I 3? L E9Z Division of Agricultural Sciences UNIVERSITY OF C A L I F O R N I no-Z8 BARLEY PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA C. W. SCHALLER MILTON D. MILLER CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station Extension Service MANUAL 28 Price 25i LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PAVIS ^ff BARLEY PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA it Barley is California's most widely distributed and grown cereal crop. It is produced in all counties, under a wide variety of conditions. This manual provides general information on the main aspects of barley growing in the state. It discusses the two principal cropping patterns — dryland and irrigation farming; takes you through all production stages — from seed- bed preparation to harvesting and storage; examines the diseases and insects of barley and their contrab- and summarizes the main characteristics of the major varieties used in California. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES California Agricultural Experiment Station — Extension Service LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS CONTENTS Adaptation 3 Uses of Barley 4 Cropping Patterns 4 Seedbed Preparation .... 5 Time of Planting 8 Method of Seeding 9 Depth of Planting 9 Irrigation 10 Fertilization 10 Rate of Seeding 12 Harvesting 13 Storage 14 Production of Malting Barley . . 15 Barley Diseases 17 Insects of Barley 20 Barley Varieties 20 rS^TS THE AUTHORS CHARLES W. SCHALLER is Associate Professor of Agronomy and Associate Agronomis* in the Experiment Station, Davis. MILTON D. MILLER is an Extension Specialist in Agronomy, Davis. Data in one or several of the tables in this publication were developed by C. A. Suneson, G. A. Wiebe, F. N. Briggs, L. L. Davis, George Worker, Jr., John R. Goss, and many Farm Advisors. California acreage figures are taken from California Crop and Livestock Reporting Service reports. THIS MANUAL is one of a series published by the University of California Division of Agricultural Sciences and sold for a charge based on returning only a portion of the production cost. By this means it is possible to make available publications which, due to relatively high cost of production or limited audience, would otherwise be beyond the scope of the Division's publishing program. DECEMBER, 1960 BARLEY PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA A State-wide Field Crop Produced Under a Variety of Conditions 5^3^ CHARLES W. SCHALLER and MILTON D.MILLER Barley is California's most important grain crop. Introduced by the Spanish mis- sionaries about 1771, its acreage has expanded over the years until in 1957 California growers harvested an all-time high of 1,967,000 acres, with a record production of 78,680,000 bushels. Approximately 35 per cent of the land in California devoted to field crops is planted to barley. On a national basis, California produces about one fifth of the U. S. total. Barley is produced in all counties of California, under a wide diversity of en- vironmental conditions. It is grown all year round: harvesting begins in the Imperial Valley before planting is com- pleted in northern California, and har- vesting in the north barely ends before planting starts in the south. Barley is grown on fields ranging from below sea level to elevations exceeding 5,000 feet. As a dry-farmed crop, it is grown in areas with an annual rainfall ranging from less than 8 inches (in an alternate fallow system) to as much as 35 inches ADAPTATION Barley is the most widely distributed and grown cereal crop. Although considered a cool-weather plant, it will withstand high temperatures in the absence of hu- midity. It grows better with moderate or more (annual cropping). In very low rainfall areas, as in the southern San Joaquin or Imperial valleys, practically all moisture required by the crop is applied by irrigation. Under such a di- versity of conditions no one cropping practice nor variety will suffice for all. This manual provides general infor- mation on the various aspects of barley growing. If you need specific cultural recommendations for your particular sit- uation, go to the University of California Farm Advisor in your county. than with excessive rainfall. In many areas, use of early maturing varieties will allow the crop to escape drought and mature before the onset of high tempera- tures. In California, barlev is better [3] suited for late planting than either wheat or oats. In the valleys and at lower elevations the true spring types have sufficient cold tolerance to permit their planting in No- vember and December. At the higher ele- vations these spring or nonhardy types will not withstand the winter tempera- tures and must be spring-sown. In gen- eral, most of the true winter-type varieties used elsewhere in the United States do not have sufficient winter hardiness to permit fall sowing at higher elevations in California. Barley prefers soils that are well- drained and moderately fertile. Exces- sive lodging occurs when grown on soils of extremely high fertility. It is less adapted than either wheat or oats to pro- duction on heavy, poorly-drained soils, such as the typical rice soils. Barley is more tolerant of alkali conditions than the other cereal crops. Although barley is grown in all parts of the state, the greatest concentration is in the San Joaquin Valley which ac- counts for approximately 45 per cent of the total production. Sacramento Valley produces about 15 per cent, the coastal counties 12 per cent, southern California 20 per cent, and other sections, including the Tulelake area, 7 per cent. USES OF BARLEY Barley is the chief feed grain grown in California; approximately 70 per cent of that produced is used for feed. It is either ground or rolled before feeding. Approximately 6 per cent is used for domestic malting, including both the two-rowed and six-rowed types; 5 per cent is used for seed; and an average of 18 per cent is exported. The amount ex- ported fluctuates widely, ranging in re- cent years from 11 to 27 per cent; it is used both for feed and as food for human consumption in the importing countries. Since the advent of smooth-awned va- rieties, barley has become a strong com- petitor with oats as a hay crop, either alone or in combination with vetch. In years unfavorable to grain production, considerable acreage which was planted for grain is cut for hay. Increasing acre- age is planted early each fall solely for winter pasturage. CROPPING PATTERNS Barley production now follows two gen- eral cultural patterns — dryland and irri- gation farming. Common under dryland conditions are continuous grain; alter- nate crop and fallow; and short rotations of barley, pasture and fallow. On irri- gated land, barley may be grown in a rotation as a dry crop or with supple- mental application of water. Under Dryland Conditions Continuous grain. Under valley condi- tions an annual rainfall of between 1 and lo inches is considered enough l<>r annual cropping. In cooler coastal areas 12 to II inches rna\ be sufficient. The alternate crop and fallow system is common in areas of less than 12 to 14 inches average rainfall in which the moisture available in any one year is in- sufficient to produce a crop. In addition to conserving moisture, several other benefits may accrue from incorporating a fallow year into the cropping system, one of the most important being weed control. Even in areas where sufficient moisture is available for annual crop- ping, fallowing every third or fourth year is essential to control weeds, includ- ing wild oats. Under proper moisture conditions throughout the fallow year, microbial activity is encouraged, making I 4 1 available more nitrogen from decompos- ing organic matter and nonsymbiotic ni- trogen fixation. The alternate crop-fallow system also provides an opportunity to improve the physical condition of the soil through the incorporation of crop residue and an occasional green manure crop. Until some satisfactory method is devised per- mitting the incorporation of crop residue in annual dry-farmed cropping without depressing yield of the following crop, the organic matter management aspect of fallowing will become increasingly im- portant on our dry-farm lands. Fallow- ing also permits more timely planting, since the seedbed is prepared the pre- vious spring. Timely planting is impor- tant in all areas, but assumes greater im- portance on the clay-textured soils on which it may be impossible to establish a stand after the beginning of the winter rains. Short rotations. Where annual rainfall is 15 inches or more, numerous opera- tors have successfully and profitably em- ployed a rotation system alternating a year of dry-farmed barley with a year of Sudangrass. This system is especially popular in coastal counties from Men- docino County southward. On irrigated land Barley returns normally are not high enough to warrant heavy expenditures for irrigation. However, barley will re- spond to irrigation in the drier areas, and occupies an important place in such areas in the rotation system. The in- creasing tendency of double cropping has encouraged the use of barley on irri- gated land of this type. Pre-irrigation followed by one or two crop irrigations, if properly