite 
 plurality. Thus, for example, in the phrase jjl j cjj\ d\ ada orang de- 
 luar there are persons without, the word orang requires no plural sign ; 
 but, on the contrary, in the phrase ^jl j c^^.^ j1 ada s' orang de-luar there 
 is a person without, the article or numeral of unity is indispensable ; and 
 50 also in the phrases ^^i' jll j de-bdlik gunong beyond the mountains, 
 J\.^J.f^ mem-bill dyam to purchase fowls, the words gunong and dyani 
 are at once understood to be in the plural number. And from hence, 
 perhaps, has arisen the practice of denoting the individuality of all sensi- 
 ble objects by specific terms accompanying the numeral ; which are in 
 many instances descriptive of some obvious quality of the thing, although 
 
 ft 
 
 in others quite arbitrary ; but the nature of these idioms will be best 
 understood from a single example in our own language, where, in speak- 
 ing of cattle, we say two, three or more " head ;" whilst the Malays 
 (and somewhat more appropriately) enumerate cattle, birds, and animals 
 in general, by the " tail," as ^\ *J jjJ kuda lima Jkiir five horses (or 
 
 tail
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 31 
 
 tail of horses), Jj\ ^Jl^-^*-, ^^ karbmi sambilan ikiir nine buffaloes, ^\ 
 JJ\ (.1:^^:1 cjjL FiT^avi sabdng ampat tktir four game-cocks. In counting 
 the human species the generic term ^^^1 ormig is repeated, as 'i^j^ ^ ..^ 
 ornng s'drang one person, Ijjl ^j (j/W laki-laki dua orang two men, 
 cjji tU-i' ^J^a^ perampuan ttga orang three women. To inanimate 
 substances various terms are in like manner applied, as ^ *J t , . ..t plsang 
 Uma biiah five plantains, n^^ i^^j runiah sa-buah one house, s^^ ^_j<j 
 negrt sa-bmli one or a city, ^^ cjU wza^c sa-biji one eye, ^^ Aj /e/?^?- 
 5«-^z;2 one egg, ^j ,d ciib ^«/M diia biji two stones, Jl_ ^j! j rffl/7?z 5fl-/e« 
 one leaf, ^J.^ cu^^ ravibut sa-lei one hair, 'jjb jj ^^S puJin dm batang 
 two trees, jJ'L-.- jjI^ ;^Jj//7 sa-bcitang a piece of timber, yL.- jJCi' gtgt sa- 
 batu one tooth, aLj lU-j ^IS pcipan tlga btlah three plank, 4-j ji> %.^ 
 pedang dua bilah or "jji jj <•/«« kcping two swords, iJLc j_^-^ karlas 
 sa-kephig or ^Ju«, 5fl-/e/ a sheet or leaf of paper, jijj <Oja- Si Ictda sa-pfdu/t 
 butir ten gfains of pepper, (j»-^ IjI^ gading sa-piichuk one elephant's 
 tooth, (j^^ jj jJL-j snapnng dua jmcliuk two musquets, ^j:^^ is^,^^ 
 surat sa-piichuk a note, ^^J\J-> l::^^ pTikat sa-rawcin one fishing net, cj'^ 
 >OlL» kata sa-patah one word ; with several more of these idiomatic ap- 
 pendages to the numerals, whose proper application can only be learned 
 by much practice in the language. 
 
 In nouns borrowed from the Arabic the plural is generally formed as 
 in Malayan words, without attention to the mode followed in the lan- 
 guage to which they belong ; but on the other hand, the Arabic word 
 KjLo malaikat angels, is indifl'erently used in singular or plural, or more 
 commonly in the former, 
 
 , Cases being understood to signify those changes in the termination of 
 nouns by which they decline from the nominative or casus rectus, and 
 
 become
 
 3i A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 become oblique, do not apply to the Malayan, in which no such declen- 
 sion takes place. In this language, as in English, the modiScatlons of 
 the sense are effected by means of prepositions or (as they do not neces- 
 sarily precede) directives, the noun itself continuing unchanged, as oiJ 
 «Ujj ka-pada rumah to a house, <Ujj jJ, j dcri-pada rumah from a house, 
 i.<,j J de rfimah at a house, t^^j j^ j deluar rwnah out of a house, fjJA^ii 
 ^jj de-atas rumah on top of a house, <Ujj *jIj j de-bawah rumah beneath 
 a house ; so also <\ akan, CSi bagi, or ^\ jii ka-pada ailah unto God, 
 i_-v*6 Jjy« jJ,j deri-pada ?nudal amba from my capital, oJj J,J <j1j\ illih 
 karuniya baginda by his majesty's favour, ^ ijy 1,^ dangan tolong 
 iiabi with the aid of the prophet, ^Jjt j^ jj pada staiig art at day- 
 break or by day-light ; none of which phrases can, without an abuse of 
 speech, be denominated the cases of those nouns. 
 
 , In the situation of a subjective or accusative case, or where the noun 
 is the subject of the action, no directive is required, as <_j| i_^U pasang 
 api light the fire, ^\^ jjy polong kayu cut the wood, o^ ^J^..}^ vxe-larl- 
 kan kilda to gallop a horse. Yet ^\ akan is sometimes superfluously 
 introduced, as (.^-yj j_*r\ 9^ Ji^ pilkul akan anjing ttu beat that dog. 
 The possessive sense, or what is termed the genitive case of a noun, is 
 expressed by its position, the word denoting the subject of possession 
 always preceding that which denotes the possessor, as Aj jcj benda raja 
 the king's treasure, ,_fj\f^ i-J^i^ chaya mata-art brightness of the sun, 
 or the sun's brightness, ijjif ^Jjc^ ka-tin"ggi-an gunong the height of the 
 mountains, \^ ^A kiirus-an auia leanness of the body ; or otherwise 
 by the use of a pronoun in the possessive form, as clj ^*,j5 c-^v^js atnba 
 pimia wang my money, <u\; ^f^\ cJ\ aku ampunia tanah my land, ^j\ 
 '—'■* c)J^ iiT^ drang china pmia aria goods of or belonging to a Chinese. 
 
 It
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 33 
 
 It may be remarked, that this latter mode is chiefly (though not exclu- 
 sively) employed where real possession or property in the subject is 
 understood, whereas the mode by position is more commonly used to 
 imply attribution only, as in the former examples. 
 
 The only changes to which the form of nouns is subject are those 
 which they undergo as derivatives, and upon the correct employment of 
 these modifications depend the propriety and delicacy of language, or 
 those qualities which, as much as the choice of terms, distinguish a polite 
 from a vulgar style. Derivative nouns are constructed by means of 
 particles prefixed or annexed, from primitive nouns (although rarely), 
 from adjectives, and from verbs chiefly, and, in a few instances, from : 
 other parts of speech ; as in Latin " altitudo" is formed from " altus," 
 and " permutatio " from " muto." 
 
 From adjectives they are formed by prefixing the particle cJ ka- and 
 annexing the particle ^' -an., or by the latter alone. Thus from ^jj. 
 rendah low, comes ^Iaj^ ka-rendah-an or ^W<j renddh-an lowness, 
 humility; from ^^ /^e^ar great, i^yU-^ ka-besdr-an greatness; from (sJi* 
 mdti dead, ^^-^ ka-mali-an death ; from aJL salah wrong, ^L^ ka- 
 saldh-an criminality ; and_ from ^-jU mdnis sweet, - y " mams-an 
 sweetmeats, and jj~-w»^ ka-mams-an sweetness. So also from verbs, as 
 from u:,.cj nand to wait, ^y.\<. ka-naiifi-an expectation ; from j_y^!I Idrl 
 to run, ^p ka-larl-an flight ; from •til tngm to desire, ^^.1^ ka-mgin- 
 an lusts ; from i^\^ blidgi to divide, ^t^ bhagl-an division ; and from 
 ^Lo mdkan to eat, ^LC 7nakd7i-an victuals. But exclusively of these 
 derivations taking ^ ka- and ^ 'an, which are in general what gram- 
 marians term abstract nouns, a numerous class is in like manner formed 
 
 K from
 
 34 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 from verbs by prefixing the particles J per, with Its varieties Jj pel and 
 uJ pe, and 1 pen, with its varieties J pern and jJ peng ; being by these 
 changes of termination adapted to the sound of the letter with which the 
 succeeding syllable commences. Thus from jX^ tldor and ,^\ adu to 
 sleep, repose, are formed ^^j^^Jj per-tidor-an and ^^y'^ per-adu-an a 
 sleeping place, recess for a bed ; from ^Jc^ mandJ to bathe, ^jCwCjS 
 per-mandi-an a bath ; from cjy buat to do, ^).jy per-buat-an work, 
 performance; from ^1 <7/flr to learn, ^^jW Jj yje/-fl;ar-<5r?i a school ; from 
 ijy^ silrii/i to order, send, Hj^ pe-suruh an envoy, messenger ; and from 
 jjj bill to buy, j^-Jj/ per-bilt-an or ^^^-JJ pe-bili-an a market-place, and 
 ^_J-»*j pem-bili-an the article purchased. 
 
 ' So also from l^j^ churl to steal, is formed i_?j^f^ pen-chwi a thief; 
 from ^jj bunoh to kill, <sj^*^ pem-biinoh a murderer ; from ^b buyer to 
 pay, jjUw pem-bayer payment ; from JLs-^ chilchuk to pierce, ji^^,^ 
 pen-chtichik a fork, skewer ; from i^b dapat to obtain, i^ljoJ /?e«- 
 dapat apprehension, and ^^^JJOJ pen-dapat'Cn acquisition ; from l::-X;\ 
 ikiU to follow, e:,jLj« pe?ig-thit a follower ; from^^j! ilkir to carve, ^^_« 
 peng-uhir a carver or engraver ; from A-t fl^o/i to nurse, a^US peng-asoh 
 a nurse ; from ^J'^^ ^a/J to dig, jjl^ peng-gdll a spade ; from liu^ /Fa^ 
 to see, Ji^ilSij peng-liat-an sight ; and from ^ili' to« to know, ^^^^-m peng- 
 a-tau-an knowledge. 
 
 It may be remarked, that the derivative nouns formed with J per, Jj 
 pel, i_3 pe, express for the most part the place of the action implied by 
 the primitive verb, or the action Itself; and that those formed with ^ 
 pen, J pon, "^ peng, express the agent by whom the action is per- 
 formed, the instrument^ or the faculty ; the former partaking of a neuter 
 
 « 
 
 or
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 35 
 
 or of a passive, and the latter of an active signification. Their corres- 
 pondence with the intransitive and transitive signs of the verb, j ber and 
 ^ men, will appear in treating of that part of speech. 
 
 In the examples that have been given of the formation of derivatives, 
 it has been effected by simply prefixing or annexing the particles, without 
 any other variation than that of the relative length of the vowels (on 
 principles to be hereafter explained) ; but there are circumstances under 
 which an entire change takes place in the first syllable, in order, as it 
 would seem, to render the coalescence with the particle more agreeable 
 to the ear, as from *s-b' tajam sharp, is formed *=-Uj penajam (instead 
 of pen-tdjam) an Instrument for sharpening ; from j^ tdwar to cure, 
 j^ pendwar (not pen-tdivar) an antidote or charm ; from ^L sdmiin to 
 rob, ^LS penidmun a robber ; from t::,JLi sujigat to sting, l^-Xj penimigat 
 a sting ; from jjL sdpii to sweep, ^LS pcnidpu a sweeper ; from *jls 
 pddam to extinguish, *jUS pemddam an extinguisher ; from cjjj pan- 
 I dang to behold, cja-o pcmandang a view ; from Jj^ hunal to call to 
 mind, Jjo penganal recognition ; from J^l^ kdwal to guard, J^Uj peyigd- 
 ival a Avatchman or guard ; and from 'j^sCS pegang to hold, ^\^ pC' 
 megdng-an a holding, tenure. This adaptation of the particle beinor 
 equally attended to In the inflexions of the verbs, the particular rules by 
 which they are governed will be more conveniently explained when these 
 are treated of ; and It remains only to observe, that verbal nouns are also 
 sometimes (though very rarely) formed by prefixing the particle ^j^ se 
 (more usually employed in the construction of adverbs), as jln^ se-tdic 
 knowledge, privity, in the phrase t-^^fji il^-j ^^ jU iidda dcmgaii se-tdu 
 amba it is not with my knowledge. 
 
 Derivative nouns may In like manner be deduced from primitive 
 
 nouns.
 
 36 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 nouns, or from words in any other parts of speech, as from i_^v4Jb amba 
 a servant, J'l.o'j per-amba-an servitude ; from (_Jb" tapa seclusion, pe- 
 nance, uJly per-tapa a hermit, recluse; from^bl antara between, ^^^plS 
 pel-antaran a hall, passage. It may, however, be more correct to con- 
 sider these as deriving immediately from the verbs (---v*j»^ ber-amba to 
 serve, t_Jb^ per-tapa to perform penance, and j\ij\j ber-antdra to lie 
 between. Fractional numbers are also derivative nouns, as (c^y per- 
 ampat a fourth part, CSjJ.^ sa-per-ttga one third, *J^ CS^ tiga per-lima 
 three fifths ; but beside these we meet with some derivatives from numerals, 
 expressing titles of command and office, as ^^iJu peng-rdlus a centurion, 
 from ^\j rdtus an hundred, and ^^m peng-lima or panglTma a go- 
 vernor, prefect, from *J lima five : but the origin of the appellation is 
 uncertain. 
 
 \I Lastly, derivatives may be formed progressively from other derivatives, 
 in a mode that will appear intricate to those who begin to study the 
 language, or who are accustomed only to the ordinary colloquial dialect, 
 but which is not devoid of method and consistency, as may be seen in 
 the word ^U satna alike, same, which becomes by duphcation the adverb 
 r*L sdma-sama together, from whence is formed the verb r>,L^ bei- 
 sdma-sama to act in concert, and by annexing a particle, the derivative 
 noun ^^'U-^Lpj ber-sdma-samd-(m confederacy, concert. Thus also in 
 the sentence, ^\J^j ^^ jU ^^la^^ ^^ jIj tiuda kami ber-ka-lmpdh-an 
 tidda kdmi ber-ka-kordng-an we are not in a state of abounding, nor are 
 we in a state of poverty, where the two derivatives progressively formed 
 from the verbs *a^ Ihnpah and c^^ korang, become verbal nouns in one 
 stage, and finally verbs again. So likewise 'jJUj pinggaiig the waist 
 may become ^^J^ sc-per-pinggdng-an-Jiia what is worn about her 
 
 waist ;
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. ^7 
 
 waist ; andy dua two, which by the apph'cation of cS ka becomes .j^ 
 ka-dua both, and then by prefixing ^ sc becomes ^iL^ se-ka-dua both 
 together, may, by annexing the transitive particle J, kan, become the 
 verb ^\j^^ se-ka-dud-kan to do a thing by mutual agreement. Il may 
 here likewise be noticed that derivatives, although In their full state of 
 formation they generally remain fixed to their proper class, yet some- 
 times we find them, by a licence not very justifiable, transferred from one 
 
 part of speech to another, as in the instance of jjL_Jlo ^^b j-jL. l:: oTi.* 
 
 tang amat sdi/ang dan mengasidn-l who is very m.erciful and compas- 
 sionate, where the last word is properly a verb formed from the noun 
 ^j^ kasih-an pity, but here employed as an adjective. Thus also the 
 transitive verb j_iiL« 7nenalantang to lay upon the back, is used in the 
 sense of resupinus, " lying on the back ;" and «y^ Dieniiju, properly 
 " to point to," becomes the adverb " towards." 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives or words denoting the qualities of nouns, and which may 
 therefore be termed qualitives, are not (any more than the nouns) sub- 
 ject to variation of case, gender, or number. That which they undergo 
 in the formation of derlv:\tlve or abstract nouns expressive of quality, 
 has been already explained. They are connected with the noun by 
 position only, and in simple construction always follow it, as <o\j >>^ 
 kuda pntih a white horse, ^^\^ ^J^ dri rdya a festival day, ^^JUj' Ji^ 
 kapal tinggi a lofty ship ; but when a quality is predicated of a noun, 
 or in other words, when In the corresponding English phrase the verb 
 substantive intervenes, the qualltive is in the Malayan made to pi'ecede 
 the noun, although the verb is not necessarily expressed, as c:^! f jlj^ c^i'^ 
 
 L bdik
 
 38 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 bSik orang llu that man is good, J,j j^ <0y putih kuda raja tlie king's 
 horse is white, c--<^ <Ujj J^ kechil rumaJi amba my house is small. 
 They may be formed from nouns by prefixing the particle j bcr, as 
 ^^j ber-biitu feathered, from jl^ billu feathers, i^sij ber-budi wise, from 
 4_f Jo bicdi wisdom. 
 
 Comparison of Adjectivks. 
 
 The comparison of adjectives or expression of the relative degrees of 
 quality, is effected by words and particles prefixed, and not by any 
 chansie of termination. 
 
 The comijarative degree is formed by means of the words iJt Icbik 
 more, and^j deri or jj,j deri-pada than, or by either of them separately, 
 as J^jJ yJls i-^ lebihpanas dai daulu hotter than formerly ; ^U jj 
 Jj^ jjjj lebih maJiis deri-pada gfila sweeter than sugar ; jj ^j^ ^Jju 
 c ,j^ tinggi aluwaii deri korong the stem is higher than the stern ; ^Lit 
 ^} jJ,j —J-) ini-lak suchi deri-pada lain this is cleaner than the other. 
 
 The superlative degree, by prefixing the intensitive particle ; ter, as 
 j^ji tei'-besdr very great, ^J^^Ji ter-kivasa veiy or most powerful, y^'iy 
 ter-laju very swift ; or by an adverb to which that particle is applied, as 
 jy ter-lalu or sji ijj ter-lcbih tnak extremely old, ^ Jiji ter-ldlu 
 guppok excessively fat ; and these expressions are sometimes enforced 
 by adding the words ^ nla?i indeed, JIjLj sakali entirely, or t::_vcl amat 
 exceedingly, as ^ jjIj J^' tcr-lalu batk nian extremely good indeed, 
 jKw^ i^y ter-lebih besdr sakali., or ^ i.::^! J^y tcr-lalu amat besdr 
 most exceedingly great ; or the latter may be used without the former 
 adverb, as JILj iJy pHti/i sakUli perfectly white ; and when the definite 
 article is prefixed, an absolute expression of the superlative is formed, 
 
 ag
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 39 
 
 as JILj (Jj\j ^j la?ig hoik sakdli the best, JIC- j^^ 'j_.j lang bnruk sdkuli 
 the worst. The inseparable term \^ tnaku is ulso applied with the 
 same eflect, as Ll< lf« maha-inidm most magnificent; ^•ii' l^ 'i_i uiiiff 
 ?naha-li?iggt the most high; and a kind of indefinite superlative is pro- 
 duced by doubling the adjective, as X a^ jauh-jduh very far, 'X ^\j rcmii- 
 rdnii very populous, Tcjb nidring-nidring very shrill, r*^ mcrah- 
 mcrak very red. 
 
 In strictness, however, the most part of the foregoing examples ought 
 rather to be considered as phrases or members of sentences, than as a 
 comparison of adjectives in the sense of the Greek and Latin grammarians, 
 whose object was to distinguish and to account for certain changes in 
 the form of the words themselves, denoting the degree of their quality, 
 and not to shew how a comparison of ideas might be expressed by a 
 circumlocution. 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 Numerals have usually been classed under the adjective, with which 
 they have many circumstances in common, but their nature is sufficiently 
 peculiar to entitle them to be considered as a separate part of speech. 
 They are distinguished into cardinals, ordinals, and fractionals. 
 
 The cardinal numbers are as follows : culj-. sudtii, eJ>L sdtu, ij^ asa, 
 t, sd one; jO dila two; CS^s tiga three; e^X^t amimt four; ^ Uina 
 five ; ^\ amm six ; i^y tiijuh seven ; ^^j deldpan, jt\c diildpan, and 
 ^L> saldpan eight ; ^^^L-.*-. sambilun nine ; aI^a- sa-pfilult ten ; ^..\^.. sa- 
 bias eleven; ^^y diia-blas twelve; ,^ tl^' tiga-blas thirteen; <jjyjj 
 dua-piduh twenty; c:j1^ ^y y dm-pTduh stidtu twenty-one; aj^ clL" 
 figa-puluh thirty ; i^^ ^ rimu-puluh fifty ; ^\j^ sa-rdtns one hundred ;
 
 40 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 j_j)j jj dua-ratus two hundred ; i_^^ sa-ribu one thousand ; ,jJ^ sa- 
 laksa ten thousand ; ^jJi ^j^ sa-prduh laksa one hundred thousand ; 
 Li.vs-' sa-juta or ^^ tr-'V' ^o.-rdlus laksa a million. In borrowing the 
 word j_Xi laksa from the Sanskrit the Malays have, very arbitrarily, 
 chanaied its signification from an hundred thousand to ten thousand; 
 which often gives rise to misunderstandings in their transactions Avith 
 merchants from the continent of India. In some Malayan countries, but 
 not universally, the term J^ llkiir is applied to the numeration between 
 twenty and thirty, in the same manner as ^^^j bias to that between ten 
 and twenty, and thus instead of culj^ aljS .j dua pilluh suatu twenty-one, 
 they say JJL> sa-lJkiir, for twenty-two JJ jj dm-likur, for twenty-three 
 jCJ lI^' tlga-ltkur ; and agreeably to this we find the date of an epistle 
 given In yac simile by Valentyn (Vol. I. p. 121.) thus expressed, jj,j 
 
 lJi^ a]jS J J ^V" u^'^ '-r^-j-' ^J^^ iS^i^ ijji irfJ''^J^ deri-pada sa-likur an 
 bula}i sawal laun sa-rlbu dan sa-ratus dua-puluh satu on the twenty- 
 first day of the month sawal In the year (of the liejrah) 1121 [A. D. 
 
 The numbers mid-way between each ten are expressed, especially in 
 conversation, in a peculiar manner, as, for twenty-five, they familiarly say 
 *!y tL^-J' iiu tangak tlga piiliih, or, literally, half of thirty ; for forty-five, 
 ^y >J ajti langak lima pilluh half of fifty ; and upon the same principle, 
 for one hundred and fifty, ^1^ jj iJu tangak dua ratus, literally, half of 
 two hundred, that is, of the second hundred. Thus also for two and an 
 half, they say CS*i <Ui' tangak tlga half of three, and for three and an 
 half, u;.X«) iju tangak ampat half of four. Nine is often expressed by a 
 phrase implying the deduction of one from the next following ten, as for 
 sixty-nine they say il^ t^^ ^J^ "Lj^ korajig asa tn/uk pilluh wanting one 
 
 of
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 41 
 
 of seventy; for ninety-nine, ^\j^ ^\ 'tjf korang asa sa-raliis wanting 
 one of an hundred, or, an hundred less one. 
 
 It maybe observed, that a contraction of the numeral of unity becomes 
 the indefinite article, as culLo sa-kata a word, or, one word, %jj.^ s'orang 
 a man, or, one man. The same takes place in most other languages. 
 
 The ordinal numbers are as follows : f,\3l pertdma (for the Sanskrit 
 
 prafaina), or ^[;J '^. ta?ig pertdma the fust, imprimis ; ^j^ ha-dua the 
 
 ft _ * 
 
 second ; CS-^ ka-ttga the third ; e:,,^^ ha-ampat the fourth ; ^ ku- 
 
 lima the fiftli ; ^^U ka-sa-prduli the tenth ; ^^ ,^ ka-dm-blas the 
 
 twelfth; ,j aJy CJ-^ ka-tlga pulu/i dna the thirty- second ; ^^\j j^s~^ kU' 
 
 tujuli rdtus the seven hundredth. 
 
 Fractions of numbers, which have already been noticed in speaking of 
 
 derivative nouns, are thus expressed : iSc^ ia-langak an half ; cljil^ 
 
 sa-per-tiga a third ; i.::_Xo'jA»j sa-per-arnpat a fourth ; ^J^. sa-per-lTma a 
 
 fifth ; l1$;j,S jJ diia per tlga two-thirds ; t::.^'^ CS^ I'ga per-ampat 
 
 three-fourths ; ^j c:.-i*1 ampat per-tima four-fifths ; jj iki tangah dila 
 
 one and an half, as before explained. Of multiples and divisionals 
 
 examples are as follows : ^tt CS^ tlga lapis three fold, triple, triplex ; 
 
 jo^ cli-J' figa ganda three-fold, treble, triplus ; ^^J *J Ihiia lapis five-fold, 
 
 quincuplex ; ^ J^ lima ganda five-fold, quintupiex ; jU- ui^<l Jli cJ^i 
 
 fjjj jj tlga kali ampat jddi dua-blas three times four makes twelve ; 
 
 CJUi CS\^_ bhdgi tlga divide into three parts; CS=,- TCSJ cjj rj^ji ^^• 
 
 tiu^U- jj JX*; '^-^ (J^S>. (j-^ J^«J' se-tclali ber-himpim buang tlga-tlga jeka 
 
 tinggal asa balk jeka tinggal dna jdhat having added together (these 
 
 numbers) cast away the threes (divide by three) ; if one remains it is 
 
 lucky, if the remainder be two it is unlucky. 
 
 The foregoing system of numeration, evidently founded upon that of 
 
 M the
 
 4a A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 the Hindus, from whom the Arabians, and through them the Europeans 
 derived their knowledge of arithmetic, must liave been familiar to the 
 Malays, and incorporated with their language long before the introduc- 
 tion of the Arabic character, and accordingly they have not adopted the 
 practice of inverting the order of numeration and proceeding from the 
 imits to the decimals and hundreds, as the Arabians usually do when 
 they express a date or other number in words at length. The ciphers 
 or figures employed in their more formal writings are those of the latter 
 people, viz. ! i, T 2, T 3, P 4, and c 5, 1 6, v 7, A 8, "1 9, » o, 
 I ♦ 10, ! t 11, ir 12, r* 20, i ♦ ♦ 100, uJll alif looo: but in their 
 epistles and ordinary transactions they more commonly employ the nu- 
 merical figures which, although of Hindu origin and not materially 
 changed in form, we now consider as European. 
 
 No instances having occurred of the Malays employing as numerals 
 the letters of the alphabet arranged in a particular series, well known to 
 Arabic scholars, and as such to the Malays themselves, under the name 
 of s=fr\ ubjd or abjid, it seems unnecessary to enter further into the de- 
 tails of it in this place than merely to state that 1, <_>, , j, «,j, j, , L, 
 represent the units, ^, cJ, J, (♦, ^, ^, ^ i_i, ^, the decimals, j, ^, ^J,, 
 cy, i^, ~, j, ijat b, the hundreds, and i a thousand. 
 
 Of Pronouns. 
 
 Pronouns may be divided into personal, demonstrative, and relative. 
 
 Personals are those substitutes for names by which the person who 
 speaks of himself, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken 
 of are designated without a repetition of the name. When applied to 
 
 inanimate
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 43 
 
 inanimate things, though considered as of the third person, they fall 
 more aptly, in this language, into the class of demonstratives. 
 .. To the personals belong the possessive pronouns, which are not dis- 
 tinct words, but produced, as the possessive form of nouns, either by 
 annexing the term ^^ putiia own, to the pronoun, or, more usually, by 
 the respective position of the words, as explained in treating of the 
 noun. 
 
 Amongst the personal pronouns some are found to prevail more In 
 one, and some in another of the various countries where the Malayan 
 language is spoken. Those belonging more particularly to the politer 
 style, which is also that of books, are fixed and uniform, whilst, on the 
 contrary, those employed in the hnrnrs, are often local, and consequently 
 little known beyond their own district. The following enumeration con- 
 tains the whole that occur in the best writings, or are recognised in the 
 dialects of the different islands. 
 
 Pronouns of the First Person. 
 
 CJ\ akii or (when connected with another word) 1^ hi, 1, me, we, us, 
 appears to be the simplest term by which the first personal is expressed, 
 and is generally employed by superiors addressing their inferiors, but 
 sometimes between equals, and in certain cases by inferiors, as *,j-j cJ\ 
 aku siiruh I order, CS^ '^jy^ meniirut tilah-ku to follow my direc- 
 tions, ifA^ ^. CS^ji ttiliayi-ku tang ku-sambah my Lord whom I serve. 
 When thus contracted to cS it is made to coalesce with and form a part 
 of the verb or noun with which it agrees in construction, and especially 
 in the possessive form, as in the preceding example. It is sometimes, 
 but rarely, used as a plural, and only where another word conveying 
 
 the
 
 44 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 the idea of plurality is joined with it, as ^j^ ci'\ aku ka-dua we two, bolii 
 of us, JjL. >jj\ aku sakall-an all of us. When this personal follows a 
 vowel or nasal sound, it is often changed to tL/b, in order to avoid the 
 hiatus, as u/\j J\ akan daku to me, c/L^ i//<^ menunggu-'i ddku to 
 attend upon me. 
 
 »_-♦> amba I, me. This word properly signifies a servant, and when 
 employed as a pronoun should in strictness be considered as of the third 
 person, but use has determined it to the first, as tuls l_^.4J^ arnba kala I 
 say, ojj^ (».-v*J5 umba turiit I follow. In its original sense it might be 
 natural to say, in a style of humility, j'j *-.o amba-mu iau thy servant 
 knovveth, or ^-.^ ji iJi kasih pada mnba-inu give to thy servant; which 
 phrases are equivalent to I know, give to me, and being from their fami- 
 liarity liable to abbreviation, it may have become the practice to drop 
 the possessive, and to say more briefly amba tau, kasih pada amba. 
 Thus, as in many other instances, the different parts of speech usurp 
 each other's places, and as pronouns are defined to be substitutes for 
 nouns, so this and some similar nouns become substitutes for pronouns. 
 
 c:...^^ beta. What has been said of c_,v«ji amba applies also to this 
 ■word, which equally signifies a domestic servant, as Jys j c:^ ij^ n^ weh 
 butioh beta dafdu alas, kill me first I 
 
 j<\^ saj/a, signifying a slaA^e, implies, when used as a pronoun, more 
 humility than the preceding ; but as language, and particularly thelan- 
 guage of compliment, is not always to be construed literally, we must 
 not understand that the person who employs the term necessarily regards 
 himself as the slave, or even as the inferior of him to whom he addresses 
 himself, but only that it is his intention, by an affectation of humility, 
 to shew his politeness ; and accordingly we find it much used by Malays 
 
 of
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 45 
 
 of rank, in conversation with the superior class of Europeans; as ^[^ 
 jjy c:^^^ sdya minta tdlong I request assistance. 
 
 ijjili patck seems to express still more humility than ^J^ saya, and 
 . is little used in ordinary conversation, as ^Ij ^jj, i^^\ <^j cJjOl J (j la. 
 tuan-ku dangar-kan apd-lah khabar-nia pdiek O, my lord, give ear I 
 pray thee to the story of thy slave 1 
 
 Ws gud appears as a pronoun of the first person in some vocabularies 
 published at Batavia, and may have been borrowed from the Chinese ; 
 but it is vulgar, and does not occur in any good Malayan writings. 
 
 u^ klta we, us. This personal plural is used for the singular by 
 royal personages. When employed by others it frequently includes in 
 its signification, along with the speaker, the person addressed, and cannot 
 therefore imply any circumstance of superiority or inferiority, as u^ 
 A>\ — i^ (jj^ klta pergi sama-sdiaa we go together, ^^ {j:^ klta-punia 
 ours. When a greater number than two is meant to be expressed, it is 
 usual to annex the term 'tj^ orajig person, and to form the compound 
 word %jy^ klt'orang by the elision of one of the vowels ; but it chiefly 
 belongs to the familiar style. 
 
 ^^ kdmi we, us, on the contrary, excludes the party addressed, but, 
 like il:^ kita, is often employed for tlie singular in the style of sove- 
 reigns, as jLo oU ^^ kdmi tidda mdu we (or I) do not chuse, ^}^ 
 ^\^ ka-besdr'an kdmi our greatness ; it is not, however, confined to this 
 tone of superiority, and the phrases jjy e:^ ^^ kdmi pinta tolong we 
 beg assistance, and even ^Ji^ ^ J^ kdmt htna pdpa we are mean and 
 poor, are not uncommon. When, in order to express several persons, 
 the word t ,^1 orang is annexed, no elision takes place, both because the 
 final vowel is long, and in order to distinguish the compound from %jy-^^ 
 
 N kdm'orang
 
 46 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 kam'orang for kamu-orang ye ; as <j^1 "^^ ^^jJiLj *^j\ ^^ kaml-orang 
 sakali-a7i orang acheh we are all of us men of Achin. 
 
 Pronouns of the Second Person. 
 
 /1\ avgkau, or, by contraction, ^ kau thou, thee, you, ye, appears to 
 be indifferemly used both in the singular and the plural, by superiors and 
 inferiors, as in the following examples : j\ji ^ ^\ iLL^ kamball-lah 
 arigkau ka-pada tuan-mu return thou to thy master ; ^\ j^[i takul-kah 
 angkau art thou afraid ? ^J>fj^ j^ ^^^ CJ^y ii\j, ta-lak tuhan-ku 
 ayigkau-lah tang meng-a-taii-i O, my Lord, thou art He who knoweth 
 (all things) ; ^\ ijj\:^ ^\ ^jy ^^^JJL, <_f/.i< ^Ji hei mmitrt sakali-an 
 turut-lah angkau kata-ku mi O members of my council, be ye obedient 
 to these my words I When abbreviated to ^ kau it is generally employed 
 in a tone of overweening authority, approaching to contempt, as i_J! 
 %jj^ apo. kau-korang what dost thou want ? Jj^j^ jLi' tiada kau-kanal 
 art thou not aware ? ^ <)Lj^ viati-lah kau die thou I 
 
 ^p dtkau you, thee, appears to be only a modification of jii\ aiigkall, 
 in order to accommodate it to the sound of the preceding vowel or nasal 
 and avoid a hiatus, as jlij ^^U>jj deri-mana dikau from whence (art) 
 thou ? jJoj ^ iJyS iJ-f^ i^^^ *^j^/ '^^ J^^^ kau-buat bagttu se- 
 nischaya ku-bunoh akan dlkau if thou doest so, I shall certainly put 
 thee to death: in which instances the words mana angkau and akan 
 angkau would be unpleasant to the ear of a native. It is never (or, if 
 ever, under very peculiar circumstances only) employed as the agent or 
 nominative case to the verb, but is the object or subject of the action, 
 and generally follows a preposition. This would seem to entitle it to 
 being considered as a case of the pronoun j.<il a?igkau, were there not a 
 
 more
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 47 
 
 more consistent mode of explaining why it is found in the latter situation 
 alone, which is this ; that in the place of a nominative preceding the 
 verb, as well as the other parts of the sentence immediately connected 
 with it, the occasion would not exist for any qualification of the original 
 pronoun, because no hiatus could be there apprehended. 
 
 f,^ kamu, ft mu thou, you, thee, are used by the superior addressing 
 the inferior, as *l^ ^j ^^j^j jU ^^ oLi' tidda kdirii mdii ber-damt-an 
 dangan kdmu we do not chuse to make peace with you ; ^JX-. *\^ ^ hei 
 kd/nu sakalt-an ho I all ye ! When abbreviated to » mu it is, as well 
 as the contractions of c/l aku and ^\ angkau, prefixed or annexed to 
 the verb, or to the noun as a possessive, in the manner of an inseparable 
 particle, as CSki^ A^ jA) buyer ulih-mu utang-ku pay thou my debt, 
 ijJ\X) bapd-ku my father ; j»Uy uJL-. sidpa rajd-mu who is your king ? 
 When its plural is formed by the addition of cjjl, which coalesces with 
 it, a still greater distinction is marked between the parties, as ^U- 
 ijT'j'^ dr f J>-*^ jajigan kam'orang gardk deri-sini stir not ye from 
 hence. 
 
 ^jji' tuan, which properly signifies " master," is employed as a pro- 
 noun personal in addresses from inferiors, and, politely, amongst equals. 
 In form it appears to be a substitute for the third personal, but is effec- 
 tively used for the second, as tl^ jJcJ* ^,y ^^^U^ ka-mdna tuan andak 
 pergi whither do you mean to go ? CJ^ ^^ ^jyi tuan punia siika as you 
 please, ^U jU ^^ tJl apa tuan mdu mdkan what do you chuse to eat ? 
 In all which instances it is evident that the possessive was originally 
 understood to accompany the word tuan, and that the phrase was ^y 
 c_-va> tuayi amba or CSj\^ tudn-ku my master or my lord. By a singu- 
 lar delicacy of language, this word when applied to the Divinity and 
 
 signifying
 
 48 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 signifying Tlie Lord, is invariably written with the aspirate ^^ tnhan, 
 to distinguish it from the more familiar appellation, as ^J^^ jj^ ^^ J 
 tii/um serwa sakali-un the Lord of all hosts, aJJl ^^,la jty jU tiada tuhaii 
 hania allah there is no Lord but God. 
 
 jj^pakanira, frjn, ^ In, thou, you, ye, are words to be met with as 
 pronouns in some European vocabularies, but they are provincial and 
 vulgar, and not to be found in good Malayan writings. 
 
 Pronouns of the Third Person. 
 
 ^] it/a he, she, him, her, it, has no positive character of superiority or 
 inferiority ; yet it is considered more respectful (as in other languages) 
 to designate the person spoken of, as well as the person spoken to, by his 
 or her name, title, or other description, than by the use of a pronoun, 
 and instead of iU ^1 ii/a tan he knows, a well-bred native would say, ^y 
 tuan or i[i ^^ ijj] orang kaya tan his honour knows. The word is also, 
 but not commonly, written J inya. 
 
 In order to avoid the hiatus produced by successive vowel sounds, and 
 collisions unpleasant to the ear (as noticed in speaking of the pronoun 
 jlij dlkau) ^\ jya is frequently changed to ^ji diya, as ci^ ^^ c:^ 
 pinta diya pergi ask him to go ; ji)jj jL ^^ J^ ka-mana diya man ber- 
 layer whither is he going to sail ? ^^ ^\ Jj^ ^\ iya kanal akan diya 
 he recollects him. It may be observed, in reference to what has been 
 said of jSoj d'lkaii (p. 46) that ^^ diya, although generally, is not always 
 in the situation of an objective or a subjective case, as in the last example 
 but one, it forms the nominative to the verb ,U mail; and evidently takes 
 the place of ^1 iya on account of the vowel sound immediately preceding 
 
 in the word ^t mana. 
 
 As
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 49 
 
 As applied to inanimate things its use is not frequent, the more cus- 
 tomary form of expression requiring that the noun should be repeated 
 with the definite article ; yet it is by no means incorrect to say, when 
 speaking of moveables, ^^^ ^^.jiA« mengaluar-kan diya to take them away. 
 In the possessive form of the noun, and also in the indefinite form of 
 the verb (preceded by the particle de, as will be hereafter explained) 
 this pronoun, being annexed to either word, undergoes an entire change 
 of letters, and instead of ^\ iya is written and pronounced ^^ nia. We 
 may conjecture from analogy that this was at first intended for Jl inya 
 (the ^ n being frequently interpolated, as 'j^ pontong for ^\S poloJig, 
 to improve the sound) and afterwards, for the sake of brevity, expressed 
 by a single character scarcely differing at all in sound from that pronoun, 
 as in ^ls<, kapala-nia his head, ^^p^j rambut-nia her hair, J^J ^ de 
 pukul-nia he struck, ^^,1^^^ a dc minta-nia he asked. 
 
 Although ^_jl /ya and ^_jj diya are sometimes employed in the plural, it 
 is more commonly expressed by annexing 'i ,^1 orang, as ;l^ ^LC |jjl'J 
 dVorang suka bcr-mam they, or those persons, love to play, a-Is 
 jjp f j^p kusili dV oi'ang pfdang allow them to return. 
 
 i^:^'lS>,j^ mavlk 'Itu or viarlka itu those persons, they, them, as ^ILc 
 •XJ\ |jjl ^^ J^:^j c:^_'(_5oj^ ^^U sop ay a jangan marlk Itu ber-cham- 
 pur dangan drang islam in order that they may not mix with Mahome- 
 tans, c:_^.'(_Jjj.« JL«^ Aa^jj^ suruh-lah kamhali niartk 'llu order them to 
 return. In sense it is nearly synonimous with 'ijj-jj dVvrang, but 
 much less common in conversation. 
 
 Personals, equally with nouns, of whose nature they so much partake, 
 assume the possessive form, by annexing the word ^^ punia own, be- 
 longing to ; or otherwise by the position of the word betokening the 
 
 O subject
 
 50 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 subject of property (explained at p. 32), as ^^ tl/\ a/cu punia or t_- 
 .^, .S amba punia mine, ^^lyj^^ c:,^ beta sindiii ptinia my own, ^^ ^\ 
 angkaii punia, ^Js *^ hcimu punia, ^^ ^^y tmn punia thine, yours, ^\ 
 ii/a or ^^ ^j diya pfinia his, her's, theirs ; CSi-^ j)edang-ku my sword, 
 u---4Jb ^ tangan amba my hand, *l:;^ matH-mu your eye, ^\ anak-kau 
 thy child, ^^,^- ^^ bmi tuan your wife, j^jU multit-nia her mouth, ^^ICJ 
 pnsaka-nia his inheritance. 
 
 Pronouns Demonstrative or Definitive, 
 
 This class may include not only demonstratives proper, but also the 
 definite articles, together with relatives and interrogatives, which, in this, 
 as in other languages, are for the most part the same words employed in 
 a relative or interrogative instead of a demonstrative sense. They are 
 enumerated as follows, j_> tang that which, those, who, whom, the ; as 
 jjI »^_ tang baik that which is good, those who ai'c good, ^^yj j t, 
 lang de per-tuan he who govemeth, the sovereign, AiJ, ^j tang periama 
 the first, ^1j i^ *^j^ musini lang ddtang the appi-oaching season, t_j 
 <Uj)j ^^\ lang ampunia inimah the person to whom the house belongs. 
 The pronoun ^ nen seems to be only a vulgar substitute for ij mig. 
 
 c:-o3 ttu that, those, the, as tj--o3 '*jjl or-ang ttu that man, ^j:^] CJ-^ aJ 
 pada katlka Jtu at that time, i.^} i-rr^ sebdb ttu on that account, ii^iJ^ 
 c:^;! -\j sakit-lali raja Itu the king was sick. 
 
 ^3 Ini this, these, as ^'1 Jy billan mi this month, AJ y] .,j| yl atau 
 ini atau lain either this or another, ^jy ^yj\ jj\) ilj\ ini-lah bath ttu-lak 
 huruk this is good, that is bad. 
 
 uJl apa what, which, as ^^ t_j| apa Itu what is tliat ? uJt ^!;1 ulih 
 apa by what means ? J\ tJl 'ijy^ siirat apa mi what writing is this ?
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. rt 
 
 uJL-> s7-apa (being the preceding interrogative personified by means of 
 a particle commonly prefixed to proper names) who, whom, which, as 
 ^U uJU~! sJ-apa niau who chuses ? »_j'L^ ^1 akan sl-cipa to whom (rela- 
 tively as well as interrogatively), jj^ ^^ Ji\^ si-apa punla budak or 
 ujLj jJ|jj budak si-apa whose servant ? 
 
 ^^U majia, is properly the adverb " where," but is used idiomatically 
 to signify " who, whom, which, what," as ci-^;l ^U cjjl orang mana Itu 
 who is that man ? ^jU ^ benfia inana what country ? ^U j^ kuda 7nana 
 which horse ? 
 
 i^jjj rfjn self, is commonly joined to personal pionouns, and, as in 
 English, partakes much of the nature of a noun, as *l^ ^ji^:, cj\>-jaga 
 dir'i kamu take care of thyself, ^j:> J\ Jji nj^ ^\ iya sudak tikam 
 akan dirt-nia he has stabbed himself. When the personal precedes, 
 this definitive is changed to i^v.jju- sindiri or i^j,^ kindhl, as t_-v*A 
 Ljj),'i:^ aniba sijidiri I myself, ^f^;iJc^ ^y Imn kindtri thou thyself, j_jj 
 t_5-jjjc^ diya khidJrJ he himself. Sometimes, however, it is employed, 
 but rather quaintly, for the second personal, as c.;!* ^ .j i_Jl apa din 
 kata what dost thou say ? 
 
 ti^. V. iya-itu may be considered as a compound pronoun, but is only 
 employed to express the phrase of " that is to say." 
 
 The definite article being thus classed with the pronoun, it may be 
 proper to observe, that the indefinite article ^j^ sa or 'L Sci a, an,' is no 
 other than a contraction of the numeral of unity (as in most European 
 languages) and has already been noticed as such. 
 
 Verbs.
 
 52 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 The verb, in the same manner as the noun, may be distinguished into 
 primitive and derivative. 
 
 The primitive verb is, in its original signification, either transitive, as 
 J^J pukul to strike, ^.^siki taiigkap io c?^{.ch.•, intransitive, as ^\>~ jdlan 
 to walk, jAJ iidor to sleep ; or ambiguous, as ^1 ajar to teach or to learn, 
 iLki tuiiggu to guard, keep, or to dwell. 
 
 The derivative verb is either the primitive determined to a transitive 
 or intransitive sense by the application of particles, or it is a verb con- 
 stituted by means of those particles from other parts of speech, as nouns, 
 adjectives, and adveibs. In conversation the primitive verb is frequently 
 employed to express both the transitive and intransitive sense, where a 
 more correct style would require, the derivative, in order to avoid the 
 ambiguity of meaning to which verbs of that description are liable, as 
 in the instance of fc tegga to stand, or to set up, where the latter sense 
 would be more clearly expressed by the same verb in its derivative form, 
 CC^ menegga. 
 
 The particles used to denote the transitive are either prefixed, or an' 
 nexed, or both. 
 
 The prefixed particles are ^ mcn^ ^e vicng, *^ mem, and * me, 
 being in fact varieties of one and the same particle modified according 
 to the letter with which the primitive Avord begins, in order to render 
 the pronunciation more grateful to the ear. 
 
 The annexed particles are <, kan and ^ 1. Examples of their appli- 
 cation in forming derivative verbs are as follows. 
 
