UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CALVES IN CALIFORNIA S. W. MEAD BULLETIN 478 October, 1929 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRINTING OFFICE BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA 1929 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CALVES IN CALIFORNIA S. W. MEADi INTRODUCTION It is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain and improve a dairy herd through the addition of females by purchase. Successful herd management requires the raising of young stock. Not only is it difficult to produce butterfat at a profit with a diseased herd, especially one infected with either tuberculosis or contagious abortion, but legal restrictions designed to safeguard public health are making it more difficult to sell either milk or cattle from herds affected with these diseases. As a result, the prices of healthy cattle have been stimulated to a figure beyond their value for milk production. For the average dairyman, therefore, herd improvement must come through a well-planned breeding program, which necessitates the raising of all normal healthy female calves from the best cows in the herd, sired by a carefully selected purebred bull. This bulletin has been prepared in answer to numerous requests from California dairy- men for information concerning methods of feeding and management of heifers from birth to first calving. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF NUTRITION There are very few hard and fast rules for the feeding of live- stock. It is only through a knoweledge of the fundamental principles of nutrition that the special needs of the individual animal may be supplied. The animal body is composed of at least six general classes of food substances : proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, water, and vitamins. In the process of growth the body requires a constant supply of these food materials. When the proper amounts are fur- nished in the right proportions, the animal is said to be receiving a balanced ration. All of these nutrients are found in the natural foods in varying proportions. No one food stuff contains all the materials necessary for a balanced ration. Milk is a complete food during early life but later fails to satisfy all the requirements for normal growth and development. 1 Associate Animal Husbandman in the Experiment Station. 4 University of California — Experiment Station Proteins. — Proteins contain nitrogen and are used to build new tissue and to aid in the natural functioning of certain organs. Pro- teins can also be used as a source of energy. They are important constituents of milk. Such concentrates as linseed-oil meal and cottonseed meal, and such leguminous roughages as alfalfa or clover hay, are rich in protein. Carbohydrates and Fats. — The principal function of carbohy- drates is to supply energy needed to carry on the life processes, to warm the body, and to build adipose or reserve tissue. All of the cereals and cereal hays contain relatively large amounts of carbo- hydrates. Fats, which are also used as a source of energy, are 2 1 / 4 times as valuable for this purpose as an equivalent amount of carbohydrates. Minerals. — Minerals are necessary for regulating the body pro- cesses and for developing the skeleton. An adequate supply is ex- tremely important, especially for the rapidly growing animal and the high-producing cow. The importance of common salt is definitely known. It may be fed by adding one pound of salt to each 100 pounds of the concentrate mixture or by allowing the animals free access to it. Our present knowledge of other minerals and their role in animal nutrition is limited. The fact that rations are fre- quently deficient in calcium and phosphorus indicates the probability that these are the two elements of most importance to the livestock feeder. Though the grains as a class are high in phosphorus, and the legumes, such as alfalfa, vetch, and clover, high in calcium, to assure an ample supply a mineral supplement should be added to the concen- trate mixture fed to growing stock. Two per cent of steamed bone meal or spent bone black is sufficient for this purpose. Water. — The animal body is composed of about 60 per cent water. A plentiful supply of clean, fresh water is therefore important, even for calves that are being fed milk. Vitamins. — In formulating concentrate mixtures and in selecting roughages for feeding livestock, one must keep in mind the need of the animal for the materials mentioned above. A proper balance, as well as a sufficient amount, is important. Such a ration, however does not necessarily satisfy all of the requirements for normal growth and development unless it contains vitamins. Although very little is known concerning the identity or chemical composition of vitamins, the effect of their presence or absence in the ration can very readily be demonstrated. Five, known as vitamins A, B, C, D, and E, have been accepted, and investigations now under way indicate that there may Bul. 478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves 5 be others. Not all of these have been proved necessary to the well being of dairy cattle. While it has been shown that vitamin A, which promotes growth, is indispensable in the diet of calves, (1)2 there is little reason to believe that B (2) or C (3) is needed. Whole milk satisfies the vitamin A requirements of the young calf, and alfalfa those of the older animal. The importance of vitamin D to the health of the calf has not been determined, but since green plant tissue is rich in this vitamin, there is little danger of a shortage under common methods of management. It has been established that vitamin E, (4) which is abun- dant in most green plants, is essential to the normal functioning of the reproductive mechanism of certain animals, especially the rat, and while experimental evidence is lacking in this connection for the bovine, it is not unreasonable to believe that E is necessary for normal reproduction in cattle. Hence, some green feed should be supplied during at least a part of the year. COMMON FEEDS Milk. — Whole milk is very palatable and easily digested. From the nutritive standpoint, its solids are especially adapted to the needs of the young animal. It supplies not only proteins of good quality, but the vitamins that are necessary for satisfactory growth and devel- opment, and also, under normal conditions, most of the minerals known to be important in nutrition. Except for butterfat and its associated substances, skim milk is similar in food value to whole milk. Properly processed dry skim milk differs further only in the absence of water. Concentrates. — The cereal grains such as barley, oats, corn, milo, and Egyptian corn are quite similar in their nutritive value. They are all deficient in lime and proteins, the latter being incomplete and hence of inferior quality. These grains however, are suited to feeding with skim-milk because the milk proteins adequately supplement those of the grains, and the grains in turn furnish, the energy to replace the butterfat. Wheat bran and rice bran, though poor in calcium, are rich in both phosphorus and protein and because of their fluffy nature add light- ness to the concentrate mixture. Rice bran has the disadvantage that under certain conditions it becomes unpalatable because of the develop- ment of rancidity. 