timed, generally have proved very profitable. SEEDBED PREPARATION An ideal seedbed for fall-sown grain should be firm beneath and moderately cloddy on top, free from weeds and resi- due (when residue is not needed for ero- sion control). For spring planting the seedbed should be firmer and relatively free from clods, with good soil moisture near the surface. Tillage. Because barley is grown under a wide diversity of conditions, no one method of seedbed preparation is appli- cable in all cases. The purposes of tillage, in addition to mechanically arranging the soil in a suitable seedbed condition, are: to destroy weeds, incorporate plant residue, promote the activity of desirable soil organisms and reduce runoff and erosion. From among the many different kinds of implements available select those which accomplish these purposes with the least expenditure of labor and materials. The equipment commonly used for the initial operations are offset disks, wheatland plow, chisel or, in some areas, the moldboard plow. Equipment used for the final stages of seedbed prep- aration are tandem disks, spring and spike-tooth harrows, CC cultivators and rod weeders. The number of operations and types of tools used will vary with soil type, previous crop, crop residues and volunteer plants, amount and time of rainfall and the terrain. Choose that com- bination of tools which will result in a good seedbed for your particular con- ditions. The moldboard plow provides the most complete coverage of the residue, usually resulting in higher production, but also increases the hazards of erosion. A num- ber of implements, such as the duck-foot cultivator, permit stirring of the soil with minimum straw mixing. Disking, followed by plowing, gives a fair degree of mixing and also helps protect the soil. Deep tillage. Practice deep tillage (deeper than 6—8 inches) with caution and use only when sufficient time elapses [5] Plowing barley land near Montague, California. The tractors are each pulling two 4 bot- tom 16-inch moldboard plows, starting the summer fallow operation. Where soil erosion is not a factor, the residue should be completely covered. between plowing and planting, to permit settling of the soil. Deep tillage at plant- ing time leaves the soil too loose for a satisfactory seedbed and allows excessive loss of moisture. Roots will penetrate un- disturbed moist soil with ease, unless re- stricted by natural or artificial hardpans. Plowing, chiseling or disking at the same depth year after year may cause an artificial hardpan known as a plow sole. You can avoid this by annually varying the depth of tillage. Subsoiling is seldom permanently beneficial, unless required to break up a hardpan or plow sole below a depth which can be reached by ordi- nary tillage implements. Final seedbed tillage. Restrict final till- age to that required to produce a satis- factory seedbed. Excessive tillage results in an extremely fine seedbed which may be subject to crusting. With late spring planting or after the period where heavy rains may induce soil crusting, it may be desirable to roll the soil to produce a firmer seedbed. Straw in soil. Incorporating large quan- tities of straw into the soil may have a depressing effect on the following grain crop, especially with annual cropping in low-rainfall areas. Considerable nitrogen that is required by the growing plant is temporarily tied up by microbial activity in decaying the straw. Because of this, removing the straw by pasturing or burn- ing commonly results in greater yields of the succeeding crop but, if continued too long, will hasten the depletion of or- ganic matter in the soil and result in a poor physical condition. You can par- tially offset the depressing effect on sub- sequent crops by judicious application of nitrogen fertilizer at or near planting time. Use approximately 15 to 20 pounds of elemental nitrogen (75-100 pounds of 21 per cent ammonium sulfate or equiv- alent) per ton of straw turned under, in addition to the usual amount of ferti- lizer required for the crop. Since much of this nitrogen will eventually be available to the crop, excessive application may have harmful effects on the yield of the new crop. Under the fallow system, the straw is usually sufficiently decomposed during the fallow year so that no deleterious ef- fect is noticeable on the following crop. [61 The partial incorporation of straw and stubble into the soil, leaving a trashy condition on the surface, effectively re- duces wind and water erosion. Such ero- sion control is necessary and advisable on much of the grain land, especially in hill areas. However, decomposition is hastened by complete coverage. There- fore, unless needed for erosion control, practice clean cultivation whenever pos- sible. Incomplete incorporation of crop residues as used in trashy fallow can re- sult in build-up of soil-borne diseases. Tillage for continuous grain culture With continuous annual grain culture, you have little opportunity to vary your production practices. Usually the soil is too dry after harvest for immediate till- age operations, and the soil is left undis- turbed until after the first fall rains. Un- less the weed seeds are permitted to ger- minate before tillage, the soil will soon become heavily infested with weed seeds, especially wild oats. In fall-seeding areas, after the weed seeds have germinated, till the land to a depth of 4 to 7 inches, and immediately disk, harrow and plant. Cover completely the crop residue from the preceding crop unless you need it for erosion control. In areas where it is necessary to plant in the spring, the entire operation may be delayed, especially where erosion is severe. However, initial fall tillage, in- volving the heavier seedbed operations, followed by shallow tillage in the spring, produces a firmer, more satisfactory seedbed than a delay of the entire opera- tion until spring. Regardless of rainfall, dry-farmed, clay-textured, poorly drained soils are difficult to crop annually. The usual fall, winter and spring rainfall distribution is such that it interferes with tillage for weed control, seedbed preparation and planting operations. Annual cropping works best on well-drained permeable soils. Even with the best of management, land cropped annually to grain usually becomes infested with troublesome weeds, and it is advisable to include a fallow every third or fourth year. In addition to weed control, this occasional fallowing also provides an opportunity to incorporate organic matter (crop res- idues and green manure) into the soil, thus improving the physical condition of the soil. Tillage for alternate crop-fallow The alternate crop-fallow system per- mits some flexibility in management. The benefits derived from this system depend largely on your management practices. Where rainfall is low, the main ob- jective is to conserve moisture for the crop year. The efficiency of your opera- tion will depend on your success of cap- turing most of the rainfall by reducing losses from runoff, evaporation and vol- unteer utilization. For maximum water retention, prepare the land as early in the fall as possible in such a manner, as to provide a cloddy, trashy condition as a natural impediment to quick runoff. In areas where erosion is especially trou- blesome (such as hillsides) incorporate crop residue in such a way that some is left in the immediate surface; this will help reduce runoff. Subsequent tillage to eliminate all volunteer growth is essen- tial. Volunteer winter growth may neces- sitate additional harrowing or shallow disking or plowing in the spring. During the next spring and summer season, em- ploy shallow tillage by harrowing only when necessary to eliminate growth and to close soil cracks which may develop. You may reduce spring and summer till- age by using well-timed 2,4-D sprays for control of morning glory and other broadleaved weeds. Such management practices will pro- vide for maximum water storage in the soil, but increases the hazard of erosion and reduces the opportunity to incorpor- [7] ale green manure or to pasture volun- teer growth. It also is costly since it re- quires tillage operations both in the fall and spring, even in noncrop years. Where moisture conservation is less critical, it is better to leave the land un- disturbed during the winter, permitting volunteer growth. Start fallow cultiva- tions in the early spring. Pasturing the volunteer growth eliminates the advan- tage of improving the physical condition of the soil through the incorporation of the green growth. Since the loss of mois- ture by transpiration increases rapidly with increased plant growth and high temperature, the longer the fallow is de- layed, the greater the loss of moisture from the soil. In any case, start the fal- low early enough so adequate rainfall can settle the soil early in the year in order to reduce the moisture loss from the surface layers. This will allow the decomposition of the incorporated ma- terial and the release of organically bound plant nutrients. Usually a shallow plowing or disking, deep enough to per- mit coverage of the plant material, fol- lowed by a harrowing and subsequent summer tillage to control weeds will be sufficient. Proper maintenance of the weed-free