 .< men may precede v.-ords beginning with the letters ^ j, _ cJi, 
 
 and
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 53 
 
 and J d, as aIs^ nien-jamu or ^^^{^ men-jamu-kan to treat, feast, 
 L^^Uu ?7ien-c/iubut to draw or pluck out, njo^j^ vien-dtdeh to boiJ, 
 seethe, ^^^C^jj^ vien-damei-kan to pacify. It sometimes also precedes 
 C5 ^, as (toyj^ men-tttah to order, i_AJji;^<j inen-tutup to shut.; but verbs 
 beojinning with this letter more usually undergo a change that will be 
 hereafter explained, and >^y tutup would in the derivative form become 
 i^y^ nienutup. 
 
 ^ nieng is used before a vowel sound, an aspirate, and also the letter 
 C^, as ^^^Jia meng-ampwi to pardon, j^^ meng-ajar to teach, uJ,^ 
 vimg-urap to anomt, .^S^*, meng-upah to hire, ^^^>>.;.< mmg-ibur-kari 
 to comfort, ^^.x^Jt^ nieng-tdup-i io bring to life, ^^^-i^ meng-ampir- 
 kan to cause to draw nigh, ^J\jiJu meng-antara-kan to put between, 
 interpose, ^^j^^^"^ vieng-liadler-kan to make ready, bring forward, 
 ^J\J^'^ meng-hdsil-kan to collect produce, ^.J^ meng-ganiit-kan 
 to paw, ^Ji^JU meng-gayiap-t to complete. When the primitive begins 
 with \ a ov s> h followed by a quiescent letter or what we term a long 
 vowel, those previous letters are suppressed, and the particle unites with 
 the long vowel, as from o-Xi.l tkat to bind, u-^Lil* meng-ikat, from ^^-U 
 habis to finish, ^LJl< meng-abis ; the ehsion being commonly denoted 
 by the orthographical mark hamzali. 
 
 ^ mem precedes the letters <_> b and (_J p, as ^.L«^ mem-bayer to 
 pay, ^Li-*^ mem-benasa-kan to destroy, <)jj-^ mem-bunoh (or aj^.*^ 
 me?7iunoh) to kill, i»L&«^ mem-pllih to chuse, ^Ji^jL^ meiii-pfaih-kan (or 
 ^J^y^ memutih-kan) to whiten, ^^Ua^ mem-punid-i to appropriate. 
 
 A me precedes the letters j r, J /, * m, ^^ n, and ^ a;, as j^-jj^ me- 
 rusak to spoil, j^^lsj^ me-rupd-kan to represent, pourtray, ^^L* me-lutar 
 to fling, cast, ,^,,.;;J,« me-la?Uas to pass through, ^^L;,*^ me-mati-kan to 
 
 P put
 
 54 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 put to death, ^/^^^ me-mabu/c-l to inebriate, ^J-:^^^ vie-nanti-kan to 
 expect, ^\ijyo me-ivartd-kan to report, publish. It also sometimes oc- 
 curs before the soft aspirate j, as^iu^ ine-hantar to convey, J^^^ 7ne-hcia 
 
 s- 
 
 to drag, and before a vowel, as ^Js'^ ^j^^j^s— * nie-tlang-kan jejak to deface 
 the track ; but «_« mejig is the particle more commonly employed in 
 this situation, with the omission of the aspirate. 
 
 It appears by the foregoing that the simple application of the particles 
 is confined to certain initial letters, and it being necessary that the tran- 
 sitive sense should equally be given to words beginning with the other 
 letters of the alphabet, but which by collision with the particle would 
 produce that harshness of sound so carefully avoided by these people, 
 recourse is had to the expedient of modifying, in a peculiar manner, the 
 first syllable of the primitive, when commencing with one or other of 
 the letters iZJ t, ^ s, i^ p, ^j k, or cS k, and thereby adapting it to the 
 particle, which is also itself susceptible of the variety of termination 
 already mentioned. It may be supposed that the observance of these 
 minute rules is not unattended with difficulty, but the learner will find it 
 more serious as matter of study than of practice, and that the latter will 
 be much facilitated by the smoothness of pronunciation resulting from 
 these changes. 
 
 When the primitive word to which the transitive particle is to be 
 prefixed begins with e.j t, the derivative is formed by omitting that 
 letter and making the final consonant of the particle ^ 7nen coalesce 
 with the following vowel sound : thus from iJy toloiig is formed ij^ 
 menolong to assist ; from cJ,y turut, CJ,^ menurut to follow ; from 
 c:,.^:; tanln, J-y^* viaiantu-kaii to ascertain ; from ,_^lj Unfgis, ^^^i^L« 
 vimangis-kan to bewail ; and when a reciprocity of action is meant to 
 
 be
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 55 
 
 be expressed, the verb is repeated in the two forms, as 'jJ^ jJy tolong 
 vienolong to give mutual assistance, ^jJJc^ ^jJJu tayfgkis menangkis to 
 parry each other's thrusts. 
 
 When the primitive begins with ^u, s, that letter is changed to ^aj nia, 
 and the particle * vie is prefixed ; or it may be considered that the ^ s 
 is dropped, and the ^^ ?i of the particle ^ meii changed to ^ nia : thus 
 from ^^J.^ sainpei is formed ^J^^ meniampei to cause to arrive ; from 
 j-jj-j 5/7^/7, u5j~^ nienmsu-t to suckle ; from '^^ senang, j-ij-* menidnang 
 to satisfy, and from *,^ stram, m^^ meni/lrani to besprinkle. This 
 modification of the particle sometimes takes place in forming transitives 
 from words beginning with ^ and _, as from j-s^ jUJijong ^JJisx^ 
 meniunjong-kan to raise to the head, and from ^^»!>- cliuclii pure, ^^y^ 
 vieniuclu to purify ; but the more correct inflexions would be iks^sx^ 
 mcn-junjong-kan and ^^>-y^ meyi-chuchl. 
 
 When the word begins with 4_j p, that letter is changed to » 7n, and 
 the particle * me is prefixed, or the (_J p is dropped, and the second m 
 ni of the particle ^ mem coalesces with the vowel, as from j!lS pain is 
 formed jlU« 7nemdlu to strike ; from iJj pegang, i_Lvo ?nemt'ga?ig to 
 hold ; and from ^^ pfiius, ^y^ memutus to break off. 
 
 When the word begins with tl/ k, that letter, in the formation of the 
 transitive, is dropped, and the particle i_^ meng being prefixed, its final 
 letter coalesces with the vowel : thus from ci-'\i kata is formed i^\k-, 
 7«c«];J/a to acquaint; ivomj^ ka-luai', j^ mejigaluar to take or put 
 out ; from ^j^f kftpas, ^^yit, meiigupas to peel ; from ^i^ klpas, ^jJJi^ 
 metigJpas to fan or to winnow ; from J^^ kaiial to recollect, JJii penga?ial, 
 as in the following sentence, ^J^ y JJi J^ ^.^ J.j j^ jj ^^, 
 7nengatau-i dan nwiganal dangnn pcrigatau-an dan penganal tan"^ 
 
 semporna
 
 56 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 seyyiporna to know and to remember with perfect knowledge and recol- 
 lection. 
 
 The annexed particles ^ -kan and j_y -? may be employed either ii» 
 conjunction with the prefix to enforce the transitive sense, as c ji JL-yjU ' 
 
 viengunm-haji pedang to unsheath a sword, jj^b ^\ .-..^.-o meji-benasd' 
 
 kan negri to ruin a country, ^yS ^jj\^a~c mem-blidru-i kabfm to renew 
 a plantation ; or, independently ot the prefix, to form a transitive verb, 
 as (_J1 ^J^y^ ambus-kan dpi blow the fire, jj^ ^J^ lepas-kaii kiida let 
 loose the horse, jU^ ^^.j^ ^ de tantu-i-nia beclidra he ascertained the 
 matter, cjJo d^j^ '^ de lumur-kan-nia dinding he daubed the wall. It 
 may be observed, that the imperative form does not admit of the prefix 
 though it does of the annexed particle, and that the infinitive seldom 
 dispenses with the former. 
 
 The particles, or modified particle, _^ ber, Jj bel, t_> be, denoting the 
 intransitive sense, are prefixed to the verb or word verbally employed, 
 without any annexed particle, as ^1^ ber-djar or ^ii bel-djar to learn, 
 c:^b»/j ber-dnyul to drift or float away, y^ij ber-diri to stand up, ^.j^ 
 hcT'diam to keep silence, (>^^/ bcr-sinyum to smile, jjj-^ ber-silrak 
 to shout, 'i,li^ ber-pdrang or cjlai be-pdrang to go to war, j_jjiL be-ldri 
 to run away, TtUij/ be-rintik-rijitik to fall in drops. In most instances 
 the particles^ bej' and t_> be may be indifferently employed, the former 
 being more usual in writing, and the latter in conversation ; and it may 
 be observed that these two intransitive prefixes are much more simple in 
 their application than the transitive, and coalesce with all the letters of 
 the alphabet. The other modification, Jj bel, which seldom occurs, 
 precedes only a vowel sound, although from analogy it might be sup- 
 posed to coalesce with t_» b also, as in the formation of derivative nouns ; 
 
 but
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 57 
 
 but Tiltliough tliey Avrite uL^l^ pd-bliagi division, the verb is ci'W 
 ber-bliugi to become divided. Before J / it may admit of a doubt 
 whether the prefix be Jj bcl or <_> be, as the Malays avoid double letters 
 in writing, and rarely avail themselves of the orthographical mark (-) 
 tcshdtd, by which the duplication of the J / might be expressed. 
 
 Although the foregoing distinction between the effects of the transitive 
 and intransitive particles, is founded upon the obvious tenor of the lan- 
 guage, yet many exceptions to the general rule occur, which it is proper 
 to notice. 
 
 Some verbs not strictly intransitive, inasmuch as they admit a subject 
 or accusative case, nevertheless assume the intransitive prefix, as =^h 
 bel-ajar to learn (a lesson), ^^^-^^y, ber-simpcni to have (money) in keep- 
 ing; yet as distinguished from the same primitives with the transitive 
 prefix, j=-\m meiig-ajar to teach, ^^^a*-^ menyimpan to put by, lay up, 
 they are considered in the light of iiitransitives. A few anomalies 
 however, appear, which this explanation will not account for, as *^j 
 'ijy^ ber-ktrim sural to send a letter ; and when the particle^ per (which 
 will be particularly noticed hereafter) is introduced between the intran- 
 sitive prefix and the verb, the latter commonly admits the annexed 
 transitive particle and expresses a transitive sense, as jJ.. .Xj-^,-.-!) he- 
 per-sambah-kan kliabar to communicate intelligence (to a superior) ; and 
 in like manner there are instances of the transitive particle being pre- 
 fixed, where the verb is notwithstanding employed intransitively, as (_v4j» 
 ^^JU aniba meng-aytl I understand, i_>^L« i'J ^d d'lya tail menarJ she 
 knows how to dance, ^^L* jj\ anak mcnangis the child cries, jIsuj 
 j^l< men-jddi masak to become ripe ; of which last verb the nature and 
 peculiarities will appear under the next head. 
 
 O Verbs
 
 58 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Verbs Substantive. 
 
 The verbs denoting being and the progress of existence, called verbs 
 substantive, are j1 ada to be, is, and j\s^jddi to become, v,ax ; answering 
 to the Latin SUM and FIO. 
 
 These verbs being in their nature intransitive, do not require the in- 
 transitive particle y be)' (though they admit of being rendered transitive, 
 with a facility peculiar to this language, and then assume the usual pre- 
 fixed and annexed particles) as jl^Ij j>\ ada balk is good ; ^b jl ada 
 bdniak there are many; ^<jj j1 ^Lj dc-mdna ada rumah where is the 
 house ? L_v»J5 Jj <»lb\ add-lah pada amba I have (there is to me) ; cJ^ 
 ^-.-0 cjU^ j1 jils bagi pdtek ada penndta sa-blji thy servant hath a 
 precious stone; i^l^Jc^ ^j\ ^\ ^i:>~ jckalau ada iya ber-kandardn if he has 
 a conveyance, ^\J\ (jj^ j^l^ cij^ sepeiii bdi/ang juga add-nia it is like 
 a mere shadow. 
 
 When used without an adverb or modal, J, ada does not appear to be 
 confined to the present nor any definite time, as ^ jij 1^ K;j— >i\ ada 
 s'orang rdja bentia ajem there was a certain king of Persia, ^\ "^y^ J\ 
 ^Xy ada s'orang anak-7iia perampuan he had one daughter, jjy ^y 
 JL«^ jjb l<l^ d\ c^'U <u^ ^jjiU norm puMUg jdngan siisah dti ada sa- 
 Idmat ddtang kambdli your mistress is gone, do not be grieved ; she 
 will come back in safety, ^^ ^\ ^\ jw\iS> andak ada iya suchi he ought 
 to be clean, ^^^^,Uj jjjJ <iJ ^j] j1 Ai^:Jb andak-lah ada iya lebih deri- 
 pada pcm-bdyer fitang-nia he ought to have more than sufficient to pay 
 his debts. 
 
 Employed as an auxiliary it is equivalent to a participle of the present 
 tense, as ^^U J\ %jj\ drang ada mdkan the people are eating, jl ^_^ljijl^ 
 ,.^Uj Kdnak-dnak ada ber-mdm the children are playing, or at play. 
 
 It
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 59 
 
 It is much more frequently understood than expressed, as aIjs^ d:^ 
 laidr-lah beckara-mu your counsel is right. 
 
 When used in an active or transitive sense, it signifies to cause, give 
 existence to, or occasion to be, as oUU 7neng-dda or ^^ ^J\^x^ mcng- 
 adci-kan lavasd-7iia to give existence or occasion to his power. 
 
 The other verb substantive jW- jddi, in its simple intransitive form, 
 signifies to become, to wax, as ^"^ jU |_^j diya jcidl luiya he becomes 
 rich, ^U J\»- i^yjjji di-t-piin jddl jmnas the day waxes hot. 
 
 In the transitive form its signification is nearly the same as that of 
 the preceding verb, viz. to cause to become, to constitute, to create, but 
 is more commonly employed, as _l^ ^_^jsx^ vien-jadt-kan raja to con- 
 stitute a king, JU ^ssLq j_) ^y tuhan tang men-judi-kaii dlam the 
 Lord who created the world, :)^J, ^^^ ^jusv>a men-jadi-kan diri-nia 
 garuda transformed himself into a griffin. Contrary, however, to one 
 of the most consistent rules of the language, the transitive form of this 
 verb is often employed intransitively, as jlsx< nie7i-judi (but never, with 
 both the prefixed and the annexed particles, <oas^ mm-jad'i-knn) AJ^ 
 islam to become a Mahometan, ^y jls^ c/l aku men-jddi tuah I am 
 growing old. 'jjjj jlsi« ij^-o ^f^} ^\ anak-nia peranipnan siidah meii- 
 jddi bunting his daughter has become pregnant, J\j ^^.Oa^j dc jadt- 
 kan-?iia raja he became a king. In the last example the irregularity is 
 the most striking. 
 
 Verbal nouns are formed in the usual manner from botli of these 
 verbs, as J\S^ ka-add-an existence, ^j-\sJ ka-jadl-an creation or pro- 
 duction ; and even in its primitive foim, ^\ ada is sometimes made a 
 noun, as jU Jj J\jcj\ antdra ada dan tidda between existence and non- 
 existence, between is and is not. 
 
 Distinctions
 
 6o A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Distinctions and Relations of the f^erb. 
 The distinctions of active and passive voices, of mood and tense, apply 
 but imperfectly, and those of person and number not at all, to the 
 Malayan verb. In order, however, to conform as much as possible to 
 ideas rendered habitual by the practice of reducing the grammar of other 
 languages to the standard of the Greek and Latin, it becomes expedient 
 to consider the verb under the most applicable of the established rules, 
 and to explain those departures from them which are peculiar to this 
 lancuaaie. 
 
 The personal pronoun or the noun that stands in the relation of a 
 nominative case or agent, commonly precedes the verb, and it rarely 
 happens that any words beside the qualitive or the modal (and that ge- 
 nerally expressive of time) intervenes between them, as i^J^ t_.-v*ii 
 amba cliarl I seek, cj\^ '^j^ orang bcr-kdta people say, Jij ns^ ^j 
 dii/a sudah ber-layer he has sailed, cJ^J :S\ JjjjI^j '^J>^ gadoiig bJiaru 
 balum ada ter-bUka the new warehouse is not yet opened. But when 
 the verb is preceded by the indefinite particle j de or sign of the aorist, 
 the nominative case is then always made to follow, and the accusative or 
 subject frequently to precede the particle, as ^Af-l^J de per-lambal-nia 
 he delayed, ^^ <dJ\ ^J j jU tidda de tcrima allak puasd-jiia God will 
 not accept his fasting, J, i3jj j J\ J^ sopdi/a iya de bunoh raja that 
 the king may put him to death, j*;— a^ J (»_-v*Ji c^ys J^J J l--vWs aDiba 
 de pukul aria amba de rampas-nia me he beat, and my goods he plun- 
 dered. In the following example the agent in the former part of the 
 sentence, contrary to the general rule, appears to follow the verb in 
 order to preserve and maintain uniformity with the construction of the 
 latter ptut, which obeys the rule last-mentioned. ^Jjy^ ^ i'^ •-/^^^ '•^-^
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. fji 
 
 '^j ^J\ ^L\^ je/ca gilgur iya (for iya gugur) atau de gugur-kan kiida-nia 
 akan diya if he fall, or if his horse throw him. 
 
 The passive voice (as in English and French) is found only in the 
 form of a participle, and is rather a branch of the transitive than a 
 distinct species of verb. It is denoted by the inseparable particle j ter 
 prefixed, as ^J^yJ ter'tiilis written, <u^y ter-bunoli slain, ajjy ta-pJlik 
 chosen: but to avoid harshness of sound in pronunciation, the^ r of the 
 particle fs sometimes dropped, as n^y^ ie-lampau exceeded, ^J^\J^ te-per- 
 dlas founded. 
 
 The moods of the verb may be named and ranked as follows, viz. the 
 imperative, indicative or assertive, conditional, and infinitive or indefinite; 
 which admit, for the most part, of being expressed in the present, the 
 past, and the future tenses or times. 
 
 The imperative mood, in its second or characteristic person (the third 
 being more strictly a permissive) is in this language the original and 
 simplest form of the verb,* and the only one in which a perfect sense 
 
 R can 
 
 * In the Latin, Greek, German, Persian, and many other languages, the imperative 
 seems to be the most obvious basis of the inflexions of the verb, yet it has not been so 
 regarded by grammarians, who assign this property, some to the third person of the pre- 
 terite tense, and others to the infinitive mood. Sir William Jones says, that the latter 
 " is properly considered by the oriental grammarians as the spring and fountain of all the 
 moods and tenses." It is with diffidence I venture to state my opinion in opposition to 
 such authority ; but to my mind it appears more probable, both in point of form and sense, 
 that the infinitive, which so far from conveying a simple idea, approaches in fact to the 
 character of an abstract noun, (as in the phrase, " to give is better than to receive,") 
 «ould never have been the source of that mood in which the earliest sentiments of childhood 
 
 and
 
 6fe A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 can be conveyed without the assistance of any other word or particle, as 
 ^j fingive, cJ^ pergi ^0, ^J\^ makan eat, ^^jjj duduk sit down. It 
 does not admit of the preBxed, although in some instances it takes the 
 annexed transitive particles ^ kan and ^ 7, and very commonly the in- 
 tensitive *] lah, as '^\ J^ lepas-kan anjing let loose the dog, ^jS 
 ^J^^ pulang-kaji gadei return the pledge, 4*^^ 7nait-lak come, .sbilj 
 hdifgun-lah waken, arise; 
 
 When the pronoun of the second person accompanies the imperative, 
 it is made, as in other languages to follow the verb, as J<, ^Ji Ian kdmii 
 run thou, 'f;j-<l^ JU jdlan kdm'orang march ye 1 
 
 It may be observed that these personals are such as imply inferiority 
 of condition (persons in that relative situation only being liable to receive 
 commands) and that a well-bred native would express himself otherwise 
 to his equal or his superior, and instead of *\^ jjjj duduk kdmu or 
 Xcl J jj J diiduk angkau sit thou, would say jjjo ^y ij:-,;^ 7ninta tuan 
 
 duduk 
 
 and the rudest of savage life are known to be communicated, iu terms equivalent to " give, 
 
 " take come, sit, eat, go." But without reasoning A priori, what unbiassed person will 
 
 not admit that the Latin inflexions " damus, dabam, dabo," are more likely, with respect 
 
 to the letters which compose the words, to have proceeded from " da" give, than from 
 
 " dare" to give, and " imus, ibam" rather from " i" go, than from " ire" to go, 
 
 or from any other mood or tense of the verb. Upon the same principles I should say 
 
 that the Persian infinitive ^■^rr'J. P>i^sidan to ask, is formed from ^y^ purs ask, ^^y 
 
 btirdan to carry, from y bur bear, and ^^J^|; randan to drive, from ^Jij ran drive, by 
 
 annexing the syllables ^Si_ idan and (j J dan to the simple roots, and not by tlie contrary 
 
 mode of proceeding ; whatever the native grammarians, who speak technically rather than 
 
 philosophically, may assert. In some languages, I am aware, the proofs are not so 
 
 striking, but artificial lefiaemeuts may have tokea the place of more original expressions.
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 63 
 
 duduk, or, still more politely, jjjj ^^jj" <»J;,$L-» sila-kan-lak tuan duduk 
 be prevailed upon, Sir, to sit down. 
 
 A species of qualified Imperative, which may be termed a recom« 
 mendatlve (expressed in English by the auxiliaries " should" and " ought") 
 will be noticed in speaking of the conditional mood of the verb. 
 
 The indicative or assertive mood partakes of the simple quality of the 
 imperative, particularly in the first and second persons of the present 
 tense, as jU ijj\ aku iJiau I chuse, JU- c--v^ ainba jaUm I walk ^1^ 
 i,::..^^ saya m'lnta I ask, ^i^ *\^ kamu mlnuni you drink, ijj^ ^\ angkau 
 kata thou speakest, J^^ 'rji-^^ kamorang ■percliaya ye believe. It 
 assumes however both the prefixed and annexed transitive and intransitive 
 particles, as ^^ iz^ c:-^^:^ t^^-» saya me-natiti titttli tuan I wait your 
 orders, ^U j^ cSaA ^^/^ cS\ aku saraJi-kan anak-ku ka-pada tdngan- 
 mu I commit my child to your hands A ijy^ *^ c--v*Ji amba bcrkJrim 
 siirat mi I send this letter. If the transitive forms in these two persons 
 are not so familiar to the ear as in the third, it is because they must be 
 employed to assert what, from the action itself, is sufficiently known to the 
 person addressed. The third person, on the contrary, and particularly 
 in the past tense, is a more habitual form of the verb, and admits of the 
 easy application of those particles, Jys, j J^j lJ^ d'lya ber-jalan daTdu. 
 he walks first, ^^b" <uL*.« ,_? j diya mem-bdsuh tangan-nia he washes his 
 hands, ^j^^j ^^^^^ '^_j^\ anjing viem-buni rusa the dog pursues the deer, 
 ^!^^J\y^^ nx^ (.i^l 'c,j^ Zrang itu sudah mem-bdyer Ulang-nia that man 
 has paid his debts. 
 
 In the interrogative form of the Indicative the personal is usually made to 
 follow the verb, as a^ cJ6 uJl apa kdta kdnm, or ^^^ cjI^ kdta tilan what 
 sayest thou ? *t^ t,jS ^Jl^ brdpa kmmg kdmu how many do you want ?
 
 64 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 cj^^l^C^J^ ha-mana pergi /cam'drang v/hkher are ye going? But 
 they also say j'i %jj^^ uJliU meng-apa kam'orang lari why do you run? 
 or with the proper interrogative particle i^ kali, ti^-oj i^S^ ^J^ iS^^<i 
 de-mana-hah angkan dapat ttu where did you get that? Where the 
 nominative case is other than a pronoun personal it more commonly 
 precedes the verb, as ijy ix^ c^^ <j^lu^ ka-viana-kah bilrong sudah 
 terbang whither has the bird flown ? JL*^ jjc^ J\j <»^L-Si apabild-kah 
 raja ayidak kambali when does the king mean to return ? 
 
 In the assertive form the agent or nominative always precedes, and the 
 subject or accusative, as well as the object or dative and ablative cases, in 
 plain construction, always follow the verb, but without being liable to 
 variety of termination or other change of form that can justify the ex- 
 pression of the one governing or being governed by the other ; as jjy 
 JUj,j Ij^ tukang meyicggd riimah workmen build a house, ^b J$Lvc cjjl 
 vrang memlkul baban men carry burthens, ^^^js^jj^^j JSI^ kdpal ber-ldycr 
 ka-tlmor the ship sails to the eastward, (jLS^'i A\^ uJ^ (•/^j^ ^i/^" i^^" 
 ka-dalam Idut rain falls into the sea. In poetic language, however, these 
 rules are dispensed with, and inversions of the order of words are not 
 uncommon. 
 
 The rules which govern the assertive apply equally to the conditional 
 or potential form ; the word which precedes it in construction and causes 
 the verb to express a conditional or potential, instead of an assertive or 
 positive sense, not affecting the application of the transitive or intransi- 
 tive particles, as jjb ^^y CJ^jeka tuan ddlang if you come, c^iU ^j ^^ 
 kalau raja me-larang if the king forbid, j^l^ ^^ i^b dcipat kdnii 
 ber-onlong provided we are successful, ^^j ^ (_,.v4jii ^^^U- ^^Ia- sopdya 
 jmgan amha kcna rugi that I may not incur a loss, JU j^sv* ^\ ^^^\ 
 
 agar
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 65 
 
 •agar sopai/a anak-nia inen-jddi alim in order that his children may 
 become learned. 
 
 From the conditional as explained in the foregoing examples, and 
 which may be termed the conditional-assertive, we must disiingnish a, 
 recommendative form, which being expressed in English by the auxiliary 
 " should," seems to belong to the subjunctive mood, but may with mor6 
 propriety be regarded as a qualified or conditional imperative. Like the 
 simple imperative it rejects the prefixed transitive and intransitive particles 
 ^ men and j ber, but assumes the indefinite particle j de (whose 
 extensive use and peculiarities will appear in the sequel) and is preceded 
 either by the adverb CS^ maka ere, before, now, whereas, or the auxiliary 
 AiJoJi andak-lali should, ought, or by both, as in the following examples, 
 J. .* 1^ jjy J CX< maka de pdtong dmigan plsau you are (then) to cut 
 it with a knife, .a^JIcJuj CS^ maka de randang-kayi-nia you are to fry 
 it, ^fj J,\ ijjj J jL) CJit maka tidda de bunoli akan diya you are not to 
 kill him, ^i} <i CJ^ maka de per-TdUi-nia in order that he may obtain, 
 ^yiiLcW <^oo-fc CJ^ maka andak-lah de budng-kan-nia he should or 
 ought to throw it away, ^^_ ^o ^\^ ^xjd CS^ maka andak-lah pndsa- 
 dua bulan should or must fast two months, ^JlixS ^\ ,^U- ^xjt> andak- 
 lah jdrigan iya ka-tinggal-an he ought not to loiter behind, .di'jcj* CS-* 
 u:,.>-Jo^ J,\ J\j ^jl sjlS J maka andak-lah de parang tdih rdja akan 
 marik 'Uu the king ought to make war on those people. 
 
 When the verb substantive is introduced, the indefinite particle is 
 omitted, as _^ ^_f\ j\ .dijoib aiidak-lah ada iya suchi it should be clean^ 
 j^ j^'vp J'^j'^ tr^/ ^^ "^^ c-^^ andak ada iya kxodsa duduk de-dtas knda 
 he ought to be able to sit upon a horse, ^^i,J^ OkS^j «d ^\ A ^jJ^ andak 
 
 S ojd^/s
 
 66 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ada iya lebih deri-pada pem-bayer utang-nia he ought to have more 
 than wherewithal to pay his debts. 
 
 The optative, which in other languages is likewise classed with the 
 subjunctive or conditional mood, in this seems to belong (as the preced- 
 ing) to the imperative, and requiring the indefinite particle o de, is nearly 
 allied to the recommendative in point of form, as (LiJL;Ji-> ^J^ ajll ^j j 
 de bri allah kamarau sedJkit God grant a little fair weather, ^J'Ja^ j ^b 
 aW barang de sampei-kan allah may God cause it to arrive. The optative 
 or obsecrative expressions, ajl-t apd-lah, ^\J <i]ljl apd-lah kira-nia, Ji\J 
 gardng-an, are much employed in giving energy to this mood. 
 
 The infinitive mood rarely dispenses with fhe transitive and intransitive 
 particles, which seem to belong in an especial manner to this form of 
 the verb, as ^t ljJ^ f»^ tl^ pergi kdmu 7nencfiari ontong go thou to 
 seek for gain, 'jj^ i^:^ lambat m€7idlo7ig slow to assist, ^\jf^ }y^ 
 • ^j J'^^J^ u^-J sukar r)iem-bechard-ka?i dan viengarjd'kan diya difficult 
 to plan and to execute it, (.::-Xcl^ ^s^>^ sedla ber-dngkat ready to set out, 
 ^.U^ u-C suka ber-mdm glad to play, cJSji ^^^ paritas ber-kdta fluent 
 of speech, ready at speaking. 
 
 The distinction of tenses or times to which the action of the verb 
 refers, being effected by the use of specific words expressive of the 
 past, the present, or the future, and not by any alteration in the form ot 
 the verb itself, the subject might with propriety be treated under the 
 modal or adverb, but the learner who is accustomed to the method of 
 European grammar, will naturally expect to find whatever has relation, 
 to the verb exemplified in this place. 
 
 Where the assertion of acting or suffering is unqualified by any par- 
 ticular
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 67 
 
 tkular attribution of time, the present or existing time must of course 
 
 be understood, as t::^ u-^vWd mnba Bat I see, ^J^j i^J^y^ ynala-arl naik 
 
 the sun rises, Jb^ uJ! dpi ber-7iidla the fire blazes, t.^jfA* 'jj <id]i allaJi 
 
 lang meng'a-tdu-i God who knoweth, or is all-knowing ; but it does not 
 
 reject the addition of modals, which serve to mark the time with more 
 
 precision, as \J^ i-:^^ »_-^-4J^ *Lj\ ini-lah amba buat sakdrang this I do, 
 
 or am doing, now ; CJyf- ^^U i_?j diya nidkan juga he still eats, or is 
 
 eating ; j)j ^1 J\ tlfls pagi. mi prau ber-ldyer this morning the vessel 
 
 sails ; jcJj ^\ ^J^.^ ^JJj jjb ol J^ lIj^jj paduka kakanda ada datang 
 
 mi mengdwin-kmi anakanda baginda my dear brother is now coming to 
 
 receive in marriage the daughter of your majesty. 
 
 Where the present time is denoted by modals expressing a continuity 
 or existing duration of action, the verb, although not altered in form, 
 may be considered as assuming the nature of the participle present and 
 gerund. The modals employed for this purpose are C^J Idgi still, 
 more, J*^-j sambil, ^\j^ serdya-, and c-y- serta whilst, when, at the same 
 time, as soon as, whereupon, with, together with, as jjij c^l Idgi ddtang 
 coming, jS^ c^\ Idgi Cidor sleeping, or, still asleep, ^^.^ J^^<^ JU^ 
 ber-jdlaii sambil bcr-sinnyum walked on, smiling, 'j^^ j_L*>; (_c^j_i.« ^tj 
 cyU j! dan meng-ilchap sambil ber-lmang dyer mala and said, the tears 
 at the same time trickling down ; ,^lu^ J\ i_JL< ^\j~i .u^-^ meniambak 
 serdya menidpu dyer matd-nia made obeisance, at the same time wiping 
 a^vay her tears, en essuyant ses larmes ; c:J^j> t_s\j^ ^^^yj j de lertawu-nia 
 s€rdya bcr-kdta he laughed, saying, ^i^i ^\ c-yj serta iya ddtang as soon 
 as he comes, upon his coming ; j1 ijy^ i_-^" c-yo serta tlba snrat ini 
 upon the arrival of this letter. 
 
 A present continuity of action is in like manner implied by prefixing 
 
 the
 
 68 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 the verb substantive ^\ ada, as ^x^ J\ i_jj dij/a ada mandi she is bathing, 
 .JU-.> J\ f j_H'^ di'orayig ada ber-jdlan they are -walking. It must be 
 remarked, however, that the verb substantive is not confined to the pre- 
 sent time, but may be connected with a modal of the past, though not of 
 the future. 
 
 Beside these, a gerund in form as well as in sense, being in fact a verbal 
 uoun infinitively applied in construction, is produced, as other verbal 
 nouns, by prefixing to the simple verb the particle cS ka-, and annexing 
 the particle ^ -an,zs ^^^L iki^jJi ^,^ ^j\^ jLi' ljJ^^ matu-dn tidda 
 ha-lidl-an sebdb ka-Undmg-ayi-lah sdyup-nia the sun was not to be seen 
 by reason of the shadowing of its wings ; cJ^ uj^"^ 't*. *— *^ '^^ tidda apa 
 lajig ka-ddngar-aii Idgi nothmg was any longer to be heard; j»^ ^^JS, 
 j)\ ^^'^ ^^ri- kdnia bumi santidsa ka-datdng-an dyer by reason of the 
 earth continually imbibing water. 
 
 The past time is most commonly expressed by modals, which in the 
 construction of the sentence precede the verb. Those chiefly employed 
 are ^ telah and is^ sudah, ^jJjt, dbis and J^ Idlu, all signifying " past 
 or done," as J\ Jj yi\ j\ .jIj telah ada atau balum 4ida has been or is not 
 yet ; Jij i^ ^d diya telah ber-ldt/ej- he has sailed ; 'j_i< iju- ^\^ kdmt 
 sudah menang we have won ; ^y ^j^j 'c,jj burong sudah terbang the 
 bird has flown ; ^^j ^jJa sjw: \j^ orang sudah dbis ber-katja the men 
 have done working; jjjj J1 ^^U r(_->J tiha-tJba mdsiik Idlu duduk 
 suddenly entered and then sat down. 
 
 The same words are also employed in the formation of participles of 
 the past, as ^J,^ <idj telah savipei arrived ; aJj' telah or ti-'U ax^ sudah 
 vidti dead ; ^IS <di telali pdkei worn ; Jll ^Ij ^.j ^\i idtoi tang telah lain 
 the past year, or, year that has elapsed: and where the sense is decidedly 
 
 passive,
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE: 69 
 
 passive, with the intervention of the particle ji ter, as "k^j ss^ t, jj j 
 derham Jang sudah ter-Ouang the money that was thrown away, ^ 
 *^j ix^ jy, \jj\ barigkci orang tang sudah ter-gantong the borly of a 
 man who has been hangecj ; '^^J <sLjU. iji^l i^jj rumah llu abis-lah 
 ter-panggang the house was burned down ; ^Uy ^la dhis ter-ynakan 
 eaten up. 
 
 The time imperfectly or indefinitely past is usually expressed without 
 a modal, by prefixing the indefinite particle de, as ^jy^ j de suruh-nia 
 he ordered ; ^\^_} d de pcr-biiat-nia he performed ; u?j^J a*^ '^ ^^ 
 tangkap-nia peyi-churi he seized the thief; J^^ JjL. <jjjl ^ApXcjlS j de 
 parang-kan-nia ulih segala pahluwan he was attacked by all the warriors, 
 or, all the warriors attacked him ; ^\j aJj! ^xj j de dangar fdih raja it 
 was heard by the king, or, the king heard ; in which latter examples it 
 will be perceived that a passive form is given to the verb, although the 
 sense is active, by the preposition ^j\ illih ; as in Latin, FACTUM EST A 
 TE is used for TV fecisti. The imperfect is also sometimes denoted 
 simply by annexing the particle <iJ lah, as ^^ ^^ Aas _.[, A^J dCo 7naka 
 pergi-lah raja ka-pada tua?i putri and the king went to the princess ; 
 jJu-jjj ti)^:^ ttu-pun ber-niajiyl-lali thereupon sang. 
 
 The means of expressing in this language a simple future tense are 
 extremely defective, the modals or adverbs, and auxiliary veibs employed 
 for this purpose (like " will" and " shall" in English, the former of 
 which includes the idea of volition and the latter of compulsion) being 
 words which possess independent significations, not always strictly com- 
 patible with the use made of them to denote simple futurity of time. 
 The auxiliaries chiefly used in conversation are jU niau will, intend, ^j> 
 bulih may, will, i.^^ 7W«// wait, as jJ^^jU U;-v4A amba man pulang I 
 
 T am
 
 yo A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 am about to return : jSJ jU ^j dii/a mau t'ldor he will, or, is going to 
 fall asleep ; cy,y jU J^ i^J diya tiada mau turiit he will not follow ; 
 jJi aU- ^>-^^ "OjJ bulih amba singgah kaldk I shall call presently; l::^ 
 j_,ij l_^vw^ ?m?ia' ^/»2^fl datang I shall come ; <u*-: JL- u:-^ ?Jfln^i ^egra 
 sumboh shall presently be restored to health. 
 
 Those used in writing and in correct discourse, are jjoJi andak will, 
 intend (but which more commonly denotes a conditional or quahfied 
 imperative) J,\ akan to, and the indefinite particle ^ de, which forms an 
 aorist of the future as well as of the past, as *UJ ^/V* f^ /^■^■^ andak- 
 lah angkau mcniata-kan nama-mu will you, or do you intend to make 
 known your name ? clJ^I^j jjcjs ^^ diya andak ber-aiigkat he intends 
 to set out ; j)j> ^\ ^y JLGI apa-kala tuan akan ber-layer when will you, 
 or, are you to sail ? ^^'p %}^ 'j-J'b ^\ Oj,^ garuda akan datang me- 
 niurang negrl the griffin will come, or, is coming to ravage the country ; 
 Xjji i\ <5i]^ L<\ J jU tiada de ampun allah akan dikau God will not 
 pardon thee ; ic^j <U^ ^\ ^j .^jSl' J J^ nischaya de siksa raja akan 
 pem-bunoh ttu the king will certainly punish that murderer. 
 
 Injtexions of the Transitive Ferb. 
 i,::^\s^ jabat to touch or handle. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 ^s^\s^jribat touch. 
 
 .il\ ^^:^\s~jabat angkau or .i^] ^}c>- jabat-lak angkau touch thou. 
 
 ^»^'U J <Oijafe andak-lak de jabai-nia let him touch. 
 
 Indicative
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 71 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 c::^U cJ\ aku jabat, ui-^jIsU 7Jie7i-jahat, or ^iojla^u men-jabat-kan I 
 
 touch. 
 
 jIsu ylc^ ayCgkau men-jabat thou touchest, Sec. 
 
 -j^si^ t_f J flfi^fl fnen-jdbat he toucheth. 
 
 jlsi< ^1^ ^awF 7nen-jdbat we touch. 
 
 (.::.^^£U yLcl aiigkau meii-jdbat ye touch. 
 
 > 
 (.::^lsx« c:,.<-J1.Ij^ wa;i^- 7fi^ men-jdbat they touch; 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 e-^U- <)Jj cS\ aku telahjdbat I have touched. 
 tu-^U- <dj jJlc^ migkau telah jdbat thou hast touched. 
 ui.^W <dj i^j rf^j/« /e/fl/i jdbat he hath touched. 
 c:^U- <4i' ^_j<l^ AamJ fe/fl/i jaZ>a^ we have touched, 8cc. 
 
 Indefinitely Past Tense. 
 
 ■^A^U. de jdbat-nia he touched. 
 
 i^j ^jt i-i-oU J de jdbat fdih diya it was touched by him, or, he touched. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 ti^U- jlo cL/I aku mdu jdbat, ij^lsrU jax& cS\ aku andak men-jdbat, 
 jU- cJ\ ii>j>_ bulih aku jdbat, cJ\ ^■^:-^}^ ^ de jdbat aku I will or shall 
 touch. 
 
 (ji-yU. JJcJ^ ylr^ angkau andak jdbat, &:c. thou wilt touch. 
 u:-oW ^\ ^j rfzj/fl akan jdbat, 8cc. he will, or, is to touch.
 
 72 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ••^V c/^ L^^ kiimJ akan Jilbal, tec. we will, or, are to touch. 
 
 Conditional Blood. 
 
 L^{^ ^^j CSs>-jeka diya men-jdbat if he touches. 
 (.::-olsu ^^^. tJiA^ sopaya kdnii men-jabat that we may touch. 
 c:-^lsrU (CwXij^ uiJb dapat martk'ltu mai-jdbat should they, or 
 provided they should touch. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Ls-olaiu men-jdbat or ^J^UU men-jdbat-kan to touch. 
 
 Participles. 
 Of the Present. 
 
 ti-oU. tlJ'il /(J^i jafifl^ or t::^jU i> ci'^ /Jo^/ de jabat touching, still 
 touching, or, continuing to touch. 
 
 J-4-. sanibil, tij^ serta, or c-^lsu ij\j^ seraya men-jdbat touching, 
 or, whilst touching. 
 
 ^U- j1 adajdbat is touching. 
 
 Of the Past. 
 
 ts^W <s1j telahjdbat, ts-^W o ja-j sudali de jdbat having touched. 
 
 Of the Passive Past. 
 
 (C^Ujj ter-jdbat touched, i.::-^^ j i_j lang de jdbat who was touched. 
 Ai 'j_i 7flw^ /^/fl/t, or, cu^Ujj «Jwj iM^a/f ter-jdbat that hath been 
 touched.
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 73 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 jilJ jj mig ka-jabFit-an, or jA^J. ber-ka-jabat-an that is to be 
 touched. 
 
 Verbal Nouns, 
 
 e-^lsu pai-jubat one who touches, handles, or who holds an employ- 
 ment. 
 
 Ji^J per-jabat-an and ^\^ ka-jabat-an what is touched or handled ; 
 an employment or office. 
 
 jjjj tolong to assist. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 jjjj tolong assist. 
 *l^ jjy tolong kamu assist thou, 
 ^ySiy J Aijjk:jb andak-ldh de tolong-nia let him assist, 
 i^a ^J\ y^ J <ijjf jcjs andak-lah de tdlofig akan diya let him be assisted, 
 or, let assistance be given to him. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 jjy (»_.v«jb a7nba tolong., or iJ^ menolong I assist. 
 
 iJji* *\^ kamu menolong thou assistest. 
 
 jJy.Ki i^j rfzyfl menolong or ^JJ^y^ menolong-kan he assisteth, 
 
 jjji^ i_^\i A-fl?nJ menolong we assist. 
 
 jJ^ fjj-*^ kam'orang menoloig ye assist. 
 
 t'>*L'^.'^ di'oj-ang mendlo7ig they assist. 
 
 U Past
 
 74 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 ^yi ^A.; i_--^ki6 amba sudah tolong I have assisted, 
 jjy *Jw *l^ >ta»iM sudah tolong thou hast assisted, 
 yy «jw! ^^J <//yrt JW6?«/i tolojig he hath assisted. 
 jJy »jw) |_j<l^ >^tf/?iJ 5Zit?a/i tolong we have assisted, Sec. 
 
 Indefinitely Past Tense.. 
 ^y J de tolong-nia he assisted. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 jU i_,,-iji c/ziftfl 7«5/7, j-ja& ujiduk, aJjj ^M/iA, jjy ^^ akan tolong, or 
 jjy^ 7Jicndlo7ig, I will or shall assist. t-j^vWi 'jJ/ J ocJ ?i«7i^« de tolong 
 amba I will assist or am going to assist, 
 
 jJ^c j5A:js |«\^ XJ??z?i andak menolong, Sec. you will assist. 
 
 ■jJ^ jj^l t/".) ^^y^ akan mendlong he will, or is to assist. 
 
 ^ji^ cT^ LS^^ Aa7?i7 tfX-fl?i mendlong we will assist. 
 
 jJwc ^1 'ijy~*^ kam'orang akan mendlong ye will assist. 
 
 y>^ c/^ "'xji-^,'^ diorang akan mendlong they will assist, or are to 
 assist. 
 
 Conditional Mood. 
 
 jJ^iko c_.vk5) CS^jeka amba mendlong if I assist. 
 
 \^y^ i^J k^U-. sopdija d'nja mendlong that he may assist. 
 
 j-Ij-^-c ^_j-«lS L::-Jb f/i7/>fli kdnii mendlong should we, or provided m'c 
 
 I 
 
 hould assist. 
 
 Infinitive
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 75 
 
 Injinltive Mood. 
 
 jjy,c menolong, ^y^ 7nendlong-k(m, or ^^ menolong-i to assist. 
 ^•^y.i> yy tolong-vienblong to assist mutually. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Of the Present. 
 
 jJy ci'^ /%2 tolong, or jjy J t^il /<Jo2 rfe ^o/o«g assisting. 
 J-4^ sambil, cl>j^ serta, oy 'jJjj^ ^_jJ^ seraya mcmlong assisting, or, 
 whilst assisting. 
 
 jjjj j^ «rfa tolong is assisting. 
 
 Of the Past. 
 jjjj" i\^ sudah de tolong having assisted. 
 
 Of the Passive Past. 
 
 jjyy ter-tolong assisted. 
 
 jJyy" «Jw) jj Ffl??^ sz/(/fl/i ter-tolong that hath been assisted. 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 ^^jb^ ^^ za;?^ ka-tolong-an, or (^jliiiJ ber-ka-iolong-an that is to be 
 assisted. 
 
 Ferbal Nouns. 
 ^^ pendlong one who assisteth. 
 ^pj per-tolong-an and ^J_;£}i:i ka-toldng-a?i assistance. 
 
 «r''*
 
 76 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 i^U samun to rob. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 j-eU samun rob, 
 
 j$L^L sanmn-kau rob thou. 
 
 ,.-.,i<L> I,* <<l;ju6 ayidak-lali de sannoi-nia let him rob. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 ^^Uo k_^v*A ffmia samun, or ^^L< juaiiamun I rob. 
 -<L« *\$ Zff»n< meniamun thou robbest. 
 ^U« t^j rfij/fl meJiiamun he robbelh, 
 ^Lc j^\^ kamt rneniamim we rob, 8cc. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 .<< 
 
 iij 
 
 L <tli' I— v4Jb cmifl /e/fl/i sajniin I have robbed. 
 