2 Superscript numbers in parentheses refer to "Literature Cited," at the end of the bulletin. 6 University of California — Experiment Station Although similar to bran in its calcium and phosphorus content, coconut meal is somewhat higher in protein. Because it is rich in an unstable fat, age and high temperatures often cause it to become rancid and unpalatable. Linseed and soybean meals are high in phosphorus and protein, low in calcium, and extremely palatable. Roughages. — Alfalfa, clover, vetch, and other legume hays, when properly cured, are among the best roughages for livestock feeding. They furnish proteins of good quality and are extremely rich in lime and the necessary vitamins. Their palatability is excellent. In sections where alfalfa or other legumes cannot be profitably grown, the feeder must depend upon such cereal and grass hays as oat, barley, wheat, or Sudan grass. These are all similar in their nutri- tive characteristics, being low in both minerals and protein and of only fair palatability. For satisfactory results, they must be supple- mented with protein and minerals. While silage is extremely satisfactory for the feeding of older animals, it is not a desirable feed for very young calves, because of its bulky nature and varying acidity. KIND OF CALF TO RAISE The dairyman should save only those calves that can be raised most economically. Calves from high-producing cows, sired by a carefully selected purebred bull, cost less to raise because of the low percentage of culls. Calves that are small, weak, or unhealthy at birth are difficult to raise, require more attention and a longer grow- ing period, have a higher mortality, and as a result cost more to raise. The question often arises as to the value of a cow's first calf. Aside from the fact that it is usually small, it has an equal chance with any of her later calves of developing into a good cow. A female, twin to a male, is usually sterile and is known as a free-martin. All other twin calves may be raised with the assurance that twinning has not impaired their breeding powers. Bull calves should be disposed of at birth unless the breeding is of the best and there is a ready sale or a need in the herd for such animals. Only under very unusual conditions is it profitable to at- tempt to produce veal from dairy bull calves. Bul. 478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves CARE DURING EARLY LIFE The normal healthy calf comes into the world with a strong stimu- lation to grow. Certain factors, most important of which is disease, are continually operating to discourage its normal development. Where sanitary conditions are not good much trouble may be avoided by proper disinfection of the umbilical or navel cord, which at birth is a ready channel of infection. The cord should first be emptied by grasping it between the thumb and forefinger at a point near the body and pressing downward to the end, after which the cord and a small area surrounding it should be painted with tincture of iodine or other suitable disinfectant. Unless the mother gives it proper attention, the calf should be dried with a clean cloth or straw. Drafts should be avoided, and both the calf and mother should be kept comfortable. The normal calf will usually stand alone and attempt to nurse within an hour after birth. It is extremely important for the calf to receive a generous feeding of colostrum, the mother's first milk. This contains substances that aid the calf in resisting disease during its early life, has a beneficial laxative action, and is assumed to be espec- ially suited for nourishing the new-born calf. Usually after 36 to 48 hours, the calf will have received sufficient colostrum and may be removed from the dam. At this early age little difficulty will be encountered in teaching it to drink. This is most easily accomplished by allowing the calf to suck one's fingers in a pail of milk while gradually drawing them away. After a few trials the calf will drink readily. In stubborn cases it may be necessary to withhold feeding for 24 hours until the calf becomes very hungry. Marking for Identification. — Before it is removed from the dam, the calf should be given some mark of identification. For this purpose a tag bearing the herd number is sometimes fastened about the neck by means of a strap. After first calving, this tag is removed and a smaller one inserted in the right ear. Tattooing is another means of identification commonly used, the left ear being marked with the herd number. It is a good plan to examine the ear at one year of age, and if the number has faded out through growth, the right should then be tattooed. The necessary equipment for tattooing may be obtained from commercial supply houses. The ear should be wiped clean, and all waxy secretions on the inside surface should be removed with a cloth moistened with gasoline or other fat solvent. The fat University of California — Experiment Station Qemove the oify secretions. 