fallow during the summer usually will produce an excellent seedbed for the fol- lowing crop. However, you may delay fall planting until after the first rains to provide an additional cultivation for weed control. Planting too early before the time when continuous rain is as- sured, may result in partial germination and loss of the seedling stand by drought. Occasionally, with a well-managed fal- low, you may be able to maintain enough Where heavy stubble or a nonlegume green manure crop is turned under ahead of seed- ing the barley crop, use 15 to 2:0 extra pounds of nitrogen fertilizer per acre to speed decomposition of the incorporated organic matter. This is above the fertilizer normally planned for the barley crop. Sut- ter Basin, California. moisture near the surface to germinate the seed and to sustain plant growth un- til the first rains. Tillage for rotation with other crops This system is normally practiced on irrigated land. Follow tillage operations which would produce a moderately firm, slightly cloddy seedbed, free from weeds and crop refuse. The practices followed and implements used will depend upon the preceding crop; they are similar t those discussed on pages 6 and 7. o TIME OF PLANTING Barley is a cool-weather crop. Planting should be timed to insure the maximum use of winter rainfall and to avoid ex- cessive summer temperatures and warm- weather diseases. Throughout the major portion of California, except in northern mountain valleys at elevations of around 3,000 feet or more, the best planting months are November, December and the fust part of January. The effect of [8 I Early Planting Dates Produce High Yields Planting date Location Average yield expressed in per cent of November planting date Davis (6-year average of 5 to 10 varieties) El Centro (4-year average of 2 varieties) November December January 100 94* 54f 100 82 72 February 45 * Higher than normally expected under commercial conditions. t Includes late February and early March dates. different planting dates on yield as meas- ured in the Imperial Valley and at Davis, California, is given in the table. In all cases, the earlier planting dates produced the highest yield. Extremely early planting, especially on fertile soil, may cause excessive growth, and result in the exhaustion of moisture (when dry-farmed) or lodg- ing. In addition, diseases such as yellow dwarf virus, scald and net blotch have been serious in barley seeded earlier than November 15. Do not plant California Mariout in the Sacramento Valley before the first part of January since it may be injured during flowering by late spring frosts. When planting is delayed into February or March, give preference to early maturing varieties, such as Califor- nia Mariout or Arivat. Club Mariout, al- though a mid-season variety, also re- sponds well to late planting. In northern mountain valleys at eleva- tions of around 3,000 feet or more, where it is necessary to delay planting until spring because of climate, plant as soon as a satisfactory seedbed can be prepared and when the danger of se- vere frost is past. Well established seed- ling barley will stand short periods of temperatures down to about 22° F. METHOD OF SEEDING Barley can either be broadcast on top of prepared soil by seed-spreading de- vices such as endgate seeders and air- planes, or placed directly in the soil with a drill. Cover broadcasted seed by a harrow or disk, promptly after distribution. Broadcasting is fast and can be done on soil too wet for a drill. However, use it only when you are assured of sufficient subsequent rainfall to support germina- tion and growth. Do not broadcast seed in the spring, especially if the rainfall period is over. More uniform stand, less lodging, better weed control, and usually higher yields are obtained with a drill. Where drilling is used as a method of seeding, the amount of seed used per acre can be reduced by 15 to 20 per cent over that broadcast. DEPTH OF PLANTING The best depth for planting or covering 2Vi> inches. In clay soils or soils which barley is between 1 to 2 inches. It is not have a tendency to crust, shallow plant- advisable to plant barley deeper than ing is preferable. [9] IRRIGATION Lack of moisture is one of the main fac- tors which limit barley yields in many areas of California. Supplemental irriga- tion is becoming rather general wherever water is available. The amount of water used and the time of irrigation will vary, depending upon soil and environmental conditions. Timing is most dfficult in areas where irrigation is used to supple- ment rainfall. While irrigation practices will vary according to local conditions, certain general rules apply. In deep, permeable soils the roots of barley will penetrate 4 to 5 feet. Arrange irrigation practices to provide moisture during the growing season to that depth. In areas which rely entirely on irriga- tion, three irrigations totaling about 15 to 20 acre inches per acre are normally sufficient. Apply the first irrigation prior to planting and wet the soil to a depth of 4 to 5 feet. Irrigation immediately after planting may leave the soil in a compact and crusted condition which can inter- fere with the subsequent normal develop- ment of the plant. With fall-sown grain, cold weather gen- erally prevails during the early growth stages. The pre-irrigation should be suffi- cient to sustain the plants until the joint- ing stage, when the first crop irrigation may be needed. Apply the second crop irrigation, if needed, in the boot stage just before flowering. When only two ir- rigations are used, start with the pre-irri- gation and delay the crop irrigation until late jointing or when the plants are in the boot stage. Moisture stress between the jointing and heading stages is more injurious to the plants than in the earlier or later stages of development. Irrigation after heading or milk stage is seldom beneficial or economical. Where water penetration into the soil is a problem you may have to irrigate at more frequent intervals. In areas or seasons of high rainfall, fall and early spring irrigation may re- sult in water-logging, which can be harm- ful to plant growth. Even dry-farmed barley can be "drowned out" by too much rain. This is especially true on less permeable, claypan or hardpan soils. Excessively wet soils lack adequate aera- tion, may be low in nitrogen due to leach- ing, reduced nitrification or loss of nitro- gen into the air, and generally favor root- rotting organisms. Any one or all of these factors may be operating when barley is "drowned-out." FERTILIZATION Barley fertilization is a local problem. The response to fertilizers depends on several factors, such as inherent fertility of the soil, cropping and fertilizer his- tory, and rainfall. Economic responses have been obtained with nitrogen and phosphorus, alone and in combination. In some areas sulfur alone and in combi- nation with nitrogen and phosphorus have given improved growth and yields. Field trials to date have shown no re- sponse to potassium. Nitrogen deficiencies are widespread but not in well-defined areas. Willi the general decrease of organic matter in the soil, an increase in responses to nitrogen may be expected. Under dry-farmed conditions, espe- cially if rainfall is likely to be around 12 inches, applications of 20 to 30 pounds of nitrogen per acre (100 to 150 pounds of ammonium sulfate or its equivalent) are usually sufficient. In recent Univer- sity fertility studies on dry-farmed, bi- ennially cropped soils (in areas of less than 12 inches annual rainfall), applica- tion of nitrogen was often unnecessary and economically unprofitable. In dry- [10] farmed areas with 15 inches of rain or more, up to 40 pounds of nitrogen may be profitable. Under irrigated conditions, applications up to 80 pounds of nitrogen per acre have given economic responses. In all cases, if considerable straw or non- legume crop residue is incorporated in the soil before planting, it may be desir- able to increase the amount of nitrogen by an additional 15 to 30 pounds per acre to prevent nitrogen deficiency. Nitrogen usually stimulates plant growth. Excessive applications often cause overstimulation, ultimately result- ing in severe lodging, delayed maturity, increased susceptibility to diseases and exhaustion of soil moisture before the grain is mature. Unfortunately, soil tests for measuring the supply of available soil nitrogen are not reliable under the wide diversity of growing conditions found in California. Nitrogen needs can best be determined by actual field trials. When you grow barley following satis- factory yields of alfalfa, irrigated pas- ture, and heavily fertilized row crops, or when you have turned under a satisfac- tory legume green manure crop, you may greatly reduce or eliminate the amount of nitrogen applied. Crops following a year of fallow may show little or no re- sponse to nitrogen unless the annual rainfall exceeds 10 to 12 inches, in which case 15 to 20 pounds of nitrogen per acre may be profitable. Various forms of nitrogen fertilizers are available and, if properly applied, appear to be equally effective per unit of nitrogen. Time and method of applica- tion varies with the type of fertilizer used. Since all dry sources are soluble in