 ^L <*!>■ f,^ kamu telak samun thou hast robbed. 
 ^L :(Jw! t^J diya sudah samun he hath robbed, 8cc. 
 
 Indefinitely Fast Tense. 
 ^«L. 6 de samun-nia he robbed. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 jto fc_-vO amba man, ^^jjd andak, ^^Lc J\ akan vwiiamim I will or 
 shall rob. 
 
 ^^L« jjcA M^ kamu andak nieriidmuJi you will rob. 
 tr*V* c/^ s^*^ ^^y^ ^^^^^^ meniamim he will rob, See. 
 
 Conditio7ial
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 77 
 
 Conditional Mood. 
 
 ^L< i__.vi>& iUjf-jeka amba nieniamun if I rob. 
 ^^«L« ^^ i^'vL: sopaya karrii meyiidnum that we may rob. 
 ^^«L« ''9jy-<^ c:-^b </J/ja^ kamorang menidmun should ye, or, provided 
 you do rob. 
 
 Ivjimtive Mood, 
 ^^L« menidmun to rob. 
 
 Participles. 
 Of" the Present. 
 
 ^L tl/i! /aj^i sdmun or ^^L j ct^ Idgi de sdmun robbing or con- 
 tinuing to rob. 
 
 J;^^- sambil, lUj^ serta, or ^[^ ^\j^ serdya menidmun robbing, or 
 whilst rol)bino-. 
 
 ^L A ada sdmun is robbing. 
 
 Of the Past. 
 
 J^ J ijw) sudah de sdinun having robbed. 
 
 Of the Passive Past. 
 
 ^Ly tei'-sdmun robbed. 
 
 ^Ly ijuo 'jj tang sudah ter-sdmioi that hath been robbed. 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 Jiy*^ j-i tang ka-samiln-an, or ^^;.♦«4;J ber-kU'Samfm-an that is to be 
 robbed. 
 
 X Va-bal
 
 78 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Verbal Nouns. 
 
 JJ peniamun a robber. 
 ^^j per-samun one who has been robbed. 
 J>y^ ha-samun-an robbery. 
 
 Inflexions of the Intransitive Verb. 
 
 jSJ tldor to sleep. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 jSJ tldor sleep. 
 
 (,^ ilijSJ tldor-lah hamu sleep thou, or go thou to sleep. 
 jAmJuj j jjjjob andak-lah de tJdor-nia let him sleep. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 jOuJ c5'> <^^y^ ^irfor OTjXJj ber-tidor he sleepeth. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 jj«j iX^ c/1 aku sudaJi tldor I have slept. 
 
 jjuj' jj^-j ^\ angkau siiduh tldor thou hast slept. 
 
 jiXJ »Jw.> (j^\^ karnt sudah tldor we have slept. 
 
 Indefinitely Past Tense. 
 ^jObJ J rfe tldor-nia he slept. 
 
 Future Tense, 
 
 jU c/l fl^M mau or jjcJ jjoa ff?zrfflA tldor I shall sleep, or, am going 
 to sleep. j^l
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 79 
 
 jjuj jAi> j^l aiigkau andak fidoi- thou wilt sleep, or, art goino- to 
 sleep. 
 jiJi ^J\ ^j dir/a akan fulor he will sleep, or, is going to sleep. 
 
 Conditional Mood. 
 
 j^^j i_fJ CS^jeka diya htr-tidor if he sleeps. 
 
 jjuj ^j^ tjfU-j sopaya kamitidor otj^jj ber-tidor that we may sleep. 
 jjuli' \ji-^^ u:-j1j dapat kam'orang tidor should ye, or, provided ye 
 should sleep. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 ji^Jher-tldor to sleep. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Of the Present. 
 
 jjuj' c^ lagi tldor sleeping. 
 
 J-A- sambil, cy^ serta, oTj^j ^]j^ serdya ber-tldor sleeping, or, 
 whilst sleeping. 
 jJlJ' j1 ada tldor is sleeping. 
 
 Of the Past, 
 jjuj jfjw. iudah tldor oVjXJ i^ telah tldor having slept. 
 
 Of the Passive Past. 
 
 We cannot look for this participle as belonging to an intransitive verb, 
 but inasmuch as the generality of these verbs may be rendered transitive, 
 and from jx^ tldor to sleep, may be formed JjS^i:,^ men-tidor-kan to 
 
 put
 
 8o A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 put to sleep, so we may have the passive participles jSJJ ier'tidor put 
 to sleep, and jj-.y iJw; 'i_; lang siidah ter-fidor that hath been put to 
 sleep. 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 ^^jjjc:^i_> umg ka-tidor-un or ^j^^^y, ber-ka-lidor-an that is to go 
 to sleep. 
 
 Verbal Nouns, 
 
 jjLv.' pen-ttdor a sleeper, sluggard. 
 ^jj'i^/ per-tidor-an a sleeping place, bed, 
 ^yjjc-^ ka-tidor-an sleep, the act of sleeping. 
 
 ^\s~jalan to walk. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 J\^jalan \Yalk. 
 
 fk^ Ai!i\s~ jalan-laJi kainu walk thou. 
 
 ...JU J alijcjs andak-lah de jalnn-nia let him walk. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 JU i_^v«js ambajFilan or (JU-^ ber-jdlan I walk. 
 JUyj ^_y«\^ X(i;?J ber-jalan we walk. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 JU- ij-j *\i hiiimi sudali jalan thou hast walked. 
 
 V^' •
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 81 
 
 Ji\>ji iij ^^0 dl'draiig tdali ber-julan they have walked. 
 
 Indefinitely Past Time. 
 ^U- de jalan-nia he walked. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 jlo (_-v4J» amha mdfi, jjua aJidak, Jl=-^ ^^1 akati ber-jalan I shall 
 walk. 
 
 u^v4J6 JU- J de jdlan amba I shall walk, 
 
 J^ o^^ L'-?^^ it^m'oA-a??^ «/i«?2 ber-jalan ye will walk. 
 
 Conditional Mood. 
 
 jJU^ *l^ (JJ^ ye^« /:a»2?^ ber-jalan if you walk. 
 JU^ ^jj j_fla-. sopaya diya ber-jalan that he may walk. 
 JUjj fyj-*^ (c^b </apa^ kam'orang ber-jalan should ye, or, provided 
 you should walk. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 ^J\>-j) ber-jalan to walk. (Transitively) iJiUcu 7ne?i-jalan-i to cause 
 to walk. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Of the Present. 
 
 » - . .- . * ■ 
 
 JU- tlT^ Idgi jdlan walking. 
 
 JU^ J-*-> sambil ber-jalan walking, or, whilst walking. 
 JU J\ ada jdlan is walking. 
 
 Y 01
 
 82 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Of the Past. 
 
 JU «Jwi sudahjalan or JU^ .di" ielah ber-jalan having walked. 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 ^\^ jj tang ka-jalan-an, or ^^M/ ber-kajala7i-a7i that, or, who is 
 to walk. 
 
 Verbal Nouns. 
 
 Jls^s pen-julan a walker. 
 Jla^ per-jalan-an a journey or march. 
 ^Is: ka-jalan-an the act of walking. 
 
 In the foregoing scheme of inflexions, certain words expressive of 
 time, condition, volition, and other circumstances of action and suffering, 
 have, in imitation of the English and French grammars, been employed 
 in framing the moods and tenses of the verb, though iu strictness they 
 should rather be considered as co-efficient members of the sentence to 
 which they belong, united to the verb in construction, but neither con- 
 stituting a part of it, nor influencing its form ; those changes alone which 
 result from the application of inseparable particles (the origin perhaps 
 of the moods, tenses, and persons of the Greek and Latin verbs) being 
 properly the inflexions of the word. 
 
 Some further account of the manner of employing these verbal par- 
 ticles (with the exception of the transitives and intransitives, already 
 suHiciently explained) may be here given with advantage to the learner. 
 
 Ji ter being prefixed to the verb denotes the passive participle, as 
 J<|^y tcr-pnhid struck, ajy ier-alah conquered, ^yj ter-tiilis written ; 
 having the force of the Latin adjunct -TVS, as in " ama-tus. doc-tus, 
 
 lec-tus
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 83 
 
 lec-tus (for leg-tus), fac-tus, audi-tus." Though usually applied to the 
 simple form of the verb, it is sometimes found united, in the same 
 derivative word with ^ per (which will presently be ex2-)lained) and the 
 intensitive A lah. When preceding^ /;£■/•, the^ r of the former of the 
 ti^'o particles is dropped, euphoniae gratia, as jjLy; te-per-sayung com- 
 passionated, ^\ i^\p ^U «_> (_^U dJ pada masa lang mana tc-per-anak- 
 lah iya at the time when he %vas born. 
 
 Wlien the passive participle is followed by the directive ^^ ulih by 
 or through, the sense becomes active, as ^^^1 ci-^y CX* maka ter-Uat 
 aiih-yiia now there was seen by him, or, he saw. 
 
 J per is prefixed to verbs transitive, and when employed in the forma- 
 tion of verbal nouns, denotes an active sense. In the former situation it 
 appears to express a continuity of the action, and sometimes an intensity, 
 but its specific use is not very obvious, and it seems to be rather con- 
 ducive to the elegance than essential to the meaning of the words, as in 
 the following examples : ^y^js^^^J >^ {j^^ hfjr^ mantri sakali-an de 
 per-jamn-jai7iu-nia he feasted all the ministers of state ; jJ,o ^.•■.'X;\:ij^ j 
 ^1; M^ cy^j-j de per-ganti-gantt-nia deri-pada stiatu ka-pada lain handed 
 it back and forward from the one to the other ; ^'p> ^_/J,lJ/ i^lj <-JL-i 
 siapa dapat per-haik-i negrt who can improve the condition of the 
 country ? c:^U ''(-i^J^ii} per-tunjiik-kan lang patut to point out what is 
 right ; Ij ^j J>^j-^ J JJ^ andak de pe-serta-kan dmfgaji nlat (the 
 action) ought to be accompanied with intention ; ^a,1jwo ,>jii^/ J ij'<i dan 
 de per-sangat-nia miiddh-nia and he carries to excess his liberality, 
 A-jj-j jA) Aj, l::-^' ^jJ j de per-ulih-nia Itu dangan bmiiak susah he 
 obtained that with much trouble ; ^^ J\ *^j_- J^iJ per-wakll-kan 
 sorang akan gayiti-nia to commission a person to act in his stead ; ^J^
 
 84 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ,iSj\ LjJiJj jxji M^ ka)-7ia kakanda andak be-per-istri-kan anakda for 
 it is my wish to provide a wife for my child. 
 
 J de. This Indefinite particle answers in some measure to the English 
 infinitive particle " to," as well as to the auxiliaries " do, doth, did, 
 may, will, shall," and in its apphcation to both the past and the future 
 partakes of the nature of the Greek aorist, as will appear in the following 
 examples adapted to each of those significations, viz. 
 
 J de to, il^ J AisiSi CJi< ynaka andak-lah de bilang-kan he ought 
 to throw away ; "Lsjj j CJi< maka de randang you are to fry it, or, it is 
 to be fried ; cjjl iU J oU j-j tang tiada de makan orang which men 
 are not to eat, or, which is not to be eaten ; ^»jlCo J^S ^jU j ^\:>- Jj 
 dan jatigan de palu-nia pada muka-nia and he is not to strike her on 
 the face ; J\^j j ^Jja V^. tang harm de iertawa-kan which is of a 
 nature to be laughed at ; ^Jt j ui-Jb A^ ^. lalig tiada dapat de ubah' 
 kan which it is impracticable to alter ; \c^\ ^^ e^^l j-^y J ^^jangan de 
 bantitig amat kam itu you are not to beat that cloth toi> mucli ; ^-j^i' J jLj 
 jJjSLj'o tiada de ter-bilang baiiiak-nia their numbers are not to be counted. 
 
 J de do, doth, did. ^^J j, de per-lambat-yiia he delays, doth, or 
 did delay ; *c^j^ ^Jiiki J de taJigkap-nia orang he seized or did seize the 
 man ; ^j J\ '^j^\ i^'^ J CJ^jcka de gagah orang akan diya if men do 
 compel him ; ^M ^jj\ '^jJ J Jj ^_,jJ\ >^S '^Ai^vo u/Kl ^jjl J-Jl apa- 
 bila orang laki-laki memandang pada istri-nia dan de pandang istrl 
 ka-pada-nia when a man looketh at his wife, and his wife doth look at 
 him ; ^a^^ j c_-vfi, oLijb J\:) ^^ J c^-v^js amba de pukul-nia dan arta 
 omba de rampas-nia me he struck, or, did strike, and my goods he 
 plundered ; ^i J\ ^\jS j}^ j CJ^ jcka de gugur-kan kuda-nia akan 
 diya if his horse do throw him. 
 
 t> de
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 85 
 
 de may. ^j <ti^ j ^^1 ^j\Li sopaya iya dc bfrnoh raja that the king 
 may put him to death ; ^i^j_^ uX* viaka dc per-uliJi-nia that he may 
 obtain ; <dlt ^J^m^ "J %Jj barang de sampei-kaii allah may God cause it 
 to arrive. 
 
 J dc will, shall, ^cj Ji\ aUI j^Ci, j tjU-"' nischaya de siksa allah 
 akan diya God will certainly punish him ; ^.o ^^1 ^\j ^\ j olj' //ar/<z 
 </e ampiin raja akan dikau the king will not pardon thee. 
 
 When this particle, being prefixed to the verb, is placed in a state of 
 contrast or antithesis to the same verb with the transitive or intran- 
 sitive prefix, it conveys a passive sense, as ^Ji^ j 'o ^^ ^Ar^ v- ^^^^S 
 menllik dan tatig de ttlik he who favours and he who is favoured ; 'j_j 
 cu^^ J j_» ^d i^yj idng ber-buat dan tang de per-btiat he Avho acts, 
 and he who is acted upon, agent and patient ; ^^ y\ i^j*^ v) ti^'l* CS^ 
 ^j) ij jeka mail lang memri ataii tang de bri if either the giver or he to 
 whom it was given, be dead. 
 
 When the verb to which it is prefixed is followed by the directive 
 <0j\ ulih by or through, it likewise assumes a passive form, alth'ough the 
 sense is active, as J, (Sjjijij j ^li-j se-telah dc dangar ulih raja as soon 
 as it was heard by the king, or, the king had heard ; cjG j <di\xi& lLC« 
 '^^'-^r^-f u/' ^^^ 4?^ maka andak-lah de parang ulili khalifah akan 
 viartk'ttii war ought to be waged by the khalif, or, the khalif ought to 
 wage war against those people. 
 
 The particle however is not essential to this passive form, for they 
 say, in the imperative mood, Ji ^J\ c,^ bual ulih kamu be it done by 
 thee, for, do thou. 
 
 When it is preceded by ^j dangayi with, jj^j dcri-pada from, and 
 some other directives, it causes the verb to assume the character of a 
 
 Z participial
 
 86 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 participial noun, as j^^o o ^^J jU- j_i_ cjlj harang tang jadi dmigan de 
 diris any (grain) produced by irrigation ; ,^ls^ J ^^J dangan de sahaja- 
 nia with design, purposely ; JL^ ^Apj^aJs j ^^j dangan de kesnd-kan-nia 
 knmbdli with the intention of returning ; ^^j ^1 e-Jjs j_j 'ij^l u:-^ J JJ;J 
 deri-pada de Uat drang tang halat akan diya from being seen by men 
 who are not related to her; J^ J t^^;^ kdrna dejiial for the purpose 
 of selling or of sale. 
 
 A peculiar change in the construction attends the employment of this 
 particle, viz. that the pronoun personal or other agent is made uni- 
 formly to follow the verb, and the subject generally to precede it and 
 the particle, as -\j ijy^ j k_..v«A CS^ jeka amha de suruh raja if the 
 king should order me ; ^^^ ^^U j jjlJ ^^f kulit-nia tidak de mdkan 
 best his skin the iron would not penetrate. 
 
 The following sentence containing examples of several forms or in- 
 flexions of the verb, may serve to exercise the learner in the application 
 of some of the foregoing rules: o <djJoJ» CS^ ^J^ i^\ JKjJys? tn-oy _jlil»- 
 
 t^ ■^J'^ u'-'^ ^^^ iJ^ iJ/y cr^V >^lft-= ^y< (Jlj^ ^^ y. ijj lir^j? jeka- 
 lau terbitfajar tatkdla iya mdkan maka andak-lah de buang-kan-nia 
 harang lang ada de-ddlam mubit-nia snpdi/a jdngan ter-parlan makdii- 
 an ilu kamedlan deri-pada slang if the dawn should appear while he is 
 eating, he ought to throw away whatever is in his mouth, that the vic- 
 tuals may not be swallowed after day-light ; (at the commencement of 
 a fast). 
 
 JId VERBS
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 87 
 
 Adverbs or Mobals. 
 
 Adverbs are words employed to modify the action of verbs and the 
 qualities of nouns, denoting the circumstances of time, place, condition, 
 degree. Sec. under which they appear in a sentence. 
 
 That all adverbs and other indeclinable words, as they are termed, 
 have gradually been formed from other parts of speech, has been ably 
 shewn by an acute grammarian of the present day, and his theory, if it 
 wanted support, would receive it amply from an analysis of the modals 
 of this language, there being few instances in which their derivation 
 from verbs, adjectives, or nouns (particularly the two former) is not 
 more or less apparent. At the same lime it may be suggested, that 
 whatever they were in their original state, having gone through the 
 stages of corruption and reproduction, their nature is no longer the 
 same, and having assumed new and useful functions, it would be unfair 
 to exclude them from ranking next in order to those more important 
 species of words whose origin does not admit of being so distinctly 
 traced. 
 
 It has become a practice, though perhaps an unnecessary one, be- 
 cause encroaching on the province of a dictionary, to enumerate in gram- 
 mars all the adverbs (as well as other indeclinablcs) that are found in a 
 language. In the Malayan this cannot be done with any precision, 
 their numbers, from the facility of their derivation, being almost unli- 
 mited ; but those in most current use shall be given under three general 
 heads, as adverbs of time, of place, and miscellaneous, instead of 
 branching them into a more detailed variety. 
 
 AdvcTbs
 
 88 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Adverbs of Time. 
 
 cj\L» sakarmig, ^^^ k'lni now, ^?jl^' tadi just now, very lately, 
 .di' telah, ix^ siidali past, J^.ij daulii formerly, ^^ kaldk, C-f^^ii-- ^^- 
 bantar lagi presently, c^y>-juga, yf~jua still, Jj balum not yet, ^^;j^ 
 kamedlan afterwards, cJwj sedatig, j-L> selang whilst, |_fl^ seraya at 
 once, then, aj^ pernah., <uj penah ever, (JX« wfl>(-fl ere, cjl^ kadang, 
 JUlcjl barang-kali sometimes, ci'U /'a^i to-morrow, JI$j1 apa-kdla, 
 J-Jl apa-blla, J-J pablla, ^^UL bila-iiidna when, at what time, Jb^ 
 talkdla, CS-i^L^ se-kattka then, at the time when, ^^^^^ kala-ktafi so 
 often as. 
 
 O/ PZace. 
 
 j_j»j s77Z2 here, tiu^v--) «/;/, ^^L sdna there, ^U 7ndna where, iij»jduh 
 far off, t::^J <fe^fl^, J^^ ampir nigh, ^,1 «?-fl/i about, ^_^U 77z«r?, c^U^ 
 ka-mdrt hither, Jil /a/w past, j-sCLo sc-panjang along, ^^l fl/a* above, 
 ijb bdwali below, jjl //Ttf;- out, Jb dalain in, aL-, sa-bldh on one side, 
 *c^f^ sabrang over, beyond. The six latter are employed as directives 
 or piepositions also. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 ^Jj baglni, ^j^^ demekmi thus, in this manner, c:,.,Jj bagitu so, 
 in that manner, J^ bagi-niana how, in what manner, ^L or ^l^ sdja, 
 <Jjy^ jitga, ^ jfia only, c:^L smgat very, J^' ter-ldlu extremely, 
 (.::..v<\ amat too, ^L ?ndkin the more, ^1 migar rather, 11 iyd yes, jJuj 
 /7r/ff^ no, ^$^ bukan it is not, J^jdngan do not, c^Ur-' imchdya cer- 
 tainly, wl^; ter-utama especially, ^_ bahwa whereas. 
 
 A more
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 89 
 
 A more useful distinction of adverbs arises from the manner of their 
 formation, and they may accordingly be considered, with the exception 
 of those whose origin cannot now be traced, under the following classes, 
 viz. 
 
 Words belonging to other parts of speech adverbially employed with- 
 out any change in their form ; as jjb balk well (properly, good), ^^^J 
 hanink very (properly, many), <U kbih more, j^ bharu newly, J-Jl fl/>a- 
 blla JKj! apa-kdla when (properly, what time). 
 
 Words rendered adverbial by duplication; as rc_-~J' fiba-iiba acci- 
 dentally (from t_-vJ' fiba to arrive), f^/j^ clmrl-chun by stealth (from 
 i^j^s- churl to steal), Tlh-u^ ganti-ganti by turns, interchangeably (from 
 u-^ gand to change), TJ^ mula-miila at first (from J^^ mida the 
 beginning), Tjj dua-dua by twos, two and two, r^U masitig-vidsing 
 separately, individually (from j_^-l asbig separate), fcjliT gdrang-gdrang 
 loudly, vociferously (from "kJS gdrnng loud). In this way the adverb 
 is more commonly formed from verbs than from adjectives, because the 
 duplication of the latter is sometimes employed to denote an excess of 
 the quality or sort of superlative degree, as T^ besdr-besdr very great. 
 
 Adverbs pioduced by the application of particles to words belonging 
 to other parts of speech, and especially to adjectives. The particles 
 thus used are ^^ sc and j ber prefixed and ^' -an annexed. By the 
 first of these, which is the most regular adverbial sign, the same effect is 
 produced as by adding the syllable ly to English adjectives, as j,^ se- 
 benar truly, from jj benar true, ^}s^ se-betul righdy, c-aiL) se-ganap 
 completely, JL> se-ldm differently, jjU- se'bdniak as many as, ^iL se- 
 Idma as long as, cjU-> se-bdrang whatsoever. It is also applied to nouns 
 and verbs, as CS-^ se-katlka whilst, from CS^ kafika point of time, 
 
 A a jXiLLo
 
 go A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 J^JLLi se-peniJi'ggal since, subsequently to, from jLki tinggal to leave, 
 r^sj.^ se-bulih-btdih by all possible means, from ^jj biilih can, Tcj^ 
 se-korang-korang at the least, from "kj^ kormtg to want, ^\^ se-rasa as 
 if, like as, from ^\j rasa feeling, tact, ^Lz se-ldku thus, so, from j^^J lakfi 
 manner, conduct ; if the two latter examples should not rather be sa-rasa ' 
 and sa-laku, and the particle be supposed a contraction of *L sama 
 together, alike, or of c-;L satu one, as is more evident in the word (_Jj~.- 
 sa-rupa alike, or, having one and the same appearance. 
 
 Adverbs made by prefixing this particle ^ se are not uncommonly 
 put into the possessive form by annexing the personal pronoun ^ nia 
 (see p. 49), as ^y^ se-patut-nia properly, ^j^jL— sc-suiiggn/Miia 
 truly, and by the pliability of this language become a sort of adverbial 
 nouns, as ^^^\L> ^J dangcm se-patut-nia according to propriety, 1^ 
 ^^j"^' - dangan se-siinggu}i-nia with truth, or, in good earnest. Future 
 instances will occur of this conversion of one part of speech into an- 
 other. 
 
 J her, which is in common the sign of the intransitive verb, is also 
 employed adverbially, as Jj^^ her-mfda (but more usually ^}ycj^ se-ber- 
 mula) at first, Xciijyj ber-turut-turut consecutively, Ti.^-^;!^ bcf-gmiti- 
 gaJiti interchangeably. 
 
 ^J -aji, which is employed in the formation of verbal nouns (see 
 p. 33) is also sometimes annexed to various words in forming adverbs, 
 as ^Lr tambah-an moreover, from i^ tambah to add; J^ns-c mudah- 
 muddJi-an possibly, perhaps, from nx^ niudaJi easy, ^^r^uj^ bcr-pantas- 
 /jfln?«x-a7i expertly, adroitly, from j_^pjj /)fl7iffli quick, expert ; ^'U»^Ly 
 ber-sama-sania-an together, in company, from *L sdi7ia together, alike. 
 But this last derivative word assumes also (without the duplication) the 
 
 character
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE 91 
 
 character of a noun, as ^\jd^ Jtj\ (^'U-:^ J\ ui^ je^d dda ber-sama-an 
 antara ka-dua-7iki if there be an equahly between them, ^J.^ ^J^_ ij^y. 
 ci^L.- ber-sa7na-a7i bhaya dan saldt7iat an equality of danger and safety. 
 Many adverbs are subject to degrees of comparison like adjectives, as 
 *jl>. <U lebi/i jduh farther off, yj\ j!j^ jj,j uf^/ cJlj^bj-j ^pt,^ j de 
 daulu'ka7i suda7'a bdpa pera7npua7i deri-pada sudma tbu the brother of 
 the wife's father (may see her) preferably to the brother of her mother. 
 
 Prepositions or Directives. 
 
 Prepositions, so called from their usually preceding the words to 
 which they are related in the sentence, may in respect of their employ- 
 ment (which is that of pointing out the direction of movement to or from 
 an object, or the coincidence of position with it), be termed directives. 
 
 Not admitting of discretional formation from other parts of speech, like 
 the adverb, their number is more definite, and they may without incon- 
 venience be detailed, though not precisely, as some of them partake so 
 much of an adverbial siainification as to render their class doubtful. 
 
 It may be proper in the first place to particularise certain prepositions 
 of very general use, which are commonly employed in composition or in 
 conjunction with other prepositions, with adverbs, or particles. These 
 are, 
 
 J de at, in, on ; as jjj^ ^^1^ j de hdki gt'mong at the foot of the 
 mountains ; c:-^^ J!i\i J de bdlik bukit at the back of the hills ; ^jJi j 
 dJji de pa7iiei Idiit at or on the sea-beach. 
 
 When connected with other prepositions it modifies their signification 
 and serves to form new prepositions, which are likewise formed by its 
 junction with adverbs and some other words, as i^^ j de-bdwak beneath,
 
 92 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ^jjV^i de-atas above, upon, ^^Ijjio de-adap-an before, in front of, ijitj 
 de-blakang behind, Jlj j de-dalam within, j^ ^ de-luar without, outside 
 of, c^,^ J de-sabrang on the other side of (a river). But when joined 
 with adverbs, the sense of the compound word is often adverbial, as ^^U j 
 dc-mana \y\itre, ^^^-jo de-sini here, ^^L j de-sana and {.^..^^^de'Sttu there. 
 
 cS ka to, unto, coalesces with the word to which it is prefixed, as 
 j^ ka-pasar to the bazar, j^^ ka-timor to the east, ^J<£ ka-ldman to 
 the garden. In the same manner as the foregoing it is connected with 
 other prepositions and with adverbs, and follows similar rules, as ^L? 
 ka-atas up to, to the top of, it^ ka-bdwah to the bottom of (implying 
 the motion or direction upwards and downwards), ^Jbli ka-addp-aji to 
 the front, into the presence of. So also when connected with adverbs, 
 the sense commonly becomes adverbial, as J^ ka-indna whither, ^L^ 
 ka-sdna thither, Sec. 
 
 ji deri from, does not coalesce with the words to v>'hich it has im- 
 mediate relation, as c^^^ jj dei'i Idut from the sea, Jy>ji> dai ulu from 
 the Interior country, unless when united with adverbs of place, in order 
 to form new modals and directives, as ^r-'l j^ deri-dtas from above or 
 upon, ijljjj deri-bdwah from beneath, jj!jt> deri-luar from without, ^j 
 ^J^ da-ividna from whence, ^L^j dcri-sdna from thence ; which in 
 pronunciation seem to be compound words, though It must be remarked 
 that the J r being in itself an unconnected letter, we cannot readily ascer- 
 tain whether a syllable ending therewith does or does not coalesce in 
 writing with that which follows. The same observation applies to the 
 preposition j de, which is also an unconnected letter, but as a syllable 
 it may be inferred to coalesce from the compound word being sometimes 
 (though not correctly) written y-jV."^ di-dtas as well as ^Tj de-dtas. 
 
 The
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 93 
 
 The two foregoing prepositions cJ La to, and ^j dcri from, when 
 placed before nouns or verbs, are commonly associated with another 
 peculiar preposition, jj pada, Avhich appears however to be expletive and 
 not to alter the signification, as <Uj^ am ka-pada rfwuiJi to the house, 
 j)\ ^ Jsai ka-pada tcpJ dyer to the water's edge, i^:^'^ jj^j deri-pada 
 langit from the sky, li^^J i_~w: ^jJ deri-pada sebdb Uii from that cause, 
 ^jSi i^^L^'LH* jJ,j deri-pada mcng-abis-kan artd-nia from having con- 
 sumed his property. It is more particularly employed in forming the 
 comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, as i) ^.^ ijjju aLil ini- 
 lali tinggi deri-pada lain this is higher than the other; .J^\ mjJ Jysj 
 K^:^\ dafilii deri-pada zenidn Jlu earlier than than period ; ^jj lijIc jjb 
 ^jj 'fj;— ' '— ^-M" ^^'^ "^^^^ deri-pada tdup s'drang diri better to die than 
 live a sohtary life. When used as a separate preposition it signifies to, 
 at, for (but never from), as u:^;! j_^U, jj pada mdsa Itu at that time; 
 j*^L=- jj ^li} Idik pada jabdt-an-nia suitable to his employment ; jj ^J,^ 
 ^jjj ^\x^ kwdsa pada meng-dlah-kan iiegr'i able to conquer, or, to 
 the conquest of the country ; ^jf~\^ ^fj^ J^ J^ J-'^ balanja pada segala 
 di-J hdjl money for the expence of every day's pilgrimage. It is also 
 frequently introduced between the verb and the noim in its objective 
 and even in its subjective sense, where in our language a preposition 
 would not be thought necessary, as tj/jj iJy tolajig pada-kii assist me ; 
 l::,^-_L'^<: jki iL^\ ampiml-lah pada marJk'ttu pardon those people ; »,vc 
 <sUl jj memuji pada allak to praise God. 
 
 ^^^ sa, which appears to be a contraction either of A^ sdma together, 
 alike, or of c.;L sdlu one, is employed only in composition and then 
 conveys a signification of union or unity, as *L-j sa-?idina namesake, 
 ^^jlC sa-kdwan in company, conjointly, jjo^-C sa-ka-andak of one mind, 
 
 B b JIC
 
 94 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 J\^ sa-kdli at once, t-Jj h-j sa-rnpa having similar appearance. The 
 words thus compounded become adverbs, and in some instances it is 
 difficult to distinguish this contraction from the adverbial particle ^ se^ 
 before noticed. 
 
 <Jjl ulih by, per (Lat.) is peculiarly used in changing the form of the 
 verb from active to passive, as A\ a:j^ buat iilik-mu be it done by thee, 
 for, do thou ; c:^! Jj <>1^1 J~cl J de ambel ulih raja ttu there was taken 
 by the king, for, the king took. 
 
 The other most common prepositions are as follows, viz, ^\ akan to, 
 for, cJj, bagi to, unto, JL> ddlam in, ^1 alas on, !ij\ arah towards, nigh 
 to, J^ lain, isX. lampoh, ^jJi lepas past, j_U^ koliling around, ^j^j trus, 
 j^_iJ lintas through, i_iia ingga, ^\j ddtang, ^Jj^ sampei unto, as far 
 as, Jlah. ampir, c:^j dekat nigh to, *^^^ sabraiig beyond, ^^ dangan 
 with, jtul antdra between, *j demi by, c:^ ganti instead of, ^^jil Idwan 
 in opposition to, ^b bdlik on the other side of, behind, jSi kadar about, 
 circiter, U^ semd or ^ sema to, unto, at. An ambiguity attends this 
 last preposition, which is familiarly used in Sumatra before the objective 
 case, as J^ ^^ U-j jb bdiva semd tUan kdmu carry to your master ; but it 
 does not often occur in writing, and when it does, seems to be identified 
 with aL sdina together or along with, as in JW iju aU ^ ^L>.jekalau 
 pada sdma tayigah jdlan if at or about the middle of the road. 
 
 The words n^^ bdwah under, ^j! li/ar out, ^. ,_..■ sisJ beside, by the 
 side, <)iL-i sa-bldh on one side, and some others, do not acquire the force 
 of prepositions unless when in connection with j de, cJ ka, otjj deri, 
 as ijlj J de-bdwah beneath, j^ j de-luar without, jiii j de-bldkang 
 behind, <iL-. o de-sa-bldh on one side of, ^jjCS ka-dtas to the top of, up 
 to, jjJjO deri-luai- from out. 
 
 Conjunctives.
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 95 
 
 Conjunctives. 
 
 Conjunctives are employed to denote the connexion in sense between 
 words not immediately dependant upon each otiier in construction, and 
 between different clauses or members of the same sentence. 
 
 Instead of the customary distinctions of copulatives, disjunctives, dis- 
 cretlves, adversatives, causals, exceptives, and other classes almost as 
 numerous as the individual words arranged under them, but which do 
 not appear to answer any purpose of grammar, they may be summarily 
 divided into direct and indirect conjunctives, according to their respective 
 properties. 
 
 The direct conjunctives are ^.,1j dan and, and yi atau or, which serve 
 to unite two or more words standing in equal relation, or parts of a 
 sentence grammatically independant of each other, as J^ ^<^ i^J^^ 
 viata-ari dan bfilaii sun and moon ; j-^ yl ^,^1 a7nas atau pcrak gold 
 or silver ; JU ^\ i---. slang atau malam day or night ; ^_j ^j, ^jjli e:,^;^ 
 _U-) iji^Xj*-) ininta bdniak dun terlma sed'ikit saja to ask for much and 
 receive a little only. It may be remarked that the preposition Ij 
 dangan with, is often used Indifferently for ^^!j dan^ as J\ 1^ j^\ 
 anggor dangan aycr wine with water, for, wine and water. 
 
 All other conjunctives may be considered as Indirect, connecting words 
 in unequal relation, and parts of sentences between which a contingent 
 dependance Is Inferred, as ^b ^ cJw. sedang kalau balk sufficient if 
 good ; i_,vka 'c Ij '-«^jf^ ^ i*^ t^y* jiV <-rv«^ <^:-^ nanti amba buyer iitang 
 kamu kalau chiikup wang amba I shall pay your debt If (or provided 
 that) my money be sufficient ; cj^— > ^J^ ^^ ^/^ '^i-^]/ /»^ ^J'^ 
 
 jdrigan
 
 gS A GPvAMMAR OF THE 
 
 jarigan kamu ber-angkat meldnkan dangan kawan sorang do not set 
 out on your journey unless with a companion. 
 
 The indirect conjunctives may be enumerated as follows, viz. lS>- 
 jeka, ^ jckalau, p kalau and j^ kalau if, JX^ sopaya, ^\ agar that, 
 in order that, for, J^ meleinkan unless, ^\ij telapt, ^^ wellaki7i but, 
 hoAvbeit, yet, ^ hernia but, excepting, but only, uj'^jugn, f^-jfia also, 
 still, only, ^L or ^l^ saja only, JjS piila also, il^'i Idgl yet, still,. Jj^^^ 
 se-ber-mula in the first place, ^ bahwa whereas, Jy cj'i lagi-piila, J^o^ 
 sahadan. ^} arkiyan, j&\^ tambdhmi moreover, further, ^_^j 7^;^; that 
 is to say, ^^ ka-tdu-i to wit, ^^^ kulakuin whenever, so often as, J_>^j 
 sanibil, i_Li selang whilst, ^\j^ serdya then, at the same time, withal, ^U 
 mdd whether, j_^U mdsa what though, ^\^ gardngan, i:ij\ antah for- 
 sooth ? an ? nonne ? jtU tdgal, ^J^ kdrna, t ^ scbdh because. 
 
 Whatever may have been the origin of the two direct conjunctives, 
 ■which from their obvious use must have occurred very early in the 
 procuress of language, little doubt can exist that the others (as well as 
 adverbs and prepositions) were originally nouns or verbs, or phrases 
 which for the sake of brevity in utterance have been contracted; as 
 already noticed in treating of tVie adverb. Thus the word ,Jl~l< vie- 
 leinkan unless, is properly a verb signifying " to change," and that verb 
 is a derivative from j) lain, an adjective signifying " other, different." 
 
 It is not uncommon to employ together, without any apparent advan- 
 tao^e to the sense, two conjunctives, each of the same meaning. This 
 happens more particularly where one of the synonimous words is bor- 
 lowed from the Arabic, as ^\sL~i ji\ agar sopdya in order that, t-^-w ^,J^ 
 kdrna sebdb because, jp ^Ja^ sahadan piila moreover. 
 
 Interjections
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. gj 
 
 Interjections or Exclamations. 
 
 Interjections are sudden expressions of feeling, for the most part 
 unconnected with other words in discourse. Not unfrequently, how- 
 ever, they are found in the same relation to nouns and personals as in 
 other languages, where they are considered as signs of the vocative case, 
 as i^\ b yu illalii O God I Cjj^ \ ya tuan-ku O my Lord ! And in 
 some instances, as will be seen in the following enumeration, the excla- 
 mation itself consists of more than one word. 
 
 \ ya or la O ! (invocation and intreaty) ; ^\ ayu oh I (affection) ; w) 
 adolt^ ^^J\ adoh-i oh I alas I (pain, grief) ; ^jj> liei oh I alas I (grief, 
 as lL/jo ^ hei pada-ku woe is me !) ; s^ wch alas ! Jh hei or ^U hai, ^\ 
 ahu or aliaii ho I (calling) ; ^ niah, c:^'! inchit away ! out I a^^ chik 
 or cheh fye I i^\^ toal, j,JS karam or *^ karam woe to thee I (threaten- 
 ing) ; <d)j zvallahl by Godl (This and most other imprecations are 
 borrowed from the Arabs), jjb baik, (j-L- sabas well I good I j_Jj 
 palius, ^ijl\^jangan-kan far be it! forbid it I 'i^L^ saya7ig, ^^^ kasJan 
 'tis pity I alas ! ^^\ apa-lah, ^\J kira-nia, ^\f aJlS! apci-lah kira-?iia, A\k 
 garang-an ^ni\\et\ nayl (solicitation). 
 
 Particles. 
 
 Although the application of most of the inseparable particles em- 
 ployed In the formation of derivative words, has been already shewn 
 when treating of those words to which they respectively attach, yet as 
 some of them still remain unexplained, and their importance in the 
 structure of the language gives them a claim to be considered as a part 
 of speech, they shall be here collected in one point of view, with the 
 
 C c distinction
 
 gS A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 distinction only of particles prefixed and particles annexed. In order 
 to avoid unnecessary repetitions, it will be sufficient, in the instances of 
 those already explained, to refer to the places where the examples will 
 be found. 
 
 Particles Prefixed. 
 
 J ber is employed as the sign of the intransitive verb (p. 56), and also 
 in the formation of adjectives from nouns (p, 38), and of adverbs (p. 
 
 90)- 
 
 ^ men, iuA. ?}icng, * 7}ie (being modifications of the same particle) are 
 
 employed as the signs of the transitive verb (p. 52). 
 
 i pefi, iJ peng, J pern, iji pe (being modifications in like manner 
 
 of the same particle) are employed in forming derivative nouns, which 
 
 commonly express the agent or instrument (p. 34). 
 
 i per, JS pel are also used in the formation of derivative nouns, which 
 
 signify for the most part the action or the place, and partake of the 
 
 intransitive and passive, as the former particles do of the transitive quality 
 
 of verbs (p. 34). 
 
 J ter is the sign of the passive participle in verbs (p. 61), and of the 
 superlative degree in adjectives (p. 38). 
 
 J de expresses the indefinite time in verbs (p. 69), and is also a 
 preposition (p. 91). 
 
 Cj ka is employed in the formation of verbal and other derivative 
 nouns, which take at the same time the annexed particle ^' an (p. 33). 
 
 When prefixed to numerals it expresses the ordinal (p, 41) ; and it is 
 also an inseparable preposition (p. 92). 
 
 A lali, as a prefix seems to be only a contraction of the adverb 4j 
 
 tclak
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 99 
 
 felah past or done, and is applied to express the past time in verbs and 
 participles, as ^jj^ lah-abis expended, ^\ ^^ <«) lali gugur anak-nia 
 she has miscarried. The form is however colloquial, and rarely, if ever, 
 occurs in correct writing. 
 
 (^ se is employed to give an adverbial sense to words, whether pri- 
 mitive or derivative, in any other part of speech, as ^j.^ se-beiiar-nia 
 truly, from^ benar true ; ,*;--^l^ se-harus-nia properly, from ^j\a, hai-us 
 proper ; T^U-j se-mdna-inaiia any where, wherever, from ^^U inana 
 where ; Jj-c^ se-ber'Tnilla in the first place, from J^^ bcr-mula to 
 commence. There is also a particle written j^ sa and L sa, which is a 
 contraction from ci?U saiu one, and of j»L sdma alike, as j^Lj sa-lapis 
 single, from ^jj'i lapis fold ; JlsL sa-kdli at once, from Jli kula time ; 
 ti'L sa-ati with one accord, from ti^'la dti the heart. 
 
 It may be remarked that in these prefixed particles the supplementary 
 vowel i^j fat-hah is pronounced as a short e and not as an a, excepting 
 in the instances of cJ ka and a] lah, and in a few words implying titles 
 of office, where «J is pronounced pangi as Jjj.« pang-Tilu a superin- 
 tendant, and not as in j^.^^ peiig-Jbio' a comforter. 
 
 Particles Annexed. 
 
 <, kan is a sign of the verb transitive, and is usually annexed where 
 the particle ^ men or i_< vier^g is or might be prefixed (p. 52). 
 
 ^ J is employed in the same manner, and has the same transitive 
 power as the preceding particle (p. 52). 
 
 jj an belongs to the formation of verbal and other derivative nouns, to 
 <vhich the particle c^ ka ov ^ per is commonly prefixed (p. 33). 
 
 ^ lah, if it be not merely expletive, may be considered as giving deter- 
 mination
 
 100 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 mination to the word to which it is annexed, and be called an intensitlve 
 partickj as i!u>\ hii-lak this (which I point to), al)^ mari-lah come I 
 <dil)l) balk-lah 'tis well I i^x^ sudah-lali cease I there is enoush. 
 
 ^ kah is an interrogative particle that may be annexed to words in any 
 part of speech that become the subject of a question, as ^Uy rajd-kah 
 is it the king? iS^^ putik-kali is it white? i^\ itu-kah is it that? y\ 
 iiJi atau lain-kah or another? c<\ iS^^ j ,vjjj!) i^\ antah andak de 
 bunoh-nid-kah akii I know not whether it be his intention to kill me. 
 
 i2 tah is likewise an interrogative, and seems not to differ in its appli- 
 cation from the preceding particle, as <oU*.« maigapd-tah wherefore ? 
 <oU/^ ka-mand-ialL whither ? 
 
 ^«, nia, cJ ku, » ?7iii, ^ kau, although already described as contracted 
 personal pronouns, yet being annexed in the manner of other inseparable 
 particles, and producing in common with them a prosodial effect to be 
 hereafter described, are included in this enumeration. 
 
 (J J pun is annexed indifferently to words in all the parts of speech, 
 seeming to be generally expletive and to serve only for giving roundness 
 to the phrase, as lLCj ^^^^ kunii-pun suka we are pleased; ^^^ j_j-j 
 jjuj ^^ JU jA-J" stang pun iidak mdlam pun tldak it was not day, 
 neither was it night ; jLi ^^\y^ CJ^ maka sudtu-pun tidda but there 
 was not one; it 'j_j ^^y ^J\ iya pun tang tdu he it is who knoweth. 
 Adverbs are formed in a few instances by the addition of this particle, as 
 . ^rA itii-pun thereupon ; ^^;*^il Idgi-pnn moreover. It does not appear 
 to affect the prosodial quantity, and therefore, although frequently con- 
 nected in writing with the preceding word, it may be doubted whether it 
 should in strictness be considered as an annexed particle. 
 
 jj nda is an addition to words expressive of relationship, in the 
 
 courtly
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. lot 
 
 courtly style, in order to distinguish them from the ordinary appellations, 
 and is, in a grammatical view redundant, as jyi£\ ayanda for iA dyaJi. 
 father ; jJIj! anakanda, and sometimes ^\ aiiakda, for jj\ anak child ; 
 M^ kakanda for cJ^ kdka elder brother ; ajjI adenda for j_^ j\ adik 
 younger brother or sister, or, figuratively, lover and mistress, as in the 
 Canticles, " my sister, my beloved I" 
 
 The changes that take place in the consonants of primitive words 
 upon prefixing particles, and which seem chiefly designed to prevent a 
 hai-sli concurrence of sounds, have already been explained in treating of 
 the verb and verbal noun, but those which, upon annexing particles, 
 affect the place and length of the vowels, are more properly the subject 
 of prosody and will be found under that head. Their regular adjustment 
 serves, more than any other criterion, to distinguish the degree of correct- 
 ness in writing the language. 
 
 Of Syntax. 
 
 Having treated of words individually and the classes to which they 
 are referable, we come now to speak of their construction in sentences, 
 or that part of grammar called Syntax, and by the Arabians and Malays 
 j:sr nahu or_pr Ac \lmii nahiii. 
 
 The characteristic of the Malayan construction is simplicity, the 
 words assuming in general that order which we may conceive to belong 
 to the natural course of ideas. The rules of syntax must therefore be 
 few, and where there are no inflexions, no changes of termination to 
 denote case, gender, or number, there cannot be concords, in the sense of 
 the Latin grammarians. The connexion of the words with each other 
 is ascertained partly from their own nature, and partly from their relative 
 
 D d position,
 
 to2 A GRAxMMAR OF THE 
 
 position, which answers the ends of regimen ; and consequently there 
 can be no arbitraiy dislocations to exercise skill in collecting the scattered 
 members of a sentence. 
 
 The necessity also for going into nuich detail in this place is dimi- 
 nished in consequence of most of those rules having been already noticed 
 in treating of the different parts of speech to which they have reference. 
 For the purpose, however, of bringing them into one point ofview, they 
 shall be here repeated with as much brevity as possible. 
 