5m ear the ear and points of the stamp with tattoo ink. imprinting the tattoo. Putting the tattoo ink into the punctures. The tattoo is a satisfactory permanent method of identification. Fig. 1. — Tattooing the ear. Successful dairy herd management requires that each animal be given a permanent mark of identification. solvent itself must then be carefully wiped off. This part of the procedure is extremely important, for the tattoo ink will not 'take' if any wax or oil is present. A generous amount of the tattoo ink, black for light ears and red for black ears, is then applied to the ear and to the numbers or letters to be used. The ear should be held between the thumb and fingers while it is punctured with the tattoo. Tearing may be avoided by pushing the ear away from the points of the instrument as the pressure is being released. The ink must be immediately rubbed into the puctures. The illustrations in figure 1 will be of assistance to the beginner. Bui* 478] FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CALVES Clip hair from rudimentary horn and surround with grease ring. Apply caustic. Horn cells completely destroyed by the treatment. Proper dehorning gives a naturof polled appearance. The result of a shiftless job. Fig. 2. — Dehorning with caustic. When properly used, caustic is satisfactory in preventing the growth of horns. Dehorning. — The practice of preventing the growth of horns on heifer calves by the use of caustic potash, procurable at any drug store, is becoming common. It is a good plan to allow the horns to grow on bull calves, for their removal at a later age may serve to curb an unruly temperament. The treatment should be applied before three days of age. The hair must be clipped from an area about one inch in diameter over the rudimentary horns, which can be felt beneath the skin. A small 10 University of California — Experiment Station amount of heavy grease should be spread around the outer edge of this area to prevent the caustic from running into the eyes and causing permanent blindness^ Paper should be wrapped around the stick of caustic to prevent burning the hands. The calf is then placed on its side with the head held firmly against the ground. The surface lying immediately over the horn is rubbed with the end of the caustic stick until the hair is removed, care being taken not to cause bleeding. After the process has been repeated on the other horn, the calf should be placed in a pen alone for at least a day. It must not be turned out during rainy weather, for the rain will wash the caustic into the eyes in spite of the grease ring. If the work is done properly, no horns will develop. Careless treatment, however, will result in the growth of scurs or crooked horns which will spoil the appearance of the animal's head. The various steps in the procedure are shown in figure 2, with illustrations of properly and improperly dehorned calves. If the horns are not prevented from growing by the use of caustic, they may be removed with horn clippers or saw. In which case, one should allow the animal to reach an age of 18 months in order to avoid a possible recurrence of horn growth. The dehorning should be done during the winter months to avoid the danger of contamination by flies ; but the animals should be kept under cover in rainy weather until the opening in the head is closed. Feeding. — Regardless of the feeding method to be used, the aver- age calf should receive whole milk during the first two weeks of its life. Small or weak calves require milk for a longer period, while exceptionally large and strong ones may need very little after the first ten days. The amount to feed daily also varies with the size and vitality. A large, strong, healthy calf may do well on twice as much milk as will one underweight at birth. The stomach of the young calf is incapable of hancHng large quantities of food. Over-feeding, a mistake often made in an effort to induce the animal to grow rapidly, results in indigestion, which is indicated by scouring, a condition that seriously retards growth. Milk should not be fed to the limit of the calf's appetite. Sudden changes in either quantity or quality are disastrous. The milk for each calf must be measured accurately. A spring scale, fitted with a hook on which a pail may be hung, will be found satisfactory for this purpose. During the first few days the calf should receive a relatively small amount of milk, which is gradually increased daily. As a general rule, Jerseys and Guernseys should receive an average of 5 or 6 pounds of Buu478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves 11 milk daily for the first two weeks; Holsteins and Ayrshires 7 or 8 pounds. A common rule is to feed 10 or 12 pounds daily for each 100 pounds of live weight. During the first two or three weeks the daily ration of milk should be given in three feedings, after which two will usually suffice. If whole milk is to be continued, the amount should be increased daily. It is unnecessary at any time to feed more than 16 or 18 pounds of either the whole or skim milk. After ten days of age, concentrates and roughage should be available at all times. The milk should always be sweet and clean and for the first two months should be fed at body temperature, 100° Fahrenheit. A thermometer should be used to determine this temperature. For older calves the milk need not be quite so warm nor so uniformly the same temperature at each feeding. It should, however, never be fed cold. Milk too rich in fat is often the cause of indigestion and scours. As a rule, milk with a butterfat content of about 3.5 per cent will give most satisfactory results. Individual pens may well be provided during the first two or three weeks; later, calves of much the same age may be placed together in a community pen provided with stanchions in which they may be fastened during milk feeding, assuring each its proper amount of milk. More than one such pen permits dividing the calves into groups of similar age. METHODS OF FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT FROM TWO WEEKS TO SIX MONTHS OF AGE Whole Milk. — Whole milk, properly supplemented with concen- trates and roughage, cannot be surpassed for producing maximum growth. Under most conditions however it is too expensive to use beyond the first 4 weeks of age except for animals intended for immediate sale or show. Skim Milk. — It is a generally accepted fact that as far as the future development and usefulness of the animal is concerned, skim milk after the first two weeks gives as good results as whole milk and when available is less expensive than any other satisfactory food for calves. Animals thus fed are not, however, so fat and sleek at 6 months of age as those fed whole milk. As shown in table 1 the only appreciable difference between whole and skim milk is in the butterfat content. For this reason, the concentrate ration may consist of, any of 12 University of California — Experiment Station the cereals. The addition of oil meal and bran, however, will improve the palat ability and