water, you may make surface applica- tions but, in general, it is more satisfac- tory if you work the fertilizer into the soil. Place aqua and anhydrous forms into moist soil to a depth of 6 inches. Late-winter applications offer promise and split applications might be consid- ered on sandy soils, on soils subject to heavy leaching, or in circumstances when you try to adjust nitrogen application to available water supplies. Phosphorous-deficient soils can be broadly outlined as to regions, types and origin. You may expect favorable re- sponses to phosphorus on the generally "red" colored soils on the terraces and foothills along the margin of the Sacra- mento and San Joaquin valleys. These soils often have poor drainage and strongly developed claypans and hard- pans near the soil surface. Many upland soils developed in place from hard rock or softly consolidated materials also re- spond to phosphorus as do some peat and muck soils. The need for phosphorus fertilization can be successfully predicted by the proper selection of soil test methods. Evaluation of available soil phosphorus by the methods of water extraction and sodium bicarbonate extraction have given better than 90 per cent accuracy and these are being used by commercial laboratories. However, such tests should be corroborated by actual field trials. Unlike nitrogen, excessive amounts of phosphorus have no harmful effect on plant development and will remain in the soil for future use. Phosphorus sources, best suited for use in California, supply most of the phosphorus in a water-soluble form. The materials, however, do not move far from the point of application; always incorporate them into the soil before or at the time of planting. It is important that a supply of available phosphorus be in the immediate proximity of the seed- ling root to help the plant get started. Phosphorus-bearing fertilizers usually give best results if drilled alongside or below the seed. Use a combination seed and fertilizer drill. Top-dressed phos- phorus is not efficiently used and may not benefit the crop. Rates of application usually vary from 20 to 80 pounds of PoO-, per acre. In many soils deficient in both phosphorus and nitrogen, no re- [ii] sponse will be obtained with the applica- tion of either one separately, but only when applied in combination. Mixing seed and fertilizer. When no more than 100 to 150 pounds of chemical fertilizer are applied per acre, some growers have physically mixed the grain seed and fertilizer and successfully drilled the two together. In doing so, they always run the risk of fertilizer in- jury to the seeds or seedlings. Nitrogen- bearing fertilizers are more likely to give difficulty under these conditions than fer- tilizers containing only phosphorus. RATE OF SEEDING The amount of seed varies considerably throughout the barley-producing areas. Many factors, such as rainfall, soil fer- tility, time and method of planting, va- riety, weed competition and utilization must be considered. The barley plant has the ability to adjust to varying condi- tions by sending up one or more stems (tillers), varying the number of kernels per head and plumpness. Rates of 60 to 80 pounds per acre are normally used when drilled. In areas of limited moisture, rates as low as 30 to 50 pounds may be more desirable. When you do your seeding by broadcasting, increase rates by 25 per cent over those used in drilling. Gradually increase the amount of seed used per acre from fall to late winter planting. Late spring planted barley till- ers considerably less than that planted early ; hence, more seed is needed. With extremely late spring planting in areas where supplemental water is not avail- able, use lower rates to adjust the stand to the available moisture. Heavier rates will provide greater plant competition for weed control, but rates above 90 pounds are seldom justified. Stand estab- lishment on poor seedbeds or with ad- verse weather conditions require the heavier rates. Overseeding is more haz- ardous to yield than underplanting. Ex- cessive stands may exhaust moisture and fertility before ripening, or cause ex- cessive lodging, resulting in low produc- tion, pinched kernels and low bushel weight. WEED CONTROL The troublesome weeds of barley fields may be divided into two general groups: (1) the grassy weeds, such as wild oats, annual rye grass and ripgut brome and I 2 ) the broadleaved weeds, such as wild radish, mustard, star thistle, and fiddle- neck. Control of all types is abetted by good fanning practices. A thrifty and vigorously growing crop (based on good seedbed preparation, optimum planting date, proper fertilization practices, cor- rect seeding rates, use of adapted varie- ties, etc.) will provide active weed com- petition and help to smother out many weeds. The use of weed-free seed is one of the most effective methods of reducing (he COSl of weed control. Timeliness of operations is the key to successful weed control, especially for wild oats. Delaying seedbed preparation until the fall or winter rains have germi- nated the weed seed is fairly effective. Once the seeds of wild oats have been plowed into the soil, they may lie dor- mant for several years, germinating and growing when they are returned to the surface by subsequent tillage. Since wild oats normally mature and drop their seed before the barley crop is ready for har- vest, cutting heavily infested barley fields for hay, before the wild oats shatter, greatly reduces the amount of seed re- turned to the soil and may greatly re- duce trouble during the following years. Drilling the barley seed, and use of 12 drilled (placed) phosphorus fertilizer (where this element is deficient) also help to control wild oats. With continuous grain culture, even though the best production practices are followed, it is often necessary to include a fallow every third or fourth year. Dur- ing the fallow year it is possible to de- stroy several successive weed crops, in- cluding summer-growing weeds. Summer HARVESTING Practically all California barley is com- bine-harvested. Proper adjustment and operation of the combine determines the quality and efficiency of the harvest op- eration. Recent tests by the departments of Agricultural Engineering and Agron- omy have shown in one case a threefold increase in loss from the rear of the com- bine when the rate of straw intake was increased from 100 to 140 pounds per minute. In other tests, header loss was reduced from 400 to 100 pounds per acre when the reel speed ratio (reel peri- pheral speed divided by forward speed of the combine) was reduced from 3.25 to 1.5, coupled with minor changes in reel position. The percentage of broken and skinned kernels increased from 5.5 to 11.4 per cent when the cylinder peri- pheral speed was increased from 3.800 to 4,850 fpm without additional adjust- ments. Excessive kernel damage seri- ously affects the quality of the barley for seed and malt. Proper adjustment of the combine is not a constant, but varies with the time of day, the moisture content, quantity of straw, yield, variety and va- rious other factors. Frequent daily ad- justment of the combine is required to compensate for these variations. Barley is ready for harvest when the moisture content is 14 per cent or less. If you must harvest while there is still free moisture (dew) on the kernels, blend such grain with dry grain for safe stor- age. When fields are badly contaminated with green weeds, it is often advisable to tillage of the fallow should be shallow in order to avoid bringing deep seed to the surface. Most of the commonly occurring broadleaved weeds can be controlled by spraying with an appropriate herbicide. A number of chemicals have been pro\ en successful and more are being tested. For latest recommendations consult current spray leaflet or see your Farm Advisor. windrow the barley rather than to com- bine direct. After the weeds have dried, the trashy weeds including weed seeds are readily removed from the grain dur- ing combining. Avoid overloading the machine. With the 12-foot self-propelled combines used in the various tests, seed losses became excessive when feed rates (straw and chaff input) exceeded 100 to 125 pounds per minute. Overloading of the straw walker and the cleaning shoe either from excessive feeding rates or improper ma- chine adjustment, results in high loss of free-seed from the rear of the combine. In addition, overloading of the cleaning shoe results in larger amounts of free- seed being recirculated in the tailings, which increases the amount of skinned and broken kernels. Header loss can be reduced to a mini- mum by proper adjustment of the reel. A fixed-bat reel ordinarily should be 6 to 10 inches ahead of the cutter bar and at a height such that the bats contact the straw just below the heads. A pick-up reel, when used in lodged crops should be lower and a little farther forward. The peripheral speed of the reel should be about 25 to 50 per cent greater than the forward speed of the combine. Although maximum cylinder speeds and minimum clearances are desirable to keep seed losses low, the adjustment of the cylinder and concaves will be de- termined primarily by the amount of seed damage that is acceptable for the [13] Harvesting Hannchen