 The nominative case, or noun or pronoun denoting the agent, in ge- 
 neral construction precedes the verb, and the noun or other word which 
 is the subject of the action or the object to or from which it is directed, 
 generally follows the verb, as ui^^j ^lo a^ kuda makan rumpiit a horse 
 eats grass, \\s~ ib' ^_jj diya tciu jiilan he knows the road, cu^];^ _.!^ 
 i^ji^ raja bcr-angkat ka-negiJ the king proceeds to the city, ^^^ J ^^ 
 c:_.£S,j njan turim deii langit rain descends from the sky. 
 
 But under certain circumstances, as when the verb is preceded by the 
 indefinite particle j de, the word denoting the agent is made tc follow, 
 and the subject to precede the particle and verb, as <i^li ij^ij '^ ^-^-^^ ^y-i 
 kabun amba de riisak gajah my plantation the elephants have ruined, 
 ^^ ^Jj^ J ^^Uj dosd-nia de siksa allali God punished his crimes. 
 
 In the interrogative form of the indicative the agent may either pre- 
 cede or follow the veib, as J6 ^'b J^j^ deri-mdna ddtang kaniu from 
 whence come you ? cJ) ^ J ^,U^ ka-mdna tunn pergi whither are you 
 going? In the subjunctive or conditional, as in the indicative or assertive 
 mood, the agent usually precedes, as wb jU ^y lIXo- jeka tnan man 
 ddtang if you chuse to come ; yet by an allowable inversion it sometimes 
 follows, as i^yc i^jf-y. s^^ sopdya bcr-charci musuli that the enemy may 
 disperse. In
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE loj 
 
 In the imperative the agent ahnost ever follows the verb, as ^\ ^iLilj 
 bangun-lah angkaii awake thou, ^\ ijj\£ 'c,j_,l^^£j dangar kanCorang 
 kata-ku mi hear ye these my words 1 It is likewise not uncommon in 
 gra^'e discourse to separate the personal pronoun from its immediate 
 connexion with the verb, by introducing the preposition ^^ Tdih by, per, 
 as ^\ cLi^ kata ulih-rmi be it said by thee, for, " say thou." The agent 
 is found however in some instances to precede the imperative, especially 
 where the command is circumstantial, as ...■■. ^ cuU ^j ^j <,\ %^S ^Jb 
 dan kau-pandang akan diya dangan mata atJ-nm and do thou look 
 stedfastly to Him with the eyes of thy heart. The imperative may also 
 be employed without any pronoun or other agent being expressed, as 
 ^l^p*-) jJ^ jmlang se-bantar ini return this instant ; XU j^sj duduk 
 makan sit down, eat. 
 
 In the passive, which is properly a participial form of the verb (as in 
 English), the noun of suffering commonly precedes the participle, and 
 seems in strictness to be a nominative case to the verb substantive under- 
 stood, as (JJjj^ ^J^jf-ir" '-r'-*^ aviha ter-ajar idili guru-ku I am taught 
 by my religious instructor, where ^ly J\ i^^ajs, amha add ter-ajar would 
 be the more regular, though less usual mode of expression, The noun 
 of action in this form is separated from any immediate connexion with 
 the verb, by the intervention of the prepositions ajjl iilih or jj,o deri-pada 
 by or from, as in Latin " per magistrum meum," or " ^ magistro meo." 
 But the noun of suffering may also be made to follow the participle, and 
 the noun of action, with its prepositions, to go before, as j>.\j) Cj,^ AS 
 t_,v*ji tdih gurn-kii ter-ajar amba. 
 
 The noun, in simple construction, precedes and is immediately fol- 
 lowed by its qualitive, as J-j \j^ orajig babal an ignorant person, cjU
 
 ,04 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 (uJ padang lutvas an extensive plain ; but they may also be separated 
 by the definite article or pronoun ^j ^ang, as J-j j_^ ^jj^ orang lang 
 babal a person who is ignorant, ^jSki i_) u-li kilat lang ta?igkas sharp 
 lightning, or, lightning that is sharp or quick, ^ j_i Ji[s~ jdlan Mng 
 lehar a wide road; by which the existence of the quality is more strongly 
 expressed than if the pronoun were omitted. Under some circumstances 
 the qualitive may be placed before the noun, particularly when it is the 
 emphatic word of the sentence or subject of the assertion, as J\j |i3U ^^ 
 bcsar 77iFdegei raja great is the king's palace, (_^v»Ji *lj jj\^ balk ndma 
 amba good is my reputation ; in which expressions the verb substantive 
 ^^ add is understood, and would, without the inversion, have the effect of 
 detaching the qualitive from its noun. But if the sentence be analysed 
 we shall find that it easily resolves itself into the general rule, for with- 
 out an ellipsis it would be ^jAi *lj J\ (..;,»♦«& *lj ndma amba ada ndma bdtk 
 my reputation is a good reputation. 
 
 The qualitive of a noun understood may in like manner precede the 
 noun expressed, as c^>Ui c^L sdkit dti sick (at) heart ; where the person 
 to whom the word sdkit applies is the noun understood ; iL^ cjU c^j^ 
 buta mala sa-bUih blind (of) an eye ; ^J\J^ l::-^ lambat ka-datdng-an 
 blow (in) coming; ^^ ^ hma budt me^n (of) intellect; or thus with 
 an intervening preposition ; ^'l<. ^J\ ci^b' tdkiit akan inunusij/a afraid of 
 mankind (tlie name of the sensitive plant or mimosa) ; ^^^ ^^J ^JjU 
 mdbiik dayCgan minum-an drunk with liquor ; ^^L*i j^j CS^ siika 
 dcri-pada ka-mendng-ayi joyful from victory. 
 
 Numerals (which it has been thought right to distinguish from adjec- 
 tives or qualitives) usually precede the noun, as J^ J\ anam bulan six 
 months, cjjj uJl u:-^ i^y tnjuh pangkat dpi ndrka the seven stages 
 
 or
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 105 
 
 or gradations of hell-fire. It is not uncommon to make them follow the 
 noun, as Li-X<! sj^ burong ampat four birds, ^jj\j^ c_^ lembu sa-ratus 
 an hundred oxen, jj <Ujj rilmah dtia two houses ; but in this situation 
 the terms^j tkur, ay biiah, or others equivalent, are understood to follow 
 and connect themselves with the numerals, according to a peculiar idiom 
 already described in treating of that class of words. In imitation of 
 numerals, with which they are so nearly allied, adjectives of multitude 
 generally precede the noun, as ^li ^^ J.L^ segala pukn kayil every 
 timber-tree, ^lJJ>^ f jjl ^})\i baniak orang ka-datang-an many persons are 
 coming; but they may indifferently be made to follow. The ordinal 
 numbers should always follow the noun, as CS^ ,^}^ art ka-figa, or, 
 still better with the article, cX^p^ \-i, lsJ^ ^'"^ l(i?ig ka-ttga the third day, 
 y^ lsJ^ ^''^ ka-dua the second day ; for if otherwise placed, ^f^U) CS^ 
 ka-tiga ail would be understood to signify " the three days," and t/j'JSjJ^ 
 ka-dfui an " both days." 
 
 When two nouns stand together without an inteiTCning verb, the for- 
 mer is generally to be understood as the subject of possession, and the 
 latter as the possessor, which in Latin would appear in the genitive or 
 possessive case, as Aj jcj benda raja the treasures of the king, or, the 
 kings treasures, ui-^clJ ^j^^ ka-tinggi-an langit the height of the heavens, 
 (_?jV^ ^\^2». chaya mata-ari the brightness of the sun. In such com- 
 binations as ^j^\ ^^jl^ chawan amas a vessel of gold, cyb 1^^ kdta batu 
 a fortress of stone, ^^_ jjy tukaJig besi a worker of iron, cuj^ Joj tkaii 
 laut sea-fish, ^ -\j raja jin a king of demons, ^*». y^ beyiua china the 
 country of China, jU- ajIj' tanah jaiva the land of Java, although posses- 
 sion is not strictly implied, the latter words Avould equally appear as 
 genitives in languages admitting of the distinction of cases. Certain 
 
 E e npuns
 
 io6 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 nouns may, however, stand in connexion with proper names and titles, 
 without partaking of any possessive sense, as ^j^ ^J tUan putrJ the 
 princess, sa^ ^ naln muliammed the prophet Mahomet, jjJLil J\j 
 raja iskander the king Alexander ; and synonimous words standing for 
 the same object must of course be excepted ; such as jl^Jj i_-v<, ^y> utan 
 rimba belantara, which signify a waste tract of country overrun with 
 woods; j^^K i^jJ iirei kalaynbii the curtains (of a sleeping apartment). 
 
 A verb in the infinitive mood immediately following a noun, partakes 
 of the nature of a possessive noun, and becomes subject to the same 
 rules, as ^\ji joJ tanda beralii a. token of loving, ^U^j <Ujy rmnah ber- 
 vufin a house to play in, or, a play or gaming house. 
 
 When a pronoun personal directly follows the noun, whether annexed 
 or otherwise, simple possession is implied, being the ordinary mode of 
 expressing it, as i_^v«a ^\i taiigaii amba my hand, *1^ i^^j rumah kamti, 
 or in the contracted form, ^^j riimah-inu your house, ^^jd artd-nia his 
 effects, ^\^ i^\i bdpa kdrnJ our father. 
 
 When any one of the three contracted personal pronouns, cJ ku, * 
 mu, ^ nia is annexed to a verb, it changes its verbal quality to that of 
 a noun, as ^\ ^I^Lj c-y-j <iijy buat-lalt seperti sangkd-mu rni act con- 
 formably to this your opinion ; ^^ uJ,^ ^jj) jLi tidda lay'ik rupa pdkei- 
 nia the style of his dress is not becoming ; ^^\ C^ i-j.V e.?;*-) seperti 
 bdyang juga add-nia like a mere shadow is his existence ; ,j'y v-:-,< oLi 
 ''^ 'tji^ ^'^'^ u^'^ it}^J //</</« ka-tantu-an pergl-nia dan ddtang-nia drang 
 ttu there is no certainty respecting the goings and comings of that man. 
 
 The natural order of words being so little deranged in this language, 
 the occasion for any signs of agreement between the relative and its 
 antecedent is scarcely perceived, and their concord, like those already 
 
 described,
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 107 
 
 described, is known only by position. The pronoun 1» tang, when 
 employed as a relative, may be said generally to refer to the last preced- 
 ing noun, as ^\^J jj) oU j_> ^jU.-jj y\ Aaj y\ J^ "^j^] drung kciya atau 
 ber-ilmu atau budJman Jang tidda layik per-buat-an-nia men rich, or 
 learned, or wise, whose actions do not correspond. Here its antecedent 
 is cjj! orang men, from which it is separated by the intervening quali- 
 tlves; but most usually it is itself the next following word ; as ^^y 'ij^ 
 c-'U i(A-o c/^ ^f^ j^. mendlong perampuan uing ampunia laki sndah 
 mali to assist a woman whose husband is dead. 
 
 The interrogative pronouns naturally precede the word which con- 
 stitutes the subject of inquiry, as ^\^ i_il apa ?iamd-mu what is thy 
 name ? the verb substantive j1 ada is, being understood ; j] 4_^Lj siapa 
 mi who is this? CJj ji-i i— >L-a sidpa mdu pe?gi who chuses to go? But 
 the interrogative may be preceded by words connected with it in signifi- 
 cation ; as ij:^A i_jL-» ,^J^ negrl sidpa ttu whose city is that ? ij uJ\ 1^ 
 jAi^ gampar apa tang ku-dangar what clamour is it I hear ? Or with 
 an Interrogative particle annexed, as cuot ij^\ Jiy ptilau apd-tah ttu what 
 island is that ? ^\ 4^U-~> ^1 anak slapd-kah mi whose child is this ? 
 
 Adverbs or modals as applied to modify the action of verbs, usually 
 follow them in construction, as f^^ cJ6 kdta per-ldhdn per-ldhd?i 
 speak slowly ; j^^., 1,::,^ nanti sabantar wait awhile ; T jijIj -Li.< ill' ^\ iya 
 tdu mem-bdciia bdlk-bdlk he knows how to read well ; JlCo ^la *jui 
 siidah dbis sakdli entirely finished. But they may also precede the verb 
 and its nominative case, as ^cjU^ j-J'b ^^1 (j-Lii-> santldsa iya ddtang ka- 
 mdri continually he comes hither ; ^Ju^ c:^ xj^ ij^. bJidru sakdtwig 
 beta sampei It is but just now that I arrived. 
 
 As applied to adjectives they almost always precede in regular con- 
 struction,
 
 io8 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 struction, as ^_^\J J^J ter-lalu bagus extremely handsome, ta->fcU iji-iL 
 saiigat pait very bitter, cuU^a* ampir viati nearly dead ; but an em- 
 phasis is sometimes given to the degree of quality, by letting the adverb 
 follow the adjective, as u^L JV j-^ ^^^^'' i^r-lalu sangat most eminently 
 great ; -j <0y ^J^ kain putik man cloth white indeed ; ci^l jjU *^j 
 Wang bmiak amat too much money. 
 
 The variety of adverbs being unlimited, with many idiomatic anoma- 
 lies, there is much latitude in the modes of applying them to these as 
 well as to other parts of speech, the knowledge of which must be acquired 
 by practice in the language ; such for instance as c^l^ *Lj sama rata on 
 a footing of equality, ,^U *U sama mamma fellow-man, ^\^ ^ j^^ 
 lang mana garung-an which, I pray thee ? jj^j ,_JIJl« mengapa tldak 
 why not? CS^ ci^j-' serta pergi to go together. The term \^ maha, 
 eminent or eminently (borrowed from the Sanskrit) is never used as a 
 distinct word, but only in composition, as j^\^-c maha-besdr eminently 
 great, Llcl^ mahd-mulla, or, more commonly, LU^ mahamulJd most 
 glorious. Thus also it is more usual, though less correct, to write J^^ 
 mahardja than A)^ mahd-rdja. 
 
 Prepositions or directives are, in their most regular and ordinary ap- 
 plication, placed after the verb and before the noun, serving to denote 
 the course of the action as it respects the object, either to it, from it, by 
 it, or in any other imaginable direction ; as ^Jj aai JU-jJ bcr-jdlun ka- 
 pacla negrt to walk to the town; u:^} ^j-yi ^J\ lir^-^'^ ^^ stiruh-nia akan 
 iitus-an itu. he gave orders to the ambassadour; c/IaS j1 ada padd-ku 
 there is to me, or I have; ^^ sj^ uuv;l -1; oi ^^ ada pada raja itu sa- 
 buah ncgrJ there is to that king, or, to that king belongs a city; i/j-^.< 
 ^\ cJ'i i^j>- mem-brl hormat bagi allah to give honour unto God ; j^
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 109 
 
 Cj^^j^^^^ka-lmrdagang-a7i deri-pada gadong to take out goods 
 from the warehouse ; ^^ 1^ j>j^j >j^ men'rima deri-pada tangan lak'i- 
 nia to receive from the hands of her husband; ^J<:^ Jljo ^j-^j dt 
 viasuk-nia ka-dalam aslana he entered into the palace ; ^ji:, ^Jj^j ^£j\^ j 
 de per-arak'tiia ber-koUling vegri he proceeded in triumph round the 
 city ; ^j .Jjl cjyJ j de ber-buat iilih ivakll-nia acted by his represen- 
 tative ; Ji'LS hj\ j-j^' terbayig arah ka-salatan to fly towards the south. 
 
 Such is the manner of employing prepositions in their plain signifi- 
 cations, directed to material or sensible objects ; but in the progress of 
 language they seem to have been transferred from thence and applied by 
 analogy to verbs and other subjects of the understanding, to which an 
 ideal locality is thereby attributed; 2^s jiij^ ^\ ^xjt> ^\ iya andak akan 
 ber-ldycr he intends to sail ; ^jJc^ ^J^ ^jy o de turwi-nia akan mandJ 
 they went down to bathe; J^^^Jj J^ '-^^J ber-chukap akan per-karja- 
 an to shew an alacrity for work ; isJJl cSj-c jJ,j u-^ti tdkut deri-pada 
 morka allak afraid of the wrath of God ; %Jij> jjjJ ^S^J ^^'"■^^'^''^^ deri- 
 pada ber-pdrang to desist from fighting ; ci-N^)^ j^S^j t^Vy t^J'-chdngang 
 deri-pada vie-llat astonished at seeing ; jU ^J>i J\ jbl antdra ada dan 
 tidda between existing and not existing ; ^^jIjj "-^SJioJ^^ ampir meng-llang 
 niawd-7iia near to losina: his life. 
 
 The two direct conjunctives, ^\js dan and, and y] atau or, must, as 
 their use requires, stand between the words or parts of the sentence 
 which they are intended to connect or to separate, as i.::^£^J ^^b *^ bfimi 
 dan Idfigit earth and sky ; ^'\i.J^j} ^^b *i-^ ^\j ^l-= mdkan dan mhnwi 
 dan ber-suka-snkd-an to eat, and to drink, and to make merry , y\ ,sJjj 
 C^^j ber-ttdor ataii ber-jdga to sleep or to watch ; jJcJ^ y\ a-j^ ^J4^ 
 ^\y meng-dlah-kan musiik atau ber-tunduk ter-dlah to conquer the 
 
 F f enemy.
 
 no A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 enemy, or to stoop to him. conquered. It may be proper to notice that 
 the conjunctive ^\j being always pronounced short, although written 
 with a long vowel, is throughout this Grammar and Dictionary written 
 dan instead of da?i. 
 
 Of the indirect conjunctives those which affect the verb in its condi- 
 tional mood always precede it, as ^^1^ ^\$ ^{L, sopaya /uliju vie-rasa 
 that we may feel ; ^^^J, j ^Sli-U meleiiikan de larl-nia unless he run 
 away ; -.U A<ji jU ^^ ^L>-jekalmi tuaJi mdu ber-main saja if you mean 
 only to jest. Many are employed chiefly to mark the commencement of 
 a paragraph, and are often written in ink of a different colour, as Jj-<p>~> 
 se-ber-mida in the first place, ^^j\ ada-pFin, ^ balnva whereas, ^^'i 
 lagi-pun, Jy mJ!>W tambdh-an pilla, J\s^ sahadun moreover, t5j^ ka- 
 tau-i be it known, u:^;\ jj,j ^ji.'^ kamadlan deri-pada Itu furthermore, 
 subsequently to that ; and when a different part of the subject is taken 
 up, m'^;5 << ].-. .-..;;' lLCo maka ter-sebiit-laJi per-katu-an now it is related in 
 the story. Others mark the beginning of sentences, of which l1X« maka 
 is by much the most frequent, occurring, indeed, either as an adverb or 
 a conjunctive, in almost every line, yet scarcely admitting of a transla- 
 tion. In the body of the sentence it may often be rendered by our 
 words " ere, before that," as 'jjL> \jj\ J^ CS^ i-ly o\ Af £^j;— sorang 
 balum add pTilang maka lain orang ddlang one person is scarcely gone 
 ere another arrives ; at the beginning, by " now, but, and," or any other 
 expletive ; the employment of many of these redundant words serving 
 merely the purpose of distinguishing the sentences and parts of sentences 
 from each other, in a language to which our system of pointing is un- 
 known. Other conjunctives, as cJ'y^.juga or jila only, j^lj\ ^f;- J"S'^ 
 add-nia thus alone it is, affect principally the close of periods, and like 
 
 the
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. m 
 
 the former are for the most part expletive. For the mode of applying 
 them properly or consistently with the received idioms, a moderate degree 
 of practice will avail more to the learner than many rules. 
 
 Interjections or impassioned exclamations are not, in any language, 
 considered as the subject of grammatical rules. In composition, how- 
 ever, which does not always represent the language of nature, they are 
 thrown in (as the name imports) with such discretion as to prevent them 
 from injuring, if they do not improve the construction of the sentence. 
 The most common among them precede nouns or personal pronouns, in 
 what would be termed the vocative case if these admitted of declension, 
 and they frequently stand unconnected with any verb or other words, as 
 C/lftJ ^Ji> hei bapa-kii O my father I di^l Sj iveli ontong-ku alas, my fate I 
 ^^^-IC "ijy^ i>\ niaJi kaniorang sakali-an away, all of you I Some follow 
 the interrogative pronouns, as Sx^ 1\^ (_Jl apa garang-an ka-andak- 
 mu what, prithee, is thy wish ? Many of them are imprecations of bless- 
 ing or cursing, and in imitation of the Arabian style, are connected with 
 the name of the Deity. 
 
 The foregoing observations apply chiefly to what grammarians consider 
 as the first part of syntax, or that which relates to the agreement of 
 words, as the second does to their government. This latter term implies 
 an influence possessed by the one word capable of obliging another to 
 conform to it in certain particulars, such as person, gender, and number ; 
 which conformity, in Latin and Greek, is usually expressed by the ter- 
 minating syllable: but in a language where no influence of this kind 
 prevails, nor any change takes place in the verb or the adjective in 
 consequence of their connexion in sense with an antecedent nominative 
 case or noun substantive, it cannot be said, with any practical or useful 
 
 nieanins.
 
 112 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 meaning, that the one word governs or is governed by the other. The 
 second part of syntax therefore is not applicable to the nature and con- 
 struction of the Malayan language. 
 
 Of Dialects. 
 
 The general uniformity of the Malayan written language has been 
 elsewhere noticed, but the oral tongue, both in respect to pronunciation 
 and the use of peculiar personal pronotms and other words, differs con- 
 siderably in different parts of the East-insular region. What relates 
 therefore to dialect applies more especially to the latter, although the 
 former is not entirely exempt fi'om variation in the orthography. 
 
 The most striking distinction of dialect is that of the mode in which 
 the short vowel (usually denoted hy fat-hali) which terminates a great 
 proportion of the whole mass of words, is pronounced in different dis- 
 tricts. At Malacca., Kedah, Trayiggdnu, and generally on the coasts 
 of the peninsula, it has the sound of a, as in the words c_^v«,a> amba, ijl>^ 
 kota, cJtj rata, JIaJ liapdla, c^j^juga, whilst in the ancient kingdom of 
 Menangkdhau in Sumatra, as well as in the Malayan establishments 
 along the coasts of that island, and even in the interior districts of the 
 peninsula which acknowledge a political dependance on Menangkabaii 
 as the parent state (according to the interesting notice by Mr. Raffles, 
 in his paper on the Malayu nation published in his Asiatic Researches) 
 these words and others of the same description are made to terminate 
 with 0, and are pronounced ambo, kolo, rdto, hapub, jugo. But how- 
 ever the question of originality may be decided, the claim uf supcuor 
 autlioi i^y, arising from a more enlarged intercourse with the rest of the 
 world and consequent cultivation and refinement, must be allowed to the 
 
 dialect
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE 113 
 
 dialect of Malacca ; and with regard to European philology, it has been 
 in a great measure fixed by many valuable publications under the sanc- 
 tion of the late Dutch East-India Company, whose servants had oppor- 
 tunities of perfecting their knowledge of the language at those places 
 where it is held to be spoken in the most correct idiom. 
 
 Other distinctions of dialect may be perceived in the following varia- 
 tions of orthography and pronunciation. 
 
 The change of (_^ 5 into _ ch and _ jr, as ^y>. chuchi for _^^ sudd 
 clean, (j.Ls*- cliipak for jL^ sipak to kick backwards ; of _y into _ ch, 
 as Jjjj- chfqnd for Ji^ juind to befall, ui^ kechap for c_Ls^ kejap a 
 twinkling, ^^.^J karchut for c:-o-^ karjiit an aquatic plant ; of <_» Z> into 
 J W, as \i^ chiiwang for jjU- chdbang a branch, isjj^jdwat for ci-^U- 
 jdbat to handle, ^p Idxva-ldwa for fcj^ Idba-laba a spider ; of t_> i 
 nito * ?n, as ^_jay« miihi for Jbjj i«/fJ froth ; ^^<, viapibu for j^ bambil 
 arundo ; of cj f into ^^ 7i and * ?«, as ^^,_Lj 7i7/;«V and ,^r-%< w^/'W for 
 ^^f-a-J ^7/;/* thin ; of (_J /? into cj ^, as Ji^; tnkid for J^y puhd to strike ; 
 of C13 ^ final into uJ />, as uJL^ Ai/fl/* for l::J-^ Ai/rt^ lightning, uJjU- 
 jdwap for cu.U-jdzvat to receive in the hands; of tl/g into ui/ ^ (or 
 vice versa), as i_5^ kunchang for ^^ gunchang to agitate, u-^ ^e^/<z 
 for c:^ ketta a couch, ^<,.>a£' gundJ for ^jc^ kiindi a water-pot, tl,<j 6^/ii 
 for (jjj iff "z* unto ; the introduction of » ni or ^ ?i at the end of the 
 first syllable, as Jlv4^ gombFda for JUS" gohdla a herdsman, ^}lc tamr 
 pay an for ^^ tapdyan a large jar, ^ kuntum for ^j^ kutiim a bud, 
 jxJ luntar for yj! /ii^«r to fling, ^^ lampis for ^^^J /tf/;« fold, ^^^L*^ satnpl 
 for ^L *(7/)7 oxen, ^jj^ kamblri for i_f^ kabtrl castrated, ^,::j>^ o^o« 
 mintar for^^ gomitar to tremble, au^ muntah for a;^^ niutalt to vomit, 
 jss{^ kunjiir for ^s.-^^ A/T//^- a lance, j-— :^ mcnsiyu for ^-,»< mesiyu gun- 
 
 G g powder.
 
 1*4 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 powder, ^-sxa- junjong for ^>?- jujong to support, jjc-- swidnk for 
 jjj-) suduk a spoon. It must be observed, that in many of these latter 
 instances the word is more generally written with the inserted letter than 
 without it. 
 
 Amongst the words whose pronunciation varies whilst their ortho- 
 gra])hy is fixed, we may enumerate ^^^ lantas and lintas through, j^. 
 lambmg and limbing a spear, ^ lambo7ig and limbong the flank, ^ 
 lambei and Umbel to beckon, j^ kambang and kumbayig full blown as 
 a flower, i_?.<{^ kanchap and kunchap an unblown flower, ^.^^ chamar 
 and chumar foul, (.s^ latnbiU and lumbut soft, Ji;^ kantal and ku?i(ai 
 mucilage, ^ ^«2rtr and keimei hit, ^^jj warna and (by a vulgar transpo- 
 sition) r«nfl colour, iy>. hormat and 7-omflf honour, Jj\ cr^F and 7e?<i 
 meaning, ti>,l <?r/a and /•£■«« effects. 
 
 As being in some measure connected with the subject of dialect, it 
 may not be thought irrelevant to notice in this place certain peculiarities 
 in the language, however difficult it may be to account for them satis- 
 factorily. The most obvious is that of the frequent, and as it may seem, 
 unnecessary use, in writing, of the harsh Arabic letter j in the ter- 
 mination of indigenous words, which are, notwithstanding, commonly 
 pronounced (unless in formal recitation) with a soft vowel sound, as timdu 
 for jjoj" tunduk to stoop, tdbc for ^\j tabek compliments, buda for jjjj 
 budak a youth, mabu for ^U mabuk drunk, masu for j.^lc mamk to 
 enter, masa for ^U masak ripe, ana for ^^\ anak child ; conformably 
 to the general smooth nature of the language ; for, with the exception of 
 this anomalous letter, it will be found that nineteen words out of twenty 
 close either with a vowel, an aspirate, a nasal, or a liquid, and even 
 where a mute occurs in that situation it is, in familiar discourse, softened 
 
 into
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 115 
 
 into a vowel or aspirate, as ameh for ^j^\ amas gold, dareh for ci^b 
 darat the shore, kick for ^^ h'as hard, kulah for li^J^ ^w/fff a measure, 
 kiilih for i^j^ A'?7//i skin or bark, sakili for l^-^L sdkit sick. If this 
 practice be a provincialism, it must be allowed that in the countries 
 where it prevails the people speak a softer dialect than where either 
 the mute letter or the hard guttural is retained in pronunciation. 
 
 The employment of the j as a final letter, although it is not found 
 in any other part of a genuine Malayan word, we may presume from its 
 universality to be as ancient as the introduction of the Arabic character, 
 but we have no direct proof of its existence in the oral language of the 
 Malays previously to that period. There are not wanting, however, some 
 glimpses of light to direct our opinion as to its originality, if not in this, 
 in some at least of its cognate tongues. Although not frequently occur- 
 ring in the Batta, Rejang, Nias, or La7npimg languages of Sumatra 
 and its neighbourhood, I find it to prevail in the dialects of the Phi- 
 lippines, particularly the Pmnpanga (of which, as well as of the 
 Tagala, Bisaya, and Yloco, I possess copious dictionaries, both printed 
 and manuscript), and what is not a little remarkable, it is found also in 
 the dialect of the great East-Insular, or, as it has been termed, Polyne- 
 sian language, spoken in the island of Madagascar, where, for in- 
 stance, the word ^p\ anak child, is pronounced zanach, according to 
 Flacourt, and annach, according to Drury's very genuine vocabu- 
 lary ; fjJ^ nidsak to boil, and also, ripe, is, in both these senses, massac, 
 jy ttiak the sweet juice of certain palms, is toak ; ^j^ clikhak the 
 house-lizard, is tsatsac ; jjc~j sunduk a spoon, is sonrouc. These two 
 authorities (and they are quoted in preference to that of vocabularies 
 formed in later times by persons conversant with the Malayan) may be 
 
 admitted
 
 ti6 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 admitted as sufEcient evidence of very high antiquity in the use of this 
 termination, as it must have existed before the separation of the tribe 
 which emigrated to an island situated at the western extremity of the 
 Indian seas. Of its general prevalence in modern writing I am myself 
 competent to speak, having in my possession a voluminous collection of 
 the correspondence of two eminent merchants (Capt. Francis Light and 
 Capt. James Scctt) with the princes and chiefs (who, it is well known, 
 are themselves all traders) in almost every country where the Malayan 
 language is spoken. 
 
 Another peculiarity worthy of remark is an apparent disposition in 
 the language to employ words nearly resembling, although actually dif- 
 fering in sound, but having no grammatical relation as derivatives or 
 otherwise, to represent ideas closely connected with each other in signi- 
 fication. It is almost unnecessary to observe, that this is independant of 
 the sameness in common orthography which frequently ajjpears between 
 words entirely remote in sense, and which should properly be, and some- 
 times are distinguished in writing by the application of supplementary 
 vowels and orthographical marks, such as ^^j besl iron and ^_^ bisi 
 handsome ; t .■■.•.■ bintang a star, y.-;'.t bentang to spread, j_iij biniing a 
 rampart, and i^ bunting pregnant ; ^z^j bantun to pluck up, /^u 
 bcmtan the name of a city called Bantam, and ^ijj bi?ita?i the name of 
 
 an island called Bintang ; ^U mahan to eat, and ^U makin the more ; 
 <- i» _ ^ _ , ' ^ 
 
 dJ^ buat or buuat to do, and luj> hula bhnd ; i\j) bulih can, may, <)Jo 
 
 brdah the whole, and iOj^ bnluk the bambu-cane. These, in fact, prove 
 
 nothing more than the inaptitude of the Arabian alphabet to express the 
 
 sounds of a foreign language ; for from that alone can arise any doubt 
 
 respecting the sense of the words, their pronunciation being sufhciently 
 
 distinct ;
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 117 
 
 distinct ; but In the following enumeration we shall observe approxima- 
 tions so near as to become almost equivocal, both of sound and sense, 
 without any regard to the characters, whether Arabic or European, in 
 •which they may be written. This must necessarily be found embarrass- 
 ing to the learner, but rather after he has made some progress in the 
 language, and Is able to cope with difficulties, than in the outset of his 
 study. 
 
 Amongst many more instances that present themselves in the Dictionary 
 it will be sufficient to point out some of the most striking ; as ^"i layu to 
 fade, and^)l layiir to blast; 'jj^^ golong to roll up, ijjf goling to roll 
 about ; ti-Xcl angkat to lift, i.zj^\ anghut to carry on the back ; y^ 
 jamu to feast, y^jumu satiated; <iub basoh to wash, a-L basah wet; ^U 
 tapak the palm of the hand, ji; tapuk to slap; jjoi kandak a mistress, 
 harlot,- j;jci gundik a lawful concubine ; ^ konchi a lock, ';^_^ kandiing 
 
 a button, clasp ; l::^^ kabut a fog, Ji, kabur and ^^l^ kabus dusk ; aj^I 
 
 — -^ - _ ^ 
 
 luliih mud, c:Jj! luiut to daub ; j^ ular a snake, cuJja ulat a worm ; cjj^ 
 
 rindang shady, 'ijj lindong shelter; ^^^ daun a leaf, ^\d ddhan a 
 
 bough ; i^ lagoli or tuggoJi stout, firm, i__^' tagap stout, muscular ; 
 
 c:^,!^ Ay7F^ a hook, crook, J..!^ X-fiJ/ angling, Jjl^ c:;U ?«a/a X-a// a fish-hook; 
 
 ^J^l balik to turn, and ^^li balas to make a return. 
 
 By persons superficially acquainted with the language, the difficulty 
 
 of accounting for these approximations will be resolved In a summary 
 
 way by supposing the one word to be a provincial corruption of the 
 
 other ; but I know them to exist in their separate meanings not only in 
 
 the same spoken dialect, but also in works quite unconnected with that 
 
 dialect, and where the indiscriminate employment of the one for the other 
 
 would destroy the sense of the passages where they occur. 
 
 H h Of
 
 ii8 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Of Prosody. 
 
 Prosody Is that part of grammar which treats of the accent and quan- 
 tity or measure of syllables, and of their due arrangement in forming 
 metrical composition, or verse as distinguished from prose. 
 
 Of Quantity. 
 
 It will not be necessary here to enter into the question of the difference 
 or the identity of accent and quantity, which has divided the learned 
 world. With respect to the Malayan it is sufficient to observe, that long 
 syllables, or syllables containing a long vowel, are generally, though not 
 always accented, especially in a final syllable ; that when the first sylla- 
 ble of a dissyllable or penultimate of a trisyllable is long, it is always 
 accented, as ijjt buno/i to kill, c:^" tahit afraid, Jli^ kapala the head ; 
 that when both syllables are long, the former only has a perceptible 
 accent, as j!U wa/z7 ashamed, i^^U ?w5rJ come, ^Jy ;«/Jdeaf; that when 
 both syllables are short, an accent is in general given to the first ; or, it 
 may be said, that in all doubtful cases the accent inclines to the former 
 rather than to the latter syllable ; as un^ lambat slow, tiucJ" ganti to 
 change, ^ kanal to recollect, but in certain words, as ^ besdr great, 
 J^ kecliil little, Jj balum not yet, a decided stress is laid upon the 
 last. It must at the same time be observed, that the accent or syllabic 
 emphasis in Malayan words is for the most part much less strong than in 
 the languages of Europe. 
 
 It has already been stated that when particles are annexed to primitive 
 words in order to form derivatives, a prosodial change takes place, the 
 long vowel being usually suppressed or rendered short in the syllable to 
 
 which
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 1 1( 
 
 which it belonged in the primitive, and a proportionate length of sound 
 given to the short vowel of the other syllable. The rules by which these 
 changes are governed being of importance to the due knowledge of the 
 most artificial and dehcate part of the language, must here be detailed 
 with a minuteness which their utility alone can excuse. 
 
 By long vowels we are to understand, in our acceptation of the terms, 
 the quiescent letters \ a, j it, and ^ t, and by their being rendered short 
 is meant that they give place to their corresponding short or supplemen- 
 tary \ovieh,/at-hah, dammah, and hesrah, as will appear in some of the 
 examples hereafter given ; but as these people are in the habit (common 
 also to the Persians and Turks, and even to the Arabians themselves) of 
 neglecting to mark these supplementary characters in their writings, the 
 vowel is in fact altogether omitted, and the sound only must be under- 
 stood to remain in the pronunciation of the next preceding consonant. 
 From the authority of such books as appear to be written with the most 
 skill and precision, these rules are compiled, and they would be more 
 perfect if the native writers were themselves more consistent with each 
 other. 
 
 The most general rule, but admitting of exceptions as will hereafter 
 appear, is, that upon annexing a particle, the long vowel in the first 
 syllable of the primitive, if a dissyllable, or, if a trisyllable, in the pe- 
 nultimate (the situations where they usually occur), becomes short, and 
 the short vowel (expressed or understood) in the second or last syllable 
 becomes long. Thus ^^ kuda a horse, when the contracted pronouns ^ 
 nia, cSku, or * 7nu are annexed in order to form the possessive, chanoes 
 the J for its corresponding short vowel dammahy the fat-hah for its cor- 
 responding long vowel I, and becomes ^\^ kuda-liia his horse, i^\^ 
 
 kuda-ku
 
 120 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 kuda-ku my horse, or Jj^ kudd-mu your horse ; in hke manner As-jadt 
 to be, -when ^ kan or aj lah are annexed, becomes ^^^jadi-kan to 
 cause to be or happen, or A;.i^jadt-l(tlt be thou I tub nicita evident, 
 with ^ kan, becomes ^b niata-kan to manifest ; ^ blni wife, with ^ 
 nia, becomes ,^j^ bini-nia his wife ; and thus also in trisyllables, ^J^^ 
 vieninsu to suck, upon annexing ^j i, changes the^ of the original pe- 
 nultimate for dammah, the dammali of the last syllable for j, and be- 
 comes t^j~r< meniusii-i to suckle, and JL*^ kanibali back again, upon 
 annexing the particle ^ kan becomes ^jS^ kambali-kan to restore. In 
 those complex derivatives which are formed by the successive application 
 of annexed particles, these particles themselves are affected by the same 
 rule as the primitive and undergo a similar prosodial change. Thus 
 when to the verb cJ^^ buka to open, with the indefinite prefix ^ de, are 
 annexed the transitive particle ^ kan, the pronoun ^ 7iia, and the in- 
 tensitive particle <jj lali, the combination becomes ^{^'^^ de buka-kan- 
 nia-lah he opened it; where ^ or (as a medial) j, being followed by 
 another particle, changes its short vowel for the 1 quiescent, in the same 
 manner as the primitive word ; and so also, in a less complicated instance, 
 Ji^ kanal recollect, becomes <JLli^ j de kanal-7iid-lah he recollected. 
 
 When it happens that the first syllable of the primitive, if a dissyl- 
 lable, or the penultimate, if a trisyllable, does not contain a long vowel, 
 that syllable remains unchauged ; but if the last syllable also be short, 
 the augment of quantity nevertheless takes place in it, as from ^ pada 
 to, is formed ^^ ka-padd-nia unto him; from ^1a^ semporna perfect, 
 is formed ^JXi^.^ ka-semporna-a7i perfection ; from ui^' lantu certain, 
 i^ tantii-kan to ascertain. 
 
 When the last syllable instead of being pure, or consisting of a con- 
 sonant
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 121 
 
 sonant and a vowel (as in the foregoing examples), is impure or mixed, 
 consisting of a short vowel between two consonants of which the latter is 
 mute ; (or, as we should express it, more simply, when the word ends 
 with a consonant), that vowel, whether the preceding syllable be long or 
 short, does not become long, iu consequence of the annexing any particle 
 excepting ^ an and ^j i, as in the instances of jjj babal ignorant, which 
 forms ^ babal-7iia his ignorance ; ^ beyiai' true, ^^^ benar-nia its 
 truth ; c^L sarong a scabbard, ^L sarong-mu thy scablmrd ; i^ tangah 
 half, ^ij^Iu^ sa-tangah-nia one half of it ; and e-^y tunit follow, which 
 fgrms ^jy tunit-kan to follow ; yet under these circumstances, although 
 the latter syllable cannot become long, the former, if long, may be short' 
 ened, as ^^\ Tilih by, per, becomes A\ ulih-mu by thee, per te ; ^y tulian 
 the Lord, becomes ^ tuhan-mu thy Lord ; uJjIj dakap embrace, be- 
 comes ,A;-A^oj de dakap-i-nia he embraced. In this, however, the native 
 writers are not uniform, and they appear to Avrite indifferently <dJ^^^ 
 suruJi-lah and jJjsjj-j suruh-lah give orders, ^J\ A:^ sakit-lah iya and 
 ^J\ ddiXj saktt-lah iya he was sick ; although the latter should not be 
 considered as correct. 
 
 By annexing the particles ^ an and ^ J, the last syllable of the word, 
 whether mixed or pure, that is, whether ending with a mute consonant 
 or with a vowel sound, becomes long ; it being understood, in the former 
 case, that the final consonant detaches itself from the mixed syllable, 
 leaving it therefore pure, and connects itself with the particle ; thus <_jjU 
 adap before, when ^ an is annexed, becomes i]ssi adap-an the presence, 
 although if <, kan were annexed, no change of quantity would take 
 place, and the word would be j^Csola adap-kan to appear before ; ^jj^ 
 panas hot, becomes ^jJ[J^ ka-pa7ias-an heat ; j\ ator to arrange, becomes 
 
 T : ' ..» »
 
 122 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 jy per-ator-an arrangement; and il:..^/^-) sumbut receive, with ^ 1 
 annexed, becomes <Jj-,*«j sambul-i to receive, as Ji^ kanal to recollect, 
 becomes ^yl\J> j de kandl-i-nia he recollected him, which with J, kan 
 would be ^Jl:^ j de kanal-kan-nia. It must be observed, that when the 
 syllable precedhig either of these two particles ends with the quiescent 
 letters \, ^ or i^, the character (') hamzah, equivalent to a shorter, should 
 be placed after such letter, especially the 1 ; or a (■) teshdid maybe placed 
 over the . or ^i which denotes their being repeated in the pronunciation; 
 as from cj\^ kata to speak, ^'^ kata-an speech ; from c:^,^; tayitu certain, 
 Sjiij tantu-i or ^j^ tantiiwi to ascertam ; from _js puji praise, ^^^ 
 puji-an worship, and ^^^ piijT-i or ^^^ pujiyi to worship ; which last 
 mode however is very unusual, and serves only to exemplify these elabo- 
 rate niceties. 
 
 When both syllables contain long vowels, the former is shortened, 
 
 and the latter remains unchanged, as from jIU 7nalu ashamed, is formed 
 
 J^ ka-?nalu-an shame ; from ^jj din self, ^j^ dirl-vm thyself ; 
 
 from ^^U> ynart hither, ab^ inarJ-lali come ! from ^'^ pakei to wear, 
 
 Jij pakci-an apparel. 
 
 When the word contains a short vowel in the former syllable, and a 
 lonn^ vowel in the latter, both syllables remain unchanged, being already 
 in the state adapted to receiving the particle, as ^J-J.*^ sampei-kan to 
 cause to arrive, from ^^Ja^ sampei to arrive ; ^^^-m-j sakti-an power, from 
 •; j„, sakfi powerful (by supernatural means) ; ^^^j de serbu-ka7i-nia 
 he rushed on, from ^j^ serbu to rush ; ^./f^ viencherrei-kan to separate 
 (trans.) from ^^^ chcrrei to separate (intrans.). 
 
 Simple monosyllables consisting of two consonants with one inter- 
 mediate short vowel, should follow the rule given with respect to final 
 
 syllables
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 123 
 
 syllables so constituted, and become long only when ^^ or ^^ are annexed ; 
 and when the intermediate vowel is already long, it should so continue ; 
 but words of this description are rare in the language, and derivatives 
 from them scarcely, if ever, occur. It is necessary however to observe, 
 that there are many words which in our orthography have the appearance 
 of monosyllables, and seem to our organs to be so pronounced, but which 
 are considered by the natives as being of two syllables. Amongst these 
 the most obvious are words commencing with a mute and a liquid, as ^j 
 bri give, ^^ pri manner, i^y brat heavy, (_^ bras rice, "if kring dry, 
 fjAj bias the decimal adjunct, <d; blah split, which might without impro- 
 priety be written beri, herds, kering, beldh, and they accordingly follow 
 the rules of other dissyllables. So also the words jU mciu to will (some- 
 times written y^U mahit)., i\j tdu to know (written yuU lu/iu), iU pau the 
 thigh (written nji pciwah), are not considered as being of one syllable 
 only. It should at the same time be remarked that ili' and a^, when 
 upon annexing the possessive pronoun they undergo the prosodial change, 
 become ^ (sometimes ^^\j) his knowledge, and ^^ his thigh ; imply- 
 ing that the latter syllable of the primitives should be written with 
 fat'hah and not dammali., as might otherwise be presumed. 
 
 When a particle is annexed to a word ending with the aspirate n h, it 
 is sometimes omitted, as ^\j,^^^a^ mem-lnda-kan to discriminate, formed 
 from ijuj bidah to differ ; but it is oftener retained, as in jsIjwj suddh-an 
 completion, from ix^ sudah done ; jjj piltk-ayi choice, from jJJ ptlih 
 to chuse. In the word i^U/ol anugrdh-i he bestowed, the aspirate is 
 made to take its place before, as in the other examples it follows the 
 assumed long vowels. Although inaudible in pronunciation, it appears 
 to be considered as an effective letter in the application of these rules. 
 
 It
 
 124 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 It remains now to notice those chansies in the length of the vowel 
 ■which take place upon the duplication of a word (a practice common in 
 this language), and which may be either accompanied by the accession 
 of a particle or not. In those instances where a particle is annexed, the 
 rules above explained apply to them as to single words, and accordingly 
 from ^Ajj: hunyi sound, is formed ^— -j ^^_ bunyi-bunyl-an musical instru- 
 ments ; from A^ se-lama as long as, j»jULLj se-ldma-lavia-nia since the 
 earliest time ; from ^^) lain different, J^ ^)ji bcr-lain-lain-an various. 
 To account for the repetition of the letter ^ in the second part of the 
 word, it must be observed that the former belongs to it in its primitive 
 state, and the latter is the long vowel which the last syllable requires 
 upon annexing the particle ^ mi, the \ in the first being at the same time 
 suppressed or changed for fat-liah ; as likewise in the word ^^*y^ 'iJie- 
 nawong-t to shelter, from cjl; nawong shade, the latter j is the long 
 vowel required in consequence of annexing the particle ^ t. 
 