thereby induce the calves to consume larger quantities and thus to make more rapid growth. For the first two weeks the calf should receive whole-milk. After this period, however, the whole milk should be gradually reduced and replaced by an equal amount of skim milk. A week usually suffices for making the substitution. After the change is made, the amount may be increased gradually to 18 pounds daily, this being the maximum that is usually fed to even the largest calves. In order to obtain information applicable to California conditions, feed and growth data were collected on 21 dairy heifers raised by the skim-milk method. The calves, of which 10 were Holsteins and 11 TABLE 1 Composition of Whole Milk and Skim -Milk Feeds Water Fat Protein Sugar Ash Whole milk Skim milk per cent 87.10 90.50 per cent 3.90 0.10 per cent 3.40 3.57 per cent 4.75 4.95 per cent 0.75 0.78 Jerseys, were dropped in the University herd. They were kept with the dam for the first 24 to 48 hours, after which they were removed to separate pens. On the average, they received whole milk to 15 days of age, at which time a gradual change was made to skim milk. At the end of 22 days, the change had been completed. The following con- centrate mixture in addition to alfalfa hay was available after the first 10 days: 200 pounds of rolled barley 150 pounds of rolled oats 150 pounds of wheat bran 50 pounds of linseed oil meal 4 pounds of spent bone black 3 pounds of salt The calves were allowed all the alfalfa hay they would eat, but were limited to 5 pounds daily of the concentrate mixture. Accurate records were kept of all feed consumed by each individual. Since body weight alone is not an accurate measure of growth, height at withers as well as body weight was recorded monthly. Having shown that an animal kept on a maintenance ration which permitted no increase in weight would continue in skeletal growth, and that the height at withers was an accurate measure of this in- crease, Eckles, (5) by weighing and measuring a large number of dairy Bul. 478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves 13 heifers of various ages, established the average growth figures for Ayrshires, Jerseys, and Holsteins given in table 2. These normals are used as a standard for measuring the effect on growth of the various methods of calf raising reported in this bulletin. TABLE 2 Normal Body Weight and Height at Withers of Females During the Growing Period Age in Holsteins Jerseys Ayrshires months Height Weight Height Weight Height Weight Birth inches 28.3 30.2 pounds 90 121 inches 26.0 27.7 pounds 55 76 inches pounds 69 1 27.5 90 2 32.3 157 29.4 105 29.5 128 3 34.2 200 31.2 140 31.2 170 4 36.2 249 32 9 174 33.1 218 5 38.0 302 35.1 222 35.1 254 6 39.7 349 36.9 260 36 4 286 7 40.9 389 38.1 302 37.3 304 8 42.2 425 39.3 340 38.5 336 9 42.9 466 40.5 376 39.0 366 10 43.8 501 41.3 407 39 6 406 11 44.3 529 41.9 432 40 1 427 12 44.8 558 42 6 456 40.7 456 13 45.6 574 43.3 480 41.3 485 14 46.2 596 43.8 503 42.0 533 15 46.8 612 44 4 520 42.4 547 16 47.4 643 44.6 533 42.7 560 17 47.7 660 45.1 553 43.1 579 18 47.9 686 45.5 572 43.7 604 19 48.3 715 46.0 598 44.2 627 20 48.7 746 46.3 621 44.6 651 21 48.9 774 46.5 649 44.9 679 22 49.2 796 46.8 668 45.4 707 23 49.5 824 47.2 639 45.6 733 24 49.8 841 47.4 716 45.9 759 25 50.2 869 737 46.6 798 26 50.5 893 758 46.7 807 27 50 9 925 48.0 770 46.8 859 28 51.1 51.3 51.5 966 994 1021 784 804 46 9 47.0 47.2 29 30 48.3 Table 3, which gives the average results of the skim-milk trial to six months of age, may be used as a guide for raising calves if consid- eration is given to the fact that individual calves require different amounts of feed and that some calves may need whole milk to a some- what greater age than is indicated in the table, while others may be changed to skim milk earlier. The average growth data are presented graphically in figure 3. In California trials, considerable individual variation was noted among the calves. As shown in table 3, there was 14 University of California — Experiment Station TABLE 3 Daily Feed Consumption and Growth of Dairy Heifers Eaised by the Skim-Milk Method Pounds feed consumed Age in days Body weight Height at withers Age in days Whole milk Skim milk Concen- trates Alfalfa hay Pounds Per cent normal Inches Per cent normal Average of ten Holsteins Birth 1 Birth 81.8 90.8 1 . . With dam 2 . 3-10 8.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 11-15 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 25 0.25 25 0.70 1.50 2 50 3.50 4.50 5.00 I 8 u 16 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.5 13.0 16 15 13.0 9 17 18 19 20 21 22 23-30 3 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 30 60 90 120 150 180 97 140.4 185.5 245.6 303.2 362.1 80 1 89.4 92.7 98.6 100.4 103.7 29.0 31.2 33.6 35.7 37.7 39 4 96.0 31-60 96.5 61-90 98.2 91-120 98.6 121-150 99.2 151-180 99.2 Average of eleven Jerseys Birth .. 1 Birth 51 6 93.8 1 With dam 2 3-10 6 6.0 5 5 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 11-15 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.50 0.80 1.50 2.00 3.50 4.50 8 I to 16 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 6.5 10.0 13.0 15.0 14 5 12 17 18 19 20 21 22 23-30 30 60 90 120 150 180 63.2 89.3 123.3 159.8 206.3 251.1 83.1 85.0 88.0 91.8 92.9 96.5 26.0 27.8 29.9 32.1 33.7 35.4 93.8 31-60 0.3 0.4 0.8 14 17 94.5 61-90 95.8 91-120 97.5 121-150 96.0 151-180 95.9 a reduction in the amount of skim milk consumed by the Holsteins after the third month, and by the Jerseys after the fourth. This was due to the fact that certain of the calves in each group refused the milk at this age, probably because they were consuming a considerable amount of the concentrate mixture. The individual feed and growth data are presented in table 4. These records should impress the feeder with the importance of looking upon each calf as a separate problem requiring individual care. As a rule, Bul. 478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves 15 o os CO CO 00 to ■>4 O CO Cn CD oo CO CO CO oo 4k Cn CO CO O e to CO " o CO 4k to to to to to l_ 4>- ^, CO CO co ,_, -4 o ^1 CO tO UO vl co to 4^ co cn to to o 4* Cn CO Cn CO vl Cn " en CO CO w co Oa (JO CO CO oo o Cn oa ►— 4- 00 en Cn o 4* CO l— ' to "* 00 to CO to CO ^1 co en en 2 o '—' Cn oa o CO 4» (X OS tfk CO 4k Cn CO en l— ' CO -4 CD O CO CO o © vioooeocnoocncn oooooooo 4-" 4- 4* 00 -4 en hI- CO to e CO 5 2 *. *. 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SO 43 46 ea isoo 1 1 ^,0'—"' *■' „«. — • ^ " ■*■ s > ,<» ■""'" J&& £* .