barley for malting — Tulelake, California. Modern combines can harvest lodged grain, but University of California plant breeders are developing varieties with improved straw strength. anticipated use of the barley. For seed and malting purposes, minimum damage and high germination are essential. Ex- cessive kernel damage increases the haz- ards from stored insects and, therefore, must be considered even with feed bar- leys. For machines with a rasp bar cyl- inder, a peripheral speed of 5,000 to 5,500 fpm and a cylinder-concave clear- ance of % inch should be satisfactory for harvesting feed barley under the warm, dry conditions of the interior val- leys. With a spike-tooth cylinder similar cylinder speeds with a clearance of 5/32 of an inch between cylinder and concave teeth should be satisfactory. Always use as few rows of teeth in the concave as STORAGE Barley can be safely stored if the mois- ture is less than 14 per cent. Green weed seeds, leaves and stems are often the ma- jor reasons why grain heats in storage; it is advisable, therefore, to clean very possible that still will thresh the grain clean. Two to four rows of concave teeth are generally required. However, six rows may be needed for tough condi- tions. It is usually better to use fewer rows of teeth with the concave set high than to use more rows of teeth with the concaves low. Considerably slower cylinder speeds are necessary when threshing barley for seed or for processing into malt. In the latter case, it is better to allow a small portion (1/16 inch) of the awn to re- main attached to the kernel than to at- tempt complete removal which often may lead to partial loosening of the hull. trashy grain before storage. Frequent circulation of the grain during the early storage period may be sufficient as a safety measure if the trash is not exces- sive. [W] Insects are a constant threat to grain in storage. Standing grain in the field is usually free of storage insects; con- tamination occurs later during handling and storage. Be sure to clean thoroughly storage bins and all equipment before using them in harvesting and handling grain. Keep areas around the storage units free from sources of infestation, such as nests of birds, bees, ground squirrels, rats and similar pests. Three important factors influencing the abundance of insects in stored grain are: cleanness of the grain, moisture con- tent, and temperature. A number of in- sects, such as the saw-toothed grain beetle and Indian-meal moth, cannot at- tack sound grain, but are confined in their feeding to broken or damaged ker- nels, plus a wide variety of food prod- ucts. Grain with a moisture content of less than 10 per cent is relatively safe from these "secondary" feeders. How- ever, they are capable of obtaining mois- ture from dust and dockage and, conse- quently, can maintain their growth even though moisture in the grain is below 10 per cent. Clean, sound grain will help keep losses to a minimum. The more serious pests, such as the granary weevil, Angoumois grain moth and the Khapra beetle are capable of at- tacking sound grain. Except for the Khapra beetle, grain with less than 8 per cent moisture is relatively safe from this group. The Khapra beetle can feed at a much lower moisture content. Insect activity is greatly retarded by low temperatures. In general, insect re- production and feeding damage is lim- ited if the temperature of the grain is below 60° F. Care must be taken to avoid hotspots developing in the storage unit since insect infestation can develop there. Occasional aeration, using unheated atmospheric air, helps to keep grain in condition. A number of insecticides and fumi- gants are available to assist in stored grain insect control. Since rules and reg- ulations regarding their usage have been set by law, check with your local Farm Advisor or Agricultural Commissioner before treating your grain or facilities. Because damage to germination and ex- cessive chemical residues can result from overtreatment, carefully follow the man- ufacturer's directions. PRODUCTION OF MALTING BARLEY Growing barley for malting requires special management procedures. Only three varieties grown in California, Atlas strains, Winter Tennessee and Hann- chen, are currently acceptable to the malting industry. Purity — in terms of varietal mixtures, other crops, and weed seeds — is extremely important. A well-filled, mellow kernel is desired. The crop should stand in the field until fully ripe. If growth is arrested by drought, disease or premature harvest- ing, the kernels are likely to be "steely" and undesirable. A protein content higher than about 10 per cent is not de- sirable, except for the variety Hannchen, where a protein content of 12 per cent is acceptable. Excessively high protein may result from the barley following a legume crop, from heavy rates of nitro- gen fertilization, from premature ripen- ing because of drought or disease, and from late planting. Endeavor to avoid all of these factors if you produce barley for malting. One of the most important require- ments of malting barley is high germina- tion. Extreme care must be exercised during harvest, processing and storage to avoid skinning and breaking of the kernel (see harvesting) . Some difficul- ties have been experienced with germi- [15] nation from barley put in storage at tem- peratures over 90°F. An important point to remember is that malting barley is considered a food and thus rigid stand- ards in terms of cleanliness and sanita- tion have been imposed under provision of the Pure Food and Drug Act. Plant malting barley early to assure a well-developed kernel. Avoid extremely fertile soil, since lodging and a high protein content might result. In most cases, except in the Tulelake Basin of northern California, barley grown under irrigation is usually by-passed by malt manufacturers because they have found that dry-farmed barley is best for their purposes. Many factors which make for quality are beyond the control of the farmer. The influence of environmental condi- tions, while recognized, are not fully un- derstood, except for the fact that certain areas consistently produce better quality (chemically) than others. This has led to the establishment of so-called "malt- ing-barley producing areas'* to which the industry consistently looks for their needs. Areas currently in favor with the buyers include the Tulelake Basin, areas on the west side of the Sacramento Val- ley, foothill areas on the east side of the upper San Joaquin Valley, and interior valleys in the central coast district. As factors controlling quality become more readily understood, the opportunity to extend such areas through crop manage- ment offers a definite possibility to bar- ley growers. Typical malting barley producing area near Esparto, California. Note fallowed field in background. 4 - \ 16] BARLEY DISEASES Some diseases can be completely con- trolled by seed treating; losses from oth- ers can be minimized by proper cultural management; for some no practical con- trol exists. In all cases, losses can be kept low by following good cultural practices, careful selection of adapted varieties, utilization of disease-free seed and seed treatment. In California all barley seed should be treated with a fungicide before planting; organic mercurials such as Ceresan M, liquid Ceresan or Panogen are recom- mended. Wherever necessary for wire- worm control, an insecticide such as lin- dane may be used in combination with the fungicide. Follow the manufacturer's recommendations as to amounts and treating procedures. The important barley diseases in Cali- fornia are stripe, covered and loose smut, root and crown rot, scald, powdery mil- dew, net blotch, and yellow dwarf. Stripe originates from infected seed. First symptoms are long, pale-green stripes on the leaves. As the leaves reach full development these stripes turn brown, and the leaves may split along the stripes. Diseased plants are stunted and usually die at the heading stage. Oc- casionally seeds are produced which ap- pear in a threshed sample as shriveled underdeveloped kernels with brown dis- coloration. Spores of the fungus, which adhere to the healthy kernels or are lo- cated beneath the husk, germinate when the seed is planted and infect the seed- ling. This disease is readily controlled with the organic mercury fungicides. Covered and loose smut are identified by the dark powdery spore masses which destroy the kernels in the head. Loose smut normally destroys the entire kernel structure, including the awns. The spores are disseminated by the wind, leaving only the bare stem when the crop is ma- ture. In the case of covered smut, the awns and parts of the husk are not de- stroyed, and the spores remain enclosed in the partially destroyed husk until har- vest. During combining the spore masses are ruptured and the spores adhere to the healthy kernels. Both covered and loose smut are seed-borne, but only the covered smut is controlled with chemical seed treatment. Loose smut can only be con- trolled by the hot-water treatment or by a special cold-water soaking method. These methods, especially the hot-water treatment, are very exacting and can only be used where accurate temperature con- trol is available. Likewise, treating