 But an explanation of the change of vowels where a simple duplica- 
 tion takes place, without any particle being annexed, is by no means so 
 obvious. In the instances of ^LSiji ber-bagei-bagei diffuse, from ^\ 
 bagei distinction ; cL/K) laki-laki male, from ijj"i laki husband ; ^l^ 
 hanak-kcinak young children, from jj\ anak child, it will be observed 
 that the first syllable of the primitive, when long, is shortened in the 
 former part of the duplication, whilst in the latter the word remains in 
 its original form, whether the last syllable be long or short ; and this 
 will be found to have some analogy to the first general rule respecting the 
 change of quantity in single words ; for as in this case the first syllable 
 is shortened upon annexing a particle, so in the other it is shortened 
 upon annexing a repetition of the word itself. It may be presumed that 
 
 there
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE 125 
 
 there Is something gratifying to the ear of a native in this metrical dispo- 
 sition of the long and short sounds, although our own may not be sensible 
 to its advantages. In common writing, however, it is more usual to 
 mark the dupUcation of the word by the CS*\ angka or cipher, as T^lj, 
 TtL^il, r jJl^, but the distmction is notwithstanding observed in pronun- 
 ciation. 
 
 Such are the Intricate rules by which the changes of quantity In 
 words, upon the application of additional syllables, may be said to be 
 governed; although in fact the rules themselves are no more than in- 
 ferences from the practice of good writers ; and should they not be at 
 first Intelligible to the student, he should not on that account be dis- 
 couraged, as he may possess a very competent knowledge of the language 
 without having mastered them ; their accurate employment being obliga- 
 tory upon the writer rather than upon the reader and translator. I had 
 myself read many books before I thought of combining them Into a 
 system, and probably might have remained content to take them as I 
 found them, had I not conceived the idea of renderbg the experience I 
 had acquired, of use in the instruction of others. 
 
 It must be acknowledged that many of the words are much disfigured 
 with respect to their original appearance, by the dislocation of the long 
 vowels, and for this reason perhaps as much as from ignorance, many 
 scribes, not particularly tenacious of correct orthography, adopt a degree 
 of licence, and do not scruple to introduce the long vowels in places 
 where the supplementary only should be expressed or understood ; writ- 
 ing jjJiJ ttdoi' for jxJ tJdor sleep, tl$^ siiha lor CJ^ suka glad, ti,yl5 
 patut for c>j\i pdtut ought, ^j^_ bliii for ^ bmi wife ; and in many 
 instances it Is difficult to say on which side the authorities preponderate, 
 
 K k a«
 
 126 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 as Jj baliim or *^ bulmn not yet, ^_j d'lri or ij'^j c?Fr? self, cJ'U 5a^z^ or 
 i^L sagu, sago. But this want of strict consistency Tvill appear the less 
 remarkable when it is considered that the Arabic alphabet was adapted, at 
 no very remote period, to the language of these people, with which it 
 had no original connexion, that the art of printing has not lent any effec- 
 tive aid to fix a standard of orthography, and that so far as my limited 
 researches enable me to make the assertion, the Malays have never 
 attempted to form a grammar of their mother tongue. 
 
 Of Versification. 
 
 With respect to the second part of Prosody, which treats of metrical 
 composition, termed jj^ Ac \ljnu siar, although the Malays are pas- 
 sionately fond of poetry, and their language abounds with poetic works, 
 yet so imperfectly has it been reduced to system, that it admits of little 
 being said of it as an art. By the natives themselves I am not aware that 
 any thing didactic on the subject has been written, and were such to be 
 discovered, it would prove to be nothing more than a tiansr.ript from an 
 Arabian treatise ; the source of all thpii modern knowledge. This, 
 indeed, is evident from a passage in the celebrated Malayan work named 
 in Arabic, ^^^Ul J^i taj asselatln or r_\^ J^ t^L makutn segala 
 raja-raja the Crown of all Sovereigns (quoted by Werndly), wherein 
 the author says, j^S^j ^) ^^b 'LiM ^^b u^A/^ t^^ ^xi. *U J^ t/jf^ ^\ -OjAia 
 c:^3 andak-lali iya meng-a-taii'i segala ilmu sidr scpevti drul dmi kafiyat 
 dan lain dcri-pada ilu " it behoveth him (the scholar) to be acquainted 
 with the whole art of poetry, such as metre, rhyme, and other matters of 
 that kind." The terms he here employs belong to the Arabian system 
 of prosody, which it would be superlluous to detail in this place. Those 
 
 who
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 127 
 
 who wish to render themselves masters of it are referred to the Tractatus 
 de Prosodia Arabica of the learned Clarke, to the Grammatica Turcica 
 of the celebrated Meninski, and to the Dissertations on the Rhetoric, 
 Prosody and Rhyme of the Persians, by Gladwin, whose most useful 
 labours have contributed eminently to facilitate the study of oriental lite- 
 rature. The following observations are intended to be confined as much 
 as possible to what is properly Malayan verse; which, interwoven as it is 
 with the manners of the people, must have been cultivated by them long 
 before the introduction of Arabian literature. 
 
 The more common terms for verse including rhyme, are ^^s-" seja and 
 ^J^^ sayak- Rhyme, it must be understood, is an essential part of every 
 kind of metrical composition, blank verse being unknown to the Malays. 
 
 Their poetry may be divided into two species ; the jj:> siar or shiar 
 (often pronounced sa.yer\ which they also name _jk^ madah eulogium, 
 and Ji; nadlam or nazam arrangement, and the ^^ paiitun, which is 
 also named Ci^ seloka stanza, from the Sanskrit. The former compo- 
 sitions have a fair claim to the denomination of poems, being usually 
 of considerable lengtli, and serious in point of style. The subjects are 
 sometimes historical (as, for instance, a poem in my possession on the 
 war between the king of Mangkasar and the Dutch, under the famous 
 CoRNELis Speelman), but are oftener romances, in which supernatural 
 agency is a distinguished feature. Some of them contain panegyrics, 
 and others an unconnected succession of moral reflexions, the burthen of 
 which is the poet's complaint of the caprice and untowardness of fortune, 
 the evils attendant on poverty, the unkind neglect of relations and 
 friends, and above all, the difficulty of finding liberal patrons amongst 
 the great. They are written in rhyming couplets, the lines of each 
 
 couplet
 
 128 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 couplet running lengthwise, with a point, small circle, or other mark to 
 denote the interval, instead of being placed under each other, as in our 
 poems ; the page by this means exhibiting a double column. 
 
 The panlun, seldka or stanza, consisting of four short lines alternately 
 rhyming, is sententious and epigrammatic ; but its essential quality and 
 that from whence it acquires its name, is a quaint allusion, by which it 
 affects to express more than meets the ear. The first two lines of the 
 quatrain are figurative, containing sometimes one, but oftener two uncon- 
 nected images, whilst the latter two are moral, sentimental, or amorous, 
 and we are led to expect that they should exemplify and constitute the 
 application of the figurative part. They do so in some few instances, 
 but in general the thought is wrapt in such obscurity, that not the 
 faintest analogy between them can be traced, and we are even disposed 
 to doubt whether any is intended or occurs otherwise than by chance. 
 Yet (as Dr. Leyden has observed) " the Malays allege that the appli- 
 cation of the image, maxim or similitude, is always accurate ;" and this 
 is in some measure evinced by the eager attention (surely not to be 
 excited by mere nonsense) paid to the poetical contests which give birth 
 to these, often extemporaneous, productions, and the applause bestowed 
 upon such as, to the taste of the by-standers, contain the most witty and 
 pointed allusions ; for " these patHuns (adds the same writer) the Malays 
 often recite in alternate contest for several hours ; the preceding pantun 
 always furnishing the catchword to that which follows, until one of the 
 parties be silenced or vanquished." 
 
 With regard to the metre of their poetry, it appears to be regulated 
 by the ear of the composer, rather than by rules previously established 
 for his guidance, and is consequently subject to much licence in the 
 
 disposition
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 129 
 
 disposition of the long and short, or, more properly, the accented and 
 unaccented syllables. But notwithstanding tliis, a general similarity ol" 
 cadence prevails throughout all poems of the same class, and the princi- 
 ples therefore on which the verse is constructed should not be considered 
 as an hopeless subject of investigation. 
 
 Whether there may not be a variety in tlie measure of the jt« siar or 
 regular poems, I am not prepared to say, but as all those in my own collec- 
 tion are uniform in this respect, and as they also correspond with the 
 specimens given by Werndly and Leyden, it may be concluded that 
 any other measure is by no means common. The lines of which the 
 couplets are formed consist at the least of eight syllables, the most perfect 
 lines being those of nine and ten. Lines of eleven, twelve, and even of 
 more syllables occur, but they are unpleasing to the ear, and seem to be 
 the produce of necessity rather than of choice. These syllables resolve 
 themselves into four metrical feet, with a pause after the second. Of 
 the length and quality of the feet it is not so easy to judge as of their 
 number, and the result of my analysis, I am aware, may not prove 
 satisfactory to others. In order to place the subject in a point of view 
 the most convenient for examination, a few lines shall be taken indiscri- 
 minately from a poem, and to these shall be subjoined a dissection of 
 each in the usual metrical notation, here to be understood as representing 
 accented and unaccented syllables. 
 
 tlX-j i.Uj-' l::.^U< JS ^ C-'l> j*i/« _^rj i_f;:^ 
 
 ^L J'j\j JAdS Jii "5 J^ cp .\JS il^\j 
 
 Lulu ber-hdta raja baiigsaivmi 
 Ka-pada islrl tang dermuimn 
 
 L I Isuk
 
 130 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Isxik kakanda ber-nmm ka-iltan 
 Pei-gi men-chart pei--buru-an 
 Piitrt bongsu inenaifgar kata 
 Lalu menidhtit scrta suka 
 Bdik-lah kakanda pergi segra 
 Anak palandok bawdkan saya 
 
 " Then said the illustrious king to his gracious consort, to-morrow we 
 intend to take our sport in the forest, in pursuit of game. Upon hearing 
 this, the eldest princess (he had married the seven daughters of his pre- 
 decessor) joyfully replied, " go without delay, my brother, and bring me 
 a young fiiwn." 
 
 The syllables of which these lines are composed may be thus noted, 
 agreeably to the usual pronunciation of the words, and to their order as 
 they are expressed in the European characters. 
 
 ■|_ __ u o — o- — oo — o • 2. o — u — u- — uo — o • 
 
 3. — o o — u • o — o o — o . 4. — o " — " • — " — " 
 
 5, — o — o . o — o — o • 6. — u u — o . — o — u 
 
 7_ o cj — o • — u — o • 8. — o w — u • — o y — y • 
 
 From this analysis it appears that the metre may consist of the following 
 feet ; the dactyl (containing one long and two short syllables), the trochsus 
 (one long and one short), and the amphibrachys (one long between two 
 short), or, as the foot is not familiar in Latin verse, we may consider it 
 as a trochseus preceded occasionally by a short syllable. The disposition 
 of these feet in the line seems to be at the will of the composer, with 
 this restriction only, that the syllable preceding the pause should not be 
 accented. Let us now examine the foregoing lines by the test of the 
 inferences here drawn. 
 
 The
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 131 
 
 The first contains a dactyl, a trochaeus, the pause, a dactyl, and a 
 trochaeus ; the second, an amphibrachys (or a trochteus preceded by a 
 short syllable), a trochaeus, the pause, a dactyl, and a trochaeus ; the 
 third, a dactyl, a trochaeus, the pause, an amphibrachys, and a second 
 amphibrachys ; the fourth, a dactyl, trochaeus, the pause, and two 
 trochaei ; the fifth, two trochaei, the pause, an amphibrachys, and tro- 
 chaeus ; the sixth, a dactyl, trochaeus, the pause, and two trochaei ; the 
 seventh, a dactyl, trochaeus, the pause, and two trochaei ; the eighth, a 
 dactyl, trochaeus, the pause, a dactyl, and a trochaeus. It is proper to 
 observe, that Werndly summarily resolves the whole metre into feet 
 consisting of a long and a short, and a short and a long syllable, or, into 
 trochaei and iambi ; but he does not demonstrate their aptitude by any 
 scansion of the measure, and I have in vain endeavoured to reconcile 
 them to the rhythmus or cadence of the lines, which is, however, in itself 
 quite determinate, and not devoid of harmony. Its chief failure seems to 
 be owing to the too frequent coincidence of the words with the metrical 
 feet, both being commonly trochaei ; for, in our poetry, the distinction 
 between a rhythmical and a prosaic line, depends much upon the dividing 
 the syllables of our words, which are also for the most part trochaei, by 
 the contrary measure of the iambic feet of which our heroic verse is 
 composed. 
 
 In the pantiins, although the four lines of which they consist are 
 thrown into the form of a stanza by the alternate rhyming, the measure 
 is most commonly the same with that of the sidr (but with a more 
 frequent recurrence of double rhymes), as in the following examples : 
 
 jij ^, tiJls <slj^ jx^ "5 kiJjr^ c*iV (^ '^'^^ 
 
 Kuda
 
 132 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Kuda pulih clam kuku-nia 
 
 Akan kuda sultati iskander 
 Adenda ctani haniak chuvihu-nia 
 
 Ttdak bulik kdta Jang benar 
 
 " A white horse whose hoofs are black, is a horse for sultan Iskander. 
 My love is dark, various are her blandishments, but she is incapable of 
 speaking the truth." 
 
 Kdlau tuan jdlan daulii 
 
 Chart-ka7i saya daun kambdja 
 Kdlau tuan mdti daFdu 
 
 Nanfi-kan sdya de pintu surga 
 
 " If you precede me in walking, seek for me a leaf of the kamboja- 
 flower (plumeria obtusa, planted about graves) ; if you should die before 
 me, await my coming at the gate of heaven." 
 
 ci^y^ '■^^-^ u^« ^ ^j- "^ <-^^ tr^'^ ''^^' '^• 
 
 Burong putili terbayig ka-jdu 
 
 Ldgi iulur-nia de mdkaii sumut 
 Blji yndta jantong dli 
 
 Sur"a de-7ndna kJta mcnurut 
 
 IT* 
 
 " A white bird flies to the teak-tree, chattering whilst it feeds on insects. 
 Pupil of my eye, substance of my heart, to what heaven shall I follow 
 thee ?"
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. »33 
 
 Ij^ jfi ^j>\^ $ ^^.\^ Jl.\ d4 ^■ 
 
 ^ra* makd7i-an perapali * 
 
 Bilik kechil ampayan kain 
 Tuan s'dra7ig palita dti 
 
 Tidak ber-pdling pada tang lain 
 Bilik kechil ampayan kdiin 
 
 Be-kdyTih ka-pnlau Idrang 
 Tidak-lah ber-pdling pada tang lain 
 
 Ujud pada tuan s'orang 
 
 " Rice is the food of pigeons. A small chamber (serves) for a ward- 
 robe. You alone are the lamp of my heart, to no other shall I direct 
 my view. A small chamber (serves) for a wardrobe. Row the boat to 
 pulo Lorang, To no other shall I direct my view, existence being with 
 thee alone." 
 
 The fancy and talents of a poet might perhaps embody these rhapso- 
 dies with connected sense, but in a prosaical garb they can only expect 
 to be noticed for their singularity. Their measure, which is our present 
 object, will be found to embrace the same number and description of feet 
 as those lines which have been already analysed. Some variety in the 
 number, length, and arrangement of the lines in a stanza may be occa- 
 sionally met with, but they should rather be considered as the irregular 
 productions of poetical license, than as constituting different species of 
 the pantun. Such, for instance, is one of eight lines, in which the first 
 
 M m rhymes
 
 134 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 rhymes with the fifth, the second with the sixth, the third with the 
 seventh, and the fourth with the eighth. 
 
 To those who cannot read tlie Malayan words with sufficient fluency 
 to judge of the measure, will acquire no inadequate idea of it, as well as 
 of the cadence, from the following doggerel stanza, altered from the 
 well-known original, for the purpose of exemplifying the weak syllable at 
 the end of every line. 
 
 Mild Ar I cadians | ever | blooming, 
 Nightly j slumbering j o'er your | cattle, 
 
 See j my ig | noble | days con ] suming 
 Far I distant j from the | fields of | battle. 
 
 Of Rhyme. 
 
 It remains now to make a few observations on the subject of rhyme, 
 esteemed a necessaiy part of the constructure of Malayan verse. What- 
 ever advantages may attend its use in other languages (and though diffi- 
 cult to account for, its pleasing effect can scarcely be denied), they are 
 here much weakened by the circumstance of the lines terminating with 
 unaccented syllables, and its being held sufficient that in these alone 
 (especially in serious poems) the resemblance of sound should take place, 
 without any regard to the preceding accented syllables of the same words. 
 The rules of this art, as of many others, are theoretically borrowed from 
 the Arabian poetry, but as the words of that copious and energetic 
 language, as well as of the Persian, frequently end with a strong syllable, 
 those rules have no practical application to Malayan verse. 
 
 The rhymes most frequently occurring are those of the short or sup- 
 plementary vowels, with which so large a proportion of the words con- 
 clude
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 135 
 
 elude (and to which may in no small degree be attributed the softness 
 of the tongue), witliout any regard to the preceding consonant. We 
 accordingly find the word cyl^ kdta (or more properly its final letter) 
 rhyming with ^^ diyd, CS^ suka with cuU ?}iata, J-o bJla with ^^U" 
 td7iia, or any other words terminating in the vowel fat-hah or even in \, 
 which, although long in that position, would not be therefore accented. 
 So also the word JL^ sakali rhymes with cybs «//, j»jj hmni witli jU 
 jadi, as well as with ^^J!i piitrl, ^jJi isirt, ^\i tali, and any syllable 
 ending with *_^ kesrah or with ^. And in like manner the word Jys 
 ulu rhymes with Jyij daulu, Ji lain, j^ iemu, jol adu, and all syllables 
 ending with dammah or with j. 
 
 When the rhyme is between syllables ending with a consonant (ren- 
 dered mute hy jezvi) there must be an accordance not only of the final 
 consonants but of the preceding short vowels, as in cy^b darat and 
 t::,-Xiu pangkati ^^ tuan and ^•^^ Mlayi, aa-J" Utah and <u^ susah, jjI 
 abang and i_;$ kanang ; nor is the rhyme thought to be vitiated when 
 by the accordance of the first consonant as well as of the vowel and the 
 final consonant, an identity instead of a likeness is produced between the 
 terminating syllables, as in the case of ^\^ jalan and J^j bfilan, ^J^LS 
 ka-siikat-an and ^Lj salatan, ij^jf kTirus and ^^ja hams, 'j_-^ karnbang 
 and j_<= (ajnbang. This last, according to our own rules, would be 
 considered as a perfect double rhyme, and such occur very frequently in 
 the pantuns, giving fluency and vivacity to their lines, but the coinci- 
 dence of the penultimate syllables is not deemed requisite even in those, 
 and in the more extended compositions is rarely to be found. 
 
 It must be allowed that when we examine the rhymes of the most 
 correct Malayan poetry, many irregularities or deviations from what 
 may be regarded as the general laws, are discoverable ; such as words 
 
 beina;
 
 136 A GRAMMAR, 4tc. 
 
 being made to rhyme with the same word both in sense and sound ; 
 others, to rhyme to the eye instead of the ear, as ^jj& art with ^U 
 pcikei, \j^ orang wilhljj^ kurong\ short syllables, with long ones both 
 in quantity and accent, as 'jjy tolong with cjj^ gadong, Jjyi utan with 
 \lju-i setaii; words ending with^ r or with * vi, to rhyme with those 
 ending in J / or with ^n — but in the earlier days of our own poetry 
 were not offences as great as these committed and overlooked, and how 
 many ages of progressive refinement did it not require to bring our 
 metre and our rhyme to their present state of comparative correctness? 
 
 In order to enable the learner to apply the foregoing rules and obser- 
 vations to the practice of the language more fully than he could have 
 the means of doing from the occasional short examples given in the 
 course of the Grammar, and to supply in some degree the want of books 
 printed in the Malayan character, as well as the scarcity uf luanuscripts 
 in any other hands than those of the natives, I have judged it indis- 
 pensably necessary to subjoin for his use, a Praxis, consisting of extracts 
 from several of their works, both in prose and verse, which will serve 
 to exercise and promote the skill he may have acquired, until oppor- 
 tunities are afforded him of having access to more ample and more 
 original sources of information. 
 
 PRAXIS.
 
 137 
 
 PRAXIS. 
 
 Letter from the King of Tranggami to Capt. Francis Light 
 
 of PFilo Pmang. 
 
 j^-al*c jjlLLJl |jj«> tljjls dkJ^iJ •— ^.'V. ^)^ '^V '^J'^ '-"Sy t^. (js^^l **jj tji^ ^ 
 
 ifey ^^ cyp) ^^^^t ^jJiA^ jyi^ sj\^ JIj <uslc ^^1l> ci-^su? ^j)1j tu-^S'l^l j^J 
 
 ^j^b (^\ ifjb J ^Jy Jj i.::^U-' ii,V/5 ^J^j^ J^ J>S i_i,U JlJy J j JytJ,S) 
 
 ^j\ji i^j^ iir?v^ u:-%^ <dJl i^jj <ur J *jV y^ti T^ ^jl j^b ^);f^ y/A^ ''^ fc^y** 
 (^^Lo J ^^b Li J Jb tijU-^j^ ^1 j^/l«£{j4) uil i^b ^*>UJ^L» J\l^ J\^ ujW ''^ 
 ^bl ki^i-^^ iji-^W* (Ajl^ (»j**^ '? jV *J^_j ^ir'^j ^V*" '^^ ii^^ s^Wj^ J^ 'H''^ *^^ 
 i> J-Jl c:^ i^jasji jLvc ^i t-?j*^ <^-^ jV -^iJ^ u^*^ ^\XfC jt--j »jj-^ t::^ 
 JW. cj1}-«- *5,Ij jj 4^j ^^1 jJy ic-^ ui^W* alsjoa jjuS ^^ ^J.,*^ *)Jt j^^l- 
 
 j^j ji}j> 4^J>i^l *>_)-- tii-'r^ ui^Ui* CJ;-* ob^ cr^ "^^ UJ^^ u^'^ liT;^-^ lir^J*-^ 
 v,s^W* ^j^t ^^J^ (_^U ^_l^ <i]Ua cjU jJi-*- ojI^— <iJblJ tlSt» .w;.« Jjl ^x*^ ti)^^ 
 
 " Whereas this friendly epistle, having its source in a pure mind, comes 
 from his gracious majesty Sultan Manshr Ridyat Shall who is seated on 
 the royal throne of the kingdom of Tranggdnii, the abode of peace ; 
 
 N n and
 
 ,38 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 and may the Almighty Lord cause it to reach the hand of our friend 
 and favourite, the Governor of Pulo Pmang., who, in the enjoyment of 
 tranquillity, friendship, and health, resides within the territory of the 
 English Company, and exercises the functions of a government renowned 
 throughout the Eastern and the Western countries ; who is valiant, 
 powerful, discreet, faithful, intelligent, and wise in managing the con- 
 cerns of his friends and connexions in these parts ; who is endowed with 
 firmness and constancy, and at the same time manifests a mild and gentle 
 nature in his transactions of reciprocal khidness and accommodation with 
 all the (neighbouring) princes and chiefs. May God increase his rank 
 and honours ; may he bestow upon him fame, consequence, and glory ; 
 may he bless him in this Avorld with length of life, and protect him from 
 every kind of danger and mischief unto the last period of his existence. 
 Furthermore, be it known to our friend, that we have directed Seiyid 
 Abdallah and Nakh/ida Bawu lo piui;eed to the country of Kling (coast 
 of Coromandel) to bring away a ketch-rigged vessel belonging to us. 
 When, through the favour of God, it shall arrive at Pfdo Pmang, we 
 beo- of our friend to furnish assistance to those persons in all their con- 
 cerns of business, and especially in case of sickness and diiEculties, and 
 also to give orders for their sailing immediately upon the change of the 
 monsoon. There is nothing whatever that we can present to our friend 
 as a token of remembrance, excepting a piece of fine calico. This letter 
 is written on the i5ih day of the month Safar, being the first of the 
 week, in the year (of the hcjrali) 1200 (an. Ch. 1785)." 
 
 Extract
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE 139 
 
 Extract of a Letter from the Same to the Same. 
 
 .^ij CJ^ jiJi (»Ij^ i_j^J^\ \jy-^ <^1j1 CS^ e:-^ c:^!^-* ^\jj m^ c^b samj 
 tlX< tj^ oi^ Jb^ ^Ij jj,j ijy^ jL/M> ^Ajb J (JXc 5_J jj J^ Ji^ jU^ J^'^jJ 
 jjjIj ^^'u-^ i-^lr^ CJ^ r_^ ^_ Trlr?!; *;>^ ijUi-jl ^^j c:_^j *,^ idi*,*.^ ei \;^ 
 li^jOu? clCc cu^J tlXli' i^yii^ ^J>\ jJy »;_}- Ui^;l i,j-j Jbj e---y lIX* ^,'U^ 
 
 (c-^ ji^ u:i-,iS ^Ajlij tlXo t^jla t— s]^ <jl li;'!;*-' J^ '^^j ' ?jV >** <-J>^ r^'^ ''^y 
 
 ^_;l^ U^ C^J ^ ^J^ ^b J JJOJ^ yltiy J^y. ^\^ u:_;\ ^' ^U JJCJ» 
 
 <>1;^ ^^jS c:^ lIXo ci--^ ji^ ,*,li^ <tLX* j li^J JZ <jJ'Lf= j:-.j,jj j($ju cJjil j 
 j^V.^ tlX« tjTjU t— 'Ir^ 'il ^j-j jJl'^ cr"^ 'r/'l *Jj- (Jjt« j_^jw Jij>^ ^U *,_^ 
 
 .Slytlj j^jj e^ tj;J.'>^ l-L^-* cr^l J J J^ i-^J t^l Ci;4> ^..J<i (JXc ^jJ J1 L::^il 
 .ijy^ iC^ ^^jKVJ ^^1 ^_sl:>^ ti '^jjl f-Li^ |_jSj- |J1j J ^ tli'il i.::--^! J_^_^ jA,b J 
 
 tlJpj ^^^-i^rl jjJiJ |_/l«^ i/>i Jbs- iJjUi |A;.^1 i:/^*^ C"^^^ '■^^ '--^'* ^-^^-r^ i^j-^ 
 
 ijjl^ i*,-ji cj1_j— <^^y^ '^W' '■^^--^ <-^ 4>^.' '-m~» '-^•* Jb^ 7rl> '^^ J '--L)^" jV-*^ 
 ti-ok? Js^ ^JhJ u:^ .sLjI Jl^r^! T JIC yliCc^ ^_j:_^U ^a,1.j ^_^.j ^U JlXS; J_^ 
 
 " Moreover we desire it to be known to our friend that an EngUsh 
 Captain named C., commanding a small ship witli two masts, arrived 
 here from Bengal, bringing a letter from the ?-aja (Governor) of Bengal 
 addressed to Us, which we received with all the ceremony and respect 
 due to letters from great princes, as well as with much pleasure and satis- 
 faction. This letter expressed a desire that we should render assistance 
 to the Captain, which was accordingly complied with in every particular. 
 
 Some
 
 140 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Some days after his arrival he requested permission from us to bring his 
 vessel into the river of Tra?igganil, in order to repair some damage her 
 copper had sustained by striking on a rock in the Bay of Bengal. Such 
 v^as his statement to us, and we, believing it a just one, allowed him to 
 enter the river ; but he had not been long there when he began, clan- 
 destinely, to sell opium to inhabitants of the place, other than our autho- 
 rised trader. The quantity sold was six chests, for which he received 
 payment in pepper and gold. This transaction coming to our know- 
 ledge whilst the vessel was still in the river, we caused tlie people who 
 had purchased the opium to be brought before us, and these pointed to 
 Captain C. (as the vender). Being herein guilty of a serious offence 
 within our realm, it was our design to inflict a punishment upon him ; 
 but from the consideration of his being under the English colours, to- 
 gether with his having brought a letter from the raja of Bengal, we 
 refrained from doing any thing whatever to him. As it respects the 
 raja of Bengal we feel much delicacy, and now request that our friend 
 will dispatch a letter to him on the subject, in order that he may never 
 allow that Captain to come again to Trungganu. Such is the business 
 we have to make known to our friend." (It may be presumed that the 
 letter in the Governor's name was an imposition.) 
 
 Letter from Sudagar Nasr-eddm to Captain Light. 
 
 jib J>«$ jiJ oW- jK». ^b ij^a^ ^ji AjUo ^jIj t^^ j^Uj iU». <i\ CShi jjjcL-^
 
 141 
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 *^^^ ij/ >■ — < "-^W-" y'^J i-j'cJ' JjLj ._-;'.^ jl:-^*! <UJ' CJ^ <jjjj i_) tiXib w) Ji^ 
 ^^J c^^ l:5;.V 't:-. c^j^ '^^jl <^j^ Jy >;-^ aj^ ^<;^ tJ-^ Jj c/l^ y|j ^_,^ 
 
 l^jl^ eJ^.lj t:: ^^ ^/1J^ y^ J •t-^ ^>vJ S-^ d)v-^ ^^ (j:'3 ^ -si-- ^j^ ^^.1 
 _jilXc^ i_jfc^ CS^ c:-^3 J^ J^ '4;'^ '-^'« |*J^*^ "M U^i''^'^ ^.^•''* \ji^ »J^ 
 
 (Jy >^~'* J-*^ <^-^ s^j^ '*^^' "^r>~^ "-^ j)j. c'^^ i^j.'^>'^ y^'^ i_^v«j!) ^{xj aJJlli)! 
 ^ err*' (_s=J cH'l) ^^:-*^l \j^ ^ij ^-rij '^j' (J u;-X«l '^jb ^^jI^ ^^liTj ^y. 
 
 u>A'3 cr^^'' J^ 'M;'^ "-^ ^^ J^J tAr" «-r^^ "i*^ y'*^ '-r^* '^ ti (ir^^*^ 
 A» uiU ui-i- tir'l«^J i^_^3 ^U JU ,^i tlX« tl^ 4ji i^\i iL^ J^ jbj 
 
 C^.V ^ -^^ J-> '^^ ^ '^!;-^ cp=- s/J^ ^S^ 4»'^ t^^ 4h i'^'^ <-r-^ y;tr^ 
 
 J> >^ c/^ i*^ ^ '/^ rl'^ ^^5 ^j }^_ jU ciC^ t^ ^yjj yi^i- J jl^ 
 
 4ax^ cu-jI Ci/ jjAifc 'j-j e:^;! t^f/J JLj ^J^J j^ jX-> ^^b yb fc_-v*i> j^j 
 
 J^ CS^ ^ CJ} d^ S-^y)y. iJ- Ch^\ CS^ y^p \ly dy <:'t.- iU> c/Ly 
 jjb j^\ Jl^ d^ i<i oU- JliX^jV ^j^ ^^. f^ Jo 0^ ci^/-, JiUi- '^ ^C"a 
 j_f^ yb "J^Axa iJjU y\o J^ j;j oU- iA-. jlXr- yb j»jLt« <U yjoijj Jb j w_j^ yL 
 
 " Whereas this letter comes from me Data Sudagar Nasr-eddm, of 
 Traiiggmu, and may the Lord who created the world cause it to reach 
 
 O o the
 
 142 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 the presence of his honour the Governour who holds the chief com- 
 mand within the territory of Pulo Pinang, bestowing upon him dignity 
 and happiness to the latest period of his life. Moreover, be it known, 
 I pray, to his honour, tliat if it be agreeable to him, it is my request 
 that he should make the purchase of ik ship. She should be a new one, 
 about two or three years old, of good qualities, and capable of loading 
 about three thousand five hundred pHid. It is proposed that his honour 
 should take one third share, Mr. F. one third, and myself one third. 
 It is further desirable that Mr. F. should provide a good crew for her, 
 and stores such as are proper for a ship of war. My reason for making 
 a point of this is, that at the present time the seas to the eastward are 
 extremely foul (much infested with pirates), which renders good ammu- 
 nition essential; for the practices of the Malays are well known to his 
 honour. Now with respect to the ship if, with the blessing of God, 
 she arrives in safety at 1\angga.nu, it is my intention to embark on her 
 myself, and proceed with her to the other side (eastward) of the land of 
 BORNEO. Mr. F. should lade on her an investment of cloths to the 
 amount of about four or five thousand rupihs, and about four hundred 
 chests of Patna opium. On these goods I am willing to pay a premium 
 of thirty per cent., valuing the opium at three hundred and thirty-five 
 dollars the chest. Upon the ship's arrival here I shall take out of her 
 such articles as will sell in the TranggFinu market, and such as are not 
 suited ta it, I shall take with me on the voyage. Beside these I shall 
 lade on tlie vessel the goods I may have on hand. Now as to the profit 
 that may be obtained on the goods carried to the eastward for sale, it 
 may be shared amongst the three. This plan, in my opinion will be 
 more advantageous than that of proceeding to China, as pepper and 
 
 tin
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 143 
 
 till fetch a better price at Tranggiinu tlian at Piilo P'mang. (The 
 force of this argument is not obvious.) If these proposals should meet 
 •with his honour's approbation, I beg he will write to Mr. F. requesting 
 him to put Captain CARNEGIE into the command of the ship, he being 
 a person with whom I can converse, and to whom I have already com- 
 municated every information respecting the trade at all those places 
 which we now propose to visit. With regard to the opium I may carry 
 to the eastward, I think it will fetch four hundred dollars the chest. 
 When the trading voyage to the eastward has been completed, and the 
 ship returns to Trmigganu, those articles of produce, such as pepper 
 and tin, that may remain on hand after the sailing of all the vessels (of 
 the season) for China, can be shipped for Bengal; and thus two or thres 
 profits may be made in the course of the one year; as his honour well un- 
 derstands. He should, if he approves of it, dispatch a letter to Mr. 
 F. in order that he may immediately take the necessary steps against the 
 arrival of Captain Carnegie. Finis. Written on the twenty-sixth 
 day of the month Muharrain in the year 1206 (1791)." 
 
 Extract of a Letter from the King of Trungganu to the Same. 
 
 AS
 
 144 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 " We have now to communicate to our son the event of Sildagar 
 Nasr-eddm's Teturn to the Divinity, leaving a transitory world for one 
 that is eternal. Upon the occasion of his death we had already for- 
 warded an express by land (across the peninsula) describing, for the 
 information of our son, the trouble and affliction into which we have been 
 thrown by this visitation of Divine Providence. With respect to the 
 concerns of our son, let not his loss make an alteration in any one trans- 
 action, but (on the contrary) let lis proceed in the same path of reciprocal 
 accommodation on every needful occasion, with frequent and uninter- 
 rupted exchanges of communication ; for Trangganu and Pulo Pinang 
 should be considered as one." 
 
 Extract of a Letter from Sildagar Priya a relation of Sildagar 
 
 Nasr-eddtn. 
 
 CJ^ il^ ^J tr^ ^^ '^■J'^ -"'•^ '^'^^ <J^ '^'^ ^'^ '^ ^^ <^^ l*J^ "U^- 
 
 ^,jy Jjjl <liilU-;J i.:u^3 <-^ jV^ '^'^^ L.S*^ ^-^ d^j'^ '^'^'^ AlJ'jyo CJjJ^ ,_5iw 
 
 ^\^ jjjI .iii*^ 4J1 'j-!y ^^^ ti/-* Vt) J'i^ (J^'^ Jk-"^ Jy.:^ ^jrf '^^ t*^ h'^ 
 
 ^'liis-jj l::^U ji,J JJ j1 ^Ujl <iwy u:-^3 j-p- /:^ Ju j\ CJ^ tl^« .jUl Iao-^ JL^ 
 
 ^'l;:^^ r<U^^y\^P^ JJjI <sLt*^ iZJj^ iJJ.-^ y'^J^ j_i>l5,J JJjl "O/.l^/J u^.< ^^jUa 
 diU j-l*V JiUJ ^Ujj ^^;Sc^ yb *-:y jU fJu: v::^3 A^ T jl\ J^w ,^/^< ^^\
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 145 
 
 ^^y Jj^ t(Jj\ ^^}^ Ji^ jjl^ t>-U_.lj ^jjl u:-^! ^i ^la ^^^ ^\s:j CJ^ j'C^ 
 
 c/Lj;j Okiji ^^J^ uyj'^ fri <^** '^'^^ J^ uj* '^b — ' t.-'J^ is/^y^^ ^^^ uy 
 
 jbl ^jjl c:^^ J ^^.1 JJol JU. (JjU ^jJ^ CJ^ ^JfV^ u-^ jU^ (Jbjj '^^jl ^Ij 
 
 ^_j,«^ dJol ^\ *->_)-« J*J ij'*^ ""^^ ^^ l-jlsJ U:-^J Ij:?^'^ tf^^ *^^ ''V'' fvT^^ u5^i* 
 
 •' Be it known to my respected elder brother that I sailed from Pub 
 Phumg and proceeded to Pcrak, and upon my arrival there travelled 
 into the interior country, and from thence descended into the country 
 inland of Pdliang (on the eastern side of the peninsula). My journey 
 for about two months lay through the woods, but, by the assistance of 
 God, I at length reached Pahnng. When 1 arrived there I heard for 
 the first time the intelligence that my elder brother, Sudcigar Nasr- 
 eddin, had been received back to the mercy of God. From excess of 
 affliction my soul seemed to take its flight. But what help was there for 
 it ? Such was to be his fate, and the decree of the Divinity was exe- 
 cuted upon his servant. I then sailed from Pahang for Trangganu, 
 and upon my arrival there my grief was augmented on beholding all the 
 children of my departed brother left as orphans, his house standing 
 empty, and all his goods and effects carried off and lodged in the pa- 
 lace. Even the wearing apparel of his children had been in like man- 
 ner conveyed to the palace, as were all his keys. Upon my appearance 
 (although the legal representative of the deceased) not one article was 
 
 P p restored ;
 
 146 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 restored ; but only his Majesty gave orders that I should take the trade 
 into my hands and buy and sell (as usual) ; but every piece of goods I 
 might wish to draw from ihe warehouse must be made known at the 
 palace, when the keys are to be brought, and the doors opened by a 
 person sent for that purpose. This conduct towards me is that of half 
 confidence and half distrust. Such is my present state ; but by the 
 blessing of God Almighty I intend in the course of this season to re- 
 quest his Majesty's leave to retire, and to return to the presence of my 
 mother and all my brothers. Written on the twenty-ninth day of the 
 month Muharra7n, in the year 1207 (1792)." (The king, whose agent 
 he was, having undertaken to make good all his mercantile engagements, 
 judged it necessary to secure the property. What relates to the family, 
 if correct, derogates from his character for justice ; but the circumstances 
 may be exaggerated.) 
 
 Extract of a Letter from the King of Perak to Captain Light. 
 
 cyj t::^ ^'^--^ '^Pj i^r'j t";^ i^r^i^ i^W \i'^^ Ji'^J^ J^ c/^ UJ*'^' u''^ 
 
 (_jli; ^j jU jj uJ*i/ (*^^ ^^'^'^ {J^ OJ^ hfj^ "^ U^'^^ ^"^ '^'* "^ ii)j^. i:f-'^ 
 
 Jy '^^ uA^^ *" ^^'^ lir'Jjr^^ JV' ^^ d«^ "-^ *i«^ Jj^ '^^ <J^3 UJ* "^ 
 K^:^ JiJ ti-jj ^4J-^ uJlii' tl^-j J^' e.^^ t/1 CJ^ ct-jl uj»-<J ^J\ C'^J |j_)t 
 
 jj'i^j^ <Cjjcj& CS^ «dijj liji^*'^ u^ oj^ s^j^ •— ^ '■^^•^ uf"*/ ^''^ ""^^^ L/i)^ 
 i>::^A jj>i^ vl$U i.i-J,l tUJ oU j^ _j!p(^ ^^^l^ 'Jj^ J^^^ ^^ ^J jV J'*^ ^^^
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 147 
 
 <yb' ^Jd l:-^.! j^Ij <Uj J_^ JaU u^ JjJ ^jij Jbj tlCo ^'^j^. c:-^ <Uj' C/i! 
 ^^1 ^ijla JljJi ^^!^ <^j^ '^J^' '^ i'J'lr' '--^ »-^^* UJ*^.^ jiL.jJl ^Uj u:.^ 
 
 I r ♦ I ii^ 
 
 " With respect to the Governour's overtures for a friendly intercourse 
 with us, we are much gratified by them, and sincerely desire his friend- 
 ship ; but the circumstances of this country of Pcrak may be compared to 
 those of a beautiful woman, v.'ho, beautiful as she is, has a husband, and 
 that husband happens to be extremely jealous. There is a person, how- 
 ever, who notwithstanding this pays addresses to her. She is enamoured, 
 but the husband is violently severe. What the situation of the woman is, 
 such is that of the country of Perak. The Governour wishes to be on 
 terms of intimacy, but the person whose severity is to be apprehended 
 is well known to him. Furthermore, with respect to the gentleman 
 lately arrived from Bengal, who desires to he furnished with young seed- 
 lings of the Sago tree, in order to his taking them back with him and 
 planting them in Bengal ; such not being procurable at Pfdo PiJiang ; 
 our attention has been directed to the Governour's wish, but these plants 
 are very scarce in the country of Pcrak, and the soil where they grow 
 very dear. Written on the seventh day of the month Sawai, being 
 Monday, in the year 1201 (1787)." 
 
 Letter from the King of Silaiigur (Salangore) to the Governour 
 
 General of Bengal. 
 
 <tiJ*. ^\f'\ ^y^j tjiTj-) CiO^ ^^yi '^jdf As^O I— ^/V. u*^^ ^j^ (j-V bi"^ ij') i^,
 
 148 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 y3j.As^"jbj^cLj ^Jj ^Jcj if^jti Jbj ^^'U-^ ^ .gv?,..! i.i-%si^ (^'Vp f!^ t" u^^-^^ 
 
 «)^ uL^i! ijUisfC tfJ^r" ti -^V.^ d)>^j J^' iif-'^ '^j^ J^ i/j*^ J*^ (J'-*'^ i/t^j^ 
 jjI^ l^ysjA- (♦'^;--' ""^^^^ t^'^*^ '-^ t^. t^'*^ 1^^ i/lr^^ u'^ CT?^--* JS** J^ '^ 
 
 iC~^ "jJjSjj ^jJ fj>i\j * J) jj£J ,^1* jV Cij^ •— ^'^ ^^;i^l J ^J 1! ^Ols *«j' J j~J J-i 
 ijt')U C:--^ -iJbl tlX* LU^'j ji;J *Ji*Jj jAjlijb J _^1! iUL^^ <)dll L_^»*J!) J^ [^ii'j* 
 
 uy J^ Culj-) Jy>J 1.^1-:;^ *;j-» CJ;ft«: JU- ^^b-'" '-i:-^ c:.~>s* jii u"^ ^aC* 
 i_5jL *)i^ jjU <u\^ ii\ jlXs^ t::-^-^ t::-~^sf ^;lJl^^\j■ *jV ylj^ ci-Jb l::-~^ <JIjuj" 
 i^j c:J;«) L/ti/~^^ (..5^*^ y.'^ "-^^-^ t:i-^*s^ o*si ^r <»5^-»,j <<)lii3 i-:;--';:^ i^f^^^ j^t^ 
 
 ^J u::-^ c:_«-s:* Aa^ ^^^ (.:i-»^ cuoj lir::!^ cr'Jf u^*^ u^ W^"* '^ U^*^ ""^ cy^A-i 
 ^i)^ \-f-'^ "^ ^ tij:'3 ii^;^^''?!;' hy^ (j^J^j* "-^^s^ •— ^* 4j^-^ t-.-N>.. » cylsi f ~j— » 
 
 (JLj i«)lfc t::.^*^' i\» jji^ ii^i^^ Lr~'V.'^ hj^ liJ:^ W^J' l/~'V.'^ '-W^ '—^ ^^"^^ C^ 
 
 *• Whereas this sincere and friendly epist1(? rnmps frnm the presence 
 of AJfddna Paduha Sri Sultan Ibrahuu the khalif of the Faithful, 
 who holds his court seated on the royal throne of the kingdom and 
 trading city of Sildiigur, the abode of propriety ; and may the Lord of 
 all worlds cause it to reach in safety the hands of our friend the General 
 who governs the port and country of Bengal, together with all its bays 
 and coasts; who is faithful and wise, liberal to the poor and needy, and 
 who affords protection to all merchants arriving and departing; who re- 
 sembles a lofty tree in the midst of a plain, the branches of which are 
 shady, the scent of its blossoms fragrant, and its fruit pleasant to the 
 taste ; beneath which the servants of God find shelter, satisfy their hun- 
 ger, and assuage their thirst. Furthermore we transmit this leaf of 
 
 paper
 
 tt 
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 149 
 
 paper to our friend to make known to him that of our former letter we 
 have not hitherto received any acknowledgement whatever, and also to 
 state our desire, that if he has any favourable regard for this country of 
 SilutrgU7\ he will, as soon as possible, supply us with the Company's 
 colours, and the necessary instructions, as a token of our mutual friend- 
 ship ; and with respect to the export produce of this country, such as 
 tin, pepper, wax, and canes, all of these we offer to our friend with perfect 
 good will. For that purpose it is we write the present, as an engage- 
 ment (on our part), and to give it the more validity affix our seal to the 
 paper. Written on the hill of Silangur, the fourth day of the month 
 Sqfar, being Wednesday, at three o'clock, in the year 1200 (1785)." 
 
 Extract of a Letter from the King of Silaiigur to Captain Light. 
 