-- <■-' "", X s ?)«<■ // > / / s // / / / 4 / / / / / ' / / J / / Pecorded data / / t / ? / 7 1 i ° i 1 1 I l i <300 ^ 600 ^ 400 ! 1 Normal (fckles) Recorded data s / s' '' Ho & in X* „>' ^ ~~ «.■"" r* ^ * .~- *•'*' s' y -"' *•-" __„.- ~~ '** '"* / s /' s !f * ^ 1< l ^ // / J f 'J / /V y ^^ E oc * 1 1 1 O £ 4 6 G /O '2 14 16 t<9 ZO — > CO 05 ^4 05 CO £ H o * re 5 re (X o o P as P 3 re pounds 824.6 595.4 748.1 554.3 647.1 785.3 731 9 741.0 IS ^3 pounds 473.3 235.5 325.1 293.4 292.6 374.8 535.7 472.1 E? {8 3 pounds 332.7 185.0 304 1 238.8 257.3 264 4 135.4 100.2 ►-oiW4». 1 *».- tr o 1 3 re i p re 3 re P ^JOOCOOOCOOOOO^ fr h osoooojoieo^ p£ is MWWNS OOCOOlc©H-OtOrf».;3 0005rf».cO^IOOg- 1? « rv 05 3 o p cr V) OOOOOWWfflOHg OOOS^CO^IOO^" 1 P CD [ re •a ^I-JOOsOi^OOOi^ -c©tOtog" 1 H 1 o 1 E 5 re o 2. g ? P <° re P a? re' P 01 ■a pound gain in weight re to ► -OtOOOSO)6l*WM> - P' o c* Co p- • > TO re o *-►-►— 1— l-» H- 1— ^- C H- I— C* < is3f-*-ooooo*-*-coooo~< 1 re Hoooio)oitjitii«Oit»!OOiefl to' O5C00i©COO5>**.O5WW©0ii-'3 , JT ~ 1 4k. Oi s OOCOCOCOOOOCOCOCOCO Ol— ' O «! O) I- > O O N O W M ©-aooootooaoooo5- Height per cent "8 1 3 OOOOviviOJOitnCntiOiOiSQO" 1 re 0)HHO~J!OOotnooMui«itno ' to' 0>OMSll»0!0lOC0*»M0l3 P* S. 1 <*■ 4»> Oi cococococooooooooocoooco Ol4».0JCJO^l~J00C0u«i]oo»it>ooe Height per cent -•8 | ^ oocooooooooooooooocoooo~* re 0)HgiOOOOll»ll»HMOlHW6J ' BQ* ^o>wit>&itocoto(noowa^ 1 P* * Ol OS CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO WSOOwOlOlWl^**!/!* H!OC«JIX-)MM010lO)0>!0 Height per cent cocococoooooooooooooooooco-' re coso>MNO)UiMw^c>)^«! n 'no' HOMlOOlWt»)Wlf»HOO(DM3 1 P* #k Ol oo CO O CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO OOONUJNOlOOllfWM Height per cent Weight per cerc< 80.0 65.4 64 9 75.1 78.6 76.6 76.7 75.8 81.8 89.1 94.6 OS to COCOCOCO00COCOCO0000 0>*>*>MOUHU(0t» Height per cent "S 1 3 cococooooooo^jo5co"i re cooic^>i<5.oia50coo5 ' to' -J©050COCOOi^IH».g 1 P* o» to to CO CO CO rf* Ol Height per cent cocococooocooo^ i re N*>^M(DWK n 'do' wo^i^bsooo^ 1 p* OS OS CO CO CO CO CO CO Ol v-J »♦*■ v.- to Ol h iMn » e M Height per cent Weight per cenf 74.5 71.1 77.9 82 5 85 1 83.8 87 7 OS CO CO CD CO CO o> oi n w tg to o o en co CO 3 •a 1 «F TO - 1 P - 20 University op California — Experiment Station this last consisted of 500 pounds of barley and 200 pounds of rice bran. From birth to six months of age, it is extremely important to feed an unlimited quantity of hay and up to 5 pounds of concentrates daily. Minimum Whole Milk. — This method/ 6 7) while not so satisfactory as those given above, is applicable where skim milk is not available and whole milk is expensive. The whole-milk method is used during the first 50 days; then the milk is gradually eliminated, and the animals are induced to consume as much as possible of a palatable concentrate mixture and fine leafy alfalfa hay. At 60 days of age the milk may be entirely eliminated. The following mixture may be used : 200 pounds of rolled or ground barley 50 pounds of rolled oats 50 pounds of wheat bran 50 pounds of linseed oil meal 3 pounds of salt 6 pounds of mineral supplement Although the cost would be increased, the above concentrate mix- ture would be improved by the addition of 50 pounds of dry skim milk. No attempt should be made to raise any but the strongest calves by the minimum -whole-milk method. Dry Skim Milk and Dry and Semi-solid Butter Milk. — The increase in the manufacture of dry skim milk has brought this product within price range as a calf food. That it is equal in value to the fresh skim milk has been demonstrated at several experiment stations. (T) The dry skim milk is reconstituted by mixing one pound with nine pounds of water. There are several methods of utilizing dry skim milk in the calf ration. The most common one is that of substituting the reconstituted for fresh slum milk, pound for pound. To prepare the reconstituted skim milk, a little cold water should be added to the necessary quantity of powder and this mixed to a smooth paste. Then sufficient warm water to make up the correct proportion of powder and water should be added, thoroughly mixed, and fed at body temperature, 100° F. Another method of utilizing dry skim milk (8) consists in rearing the calf on reconstituted skim milk to the age of 7 weeks, when the amount of milk should be reduced gradually until, at the end of the eighth week, it may be discontinued. The following concentrate mix- ture should be available to the calf after 10 days of age : 55 pounds of yellow corn meal, 10 pounds of wheat bran, and 26 pounds of dry skim milk. To this should be added 2 pounds of salt and 1 pound of BUI* 478] FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CALVES 21 steamed bone meal. Mixed hay should be used during the first few weeks, and after the second month, alfalfa or clover hay. The con- sumption of the concentrate mixture should be increased until the calf is getting from 4 to 6 pounds daily. This amount should be con- tinued until the calf is four months old, when the dry skim milk may be gradually reduced and finally discontinued. The following is recommended to take the place of the concentrate mixture formerly used : 200 pounds of cracked corn, 100 pounds of wheat bran, 100 pounds of ground oats, and 75 pounds of linseed meal. To this should be added 10 pounds of salt. Dry buttermilk may be used in the same way as dry- skim milk, (9) but somewhat greater care must be taken in starting the calves on it because of its acidity. Semi-solid buttermilk (9) when mixed with three times its weight of warm water may also be used, but it is not so satisfactory as the dry product, because it does not keep so well. Milk Substitutes. — A calf meal or milk substitute is a mixture of such materials as red dog flour, ground corn, linseed oil meal, oat flakes, flaxseed meal, blood meal, and dry skim milk, and is designed to take the place of milk in raising dairy calves. So far no one has succeeded in finding a complete substitute for milk during the early life of the calf. Best results with so-called milk substitutes are obtained when some milk is fed for the first 30 or 40 days. One of the best home-made calf meals, the Purdue mixture, consists of equal parts by weight of the following: hominy feed, lin- seed oil meal, red dog flour, and dried blood. When a commercial calf meal is used, the directions on the bag should be followed explicitly. In the case of the home-made product, one pound of the meal is mixed with 9 pounds of water. An amount of the gruel equivalent to a skim-milk ration should be used. To prepare the gruel, it is best to make a thick, smooth paste of a small amount of cold water and the required amount of meal; to this add sufficient boiling water to make the correct proportion of meal and water. This gruel should be fed at 100° F. The feeding schedule shown in table 8 is recommended by the Missouri Experiment Station. (10) As in the other methods, hay and a concentrate mixture should be available at all times — either that recommended for the calf reared on skim milk, or one consisting of 4 parts of rolled or ground barley, 1 part of wheat bran, and 1 part of linseed meal plus 1 per cent of salt and 2 per cent of a mineral supplement. 