large amounts of seed is not feasible. At pres- ent, the only practical means of control- ling loose smut is to plant disease-free seed. Since infested seed cannot be dis- tinguished from healthy seed, field in- spection of the seed field before harvest is essential. A third type of smut, nigra or black loose smut, also occurs in California. It looks like loose smut, and is often con- fused with it. However, nigra is readily controlled with chemical seed treatment and should be of no trouble in commer- cial fields. Root rot is usually applied to all dis- eases that affect the roots, crown and other basal parts of the plant. Symptoms vary from a stunted, unthrifty appear- ance to actual death of the plant. Dis- coloration of the roots, crown and basal part of the stem is usually evident. Since destruction of these tissues interferes with the normal uptake of water, plants may appear to be suffering from drought. This is especially true when the plants are subjected to stresses, such as high temperatures, dry winds, etc. Infected plants may have a bleached appearance and, if stresses are imposed at flowering [17] time, sterility may result. A number of soil-borne organisms are responsible for root rot and tend to multiply in the soil when susceptible crops are grown year after year. These diseases are affected markedly by environmental conditions, and although present in the soil, may not cause noticeable damage every year. For- tunately, oats are resistant to most of the root rot organisms and fairly good con- trol may be obtained by including oats in the rotation about every third year. Sudangrass in the rotation has also helped to control root rots. Wheat is equally as susceptible as barley. Scald, net blotch and powdery mildew are foliar diseases which spread from plant to plant by wind-borne spores pro- duced on infected tissue. These diseases are perpetuated from year to year on volunteer barley plants or other grass hosts. In the case of scald and net blotch, diseased straw and stubble serve as the primary means of reestablishing the dis- eases. Clean cultivation, sanitation and rotation help to minimize their occur- rence. Scald and net blotch are more severe on very early sown grain; delayed planting to the optimum period will re- duce the incidence of these diseases. Crop management, to reduce lodging, also helps. However, once scald and net blotch have become established, their subse- quent spread depends primarily on favor- able climatic conditions. There is no effective method for controlling the de- velopment and distribution of the wind- blown spores. Scald appears as oval- shaped spots with pale or white central areas surrounded by irregular brown margins. Net blotch appears as brown, linear lesions which exhibit a network of dark brown lines within an area of lighter brown. With both diseases, the spots enlarge and fuse with others, often forming a continuous diseased area across the leaf. When this occurs, move- menl of food and water is slopped and the entire leaf dies. The damage results from defoliation of the plants and the re- duction of photosynthetic areas. With both diseases, lesions may form on the kernels, producing a blighted and dis- colored kernel. Seed treatment kills the fungus carried on the seed. Powdery mildew first appears as small, white or light-gray spots of cottony threads or mycelium which later enlarge and give a powdery appearance, due to spore formation. Adjacent spots fuse and eventually may cover the entire leaf sur- face. A yellowing, followed by browning and gradual drying of the leaf occurs. On the older diseased areas small, black re- productive bodies may develop. Severe infection in the seedling stage may so weaken the plant that death may result. This is especially true on late-sown grain. With the advent of hot dry weather, the spread of the disease may be retarded and the new leaves will be free from mildew. Under these conditions, the plants appear to recover fully and pro- duce normal yields. However, even under these conditions, reductions in yield of 27 per cent have been measured, usually resulting from fewer kernels per head. When conditions are favorable, infection can continue throughout the life of the plant. In these cases, kernel weight is re- duced as well as the number of kernels per head. Although losses from mildew may be minimized by avoiding late plant- ing, no effective means of control is cur- rently available. Yellow dwarf is potentially the most de- structive disease of barley in California. The disease was unknown before 1951, when it occurred throughout the state. Yellow dwarf is caused by a virus which is transmitted from plant to plant by at least five different species of aphids. The disease is characterized by a brilliant golden yellowing of the leaves and mod- erate-to-severe stunting. The younger the plants are at the time of infection, the more severe the damage. In the case of extremely susceptible varieties, the plants [18] may be killed. Reductions in yield greater than 70 per cent have been meas- ured. The severity of the disease can be decreased by well-timed planting during the recommended period from November 15 to January 15 so that the developing plants are well advanced by time of in- creased aphid activity in the spring. In years of early fall rain, extremely early plantings may be injured as the result of late flights of aphids in the fall. Reducing infection by controlling aphids is not economically feasible. Other diseases, such as the rusts and stripe mosaic, may occur but are of little economic importance at the present time. Stem rust is caused by the same organism which attacks wheat. However, it never has been severe on barley. There is no practical means of control. Stripe mosaic is often confused with the true stripe, but is caused by a seed-borne virus. The symptoms vary with the va- riety, but the most frequent symptoms are short to long, bleached, yellow or light-green stripes, which may become brown. In addition to being seed-borne, it is spread from plant to plant by con- tact. Seed treatment is not effective and only clean, disease-free seed should be used. This disease, although not generally prevalent in California at the present time, could become extremely serious if our seed stocks become widely infected. Once it gets into a seed stock, it is vir- tually impossible to eliminate. The dis- ease is extremely important in certain barley-producing areas of the United States. Control of diseases by planting resistant varieties The use of resistant varieties, when- ever available, is the best method of eliminating losses from diseases. Unfor- tunately, only a few such varieties are available at the present time. Certain varieties, however, possess some toler- ance to certain of the diseases and are seldom damaged by them. Rojo is fairly tolerant to yellow dwarf, scald and net blotch. Winter Tennessee has good toler- ance to net blotch and, to some extent, scald. Consider these factors when select- ing a variety in areas where such a va- riety is adapted. Atlas 46 and Atlas 54, Seeding barley near Paicines, California. This is a good seedbed for dry farmed barley. Note cloddy condition of soil. The equipment is a CC seeder-cultivator which distributes the seed on the soil surface and then harrows it into the soil to a depth of about 1% to 2 inches. [19] which were formerly highly resistant to scald and mildew, are susceptible to new strains of the diseases which are now prevalent. Both varieties are still recom- mended where adapted since they do have resistance to many strains of the diseases. New strains of a disease may originate in several ways, most of them beyond the control of either the grower or the plant breeder. However, strains (and other diseases) are prevalent in other states which are not present in Califor- nia, and extreme caution should be exer- ci ed when bringing in varieties from other states. An active university program is under way to develop barley varieties resistant to many of the major diseases. Some im- proved varieties will be available in the near future. Since new strains of disease mav arise which will attack resistant va- rieties, growers should use every practi- cal production practice which will help keep disease problems in check. INSECTS OF BARLEY Wireworms are small, yellowish or brown worms about one inch long; they are immature stages of click beetles. They feed on seeded grain and the under- ground parts of the plant, thus thinning stands. Treating the seed with lindane before planting has been fairly effective in reducing damage. Such treatment should be combined with a fungicide for a combination pest and disease protec- tion measure. Aphids. Populations on occasions have built up extremely high to the point that they seriously damaged young barley. Under these conditions, satisfactory con- trol was obtained by spraying with rec- ommended chemicals such as parathion. Consult your local Farm Advisor for cur- rent recommended control methods. Nor- mally natural aphid predator insects such as ladybird beetles and syrphid fly larvae effectively hold aphid populations in check in barley fields. Chemical control should only be used in extreme emer- gencies since most chemicals