 AsiJ i^.Ji^ lyiiLj '-^-^ L/-''V.^ 1^.^'*-' J-:*' uyj'^ t*. lJ'^ if^i^- ^ysiJ t^^/V, 
 
 j^ ai-wjj i ,j_u-i <sl^ ioU< i^j>j i^j) (_fJ (J.CJ iJJlo ^y lijV."^ uj iiTT^ ••— -^^ 
 
 J^iX° '^^ ^ '\J^ ^) J"^ d^J ^ ^r' ^P d)/'.'^ ij"^ 'rf^ u!^ 
 liLi j^jAJij-j 1 jlC-j c:^ ji^ LZj\a> ij^ '^jj\ A^jj ^i^\^ '^\^ '•^j^''*^ y^ ""^^ tJi^ 
 J^jS ij:^> ^J^\ uijli. |»^ J^ ^-Jji. ^\ ^^ 'ijy^j <xs-l r'^jjt Afi^ l::^ J'^i'.} '— '^ 
 
 1 r ♦ r iu»j 'j-^^' uSj"* j-r^ wjft-i 
 
 " That is to say, from his Majesty who reigneth and holds his court 
 
 on the hill of SilaJigilr Furthermore, with regard to what is 
 
 mentioned in the letter from our friend ; should we interfere in the con- 
 
 (^ q cerns
 
 j^o A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 cerns ol the King of AcJiin, we must give umbrage to the people of that 
 place, and occasion them to harbour resentment against us. With what 
 propriety can we say to them " do so" or " do so," seeing that they 
 have a right to act as they please in the affairs of their own country ? 
 How can people, situated as we are to the eastward, understand what 
 relates to that country, its subjects, and its government ? Were we now 
 to do any open injury to the Achinese or to act with treachery towards 
 them, they would owe us a grudge ; and at this time there is no matter 
 of discussion between us and the people of Achin. Written on the 
 sixth day of the month Muharram, being Monday, at ten o'clock in the 
 forenoon, in the year 1202 (1787)." 
 
 Extract of a Letter from the Same to the Same. 
 
 jjcjs *^jj1 (AjV.^ ^J^ Ji^ ■i^ ^^ J\j^. jiy i^ c:--^ 4^ J(s^^ j\ jlX*. 
 <j)jj t^U.» t::-jl i-S^j> \j. (_jr5 -^ i^f^f '•^^^ ui-vvS^ ^r<J^--j ^j ^ uJoli CS^ 
 
 ^Ij ^J ^ji iljJul!) (_^^Jifi> ^ CJi^ ^^^'^ ^JL-^ •i^ i^J liArS^ t»:ii^ u:i;> jjik) 
 i»^jj <d:Jl J urir^^ t.-'J^ c;^*^ X;? <^^ u^*^ t^^ '^' ''^'^ c/' ""^^^ ci-v^s?' ^j^cli" 
 ,<yi«j, t».r.;C.i (jjU^ (^J cJ^^ <^^ "-^^-^ c:-^*a?* i^^' Jislj' i^ji^ J '-rr^ '^J t-f»^ ^J^^ 
 
 " We have directed a person whose name is Giirn Khailb, with two 
 persons in his company, to present themselves to our friend, in order 
 
 that
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 151 
 
 that if it can be conveniently done, our friend may afford his assistance 
 in providing them with a passage on board of a ship ; it being their 
 intention to proceed on the pilgrimage (to Mecca) \ and if possible, in 
 expediting the departure of these three Priests, so that they may save the 
 monsoon. Should there be an English vessel bound to Juddah or to 
 Mokha, we request our friend to accommodate them with a passage on 
 her ; or if not bound to those places, on a vessel going even so far as 
 Coclmi. We likewise request that he will cause good care to be taken 
 of them ; and moreover that he will furnish them with a document under 
 his hand, to serve them as a token in case of raeetmg with any English- 
 men, who may assist them in consequence of seeing our friend's signa- 
 ture, and prevent them from experiencing a long detention at every port, 
 for which their supplies would be inadequate. 1206 (1791)." (Appli- 
 cations of this nature occur very frequently, and may be considered as a 
 proof how litde of rehglous bigotry subsists amongst these Mahometans, 
 ■who give the preference to an European vessel for the conveyance of 
 their pilgrims.) 
 
 Letter from the King of Joho?- and Pahang to the Same. 
 
 «.i-«^ li-^-s^ 0>A^ Ci-J'U jlar^ jJX=- ijj ^A^" ^j\j JiL. ^jcj j^ ^Jj 
 
 ^\ ji.ijij ^jcj C^ jj1« ^j c;->C«vo jjAiii ^^b ^J^jl "^j^ ^J4^ JJ^ jij J^ 
 diU ^M^ A\ji J) jxJ u-a^U. ^^\jiJ^ J all ^^ ijj^ '^jjl (JjU ^\Mi ^\ jJUi" 
 jjb J _jjL, *^j! JL, c:-^ <iiiiU; (iCo w^jI jJj jJljjj jJJl ^Ji ^\tt> ^Jy j^jj *^jjt
 
 152 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 br'j^ i'-j ^""^^ 'id' ''^1' "^ u^^ '^ ^-^ r5^ J ^^ u^^} '^^ i'-}^ i^-* 5^j 
 
 (j^?^y J-^ ^^-^ ^,.j ^^'^'^ o^i'^ *-^'^ij x^ (^J. t". u^.'' '^j ti-j^ '^^'^'^ 1-^-* *»^3 
 
 ^.j^ '^'b ^^,_jS ^,yiil )^^ 1.^ }^\ jjbj cl-Co clr^jb ^^_ja:L;l T^l^ J.C ^^j ij:^ 
 tl,C« Ll/i*^ 'jJji oj^J ^^ j4j 'jjjl ^b j-:_5j <^L-jb> ^J_Ji _jjj t^^^ ^1 ^^ ^^j 
 
 Jj l::^ j/^L J];A;^ ^^ J^ ^j ^J^ J^ ''^^ ^y e:^ j! jK=- JliUjJ 
 
 ^^l<) 4XA^ i^^l^ i^j^'^ fj^ '^ cA^ <^^ <^^ t:;*lr« t-ii-^ '^W'' uj^ >J t- 
 a]jj 'j_J ^1)3 iji} cT^^ *jV 1-0^ 1,5*'^ ij^^ U-'^ hfj^ J'^ JH^ t^, ^^J^^ ^J-^ (i;^3 
 
 (JJIjIj L::-^-^ _jj'b JkA^ c:-^3 i-^^-^ 'rfj-'^ J^- c/^-''^ UJ*-t:^ '— ^'* y^^j' u^^ li. -X 
 j>j^ J ^^Ji-*^ cr^V '^ j*'^ u^*^ lir^-V '^ ^^ '^j LS^"*^ '^ '-^.V l/";/^^ l5^'^ '^ 
 
 " That is to say, from Paduka Srt Sultati MaJimud Itiayat Shah, 
 who possesses the royal thrones of JoJior and Pahang and all the dis- 
 tricts suhordinate thereto Tf it shnnld appear to our friend to be 
 
 a proper measure, we lequest him to communicate to the (Govemour) 
 General of Bengal the subject of this letter, making known to him that 
 the Dutch Company employed a force against Rii^u (Rhio), in order to 
 subdue the Bugis inhabitants and to set up a Malayan king. It pleased 
 the Divine Will that the Bugis people should be conquered in an attack 
 made by (the troops under) Jacob Peter Van Braam the commandant, 
 on which occasion they all ran away and abandoned liii/il, leaving us 
 Malays in the place. Upon this a treaty (or capitulation) was agreed to 
 
 between
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 153 
 
 between the commandant and ourself, together with all the chiefs on the 
 spot, and interchanged in writing between the two parties. When the 
 business of the treaty was solemnly completed, he returned to Batavia. 
 Some time after this there came another Dutchman, named Pelcr liody^ 
 to reside at Riyu, by whom all the articles of the treaty with us and the 
 chiefs were infringed. During these transactions the lUanon (a piratical 
 people from Mindanao) invaded Riyu, and by God's permission entirely 
 ruined the country. The Dutch made their escape and returned to 
 Malacca. With these circumstances we make our friend acquainted, 
 requesting that he may communicate them to the General of Bengal. 
 If we are in the vyrong with respect to the Dutch Company, let him fix the 
 guilt upon us, and if, on the contrary, we have acted correctly, we beg 
 that the General will lend his aid to see us righted ; there being no quar- 
 ter towards which we can now look with hope, excepting the English 
 Company, who, in the present days, are renowned from the western to 
 these eastern regions ; and who have the power of relieving the op- 
 pressed. Allow me further to mention, that being arrived in the domi- 
 nions of the chief of my family, the sultan of Ti'angganu, I have 
 committed my interests to his care ; both in relation to the English and 
 to the Dutch Company, whether for good or for evil. I have only to 
 add that there is nothing I can ofier to my friend, in token of my re- 
 gard, but my prayeis offered up every night and day. Written on the 
 29th day of the month Muharratn in the year 1202 (1787), 
 
 R r Extracts
 
 154 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Extracts of Letters from the King of Trarigganu to Captain 
 
 Light. 
 
 ^\y^ i.::_X;Jwj (_^ji 'c:^^ J-liS _.j^ aJlj^ CJ^ y^ilj ^\j ^^lJ ijliJ --Ij j^b ^Ai ^1^ 
 *--> _^j <)Jjl i^\ij ^J~l\i!l <iJl ^^y kjbj i^Jj t_^^ liy^J J^J t— ^ i-^^j (»r^ r-l; ij^^ 
 Mrf — .!_) «;^ lHV '-t'LJ?" ^J^*^ '"^-^ tlX< lii:-^ »J>« /►:?-> ■jry ^^-^ <J^ m/' li^y i^' 
 
 jjJLj ^^XiJ-< *-;^i^ A:^^ p-]^ <_5j\Jtc jjU; ( jLj j>5^j iolic-jl jLj t-^-^^ c:-'^ '■^.' 
 
 i^Ijj^ c:j_^ j»--! ^j ijjfj jJIj JjS ^^i>A/«^ lLSU ^V" J^ u^'^ t/--*^ '^^ t/r^ 
 
 r;;*^ rl^ WJ^ J*^^^ 't^j^ "^Ov^ uj*^ ^"^ '-^3 |*:r' r-1; u^^ c/J^ ^^\-^ uJ^ 
 ,i}yJ i^\) tl/'fl it^j^ t^^ yy uJ*v3 (•:^-= >-^-^ [fJi-t) l)"^ ^^ t^y u^*^ '—^ '-^3 
 oi^ *f««»:l lJj*^ '•^^ J^ i_r V-J u^-V-" dr-J^ '■^^3 i/'^ cJ^^ u:-j1j jj ci'uj ^ji_ji 
 
 ^V" ?;jr° ii^ Lli^*i *--> ^1^ <— >j\«^ iJij <dl.xJ j»j»- ^1^ tiUj^ liUJ^ uWi^^ uH* 
 «^ ^j i__jjlvo JU- oo Jo^j CiolS cij^ L::-v»Jb iJ-*-= iJl^xJ i.::-^;! JV 'H^'^ i^-n^ 
 JIj jj'lj JjJ*^ (ijVp t^-* 1^'^^ C'l^A-j c:^_jj jL)' tl^ j»^ cjI^ tl/^ ^^1j tu-jj 
 
 ir.r iuo
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 155 
 
 l^\i ^ AS! JuJ ^Jij jli^ CS'l *--) 1^ J ^^^^ UJ^ '■^.^ CT^ -^ ^~~* '■^^-^ (J^ L -;. . ! 
 
 iij^.'^ (j£j cy^. ji^ '^_jj J\^ ^J^\ l^jj tis"^ ^i-^ ss^ uj*^ i-Lf'* ^ir^V u''^ 
 
 A-uj 'jjij i^jI (j/'*^ (*-iJ^ '^ ''^^^ L::-i^b' c:-~^ i>]ji)J ^^li r^ 'ijjl ^|^;fJ_jJL) ^^b <dj 
 
 ^Uj li^jI j*-~) UJ^ '■^^r^ y^^ "^^ ^Iji^iiJ^ Jii j\ j^^ y^^'V i^>*^ 
 
 f^yt»^\ Jb c:-^-^ Ji^ <iL&,*-> l::^_j3 ^^jU ^j-^ i_i--^ ^^'1 'j^^ i^-^^ J^ >^J l1/^ 
 _ji\)j (jb '^-jls jj (j't;^ u^"^ (-uLj *U~ '-i^r'.'V. <-^-4^ '-^^-^ j-tI u'''° "--C??" '-^^ L^.-.y'T 
 
 U--:)^ ej^/* '^^■*^ ^^V "-^^l^ '-^^ '-'^J w''^ ^.'^ J^ '^1/ lili^ U^'^ J^.^ i'^ A}^ ij"^ J?^ 
 
 tr.v J^^ 
 
 " In addition to this we acquaint our son that whilst the king of 
 Sla7n remained at Sanggora he gave orders for summoning the king of 
 Kcdali, the king o( Patdtit, and the king of T^afigg^nu (to do homage). 
 The reply from the king of P«^d/jF being in terms not conciliatory, his 
 country was invaded by the Siamese, subdued, and laid waste. With 
 regard to the letter addressed to us, we stated, in answer to it, t!iat it 
 never had been customary from the earliest times to appear personally 
 before the king of Siam, but only to convey to him a flower of gold 
 (filagree), and another of silver. Some time after this there arrived an 
 envoy from him, who demanded that an hundred pieces of cannon, and 
 likewise all Siamese subjects who were settled in Trajiggaiiu, should 
 be delivered to him. He further required a variety of rich articles of 
 furniture. His demands upon us were highly exorbitant and oppressive. 
 Our alarm on the occasion was very great, and we roused the country 
 in order to be in a situation to resist the king of Siam ; but through the 
 aid of God and of his Prophet, he returned to his own territory ; car- 
 rying
 
 156 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 rying off with him a number of the Patanese whom he had seized, (the 
 Patani country being intermediate between the dominions of Siam and 
 Traiigganu). We shall now proceed to make our son acquainted with 
 the genealogy of the kings of JoJior down to our own time, for his con- 
 sideration." (On this descent he grounds his resistance to tlie king of 
 6Vflm'5 claim of personal homage.) "Written on the fifteenth day of 
 the month Slidban, in the year 1201 (1787)." 
 
 " The king of Siam still persists in requiring that either your ro)'al 
 and gracious father or the heir apparent should appear in his presence ; 
 but from the beginning of time, through all generations, the kings of 
 Johor never did personal homage to the kings of Siam, but only sent 
 complimentary messages. With regard to this journey to the presence 
 of the king, your royal father has not yet made up his mind ; but on 
 the other hand the king has declared, that if his will is not obeyed, he 
 intends to enter our country in the fiftli month from this time. Now if 
 our son feels any concern for our situation, he will give orders for a 
 couple of guaida castas to proceed to this place in the course of four 
 
 months, bringing with them a set of English colours There is 
 
 nothing we can send in token of our affection l)ut two pieces of cloth ; 
 they are not a suitable gift, and must be considered merely as if we pre- 
 sented him with a flower. This letter is written on the sixth day of the 
 month Safar, being Friday at nine o'clock, in the year 1202 (1787)." 
 
 " The reason for making this request is that we still continue at va- 
 riance with the king of Siam, and are unable to ascertain his good or his 
 I)ad intentions. We have transmitted to him the flower of gold and 
 
 the
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 157 
 
 the flower of silver, together with the usual present (in money), but no 
 answer from him has been yet received. In (the beginning of) this year 
 he came to Palaiii and smote it, utterly ruining and laying it waste, and 
 putting to death the principal people. On this account it is we are ap- 
 prehensive that in the ensuing season he may perhaps come and invade 
 Traiigganu. If a ship could by any means be spared, it would assist 
 
 in enabling us to resist the power of Siam Furthermore, with 
 
 respect to the articles forwarded to us by our son, they are arrived, but 
 we have taken only such as we fancied, namely a time-piece, two pair of 
 mirrours, a piece of green and one of purple velvet, two pieces of gold 
 tissue, and one parcel of lace ; the value of which amounts to one 
 thousand five hundred and ninety-two Spanish dollars. Written on the 
 third day of the month Safar, on the night of Thursday, in the year 
 1207 (1792)." 
 
 Passages extracted from a Romance containing the Adventures 
 of India Laksana, Indra Mahadcwa, and Dava India. 
 
 ^jIJjIj ijy <lj\5jti JJjI wl jAjlsi ti-^i.l ^Ji^^ (J'T'if*^ ^/ 'rFlr' K^^} U^* '^^ CS'' 
 ,^b iji-0,1 e:-XiJ« 'j^_ J>J^ j..;L <uli (kbJjc^ ^y uJ^ jJi C-'U Cicii Ji.is~ Jci^ ^^jj 
 
 j^j JoX^ t-::-^-^ *^ji^' ij^'^ 1^^'^^ '-^}f~ ii::-^ tr'^'^ t^ ^^jr^^ uuj^ ^. ,^y cl:\^ j)\ 
 
 ^\^ ^_^L< ^_s\ <d:icLj ^jS^ uy-v3 ^j^ uy '■—^ '■^■^ uy J'^-*-' j^^^ t'. \y 
 
 S s " The
 
 158 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 " The prince then smiling (at the defiance sent by the enemy) went 
 to sooth the affliction of his wife, and addressed her thus: " O my love, 
 thou who art to me the soul of my body, farewell I If perchance it should 
 be thy husband's doom to fall (in the approaching battle), wilt thou 
 cherish the memory of him with some degree of fond concern ? Wilt 
 thou wrap him in the scarf that binds thy waist ? AVilt thou bathe his 
 corse with thy tears pure as the dew that hangs at the extremity of the 
 grass ? Wilt thou bestrew it with the flowers which now adorn the folds 
 of thy hair?" The princess upon this wept the more abundantly, and 
 embraced the neck of Indra Laksdna, her arm enfolding it as the musk- 
 scented epidendrum entwines the angsuka tree (pavetta indica). Such 
 was the picture she exhibited, whilst Indra wiped away the tears from 
 her eyes." 
 
 tJ^^ ij^jir° uy ^!^ '~^ -^ iif^ f ^■♦^/J "^z ij^ uy J^ u^-* '^^ J'^y 
 
 jJ^'^'^ t" Jj^ 'n^r' '^*-^ ei^ J^} t-^ J"^ u^3 ^J^ uy '^■° ^^^3 y.--^ 
 uA^ ui^J cp' '^ J^- ^^^ '^ V. <^^jJ hf^r" ^tJ^ Lry u-'^* c'^ j-^* '^j^ 
 j»?^~y' uy J^'.'V*^'^^ "-^^ vir^ l»l-^ |Jlk>J c:-^'! U-J*^' uJ^ '-^y^ '^^ J^- ^■r^ 
 
 d-l-^ a^ S^lr" li^^y i<i^ 6-^r=-J J^ J^-' J-! i^<- t.::-::' o>^ ^jy CLi^J:^ 
 
 y J^ «>^ b'. '^ '^'^ (*-^^* c/^ ^y J^ ^^"^y ^rf} ut!^ ^^i}i y. tj}^ 
 
 " Upon the arrival of Indra Mahadava at the palace, he seated 
 himself by the side of the princess (his bride) and said to her smiling, 
 
 " My
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 '59 
 
 " My love, my soul, in what manner is it your intention to dispose of 
 yourself, as I am obliged to proceed in the search of my brother? If it 
 be your design to accompany me, you should lose no time in giving orders 
 for the necessary preparations, as my departure must be immediate." 
 When the princess Seganda Ratna heard these words, she held down 
 her head, and with glances sweet as the blue lotos flower in the sea of 
 honey, replied, " What plans, my love, am I, a young female, to pursue 
 but those of my lord alone ? For is not a wife under the guidance of her 
 husband?" Indra I^Iahadeiva shewed his satisfaction at hearing these 
 expressions from the princess, embraced and kissed her, saying, " Thy 
 good sense adds grace to thy lovely features, thou shalt be the soother of 
 my cares, my comforter, my companion." 
 
 ^,b r|_^'iCij' j_j 'jjj? tJ-j)i--< ij^ f^ tTt i-r^-^ j^y^ (J^^ ^i&djil j^J ,i^j^ ^jj\j 
 (i;^*^ Jifj'^^ 't^/ ■^r^ J^-l uy '^ •— ^ |*J^" t/ Pj uy djW^ ^•^} vV.'Vj'^' 
 
 ? jy '— {j^TT*^ iJ'J'~*> C-yi»j i^\jj ,s-/»Lc -cl t— tt-J' J Cl-'L-c ^_ jjli (J^ji (J^ uX^ j^^ 
 
 i^b^ t::^',! u:^^ Li^'*^ i^J^ '— ^"^ ^i-:;--^,/ idi— .wo (^_jj js^ ijjlt ,^^(1 (_^lj ^j^.V 
 ^jXij\ I— .-v«) ^^Ajj J.^ lL^-o ^^j ^'Uj c^fft-j ^. jl ^JlJ ^'^ ijitiy cy^ ^; >i\ ^IS^ 
 
 ^^b JiUj cjpL) i^'^jfi^ '^_ ^^^^,1^ i_s\j Jj ^^j jl'\ ^. jb jjl cSyo cLjJ^ 
 
 " Having spoken thus, Ijidra MaJiadewa bent his course wherever his 
 uncertain steps might lead. With an anxious heart and suffering from 
 hunger and thirst, he penetrated into forests of great extent, ascended 
 
 high
 
 i6o A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 high mountains, and crossed wide plains. The sun was now set, and the 
 moon rose in all her splendour as if to serve him for a torch. The prince 
 although fatigued proceeded towards the hills of Jndra Ktla, and as he 
 passed, the tender branches of the climbing plants waved with the wind, 
 and seemed inclined to follow the beautiful youth. As the dawn gra- 
 dually arose, the clouds in the border of the sky assumed a variety of 
 shapes, some having the form of trees, and some resembling animals ; 
 but the trees of the forest were still obscured from sight by the dense 
 vapour rising from the dew. The light of the sun now began to appear, 
 slancino; from the interstices of the mountains like the countenance of a 
 lovely virgin, whilst its beams shooting upwards exhibited the appearance 
 of flags and banners waving in front of an army marching to battle." 
 
 <!i-jj ^^J jcJL (JX< J^ J^ '-^3 u)^ Jy cT^^fr^-ir'* uS^ ji''^ Hj^ ^U Jil 
 
 ijw: ^} S:^.;\ ^J6 j1 4-C^ uy J^>*'»-< ia^ '^} uy^^ "^^ L^ d)^ J'^^ Ji.'^ '^ 
 <JjA«o w-jU J J iMrl!^ <J)A-J jJ jJ rfAJ i-L-.Vo ij:^i\j •— 'W^ '^jV li)^*^^ tJy*"^ **rT^y 
 
 Ci-ol r_.lj ^ij\ aJ^J '"ii--':'^ }*.-' ij/l i^^ ''J>P' jj^ii 1*?-^" UJ*':',^ (jT^^ ^'^^ J«^ (-L5v< 
 j-sis- (J^'la CSj^ |c!j *jV J'* ''-rr' c*^ cl;^ 'r^lr' ""^fV L.'.?*^-^ j'J^^ J:*.*^ lLX< «-L^^ 
 \ij i<V^ ^--^3 u^'-V' ''>*^'«> \ji^ iir^A*'^*"'^ ^V,'''" ^-^ U.>*^1^ y '^^ u^'^v^'^ ».lX< 
 
 'jj i^j^ ib (Jiwj ^0 ijlj {^y^} ti-vvj .»5^ '-r?T^ '■^^3 '■' .:' tj*>^ uLn-« iji-w«>«>
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. i6i 
 
 ^^ '^j\i lJ^ er^^ cr=^ ^'zz^^ uA-'J y 1^^- J'^ J^^ '^J^ '-^^ i-J^ 
 ^^^jiA^ JU^ <d-jU ^^] ^[f^li S^ J'i ^;:-^ ^b 1--^ ^j/ -^^V ui' ^y^ 
 ijw, j;;^!:;^ o-l;- J>i^ 'U*^ J'^j'^ J^ ^^3 'ijj <J^. u-^^ ^'^ uJ*^:^ ^'^^ ^^•'^ '— ^'* 
 
 " The king was highly pleased with the manners and disposition of 
 HcwcL Indra, as well as with his graceful person and superior under- 
 standing. He said to him, " Partake of betel, my son," Deiva Indra 
 having accordingly partaken, returned the betel-stand to the king, who 
 thus addressed him : " I have sent for you, my son, in order to make known 
 to you a resolution taken by me some time since ; that to the person who 
 having counted out ten large measures of sesame seed and as many 
 measures of sand, thoroughly blended together, should be able to separate 
 the grains of the one from the grains of the other, and to complete the 
 performance of the task in the course of a day ; to such person alone should 
 I give the hand of my daughter in marriage." Deiva Indra smiled on 
 hearing the king's words, knowing them to proceed from the artful 
 suggestion of the princes (his rivals), and bowing replied, " whatever may 
 be your majesty's injunctions, your servant is ready to execute them." 
 The sand and the sesame seed being then provided and mixed together in 
 the court before the palace, Dcwa Indra made his obeisance, descended 
 to the spot, and as he stood beside the heap, silently Avished for aid from 
 the king of the ants ; when instantly the monarch made his appearance, 
 followed by his whole army, consisting of the population of nine hillocks. 
 
 T t Upon
 
 i62 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Upon receiving the directions of Dewa Indra for separating the grains, 
 each individual ant took one seed in his mouth, and in this manner the 
 separation was presently effected, and the grains laid in distinct heaps, not 
 one being wanting. This done, the king of the ants and all his train 
 disappeared, and returned to the place from whence they came. Dewa 
 Indra reascended the steps of the palace, and having taken his seat and 
 made obeisance, said, " Your majesty's commands for the separation of the 
 sand and the sesame seed have been obeyed by your mean and humble 
 slave." The king expressed his amazement, and all the ministers of 
 state, the warriors and the people in general were astonished at witnessing 
 this proof of the supernatural power of Dewa Indra ; but with respect 
 to the princes, some of them shook their heads, some bent them down, and 
 others turned them aside, being unable to support his looks." 
 
 (The striking resemblance of this incident to one in the allegory of 
 Cupid and Psyche by Apuleius, will appear from the following passage, 
 and, I hope, excuse its introduction). " Venus being incensed against 
 the beautiful but unfortunate Psyche, after much personal ill treatment 
 imposed on her many severe tasks. In the first place having collected in 
 a great, promiscuous heap, an immense quantity of seeds, consisting of 
 wheat, barley, millet, poppy, vetches, lentils, and beans, " separate, 
 said she, this mass of seeds, let each of the several species of grain be 
 placed distinct from the rest, and see that the work be accomplished before 
 night." Psyche overwhelmed by the contemplation of a task so prodigious 
 and so impracticable within the allotted time, remained stuplfied and 
 motionless ; when an ant who observed her situation and commiserated 
 her difficulties and her affliction. Immediately summoned the populous 
 tribes of six-footed people from the neiji,hbouring field. These, obeying 
 
 the
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 163 
 
 the call, hastened to her assistance, and having separated, o^rain by grain, 
 the confused heap, arid deposited each sort apart, presently disappeared 
 from her view." 
 
 Passages extracted from the Malayan version or paraphrase of the 
 Ramayana, a celebrated Hindu Poem. 
 
 _1^ i^j-ij C/'O ^J^ u'jff^ lirr^ '■^J f JP^ '-^^-^fe^ >— 'W" '?j^ >^ ''■'j*-' j^-^l 
 ■^li^ i)i-"^ <-^-« ujlr — ' J^ (♦.y?^' J^ u''^ 1*^ S-^ ^W« i^]_;.x-o t^llw ^_.lj 
 •-r*** i^y '^'j^ ''^^^ '--^ li)^^ y^ ^-^3 ''j^^ o^ '-^'^ cr*J^ '^ ^^^-^'^ u^j 
 A^vial JSl-. ^jb |.i-j i_---J ^1^ uX< ^_5:i^ i_-"-4Js Jito ^^jJj ^^r^^^ fj:'.'^ c;;A^ 
 
 Jili ^^1j ^ i_,>-j „1^ cijl^ Lixs ^^ JU^ t;^^^ c,"^?^ ''ijy '-^'^ ^^j> ^'3 
 ili ^J j^l tlSilj c:-^li' "U*- 't-''^'^jJ J-^^ ^jf} tT^ '-^'^ (^^ *^ '-^■yV (♦>?^1 
 ^jj-i^ cX'li (♦^ (Jb ^U ULJ^ yjr;^^ tlii'^ _y-iil_j^ i^j ^J i^li i^jj Jj JU 
 l»l^ j_^lj ui^l' (»l^ ^U- jj_.^ ^1;^ <li-J' CS^ J-^r-* c?^ c;:?^ *— ^^'-^ lil/ ^W" 
 •-r^ _1^ ^./^-.j lLT^ i_ji=- CiAftJ ^li^ l»l^ ^] l«li ei..,^-l« j^U ti-y-j cSm^ jL^ 
 
 ijos^ ij 'J j^ ^jV'^ cA*^ (j^^^r*^ c;::^ "— ^'^ C^^- '''^ 4^ jJ'V. cy^^ S^ u'^ r- 
 olsu jJi <i)>ul jjul tiilS |.lj-. J\ Jj ^iJ^j JLC J^J^;; ^^1 jjul i^ji ^1 ^^_.Jjl 
 
 ^1^ 1^ ^jjjX^ ^jil ^jiji ci-'l^ (JX« cjIc i_?1^C-) ^^IL) yli os!^ ^^^<L.a-♦J^J <iJX)Ij 
 usp uy k/' d;^^^ '^ vh c:i^ "^^ '-^'' ^-^'y*^ J'^ ^'^ ij) t"^^- ci^V
 
 i64 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 cl<:-::.C: J.J C^ i^\j_ ^i\j ^j^ C^^ C^ ^j\ OJjil^ ^^ ^^^"^CS^ 
 
 b- ^'-^ cr^^ lA^ "^J^ U>'' t'-J-"^ uAl^ LS-:' y Li^ ujb irW* ■^ &^-e^}'^ 
 c:^j i-V-) ^^J— clj' ^^ CLlj^ jij^-^^J J!!! l::-~i1 JJjJ i^j:J (jjj' J^«l J tli^ ^j-^U ^ 
 
 C^j^J^ (Ll^jlb ^j_jttj3 y l-^'* '^1):'.'^^,'**^' liT^'* cT^ cyj^J^ 
 
 " It was not long befoie the young Queen Mandii Derrei became 
 pregnant, and when the usual period had elapsed, she was delivered of a 
 female child whose features were exquisitely beautiful, and her complexion 
 like that of the purest gold. Whoever beheld the infant was filled wltli 
 astonishment. Orders were then given by Maharaja Rataana to summon 
 his brother Maharaja Bibisanam (Vivishana), together with all the 
 astrologers and diviners, that they might examine the horoscope, and 
 ascertain whether the future destinies of the child were to be happy or 
 miserable. " See you, my lords (said he), that this business be carefully 
 performed, and that nothing is concealed from me." Upon this, Maharaja 
 Bibisanam (who was himself deeply skilled in the occult sciences), as 
 well as the other astrologers, consulted their books, and having so done, 
 they all shook their heads. " Wherefore, inquired the monarch, do my 
 lords all shake their heads?" " O king of the world I (replied the 
 Avisfi men), your servants were proceeding to make their report, though 
 under feelings of strong apprehension lest they should offend your 
 majesty ; and they beg your majesty to be persuaded that what they shall 
 declare is not the work of their own fancies, but discovered from the 
 
 horoscope,
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. i6n 
 
 a 
 
 horoscope, and which your servants dared not to hide." Maharaja 
 Eawafia then said, " Be not afraid, neither conceal any thing, but make 
 known to me the result of your inspection." " Allow us then, O kino- of 
 the world I (answered the astrologers) to throw ourselves at the feet of your 
 majesty, and humbly to solicit pardon when we pronounce that the 
 fortunes of this royal infant will be eminently happy, and that the 
 personage who shall obtain her in marriage will soon become the sovereign 
 of all the kingdoms of the earth, aud no one in this world whom the gods 
 have created shall exceed him in valour and might." " If such be the 
 case (said Maharaja Rawana), to what purpose should a little wretch 
 like this be suffered to live? It will be best to dash it against the stones, 
 and thus deprive it of life in the speediest manner." Upon hearing this 
 the queen exclaimed, " O Maharaja Rawana, can the king of the world 
 have the heart to see the brains of the infant scattered on the floor? If 
 it must be put to death, there are many other (less cruel) modes of effectino- 
 it." " In what manner then (said Rawana to his queen) should you 
 advise that it be destroyed?" " Let us, my lord (answered the queen), 
 cause a coffin to be made for it, and let this coffin be cast into the sea." 
 The king expressed his consent, and immediately gave orders to skilful 
 artists, for the construction of an iron coffin. When it was completed and 
 presented to Maharaja Raxvana, the queen directed that it should be 
 lined with folds of gold muslin. She then took the child to her breast 
 and suckled it ; and having so done, with many tears, delivered it to the 
 nurses and female attendants, in order to its being placed in the iron coffin ; 
 which the king commanded his brother to commit to the deep. This was 
 accordingly put into execution ; but by the interposition of the deities, the 
 coffin floated on the sea.
 
 i66 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 lijS Ax'Aj iUi»rf ^j\fr<i <tv*-^ L,' J*:!^ lICc jAy;«-JjS l^SJf^ iZjJi JIjo Ujy c5^ i_Sj^ 
 
 <Ui~i j^Li«jl^ jb j^^jj-j J l!X< 1^1 J»^ dr^'l^j^ ti*:'-^ J?/ LS*^ y ^-J^ i/^V* '-^^-^'^ 
 
 CZ-^IJ t_-...*i. '-^^--^ 'rfjy—!^/ us** *— '^ (J^ ii;:'./~=^ (Jwtvc ^5^ dX* jjls-Jtt 'j-ilj 
 
 «-l-^-* ^-^3 u^^ <^ ■^ 'iJ ^^y- J^ ^yJ [*'-' ^^^3 y <-^*j lA*^* ^r" '-^-* 
 ^^U) jj ^^Ji Jii\ ^^,ji ^\<^ fXiJ (J_jj isj/Li jAjlLo ^f^ y^ t^ '*A-y ^'^ 
 
 tjjr^ jiil b^ ^i^^b '^t" '■^J t^rr^ '^ ^jy u^ J^ i^f-^^V" '-^ (.s^^*- '■^J 
 I— 'V" '^jV '— '^ s^^ '-^.^ ^r~^ (*^^ S:?^ J^' tl^ 7=^:^ M^j^ "^y c:-^! ^a-*jIj'J 
 c^^ (i/^i/^ U^^ (JJaiI c1X« ^^jJ ci^A^'l^ i^jj ^^\ <?! J c:^A.«l jiJ ^^ tOUc i.::^1j 
 
 " It happened that at this period a certain Rqjo, named Maliai-islii 
 Kala was in the daily habit of performing penance, which consisted in 
 going down at an early hour to the sea-side, and immerging himself to the 
 waist, while he adored the (rising) sun. As soon as it attained its 
 meridian height, he regained the shore, and returned to his palace. 
 During the whole of his reign he had been in the uninterrupted practise 
 of this penance. One morning when he was thus performing his devotions 
 in the water it chanced that the iron coffin came, with the rolling motion 
 of the waves, towards his feet. As soon as the day's penance was 
 
 completed,
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 167 
 
 completed, he gave directions to his people to draw it to the shore, and 
 this being done, he perceived it to be an iron coffin of most curious work- 
 manship. He then had it conveyed to the palace, and calling his wife, 
 said to her, " My queen, behold this chest of iron which I have found : 
 what, I wonder, may be its contents." The queen drew near, and they 
 both sat down beside it. Upon its being opened by the command of the 
 king, a vivid light issued from it, that shone through all the pylace. 
 They then perceived within the chest a lovely female infant, whose 
 complexion was like burnished gold, and her conntenance resplendent as 
 the full moon. Nothing in those days could equal the beautiful symmetry 
 of her features." 
 
 lSjI^ i.::-'--^ i_$-^ (Ji-oJ r^ijl^ irf^^*^ J'^ ^Jc^^ (Jj\j ^^y J^ [^J^ '~-^ ''^} "^ 
 
 tS-^«-J a\j tS^jjil^Ji CS-^ ivT*^^ t^J^ Lfl\i (vT^^ 4r^ Uy <rf^-'^ '■i^-' ulis-o ^^ t — j!^ 
 J\jJ OU ^\ij Jj\ Jllp ^^\^ ^i^\ \jj^ j\ J{J,< ^\ UO ^U jL: J^ ^^_^.J 
 
 ilj jIJ iji'^ i->^^ d!^ i^^'^ji ^'^^ i-^* 'rf'^ 'i^Xi-*^ >— 'W '^^ ^-^'^ u^j '^ 
 
 ^JCJi "y j}^ (J^^ L^,<i ^\j ^_^fSlJJ Jkto ii)W^ ALilij l.li'-o 15-*- lS'^ 'f'S^^t^ CLj[-c ytjs- 
 jJii .j ijjj lS^ t^'^J f^ J-i f^!; (J^^ lJj^ (Ji^ J^ ■^j^ t-'^'^ o-* e/' 
 
 ^jj\ Ji^-: <!\:i^ hf'^^ l1Sai\ f^..j^ i— ^ ciri?^ C/y (j^^ ui^v?^^ (ir'y "^^^ c:-**! 
 <C'U^ ij->-^ aijA»A^ UJ*^3 ^Trb O^^ t-^'^ lL.^-< ^j^<^ '-^} i^j^" '—^^ j^ ^■r]j 
 J\ ^^U '^_ (.li^J r^l_, JhJ^ J"^ ^Ji\ \^J^ ^"^^ ^fLi/0 Ci^^ ^j^J\ ^::~'i\ _f^ i^jJ 
 ^\>^ ^\J ^11.^3 ^1! -j-; Jjj^ J\ ^jL ^<^ r^j j3l JIC ci:l^ cl.C jU ^^U *j_, 
 jLj 'i-^, '-^J-^ ttW* '-^j-^^ i}j^ 1^^^ {jr^-^ ^^ t^. ui^ '^^ L.^^* '—''" '— ^ 's^Jr^ 
 
 " Raja
 
 i68 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 " Raja Alaharishi upon this immediately descended from the palace, 
 and taking forty seeds of the lontar palm tree [borassus Jiabellifera) 
 planted them in a ro\Y. " To that person (said he), who shall he able 
 to shoot an arrow through the forty stems of these palm trees (when they 
 have attained their full growth), will I bestow the hand of this my 
 daughter in marriage." This done he returned to the palace and gave to 
 the infant the name of Puiri Stla DezvJ. In proportion as she advanced 
 in years the charms of her person increased. Her name became cele- 
 brated in all regions, and fame widely reported that the beauty of the 
 daughter of Raja Mahdrislii surpassed that of every other princess of 
 the age. All who beheld her were lavish in her praise, and no eyes 
 could be satiated with the contemplation of her charms. By the time she 
 had reached her twelfth year she had many suitors amongst the sons of the 
 most powerful sovereigns of the surrounding countries, who were anxious 
 to obtain the hand of the princess Sua Dewt. To these Maliurishi 
 repeated his declaration that she should become the prize of him who 
 could shoot an arrow through the forty palm trees which he had planted 
 in a row. Upon hearing this condition the princes all assembled with the 
 intention of exercising their respective skill in archery ; but Ma/idris/ii 
 thought it necessary in the first place to ascertain from them, what princes 
 were present, and who (that might be expected) were absent. " Those 
 who are present, answered they, we know, but of others we know 
 nothing." " I am not aware, said the king, of any prince who has 
 failed to appear, excepting only the son of Dasarata AJahdraJa, and 
 being the son of so great a monarch it is incumbent on me to invite him. 
 Have the patience, my lords, to await my return." Mahdi-asJii imme- 
 diately proceeded on his journey to Mandu-pu?u-nagara, and after some 
 time reached the capital of that country. iJ^
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 169 
 
 (►rr^>r^ J^j^ u;^ ■jrW '^^ '^ ^^ '^/ c:^ J _jV>J J^-l ^j^jl;^ c/''^ ^ *— ^ J^ J^ 
 CJ^ ^W* '^-"^ «-^-^ [i^}^ ''(*^f^ O'^J'^ jA)lii~-l Jli» JU-U ^i)\yJJ J^J ^_rf-j^< jj^J 
 
 «-^ _.'ii> jjl^ '^'b <^ ^^ J^ i.s'^jW* e/'^ JVj^ J-V^r u''^ u''^>f^ l-M' J^j:' 
 
 tjj— ) til *-^3 s^j'^ (j-^ ''i*'y lJV t^*- uJ'' '•^ ^J^ 4?^ ci-Xt! c-*lj-s ijb i-^j'^ "^y 
 |*J^ u^i '^ "-^J^ 'Jr~' '■^ib'V dA^ e/^ '^^'^^ r-^ J!/-'' c)^' u^r^ UJ*^ l.-'^J 
 
 j^jC^-J jJUa J J Lll-^j Jli i-J'^r«J '-^y^ ,j^'^ 0.'^ Ujb ^Ir:-* J^j ■^ "^'^ 
 j_^ J (^jfisjj l^j\j •p-^j^ ^ji *J^ ^j"* J LiJ^-< ^J;:ti;' j^'^ j'^ o' '---'Jt^ '^W' ^^"^ J-n^-*^ 
 
 iiu 'j_i ^^U jii u^jl i-i'^J i.::^!/ cy^ ^Afil/ ^AJ^^ AiSi" ^^jui'l ^j^_ '^_jS CJ,L: jjb 
 ^j-s^ jjjS l^-Jucj i^b _}j\s ^^jJ J.$L) CS^ ^ — iJ ^^jC--^« |_?1 (_^^ i^-w. ft' j^'^ i-l^r"" 
 
 •^ u^'ir?" u^'^ u^'-y '--'^ '--^ '-=^1^ ^-^^ J^.V t^. u^* c/V '^ j'^ LL^iil ^A 
 ^•i^ ^j< J Li' ^;J cj1j-o ;^,j^ ^jbi <i!_jj c:^«l ^JU- ti-X.^! c:^ j:jb ^\^ J^, 
 jjl iK.;l; |A^j\ jU J\ oLi' ^^3 t-^'^y^ ^;-^ uJ^jl ijlrr* "^j^ c^j^ es^^ '-^ 
 J, X X
 
 iyo A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 J^j^ Jj Jj/^jV^ 4i-^ u^3 ^^ l/* d:«^-' '^ ij^ Jj^ ^~ ^^ 
 
 tzj^ CS^ Jl?^ t-r^ ^y "^-^ '-*^ tIt*^ '^>"^ "^'^ '^^ dr^^r-^ J J^ t-1-5^ 
 iul^ o\ _jli^ i---v*A jx.^ t^y- v:i-ib j^^ ^\^ t_-^^l:f^. ^ ^;i^ 'WJ^ o9'^^ i^jW* 
 
 ^^ JU ili, ^^;>;i! ^. Aai'l _^ JOC^ C-^v^A JJ. 1*1; 4_f;-» Aiiil Cy,v«Jl. ^^! ^_;f< oj- 
 
 rb s/v- "^-^ ^} •^W* ^/^ r^ ^-i^ '^^ cj/^^ '-r'^ "^^ O^ '^>' 
 jj'b i^jS ,»\; ^j^ cSf^ ^^ CSt^ J^^ j^ Ji^ Jji^ '^jr'^ i»r"^ uy 
 
 <_j1 ,_5ijifo ^^j ti,y ^J csai\ jb f^j> j^^ .^ ci^ J ij^-« ^ '^is'J .-JjU^ 
 jjic iii Jj <tui- ^^j ti^ ^\j ^^ <u^- tiX<. J^ t^y <sijl jj^/ uV/^ 
 
 LLl^ "^^J^ ^jIU'jJIj cJ;^>- U>^-^ l^^l ^^ J^J '^^ ^fi~ ^^^^ 
 
 u^rtr: J^j" ^ ■^^ l/^ '^ "^-^ uy rb '^-^ '-^ '^^•^ '''^^ '^^ ^"^ "^ 
 
 tlX^ ^;^^^l;J^-. c^ cl5^ Lii/ JJ^ ^L< ijy i^U— JiJ CS-*! ^j^J -^j J"^ ^Irf* 
 tijl^ lIX* ^Js^J^ ,»^J^ r'^^jj (»5;^ e-u'^ ^^ ,jy ^;j\i clj ^y ^^U ^3 <s:iJ 
 ^\ ^j} ^y ti;--"^ "-^T" (iil^-J^ c^ tl^ t^i <sJ;-^ u-^^ i_fl JJ»J t.LiUil V, ci)^-^ 
 
 (*!; "t^j*^ cib'''" '■-dr' '^M!/ wj* li)^'*--*'^ <— ^"^ (_5=^ lic'j i-i?j^ (Jl'^ —b '-^V 
 
 " It was announced to Dasarata by his officers, that Maharislii Kola 
 was arrived from the country of Derut-perwa in order to obtain an 
 audience of his majesty, the king of the world. As soon as Dasarata 
 received this information he instantly went forth to welcome the stranger, 
 and met him at the gate of the castle. Having embraced and kissed each 
 other, Makarishi was conducted into the palace, where they sat down 
 together. Dasarata then inquired what object had induced Maharis/d 
 to undertake so long a journey, and when the latter had made him fully 
 acquainted with every circumstance, he gave directions for calling to 
 his presence two of his sons, who were named Baradan (Bharata), and 
 
 Chatradan
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 171 
 
 Chatradan (Satrughna). Upon their making their appearance he said to 
 them, " Go, my sons, in the company of Mahariild, and perform 
 whatever he shall require of you." Maharishi, after paying the usual 
 compliments, descended from the palace and took his departure, along 
 with the two brothers. When they had got without the gate, Mahaiishi 
 addressed them in these words : " The journey to my dominions, O my 
 sons, may be performed by four different routes. One road will require 
 only seventeen days travelling, another twenty, the third, twenty-five, 
 and the fourth, forty days. On the road requiring seventeen days there 
 dwells a female rakshasa, named Chaktn, of a size so enormous, that for 
 ber pillow she makes use of a hill. During the reign of Brahma raja 
 he repeatedly sent armies of hundreds of thousands, with orders to put 
 her to death, but they could not accomplish it. In these days also 
 Maharaja Rawana has sent his warriors to summon her to his presence, 
 and upon her refusal has employed means to destroy her ; but the result 
 was her seizing and devouring many thousands of his trooops. In the 
 road requiring twenty days there is a rhinoceros named Agrii Gafidu, 
 whose bulk is like a mountain, and his hide is rough as the coat of the 
 nangka (artocarpus integrifolia). The road requiring twenty-five days is 
 infested by a monstrous snake named Silla Na/cJn, the length of which is 
 one thousand three hundred cubits, and when he exhales his breath all 
 the trees and herbs are scorched as if consumed by fire. With regard to 
 the remaining load, which requires forty days to travel it, the journey is 
 not attended with any danger whatever. Now, my young men, which 
 of these routes do you think it best for us to pursue?" To this the bro- 
 thers replied, ♦' We think it most advisable to pursue the route of forty 
 days, as it is free from every kind of danger." Upon hearing this answer, 
 