22 University of California — Experiment Station The calf receiving a milk substitute does not, as a rule, make such rapid gains as one fed skim milk. For this reason, the feeding of con- centrates and hay should be continued to a later age than would other- wise be necessary. The milk^substitute method will prove successful only where special attention is paid to every detail. The schedule shown in table 8 is merely a guide. Individual animals require special care and attention. Unusually large calves may be given somewhat larger TABLE 8 Daily Feeding Schedule for Calves on Calf Meal Age Milk Gruel Concentrate Hay 1 to 3 days pounds Leave w 10 9 9 6 pounds ith mot 1 3 6 12 14 14 14 pounds her Very little Very little V2 1 2 4 4H 14 to 21 days 21 to 30 days Free access to coarse hay or limited amount of alfalfa alfalfa 2 months to 3 months.... 3 to 4 months Free access to alfalfa hay Free access to alfalfa hay quantities than those specified. The feeder must be capable of judging the requirements of each individual, particularly whether it is being overfed, a condition even more serious than underfeeding. Gruel feeding may be discontinued at 4 months of age, though somewhat better results will be obtained by continuing it to 5 or 6 months. CARE FROM SIX MONTHS TO ONE YEAR OF AGE The growth of the dairy heifer from birth to first calving seems to fall naturally into six stages. The two days following birth constitute the first. During the next stage, which extends through the second week, the calf usually gets its start in life on whole milk. In the third or transition period, the change is usually made from whole to skim milk or some milk substitute. The fourth carries the calf to the age of 6 months or past -the periods of greatest mortality. A calf normal at birth and given proper care up to this age, presents a relatively simple problem during the fifth period, or from 6 months to one year, demanding only good judgment on the part of the feeder. This is also true of the sixth period which extends from one year to Bul, 478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves 23 first calving. In many cases, however, after caring for the young heifers very conscientiously from birth to 6 months, he then errone- ously assumes that they are now capable of taking care of themselves, and gives no concentrates during the pasture season and little more than roughage during the winter months. In many sections of Califor- nia where pasture is available during 9 months of the year, this danger is greater than in colder parts of the country where the heifers are brought up from the pasture in the fall and must be fed concentrates. In the latter case, the animal has an opportunity to store up some reserve for the pasture season. Many dairymen have the mistaken idea that grass is a perfectly balanced food for young stock. It contains about 80 per cent of water, and the digestive organs of the calf under 10 months of age are incapable of handling sufficient amounts of this food for normal growth. It is therefore necessary to feed a sufficient amount of con- centrates to keep the heifer growing rapidly. Heifers that are under weight at 6 months of age should receive somewhat larger quantities. The amount of concentrates to feed at any time can be determined by weighing the heifer and comparing with the norm shown in table 2. The concentrate mixture may consist of 400 pounds of rolled barley and 100 pounds of wheat bran as a supplement to alfalfa pasture, while for grass pasture the same mixture, with the addition of 50 pounds of linseed-oil meal, should give satisfactory results. Other grains may be substituted if the cost per pound is less than barley. In those parts of California where the pasture dries up during the latter part of the summer, it is necessary to supply hay as well as concentrates. During the winter months and when there is no pasture, the heifer under one year of age should receive all it will eat of the best available hay and sufficient concentrates to produce normal growth. When alfalfa hay is available the concentrate mixture recommended above for feeding with alfalfa pasture may be used. If a non-leguminous hay is used, the protein content of the concen- trate mixture must be increased as follows : 100 pounds of rolled or ground barley 100 pounds of wheat bran 100 pounds of linseed oil meal 3 pounds of salt 6 pounds of a mineral supplement 24 University of California — Experiment Station CARE FROM ONE YEAR OF AGE TO FIRST CALVING Cost is the principal argument against raising dairy heifers. The period from birth to first calving is unproductive. The advantage of early calving is therefore evident. To sacrifice size of animal for early calving is, however, a serious mistake. The undersized heifer, after freshening for the first time, is limited in her ability to produce milk by the fact that the stimulation to grow is still strong. A cow with a strong stimulation to produce milk cannot consume sufficient food for both maximum milk production and normal growth ; as a result, both milk production and growth are impaired. Evidently then, one should consider size as well as age when determining the proper time to breed. Experiments conducted at the California Station have shown that through liberal feeding of concentrates, the rate of growth can be so accelerated that 15-month-old heifers will be as mature as those 17 months of age that have maintained only normal growth. Seven pure- bred Jersey heifers were raised by the skim-milk method to 6 months of age ; they were not turned out to pasture, but received alfalfa hay at will and 5 pounds of concentrates daily to an average