will also kill these beneficial insects. Black grass bugs. These black bugs (Irbesia spp) damage barley around the edges of fields where; they move in from wild and other grasses. They suck the barley plant juices, causing a white blotching of the leaves. In severe infesta- tions the plants can be killed. Parathion dusts or sprays will effectively control these pests. Hessian fly is occasionally a problem in areas near the northwestern reaches of San Francisco Bay and in southern Cali- fornia coastal counties. The flies lay their eggs on the upper surface of the leaves of young cereal plants, including barley. The eggs hatch in 3 to 12 days, and small red maggots (larvae) make their way down the leaf and behind the sheath, where they feed on the tender plant tissues. The maggots are full grown in 2 to 4 weeks. They are then glistening white, but soon turn brown, forming "flaxseed" or puparia. Adults emerge from the overwintering "flaxseeds" in early spring to lay their eggs. Small plant tillers die; jointed tillers often break over and fall to the ground before harvest. Adults emerging from "flaxseeds" in stubble and in volunteer plants of har- vested fields reinfest early fall-seeded fields. The most practical control meth- ods are completely plowing under crop residues in the fall as soon as possible and maintaining a high level of fertility. [20] BARLEY VARIETIES Varietal selection While high productivity is the usual goal in selecting a variety, numerous varietal characteristics contribute to the over-all success in obtaining maximum production and must be carefully con- sidered. Because of the wide diversity of California environmental conditions, no one variety is satisfactory for all areas, nor in any one area where a diversity of cultural practices is employed. One of the most important factors de- termining varietal adaptation is time of maturity. Choose the variety which makes maximum use of the favorable growing season characteristic of your area. Select early maturing varieties where the growing season regularly is shortened by the onset of high tempera- tures, moisture deficiencies, or by late planting dates. Use midseason or late maturing varieties in areas where late spring frosts are likely to occur or an extended growing season exists. Califor- nia Mariout, the earliest maturing variety available in California, is not recom- mended for early planting in the Sacra- mento Valley. However, when planting is delayed until after January 1, Califor- nia Mariout can be successfully grown there. In the San Joaquin and Imperial valleys, it is recommended for both early and late planting. In some cases, varietal selection is based on one or few specific character- istics. For example Winter Tennessee will tolerate wetter soil conditions (such as exist in riceland areas) than the other varieties. Consequently, it is often grown on land subject to overflow, or water- logged conditions, whereas under drier conditions in the same area other varie- ties may be more productive. Malting and brewing standards impose a rigid varietal requirement. Only three California varieties, Atlas, Winter Ten- nessee and Hannchen currently are ac- ceptable for this purpose. In some cases feed barleys may be slightly more pro- ductive than malting varieties, but pre- miums paid for malting barley usually offset the lower yield. Within the next few years a number of new and improved varieties will be avail- able for commercial production. Man\ of these will be improved strains of exist- ing varieties. Unless the basic varietal characteristics have been changed, these improved strains retain the name of the prototype variety, and only a number is added to the name. The number indicates the year in which the variety was avail- able for commercial production. These new strains can be substituted for the unimproved type without any change in cultural management. The new strains will be superior to those which they re- place with regard to the specific charac- teristics which were added, whether it be disease resistance, stiff straw, or shatter resistance. Cumulative additions over the years will go far in increasing the useful- ness of the varieties, increasing and stabilizing production, and making han- dling easier. Agronomic and disease summary The agronomic characteristics and performance records of the principal varieties are summarized in the tables on pages 26, 27, and 28. Since many vari- ables enter into the yield of a particular variety, the results which are presented in these tables can be used only as a guide to varietal recommendations. The vari- ability of climatic and production factors existing within a small geographical area often necessitates the growing of two or more varieties within that area, often on one ranch. However, the results of the statewide tests (table on page 29) do give a general picture as to varietal adaptation. For example, the consistantly high production of Arivat over the entire state implies a wide adaptation. On the other hand, the lower yields of Califor- r 2i i Spike (head) type Rachilla characteristics long-haired short-haired abortive six rowed type two rowed type (lateral florets do not produce seed) Barbs on awns rough semismooth smooth nia Mariout, when tested in the Sacra- Varietal description mento Valley and northern California, A ■, . .. r ., , ,. , , r ■ . , . .11. A description or the leading barley connrm commercial experience with this . .. „ ,., . , , i • i • r varieties grown in Laliiornia. together variety in these areas, which is not lavor- ., i . i, r i . . i .*. ii r i i .. rpi „ with a botanical key lor their ldentinca- able except tor late planting, the small . . . . . A11 . . •ijj-.cc u *■ s *u tl0n 1S given below. All varieties men- yield dinerences between many ot the . ° varieties emphasizes the point that, in tloned below are s P rm S ^P^ lackin g many cases, other factors, such as disease sufficient winter hardiness to withstand reaction, straw strength, maturity, etc. prolonged winter freezes which charac- are more important than yield in the terize elevations over 3,500 feet in Cali- selection of a variety. These special fea- fornia, except in the Antelope Valley. In tures are summarized in the tables on those areas spring planting is recom- pages 26, 27, and 28. mended. Key to Varieties of Barley Grown in California: A. Spike six-rowed B. Awns rough (barbed) C. Rachilla long-haired D. Kernels blue California Mariout D. Kernels white Blanco Mariout C. Rachilla short-haired E. Heads dense (rachis internodes short) ; Kernels white. . . .Club Mariout E. Heads lax (rachis internodes long) F. Kernels blue Winter Tennessee F. Kernels light blue to white Atlas 46 B. Awns semi-smooth G. Rachilla long-haired, abortive on 30 per cent of the kernels; glumes pubes- cent; kernels white { Anvat ( Vaughn G. Rachilla short-haired, glumes glabrous H. Kernels light blue to white Atlas 54 H. Kernel white Atlas 57 B. Awns smooth; heads dense; rachilla long-haired; glumes glabrous or nearly so; kernels white; hulls often exhibiting strong purple pigmentation. .\ fi° l ° ( Hero A. Spike two-rowed; awns rough; rachilla long-haired; kernels white. . . .Hannchen dery mildew and scald. Although races Malting Types of these diseases are present in California Atlas 46 which attack Atlas 46, its resistance is History: Atlas 46, an improved strain of sufficient in many years to provide con- Atlas, from the cross (Hanna x Atlas 8 ) siderable protection against excessive x (Turk x Atlas 8 ), was released in 1947 losses. This is particularly true in the as a replacement for Atlas. The original case of scald. Atlas strain was a pureline selection Adaptation: Widely distributed through- made from Coast barley in 1917. out California. It is not recommended in Description: Rough-awned. Kernels light areas subject to early stresses of moisture blue to white. Short-haired rachilla. Stiff or high temperatures such as the Im- straw of medium height. Midseason in perial Valley or the southern portion of maturity. Atlas 46 differs from Atlas in the San Joaquin Valley. Does best on being resistant to many strains of pow- soils with high water-holding capacity. [23] The bulk of its acreage is in the Sacra- mento Valley. Atlas 54 History: A composite of 48 F., and F- lines from the cross (Lion x Atlas 11 ) x Atlas 46 2 , developed in a cooperative project by the U. S. Department of Agri- culture and the University of California. Released to growers in 1954 as a replace- ment for Atlas 46. Description: Atlas 54 is a semi-smooth awned strain of Atlas 46. The kernels average slightly larger than those of Atlas 46 and are predominately white. In all other respects, it is identical to Atlas 46. Adaptation : Same as Atlas 46 Atlas 57 History: Atlas 57 is a composite of 119F., lines resulting from combining colorless aleurone selections from Atlas 54 x Atlas 46. Developed in a cooperative project by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the University of California. Description: Kernels uniformly white. Identical to Atlas 54 in all other respects. Adaptation : Same as Atlas 46 and Atlas 54 which it will eventually replace. Hannchen History: Hannchen is a pureline selec- tion from the variety Hanna. It was intro- duced