 Mahcirishi
 
 1/2 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Alaharishi said to himself, " These youths are evidently not suited to my 
 purpose, and the best thing I can do is take them back to their father." 
 He accordingly returned and presented them to Dasarata, who inquired 
 the occasion of seeing him (so soon) again. " I have had reason (answered 
 Maliarishi) to form an opinion that these two princes would prove unequal 
 to the performance of what I should require of them. If it be your 
 majesty's inclination to do me kindness, you will gratify me in allowing 
 your son Sri Rama to accompany me. Any other of your sons it avIU 
 be in vain for me to take, as they are not calculated to support the high 
 reputation of your majesty. Your son Srt Rcima, on the contrary, will 
 fulfil my expectations, and add celebrity to his father's name." Si't Rama 
 was accordingly sent for, and upon making his appearance, Dasarata 
 said to him, " Proceed my son, along with Maharishi, and what he shall 
 require of thee, do thou execute." " If it be your majesty's command, 
 answered Rama, I am ready to obey ; but (the object of my journey being 
 fulfilled) I shall immediately return to the presence of your illustrious 
 majesty." Having said this, he threw himself at the feet of his royal 
 father, and took his leave of him and his mother. Laksamana, his 
 brother, expressed a wish to accompany him ; but Dasarata and the queen 
 ^YOuld not consent to part with him. Upon this L,aksamana wept, and 
 still urged for permission to go with his (beloved) brother. " Do not, 
 said the father, persist in leaving us; but consider that in tlie absence of 
 your elder brother, you must supply his place in your mothers sight." 
 The queen, however, being affected by his tears, consented to his bearing 
 his brother company ; " For, said she, were he even to remain, he would 
 not (on Ills father's death) succeed to the throne of this kingdom;" 
 (in preference to one of the sons by another wife, for whom Duiarala 
 
 designed
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 173 
 
 designed it). Laksamana accordingly set out along with his brother 
 Sr'i Rama. 
 
 aj^ t^=- t^^^y j^jj t"^ uy^^^ drs^ ('^^'^j^ uy (*!; ^^'>■■ '■^^ t'J^ u^ '^^^ 
 
 ij^ C\> "rfj" cA^^'^ L>y^3 cis^ (-^i^ C/lcXi^l |j_jl OJK jl^ tJ1 jJ>->- ^;^)^^ 
 
 cyl^ tSJt< j.<l\ ii^ Jit J.WS /il 1^=- ^A ^J^ y\jjil\ J^ jjjjs jj^ *^^_jl ^ 
 uJlu ^A^ j^' /1\ 1^^ aj^ jjoa /^! -Uj^ jjcjb ^j^ '^\^ ^j^o\ ^\j ^^^ 
 
 r JJ^ jV uy crr^ *^^ c/v /^^ UJ^^J J> ^^ J^ ^* t^J^ '^^ Jl^ '-51 
 cjI^ 4^ (♦Lr uJL- 'V cv^^ ^5»' ^jfh- '^^ '^•* ^ |*i; sO-* cirl^^ic^ c-*.-. 
 /Al (^1 tiTl JIL: ^.L,; ^^^ c^l^ ,^« ^1;^ cij^o ^1 l»!^ ^^ c/l ^1^ ^^^ 
 t>J^ O'i! j^ ^. ^1^ jp! fL\ cJ'i! t^tj^ |»-,\5 uJjj ^j4 Jj ^1jc« ^^l^ t_.^ 
 oL.- C/l ^1; c5j-> c-*!^ ;^SC« ^jl /^\ ^y tl^y jjsys jS:il ^^l^ ^^_jU,j J_ji ^^ 
 Li* uT^ '^'^ <-^ ij^ '-^SiJ^ ^^^ ^ -^j^ C/1 ci'i^lj _ji$l=- jj-«yJ ^^l*y) jU 
 J^ J^J ^. ^5; j»^ ^^Lcj j^ tiipSC^b uJlj^ cl/tjjj^ f^\ a^ljcJ ^^« ciJ^a jj\ 
 
 ^'rii: j^ cS^ c5j^ ^^.1/^1 u_5i r^\j j,\^ c^b ^. '^jV v-3^ dht) ,j^ 
 
 J^^ '^j:!'^ US^ ^5* (•!) ci>- CjI^ ^^JU 
 
 " When Srt Rama arrived at the habitation of the rakshasa or 
 giantess named Chakin, whose size was like that of a mountain, he found 
 her still asleep. He said to himself, " This monster being a female, if 
 I should kill her in her sleep, what will the world say of me ?" He 
 then proceeded to awake her. She started, and upon seeing Ra?}ia at 
 the foot of her couch, she cried out, " Ho I young man, whither art 
 thou going ; and what is the occasion of thy coming hither? If it be thy 
 
 Y y intention
 
 174 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 intention to pass onward, go thy way." Rama replied, " My object 
 in coming to this place is to put thee to death. I was just now about to 
 kill thee in thy sleep, had I not reflected on what mankind would think 
 of such an (inglorious) act; considering also that thou art a female," 
 Upon hearing these words from Rama, the giantess laughed heartily, and 
 said, " What is thy name, young man ?" "I am Sri Rama, answered 
 he, the son of Dasarata Alahanlja." *' I feel great compassion for thee, 
 said she, both on account of thy youth and the comeliness of thy person, 
 as well as on account of thy being the son of a powerful king, illustrious 
 in his descent, and respected for his virtues. Whithersoever it is thy 
 ■wish to go, proceed forthwith." " From the spot where I am, answered 
 Rama, I shall not move, until with this hand 1 have put thee to death." 
 " O son of Dasarata Maharaja, said she, hast thou not heard the fame 
 of my prowess, not only in the early days of Brahma Raja, but also in 
 these of Maharaja Rawana, who ordered his innumerable armies to 
 attack me, and which I put to flight, devouring by hundreds such of his 
 people as came within my grasp. What then canst thou be to me, and 
 what are thy pretensions to superior valour ? " To this Sri Rama made 
 no other reply than desiring her to stand up and defend herself." (The 
 circumstances of the combat, in which the female rakshasa, of course, is 
 slain, resemble those which we have read in the Arabian Tales.) 
 
 ui-^iLo i^^JJ s^Ul jj_)'<V.' ^^S^ '>^^:'.' ^•r^^'-* Uy*'^' tiJ'^"' '—■'^ j-'C^ ^^^j TTjrr* ("^ 
 Jms.\-^ i^jI (_^U-J J\ ^,^J\ cJ^jX^ ^ ^s}\j ^ji^ cul^ CJ^ Jljy ^\ ciij.^ 
 
 ujl:iJ' ^^/ li-'b''" i;^ '^ ^ \j9'^ ti/Kl j^lf- i^lj^^ cJ^ ^^^yisjsxJd a!L»)J 
 
 .uf^
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. ,75 
 
 «LCj^1 <_j.j lzJjL, ^]j^' 'i.^,.\^ J J j^^ jtw ^^j_^j cJj=^ CS~L^ J^^ 
 '^Jf^j'^ 't/r* 'J' J' "^1; lH'^ i^.^ s:?! i-)- '^ c^.^ "^b Jr-^1 o'^j^-'i 
 
 ^^l^jCil <5ji>' J J ^J ^^ jUsCc/il '^_^_^ j^ ^b ^ ^ jl^ pS 
 i^^jkx^ ij:^A ^iLij cdi-j ^^jj ^IcUbj ^jL^ TL^^y ^^,'v*;.' ^^ j^ *\j ^j^ i^jj 
 i^i' uA> ^1a* '-^ u'-V^ I*!; ^j-^ ^)j ^j^ "^Vt? u^ ej^j-^ '-^'* uji) ■^l/fo . 
 
 ji^ ^^_jjj tn,.^ cul^ tliU i_c_^J l::^-^ al^ (.::-^e!j lLS'-* f^?jV J'^ ^^.:^J u^ J^ 
 S-^ (♦!; s?^ '^^ t^-* ^^.■'J 7^Jy t?i^ CJ3^ J\ <»Hj1 ^^$la^- tlCy V. c\) uO-* 
 j^l (JJ^jU ^jto jLj' i_?j;0 (.::-r-' (-^^ iJJ^-< <djjb <uU i_v«j» lUC*- i\*) jU ■_«i\;'> t_i ;<>>' 
 
 *— ^ liTtC^' clrS^JJ J''* UJJ^' J^ lirf"^ J-^ 1*5; t/^ (JJ^^ c;:'.^p ^'■''^ C'^^ *— '^ s^' 
 jjyjb L_,v^a ^^_j.^j t::.^--, jc>^ i-S'j^' ^^ uf (♦!> v/_;-= '^^ ^-^ ^U-Jj! ^^1 ^|^;i'^a 
 'ii'js A t_fj-: l1/-« uli^JjJ' ^,V ;^U-JiI cyl^ lL^ i.::-j1 ^j jd j^^ <-:;-^-< ci/ 
 Jsr^l A (_<rj-j "Sij^ e:-.^.C)JiJ il^^ ^Ji ijf^\ tr?^ t^-^ ij^ '-^} t?^ *-!^-^^~f*^ 
 
 •"^^•"^ 4?/^ '•/' P c/y* L!i3bO jA;Jj-<»-.-^J i^^j ^j^ JS^ dJ^JJ 'H''^ C\) 'rfj^ (llsijU. 
 CJI^ lLX* (_?jJJ (-::-;;-> 'J^ <sIj£J;i' (jjiijjjl^j-! cX< ^^;-^l /♦]_; I^J^ Jy^ (AjjJ i.:!-^;^ iJjJ 
 
 j^U-Jil CJ'^^ lLT-o l-:l-^.•Jl '^jj' L::-i^ Aa^ jlj-; ^ji <j!^j jjjl ^^ ^^U-Jil ^J\ i^jJO ^Li..^--) 
 
 ts-wo ^xSSJiya ,A,jj J^ "^^ ^jU— a) JJot |_^ 4^y.'^ '■^^-'rr' '--''^ i—^ yy *-::-^< t^-^}?- 
 i^j^ J»i^ (j^\^ t::-^3 jU~> jAj^ ^j^l c'J^'^ J^'^ (.li^'y idiila- i^U-JiJ culi i^-* (.::^J iJy 
 
 L'j^ c/'^ b^^ '^^ <J^' i^'^'^ ^'^ i*'^'^ '^'^-^••'^ J-!.^^ 'iJi^ "^"O"- Ji- "-^^ rl' 
 
 cu^U aJjDjj- ^j3 tl^'lj 'jiiiJ I— 0_,^' Jl:^ TuJI LL<f- ^^.--jJ j;;^^ uLCi "tCiJb
 
 176 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Ui^\j jIJ *]_; t^^ JcX^ j^ ^^\.*-Jil cul^ tlX^ ^Jr^Jl t^jj ooil^ ^-CJUvi^ ^^ CJ/ 
 tl/xi jAjL^ (_j1 (.1:^3 '^ i/^ J''*^' url^ W'^ f^^'^ t*. t^'^ J^ (i>^J '^JJ^ i-JUsJ 
 
 a]j i^j-^ Jrf*l t.».-vfa (_^iy ti-Jo ^1 t_.-v«Jb <5Jj.^' tj5_};',^ *-^^r^ *— -'^ cL>.« |__5:;'=^ (ir^~*v^/ 
 
 (j'k,^ jjjl^ t^^ »-^ I— -/♦>& jIJ (.::^ilAJ' cjLCjj^ (i~-=^ ^J^'^ '^^ UJ*:'3 '--^'* 
 ^j liji^ u~^^ tl^J'ls (j)^k>^ (_f J i^fj^ t^J'ls (_J'A-j jUj tl^'lS iX* <sIL J^' tj^y 
 Jo C^y i^^J^J (♦1» irij-^ '^^ i-J,U ^jjl^ t—,--! ij^ j\ (j-xL^ tl^l* J-.'. lLX5jJ jj^l 
 
 ,»jj j_jJ6 '■^^ 1.5]/-= ii;i/?" (j^'^ *'^' [j-'j'f^ ii>^-5 '*^^j ^5*r^^ u^ ;^U-J) L.JU tLxl'l* 
 CS-* u:^3 ^'^ (^j^ (i/*^ c/'^ L/'JJ^ <sil*L« uJL-j ^jl^ j»J*^ ^^3 1-?^.^ '-^^-:r^ <J_j^U 
 
 fc^j^ ci^y-; ^*;j^.j u/^jy* ''i^'^'i uj^ ^h -^jk^ <-^ u:;^;^ '-^^ iir?J o;^-*^ ^'W" 
 
 J^^^"^ Li*" U>j1' ^W* '■^^ '—^ trfji"^ '"^^-'T^ ^'^ij ^^^ J '-?j:.'^ t^^ J^ ^'^ U^J 
 
 C/loS jl jLj ^^_jS cylj«j u^"*^ L5* 'r^Ji'^ '■^^-Tr' '^^ '--^'< i*^^^ '—^^ A'.j^ ■jrl/s-*' '■^^•'^ 
 
 ^V i-fj^.'^ ^^^-^ iJ[/J ii)jj' ,_5i> U:-^\ U^y '--'^ '--^* '^^ 't*. ''^^ tJjlc-b' JJ ^y ^Ift 
 il^y 'rfi^-'^ ''-^li^ uX< ,_jlr>- ^^^0 ^-^^i} U^*^ji '•^^ J*~* i-?^ (*^ Jr*^ C^T^^ t^' 
 
 A^«L<i t_, ■,.»iit> t::-J|j jLj c^jjO c:-"^ ^ u^"*^ ""^^ l1X< {J''*^ji '^ '9 y! y/*?^'^ 
 »\A^ (»--.4J> i^y c^y.**^ <»iiXii:srt i_^>4j!> ^^y ^J j^b <l-!\^ j1 <-^-^ (ji} tjU— iil (^^ 
 
 jj^LJl 4^\:;3^ iJjDy jlXa- j^l c/1^/ ''■^^^ <-l^J^ i^b jlJ ^^j\^ j_^/ jjli <sLXiLsr! 
 
 " M^ou, Maharaja Razvana^s hearing the coinplaint of his sister (that 
 
 her
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 177 
 
 her face had been mutilated) his wrath was kindled like a flame of fire, 
 and he exclaimed, " O, my sister, is it thus that Laksamana displays his 
 manhood and his valour against a woman ? If he really wishes to give 
 proofs of his courage, lei him exert it against men who will oppose him 
 with equal strength and resolution. Then, indeed, (and not till then) he 
 may boast of manly qualities. He has no sister, but SrJ Rama has a 
 wife, and upon her will I avenge myself for the injury your person has 
 sustained from his brother." (He had cut off her nose by accident.) 
 
 " liawana instantly gave orders for calling two of his attendant ra/i- 
 shasas, who had Ijpth the form of dogs, and directed them to bring his 
 chariot. Having mounted it, he crossed over from Lan~gka-pm~i, and in 
 a short time reached the main land. One of the rakshasas he instructed 
 to assume the appearance of a golden, and the other, of a silver roe. 
 " Proceed both of you, said he, to the ground before the dwelling of 
 SrJ Rama, and there play and skip about." In obedience to the com- 
 mand of their master, they went towards the house, whilst Ratvana 
 himself followed the two roes in his chariot. When they reached the 
 space in front of the house, they began to bound and skip until they 
 attracted the attention o^ Stta DcwJ, who said to Rama, " I beg of thee, 
 my lord, to catch me those two (beautiful) roes." " As to catching 
 them alive, answered Rama, it is out of my power, but if you wish it, I 
 will shoot them with my bow." " By no means, replied Slta ; it is not 
 my object to possess them dead, as it is for my amusement I want them." 
 Rama, taking with him his bow, descended from the house, and calling 
 to Laksamana said to him, " Remain at home, my brother, for the pro- 
 tection of your sister SUa DavJ, whilst I go in chace of those two roes." 
 Laksamana promised he would, and Rama went in pursuit of them. 
 
 Z z- As
 
 178 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 As he followed, they ran from him, and when he was drawn to a con- 
 siderable distance from the dwellinor, Maharaja Rawana concealed him- 
 self behind some trees, and counterfeiting the voice of Rama, cried out 
 for assistance. Stta hearing the noise said to Laksaniana, " Hearken, 
 my brother, to the sound of your elder brother's voice calling for assistr 
 ance." " O 1 my lady, said Laksamdna, do not pay attention to noises 
 of this kind." Upon a repetition of the cry for help, Stta again said, 
 " It is beyond all doubt the voice of your brother who stands in need of 
 your aid." " Pray do not listen to these noises, repeated Laksanidna. 
 My brother Sri Rama is of all men whom the gods have created in this 
 world, the least likely to call out in that manner. Even when engaged 
 in combat -with mighty warriors, whose size equalled that of mountains, 
 he never was known to call to any person living for assistance ; and can 
 it be supposed that he should now require it on account of a couple of 
 deer?" " Notwithstanding this, replied Stta, I earnestly recommend 
 your going immediately to the relief of your elder brother, who is in some 
 kind of difficulty." " O I princess, answered Laksamdna, my brother 
 left me here expressly for the purpose of giving protection to your high- 
 ness, and can your servant possibly stir from hence ? Should any accident 
 befall your highness during my absence, your servant would appear highly 
 criminal in the eyes of his beloved brother." The cry for help was once 
 more heard. " Is it my brother's wish, exclaimed Stla, that his brother 
 Rama should perish? It is my opinion that you should instantly go and 
 End him out." " My brother Srt Rama, he replied, is not only exempt 
 from any injury that man can do to him, but the very beasts of the earth 
 bow down before him. To what species of danger then can he be ex- 
 posed, that shoiild require the aid of your servant; who would at the 
 
 same
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 179 
 
 same time feel the strongest apprehension and anxiety, were he to leave 
 your highness unprotected?" " Now, cried the princess, I perceive 
 what are your views. You wait the death of Sn Rama, that you may 
 then possess yourself of his wife." Luksamana upon hearing these words 
 from Situ Dewt, answered with tears ; " Now, indeed, it is impossible 
 that I should do otherwise than go, in order to disprove a charge against 
 me so entirely unfounded, and by which my feelings are so deeply 
 wounded. That I weep, however, is not the effect of this reproach, but 
 of my being obliged to neglect the trust reposed in me by Srt Rama when 
 he committed your highness to my care " He then described a circle 
 round the house, marking the ground with his finger, and pronouncing 
 at the same time these words : " 01 earth, receive from me (my sister) 
 Slta Dcwt, as a sacred deposit. Whoever shall overstep this line, do 
 thou swallow him up." This precaution taken, Laksamana set out with 
 four attendants. When he was at such a distance from Sua DewT as to 
 be no longer within hearing, Maharaja Rawana drew near, in the dis- 
 guise of a Brahman, and standing in the walk before the house, said 
 aloud, " O I daughter-in-law of Dasarata Maharaja., bestow upon me 
 thy alms." To which she replied, " I have nothing, my good Brahman, 
 to offer thee, excepting this flower in my hand, which is at thy service." 
 " O I princess Stta Dcwt, said he, whatsoever thou deignest to bestow, 
 I shall accept." Upon hearing these words from the holy man, she 
 reached out the flower towards him, when he said, " I Stta Dcwi, it 
 is not in my power to overstep this (magic) line of Laksamana. If 
 thou art disposed to treat me with indulgence and favour, thou wilt thy- 
 self reach it to my hand." Slta thereupon descended the steps of the 
 house, to the ground before It, and held out the flower to the Brahman, 
 
 Avho
 
 i8o A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 who again said, " If your highness may so far condescend, oblige thy 
 servant, O ! princess, by extending it beyond the line of the circle, it 
 being impossible for thy servant to transgress that boundary, and great 
 will be the religious merit of freeing me from the restriction it imposes." 
 Slta Dcwi then, standing within the circle, but extending her arm beyond 
 it, presented the flower to the (pretended) Brahman, who suddenly seized 
 her by the hand, and carried her with him into the air." 
 
 •^ i^"j> i^y (>\) (-^j-J lLSv-o y\^ ^->-j Jo jjI *i^ Jib ij_jj ^J ^ji j_^i_ji AiL lLCc 
 _jHj iji-vibL (_^^ c jjl jj^ Jj '■^Ji.'^ '■^^-r-' '-^./-'^ '•^^-^ii^ ^' '^^'^^ ^V i^j'' ^-^^i} J-^V 
 4— sb' ojrlJ c:-~»' J^>^ ijij CJjy iJJ^'^ ^/l i^' -*\r^' |*W^ ^J-* f JJ^ i-^yk '■^^.^ 
 ui' ^'jf* "^ t'*^ lLC< i.::-^K l::.-^J.,.« (♦L^js i_J^^ ^J _jjb JJ ^jI j»A-r< (•!;>.♦-& Jl^' 
 
 ^ iJ^'^ ^^ '^^ J'^ cT'^^ u-*l c-.-*-^ ^jji ^jlJ^j L:i-j.l ijjiy ,_/! iU (♦Ua jU 
 jr^y-'^ J^ aij^jii _j£lj ^4, ^1^ ^_j^_, cijI^ iJS^ ^A yb Jb j (A^^^jJO 'j--»^ tl^tP' jJ 
 
 (»]_; u/y-* t-l-'li uJv^ ^*^ S^jV^'* (*V'*^ i^j^ i^lLo jib iv L::--fc<l Jui (jS'^-j (♦W'^Trr 
 _.$!£l jJi J~-^ tii^lj" t_i''cL' i.::^^ *-:;ia j-VXi^ C^ aJ^y _jlc! ^/^J*^ J^^ J^^ (_r* 
 *--V?' K-'J^ ci-oL* ^v jL-.- i_«^f~~' t?^ c;^-^ ^^ ^ "-^^ "^-^y V. u'-*~-*' '■^''•^ '— ^'* t:,':''*^ 
 j^l^ k_-v4Ji aS^j cklL Jy j/^y^ d^J'J^ |jV -^-1 ^ (♦!; l,^^-' ^'''^ t^<-= o J j^/^ 
 ^jpjl tdxsoj ^^,_jii_l ji'j ^ t.::^^ CJ.yL^ ^^ lLX* ^^1 U j Li^:.< ^^, o ^\j ^_c^ tl,<.< 
 
 " The king (in the course of his travels for the purpose of gaining 
 
 intelligence
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE.' i8i 
 
 intelligence of SJia) met with a stork which was drinking at the side of 
 a lake, and inquired of the bird whether it had seen any thing of his 
 wife, Sita Dewt, who had been carried away from him. To this the 
 stork replied: " As to youi honour's wife, my young lord, your humble 
 seivant knows nothing of her, nor is he acquainted with the name of 
 Slta Dewt; but when your servant was taking a drink of water from this 
 lake, happening to cast his e)e towards the heavens, he beheld Maha- 
 raja Rawana conveying a beautiful young woman through the air, in his 
 flying chariot. This is what your servant saw, but who the young person 
 was, he is quite ignorant. She woi e a dress of a crimson colour, worked 
 with gold, and two or three pieces torn i'rom it, she let fall into the lake 
 (as she passed over it)." " O ^tork, cried Rama, from you it is I first 
 hear tidings of my wife. Tell me now what leward you claim from me, 
 that I may invoke the deities to grant the boon." " Your slave, rephed 
 the stork, makes bold to request of your highness, that when he has 
 taken his stand in one lake, his neck may be extended to a length suf- 
 ficient to reach four others, that he may be enabled the more easily to 
 provide himself with food." " My good stork, said Rama, if I inter- 
 cede to have your wish granted, you may, I fear, have cause before long 
 to repent of the consequences." " My lord, said Laksamana, if the 
 neck of the stork be lengthened in that manner, he will certainly be 
 taken in a noose." " Brother, answered Rdtna, his wish, whatever it 
 be, I must obtain for him. The blame is not mine." Rama- then 
 uttered a prayer, and instantly the neck of the stork grew to the length 
 desired. As soon as the two princes had taken their departure, there 
 came a boy to the lake to fish, who perceiving the neck of a bird sq 
 
 A a a enormously
 
 i82 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 enormously long as to resemble a huge snake, threw a noose over it, and 
 thus catching the stork, led it away to market, for sale." 
 
 J^ t^y uJ^^ '^^ c^^ '—^ (*j!^ d^Jy'^ J^ (*L» s^/^ '^ li;^^'^ "^^ rb ^^ u^^ 
 ^jlj (Ajbj iXa^ li.'^jJ'^ (»\; fc_?/-= ^;^^' 'j->-*-< t^i^3 <JX« ^_ji»- -.^ Uj ob (»^^-^ UJ^ 
 
 j1 t-^Afc (.::-.J C/i! ci;lj-j j^.Jij-' ^/^ cAu" S'^'*^ u^ u^^ '■^3 ^-r"*^ ^J^^ c/' 
 
 tL^ j^'iX^ •— -V. ivT^'t;^ "t:^ ^'^ ''^'^ O^ u}-^i^ t— -v4J!) I'jj-J ^_yj| jAjlft <_ ■■■»> ^jj 
 
 l^\^ aJ^jS^ ti>,« ^AjljJ j_/-jy J\^' "dltil (^i^ J^^J fciL/-< ^AjiX—iij j^^ *y ^Jj^ ^l( 
 
 w^ I*!; "r^T*^ "--^ '■^^3 "-^ if^.j'^^j} cfj^ir° (•b ^0-" ij"^ i^y &^y^ (^U-Jil 
 
 iy u:-^U- ^JjIj j— j ^jIo J.S? ^^ j1 c jIj u:^.! J^' CS^ -J^j Uj (jt;->'l^ !^-ry^ \:f"^ 
 
 f>]j i^j^ c/^'-^'^ '^ i-^^ '— ^"* clr*^^ IS***"* (ir*^*?" u)''^^ Trb ^ "^ "^J^ '~'V di^ 
 j^^^j ^^jjoj —J^ Uj jp^ -^1; Uj j;j\ fjJiVii 1^ jjj J _jj^Sj-» t>^J^ XrJ"* t/~'^'»^ 
 
 " When Sri Rama heard these (conciliatory) words from BaUa-raJa 
 he attempted to take back from his hand the arrow (lie had shot at him), 
 which the latter would not give up to him, but afterwards threw it on 
 the ground. The (enchanted and unerring) weapon thereupon took a 
 
 flight
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 183 
 
 flight Into the air, and in its descent pierced the breast of this king (of 
 the monkey tribes). He grasped the hand of RatJiu, placed it to his 
 wounded breast, and then raised it to his eyes. " Rama, said he, I 
 have two dying requests to make to you. The one is that you do not 
 give my wife to (my brother) Sugiiva, and the second that you will take 
 my children under your protection. With regard to Sugriva you will 
 not find his qualities of advantage to you, for his word is not to be 
 trusted ; but the person from whom you may expect useful service is the 
 son of another of my brothers, named Hamlman." Having spoken 
 these words he let go the hand of Rama, and immediately died. At 
 the moment of the departure of his spirit, a vivid light was seen to issue 
 from the crown of his head, in the form of a palm tree, and to ascend to 
 the skies. Rama gave orders to Sugriva to support the body, and 
 Laksamana to wash it, whilst he himself poured the water for the pur- 
 pose. This being done, he commanded them to bring wood of aloes, and 
 sandal wood, and camphor, and saffron, and amber, and spikenard ; and 
 with the assistance of Laksamana he burned the corpse of Balia-raja (on 
 the pile). When this ceremony was perfoimed, he proceeded along 
 with Laksamana and Sugriva to the palace of the deceased. Upon this 
 occasion every individual of tht monkey kind, small and great, harmless 
 and mischievous, old and young, seated themselves in the presence of Sri 
 Rama. Among these was one aged monkey, named Pdtah Jambfin, 
 the younger brother of BalJa-raja's father, whose venerable beard reached 
 to his waist. Him Srt Ra?na (now become the regulator of the con- 
 quered state and sovereign disposer of honours) seated above Sugriva, 
 placing Sugilva above the sons of Balia-raja, and these above the other 
 monkies assembled,"
 
 i84 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ^1^ -V^ tr'^-l^ Li!p J'ir^ u^*^ u'^ifJ «-^ i^^ J-*^ J^ J-LrT J"^ J'-y 
 
 i^j-. c^l^ CJ^ J^l (^01* c:-r« ^V-^ u'j u-Xiy ijj j-s^^ i:;::!^ »— ^'^ uS^ 
 jU^. Jj 4X3 jl ^J\ .ii^3 t/^^ '^" ^^"^ ^J^ uJ^ ij^^ "-^^^ '^'^^ i—^* uJU^ *1^ 
 
 2_; j»lj |^/oJ.-c yjSj^ k;.^— ' '^^^ J^ c/^ '-^V ij:".^ W"^ ti)^ cA^ ^ij^. '-=^ ""^W' 
 JC- <u'X< oLi i^U- j^b jj'U-/ ^.::-^5^ (^r-J'r>> ^J^ ^J"i <— »j! ^U- u:^j1 ^Jj Jlj 
 
 «,L« yjb cuj^ ''^i'.J. '^j'^ (J^ ij^^ u^-^ Jj^ uj*'^^ (_?\r>-'^ ^ij^V c)^'-^ ^-^^-^j 
 
 ti^JiU- i_f_^:wc ij--il ^_^ul^ C^U 4\s ^Ij' i.::,-v&U^ «_) ^^Ij ^—^Ji' ic>y <J^^ T-i J^- u^ 
 
 cijljij ^^1 1-;^:' lii^ii tir^ l/- u~;^ "^'^^^ c/'*^'^ t" L-*^ li^^*^ L^-'^ ol^j ^^j 
 
 t^J eJi*^^ <Silj»ijl ^^jJ '\j^ J'^ <^S^ '^'^^ c/^ ^'P '^:'^ i>^''^ up J^*^ ^ J:*.^ 
 '-''V* u-^^ <>d^ t'- (*^ c;**^ *^'^ t?iV ^i^ f ^y ''\j^ i*^ crW iir=^- i,^^ J^ 
 
 " Sri Rama conducted his two younger brothers, Bardun (Bharata) 
 and Chetraddn (Satrughna) into the fort, and then to the palace, where 
 he sat down with them and Laksamdna. Havinsj made their salutation 
 and prostrated themselves at the feet of Rama, they tendered to him the 
 kingdom (bequeathed to them by their father), and urged him to return 
 and assume the government ; " in order, said they, that we and the rest 
 of your subjects may have the opportunity of doing homage to your 
 
 highness,
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 185 
 
 highness, and that we may perform together the ceremony of burning 
 the corpse of our beloved father." To this Rama replied in the follow- 
 ing words. " Why, my brothers, do you address me in this manner, 
 since our father has already bestowed upon you the sovereignty of the 
 kingdom? My sentiments are, that his is the inheritance on whomso- 
 ever the father confers it ; and that if we disobey his will, we assuredly 
 forfeit all pretensions to virtue and its rewards. This world, we must 
 recollect, is not to be eternal, nor to become the property of one indivi- 
 dual ; and it should be our object to leave a good name by acting justly, 
 and making a proper distinction between right and wrong. Seat your* 
 selves, my brothers, in the government of the kingdom, and whilst upon 
 the throne do not be supine and indifferent to its duties. Do not fail to 
 shew kindness to the army, and do not suffer any kind of oppression to 
 the people in general. Neglect not to build fortifications and to provide 
 a store of arms. Do not, my brothers, avoid the occasions of consulting 
 with your ministers and the commanders of your troops upon every kind 
 of business or operation. Wholesome advice you will follow, and evil 
 counsel you will lay up in your minds ; for when ministers are wicked, 
 their evil acts are imputed by the public to their sovereign. Whenever 
 you pronounce judgment let it be done after full investigation of the truth. 
 Remember (that you are in the presence of) the deities. Take care to 
 preserve the shrine of our father, and with regard to my mother, I leave 
 her as a sacred deposit in your hands. Shew her due reverence. That 
 kingdom which your father designed for you, is now, my brothers, your 
 own possession. Attend to the admonitions I give you, in order that it 
 may be durable, that you may enjoy tranquillity, .ind that the memory of 
 
 B b b Our
 
 i86 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 our venerable ancestors may not be disgraced. Better is> it to die with 
 reputation than to live under reproach." 
 
 ^^J ^v^ tliilj "iJy' (Ji^~j i.::^b ci.*Uj u>j1j _^$wi jja^a j^'j lLOI* ijy^^*^ Jj'J'^ uX/* '^ 
 ^j£j ^j^l cl^'ls (fjy S\iii lLX< (.^j iJw t):r-*^ (J?Tr* iiT^'-* Lf^W*^ cX< ij^jIj i(Juj ^_li 
 cr^*^ uA) '^j^J^'^ '^ JV" i-^^^ ^/^ t'^'^ J^jJ i-iw' (i;i^ <^ ^:f^.9. t/1 
 c:^;! iji^U (j-V* i_sl i-^-i <!^jl (.i-Jbj CS-a ^_a ^J li"^-?^" '■--^V c;-'^^—''^ lLX< 
 
 ^^JjiJ„M ^,^\ CJ^ U^j i_?^.J <.::--rr-' '^ t:,t:'.^ ^^^ f -JT* U^l; (rirf* u^^ 4)' 
 V ■ --fN .V-' "li^.V i^r!^ i.::-^Lj c^-^j iJii< (_^vf> (t'Ijj '^^ ^^•^ \J^y-^ '■^^ i^.c ^SA 
 
 ^J iilcjjl l_5'^!>^''-^ ^-* ijSj^ t-^j JV^ ''^V U;!; ■^W* '"^'^ '— ^* C'?^ L5^l':''^ 
 
 ^ J jj j'^ iSJl) <''i:i-) j*-«y (jX-5 oi j^lj «;^J (J^^ '"^^.•'3 ^"^^ r;:'^' ''u""'!;: (J^s-* 
 
 ^•«.M 1 " ^ -<i |^'i\£ii ^'....rlj> /o«^.-i.' ivjti-!! tI^-« ii)JV T'lw'* ii;^^~-'' i^~}^ U~' Ci-X*L« 
 ,_j ) jA^ i_? j^ iv' J c J .1 ^}j ij^-^ i^-^ %~\Ai> 4_/jX-« t^j-J^ ''^JJ ij^ '^^ i.::-JUJ»« 
 j_) (jJ^ s^^.'^ '-^^r-' "^^jj iji^xj j-J. i^/^'i^ ^J^j^ <Ojl j^b J (_^£lai (_^U (^lj-4>-j u:^'! 
 ijXo i^:-^3 (V^ 'J.^-^lj 'J-^i-! i^S J\j»$ lint/' l^-'v^ u^;^ '— ^ '^--^'3 "^^ lij/V'^ ^^W' 
 iii^U (JJOj 'vj lit c/i-' li'V k— ^•'j-'V. c,^ tliN^ 4^^.'^ ^^-":r-= "-^-^ j-j1j i^i«J (J;^^^ 
 ^3 t_^,«>& ^\ ii!p'^^ (i)^*>>^ (_5* '^J^-'^ '■^^— rr' *— '*^ '— ^-^ (*!; t/j-* '^^ tlijlj -^jV 
 
 ^^»' 
 
 t
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 187 
 
 jJCw^ 'j_i, fj^y^ ^ '^jjl culs J |*lj ^j^ lUOjJ' j»lj t_-olc t.::^lj' j^tjii JV^ c':!/'"'^ 
 iJLfSU«««; t3-< 1;^^ mt^^ t--v»J» ^1 <uULk;m iljv« ^yij tW* ^i;r'}^'^ Liti^ U--/0 LuU 
 J jLJ jJ'C^- >]j t/j"» Cj'li JjU^ Lli^^:^*-: ^'c^ ''h^V'* u^y^ LS* UJ^ '^^' U^^ ^^^ 
 
 k_.^/*A ^,^1 lLCc CJj^ (*^^'v'"^ L-'jy f*'^^ i.::-^^' (»^-*> i-^V (-i^l^ i^l <iJL»iJ k_--^.AJ.-j 
 
 L-^/^Jb (jjj l^A^ <yU~iL> lICo (U&O tl^J ClJ'j t_-Ai> |.i«J' Wj' i*;^*" t^ Ll) '^"^ 
 
 L_^.AJ^ tr^j'^ ch''^ i^<::^ J^j. ojy h?^ iP ^.^■'^ lt-" l/^ "^ 'v'^"^ i^-^ iy^>^ 
 
 Jjjsr= ^_fl J^J 'jjij CJ^ c:^;! ^_^yji' *jl ^ c:^- j»s-i> tijlj ji^ tli/ i^\ Ji c:--:;t 
 
 oW jA^jy.t) rJ^J^'^ e-'J^.^ ui^-« ti^j «d:i-) ^ij^^o (_pJJ J J c:— J^ '■^V '^♦r* "— t)^*" 
 Li-iJu< 1.::^^ cijIj j>S _jlf^< ^>l Ji! ci-oj ciAi j^''^ tlij'.lj t^l tliCo ^ijXki cJyf- J^^^~ 
 
 Aj.lJj^ l/^ '■'^ '^^■?~' c^-i^^ u^'J^ *— ^"^ '--^ ij^ ci-^l— > j-J'b tlfj'lj _j_;Uj CS-y^, 
 
 jAj^j^K-j u:^3 li/^t/ J^^ t/- "^v iir^"' u^^^ Ls* (*b srO**' '~''^ '--^ uW-' '^^.' 
 
 <U«,«a uli^-< ClJj^ iij'O jl_jJ t::-";'^ i_?j^ (;,y^ '-SJv^^ SrV^ cM^ t/"*^ ''u'"'!;^ t'- '"'^ 
 
 Mr^' c/^ c-W' *— -^ uliCo u:^'j tiJj^ i-:^-^;^ '-i^— r;^ i-f^r^ CS'J^ J^. JJ cl/jy V. u^'^y** 
 
 " Brother, said Maliardja Razvana what means can we devise to put 
 to death this diminutive monkey (who has played such mischievous 
 
 tncks\
 
 i88 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 tricks), seeing that of all the various Aveapons employed not one has had 
 the effect of wounding him?" JIanuvidn (overhearing this question) 
 replied, " O my lord, if your imperial majesty wishes to slay your servant, 
 and that his death should be immediate, cause his whole body to be wrap- 
 ped in cloth ; when so wrapped let oil be thrown upon him, and that 
 being done, let the body of your servant be consumed by applying fire 
 to the cloth, from the head of your servant down to his feet." Having 
 heard this, Maharaja Raivana gave instant orders for wrapping folds of 
 cloth round his body, which his people proceeded to put in execution ; 
 but as soon as Hamanan felt the wrapper, he began to increase his own 
 size, and although some hundred pieces of cloth were used, still were 
 they insufficient for wrapping him, for the more they attempted to wrap, 
 the more his bulk was enlarged. The king then gave command for 
 ojpening the warehouses, and all the cloth stored therein was brought 
 forth and employed to wrap the body of Ilamuiian, but still it was not 
 sufficient. All the cloth that could be found in the king s palace was 
 expended to as little purpose. He then ordered a request to be conveyed 
 to Slta Dcivt, that she would furnish such cloth as might be in her 
 possession. As soon as Haniunan heard that Sita Dcivl was to be 
 called upon to contribute, (thinking it time to desist), he clapped his 
 tail between his legs, and cried out, " It is enough ; I can no longer endure 
 this torment; begin now to throw the oil upon me." Maliariija Raivana 
 then gave orders for pouring oil over him, and when his people had 
 poured out some hundred jars, he directed them to set fire to every part 
 of his body. The wrapping cloth was all presently in a flame, but the 
 person of Ilanumun did not sustain the smallest injury. When only a 
 small portion of the cloth, at the extremity of his tail, remained uncon- 
 
 sumcd,
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 189 
 
 sumed, he jumped upon the roof of the king's palace and set it in a 
 blaze ; he then jumped upon the houses of the nobility, the ministers, 
 and principal oflficers, and finally upon those of all the inhabitants of the 
 city of Langka-pnrt, which were burnt in a general conflagration ; the 
 house in which Siln DcwJ resided alone remaining untouched by the 
 flames. This being accomplished, he plunged into the sea, and as soon 
 as the fire of his tail was extinguished, he repaired to the presence of his 
 royal mistress, to whom he said, " O princess come now along with me, 
 and suffer thy slave to convey thee to SrJ Rama, thy beloved lord." 
 " Thou knowest, O Hmiuman, replied the princess, that I have bound 
 myself by a solemn vow, never to suffer any male being to put his arms 
 about my body, excepting my honoured lord alone, (and cannot therefore 
 be the companion of thy flight). But is not this Srt liiima a valiant 
 personage, unrivalled in this world, and boasting a H^me as extensive as 
 the universe ? Now vvhen the wife of such a man has been ravished from 
 him, is he incapable of effecting her recovery himself, that he should 
 commission another person to execute for him the office of restoring his 
 •wife to his bosom ? Must not his high reputation be tarnished in the 
 opinion of mankind ? I will tell thee, Hamimaih what is the desire of 
 my heart ; that he may himself put Maharaja Rawana to death, and 
 rescue nie with a mighty arm, and a prowess worthy of his exalted name. 
 Lay these my sentiments, O Hanuman, at the feet of my lord, and fail 
 not to communicate to him my resolution." The princess then added ; 
 " Pursue the route 1 shall point out for thy return. Ascend the moun- 
 tain of Sarandlb^ where thou wilt perceive a black rock, the spot where- 
 upon ADAM alighted in his descent from heaven. Make thy obeisance 
 to this rock, embrace and kiss it ; and having so done it will serve thee 
 
 C c c for
 
 jgo A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 for a position from whence to spring when thou jumpest back to the 
 presence of thy master." Having heard these words he threw himself 
 at the feet of the princess, and then left her to proceed on his journey. 
 Having ascended the mountain of Sarandtb, and approached the black 
 rock, that sacred spot where the prophet adam first touched the earth, 
 he prostrated himself before it, grasped it with his arms and kissed it. 
 He then shook himself, and reduced his size to the height of a span 
 only ; when making a spring from the rock, he jumped towards the city 
 of Lakar-katakian, and in an instant arrived there. Upon presenting 
 himself to SrJ Rama, he was asked at what time he had returned ? He 
 replied, " this very moment," and then throwing himself at Rama's 
 feet, he made a full report to him of all that he had seen, of all that he 
 had heard, and all that he had done, from the commencement of his 
 embassy to its ultimate completion. Every circumstance was faithfully 
 narrated. Srt Rama, after expressing his joy at hearing that Stta 
 DcwJ was still living, addressed Ilamiman in these words. " O Jla- 
 numan, every proceeding of thine, every act thou hast performed merits 
 my approbation as good service, with the exception only of what relates 
 to the burning of the city of La}igka-pu)'T. This was not an act of 
 manly valour. I feel sentiments of strong compassion for the (unfortu- 
 nate inhabitants of the) city. And what useful purpose could its de- 
 struction answer ? " Ha?iuman hung down his head and remained 
 silent. After a short pause Rama said to him ; " Now, Hanuman, 
 what is your opinion as to the most practicable means of transporting our 
 army, which consists of many hundred thousand troops, to Langka-purl, 
 which (as you know) is an island surrounded by the sea?" " My opi- 
 nion is, replied Hanianan, that our only eflfectual operation will be that 
 
 of 
 
 I
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 191 
 
 of damming out the sea by a mole, to serve as a bridge for marching the 
 army into Langka-puri" 
 
 JjL) i!ij\ ujjI'j ^iki '^_ uL-J::' tul_j-. jj jay ^^^j ^|^ ^a;^^ j (JX« c:-jJ uJjlil* 
 U-'l/-' iiiT:".' i^jyP-° (jy iii^*j^ »-^-^ u^'*^ nr;^ jJliS) t/^^xx-o tjj:;;^ j^b T^lj 
 
 dr^^*^^ '^ tiiA".' '^j-' u^-^ (♦!; Sr^ *^^ ii^ i-^ J'^j^ *-?^ ^"^ ''^ err^' (*^ 
 
 " Orders were then given by Maharaja Rawana for admitting Ha- 
 numan to the audience (as ambassadour from Sri Rdnia). When he 
 ■was introduced to the presence, he perceived the monarch seated upon a 
 high throne, surrounded by all the feudal princes, the nobles, ministers, 
 and warriours, and resolving that his master's consequence should not 
 suffer from any degradation of himself, he extended his tail to the length 
 of an hundred fathoms, and having coiled it in spiral folds, he sat upon 
 it ; by which means he and Maharaja Rawana were seated at an equal 
 degree of elevation. Having thus placed himself, he communicated the 
 proposals of Si'l. Rama, and delivered his letter to the Maharaja." 
 