of 18 months. When they averaged 14.5 months of age these heifers had reached the normal weight for 17 months. The average growth compared to the normal is shown in figure 5 The Missouri Experiment Station (7) has also shown that the use of alfalfa alone for growing heifers will not produce normal growth, and that an animal receiving a liberal concentrate ration is as mature at 24 months of age as one raised on hay alone at 30 months. Heifers that have had a liberal grain ration may be bred 5 or 6 months earlier than those grown on hay alone, or 2 to 3 months earlier than those raised on hay and a limited amount of concentrates. The all too common practice in California of feeding only rough- age often results in an undersized animal and necessitates delay in breeding. Table 9 shows the proper time to breed in relation to both age and growth. TABLE 9 Age and Weight Schedule for Breeding Dairy Heifers Breed Age to breed months Normal weight pounds 19-21 18-20 17-19 16-18 715-774 604-651 550-598 533-572 Bul. 478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves 25 48 46 44 4a 0) 40 .^ 38 ■^36 . / / I eoo /oo * t ++ s ^ ^ * i*** ^.*»* ^' .'' ,'' t& <; /Yc rm a 'f we 'L£s ht cut -ye ,y f (<- ./ $ ,y> s te CO rde ?d da fa ^ .s. O 2 4 6^/0/2/4/6/8 20 £2 24 /4ge in months Fig. 5. — Growth of calves which received a liberal-concentrate ration, compared to the normal. The normally developed heifer at 1 year of age will do very well on pasture alone if this feed is abundant. During the winter months or when pasture is not available, the heifers between 1 year of age and first calving should have free access to the best available hay, and 3 to 5 pounds daily of a concentrate mixture, depending upon their 26 University of California — Experiment Station condition of flesh. Silage is also a very good feed and may be substituted for part of the grain and hay. The feeds recommended for the period from 6 months to 1 year of age may be used during this period. Feeding and Management for Parturition.— -The high-producing dairy cow is unable to consume sufficient food to supply the materials needed for milk production during the first part of the lactation period. It is necessary, then, to store in her body during the period preceding parturition a reserve supply of food materials to draw on during this period of heavy production. This is especially true of the first-calf heifer. The stimulation to grow is still strong, and if a sufficient reserve has not been established, both milk production and growth will suffer. Fitting the heifer for lactation should begin 2 or 3 months before calving. When good pasture is available, no additional roughage need be supplied. The amount of concentrates to feed varies according to the condition of the heifer. As a rule it is well to start with about 2 pounds and increase in ten days to 5 or 8 pounds daily. When no pasture is available, hay must be supplied. In addition silage, root crops, or dried beet pulp, separately or in combination, are desirable. There are a number of concentrate mixtures which may be used during the fitting period. Those listed below should give good results. To he used with non-leguminous To he used with leguminous roughages roughages 400 pounds of rolled barley 300 pounds of rolled barley 200 pounds of wheat bran 200 pounds of wheat bran 100 pounds of rolled oats 100 pounds of rolled oats 100 pounds of linseed meal 200 pounds of linseed meal 8 pounds of salt 16 pounds of a mineral supplement 8 pounds of salt When other materials of a similar feeding value can be purchased at less cost than those used in the above rations, substitutions should be made. For example, rice bran may be used for wheat bran, and soybean meal for linseed meal. It is a good plan to fasten the heifers in the stanchions with the milking herd for the feeding of concentrates. The feeder is then in a position to note the condition of the animal and to feed more intelli- gently. The heifer will also form the habit of coming to the barn at milking time and will soon become accustomed to the surroundings. As a result, she will be more easily handled after freshening. A week or 10 days before calving, the concentrate mixture should be changed to 2 parts of wheat bran and 1 part of linseed oil meal. It is important at this time to keep the bowels loose. If at any time Bui*. 478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves 27 there is any tendency toward constipation, a dose of % pound of Epsom salts in a quart of water should be given. At least a week before the calculated date of calving, the heifer should be placed in a clean, well-bedded box stall. A small corral should be furnished where she may exercise alone. After parturition, the heifer should be protected from cold drafts and should receive very little feed for the first few days. At the end of 24 hours, a warm bran mash with a small amount of hay is usually given as the first food. Warm water should be supplied. Thereafter, the feeder may use the concentrate mixture intended for milk pro- duction, starting with one pound a day and gradually increasing this amount to meet the needs of the cow. COMMON AILMENTS Scours. — The most common ailment of calves is scours, or extreme looseness of the bowels. In general, there are two classes, known as common scours and infectious scours. So many variations and condi- tions accompany these that it is not within the scope of this bulletin to deal with the subject in detail. Only general recommendations can be made. In cases where losses persist, information regarding preven- tion should be obtained by calling a qualified veterinarian to the farm. Common scours, due to digestive disturbances, may be caused by overfeeding, feeding milk too rich in fat, dirty feeding pails, varia- tion in temperature of milk, or feeding milk alternately sweet and sour. The trouble is more easily prevented than cured. A calf which has received a set-back because of scouring can only with great difficulty be restored to normal growth. In certain cases scouring among calves has been prevented by pasteurizing the milk. One of the most successful procedures in immediately checking certain outbreaks of scouring in calves under six weeks of age, consists in substituting warm barley water for milk for two days. On the third day equal parts of barley water and milk are fed, and the animal is gradually brought back to milk by the fifth to eighth day. The bar- ley water is prepared by boiling