into the United States from Sweden by the U. S. Department of Agri- culture in 1904 and released to growers about 1908. Description: Hannchen is a two-rowed type, midseason to late in maturity with tail and moderately weak straw. Rough- awned. Kernels white with long-haired rachilla. It is resistant to the races of stripe occurring in California. Adaptation: Extensively grown in the I ulelake area and lo a limited extenl in oilier areas of northern California, where its quality is suitable for malting and brewing. It is not adapted to the warmer, drier areas of California. Under these conditions it is subject to severe shatter- ing and its quality is not satisfactory for brewing. In general, will yield only about 85 per cent of well-adapted six-row types. Winter Tennessee History: The history of Winter Tennes- see is somewhat obscure. However, it is believed to be a selection from the variety "Coast," which was originally grown in California. The selection was made at the University of California and distributed to growers in 1916. Description: This variety is a Coast type with spring growth habit and does not resemble the true Tennessee Winter type grown in the southeastern states. The kernels are moderately blue, darker than Atlas but lighter than California Mari- out. Short-haired rachilla. Midseason to late in maturity. Straw tall, and moder- ately weak. Moderately resistant to net blotch and scald. Adaptation: Distribution restricted to areas where climatic and soil conditions favor the development of midseason va- rieties. Does better than other California varieties on wet and poorly drained soils. Feed types Arivat History: Pureline selection from the cross Atlas x Vaughn. Released by the Arizona Experiment Station in 1940. Description: Medium early in maturity, medium height and stiff straw. Semi- smooth awns. Kernels white with a thin hull, subject to skinning during thresh- ing. Rachilla long-haired, abortive on 30 per cent of the kernels. Moderately re- sistant to stripe, with some tolerance to scald. Adaptation : Widely adapted throughout California; responds moderately well to late planting. Because of its similarity to [ 24 Vaughn, coupled with a slight increase in productivity, it is suggested as a re- placement for Vaughn. Vaughn is no longer recommended for production in California. California Mariout History: California Mariout undoubtedly came from the dry-hill region west of Lake Mariout in Egypt. It was first tested at Davis, California, in 1911 from seed supplied by the E. Clements Horst Com- pany of San Francisco. Distributed to growers in 1912. Description: Earliest maturing variety grown in California. Straw is short, but weak. Rough awned. Kernels dark blue; long-haired rachilla. Susceptible to the major diseases. Adaptation: Does well where moisture is limiting — San Joaquin and southern California. Recommended for late plant- ing in the Sacramento Valley. Fairly tolerant to alkaline conditions. May be damaged by late spring frosts in the Sacramento Valley and higher elevations when planted early. Lodging will be serious if planted early on fertile soil. Blanco Mariout History : A white-seeded California Mari- out type barley derived from the cross, male sterile Club Mariout x California Mariout 7 ; a composite of 192 lines. De- veloped in a cooperative project by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the University of California. Description: Its gross plant appearance, yield and disease responses closely paral- lel those of California Mariout. It is 2 to 3 days later in maturity. The colorless aleurone (white) distinguishes it from California Mariout, although the seeds are somewhat longer and heavier. Be- cause of wax (bloom) on about one-third of the spikes, the glumes on this fraction present a blue-gray appearance rather than the characteristic yellow-green glume color of California Mariout. Some diversity in spike density may sometimes be observable. Rachilla are slightly vari- able in length, with about 10 per cent aborted, very short, or very long. Ra- chilla hairs are long, but vary in density. Adaptation: The same area as California Mariout. Since Blanco Mariout shows no gain in disease resistance or yield over California Mariout, it probably will only partially replace a portion of that acre- age. Club Mariout History: Club Mariout was introduced by the U. S. Department of Agriculture from Egypt in 1903. First tested in Cali- fornia in 1904. The first commercial acreage originated from a shipment of seed from Oregon in 1919. Description: Rough awned. Midseason in maturity. The straw is weak and mod- erately tall. The head is short and some- what compact, being wider at the base and tapering toward the tip. Kernels large, yellow, short-haired rachilla. Ex- cellent for rolling. Susceptible to all major diseases. Adaptation: General, responds well to late planting. Late plantings may be subject to heavy damage from yellow dwarf disease. Fairly resistant to shatter- ing. Hero History: Hero is of hybrid origin and came from the cross Club Mariout x Lion. Hero was first brought to Califor- nia in 1915. and distributed to farmers in 1924. Description: Plants are of medium height, weak and medium late in ma- turity. The awns are smooth and the au n types may have a deep purple color when the kernels are filling. The color may per- sist after maturity. The head is short and somewhat compact. Kernels are white, but may appear gray due to purple pig- [25] CHARACTERISTICS OF CALI Per cent of California acreage 1960 Kernel characteristics Awns Maturity Variety Color Ranchilla hair R = Rough SS = Semi- smooth S Smooth E= Early M = Medium L =Late B =Blue LB =Lt. blue W= White L Long S = Short Ari vat 21.3 13.5* 42.0 8.1 3.0 1.5 3.4 1.4 5.8 w LB&W LB&W W W B W W W W W B L S S s L L S L L L L S SS R SS SS R R R R S S SS R M Atlas 46 M Atlas 54 M Atlas 57 M Blanco Mariout E California Mariout Club Mariout E M Hannchen L HeroJ L Rojo M Vaughn M Winter Tennessee L * Includes Atlas 54. t Resistant to many of the prevalent races in California. .' Acreage data includes Hero and all other unlisted varieties. mentation. Rachilla long-haired. Sus- ceptible to all major diseases. Adaptation: Hero is adapted to the cooler areas along the coast and in the higher mountain valleys. It is not recommended for production in the central valleys or interior southern California. Hero is used extensively for hay because of its smooth awns and leafy stem. It is rela- tively low in grain production. Rojo History: Rojo is a selection from a com- posite cross made at Aberdeen, Idaho, in \ { )2 ( ). A number of selections from the composite cross were tested at Davis, California. The most promising <>f these selections was named Rojo and was re- leased to growers in 1944. Description: In most plant and seed characteristics Rojo can not be distin- guished from Hero. However, it is 3-4 days earlier in maturity and has slightly stifTer straw. The awns are more difficult to remove during harvesting than with the other varieties and usually requires additional adjustment of the combine. Rojo is fairly tolerant to net blotch and is more tolerant to yellow dwarf than any of the other California varieties. Adaptation: Similar to Hero, and because of its stifTer straw, earlier maturity, and higher grain yields it is gradually replac- [26] FORNIA BARLEY VARIETIES Plant height Straw strength Disease reaction MT =Med. tall S = Strong M = Medium W=Weak R= Resistant ] '. intermediate s = Susceptible M = Medium MS =Med. short S = Short Powdery Mildew Scald Net Blotch Stripe Yellow Dwarf MS S s I-S I-S R S M S S-R| S-Rf s S s M S S-Rf S-R| s S s M S S-Rf S-Rf s s s S w I S I s s S w I S I s s M w S S-I s s s MT M s I I-R R s MT W I s I S s MT M s I-S I-R S I MS S I I I R s MT M s I I S s ing Hero in many areas. It is equal to Hero in hay quality. In areas with ample moisture, it competes favorably with Club Mariout and Atlas in grain pro- duction, although the difficulty experi- enced in harvesting has restricted its acceptance. Vaughn History: Vaughn is of hybrid origin from the cross Club Mariout x Lion. It was first tested in California in 1924 and released in 1926. Description: Vaughn and Arivat are in- distinguishable in most plant and seed characteristics. Vaughn is 2 to 3 days later than Arivat and slightly taller. Its early growth is semi-prostrate compared with the more erect habit of Arivat. It is fairly resistant to stripe. Adaptation: General. Requires fertile soil and early planting for maximum yields. It is a poor competitor with weeds. Ari- vat has been equal to Vaughn in the typical Vaughn areas, is more widely adapted and is affected less by adverse growing conditions. Consequently, Ari- vat is gradually replacing Vaughn, which is no longer recommended for produc- tion in California. 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O. e3 o> 02 eS > >- 02 T3 n eS In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical iden- tifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied <>f similar products which are not mentioned. 5m L2,'80( B3352 I J I' 1 ; ■ ratlve Extension work hi Agriculture :iml llnmr Kc onomics, College ol \gricuhure, University oi ('.ilifomia, and United Slatei Department of Agriculture