 "^ cT-** s^^ J^' ^i^-'^ j'^^ J^ ^J^ uy c^J. t*. dt'r--^ u^} 'Jj^y ti-C 
 
 "-V e^"*!)-" drrr^'^ ^ •H'-* c/V s^i-^-/ ijf^} lS^ c:-^! j^\ iJJ-a^ ^}'. ^^ ^^ 
 Ju ^^^ Ji (_^L^ ^,^ JUi ^c^; ^y CS-^ j^ c:-:;! c:-"U i.\-= %j.\ ^^jr^>i J^
 
 192 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 tuU j^wJ aUjuj j_ybl_j ^^jc-^ jjw' (_^ij) ij^lr^ (J-V i—i^^l tj?-V j;.;Ij lL/*j1 fj_5— > 
 JiXxJ' Aiiji ^;^r*:^v. cJ^"^ iJ^' '^^ ciy L5*b dr*^^ rr^ i3'^^ c^^'"'^'^ -T^' '--^%" l^^* 
 
 \J^ tjj^ j^^"^ c/^.'^ tji'^ ^y^y J^.^ ^-^ cr'!^ ^^^y t/^.-"^ 6^^ cr^-^ 
 
 Ll-^Ls fjip ^^yji ^^'^AiJ ci/-« ^ iUji Ji-Vi^ li;''^ '-^ iSjjJSfc-cjJ (^iJ 4<j2J (^jJ lL^ 
 jAjIj^ <iJj1 CI-^'jl) J3 (i):;^;!"* (»^* J-^'^ t/'^v^ (-V^^ l/j^ ^jy CJ^ t^\y J^. 
 
 u 
 
 " It lias already been mentioned that the wife (of India Ajit), the 
 princess Koinala Indra DcwJ, was in a swoon (at the time of his depar- 
 ture for the field of battle, under the walls of Langka-pun); but upon 
 hearing the war shout of his army, she suddenly started, and avToke from 
 her slate of insensibility. Perceiving that he was no longer near her, and 
 intelligence arriving of his being slain, she wept and fainted away. Her 
 mother came to her, lamenting and weeping, and sprinkled her with rose 
 water. Upon recovering she threw her arms about the neck of her 
 infant daughter, and then loudly gave vent to her grief in these words; 
 " Alas my honoured lord I O thou who wert the ornament of my life, 
 thou art lost, and where shall I search for thee ? thou hast vanished, 
 and where shall I seek thee ? \yhere is now my lord, that his sister 
 (spouse) may find him ? In the plain, I pray thee, where is my lord ? 
 in the mountains, where is my lord ? in the woods, where is my lord ? 
 In the field of battle have you chanced to see my brother, where his 
 sister may find him out ? Why did my lord abandon this his unfortunate 
 
 aiid
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 '93 
 
 and wretched mate ? At the very moment of his pressing her to his 
 bosom, he disappeared from her sight. In what place is he concealed 
 from the view of his disconsolate, forlorn sister ? My brother was en- 
 dowed with superior wisdom. None could equal him, none could be 
 placed in comparison with him. Alas, those ferocious beasts have glutted 
 their appetites (with his flesh), savage as the rhinoceros who devours its 
 own offspring I Alas, my lord, thy child is left, a helpless and destitute 
 orphan ; she is reduced to the state of one in need of charitable protec- 
 tion ; to the state of a captive slave, liable to be profaned by the touch 
 of vulgar hands." The princess then bid farewell to her mother, with 
 the intention of ascending the funeral pile of her husband ; but the 
 mother, with a flood of tears, embraced and kissed her daughter, endea- 
 vouring with sweetly-affectionate words to sooth and divert her ft-om the 
 resolution of burning herself. " Think not, my child, said she, of 
 making thyself a sacrifice whilst the age of thy infant is yet so tender. 
 When she shall stand less in need of thy care, do as thou mayest judo-e 
 right." The princess then seized a kris, and attempted to stab herself, 
 but her mother snatched the weapon from her hand." 
 
 Extracts from the Poem of Radin Mantri and Kani 
 
 Tambuhan. 
 
 iJS^ jV '^•^. '■^^ ^ij^. "^ *~^ '^ u/'^ t'^^J' '--rr' 
 
 iji^ D d d
 
 194 
 
 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ^Ij i—aCJj' ^-'^^ CSjy ^ 
 
 r^y ^'^ o^ a^ * 
 
 * 
 
 ^jy^ C/jIS Jjl^J ^2;!^ * 
 
 ,_jj JcJio JjJuJ' ^^— < * 
 
 ss}^ <>K-Cj ^Ij j^li? * 
 
 ^J^J- t'^'^ cu^li' (^ip i_f1 * 
 
 ^^ e^j^ c;^V' ^J^ 
 
 Ja- 'j-,. o;./ JU ^ 
 
 ^jij^^^ 
 
 :A1^ ^iX-J 
 
 u^ 
 
 l1,CIS 
 
 s^f-j^ ^rj-' ^J u^.'i) 
 
 CJ;~>
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 195 
 
 <t«/»-^ JjJjJ 'i-l'^J LZJj^ 
 i^ji i_S'j^ ^^J IJ^.'^J 
 
 yV ^^ Ji/ i,3^^ 
 
 '^ e/'^ "^V c;M' 
 
 ^^li' Jj^ j^L iiiL> 
 ^r"^ u^.'i) ci-^^ J^" 
 
 t-%^ 'jJ-b ^^ ^.^^ 
 
 v::^ ^L^ ^Ji <dijoJb 
 
 i^y (♦U"' <-j1 i^j V. 
 
 ^li^ J!! e,iL^ ^/ij^ 
 
 * 
 
 cy/ _^ t^ ^j ^U 
 
 ■X- 
 
 
 * 
 
 ^^^-^ hfj'.'^ ^^ c,!^JJ— = 
 
 * 
 
 *—^r° liJ^J^ (*'^ *>r^ 
 
 * 
 
 '—^ ^^_^ j;^U. ^^ C/I 
 
 •X- 
 
 ^jJ ^iU? *j_^ *^^IC- 
 
 * 
 
 tP>^ -jJy >:^ ^ij^jj- 
 
 * 
 
 Ll-Jblj J JLi j'iiS j_s^ 
 
 * 
 
 j^l Jcio CUlft iSjjjj^ 
 
 * 
 
 ^^' ^^sUi'OjiJj_j!j 
 
 * 
 
 t^jJ ^j^ii^ 4}^ i-^^e!*^ 
 
 * 
 
 s^jr:^ bj— u^r^ J "^^ 
 
 :>; 
 
 t^ J.\:! ojy 0^^ J 
 
 * 
 
 c^_jl Wjum i^^j^ Jwt> 
 
 •K- 
 
 cyl^^ ^U ^y ^Jj 
 
 ■» 
 
 hfJ c-^ uy' J^ 
 
 * 
 
 i^jS. ^jU L:u-oti ^j.cU- C/lj-Si- 
 
 * 
 
 ^ji.^^^ uy dJ^j^ j-'^ 
 
 * 
 
 t^J^ u^' J^ '-^W 
 
 •X- 
 
 ^^- ^U ;_il ^ ^X 
 
 ■jt 
 
 u^ li'V *'^ dff^ 
 
 * 
 
 
 j^^iiijj
 
 196 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ufj^ Ai$!^ ^J^J j-Ls) * |_^jjbj>; LUj^ CU^y 
 
 oyc jv li)^ '^ * ^rfA/ j^A* '^ 
 
 Upon coming in sight of the ornamented pleasure garden, 
 
 The heart of the prince felt new rapture. 
 The blossoms were the subject of his admiration, 
 
 And the birds drew near as if to welcome his steps. 
 Radin immediately took his arrow-tube, 
 
 To shoot the birds that were within his view. 
 They alighted upon every ranibutan tree, 
 
 And flew and hopped around ; 
 Some on the flower-bearing nagakehsir, 
 
 Fluttering about in every direcdon ; 
 All seeming to invite the approach of Radin Mantri, 
 
 Who still advancing nearer to them, 
 Blew an arrow through his tube 
 
 And struck a serendit bird. 
 It descended near to a tree bearing cliumpaka flowers, 
 
 "Within the enclosed precincts of the garden, 
 And falling gradually. 
 
 Alighted upon the loom at which Kani Tambulian worked. 
 One of her companions hastening towards her, said, 
 
 " Will not your highness gently try to catch it? 
 " As if it had been commissioned hither, 
 
 " The bird comes to deliver itself up." Kmii
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 197 
 
 Kani Tambulian instantly arose, 
 
 And endeavoured to seize the bird as it ran from her. 
 Radiii (in the mean time) thus addressed Wlra Dandu7ii; 
 
 " Which way, my brother, flew the bird we saw just now? 
 " I wish you to catch and bring it to me." 
 
 Wira Dandani made his obeisance, and then went his way. 
 " If, said he, it has fallen within these lofty walls, 
 
 By what contrivance shall I be able to get at it ? " 
 He proceeded onward, alone, , 
 
 Until he reached the gate of the enclosure. 
 There, espying through a crevice, 
 
 He perceived the bird fluttering about. 
 JRadin presently followed him to the spot. 
 
 And looking through an interstice of the wall, 
 Said, " Who may that be, my brother, 
 
 " Whose appearance bespeaks her the daughter of a prince ? " 
 Continuing to gaze, his heart began to throb, 
 
 And he could no longer restrain his impatience. 
 His astonishment deprived him of utterance. 
 
 His senses being overpowered by what his eyes beheld. 
 Wira Dajiddni smiled, though v.ith feelings of anxiety. 
 
 Knowing the state of his companion's heart; 
 And as he perceived him lost in admiiation, 
 
 Thus spoke, as he stood behind him. 
 '' I think it is advisable that we should return, 
 
 ^' And leave off gazing at the daughters of other men. 
 
 E e e "Your
 
 igS A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 " Your servant has heard it reported 
 
 " That the person you see, is no other than a captive princess. 
 •' Do not, I pray your highness, remain so near, 
 
 " As she is guarded by the order of your royal mother. 
 *' So soon as you are married (suitably to your rank), 
 
 " Can your father have any objection to giving her to you?" 
 Radin replied, with an animated countenance, 
 
 " I do not chuse to return. 
 " Order the keeper of the gate to come hither, 
 
 " That I may question him myself." 
 Wtra Danddni bowed and left him. 
 
 He said to the porter, " Follow me immediately; 
 " By Radin Alantri is your attendance required." 
 
 Affrighted at the summons he came running. 
 And when he drew near, made his obeisance, 
 
 Bending his head to the earth. 
 Radin, smiling, said to him, 
 
 " Open this gate my old friend." 
 The porter, still approaching, said respectfully, 
 
 " Your slave is afraid to do what his mistress has forbiddai. 
 " Her orders to me are to guard these stone walls, 
 
 " And not to suffer any one to enter." 
 Radin said to him angiily, 
 
 His face glowing with passion, 
 
 " You must open it instantly ; 
 
 " And no person beside myself shall enter. 
 
 " If
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. jg^ 
 
 *' If you refuse, be assured 
 
 " I shall immediately cut your head to atoms," 
 The gate keeper became exceedingly terrified; 
 
 His body quaked and his bones rattled. 
 Without being able to say one word in reply, 
 
 He drove back the bolt of the door. 
 The entrance being thus opened by the old man, 
 
 The indignation of the prince was soothed. 
 He stepped forward and passed into the garden, 
 
 Leaving his companions withoutside the gate. 
 Upon Radin Manlri\ entering, 
 
 He was observed by all the young attendants, 
 Every one of whom ran away. 
 
 Leaving Kuni Tambuhan entirely to herself. 
 Radin drawing near whilst her back was towards him, 
 
 SudiLnl) snatched her shuttle and seized her baud. 
 Kuni Tambuhan being alarmed looked about, 
 
 Saying to herself, " WI)o can this be?" 
 She tried to run behind the garden-seat. 
 
 When Radin., smiling sweetly, said to her, 
 " O I my lovtly celestial nymph, 
 
 " Whither do you wish to tlee ? 
 •' Your eves glisten, your countenance glows ; 
 
 " Do not, my sou! I be terrified or angry, 
 " Your biothei's motive for coming hither, 
 
 " Is only to make inquiry of yourself, 
 
 " What
 
 200 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 " What country gave you birth, 
 
 " And what events have brought you to this place ? 
 " What, let me ask is your name, 
 
 " And how do you name the cloth you are weaving?" 
 Kani Tambuhan wept and hung her head, 
 
 Her mind being extremely agitated. 
 Gently making her obeisance, 
 
 She said with a sweet, affecting voice, 
 «' The name of your servant is Kmii Tambuhan, 
 
 " And that of my work is kariiigsang wayang. 
 " Our gracious mistress has given directions, 
 
 " That we should all be daily employed in weaving, 
 " For the lady whom your highness is to take to wife, 
 
 " The princess whom you are going to woo at Banjai- Kitlany 
 To this Radin replied with a laugh, 
 
 " To Banjar Kulan I am not going." 
 He embraced her neck, and caressed her, saying, 
 
 " 01 my life, how beautiful thy countenance ; 
 " Thou art to be compared to the celestial nymphs, 
 
 " And if thou vanishest from me, where can I search for thee ?" 
 Radm Mantri then proceeded to kiss her, 
 
 When she cried out, and wrested herself from him. 
 All the damsels now thought of interfering, 
 
 And felt indignant at his conduct. 
 " This proceeding of the prince (said they) 
 
 " Will presently draw upon us much anger from the queen."
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 201 
 
 iJ^J 
 
 ^^b'j k.::,^b JA-j' |A;J6^Uj > -^ ti)^^?" Cy^-J J_;~=f^ j;4;J.JJ 
 
 c^^^ (i//^ '■^^'^fe^ * 4i;«?-^ U-^ i^v^j^ J^ 
 
 j^jUi ui^b tl^l L:f^jy^ '^ ^0~*^ <J^^ ij;^!*^^!*^ _ji^^ 
 
 ^^\t)\ c:-ol^j Jjj tiJfa-j * iJ^V? i-f'^jf'^ 'iAX/*^ 
 
 j^l^^j ^<X« 'j-ixiij ^^ •» * i:;Sb ^y Jj^ J^' 
 
 j^,-sa=- ^I^S' ^J-A^ *LaJwj -X- ,A;-:i& Jb J t_?l 4ArV 
 
 jiij i^.'i) J*^ e/'^ * -K^ '"^^ ^^ ''^^■^' 
 
 t^y JV ^■^^ crr^ * ^r' \J^ l/*-" "^ 
 F f f
 
 202 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ^JyJJJS ui-^r ^j^ -x- ^j^jii (_?^^ c/^ cuX)Jw> 
 
 ^ c«^ -v^ ^ * j4? '^>>j^ ijij^ JA'^ 
 
 u::.^ ^«ij.>^ CJjy <d-i<.:ii -Jt *— '^ '-:^!r' y^ i-sV^ 
 
 ojtti^ji (.::-^cL uiolS u;'L»;j5 * ^i^^'^ (j^>y^ *-^^ 
 
 ^^J^:.w^;J ^jj pjsr * i^^^r' ^^ ciJla. ijJ: -u^ 
 
 ^J^ ^^S uJlto j^j ^^\S * ijrjJ.J;^ J-^.t::jl^_;j ^^j-<= ^^ 
 
 ^^^_^ iJjOjj <«Li-jj * ''u*^>»' i.;:-^aL^ ^l^ 
 
 ^j^ ^^Jj ^d jjjj ^^jt^ ¥: i/jj-rV -^J^ '^^^ ^JJ-J 
 
 ^^L C^'^ u;-ob <>1jJlJ -x- jjC<ol5 4jj-j J tl5}3- ^^3 tijU 
 
 J J ijU JU«-j ^/r*^-< * ^J^^ d^^ lif'^ y^ji "-^ 
 
 aJL
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 203 
 
 J^ 'i-=£U- ^^y^ jjbj JUcJ 
 
 * 
 
 •5fr 
 
 •X- 
 * 
 
 ■X- 
 
 * 
 
 •X- 
 
 (_? i-jlj CSJji i;);*-*^ <iUa»o 
 
 iAj- 
 
 jLi "^T;^ ^J^J 1^;^** 
 
 ^jLijS jj iO^ ^1 jLj 
 
 " The queen then gave command 
 
 For calling the bostangi to her presence. 
 The bostangi attended, and drawing near, 
 
 The royal personage said to him; 
 " Take with you Si Tamhuhan^ 
 
 " And convey her to the woods." 
 To which she added, in a low voice, 
 
 " Extinguish her so that she shall be no more seen. 
 " Dare not to vary from my orders." 
 
 The bostangi retired, making his obeisance. 
 The hearts of all who were present throbbed, 
 
 Their countenances became pale, and their bodies trembled. 
 
 They
 
 204 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 They thought within their hearts, 
 
 This queen's disposition is most wicked ; 
 Her mind is diabolically vile ; 
 
 And over her passion she has no command. 
 All the princesses felt emotions of pity, 
 
 On perceiving the situation of Kani Tambuhan. 
 The queen again said, 
 
 " Let St Tambuhan be immediately taken away ; 
 " And should you meet the prince (in the forest), 
 
 " Desire my son to come to me with speed." 
 Kani Tambulian then arose, 
 
 And with slow steps decended (from the palace), 
 Followed by her consoling friend Kani TedaJian ; 
 
 The bostangi walking in front of them. 
 To those who beheld her departing. 
 
 She appeared like the moon amongst passing clouds ; 
 Like the moon in the fulness of her oib. 
 
 Which seems the brighter the more it is contemplated. 
 Every beholder was filled with compassion. 
 
 Kani Tambulian did not give a look behind her. 
 Having reached the outer gate, 
 
 She sat down awhile to rest her feet ; 
 Impressed with the idea 
 
 That her existence drew near to a close. 
 She reflected on the tenderness of her husband, 
 
 And then upon her present condition. 
 
 «' There
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 205 
 
 " There appears no probability of meeting 
 
 " (said she) my lord, Radin Inn." 
 The tears gushed from her eyes ; 
 
 And her two attendants sympathised with her. 
 The bostangi said to Kani Tambuhan, 
 
 *' Let us proceed, my lady, with more expedition, 
 " Towards the forest where game abounds, 
 
 " That we may the sooner find the prince." 
 Having readied the bank of a river, 
 
 The strand of which was beautifully smooth, 
 She felt extreme lassitude. 
 
 And grasped the hands of her two female friends. 
 Her respiration became violent 
 
 As the sound of rushing wind. 
 She reposed for a moment beneath a tree, 
 
 Doubtful of being able to proceed. 
 The bostangi again said to the women, 
 
 " I pray you keep moving slowly onward ; 
 " We shall presently have passed the wood, 
 
 " And shall arrive at the hunting-ground." 
 Kani Tambuhan set forward once more. 
 
 Making an effort to draw her feet after her. 
 The notes of the velvet-coated birds, 
 
 Added only to her melancholy. 
 Serving to remind her of Radijis conversation, 
 
 When he amused her in the hours of repose. 
 
 G g g They
 
 2o6 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 They now came to a level rock, 
 
 Formed by nature like a seat. 
 Their conductor turning towards them, said, 
 
 " Here, my lady, is our resting place." 
 Kani Tambuhaji got up and sat upon it, 
 
 Her feet hansiino; down from excess of fatigue. 
 Kani TedahaJh her faithful attendant, said ; 
 
 " Tlie apprehensions of your servant are strongly excited, 
 " Led as we are into this wilderness, 
 
 " Where there is no mark of human footstep." 
 These words increased the anxiety of her mistress. 
 
 And pearly drops ran down her face. 
 She uttered not a word, 
 
 But only wiped the tears from her eyes. 
 Her two attendants also wept, 
 
 And continued in a state of stupefaction. 
 Kmii Tambiihan rising from her seat, said, 
 
 " Wherefore, my old man, are we brought hither ? 
 " The day being now far advanced, 
 
 " Is the prince Radin Mantri still at a distance?" 
 The bosiangi replied in a serious tone, 
 " This, my lady, is the limit of our journey. 
 
 «' Your slave received command from the queen, 
 " To conduct your highness into this wood, 
 
 " And here to put you to death, 
 " On account of your cohabitation with Radin Mantri, 
 
 " Who
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 207 
 
 " Who was matched with a princess at Banjar Kulan, 
 " And may now refuse to take her to wife." 
 
 Hearing these words from Kani Tambuhaii 
 
 He was afft-cted with strong emotions of pity. 
 Approaching, he mildlv said to her, 
 
 " Pard(jn, O lady I whatever offence I may be obhged to commit. 
 " How can your slave avoid it, 
 
 " Under the terror of bring put to the test of an oath ? 
 " This day, my orders are to extinguloh your hfe, 
 
 " And I cannot possibly evade them." 
 
 " If you should meet with my lord the prince, . 
 
 " Convey to him my humble salutation, 
 " With my wishes for perfect happiness in his marriage, 
 
 " And a long and prosperous reign." 
 Kani Tedahan having attentively listened 
 
 To all the commands of her mistress. 
 Was overwhelmed with grief; • 
 
 And as she bent her head upon her lap, 
 The tears gushing from her eyes. 
 
 Moistened the garments of Katii Tambuhan. 
 " From your childhood, said she, I have taken care of you, 
 
 " Whilst we still dwelt at Tanjong-pura. 
 " No difference ever arose between us ; 
 
 " And we have been companions in misfortune. 
 
 " Your
 
 2o8 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 '* Your servant's wish has long been, 
 
 " That in death also we should be companions, 
 " Reflection only augments my grief, 
 
 " And my heart melts within me. 
 " Slay me first, O my father I 
 
 " That I may not witness the fate of my mistress." 
 The princess then said with dignity, 
 
 " Proceed to execute the commands of your queen 1" 
 Her words thus pronounced 
 
 Excited pity in the heart of the bostangi, 
 Whose own feelings would have restrained him from the deed. 
 
 He drew his kris, and again he sheathed it ; 
 But thrust, at last, the long and well-tempered blade 
 
 Into her breast, till the weapon appeared at her back. 
 Kani Tambuhan on receiving the fatal wound, 
 
 Fell without a struggle to the earth." 
 
 t)k 
 
 Specimens of the Pantun or proverbial Sonnet. 
 
 |jliL. ^^A^ Jysjj^i * tr^ "J^ (^^'^'^ ^^ 
 
 4\si^ <oV <^^ djjij? * u^ "fJjy^ \jii
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 209 
 
 " Butterflies sport on the wing around, 
 
 They fly to the sea by the reef of rocks. 
 My heart has felt uneasy in my breast, 
 
 From former days to the present hour. 
 
 They fly to the sea by the reef of rocks. 
 
 The vulture wings its flight to Bandan. 
 From former days to the present hour, 
 
 Many youths have I admired. 
 
 The vulture wings its flight to Bandan, 
 
 Dropping its feathers at Patani. 
 Many youths have I admired, 
 
 But none to compare with my present choice. 
 
 His feathers he let fall at Patani. 
 
 A score of young pigeons. 
 No youth can compare with my present choice, 
 
 Skilled as he is to touch the heart." 
 
 " A maiden draws water from the well ; 
 The bucket falls off, leaving only the cord. 
 
 H h h Consent
 
 210 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 Consent, my life, to the departure of your friend, 
 And do not grieve at the separation." 
 
 " The heron flies into the air, 
 And dashes down the fish it had caught. 
 
 Forbear to grasp burning embers, 
 Or, feehng the heat, you will quickly let them go." 
 
 " Large ants in the bambu-cane. 
 
 A flasket filled with rose-water. 
 When the passion of love seizes my frame. 
 
 From you alone I can expect my cure." 
 
 Extracts from a moral and satirical Poem. 
 
 i^jl^ ^MJbj^J ij:^\ V; '-SJ^]/'. O'^^ iJSai\ jKis- 
 
 If
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 211 
 
 " If you, my son, are about to take a wife, 
 
 You should look for these four qualifications ; 
 In order that your family may be prosperous, 
 
 And your friends may have pleasure in frequenting your house. 
 In the first place, chuse a person of good birth ; 
 
 In the second, let her be the owner of some thousands ; 
 Thirdly, elegant in person and sweet in countenance ; 
 
 Fourthly, of good understanding and accomplished manners. 
 Should she be deficient in any one of these. 
 
 Take not such a woman to wife. 
 If you do, your friends will avoid your company, 
 
 And you will sit moping like a spectre." 
 
 cjlto ^ICcjJw) JJui" * t^*^ Ojb lj:-~ci! J ^iiJ 
 
 c:,^ t_«3L; Ji^y^ji i^\j * c:-^_j*^ ic-Jjl iLfU 5U- 
 
 •^^J ui"? uif J"^' * J^-^^ vi)/' 'O^ uJ'J 
 
 jlU Jj ^JJ^ ij^ jA) * JjfiJ ^^j\j> ^Jo ^j3 
 
 ' It is true that those of the present race are wise ; 
 They have much science, but plain good sense is wanting. 
 
 They
 
 212 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 They are able to count the stars in the sky, 
 
 But cannot tell when their own faces are smutted. 
 Their employment is mutual obloquy and recrimination, 
 
 And every place is filled with inquisitive tattlers. 
 In these days the behaviour of young women is immodest, 
 
 Flirting and toying with the young men. 
 It was not the case with maidens of former times, 
 
 Who possessed much delicacy and sense of shame. 
 Circumstances are now very different, 
 
 And all sort of conversation is familiar to them. 
 Where there are a number of youthful gallants, 
 
 There you will find the young women assembled, 
 Whose manners assume a variety of hues. 
 
 The consequence of all this is but too obvious. 
 Even the children now o'days (imitate their elders). 
 
 And both boys and girls are equally forward. 
 They play about promiscuously together, 
 
 With all the familiarity of man and wife. 
 Are not such things evident signs. 
 
 That the end of the world is drawing near? " 
 
 Extract from the Annals of the Kingdom of Achin. 
 
 A»-y j».U> ^ ^^ uj*^.^ ^^ uy "^^ ^J^ J''^ U^^ (-^ ^'^J "-^^
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 2.3 
 
 ^J^ jJ ^Jji l::-Xj^ Jb\i ijJL^ u'^T'J '•^^-^ (Jl'i >»^3 "^ '^^'^^ J"^ V?V3 i^j^ 
 
 ijJjD ^Jl> i^y ^j) j^jL**~i j^li" <d_)J Jl u:-~i3 (j^'lf;;/ (*jll <«Jbl ^_;_j1 c:^! *LJ1 jlj 
 J'^ i^j^ 4>^ J'^ t^J i^J^ '^ i:;i'^' J^ r^^ *— =;',y^ (JW^ jJ^ icM^ u'^J '■^ 
 ui-Xtl t^^y u'^/ i-^i-^^ (Jb '"^.'j *-^^ uy ^^'^^ ij'^ ' " ' cr^^' '^ j=-^' t^^ 
 ,»;icli' |_^IS' c^l^ (^'j* iJ^' <*iJi jJ)J l,*£-j jJ'b (j^3 JujJ ulJU ufjji ^J^ _jj Jj> 
 
 ^»yj'U-j^ jki^j i_f\ <Jxy^ i:/^jy "^ '■^3 '^^ ui^ s^j^ 4)^ j*^ tjy '•-^ u^^ j'^ u'Vv^ 
 
 kXS li;^ J^ <-^rJ' ''vs^ '-^3 u'^/ <d|/yl/ ^;b i*^ ^Jy ^j\t> A»-y j_jjl ^j-^la jj 
 JUIl JU>. ^^ILL ;^^ cSji^J^j ^. JW];Jo «:^y JJl t^V.^ uX« tl I 6 ^ti 
 
 " The king our sovereign died on Sunday the eighth day of the month 
 zu'l'/cddah, in the year 1088 (1677), and Paduka Sri sultan Ghayat 
 Shah began his reign on the same day. He. sat on the throne during 
 the period of eleven years and eight days, and died on Sunday the 
 seventh day of the month, zu' I' hijjah, in the year 1099 (1687), upon which 
 day also Paduka Sri sultan Kanialat Shah became king, and his reign 
 lasted eleven years, four months, and two days, when he was deposed. 
 After this there was a succession of four queens, on the throne of ^c/?/;j, 
 the seat of peace, and these female reigns continued during a period of 
 isixty years, nine months, and seventeen days. Sultan Beder al-dlani 
 Sherif Hasham Jamaled-din ascended the throne on Wednesday the 
 twentieth day of the month rabial akhir, in the year iin (1699), and 
 when he had reigned two years, four months, and twelve days, it pleased 
 
 I i i God
 
 214 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 God in Ills mercy to visit him with contractions in his feet and his 
 hands, so that he was no longer able to perform the offices of prayer ; 
 upon which he voluntarily abdicated the government, and retired to a 
 place called Tanjong, where he died in the year 1113 (1701). On 
 Saturday the seventeenth day of the month ramadan, Perkasa Alam ibn 
 Ibrahim obtained the crown and had reigned only two years, three 
 months and twenty days, when he was. deposed from his government on 
 Wednesday the seventh day of the month inuharram. After an inter- 
 regnum ol about three months duration, in the year 1115 (1703), the 
 son of Beder al-alam succeeded to the throne, by the tide of Paduka 
 Sri sultan Jamal al-dlain.'"' 
 
 The Memoirs of Kei Damang and his Family, written by Inchi 
 Ldiidin, his youngest Son, thus conclude. 
 
 r*— jI* ^y^\ rj^l^r*'* {J^J. ^"^ Vy. '^^^ u^ (JSm~> lJj^ tj-^^^^*^ ''-rr^ '^j^ 
 ^li'o CS/ j-J k.^1 ^V ^^ J^ t'.'^^ =v^ j'y (^^'^'^ o^' 'j^.^^ f jjl <_?j^ f'-V -^ 
 jj J "ijji ^jLjil ^^Ji^J c:-^ iSlli-: J Aibs ^_jiA/»^ i:iJy Jb J jLj' j^. ^cjli ^jU J IjU- 
 ^^IcJ ^} ir;^^'.^ (^".^ Cy-J aJU ^^IcX^ u-^O^ cir*^ «(JU~!j (>-;to _jj1^ .VjJ J\ (^Uj 
 
 JIj J u'^J^ L^*^^ (ji^ hj"' t;'^ tj- L-'^ ''uy t-^ *^' s^^'' '"'^ '^^ J^^ I*Lj 
 j\ Ljj Jb <_^b i^\j jijji j*;U*Ji o_jilJl< 'j-> 03?- 1^^^ ajLsuj iiJl 
 
 «' From the period of tlie loss of their noble father, it is not to be 
 
 conceived
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 215 
 
 conceived what cares and troubles have been experienced by every indi- 
 vidual of the family of Kei Damang ; the consequence of having left 
 their native land of Samangka. The sons were separated and scattered 
 over various countries, as their fortunes happened to lead them. Some 
 remained in the island of Sumatra, some proceeded to the island of 
 Bali, whilst others sought those parts of Java which lie beyond the 
 jurisdiction of the Dutch Company. Such were their resting places. 
 Like birds they directed their flight to wherever the trees of the forest 
 presented them with edible fruit, and there they alighted. They were 
 in the state of chickens who had lost their careful mother. When they 
 found persons who were disposed to favour and compassionate them, to 
 those they devoted their services. Such has been the condition of Kei 
 Damang's sons since the death of their noble parent. For the informa- 
 tion of all respectable persons desirous of knowing their story, this nar- 
 rative has been committed to writing, and so faithfully, that those who 
 read may consider themselves as eye-witnesses of the adventures it re- 
 lates. But the Almighty alone knows what is good and what is evil for 
 (or, of) his servants in this world." 
 
 Extracts from Legal and Theological Works. 
 
 t_slij <^'_j_;j 1^1 ov' 'f- i^.j'^ '^^ ii)Wv^ tiU <-5jW~* (j^T ''^'t;*^ Uj^ '^^' ^'•^ 
 eW?" t/ J-^ Ij'^- 'H^ Jr**-* wsl ^ iiVjJ JJ aW?^ '^V liv^ ^^'^ Jj^ u'^ 
 
 " The
 
 ji6 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 <' The subject of this chapter is the prayers to be used on the occasion 
 of eclipses of both kinds, namely, those of the sun and those of the 
 moon. In the first place (it should be mentioned that) the learned have 
 not ascertained the true nature of the eclipse of the sun, for shining as 
 he does with his own lisht, it should not be liable to variation. But 
 with respect to the eclipse of the moon, as she has no light in herself, 
 xnd only derives it from the brightness of the sun, it follows that when 
 that light is hid from her by the earth's being in the line between her and 
 the sun, she should become obscured or eclipsed." 
 
 ^Uj iijj ic^\ Jji jj ^»,li> J J ^1^ tub _^ ^jKf^ ^\^ tu^J ^^\^ ^\i, ^_^j 
 J^if- ^js.j iJ^j i.^} J^ •i\ '^^J iLi^ J u:-^ <»lyl ijj^j^ hfJ^ ^^ '4''^ -)?■ 
 
 " Thus it is (speaking of the visibility and invisibility of the Deity) 
 with the light of the sun which Is transmitted to the moon ; for the lit^ht 
 of the latter is not its own proper light, but only that of the sun com- 
 municated to it, and consequently the moon possesses only a reflected 
 light from that of the sun. On this account it is that we sometimes see 
 the moon shining with a full, and sometimes with a diminished li^ht, and 
 that at other times she is entirely deprived of light." 
 
 *Li Jj ^IJ '^- *j^ ^J c^ »j^ J^y ^\y, ^ -^ Jj ^J yj 'j_^J, 
 
 tr^ Jr^ji c^y^ ^ Jj ^jS j^ ^U J^ u^ ^^ ^y^j ^^ yj JIJ
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 217 
 
 yb Ji'^ jifej As j^j L-Jaj ^_iij ^j!j'i{/j '-^^/r >=^ ^ U'*^ t^ <i^ u^-* *-r^ 
 ^\sb (J^ ^'^ ^ ^j k_-^ j-:uj e;'^-/ ""^^ u''^ i^}^ h^J-' c/W^ "^ 
 
 " The keblat (or direction of the face in prayer) varies according to 
 the different situation of countries (with respect to the temple o{ Afeccn). 
 For the keblat of Egypt the North star must be brought to bear in a 
 direction from the hinder part of the left ear ; for that of Irak, in a 
 direction from the hinder part of the right ear ; for that of most part of 
 Yemen, from the fore part of the left side; for that of Syria, from the 
 back ; for that of GujERAT, from the right shoulder ; for the keblat of 
 most Malar/an countries and of Achin, the North star must be in a 
 direction from the fore part of the right flank." 
 
 ^^j tji^ <>JLjS J-Jl ^^b ^Jc^L>yi^ i_s^^ J^ 1^^ d;^j~'J t:;b ^JJy ^^y aiJ\ 
 oLi' jK>- i^\y (jjjj l;:^ ^^^3 1-^ *— *^ (~fj^ ^y >-S^ JjU ^. ^jjj:, \ji-'^ 
 «d-=-l_j CS^ lj/j tutj-i Jj J^ '■::--fel'« Jr:r^^ J'-^ ui^^ J'l^ '^W u'^ J^. ^^^"^ 
 CJ^ ijj ^Ji t^u^fcT u'^'^-ir^ uJ^ d7"J^ ^■^y ^^^-^ ^'V* t". s/v^ '^ L/-lj* 
 
 ^J^ '.:i-^« jW t^. i-fj^ '^ u^^y "-r^b "^^"V i-^ ^^j^ '■^?/' '■^■r ^Ij-o jLj 
 
 " Upon a person's saying to the Prophet (on whom be the blessino- of 
 God, and peace), I see the (new) moon, he began his Fast, and he gave 
 command to all men to fast also. When the fasting shall have been 
 duly observed for thirty complete days, of which a respectable person is 
 to bear testimony, it is proper to discontinue it, although the moon should 
 not then have become visible, nor any vapour arisen to obstruct the view 
 
 K k k of
 
 2i8 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 of it. When the (new) moon has been observed from any town, it is 
 incumbent upon the inhabitants of any other town agreeing with the 
 former in respect to the time of sun-rise (situated in the same meridian), 
 to commence their Fast also, in consequence of such agreement ; but 
 where a coincidence with respect to the time of sun-rise does not exist, 
 it is not required that the Fast should take place in that town where the 
 moon has not yet been seen, because the difference of the time of her 
 becoming visible may be occasioned by the difference of the time of sun- 
 rise at the two places (that is, by tlie difference of their longitude)." 
 
 ^ tJJ^ LtW J'^ cjr?} '-^\^ J^ ^^} U-^ J^ ^} ^' J-> ^.f U-^ J"^ 
 ^\J fjJ^_ ^ i^^^Ji y_ J J ^y^ j_^l^ Llij\ ^ ^^^y 'j_., ^}^ ^U '^^j! ^l^ ' 
 
 " It behovelh us to Icnow, and to bear in mind, and to believe, and to 
 regulate our actions by the meaning of the words i]]\ 'i\ ^^\'i in the Arabic 
 language, in Persian, and in the language of the people of Pase (the 
 Malayan). This symbol of Unity signifies in Arabic, " I have no other 
 existence than that of God." As rendered in Persian it has the same 
 meaning, and in the language of Pase it has likewise the above-mentioned 
 signification. Now the result of all these meanings and the intention 
 of all that has been stated is to prove the Unity of the essence of the 
 
 Almighty,
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 219 
 
 Almighty, with all his perfections, and also make manifest his greatness 
 and his glory comprehended in that Unity." (This perversion of the 
 meaning of the well-known Mahometan symbol or profession of faith, 
 " there is no god but God," appears to be a pious fraud of some sect, 
 to answer the purposes of their mystical doctrine. Pasc here spoken of 
 was formerly a city of considerable note, on the northern coast of Su- 
 matra, afterwards subjected to the dominion of Acliin, and reduced to 
 insignificance. The book from whence these extracts are made, written 
 in a fine hand and with uncommon accuracy, was probably composed at 
 that place.) 
 
 «jL- iiyf-yo y, J^ >^ '-i-'fel^ 'jj, yr- /t'P i:;^'^ ij-^ iif^jf <^J^ ^^\ ^^\ ^\^ 
 ilbl ijj^ j\i jL) ^j\ ^\jj\ JUi' <JiJl ^/jJ^J uX< UL^\ f^^\ ^j,j jU j*,tL t_i1y 
 
 fci bV '-'^' U-'^' ZJJ '^ b^ ^ Z^JJ^ ^^^ c'-^^^ •^ ^^ "^.^ C^^^ ZiJ 
 
 " When God Almighty had created the Holy Ghost, that is to say 
 the pure Spirit, be said unto him, thou shalt be as a mirror, and in thee 
 alone shall be beheld all exislins; thins:3. Some time after the creation 
 of the Holy Ghost, God created all spirits or souls, and the Holy Ghost 
 is to all spirits what the stem is to the branches, and they are to him what 
 the branches are to the stem ; but branches which cannot be separated 
 from their stem nor fall off from it." 
 
 iiAr« w>* c)--^ ^^ y, (Ji^, y, '^jT-j S^ uX« ^\ 'Jj^-j '^j'i ^) J^j c\ oIj ^
 
 220 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 " Now there is no other existence distinct from the existence of God, 
 and all these numerous objects (of sense) serve only to manifest the exist- 
 ence of the One ; so also do all visible qualities and visible attributes serve 
 only to manifest His sole existence." 
 
 " Whoever understands the words above-mentioned will certainly 
 know (what is meant by) his proceeding from God, and his (ultimate) 
 return to Him, and will certainly be aware that his own external nature 
 is not distinct from the essence of the Deity." 
 
 J^fei Jj^J C^^ j\ j^j ^J^\ *lSt Jli* Uie JLj jj,j aJL- ^j^ ;V '^ "^^ uj^'^ i-^ 
 
 " It is with this object that some of the learned commentators have 
 adduced an example (of identity and diversity) in the instance of " wave" 
 and " water ;" for with respect to appearance and name, the wave is to 
 be distinguished from the water ; but if you view and consider them with 
 respect to their real, internal nature, wave is not distinct from water, or 
 only so far as regards exterior form and name." 
 
 Genesis,
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 221 
 
 Genesis, Chap. xlv. 
 
 ■ ,*;-— oj jj^ ^, %jj\ ^J^l^ ^J\-^-^ ti^'^ ^.j'^ 4^* '^j^ ^^'^ *— =^y. '-^* l)^ 
 
 Jilic" '9j_j-j ol <s!lJi-J' tlXo uL/-— J jJ^jjjS^ 'ijj\ tjr:^ aito^j-) ''^^tt* i^^ '— ^ '■^3 
 j£j i^jk-! i^^ ii.y^ M^"^ is^} i j^ u^'^ v^'^ *"^ ^?/^" fj-5^ tlX* lL^*^ c;r~^' 
 
 (_Jj^ L>t tl/laj <siJ3 i—a-!^. (djl cL/I ji)];Oj-» J^ ^ ^^ liip *— *-=^; t-^ » "-^'.^ 
 » ^A^]jiJ& Jj,J f,L..-J^j.-i liijjc^ji jj .1^ <sjjl jAjIji c:.-j!sL^ u:,^i/*~j (JU-j l::-oJ ^^rj Jj«i CJ^ 
 j^yi^ 4/;:«-«>^ i-^^jj 'fj_jl CS^ cS\^ <tlljl <>^r^^^ i:l)l;Jj-' J^ ^ ^^ '—^j-. u^'^ 
 •diiU- |j^ j;^;^ •^-•0 t^/^ Jj^ SA-) |«li i_j a\^j'Jj-j I— s-;^. '^^^ (^^^ tr?^ ''"''^ 
 
 L^J'^'^ 1^^ uj^ ^J^ *-^^ JjT^ *-*^ (♦'•^ Li)^ 4^^ (»^^ L,!;^ isLcU- ^Ij -^J-y^ |*^ 
 
 *!b iii>^ (jJiit' jti '^l ""ij ?■ j^«- '-r^r-' * j*^ u!J^<L> tl(;i lL/Ij s,^j-^ i-.v-> <>iJl fj>'=''^ 
 iJbJ- . ^,cS J^ ^J'i^ jU j^l Jji ^ijUL. 't:.. ^^li- |»J j'iUj' lLT^ Jo ^,j1 ^li- 
 
 t_ajL) Jo ^y ^\ Jj t!J^ '^^ i— '^ J'^ '^''^ Ul-i.Ccl JfJk-j i^_ *^^t" '^^ ci^* l^j^ 
 
 \Jj> ^js^ JC) Jj Jul jLo Jj ^,j1 j-Ccl lL/Iaw lh-^j j1 ^^1 Jj ^J^_J^ ^^J 
 j^\ J^s jJcJ!) tl/1 l!JC<= • («1a3 <j1 L..> o1j.««-j c jb J J (♦''jri u'^ (♦ri_^<o W^ 
 
 J J U:'.^ /^^ L,-'^ cf T^^ cf'^ hf'^ tr''*^ "-^^ U.i;^*^ l^;*^' (»::' '-^^^ UJ^ '-^^-'1^'^ 
 
 .^'\ L 1 1
 
 izi A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ^LCrfj (^^ i.::-o3 1.::^^) «J" a^ '^. ci;1j— .■ j2-> ^\ii j.a« Jb j tl^j'LU^ J.5Li c/lju 
 
 CuU Jo tliv^b c:--;^ ''Jbl Lli^^ jJij iJu» c:— .;' i— a-^y, Tj^jj^i ^^l:^ ufy^ u^ (^^^ 
 
 J J ^\i r jji^ ^\ j^j^S 4J1_;-J j^ <ub- |jL^j ^i^ (jjj ^\ c^'Jo ^\^ % ijJ^ 
 
 tl$U • (♦^ tl^J ol j^l t::-;!^ j^ ^[i uiiL: jjjj (»U^' j^. ^jj^ (^S i,^jj c-Jp, jl-> 
 
 . JL; |J Jj J;J 'j-^ ^'l, clti- ^.J.^ crr^ '^ dJ^ ij^,^ J^/ b^- '^ ^^^ 
 
 J^ d^ u^^ cP' J^ 4v o"^ r^ ^^ "^^^ (i^ '^^ >^-^ ^^" ^^"' ^^ '^^' 
 aL^U Jj^ ^i,l;^j ^^J u?1 <JJUj? CJ^ J^y. ^/ o''}^r' er^j^-^ J^ • J^
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 223 
 
 ^\ Aj^ iJw) 4— a-«J j^, Li'->>5 J^ ""i^ 1^^ Jrr**^ U^"^ '■^^-^j^ '^ (Aji^lu^J "dJ ^; 
 
 The Gospel of St. Matthew, Chap. vi. 
 
 <(Lcl>- iiA^ ^jy^ ^ Jr-J^ t^:-v) H-r-' ♦ ti/^^-J jl t" 1*^ (*^ 'J^ t^^ 1*'^ 
 (.LX* »-^vM t?*' '-^^-^'^ "^^ t^. C^. '^ ^'ir! J^ (*>^ ^^^-^tf^ u^'^ c^ (*^'"^ <»iA-iUi
 
 224 A GRAMMAR OF THE 
 
 ^\ iL;_jj r^jl^- ^Is Jijj * (♦j^ (j-jfo <tiiXcj c|}j-j jjb C^ aLa*. j,J)"Al^ 
 
 ^iCc Ij^ Jj jiL. -^^^^ c^:;!- ^/i^ ^u ^1 j^ ^\^ ^^ ^_^ii . ^^j^ 
 
 ^^Uj j^j y-ii'j rA;j *JjJ dij i^j^jJ f"^ <^V * '''^'^ (*^'-^ •■^J cr^V^ jj^^ 
 
 ui:i-j Jij jl *1:;^ _jlil=- ^^^^J CjU ol l:i^1 JiAj ^jJ » *^ ol tl$^ yLo *Lvy 
 u_^> l:^^^ oU Ijj^ '^j\^_ , u^.! ^il^:^ jJlto' ^^_y <_^^^U c^:l ,^i^ J ti 
 
 ^j ^ ^jj iS^y j\i j\ j.1^ tji ^1^ .u_jj' j\ ^v u'^ r^ u^' r^ ^*' ^^'"^ 
 
 Jo»
 
 MALAYAN LANGUAGE. 225 
 
 J ^^ ^j^ ^ c^o j\j ^jU^ ^\^ cju yu ^\^ r^Ji jji^ ju jj 
 t^^ y ^^fci-v^u.. <cjax& c^u^_^ ^1^ ^'u^ ^_i$:s ^1 ^b . c4^ L^ cjij- 
 
 ^ j»l^ A? A-w^ Cri ^\:^ • ^:;^« ^1 jU Jj ^^ ^1 jU ^^^^ ^| ^^J;^ *^^,iJj 
 
 ^^_j5j1 . ^ -^^ JU:;^ dj^ ^U^- jL- ^LU^ jL. ^j ^^..ju- ^^U-L, Jj 
 
 ^^^-=^ L?^ bj' uj^ ' J^ J^ ^^ '^■^1 J^' (^ J^ ^-^ ^151 yi ^u ^^1 ^i^ 
 
 L,C . ^1^ aS ^Wj ^\J^J JL. dXc ^1j^ ^b ^1 ^V/ u^c^ ^-jcji 
 ^^ "«%- drf;^ c/!;^ ^/l c:^:! ^\ ^Ji ^i■>^,^ ^^! l:^^^ ^.l^ *UU 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 fri«(«i/ by Cox a,,,/ Bayi.is, 75, Gt. Queen Slu 
 Linculn's Inn Fields. 
 
 M m oi
 
 Bi) the Aiiihor of this Jf'ork. 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF THE MALAYAN LANGUAGE, 
 
 IN TWO PARTS, 
 MALAYAN and ENGLISH, and ENGLISH and BIALAYAN. 
 
 Sold by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, Paternoster-Row ; and Black, Parry, and Co., 
 
 Booksellers to the Honorable East-Indis Company, Lcadenhall-Street. 
 
 4to. Price £2. 2s. 
 
 Of whom may be had, by the same Author, 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SUMATRA. 
 
 THE THIRD EDITION, 
 
 With Corrections, considerable Additions, and an Atlas of Flate^. 
 
 4to. Price £3. 13s. 6d.
 
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 JAN 15iq<J7 
 
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