rolled barley in the proportion of one part of the grain to five parts of water. The grain is then strained out through cheese cloth, and the liquid fed at a temperature of about 100° F. The calves when hungry drink it as readily as milk. Infectious or white scours is a bacterial disease attacking calves at birth or shortly thereafter. The symptoms are dullness, sunken eyes, and profuse discharge of dirty or yellowish white feces of a pasty consistency and an extremely offensive odor. The disease is usually 28 University of California — Experiment Station fatal, for at the present time there are no specific cures. Dead calves should be immediately removed and burned or buried. The bedding should be similarly disposed of, and the stall occupied by the calf and dam, as well as all adjacent stalls, should be thoroughly disinfected. On farms where this disease has recently existed, the maternity stalls should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before a cow is allowed to enter. After calving, the udder and teats of the cow should be cleansed and disinfected before the calf is permitted to suck. Immed- iately after calving, all bedding should be removed and the stalls thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. At the first signs of white scours, or if this disease is even sus- pected, a competent veterinarian should be consulted. Calf Pneumonia. — This disease, difficult of treatment and often fatal, is characterized by a profuse discharge from the nose and heavy breathing; it may follow an attack of scouring. Lice. — As a rule, dairy calves are not affected with lice during the summer and fall. In the winter and early spring, however, lice are often present, being most commonly found around the muzzle, eyes, withers, and spinal column. There are many treatments that may be used. Raw linseed oil, rubbed sparingly into the hair, is very effective but will blister the skin unless precautions are taken to keep the animal out of the direct sunlight for several days. A 3-per-cent solution of a coal-tar disinfectant, liberally applied, will control the lice without the danger of blistering. Any treatment for the eradication of lice should be repeated three or four times at weekly intervals. Sodium- floride powder mixed with an equal amount of flour or talc may also be dusted into the hair and will be found to give very satisfactory results in combating the biting (non-blood sucking) louse. 3 Ring Worm. — This infection of the skin is made evident by round spots of rough skin devoid of hair, commonly located around the head, and occasionally on other parts of the body also. Unless treat- ment is administered, the disease tends to spread. The spots should be washed with soap and water, scraped to remove all scaly material, and treated with tincture of iodine. 3 Further information on this subject as well as on other parasites may be obtained by writing for Circular 265, Office of Publications, University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley, California. Buu 478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves 29 Fig. 6. — Stalls and pens. The calf barn should be equipped with individual box stalls and community pens. Fig. 7. — Calf corrals. Exercise is an important consideration. 30 University of California — Experiment Station CALF QUARTERS The calf barn should be light, well ventilated, and free from drafts. Individual box stalls should be provided for calves under one month of age, and community pens, equipped with stanchions, for the older animals (figure 6). If possible, the individual box stalls should have tight walls to aid in preventing the spread of unsuspected infectious diseases. The barn fittings, if of wood, should be removable to allow for thorough disinfection at frequent intervals. If the calves are at any time exposed to infectious diseases, such an arrangement will be very valuable when the premises are being cleaned. Provisions should be made for the calves to exercise daily. Corrals similar to those shown in figure 7 are very satisfactory. RAISING THE HERD SIRE In most respects, feeding and care are identical for the future herd sire and the heifers. During the growing period, however, it is well to feed the former liberally in order to induce maximum growth ; otherwise, it is impossible to judge the inherited size of the animal. Between 4 and 5 months of age the bull calf should be separated from the heifers. Milk feeding should continue to 5 or 6 months of age, and even 2 or 3 months longer for best results. Concentrates and roughage recommended for heifers should be fed liberally. CALCULATING THE COST OF RAISING DAIRY HEIFERS Many requests have been made for information concerning the cost of raising dairy heifers. No definite information can be given for the prices of feeds and other conditions vary considerably throughout the state. The individual dairyman may, however, arrive at a close estimate of the cost by applying local prices to the feeding recom- mendations that have been made in previous paragraphs. Bul, 478] Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves 31 LITERATURE CITED i Jones, I. R., C. H. Eckles, and L. S. Palmer. 1926. The role of vitamin A in the nutrition of calves. Jour. Dairy Sci. 9:119-139. pi. 1, fig. 1-10. 2 Bechdel, S. I., C. H. Eckles, and L. S. Palmer. 1926. The vitamin B requirement of the calf. Jour. Dairy Sci. 9:409-438. figs. 1-13. 3 Thurston, L. M., C. H. Eckles, and L. S. Palmer. 1926. The role of the antiscorbutic vitamin in the nutrition of calves. Jour. Dairy Sci. 9:37-49. figs. 1-9. 4 Evans, H. M., and G. O. Burr. 1927. The antisterility vitamin fat-soluble E. Univ. California Mem. 8:1-176. pi. 1-12. figs. 1-3. s Eckles, C H. 1920. The normal growth of dairy cattle. Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 36:1-20. figs. 1-5. e Mead, S. W., W. M. Regan, and J. W. Bartlett. 1924. A study of the factors affecting the growth of dairy heifers. Jour. Dairy Sci. 7:440^59. figs. 1-4. 7 Eckles, C. H. 1924. Dairy cattle and milk production. Rev. ed. 591 p. The Macmillan Company, New York. s Conover, J. A. 1928. Raising calves on skim milk powder. Univ. Maryland, Extension Circ. 67:1-6. 9 Eckles, C. H., and T. W. Gullickson. 1924. Condensed and powdered butter milk for dairy calves. Jour. Dairy Sci. 7:213-221. figs. 1-4. 10 SWETT, W. W. 1910. Raising calves on farms where whole milk is sold. Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 88:1-13. 15m-10,'29